.>\^i::/^ -> " .0^ '^,>. ./' ^:^ •4^'' r /. ' 9 I \ " \\ ..v^'"^- ."..^^i:!^- 1 A 1 • « * <& Ok* >; -^ ' a ft ^ ^ »;'-' , , , .*,■ \ 'bo^ ^y- V^ v^"^ "% .Oo. . ^ aO- -^^'^" A^^"^. Oo. -- ^c;^-^ *V ,^ <^ r ^ -JO ^0 o c^.^-:j'. o> N^" ■''^^ aV •/>, •■'^^ ,^^" ■x^^ V.y A^^' '> aO r-. /. ^-ix/- 0^ . ^'■". '^r O. * .,-i'' < ."^-^J 2 W -^5' >'; V -^- 1^/ .^% %^'^'- ■^ ■i^ -P^ .\^' oN' ^. ' ■) Nl O ^■^s• •>t 0' s V -^^ ^. .0 o^ "^v. v^^ c^'^' .•>^ * %^' V A*^ . V. I a i, "^^^ k. ^5' ; A ,> , -^^^v. .-■^ V -^^ .-°,;;*. ^ -0 *J <-^.,:v?<^^^ t vO O. .0'^ '^,V. ,<\^ ,^^ ,^ . . ..^ J I't— i;^ ', .^*' f >> V ■\ xS^^' '"<'' r> y o ■ "^^ ■-^ / ::.sx >-• .- ^/. s-^^ .0 o^ '%%^- .^:^^% NO •^/>/'' .-s:^^ .^^:;^. ^ :i ■^^. ,<^ .-^ ■^oo^ ,0 .^ <>. s\ ■ >>' ■%. ,0 o "%%^- -^' -'^^: N 1 ^ \Q ^.. ^' .0- ,0- ^■^- "^^-^^ ■x^ >• ,/>„ .0^ ^-C-'i ^^ .N^^' v^^ ^t. .0 o ^.'^ ■■-^,. .-^^" ^ CO' \^ . -^^ \' s ^ .0^ -^' I> 7 HAYDN'S DICTIONARY OF DATES; COMPREHENDING REMARKABLE OCCURRENCES, ANCIENT AND MODERN : THE FOUNDATION, LAWS, AND GOVERNMENTS OF COUNTRIES — THEIR PROGRESS IN ARTS, SCIENCE, AND LITERATURE — THEIR ACHIEVEMENTS IN ARMS — AND THEIR CIVIL, MILITARY, RELIGIOUS, AND PHILANTHROPIC INSTITUTIONS. I HAYDN'S b^ Dictionary of Dates, RELATING TO ALL AGES AND NATIONS. UNIVERSAL REFERENCE. Edited by BENJAMIN VINCENT, ASSISTANT SECRETARY AND KEEPER OF THE LIBRARY OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN ; AND REVISED FOR THE USE OF AMERICAN READERS. NEW YORK: HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, FRANKLIN SQUARE. 1869. ^ r ,\^>'\ Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1869, by HARPER & BROTHERS, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern District of New York. PEEFACE BY THE AMERICAN EDITOR. This yahiable work was taken in hand by the American Pubhshers upon its first appearance in England ; but it was found in many respects inade- quate to the wants of American readers. There was nnich that might be omitted without detracting from its vahie, and very much that needed to be added. During the years that elapsed in the preparation of new mat- ter, new editions appeared of the English volume, containing very import- ant additions ; and the rapid progress of this country during those years in material prosperity and in social development, rendered it necessary for the Publishers to continually incorporate fresh records and statistics. Even while the work has been passing through the press, alterations and addi- tions have been continually made. Thus this Dictionary of Dates, w^hich is at the same time a chronicle and a chronology of the World's Progress, has been brought down to the present year. AVliile the census of 1860 has been generally adopted as the basis of American statistics, every effort has been made to obtain still fresh- er materials. The matter which has been added has not been thrown into a supple- ment, but has been incorporated into the body of the work. This makes the work more convenient for reference. This work has during its preparation passed through several hands, and in the selection of editors regard has been had to special departments. The events of the Revolution, of the War of 1812, of the Mexican, and of the Indian Wars were incorporated into the work by Mr. Benson J. Lossing. The events of the recent Civil War were, in like manner, compiled and ar- ranged by a separate editor, who had made those events the study of sev- eral years. All these contributions have been carefully arranged and re- revised. The Publishers are confident that in issuing this Dictionary they are of- fering the Public the best and completest work of the kind ever published. Fkaxklin Square, SejJtcmher, 1SG9. PREFACE TO THE FIRST ENGLISH EDITION. The design of the Author has been to attempt the compression of the great- est body of general information that has ever appeared in a single volume, and to produce a Book of Reference whose extensive usefulness may render its possession material to every individual — in the same manner that a London Directory is indispensable, on business aifairs, to a London merchant. He grounds his hope of the Public taking an interest in this work altogether upon its own intrinsic utility. Its articles are drawn principally from histo- rians of the first rank, and the most aiithentic annalists ; and the Dictionary OP Dates will, in almost every instance, save its possessor the trouble of turn- ing over voluminous authors to refresh his memory, or to ascertain the date, order, and featu^res of any particular occurrence. The volume contains upward of Fifteens" TnousANb Articles, alphabetic- ally arranged ; and, from the selection of its materials, it must be important to every man in the British Empire, whether learned or unlearned, or whether connected with the professions or engaged in trade. It would be difficult to name all the authors from whose Avorks the Compiler of this A'olume has copiously extracted ; but he may mention among the clas- sics, Herodotus, Livy, Pliny, and Plutarch. He has chosen, in general chro- nology, Petavius, Usher, Blair, Prideaux, and the Abbe Lenglet Dufresnoy. For the events embraced in foreign history, he has relied upon Henault, Vol- taire, La Combe, Rollin, Melchior Adam, the N'ouveaio Dictionnaire^ and chief authors of their respective countries. On subjects of general literature, his au- thorities are Cave's Historia LUeraria^ Moreri, Bayle, Priestley, and others of equal repute. And English occurrences are drawn from Camden, Stow, Hall, Baker, Holinshed, Chamberlayne, Rapin, Hume, Gibbon, Goldsmith, etc. Be- sides these, the Compiler has freely used the various abridgments .that have brought facts and dates more prommcntly forward ; and he is largely indebted to Chambers, Aspin, Beatson, Anderson, Beckmann, the Cxjdopoidias, Annual Register^ Statutes at Large, and numerous other compilations. In almost every instance the authority is quoted for the extract made and date assigned, though inadvertence may have prevented, in some few cases,. a due ackuowl- ed foment. viii PREFACE. The leading events of every country, whether ancient or modern kingdoms, are to be found in the annals of each respectively, as in the cases, for instance, of Greece, Rome, the Eastern Empire, England, France, and Germany. But, independently of this plan of reference, when any historical occurrence claims, from its importance, more specific mention, it is made in a separate article, according to alphabetical arrangement. Thus, in the annals of En- gland, the dates are given of the foundation of our universities, the institution of honorary orders, and signature oi Magna Charta; we find, in those annals, the periods of our civil wars, and remarkable eras in our history, set down as they have occurred; but if more ample information be necessary to the Reader, and if he desire to know more than the mere date of any fact or incident, the particulars are supplied under a distinct head. In the same way, the pages of Battles supply the date of each, in the order of time ; yet in all instances where the battle has any relation to our own country, or is memorable or mo- mentous, the chief features of it are stated in another part of the volume. The Compiler persuades himself that the Dictionary op Dates will be re- ceived as a useful companion to all Biographical works, relating, as it does, to things as those do to persons, and affording information not included in the range or design of such publications. Joseph Haydn. London, May, 1841. [Died Jan. IT, 1S56.] PREFACE TO THE TWELFTH EDITION. In 1855, "«'hen the printing of tlie Seventli Edition of this Dictionaiy liad beo-un and Mr. Haydn's failing health prevented the continuance of his labors, I acceded to the request of the publisher to correct the press and supply the continuations of the articles. In doing so I soon perceived that the execution of the work was far from being equal to the merit of its con- ception ; and, after much consideration, I was eventually mduced to under- take its gradual revision and completion, in order to render the book more worthy of its established reputation. During the last ten years the chrono- logical tables have been examined and continued ; a great number of arti- cles have been rewi-itten, and new ones inserted, and much geographical, biographical, literary, and scientific information supplied, together with a Table of the Populations and Governments of the various countries of the world; and the Index has been greatly augmented by the insertion of dates relating to eminent persons of past and present times. With the present edition is given a Table of Contemporary European Sovereigns since the ]^orman Conquest. To afford room for these additions, the size of the page and the bulk of the volume have been enlarged, and very many articles have been condensed. My aim has been throughout to make this book not a mere Dictionary of Dates, but a dated Encyclopaedia, a digested summary of every department of human liistory brought do^ai to the very eve of publication. The latest Additions and Corrections will be found at the end of the volume. BENJAinN ViXCENT. FEEurARY, 1 8GG. POPULATION AND GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD. (According to the Alinanachde Gotlmfor 18GG.) COUXTKIES. pori-LATiox. Anhalt, Po^mlation in Dec.,1864 193,046 Argentine Confederation 1S59 1,171,800 Austrian Empire Oct.,1857 35,018,988 Baden Dec, 1864 1,434,754 Bavaria Dec, 1864 4,807,440 Beliilum Dec, 1863 4,893,021 Bolivia 1858 1,987,352 Brazil 1S56 7,677,800 Bremen (free city) Dec,1864 104,091 Brnnswick-Wolfeubuttel,Dcc.,1864 293,388 Chili (estimated) 1857 1,599,000 Ciiinesc Empire (estimated). . .1849 415,000,000 Costa Rica (estimated) 1861 135,000 Denmark and colonies 1865 1,825,220 Equator (estimated) 1858 1,040,371 Egypt 1859 5,125,000 France and colonies (est.) 1862 43,534,245 Frankfort (free city) Dec, 1864 91,180 Great Britain and colonies (est.)1861 228,820,099 Greece and Ionian Islands (est.)1865 1,325,341 Guatemala 1S5S 850,000 Hamburg (free city) 1860 2-29,941 Hanover Dec.,1864 1,923,492 Hayti and St. Domingo (est.). .1865 572,000 Hesse-Caasel '. . . .Dec,1864 745,063 Hesse-Darmstadt Dec, 1864 853,315 Hesse-Homburg Dec.,1864 27,374 Holland and colonies 1863 21,805,007 Holstein 1865 5.54,510 Honduras 18.58 350,000 Italy (estimated) 1864 22,104,789 Japan (estimated) 35 to 40 mil. Liehtenstein 1858 7,150 Lippe Dec, 1864 111,336 Liibeck (free citv) 1862 50,614 Mecklenburg-Schweriu . .Dec, 1864 552,612 Mecklenburg-Strelitz 1860 99,060 Mexico (estimated) 1865 8,218,080 Monaco 1864 1,687 Montenegro (estimated) 1859 125,000 ISIorocco about 8,0OD,OOi Nassau Dec, 1864 New Granada 1864 Nicaragua 1858 Oldenburg Dec.,1864 Pauamd 1864 Papal States (estimated) 1363 Paraguay 1857 Persia (estimated) 1859 Peru 1859 Portugal and colonies . . .Dec, 1863 Prussia Dec, 1865 Reuss-Greiz Dec, 1864 Reuss-Schleiz Dec, 1864 Rouinauia (Dan. Prucip.) est.. 1862 Russia, Poland, etc. (est.) 1865 Sandwich Islands (Hawaii,etc) 1861 San Marino 1858 San Salvador 1858 Saxony Dec, 1864 Sa.xe-Altenburg Dec, 1864 Saxc-Coburg-Gotha Dec, 1864 Saxe-Meiiiiiigen Dec.,lS64 Saxe-Wcimar-Eisenach. .Dec. ,1864 Schaumburg-Lippe Dec, 1864 Schwartzb.-Rudolstadt . .Dec, 1864 Schwartzb.-Soudershausen " 1864 Servia 1865 Sleswig 1865 Spain and colonies 1S&4 Sweden and Norway (est.) 1863 Switzerland Dec.,1860 Turkish Empire (estimated). . .1865 Uruguay 1860 Venezuela 18.59 Waldeck Dec, 1864 Wiirtemberg Dec.,1864 United States of America 1860 Oct. 1,1794.. Aug. 18, 1830 Sept. 9, 1826. Aug. 26, 1845. April 9, 1835, Dec 2, 1825. . April 25,1806 April 5, 1855. ApriYsVisis! Leopold, Duke Bartolomeo Mitre, President. . . Francis-Joseph, Emperor Frederick, Grand-duke Louis 11.^ King Leopold II., king Gen. M. Melgarejo, President. . Pedro II., Emperor C. Mehr, Burgomaster William, ifwie Jose J. Perez, President Ki-tsiang, Emperor J. Ximenes, President Christian IX., King G. Carrson, President Ismail Pacha, Viceroy. '. Napoleon lll.jEnqjeror Two Burgomasters. Victoria, Queen George I., Ki^ig Vincent Cerna, President Senate. George Y.,King N. Fabre Geflrard, President. . . Frederick-William I., Elector . . Louis III., Grand-duke Ferdinand, Landgrave I April 26, i783, William III., King |Feb. 19, 1817.. Ildd bji Austria. J. M. Medina, President. . Victor-Emmanuel, King jMarch 14,1820 Mikado {Kjnritual} ; Tycoon {tem,poral). John II., Prince Oct. 5, 1840. . . "' ~ " 'Sept. 1,1821.. Feb. 28, 1823.. Oct. 17, 1819. July 6, 1832.. Dec. S, 1818. . 1840 April 20, 1808, May 24, 1819. . Dec. 24, 1845. May 27, 1819.. Aiig.' 20,1802. June 9, 1806. Leopold, Prince BuriTomasters and Senate. Frederick-Fvimcis, Grand-duke. Frederick- William, Grand-duke Maximilian I., Emperor Charles, Prince Nicholas I., Prince Sifl i Mohammed, Sultan 46s,Hl 1 '• A d. .1 phus, Btike 2,794,473 .M. Murillo, President 4UU,0U0 T. :Martinez, President 301,812 ~ 2,784,473 700,000 1,337,431 10,000,000 2,500,000 8,037,194 19,304,843 43,924 86,472 4,003,000 80,255,430 July 24, 1817.. Peter, Grand-duke July 8, 1827 . Jil Coluuje, Governor Pius IX., Pope May 1.3,1792.. F. S. Lopez Nassir-ed-Deen, Shah 1829 M. Canseco, President Louis I., King Oct. 31, 1838 . . William L, King March 22,1797 Henry XXII., Prince March 28,1846 Henry LXIX., Prince 'May 19, 1792.. Alex. John I. (Cousa) Hospodar March 10,1820 Alexander II., Czar April 29, 1818. 69, '-^OK Kam ■hanK'lia V Dec 11, 1830.. si.OllO Cupitdiii rC'iqcnti. 600,OU0,F. Duenas, President 2,343,994 John, King Dec. 12, 1801. . 141,839 Ernest, Duke Sept. 16, 1826. 164,.527l Ernest II., Duke June 21, 1818. 178,065iBernard,£»Mi-e Dec. 17, 1800. . 280,201 1 Charles-Alex.ander,G'rand-^^M^•e June 24, 1818. 31,382 Adolphns, Prin<;e I Aug. 1, 1817 . . 73,7!52|Guuthcr. Prince iNov. 6, 1793. . Sept. 24,1801. Sept. 4, 1825. . Oct. 10,1830., May 3, 1826. . , 66,189 (imther, I'rinre 1,220,000 M ichael III. (Milosch) 4116, 4Si; //,/,/ 1,11 Prussia. 21,(i;!l,2.')S lsal)ella II., Queen 5,7iHi,(MlO C'hniic.'^ XV., King 2.61 o,,H14 Ann mil I'n'si'lcnt. 39,0(10,(10(1 Abm- crset, etc 1012 Thomas, lord Ellesmcre ; Thomas, earl of Suffolk ; Charles, earl of Nottintrham ; Sir George Villiers (a favorite), a/^')"»'rtrrf Viscount Villiers, and suc- cessively Earl, Marquess, and Duke of Bucking- ham 1615 Sir Henry Montagu, afterward Viscount Mande- ville and Earl of Manchester 1620 Lionel, lord Cranfield, aftervard Earl of Middle- sex ; Edward, earl of Worcester ; John, earl of Bristol ; John Williams, dean of Westminster ; George Villiers, now Marquess of Buckingham ; Sir Edward Conway, etc 1621 Chaklkb I.— Richard, lord Weston, aftenvard Earl of Portland ; Sir Thomas Coventry, afterward Lord Coventry ; Henry, earl of Manchester (suc- ceeded by James, earl of Marlborough, who, in turn, gave place to Edward, lord, afterioard vis- counti^ Conway) ; William Laud, bishop of Lon- don ; Sir Albert Morton, etc 1628 William Laud, now Archbishop of Canterbury; Francis, lord Cottington ; James, marquess of Hamilton; Edward, "earl of Dorset; Sir John Coke; Sir Francis Wiudebank, etc 1635 William Juxon, bishop of London ; Sir John Finch, afterward Lord Finch ; Francis, lord Cottington ; Wentworth, earl of Strafford ; Algernon, earl of Northumberland ; James, marquess of Hamil- ton: Laud, archbishop of Canterbury; Sir Fran- cis Windebank ; Sir Henry Vane, etc 1640 [The king beheaded, Jan. 30, 1649.] CoMMo.vwEALTn. — Oliver Cromwell, protector, named a council, the number at no time to ex- ceed twenty-one members, or be less than thir- teen 1653 Richard Cromwell, son of Oliver, succeeded on the death of the latter. A council of officers ruled at Wallingford House 1653 Charles II.— Sir Edward Hyde, afterward Earl of Clarendon ; George Monk, created Duke of Al- bemarle ; Edward Montagu, created Earl of Sandwich ; Lord Saye and Sele ; Earl of Man- chester ; Lord Seymour; Sir Robert Long, etc.. 1660 George Monk, duke of Albemarle, made tirst Com- missioner of the Treasury, etc 1067 "Cabat" Ministry: Clifford, Ashley, Buckingham, Arlington, Lauderdale. (See Cabal.) 1G70 Thomas, lord Clifford ; Anthony, earl of Shaftes- bury ; Henry, earl of Arlington ; Arthur, earl of Anglesey ; Sir Thomas Osborne, created Vis- count Latimer; Henry Coventry; Sir George Carteret ; Edward Seymour, etc 1672 Thomas, viscount Latimer, afterioard Earl of Dan- by, made lord high treasurer June 26, 1673 Arthur, earl of Esses (succeeded by Lawrence Hyde, afterward Earl of Rochester) ; Robert, earl of Sunderland, etc 1679 [The king nominated a new council on April 21, consistmg of thirty members only, of whom the principarwere the great officers of state and the treat officers of the household.] ney, lord Godolphin ; Lawrence, earl of Ro- chester; Daniel, earl of Nottingham; Robert, earl of Sunderland; Sir Thomas Chicheley ; George, lord Dartmouth ; Henry, earl of Claren- don ; Earls of Bath and Radnor, etc 1684 James II. — Lawrence, earl of Rochester; George, marquess of Halifax ; Sir George Jeffreys, after- ward Lord Jeffreys ; Henry, earl of Clarendon ; Sir John Ernley ; Viscount Preston, etc 1685 The Earl of Rochester was displaced, and John, lord Belasyse, made first Commissioner of the Treasury in his room, Jan. 4; the Earl of Sun- derland made President of the Council; Viscount Preston, secretary of state ; and various other changes took place in this and the following year 1687 [The king left Whitehall in the night of Dec. 17, and, quitting the kingdom, landed at Amble- teuse, in France, on Dec. 23, 1088.] William III. and Mauy.— Charles, viscount Mor- daunt; Thomas Osborne, earl of Danby, created Marquess of Carmarthen, afterward Duke of Leeds ; George, marquess of Halifax ; Arthur Herbert, afterward Lord Torrington ; Earls of Shrewsbury, Nottingham, and Sunderland; Earl of Dorset and Middlesex ; William, earl (after- ioard duke) of Devonshire ; Lord Godolphin ; Lord Montagu ; Lord De la Mere, etc 1689 Sidney, lord Godolphin ; Thomas, earl of Danby ; Richard Hampden ; Thomas, earl of Pembroke ; Henry, viscount Sydney; Daniel, earl of Not- tingham, etc 1690 Sir John Somers became Lord Somers in 1097, and lord chancellor; Charles Montagu, afterward Lord Halifax, was made first Commissioner of the Treasury, May 1, 1098, succeeded by Ford, earl of Tankerville, in 1099. Anne.— Sidney, lord {afterward earl of) Godolphin; Thomas, earl of Pembroke, etc May, 1702 Robert Harley, earl of Oxford; Sir Simon Har- court, etc June 1, 1711 Charles, duke of Shrewsbury, made lord treasurer three days before the queen's death, etc. Jitly 30, 1714 Geokge I. — Charles, earl of Halifax (succeeded on his death by the Earl of Carlisle), etc 1714 Robert Walpole, first Lord of the Treasury and Chancellor of the Exchequer, etc 1715 James (afterward earl) Stanhope; William, lord Cowper, etc 1717 Charles, earl of Sunderla,nd,_ etc 1718 Robert Walpole, afterward Sir Robert Walpole, and Earl of Orford, etc 1721 Geokge II. — Robert Walpole, continued 1727 [Sir Robert remained prime minister twenty-one years ; numerous changes occurring in the time. See Walpole.'] Earl of Wilmington; Lord Hardwicke, etc 1742 Henry Pelham, in the room of Earl of Wilming- ton, deceased Aug., 1743 "Broad Bottom" Administration — Henry Pelham; Lord Hardwicke, etc Nov., 1744 " Short-lived" Administration — Earl oiBath ; Lords Winchilsea and Granville Feb. 10-12, 1746 Henry Pelham, etc., again Feb. 12, 1746 Thos. H. Pelham, duke of Newcastle ; Earl of Hol- dernesse, etc April, 1754 Duke of Devonshire ; William Pitt, etc Nov., 1756 Duke of Newcastle, and Mr. Pitt, afterward Earl of Chatham, etc June, 1757 Geokge III.— Duke of Newcastle, Mr. Pitt's min- istry, continued 1760 Earl of Bute ; Lord Henley, etc May, 1762 George Qrenville; Earls of Halifax and Sandwich, etc April, 1763 Marquess oi Rockingham ; Earl of Winchilsea, etc. July, 1765 Earl of Chatham ; Duke of Grafton, etc Aug., 170G Duke of Grafton ; Lord North, etc Dec, 1707 Frederick, lord Xorth ; Earl Gower, etc Jan., 1770 [Lord North was minister during the whole of the American war.] Marquess of Rockingham ; Lord Camden ; C. J. Fox ; Edmund Burke, etc March, 1782 Earl of Shelburne (afterward Marquess of Lans- downe) ; William Pitt, etc July, " "Coalition Ministry," Duke of Portland; Lord North; C.J. Fox; Edmund Burke, etc.. .April, 1783 William Pitt; Henry Dundas, etc Dec, " [During Mr. Pitt's long administration, numerous changes in the ministry took place.] Henry Addington; Duke of Portland; LordEldon, etc March, et seq., 1801 William Pitt; Lord Eldon ; George Canning, etc. May, cMIN18TKAT10N — 1817 TO IS'25. President: James Monroe, of Virginia. Vice-President: Daniel D. Tompkins, of New York. Secretary of State : John Q. Adams, of Mass., March 5, ISIT. Secretary of the Treasury: William H. Crawford, of Geo., March 5, 1S17. Secretaries of War: Isaac Shelby, of Ky., March 5, IsiT, declined the appointment; George Graham, of Va., April 7, 1S17 ; John C. Calhoun, of S. C, Oct. 8, 1S17. Secretaries oftheNavy : Benjamin W. Cro^\aiinshield, continued in office Smith Thompson, of N. Y., Nov. i), 1S18 ; John Rogers, of Mass., Sept. 1, 1S23 ; Samuel L. Southard, of N. J., Sept. 10, 1823. Postmaster Generals : Return J. Meigs, continued in office John M'Lean, of Ohio, June 20, 1823. Attorney Generals: Richard Rush, continued in office; William Wirt, of Va,, Nov. 13, 1817. SIXTH ADMIiSISTKATION — 1825 TO 1829. President : John Qiiincy Adams, of Massachusetts. Vice-President: John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina. Secretary of State : Henry Clav, of Kentucky, March 7, 1825. Secretary of the Treasury : Richard Rush, of Penn., JIarch 7, 1825. Secretaries of War : James Barbour, of Va., March 7, 1825 ; Peter B. Porter, of N. Y., May 20, 1828. Secretary of the Navy: Samuel L. Southard, continued in office. Postmaster General: John M'Lean, continued in of- fice. Attorney General : William Wirt, continued in office. SEVENTH ARMINISTE.VTTON — 1820 TO 1837. President: Andrew Jackson, of Tennessee. Vice-Presidents: John C. Calhoun, of S. C— resigned Dec. 28, 1832 ; Martin Van Buren, of N. Y., March 4, 1833. Secretaries of State : Martin Van Btiren, of N. Y., March 0, 1829 ; Edward Livingston, of La., Mav 24, 1831; Louis M'Lane, of Del., March 29, 1833; John Forsyth, of Geo., June 27, 1834. Secretaries of the Treasury: Samuel D. Ingham, of Pa., March 0, 1820; Louis M'Lane, of Del., Aug. 8, 1831; William J. Duane, of Penn., May 20, 1833 ; Roger B. Taney, of Md., Sept. '23, 1833— not confirmed by the Senate ; Levi Woodbury, of N. II., June 27, 1S34. Secretaries of War: John H.Eaton, of Tenu., March 0, 1820 ; Lewis Cass, of Mich., Aug. 1, 1831— resigned November, 1836. Secretaries of the Navv: John Branch, ofN. C, March 9, 1829; Levi Woodbury, of N. IL, May 23, 1831; Mahlon Dickerson, of N. J., June 30, 18.34. Postmaster Generals : Wm. T. Barry, of Ky., March 0, 1829. Previous to this date, the Postmaster General had not been recognized as a member of the Presi- dent's cabinet. Amos Kendall, of Ky., May 1, 18.35. Attorney Generals : John M'Pherson Berrien, of Ga., March 0, 1S20 ; Roger B. Taney, of ]\Id., Dec. 27, 1831; Benjamin F. Butler, of N. Y., June 24, 1834. EIOHTn ADMTNISTKATION — 1837 TO 1841. President: Martin Van Buren, of New York. Vice-President ; Richard M. Johnson, of Kentucky. Secretary of State: John Forsyth, continued in office. Secretary of the Treasury : Levi Woodbury, continued in office. Secretary of War: Joel R. Poinsett, of S. C, March 7, 1^37. Secretaries oftheNavy: Mahlon Dickerson, continued in office ; James K. Paulding, of N. Y., June 20, 1^38. Postmaster Generals: Amos Kendall, continued in office ; John M. Niles, of Conn., May IS, 1840. Attorney Generals : Benjamin P. Butler, continued in office ;■ Felix Grundy, of Tenn., July 7, 1838; Henry D. Gilpin, of Pa., Jan. 10, 1840. NINTH ADMINISTEATION — 1841 TO 1845. President: William Henry Harrison, of Ohio. Died April 4, 1S41, when John Tyler, the Vice-President, became President. Vice-President: John Tyler, of Virginia. Secretaries of State: Daniel Webster, of Mass., March 5, 1841— resigned May 8, 1843 : Ilusrh S. Legare, of S. C, Mav 0, 1843— died June 20, 1843 ; Abel P. Up- shur, of Va., July 24, 1843— killed by the bursting of a cannon, Feb. 28, 1844 ; John Nelson, of Md. (acting Secretary), Feb. 29,1844; John C. Calhoun, of S. C, March 0, 1844. Secretaries of the Treasury: Thomas Ewing, of Ohio, March 5, 1S41— resigned Sept. 11, 1841 ; Walter For- ward, of Penn., Sept. 13, 1841 — resigned March 1, 1843; Caleb Cushing, of Mass., rejected by the Sen- ate ; John C. Spencer, of N. Y., March 3, 1843 ; Geo. M. Bibb, of Ky., June 15, 1844. Secretaries of War: John Bell, of Tenn., March 5, 1841— resigned Sept. 11, 1841 ; John M'Lean, of Ohio, Sept. 13, 1841, declined ; John C. Spencer, of N. Y., Oct. 12, 1841 ; James M. Porter, of Pa., March 8, 1843, rejected by the Senate ; William Williams, of Penn., Feb. 15, 1844. Secretaries of the Navy: George E. Badger, of N. C, March 5, 1841— resigned Sept. 11, 1841 ;"Abel P. Up- shur, of Va., Sept. 13,1841 ; David Ilenshaw, of Mass., July 24, 1843, rejected by the Senate : Thomas W. Gilmer, of Va., Feb. 15, 1844- died Feb. 28, 1844; John Y. Mason, of Va., March 14, 1844. Postmaster Generals : Francis Granger, of N. Y., March 6, 1841— resigned Sept. 12, 1841 ; Charles A. Wickliffe, of Ky., Sept. 13, 1841. Attorney Generals : John J. Crittenden, of Ky., March 5, 1841— resigned Sept. 11, 1841 ; Hugh S. Legare, of S. C, Sept. 13, 1841 ; John Nelson, of Md., July 1, 1843. . . J- . TENTH ADHltNIBTEATION — 1845 TO 1849. President: James K. Polk, of Tennessee. Vice-President : George M. Dallas, of Pennsylvania. Secretary of State : James Buchanan, of Penn., March 5, 1845. Secretary of the Treasury : Robert J. Walker, of Miss., March 5, 1845. Secretary of War: William L. Marcj', of N. Y., March 5, 1845. Secretaries of the Navy: George Bancroft, of Mass., March 10, 1845 ; John Y. Mason, of Va., Sept. 9, 1846. Postmaster General: Cave Johnson, of Tenn., March 5, 1845. Attorney Generals : John Y. Mason, of Va., March 5, 1845 ; Nathan Clift'ord, of Maine, Oct. 17, 1846 ; Isaac Toucey, of Conn., June 21, 1848. ELEVENTH ADMINISTRATION — 1849 TO 1853. President: Zachary Taylor, of Louisiana. Died July 9, 1850, and was succeeded by the Vice-President. Vice-President: Millard Fillnnn-e, of New York. Secretaries of State : John M. Clayton, of Del., March 7, 1849— resigned July 10, 1850; "Daniel Webster, of Mass., July 20, 1S50— died Oct. 24, 1S52 ; Edward Ev- erett, of Mass., Dec. 9, 1852. Secretaries of the Treasury: William M.Meredith, of Pa., March 7, 1849— resigned July 10, 1850; Thomas Corvvin, of Ohio, July 20, 1850. Secretaries of War : George W. Crawford, of Georgia, March 7, 1849- resignecl July 10, 1850; William A. Graham, of N. C, July 20, 1S50 — resigned July 15, 1S52 ; John P. Kennedy; of Md., July 22, 1852. Secretaries of the Interior (a new office) : Thomas Ewing, of Ohio, March 7, 1849- resigned July 10, 1850 ; James A. Pearce, of Md., July 20, 1850 ; T. M'Kenuon, of Pa., Aug. 15, 1850, and died soon aft- erward ; Alexander IL II. Stuart, of Va., Sept. 12, 1850. Postmaster Generals: Jacob Collamer, of Vt., March 7, 1849— resigned Jitly 10, 1850 ; N. K. Hall, of N. Y., July 20, 1850— resigned Aug., 1852 ; Samuel D. Hub- bard, of Conn., Aug. 31, 18.52. Attorney Generals: Reverdy Johnson, of Md., March 7^ 1849— resigned July 10, iS50 ; John J. Crittenden, of Ky., July 20, 1850. TWELFTH ADMINISTRATION — 1853 TO 1857. President: Franklin Pierce, of New Hampshire. Vice-President: William R. King, of Alabama. Died April 18, 18.53. Secretary of State : William L. Marcy, of New York, March 5, 1853. Secretary of the Treasury : James Guthrie, of Ky., March 5, 1853. Secretary of War : Jefferson Davis, of Miss., March 5, 18.53. Secretary of the Navy: James C. Dobbin, of N. C, March 5, 18.53. Secretary of the Interior: Robert M'Clellan, of Mich., March 5, 185.3. Postmaster General : James Campbell, of Pa., March 5, 1853. Attorney General : Caleb Cushing, of Mass., March 5, 1858. THIRTEENTH ADMINTSTKATION — 1857 TO 1861. President: James Buchanan, of Pennsylvania. ADM 26 ADM Vice-President: John C. Breckinrictge, of Kentucky. Secretaries of State : Lewis Cass, of Micli., March 6, 1857— resigned Dec. 14, 1S60. Jeremiah 8. Black, of Peun., succeeded him. Secretaries of the Treasury: Howell Cobb, of Ga., March 6, 1857 — resigued Dec. 10, 1860; Philip F. Thomas, of Md.— resigued Jan. 11, 1861 ; Johu A. Dix, ofN.Y. Secretaries of War : John B. Floyd, of Va., March 6, 1857 — resigned Dec. 29, 1860 ; Joseph Holt, of Ky., Dec. 30, 1S60. Secretary of the Navy : Isaac Toucey, of Conn., March 6, 1857. Secretary of the Interior: Jacob Thompson, of Miss., March 6, 1857— resigned Jan. 8, 1861. Postmaster Generals : Aaron V. Brown, of Tenn., March 6, 18.57— died March 8, 1859. Joseph Holt, of Ky., July, 1859 ; Horatio King, of Me., Feb. 12, 1861. Attorney Generals : Jeremiah &. Black, of Pa., March 6, 1857 ; Edwin M. Stanton, of Ohio, Dec, 1860. rOUETEENTII ADMINISTKATION — 1861 TO 1869. Presidents : Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois— died April 1.5, 1865. Andrew Johnson, of Tennessee, succeeded Abraham Lincoln, April 15, 1865. "Vice-Presidents: Hannibal Hamlin, ofMe. ; Andrew Johnson, of Tenn., March 4, 1SG5. Secretary of State : William H. Seward, of New York, March, 1861. Secretaries of the Treasury: Salmon P. Chase, of Ohio, March, 1861 ; William P. Pessenden, of Maine, Sept., 1864 ; Hugh M'Culloch, of Ind., March, 1865. Secretaries of War: Simon Cameron, of Pa., March, 1861 ; Edwin M. Stanton, of Ohio, Jan., 1862. Secretary of the Navy : Gideon Welles, of Conn., March, 1861. Secretaries of the Interior : Caleb B. Smith, of Ind., March, 1S61— resigued Dec, 1862 ; John P. Usher, of Ind., Jan., 1863 ; James Harlan, of Iowa, May, 1865 ; O. H. Browning, of 111., July, 1866. Postmaster Generals : Montgomerv Blair, of Md., March, 1861 ; William Denuison, of Ohio, Oct., 1S64 ; Alexander W. Kandall, of Wis., July, 1866. Attorney Generals : Edward Bates, of Mo., March, 1861 ; James Speed, of Ky., Dec, 1864 ; H. F. Stan- ber}', of Ky., July, 1866. ADMINISTRATIVE REFORM ASSOCIATION de- rived its origin from a general opinion that the disas- ters which occurred to the army in the Crimea in 1S54-5 were attributable to the inefficient and irresponsible management of the various departments of the state. The association was organized in London, May 5, 1855. A meeting was held in Drury Lane Theatre on June 13, and Mr. Layard's motion on the subject in Parliament was negatived June 18 following. The association was reorganized in 1S56, Mr. Roebuck, M.P., becoming chairman, but soon became unimportant. See Civil Service. ^ ADMIRAL. This distinction does not appear to have been adopted in England until about the year 1300, but the title was in use some time previously in France. — Sir Harris Nicolas. Alfred, Athelstau, Edgar, Harold, and other kings, had been previously the com- manders of their o^vn fleets. The tirst French admiral is said to have been appointed 1284. The rank oi Ad- miral of the English Seas was one of great distinction, and was first given to William de Leybourne by Ed- ward I. in 1297. — Spehnan; Rynier. The first Lokd High Admikai, in England was created by Richard II. in 1385: there had been previously high admirals of districts — the north, west, and south. This office has seldom been intrusted to single hands, the duties being generally execiited by lords commissioners. A simi- lar dignity existed in Scotland from the reign of Robert III. : m 1673 the king bestowed it upon his natural son, Charles Lennox, afterward Duke of Richmond, then an infant, who resigned the office to the crown in 1703: after the Union it was discontinued. The dignity of lord high admiral of Ireland (of brief existence) was conferred upon James Butler by Henry VTIL, in May, 1534. The Admiral of the Fleet is the highest rank in the English Royal Navy, corresponding to that of mar- shal in the army. There are now three admirals of the fleet, twenty-one admirals, and twenty-seven vice- admirals (1865). See Kavij. The title of admiral has been given to the highest officers in the United States Navy'dnrin" the late rebellion, in the place of commo- dore, which oefore that time had been the highest title. ADMIRALTY, Cofkt of, said to have been erected by Edward III. in 1357— a civil court for the trial of causes relating to maritime aft'airs. It was enacted in the reign of Henry VIII. that criminal causes should be tried by witnesses and a jury, some of the judges at Westminster (or, as now, at the Old Bailey) assisting. The judgeship of the Admiralty was constituted in 1514, and was tilled by two or more functionaries until the Revolution, when it was restricted to one. — Beat- sun. The judge has usually been an eminent doctor of the civil law. In 1S44 the criminal jurisdiction of this court was removed, and by 20 & 21 Vic, c. 77 (1S57) the judge of the Probate Court was to be also judge of the Admiralty Court. Sir John Dodson, the last ad- miralty judge, died in 1S58. The jurisdiction of this court was extended in 1801. In the LTuited States the Admiralty Courts are merged in the Federal, Circuit, and District Courts. ADMIRALTY OFFICE dates from 1512, when Henry VIII. appointed commissioners to inspect his ships of war, etc. In 1662 the admiralty was first put into com- missiou, the great officers of state being the commis- sioners. During the Commonwealth the admiralty af- fairs were managed by a committee of the Parliament, and at the Restoration, in 1660, James, duke of York, became lord high admiral. See succeeding changes below. In lOSS-9 the admiralty was put into commis- sion, and the board appears to have assembled at Ad- miral Herbert's lodgings, in Channel Row, Westmin- ster, he being at that tiiiie first lord. In 1830, 1832, and 1S30 various changes were made in the civil depart- ments, several offices being abolished or consolidated with others. In March, ISOl, a royal commission rec- ommended the abolition of the Board of Admiralty and the appointment of a minister of the navy depart- ment. FIRST LOEDS OF THE ADIIIEALTY, ETC. 1660. James, duke of York, lord hvjh admiral, June 6. 1673. King Cuarles II., June 14. " Pkinoe Rupert, July 9. 1679. Sir Henry Capel, Feb. 14. 16S0. Daniel Finch, Esq., Feb. 19. lOSL Daniel, lord Finch, Jan. 20. 1683. Daniel, earl of Nottingham, April 17. 1684. King Chaei-eb II. 1GS5. King James II., May 17. Ojfix in Conimission. 1689. Arthur Herbert, Esq., March S. 1690. Thomas, earl of Pembroke and Montgomery, Jan. 20. 1692. Charles, lord Cornwallis, March 10. 1693. Anthony, viscount Falkland, April 15. 1694. Edward Russell, Esq. {aft. Earl of Orford), May 2. 1699. John, earl of Bridgewater, June 2. 1701. Thomas, earl of Pembroke, April 4. 1702. George, peinoe of Den.maek, loi'd high admiral, May 20. 1708. Thomas, earl of Pembroke, ditto, Nov. 29. Office in Conmiission. 1709. Edward, earl of Orford, Nov. 8. 1710. Sir John Leake, Oct. 4. 1712. Thomas, earl of Strafford, Sept. 30. 1714. Edward, earl of Orford, Oct. 14. 1717. James, earl of Berkeley, March 19. 1727. George, viscount Torrington, Aug. 2. 1733. Sir Charles Wagner, Knt., June 25. 1742. Daniel, earl of Winchilsea, March 19. 1744. John, duke of Bedford, Dec. 27. 1748. Johu, earl of Sandwich, Feb. 10. 1751. George, lord Anson, June 22. 1756. Richard, earl Temple, Nov. 19. 1757. Daniel, earl of Winchilsea, April G. " George, lord Anson, July 2. 1762. George M. Dunk, earl of Halifax, June 19. 1763. George Grenville, Esq., Jan. 1. " John, earl of Sandwich, April 23. " John, earl of Egmont, Sept. 10. 1700. Sir Charles Saunders, Sept. 10. " Sir Edward Hawke, Dec. 10. 1771. John, earl of Sandwich, Jan. 12. 1782. Hon. Augustus Keppel, April 1. " Augustus, viscount Keppel, July 18, 178.3. Richard, viscount Howe, Jan. 28. 1788. John, earl of Chatham, July 16. 1794. George John, earl Spencer, Dec. 20. ISOl. John, earl St. Vincent, Feb. 19. 1804. Henry, viscount Melville, May 15. 1S0.5. Charles, lord Barham, May 2. 1800. Hon. Charles Grey, Feb. 10. " Thomas Grenville, Esq., Oct. 23. 1807. Henry, lord Mul grave, April 0. 1809. Charles Yorke, Esq., May 10. 1812. Robert, viscount Melville, March 25. 1827. William Henry, duke of Clarenoe, lord high admiral, May 2, resigned Aug. 12, 1828. 1828. Robert, viscount Melville, Sept. 19. 1830. Sir James R. G. Graham, Bart,, Nov. 25. 1834. George, lord Auckland, June 11. AD]\I 27 JEOL 1834. Thomas Philip, earl de Grey, Dec. 23. 1835. George, lord Auckland, April '_'5. " Gilbert, earl of Miiito, Sept. 10. 1841. Thomas, earl of Haddini^'tnn, Sept. 8. 1840. Edward, earl of i;iliMilu)r(m^'h, Jan. 13. " George, earl of Auckland, July '24. 1840. Sir Frauds Thoruhill Bariug, Jan. 18. 1852. Algernon, duke of Northumberland, Feb. 28. 1853. Sir James Kobert Ge(u-ge Graham, Jan. 5. 1855. Sir Charles Wood, Bart., Feb. 24. 1858. Sir JolHi l'akiiiu't<)ii,Feb. 20. 1859. Edward, duke of Somerset, the peesent first lord (1805). ADMIRALTY, Whitehall. "At the south end of Duke Street, Westminster, England, was seated a large house, made use of for the Admiralty Office until the business was removed to Greenwich, and thence to Wallingford House, against Whitehall." It was re- built by Ripley about 1T20 ; the screen was erected to conceal the ugliness of the building by the brothers Adam in 17TG.— Lord Nelson lay in state in one of the apartments on January 8, ISOO, and on the next day was buried at St. Paul's. "AD^tONITION TO TUB Parliament," condemning all religious ceremonies but thuse commanded in the New Testament, was published by certain Puritans in 15T1. It was answered by Abp. Whitgift. Its pre- sumed authors. Field and Wilcox, were imprisoned. ADRIAN'S WALL (to prevent the irruptions of the Scots and Picts into the northern counties of England, then under the Roman government) extended from the Tyne to Solway Firth, and was 80 miles long, 12 feet high, and S feet in thickness, with watch-towers ; built 121. It was named after its second founder, the Emperor Adrian, and was repaired by Severus, 208. ADRIANOPLE, in Tnrkej', so named after its re- storer, the Emperor Adrian (who died July 10, 13S). Near here was fought the battle by which Constantine gained the empire, July 3, 323 ; also near here the Em- peror Valens was defeated and slain by the Goths, Aug. 0, 378. Adrianople was taken by the Turks un- der Amurath in 1301, and was the seat of their empire till the capture of Constantinople in 1453. Mohammed II. was born here in 1430. — Pricstlejl. Adrianople was taken by the Russians on Aug. 20, 1820, but was re- stored at the close of the war, Sept. 14, same year. See Turkey. ADRIATIC. The ceremony of the Doge of "Venice •wedding the Adriatic Sea (instituted about 1173) took place annually on Ascension day. The doge dropped a ring into the sea from his buceutaur, or state barge, being attended by his nobility and foreign ambassa- dors. The ceremony was first omitted in"1797. ADULTERATION of Food was the subject of legis- lation in England in 1207. Much attention was drawn to it in 1S22, through Mr. Accum's book, popularly called " Death in the Pot," and in 1855 through Dr. Hassall's book, "Food and its Adulterations." By an act for preventing the adulteration of food, passed in 1800, parochial chemical analysts may be appointed. ADULTERY, by the law of Moses (1400 B.C.), was punished with death. Lev. xx., 10. — Lycurgus (S84 B.C.) punished the offender as he did a parricide, and the Locriaus and Spartans tore out the offender's eyes. The early Saxons burnt the adulteress, and erected a gibbet over her ashes, whereon they hanged the adul- terer. The ears and nose were cut off under Canute, 1031. Ordained to be punished capitally under Crom- well, May 14, 1050 ; but there is no record of this law taking effect. In New England a law was ordained whereby adultery was made capital to both parties, even though the man were unmarried : and several suffered under it, 1002. — Hardic. Till 1S57 the legal re- dress against the male offender was by civil action for a money compensation, the female being liable to di- vorce. In England the " action for criminal conversa- tion" was abolished, and the " Court for Divorce and Matrimonial Causes" was established, with power to grant divorces for adultery and ill usage. The usual punishment for adultery in the United States is by fine or imprisonment. It is also good ground for absolute divorce on petition of the aggrieved party, as is the case mider the Code Napoleon. See Divorce. ADVENT {adveniens, coming). The season includes four Sundays previous to Christmas, the first being the nearest Sunday to St. Andrew's day (Nov. 30), be- fore or after. Homilies respecting Advent are men- tioned prior to 378. Advent Sunday, 1805, Dec. 3 ; 1800, Dec. 2 ; 1*07, Dec. 1. ADVENTURE BAY, at the S.E. end of Van Die- men's Land, discovered in 1773 by Capt. Furneaux, in his first voyage to the Pacific, and named from his ship Adventure. It was visited by Capt. Bligh in 1788. ADVENTURERS, Meeohant, a celebrated compa- ny of enterprising merchants, originally formed for the discovery of territories and the extension of com- merce, by John, duke of Brabant, in 1200, was trans- ferred to England in the reign of Edward III. (^ueeu Elizabeth formed it into an English corporation in 1504. — A ndcrson. ADVERTISEMENTS in Newspapers, as now pub- lished, were not general in England till the beginning of the 18th century. A penalty of £50 was inflicted on persons advertising a reward with "no questions to be asked" for the return of things stolen, and on the prmter.— Statutes. The advertuemcnt duty was for- merly charged according to the number of lines ; it was afterward fixed, in England, at 3.s. Of/., and in Ire- laud, at 2s. Orf. each advertisement. The duty was far- ther reduced, in England, to Is. Or?., and in Ireland to Is. each, in 1833, and was altogether abolished in the United Kingdom by 10 & 17 Vic, c. 03 (Aug. 4, 1853).* Advektibing Vans, a great nuisance, were prohibited by 10 & 17 Vic, c. 33 (1853). ADVOCATE, The King's. This office was instituted about the beginning of the 10th century; and the ad- vocate (always a doctor of the civil law) was empow- ered to prosecute at his own instance certain crimes, 1597. The Loed Abvocate in Scotland is the same as the attorney general in England. It was decided in the Parliament of Paris, in 1085, that the king's advo- cate of France might at the same time be a jiidge; so, in like manner, it was allowed in Scotland, where Sir John Nesbit and Sir William Oliphant were lord advo- cates and lords of session at the same time. — Bcatson. The Advocates' Library in Edinburg was established by Sir G.Mackenzie in 1802. ^DILES, magistrates of Rome, first created 402 B.C. There were three degrees of these ofticers, with func- tions sinTilar to those of our justices of the peace. The plebeian fedjles presided over the more minute af- fairs of the state, the maintenance of order, the repa- ration of the streets, the supply of provisions, etc. — Varro. AGATES ISLES, W. of Sicily ; near these, during the first Punic War, the Roman consul, Lutatius Catu- lus, gained a decisive victory over the Carthaginian fleet under Hanuo, March 10, 241 B.C. Peace ensued, the Romans obtaining Sicily and a tribute of 3200 tal- ents. .(EGINA, a Greek island, a rival of Athens, was hum- bled by Themistocles, B.C., 485; and taken, 455. Its inhabitants, expelled 431, were restored by the Spar- tans, 404 ; they renewed war with Athens, 388, and made peace, 387. ^GOSPOTAMOS, the Goat River, in the Chersone- sus, whei'e Lysander, the Lacedsemonian, defeated the Athenian fleet, 405 B.C., and ended the Peloponnesian War. ^LIA CAPITOLINA, built on the ruins of Jerusa- lem by the Emperor Adrian, 131. .EMILIA, the name given to the provinces of Par- ma, Modena, and the Romagna, united to Sardinia in 1800, and now part of the kingdom of Italy. .(ENEID, the great Latin epic poem, relating the ad- ventures of .iEneas, written about 24 B.C., by Virgil, who died Sept. 22, 10 B.C., before he had finally cor- rected the poem. It was first printed in 1409, at Rome. ENIGMA. Samson's riddle (about 1141 B.C.; Judfies xiv., 12) is the earliest on record. The ancient ovacles frequently gave responses admitting of per- fectly contrary interpretations. Gale attributes senig- matical speeches to the Eiryptians. In Nero's time, the Romans were often obliged to have recourse to this method of concealing truth under obscure lan- guage. The following epitaph on Fair Rosamond (mistress of Henry II., about 1173) is a medieval spec- imen : "Hie jacet in tomba Rosa mundi, non Rosa munda ; Non redolet, sed olet, quaj redolere solet." .^OLIA, in Asia Minor, was colonized by a principal branch of the Hellenic race, beginning about 1124 B.C. The Cohans built several large cities, both on the main land and the neighboring islands; Mityleue, in Lesbos, was considered the capital. ^OLIAN HARP. Its invention is ascribed to Kir- cher, 1053, but it was known before. * On Oct. le, IRfil), the whofe of tlie libretto of MacFarren's opera, KrMn Hood, was inserted as an advertisement in the Times (4^ col- umns). ^OL 28 AFK jEOLOPILE, a hollow ball with au orifice in which a tube might be screwed, was used iu the ITth century as a boiler for experimental steam-eugiues. ^QUI, an ancient Italian race, were subdued by the Romans, aud their lands annexed after a conflict, 471-302 B.C. AEROLITES. Metallic masses have often fallen from the atmosphere upon all parts of the world, sin- gly or in showers. Livy mentions a shower of them on the Alban Mount, (J54 B.C., and Plutarch one that fell at ^gospotamos, 407 B.C. An aerolite weighing 2 cwt. fell at Eusisheim, in Alsace, 1492. There was a shower of them near Benares, Dec. 19, 179S, and a re- markable one iu Normandy, April 20, 1S03, the stones weighing from 17^ pounds downward, and scattering over moVe than 20 square miles. Two in South Amer- ica are thought to weigh respectively 30,000 and 14,000 pounds. Many valuable records of aerolites are pre- served in the American Journal of Science aud Art. Chhulni's theory that aerolites are of a planetary na- ture was first published 1794, and in full, 1819. La- place thought they came from lunar volcanoes. AERATED WATERS. Apparatus for combining gases with water have been patented by Thomson iu 1807 ; Bakewell in 1S32 aud 1S47 ; Tylor in 1840, and by several other persons. Aerated bread is made by processes patented by Dr. Dauglish, 1850-7. AERIANS, followers of Aerius, a presbyter, in the 4th century, who held that there was no distinction between a bishop aud a presbyter; that there was no Pasch to be observed by Christians ; that the Lent and other fasts should not be observed, aud that prayers should not be offered for the dead. — E2iix>hanius. AERONAUTICS and AEROSTATICS. See Flying aud Dallooiis. ^SCULAPIUS, the Greek god of medicine. An embassy was sent to his shrine at Epidaurus, from Rome, about 400 B.C., iu time of sickness. His wor- ship was introduced at Rome 293 B.C. The priests of ^Esculapius were called Asclepiadse, and practiced medicine. yESOP'S FABLES, said to have been written about 619, 5T1, or 505 B.C. They are, no doubt, a compilation from various sources. Phiedrus's Latin paraphrases in Iambics (about A.D. S) are very elegant. ESTHETICS (from the Greek aisthesis, perception), the science of the beautiful (especially iu art) ; a term invented by Baumgarten, a German philosopher, whose work "^sthetica" was published iu 1750. jETOLIA, in Greece, a country named after .(Etolus of Elis, who, having accidentally killed a sou of Pho- roneus, king of Argos, left the Peloponnesus, and set- tled here. After the ruin of Athens aud Sparta, the ^tolians became the rivals of the Achajaus, and alter- nately enemies of Rome. The ^tolians join Sparta against Athens B.C. 455 Subdued by Antipater during the Lamiau War. . . . 322 Aid in the expulsion of the Gauls 279 Invade tlie Peloponnesus, and ravage Messenia (.Social War), and defeat the Achffians at Caphyaj 220 Philip v., of Macedon, invades MIqVlo., and takes Thermum— peace concluded 217 Alliance with Rome 211 War with Philip, 202 ; deserted by the Romans, theiEtolians make peace 205 They invite the kings of Macedon, Syria, and Spar- ta to coalesce with them against the Romans. .193-2 Defeat of the allies near Thermopylae 191 Conquered by the Romans under Fulvius 189 Leading patriots massacred by the Roman party. 107 Made a province of Rome 140 AFFINITY. Marriage within certain degrees of kindred was prohibitedln almost every age and coun- try, but has yet taken place to a considerable extent. See Leviticus, chap, xviii. (1490 B.C.). In England, a table restricting marriage within certain near degrees was set forth by authority, 1503. Prohibited marriages were adjudged to be incestuous aud unlawful by the 99th canon m 1C03. All marriages within the forbid- den degrees are declared to be absolutely void by stat- ute 5 & Will. IV., c. 54, 1835. See Marriage \nf de- ceased Wife's Sister). APFIRJIATION. See Quakers. The affirmation was altered in 1702, 1721, 1837, and in April, 1S59. In England the indulgence was granted to persons who were formerly Quakers, but who had seceded from that sect, 2 Vic, 1838 ; and extended to other dissenters by 9 Geo. IV., c. 32 (1828), and IS & 19 Vic, c. 2 (1855). AFGHANISTAN, a large country in Central Asia, formerly part of the Persian and Greek empires, was conquered by the Tartars about 997. The Mohammedan dynasty, the Ghaznevides, said to have ruled from IISO to 1200. They were conquered by Genghis Khan about 1221, aud by Tamerlane, 1398. Baber conquered Caubul iu 1523. On his death Afghanistan divided between Persia aud Hindostan. The Afghans revolt in 1720 ; invade Persia and take Ispahan ; repulsed by Nadir Shah iu 1728, who sub- dues the whole of the country, 1737. On his assassination, one of his officers, Ahmed Shah, au Afghan, forms Afghanistan into an independeut kingdom, and reigns prosperously, 1747-73. His sou aud successor, Timour, died iu 1793; whose son, Zemauu, was dethroned and blinded after reign- ing ten years. Since then the history is a series of broils, crimes, and murders. Runjeet Singh, the Sikh chief of Lahore, conquers a large pari of the country iu ISIS. Dost'Muhammed becomes ruler, 1829. [For the Afghan war with England, see India, 1S3S.] Dost Mohammed takes Herat, May 20 ; dies, after des- ignating his eldest son. Shir Ali, his successor. May 29, 1803 ; a war of succession ensues. The English remain neutral, June, etc., 1SG3. Treachery and anarchy prevailing, June, 1805. AFRANCESADOS. Spaniards who took the oath of allegiance to Joseph Bonaparte. Such underwent much harsh treatment from Ferdinand VII. between 1S14 and 1S20, and even then, though a general pardon was proclaimed, they were kept m a sort of disfran- chisement. AFRICA, called Libya by the Greeks, one of the three parts of the ancient world, and the greatest peu- iuKula of the universe ; said to have been first peopled by Ham. For its history, see Hgypt, Carthage, Cyreiie, Abyssinia, Algiers, Morocco, etc. Carthage subdued by the Romans, 140 B.C. ; other provinces gained by Ponipey, 82. N. Africa conquered by the Vandals under Genseric, A.D. 429-35 ; reconquered by Belisarius, 533-5. The Saracens subdue the north of Africa, 037-709. Portuguese settlements begun, 1450. Cape of Good Hope discovered by Diaz, 14S7. English merchants visit Guinea iu 1550 ; and Elizabeth, granted a patent to an African company iu 15SS. Dutch colony at the Cape founded, 1050. Capt. Stubbs sailed up the Gambia, 1723, Bruce commeuced his travels in 170S. Sierra Leone settled by the English, 1787. Mungo Park, who made his first voyage to Africa, May 22, 1705; and his second voyage, Jan. 30, 1804, but from which he never returned (see Park). Visited by Salt in 1S05 and 1809 ; Bnrckhardt in 1812; Hornemann in 1810; Denham and Clappertou in 1822 ; the brothers Lander iu 1830. The great Niger expedition (for which the English Parliament voted £01,000), consisting of the Albert, Wilbcrforce, aud Soudan steam-ships, commeuced the asceut of the Niger, Aug. 20, 1841 ; but when they reached Iddah, fever broke out among the crews, and they were successively obliged to return, the Al- bert having ascended the river to Egga, 320 miles from the sea, Sept. 28. The expedition was, iu the end, relinquished, owing to disease, heat, aud hard- ships, and all the vessels had cast anchor at Clareuce Cove, Fernando Po, Oct. 17, 1841. James Richardson explored the great Sahara in 1845-0, aud in 1849 (by direction of the Foreign Oflice) he left England to explore Central Africa, accomijani- ed by Drs. Barth and Overweg. Richardsou died, March 4, 1851 ; and Overweg, Sept. 27, 1S52. Dr. Vijgel sent out with re-enforcements to Dr. Barth, Feb. 20, 1853 ; in April, 1857, said to have been assas- sinated. Dr. Barth returned to England, and received the Royal Geographical Society's medal. May 10, 1S50. His travels were published in 5 vols, in 1858. Dr. David Livingstone, a missionary traveler, returned to England in Dec, 1850, after an absence of 10 years, during which he traversed a large part of the heart of S. Africa, aud walked about 11,000 miles, princi- pally over country hitherto unexplored. His book was published in Nov., 1857. In Feb., 1858, he was appointed British consul for the Portuguese posses- sions in Africa, aud left England shortly after. The publication of M. du Chaillu's travels in Central Africa created much controversy aud excilement in 1801. Second expedition of Dr. Livingstone, March, 1S5S. AGA 29 AGR Captains Spckc and Grant aunonnce the discovery of the Nile in Luke Nyan/.ii Victoria, Feb. '2S, ISOii. [Capt. Spcke was accidentally shot by hiss own gun wl>ile aU)ne near Bath, Sept. 15, ISG-l.J Some Dutch ladies unsuccessfully exi)lore the White Nile, and undergo many privations, Jul}', 1803-1804. Oxford mission. Bishop Mackenzie sent out; dies, 1S03. Du Chailhi starts on a fresh expedition, C Aug., 1SC3. Dr. Liviniistone returns, July '2;i, 1SU4. Death of Dr. W. B. Baikie, at Sierra Leone, Nov. 30, 1S04. [lie was sent as special envoy to the negro tribes near the Niger by the Foreign Otlice about 1S54. He opened commercial relations with Central Af- rica.] Mr. Samuel Baker discovered a lake, supposed to be another source of the Nile, which he named Lake Nyanza Albert, March, 1804. Dr. Livingstone appointed British consul for Inner Af- rica, !Marcli '-'4, ls05. African Association, for promoting the exploration of Central Africa, was formed in June, ITSS, princi- pally by Sir Joseph Banks ; and under its auspices many additions were made to African geography by Ledyard, Park, Burckhardt, Iloruemann, etc. It merged into the Royal Geographical Society in 1S31. Afiucan Company (merchants trading to Africa), arose out of an association in Exeter, formed in 1588. A charter was granted to a joint-stock com- pany in 1018; a third company was created in 1031 ; a fourth corporation in 1002 ; another was formed by letters-patent in 1072 ; remodeled in 1095. In 1S21 the company was abolished. Afkican Institution, founded in London in ISflT, for the abolition of the slave-trade and the civilization of Africa. Many schools have been established with success, particularly at Sierra Leone. AGAP^ {agape, Greek for love, charity), " feasts of charity," referred to. hide 12, and described by Tertul- liau, of which the lirst Christians of all ranks partook, in memory of the last time when Christ ate M'ith his disciples. In consequence of disorders creeping in, these feasts were forbidden to be celebrated in church- es by the councils of Laodicea (300) and Carthage (.300). These feasts are still recognized by the Greek Church, and are held in their origi'ual form weekly by the San- demanians, and also, iu some measure, by the Mora- vians and Wcsleyans. AGAPEMONIANS, a sect which orieinated with Henry James Prince, an ex-clergyman (,f the Church of England, who claimed the attributes of omnipo- tence, and thereby obtained great intiueiice over his wealthy dupes in 1845. They professed to live in a Btateof brotherly love, delivering themselves up to in- nocent amusements, not vexing themselves with the cares of ordinary mortal.s. Various disclosures did not at all coniirm these statements. They resided in a building called " AgapcmonO" (Greek for "the abode of love"), near Bridgewater, iu Somersetshire. AGDA, in Prance. A council on Church discipline convened there by Alaric, A.D. 500. AGE. Chronologers have commonly divided the time between the creation and the birth of Christ into periods called ages. Hesiod (about 850 B.C.) described the Golden, Silver, Brazen, and Iron Ages. See Dark Ages. First Age (from the Creation to the Del- uge) B.C. 4004-2349 Second Age (to the coming of Abraham into Canaan) 234S-1022 TiiiKD Age (to the Exodus from Egypt) 1921-1491 FooETU Age (to the founding of Solomon's Temple) 1490-1014 Fifth Age (to the cajjture of Jerusalem) 1014- 588 SiXTn Age (to the birth of Christ) 588- 4 Seventh Age (to the present time).. .B.C. 4-A.D. 1SG8 AGE OF Ma.iokity. Varied in different C(rautries. Iu Greece and Rome twenty-five was full age for both eexes, but a greater age was requisite for the holding certain offices ; e.fi., thirty for tribunes, forty-three for consuls. In England the minority of a male termi- nates at twenty-one, and of a female, in some cases, as that of a queen, at eighteen. In l.'Vl", the majority of Edward VI. was, by the will of his father, fixed at eighteen years; previously to completing which age, Henry \\\l. had himself assumed the reins of govern- ment in 1509. — A male of twelve may take the oath of allegiance ; at fourteen he may ccmseut to a marriage or choose a guardian ; at seventeen he ma}' be an ex- ecutor, and at twenty-one he is of age ; but, according to the statute of wills, 1 William IV. & 1 Vict., c. 2G 1837, no will made by any person under the a^e of twenty-one years shall be valid. A female at twelve may consent to a marriage; at fourteen she may choose a guardian, and at tweutv-one she is of a^e In the United States males are of age at twenty-one' and females at eighteen ; but at eighteen and sixteen respectively they may devise property by will. At the ages of fourteen and twelve they may make a leo-al marriage. The President of the United States must be thirty-five. A6INC0URT (N. France), a village, where Henry V. of England, with about 9U00 men, defeated about 60,000 French, on St. Crispin's day, Oct. 25, 1415 Of the French, whose leaders acted with little judf-ment, there were, according to some accounts, 10,00o'killed, nicludmg the Dukes of Alenron, Brabant, and Bar, the Archbishop of Sens, one marshal, thirteen earls, nine- ty-two barons, and 1500 knights ; and 14,000 prisoners, among whom were the Diikes of Orleans and Bour- bon, and 7000 barons, kniiihts, and gentlemen The English lost the Duke of York, the Earl of Sufi'olk, and about 20 others. St. Remy asserts, with more proba- bility, that the English lost 1000 men. Henry V. soou after obtained the kingdom of France. AGITATORS (or Adjutators), officers appointed by the English army iu 1647 to take care of its interests ; each troop or company had two. The Protector Crom- well was eventually obliged to repress their seditious power. At a review he seized the ringleaders of a mutiny, shot one instantly, in the presence of his com- l)anions and the forces on the ground, and thus re- stored discipline. — Wmiuc. Daniel O'Connell, called the Afiitatvr of Jri land, -was born in 1775. He began to agitate at the elections in 1826; was elected^for Clare, July 5, 1828 ; the election being declared void, he was re-elected, July 30, 1829. After the passing of the Catholic Emancipation Bill, he agitated in vain for the repeal of the Lhiion, 1834 to 1843. He died May 15, 1847. Richard Cobden and John Bright were the chief Anti-corn-law Agitators, 1841-45. AGLABITES, a dynasty of rulers of Cairo and Tunis, iu Africa, founded by Ibrahim Ben Airlab, A.D. 800, and ending after 112 years with Zeyadatala. AGNADELLO (N. E. Italy). Here Louis XII. of France gained a great victory over the Venetians, some of whose troops were accused of cowardice and treachery. May 14, 1509. The conflict is also termed the Battle of the Rivolta. AGNOIT^ (from agnoia, Greek, ignorance). 1. A sect founded by Theophronius of Cappadocia about 370— said to have doubted the omniscience of God. 2. The followers of Themistius of Alexandria about 530, who held peculiar views as to the body of Christ, and doubted his divinity. AGNUS DEI. A wax medal with the figure of a lamb bearing a cross, as a certificate for baptism. First used in the 7th and Sth century. Since the 14th cen- tury the popes have consecrated medals of a like pat- tern and name for distribution on the first Sunday aft- er Easter. AGONISTICI (from agon, Greek, a conflict), also termed circiitoref!, a branch of the Douatists {whieli see). They preached their heretical doctrines with great bold- ness in public places, and hence incurred the severe persecution of the emperors in the 4th and Sth cen- turies. AGRA (N. W. India), fotmded by Akbar iu 15GG, was the capital of the Great Mogul. See Mausoleums. In 1G58 Aurungzebe removed to Delhi. — The fortress of Agra, termed the key of Hindostau, iu the war with the Mahrattas, surrendered to the British forces, under General Lake, Oct. 17, 1803, after one day's siege: 102 pieces of ordnance and i;240,000 were captured.— In June, 1857, the city was abandoned to the mutineers by the Europeans, who took refuge in the fort, from which they were rescued by Major Montgomery and Colonel Greatlied. — Allahabad was made capital of the N.W. provinces of India instead of Agra in ISCl. AGRARIAN LAW {Agraria lex) decreed nn equal division among the Roman people of all the lands ac- quired by conquest, limiting the acres which each per- son should enjoy. It was first proposed by the Consul Spurius Cassius, 480 B.C., and occasioned his judicial murder when he wont out of office in 485. It was re- introduced bv the Tribune Licinius Stolo, 370, and by the Tribune Tiberius Gracchus, 132 B.C. The law at last proved fatal to the freedom of Rome under Julius Cresar, 00 B.C. — Livg ; ]'iissius. In modern times the term has been misinterpreted to signify a division of the lauds of the rich among the poor, ifrequently pro- AGE posed by demagogues, such as Gracchus Babeuf,* edit- or of the Tribun du Pevjilc, in 1X94. AGRICOLA'S WALL. See Roman Walls. AGRICULTURE. "Abel was a keeper of sheep, but Cain was a tiller of the grouud," Gencais iv., 2. The Alheuiaus asserted that the art of sowing corn began with them, and the Cretans, Sicilians, and Egyp- tians made the same claim. Cato the Censor (died 140 B.C.) and Varro (died 2S B.C.) were eminent Roman writers on agriculture. It was brought into England by the Romans about A.D. 2T. Fitzherbert's " Book of Husbandry," printed in 1524. Tusser's " Five Hundred Points of Husbandry," 1502. Blythe's " Improver," 1U49. Hartlib's " Legacy," 1G50. Jethro Tull's " Horse-hoeing Husbandry," 1701. About the end of the ISth century fallowing was grad- ually superseded by turnips and other green crops. Agricultcra.!, Societies. — The earliest mejitioned in the British Isles was the Society of Improvers of Agriculture in Scotland, instituted in 1T23. The Dublin Agricultural Society (1T49) gave a stimulus to agriculture in Ireland ; its origin is attributed to Mr. Prior, of Rathdowncy, Queen's County, in 1731. The Bath and West of England Society, established 1777, and the Highland Society of Scotland, 1793. County Agricultural Societies are now numerous. London Board of Agriculture established by act of Parliament, 1793. Francis, duke of Bedford, a great promoter of agricul- ture, died March 2, 1S02. Eoyal Agricultural Society of England, established in 183S by noblemen and gentlemen, the chief landed proprietors in the kingdom, and incorporated by roy- al charter, 1S40. It holds two meetings annually- one in London, the other in the country ; the first country meeting at Oxford, in 1S39. It awards prizes, and publfshes a valuable journal. The Lon- don meeting at Battersea, in June, 1SG2, was highly successful. " Chambers of Agriculture" were established in France in 1851. The Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester organ- ized, iS42 ; chartered, 1845. AGuioui/ruEAL Chemistry. — Sir Humphry Davy deliv- ered lectures on this subject (afterwarcl published), at the instance of the Board of Agriculture, in 1S12 ; but it excited little attention tillthe publication of Liebig's work in 1S40, which made a powerful im- pression. Boussingault's "Economic Rurale," an equally important work, appeared in 1844. The im- moderate expectations from this study having been somewhat disappointed, a partial reaction took place. Liebig's "Letters on Agriculture" appeared in 1859. Agrioiti.turai. H.vT.r,, Islington, N. London, chiefly for the meetings of the Smithtield Club. The founda- tion stone was laid by the president. Lord Berners, Nov. 5, 1801. A remarkable exhibition of dogs was opened here on June 24, 1802, and of horses and of donkeys in July, 1804, 1805. In Aug., 1855, a committee presented a report on the best mode of obtaining accurate agricultural statis- tics, which has not been acted on. There were, in 1831, 1,055,982 agricultural laborers in Great Britain, and in Ireland 1,131,715. Cattle first carried to America by Columbus in his second voyage, 1493. Swine brought into the present territory of the L^uited States by'De Soto, 1538. First slave labor within present territory of the United States at the founding of St. Augustine, 1505. Tobacco carried to England from America by Raleigh, 1586. First cattle and swine brought to Massachusetts, 1024. Hops first brought to present territory of the United States, 1 028. First horses in Massachusetts, 1029-30. First apples picked in present territory of the United States in Boston, 1039. Sugar-cane brought into Louisiana, 1751. First improved cattle brought into the United States, 1783. South Carolina and Philadelphia Agricultural Socie- ties founded, 1784. (Most of the other states now have them.) First cotton (8 bales) sent from the United States to England, and seized by custom-house on the ground that the United States can not have produced so much, 1784. 30 AGE First recorded United States thresher patent, 1791. Thence to ISIO were granted in the United States 30 ' patents for reapers ; from ISIO to 1835, 240 more ; and many have been granted since. Whitney's cotton-gin invented, 1793. First cast-iron plow patent issued to Newbold of New Jersey, 1797. Jefferson investigates scientifically the Mould Ward question, 1798. Kennebec Agricultural Society in Maine founded, ISOO. First Agricultural Exhibition in the United States at Georgetown, D.C., May 10, 1810. First useful mowing machine (Manning's) patented in the United States, 1831. N. York State Agricultural Society incorporated, 1832. First useful reaper patents in theUnited States, Schneb- ley's and Hussey's, both of Maryland, granted, 1833. Guano begins to come into use about 1840. American Pomological Society founded, 1848. Yale College Agricult. Department established, 1852. Trial of agricultural implements at Geneva, N.Y.,1S52. World's Fair, New York, promotes use of agricultural machinery, 1853. Pennsylvania Farmer's High School, 1854. Michigan passes an act to establish an Agricultural College, 1855. Great trial of threshing, reaping, and mowing ma- chines in France— the American machines gaining a complete victory, 1855. The United States Government Agricultural Depart- ment established by act of Congress, May 15th, 1802. The following table gives the value or quantity of some of the chief agricultural productions of the United States by the censuses of 1850 and ISGO : ISofl. * In 1796 he conspired against the Directory with the i ing a division of property, aud was executed. Wheat, bush Rye, bush Indian corn, bush Oats, bush Rice, lbs Tobacco, lbs Cotton, ginned, bales of 400 lbs Wool, lbs Pease and beans, bush Potatoes, bush Potatoes, sweet, bush Barley, bush Buckwheat, bush Orchard products, value. . . . Wine, gall Market-garden prod., value Butter, lbs Cheese, lbs Hay, tons Clover-seed, bush Grass-seed, bush Hemp, tons Flax, lbs Flaxseed, bush Hops, lbs Silk cocoons, lbs Maple sugar, lbs Cane sugar, hhds. 1000 lbs. . Cane molasses, gall Sorghum molasses, gall. . . . Maple molasses, gall Beeswax and honey, lbs Home-made manufactures, value Animals slaughtered, value Horses, No Asses and mules, No Neat cattle. No Sheep, No Swine, No Live-stock, total value ;$544, 180,516 The following are the totals for a few of the princi- pal of the above crops in the United States for 1803 : Wheat, bush ' . . .191,008,239 Rye, bush 20,798,287 Barley, bush 16,760,597 Oats, bush 174,858,167 Indian corn, bush 452,446,128 Buckwheat, bush 15,821,305 Potatoes, bush 101,457,144 Tobacco, lbs 267,302,770 Hay, tons 20,000,000 Wool, lbs 79,405,215 Sorghum molasses, gall 7,700,000 And the summaries of the condition of the land and of the value of manufactured implements for 1850 and 1800: 100,485,944 14,188,813 592,071,104 140,584,179 215,313,497 199,752,055 2,445,793 52,516,959 9,219,901 65,797,896 38,268,148 5,167,015 8,956,912 $7,723,186 221,249 $5,280,030 313,84.5,306 105,535,893 13,838,642 468,978 416,831 34,871 7,709,676 562,312 3,497,029 10,843 34,253,436 237,133 12,700,991 14,853,690 $27,493,644 111,703,142 171,183,381 20,976,286 830,451,707 172,554,688 187,140,173 429,390,771 5,198,077 60,511,343 15,188,013 110,571,201 41,606,302 15,635,119 17,664,914 $19,759,361 1,860,008 $15,541,027 460,509,854 135,875,135 19,129,128 929,010 900,386 104,490 3,783,079 611,927 11,010,012 6,562 38,803,884 302,205 16,337,080 7,235,025 1,944,594 26,386,^55 $24,358,222 212,871,653 1,185,514 166,786 3,347,009 1,505,810 3,467,905 $1,107,490,216 AGR 31 ALA Land in U. S., acres, both yrs.. Laud ill U. S., occupied, acres.. Laud, improved, acres Laud, uuimproved, acres Agricultural implements made iu tiielJ. S., value The followiup; table, drawn u ing, C.E., in IS'JT,* is extracted of the Emii^ratiou Committee: 203,560,614 113,032,614 180,528,000 1360. 1,920,641,280 409,769,633 163,261,389 246,508,244 $6,842,611 $17,802,514 1) by Mr. William Coul- from the Third Report Countries. Cultivated. Wastes capa- ble oflm- prove.nent. Unprofit- able. Total. En^-liinJ . . . Wiiles .... S.-otlun,! . . . IrelniKl .... British Islands 25,6:i'.',iiiio 3,117,11(111 6,at;5,01lll l'.>,li5,'.>S0 383,090 3',454,OU0 630,000 6,950,000 4,900,000 166,000 ACR1£S. 3,256,400 1,105,000 8,523,930 •2,4I6>BC-t 569,469 ACRES. 32,342,400 4,752,000 19,738,930 19,441,944 1.119,159 46,5'2i,U7U 15,000,000 15,871,463 77,394,433 AGRIGENTUM (now Girgenti), a celebrated city of Sicily, built about 582 B.C. It was governed by ty- rants from 566 to 470 ; among these were Phalaris (see Brazen Bull) ; Alcaineues ; Theron, who, with his step- father Gelon, defeated the Carthaginians at Himera ; and Thrasyd;eus, his sou, expelled in 470 ; wheu a re- public was established, and As'rigentum became opu- lent and luxurious. It was taken by the Carthagini- ans in 405 B.C., and held, except during short inter- vals, till wrested from them by the Romans in 262 B.C. From A.D. 825 till 1086 it was held by the Saracens. AIBIEDNUGGUR (W. India), once capital of a state founded by Ahmed Shah about 1494, which, after hav- ing fallen into the hands of the ISIoguls and the 5Iah- rattas, was taken from the latter by Arthur Wellesley, Aug. 12, 1803, and finally annexed to the British db- miuions iu 1S17. AIBAR (in Spain). Here the Moors defeated the Spaniards, killing their liiug, A.D. SS2. — Garcia. AILANTHUS (Glandulosa: there are other species), a native of China, brought to England iu 1751, and to the United States about 50 years afterward. AIR, on Atmosphkre. Anaximenes of Miletus (530 B.C.) declared air to be a self-existent deity, and the first cause of every thing created. Posidonius (about 79 B.C.) calculated the height of the atmosphere to l)e 800 stadia. The pressure of air, about 15 lbs. to the square inch, was discovered by Torricelli A.D. 1645, and was found by Pascal, iu 1047, to vary with the height. Halley, New%)n, and others, up to the present time, have illustrated the agency and influences of this great power by various experiments, and numerous iu- veutions have followed; among others, the Air-gun of Outer, of Nuremberg, about 1650 ; the Air-i-umi', invent- ed l)y Otto von Giiericke, of Magdeburg, about 1650 ; improved by the illustrious Boylein 1657; and the Aie- piPE, invented by Mr. Sutton, a brewer of London, about 1750. The density and elasticity of air were de- temiiued by Boyle, and its relation to light and sound by Ilooke, Newton, and Derham. The extension of our atmosphere above the surface of the earth, long con.sidered as about 45 miles, was thought by Adminil Fitz Roy to be only about 9 or 10 miles (1S62). — Its com- position, about 77 parts of uitrogen, 21 of oxygen, and '2 of other matters (such as carbonic acid, watery va- por, a trace of ammonia, etc.), was gradually ascer- tained by Priestley (who discovered oxygen gas in 1774), Scheele (1775), Lavoisier, and Cavendish ; and its laws of refraction were investigated by Dr. Bradley, 1737. Dr. Stenhouse's Air-filters (in which powdered charcoal is ns^ed) were first set up at the INIaiision Hou.se, Loudon, in 18.54. In 1858 Dr. R. Angus Smith made kuown a chemical method of ascertaining the * At tliat period it w.is n dom w&a annually cropped i Tiputed that the soil of the United King- L the following proportions : Wheat Barley and rye Potatoes, oats, and beans Turnips, cabbnpes, and other vegetables.. Clover, rye-praas, etc Fallow Hop-grounds. . Nursery grounds.. Inclosed fruit, flower, kitchen, and other gardens . PI unds re-gi Land depastureil by cattli Hedge-rows, copses, and woods Ways, water, etc Cultivated land It was reckoned bv the Agricultural Committee that the of waste lands would yield above £20,000,000 a vear. It lated in 1854 that there were in England 32,160,ri(>o acres tinn.of the annual value of £37,412,000. Since that time has been brought into cultivation. See Wheat. 7,0(10,000 1 ,950,000 6,500,(10(1 1,150,0(10 1,750,000 2,800,1100 60,(100 20,000 110,000 100,0(10 21,0110,(100 2!l(i(Vill(l 46,54(1,(1 :ultivatir amount of orgauic matter iu the air. The researches of Dr. Schilnbein, a German chemist of Basel, between 1840 and 1859, led to the discovery of two states of the oxygen in the air, which he calls ozone and antozone See Oxijrjcn, Xitror/en, Ozone, Atmospheric Raihrav and Pneumatic JJispatch.— The force of compressed air has been employed in boring the Cenis Tuuuel, ivliich see. AIR-GUN. One was invented by Guter, of Nurem- berg, about 1056. The " Elemens d'Artillerie" ot Ri- vault, precept(ir of Louis XIII., describes a "uu char(»ed ouly with air and jiure water, which he says was'^in- vented by Marin, a burgher of Lisieux, who presented one to Henri IV. at the end of the 10th century. Bor- der (17.>3-1(99) invented au air-gun which operates by inflaming the gas which forms the charge by means of an electric spark. AIR-PUMP. Invented by Otto von Guericke, of Magdeburg, in 1654 ; improved by Bovle a few years after, and further by Hooke iu 1658-^59. Papiu and babiuet have also added improvements. AIR-TIGHT STOVE, for economically burning wood ; patented by Isaac Orr about 1830. AIR-WHISTLE, invented by C. Daboll, of New Lon- don, as early as 1S50, as a signal to ships in foggy lo- calities. It is a shrill whistle, like that used in steam- engines of tremendous power, audible 4 or 5 miles against the wind, and worked by au air-pump and con- denser. AIX-LA-CHAPELLE (Aachen), a Roman city, now in Rhenish Prussia. Here Charlemagne was born 742, and died 814, havinj; built the minster (790-804), and conferred many privileges on the citv, in which fifty- five emperors have since been cro«iied. The city was taken by the French in 1792; retaken by the'Aus- trians, 1793; by the French, 1794 ; reverted to Prussia, 1814.— The first Treaty of Peace signed here was be- tween France and Spain, when France yielded Prauche Comte, but retained her couquests in the Netherlands, May 2, 1608.— The sec(nKl, or celebrated treafv, was be- tween Great Britain, France, Holland, Germany, Spaiu, and Genoa. (By it the treaties of Westphalia' in 1648, of Nimeguen iu 1078 and 1679, of Ryswirk in 1697, of Utrecht in 171.3, of Baden in 1714, of the Triple Alli- ance in 1717, of the Quadruple Alliance in 1718, and of Vienna in 1738, were renewed and confirmed). Signed on the part of England by John, earl of Sand- wich, and Sir Thomas Robinson, Oct. 7, 1748.— A Con- gress of the sovereigns of Austria, Russia, and Prussia, assisted by ministers from England and France, was held at Aix-la-Chapelle, and a convention signed, Oct. 9,1818. The sum then due from France tolhe allies was settled at 205,000,000 of francs. AJACCIO. See Corsica. AJNADIN (Syria). Here the Mohammedans defeat- ed the army of the Emperor Heraclius in July, 633. They took Damascus in 634. AKERMAN (Bessarabia). After being several times taken, it was ceded to Russia in 1812. llere the cele- brated treaty between Russia and Turkey was con- cluded iu 1826, which secured for the former the navi- gation of the Black Sea, recognized the Dantibiau principalities, etc. AK HALTZEKH. A city or fortress in Armenia. Here the Russians defeated the Turks, Aug. 24, 1828. A Turkish attack on it was repulsed, Feb., 1829, and it was ceded to Russia by the treaty of Adrianople, Sept. 14,1829. AKYAB, in Arracau. Ceded to the English by the treaty of Yandabro, Feb. 24, 1826. ALABAMA, a Southern slave state, originally part of Georgia, Uuited States; made an indepeudent state in 1819: commercial metropolis. Mobile. It seceded from the Union b.y an ordinance passed Jan. 11, 1861, and was reunited in 1865. ALAMO. A fort in Texas, near San Antonio. Here occurred the massacre of the Alamo, March 6, 1826, on which day a Mexican force of 1500 or 2000 men, under Santa Anna, after having in vain besieged and bom- barded its garrison of 140 Texans, under Col. Travis, ever since the 23d of the preceding month, stormed the place and took it, after being twice repulsed. But six Texans were left alive after the assault, and these were murdered in cold blood in Santa Anna's presence, by his order, after surrender on promise of protection. "Remember the Alamo" was a telling Texan war-cry for the rest of the Texan ^yar of independence. ALAND ISLES (Gulf of Bothnia), taken from Swe- den by Russians, 1809. See Bomarsund. ALA 32 ALC ALANI, a Tartar race, invaded Parthia, 75. They ioiued the Huns in invading the Roman empire, were defeated by Theodosius, 379-382. They were subdued by the Visigoths, 452, and were eventually incorpora- ted with them. ALARCOS (Central Spain). Here the Spaniards un- der Alfonso IX., king of Castile, were totally defeated by the Moors, July 19, 1195. ALBA LONGA, an ancient city of Italy, said to have been founded by Ascanius, son of .lEneas, 1152 B.C. Its history is of doubtful authenticity. Ascanius, son of^neas, 1152 B.C. Sylvius Posthu- mus, 1143; .^ueas Sylvius B.C. 1114 Reign of Latiuus, 1048 ; Alba, 1038 ; Atys, or Cape- tus, 1002; Cai)yi*i976; Capetus 916 Reign of Tiberinus, 903 ; being defeated in battle near the River Albitla, he throws himself into the stream, is drowned, and hence this river is now called the Tiber 895 Agrippa ; Romulus Silvius, 864 ; Aventiuus, 845 ; Procas, 808 ; Numitor 795 Amulius, the brother of Numitor, seizes the throne, 794 ; killed by his grandson, Romulus, who re- stores Numitor 751 Romulus builds and fortilies Rome (see Rome) . . . 753 Alba conquered by Tullus Hostilius, and incorpo- rated with Rome 665 ALBANERISES. A Manichasan sect, of small num- l)ers and short duration, in the 8th century. They be- lieved in eternal principles of good and evil, a pre-ex- istent state, and an immediate millennium. ALBANIA, a province in European Turkey, former- ly part of the ancient Epirus. The Albanians became independent during the decline of the Greek empire. They were successfully attacked by the Turks in 1388. About 1443, under George Castriot (Scanderbeg), they baffled the efforts of Mohammed II. to subdue them till the siege of Scutari in 1478, when they partially submitted. Albania became independent under Ali Pacha, of Jauina, in 1812, who defeated the Turkish pachas, and governed ably, but cruelly and despotic- ally, till Feb., 1822, when "he and his two sons were slain, after surrendering under a solemn promise of safety. A revolt in Albania was suppressed in 1843. ALBAN'S, ST. (Hertfordshire), near the Roman Ve- rulam, derived its present name from Alban, the Brit- ish protomartyr, said to have been beheaded duriug the persecution by Diocletian, June 23, 286. A stately monastery to his memory was erected by Offa, king of Mercia, about 793, who granted it many privileges. Its superior sat as premier abbot in Parliament till'the dissolution in 1^39. It was taken from Cassivelau- nus by Julius Ciesar, 54 B.C., and retaken with much slaughter by Boadicea, or Bunduica, queen of the Ice- ni, A.D. 61. On May 22 or 23, 1455, was fought the fimt battle of St. Alban's, when the Lancastriaiis were defeated, their leader, Edmund, duke of Somerset, slain, and King Henry VI. taken prisoner by the Duke of York and his partisans. In the second battle, on Shrove Tuesday, Feb. 17, 1401, Queen Margaret totallv defeated the Yorkists under the Earl of Warwick and rescued the king. There was much blood shed in these desperate conflicts. St.Alban's was incorpora- ted by Edward VI. in 1553, and disfranchised for brib- ery, June 17, 1S52. St. Album' raid, see United States, 1864. ALBANY, the capital of the State of New York Founded by the Dutch in 1614 ; received a city char- ter, 1GS6; became the capital of New Y'ork, 1807. ALBANY (oE Aluainn), the ancient name of the Scottish Highlands. The brother of Robert III of Scotland was made Duke of Albany in 1398 Freder- ick, son of George III., was Duke of York and Albany. He died Jan. 5, 1827. ALBERT MEMORIAL. The Prince Consort died on Dec. 14 1S61, deeply lamented by the whole civil- ized world. A meeting to organize a method of re- ceiving contributions for a great national memorial was held at the Mansion House, Jan. 14, 1862 and a large sum was quickly subscribed. £36,000 had been received on March 1, and £50,220 on June 11, 1862 I he nature of the memorial was referred to the queen herself. In a letter to the lord mayor, dated Feb 19 1862, Sir Charles Grey says, on behiilf of her maje'stv! _ It woulil be more in accordance with her owii feel- ings, and she believes with those of the countrv in general, that the monument should be directlv ner- sonal to Its object. After giving the subject hdr ma- turest consideration, her majesty has come to the con- clusion that nothing would be more appropriate nro- vided It IS on a scale of sufficient grandeur, than an obelisk to be erected in Hyde Park on the site of the Great Exhibition of 1851, or on some spot immediate- ly contiguous to it. Nor would any proposal that could be made be more gratifying to the queen her- self personally, for she can never forget that the prince himself had highly approved of the idea of a memo- rial of this character being raised on the same spot in remembrance of the Great Exhibition." In a second letter the queen expressed her intention of personally contributing toward erecting the memorial, that "it might be recorded in future ages as raised by the queen and people of a grateful country to the memory of its benefactor." Shortly after a committee was ap- pointed to fultill her majesty's desire. As a suitable block of granite could not be obtained, the proposal for an obelisk was given up. On April 22, 1863, the queen approved of the design of Mr. Gilbert G. Scott for an Eleanor Cross, with a spire 150 feet high, ac- companied bv statues, etc. ; and on April 23, Parlia- ment voted £50,000, in addition to the £60,000 received by voluntary contributions. The sculptors employed are M'Dowell, Foley, Theed, John Bell, and Armis- tead ; material, Sicilian marble. (Jan., 1865.) Many memorials of the prince have been set up throughout the empire.* ALBIGENSES, a name given to various bodies of persons who opposed the doctrines and corruptions of the Church of Rome, living at Albiga, iu Languedoc, and at Toulouse, in the 12th century. They were perse- cuted as Manichseans, 1163, and a crusade (proclaimed by Pope Innocent III.) commenced against tliem iu 1207. Simon de Montfort (to whom Toulouse was given) commanded, and at Bezicres he and the pope's legate put friends and foes to the sword, saying, "God will find his own !" At Minerba he burnt 150 of the Albigeuses alive ; and at La Vaur he hanged the gov- ernor, and beheaded the chief people, drowning the governor's wife, and murdering other women. He next defeated tlie Count of Toulouse, but was himself killed in 1218. Louis VIII. and IX., kings of France, patronized the crusade ; Count Raymond was sub- dued in 1229 ; and the heretics were given up to the Inquisition. See Waldenses. ALBIOLA, near Venice, in the Lagoons. Here the Venetians defeated Pepin, 809, saving their city, and the Huns, 906, destroying all the Hunliish vessels and nearly all their crews. ALBION (probably derived from alhns or a?p, white). Britain is said to have been so called by Julius Cffisar and others, on account of the chalky cliffs upon its coast. ALBUERA (or Ai.iirnEKA), Estremadura, Spain, where a battle was fought between the French, com- manded by Marshal Soult, and the British and Anglo- Spanish army, under Marshal, afterward Lord Beres- ford. May 16, 1811. The allies obtained the victory, one of the most brilliant achievements of the war. The French loss exceeded 8000 men previously to their retreat ; but the allies lost a large number. The chief bruut of the action fell on the British ; Colonel Inglis, 22 oflicers, and more than 400 men, out of 570 who had mounted a hill, fell— out of the 57th regiment alone ; the other regiments were scarcely better off, not one third being left standing ; "1500 unwounded men, the remnant of 6000 unconquerable British sol- diers, stood triumphant on this fatal hi\\."—Na2nei: ALBUFERA (Spain, East Central), a lagoon, near which the French Marshal Suchet (afterward Duke of Albufera) defeated the Spaniards under Blake, Jan. 4, 1812 : this led to his capture of Valencia on Jan. 9. ALCALA DE HENARES (in Spain). The univer- sity here was founded by Cardinal Ximenes, 1499 ; re- moved to Madrid, 1807. The Complutensian Polyglot was printed here under the patronage of Ximenes iu 1514-15. ALCANTARA, an illustrious Spanish military order of kni'dithood, established in 1156. The sovereign of Spain has been grand master since 1495. ALCAZAR-QUIVER, near Fez, N. W. Africa, where the Moors totally defeated the Portuguese, whose gal- lant king Sebastian was slain, Aug. 4, 1578. The Por- tiiguese disbelieved his death, and^anxiously expected his return : this led to the successive appearance of hve impostors. * Insrription on the "Memorial Cairn" on a high mountain overlook- ing Balmoral palace : " To the beloved memory of Albert, the great and good Prince Consort, erected bv his broken-liearted widow, Victo- ria R., 21st Aug., IRC2." Upon another dressed slab, a few inches be- low the above, is this quotation: "He being made perfect in a short tmie, fulfilled a long time: for his soul pleased the Lord, therefore \ hasted he to take him away from among the wicked."— W-'tsrfum of Sol- omon, chap, iv., 13, 14. ALC 33 ALE ALCnEMT, the forerunner of the science of chem- istry: its chief objects l)eiuij the discovery of the plii- losopher's stone ^which was to cft'ect the transmuta- tion of metals into sjold), an alkahest or universal menstruum, and the elixir of life. Alchemy is said to be as old as the Flood ; yet few writers, from Homer till 400 years after Christ, mention any such thing. The alchemists assert that their founder was Hermes Trmtu'iiiftnii (thrice greatest), an ancient Egyptian king. Pliny says the Emperor Caligula was the tirst who prepared natural arsenic, in order to make gold of it, but left it otf because the charge exceeded the profit. Others say the Egyptians knew the secret. Zosimus wrote on the subject about 410. The Arabi- ans are said to have invented this art, wherein they were vainly fillowcd (in the 13th century) by Roger Bacon, AUuTtiis i\[agnus, Aquinas, and Raymond Lul- lius, by Basil Valentine (born 1394), and by Paracelsus (died lf)41), and others. — In 1404 the craft of multiply- ing gold and silver was made felony by 5 Hen. IV., c. 4, which act was repealed in 1GS9. A license for prac- ticing alchemy with all kinds of metals and minerals was granted to one Richard Carter, 1476. — Bi/mer's jpad. Dr. Price, of Guildford, in 1782 published an ac- count of his exi)eriments in this way, and pretended to success : he brought his specimens of gold to the king, aflinning that they were made by means of a red and" white powder. Being a fellow of the Royal So- ciety, he was required, upon pain of expulsion, to re- peat his experiments before Messrs. Kirwan and Wolfe (some say Higgius); but, after mnch equivocation and delay, he took poison and died, Aug., 1783. ALCOHOL. Pure spirit of wine, or hydrated alco- hol, was obtained by the distillation of fermented liq- uors by Abucasis in the l'.itli century; and the dehy- dration of this liquor was first partially eftected liy Raymond Lullius iu the 13th century by carbonate of potassium. Alcohol has never been reduced to the solid state, but becomes viscid at very low tempera- tures. In 1820, Faraday and Ilennell obtained traces of alcohol by passing olefiant gas (bi-carburetecl hy- drogen) through sulphuric acid; and in 1862 this pro- cess was examined and confirmed by Berthelot. See Listillatidii, S^iirits, Brandy, Gin, liutn. ALDERMAN. The Saxon ealdorman was next to the king, and frequently a viceroy ; but after the set- tlement of the Danes the title was gradually displaced by that of earl. Aldermen are now next iu dignity to the mayor. They were appointed iu London (where there are twenty-six) in 1242 ; and iu Dublin (where there are twenty-four) iu 1.S23. Aldermen chosen for life instead of annually, 17 Richard II., 1394. Present mode of election established 11 Geo. I., 1725. Alder- men made justices of the peace 15 Geo. II., 1741. ALDERNEY (English Channel), with Jersey, etc., was incorporated with the kingdom by William the Conqueror, 1066. The "Race" is celebrated for two fatal occurrences: William of Normandy, son of Henry I. of England, and many young nobles (140 youths of the priiicii)al families of France and Britain), were overtaken by a storm, and all lost, Nov. 25, 1120. The British man-of-war Victory, of 100 guns and 1160 men, ' was wrecked here, Oct. 5, 1744; the admiral, Sir John Balchan, and all his crew, perished. Through this strait the French escaped after their defeat at La 1 Hogue by Admiral Rooke, May, 1692. ALDINE PRESS, that of Aldus Manutins, at Venice, ' where were printed many of the first editions of the I Greek, Latin, and Italian classics, commencing in 1494 " with MusiEUs. ALE, Beek (and Wine), are said to have been in- 1 ^vented by Bacchus ; the first in Egypt, where the soil ' "was considered nnable to produce grapes. Ale was known as a beverage at least in 404 B.C. Herodotus 1 ascribes the first discovery of the art of brewing bar- '. ley-wine to Isis, the wife of Osiris. A beverage of this kind is mentioned by Xenophou, 401 B.C. "The Ro- mans and Germans very early learned from the Egyp- ' tians the process of preparing a liquor from corn by means of fermentation. — Tacitus. Ale-houses are made mention of in the laws of Ina, king of Wesse.x (A.D. 688). Booths were set up iu England 728, when laws were passed for their retculation. Ale-houses were subiected to regulation by 5 & <; Edw. VI., c. 25 (1D51). By 1 James L, c. 9 (1603), one full quart of the best, and two quarts of small ale, were to be sold for one penny. Excise duty on ale and beer was imposed by the Parliament in 1643, and continued by Charles II. (1660). See Beer, Porter, iVine. ALEMANNI, on Ai-i. Men (?'. e., men of all nations), heucQ Allcvuznd, German. A body of Suevi, who took this name, were defeated by Caracalla, 214. After sev- eral repulses, they invaded the empire under Aurelian, who subdued them iu three battles, 270. They were again vanquished by Julian, 356, 357. They were de- feated and subjugated by Clovis at Tolbiac (or Zul- pich), 496. The Suabians are their descendants. ALENCON (N. France) gave title to a count and duke. 1268. Peter made count by his father. King Louis IX. 1293. Charles I., of Valois, made count by his brother, King Philip the Pair. 1325. Charles II., his son, killed at Crecy. 1346. Charles III. (his son), became a priest. 1361. Peter, his brother. 1404. John (his son), made duke in 1414, killed at Ag- incourt, 1415. 1415. John II. (his son), intrigued against the king. 1470. Charles IV. fled after the battle of Pavia in 1525, and died shortly after of chagrin. The duchy was absorbed by the crown. ALEPPO (anciently Beroea), a large tovra, N. Syi-ia, so named by Seleucus Nicator about 299 B.C. The pachalic of Aleppo is one of the five governments of Syria. It was taken by the Turks, A.D. 638, who re- stored its ancient name Ilaleb or Chaleb ; by Saladin, 1193 ; and sacked by Timour, 1400. Its depopulation by the plague has been frequent ; 60,000 persons were computed to have perished by it in 1797. It sutfered by the plague in 1827, and the cholera in 1832. Aleppo suffered severely from the terrible earthquakes in 1822 and 1830, and has often been the scene of fanatical massacres. On Oct. 16, 1850, the Mohammedans at- tacked the Christian inhabitants. They burnt every thing in their way ; three churches were destroyed, five others were plundered, thousands of persons were slain, and the total loss of property amounted to about a million sterling ; no interference was attempted by the pacha or the Turkish soldiers. ALESSANDRIA, a city of Piedmont, built in 1168 under the name of Ciesarea by the Milanese and Cre- monese, to defend the Tanaro against the emperor, and named Alessandria after Pope"Alexauder III. It has been frequently besieged and taken. The French took Alessanclria iu 1798, but were driven out July 21, 1799. They recovered it after the battle of Marengo in 1800. Alessandria was strongly fortified by Napoleon. Its works were destroyed at the peace in 1814, but a Eu- ropean subscription was commenced in 1856 to restore them. ALEUTIAN ISLANDS. Partly discovered by Beh- riug, 1741 ; visited by Cook, 177S ; surveyed by the Russians, 1781-98. The Russian American Company ])laced a factory there in 1785. A volcanic island rose from the sea in the group, 1795, and in 1807 was 20 miles in circumference, with lava still flowing. ALEXANDER, Er.i of, dated from the de.ath of Alexander the Great, Nov. 12, 323 B.C. In the com- putation of this era, the period of the Creation was considered to be 5502 years before the birth of Christ, and, in consequence, the year 1 A.D. was equal to 5503. This computation continued to the year A.D. 284, which was called 5786. In the next year (A.D. 285), which should have been 5787, ten years were discarded, and the date became 5777. This is still used in the Abys- sinian era, which sec. The date is reduced to the Chris- tian era by subtracting 5502 until the year 5786, and after that time by subt'ractiug 5492. "ALEXANDRA CASE." See Trials, 1862-64. ALEXANDRIA (Egypt), the walls whereof were sis miles in circuit, was built by Alexander the Great, 332 B.C., who was buried here, 322. It became the resi- dence of the Greek sovereigns of Egypt, the Ptolemies. Ptolemy Soter erects the Museum, the Serapeum, the Pharo, and other edifices, and begins the library about B.C. 298 These works completed by his sou P. Philadel- phus and his grandson P. Euergetes 2S3-222 Alexandria taken by Julius Ccesar ; when a library is burned 48 Which Antony replaces by one brought from Per- gamus 3(5 The city restored by Adrian A.D. 122 Massacre of the youth by Caracalla, in revenge for an old insult •. -. ■ 211 Alexandria, supporting the usurper Achilleus, is taken by Diocletian "after a long siege 29T Alexandria disturbed by the feuds between the Athanasians and Arians 321 George of Cappadocia was killed 362, and Athana- sius finally restored 363 50,000 persons perish by an earthquake 365 ALE I Paganism suppressed by Theodosius, when a sec- ond library is burned 390 Alexandria captured by Chosroes II., of Persia, 616 ; and by Amron, the general of the Caliph Omar, who ordered the library to be burned,* whereby the baths were supplied with fuel for six months Dec. 22, 640 Cairo founded by the Saracens; which tends to the decay of Alexandria 969 Alexandria surprised and plundered by the Cru- saders 1365 The French invade Egypt and capture Alexan- dria July, 1T98 A British army under Gen. Ralph Abercromljy laud, and defeat the French under Menou, March 21, ISOl Abercromby dies of his wounds, March 28 ; Menou and 10,000 French surrender to Hutchinson, who transmits them to France Sept., ISOl Alexandria taken by the British under Fraser, March 20 ; evacuated by them Sept. 23, 1S07 Railway to Cairo formed 1851 ALEXANDRIAN CODEX, a MS. of the Bible in Greek, said to have been written by a lady named Thecla, in the 6th century, and to have belonged to the Patriarch of Alexandria in 1098. It was presented to Charles I. of England in 1628 by Cyrillus Lascaris, patriarch of Constantinople, and was placed in the British Museum in 1753. It was printed in fac-simile, 1786-1821. ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOLS of Pmi.osopuv. The first school arose soon after the foundation of Alexan- dria, 332 B.C. It flourished under the patronage of the Ptolemies till about 100 B.C. It included Euclid (300), Archimedes (287-212), Apollonius (250), Hippar- chus (150), and Hero (150). The second school arose about A.D. 140, and lasted till about 400. Its most eminent members were Ptolemy, the author of the Ptolemaic system (150), Diophautus, the arithmetician (200), and Pappus, the geometer (350). ALEXANDRINES, verses of twelve syllables, first written by Alexander of Paris about 1164, and since called after him. The last line of the Spenserian stanza is an Alexandrine. In Pope's Essay on Criti- cism, this verse is thus happily exemplified: *' A needless Alexandrine ends the song, Thut, like a wounded snake, drags its slow length along." The longest English poem wholly in Alexandrine verse is Drayton's Polyolbion, published in 1612. Chapman's Homer's Iliad (1598) is in this measure. ALPORD (N. Scotland), Battle of. General Bail- lie, with a large body of Covenanters, was defeated by the Marquess of Montrose, July 2, 1645. ALGEBRA : Diophantus, said to be the inventor, first wrote upon it, probably about 200. It was much cultivated in the 9th century by the Arabs, who brought it into Spain. Among its votaries in Italy was Leonar- do Bouaccio of Pisa, in 1220. In 1494 Luca Paciolo published the first printed book on algebra in Europe. — Serret. Some of the algebraic signs were introduced either by Christophe Rudolph (1522-6) or Michael Sti- felius of Nuremberg, 1544, and others by Francis Vie- ta, in 1590, when algebra came into general use. — Mo- rcri. Descartes applied algebra to geometry about 1637. The binominal theorem of Newton, the basis of the doctrine of fluxions, and the new analysis, 1668. ALGESIRAS, or Old Gihkaltar (S. Spain). By this city the Moors entered Spain in 710, and held it till 1.B43.— Two engagements took place here between the English fleet under Sir James Saumarez and the united French and Spanish fleets, July 6 and 12, 1801. In the first the enemy was victorious, the English los- ing the Pomjjeij; but their honor was redeemed in the latter conflict, the San Antonio, 74 guus, being cap- tured. By an unfortunate error, two Spanish ships fired on each other and took fire ; of 2000 men on board, 250 were saved by the English. — Alison. ALGIERS, now Algeria, N.W. Africa ; part of the ancient Mauritania, which was conquered by the Ro- mans 46 B.C. ; by the Vandals, 439 A.D. ; recovered for the empire by Belisarius, 534 ; and subdued by the Arabs about 690. The town Algiers founded by the Arabs on the site of Icosium about 935 Becoming the seat of the Barbary pirates, it is cap- tured by Ferdinand of Spain, 1509; but is re- taken by Horuc and Hayreddin Barbarossa, and * The celebrated Baying of Omar, '* That if the books agreed with the book of God, they were useless ; if they disagreed, they were perni- cious," is denied by Mohammedans. It is also attributed to Theophi- lus, archbishop of Alexandria (390), and to Cardinal Ximeaes (1500.) I 4 ALI made the capital of a state ; governed by a dey, nominally subject to the Sultan of Turkey . .1516-20 The Emperor Charles V. loses a fine fleet and army in an unsuccessful expedition against them 1541 Algiers terrified into pacific measures by Blake, 1655 ; by Du Quesne 1683 In consequence of the continued piracy of the Al- gerines, the city was successfully bombarded by the British fleet, under Admiral Lord Exmouth, Aug. 27, 1816 A new treaty followed, and Christian slavery was abolished. Algiers surrendered to a French armament under Bourmont and Duperre, after severe conflicts ; the dey is deposed, and the barbarian govern- ment wholly overthrown, July 5, 1830. The French ministry announce their intention to re- tain Algiers permanently May 20, 1834 The Arab chief, Abd-el-Kader, preaches a holy war, becomes powerful, and attacks the French, at first successfully 1834-5 Marshal Clausel defeats the Arabs in two battles, and enters Mascara Dec. 8, 1836 General Damremont attacked Coustantina {which see) Oct. 13, 183T After various engagements Abd-el-Kader surren- ; ders Dec. 22, 1847* An insurrection of the Kabyles subdued by the French after several sharp engagements 1851t The government intrusted (for a short time) to Prince Napoleon 1858 The Arab tribes attack the French ; defeated, ^ Oct. 31 and Nov. 6, 1859 " Algiers visited by the Emperor Napoleon III., Sept., ISCO Marshal Pelissier, duke of Malakofi", appointed governor general of Algeria Nov., 18G0 Tfie emperor promises a Constitution securing the rights of the Arabs, saying, " I am as much Em- peror of the Arabs as of the French" Feb., 1863 Insurrection of the Arabs — May ; submission an- nounced June 1.5, 1864 Death of Pelissier — dies May 22; Marshal M'Ma- hon, duke of Magenta, succeeds him Sept. 8, 1SC4 Fresh revolt ; insurgents defeated by Jolivet, Oct. 2, 1864 The emperor well received during his visit, May 3-June, 1805 More rights and privileges promised to the na- tives July, 1SG5 ALHAMBRA, a Moorish palace and fortress near Granada, S. Spain, founded by Mohammed I. of Gran- , ada about 12.53. It surrendered to the Christians Jan. 6, 1496. The remains have been described in a mag- nificeut work by Owen Jones and Jules Goury, pub- lished 1842-6. There is a fac-simile of a part of this palace in the Crystal Palace at Sydenham. The Pan- opticon {which see) was opened as a circus, etc., under this name, in March, 1858. The Alhambra Palate Company, incorporated in July, 1863, applied for dis- solution in Jan., 1865. ALI, Sf.ot of, founded by Ali (who married Moham- med's daughter Fatima) about 032. He became Mo- hammed's vizir, 613, and caliph, 655. Ali was called by the Prophet " the Lion of God, always victorious ;" and the Persians follow the interpretation of the Kn- ran according to Ali, while other Mohammedans ad- here to that of Abubeker and Omar. Ali was assas- sinated in 660.t— This sect is called Shiites and Fati- mites. ALIEN. See Naturalization. An act of Congress relieving the children born abroad of United States t fiithers from alienage was passed 1864. In 1867, the United States attorney general officially asserted that a United States citizen may renounce his citizenshij). Aliens may readily naturalize themselves in the United States. In the United States aliens taay sue and be sued, but can not serve a process, vote, or hold olBce. * He, with his suite, embarked at Oran, and landed at Toulon on Dec. 28 following. He was removed to the castle of Amboise, near Tours, Nov. 2, 1848, and released from his confinement by Louis Napo- leon, Oct. 16, 1862, after swearing on the Koran never to disturb Africa again ; he was to reside henceforward at Bronssa, in Asia Minor ; but, in consequence of the earthquake at that place, Feb. 28, 1855, he re- moved to Constantinople. In July, 1860, Abd-el-Kader held the cita- del of Damascus, and there protected many of the Christians whom he had rescued from the massacres then in perpetration by the Turks. He received honors from the English, French, and Sardinian sovereigns. t 600 Arabs in a cave refuse to surrender : suffocated by smoke ; said to have been ordered by General Pelissier, June 18, 1845. g X The first four successors of Mohammed— Abubeker, Omar, Othman, and Ali, his chief agents in establishing his religion and extirpating unbelievers, and whom on that account he styled the " cutting swords of God," all died violent deaths , and his family was wholly extirpated within thirty years after his own decease. > ALI i In regard to the power of holding real estate, Arkan- sas, California, Counecticxit, Delaware, Georgia, Indi- ana, JIaryland, Maine, Missouri, New York, Rhode Island, Tennessee, and Virginia, require a declaration of intention to become a citizen. New Hampshire re- quires residence. North and South Carolina and Ver- mont require resideiice and oatli of allegiance. lu New Jersey and Pennsylvania only alien friends can hold real estate, and these in tlic latti'r not to exceed 2000 acres. lu Alabama, Florida, Illinois, Iowa, Loii- isiauaj Massachusetts, Mississip])i, Oliio, and Wiscon- sin, aliens have lu property matters equal rights with citizens. ALIENS, OK FoREiGNEEB, werc banished from En- gland in 1155, being thought too numerous. In 1343 they were excluded from enjoying ecclesiastical bene- fices. By 2 Rich. II., stat. 1, 13TS, they were much re- lieved. When they were to be tried criminally, the juries were to be half foreigners, if they so desired, 1430. They were restrained from exercising any trade or handicraft by retail, 1483, a prohibition which was relaxed in 1G63. The celebrated A lien Dill passed Jan., 1TI)3. Act to register aliens, 1795. — The celebrated Bar- on Geramb, a conspicuous and fashionable foreigner, known at court, was ordered out of England, April 6, 1S12. — Bill to abolish their naturalization by the holding of stock in the banks of Scotland, June, 1S20. New Registration Act, 7 Geo. IV., 1S26. This last act was repealed and another statute passed, 6 Will. IV., 1836. The rigor of the alien laws was much mitigated by 7 & S Vict., c. 66 (1844). — Alien Priories were sup- pressed in England in 1414.* ALIEN AND SEDITION LAWS, passed by Con- gress, 1798. When war with France seemed inevita- ble, it was estimated that there were 30,000 French- men in the United States organized in clubs, and at least 50,000 who had been subjects of Great Britain. These were regarded with great distrust as dangerous to the commonwealth. Congress passed a law author- izing the President to expel from the country any alien who should be suspected of conspiracy against the republic. Congress also decreed that any pilblica- tion calculated to sow sedition, and to weaken the au- thority of the Federal government, mii^ht be sup- pressed by the President. These laws were unpopu- lar because liable to great abuses, and they were soon repealed. ALIWAL, a village in N. W. India, the site of a bat- tle on Jan. 28, 1846, oetween the Sikh army under Sir- dar Rnujoor Singh Majeethea, 10,000 strong, supported by (18 pieces of cannon, and the British under Sir H. Smith, 7000 men, with 32 guns. The contest was ob- stinate, but ended in the defeat of the Sikhs, who lost nearly 6000 killed or drowned in attempting to recross the Siitlej. ALJUBANTA, in Portugal, where the Portuguese defeated the Castiliaus with great slaughter, Aug. 14, 1385. ALKALIES (from kali, the Arabic name for the plant from which an alkaline substance was flrst procured) are ammonia, potash, soda, and lithia. Black discov- ered the nature of the difference between caustic and mild alkalies in 1736. The fixed alkalies, potash and soda, decomposed by Humphry Davy at the Royal Institution, Loudon, 1808. Dr. Ure invented an "alkalimeter, 1810. The manufacture of alkalies, very extensive in Lan- cashire and Cheshire, are based on the decomposi- tion of common salt (chloride of sodium) by a pro- cess invented by a Frenchman named Le Blanc, about 1702. Mr. Losh obtained crystals of soda from brine about 1814. Various modifications of these processes are now in use. "Alkali worksV are defined as works for the manufac- ture of alkali, sulphates of soda, sulphate of potash, and in which muriatic gas is evolved. Mr. William Gossage's process for condensing muriatic acid gas patented in 1836. In consequence of the serious injury to vegetation produced by the numerous alkali works in Lanca- shire and Cheshire, the Alkali act "for the more ef- fectual condensation [of 95 per cent.] of muriatic acid Kas" (or hydrochloric acid) was passed, July 28, 1863, to come into operation Jan. 1, 1804. ALKMAER. See Bergen. 'ALLAHABAD (N.W. Hindostan), the " holy city" of the Indian Mohammedans, situated at the junction of * " Foreifjner^ have reclHimed 'mr niarslies, drained nur fens, fished our seas, imd built our bridf^ea aud harbors." — SmiUSf 1361, 5 ALL the rivers Jumna and Ganges. The province of Alla- habad was successively subject to the kings of Delhi 'i""^ude, but in 1S03 was wholly incorp(n-ated with the British possessions. By treaty here, Bengal etc was ceded to the English in 1765.— Durinir tlfe Senov mutiny several regiments of the East Indfa Comnanv rose and niassacrcd their officers, June 4, 1857- Colonel Neil_ marched pr(nnptly from Benares and suppressed the insurrection. In Nov., 1861, Lord Canniig made this city the capital of the N.W. provinces. nr^^^^l^^^A ^^?^' ^^"^g^"' Battle" of, fonght ...^.lifS ^'?'' ^V* evacuation of Atlanta, Hood covered the road to Macon. Soon, however, he shifted sou hward to the West Point Road, and then boldly pushed northward against Sherman's communica- tions. Sherniau fo lowed him with the bulk of his army, but on Oct. had only reached Kenesaw. Hood farther north that day attacked Allatooua Pass, the most important station on the road, and stored with one and a half million of rations. General Corse con- ducted the defense, and all day long held out against the assailing force, finally retaining his position- Corse was severely wounded. ALLEGIANCE. See Oaths. ALLEGORY is as old as language, and abounds in the Scriptures and Homer: see Jacob's blessing upon his sons, Gctiesis xlix. (B.C. 1689), Psalm Ixxx., and all the prophets. Spenser's Fa'cris Queene (1590) and Bun- yan's Pilr/rim's Progress (1078) are allegories through- out ; Addison's writings in the Spectator (1711) abound in allegories. ALLIA (Italy), a small river flowing into the Tiber, where Breunus and the Gauls defeated the Romans, July 16, 300 B.C. The Gauls sacked Rome and com- mitted so much injury that the day was thereafter held to be unlucky {ne/as), and no public business was permitted to be done thereon. ALLIANCE, Treaties of, between the high Euro- pean powers. The following are the principal. See Coalitions, Conventions, Treaties, United Kingdom, etc. ALLIANCE. Of Leipsic April 9, 1681 Of Vienna May 27, 165T The Triple Jan. 28, 1668 Of Warsaw March 31, 1083 The Grand May 12, 1089 The Hague Jan. 4, 1717 The Quadruple Ana;. 2, 1718 Of Vienna Marcla 16, 1731 Of Versailles May 1, 1756 Germanic July 23, 1785 Of Paris Mav 16, 1795 Of St. Petersburg April 8, 1805 Austrian March 14, 1812 Of Sweden March 24, " Of TGplitz Sept. 9, 1813 Holy Alliance Sept. 26, 1815 Of England, France, and Turkey (at Constanti- nople) March 12, 1S54 Of England and France ratified April 3, " Of Sarclinia with the|Western Powers (at Turin), Jan. 26, 1855 Of Sweden with the Western Powers Dec. 19, " ALLIED POWERS, declaration of, drawn up at Frankfort, and dated Dec. 1, 1813, by the Emperors of Russia and Austria, the King of Prussia, and other German sovereigns, that they made war, not on France, but against the claims of Napoleon. ALL SAINTS' DAY (Nov. 1), or All-Hallows, a fes- tival said to have been begun by Pope Boniface IV. about 607, and celebrated in the Pantheon at Rome, and established by Pope Gregory IV. (about 830) for the commemoration of all those saints and martyrs in whose honor no particular day is assigned. The re- formers of the English Church, 1549, 'struck out of their calendar altogether a great number of anniver- saries, leaving only those which at their time were connected with popular feeling or tradition. ALL SOUL'S DAY (Nov. 2), a festival of the Roman Catholic Church to commemorate the souls that are in purgatory, instituted, it is said, at Cluny about 993 or 1000. " ALL THE TALENTS" ADMINISTRATION. See Grenville A dministrations. ALLWJE, in Samnium, now Alife, 10 miles N.N.E. of Capua. Here D. Fabius Maximus completely de- feated the Samnites 326 B.C. It was a bishopric in the 5th century. The town is now nearly deserted on account of theuuhealthiness of the climate. ALL 36 ALP ALLYGTJR, in Hinclostan. Near it Lake defeated the Mahrattas and French, under Perron, Aug. '29, 1S03. The Sepoys here mutinied, May 20, 1857. The Euro- peans escaped, and Col. Greatlied retook it Oct. 5, 1S5T. ALMA, a river in the Crimea, near which \yas fought a great liattle on Sept. 20, 1S54. See Russo-Turkish War and Crimea. The English, French, and Turkish army (about 57,000 men) moved out of their first en- campment in the Crimea on Sept. 19, and bivouacked for the night on the left bank of the Biilgauac. The Russians (commanded by Prince Meuschikoflf), mus- tering 40,000 infantry, had ISO field-pieces on the heights, and on the morning of Sept. 20th were joined by GOOO cavalry from Theodosia (or Kaffa). The En- glish forces, under Lord Raglan, consisted of 20,000 men ; the French of 24,000, under Marshal St. Arnaud. At 12 o'clock the signal to advance was made ; the River Alma was crossed, while Prince Napoleon took possession of the village under the fire of the Russian batteries. At 4, after a sanguinary fight, the allies were completely victorious. The enemy, utterly rout- ed, threw away their arms and knapsacks in their flight, having lost about 5000 men, of whom 900 were made prisoners, mostly wounded. The loss of the British was 26 oflicers and 327 men killed, and 73 offi- cers and 1539 men wounded (chiefly from the 23d, 7th, and 33d regiments) ; that of the French, 3 officers and 233 men killed, and 54 officers and 1033 men wounded. Total loss of allies, about 3300. ALMANACS (from the Arabic al manah, to count).* The Egyptians computed time by instruments. The Alexandrians had almanacs. Log calendars were an- ciently in use. In the British Museum and universi- ties are curious specimens of early almanacs. Michael Nostradamus, the celebrated astrologer, wrote an al- manac in the style of Merlin, 1556. — Dufrcsnoy. Pro- fessor Augustus de Morgan's valuable '■^Book of Alma- nacs, with an index of reference, by which the almanac may be found for every year," was published in March, 1S51. Among the earlier and more remarkable alma- nacs were John Somer's Calendar, written in Oxford 13S0 One in Lambeth Palace, written in 1460 First printed one, published at Buda 1472 First printed in England by Richard Pynson 1497 Tybalt's Prognostications 1.533 Almanac Liegeois 1636 Lilly's Ephemeris 1644 Poor Robin's Almanac -. 1652 British Merlin 1658 Ediuburg Almanac 1683 Connaissance des Temps (by Picard) 1099 Moore's Almanac 1698 or 1713 Lady's Diary 1705 Franklin's Poor Richard's Almanac 1732 Season on the Seasons 1735 Gentleman's Diary 1741 Nautical Almanac, begun bjr Dr. Neville Maske- lyne (materially improved in 183^) 1767 British Imperial Kalendar 1809 Hone's Every-day Book 1826 British Almanac and Companion 1828 Anniversary Calendar, published by W. Kidd 1832 Chambers's Book of Days 1862-3 ALMANZA (S. E. Spaiu). Here, on April 25 (O. S. 14), 1714, the English, Dutch, and Portuguese forces, under the Earl of Galway, were totally defeated by the French and Spanish, commanded by James Fitzjames, duke of Berwick (illegitimate son of James II.). Most of the English were killed or made prisoners, having been abandoned by the Portuguese at the first charge. ALMAREZ (Spain). Gen. (afterward Lord) Hill took the chief outworks here from the French, Jlay 19, 1S12. Charles V. built the bridge here over the Tagus, 1552. ALMAZAN, Tkeaty of, between Castile and Ara- gon, April 12, 1375, negotiating the marriage of the Infante John of Castile. ALMEIDA (Portugal), a frontier town, captured by Massena, Aug. 17, 1810. The French crossed into Spain, leaving a garrison at Almeida, blockaded by the English, April 6, 1811. Almeida was retaken by * Of Moore's (under the management of Henry Andrews, the able COmputor of the Nautical Uphemerh) at one time upward of 430,000 copies were annually sold. He died in 1820. The Stationers' Com- pany claimed the exclusive rigjht of publishing almanacs in virtue of letters patent from James I. , pranting the privilege to them and the two universities ; but the monopoly was brolien up by a decision of the Court of Common Pleas in 1775. A bill to renew the privilege was lost in 1779. The stamp duty on English almanacs, first imposed in 1710, was abolished in August, 1834; since when almanacs have be- come innumerable, being issued by tradesmen with their goods. Of Continental Almanacs, the principal are the *' Almanach de France," first published in 1699, and the " Almanach de Gotlia," 1764. Wellington (May 10), who eventually compelled Mas- sena to retire from Portugal, his route being tracked ' by horrid desolation. ALMENARA, a village, N. E. Spain, where, on July 28, 1710, an English and GJerman army defeated the Spanish army supporting Philip V., the grandson of Louis XIV. of France. Stanhope, the English general, killed the Spanish general, Amezaga, in single conflict, an act almost unexampled in modern warfare. ALMERIA (Spain). Taken by the Moorish Almora- vides in 1091, by the Spaniards in 1147, often attacked by the Moors, and at last ceded by them to Ferdinand and Isabella, who entered it in triitmph, December 7, 1489. ALMOHADES, Mohammedan partisans, followers of El-Mehedi in Africa, about 1120. They subdued Mo- rocco, 1145 ; entered Spain, and took Seville, Cordova, and Granada, 1146-56 ; ruled Spain till 1232, and Africa till 1278. ALMONACID (Spain), Battle or, the French de- feating the Spaniards, August 21, 1809. ALMONER, an office of uncertain origin, anciently allotted to a dignified clergyman, who had the privilege of giving the first dish from the royal table to the poor, or mstead thereof an alms in money. By an ancient canon all bishops were required to keep almoners. The grand almoner of France {Uigrand aumonier) was the highest ecclesiastical dignity in that kingdom be- fore the Revolution, 1789. Queen Victoria's almoner (now the Bishop of Oxford) or his sub-almoner distrib- utes the queen's gifts on yiaundy Thursday (which see). ALMORAVTDES, Mohammedan partisans in Afri- ca, rose about 1050 ; entered Spain by invitation, 1086 ; were overcome by the Almohades in 1145. ALMSHOUSES for aged and infirm persons have been erected by very many public companies and be- nevolent individuals, particularly since the destruction of religions houses at the time of the Reformation in the 16th century. A list of them, with useful informa- tion, will be found in "Low's Charities of London," ed. 1862. Cornelius Van Dun founded the Red Lion alms- houses, Westminster 157T Emmanuel College, Westminster, founded by Lady Dacre 1594 Whittington's almshouses, founded in 1621, were rebuilt near Highgate Hill by the Mercers' Com- pany 1826 The Fishmongers' Company founded almshouses in 1618, and rebuilt them on Wandsworth Com- mon 1S50 Haberdashers' almshouses, Hoxton, founded by Robert Aske 1692 Dame Owen's almshouses, Islington, built in 1613 (in gratitude for her escape from an arrow-shot), were rebuilt by the Brewers' Company 1839 Bancroft's almshouses. Mile End, were erected 1735 The London almshouses, in commemoration of the passing of the Reform Bill, built at Brixton 1833 Numerous almshouses since erected for printers, bookbinders, etc. ALNEY. A combat is asserted to have taken place between Edmund Ironside and Canute the Great, on Alney, an island on the Severn, Gloucestershire, in sight of their armies ; when the latter was wounded, he proposed a division of the kingdom, the south part falling to Edmund. Edmund was murdered at Ox- ford shortly after the treaty, according to some by the treachery of uEdric Streonj and Canute obtained pos- session of the whole kingdom, 1016. ALNWICK (Saxon Ealnwic), on the River Alne, in Northumberland, was given at the conquest to Ivo de Vesco. It has belonged to the Percies since 1310. Malcolm, king of Scotland, besieged Alnwick in 1003, when he aud'his sons were killed. It was taken by D.avid I. in 1136, and attempted in 1174 by William the Lion, who was defeated and taken prisoner. It was burnt by King John in 1215, and by the Scots in 1448. Since 1S54 the castle has been repaired and enlarged with great taste and at unsparing expense. ALPACA (or Paco), a species of the South American quadruped the Llama, the soft hairy wool of which is j now largely employed in the fabrication of cloths. It ' was introduced into England about 1836 by the Earl of Derby. An alpaca factory, etc. (covering 11 acres), was erected at Saltaire, near Shipley, Yorkshire, by Mr. Ti- tus Salt, in 1852. ALPHABET. Athotes, son of Menes, is said to have been the author of hieroglyphics, and to have written ALP 37 AMA thus the history of the Egyptiaus, 2122 B.C.— Blair. But Josephus atiirms that'hc had seeu inscriptions by Seth, the son of Adam ; tliis is deemed fabulous. The Egyptian alphabet is ascribed to Memuon, 1S22 B.C. The first letter of the Phcenician and Hebrew alphabet was (tl,pli, called by the Greeks alpha, and abbrevi- ated by llie moderns to A. The Hebrew is supposed to be derived from the Phcenician. Cadmus, tlie founder of Cadmea, 149.3 B.C., is said to have broui^ht the Phcenician letters (tifteen in num- ber) into (".'reece, viz. : a, li, r, A, i, K, A, M, N, o, n, p, 1, T, Y. These letters were originally either Hebrew, Phtuuician, or Assyrian characters, and changed gradually in form till they became the ground of the Eomau letters, now used all over Europe. Palamedes of Argds invented the double characters, e, X, *, H, about 1224 r>.C. ; and Simonides added z, 4', H, a, about 4S'.» \',.C.—Annuli'Uit,i Marhks. When the E was introduced is not jirecisclv known. The Greek alphabet consisted of Ki letters till 399 (or 403) B.C., when the Ionic of 24 characters was introduced. The small letters, for the convenience of writing, are of later invention. The alphabets of the difl'erent na- tions contain the following number of letters : English 26 French 26 Italian 20 Spanish 27 German 26 Slavonic 42 Kussian 35 Latin 22 Greek 24 Hebrew 22 Arabic 28 Persian 32 Turkish 28 Sanscrit 44 Chinese radical char- acters 214 ALPHONSINE TABLES, astronomical tables, com- posed by Spanish and Arab astronomers, and collected in 12.^3 under the direction of Alphonsus X. of Castile, surnamed the Wise, who is said to have expended up- ward of 400,0(j0 crowns iu eompletinij the work ; he himself wrote the preface. The Spanish government ordered the work to be reprinted from the best MSS. ; three volumes have appeared, 1863-5. ALPS, a European range of mountains. Those be- tween France and Italy were passed by Hannibal 218 B.C., by the Romans 154 B.C., and by "Napoleon I. in A.D. ISOO. Roads over Mont Cenis and the Simplon, connecting France and Italy, were constructed by or- der of Napoleon, between lSOl-6. See SivqAon. A sub-alpine tunnel through Mont Cenis to connect Sa- voy and Piedmont has oeeu iu progress since 1857.* Iu 1Sr>9, the "Alpine Club," which consists of British travelers iu the Alps, published their first work, " Peaks, Passes, and Glaciers." ALRESFORD (Ensrland). Here the Parliamentary army defeated the Royalists, March 29, 1644. ALSACE (N. E. France), formerly part of the king- dom of Austrasia, now the departments of the Upper and Lower Rhine. It was incorporated into the Ger- man empire in the 10th century. A portion was re- stored to France, 1648, and the whole, including Stras. burg, in 1697. The precinct of Whitefriars, London^ called Alsatia, is described in Scott'.s " Fortunes of Ni- gel." Its privilege of sanctuary was abolished iu 1696. ALTAR. One was built by Noah, 2348 B.C. (Gen. Viii., 20): others by Abraham, 1921 {(Jen. xii., 8). Di- recticms for making an altar are given Exnd xx., 24, 1491 B.C. Altars were raised to Ji'ipiter, in Greece, by Cecrops, 15.'56 B.C. lie introduced among the Greeks the worship of the deities of Egypt. — Herodotus. The term "altar" was applied to the Lord's table for the first three centuries after Christ (Ih'h. xiii., 10). Chris- tian altars in churches were instituted by Pope Sixtus I., A.D. 135 : and were first consecrated by Pope Syl- vester. The first Christian altar in Britain was in 634. — Stov\ The Church of England terms the table on which the elements are placed an altar. Since the time of Elizabeth there has been much controversy on the subject, aiul the Puritans in the Civil War destroyed many of the stone altars, substituting wooden tables. In 1S45 it was decided in the Arches Court that stone altars were not to be erected in English churches. ALTER EGO {(mother or second I), a term applied to Spanish viceroys when exercising regal power; used at Naples when the crown prince Vas'appointed vicar- general during an insurrection in July, 1820. ALTON RIOTS. On the night of November T, 1SB7, * At first tile boring wns eflected by ordin.iry machinery ; in I860 fitenm power was eniploye,lMI XII XIII XTV 671,088,640 XV 2,fiS4,HS4,560 .16?.,S40 I XVI 10,737,418,240 ice in 386.— i?«Xw. Ignatius is said to have introduced them into the Greek, and St. Ambrose into the West- em Church. They were introduced into the Reformed Churches in Queen Elizabeth's reign, about 1505. ANTHROPOPHAGI (eaters of human flesh) have existed in all ages of the world. Homer says that the Cyclops and Lestrygones were such ; and the Essedo- nian Scythians were so, according to Herodotus. Di- ogenes asserted that we might as well eat the flesh of men as that of other animals ; and the practice still exists in Africa and the Scmth Sea Islands. The an- nals of Milan assert that a INIilanese woman, named Elizabeth, had an invincible inclination to human flesh; she enticed children to her house, and killed and salted them ; and on a discovery being made, she was broken on the wheel and burnt, in 1.519. Canni- bals were detected in Perthshire about 1339. ANTIBES, anciently Antipolis, founded by the Greeks 340 B.C. In 1S15 its garrison refused to joill Napoleon on his return from Elba. ANTICHRIST (opponent of Christ), the name given by St. John (1 Ep., ii., IS) to him whom St. Paul calls the Man of Sin (2 Thess., ii., 3), who, as some assert, at the latter end of the world, is to appear very remark- ably in opposition to Christianity.* ANTI-CORN-LAW LEAGUE, an association form- ed for the purpose of procuring the repeal of the laws charging duty on the importation of foreign corn. See Corn-Lau's. It sprang from various metropolitan and provincial associations (1834-8), headed by Messrs. C. Villiers, R. Cobden, J. Bright, etc. See Protection- ists. The Anti-Com-Law League formed at Manches- ter Sept. 18, 1838 Meetings held in various jihices ]March and April, 1841 Excited meeting at IManchester May 18, " A bazar held at IManchester, at which the League realized £10,000 Feb. 2, 1842 About 600 deputies connected with provincial as- sociations assemble in London Feb.— Aug. " The League at Manchester proposed to raise £50,000, to depute lecturers throughout the country, and to print pamphlets Oct. 20, " First meeting at Drury Lane Theatre . .March 15, 1843 Series of monthly meetings at Covent Garden, commenced Sept. 28; and great free-trade meet- ing at Manchester Nov. 14, 1843, and Jan. 22, 1845 Bazar at Covent Garden opened May 5, " Great Manchester meeting, at which the League proposed to raise a quarter of a million ster- ling Dec. 23, " The Corn Importation Bill having passed, Jun,e 26, the League is formally dissolved, and Mr. Cobden was rewarded by a national subscrip- tion, amounting to nearly £80,000 July 2, 1846 Appointment of the Derby ministry, a revival of the Anti-Corn-Law League was proposed at a meeting held at JManche'ster, and a subscription for the purpose was opened, which produced within half an hour £27,520 March 2, 18S2 [Subsequently the reconstruction of the League was deemed to be unnecessary.] ANTIETAM CREEK, near Sharpsburg, Maryland, U. S. Here was fought a terrible battle on Sept. 17, 1802, between the Federals under General Al'Clellan and the Confederates under Lee. The latter, after his victory at Bull Run or Manassas, Aug. 30, having in- vaded Maryland, was immediately followed by M'Clel- lan. On the 10th Lee was Joined by Jackson, and at five o'clock next morninj^ the conflict began. About 100,000 men were engaged, and the conflict raged with great fury from daylight to dark. The Federals were repeatedlj' repulsed ;"but at night both armies held the same positi(m as in the mornino;. M'Clellan had on the field 83,000 men, of whom only 58,000 were en- gaged, but they were sent in at intervals by detach- ments. Lee had about 40,000 men engaged. The na- tional loss was 11,426; the Confederate about 10,000. It was a drawn battle. But the manifest preponder- ance of force against him led Lee to abandon his scheme of invading the Northern States. On the night of the 18th he recrossed the Potomac. ANTILLES, an early name of the West Indies, which * His reiffn, it is supposed, will continue three years and a hal^ during which time there will be a persecution. This is the opinion of the Roman Catholics ; but the Protestants, as they differ from them, so they differ among themselves. Grotius and Dr. Hammond suppose the time to be past, and the characters to be furnished in the persons of Caligula, Simon Magus, and the Gnostics. Some have believed the Pope to be the true Antichrist, as at the council held at Gap in 1603. Many consider that the kingdom of Antichrist comprehends all who are opposed to Christ, openly or secretly. ANT U APO ANTI - MASONRY arose in New York after the death of William Morgan, of Batavia, N. Y., in IS-iO. In 18-27 an anti-masouic party was formed, beginning in Western New York. In 1S31 a national anti-ma- sonic Convention nominated Wirt and Ellmaker for President and Vice-President. Rituer, anti-masonic candidate, was elected Governor of Pennsylvania, 1S35, but the party soon merged into those formed on other and larger questions. ANTIMONY, a white brittle metal. Compounds of this mineral were early known and applied. It was used as paint to blacken both men's and women's eyes, as appears from 2 Kings ix., 30, and Jeremiah iv., 30, and in Eastern countries it is used to this day. When mixed with lead it forms printing type-metal. Basil Valentine wrote on antimony about l-ild.—Priestleij. ANTINOMIANS (from the Greek anti, against, and nomas, law), a name given by Luther (in 1538) to John Agricola, who is said to have held " that it mattered not how wicked a man was if he had but faith." (Op- posed to limn, iii., 28, and v., 1, 2.) He retracted in 1540. These doctrines were condemned by the British Parliament, 1648. ANTIOCH, Syria, built by Seleucus, 300 B.C., after the battle of Ipsus, in such grandeur as to acquire the name "Queen of the East." Here the disciples were first called Christians, A.D. 42 {Ads xi., 20). Antioch was taken by the Persians, 540 ; by the Saracens about 688 ; recovered for the Eastern emperor, 906 ; lost again in 1080; retaken by the Crusaders in 1098, and held by them till 1208, when it was captured by the Sultan of Egypt. It was taken from the Turks in the Syrian war, Aug. 1, 1832, by Ibrahim Paclia, but restored at the peace. —The Era of Antioch is much used by the early Christian writers of Autiocli and Alexandria; it placed the Creation 5492 years B.C. ANTIPHONY (singing by responses), said to have been introduced among the Greeks by Ignatius (mar- tyred 115), and among the Latins by St. Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, 375-3D7. ANTIPODES. Plato is said to be the first who thought it possible that antipodes existed (about 368 B.C)! Boniface, archbishop of Mentz, legate of Pope Zachary, is said to have denounced a bisiiop as a her- etic for maintaining this doctrine, A.D. 741. ANTI-POPES, rival popes elected at various times, especially by the French and Italian factions, from 1305 to 1439. In the article Pupcs, the Anti-popes are printed in italics. ANTIQUARIES. A college of antiquaries is said to have existed in Ireland 700 years B. C. The State His- torical Societies, and the New England Historical and Genealogical Societies, are the principal bodies in the United States who l)usy themselves with antiquities. The Smithsonian Institution has published some works on Indian mounds and other North American remains of races before the whites settled the country. A society was founded by Archbishop Parker, Cam- den, Stow, and others in 1572. — S2Jelman. Application was made in 1.5S9 to Elizabeth for a char- ter, but her death ensued, and her successor, James I., was far from favoring the design. The Society of Antiquaries revived, 1707 ; received its charter of incorporation from George II., 1751 ; and apartments in Somerset House granted to it in 1777. Its Memoirs, entitled Archieologia, first published in 1770 ; present president, Earl Stanhope, elected, 1846. British Archaeological Association founded Dec, 1S43 ; the Archseological Institute of Great Britain was formed by a seceding part of the Association, 1845. Journals are published by both societies. ■ Society of Antiquaries of Ediuburg founded in 1780. Since 1845 many county archfeoloo;ical societies have been formed in the United Kingdom. The Society of Antiquaries of France (1814) began in 1805 as the Celtic Academy. ANTI-RENTISM, a series of disturbances, begin- ning about 1839, among the tenants of lauds of pa- troons or manorial owners in the counties of Albany, Rensselaer, and several others, in New York. The trouble arose from the determination of these tenants to cease paying the dues exacted by the landlords un- der their old feudal tenure. Since 1847 the anti-rent controversy has been mostly in the form of lawsuits, and the course of the decisions has been in favor of the tenants. ANTI-TRINITARIANS. Theodotus of Byzantium is supposed to have been the first who advocated the simple humanity of Jesus, at the close of the 2d cen- tury. This doctrine, advocated by Arius about 318, spread widely after the Reformation, when it was adopted by Ltelius and Faustus Socinus. — Bayle. See Ariuns, Socinians, Unitarians. ANTIUM, maritime city of Latium, now Porto d'An- zio, near Rome, after a long struggle for independence, became a Roman colony at the end of the great Latin war, 340-338 B.C. It was mentioned by Horace, and was a favorite retreat of the emperors and wealthy Romans, who erected many villas in its vicinity. The treasures deposited in the Temple of Fortune here were taken by Octavius Caesar during his war with Antony, 41 B.C. ANTWERP, the principal sea-port of Belgium, is mentioned in history in A.D. 517. It was a small re- public in the 11th century. It was the first commer- cial city in Europe till the wars of the 16th and 17th centuries. Its fine Exchange built in 1531 Taken after a long siege by the Prince of Parma. .1585 Truce of Antwerp (between Spain and United Provinces) 1609 Much injured by the imposition of a toll on the Scheldt by the treaty of Miinster 1648 After Marlborough's victory at Ramillies, Antwerp surrenders without firing a shot June 6, 1706 The Barrier treaty concludedhere Nov. 16, 1715 Taken by Marshal Saxe 1740 Occupied by the French 1792-3, 1794-1814 Civil war between the Belgians and the house of Orange. See Belgium 1830-31 The Belgian troops, having entered Antwerp, were opposed by the Dutch Mrrison, who, after a dreadful conflict, being cfriveu into the citadel, cannonaded the town with red-hot balls and shells, doing immense mischief Oct. 27, 1830 The citadel bombarded by the French, Dec. 4 ; sur- rendered by Gen. Chasse Dec. 23, 1832 The Exchange burnt, and valuable archives, etc., destroyed.' Aug. 2, 1858 Proposal to strengthen the fortifications adopted, Aug., 18.^9 A Fine Art fGte held Aug. 17-20, 1861 Great Napoleon wharf destroyed by fire, loss 25 lives and about £400,000 Dec. 2, " Great fete at the opening of the port by the aboli- tion of the Scheldt dues Aug. 3, 1863 APATITE, mineral phosphate of lime. About 1856 it began to be largely employed as manure. It is abundant in Norway, and in Sombrero, a small West India island. APOCALYPSE, OR Revelation, written by St. John in the isle of Patmos about 95. — Irencpiis. Some as- cribe the authonship to Cerinthus, the heretic, and others to John, the presbyter, of Ephesus. In the first centuries many chuiThes disowned it, and in the 4th century it was excluded from the sacred canon by the Council of Laodicea, but was again received by other councils, and confirmed by that of Trent, held in 1.545, et seq. Although the book has been rejected by Lu- ther, Michaelis, and others, and its authority question- ed in all ages, from the time of Justin Martyr (who wrote his first Apology for the Christians in A.D. 139), yet its canonical authority is still almost universally acknowledged. APOCRYPHA. In the preface to the Apocrypha it is said, " These books are neyther foundin the flebrue nor in the Chalde."— Bible, 1530. The history of the Apocrypha ends 135 B.C. The books were not in the Jewish canon, were rejected at the Council of Laodi- cea about A.D. 366, but were received as canonical by the Roman Catholic Church, at the Council of Trent, on April 8, 1546. Parts of the Apocrypha are read as lessons by the Anglican Church. 1 Esdras, from about B.C. 62.3-445 2 Esdras, " * * Tobit, " 734-678 Judith, " 056 Esther, " 510 Wisdom of Solomon * * Ecclesiasticus (John) 300 or ISO Baruch * * Song of the Three Children * * History of Susannah * * Bel and the Dragon * * Prayer of Manasses 676 1 Maccabees, about 323-135 2 Maccabees, from about 187-161 There are also apocryphal writings in connection with the New Testament. APOLLINARISTS, followers of Apollinaris, a read- er in the church of Laodicea, who taught (366) that the APO 45 APU divinity of Christ was instead of a soul to him; that his llcsh was pre-existent to his appearance upon cartli, and that it was sent down from heaven, and convoyed throu<;;h the Virgin, as throuijh a channel ; that there were two sons, "one bom of God, the other of the Virgin, etc. These opinions were condemned by the Council of Constantinople, 381. APOLLO, the god of the fine arts, medicine, music, poetry, and eloquence, had many tcniijlcs and statues erected to him, i)articularly in Egypt, Oreecc, and Ita- ly. His most splendid temple was" at Dcljjhi, built 12G3 B.C. Sec. Delphi. His temple at Daphne, built 434 B.C., during a period in which pestilence raged, was burnt A.D. 3(12, and the Christians were accused of the crime. — Lcnijlet. The statue of Apollo Belvedere, discovered in the remains of Autium, in Italy, in 1.5U3, was pur- chased by Pope Julius II., who placed it in the Vati- can. APOLLONICON, an elaborate musical instrument, constructed on the principle of the organ, was invent- ed by Messrs. Flight & Robson, of St. Martin's Lane, Westminster, and exhibited by them first in 1817. — Timbs. APOPHTHEGM. Plutarch (A.D. 4G-10.5) gives many apophthegms. Lord Bacon's Apophthegms, new and old, were printed 1625. C. C. Colton pririted Lacon, or Many Things in a Few Words, 1822. Franklin's Prov- erbs out of Poor Richard's Almanac were begun 1T32. He printed all together iu a preface to the Almanac for 1T5T. APOSTLES (Greek aposMos, one sent forth). Twelve were appointed by Christ, 31 ; viz., Simon Peter ancl Andrew (brothers), James and John (sous ofZebedee), Philip, Nathanael (or Bartholomew), Matthew (Levi), Thomas, James the Less (son of Alphteus), Simon the Canaanite and Jude or Thaddjeus (brothers), and Ju- das Iscariot. Matthias was elected in the room of Ju- das Iscariot, 33 (Acts i.) : and Paul and Barnabas were appointed by the Holy Spirit, A.D. 45 (Acts xiii., 2). APOSTLES' CREED, a summary of the Christian faith, attributed to the apostles, is mentioned by Ruf- linns, 390, and is generally believed to have been grad- ually composed a great while after their time. Ire- nieus, bishop of Lyons (A.D. ITT), gives a similar creed. Its repetition iu pttblic worship was ordained in the Greek Church at Antioch, and in the Roman Church iu the 11th century, whence it passed to the Church of England. APOSTOLICI, a sect which arose at the end of the 2d century ; they renounced marriage, wine, flesh, meats, etc. A second sect was founded by Segarelli about 12G1. They wandered about, clothed in Vvhite, with long beards, disheveled hair, and bare heads, ac- companied by women whom they called their spiritual sisters, preaching against the growing corruption of the Church of Rome, and predicting its downfall. They renounced baptism, the mass, purgatory, etc., and by their enemies are accused of gross licentious- ness. Segarelli was burnt alive at Parma iu 1300, dur- ing a crusade against his followers, who were all dis- persed iu 1307. APOTHECARY (literally a keeper of a store-house). On Oct. 10, 134.5, Edward III. settled sixpence pt'r dkm for life on Coursus de Gangelaud, "Apothecarius Lon- don" for taking care of hini during his severe illness in Scotland. —J\i;mer''s Fwdera. Apothecaries v.'ere ex- empted from serving on .juries or other civil oiHces in 1712. The London Apothecaries' Company was sepa- rated from the Grocers' and incorporated 1617. Their hall was built iu 16T0 ; and their practice regulated and their anthoritv extended over all England by 55 Geo. HI., c. 19 (1815), amended by 6 Geo. IV., c. 133 (1825). The Botanical Garden at Chelsea was left by Sir Hans Sloane to the company of Apothecaries, Jan., 1753, on condition of their introducing every year fifty new plants, until their number should amoimt to 2000. The Dublin guild was incorporated in 1745. See Phar- macy. APOTHEOSIS, a ceremony of the ancient nations of the world, by which they raised their kings and he- roes to the rank of deities. The deifying a deceased emperor was bearun at Rome bv Augustus, in favor of Juhus Cxsar, B.C. Vi.—Tillemont. _ APPARITIONS. Ghosts or spectres have been be- lieved to appe^ir bv most nations. Saul caused the Witch of Endor to call up Samuel, 10.56 B.C. The ghost of C.'psar is said to have appeared to Brutus on the night before the battle of Phdippi, 42 B.C. Jung Stilling, in Germany, published " Geistrrkunde," to prove that apparitions exist, ISOS. Itlrs. Crowe's "Kight Side of Nature" appeared iu England inlS40, contaiumg many cases of apparitions. "Robert Dale Owen's " Footfalls on the Boundary of another World" appeared in 1860. Spiritualists believe iu apparitions. APPEAL, OK Assize of Battle. By the old law of England, a man charged with murder misht fi"-ht with the appellant, thereby to make proof of his guilt or in- nocence. In 1817, a young maid, Mary Ashford, was believed to have been violated and murdered by Abra- ham Thornton, who, in an appeal, claimed his right by his wager of battle, which the court allowed; but the appellant (the brother of the maid) refused the chal- lenge, and the accused escaped, April 16. ISIS. This law was immediately afterward struck from off the statute-book by 59 Geo. IIL (1819). APPEALS. In the time of Alfred (A.D. 869-901), appeals lay from courts of justice to the king in coun- cil ; but being soon overwhelmed with appeals from all parts of England, he framed the body oflaws which long served as the basis of English jurisprudence. The House of Lords is the highest court (if ajipeal in civil causes. Courts of appeal at the Exchequer Chamber, m error from the King's Bench, Common Pleas, and Exchequer, were regulated by statutes in 1830 and 1831. A system of appeals prevails throughout the United States derived from English law. Appeals from English tribunals to the Pope were first intro- duced about 1151 ; were long vainly opposed, and were finally abolished by Henry VIII. in 1534. See Privy Council. APPENZELL, a Swiss canton, threw off the feudal supremacy of the abbots of St. Gall early iu the 15th century, and became the thirteenth member- of the Swiss Coufederation in 1513. APPIAN WAY, an ancient Roman road, made by Appius Claudius Crecus, while censor, 312 B.C. APPLES. Several kinds are indigenous to England ; but those iu general use have beeu'brought at various times from the Contineut. Richard Harris, fruiterer to Henry VIII., is said to have planted a great num- ber of the orchards iu Kent, and Lord Scudamore, am- bassador to France in the reign of Charles I., planted many of those in Herefordshire. Ray reckons 78 va- rieties of apples iu his day (1688). APPRAISERS. The valuation of goods for another was an early business in England ; and so early as 1283, by the statute of merchants, "it was enacted that if they valued the goods of parties too high, the ap- praisers should take them at such price as they have limited." APPRENTICES. Those of London were obliged to wear blue cloaks in summer, and blue gowns iu winter, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, 1.558. Ten pounds was theu a'great apprentice fee. From twenty to one hundred pounds were given in the reign of James I. — Stotv's Survei/. The apprentice tax, enacted 43 Geo. IIL, 1802. An act for the protection of appren- tices, etc., was passed iu 1851. The term of seven years, uot to expire till the apprentice was 24 years old, required by the statute of Elizabeth (1563), was abolished in 1814. The apprentices of London nave been at times very riotous ; they rose into insurrection against foreigners on Jivil May-day, which see. The .system of apprenticeship has always existed to a cer- tain extent in the United States. APPROPRIATIONS (property taken from the Church), began in the time of William I., the paro- chial clergy being then commonly Saxons, and the bishops and higher clergy Normans. These impover- ished the inferior clergy to enrich monasteries, which were generally possessed by the conqueror's frieuds. Where the churches and tithes were so appropriated, the vicar had only such a competency as the bishop or superior thought fit to allow. Pope Alexander IV. complained of this as the bane of religion, the destruc- tion of the Church, and a poison that had infected the whole nation. — Pardon. APRICOT, Prvtms Armeniaca, first planted in En- gland about 1540, by the gardener of Henry VIII. It originally came from Asia Minor. APRIL, the fourth mouth of our ydir, the second of the ancient Romans. APTERYX (wingless), a bird, a native of New Zea- land, first brought to England in 1813, and deposited iu the collectiou of the Earl of Derby. Fossil speci- mens of a gigantic species of this bird (named Dinor- nin) were discovered in New Zealand by Mr. Walter Mantell iu 1843, and since. APULIA, a province in S. E. Italy, conquered by the AQU 46 Normans, whose leader, Guiscard, received the title of Duke of Apulia from Pope Nicholas II. iu 1059. After many changes of masters, it was absorbed into the kingdom of Naples iu 1265. AQUA TOPANA, a liquid poison used in Italy, and sold for many years at Naples by La Tofana or Tor- phania, an old woman executed or imprisoned at Na- ples about 1719. A predecessor in the business, at Rome, was named La Spara. This poison is supposed to have been an arsenical preparation. It was clear, limpid, and tasteless, and sold in small vials under the name of Manna of St. Nicholas of Bari. Its operation was slow, and in the then state of chemistry its pres- ence could not be detected after death. AQUARII, a sect said to have been founded by Ta- tian in the 2d century, who forbore the use of wine even iu the sacrameut, and used nothing but water, during persecution, when they met secretly iu the night for fear of discovery. For this they were cen- sured by Cyprian (martyred 258). AQUARIUM OR Aqu AVIV AKiUM, a vessel containing water (marine or fresh) in which animals and plants may coexist, mutually supporting each other ; snails bein^ introduced as scavengers. Iu 1849, Mr. N. B. Ward succeeded iu growing sea-weeds in artificial sea- water ; in 1850, Mr. R. Warington demonstrated the conditions necessary for the growth of animals and plants iu jars of water; and in 1853 the glass tanks iu the Zoological Gardens, Regent's Park, were set up under the skillful direction of Mr. D. Mitchell. In 1854, Mr. Gosse published "The Aquarium." Mr. W. Alford Lloyd, late of Portland Road, London, by his enterprise in collecting specimens, did much to in- crease the value and interest of aquaria. The great aquarium (50 yards long and 12 wide) at the Jardin d'Acclimatation at Paris, was constructed under his direction in 1860. AQUATINT. See Engraving. AQUEDUCT, an artificial water-course on an in- clined plane. No remains of Greek aqueducts exist. Appius Claudius advised and constructed the first Ro- man aqueduct, as well as the A2)pian Way, about 312 B.C. Aqueducts of every kind were among the won- ders of Rome. — Livii. There are now some remarka- ble aqueducts in Europe : that at Lisbon is of great extent aud beauty ; that at Segovia has 129 arches ; and that at Versailles is three miles long, aud of im- mense height, with 242 arches in three stories. The stupendous aqueduct ou the Ellesmere Canal, in En- gland, is 1007 feet in Icugth, and 126 feet high ; it was completed by T. Telford, aud opeued Dec. 26, 180.5. The Lisbon aqueduct was completed iu 1T3S, and the Croton aqueduct, near New York, was constructed be- tween 1837 and 1S42. The aqueduct to supply Mar- seilles with water was commenced in 1830. AQUILEIA (Istria), made a Roman colony about ISO B.C., and furtified A.D. 168. Coustantiue II. was slain in a battle with Coustaus, fought at Aquileia to- ward the close of March, 340. Maxlmus defeated and slain by Theodosius, near Aquileia, July 28, BBS. The- odosius defeated Eugeuius aud Arbogastes, the Gaul, near Aquileia, and remained sole emperor, Sept. 6, 394. Eugeuius was put to death, and Arbogastes died by his own hand, mortified by his overthrow. St. Am- brose held a synod here iu 381. In 452 Aquileia was almost totally destroyed by Attila the Hun, and near it in 489 Theodoric and the Ostrogoths totally defeated Odoacer, the king of Italy. AQUITAINE, a province (S. W. France). Subdued by the Visigoths, 418, and taken from them by Clovis iu 507. Henry II. of England inherited it from his mother, 1152. It was erected iuto a principality for Edward the Black Priuce in 1362, but was annexed to France iu 1370. The title of Duke of Aquitaine was taken by the crown of England ou the conquest of this duchy by Henry V. iu 1418. The province was lost iu the reign of Henry VI. ARABIA (W. Asia). The terms Petrcea (stony), Felix (happy), and Deserta are said to have beeu ap- plied to its divisions by Ptolemy about A.D. 140. The Arabs claim descent from Ishmael, the eldest son of Abraham, born #910 B.C., Gen. xvi. The country was unsuccessfully invaded by Gallus, the Roman govern- or of Egypt, "24 B.C. In A.D. 622, the Arabians, un- der the name of Saracens, followers of Mohammed (boru at Mecca, 570), their general aud prophet, com- menced their course of conquest. See Mohammedan- ism. The Arabs greatly favored literature and the sci- ences, especially mathematics, astronomy, and chem- istry. To them we owe our ordinary numerals and arithmetical notation. The Koran was written in Ar- AEC abic (622-632). The Bible was printed in Arabic in 1671. ARABIAN NIGHTS' ENTERTAINMENTS (or 1001 Tales) were translated into French by Galland, aud published in 1704, bitt their authenticity was not ac- knowledged till mauy years after. The best Euglish translation from the Arabic is that of Mr. E. W. Lane, published in 1S39, with valuable, notes and beautiful illustrations, aud reprinted in the United States by Harper & Brothers, New York. ARABICI, a sect which sprung up in Arabia, whose distinguishing tenet was, that the soul died with the body, aud rose again with it, 207. ARAGON, part of the Roman Tarraconensis, a king- dom, N. E. Spain. It was conquered by the Cartha- ginians, who were expelled by the Romans about 200 B.C. It partook of the fortunes of the country, but became an independent monarchy in 1035. See under Sjjain. ARAM, the ancient name of Syria, which see. ARANJUEZ (Central Spain) contains a fine royal palace, at which several important treaties were con- cluded. On March 17, 1808, an insurrection broke out here against Charles IV. and his favorite, Godoy, the Prince of Peace. The former was compelled to abdi- cate in favor of his son, Ferdinand VII. ARBELA. The third and decisive battle between Alexander the Great and Darius Codomanus decided the fate of Persia, Oct. 1, 831 B.C., on a plain iu Assy- ria, between Arbela and Gaugamela. The army of Darius consisted of 1,000,000 foot and 40,000 horse ; the Macedonian army amounted to ouly 40,000 foot and 7000 horse. — Arriaii. The gold and silver found in the cities of Susa, Persepolis, and Babylon, which fell to Alexander from this victory, amounted to thirty millions sterling ; and the jewels and other precious spoil, belonging to Darius, sufliced to load 20,000 mules and 5000 camels. — Plutarch. ARBITRATION. Submission to arbitration was authorized aud made equivalent in force to the deci- sion of a jury, by 9 & 10 Will. IIL (1698). Submis- sions to arbitration may be made rules of any court of law or equity, and arbitrators may compel the attend- ance of witnesses, 3 & 4 Will. IV., c. 42 (1833). See Ouzel Galley. The Common Law Procedure Act (1854) authorizes the judges of superior courts to order com- pulsory arbitration ; and by an act passed in 18.59, railway companies may settle disputes with each other by arbitration. ARBUTUS. The Arhutus Andrachne, Oriental straw- berry-tree, was brought to England from the Levant about 1724. ARCADIA, in the centre of the Peloponnesus, Greece. The Arcadijins regarded their nation as the most ancient of Greece, and older than the moon {ProseWni, which word Doderlein conjectures to mean pre-Hellenic). They were more simple iu their man- ners and moderate iu their desires than the other Greeks, from whom they were separated by high mountains. Pelasgus is said to have taught them to feed on acorus, as being more nutritious "than herbs, their former food ; for which they honored him as a god, 1521 B.C. Arcadia had twenty-five kings, whose history is altogether fabulous. Magna Grsecia, in S. Italy, said to have been colo- nized by Arcadians under (Enotrus, about 1710 B.C.; and under Evauder B.C. 1240 Pelasgus begins his reigu 1521 Supposed institution of the Lupercalia, iu honor of Jupiter by Lycaon ; reimed 1514 Areas, from whom the kingdom received its name, and who taught his subjects agriculture and the art of spinning wool 1514 Lycasan games instituted in honor of Pan 1320 Agapeuor appears at the head of the Arcadians at tlie siege of Troy {Homer) 1194 The Lacedajmonians invade Arcadia, and are beat- en by the women of the country, in the absence of their husbands (?) B.C. 1102 Aristocrates I. (of Orchomenus) is put to death for offering violence to the priestess of Diana 715 Aristocrates 11. stoned to death, and a republic es- tablished CSl The supremacy of Sparta (acknowledged 560) is abolished by the Thebans ; Megalopolis founded by Epaminondas 371 The Arcadians make alliance with Athens, and are defeated by Archidamus 307 Arcadia, having joined the Achrean League, on its suppression becomes part of the Roman empire 146 ARC 47 ARC ARCES-SUR-AUBE, France. From this place, after a (i. The passage to Archangel was dis- covered by the English navigator Richard Chancellor in l.^S, and it was the only sea-port of Russia till the formation of the docks at Cronstadt, and foundation of St. Petersburg in 1703. The dreadful tire here, by which the Cathedral and upward of 3000 houses were destroyed, occurred iu June, 1793. ARCHBISHOP (Greek nrehicirMcopos), a title given iu the 4th and 5th centuries to the bishops of chief cities, such as Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, and Con- stantinople, who presided over the other metropoli- tans aud bishops iu the districts attached to those places. The word is first found in the Apology against the Arians by Athauasius, who died 373. The Eastern archbishops have since been styled ^jafriarc/is.t — Rid- dle, ARCH-CHAMBERLAIN. The Elector of Branden- burg was appointed the hereditary arch-chamberlain of the German Empire by the golden bull of Charles IV. in 1356, and iu that quality he bore the sceptre be- fore the emperor. ARCH-CHANCELLORS were appointed under the two lirst races of the kings of France (418-986), aud when their territories were divided, the Archbishops of Mentz, Cologne, aud Treves became Arch-chancel- lors of Germany, Italy, and Aries. ARCHDEACON. The name was early given to the ^ first or eldest deacon, who attended on the bishop without any power ; hut since the Council of Nice, his function is become a dignity, and set above that of priest, though anciently it was quite otherwise. The appointment in these countries is referred to 1075. There are seventy-one archdeacons in England (186.5), and thirty-three iu Ireland. The Archdeacon's Court is the lowest in ecclesiastical polity: an appeal lies from it to the Consistorial Court by 24 Henry VIII. (1532). ARCHDUKE AND ARCHDUCHESS, a title given to members of the house of Austria since the eud of the German empire iu 1S06. ARCHERY. Plato ascribes the invention to Apollo, bv whom it was communicated to the Cretans. Ish- niael "became an archer" (Gen. xxi., 20), 1892 B.C. * The new bridge of Chester, whose span 13 200 feet, was commenced in 18'.'9. The central arch of London Bridge is 152 feet ; and the three cast iron arches of Souihwark Bridf;e, which rest on massive stone piers and abutments are, the two side ones 210 feet each, and the centre 240 feet : tluis the centre arch exceeds the admired bridc:e of Sunderland by four feet in the span, and the long-famed Rialto at Venice by 167 feet. See Ilrliftjes, t There are no Protestant archbishops in the United States. The Roman Catholic Church is divided into seven archbishoprics, which are called provinces, namely : Baltimore, Md. ; Cincinnati, Ohio ; New Orleans, La. ; New York, N .Y. ; Oregon ; St. Louis, Mo. ; San Francis- co, Cal. In Great Britain the dignity is nearly coeval with the estab- lishment of Christianity. Before the Saxons came into England there were three sees : London, York, and Caerlon-upon-UsU ; but soon after the arrival of St. Austin he settled the metropolitan see at Canterbury, 602. See CanteThnry. York continued arclliepiscopal ; but London and Caerlon lost the dignity. Caerlon was found, previously, to be too near the dominions of the Saxons ; and in the tnne of King Arthur the archbishopric was transferred to St. David's, of which St. bauipson was the 2)jth and last Welsh archbishop. The bishoprics in Scotland were under the jurisdiction of the Archbishop of York until the erec- tion of the archiepiscopal sees of St. Andrew's and (ilasgow, in 1470 and 1491 ; these last were discontinued at the Revolution. The Bishop of Moray, etc., is now (IS65) styled Primus. The r.ank of archbishop was of early institution in Ireland. Four archbishoprics were consti- tuted in Ireland, 1151, namely, Armagh, Cashel, Dublin, and Tuam ; until then the Archbishop of Canterbury had jurisdiction over the Irish as well as English bishops, In like manner as the Archbishop of York had jurisdiction over those of Scotland. Of these four archl)ishopricB two were reduced to bishoprics, namely, Caahel and Tuam, conforma- bly with the statute 3 & 4 Will. IV., 1833, by which also the number of" sees in Ireland was to be reduced (as the incumbents of ten of them respectively died) from twenty-two to twelve, the present number. The Philistine archers overcame Saul (1 Sam. sxxi., 3), 1055 B.C. David commanded the use of the bow to be taught (2 Satii. i., 18). Aster of Amphipolis, hav- ing been slighted by Philip, king of Macedon, at the siege of Methone, 353 B.C., shot an arrow, on which was written, "Aimed at Philip's right eye," which struck it aud put it out ; Philip threw back the arrow with these words: "If Philip take the town, Aster shall be hanged." The conqueror kept his word. Archery introduced into England previously to. . . 440 Harold and his two brothers were killed by arrows shot from the cross-bows of the Norman soldiers at the battle of Hastings in IOCS Richard I. revived archery in England iu liyo, and was himself killed by au arrow in 1199 The victories of Crecy (1346), Poitiers (1356), and Agiucourt (1415) were won chiefly by archers.* Four thousand archers surrounded the houses of Parliament, ready to shoot the king and the members, 21 Richard II.— (.s?o(r) 1397 The citizens of London formed into companies of archers in the reign of Edward III. ; and into a corporate body by the style of "The Fraternity of St. George," 29 Henry VIII 1538 Roger Ascham's " 7'uxiphilus, the School of Shoot- ing," published iu 1571 ARCHES, Court of, the most ancient Consistory Court, chiefly a court of appeal from inferior jurisdic- tions within the province of Canterbury. It derives its name fi-om the church of St. Mary-le-Bow (Sancta Sfaria de Arcuhus), London, where it was held ; aud whose top is raised on stone pillars built archwise. — Coivell. Appeals from this court lie to the judicial com- mittee of the Privy Council, by statute, 1832. ARCHITECTURE (from the Greek archi-tekton, chief artificer), ornamental building. The five great orders of architecture are the Doric, Ionic, aud Corin- thian (Greek) ; the Tuscan and Composite (Roman). The Gothic Isegau to prevail in the 9th century. See the Orders respectively, aud Gothic, The Pyramids of Ecrypt begun about B.C. 1500 Solomon's Temple begun 1004 liirs Nimroud, in Assyria, about 900 The Doric order begins about 650 Doric Temple .at JSgina 550 Temple of Jupiter and Cloaca Maxima, at Rome, founded 616 Babylon built 600 The Ionic order begins about 500-420 The Corinthian order begins 335 Choragic Monument of Ly sicrates 335 Architecture flourishes at Athens 480-320 Erechtheum at Athens 450-i20 The Parthenon finished 433 The Pantheon, etc., built at Rome A.D. 13 The Colosseum (or Coliseum) 70 Hadrian builds temples at Rome, etc 117 Diocletian's palace at Spalatro 284 Basilicas at Rome 330-900 St. Sophia, at Constantinople, begun 532 Rock-cut temples in India— Caves of Ellora.. .500-800 Canterbury Cathedral founded 602 Mosque of Omar, at Jerusalem 637 York Minster beguu about 741 St. Peter's, Rome 1450-1626 St.Paul's, London 1675-1710 EMINENT AKCUITECTS. Bom. Died. Vitruvius, about B.C. 27 William of Wickham A.D. 1324-1405 Michael Angelo BuonarottL 1474-1564 A. Palladio 1.518-1580 luigo Jones 1572-1652 Bernini 1598-1680 Christopher Wren 1632-1723 J. Vaubrugh 1670-1726 James Gihbs 1674-1754 R. and J. Adams 1728-1794 A. W. Pugin 1811 -1 852 C. Barry. 1795-1860 An Architectural Club was formed in 1791. An Ar- chitectural Society existed in London in 1808. The Royal Institute of British Akoiiiteots was found- ed iu 1834— Earl de Grev, president, 1835-61. The Ar- chitectural Society, esta"blished in 1831, was united to the Institute in 1842. The Architectural Association began about 1846. * The hnq-liow was six feet long, and the arrow three feet ; the usual range from 300 to 500 yards. Robin Hood is said to have shot from 600 to 800 yards. A I'ersian hero, Arish.is stated to have shot over between 400 and 500 miles, as related by Ferdousi ! The cross-bow waa fixed to a stock, and discharged with a trigger. AKC 48 AKCHONS. When royalty was abolished at Athens, in memory of King Codrus, killed in battle, 1044 B.C. (orlOTO), the executive government was vested in elect- ive magistrates called archons, whose office continued for life. Medon, eldest sou of Codrus, was the flrst archou. The office was limited to ten years 752 B.C., and to one year 083 B.C. ARCOLA (Lombardy), the site of battles between the French under Bonaparte, and the Austrians under Fi^Id-marshal Alviuizi, fought Nov. 15-17, 1796. The result was the loss on the part of the Austrians of / y mooo men in killed, wounded, and prisoners, four /"' flags, and eighteen guns. The loss of the French vs'as -"^ estimated at 15,000. They became masters of Italy. In one of the contests Bonaparte was in most immi- nent danger, and was only rescued by the impetuosity of his troops. ARCOT (East Indies). This city (founded 1716) was taken by Colonel Clive, Aug. 31, 1751 ; was retaken, but again surrendered to Colonel Coote, Feb. 10, 1700. Besieged by Ilvder AM, when the British under Col- onel Baillie suffered severe defeats, Sept. 10 and Oct. 31, 17S0. Arcot has been subject to Great Britain since 1801. See India. ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS. See Northwest Passage and FranJdin's Expeditimi. ARD AGII, an ancient prelacy in Ireland, founded by St. Patrick, who made his nephew, Mell, the lirst bish- op, previously to 454. This prelacy was formerly held with Kilmore ; but since 1742 it has been held in com- inendarn with Tuam. It was united with Kilmore in 1839, and with Elphin in 1841. ARDEE (Ireland), sacked by Edward Bruce, 1315 ; taken and sacked by the rebels in Oct., 1641. ARDFBRT ant> AGHADOE, bishoprics in Ireland long united ; the former was called the bishopric of Kerry ; Ert presided in the 5th century. William Ful- ler, appointed in 1603, became bishop of Limerick in 1667, since when Ardfert and Aghadoe have been united to that prelacy. Near the cathedral, an anchor- ite tower, 120 feet high, the Iqftiest and finest in the kingdom, suddenly fell, 1770. ARDOCII. See Gramjnans. AREIOPAGITS or AREOPAGUS, a venerable Greek tribunal, said to have heard causes in the dark, because the judges should be blind to all but facts, instituted at Athens about 1507 B.C. —Arund. Marbles. The name is derived from the Greek Arieos ^xigos, the Hill of Mars, through the tradition that Mars was the first who was tried there for the murder of Halirrhotius, who had violated his daughter Alcippe. The powers of this court were enlarged by Solon about 594 B.C., but diminished by the jealousy of Pericles, 461 B.C. Paul preached on Mars' Hill A.D. 52 {Acts xvii.). AREOI, a society existing ft-om time immemorial in Tahiti, with seven grades. Its members must kill all their children as soon as they are born. AREZZO, near the ancient Arretiuni, or Aretinum, an Etrurian city, which made peace with Rome for 30 years, 308 B.C., was besieged by the Galli Senones about 283 B.C., who defeated the Roman army Metel- lus sent to its relief— a disgrace avenged signally by Dolabella. Arezzo was an ancient bishopric : the ca- thedral was founded in 1277. It is renowned as the birth-place of Mtecenas, Petrarch, Vasari, and other eminent men. Michael Angelo was born in the vi- cinity. ARGAND LAMP. Invented by Aim6 Argand, a Frenchman, 1782. ARGAUM, in the Deccan, India, where Sir A. Wel- lesley, on Nov. 29, 1S03, thoroughly defeated the Rajah of Berar and the Mnhratta chierScindiah, who became, in consequeuce, quite subservient to the British. ARGENTARI A, Alsace (now Colmae, N. E. France), where the Roman emperor Gratiau totally defeated the Alemauui, and secured the peace of Gaul, 37S. ARGENTINE (or LA PLATA) CONFEDERA- TION, S. America, 13 provinces. This country was discovered by the Spaniards in 1515 ; settled by them in 1553, and formed part of the great viceroyalty of Peru till 1778, when it became that of Rio do la Plata. It joined the insurrection in 1811, and became inde- pendent in 1816. It was at war with Brazil from 1826 to 1828, for the possession of Uruguay, which became independent as Monte Video, and at war with France from 18.38-40. Buenos Ayres seceded in 18,53, and was reunited in 1859. An insurrection began in San Juan in Nov., 1S60, and was suppressed in Jan., 1S61. J. Urquiza, elected president Nov. 20, 1863, was succeed- AEI ed by Dr. S. Derqui, Feb. 8, 1860. Gen. B. Mitre, elect- ed for six years, assumed the president's office Oct. 12, 1862. In April, 1805, Lopez, president of Paraguay, made an alliance with Buenos Ayres, declared war against Mitre, and invaded the Argentine territories. May. Mitre made an alliance with Brazil. Popula- tion in 1859, about 1,171,800. See Buenos Ayres for the disputes with that state. ' ARGINUS^ ISLES, between Lesbos and Asia Mi- nor; near these Conou and the Athenian fieet defeat- ed the Spartan admiral Callicratidas, 400 B.C. ARGONAUTIC EXPEDITION, 1203 B.C. (1225, Clin- ton), undertaken by Jason to avenge the death of his kinsman Phryxus, and recover his treasures seized by his murderer, JjL-tes, king of Colchis. The ship in which Phryxus had sailed to Colchis having been adorned with the figure of a ram, it induced the poets to pretend that the journey of Jason was for the re- covery of the golden fleece. This is the flrst naval ex- pedition on record. Many kings and heroes accom- panied Jason, whose ship was called Argo, from its builder. — Dvfresnoy. ARGOS, the most ancient city of Greece, said to have been founded either by luachus, 1856 B.C., or his son Phoroiieus, 1807, received its name from Argus, the fourth of the Inachida3, 1711 B.C. Reign of Triopas: Polycaou seizes part of the kingdom, and calls it after his wife, Messcnia B.C. 1552 Gelauor, last of the luachidse, deposed by Dauaus, an Egyptian 1475 Feast of the Flambeaux, instituted in honor of Hy- permnestra, who saved her husband, Lynceus, son of ^gyptus, on his nuptial night, while her forty-nine sisters sacrificed theirs, at the com- mand of their father, Danaus 1425 Lynceus dethrones Danaus 1425 The kingdom divided by the brothers Acrisius and Prcetus 1344 (1313, CI.) Perseus, grandson of Acrisius, leaves Argos, and founds Mycenae {tchich sec) 1313 The Heraclidffi retake the Peloponnesus, and Tem- enus seizes Argos 1102 Pheidon's prosperous rule 770-730 The Argives fine Sicyou and ^gina for helping Cleomenes of Sparta, with wiom they are at war 514 Sparta becomes superior to Argos 495-490 Themistocles an exile at Argos 471 The Argives destroy Mycente and regain their su- periority 46S Peloponnesiau War— Argos long neutral ; but joins Athens 420 The aristocratical party makes peace with Sparta, and overthrows the democratical government. . 417 A reaction— alliance with Athens resumed 395 Pyrrhus of Macedon slain while besieging Argos. . 272 Argos long governed by tyrants supported by Macedon; it is freed and joins the Achaean League 229 Subjugated by the Romans 140 Argos' taken from the Venetians A.D. 1686 Taken by the Turks 1716, who held it until 1826 United to Greece under King Otho (see Greece) Jan. 25, 1833 ARGYLE (W. Scotland), Bishopric of, founded about 1200, Evaldus being the first bishop ; the diocese was previously part of the see of Duukeld ; it ended with the abolition of episcopacy in Scotland, 1688. Argyle and the Isles is a post-revolution bishopric, 1847. See Lish()2}rics. ARIANS, the followers of Arius of Alexandria, who preached against the divinity of Christ about 315, and died in 336. The controversy was taken up by Con- siantine, who presided at the Council of Nice, 325, when the Arians were condemned ; but their doctrine prevailed for a time in the East. It was fiivored by Constantius II., 341 ; and carried into Africa under the Vandals in the 5th century, and into Asia under the Goths. Servetus published his treatise against the Trinity, 1531, and was burnt, 1553. See A thmuman Creed. Leggatt, an Arian, was burnt at Smithfield in 1614. ARIKERA, ARKARY. In India. Here Lord Corn- wallis entirely routed the army of Tippoo Saib, May 14, 1791, about nine miles from Seringapatam. ARISTOTELIAN PHILOSOPHY: the most com- prehensive system ever devised by man. Aristotle was born at Stagyra (hence termed the Stagyrite), 384 B.C. ; was a pupil of Plato from 364 to 347; became preceptor of Alexander, son of Philip of Macedon, in 342 ; and died in 322. He divided the circle of kaowl- ARI 49 ARM edge into Metaphysics and Loc;ic, Physics, lncludin2>iitandi) was by Tonstall, bishop of Durham ;j522 The theory of decimal fractions was'perfecVed by Napier, in his Rhahdoloma. lu 1 Rhahdoloqia, lu 1G17 Cocker's arithmetic appeared in '. " 1677 Nystrom's Tonal System, with IG as a basis, pub- lished .....1863 ARIZONA, a territory of the United States, orin-in- ally part of New Mexico, was organized Feb. 24, 1863 • capital, Tucson. ARK. Mount Ararat is venerated by the Arme- nians from a belief of its being the place on which Noah s ark rested after the universal deluge, 2347 B C But Apamea, in Phrygia, claims to be the spot; auci medals have been struck there with a chest on the waters, and the letters NOE, and two doves- this place IS 300 miles west of Ararat. The ark was 300 cubits m length, 50 in breadth, and 30 high • but most interpreters suppose this cubit to be about a foot and a naif, and not the geometrical one of six. ARK OF THE COVENANT, or of the Testimony was constructed when Moses made the Tabernacle, 1492 B.C. ARKANSAS, originally part of Louisiana, purchased from France by the United States in 1803, was admit- ted into the Union 1836, and seceded from it March 20 1861. Several battles were fought in this state in 1862 and 1863. Capital, Little Rock. The Union govern- ment reorganized in 1804. ARKLOW (in Wicklow), w^here a battle was fought between the insurgent Irish, amounting to 31,000 and a small regular force of British, which signally defeat- ed them, June 10, 179S. The town was nearly de- stroyed by the lusurirents in May previous.— Native gold was discovered in Arklow in Sept., Xl^b.—Phil Tram., vol. 86. ARLES, an ancient town in France, in 879 the capi- tal ot the kingdom of Aries or Lower Burgundy Here are the remains of a Roman amphitheatre, capa- ble of holding between 20,000 and 30,000 persons. En- glish bishops are said to have been present at the council held here against the Donatists, 314. ARMADA, THE iNTiNoiiiLE. The famous Spanish lemamder of the armament returned by the North Sea o Spam. The Spaniards lost fifteen capital ships in the engagement, and 5000 men ; seventeen ships were lost or taken on the coast of Ireland, and upward of ^h 5'^V'y*'!''' drowned, killed, or taken priVone^s The English lost but one ship. About one thM of the armament returned to Spain. ARMAGEDDON. " The mountain of the citv that spoils." Probably the high land of Esdraelon where ^]}^y)f^^}?^ havetaken iflace. Robinson, in 1^38 and 1852 identined Lejjur, the Roman Legu, with the an- cient Megiddo, the city that spoils, which thus Hves a name to the mountains and elevated plains niarbv The name is used in the Apocalypse for the c^reat final battle-field of the wicked against God ^leat final ARMAGH, in N. Ireland, of which it was the me- tropolis rom the 5th to the 9th century, was he first vfA'lf/ fi'^' J^Snity in Ireland, foundry St Pat- hnnl iL^r\ '''';S°1?' '1''°^^^ ^' ^'1^0 is saicl to have built the first cathedral 450. Six saints of the Roman Calendar have been bishops of this see. In the kin<.'s fiTiK nnn ^^ "" ^'''^'■' '''"J'- ™«1 lately, was estimated ?fjf l^'^OO per annum. The see was reconstituted in U51 — AcrtteoM. Armagh was ravaged by the Danes on Easter day, 852, and hy O'Neil in 1564. ARMAGNACS, a political party in France, follow- ers of the Duke of Orleans, derived their name from his tather-m-law, the Count of Armagnac. About 3500 ot this party were massacred at Paris in May, 1418 bv their opponents, the followers of the Duke of Buii gundy. Medina Sidonia, and 180 priests and monks. It sailed rrom the Tagus May 28-30, 15ss, nnd arrived in the Channel July i;i, U.ss, and was defeated the next d'ay by Drake and Howard. Ten fire-ships having been eent into the enemies' fleet, they cut their cables, put to sea, and endeavored to return to their rendezvous between Calais and Gravelines ; the English fell upon tneni took many sliijjs, and Admiral Howard main- tained a running fight from the 21st of July to the 28th, Obliging the shattered fleet to bear awav for Scotland ana Ireland, where a storm dispersed them, and the ARMED NEUTRALITY, the confederacy of the northern powers against England, formed by the Em- press of Russia in 1780 ; ended in 1781. The confed- eracy w-as renewed, and a treaty ratified in order to cause their flags to be respected by the belligerent powers, Dec. 16, 1800. The principle that neutral flat's protect neutral bottoms being contrary to the mari- time system of England, the British cabinet remon- strated, war ensued, and Nelson and Parker destroyed the fleet of Denmark before Copenhagen, April 2, 1801, I his event, and the murder of the Emperor Paul of Russia, led to the dissolution of the Armed Neutrality. ARMENIA, Asia Minor. Here Noah is said to have resided when he left the ark, 2347 B.C. Armenia aft- er forming part of the Assyrian, Median, and Persian empires, became subject to the Greek kings of Syria after the defeat of Antiochus the Great, 190 B.C -the Romans established the kingdoms of Armenia Major and Minor, but their influence over them was frequent- ly interrupted by the aggressions of the Parthians. Ihe modern Christian kingdom of Armenia arose about 1080 m the rebellion of Philaretus Brachaucius agamst the Greek emperor. It lasted, amid many struggles, till the 14th century. In all their political troubles the Armenians have maintained the profes- sion of Christianity. Their Church is governed by patriarchs not subject to Rome. Since 1715 an Arme- nian convent has existed at Venice, where books on all subjects are printed in the Armenian language. City of Artaxata built B.C. 186 Antiochus Epiphanes invades Armenia '..'...' 165 Tigranes the Great reigns in Armenia Major 95-60 Becomes King of Syria, and assumes the title of "King of Kings" g3 Defeated by Lucullus, 69 ; he lays his crowTi' at 'the feet of Pompey gg His son, Artavasdes, reigns, 54 ; he assists' 'Po'm- pey against Julius Csesar, 48 ; and the Parthians against Marc Antony 35 Antony subdues, and seuds him loaded with "silver chains to Egypt 34 Artaxias, his son, made king by the Parthiaiis! ! '. '. 33 Deposed by the Romans, who enthrone Tigranes IL 20 Armenia subjected to Parthia A.D. 15 Reconquered by Germanicus, grandson of Angus- 18 tns 18 After many changes Tiridates is made king by the Romans 53 The Parthian conquerors of Armenia are expelled by Trajan H5 Severus makes Volagarses king of part of Arme- nia 199 Christianity introduced between . ." .' 100-200 Armenia added to the Persian empire 312 Tiridates obtains the throne through Diocletian, 286 ; is expelled by Narses, 294 ; restored by Ga- lerius 298 On his death, Armenia becomes subject to Persia, 342 ; is made neutral by Rome and Persia, 384, who divide it by treaty 443 ARM 50 ARM Armenia conquered and reconquered by the Greek and Persian sovereigns 577-687 And by the Greelc emperors and the Mohamme- dans 693-1065 Leon VI., last king of Armenia, taken prisoner by the Saracens, 1375 ; released ; he dies at Paris. . .1393 Overrun by the Mongols, 1235 ; by Timour, 1383 ; by the Turks, 1510 ; by the Persians, 1534 ; by the Turks 1583 Shah Abbas, of Persia, surrenders Armenia to the Turks, but transports 22,000 Armenian families into his own states 1589 Overrun by the Russians ISJS Surrender of Erzeroum July, 1829 (See Si/ria and llusso-Turkish War.) ARMENIAN ERA, commenced on the 9th of July, 552 ; the ecclesiastical year ou the 11th of August. To reduce this last to our time, add 551 years and 221 days ; and in leap years subtract one day from March 1 to August 10. The Armenians used the old Julian style and mouths in their correspondence with Euro- peans. ARMILLARY SPHERE, an instrument devised to five an idea of the motions of the heavenly bodies. t is commonly made of brass, and disposed in such a manner that the greater and lesser circles of the sphere are seen in then- natural position and motion ; the whole being comprised in a frame. It is said to have been invented by Eratosthenes about 255 B.C., and was employed by Tycho Brahe and other astronomers. ARMINIANS (oK Remonstrants) derive their for- mer name. from James Armiuius (or Ilarmeusen), a Protestant divine, of Leyden, Holland (died 16U9) ; the latter name from his followers having presented aivc- monsfmiice to the States-General in 1610. They sepa- rated from the Calvinists, considering Calvin's views of grace and predestination in opposition to free will too severe. A fierce controversy raged to 1625, when the Arminians, who had been exiled, returned to their homes. Their doctrines were condemned in 1619, at the Synod of Dort {tvhich see). The Calvinists were then sometimes styled Gomarists, from Gomar, the chief opponent to Arminius. James I. and Charles I. favored the doctrines ofthe Arminians, which still pre- vail largely in Holland and elsewhere. ARMOR. That of Goliath is described (about 1063 B.C.) 1 iS'«»i. svii.,5. The warlike Europeans at first despised any other defense than the shield. Skins and padded hides were first used ; and brass and iron ar- mor, in plates or scales, followed. The first body ar- mor ofthe Britons was skins of wild beasts, exchanged, after the Roman conquest, for the well-tanned leathern cuirass. — Tacitus. Thislattercoutinued till the Anglo- Saxon era. Hengist is said to have had scale armor, A.D. 449. The Norman armor formed breeches and jacket, 1066. The hauberk had its hood of the same piece, 1100. John wore a surtout over a hauberk of rings set edgeways, 1199. The heavy cavalry were covered with a coat of mail, Henry III., 1216. Some horsemen had visors and skull-caps, same reign. Ar- mor became exceedingly splendid about 1350. The armor of plate commenced 1407. Black armor, used not only for battle, but for mourning, Henry V., 1413. The armor of Henry VII. consisted ofa cuirass of steel in the form of a pair of stays, about 1500. Armor ceased to reach below the knees, Charles I., 1625. In the reign of Charles II. officers wore no other armor than a large gorget, which is commemorated in the diminutive or- nament known at the present day. — Meyrick. ARMORIAL BEARINGS became hereditary in fam- ilies at the close ofthe 12th century. They took their rise from the knights painting their banners with dif- ferent figures, aud were employed by the Crusaders, in order at first to distinguish noblemen in battle, 1100. The lines to denote colors in arms, by their direction or intersection, were invented by ColumbiOi-e in 1639. Armorial bearings were taxed in 1798, and again in 1808. The United States and each of the states has a device equivalent to armorial bearings, with a motto. The armorial bearings ofthe English sovereigns are given under the article England. ARMORICA, now Brittany, N. France, was conquer- ed by Julius Cajsar, 56 B.C. Many Gauls retired there and preserved the Celtic tongue, A.D. 584. See Brit- tany. ARMS. The club was the first offensive weapon ; then followed the mace, the battle-axe, pike, spear, javelin, sword and dagger, bows and arrows. Pliny ascribes the invention of the sling to the Phoenicians. See articles on the various weapons throughout the vol- ume. ARMS. See Armorial hearings and neraldry. ARMS' BILL, for the repression of crime and insur- rection in Ireland, was passed Oct. 15, 1S31. It was a revival of the expired statutes of George III. The guns registered under this act throughout the king- dom at the close ofthe first year scarcely amounted to 3000, and the number was equally smifil of all other kinds of arms. The new Arms' Bill passed Aug. 22, 1843. It has been since renewed, but has not been rig- idly enforced. ARMY. Ninus and Semiramis had armies amount- ing to nearly two millions of fighting men, 2017 B.C. The first guards and regular troops as a standing army were formed by Saul, 1093 B.C. — Eii^cbiim. The army of Xerxes invading Greece is said to have been 1,700,000 foot and 80,000 horse : 480 B.C. One ofthe first stand- ing armies of which we have any account is that of Philip of Macedon. The army which Darius opposed to Alexander the Great (332 B.C.) is set down as be- tween 750,000 and a million. The first standing army which existed as such, in modern times, was maintain- ed in France by Charles VII. in 1445. The chief Euro- pean nations have had in their service the following armies: Spain, 150,000 men; Great Britain, 310,000; Prussia, 350,000; Turkey, 450,000; Austria, 500,000; Russia, 560,000 ; and France, 680,000. Estimated num- ber in Europe in 1863, 6,000,000 soldiers, 1,000,000 horses, 11,000 guns, ARMY, United States. The standing army of the United States may be said to have begun with the or- ganization of the War Department, Aug. 7, 1789. The army in 1790 was 1200 strong ; in 1791, 900 men were added. In 1798, in view of war with France, a provis- ional 10,000 men was authorized, which allowed num- ber was the next year enlarged to about 40,000 regu- lars and as many volunteers. Some oflicers were ap- pointed and men raised, but the danger passed away, and the standing army was in 1802 fixed at about the old force. During the war of 1812 the army was in- creased; 25,000 regulars were voted; and in January of that year, 50,000 volunteers were authorized. At the peace of 1815 the army was disbanded. In 1831 a peace establishment was organized. The Florida War last- ed from 1835 to 1842, and required a force increased by regulars and militia. At the beginning of the Mexi- icau War, May, 1846, the regular army was 7244 strong, General Taylor having with him in Texas 8554. Dur- ing that war 29,000 regulars were enlisted and 50,000 volunteers employed. After the war the army was re- duced to its previous strength. April 15, 1861, the first levy against the rebeilion'was made by the call for 75,000 volunteers. May 3, 42,000 more volunteers were called out for three years or the war. July 22, Congress authorized the President to call for 500,000 vohtnteers for any proper term, and on the 25th another force of 500,000 was permitted. The actual ntimbers of the United States arrivals in the field, Aug., 18C2, was 1,135,416, of which the regular army was 43,014. Up to the beginning of 1863 the whole number of volun- teers sent into the field was 1,276,240. The maximmn strength ofthe army is now fixed by the act of July 28, 1860, at 75,382 rank and file ; its present strength is fixed at 54,302 ; and, as soon as the ranks are filled, it is designed to raise the standard of qualifications re- quired for enlistments. ARMY, British, mainly arose in the reign of Charles II. in 1661, in consequence of the extinction of feudal tenures. The first five regiments of British infantry were established between 1633 and 1680. James II. established several regiments of dragoon guards (1685 -8). In 1685 the army consisted of 7000 foot and 1700 cavalry. Standing armies were introduced by Charles I. in 1638 ; they were declared illegal in England, 31 Charles II., 1679 ; but one was then gradually forming, which was maintained by William III., 1689, when the Mutiny Act was passed. See Regiments. Grose's "His- tory of the British Army" was published in 1801. The eflective rank and file ofthe army actually serving in the pay of Great Britain on the 24th of Dec, 1800, amounted to 168,082; and the estimates ofthe whole army in that year were i;i7,973,000. The militia, vol- unteers, and other auxiliary forces were of immense amount at some periods of the war ending in 1815. The strength of the volunteer corps was greatest be- tween the 3'ear8 1798 and 1804, in which latter year this species of force amounted to 410,000 men, of whom 70,000 were Irish ; and the militia had increased to 130,000 men, previously to the regular regiments being recruited from its ranks in 1809. The Tollowing are statements of the eff"ective military strength of the United Kingdom at the periods mentioned, and ofthe sums voted for military expenditure : ARM Men. Sum voted. 17S0, Time of war: troops of the liuello.uOO i;7,S47,ooo ISUU, War 168,000 17,973,000 IslO, War : army including foreign troops 300,000 26,74S,000 1815, Last year of the war 300,000 39,150,000 1820, Time of peace ; war encum- brances 88,100 18,253,000 1830, Peace 89,300 6,991,000 1840, Peace 93,471 6,890,267 1850, Peace 99,118 6,763,488 1862, Peace (except Kaffir War) loi,93T 7,018,164 1854, War with Russia 112,977 7,167,486 1856, War with Russia 178,645* 13,721,158 1856, War with Russia (eflective men 154,806) 206,836 14,545,059 (Sept. 5, 1856, reduced to 125,000 men, ex- clusive of the Indian armj-.) 1859, Prospect of European war iu) 109,640 13,300,000 April— June (in Great Brit- >• (Only those at aiu) ) home.) 1860, War with China 235,852 14,842,000 1801 212,773 14,168,621 1862 " " 1863 (With Indian army) 220,918 15,000,237 ARMY, AND NAVT, ANB OTHER 0UAEGE8 OF THE WAE WITH EU88IA. 51 ARS Army Navy Ordnance Transports (increase } in Navy) f Original Esti- mate 1854-5. Actual Charge 1854-5. Entimate for 1855-6. X6,287,4S6 7,487,948 3,845,878 i:7, 11)7,486 10,417,309 6,986,662 3,582,474 il3,721,158 10,716,338 7,808,042 6,181,465 Total £17,i;al,:il2 £27, 153,931 £37,427,003 Volunteers in Great Britain in 1862 stated to be 167,291. BEITISn AK.MY ; NON-COM.MISSIONEB OPFICEEB AND PRI- VATES IN 1840. English Scotch Irish Life Guards. Horse Guards. Foot Guards. Cavalry. Infantry. 724 67 19 367 22 10 4314 472 64 6174 781 2569 35,785 12,046 36,531 Total 810 399 4S50 9524 84,362 The Army Service Acts : 12 & 13 Vict., c. 37 (June 21, 1847), and 18 Vict., c. 4 Feb. 27, 1855 The Mutiny Act is passed annually ; alterations were made in this Act and in the Articles of War in 1855. See Militia and Volunteers. Officers in the service of the East India Company to have the same rank and precedence as those in the regular army April 25, " The office of Master General of the Ordnance abol- ished, and the civil administration of the Army and Ordnance vested in the hands of Lord Pan- mure, the Minister of War May 25, " Examination of staff officers previous to their ap- pointment ordered April 9, 1857 The army largely recruited in 1857 and 1858, in con- sequence of the war in India. The East India Company's army was transferred to the queen 1859 Much dissatisfaction arose in that army in conse- quence of no bounty being granted ; and threat- eniugs of mutiny appeared, 'which subsided after an arrangement was made granting discharge to those who desired it. See India 1859 Examination of candidates for the Military Acad- emy, previously confined to pupils from Sand- hurst, was thrown open, 1855; the principle of ' this measure was affirmed by the House of Com- mons by vote April 20, 1858 By 22 & 23 Vict., c. 42, provision made for a reserve force, not to exceed 20,000 men, who had been in her majesty's service 1859 Flogging virtually abolished in the army : First- class soldiers to be degraded to second class be- fore being liable to it Nov. 9, " A report of a commission in 1858 causes great san- itary improvements in the army, barracks, etc., under the direction of Mr. Sidney Herbert. . .1859-60 ARMY OF OcoFPATioN. The allied powers, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, by the treaty signed Nov. 20, 1815, established the boundaries of France, and stipulated for the occupation of certain fortresses by foreign troops for three years, to the intense disgust of the na- tives. * Besides this national army, 14,950 foreijjn troops were voted for the survice of the year 1855-6 ; and the English militia was called out, and Increased to the number of 120,000 men, thus forming a total of 313,595, exclusive of 20,000 Turkish auxiliaries taken into British pay. AROMATICS. Acron of Agrigentum is said to have been the first who caused great fires to be made and aromatics to to be thrown into them, to purify the air, by which means he put a stop to the plague at Athens, 473 B.C.-Nouv. Diet. ^ ^ ARPAD, Dynasty of, founded in Hungary, A D 899, by Arpad the Magyar, who died 907 ; ended with Andrew HI., 1801. ARPINUM (S. Italy), celebrated as the birthplace of Cicero, Jan. 3, 106 B.C. ; many remains still bear his name. ARQUES (N. France). Near here the League armv commanded by the Due de Mayenne, was defeated by Henry IV., Sept. 21, 1589. ARRACAN, a province of N.E. India. Arraean the capital, was taken by the Burmese, 1783 ; and taken irom them by General Morrison, April 1, 1825. The subjugation of the whole province soon followed. ARRAIGNMENT consists in reading the indict- ment by the officer of the court, and calling upon the prisoner to say whether he is guilty or not guilty. Formerly, persons who refused to plead in cases of felony were pressed to death by weights placed upon the breast. A person standing mute was declared con- victed by an act passed 1772 ; but in 1827 the court was directed to enter a plea of "not guilty" in such cases. See Mute. ARRAS (N.E. of France), the ancient Atrebates, the seat of a bishop since 390. Here a treaty was con- cluded between the King of France and Duke of Bur- gundy, when the latter abandoned his alliance with England, Sept. 22, 14.^5. Another treaty was concluded by Maximilian of Austria with Louis XL of France, whereby the counties of Burgundy and Artois were given to the dauphin as a marriage portion ; this lat- ter was entered into in 1482 Velln. Arras was held by the Austrians from 1493 till 1040i when it was taken by Louis XIII. ARRAY. On Dec. 23, 1324, Edward IL directed the Bishop of Durham to make " arraier" his meu-of-arms, horse and foot, and cause them to proceed to Ports- mouth ; thence to proceed to the war in Gascony Burner's Fcedera. Hallam says that this was the ear- liest commission of array that he could find, and that the latest was dated 1557. The attempt of Charles L to revive commissions of array in 1642, founded on a statute of Henry IV., was strenuously opposed as ille- gal. ARREST FOR DEBT. The State of New York was the first to abolish the law of arrest for debt (1831). The other states have followed in the same direction at various times. ARRETINUM. See Arezzo. ARSENAL, a great military or naval repositorj'. The largest in England is at Woolwich, ivhich see. The arsenals of the United States government within the rebel states, with the exception of Fortress Mon- roe, passed into the hands of the rebels at their se- cession. Those maintained by the government in 1SC4 were as follows : Arsenal. State. Post-otBce. Kennebec Maine Augusta. Springfield (arm'y) .Massachusetts. Springfield. Watertown Massachusetts. Watertown. Champlain Vermont Vergenues. Watervliet New York West Troy. New York New York New York. Alleghanj' Pennsylvania. .Pittsburg. Frankford Pennsylvania. .Bridesburg. ' Pikesville Maryland Pikesville. Washington Dist. Columbia. Washington. Portress Monroe. . .Virginia Old Point Comfort. St. Louis Missouri St. Louis. Leavenworth Kansas Leavenworth. Detroit Michigan Dearboruville. Benicia California Benicia. The 37th Congress, at its second session, passed an act to establish three additional national arsenals at Columbus, O. ; Indianapolis, Ind. ; and Rock Island, III. ARSENIC, a steel-gray colored brittle metal, ex- tremely poisonous, known in early times. Brandt, in 1733, made the first accurate experiments on its chem- ical nature. The heinous crimes committed by means of this mineral obliged the English Legislature to en- act regulations for its sale, 1851. The sale of all col- orless preparations of arsenic is regulated by this act. In 18.58 Dr. A. S. Taylor asserted that green paper- hangings prepared from arsenic were injurious to ARS 52 AEU health ; which appears to be true, although doubted by some chemists. ARSENITE SoHiSM. See Eastern Church, 1255. ARSON was punished with death by the Saxons, and remained a capital crime on the consolidation of the laws iu 1827, 1S3T, and 1801. If any house be fired, persons being therein, or if any vessel be tired, with a view to murder or plunder, it shall be death, statute 1 Vict, July, 1837. In some of the United States the law remains the same as iu England ; others make the setting lire to an inhabited house punishable by im- prisonment for life. There are various degrees of ar- son, and minor punishments for minor degrees of the offense. ARSOUP (Syria), Battle of, in which Richard I. of England, commanding the Christian forces, reduced to 30,000, defeated Saladin's army of 300,000 Saracens and other infidels, on Sept. 3 or 7, 1191. Ascalon sur- rendered. Richard marched to Jerusalem, 1192. ARTEMISIUM, a promoutory in Euboea, near which indecisive conflicts took place between the Greek and Persian fleets for three days; 480 B.C. The former retired on hearing of the battle of Thermopylas. ARTESIAN WELLS (from Artesia, now Artois, in France, where they frequently occur) are formed by boring through the upper soil to strata coutainiug water, which has percolated from a higher level, and which rises to that level through the boring tube. The fountains in Trafalgar Square, Loudon, and gov- ernment offices near, have been supplied since 1344 by two of these wells (393 feet deep). At Paris, the Gre- nelle well (1798 feet deep) was completed in 1841, after eight years of exertion, by M. Mulot, at an expense of aljout £12,000, and the well at Passy, which, it is said, will supply suflicient water for nearly 500,000 persons, was begun in 1S55, and completed in 1800 by M. Kind. Messrs. Amos and Easton completed an artesian well for the Horticultural Society's Garden in 1802. It yielded 880,000 gallons of water, at the temperature of 81° Fahr., in 24 hours. The well at Kissingeu was completed in 1850. There are many ■wells "in New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and other parts of the United States, bored to reach salt water. The petro- leum wells recently bored iu Western Pennsylvania and elsewhere are artesian. Artesian wells are now becoming common. ARTICHOKES are said to have been introduced from the East into Western Europe iu the 15th centu- ry, and to have reached England about 1502. ARTICLES or Religion. In June 8, 153G, after much disputing, the English clergy in Convocation published "Articles decreed by the king's highness" Henry VIIL, who published in 1539 the "Statute of Six Articles," viz., traiisubstantiation, communion in oue kind, vows of chastity, private masses, celibacy of the clergy, and auricular confession. In 1.5.51 forty-two were published without the consent of Parliament. These forty-two were modified and reduced toTuiKxy- NiNE in Jan., 1.503 ; and they received the royal author- ity and the authority of "Parliament in 1571. The Lambeth Articles, of a more Calvinistic character, at- tempted to be imposed by Archbishop Whitgift, were withdrawn iu consequence of the displeasure of Queen Elizabeth, 1595. Oue hundred and four articles were drawn np for Ireland by Archbishop Usher in 1014. On the uuiou of the churches, the Irish adopted the English articles. See Perth Articles. ARTICLES OF War were decreed in the time of Richard I. and Johu. Those made by Richard II. in 1485 appear in Grose's "Military Antiquities." The Articles of War now in force are based upon an act, passed by William III. in 1089, to regulate the army about to engage in his Contiuental warfare. Iu the United States, Congress only can make Articles of War. These have been based on the English articles and Mutiny Act. They were first adopted by the Con- tinental Congress, July 80, 1775, and extended March 20, 177G ; enacted again, with little alteration, April 10, 1806. ARTIFICERS and Manufactureks. Their affairs were severely regulated by the statutes of 1.S49, 1351, 1300, 1502. They were prohibited from leaving En- gland, and those abroad were outlawed if they did not return within six months after the notice given them. A fine of £100, and imprisonment for three months, were the penalties for seducing them from these realms by 9 Geo. II. (1730) and other statutes, which were re- pealed in 1824. ARTILLERY, a term including properly all mis- siles : now applies to cannon. The first piece was a small oue, contrived by Schwartz, a German Cordelier, soon after the invention of gunpowder, in 1330. Artil- lery was used, it is said, by the Moors of Algesiras, in Spain, in the siege of 1343 ; it was used, according to historians, at the battle of Crecy, in 1340, when Ed- ward III. had four pieces of cannon, which gained him the battle. Artillery was used at the siege of Calais, 1347. The Venetians first employed artillery against the Genoese at sea, 1377. — Voltaire. Said to have been used by the English at Calais in 1383. Cast in En- gland, together with mortars for bomb-shells, by Flem- ish artists, in Sussex, 1543. — R;/mer's Fcedera. Made of brass, 1635 ; improvements by Browne, 1728. (See Cannon, Bombs, Carronades (under Carron), Mortal's, Howitzers, Petard, Rockets, Fire-arms.) The Royal Ar- tillery regiment was established in the reign of Anne. ARTILLERY COMPANY of Boston, Mass., was or- ganized 163S, and is the oldest military body in the United States. It has an annual sermon on occasion of its election of officers, and the printed series of these discourses begins with that of Rev. Urian Oakes, 1672. ARTILLERY COMPANY of London, Honorable, instituted in 1585, having ceased, was revived in 1610. It met for military exercise at the Artillery ground, Finsbury, where the London Archers had met since 1498. See Archery. In the Civil War, 1641-S, the com- pany took the side of the Parliament, and greatly con- tributed toward its success. The company numbered 1200 in 180.3, and 800 in 1861. Since 1842 the officers have been appointed by the queen. Ou the decease of the Duke of Sussex in 1843, the prince consort be- came colonel and captain general. He died Dec. 14, 1801, and the Prince of Wales was appointed his suc- cessor, Aug. 24, 1803. ARTISTS' FUND was established in 1810 to provide allowances for sick, and annuities for incapacitated members. ARTS. In the 8th century, the whole circle of sci- ences was composed of seven liberal arts — grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, music, geometry, and as- tronomy. — Harris. The Royal Society of England (which see) obtained its charter A])ril 2, 1063. The So- ciety of Arts, to promote the polite arts, commerce, manufactures, and mechanics, was instituted in 1754: it originated iu the patriotic zeal of Mr. Shipley, and of its first president. Lord Folkestone. — Fine Arts. The first public exhibition by the artists of the British me- tropolis took place in 1700, at the rooms of the Society of Arts, and was repeated there for several years, till, in process of time, the Royal Academy was founded. See Royal Academy. The Society of British Artists was instituted May 21, 1823, and their first exhibition was opened April 19, 1824. The Society for the En- couragement of the Fine Arts was founded in Dec, 1858. See National (Jallery. ART-ITNIONS began in France and Germany early in the preseut century. The first in Britain was estab- lished at Edinburg ; that iu London was founded in 1S36, and chartered iu 1840, when these unions were legalized. Every subscriber is entitled to prints, and has the chance of drawing prizes. The first art-union in the United States was the American Art-Union at New York, 1839 to 1851. These art-unions are lotteries. The New York was discontiniied under the lottery law of that state. ARUNDEL CASTLE (Sussex), built by the Saxons about 800. The Duke of Norfolk eujoys the earldom of Arundel, as a feudal honor, by Inheritance and pos- session of the castle, without any other creation. Phil- ip Howard, son of the attainted" Duke of Norfolk, was made Earl of Arundel, by summons, as possessor of this castle, 15S0. It was thoroughly repaired by a late duke at a vast expense. ARUNDELIAN MARBLES, called also Oxford Mar- bles ; one containing the chronology of ancient histo- ry from 1582 to .355 B.C., and said to have been sculpt- ured 264 B.C. They consist of 37 statues, 128 busts, and 250 inscriptions, and were found in the isle of Paros, in the reign of James I., about 1610. They were collected by Mr. W. Petty, purchased by Lord Arundel, and giveu by his grandson, Henry Howard, afterward Duke of Norfolk,"to the ITniversity of Oxford in 1667, and are therefore also called Oxford Marbles. The characters of the inscriptions are Greek. There are two translations : by Selden, 1628 ; by Pridcnvx, 1676. A variorum edition of the inscriptions, by Mnittaire, appeared in 1732, and a fine one, by Chandler, in 17G3. See Kidd's Tracts; and Parson's Treatise, 1789. ARUSPICES. See Harusxtices. AS 63 AS, .1 Komaii wcis:;lit and coin : when considered as a weii^lit, it was a pound ; wlicu a coin, it had diflcr- ent wuit;hts, but always the same value. In the reign of Servuis, the as weij^hed a pound of brass ; in the first Pnnic War, it weighed two ounces, 264 B.C. ; in the second Punic War, one ounce, 21S B.C. ; and after- ward half an ounce; its value was about three far- things sterling. . ASAPn, ST. (N. Wales), a bishopric founded by Kentigern, bishop of Glasgow. On returning into Scotland about r>a\ he left a holy man, St. Asaph, his successor, from whom the see takes its name. It is valued in the king's books at XIST lis. Gd. By an or- der in council, 1S3S, the sees of St. Asaph and Bangor were to have been united on the next vacancy in either, and the bishopric of Manchester was to have been then created. This order was annulled in 184G, and the two sees still exist. Present income, i;4200. See Maiwhes- Ur. RECENT lilSnOPS OF ST. ASAPH. 1802. Samuel Horsley, died Oct. 4, 1806. 1806. William Cleaver, died May 15, 1815. 1815. John Lnxmoore, died Jan. 21, 1830. 1830. William Carey, died Sept. 13, 1S4G. 1S4G. Thomas Vowler Short (it.ksemt bishop, 1SG5). ASBESTOS, a native fossil stone, which may be split into threads and filaments, and which is endued with the property of i*emainiug uucousumed in fire. Cloth was made o"f it by the Egyptians {Ilcrmlotits), and nap- kins in the time of Pliny, 74; and also paper. The spinning of asbestos known at Venice about 1500.— I'orta. ASCALON (Syria), a city of the Philistines, shared the fate of Phoenicia and Judea. The Egyptian army was defeated here bv the Crusaders, under Godfrey of Bouillon, Aug. 12, 1090. Ascalon was besieged by the latter in 1148, taken in 1153, and again in ll'Jl. Its fortifications were destroyed for fear of the Crusaders by the sultan in 1270. ASCENSION, an island in the Atlantic Ocean, 800 miles N.W. of St. Helena, discovered by the Portu- guese in 1501, and taken possession of by the English m 1815. ASCENSION DAY, also called Holy Thursday, when the Church celebrates the ascension of our Savior, the fortieth day after his resurrection from the dead. May 14, 83 ; first commemorated, it is said, 68. Asceusiou day, 1S66, Jlay 10 ; 1867, May 30 ; 1868, May 21. ASCULUM, now Ascoli, a city of the Picentes, Cen- tral Italy, E. Near it, Pyrrhus of Epirus defeated the Romans, 279 B.C. In 2GS B.C., the whole country of the Picentes was subdued by the Consul Sempronius. InllOOA.D., Andrea, the general of the Emperor Hen- ry VI., who was endeavoring to wrest the crown of Na- ples from Tancred, was defeated and slain. ASIIANTEES, a warlike tribe of negroes of West Africa. In 1807 they conquered Fantee, in which the British settlement of Cape Coast Castle is situated. On the death of the king, who had been friendly to the English, hostilities bega'n ; and on Jan. 21, 1824, the Ash- antees defeated about 1000 British under Sir Charles M'Carthy at Acfra, and brought away his skull with others as trophies. They were totally defeated, Aug. 27, 1826, by Col. Purdon. The governor of Cape Coast Castle began a war with the Ashantees in the spring of 1S63. The British troops suffered much through disease ; and the war was suspended by the govern- ment in May, 1864. ASHBURTON TREATY, concluded at Washincrtou, D. C, Aug. 9, 1S42, by Alexander Baring, Lord .\shhur- ton, and Daniel Webster, then secretary of state, plen- ipotentiaries. ASIIDOWN, or Assendnne, now thought to be As- ton, Berks, where Ethelred and his brother Alfred de- feated the Danes in 871. ASIIMOLEAN LIBRARY (hooks, raannscripts, coins, etc.) was presented to the University of Oxford by Elias Ashmole, the herald and antiquary, about 16S2. It included the collection of the Tradescants, to whom he was executor. He died at Lambeth in 1G92. The Ashmoleau Society, Oxford (scientific), was estab- lished in 1S2S. ASIITAROTII, a Phrenician goddess, occasionally worshiped bv th(! Israelites (see Jidhir.t ij., ^y,) aliout 1406 B.C., and even by Solomon, about 9S4 B.C. (1 Kii)' when a land-tax was imposed. See Land-tax. The assessed taxes yielded in 1815 (the last year of the war), exclusively of the laud-tax, .£6,524,706, their high- est amount. These imposts have varied in their na- ture and amount, according to the exigencies of the state, and the contingencies of war and peace. They were considerably advanced in 1797 and 1801, et ftcq., but considerably reduced in 1810 and in subsequent years. The last act for the repeal of certain assessed taxes was passed 10 & 17 Vict., cap. 90, Aug. 20, 1853, Avhich was explained and amended by 17 & 18 Vict, cap. 1, Feb. 17, 1854.— Acts for the better securing and * He sent his emissaries to assassinate Louis IX. of France, called St. Louis ; hut, heini; afterward affected by the fame of this kintj's virtues, and he heing at the time in his minority, he grave the prince notice to take care of himself.— Z/enouft. This statement is doubted. accounting for the Assessed and Income Taxes, Aug. 10, 1854. See Taxes and Income Tax. ASSIENTO, a contract between the King of Spain and other powers for furnishing the Spanish domin- ions in America with negro slaves, began with the Flemings. By the treaty of Utrecht in 1713, the Brit- ish government engaged to furnish 4300 negroes an- nually to Spanish America for thirty years. "The con- tract was vested in the South Sea Company ; but this infamous contract was given up in 1750. See Guinea. ASSIGNATION, a Russian paper-money introduced about 1770, principally to carry on the war against Turkey. Issued extensively, also, during the wars against Napoleon. ASSIGNATS, a paper currency, ordered by the Na- tional Assembly of France to .support public credit during the Revolution, April, 1790. At one period, eight milliards, or nearly 350 millions of pounds ster- ling, of this paper were in circulation in France and its dependencies. — Aliaon. Assiguats were superseded by mandats in 1796. ASSIZE COURTS {from assideo, I sit) are of very an- cient institution in England, and in old law books are defined to be an assembly of knights and other sub- stantial men, with the justice, to meet at a certain time and place: regulated by Mas;naCharta, 1215. The present justices oif assize and Sisi Prius are derived from the statute of Westminster, 13 Edw. I., 1284.— Coke; Blackstone. "The king doth will that no lord, or other of the country, shall sit upon the bench with the justices to take assize in their sessions in the coun- ties of England, upon great forfeiture to the king," 20 Rich. II., 1396. — Statutes, Brourjh Act. Assizes are gen- eral or special ; general when the judges go their cir- cuits, and special when a commission is issued to take cognizance of one or more causes. See Bloody Assize, ASSOCIATIONS. See National Associations. ASSUMPTION, Feast of tue, Aug. 15. It is ob- served by the Church of Rome in honor of the Virgin Mary, who is said to have been taken up to heaven in her corporeal form, body and spirit, on this day, 45, in her 75th year. The festival was instituted in the 7th century, and enjoined by the Council of Mentz, 813. ASSYRIA, an Asiatic country between Mesopotamia and Media, was the seat of the earliest recorded mon- archy. Its history is mainly derived from Ctesias, an early Greek historian of doubtful authenticity, Herod- otus, and the Holy Scriptures. The discovery of the very interesting Niuevite antiquities, uow in the Brit- ish Museum, by Mr. Layard, and the deciphering of many ancient cuneiform inscriptions by Grotefend, Sir H. Ravvlinson, and other scholars, have drawn much attention to the Assyrians. The chrouologers, Blair, Usher, Hales, and Clinton, difler much in the dates they assign to events in Assyrian history, of which a large portion is now considered fabulous by modern writers. Nimrod or Belus reigns. . . .B.C. [2554 H., 2235 C] 2245 " Asshur builded Nineveh" (G'ew. x., 11) about 221S Ninus, son of Belus, reigns in Assyria, and names his capital Nineveh [2182 0.] 2009 Babylon taken by Ninus, who, having subdued the Armenians, Persians, Bactrians, and all A.sia Mi- nor, establishes what is properly the Assyrian monarchy, of which Nineveh was the seat of em- pire— Blair [2233 C] 20.59 Ninyas, an infant, succeeds Ninus 201T Semiramis, mother of Ninyas, usurps the govern- ment, enlarges and embellishes Babylon, and makes it the seat other dominion [2130 C.^2007 She invades Libya, Ethiopia, and India — Lenglet. .1975 She is put to death by her son Ninyas 1965 Ninyas put to death, and Arius reigns 1927 Reign of Aralins 189T Belochus, the last king of the race of Ninus. 1446 He makes his daughter Atossa, surnamed Semira- mis II., his associate on the throne 1433 Atossa procures the death of her father, and mar- ries Belatores (orBelapares), who reigns 1421 The prophet Jonah appears in Nineveh, and fore- tells its destruction — Blair 840 Nineveh taken by Arbaces. [Sardanapalns, the I king, is mythically said to have inclosed him- self. His court, and women in his palace, and to have perished in the fire kindled by himself]. . . 820 Phul raised to the ihrone— Blair about 77T He invades Israel, but departs without drawing a sword— />?«?>; 2 Kinqs xv., 19, 20 770 Tiglath-Pilcser invades Syria, takes Damascus, and makes great conquests 740 AST 55 ATE Sha]maiicf=er takes Samaria, transports the people, vlioni he replaces by a colouy of Ciitheaiis aud uthers, aud thus finishes the kingdom of Israel —lilair T21 lie retires from before Tyre, after a siege of five years— />Va?r 713 Sennacherib invades Judea, aud his general, Rab- shakc'h, licsiegcs Jerusalem, when the angel of the Lord in one night destroys 180,000 of his army — fsaiak xxsvii 710 [Ciiiniiieiitators suppose that this messenger of di'ath was the fatal blast known in Eastern countries by tlie name of Saviiel.'] Esar-haddon invades Judea 6S0 lioloferues is slain by Judith (?) 0T7 Sarac (Sardanapalus II.) besieged, kills his wife and cliildreu, and burns himself in his palace. . . C21 Kincveh razed to the ground, and Assyria becomes a ISledian province. 605 A.-syria subdued by Alexander the Great 332 It subsequently formed part of the kingdoms of Syria, I'arthia, and Persia. It was conquered by the Turks A.D. 1637 ASTEROIDS. See Planets. ASTLEY'S AMPHITHEATRE. See under Thea- tres. ASTOR LIBRARY, New Y'ork. John Jacob Astor (born at Waldorf, near Heidelberg, July 17, 1703, died at New York, March 29, 1S4S) left by will $400,000 to establish " a public library in the city of Now York." Dr. Cogswell was made librarian. May, IS-tS, went to Europe, aud In four months bought 20,000 books for $•20,000, and in a short time afterward bought 50,000 more, and the library was opened, with about 80,000 volumes in all, Jan. 9, 1S54, in the present building. In Jan., IS.'iO, William B. Astor, son of the founder, gave the land to double the size of the building, which has since been done, and it has now room for over 200,000 volumes. The present number of books is over 100,000. ASTOR PLACE RIOTS, made by friends of Edwin Forrest to break up Mr. Macready's acting at the Astor Place Opera House in New York, May 10, 1S49. ASTORGA (N.W. Spain), the ancient Asturica Au- gusta, was taken by the French in ISIO, and treated with great severity. ASTORIA, Oregon, at the mouth of Columbia River, founded ISIO, by John Jacob Astor, as a station for his fur trade. ASTRA CAN (S.E. Russia), a province acquired from the Mogul's empire in 1554 ; visited and settled by Pe- ter the Great iu 1722. ASTROLOGY. Judicial astrology was invented by the Chakheans, and hence was transmitted to the Egyp- tians, Greeks, and Romans. It was nuich in vogue' in Italy and France in the time of Catharine de Medicis (married to Francis I. of France, 'i5S^).—Uenault. The early history of astrology iu England is very little known. It is said that Bede, 673-735, was addicted to it; and Roger Bacon, 1214-1292. Lord Burleigh cal- culated the iiativity of Elizabeth, and she, and all the European princes, "were the humble servants of Dee, the astrologer and conjuror ; but the period of the Stu- arts was the acme of astrology among us. It is stated that Lilly was consulted by Charles I. respecting his projected escape from Carisbrooke Castle in 1647. — Fcntvson. Astrological almanacs are still published iu New York and London. ASTRONOMY. The earliest astronomical observa- tions were made at Babylon about 2234 B.C. The study of astronomy was much advanced in Chaldaea nuder Nabonassar ; It was known to the Chinese about 1100 B.C.; some say many centuries before. See EclijMi'H, Planets, Comets. Lunar eclipses observed at Babylon, and recorded by Ptolemy about B.C. 720 Spherical form of the earth, and the true cause of hmar ccOiiiscs, taught by Thales, died 546 Farther discoveries by Pythagoras, who taught the doctrine of celestial motions, and believed iu the l)lurality of habitable worlds, died about 470 Melon introduces the lunar solar cycle about 432 Treatises of Aristotle "concerning the heavens," and of Autolycus "on the motion of the sphere" (the earliest extant works on astronomy), about 350 Aratus writes a poem on astronomy 281 Arcbiuiedes observes solstices, etc 212 llipi)archus, greatest of Greek astronomers, deter- iniucs mean motion of sun and moon ; discovers prerrssion of cnuinoxes, etc 160-125 The precession of the equinoxes couflrmed, aud the places and distances of the planets discover- ed by Ptolemy A.D. 130-150 Astronomy and geography cidtivated by the Arabs about 700; brought into Europe about fOO Alphousine Tables {whieli see) composed about 1253 Clocks first used in astrouomy about 1500 True doctrine of the motions of the planetary bod- ies revived by Copernicus, fouuder of modern astrouomy, anthcn- of the Almagest, published. 1543 Astronomy advanced by Tycho Brahe, who yet ad- heres to the Ptolemaic system about 1583 True laws of the planetary motions announced by ^ Kepler igqo Galileo constructs a telescope, 1609 ; and discovers Jupiter's satellites, etc Jan. 8, 1010 Various forms of telescopes and other instruments used iu astrouomy invented 1608-40 Cartesian System published by Des Cartes. ..... .1637 The transit of Veuus over the sun's disk first ob- served by Horrocks Nov. 24, 1639 Cassini draws his meridian line, after Daute. See Bologna \Qt>5 The aberration of the light of the fixed starsdis- covered by Horrebow 1059 Huyghens completes the discovery of Saturn's ring 1054 Gregory invents a reflecting telescope .".1663 Discoveries of Picard 1669 Charts of the moon constructed by Scheiuer, Lan- grenus, Ilevelius, Riccioli, and others about 1670 Discoveries of Riimer on the velocity of light, and his observation of Jupiter's satellites 1675 Greenwich Observatory founded " Motion of the sun round its own axis proved by Halley '.ic7G Newton's Pi-incijyia published ; and the system, as now taught, demonstrated 1687 Catalogue of the stars made by Flamsteed IGSS Cassiui's chart of the full moon executed 1092 Satellites of Saturn, etc., discovered by Cassini. . .1701 Halley predicts the return of the comet (of 1758).. 1705 Flamsteed's Historia Coelestis published 1725 Aberration of the stars clearly explained by Dr. Bradley • 1737 John Harrison produces chronometers for deter- mining the longitude, 1735cise<;., and obtains the reward 1704 Nautical almanac first published 1767 Celestial inequalities found by La Grange 17S0 Uranus and satellites discovered by Herschel. See Georgiuin Sidus March 13, 1781 Mecanique Celeste, by La Place, published 179(5 Royal Astronomical Society of London founded, 1S20 ; chartered 1831 Beer and Mildler's map of the moon published 1S34 Lord Rosse's telescope constructed 1828-45 The planet Neptune discovered Sept. 23, 1846 Bond photographs the moon (see Photofjraphy, ce- lestial) ; \ 1S51 Hansen's table of the moon published at the ex- pense of the British government 1857 Trustees of the late Rev. Richard Sheepshanks present X10,000 stock to Trinity College, Cam- bridge, for the promotion of the study of astrou- omy, meteorology, and magnetism Dec. 2, 1S5S Large photograph of the mo"ou by Warren de la Rue 18G3 (For the minor planets recently discovered, see Planets.) ASTURIAS (N.W. Spain), an ancient principalitv, the cradle of the present monarchy. Here Pelayo col- lected the Gothic fugitives, about 713, and fouiided a new kingdom, and by his victories permanently check- ed the progress of the Moorish conquest. For a list of his successors, see the article Spain. The heir-appar- ent of the monarchy has borne the title "Prince ofAs- turias" since 13SS, when it was assumed by Henry, son of John I., king of Leon, on his marriage with a de- scendant of Peter of Castile. In ISOS, the Junta of As- turias began the organized resistance to the French usurpation. ASYLUMS, OK Privileged Places, at first were places of refuge for those who by accident or necessi- ty had done things that rendered them obnoxious to the law. God commanded the Jews to build certain cities for this purpose, 1451 B.C., Xumbers xxv.— The posterity of Hercules are said to have built one at Athens, to protect themselves against such as their father had irritated. Cadmus bnilt one at Thebes, 1400 B.C., and Romulus one at Mount Palatiue, 751 B.C. See Sanctuarirs. ATELIERS NATIONAFX (National Workshops) were established by the French provisional govern- ment in Feb., 1S4S. They interfered greatly with pri- ATH ATII vate trade, aud about 100,000 workmen threw tliem- eelves upon the government for labor and payment. The breakiug-up of the system led to the fearful con- flicts in June following. The system was abolished in July. ATHANASIAN CREED. Athanasius, of Alexan- dria, was elected bishop, 32C. He firmly opposed the doctrines of Arins (who denied Christ's divinity) ; was several times exiled ; and died in 373. The creed which goes by his name is supposed by many authorities to have been written about 340 ; by others to be the com- pilation of Vigilius Tapsensis, au African bishop in the 5th century. It was first commented on by Vena- tius Fortunatus, bishop of Poictiers, in 5T0. Dr. Wa- terlaud's History of this creed (1723) is exhaustive. See Arians. ATHEISM (from the Greek a, without, Theos, God, see Pmliii xiv., 1). This doctrine has had its votaries aud martyrs. Spinoza was the defender of a similar doctrine (1*'32-1077). Lucilio Vaniui publicly taught atheism iu France, and was condemned to be burnt at Toulouse iu 1019. jNIathias Knutzeu, of Holstein, openly professed atheism, and had upward of a thou- sand disciples in Germany about 1074; he traveled to make proselytes, and his followers were called Con- scienciaricn, because they held that there is do other deity than conscience. ATHEN.^A were great festivals celebrated at Ath- ens in honor of Minerva. One was called Panatheuiea, the other Chalcea ; they are said to have been insti- tuted by Erechtheus or Orpheus, 1397 or 14S5 B.C. ; and Theseus afterward renewed them, aud caused them to be observed by all the Athenians, the first ev- ery fifth year, 1234 B.C.— Plutarch. ATHEN^TJM, a place at Athens, sacred to Minerva, where the poets and philosophers recited their compo- sitions. The most celebrated Athennea were at Athens, Home, and Lyons : that of Rome, of great beauty, was erected by the Emperor Adrian, 125. — The Athen^um Club, of Loudon, was formed in 1S23, for the associa- tion of persons of scientific and literary attainments, artists, noblenieu aud gentlemen, patrons of learning, etc., by the Earl of Aberdeen, Marquess of Lansdowne, Dr. T. Young, Moore, Davy, Scott, Mackintosh, Croker, Chantrey, Faraday, Lawrence, and others ; the club- house was erected in 1S29-30 on the site of the late Carlton Palace; it is of Grecian architecture, and the frieze is au exact copy of the Pauathenaic procession which formed the frieze of the Parthenon. — The Liv- erpool Athenaeum was opened Jan. 1, 1799. — At Man- chester, Bristol (England), and many other places, buildings under this name, and for a like purpose, have been founded. — The Athcnrvuin, a London week- ly literary journal, first appeared in 1S2S. ATHENS, the capital of ancient Attica, and of the modern kingdom of Greece. The tirst sovereign men- tioned is Ogyges, who reigned in Bffiotia, and was master of Attica, then called Ionia. Iu his reign (about 17C4 B.C.) a delude took place (by some sup- posed to be the universal deluge), that laid waste the country, in which state it remained two hundred years, until the arrival of the Egyptian Cecrops aud a colony, by whom the laud was repeopled, and twelve cities founded, 1550 B.C. The city is said to have been first called Cecropia ; the name having been changed to Athens in honor of Minerva (Athene), her worship having been introduced by Erechtheus 13S3 B.C. Athens was ruled by seventeen successive kings (4S7 years), by thirteen perpetual archons (310 years), sev- en decennial archons (70 years), aud lastly by anmtal archons (700 years). It attained great power, aud per- haps no other city in the world can boast, in such a short space of time, of so great a number of citizens illustrious for wisdom, genius, and valor. The an- cients, to distinguish Athens in a more peculiar man- ner, called it Antxi, the city, by eminence, and one of the eyes of Greece. See Greece. Arrival of Cecrops B.C. [155S H., 1433 Cl.1 1556 The Areopagus established 1507 Deucalion arrives in Attica 1502 Reign of Amphictyon [1499 H.] 1497 The Pauathenteau Games [14S1 H.] 1495 Erichthonius reigus 14S7 Erectheus teaches husbandry 1383 Eleusinian my.steries introduced by Eumolpus 1350 Erechtheus killed in battle with the Eleusiuiaus. .1347 .iEgeus invades Attica, and ascends the throne.. .1283 He throws himself into the sea, and is drowned; hence the name of the .lEgean Sea. — Eusehiiui . .12^5 Theseus, his son, succeeds, and reigns 30 years. . . " He collects his subjects into one city, and names it Athens 1234 Reign of Mnestheus, 1205 ; DemophoOn 11S2 Court of Ephetes established 1179 The PriauepsiB instituted 1173 Melauthus conquers Xuthus iu single combat and is chosen king ll2S Reign of Codrus, his son, the last king 1092 In a battle with the Heraclidse, Codrus is killed : he had resolved to perish ; the oracle having de- clared that the victory should be with the side whose leader was killed, 1070. Royalty abolish- ed — Athens governed by archons ; Medon the first [1U70 //.] 1044 Alcmeon, last perpetual archon, dies 753 Cherops, first decennial archon 752 Hippomenes deposed for his cruelty ; among other acts, he exposed his own daughter to be devour- ed by horses on account of an illicit amour 713 Erixias, seventh and last decennial archon, dies . . . 6S4 Creou first anmud archon 683 Draco, the twelfth annual archon, publishes his laws, said " to have been written in blood" 621 Solon supersedes them by his excellent code 594 Pisistratus, the "tyrant," seizes the supreme pow- er, 500 ; flight of Solon, 559. Pisistratus estab- lishes his government, 537 ; collects a public li- brary, 531 ; dies 527 First tragedy acted at Athens, on a wagon, by Thespis 535 Hipparchus assassinated by Harmodius and Aris- toijeiton 514 The law of ostracism established ; Hippias and the Pisistratidfe banished 510 Lemuos taken by Miltiades 504 Invasion of the Persians, who are defeated at Mar- athon 490 Death of Miltiades 489 Aristides, surnamed the Jiist, banished 483 Athens taken by the Persian Xerxes 4S0 Burnt to the ground by Mardonius 479 Rebuilt and fortified ; Piraeus built 47S Themistocles bauished 471 Cimou, son of Miltiades, overruus all Thrace 409 Pericles takes part in public aftairs, 409 ; he and Cimon adorn Athens, 404; the latter banished through his influence 401 Athens begins to tyrannize over Greece 459 Literature, philosophy, and art flourish 448 The first Sacred (or Social) War ; lohich see " Tolmidas conducts au expedition into Boeotia, and is defeated and killed near Coronea 447 The thirty years' truce between the Athenians and Lacedffimonians 445 Herodotus said to have read his history iu the council at Athens " Pericles obtains the government 444 Pericles subdues Samos 440 Comedies prohibited at Athens " Alliance between Athens and Corcyra, then at war with Corinth, 433 ; leads to the Peloponuesiau War (lasted 27 years) ; it began 431 A dreadful pestilence, which had ravaged Ethiopia, Libya, Egypt, and Persia, extends to Athens, and continues for five years 430 Death of Pericles of the plague 429 Disastrous expedition against Sicily ; death of the commanders Demosthenes and Nicias ; Athe- nian fleet destroyed by Gylippus 415^13 Government of the " four hundred" 411 Alcibiades defeats the Lacedaemonians at Cyzicus ; tcltich see 410 Alcibiades, accused of aspiring to sovereign pow- er, banished 407 Athenian fleet destroj'ed by Lysauder at .(Egospo- tamos 405 He besieges Athens by land and sea ; its walls are destroyed, and it capitulates, and the Peloponue- siau War termiuates 404 Rule of the thirty tyrants, who are overthrown by Thrasybulus 403 Socrates (aged 70) put to death 399 The Corinthian War begins. 395 Cimon rebuilds the long walls, and fortifies the Pirieus 393 The Lacedieraonian fleet defeated at Naxos by Chabrias 376 Philip, king of Macedou, opposes the Athenians. See Maccdon 359 Second Sacred (or Social) War 357-355 First Philippic of Demosthenes 352 Battle of Chseronea, which see ; the Athenians and Thebans defeated by Philip 333 Philip assassinated by Pausanias 336 Athens submits to Alexander, who spares the ora- tors 335 ATII 67 ATT Death of Alexander 303 The Atheuiaut^, risinj^ against Macedou, defeated at Crauon ; IJcmostheues poisons himself 322 Athens surrenders to C'assauder, who governs well 318 Ucuietrius I'oliorcetes expels Demetrius Phalere- us, and restores the Athenian democracy, 3(lT; the hitter takes the chair of |)hiIosni)liy 20G A league between Athens, 8])arta, and Egypt 27T Athens taken by AntigonusCJonatas, king of Mace- dou, 2(js ; restored by Aratus 250 The Athenians join the Achaaan League 229 They join the ^tolians against Macedou, and send for assistance to Ronic 215 A Roman fleet arrives at Athens 211 The Romans jjroclaini liberty at Athens 100 Subjugation of Greece I44 The Athenians implore assistance against the Ro- mans from INIithridates, kin^ of Poutus, whose general, Archelaus, makes nimself master of Athens SS Athens besieged by Sylla, the Roman general, it is reduced to surreuder by timinc SO Cicero studies at Athens, 7" and Horace 42 The Athenians desert Pompey to follow the inter- ests of Ctesar 47 Athens visited by the Apostle Paul A.D. 52 Many temples, etc., erected by Hadrian 122-135 Athens taken by Alaric, and spared from slaugh- ter 39C By Mohammed II 145G By the Venetians 1400 Restored to the Turks I479 Athens suftcred much during the insurrection, 1S21-7. Taken May 17 1S27 Becomes the capital of the kingdom of modern _ Greece I833 Population, 50,000 1857 (See article Greece.) ATHERTON GAG. Resolutions to have all peti- tions and papers whatever relating to slavery "laid on the table, without being debated, printed, or re- ferred," introduced by Hoii. C. G. Athertou, of New Hampshire, passed by the United States House of Representatives by 120 to 78, Dec. 11, 1S3S, given up as useless, 1S45. . ATHERTOX MOOR, battle of, June 30, 1043. The Koyalists, under the Marquis of Newcastle, completely defeatiur- '■'— "-■■" ' - ' • - • - Essex. the Parliamentary army under the Earl of ATHLONB, Roscommon, Ireland, formerly a place of great strength and beauty, was burnt during the Civil War in 1041. After the battle of the Boyne, Col- onel R. Grace held Athlone for James II. against a besieging army, but fell when it was taken by assault by Ginckel, June 30, 1091. See Awjhrim. ATLANTA CAMPAIGN (May G-Sept. 2, 1804). This campaign, in which Generals Sherman and Johnston were antagonists, until the latter was relieved by Hood, is strategically the most interesting of the American Civil War. Sherman advanced (May 0) with 98,(1(10 men against Johnston, who was then posted and strongly fortified at Dalton with an army about half as large as that opposing him. The following are the important events of the campaign in their chronological order: Sherman demonstrated against Rocky Face Ridge (Buzzard's Roost), and sent M'Pherson's aniiy (over 20,000 strong) to gain Resaca and cut off Johnston's retreat (May 0). M'Pherson tailing, Sherman followed him with his whole army, and attacked Johnston, who had fallen back to Re- saca. Johnston worsted May 14, 15, 1804 Johnston retreated to Cassville (May 15-10) and finally across the Etowah May 20, " Jeff. C. Davis captured Rome May 17, " Sherman crossed the Etowah (May 23) and moved on Dallas, and, finding Johnston concentrated at New Hope Church, an indecisive battle followed. May 25, " Howards corps assailed Cleburne and was re- Pidsed May 27, " Confederate attack on M'Pherson repulsed. May 28, " Sherman all the while (May 24-June 4) deploying up to the Confederate lines, left Johnston in his intrenchments, established himself at Ackworth, on the railroad, and made Allatoona Pass a for- tified depf. Sir Jeftery Palmer 1G60 Sir Heneage Finch, afterward Lord Pinch 1G70 Sir Francis North, Knt., afterward Lord Guildford 1C7.? Sir William Jones 16-74 Sir Cresvel Levinz, or Levinge, Knt 1G79 Sir Robert Sawyer, Knt IGSl Sir Thomas Powis, Knt 1G87 Henry Pollexfen, Esq 16S9 Sir George Treby, Knt " Sir John Somers, Knt., afterward Lord Somers. . .1G92 Edward Ward, Esq 1693 Sir Thomas Trevor, Knt, afterward Lord Trevor. .1695 Edward Northey, Esq 1701 Sir Simon Harcourt, Knt 1707 Sir James Montagu, Knt 1708 Sir Simon Harcourt, again ; aft. Lord Harcourt. . .1710 Sir Edward Northey, Knt., again " Nicholas Lechmcre, Esq., aft. Lord Lechmere 1718 Sir Robert Raymond, afterward Lord Raymond. . .1720 Sir Philip Yorke, afterward Earl of Hardwicke 1724 Sir John Willes, Knt , 17,'?3 Sir Dudley Ryder, Knt 1737 Hon. William Murray, afterward Earl of Mansfield 1754 Sir Robert Henley, Knt., aft. Earl of Northington 175G Sir Charles Pratt, Knt., afterivard Lord Camden.. 1757 Hon. Charles Yorke 1762 Sir Fletcher Norton, Knt, aft. Lord Grantley 1763 Hon. Charles Yorke, again ; afterivard Lord Mor- den, and lord chancellor. See Chancellors 17G5 William de Grey, afterward Lord Walsingham 1766 Edward Thurlow, Esq., n/to-ionrd Lord Thurlow. .1771 Alex. Wedderburue, aft. Lord Loughborough 1778 James Wallace, Esq 1780 Lloyd Kenyon, Esq 1782 James Wallace, Esq 1783 John Lee, Esq " Lloyd Kenyon, again ; afterward Lord Kenyon. . . " Sir Richard P. Arden, afterward Lord Alvaiiley . . .1784 Sir Archibald Macdonald 1788 Sir John Scott, afterward Lord Eldou 1703 Sir J. Mitford, afterward Lord Redesdale 1800 Sir Edward Law, aft. Lord Ellenborough, Feb. 14, 1801 Hon. Spencer Percival {murdered by Bellingham, May 11, 1812) April 15, 1802 Sir Arthur Pigott , Feb. 12, 1806 Sir Vicary Gibbs, afterward chief justice of the Common Pleas April 7, 1807 Sir Thomas Plumer, afterward first vice-chancellor of England June 26, 1812 Sir William Garrow May 4, 1813 Sir Samuel Shepherd May 7, 1817 Sir Robert Gifl'ord, aft. Lord GiiTord July 24, 1819 Sir John Singleton Copley, afterivard Lord Lynd- hurst Jan. 9, 1824 Sir Charles Wetherell Sept 20, 1826 Sir James Scarlett April 27, 1827 Sir Charles Wetherell, again Feb. 19, 1828 Sir Jas. Scarlett, again ; aft. Lord Abiuger, June 29, 1829 Sir Thos. Denman, aft. Lord Denmau Nov. 26, 1830 Sir William Home Nov. 26, 1832 Sir John Campbell March 1, 1834 Sir Frederick Pollock Dec. 27, " Sir John Campbell, again ; afterward Lord Camp- bell (and, 1859, lord chancellor) April 30, 1835 Sir Thomas Wilde July 3, 1841 Sir F. Pollock, again ; aft. chief baron Sept 6, " Sir William W. Pollett April 17, 1S44 Sir Frederick Thesiger July 4, 1S45 Sir Thomas Wilde, again ; afterward Lord Truro, and lord chancellor July 6, 1846 Sir John Jervis, afterward chief justice of the Com- mon Pleas July 13, 1846 Sir John Romilly, aft. master of the rolls. .July 11, 1850 Sir Alex. James Edmund Cockburu March 28, 1851 Sir Frederick Thesiger, again ; afterward Lord Chelmsford, and lord chancellor March 2, 1852 Sir Alexander Cockburu, again; aft. chief justice of Common Pleas and Queen's Bench. .Dec. 28, 1852 Sir Richard Bethell Nov. 15, 1856 Sir Fitzroy Kelly ^ Feb. 27, 1853 Sir R. Bethell (since Lord Westbury, and lord chan- cellor) June 18, 1S59 Sir William Athertou July, 1861 Sir Roundell Palmer Oct 2, 1863 Sir John Karslake 1866 ATTRACTION is described by Copernicus, about 1520, as an appetence or appetite which the Creator impressed upon all parts of matter. It was described by Kepler to be a corporeal aff"ection tending to union, 1605. In 1087, Sir I. Newton published his "Principia," containing his important researches on this subject. There are the attractions of Gravitation, Magnetism, and Electricity, which see. AUBAINE, a right of the French kings, which ex- isted from the beginning of the monarchy, whereby they claimed the property of every stranger who died in their country, without having been natiiralized, was abolished by the National Assembly in 1790 ; re-estab- lished by Napoleon ; and finally annulled July 14, 1S19. AUCKLAND, capital of New Zealand (north isl- and), was founded in 1840. The population of the dis- trict in 1857 was estimated at 15,000 Europeans and 35,000 natives. AUCTION, a kind of sale known to the Romansl" mentioned by Petronius Arbiter (about 60). The first in Britain was about 1700, by Elisha Yale, a governor of Fort George in the East Indies, who thus sold the goods he had brought home. Auction and sales' tax began 1779. Various acts of Parliament have regu- lated auctions and imposed duties, in some cases as high as five per cent. By 8 Vict, c. 15 (1845), the duties were repealed, and a charfje imposed "on the license to be taken out by all auctioneers in the United King- dom of £10." In 1858 there were 4358 licenses grant- ed, producing i;43,580. Certain sales are now exempt from being conducted by a licensed auctioneer, such as goods and chattels under a distress for rent and sales under the provisions of the Small Debts' Acts for Scotland and Ireland. In many of the United States auctioneers act under a license from the state, and are subjected to certain penalties and taxes. In New York auctioneers must give bonds in $100,000 for faithful conduct of business, must make semi-annual accounts of sales, and pay to the state a certain percentage of the sales of goods, except certain goods which ai-e ex- empt. AUDIANI, followers of Audeus of Mesopotamia, who had been expelled from the Syrian Church on ac- count of his severely reproving the vices of the clergy, about 338, formed a sect, and became its bishop. He was banished to Scythia, where he is said to have made many converts. His followers celebrated Easter at the time of the Jewish Passover, attributed the hu- man figure to the Deity, and had other peculiar tenets. AUDIT OFFICE. Provisions for auditing public accounts are made in all the federal and state govern- ments of the United States. Commissioners for audit- ing the public accounts of England were appointed in 1785. Many statutes regulating their duties have since been enacted. AUERSTADT (Prussia). Here, and at Jena, on Oct 14, 1806, the French signally defeated the Prussians. See Jena. AUGHRIM, near Athlone, in Ireland, where, on July 12, 1691, a battle was fought between the Irish, headed by the French General ff*t. Ruth, and the English un- der General Ginckel. The former were defeated and lost 7000 men; the latter lost only 600 killed and 960 wounded. St. Ruth was slain. This engagement proved AUG 5 decisively fatal to the interests of James II. in Ireland. Ginclvel was imnicdiutely after created Earl of Athlone. The ball by which St. Kuth was killed is still suspend- ed in the choir of St. Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin. AUCJMENTATION of Poou Livings' Offioe was established in Enijjland in 1704. 55'.»7 poor clerical liv- ini;s, not exceeding XSUj^cr annum, were found by the commissioners under the act of Anne capable of aug- mentation, by means of the bounty then established by Parliament, commonly called (iiiceu Anne's bounty. Al'GMENTATIONS COURT was established in 1535 by 27 Henry VIII., c. 27, in relation to the working of ci'p. '.is of the same session, which gave to the king the property of all monasteries having i;200 a year. The court was abolished by Mary in 1553, and restored by Elizabeth in 155S. AUGSBURG (Bavarial, originally a colony settled by Augustus, about 12 B.C. : became a free city, and flourislied during the Middle Ages. Here many im- portant Diets of the empire have been held. In A.D. 952, a council confirmed the order for the celibacy of the priesthood ; and on Sept. 25, 15.55, the celebrated treaty of Nassau was signed, by which religious lib- erty was secured to Germany. — Leagne of Augsburti. A treaty between Holland and other European pow- ers, to cause the treaties of Mnnster andNimeguen to be respected, signed 16S6. See Minister and Xhuegiien. Augsburg has suffered much by war, having been fre- quently taken by siege, 783, 1703, 1704, and last, by the French, Oct. 10, 1805, who restored it to Bavaria iu March, 1806. AUGSBURG CONFESSION (Articles of Faith drawn up by Lulher, Melancthon, and other reformers, and presented to the Emperor Charles V., June 2.5, 15.S0), was directly opposed to the abuses of the Church of Rome. It "was signed by the Elector of Saxony, and other princes of Germany, and was delivered to the emperor iu the palace of the Bishop of Augsburg. AUGURY. Husbandry was iu part regulated by the coming or going of birds long before the time of Ilcsiod. Three augurs, at Rome, with vestals and sev- eral orders of the priesthood, were formally constituted by Numa, 710 B.C. The number had increased, and was fifteen at the time of Sylla, SI B.C., and the col- lege of augurs was abolished by Theodosius about A.D. 391. AUGUST, the eighth Roman month of the year (pre- viously called Sextilis, or the sixth from March), by a decree of the Senate received its present name in hon- or of Augustus CiBsar, in the year 8, or 27, or 30 B.C., because In this month he was created cunsiil, had thrice triumphed iu Rome, added Egypt to the Roman empire, and made an end of the civil wars. He added one day to the month, making it 31 days. AUGUSTA, siege of Augusta, in Georgia, United States, was held by a force "under a Loyalist named Brown, in the spring of 17S1. While General Green was carrying on the siege of Fort Ninety-six, Lee, Pickens, Clarke, and other Southern partisan haders laid siege to Augusta. It commenced on the 23d of May, and on the .5th of June BroA\ni surrendered. The Americans lost 51 men killed and wounded ; the Brit- ish lost 52 killed, and 334, including the wounded, were taken prisoners. AUGUSTAN AGE, in literature, coincides with the reign of Augustus Ctesar, 22 B.C. to A.D. 14. The term is sometimes applied to the English literary pe- riod of the reign of Queen Anne, 1702 to 1714, and to the Frencli literary period of the reign of Louis XIV., 1660 to 171.5. AUGUSTINS, a religious mendicant order, which ascribes its origin to St. Augustin, bishop of Hippo, ■who died 430. These monks (termed Austin friars) first appeared al)out the 11th century, and the order was constituted by Pope Alexander IV., iu 1256. The rule requires strict poverty, humility, and chastity. Martin Luther was an Augustin monk. The Angus- tins held the doctrine of free grace, and were rivals of the Dominicans. The order appeared in England soon after the conquest. One of their churches, at Austin Friars, London, erected in 1354, and since the Reformation used by Dutch Protestants, was partially destroyed by fire, Nov. 22, 1S62. A religious house of the order, dedicated to St. Monica, mother of Augus- tin, was founded in Hoxton Square, London, 1864. AULDE.\N, battle of, near Inverness, gained by Montrose over the Covenanters, May 9th, 1645. AI'LIC COUNCIL, a sovereign court in Germany, established l)y the Emperor Maximilian I., in 1506, be- ing one of the two courts, the first called the Imperial I AUS Chamber, formerly held at Spires, and afterward at Wetzlar, and the other the Aulic Council at Vienna. These courts, having concurrent jurisdiction, were in- stituted for appeals in particular cases from the courts of the Germanic States. AURAY (N.W. France). Here, on Sept. 29, 1364, the English, under John Chandos, totally defeated the French, and captured their heroic leader, Du Guesclin. Charles of Blois, made Duke of Brittany by the King of France, was slain, and a peace was made in April^ 1365. AURICULAR CONFESSION. The confession of sin at the ear (Latin aurix) of the priest must have been an early practice, since it is said to have been forbidden in the 4th century by Nectarius, archbishop of Constantino7jle. It was enjoined by the Council of Laterau in 1215, and by the Council of Trent in 1551. It was one of the six articles of faith enacted by Hen- ry VIIL in 1539, but was abolished in England at the Reformation. Its revival here has been attempted by the Church party called Puseyites or Tractariaus, but without much success.* AURIFLAMMA, ok Orifl.vmme, the national gold- en banner mentioned in French history, belonging to the abbey of St. Denis, and suspended over the tomb of that saint, 1140. Louis le Gros was the first king who took this standard from the abbey to battle, 1124. —llcnault. It appeared for the last time at Agineourt, Ul5.—Tilkt. AURORA FRIGATE, sailed from Britain in 1771 to the East Indies, and was never again heard of. AURORiE BOREALES and AUSTRALES (North- ern and Southern Polar Lights), though rarely seen iu Central Europe, are frequent in the arctic and antarc- tic regions. In March, 1716, an aurora borealis ex- tended from the west of Ireland to the confines of Russia. The whole horizon in the lat. of 57° N. over- spread with continuous haze of a dismal red during the whole night, by which many people were much terrified, Nov., 1765. — Mr. Foster, the companion of Captain Cook, saw the aurora in lat. 5S° S. Its ap- pearance in the southern hemisphere had been pre; viously doubted, t AUSCULTATION. See Stethoscope. AUSTERLITZ (Moravia), where a battle was fought between the French and the allied Austrian and Rus- sian armies, Dec. 2, 1805. Three emperors command- ed—Alexander of Russia, Francis of Austria, and Na- poleon of Prance. The killed and wounded exceeded 30,000 on the side of the allies, who lost forty stand- ards, 150 pieces of cannon, and thousands of prisoner.'^. The decisive victory of the French led to the treaty of Presburg, signed Dec. 26, 1805. See Prcsbiirg. AUSTRALASIA, the fifth ^reat division of the world. This name, originally given it by De Brosses, includes Australia, Van Diemen's Land, New Guinea, New Britain, New Caledonia, etc., mostly discovered within two centuries. Accidental discoveries were made by the Spaniards as early as 1526 ; but the first accurate knowledge of these southern lands is due to the Dutch, who in 1605 explored a part of the coast of New Guinea. Torres, a Spaniard, passed through the straits which now bear his name, between that Island and Australia, and gave the first correct report of the latter, 1606. The Dutch continued their discoveries. Between 1642 and 1644, Tasman completed a discovery of a great part of the Australian coast, together with the island of Van Diemen's Land (also called Tasma- nia). William Dampier, an Englishman, between 1684 and 1690, explored a part of tlVe W. and N.W. coasts. Between 1763 and 1766, Wallis and Carteret followed in the track of Dampier, and added to his discoveries ; and in 1770, Cook first made known the east coast of Australia. Furneaux in 1773, Bligh in 17S9, Edwards in 1791, Bligh (a second time) in 1792, Portlock same year, Brampton and Alt in 1703, and Bass and Flin- ders, explored the coasts and islands in 1798-9, and discovered Bass's Straits. Grant in ISOO, and Flinders again (1801-5), completed the survey.— M'Cidloch. AUSTRALIA (formerly New Holland), the largest * Tlie Rov. Alfred Poole, one of the curates of St. n.irnabas, Knights- bridffe, was suspended from his office for practicinff auricular confession in June, Is5s, by the Bishop of London. On appeal, the suspension was confirmed in January, 18.W. Much excitement was created by a similar attempt by the Rev. Temple West, at Boyno Hill, in Septem- ber, 1S5S. t The aurora is now attributed by manj- philosophers to the pas- sase of electric light throuffh the rarefied air of the polar regions. In Aujnist and September. 1S69, when brilliant nuror.t were very frequent, the electric telefrraph wires were seriously affected, and communications interrupted. Auroras were seen at Rome and Basel, and also in Aus- tralia. AUS 60 AUS island and smallest continent ; with an estimated area of about three million square miles, iucluiliug live provinces — New South Wales, Victoria (formerly Port Phillip), South Australia, West Australia (or Swan Riv- er), and Queensland {which sec). Population, with Tasmania and New Zealand, in 1SC3, about 1,306,050. Australia said to have been known to the Portu- guese before 1550 Alleged discovery by Manoel Godinho de Heredia, a Portuguese ICOl Torres passes through the straits named after him 1000 The Dutch also discover Australia March, " The coast surveyed by Dutch navigators : north, by Zeacheu, 1618 ; west, by Edels, 1619 ; south, by Nuyts, 1027 ; north, by Carpenter 1C2T Wm. Dampier explores the W. and N.W. coasts, 16S4-90 Tasmau coasts S. Australia 16-12 Terra Australis (Western Australia) named New Holland by order of the States-General 1065 William Dampier lands in Australia 16S0 Captain Cook, Sir Joseph Banks, and others, land at Botany Bay, and name the country "New South Wales" April 2S, 17T0 Governor Phillip founds the city of Sydney near Port Jackson, with 1030 persons Jan. 26, 1TS8 [The seventy-first anniversary of this event was kept with much festivity, Jan. 26, 1859.] Great distress in consequence of the loss of the ship "Guardian," Captain Riou 1790 First church erected Aug., 179.? Government gazette first printed 1795 Bass's Straits discovered by Bass and Flinders. ..1798 First brick church built 1802 Colony of Van Diemeu's Land (now Tasmania) es- tablished 1803 Fliuders surveys the coasts of Australia 1801-5 Insurrection of Irish convicts quelled 1804 Governor Bligh, for his tyranny, deposed by an in- surrection 1808 Superseded by Governor Macquarie 1809 Expeditions into the interior by Weutworth, Law- ■ son, Bloxland, Oxley, etc 1813, 1817, 1823 Population, 29,7S3 (three fourths convicts) 1821 Wftit Australia formed into a province 1829 Legislative council established " Sturt's expeditions into South Australia 1S28-1831 South Atcatralia erected into a province Aug., 1834 Sir T. Mitchell's expeditions into B. Australia. .1831-6 First Rom. Cath. Bishop (Polding) arrives, Sept., 1885 Port Phillip (now Victoria) colonized Nov., " First Church of England Bishop of Australia (Broughton) arrives June, 1836 Colony of South Australia founded Dec, 1836 Eyre's expedition overland from Adelaide to King George's Sound 1836-7 Melbourne founded Nov., 1S3T Suspension of transportation 1839 Strzelecki explores the Australian Alps 1840 Great exertions of Mrs. Chisholm ; establishment of "Home for Female Emigrants" 1841-6 Census— 87,200 males ; 43,700 females 1841 Very numerous insolvencies 1841-2 Incorporation of city of Sydney 1842 Leichhardt's expedition (never returned) 1844-5 Sturt proceeds from South Australia to the middle of the continent 1845 Census (including Port Phillip) — 114,700 males; 74,800 females 1S46 Great agitation against transportation, which had been revived by Earl Grey 1849 Port Phillip erected into a separate province as Victoria 1850 Gold discovered by Mr. Hargraves, etc.* 1851 * Gold Discovery.— Mr. Edward Hargraves went to California in search of gold, and was struck with the aimilaritv between the rocks and strata of California and those of his own district of Conobolas, some thirty miles west of Bathurst. On his return home he examined the soil, and after one or two months' digging found a quantity of gold, Feb. 12, 1851. He applied to the colonial government for a reward, which he readily obtained, with an appointment as commissioner of crown lands. The excitement became intense throughout the colony of New South Wales, rapidly Bpread to that of Victoria and other Jilaces ; and in the first week of July, 1851, an aboriginal inhabitant, brmerly attached to the Wellington mission, and then in the service of Dr. Kerr, of Wallawa, discovered, while tending his sheep, a mass of gold among a heap of quartz. Three blocks of quartz (from two to three hundred weighf), found in the Murroo Creek, fifty miles to the north of Bathurst, contained 112 lbs. of pure gold, valued at X4000. The " Victoria nugget," a magnificent mass of virgin gold, weighing 340 ounces, was brought to England from the Bendigo diggings ; and a piece of pure gold of 106 lbs. weight was also found. From the gold fields of Mount Alexander and Ballaarat, in the district of Victoria, up to Oct., 1852, there were found 2,532,422 ounces, or 105 tons 10 cwt. of gold ; and the gold exported up to the same date represented ^£8,863,477 sterling. In Nov., 1856, the "James Baines" and "Lightning" brought Census— males, 100,000; females, 81,000 (exclusive ofVictoria, 80,0oo) 1S51 Mints established March, 1853 Transportation ceased " Gregory's explorations of interior 185G Death of Archdeacon Cowper (aged 80), after about fifty years' residence July, 1853 Queendand made a province Dec. 4, 1859 Stuart's expeditions 1858-60 Expedition into the interior under Mr. Landells organized Aug., 1860 Robert O'Hara Burke, Wm. John Wills, and oth- ers, start from Melbourne Aug. 20, " J. M'Douall Stuart's expeditions 1860-1 Burke, Wills, and two others, cross Australian continent fo the Gulf of Carpentaria ; all perish on their return except John King, who arrives at Melbourne Nov., 18G1 Stuart, M'Kinlay, and Landsborough cross Austra- lia from sea to sea 1861-2 Remains of Burke and Wills recovered ; public fu- neral Jan. 21, 1S63 Strong and "general resistance throughout Austra- lia to the reception of British convicts in West Australia about June, 1864 Cessation of^transportation to Australia in three years announced amid much rejoicing.. Jan. 26, 18G5 Morgan, a desperate bushranger and murderer, surrounded and shot April, " Boundary disputes between New South Wales and Victoria in summer of 1864 ; settled amica- bly April 19, " GOVERNORS. Captain Arthur Phillip 1788 Captain Hunter 1795 Captain Philip G. King 1800 Captain William Bligh 1806 Colonel Lachlau Macquarie (able and successful administration) 1809 General Sir Thomas Brisbane 1821 Sir Richard Boiirke 1831 Sir George Gipps 1838 Sir Charles Fitzroy, governor general of all the Australian colonies, with a certain jurisdiction over the lieutenant governors of Van Diemen's Laud, Victoria, and South and Western Australia, 1846 Sir William T. Denison 1854 Sir John Young, governor of New South Wales only 1860 Acts for the government of Australia, 10 George IV., cap. 22, May 'l4 (1829), 6 & 7 William IV., cap. 68, Aug. 13 (1836), 13 & 14 Victoria, cap. 59, Aug. 5 (1850). Act for regulating the sale of waste lauds in the Australi.an colonies, 5 & Vic- toria, cap. 36, June 22 (1842). AUSTRASIA, (Estcrreich (Eastern Kingdom), also called Metz, a French kingdom which lasted from the 6th to the 8th century. It began with the division of the territories of Clovis by his sons, 511, and ended by Carloman becoming a monk and surrendering his power to his brothef Pepui, who thus became soleking of France, 747. AUSTRIA, a Hamburg company's steam-ship, sailed from Southampton for New York Sept. 4, 1858, with 538 persons on board. On Sept. 13, in hit. 45° N., long. 41° 30' W., it caught fire through the carelessness of some one in burning some tarto fumigate the steer- age. Only 67 persons were saved — upward of 60 by the Maurice, a French barque ; the rest by a Norwe- ' gian barque. A heart-rending account was given in the Times, Oct. 11, 1858, by Mr. Charles Brews, an En- glish survivor. AUSTRIA, CEsterreich (Eastern Kingdom), anciently Noricum and part of Pannonia, was'annexed to the Roman empire about 33 ; was overrun by the Huns, Avars, etc., during the 5th and 6th centuries, and taken from them by Charlemagne, 791-796. He divided the government of the country, establishing margraves of Eastern Bavaria and Austria. Louis the German, sou of Louis le DiJbonnaire, about 817, subjugated Radbod, margrave of Austria ; but in 883 the descendants of the latter raised a civil war in Bavaria against the Emper- or Charles the Fat, and eventually the margraves of Austria were declared immediate princes of the em- pire. In 1150 the margraviate was made a hereditary duchy by the Emperor Frederick I. ; and in 14.53 it was raised to an archduchy by the Emperor Frederick III. gold from Melbourne valued at il, 200,000. The " Welcome nugget" weighed 2019^ ounces ; value, X8376 10«. lOrf. ; found at Baker's Hill, Ballaarat, June 11, 1858. Between May, 1851, and May, 1861, gold to the value of ^£96,000,000 had been brougut to England from New South Wales and Victoria. AUS 61 AUS Rodolph, connt of Ilapsbnrg, elected Emperor of Ger- Tuatiy in l'27:i, acquired Austria in 1278 ; and from 14',)3 to 1804 his descendants were Emperors of Germany. Ou Auj;. 11, 18(14, the Emperor Francis II. renounced the title of Emperor of Germany, and became heredi- tary Emi»'ror of Austria. The condition of Austria is now 1,'really improving under the euliLrhtened rule of the liresent emperor. The political eonstitutiou of the cmi)ire is based upon— 1. The praLjmatic sanction of Charles VI., 17.'!4, which declares the indivisibility of the empire and rules the order of succession. 2. The prairmatic sanction of Francis II., Aug. 1, 1804, when he became Emperor of Austria only. 3. The dii)loma of Francis Joseph, Oct. 20, ISGO, whereby he imparted legislative power to the provincial states and the Council of the Empire (Reichsrath). 4. The law of Feb. 26, ISOl, on the national representation. Population of the empire in Oct., 1857, 35,01S,;iSS. Frederick [I., the last male of the house of Haps- burg, killed in battle with the Hungarians, June 15, 124G Disputed succession : the Emperor Frederick II. seijuestered the provinces, appointing Otto, count of Eberstein, governor iu the name of the emperor ; they are seized by Ladislaus, mar- grave of Moravia in right of his wife, Frederick's niuce, Gertrude : he died childless 1247 Herman, margrave of Baden, marries Gertrude, and holds the provinces till his death 1250 Ottocar (or Premislas), of Bohemia, acquires the provinces 1254 Compelled to cede Styria to Hungary, he makes war and recovers it, iu consequence of a great victory 12G0 He inherits Carinthia, 12G3 ; refuses to become Em- peror of Germany, 1272, and to render homage to Rodolph of Ilapsburg, elected emperor. 1273 War against Ottocar as a rebel ; he is compelled to cede" Austria, Carinthia, and Styria to Rodolph, 1274 The war renewed : Ottocar perishes iu the battle of Marchfeld Aug. 26, 1278 Albert I. assassinated by his nephew and others while attempting to enslave the Swiss.. .May 1, 1308 Successful revolt of the Swiss 1307-9 They totally defeat the Austrians under Duke Le"opold at Morgarten Nov. 16, 1315 The Duke Leopold imposes a toll on the Swiss, which they resist with violence : he makes war ou them, and is defeated and slain at Sempach, July, 1380 Dnke Albert V. obtains Bohemia and Hungary, and is elected Emperor of Germany 1437 The Emperor Frederick III., as head of the house of Ilapsburg, creates the Archduchy of Austria with sovereign power Jan. 6, 1453 Austria divided between him and his relatives, 1457 ; war ensues between them till 14G3 Burgundy accrues to Austria by the marriage of Maximilian with the heiress of that province.. .1477 Also Spain, by the marriage of Philip I., of Austria, with the heiress of Aragon aud Castile 149G Bohemia and Hungary united to Austria under Ferdinand I 152G Austria harassed by Turkish invasions 1529-45 Charles V., reigning over Germany, Austria, Bo- hemia, Iluncr'ary, Spain, the Netherlands, aud their dependencies, abdicates (see SjMin) 1556 Mantua ceded to the emperor Jan. 3, 1708 By treaty of Utrecht he obtains part of the duchy of Milan April 11, 1713 By treaty of Rastadt he acquires the Netherlands, 1714 The Netherlands, Naples, Milan, etc., added to Austrian dominions Nov. 15, 1715 Farther additions ou the east (Temeswar, etc.) by the |)eace of Passarowitz 1718 Najjles and Sicily given up to Spain 1735 Death of diaries VI., the last sovereign of themale line of the house of Ilapsburg ; his daughter, Maria Theresa, becomes Queen of Hungary 1740 She is attacked by Prussia, France, Bavaria, and Saxony, but sui)i)orted by Great Dritain 1741 Francis, "duke of L