LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, Chap. I'^J J) L^. Shelf i^ lb- 114)8, UNITECr STATES OF AMERICA. YELLOW BLUE SECONDARY COLORS ORANGE i GREEN PURPLE iNDlGQ L.^ O HH o ^1^ o H G tio7is of ideas, which are re- tained or recalled by memory. Imagination takes up these ideas, combines and presents them in new forms. Reason proceeds to investigate them by more definite modes, ^wil judgment is the result. Again, sensations give perceptions / attention to perceptions constitutes observation. By means of observation hnoioledge is obtained. It follows, then, that the first aim of the primary teacher, and of the parent, at instruction, should be to cidtivate in the child habits of accurate observa- tion. Such habits — clear perceptions, fixed attention, and watchful observation — become a guaranty for the acquisition of knowledge in after years. Nature suggests the true plan for accomplishing this desirable end in the course which the child itself pursues in the examination of the various objects which surround it. The instructor should fall in with the child's desire to know, and allow it to exercise its senses upon each new object presented to it, by see- ing, feeling, hearing, tasting, or smeUing it, as the case may be. This is Nature's method of teaching, and man never has been able to improve it. By the use of its perceptive faculties on the objects around it, the child acquires a large stock of ideas before it goes to school. The teacher should commence instruction at the point at which the child has arrived when school-life begins, and lead the mind gradually for^ INTRODUCTION. 15 ward from one degree of knowledge to another. She should begin with things that are familiar to the child, and lead it to use the knowledge already acquired in obtaining new ideas. Words and their uses y/ill nat- urally succeed a knowledge of things, because lan- guage will be needed to express the ideas derived from them. Here we perceive Nature's method to be things before loords. If, then, we would improve the language of a child, we must first give it ideas, then words to enable it to express those ideas. Sometimes children employ original terms to ex- press their thoughts ; these should be accepted, and if faulty, let errors be pointed out and right words be given. Whenever a new word or term is to be taught, the thing or idea of Avhich the term is a sign should be taught first, and be understood by the pupil before the word is presented. In all cases let the teacher present Jirst to her pupils a clear picture of the idea, then its name will have a meaning which it would not otherwise possess ; and when used it will call up a distinct conception in the mind. The oppo- site method — that of giving first the sign of the idea, and in too many instances the word only — is opposed to the first principles of education, and its results may be witnessed every day in the mere word knowledge of our schools. All our ideas are primarily derived from nature ; books merely represent the knowledge thus obtained ; therefore it must be evident that books instruct us only so far as we are able to connect the words con- tained in them with the ideas which those words rep- 16 DEVELOPMENT IN OBSERVATION. resent. Since ideas are not derived primarily from words, but from things, it follows that our teaching should begin with things, ideas, and principles. No man becomes a good farmer, or carpenter, or painter, or engineer, or surgeon, from books alone ; he must have observation and pixictice — in other words, experience^ to make what he reads in books a living reality, so that words shall be to him as pictures to represent those realities. If habits of accurate observation are ever attained, the foundation must be laid in childhood. Since chil- dren delight in natural knowledge — a knowledge of things — and since a constant impulse to know seems to urge them to acquire correct ideas of the objects about them, a little encouragement will lead them to employ this useful and divinely-implanted desire so that observation will become a most valuable habit. Thousands of evidences exist around us proving that this noble impulse, if neglected or checked in child- hood, becomes greatly diminished in activity, even so far as almost to cease to take notice of the beauty and wonders of the world. From the lack of habits of observing the properties of common things, and deriving therefrom those les- sons to which such observation leads, the most lament- able errors are committed. Without this habit na- ture is a sealed book ; the varieties of animal and veg- etable life appear but a mass of confusion ; the stars tell no wonders, mark no seasons. To remedy this, habits of observation must be commenced in infancy, carried forward in youth, and confirmed in manhood. INTKODUCTION. 17 If we would take for our guide in education those laws which God has prescribed for the development of mind, and follow them, we must begin with things, and go from them to words, teaching words as represent- ative symbols, or signs of the things themselves. This course would render the path of the learner pleasant, as God intended that the acquisition of knowledge should be. The most important period in education is that of the primary school. Hence those who undertake the charge of training children during this period should be especially qualified for it ; they should understand the cultivation of the senses, and know how to teach real things, real forms, real colors, real sounds, and how to lead the mind to correct conceptions. Before teaching the word ciibe as the name of an object, they should see that the child is familiar with and can read- ily distinguish the form of a cube ; before teaching the word green as the name of a color, they should know that the child has a distinct idea of the color itself; and, instead of teaching first the words rough and smooth, and then their definitions, the mind should be made acquainted with the sensations of rough and smooth, and the words taught to enable it to express those sensations. If teachers will learn to carry out this idea in all their primary instruction, icords and books will come to have a significance to the young which they seldom or never attain under the present methods of education. Observation teaches that the full use of our senses is to be acquired by suitable training. Their cultiva- 18 DEVELOPMENT IN OBSERVATION. tion is one of the important duties of both the parent and the j^rimary teacher. On this subject Miss Edge- worth justly remarks : "Rousseau has judiciously advised that the senses of children should be cultivated with the utmost care. In proportion to the distinctness of their perceptions will be the accuracy of their memory, and jDrobably, also, the precision of their judgment. A child who sees imperfectly can not reason justly about the ob- jects of sight, because it has not sufficient data. A child who does not hear distinctly can not judge well of sound ; and if we could suppose the sense of touch to be twice as accurate in one child as in another, we might conclude that the judgment of these children must differ in a similar proportion. "The defects in organization are not within the power of the instructor. We may observe that inat- tention and want of exercise are frequently the causes of what are mistaken for natural defects ; and, on the contrary, increased attention and cultivation some- times produce that quickness of eye and ear, and that consequent readiness of judgment, which we are aj)t to attribute to natural superiority of organization or capacity." The more we spread and enlarge these roots of knowledge by such practical means, the more rapidly the future tree will grow, and the more abundant and perfect will be the fruits thereof. "A little child has sensations which we ourselves had, but which Ave now forget. It walks in the world as we might do in a new country ; the sky, the chang- INTKODUCTION. 19 ing lights, every class of natural objects, give rise to new sensations, for each of which it seeks a name ; and long before it has words to characterize them, it is acquainted with many qualities and circumstances relating to them. But its faculties are chiefly em- ployed upon those things most closely allied to its own nature. Every thing that lives has a special in- terest ; motion invariably attracts as a sign of life, but it is human society and all its relations that come home most fully to its sympathies."* Whatever the child sees done he wants to know about, and to do ; and so great is his love of knowl- edge, that he will gladly throw aside the playthings which delight him to watch his papa or mamma in op- erations where tools are employed. He wants to know about the food he eats; the uses of each article of fur- niture ; the uses of tools which he sees ; about his clothes — how they are made ; and about every thing relative to man, animals, and plants. In fact, his cu- riosity is insatiable, because a knowledge of these things is necessary to existence and well-being. Now it is evident that by taking advantage of this propen- sity to know, while gratifying a natural desire, habits of observation may be estabHshed, a great amount of knowledge imparted^ and, at the same time, the con- ception^ imagination^ reason^ ^nd judgment cultivated, and the foundation laid for a thoroughly practical ed- ucation. Books for children will never accomplish this; it should precede books ; it is the work of the parent * Young's Teacher's Manual. 20 DEVELOPMENT IN OBSEEVATION. and of the iirimary teacher. To aid them in their en- deavors to properly develop the minds of the chil- dren intrusted to their care is the design of this book. It is not expected that these lessons will be followed literally, but it is hoped that they will serve as models to suggest plans adapted to the wants of teachers and parents under the varying circumstances in which they may be placed. PREPARATION FOR THE LESSON. N"o teacher should give a lesson before she has made herself thoroughly acquainted with the subject. How it should be treated, both as to arrangement and method, should first be fixed in her own mind. It is well to practice drawing out sketches of lessons in the form of notes, that the presentation of the subject may be in a concise and methodical manner ; but the notes thus drawn out should seldom or never be used while giving the lesson. These ought to be so well fixed in the mind before beginning the lesson that there will be no occasion for reference to them. The notes should present the leading points to be devel- oped in the subject, and indicate not only the success- ive steps of development, but the leading train of ideas which are to constitute the real knowledge to be given to the pupils. We will endeavor to illus- trate this point by a few simple " Sketches of Les- PKEPARATION FOR THE LESSON. 21 SKETCHES OF LESSONS ON FORM. I. Object of the Lesson. — ^To distinguish different forms. Steps. — 1. Point to a form on the "chart of forms," and let the child select one like it from the box of forms. 2. Pick up a pattern of form, and request a child to point to one on the "chart" or blackboard that resembles it. 3. Place three or four forms in a row, and request the children to select similar forms and place them in the same order. II. Object of the Lesson. — To teach the different kinds of sides. Steps. — 1. Show figures bounded by straight sides, as a square, triangle, etc. Require the children to point to similar sides in the drawings upon the board and in the objects about the room. 2. Show figures or forms bounded by a curved line; let the children point out similar sides as before. 3. Teach the names of straight sides, and round or curved sides. Let the children point to each as the name is given. III. Object of the Lesson.— To develop the idea of an angle. Steps. — 1. Show an angle; draw one like it on the board ; then require the children to point out the 22 DEVELOPMENT IN OBSERVATION. same or similar shapes in other objects ; to repre- sent the shape with two sticks or with their fin- gers. 2. Teach them to describe the position of the lines which form the angle in relation to each other. 3. Teach the name of the form represented by two lines which meet in a point. SKETCHES OF LESSONS ON COLOR. I. Object of the Lesson. — Teaching the names of color. Steps. — 1. The children select a color according to a pattern shown, and are told its name. 2. The teacher names a color, and the children se- lect the color named. 3. The teacher points to a color, and the children give the name. II. Object of the Lesson. — Teaching the shades of color. Steps. — 1. Develop the idea of light and dark shades. 2. Shades of blue, as dark and light blue. 3. Hues of red, as crimson, scarlet, vermilion, pink. 4. Hues of yellow — lemon, straw, cream. 6. Hues of green — grass, pea, apple, etc. 6. Hues of purple — violet, lavender, lilac. 7. Hues of orange — salmon, bufi*. PREPARATION FOR THE LESSON. 23 MISCELLANEOUS SKETCHES. I. Object of the Lesson. — ^To teach the children to observe the parts of a watch. Steps. — 1. Let the children point to the parts of the watch, as the face, the glass, the hands, the case, etc. Tell them the names of each, if they do not know them already. 2. Let the teacher point to the parts, while the pu- pils tell the names. 3. Lead the children to tell the position of the dif- ferent parts. II. Object of the Lesson.— To develop the idea of crumbling. Steps. — 1. Show the children a lump of salt, of sugar, and stale bread. Lead them to observe their crumbling by rubbing them in their hands. 2. Lead them to compare these substances with a piece of wax, a stone, and a piece of metal. 3. Tell them the name of the quality by which a substance comes into little pieces. 4. Kequire the children to tell when a thing is said to be crumbling. III. Object of the Lesson.— To develop an idea of what sleep is, and of its use, and of God's wisdom as manifested in its adaptation to man. Steps. — 1. Lead the children to consider what sleep is, their helpless state when asleep, their uncon- sciousness ; would not know if danger approach- 24 DEVELOPMENT IN OBSERVATION. ed ; who watches over them ; whom they should thank when they rise in the morning. 2. The use of sleep. We go to bed tired ; how we feel after a night's rest. The time for sleep ; the position for sleep. 3. God's appointment of night and day suitable to our wants. How beautiful and wise that there is a time particularly suited to sleep ; when dark- ness prevails — quiet. How bright and cheering the rising sun in the morning ; the air of morn- ing. He who made sleep necessary made a sea- son suited to sleep. SUGGESTIONS FOR WEITING SKETCHES. 1. Style. — ^The style should be pointed, terse, clear, so as easily to catch the attention. There should be nothing superfluous, and nothing should be stated which a teacher would do in the ordinary course of a lesson. 2. Matter. — All the facts or ideas which are to form the materials of the lesson should be briefly stated in the form of suggestive hints. If those facts or ideas are such as fall within the range of the children's ob- servation and discovery, the sketch should show,^r5^, by what means they are to be drawn from them ; sec- ondly^ how the children are to be led to exercise their minds on them, and in what order. 3. Arrangement. — First, the principal point or ob- ject of the lesson should be put down, then the suc- cessive steps by which the process of development and instruction are to be conducted. Subordinate points PREPARATION FOR THE LESSON. 25 tending to illustrate the subject should be given. Some subjects require several heads ; in others, many- divisions lead to confusion. Too much importance can hardly be given to the preparation of sketches of lessons by teachers who have not had extensive experience in this system of object training. It enables the teacher to go before her class with a definite object in view, and to take the proper steps for attaining it ; besides, the prepara- tion imparts freshness and interest to the subject. When a teacher is about to give a lesson on any proposed subject, the first inquiry should be, "Am I sufficiently acquainted with the subject ?" The next inquiry should be, " How should I treat the subject ?" If not sufficiently acquainted w^ith it, she should at once seek information* upon the subject, and study it. The following lessons have been prepared as a guide to the teacher and the parent in making the necessary preparations for a systematic and graduated course of development of the faculties of children, and for train- ing them to use. They are intended to be studied by the teacher, and used as notes should be used ; or, more appropriately, to suggest how the teacher should proceed after the subject has been studied and the sketches prepared. They may also serve as a guide in the preparation of sketches. * A list of books adapted to furnish information on the subjects with which primary teachers especially need to be familiar is given on page 393. B 26 DEVELOPMENT IN OBSEKVATION. CONVERSATIONAL LESSONS. The child's first lessons should be conversational, and imparted in the simplest manner, aiming to awaken the mind, develop habits of observation, and furnish language. This work should be preparatory to a knowledge of the uses of objects, and of their joroper- ties and qualities. That subject in which the child manifests the great- est interest is the one about which the conversations should commence, and it also marks the point where that child's instruction should begin. As the lessons proceed, the interest in that particular subject should be made the key-note for drawing attention to other subjects having a kindred interest. Conversations about things at home — every-day things — will usually prove interesting. These lessons should be conducted without formality. The children may be led to talk about the things which they daily see, and use, or wear, and to ask and answer questions concerning them. Those subjects should be chosen at first that are very simple, and with which both chil- dren and teacher are familiar. 1. Suppose the teacher's first conversation with the children be about a cat : let her ask how many feet a cat has ; how many ears ; what a cat does ; what a cat is good for. Encourage them to talk about their cat. The same inquiries may be made about a dog. Care should be taken to encourage children to tell about whatever thing may form the topic for conversation. CONVERSATIONAL LESSONS. 27 2. They may be led to talk about their playthings, in the next conversation, telling what playthings they have, and what they do with them ; who gave them their playthings. 3. As children are fond of telling what they have seen, at the third conversation let them tell what they saw on their way to school; what birds they have seen ; what animals they have seen, and where they saw them. 4. After a few familiar conversations of this kind, which win confidence and remove restraints npon the expression of their thoughts, let them be led a little farther, and asked to name some objects that have a common resemblance in the material of which they are made, or in use ; as, what things are used to sit upon ? " Chair, sofa, stool, bench," probably would be the reply. Ask where they sit upon sofas, where on chairs, where on stools, where on benches. 5. What things are worn on the hands? "Mitts, gloves, mittens, rings, muffs." Who wear mitts ? Who wear gloves? When are mittens worn? How are rings worn ? When are muffs used ? 6. What things are worn on the feet ?' " Stockings, slippers, shoes, boots, overshoes." Why are stockings worn ? When are slippers worn ? Who wear shoes ? Who wear boots ? When are overshoes worn ? What else is worn on the feet ? 7. What things are worn on the head ? " Cap, hat, bonnet." Who wear hats ? Who wear bonnets ? Do girls wear caps ? 8. What things can you see in the schoolroom that 28 DEVELOPMENT IN OBSERVATION. are made of wood ? " Chair, bench, table, desk, floor." For what is the table used ? For what are the desks used ? Do you think the scholars could walk in the schoolroom without a floor ? What, then, is its use ? 9. What things are seen in the sky ? " Sun, moon, stars, clouds, rainbow." When may you see the sun ? Point where the sun is in the morning. Point where the sun is at sunset. When do you see the moon? Can you see the moon every night ? Can you see more than one moon ? Can you see more than one star at one time? Do you see the stars in the day- time ? When can you see clouds ? Did you ever see a rainbow ? 10. Tell me some articles of dress. " Coat, vest, pantaloons, gown, apron." Do girls wear coats and vests? Who wear pantaloons ? Who wear aprons? Who wear gowns ? Of what are coats made ? Of what are gowns made ? Are vests made of calico ? Are aprons made of cloth like that used for coats ? In conducting these Conversational Exercises^ care should be taken to select at first those things Avith which the children are familiar, and not to lead them to observe things which are beyond their comprehen- sion. The course may be pursued for some time, gradually taking up subjects which require a wider range of observation, as the pupils become more capa- ble of telling what they have seen, and thus they may be led to a more thorough and definite knowledge of all the ordinary objects around them. Exercises of this character are especially adapted CONVERSATIONAL LESSONS. 29 to children that have not learned to read ; and they may be introduced with profit in immediate connec- tion with their reading lessons. They are also appro- priate to introduce as occasio7ial exercises^ for variety, or to fill up the time usually devoted to a lesson, which, from some cause, has not occupied the full time assigned to it. For the purpose of aiding the teacher or the parent in readily selecting subjects for exercises in conversa- tion, also to illustrate how fruitful this plan is in its variety and adaptation to the wants and difierent con- ditions of schools, we have prepared lists of subjects for Conversation^ to be used in developing observation. It is by no means proposed that these lists shall be repeated for the children to learn ; that would be teaching loords before things^ instead of things before words^ and defeat the very object of these lessons. The lists are given to suggest more minutely and def- initely how these exercises should be conducted. Some teachers may find objects named here with which their pupils are not acquainted ; those should, of course, be omitted. It may sometimes be thought best not to limit the number of objects to be named in a list. Calling for a given number has some ad- vantages ; however, the most important idea to be kept in view is, that these exercises are intended to develop habits of observation by mea^is of conversa- tions ; to lead the children to see the things around themselves, and to guide them in their efibrts to gain knowledge by means of their senses. During this stage of development their attention should be direct- 80 DEVELOPMENT IN OBSERVATION. ed only to those things which the senses readily per- ceive. LIST OF SUBJECTS FOR SIMPLE OBSERVATION AND CON- VERSATION. 1. Tell me four things 5. Four parts of a win- seen in a schoolroom. dow. Blackboard, Glass, Slate, Putty, Book, Sash, Chalk. Sill. 2. Four tilings done at 6. Four parts of a door. school. Panel, Reading, Hinge, Spelling, Latch, Singing, Lock. Writing. 1. Five rooms of a house. 3. Five things we eat. Kitchen, Bread, Pantry, Meat, Parlor, Potatoes, Bedroom, Cake, Chamber. Pie. 8. Five parts of a ham. 4. Tell what we drinJc, Floor, Water, Granary, Milk, Stable, Tea, Manger, Coffee. Loft. CONVERSATIONAL LESSONS. 81 9. Five things used at 13. Four principal parts dinner. of a tree. Plates, Roots, Knives, Trunk, Forks, Limbs, Spoons, Leaves. Tumblers. 14. Five kinds of trees 10. Six fruits good eat. Cherries, Plums, Peaches, Apples, Pears, to growing in forests. Pine, Oak, Elm, Maple, Beech. Oranges. 15. Six kinds of nuts good 11. Five kinds of meat for eating. Chestnut, xised to eat. Walnut, Beef, Butternut, Lamb, Hazlenut, Veal, Peanut, Pork, Chicken. Hickory-nut. 12. Four roots which eat. Beets, Turnips, Carrots, Radishes. we 16. Five sweet-smelling flowers. Rose, Pink, Sweet-pea, Honeysuckle, Violet. 32 DEVELOPMENT IN OBSERVATION. 17. Six trades or em- 21. Five things used hy ployments. housekeepers. That of the Shoemaker, Broom, " Carpenter, Pail, " Mason, Flat-iron, " Painter, Dishes, " TaUor, Spoons. " Farmer. 22. Five tools used hy gar- 18. Five loays of eooTc- deners. ing. Spade, Boiling, Rake, Roasting, Hoe, Frying, Trowel, Baking, Watering-pot. Stewing. 23. Five tools used hy car- 19. Five ways of clean- penters. ing. Saw, Sweeping, Plane, Washing, Square, Scouring, Hammer, Brushing, Chisel. Dusting. 24. Five tools used hy 20. Fiveimys of sewing. shoemakers. Basting, • Awl, Stitching, Hammer, Hemming, Knife, Running, Pincers, Overcasting. Last. CONVERSATIONAL LESSONS. 83 25. Five things used to 29. Five actio7is with the give heat. hand. Wood, Holding, Coal, Squeezing, Coke, Pinching, Pitch, Boxing, Gas. Pulling. 26. Five things used to 30. Five actio7is with the give light. feet. Tallow, Walking, Oil, Running, Fluid, Jumping, Camphene, Kicking, Gas. Stamping. Five things that 31. Five movements melt with fire. imals. Ice, Creeping, Butter, Swimming, Tallow, Flying, Wax, Climbing, Lead. Hopping. 28. Five things produced 32. Five sounds made by by cold. aniinals. Frost, Mewing, Sleet, Barking, Hail, Crowing, Snow, Bleating, Ice. Neighing. B2 34 DEVELOPMENT IN OBSERVATION. 33. Five things that fire does. It warms, " melts, " burns, " scorches, " dries. 34. Five things that wa- ter does. It wets, " cleanses, " quenches thirst, " dissolves, " flows. 35. Five modes oftrav- elhig. On horseback. In a carriage, By rail-road. By steam-boat, In a sleigh. 36. Ten vessels that will hold loater. Tub, kettle. Pail, pan, Cup, tumbler, Basin, pitcher. Barrel, bucket. 37. Five things right to do. Obey parents and teachers- Be kind to companions. Be attentive to lessons. Tell the truth. Pray to God. 38. Four things wiched to do. To quarrel. To tell a He, To steal, To swear. 39. Three things in whieh birds and fish differ. Birds have feathers. Fish have scales. Birds have wings, Fish have fins. Birds are warm. Fish are cold. 40. Opposite qualities in taste. Sweet, Sour. Delicious, Bitter. Salt, Fresh. CONVERSATIONAL LESSONS. 35 41. Ten substances used 42. Temcays of fastening in building a house. things together.^ Stone, By a pin, Brick, " a needle and thread, Iron, " paste. Glass, « glue. Putty, " a wafer. Pine, " sealing-wax, Oak, " nails. Lime, " solder, Sand, " putty. Paint. " dove-tailing. 43. Ten things bought at a grocery. \ Sugar, tea, coffee, starch, soap, cheese, butter, eggs, raisins, flour. 44. What grows in the garden ? 45. What grows in the field ? 46. What things are made of wood? 47. What things are made of iron? 48. What things are made of leather ? 49. What things are made of tin ? 50. What things are made of glass ? * Question the children as to the particular advantage of each of these kinds of fastenings. When a pin is better than a needle and thread ; when we use glue ; when paste ; when putty, etc. f Let the teacher introduce an exercise of this kind by asking the children if they have ever been in a grocery. Then request them to tell what they saw there. Ask what use is made of the articles bought at the grocery. Of some of the things, the chil- dren may be asked to tell where the grocer gets them. 36 DEVELOPMENT IN OBSERVATION. ADDITIONAL SUBJECTS, On which more extended Conversational Exercises may he had. These should not ordinarily be introduced before the second or third year of this training process. Name things made of wool. Five birds that sing. Things made of India-rubber. Five things that birds do. Five things that are soft. Five uses of a cow. Five things that are hard. Five young of animals. Ten things used on the farm. Five insects. Ten things used in the house. Five diflerent relationships. Ten different trades. Five good habits. Ten pointed instruments. Five bad habits. Ten agricultural employments. Five good dispositions. Ten domestic animals. Five bad dispositions. Ten wild animals. Ten sounds made by man. Five animals with hoofs. Ten sounds made by animals. Five animals with claws. Five cutting instruments. Five birds with webbed feet. Five habitations of man. Five birds with toes separated. Five things used in the kitchen. What is the work of farmers ? To till the soil. What is the work of carpenters ? To build houses and barns. What is the work of masons ? What is the work of painters ? What is the work of the blacksmith ? What is the work of the shoemaker ? What is the work of the cabinet-maker ? Who made the chairs that you sit on ? Who made the table and the sofa ? CONVEESATIONAL LESSONS. 87 What is the work of the saddler ? What is the work of the miller ? What is the work of the milliner ? What does the merchant do ? What are the parts of a bed ? What can you buy at the baker's ? What can you buy of the grocer ? What is the work of the tailor ? Who made your clothes ? Who prepared the leather for your shoes ? What do you call the man who made your hat ? What is the name of the street on which the school- house stands? What streets cross this street ? What different kinds of shops have you seen ? What meeting-houses or churches have you seen ? Who make tables, bedsteads, and bureaus ? Who made your hat ? Who makes bonnets ? Who makes shoes? Who makes the paper for books ? Who prints the books ? Who binds the books ? Who makes wagons ? Who makes saddles and harnesses ? Who makes things of iron ? What things do farmers plant ? What things do farmers sow ? When do farmers sow wheat ? When do they sow oats ? When do farmers plant corn and potatoes ? 88 DEVELOPMENT IN OBSERVATION. When do they mow grass ? In what month do farmers harvest wheat ? In what month do they harvest oats ? corn ? What berries get rijDe first ? When do apples get ripe ? Do all apples get ripe at the same time ? Which get ripe first, plums or grapes ? What fruits grow on bushes ? What fruits grow on vines ? What fruits grow on trees ? What nuts grow in burrs ? W^hat nuts have hard shells ? When do nuts get ripe? What seeds grow in pods ? What trees shed their leaves in the autumn? What trees shed their leaves in the spring ? What trees have leaves all the year ? How many teeth have you ? How many front teeth has a cow on her upper jaw ? In what direction do hop vines wind ? Do other vines wind around in the same direction ? In what direction does the bean vine wind ? Does the grain of winding timber usually wind with the sun ? Do flowers shut themselves up at night? Do any flowers close at noon ? What flowers open in the afternoon ? Are there any flowers that open only at night ?* * See Habits of Flowers in " Child's Book of Nature." CONVERSATIONAL LESSONS. 89 Many of the foregoing questions should be given out before the class exercise, and the pupils encouraged to give as many answers as possible to such as admit of several. The teacher may often find it best to vary the form of the question, and to add others on the same subject. Those here given are intended to furnish a sufficient variety on difierent topics to make it easy for the teacher to prepare those that will lead the children to a great number of useful observations. It is not supposed that these questions embrace all that are necessary to be asked, nor all that may be profitable. The teacher who has tact will readily see their tendency and importance, and will carry out the plan successfully. It will be observed that these exercises can be ex- tended almost without limit, and that the interest of the pupils can be kej^t up by such variations as will readily suggest themselves to the ingenious teacher. It would sometimes add interest to the conversations to tell the children beforehand what class of things they will be called upon to talk about at the next les- son ; but this should only be done where the interest is very great, and where it seems to afford additional pleasure to the class. • Children possess active minds ; they are constantly changing from one thing to another, and it must not be expected that they can consider a subject for a con- siderable length of time as older persons do, or that they would think much about a lesson, should they be told what it will be, before they are called upon to talk about it, especially if they do not manifest more 40 DEVELOPMENT IN OBSERVATION. than ordinary interest in it. It requires skill on the part of the teacher to keep np a lively interest, even during a class exercise, when the subject has all the attraction of novelty. The teacher who has an enthusiastic love of her work, and who is possessed of tact^ will succeed, even with poor methods, but far better after a few sugges- tions relative to good ones. It is to such teachers that we look with hope for a successful introduction into our schools of methods for cultivating habits of accurate observation. The importance of cultivating such habits in child- hood, and the consequent love for nature, are beau- tifully expressed in the following words from an ar- ticle on the " Cultivation of the Perceptive Faculties," by Prof. William Russell, published in Barnarcfs Joufnal of Education : " The ' pliant hour' must be taken for all processes of mental budding, grafting, or pruning, as well as in those of the orchard. An early dip into the study of nature will serve to saturate the whole soul with a love for it so strong as to insure the prosecution of such subjects for life. The season is auspicious ; the senses are fresh and susceptible ; the mind is awake ; the heart is alive ; the memory is retentive ; nature is yet a scene of novelty and delight ; and application is a pleasure. The twig may now be bent in the direc- tion in which the tree is to be inclined." DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FORM. In the natural order of the development of the hu- man faculties, the mind of the child takes cognizance first of the /brms of objects. It is this quality, in its simplest conceptions, which earliest attracts the atten- tion of the child to the things around it. 'By form it learns to distinguish the chair from the table, the bell from the book, the cat from the dog, long before it gains any knowledge of the properties and nature of these objects. Endeavoring to follow nature in this respect, we took the first step toward the development of mind by simple observation. Our aim therein was to se- cure to the pupils greater familiarity with objects, their shapes, resemblances, differences, and uses, and by that means to enkindle a desire to know more than merely looking at them in the usual unobserving man- ner will teach. Under the head of Form we come to a more mi- nute examination of objects for the purpose of obtain- ing clear conceptions of their shape, and to learn the names by which their different forms are designated. Here we shall endeavor to show how to lead children to use those names properly in their descriptions of things. It is the more important that attention be given to this subject at this early period in the intel- lectual training of children, because, if left to them- 42 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FOKM. selves, they will be very liable to grow up with wrong ideas, or without clear conceptions either of forms or their names, and would never be able to describe any thing intelligibly. To teach these names of form may be deemed somewhat arbitrary, yet it is far less so than to teach children the letters before teaching them words. By exercising a little skill in illustrating each form with a variety of objects, diagrams on cards and on the blackboard, and teaching its name after its form is understood, these lessons will prove attractive and in- teresting even to young children. APPARATUS FOR ILLUSTRATING FORM. As a means of illustrating form^ and developing ideas of it clearly, there should be provided a chart or card containing drawings of the principal forms to be suspended before the pupils, and the same shapes should be made of wood* or cut from pasteboard. The card of forms should contain a Waved line. X^:::^^ Slanting line. Verticalline. Spiral line. * "Charts of Lines and Forms" have been prepared for illustra- ting these lessons, also a "Box of Forms" containing two speci- mens of each form represented on the " Chart." APPAEATUS FOR ILLUSTRATING FORM. 43 Parallel lines. Eight angles. Acute angle. Obtuse angle. Forms hounded hy Straight Lines. Right-angled Equilateral triangle, triangle. Isosceles triangle. Trapezoid. Rectangle or Trapezium. Parallelogram. Square. Rhomb. Rhomboid. 44 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FORM. Pentagon. Hexagon. Heptagon. Octagon. Forms bounded by Curved Lines. ^ -> ^ Oval. Circle. Crescent. Curved triangle Arc. o Ring. Ellipse. Forms bounded by Straight and Curved Lines. Semicircle, Segment. Quadrant. '^.^ ^ Radius. Diameter. APPARATUS FOR ILLUSTRATING FORM. 45 Solids. Pyramid. Tetrahedron. Cylinder. Cone. Sphere. Hemisphere. Spheroid. Oval. Among objects for illustrating form there shonld be a gonigraph and the Chinese tangram ; and the child should also have provided for amusement at home little bricks— blocks made of some hard wood, as cherry or maple, four inches long, two inches wide, and one thick. These bricks form suitable toys for the child from two to six or eight years of age. It may be taught to pile them up and break joints in im- itation of brick-work. By the time a boy has played with these blocks for one year, it will be astonishing to see what a variety of square and circular buildings, pyramids, towers, bridges, arches, gateways, etc., etc., 46 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FOEM. he will construct with them. Such amusement de- velops the observing j^owers, cultivates imagination, and imparts skill to the eye and hand of the child, while it furnishes an ahnost exhaustless means of en- tertainment. GONIGEAPH. The gonigraph is a small instrument resembling somewhat a jointed carpenter's rule, but made so as to bend in only two directions. It consists of ten short rulers, or joints of iron or brass, hinged together by pivots. With it may be formed all the geometri- cal figures that consist of straight lines and angles, some of which are illustrated by the accompanying engravings : Ehomb. Square. Triangle. Parallelogram. \=y Octagon. Pentagon. APPARATUS FOR ILLUSTRATING FORM. 47 CHINESE TANGEAM. The tangram may be made of metal, wood, or paste- board. It consists of seven pieces, as seen in the ac- companying drawings, each having three or four an- gles. With these pieces several hundred figures may be formed. At first the child may observe how the seven pieces can be placed so as to form two perfect squares ; then it should be allowed to take the pieces and form these squares. When it is able to do this readily, let it learn how to form a larger square with " all the pieces. Afterward outlines of figures may be given,* and the child re- quested to form the same figures, or to arrange them in shapes according to its own fancy. It is said that the tangram was one of the amusements of Napoleon. * There is a small book published showing some three hundred figures that may be formed with the tangram. 48 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FORM. 12 5 4 5 The above drawings represent the surfaces of sev- eral of the solids on a plane, and show how they may- be formed by cutting these figures of pasteboard. The outside lines give the shape of the pasteboard after it is cut, and the dotted lines indicate where it is to be cut half through, that the parts may be easily turned up and brought together to represent these solids. The outlines given here will form, 1, a quadrangular pyramid ; 2, a triangular pyramid ; 3, a cube ; 4, a tet- rahedron ; 5, a triangular prism. Children who are old enough to form these figures will find profitable amusement in making them at home. The apparatus here described for illustrating form is simple, and may be easily prepared, or purchased at a small expense. In addition, every teacher should have and use a blackboard, and the children slates and pencils. They should be encouraged to imitate the lessons and figures drawn on the blackboard, or those represented upon the chart. At first, however, they may be allowed to use the slate and pencil pretty much as they please, until they have obtained suffi- cient skill in their use to enable them to copy with some degree of success the simplest forms in outline. Thus they will find pleasing employment for many otherwise weary hours in the school-room. INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES. 49 INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES FOR TEACH- ING CHILDREN TO OBSERVE FORM. 1. Distinguishing Shapes. — l. Place before the children several different forms cut from wood or pasteboard ; also suspend a card on which those forms are represented by diagrams. Point to a form on the card, and require the j)upil to select one from the objects, or "box of forms," of the same shape. Appeal to the other pupils to de- termine if the right figure has been selected. The teacher proves it to be correct by applying the figure to the picture on the card. Call upon each pupil to do the same thing at two or three different times. 2. The teacher picks up a pattern of form next, and a child points to the one on the card that corresponds with it. The correctness of the child's pointing is de- cided by appealing to the class as before. Each pupil should go through with the same exercise. 3. Capital letters may be used in teaching children to distinguish form. For this purpose, those letters which are the most simple in shape should be select- ed. The teacher may place before them cards, each < ontaining one of the letters, as |,H,L,V,T,N,X, K, Y, O, D, U, C, P, B, S, Z, F, E, W- She may jDoint to one of the letters on the " card of letters," and request them to select one like it from the letter cards, proceeding as with the form patterns. This should be made simply an exercise in form, not for C 50 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FORM. teaching the names of the letters at this stage of the process. II. Distinguishing Corners and Sides.— i. Take a square and a triangle, and lead the children to ob- serve the difference in the number of their sides and corners. Let them point out the same difference on the card of forms. Proceed with other forms in the same way. Lead the children to find sides and cor- ners in the objects about the room by showing them a book, a slate, table, etc. 2. Let them select forms that have more than four sides and four corners, and point to the drawings which represent them. 3. The teacher may draw figures on the blackboard to represent all of the forms selected, then call upon the pupils to point to the sides of each ; then to the corners of each ; then to tell how many sides and cor- ners each has. 4. Ask the pupils to tell what a side is between. " Two corners." Hold up a figure with three sides, and inquire how many corners it has ; then how many sides. Proceed in the same manner with figures of four, five, six, seven, and eight sides. Thus lead them to observe that the corners and sides of any figure are always equal in number. 5. Request a pupil to select a figure w^ith three sides ; another, one with five sides ; another, one with eight sides, and so on. Proceed in the same manner, and select figures with four corners, three corners, etc. Request the pupils to point to figures on the black INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES. 51 board or chart with five corners, or three sides, or eight corners, as the teacher may direct. Let the children arrange all the figures in order according to their number of sides. III. Distinguishing straight and curved Sides. — The teacher may select a figure with straight sides, as a square, also a circle and a semicircle. Request a pupil to point to forms on the card that have a side resembling a part of the circle. Let them select ob- jects that have the same form ; also point out letters having these shapes, as O, D, P, B, U- IV, Combining Forms.— Lead the children to make new figures by combining two or more of these forms, as uniting two right-angled triangles to form a rectan- gle. By uniting them difiierently a trapezium may be formed, containing obtuse, acute, and right angles. Show them that two equilateral triangles will form a rhomb. Thus they may be led to make several of the regular forms, and a great number of other figures. Leaves. — An interestinsj exercise can be had on form by means of leaves of plants and trees. Re- quest the children to bring leaves of difierent shapes ; then direct them to assort and arrange them in piles, placing all the leaves of the same shape together. For one exercise, let all the pupils bring leaves that are heart-shaped, as those of the common violet, the N.B. — During these early exercises the ybrm^ should be pre- sented as whole, things, not as something made up from lines. See "Programme of the Grades and Steps," p.362. 52 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FORM. basswood, currant, etc. On another day let them bring arrow-shaped leaves; on another, egg-shaped leaves, and so on. Exercises of this kind can be va- ried so as to furnish many entertaining lessons. It may be remarked here that the names of forms ought not to be taught during these introductory ex- ercises, unless the ]3upils ask for them. The giving of the name to the child may be omitted until the forms are taken up in the subsequent lessons, and the ideas more fully developed. These introductory lessons are intended for children of four or five years of age, and they will indicate how parents may commence the early training of their chil- dren in a knowledge oiform / also suggest steps for the teacher to take when she finds her j^upils ignorant of these simple ideas of shape. In commencing the lessons on form, the teacher should ascertain as soon as possible, by some prelimi- nary exercises, to what extent the child has already learned to observe and distinguish shapes, and how far it has become familiar with their names. As soon as this has been found out, let the exercises for that pupil begin at the j^oint to which its development has already attained, and proceed gradually, taking care not to weary by too slow teaching on the one hand, nor to confuse by proceeding too rapidly. It is presumed, when the rollowing lessons are pre- sented in school, that most of the children will have previously acquired ideas of sides, corners, edges, straight, crooked, top, bottom, and similar parts and forms of objects. Wherever this knowledge is want- INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES. 53 ing, however, steps should at once be taken to supply it before proceeding farther. It is impossible to be so minute in suggestions as to indicate precisely how each pupil should be train- ed, or where the exercises of every class should com- mence. Here the teacher's judgment is indispensa- ble. It is proper to say, however, do not dwell upon that with which the child is already familiar ; but be- gin with what the child knows, and proceed by means of that to teach something that is not known to it. It does not interest the child to be told repeatedly what it already knows, but it does afford it pleasure to hear allusions to this knowledge, and to learn new facts which bear a relation to it. It also gives great- er pleasure to the mind to discover the fact than to be told it. It is evident, then, that the true process of training is to lead the child just far enough to enable it to obtain the idea or fact to be learned. Illustrate Form with common Objects.— It may be well to remark here, that during all of the lessons on form the interest of the learner should be kejDt up by a continued exhibition of things. At every lesson, in addition to the apparatus provided, several common objects should be shown to the pupils, and they be re- quired to name the different forms which the objects represent, as far as they have been taught their names. For this purpose, a book, a slate, pen, pointer, pencil, knife, table, stool, chair, bench, box, comb, window, and door, may be shown during exercises on the lines, and with forms and solids bounded by straight lines. 54 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FORM. A cent, a dime, a quarter, cnp, pail, ring, wheel, saucer, tumbler, bottle, pillar, stove-pipe, spoon, can- dle, tub, bell, key, drum, cheese, egg, moon, cherry, apple, orange, and watch, may be shown during exer- cises on curved lines, circles, cylinders, etc. In all of these lessons the several things should be associated with each form, and a conversation had about the form while the things are before the eye. It is not a proper development of the mind to show the object, and point out and name the shapes of it ; the child must be taught to see the form, and tell its name himself. Herein lies the principal difference between the two systems of teaching now in use. One continually tells the pupils, pours knowledge into the ear, and that not the best avenue to the mind, simply leading to ac- cumulation without use. The other leads the pupil to gather knowledge for himself by seemg, employing the best avenue to the mind, and continually requires him to use it, and tell it, thus placing it entirely within his control, and rendering it available through life. One process makes the mind a passive recipient of knowledge, like a bag to be filled, leaving it almost as incapable of adding any knowledge to itself, as the bag of adding to its contents. The other trains the powers of the mind to activity, and accustoms it to see., and gather, and use knowledge. When thus trained, the mind is like a man who has become master of his trade, able to go forth in the world and accumulate for itself. STRAIGHT LINES. 55 LESSON I * TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF STEAIGHT LIKES. The teacher, holding a string straight between her hands, says, What have I in my hands ? "A string." How do I hold it ? " Straight." Now what can you say of it ? " It is crooked ; it bends." I will draw marks on the blackboard to represent this string as I hold it. [Makes two points, and draws a straight line between them ; then makes two more points, and draws a cmwed line between them.] Now one of you may come and point to the mark • . which represents the string when I hold it straight. Now point to the mark which represents the string when I hold it so that it bends. I will now make several marks, and I wish you to tell me which marks are straight and which are crooked. I hold a book in my hand. Does any part of it represent a straight mark? "Yes, the edges do." Tell me other things that represent such a mark. " The sides of a slate ; the edges of the desk." I will now tell you what to call these straight marks. What shall I tell you ? " What to call those straight * Although these lessons on form may be commenced as early as the child's fourth or fifth year, yet, with the majority of chil- dren, all the ideas of figures that are given here probably could not be mastered before the child is seven or eight years of age. 56 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FORM. marks." Straight marks are called straight liiies. What are straight marks called ? " Straight lines." [Pointing to straight lines on the blackboard, on the card, and in objects about the room] What is this line called ? and this ? and this ? " Straight line." " Straight Ime." You say straight marks are called straight lines ; now what would you call crooked marks? '' Crooked Unes:' [Point- ing to crooked lines.] What is this line called ? and this? When I hold this string straight, what line does it represent ? If I hold it crooked, what line will it rep- resent ? Note. — It will be obseiTed that in these lessons the answers supposed to be given by the pupils are quoted ; this is done that the questions and remarks of the teacher may be readily distin- guished from those by the learner. It is not presumed that the answers that will be given by the pupils will be in the same words as those introduced here. Our object is not to direct precisely what questions shall be asked and what answers should be given, but to illustrate how the teacher ought to proceed to develop cor- rect ideas of the subject, so that the pupils shall not only under- stand it, but be able to give such intelligent answers as will show that they do understand it. N.B. — For the order and time of giving the lessons Q.p Form, see ''Programme of the Grades and Steps,'" p. 362, 366. CURVED LINES. 57 LESSON II. TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF CURVED LINES. Pointing to a curv^ed line on the card, or to one V / drawn upon the blackboard, the teach- ^ er says. Here is a line that bends like a bow ; it bends alike in all its parts. I will hold this string so as to represent such a line. Is the string straight ? " No, it is crooked." How does it bend ? " Alike in all its parts." I will now make a line on the blackboard which shall bend alike in all its parts. The name for this line is a curved line. What is the name of this hne ? "A curved line." How does a curved line bend? " Like ajbow." The teacher makes two points on the blackboard, and draws a straight line and a curved line between them. Which of these lines is the longer ? Let us measure them. You perceive that the curved line is longer than the straight line. Here is a crooked Une between the same points. Now let us measure and see which line is the short- est. " The straight line." Can you make a shorter line than the straight one between these points, which shall extend from one point to the other ? Then what may be said of a straight line ? " It is the shortest line between two points." Very well ; but you may call it the shortest distance between two points. C2 58 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FOKM. What is a straight line ? "^ straight line is the shortest distance between tioo points?'' Suppose I should pass this string around your hat, would it represent a straight line ? What line would it represent ? "A curved line." At this point it would be well to show the children how to make straight lines on their slates by the aid of a rule ; also how to make curved lines by the use of a string. Then give each pupil a rule and a string, and request them to make straight and curved lines on their slates while at their seats. LESSON III. TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OP SUEFACE, PLANE AND CURVED. [The teacher holds up an apple or an orange before the children.] What am I holding in my hand ? "An apple." What part of this apple do you see? "The skin." Where is the skin of the apple ? " On the outside of it." Instead of outside, say surface ^^Yh\Q^l means the outside. What name is given to the out- side of the apple ? " Surface." You walk on the surface of the floor; you mark on the surface of your slates. On what part of the black- board do I mark ? " On its surface." On what part of the window-glass does the fly crawl? "On its surface." That is right ; the outside of any thing is SURFACE, PLANE AND CURVED. 69 its surface ; but a surface may have several parts ; such parts are called /aces, because they are the parts which we see. Now how many faces has this box ? " Six." How many faces has your slate ? " Two." How- many faces do you see on the blackboard ? "I see only one." How many surfaces has this apple ? " One." How many surfaces has this sheet of paper ? " Two." How many faces has this brick ? Count them. " One, two, three, four, five, six ; it has six faces." 1. Plane Surface. — Now examine the surface of this apple, and the surface of this box, and tell me if they are alike. " The surface of the box is flat, and the surface of the apple is curved." Very good ; but when you see a flat surface, call it a. plane surface; plane means flat. What kind of a surface has the blackboard ? "A plane surface." What kind of a surface has the wall of the room ? "A plane surface." Tell me other ob- jects which have plane surfaces. " The book-covers, the ceiling, the glass, the floor." 2. Curved Surface.— What do you call the surface of the apple ? "A curved surface." What would you call the surface around your hat ? "A curved surface." Now tell me things that have curved surfaces. " Pails, cups, oranges, stove-pipes, barrels." Can you mention some object that has. two plane faces and one curved face ? " A drum, a barrel." • 60 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FOKM. LESSON" TV. TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF AN ANGLE. [The teacher draws two straight lines on the black- board.] What have I done ? "Drawn two straight lines." What kind of lines are they ? " Straight lines." [The teacher now drawls two more straight lines, meeting in a point.] What have I done now ? " Drawn two more straight lines." What difference do you observe between the first two lines and these? "The last two lines come together, or meet; the first two lines did not meet." [Teacher holding np a pair of scissors.] What is this ? "A pair of scissors." [Pointing to the blades.] What are these parts called ? " The blades." What did you say the last two lines do ? " The last two lines meet." Now what can you say of these blades ? " The blades meet." Look about the room, and tell me what parts of it meet. " The floor and walls ; the side walls and the end walls ; the walls and the ceiling." Do you observe any lines that meet in the windows ? " Yes, the wood of the window-frame at the corners of each pane of glass." [Opening the scissors.] What am I doing ? " Open- ing the scissors." Yes, I open the scissors ; now what THE IDEA OF AN ANGLE. 61 would you call this space between the blades ? " The opening." [Opens the blades to the full extent, then nearly closes them.] Is each opening of the same size? " Sometimes it is large, and sometimes small." I will draw some lines on the blackboard to repre- sent these blades when open. One of you may come and show me the opening between these lines. Now show me the place where the lines meet. You observe that these lines meet in a point. I will now give you a name for an opening between two lines which meet in a point. For what am I to give you a name ? " For an opening between two lines which meet in a point." Show me such an opening in some part of the room. When the children are able to point out the angles in the room, caUing them " openings," the following definition may be given : The opening between two lines which meet in a point is called an angle. This definition should be repeated several times by the class, also by the pupils singly. [Pointmg to an angle.] What is this ? "An angle." Why do you call this an angle ? " Because it is an opening between two lines which meet in a point." Point to some angles in the room. [The teacher now draws angles of various sizes on the blackboard.] Look at these angles, and tell me what you observe. " They differ in size." Come and show me the largest angle on the board. Which is the smallest ? 62 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FOEM. How many lines have I used to form an angle? "Two." What must these lines do to form an angle ? " Meet in a point." XlJan I make more than one angle with two lines ? Come and try it with this angle. You see that by extending one of the lines beyond the point where they meet, two angles will be formed, thus : Now if you will extend the other line be- yond the point of meeting, it will form four angles, thus : - Here are two lines [pointing to an angle] making one angle. What must I do to make two angles from this ? " You must extend one of the lines beyond the point of meeting." Here are two lines [pointing to another angle] mak- ing one angle. What must I do to make four angles from this ? " You must lengthen both of the lines so that they will cross each other." The teacher, having provided several narrow slips of pasteboard, or small sticks, gives two to each pu- pil, saying, " You may take these sticks to your seats and make angles with them; also draw angles on your slates." This will, perhaps, prove the most interesting part of the exercise to the pupils, and that very interest will fix the instruction which has just been given to 63 them about angles more thoroughly in their minds than an hour's drilling in the class could do. Besides, the primary teacher finds great difiiculty in keeping children employed between their lesson exercises ; this plan will furnish a profitable and pleasing employment for the time usually wasted in idleness and mischief, and will prevent much annoyance to the teacher. LESSOR V. TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OP RIGHT, ACUTE, AND OBTUSE ANGLES. What did you learn in your last lesson about an- gles? "How angles are formed; that they are of difierent sizes, and that we can make one, two, or four angles with two lines." "Now observe me. [Draws a horizontal line on the blackboard.] What have I done ? " Drawn a straight line." [Draws a perpendicular line to meet the hori- zontal line in the middle.] What have I done now ? " Drawn another straight line, which meets the first line, and forms two angles." What do you observe in these angles ? [Points to others on the Chart of Lines.] " They are of the same size." Yes, they are equal. When you see two an- gles of the same form and size, call them eqical angles. 1. Right Angles.— [The teacher calls two pupils to her, i^laces one at her right side, and the other at 64 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FORM. her left side.] How have I placed these girls ? " On each side of you." Where am I ? " Between them." Now show me a line between two angles. What can you say of the position of these two angles ? " They are on each side of the line." What can you say of their size ? " They are equal." Now I will tell you a name for these angles. They are called right angles. What are these angles call- ed? "Right angles." When a line meets another so that the angles on each side of it are equals such angles are right angles. Let the class repeat this several times, also the pu- pils singly. [Pointing to right angles on the chart.] What do you call these angles ? " Right angles." Now show me right angles in the window and about the room. 2. Acute Angle. — [The teacher draws two lines making an acute angle.] Is this a right angle ? " It is smaller than a right an- gle." What must I do to ascertain whether it is a right angle or not ? " You must lengthen one of the lines where they meet, so as to make two angles." I have done so ; what now ? " These two angles are not of the same size, so nei- ther can be a right angle." How do these angles differ from a right angle? " The first is smaller than a right angle, the other is larger than a right angle." One of you may come here and make an angle 65 smaller than a right angle. Now make one larger than a right angle. Would you like to know the name for this small angle ? For what angle do you wish a name ? " For an angle* that is smaller than a right a^igUP An angle that is smaller than a right angle is called an acfute angle. What is an acute angle ? " An angle that is small- er than a right angle is an acute angleP Now make a right angle with your two fore-fingers ; make acute angles with your fingers. 3. Obtuse Angle. — How many kinds of angles do you know? "Two." What are they called? "Right angles and acute angles." How do these an- gles difier? "The acute angle is smaller than the right angle." Show me these angles on the card. [The teacher points to an obtuse angle on the card.] What can you say of the size of this angle ? " It is larger than a right angle." One of you may come and make an angle on the board like this. You want a name for this angle also. For what kind of an angle do you want a name? " For an angle that is larger than a right angle." An angle that is larger than a right angle is called an obtuse angle. * It will be observed that the plan of these lessons is to show first the idea of the form, so that the child understands it, and then to teach it the name. 66 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FORM. You observe that a right angle has a square cor- ner, and that an acute angle has a sharp corner ; but that an obtuse angle has neither a square nor a sharp corner, but a bhmt one. Now tell me what an obtuse angle is. "An angle that is larger than a right an- gle." [The teacher now draws upon the board several angles of each kind, right, acute, and obtuse; then points to them, also to the same kind of angles on the chart.] What angle is this ? and this ? and this ? [The pupils answer, telling the name of each.] Now make all of these angles with your fingers, imitating me. Now imitate with your fingers the angles that I make with these scissors. The teacher may now give the children the sticks to take to their seats, as before, with which to make these angles. Also tell them to make the angles on their slates. The gonigraph is adapted to illustrate these lessons on angles. LESSON YL TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF TEIANGLES. One of you may come here, take these two sticks, and see if you can make a pen around the inkstand with them. You can't do it ? Well, how many sticks must you have to make a pen ? *' Three." Now make three lines on the blackboard to represent your TRIANGLES. 67 pen. What kind of angles do these three Imes form ? " Acute angles." Can you inclose a space with two straight lines ? " No, we must have three." Here are two short sticks and one long one ; make a pen with these. Now tell me what kind of angles you have formed. " One right angle and two acute an- gles." Shall I tell you the name for a figure with three angles ? All figures with three angles are called tri-angles. Tri means three, and tri-angle means a figure with three angles. What do you call figures with three angles? "Tri-angles." What must you have to form a triangle ? " Three lines." How must those lines be placed ? " So as to form three angles." 1. Equilateral Triangle.— [Teacher points to an equilateral triangle on the card.] What can you say of the size of these angles ? " They are all of the same size ; they are equal." What can you say of the lines ? " They are all of equal length." Now what would you call this figure ? " An equal triangle^ That is not a bad answer; but I will tell you what it is called in the books, and by learned men. It is an equilateral triayigle. This is a hard word, but I think you can remember it. You ob- serve that the sides of the angle are all equal ; equi- lateral means equal-sided. All its sides are of the same length. 68 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FORM. Now I will show you how to make such a triangle with a stick and a string. Take a string, and tie the ends to the ends of a straight stick one half as long as the string; then hold the stick in one hand, and take hold of the middle of the string with the finger of the other hand, and pull it tight, and you will have an equilateral triangle. By moving the finger near- er to one end, it will form a right-aiigled triangle. These are called riglit-angUd triangles because one of the angles is a right angle. Here are some sticks which you may take to your seats, and with them make triangles like those which you see on the Chart of Lines; and after you have made all of them with the sticks, I wish you to draw them on your slates. LESSON YII. POSITION OF LINES — VERTICAL, PEEPENDICULAR, AND HOKIZONTAL. The teacher places sticks in the hands of the pupils, and requests them to hold their sticks in an upright position, imitating her. She then holds them horizon- tally, and the pupils imitate her ; then in a vertical position again. Now she proceeds to draw several straight lines on the blackboard to represent the position in which the sticks are held — vertical and horizontal lines. What have I done ? " Drawn some straight lines." PEEPENDICULAR AND HORIZONTAL LINES. 69 In what are these lines alike ? " They are all straight." How are they not alike ? " They go in different di- 1. Perpendicular Line. — [Draws a line across the slate.] In what direction have I drawn this line? " Across the slate." I will draw another to meet it. What have I now made ? "A right angle." In what direction must a line be drawn to form a right angle with a line across the slate? "It must be up and down." Call it a perpendicular line. What shall we call this line ? "A perpendicular line." Now I wish you to repeat this : A line that makes a right angle with another line is perpendicular to that line. Which part of the slate represents the perpendicu- lar line ? " The side." What parts of the room are in a perpendicular position ? " The walls or sides." To what are the walls perpendicular? "The walls are perpendicular to the floor." Tell me other perpendicular lines that you see about the room. Show me a vertical line. Now take these sticks, and place them in a position perpendicular to the wall. Let each pupil hold a stick m a vertical position. When does a man represent this position ? " When he stands upright." 2. Horizontal Lines. — [The teacher ties a string to some heavy object, as a piece of lead or iron.] You observe that this string hangs straight from my hand toward the floor. What kind of an angle does it make 70 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FORM. with the floor? ''It makes a right angle with the floor." [Draws a chalk line on the floor, and holds the string over it so as to touch it.] What kind of an angle does the string make with this chalk line ? "A right angle." When we suspend a weight above a surface, thus, and the surface makes a right angle with the string, we say the surface is horizontal. Now I will draw a line on the blackboard, — ■ and hold this string vertically above it, and if it forms a right angle with the string, the line must be hori- zontal. What is the result ? " The line forms a right angle ; it is horizontal." A line is called horizontal because it is level or even with the horizon. Now let us see if the top of the desk is horizontal. " No, it does not form a right angle with the string." Let us try the table. " Yes, the top is horizontal ; it forms a right angle with the string." What did you say of the walls of the room ? "They are perpendicular to the floor." What can you say about the position of the floor ? " It is horizontal." You learned something about two kinds of lines in your first lesson. Can you tell me what those lines are called ? " Straight lines and curved lines." You have also learned three positions in which the straight lines may be placed. What are those posi- tions ? " Perpendicular, vertical, and horizontal." Now request the pupils to hold the straight sticks in these several positions, as you call the name of the position. SLANTING LINES. 71 LESSON VIII. SLANTING LINES. You have already learned about two kinds of lines, and the three positions in which they may be placed. What are these two kinds of lines ? " Straight lines and curved lines." Show me a straight line on the card ; now a curved line. What are the three positions in which the straight lines may be placed ? " Perpendicular, vertical, and horizontal." Show me a perpendicular line; now a horizontal one ; now a vertical one. [The teacher draws several lines in each of the po- sitions, and requires the children to represent the po- sition of each by holding the straight sticks. She then points to the lines, requiring the pupils to name those in positions which are vertical and horizontal.] Here are some lines that are neither vertical nor horizontal. What will you call them? Slanting or oblique lines. Did you ever see a house which had slantmg lines ? " Yes, a house with a slanting roof" Why is the roof made to slant ? " So that the water may run off." Do all slanting lines lean in the same direction? " No, they slant in different "directions." How does this slant ? " From the right toward the left." And this? "The same way." And this? "From the left toward the right." 72 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FORM. What can you say of this Hne which I have just made ? " It slants from left to the right." What of this ? "It slants from right to the left." Now tell me in what positions straight lines may be placed, and in doing so I wish you to represent each position with these straight sticks. "Straight lines are either vertical^ horizontal^ or slanting. Slant- ing lines may lean or incline from left toward the right, or from right toward the left." Now, as I call for these different positions of straight lines, I wish all of you to represent them by holding your sticks in the positions named — horizontal^ slant- ing^ perpendicular^ slanting^ horizontal^ vertical. Now take your slates and draw these lines. LESSON IX. PARALLEL LINES. [The teacher draws with a rule parallel vertical lines, parallel horizontal lines, and parallel curved lines with a string.] What are these ? " Straight and curved lines." What more do you observe ? " Some are vertical, some are horizontal, and some are curved." PARALLEL LINES. 73 Any thing more ? " Some are slanting ; you have placed two of each kind together." [The teacher lengthens all of these lines.] What have I done ? " Made the lines longer." Examine them, and see if they come nearer together. [Length- ens them still more.] What do you observe ? *' The lines are still the same distance from each other." If I should continue adding to these lines, -would they ever meet ? If any pupil thinks these lines will meet by extending them, let him come and try it. You find that they will not meet. N"ow observe me. I am measuring the distance between these two lines at difierent parts. What is the result ? " The distance between them is every where the same." [The teacher measures other lines, or, what is bet- ter, calls upon pupils to measure them, and learn that the distance between them is uniform at difierent parts.] Now I will tell you a name for these lines, which you see are equally distant from each other in all their parts. Lines which are equally distant froin each other in all their parts are called parallel lines. Parallel is another hard word, but I think you can remember it when I tell you that it means by the side cf. Parallel lines are lines by the side of each other. Can you show me parallel lines in the writing-book ? " Yes, the ruled lines are parallel." What lines are parallel on the slate-frame ? " The two sides, and the two ends." What lines are paral- lel in the door ? D 74 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FORM. What other names may be applied to the sides of the door ? " They are vertical jyarallel lines." Now you may take these sticks and place them parallel to each other ; then draw lines on your slates to represent them. LESSOR X. TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF A SQUARE, A EHOMB, AISTD A PAEALLELOGEAM. [The teacher draws a square on the blackboard.] What have I done ? " Made a square." How many straight lines did I use ? " Four." How many straight lines did I use to make a triangle ? " Three." Could I make a square with less than four straight lines ? " 1^0." What do you observe in this figure on the board ? " All its sides are equal, and all its angles are right angles." Very good. Now tell me what book resembles this form. *'The geography." What do these four lines which form the square show? "Its shape." Does the square extend beyond these lines ? " No." Then these lines mark the bounds of the square, so we may call them the boundaries of the square. What do the lines of this square on the board show ? " The boundaries of the square." What do tlie lines of the triangle mark ? " The boundaries of the triangle." Now you may describe a square. SQUAKE, EHOMB, AND PARALLELOGKAM. 75 A sqicare is hounded by four equal sides, and has four right aiigles. 2. Rhomb. — [Points to a rhomb on the card ; shows the form.] How many angles has this figure ? " Four." What can you say of its sides ? " It has four equal sides." You say it has four angles and four equal sides ; now is it a square ? " It is not a square." How does it differ from a square ? " The angles are different. The angles of a square are all right angles j none of the angles in this figure are right an- gles." What kind of angles has this figure ? " Two acute angles and two obtuse angles." What more do you observe ? " Its opposite angles are equal — two of each of its angles are alike and equal. It looks like a square leaning over." What would you call it ? "A leaning square." That is an appropriate name, but the name by which such a fig- ure is called is a rhomh. ISTow what is this figure called ? [pointing to a rhomb on the chart.] Here is a rhomboid. What does it look like ? y y How does it differ from a rhomb? / / You may make a rhomb and a ^ ' rhomboid on your slates. 3. Parallelogram.— [Draws a parallelogram on the board.] Here are squares, and rhombs, and rhomboids on the board, and now I have drawn another figure. Is this a square or a rhomb ? " It is not either." Does it look like either : 76 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FORM. *' It looks most like the square." How is it like the square ? " It has four right angles." How does it differ from the square ? " It is longer in one way than the square. Its sides are not equal." What do you call a square ? "^4 figure that has four equal sides andfou^r right anglesP How does a rhomb differ from a square ? "^ rhomh has equal sides, but unequal a?igles.''^ Observe this figure again, and tell me whether or not two sides are equal. " Yes, its o2y2yosite sides are equal, and they are parallelP This figure is called a parallelogram, because its opposite sides are equal and parallel. Do you see any thing in the room that resembles a parallelogram? " Yes, slates, tops of the desks, sides of books." How many angles has a parallelogram ? " Four." What kind of angles has this figure ? " Right angles." Then we will call it a right-a7igled parallelogram. What may you call the shajoe of the door ? "A right-angled parallelogram." Tell me other objects that have this shape. " Window-glass, table, black- board." Frequent use should be made of the forms from the box during all of these exercises. The teacher may also show parallelograms of other shapes. Here are six sticks for each, two long ones and four short ones. You may take these to your seats and make parallelograms, squares, rhombs, and rhomboids; also draw those figures that you see on the card on your slates. PYEAMIDS. 77 LESSON XI. PYRAMIDS. Place pyramids of three and of four sides before the children. Now look at this, and tell me how many sides it has. "Three." How many sides has this? "Fom\" James may tell me the shape of one of these sides. " Its shape is that of a triangle." Are the sides all of the same shape ? What more can you say about these sides ? " They all meet in a point." We call the bottom of a solid its base. A solid is a body that has no hollow inside of it. What is the shape of the base of this solid ? " It is a triangle." What is the shape of the base of this solid ? " It is square." How many triangles has this ? " Four." How many triangles has this ? " Three." How many sides has its base ? " Three." How many sides has the base of this which has four triangles for its sides ? " Four." Now you observe that you can tell how many sides the base has by counting the triangles. Now count the triangles on the sides of this, and tell me how many sides its base has. " Three." Now count the sides. Would you like a name for these solids ? I will tell you one. They are called Pyramids. [Holding 78 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FORM. up the triangular pyramid.] Henry may tell me the shape of this pyramid. " It has three triangles for its sides, and a triangle for its base." William may describe this pyramid. " It has fom* triangles for its sides, and four sides to its base." [Holding a cone before the pupil.] Here is a solid that comes to a point at the top somewhat like the pyramid. Can you tell me the difterence in the sides of the two figures ? " One has a curved side, and the other has flat sides." Suppose now you should see a pyramid with five triangles for its sides, how many sides would its base have?. "Five." The teacher should show the children pictures of the Egyptian pyramids, and talk about them in a far miliar manner. LESSON XII. PKISMS. [The teacher places before the children parallelo- grams, squares, triangles, and triangular and square prisms.] Takes up a parallelogram, and inquires what it is called. How many angles has it ? What kind of angles are they ? Holds up a triangular prism, and asks. How III many sides has this? "Three." What can lililll y^^ ^^y ^^ ^^^^^ shape ? " They are all alike, " and all parallelograms." PRISMS. 79 What can you say of the ends ? " They are alike, and both ends are triangles." Now if you were going to make a figure like this, how many parallelograms would you take ? " What would those three parallel- osrrams form ? " The three sides." What would you take for the ends ? " Two triangles." Here is another figure. How does it differ from the other ? " This has four parallelograms for its sides, and squares for its ends." How many sides has it ? " Four." How many sides has its ends ? " Four." How many sides has the other figure ? " Three." How many sides has its ends ? " Three." What, then, can you say about its ends ? " The ends have as many sides as there are parallelograms in the figure." Xow I will give you the name for these solids. They are called 2^risms. What is the shape of the side of a prism ? "A parallelogram." Upon what does the shape of the ends of the prism depend ? " Upon the number of parallelograms there are in its sides." Did you ever see a prism of glass ? Let the teach- er show a prism, and let each pupil look at objects through it. She may also give them slips of paste- board, cut in the form of parallelograms, triangles, and squares, for them to place together in the shape of prisms ; or, what would be better, cut tlie paste- board as indicated in the diagram No. 5 on page 48, and let the pupils bend it so as to form the shape of the triangular prism. 80 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FORM. . LESSON XIII. TO ©EVELOP THE IDEA OF A CFBE AND OF CUBICAL FORM. [Holding up a cube.] How many sides has the ob- ject which I now hold in my hand ? Count them. " One, two, three, four, five, six ; it has six sides." What do we sometimes call the sides or surface of objects ? " We call them facesP Very well ; what is the shape of these faces ? " They are all flat, or plane, and square." What can you say of the size of these faces ? " They are all equal." What more can you say of this object? [Points to the corners, angles, and edges.] " It has eight cor- ners ; all the angles are right angles ; it has twelve straight edges." Did you ever see any thing else that resembled this form? "Yes; soap-boxes, chests of tea, boxes of goods." This object, you observe, has six equal square sides y its name is a cube. What is a cube ? " An object with six equal square sides." Many objects with six sides resemble this in shape, but some of them are not cubes, because they have not six equal sides ; such objects are called cubical in form. What is the shape of the stove ? What other ob- jects can you mention that resemble this form? CIKCLE AND SEMICIKCLE. 81 LESSON XIY. TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF A CIECLE AND SEMICIECLE. [Holding up a piece of money, or a O I'ing-] What is the shape of this object? "Round." Can you mention any other objects with this form ? " Hoops, wheels, plates, buttons." Call one of the pupils to point to a figure on the card with the same form. [The teacher draws a circle on the blackboard with a string, holding one end of it tight against the board, while the other end is carried around on the surface of the board with a piece of chalk attached to it.] What have I done? "You have made a ring" — "made a round" — "made a circle," some may thus correctly answer. You may call it a circle. What do you call this line which forms the circle ? '"^ A curved line." Will one of you come and draw a circle on the board as I did ? Two children might be called out to form a circle on the floor, one being required to place himself at the centre, and hold a string, while the other pupil holds the other end to a piece of chalk, and marks the floor as he passes around the centre. These practical illustrations greatly interest children, and fasten the subjects in their minds ; they should always, as much as is compatible with order, he actors in their lessons. Suppose a boy should tie a string to a post so loose- D2 82 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FORM. ly that it would slip around it, and, taking hold of the other end, should walk around the post as far from it as the string would reach, what would be the shape of his path? "Circular." IsTow look at this piece of money, and tell me what you observe. " It has flat sides or faces." What kind of a line represents the edge of this flat surface ? "A curved line." What does this curved line bound ? "A circle." Surftices of this shape, bounded by curved lines, are called circular. Show me figures on the chart that have a circular form. Mention objects that have this form. " The top of a hat — top and bottom of a pail — a button — door-knob — sun — moon." 2. Semicircle. — Now I will draw a line through this circle on the board, and rub off" all on one side of it. What part of the circle is left ? " One half of it." Then what might we call this ? " Half a circle." Point to one like it on the Chart of Forms. Now find half a circle among the forms. Did you ever see any thing in the sky that resem- bled this shape ? " Yes, the moon." I will now tell you the name of this half circle ; it is called a semicircle. Seoni means half., so that semicircle means what? " Half a circle." What is half a circle called ? " Semicircle." Show me a semicircle on the card of letters. You may draw circles and semicircles on your slates. CIRCUMFEEBNCE AND ARC. 83 LESSON XY. CIRCUMFEKENCE AND AEC. The teacher draws a drcle on the "board, and asks, What have I made ? "A circle." What do we call this line ? "A curved line." What can you say of this curved line ? " It bounds a circle." Show me such a line on the chart. Here is a cup ; can you show me such a line on it ? Show me such a line in other objects. The curved line that bounds a circle is called a cir- cumfereiice. The figure bounded by the circumfer- ence is called a circle. The circumference is the dis- tance around an object. Point to the circumference of the circles on the chart and on the blackboard. Where is the circum- ference of this ring ? of this apple ? of this cup ? of this hat ? of this button ? etc. 2. Arc. — What have I made on the board? "A short curved line." Suppose I should continue this curved line, what would it form ? " The circumfer- ence of a circle." Does this line form half of a cir- cumference ? " No." Here is a circumference. Now if you should take three or four of these short curved lines, could you make a circumference ? " Yes." Then what may we call this curved line ? "A part of a circumference." 84 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FORM. ^ N^ I will tell you a shorter name for a part of : i a circumference ; it is called an arc. What is '■•- ••'' called an arc f " A part of a circumference." Show me an arc on the chart. Point to one on the blackboard. What have I in my hand ? "A paper ring." What does it represent ? " The circumference of a circle." If I cut off a part of it, what will it form ? " An arcP The teacher should lead the children to distinguish between a semicircle and an arc by drawing several figures on the board, also by pointing to them on the chart, and by requiring the pupils to select each from forms, which may be cut from paper. The card of capi- tals and the letter cards may be used for an exercise in distinguishing the semicircle, circumference, arc, etc. LESSON XVI. CENTRE, RADIUS, AND DIAMETER. [The teacher points to a circle on the chart with a dot in the centre, or draws one on the board and makes a dot in the centre.] In what part of this circle is the dot ? " In the mid- dle." We call the middle of a circle its centre. What shall we call the middle of the circle ? " Its centre." Show me the centre of the circles on the chart and of those on the board. CENTRE, RADIUS, AND DIAMETER. 85 Which part of the circumference is nearest to the centre ? " Not any part ; one part is just as far from the centre as the other." Yes, the centre is equally distant from all parts of the circumference of a circle. A point would not be called the centre if it was not at the same distance from all parts of the circumference. [Makes a point at one side of the centre of a circle.] Is this point the centre of the circle ? " No." Why not ? " Because it is nearer to one part of the cir- cumference than it is to the other parts." The teacher should continue similar examples until the idea of centre is comprehended. 2. Radius. — [Points to the radius of a circle.] ^^-j-^^ What line is this? "A straight line." '' I \ In what part of the circle is it ? From the \^ / centre to the circumference." How many such lines would it take to reach across the circle ? " Two." Let us measure it and see. You are right. Then this line is one half of the distance across the circle. Now show me such lines in the circles on the board and on the chart. A straight line extending from the centre of a circle to its circumference is called its radius. If you should draw several lines from the centre to the circumference of a circle, all of those lines would be of the same length. When the boy holds the string which is fastened to the post, and walks around it, what does the string represent ? " The radius of the circle inclosed by the boy's path." 86 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FORM. 3. Diameter. — [The teacher draws a line across /" ""^^ the circle through its centre.] What have I I — ■ i done? "Drawn a straight line across the ^. .y circle." Through what part of the circle have I drawn this line ? " Through its centre." A line passing through the centre of a circle is called the diameter of the circle. Now come and point to the diameters of these cir- cles on the " chart" and on the board. Where does the line representing the diameter begin ? " It begins in the circumference." " Where does it end ? " It ends in the circumference on the opposite side." Through what does it pass ? " Through the centre." Now take these strings and straight sticks, one string and one stick each, to your seats, and with your pencils draw circles on your slates as I did on the blackboard [shows them how to do it on their slates], and then place the stick across the circle to draw its radius and its diameter. LESSON XVII. TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OP A CYLINDER AND OF A CYLINDRICAL FORM. [Holding up a cylinder.] What do you observe in this object ? " It is round." Can you say any thing more about it? " It has circular, flat ends." What can you say of the surface of its sides ? " Its sides have a curved surface." CONE AND CONICAL FOEM. 87 Tell me of something that resembles this object. " A stove-pipe — a round ruler — a pencil." This is called a cylinder. Any thing that resembles this in form may be called cylindrical^ or like a cylin- der. Did you ever see any thing growing in the field or forest that resembled this form in any of its parts ? " Yes ; trees — stalks of wheat — oats — sugar-cane." Suppose you wished to roll an object along the floor, which shape would you prefer, that of a cube or that of a cylinder f " The form of a cylinder." Now will you describe a cylinder? A cylinder has two plane^ circular ends, and one curved surface for its sides. If the idea of the form of a cylinder is not yet clear in the mind of the child, let other and similar illustra- tions be ffiven. LESSON XVIII. TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF A CONE AND OF A CONICAL FOEM. I have here an object [holding up a cone] that somewhat resembles the cylindrical form, yet you observe that it is not a cylinder [showing a cylinder], because a cylinder is of the same size around throughout its en- tire length. How does this difier from a cylinder ? " It tapers to a point at one end." 88 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FOKM. Did either of you ever see the fruit or seed of a pine-tree ? Well, can you tell me what that seed is called? "A cone." Which of the objects does it re- semble, the cylinder or the other ? " The other ob- ject." Now if this object is like a cone in shape, what would be a good name for it ? "A coneP Yes ; all objects that are round or circular like a cylinder at one end, but which taper to a point, or nearly, at the other end, are called conical in form, because they re- semble the shape of the cone^ from which the name is derived. You observe that this cone will stand upon one end. What is the shape of that end ? " It is circular, Avith a flat or plane surface." 2. Base, Solids, Apex.— This end upon which the cone stands is called its hase^ which means the bottom of a solid. A solid is a body that has no hollow or space in- side of it. This cube is a solid ; so is this cylinder and this cone. All such bodies are solids. Is a cup a sohd ? " No, because it is hollow on the inside." Mention a few solid bodies. What did I say the bot- tom of a solid is called ? ^'•Its haseP That is correct. The top of a cone is called its apex. Which end of the cone is its apex f " The small end, or top." Now describe a cone. "^ cone has aflat circular base for the hottom., and one curved side exte7iding to a point at the top or apex.'''' SPHERICAL FORMS. 89 [The teacher may make a cone of paper, and inquire if it is a solid. Then he may roll it and show how it turns round in a circle.] Would a cone be a good form for a body which you wished to roll ? What is the form of some church steeples ? What is the shape of a beet ? of a top ? Can you mention other objects which have a conical form ? lesso:n- XIX. TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF SPHEEICAL FOEMS. [Holding up a ball.] What is this? "A ball." What is its shape ? "Round." Here is a cylinder. You told me that this is round. Now are these two ob- jects alike? "No." How do they differ? "The cylinder is round in only two ways, but the ball is round in every way." Mention other objects that are round in all direc- tions. " Grapes — currants — oranges — all balls — dew- drops." You say these objects are round like a ball when you describe them, but I will tell you a name for this shape which is better to use. A ball is a sphere. All objects that are round like a ball are ^a spheres. If they are nearly round, like an apple or a peach, they are said to be spherical., or spheroids. What is the form of a plum? "A spheroid," 90 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FOEM. What is the form of a sphere ? " Round in all direc- tions." What, then, is the form of yom* marble ? " A sphere, or spherical." What is the shape of this globe ? "A sphere." Now look at this sphere, and tell me how many- surfaces it has. " Only one surface." What is the shape of the surface ? " It is a curved surface." You told me the other day that a cylinder is a good form for an object which you wish to roll ; now which will roll more easily, a cylinder or a sjohere? "A sphere." Why will a sphere roll more easily than a cylinder ? " Because its surface is curved in all directions, while the surface of the cylinder is curved in only two di- rections." Why are marbles made in the form of spheres? " So that they will roll easily in any direction." What parts of your body are of this shape ? " The eye, and the head." Mention other objects that have the shape of a sphere. " Turnips — onions — shot — beads — many kinds of seed — drops of water," etc. 2. Hemispliere. — What would you call the shape of this apple ? "A sphere." I have cut it into two equal pieces. What part of the whole apple is this piece ? " One half of it." What part is this piece ? " One half" Now w^hat part of a sphere is one of these pieces ? " One half of a sphere." Can you tell me the shape of this half of a OVAL. 91 sphere ? " It has one circular flat face and one curved face." There is a word for this shape; shall I tell you what that word is ? Well, first tell me what that word is the name of. " It is the name of one half of a sphere." Very good ; the name of half a sphere is heirdspliere. What is half of a sphere called ? '•'•A hemispliereP Semi means half, so that hemisphere means half of a sphere. How many hemispheres can you make out of one sphere ? LESSON XX. TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF AN OVAL. [Holding uj) an oval-shaped figure.] What have ^^^^^ you seen of this shape ? " An Ggg.^'' §^^^^^^ Very good. This shape was named »^^^^^P after the egg. The Latins called the ^^^^^^ Qgg an ovum. We call this shape oval because it is like the shape of an egg. Here is a lemon, an apple, and a nutmeg ; what is their shape ? Are all apples of this oval shape ? " No ; some are like a sphere." [Draws an oval figure on the black- board, and makes a dot for the mid- dle.] What do we call the line which bounds this oval ? " The circumfer- 92 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF FOEM. ence." What does this mark in the oval indicate? "Its middle." Are all parts of the circumference of this oval at the same distance from the middle? What do you observe ? " The oval is longer in one direction than in the other." What would you call those parts of the oval which are farthest from the middle ? " Its ends." Several objects may be shown and figures drawn to illustrate this shape. CONCLUDING SUGGESTIONS. There should be a great variety of objects provided for illustrating the forms which are described, and the children should frequently be exercised in selecting and classifying those with similar forms. Whenever practicable, several objects should be shown to illus- trate each form, so that the child may not suppose that the name of the shape is the name of the object. It would be well to call for the selection of objects by the names of their shapes ; then to take up objects and tell the names of. their forms. Very little importance should be placed on repeat- ing the names of forms, but a great deal upon the act- ual selection and classification of the objects by their different shapes. It is the seeing and doing that per- fects knowledge in this department, not repetition of names merely. The three should be combined ; the child should be led to see, trained to do, and required to tell what it sees and does. CONCLUDING SUGGESTIONS. 93 It may be found that some of these lessons are too long for a single exercise, or too difficult to engage the attention of some children. When the first diffi- culty is encountered, the lesson may be divided at the sub-heads. Indeed, for young children, this course will be preferable, as the lessons should be very short. When, however, such divisions are made, the exer- cises under each sub-heading should be expanded by means of a greater variety of illustrations and com- parisons. When the lesson is found too difficult, the teacher should prepare the way for it by introducing a great- er number of lessons similar to those which precede the difficult one. Here, as in very many other in- stances, the judgment of the teacher must decide the precise steps to be taken. We have endeavored to point out the course to be l^ursued, and illustrate the principles on which a true system of training for the development of the faculties of children is based. The success of the teacher in using this system of training will depend upon her ability to observe the course^ and to modify and adapt the plans for applying the principles to the conditions of her pupils. DEVELOPING IDEAS OF DRAWING. "Doing can only be learned by doing; drawing by drawing; writing by writing ; painting by painting." — Comeneus. HOW DRAWING MAY BE INTRODUCED INTO PRIMARY SCHOOLS. The ability to use the j^encil or the pen, so that with a few strokes of either one can represent to the eye that Avhich he can not describe, is an acquisition the value of which is too well known to need any commendation here ; but that cliildren may be trained to acquire this ability at school is not so generally un- derstood. It is believed by the ablest educators that children will learn to write in less time, if they are taught draw- ing and writing at the same time, than when taught writing alone. It was a saying of the great Swiss educator, Pestalozzi, that " without drawing there can be no writing." The use of the slate and pencil should not be post- poned for a single day after the child has entered the primary school ; indeed, the use of it should be learn- ed long before the child is sent to school at all. The teacher may introduce the subject of drawing HOW TO INTRODUCE DRAWING. 95 to her pupils by requesting them to draw upon their slates two lines in as many different positions as they can j^lace them. That the children may understand this request, the teacher might illustrate some of the positions in which two lines can be placed by drawing them upon the blackboard in the following positions : Examples with two lines. At first only a few of these positions should be shown, just enough to make the pupils understand what is desired of them. They should be encouraged to discover other positions for themselves by occasion- ally adding a new one to those shown at first. When the children have become familiar with, and can read- ily represent the several positions in which two lines may be placed, give them an exercise with three lines. Examples with three lines. Request them to find how many angles can be maJc 96 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF DRAWING. with three lines ; how many acute angles ; how many- right angles ; how many obtuse angles. When the children have become familiar with the representations by these lines, proceed to give an ex- ercise with four lines. 1 M XX Examples with four lines. How many right angles can be made with four lines ? How many acute angles ? How many obtuse angles ? Examples with five lines. By thus introducing an additional number of lines from time to time, the lessons may be continued to an almost indefinite extent ; yet care should be taken not to go so far as to confuse the learner. In each lesson, such figures should be drawn upon the blackboard as will be most likely to suggest other forms to the pupils.- The straight lines may be followed with figures composed of curved lines. The teacher should pro- ceed as with the straight lines. HOW TO INTRODUCE DRAWING. 97 Examples with curved lines. Another change in the exercise may be made by combining the straight and curved lines, thus : HA Examples with straight and curved lines. ExercisG with these Hues combined will readily sug- gest a very great variety of forms. Of course, the teacher will vary the mode of presenting this exercise whenever the interest in it flags, and make it both a means of amusement and development. It would be well if the pupils could learn to use the chalk and blackboard during these elementary draw- ing exercises. By the time the pupils have gone through with the preceding steps, they will have attained a sufficient command of the hand in the use of the pencil, and so trained the eye that it will readily distinguish differ- ent forms and positions of hues. Then the exercise may be varied by introducing drawings with the sim- plest outhnes of plain objects for the children to copy. They will now be ready to use to advantage the ele- mentary drawing cards.* * The drawing cards best adapted for this early instruction are the modern ones with black ground and white lines. These fur- nish copies that resemble the drawings upon the slate. E 98 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF DRAWING. By a skillful introduction of such lessons as the pre- ceding, the foundation for more scientific instruction in the art of drawing may be successfully laid, and as many children may become skillful in the use of the pencil in drawing as now become good writers from instruction in penmanship. The practice of drawing on slates should be inter- spersed with all the exercises of the primary school as one means of employment for the children while sitting on their seats, also as a recreation. Care should be taken not to have them come to regard these ex- ercises as tasks. Lessons of this kind, properly given, will furnish constant practice in the knowledge which the chil- dren have acquired from the Xesso7is on Form y- be- sides, that knowledge will add interest to these draw- ing exercises, and these exercises will furnish excel- lent opportunities for reviewing the ideas developed in those lessons. These simple exercises w^ill prove an excellent foun- dation for the subsequent course of instruction in drawing, and add great efficiency in obtaining a thor- ough knowledge of this important art. N.B. — For additional suggestions relative to the manner, order, and time of conducting these elementary exercises in drawing, see "Programme of the Grades and Steps," p. 364. DEVELOPING IDEAS OF COLOR. IMPORTANCE OF TRAINING THE EYE. The senses are the doors and windows of the mmd, and through them all its knowledge of the world is obtained. Through these same avenues all instruc- tion must i^ass, if it ever reaches the mind. Some kinds of knowledge are designed for entering at the doors, while others must pass through the windows. It becomes those, then, who would communicate with mind to consider how it can be most successfully reached, and which of the avenues is adapted to the kind of instruction that is desired to be conveyed. It would be folly to attempt to pass through a window that which was designed only for a door, or to carry through a door that which could more easily be pass- ed through the window. Strange though it may seem, just such foolish things are attempted daily by methods of instruction in com- mon use. Efforts are continually made to pour into the ear knowledge which God designed should enter at the window of the soul. To this error may justly be attributed most of the unsatisfactory results in ed- ucation. 100 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF COLOR. Sight is the most nearly perfect of all our senses ; its conceptions of whatever properties of objects can be seen are more vivid and complete than Avhen ideas of the same properties are conveyed to the mind by any one of the other senses. Horace understood the importance of this sense Avhen he sang : " Sounds which address the ear are lost, and die In one short hour ; but that which strikes the eye Lives long upon the mind ; the faithful sight Engraves the knowledge with a beam of light." This principle should be heeded especially by in- structors of the young, and greater attention paid to teaching from things by sight, and less from words by hearing. Nevertheless, both should be combined, as one serves to aid the other, but never should one be allowed to take the place of the other. The subject which we now present is emphatically one for the sense of sight. A knowledge of color must pass through the window, or never reach the mind. One of the most striking qualities of objects of which sight takes cognizance is that of color. To teach this, the colors themselves must be shown. No descriptions will convey any idea of them to one who has never seen a color. A blind man once told us that the best idea of black w^hich he ever received was from a remark made to him one day by his little sister. She was describing some object that was black. Her mother, hearing her, remarked, " Your brother can not understand you ; TRAINING THE EYE. 101 he does not know what black is." " Don't you know how black looks, brotlier ? It looks like the darkest night that you ever saw." Nothing could have been more simple and better adapted to convey the idea of black to a blind man, yet to his mind it was only like something that could not be seen ; it gave him no defi- nite conception of black. Notwithstanding a knowledge of color is impor- tant in the various avocations of life, and a nice dis- crimination of it is a source of great pleasure to the mind, yet the subject is entirely neglected in our schools, whereas it should have a prominent place in primary instruction. It is a well-known fact that individuals possess in very different degrees the power of distinguishing not only shades of the same color, but the colors most strikingly opposed to each other. Indeed, the same color will be called by entirely different names by dif- ferent individuals. Comparatively few persons can distinguish a scarlet from a vermilion, or a crimson from a carmine. Many confound a blue with a green. Public attention has of late been directed to this subject of the difference in the power of distinguish- ing colors. Philosophical investigations have been made by Sir David Brewster, and Dr. George "Wilson of Edinburgh, and others, which have resulted in the discovery that a deficiency in the power to discern color is more prevalent than was supposed. The name color-blindness has been given to this re- markable condition of sight. From calculations based on various examinations made in England and Scot- 102 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF COLOK. land, it appears that one person out of every fifteen is unable to distinguish all of the ordinary colors ; one in fifty-five confounds red with green; one in sixty brown with green ; one in forty-six blue with green. Of the three primary colors, red appears to be the most difficult to be distinguished ; it is the distracting color of the three. Some persons can not see it at all as a color, for it appears to them as black, but most commonly it is mistaken for green. Yellow is the color which least frequently escapes perception. There are but a very few persons, even among those who are called color-blind, that do not see yellow perfectly. A pure blue is in the next degree least likely to be mistaken, and with some it is the most vivid color of the three. When we combine the yellow and blue into a green, we have the greatest of all stumbling-blocks in color. Green is frequently mistaken for red, often for blue, by those who are color-blind. Those who can not dis- tinguish red regard purple as a blue ; not perceiving the red in orange, that color is called a yellow. Red and green are the two colors which are most commonly not distinguished, yet it so happens that these are the two colors used as signals on rail-roads and ships. This renders it most imj^ortant that every person employed on rail-roads, whose position has any thing to do with signals, should be carefully tested as to his powers of distinguishing between the colors of red and green. A fearful catastrophe might occur from mistaking a signal implying danger for one de- noting safety. TRAINING THE EYE. 103 Bartholomew, the sculptor, could not distiuguish between a crimson curtain and a green one. Yet he began his artistic career as a portrait painter, and once he gave the cheeks of a female sitter a hue of bright green. He put the two pigments upon his palette, and mistook the green for the red, and did not dis- cover his mistake until it was pointed out to him. Yet, blind as he was to the differences of color, he had the most exquisite perception of the beauties of form. The celebrated chemist. Dr. Dalton, thought the red gown in which he was installed as Doctor of Civil Law at Oxford was a blue one. Some of his friends, in order to test this peculiarity of his vision, substitu- ted red stockings for those he usually wore. The doctor put them on without noticing any thing re- markable in their appearance, and when his attention was directed to them he only said they looked rather dirty. How far this remarkable defect in distinguishing colors can be remedied by early training and careful education of the eye, it is impossible to answer from present experience ; but we know that by cultivation the ear may be rendered much more capable of per- ceiving and distinguishing sounds. Judging then from analogy, we may reasonably suppose that the eye also, by proper training, might be greatly im- proved in its power of discriminating colors. At all events, it is of sufficient importance and probability to deserve greater attention, and to render it highly im- portant that the subject of color should have a place in school training. 104 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF COLOR. Preparations for Illustrating Color.— Before com- mencing the exercises on color, the teacher should make herself familiar with the descriptions of color given under the following head : " Classification, Com- bination, and Description of Colors ;" also, as &r as possible, with the colors themselves. The " chart of colors" and " box of colors," colors in worsted, pieces of ribbon, three good water-colors representing red, yellow, and blue, colored crayons for the blackboard, a prism, wafers, colored j^aper, flowers, leaves, fruit, etc., etc., should be provided for illustrating these les- sons. The frontispiece will serve as a guide in select- ing the leading colors. If the teacher can not easily obtain more suitable apparatus for illustrating the lessons on color, she might ]3rocure a large sheet of perforated pasteboard, and work upon it squares, each about two inches in size, with colored worsteds, leaving a space of an inch between the different squares. In this manner all the colors might be represented very well. The follow- ing descriptions of them would aid in selecting the worsteds. N.B. — For the order and time of giving the lessons on Color^ see ''Pr-ogramme of the Grades and Steps," p. 362. COLORS. 105 CLASSIFICATION, COMBINATION, AND DE- SCRIPTION OF COLORS. All colors exist between the extremes of light and darkness. These extremes are represented by white on one side and black on the other. Light is transparency, darkness is obscurity. From white we pass to yelloio, which jpost nearly resembles light ; thence to red, the representative of warmth and life, the most perfect color; then to blue, which is related to shade or darkness, as yel- low is to light, and finally ending in black. In the rainbow are found the purest colors, and a key to the whole science of coloring. That is Nature's chart of colors, and the only true standard for artists and colorists. Newton first dis- covered that the sunlight can be separated by the prism into the seven colors seen in the rainbow, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, purple. It has since been ascertained that four of these colors — orange, green, purple, and indigo — can be produced by mix- ing the other three, red, yellow, and blue ; but these three can not be obtained by any mixture of the other colors. Red, yellow, and blue are called the primary colors, because all the other colors, shades, hues, and tints, from light to darkness, may be produced by the combination of these three in different proportions, with the aid of their extremes, white and black, as modifiers. The addition of black to a color gives shades ; white gives tints. If we could obtain perfectly pure red, yellow, and blue, of equal depth of color, and combine them in their proper proportions, they would produce white. However, artists have not been able to secure these colors in a sufficiently pure state to obtain white by their mixture. Ultramarine is the purest representative of a pri- mary color known ; its lightest and darkest shades are pure blue. No paint or coloring material of red or yellow has been produced E2 106 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF COLOR. without a slight mixture of one of the other colors. Even car- mine, the purest type of the prismatic red that color-makers have produced, contains some yellow. The color obtained by purest chrome yellow, or by gamboge, may be taken as the best represent- ative of the prismatic yellow. Yet so far do these materials for red and yellow fall short of being perfect primary colors, that a mixture of the three representatives of the primary colors produces only a gray. However, for practical purposes, carmine, chrome yellow, and ultramarine may be taken for the standards of red, yel- low, and blue. In the present state of our knowledge of color and light, it is difficult to answer* satisfactorily the questions, "Why does grass appear green? Why are some apples red? Why do different things possess different colors ?" It might be interesting, at this point, to consider the wisdom of God in the beautiful and harmo- nious adaptation of colors in different objects ; but it must suffice for the present to give the usual scientific answer — all bodies ab- sorb certain colors and reflect others : thus, if a body is red, it ab- sorbs the yellow and blue rays, and reflects the red ; if yellow, it absorbs the red and blue rays, and reflects the yellow ; if blue, it absorbs the red and yellow rays, and reflects the blue ; if green, it absorbs the red rays, and reflects the yellow and blue ; and so with the others : the colors which the body appears to possess are re- flected, the other colors are absorbed. [The following definitions and combinations of color are not de- signed to be communicated to the children during the period for which the lessons in this volume have been prepared. They are given here for a convenient reference to aid the teacher in con- ducting the exercises on color. It will readily be seen by their combinations which colors present the greatest contrasts, and are therefore best adapted for the first lessons in distinguishing colors ; also which most resemble each other, and thus suggest those to be selected for teaching shades, hues, and tints. The descriptions given of the colors and hues known by different names will aid in determining them by the eye. The use of the plate of colors Mill prove of great assistance in this study.] CLASSIFICATION OF COLORS. 107 CLASSIFICATION OF COLOES. Primary Colors. — Red, yellow, blue. A mixture of two primary colors produces a secondary color. Secondary Colors. — Orange, green, purple. A mixture of two secondary colors, or three primary ones in the proportion of two parts of one color and one part of each of the other two, produces a tertiary color. Tertiary Colors. — Citrine, olive, russet. The various combinations of the primary, secondary, and ter- tiary colors produce the Irregular Colors. — Browns, maroon, claret, chocolate, au- burn, chestnut, snufl", drab, gray, slate, etc. Shade. — The graduation of a color or hue in depth from its perfect state to a black, usually produced by the addition of black to a color. Hue. — A hue is produced by combining two colors or hues in various unequal proportions, as a little yellow mixed with pure red gives a scarlet, a hue of red. Tint. — The attenuation of a color or hue by mixing with it white. Tinge. — A slight coloring or tincture distinct from the ground or principal color or hue. COMBINATIONS OF COLORS. See Frontispiece for Illustrations. Primary. Secondary. Red -\ and > produce Orange. Yellow ) Yellow \ and >• produce Green. Blue ) Red \ and V produce Purple. Blue ) Secondary. Tertiary. Orange ) and V produce Citrine. Green ) Green ^ and V produce Olive. Purple ) Orange J and V produce Russet. Purple ) 108 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF COLOR. DESCRIPTIONS OF COLORS, SHADES, HUES, AND TINTS. Hues of Primary Colors. Pare RED.— Carmine, the purest deep red. Crimson— pure red, with a slight tinge of blue, giving it a purplish hue ; the common color of red apples. Scarlet — a bright red, with a slight tinge of yellow. Vermilion — a brilliant yellowish red ; it contains more yel- low than scarlet. Venetian Red— the darkest shade of the reds ; a dark, dull red, approaching the red browns : a common name applied to a paint made of earth. Pink — tints of crimson. Rose — tints of cannine. Flesh Color— Wghi tint of scarlet. Pure YELLOW.— Chrome yellow, a rich deep yellow. Canary — a light hue of chrome yellow, the color of the ca- nary-bird. Sulphur — a yellow with a bluish tinge ; a cold yellow. Saffron — a deep yellow with a slight reddish tinge. Straw — a deep tint of pure yellow. Primrose — a very light tint of pure yellow. Lemon — a greenish hue of yellow. Ochre — a dusky yellow ; sometimes it has a reddish tinge. Pure BLUE. — Ultramarine, the deepest blue. Cobalt Blue — next in purity to ultramarine, but not so deep a blue. Prussian Blue — a dark blue with a slight greenish tinge, from its containing a minute portion of yellow. Indigo — a very deep shade of blue with a slight purplish tinge ; a shade between the darkest blue and the darkest purple. Mazarine — a deep purple blue. Azure, or Sky-blue — the light clear blue of the sky ; a tint of ultramarine. DESCRIPTIONS OF COLORS. 109 Hues of Secondary Colors. ORANGE. — Equal parts of pure red and yellow. A redder orange is produced by mixing three parts of yellow with five parts of red. This name comes from the color of the fruit when ripe. Amber Color — a shade of yellowish orange. Buff — a yellowish orange, and s^eral of its deeper tints. Salmon — a tint of reddish orange. Cream Color — a tint of yellow orange. GREEN. — Equal parts of pure blue and yellow ; the brightest grass green. A darker green is produced by mixing three parts of yellow with eight parts of blue. Sea Green — a dark shade of green with blue predominating. Olive Green — a very dark shade of yellow apple green. Apple Green — a yellowish green. Emerald Green — a very rich green, usually of a light color : the color of a precious stone. Pea Green — a tint of grass green. Tea Green — a tint of olive green. PURPLE. — ^Equal parts of pure blue and red. A darker purple is produced by mixing five parts of red with eight parts of blue ; this, however, becomes a dark violet. Royal Purple — the purest purple ; it has a reddish tinge. Violet — a purple with a bluish tinge. Lilac — a tint of pure purple. Lavender — a light tint of violet. Peach-blossom — a very light tint of reddish purple. Tertiary Colors. CITRINE. — Equal parts of green and orange united ; or two parts of yellow, one of red, and one of blue. Yellow is the ruling color— a greenish dark yellow. This name is from the citron, a fruit somewhat resembling the lemon. OLIVE. — Equal parts of green and purple united ; or two parts . of blue, one of red, and one of yellow. A dusky shade of yellowish green. 110 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF COLOR. RUSSET. — Equal parts of orange and purple united ; or two parts of red, one of blue, and one of yellow. A light red- dish brown ; the red predominates. This color is seen on russet apples. Hues of Irregular Colors. BROWNS. — Shades, hues, and tints produced by mixing red, yellow, and blue in different proportions. These are called dark browns, deep browns, red browns, gold browns, light browns, etc., according to the prevailing color. Maroon — a red brown with a purple tinge. Claret — a lighter hue than the maroon. Chocolate — a dark reddish brown. Auburn — a very dark shade of red orange, or a brown with red predominating. This name is applied to hair. Snuff — a brown with yellow predominating. Umber : this color is classed with the browns. Haw imiber gives a yellowish hue ; burnt umber a reddish hue. Tan Cobr — a tint of red brown. Drab — a tint of a dull brown. GRAY. — Equal parts of red, yellow, and blue united, or mix- tures of white and black. Pearl Gray — a light hue of gray. Steel or Iron Gray — dark shades of gray. Slate — a shade of pearl gray. Colors as applied to Horses a7id Cattle, Bay horse — a reddish brown. Chestnut horse — a shade of reddish brown. Sorrel horse — a light yellowish brown. Cream Color horse — a light yellowish orange. Roan horse — a prominent mixture of white hairs with either of the preceding colors. Gray horse — a mixture of white and black or brown hairs, usually with the white hairs greatly predominating. Red cattle — a redder brown than a bay. HAKMONY OF COLORS. Ill Brindle cattle — a mixture of light and dark browns, or brown and black in stripes or spots. Dun cattle — a very light hue of dull brown. Fawn-color — a tint of chestnut. HARMONY OF COLORS. Among colorists it is an axiom that every color, when placed beside another, is changed in appearance ; each modifies the one with which it is in proximity. It is the observance of this law, or the violation of it, in dress, in the decorations and furniture of a room, and in the arrangement of flowers in a bouquet, that consti- tutes the chief distinction between taste and the lack of it in these departments. True taste, therefore, is the observance of philo- sophical laws ; and it is these laws that determine what colors are " becoming to" certain complexions ; also, which colors harmonize in the decorations of a room. As illustrations of this law, we will mention the effect of a few colors in dress upon the complexion of the wearer. Rose can not be put in contact with the rosiest complexions without causing them to lose some of their freshness. Gree7i of a delicate hue is favorable to all fair complexions which are deficient in rose. Yelloiu imparts violet to a fair skin : it best suits brunettes. Violet imparts a greenish yellow to a fair complexion : it is one of the least favorable colors to the skin. Blue imparts an orange tint, and is suitable to most blondes : it will not suit brunettes. Ch'ange makes fair complexions blue, and whitens those with an orange tint : it is too brilliant to be elegant. White exalts all colors, consequently is unsuitable to complex- ions that do not appear better when made more prctoinent : it is suitable for a fresh or rosy complexion. Black lowers all colors and whitens the complexion. The observance of this law in the arrangement of flowers in a bouquet will lead to the separation of pink from both scarlet and crimson, orange from yellow, red from orange, pink from violet, blue from violet, etc. 112 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF COLOR. LESSON I. DISTINGUISHING THE PRIMARY COLORS. I am going to give you a lesson on colors to-day, but first I wish to know what enables you to see col- ors ? " Our eyes." True, you could not see them without eyes ; but if your eyes enable you to see col- ors, how does it haj^pen that you can not see them at night ? Now tell me, since you can not see them in the dark, how it is that you can see them by day ? " The light enables us to see them." Yes ; for without light you could not see any thing. Having placed before the children objects repre- senting the three primary colors, red^ yelloic, and hlue^ as colored cards,* worsteds, or pieces of ribbon, etc., let the teacher, without naming it, point to red on the "chart of colors,"* and request the pupils to select the same color from the colored objects. When all the pupils are able to select readily this color, proceed with yellow in the same manner, then with blue. Next let the teacher select the card or colored ob- ject, and request the pupils to point to the same color on the "chart of colors." After the pupils have become somewhat familiar with these three colors, the teacher may arrange the * A "chart of colors," also a set of "colored cards," with two of each color represented on the "chart of colors," have been pre- pared for illustrating these lessons. PKIMARY COLOKS. 113 colored objects in a row, as yellow, red, blue, and re- quire the pupils to place other colored objects in the same order. Vary this until the pupils can readily imitate any given order of the three colors. Note. — The teacher shouTd not say any thing about primary or secondary colors during these lessons on " distinguishing and nam- ing colors. " This division of them should be taken up by itself after the lessons on mixing colors. The terms are employed here as a guide to the teacher. LESSON 11. NAMING THE PEIMAET COLOES. The teacher will point to a color on the "chart of colors," and require each j)upil to select from the cards or worsteds the same color ; then she will tell its name, and request each child to repeat it. Next she may ask them to mention some object which has the same color, and to point out the color in their dresses, or in objects seen in the room. Proceed in this manner with each of the three pri- mary colors, first requiring the children to select the color ; then tell them its name, and require each one to repeat it; then to mention other objects with the same color. The teacher may next call upon the pupils to point to these three colors upon the " chart of colors," as she calls their names. Then require them to select the colors from the objects, as she calls their names. 114 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF COLOR. Colored crayons may now be used, and these colors made upon the blackboard, and the children requested to name each as it is drawn upon the board. Similar practices and illustrations should be continued until all are familiar with each color.. When it is practicable, it will add interest to these lessons if the teacher will provide three boxes to con- tain objects of the primary colors, and give the pupils colored cards, worsteds, wafers, beads, pieces of rib- bon, etc., and request them to assort these, placing those of different colors in separate boxes, as an amusement. The same might be done with the sec- ondary colors. This will gratify the child's desire to do. LESSON III. DISTINGUISHING THE SECONDAEY COLORS. Let the teacher point to green on the " chart of col- ors," and request the pupils to select the same color from the objects. Then ask them to mention other objects that have this color. Proceed in the same manner with orange and purple. Next let the teacher select an object possessing one of these colors, and require the pupils to point out the color on the card. Proceed in this manner with each of the secondary colors, showing as many objects for illustration as possible. The teacher may now arrange the colored objects SECONDARY COLORS. 115 in rows, as in the first lesson ; and it might be well to add the three primary colors to the row when they can readily arrange secondary colors alone. Require them to practice on these until they can arrange them in the order of any simple pattern that may be given them, as red, blue, yellow, green, orange, purple ; green, yellow, blue, orange, red, purple ; blue, purj^le, red, orange, yellow, green, etc. LESSOK IV. NAMING THE SECONDARY COLOES. The teacher will now point to a color, as green, and request the pupils to select from the cards or worsteds the same color; then she will tell its name, and re- quire each child to repeat it. Next she may tell them to mention objects which are green, and to j^oint out the color in their dresses. Proceed in the same manner with orange and purple. Let the teacher call upon the children to point to orange, green, and purple on the card, as she repeats their names ; then require them to select such colors from the worsteds, etc., as she calls the name. Next, the colored crayons representing orange, green, and purple should be used, and the name of each color repeated by the pupils as the teacher draws it upon the blackboard. Call upon a pupil to select a crayon, and make a mark upon the board resembling the color of grass. 116 DEVELOPINa IDEAS OF COLOR. Request another to make a mark like the color of an orange ; another to make a mark resembling the color of the sky ; another the color of a canary-bird, etc. Let the teacher next call up a pupil to select two colors, red and blue ; another to select yellow and green ; another red and orange ; another blue and pur- ple, etc. Practice this and similar exercises until the pupils are familiar with and can readily select each of the six colors already presented. LESSON^ V. EED AND YELLOW. One of you may come here and select pieces of cards, ribbon, and wafers that are red, and give one to each pupil. Another pupil may come and select from the same objects those which are yellow, and give one to each pupil. I wish you to hold the red piece which you have in your left hand, and the yel- low piece in your right hand, and then compare them with the objects that I name. Now look at my lips, and tell me which color they are like. " They are red." Look at each other, and see if you have red lips. Which object are they like? *' Like the red one, in my left hand." What is the color of your mouth and tongue ? *' Red." Can you tell me when the tongue is not red ? *' When Ave are ill." What is it then ? " It is white." RED AND YELLOW. IIT What should you then say of the tongue ? *' It is red when we are well." Did you ever see a bird of this color ? " Yes ; a robin." Do you mean to say that the robin is red all over ? " No*; it has red feathers on its breast." What, then, should you have said ? " The robin has a red breast." There is a very common and useful bird that has some red about it; what do you think it is? "The rooster has a red comb on its head." Is this comb feathers or flesh ? " It is flesh." Are there any more such pieces on the rooster ? " Yes ; some pieces that hang down under its head." These pieces of flesh are called gills. What more can you say are red? "The gills of the rooster are red." What have you seen red in the garden ? " Roses, pinks, and many other flowers." Are all roses and all pinks red ? " ISTo ; sometimes they are white." Can you tell me other things that are red? "The fire is red ; sometimes the sky is red." What do you think makes the sky red ? " The sun setting." When is the sky red ? " The sky is red at sunset." Is the sky always red at sunset? "No." When is it so? "In fine weather." Now repeat this together. " In fine weather the sky is red when the sun sets. • Yellow. — We might mention a great many more things that are red, but Ave will now talk about some that are like the object in your right hand. What color is that ? " It is yellow." 118 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF COLOR. Tell me some objects that have this color. " Some gloves, ripe corn, sun-flowers." Can you tell me any part of the house that is paint- ed with this color ? " Yes ; the floors are yellow, and sometimes the walls." Did you ever see a bird of this color ? "Oh yes ; the canary, and the yellow-bird." What fruits have you seen of this color ? " Ap- ples, plums, tomatoes." Are all apples, and plums, and tomatoes yellow ? " No ; a great many of them are red." Then what should you say of the color of these fruits ? " Some apples, and some plums, and some tomatoes are yel- low." When are leaves yellow ? " In the autumn." Now tell me all the things that you can see in this room which resemble the color in your right hand. Point to this color on the card ; point to the color on the card like that in your left hand. Select cray- ons, and make these colors on the board. LESSON VI. BLUE AND SHADE OP COLOE. What colors were we talking about in our last les- son ? " Red and yellow." To-day we will talk about blue. Each of you may take an object that is blue, and hold it during the lesson. Now look at each other's dresses, and tell me if you see any color like that which you hold in your hand. BLUE AND SHADE OF COLOK. 119 Now look at each other's eyes, and tell me what you see. " Some eyes are blue." Are they all dark Uke this card ? " No ; some are light blue." Now look in the sky, and tell me what you see. " The sky is light blue." Yes, the sky is a pale blue ; it is a very pleasant color to look on. God has made many things in nature of this color. Did you ever see a lake or the sea? "Yes." If the sky, and the lakes, and sea were a bright red, they would be painful to the eye. Do you think the sky would look as beautiful as it does now Avere it a bright yellow ? God made this- beautiful world pleasant for us to look at, and we should remember how good he is to paint every thing with the color best for that thing. To teach the dark shades and light shades of colors, the teacher might inquire what they would say at night when the light and fire are put out. " It is dark." What would we say in the morning when the sun has risen ? " It is light." Show them a very dark color, and ask, Does this look like the night or like the morning? "It looks most like the dark." Then we will call it a dark color or shade. A shadow, you know, is a dark shade made by placing some object between the light and it. [Shows a dark blue, and points to a similar color on the card.] What can you say of this color ? " It is a dark blue." [Pointing to a light blue.] What can you say of this ? " It is a light blue." Now here are objects that are red, yellow, and blue ; some are dark and some are light. I wish you to se- 120 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF COLOR. iect the dark colors and place them in one box, and select the light colors and place them in another box. LESSON VII. HUES AND TINTS OF EED * When the children have had sufficient exercise in distinguishing between light and dark colors to be- come familiar with this distinction, proceed to take up a single color, and teach its hues and tints. Give them samples of crimson, scarlet, vermilion, pink, rose, etc., and request them to select others to match these in hue. Let them next try to match these colors with ob- jects which they may see in the room, with their dresses, etc. Require them to select the same hues on the chart of colors. At first one may be distinguished from the other by the terms dark red, light red, very light red, pale red, etc. Subsequently the names of the most prominent hues and tints may be taught, when the children are able to distinguish them readily. There should be a great deal of practice in selecting and naming these hues and tints. This exercise may be varied by allowing the chil- dren to try exercises with their companions in judging of colors. * See descriptions of shades, hues, and tints of color, on pages 108, 109, and 110. HUES AND TINTS OF YELLOW. 121 The teacher may arrange the hues of red in their order, from the darkest to the lightest, and require the children to select and arrange these hues in the same order. In all of these exercises, the teacher should first train the eye to discriminate the hues of color, then to assort and match them, next to teach their names. LESSON VIII. HUES AND TINTS OF YELLOW. Let the teacher select the hues of yellow, as saffron, lemon, sulphur, straw, primrose, etc., and request the pupils to match them ; then to point to these colors on the card. At first these hues and tints may be designated as dark, light, and pale yellow; subse- quently, when the children have become so famiHar with them as to be able to readily select and match them, their names may be given. The teacher should be guided by the ability of the children to distinguish color in deciding how minute a distinction of hues should be made. With the youn- ger pupils it may be well only to make two or three distinctions, giving them the names yellow^ canary , straw^ and lemon. F 122 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF COLOK, LESSON IX. HUES OF OTHER COLOES. Exercises on shades, hues, and tints of color, simi- lar to those in the lessons on the primary colors, may be given, chiefly for the purpose of securing much practice in discriminating them. Green, orange, pur- ple, russet, brown, and their hues, may be used for these lessons. During all of these exercises, the greatest variety of objects, representing the distinct colors embraced in the lesson, should be provided for illustrations — rib' bon, worsted, cotton, pieces of silk, beads, different fruits, flowers, leaves, etc. The worsteds used for illustrating these colors may be wound on pieces of white cards, and two of each color and hue should be prepared. The ability to distinguish hues of color is of the first importance, for when this is obtained the learn- ing of their names will be an easy matter. By requiring the children to give examples of color from recollection, they may be trained to apply cor- rect names to them, while an opportunity will be fur- nished for correcting many vague and inaccurate im- pressions. MIXING COLOES. 123 LESSON X. ORANGE MIXING EED AND YELLOW. See Frontispiece, Fig. 1. Now I am going to show you something more cu- rious than any thing you have yet seen. I have here some paints. What is the color of this ? " Ked." And of this? "Yellow." What am I doing ? " Mixing some red and yellow paint together." What do you see now? "You have made another color." What is that color like? It is a dark or reddish yellow, like an orange." What is the name of this color ? " Orange." How did I make the orange color ? " By mixing red and yellow." The teacher may now make two broad marks on the blackboard — one with a red crayon, and one with a yellow crayon, in the form of an acute angle, and at the point where these two lines meet let him mark with both crayons, and rub the marks together so as to produce an orange color. Let the pupils take crayons and imitate the teacher, that this fact — mixing red and yellow produces orange — may become fixed in their minds. It is what the children do that they remember longest, not what they 124: DEVELOPING IDEAS OF COLOE. • LESSON XI. GEEEN — MIXING BLUE AND YELLOW. See Frontispiece, Fig. 2. What colors have I here ? " Blue and yellow." What am I doing ? " Mixing them together." What do you see now? "You have made a green." How did I make it ? " By mixing blue and yellow together." Which color does green look like, blue or yellow ? " It does not look like either." Now I wish each pupil to come and select objects of the colors which produce green, and hold them in one hand, and select another which is green, to hold in the other hand. Now let me see if you have them right. John has red in his hand with the yellow. Is that right? "No." What color would he have, should he mix these ? " Orange." Try it again, John. Mary, let me see yours. You have yellow and green in one hand, and blue in the other. Ella, you may show her how to hold them. Now all have the right colors, I believe. What two colors have you in your left hand? " Blue and yellow." What color have you in your right hand ? " Green." If you mix blue and yellow paint, what color will you have ? " Green." Very well. MIXING COLOKS. 125 I will draw two lines on the board to represent these colors. What color is this line which I have just made? "Yellow." What" other line shall I draw by the side of it to show what two colors I must mix to produce green ? "A blue line." Now from this point where they meet, what line must I draw to show what these two colors produce when mixed ? "A green line." Now each pupil, two at a time, may put the objects which you hold in this box, and go to the board and draw these lines as I did. Let each one tell me what is the color of the two lines which unite in a point, and what is the color of the other line. LESSON XIL PUEPLE MIXING BLUE AND BED. See Frontispiece, Fig. 3. What colors did we mix at our last lesson ? " Blue and yellow." What was the result? "They pro- duced green." What did we mix in the other lesson ? " Red and yellow." What was produced ? " Orange." What colors have I now ? " Blue and red." What am I doing ? " Mixing them together." What do you observe ? " You have produced a dark reddish color." What do you call this ? "A purple." Sometimes purple has more blue in it ; then we call 126 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF COLOR. it violet. How did I make this purple ? " By mixing red and blue." Now select objects that are red and blue, and those that are purple. Let me see what you have. When wrong selections have been made, show them to the class, and ask the j^upils to tell what is wrong, and how to correct it. It would be desirable, after the class have told how to make the correction, to call upon one of the youn- gest pupils to select the colors that had been designa- ted. The young pupils should be brought forward when any thing is to be done, especially when there is any simple exercise of the senses. LESSON xm. INDIGO — MIXING BLUE AND PUEPLE. See Frontispiece, Fig. 4. What two colors did we mix at the last lesson? "Blue and red." What was the result? "Purple was produced." Which does purple most resemble, a blue or a red ? " It most resembles a dark red." What are these colors ? " Blue and purple." You observe that I have mixed them together. Can you tell me what color I have made ? "A dark blue." Yes ; we call this color indigo. It is a very dark blue, with a red tinge. Of what is purple composed ? " Of red and blue." You observe that I have now taken the purple and put more blue with it, and produced indigo. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY COLORS. 127 lesso:n^ XIV. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY COLORS. Now let us examine and see how many colors we had at first, and how many we produced by mixing those. What were the first two colors that we mix- ed ? " Red and yellow." I will make red and yellow marks on the blackboard to help you to remember these. How many marks have I made ? " Two." How many colors do these marks represent? "Two." What are those colors ? " Red and yellow." What color did I produce by mixing red and yellow together ? " Orange." I will make a mark for this on the other side of the board. How many marks have I now made ? " Three." How many colors have we on the board ? " Three." What two colors did I mix next ? " Blue and yel- low." Have I any new color here that is not on the board ? " Yes ; the blue." Very good ; I will make a blue line for that. How many lines have we on the board now? *' Four." How many colors ? " Four." What col- or was produced when we mixed blue and yellow? " Green." I will make a green line for this under the orange, to indicate that it is one of the colors formed by mix- ing other colors. Now how many colors have we? "Five." What are their names? "Red, yellow, 128 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF COLOE. orange, blue, green." Which were formed by mixing other colors ? What two colors did I mix at the next lesson? " Blue and red." Have we both of those colors on the board ? " Yes." Well, what color did the mix- ing of these two produce ? " Purple." Where shall I place the line to represent this color ? " Under the orange and green." Very good. How many colors have we now on the board ? " Six." Repeat them. What two colors did I mix at the last lesson ? " Blue and purple." Have we both of those colors represented on the board ? " Yes." What color was produced by mixing them ? " Indigo." Where shall I place the line to represent this color ? "Under the purple." How many colors have we now? "Seven." Repeat them. How many colors did we use to produce all of these seven colors ? " Only three." Which are those col- ors? '-'-Red^ yellow^ and hlueP These three colors are called primary colors, because the other colors can be produced by mixing these together; but we can not produce these three by mixing the others togeth- er. Which are the pritnary colors f " Red, yellow, and blue." What colors are produced by mixing these three primary colors ? " Orange, green, and puiple.^^ These colors thus produced are called secondary colors. How many secondary colors have we produced ? " Three." Repeat them. These, with indigo, are the seven colors that you see in a rainbow, or when you look through a prism. COLOR. 129 Here is a prism ; I will place it so as to allow a ray of sunshine to pass through it, and show you all of these colors on this white paper. Now each one may look through it and see the same colors. LESSON XV. CITRINE. You have now learned something about all the col- ors which may be seen in the rainbow, or found with the prism in the sunbeam ; but there are still other colors seen in the objects around us. These, however, are all produced by mixing those already named in different proportions. You have learned that by mixing red and yellow it will produce ,* and that by mixing yellow and blue it will produce .* Now, if we take the orange and green and mix them together, we shall obtain another color, which is called citrine^ because it resembles the color of the citron fruit. This color is a greenish dark yellow. [The teacher points to it on the chart of colors.] Now I wish you to select this color from the colored cards, also from the worsteds. Tell me what you have seen that resembles it. Let each pupil describe citrine. * It is intended to let the children name the color, and thus fill these ellipses. In some instances of reviewing a previous lesson, for the sake of variety, it may be well to use this elliptical method of asking questions, but it should seldom be employed as a mode of conducting a lesson. F 2 180 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF COLOK. LESSON XVI. OLIVE. In our last lesson you told me that by mixing yel- low and blue together it will produce . Now, if we mix red and blue together, what will it produce? We will take the green and the purple, and mix* them together. Now we have a dark yellowish green, which we call olive. You will see it upon the chart of colors here. [Points to it.] Now select the olive cards. What is this dark yellowish green called? " Olive." Show me a piece of olive-colored worsted. Let each pupil select this color from the cards and from the worsteds ; also point it out on the chart of colors. Next request each to describe olive. LESSON XVII. KUSSET. If we mix together red and yellow it will produce . If we mix together red and blue it will pro- duce . Now, if we take orange and purple and mix them together, we shall have a dark reddish color, which is called russet. This color is seen on russet apples. * The teacher should provide herself with good colored crayons, or with a box of water-colors, to illustrate these lessons. COLOK. 131 I will show you the color here. [Points to russet.] Now I wish you to select this color from the cards and from the worsteds. Let each pupil in turn point out the color on the chart, and each one select it from the worsteds and the cards. Request them to bring to school russet apples, also leaves of this color. LESSON xvm. ABOUT WHITE AND BLACK. We are now to have one more lesson about colors. "Who can tell me whether all things have color or not ? "They do"— "they do not." You do not seem to agree about this. Let us see if we can not determine whether every thing has col- or. Can you see color ? " Yes." Then you can see an object that has color ? " Yes." Well, can you see the air ? " No." How do you know there is any air ? " We can feel it." You say you can see an object that has color ; also, that you can not see the air : then has the air color ? "No." Now, are all things colored ? " No." If you can see through any substance, and it does not change the color of the things Which you see through it, that substance has no color. Let us see if this is so. Here is a piece of window-glass. Look 182 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF COLOR. through it at this wafer, and tell me the color of the wafer when you see it through the glass. " It is red." Now look at this ribbon ; what is its color? " Blue." You observe that all of these objects have the same color when seen through the glass that they have when seen without it. Then what may be said of good window-glass ? " It has no color." I have put a blue marble in this cup of water. Does the marble appear blue now ? " Yes." What, then, may you say of-water? " Water has no color." But I am now going to tell you something about ichite^ which will seem strange to you. White is all colors. Let us see if you can understand this. You know that when we take this j^rism, and let a small beam of sunlight through it, you can see the seven colors about which we have been talking. Who will tell me the color of the sunlight ? " It is white." Yes ; bright daylight is white. Well, the prism separated the colors of the sunlight, so that we can see each one distinctly. The sunlight is white, so white must contain all colors. A very wise man, who lived many years ago, thought if white contains all colons, he could mix all the seven colors of the rainbow together and produce white. So he tried it. He took powders of seven different colors, and ground them together very finely ; and when they became thoroughly mixed, the seven colors all disappeared, and the mixed powder was a gray white. It would have been entirely white could he have obtained pure colors, and mixed them as thor- oughly as God does in the sunbeam. COLOR. 133 I have one more strange thing to tell you — hlack is no color. What did I tell you that the little girl said to her blind brother about black ? " That it was like the darkest night." Can you see in the dark? Can you see any color where there is no light? Black is the absence of light. You may think about this, and when you be- come older you can understand it. Reviewing. — One of the most important points in teaching color, as well as other subjects, is to pursue a graduated and systematic course. The first steps should be simple — something within the children's ex- perience ; and no succeeding steps should be taken till they are firm in the preceding one. For the want of this slow course, children are often bewildered and obliged to retrace their way, which is annoying to them, and in the end the ideas gained are seldom clear and vivid ; besides, bad habits of mind are often form- ed thus. As a mode of reviewing these lessons, the teacher may show objects and require the children to tell all their colors ; afterward name objects, and require them to mention their colors, and to make marks on the board with crayons to represent these colors ; also, to select them from the cards and worsteds. If they do not give the correct colors of absent objects, request them to examine and tell at the next lesson. At other times an object may be named to-day for the lesson to-morrow, requesting them to examine it so as to be able to tell all its colors, and how those colors may be produced. 134 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF COLOR. Harmony of Colors. — Something may also be done to give the child a perception of harmony in color. Here the eye should first be trained to observe this harmony by frequently arranging patterns or groups of colors in harmonious combinations, as red and green, yellow and purple, blue and orange, green and russet, orange and olive, etc. When the eye has become accustomed to these, it will be offended by combinations which are not har- monious, as yellow and orange, blue and green, red and orange, blue and purple, orange and russet, and the like. After the children have learned to perceive a sense of harmony in colors by frequent practice in observ- ing-and arranging them, as a sense of concord in mu- sic grows up after hearing it frequently exemplified, they may be taught the names of colors which har- monize and those which do not harmonize. One of the best and most entertaining means of teaching this harmony to girls is for them to arrange flowers in bouquets, and let the teacher point out those which do not harmonize. DEVELOPING IDEAS OF NUMBER. The child comes by its first notions of number through the medium of objects ; on the observation of objects, then, should be based its training in num- ber. It does not use numbers for their own sake, but for the sake of the things to be numbered. It counts by sight, and readily learns what five balls and five apples are, but can not reason about the number five. If it be understood by the teacher that it is with num- ber as a property of bodies that the child is to deal, and not with the science of number, it will be very clear that it must not be occupied with rules or tech- nical operations. Veritable ideas of number belong to the early dis- cipline of the eye, and are dependent on the actual l^resentation of objects. This method of teaching number, when well conducted, is a valuable way of preparing for future study. From the habit of close association between number and things which it im- parts, this preliminary training will give the pupil a great advantage in his subsequent lessons. It is said that the inhabitants of one group of isl- ands in the Pacific have no definite ideas of any num- ber over five. But we need not leave the shores of 136 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF NUMBER. our own enlightened land to find thousands of in- stances where, from the practice of requiring pupils to depend upon the mere verbal memory of the words which represent numbers, those pupils have no dis- tinct knowledge, nor definite conceptions even, of any number Avhatever. The fundamental error in teaching arithmetic in school is the abstract manner in which it is presented, and owing to this, the pupil never thinks of finding illustrations of what he is taught in the things that he sees about him daily. How shall the teacher make his lessons in number and arithmetic real, living transactions, in place of ab- stractions, is the important inquiry for him to make. How can he so train his pupils, w^hen the question considers men and horses, or bushels and dollars, that they shall see the real men and horses, and bushels and dollars, through their representative figures and numbers? How shall the lessons for mental disci- pline at school beassociated with the real transactions of life outside of the school-room? These are ques- tions of the first moment, if he would give practical instruction along with the discipline of the faculties. To answer these questions satisfactorily, the teacher must go back of the usual course of instruction in arithmetic. He must prepare the way for the intro- duction of the science of numbers. To suggest the steps for that preliminary work will be the object of these lessons on number. Abstract numbers, and even what is termed mental .arithmetic^ should not be taught before the child is NUMBEE. 137 eight or nine years of age ; but training in counting and the fundamental ideas of number, through the medium of objects, may be commenced as early as the age of four or five. It is a lamentable fact that the science of number is taught backward in a majority of primary schools. The pupils are required to begin with reasoning and abstractions, instead of observation on real things, and many never progress so far as to see any reahties through the fog of abstractions, and leave school with- out a single clear idea of what the science of num- bers is. The teacher of the common school may say, I have no time for this objective teaching. Then better dis- pense with other subjects termed " higher studies," for it is of vastly more importance that the first steps be rightly taken than that you attempt to teach the abstract studies in which your pupils spend so much time in trying to rear structures on sandy founda- tions. Although the so-called " Primary Arithmetics" are abundant, there are but few from which the teacher can derive aid in these early primary lessons. She must depend mainly on the resources of her own mind, aided by experience, and such suggestions as she can gather relative to the process for developing first ideas of number. The most comprehensive suggestions to be given are, teach by means of objects ; illustrate every lesson ; make frequent use of the blackboard ; take a new step forward as soon as the last one has become familiar. 138 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF NUMBER. LESso:Nr I. FIEST IDEAS OF NUMBER. The first ideas of number are best communicated by reference to familiar objects ; and these should be of several kinds, to prevent the association of the num- ber with one class of objects only. The use of the common numeral frame or ball-frame, alone, might lead the children to connect the idea of number with one branch of objects, and prevent their acquiring the abstract idea of numbers. Let the younger children learn to count balls, books, pencils, cents, pebbles, beans, apples, or any objects which may be at hand ; the greater the variety, and the more familiar the objects, the better. They may also count their fingers. Each pupil in the class may hold up one finger, then each one finger on each hand, then each two fingers on each hand, then three fingers on each hand, and so on to five. Having placed several objects on the table, as books, pencils, pebbles, beans, buttons, cents, etc., require each pupil in turn to select three objects of such kind as he may choose. When all have done this correct- ly, let each put back two objects and hold one ; next place the remaining object on the table with those of its kind. Now the teacher may hold up two objects of a kind, and ask how many she holds ; then three ob- jects. They may be required to hold up two fingers FIRST IDEAS OF NUMBER. 139 each, three fingers; then to clap hands once, then twice, then three times. Next three children may be put in a row, and the dass required to tell how many there are. Then two lines | | may be made on the blackboard, then three dots - - -, then one cross X? then two dots - -, then three lines | | |, and the pupils required to tell how many of each, as they are made. Representing Numbers. — Let the children place beans or other objects in groups of two, three, four, etc., and then represent the number in each group by lines or dots on the blackboard. They should also be required to repeat the num- bers, thus : " Two lines, three dots, one cross, two dots, three lines ;" then to repeat the name and num- ber of the objects selected to represent these lines, dots, etc., thus : " Two cents, three beans, one book, two pencils, three buttons." This exercise should be Varied and continued until the children are perfectly familiar with all numbers up to ten. Sometimes require all the pupils to make lines, dots, or crosses on the board, indicating the numbers called for. Ask the children how many eyes they have, how many ears, how many feet, how many toes on one foot, how many hands, how many fingers and thumbs, how many wheels a cart has, how many a wagon has, how many a rail-road car, if they have seen one, etc. ; and then request them to represent these numbers with lines and dots. , 140 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF NUMBER. Meaning of Numbers.— In teachiDg the meaning of the several uumbers, clo not proceed by arranging objects to be counted in order, as one, two, three, four, etc., but begin by placing one thing, and then one more, for two ; then one object, and one more, and one more, for three. Proceed in this manner: Put down one bean, and say, " There is one ;" then put down another, and say, " There is one more — one and one onore make two." Then take both up, and let the several pupils do the same, repeating the num- bers as they do it. Let the pupils put down one, saying " One ;" and put down another, saying " One more — one and one make two." Then put down the third, saying, " One and one are two, and one more makes three." All may now be taken up, and the process repeated by the pupils. Be sure to put down only one at a time in proceeding to the next higher number, that the pupil may comprehend that all numbers are made up of ones. During these first lessons, as has already been sug- gested, a variety of objects should be used to prevent the limited association of number to a particular ob- ject. Marks, dots, etc., should be made on the black- board in the same manner. Counting Objects.— When the children have learn- ed to comprehend the numbers from one to five, a les- son may be given somewhat in the following manner : Here are five pencils, five sticks, five marbles, five books, five apples, on the table. Now I want you to FIGURES. 141 count them with me. One apple and one apple are two apples, and one more apple are three apples, and one more apple are four apples, and one more apple are five apples. Proceed in the same manner through each class of objects ; then count one, tAvo, three, four, five books, etc. Next let one of the pupils take one book and two marbles ; another, two pencils and three books ; an- other, three sticks and one apple ; another, three pen- cils and three marbles ; another, four apples and two sticks, etc. Thus should the teacher resort to a great variety of exercises with different objects, presenting them in such a variety of ways that the pupils may have a clear conception of all the numbers from one to ten inclusive. To accompUsh all that has been suggested under the head of '-^ First Ideas of JSfimiber''' will require several exercises with young children ; but thesey?rs^ ideas should be thoroughly understood before another step is undertaken. LESSON 11. riGUKES. When the children have become familiar with the first ideas of numbers, figures may be introduced as representatives of those numbers. In doing this, great pains should be taken to lead the pupils to understand that the figures 1, 3, 5, 8 represent one, three, five, or 142 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF NUMBER. eight objects, or things, or animals, or dollars, as the case may be. The teacher may make one line on the blackboard, then the figure 1 to represent it ; then two dots and the figure 2, then three lines and the figure 3, then four dots and the figure 4, and so continue to repre- sent all the numbers up to ten. Then the children may select difi'erent numbers of objects, and the teacher make figures to show how many each has. Then the teacher may make figures, and require the children to select the number of objects represented by each figure. Thus the notion of real objects will soon become so associated with the figures which rep- resent the numbers as to cause them to appear as re- alities to the child. If a child has learned to count as far as ten^ and has a conception of these ifumbers from counting objects, it may be taught all the figures^ from one to ten in- clusive, in thirty minutes. On returning home one evening, my little girl came to me with a primary arithmetic (she could read only a few common words), and asked me to tell her what those marks were, at the same time pointing to a page where the nine digits were repeated in their order in the following form : 123456789 10 123456789 10 123456789 10 Requesting her to hold up one finger, I pointed to N FIGUKES. 143 the 1, and told her that it is the figure one. Then I requested her to hold up two fingers, while I pointed to X\iQ figure 2. In this manner I proceeded as far as the figure 4, then commenced at the 1 again, pointing at and speaking the name of each figure, thus : " Fig- ure 1, figure 2, figure 3, figure 4. Now observe," said I, " this is the way you count, and the names of these figures are what you say when you count. Now see again — one, two, three, four." As I came to the 4 this time, she seemed to comprehend the whole proc- ess, and continued herself to point at and name 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, asking once or twice if she was right. In less than ten minutes she could name either of the nine digits at sight, in any order. The entire time spent at this exercise did not exceed fifteen minutes, and no previous lesson had been given with figures. A few days afterward I placed before her pieces of money as counters, and, as I pointed to the figure 1, requested her to put as many pieces on the book which I held as the figure 1 represented. In this way I pro- ceeded through to the 9, in order ; then I pointed to figures at random, each time requesting her to place as many pieces of money on the book as the figure represented. In every instance she selected the num- ber expressed by the figure. The same plan might not always be successful, yet it shows what may be easily accomplished in teach- ing a child if we observe the method in which nature is developing its mind, and shape our instruction in accordance with that method. 14i DEVELOPING IDEAS OF NUMBER. LESSON m. FORMATION AND SUCCESSION OP NOIBEES. To lead the children to an accurate idea of the for- mation and increase of numbers, and of their succes- sion, the teacher should use a numeral frame, with the balls placed in the following manner, or arrange dots on the blackboard thus, and require the children to name the number of balls or dots in succession as she points to them : ^ ^• * •X- * «- v<- * * ^ » vf * '^f «• •Jr •X- * vr w ■JI* .V. * ^ * * * •X- * vJ" ^ "Jf vf v^ •K- •X- .V. •X- vf ^ w « vl' «• ^ If the teacher has no numeral frame, she can place characters — say the figure 1 — on the blackboard in the same form. It would be Avell also to arrange beans and other objects in this form, for a change in the exercise. Let the teacher point to the row repre- senting three, and ask the pupils to tell what number comes before and what after it ; then to five, six, eight, seven, etc., in the same manner. Again, numbers might be announced and the chil* dren required to tell from memory what number comes COMPARING NUMBERS. 145 before and what after them. Then they may be re- quired to state, from looking at the balls, or the char- acters on the board, or the beans upon the table, what number is between any two numbers ; then to tell the same from memory. For instance, 5 may be mention- ed, and the children requested to tell what number precedes and what follows it. The pupil will say, " Four comes before it, and six after it." Then 6 and 8 may be mentioned, and the pupil re- quired to tell what number comes between them. The pupil will reply, " Seven comes between six and eight." LESSON IV. COMPAEING NUMBEES. In teaching children to compare numbers, it is not intended to show the actual difference between them, but to lead them readily to determine which is the larger and which the smaller number. The teacher may proceed in this manner : Tell me a number which is more than three ; now one that is more than six ; another that is more than seven ; one that is more than five, etc. Now you may tell me a number that is less than t^^'0 ; one that is less than four ; one less than eight ; one less than six, etc. Tell me all the numbers you know that are less than four ; all that you know that are less than six ; all less than three ; all less than eight, etc. Now tell me the numbers that you know which are G 146 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF NUMBER. more than seven ; those which are more than live ; those more than six ; those more than four, etc. Which is the largest number, three, six, or live ? Which the largest, eight, four, or seven ? six, nine, or five ? two, five, or seven ? Which is the smallest number, four, one, or three ? two, six, or five ? eight, seven, or nine ? six, four, or three ? Which is the smallest number that you know? which the largest ? Here are four cents in this pile, and six cents in this ; which pile contains the greater number of cents ? I have placed eight beans in one place, and eight cents in another ; which contains the larger number ? The teacher will readily perceive how these exer- cises can be extended in an almost unlimited variety, and she will vary them according to the attainments and progress of her pupils. LESSON V. ORDER OP NUMBERS. Children should be taught that the names are given to numbers according to the relative position or order in which the objects they represent are placed, as first, second, third, etc. The importance of a specific lesson on the order of numbers arise? from the cir- cumstance that frequently the idea of one, two, three, etc., is confounded with the notion which properly be- I ORDER OF NUMBERS. 147 longs to first, second, third, etc. Every separate and distinct idea should be made a distinct object of at- tention, if accuracy and vigor of mind are to be culti- vated. One of the most successful modes of developing the ideas of first, second, third, fourth, etc., is to procure a small ladder with ten rounds in it. Being a new object, this will arrest the attention and interest the children. Let them first count the steps ; then lead them to see that in speaking of these steps, or in climbing the ladder, we do not" say one step, two steps, etc., but first step, second step, third step, etc. If the terms are new to the children, one of the class may be requested to stand before the others, and place his hands on the successive rounds as if climbing to the top. As each round is touched, the teacher will give the appropriate number, thus : First round, second round, third round, etc. After several pupils have gone through with this exercise, the different members of the class may be called upon to " touch the third round, the fourth round, the eighth round," etc. Afterward objects should be counted thus, as first finger, second finger, third finger ; first book, second book, etc., until a sufficient variety of exercises have been given to enable the children to clearly under- stand the order and names of numbers. They may be asked. Which is the first meal in the day ? which the second ? the third ? Which is the first day of the week ? which the second ? 148 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF NUMBER. LESSON VI. ADDITION. We do not purpose to give here all the lessons for the teacher to use before her pupils, but enough to suggest how this subject may be taught objectively; how the operations in addition may be made to con- vey to the minds of children the idea of putting to- gether real things. For this purpose, we shall indicate several steps in this process by exercises, each of which is intended for a distinct lesson. Probably the best apparatus that can be procured for teaching addition is a quart of beans, a numeral frame, a blackboard, aided by such other objects as can be readily procured in any school. First Exercise. — Let the pupils add one bean to one bean until they clearly comprehend that one and one are two ; then place one ball alone on the frame, and add one more ball to it, to impress more fully the fact that one and one are two. Add in this manner, by using the beans or the numeral frame, one to all the successive numbers from one to nine, thus : 1 bean and 1 bean are 2 beans ; 2 beans and 1 bean are 3 beans ; 3 beans and 1 bean are 4 beans ; 4 beans and 1 bean are 5 beans; 5 beans and 1 bean are 6 beans ; 6 beans and 1 bean are 1 beans ; 7 beans and 1 bean are 8 beans ; 8 beans and 1 bean are 9 beans ; 9 beans and 1 bean are 10 beans. ADDITION. 149 . Change the form of the addition, and add all the successive numbers from one to nine, thus : 1 ball and 1 ball are 2 balls ; 1 ball and 2 balls are 3 balls ; 1 ball and 3 balls are 4 balls ; 1 ball and 4 balls are 5 balls, and so on. If it is found necessary to go over with this lesson again, the teacher might use the blackboard, making lines or dots, proceeding as with the beans or balls. Second Exercise. — For the second exercise add all the numbers to two, as 2 balls and 1 ball are 3 balls ; 2 balls and 2 balls are 4 balls ; 2 balls and 3 balls are 5 balls ; 2 balls and 4 balls are 6 balls, and so on. Change by adding two to each, of the numbers from one to five, thus : 1 bean and 2 beans are 3 beans ; 2 beans and 2 beans are 4 beans ; 3 beans and 2 beans are 5 beans ; 4 beans and 2 beans are 6 beans, etc. Third Exercise. — For the third exercise add three to all the numbers from one to nine, thus : 1 bean and 3 beans are 4 beans ; 2 beans and 3 beans are 5 beans ; 3 beans and 3 beans are 6 beans ; 4 beans and 3 beans are 7 beans, and so on. Then add all the numbers to three, thus: 3 dots and 1 dot are 4 dots ; 3 dots and 2 dots are 5 dots ; 3 dots and 3 dots are 6 dots, etc. Proceed in this manner through the entire number of digits, making a lesson for each figure, as above. Afterward the same number may be repeated in lessons, omitting the names of the objects, as 1 and 1 are 2 ; 2 and 1 are three ; 3 and 1 are 4, etc. 150 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF NUMBER. These exercises may be interspersed with a few ex- amples to be answered, as, James had two apples, and John gave him one more ; how many apples had he then ? Other Exercises. — Other lessons may be given in addition by requiring the children to find how many must be added to a given number to make another given number, as, How many beans must be added to 3 beans to make 4 beans ? how many to 5 beans to make 6 beans ? to 7 beans to make 8 beans ? How many balls must be added to 2 balls to make 4 balls ? to 3 balls to make 5 balls ? to 4 balls to make 6 balls ? etc. As a means of amusement, the children may be re- quested to find in how many ways they can arrange five beans, so that when added they will produce five. At another time, to find in how many ways they can arrange six beans, so that when added they will produce six, as one and five, two and four, three and three, etc. Proceed in the same manner with seven, eight, nine, and ten. By this process the children will learn from observation and experience that two and two make four ; that three and two make five, and two and three make five ; that four and three make seven, and three and four make seven, etc. By thus combining numbers in various ways, they will obtain a clear idea of their combinations by ad- dition while engaged in entertaining exercises. Of course, the precise manner in which these exercises SUBTRACTION. 151 shall be conducted must be left to the tact and judg- ment of the teacher, as it is highly important to suc- cess that they be adapted to the circumstances of the school. I^oTE. — It may be thought by some teachers that these exer- cises in addition are so minute as to require too much time — that the children should go over more in one lesson. This might be better for some children, but the true policy in teaching is, " Make haste slowly." There is no danger of erring here so long as the interest of the children can be kept up, while, by attempting to go forward too rapidly, fatal errors may be committed. It is very much to be regretted that so few teachers show by their labors that they understand the infant mind, or pursue any systematic course of mental training. Primary teachers, above all others, should possess great skill and tact in discovering the condition and modes of development of the mind of each individ- ual pupil ; and they should so thoroughly understand the laws of mind as to be able readily to adapt a course of systematic training to the condition of every pupil. LESSON VII. SUBTEACTION. Much of what has been said about methods in ad- dition will apply to subtraction by simply reversing the processes, and subtracting instead of adding. However, we will indicate these processes more defi- nitely by suggesting a few exercises to be practiced. First Exercise. — Let the pupils take 1 bean from 2 beans, 1 bean from 3 beans, 1 bean from 4 beans, and so on through all the numbers to ten, thus : 152 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF NUMBER. 1 bean from 2 beans will leave 1 bean ; 1 bean from 3 beans will leave 2 beans, and so on. Then use the numeral frame, and let them take 1 ball from 2 balls, 1 ball from 3 balls, etc. The blackboard may be used, and marks, or dots, or crosses, and the process conducted by rubbing out 1 dot from 3 dots, etc. Second Exercise. — ^Request the children to take 2 beans from 3 beans, and so on, as before. Then use the blackboard, and rub out two dots or marks from the marks representing each of the digits. Other exercises may be added, and these processes continued until each number from one to nine has been subtracted from all the numbers greater than it- self up to ten. Addition and Subtraction combined.— When the pupils have become familiar Avith subtraction, let them combine it with addition in this manner : 2 beans taken from 3 beans leave 1 bean ; 2 beans and 1 bean are 3 beans. 2 beans from 4 beans leave 2 beans ; 2 beans and 2 beans are 4 beans. 2 beans from 5 beans leave 3 beans ; 2 beans and 3 beans are 5 beans, and so on. These exercises may be continued until the children have subtracted and added, in this manner, all the numbers up to ten, as 3 from 4, 3 from 5, etc. ; 4 from 6, 5 from 6, etc., using various objects; also the black- board, with dots and lines. If desirable, the exercise can bo made more difficult SUBTRACTION. 153 by taking one number from another, and adding still another number, thus : 3 from 5 leaves 2 ; 2 and 4 are 6. 3 from 6 leaves 3 ; 3 and 5 are 8, etc. Again, take 2 from 6, then 2 more, and how many- will remain ? Another change : add two numbers, then subtract one, thus : 4 and 2 are 6 ; 3 from 6 leaves 3. Thus the teacher can devise a sufficient variety of exercises to keep the interest up until each subject is understood, and the combination of numbers familiar. Arithmetical Game. — As an arithmetical amuse- ment for little children who have learned to count, add, and subtract, the game commonly called " Hull Gull" may be made interesting and instructive. Distribute beans among all the children in the class ; let each in turn take a part in the right hand, and ask the child next on the left, " How many ?" If the child guesses exactly, it takes them all ; if it guesses more or less than the exact number, it must give as many beans as the number is more or less than the number in the hand to the one who asked the question. "When this game has become familiar, let it be va- ried by one of the pupils holding a number of beans in his hand, and asking each of the others to guess how many he holds. When all have guessed, the set- tlement is made as before. This game may be played without a word being spoken aloud, the child holding up its closed hand, and the others holding in their open hands as many as they guess are in the closed one. G2 154 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF NUMBER. LESSON VIII. MULTIPLICATION. Multiplying is an artificial process derived from ad- dition. Children usually tend in their reckoning to fall back on the natural process of addition. To obvi- ate this, the artificial process should be taught through the natural one. Do not stop to inquire whether the child knows the multiplication table before you introduce multiplica- tion to him, for in these primary lessons they will best learn it while applying it, if properly trained. Let the pupils proceed something after this manner : 1 bean and 1 bean are 2 beans, then 2 times 1 are 2 ; 1 bean and 1 bean and 1 bean are three beans, then 3 times 1 are three, and so on. When the pupils have had sufficient practice with objects, as beans, buttons, panes of glass in the win- dows, to become familiar with multiplying, the num- bers only may be used, thus : 1 and 1 are 2, then 2 times 1 are 2. 1 and 1 and 1 are 3, then 3 times 1 are 3. 1 and 1 and 1 and 1 are 4, and so on. 2 and 2 are 4, then 2 times 2 are 4. 2 and 2 and 2 are 6, then 3 times 2 are 6. 2 and 2 and 2 and 2 are 8, then 4 times 2 are 8. 3 and 3 are 6, then 2 times 3 are 6. 3 and 3 and 3 are 9, then 3 times 3 are 9. 3 and 3 and 3 and 3 are 12, then 4 times 3 are 12. DIVISION. 155 Proceed in this manner until the children have learned to multiply all the numbers from one to ten. Experience will suggest other steps in training chil- dren in multiplication, but care should be taken not to dispense with objects too soon. Indeed, the exer- cises in number for children under eight years of age should be clearly illustrated by the use of objects. LESSON IX. DIVISION. Let the teacher give the pupils each four beans or buttons, to divide into two equal parts or numbers, and to tell how many in each number ; then six beans to be thus divided, then eight beans, and so on. Next require them to divide six beans or buttons into three equal parts, and to tell how many there are in each part ; then nine into three equal parts, then twelve. Next request them to divide four buttons into four equal parts ; then eight, then twelve. Give them six beans to be placed in two equal rows, and require them to tell how many are in each row. Request them to place nine buttons in three equal rows. Exercises combining multiplication and division may be conducted in the following manner : 2 times 2 are 4, then 4 contains 2 twos ; 2 times 3 are 6, then 6 contains 2 threes ; 2 times 4 are 8, then 8 contains 2 fours, and so on. 156 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF NUMBEK. 3 times 2 are 6, then 6 contains 3 twos ; 3 times 3 are 9, then 9 contains 3 threes; 8 times 4 are 12, then 12 contains 3 fom's, and so on. 4 times 2 are 8, then 8 contains 4 twos ; 4 times 3 are 12, then 12 contains 4 threes. By repeating similar exercises, using objects to il- lustrate the examples, children may be led to com- prehend that multiplication and division bear the same relation to each other that addition and subtraction do. LESSON X. FEACTIONS. It is important that children should early obtain clear perceptions of the comparative size oi halves and quarters^ of thirds and sixths, of halves and thirds, and of thirds and fourths. The first two may be eas- ily illustrated with apples, but lines will better serve in showing the comparative sizes of the others. Let the teacher draw parallel lines on the black- board, dividing one into two equal parts, the other into three equal parts, thus : Halves. Thirds. When the children understand a half and a third so well that they can divide lines thus, also can readi- ly tell which is the larger, a half of an apple or a third of one, the teacher may proceed to illustrate thirds FKACTIONS. 157 and fourths in a similar manner, with parallel lines, thus : Thirds. I , ' , ' ^=\ Fourths. It might aid in fixing the idea of the comparative sizes of halves and thirds, and of thirds and fourths, to take sticks or strings, or slips of paper of equal lengths, and cut one into two equal parts, one into three equal parts, and one into four equal parts. It would be well to illustrate each example by di- viding lines, or strings, of different lengths, to prevent the possibility of leaving an impression that either a half or a third is a fixed length, like an inch. The object in comparing these fractions is not to teach their exact difierence, but to early fix the fact in the children's minds that a half is greater than a third, that 9, third is more than a fourth, and that two thirds is less than three fourths. Let them see that the more parts any thing is divided into, the smaller each of those parts must be. It is of much importance that these early impres- sions be correct, for they greatly influence the mind in comprehending subsequent relations of numbers. Note. — The "Numeral Frame" furnishes a convenient and excellent means of illustrating fractions, as well as other lessons in number. For suggestions relative to plans of the room, appa- ratus, etc., for teaching number, see *'What is desirable for suc- cessful object teaching" on p. 391. 158 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF NUMBER. LESSON XL TEACHING THE TABLES BY OBJECTS. In teaching the decimal currency, the teacher should provide ten cents, ten dimes, ten gold dollars, and one eagle. Let her then explain that ten cents are only equal in value to one dime, that ten dimes are only equal to one dollar, and so on. In order to show why the dimes are smaller than the cents, and the dollars smaller than the dimes, the teacher may explain that silver, of which dimes are made, is worth more than copper or nickel, and that gold is worth still more than silver. One thorough lesson given with the currency itself is worth more to the child than the repetition of the table alone for a whole year. If the teacher could arrange some simple exercises by which the children might play buying and selling, and the making of change by actual counting and handling of money, it would add greatly to the inter- est and the usefulness of the lesson. Even if buttons of different sizes were used to represent money in these operations, it would prove a valuable exercise. Square Measure. — It will be easy to illustrate square measure by the aid of objects. Cut pieces of pasteboard or heavy paper one inch square, and pieces one foot square. On the latter draw lines across at right angles with the sides, one inch apart, to repre- sent the number of square inches in a square foot. I TEACHING THE TABLES BY OBJECTS. 159 Then cut from a large sheet one piece three feet square to represent the square yard, and draw lines across to show its divisions into square feet. Let the children apply the square inches to the square foot, and learn how many it takes to make a square foot. Then let them apply the square foot to the square yard, and learn how many it takes to make one square yard. They may also be requested to measure the tops of their desks, their slates, the floor, and the school-yard, and to tell the number of square inches, or square feet, or square yards in each. Means should be devised for teaching each table by the things themselves, and in this manner the children will come to possess clear and definite ideas of the tables, and easily learn to remember them ; whereas, by the methods commonly used in teaching them, they slip out of 'the mind almost as soon as committed there. Being memorized without being understood, they are but dry facts, and consequently slippery so long as they are not used ; hence it should not be ex- pected that the child will really know any thing of the tables until it learns to use them, and sees their rela- tion to things. But, with an understanding of the objects used or referred to in the several tables, and the processes of using them, the child will easily com- mit the tables to memory, and acquire readiness in their application. Methods of illustrating long measure, cloth measure, liquid and dry measures, and weight, are given in the divisions of " Size" and " Weight." DEVELOPING IDEAS OF SIZE. ' * Let children measure, count, weigh, and compare." LESSON I. TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF SIZE IN GENERAL. To-day we will learn to distinguish things by their size. Some things, you know, are small, some large. Children are not all of the same size, nor of one height. See, I have placed these boys in a roAV before you ; now tell me which is the tallest. Here are three books ; which is the largest ? Let all answer. One of you may come here and pick out the largest block on the table. Is that right, children ? Another may come and select two blocks that are of the same size. Will the class tell me which of these blocks that have just been selected is the larger? " Neither ; both are of the same size." Now another may come and select two small balls. It may be added that, in all these exercises, the en- tire .class should take an active part by voting on the correctness of each selection made, or in some similar method whereby each pupil may have an opportunity, and be encouraged to express his or her ideas. Is a cat as large as a dog ? Which is the largest, IDEA OF SIZE IN GENERAL. 161 a dog, a sheep, or a cow ? Is a cow as tall as a boy ? Is a cow as tall as a man ? Could a cow walk through the door ? Have you ever seen an elephant? Is an elephant as large as a cow ? Could an elephant come into this room at the door ? Do you think an elephant* could stand in this room ? Is a cat as large as a rat ? Is a mouse as large as a rat? What is the smallest animal you have ever seen? Suppose you should try to catch mice to make a pile as large as a cat, it would take a great many mice ; then, you know, it would take a great many cats to equal the size of a cow ; but an elephant is larger than a great many cows. How would a mouse look by the side of an elephant ? You drink from a tin cup; wiU a pail hold more water than a cup ? "Which will hold the most milk, a tea-cup or a bowl ? Which will hold the most water, this cup or the tumbler ? Let us try it. I will fill the cup with wa- ter, and then pour it into the tumbler. See, the tum- bler is full, and the water is not all out of the cup. " The cup holds the most." Here is a grain of sand, this is a gravel-stone, and that is a pebble ; which is the largest ? *' A pebble." There is a stone ; compare the pebble with the stone, and tell me the result. "The stone is the larger." * An elephant is from ten to twelve feet in height, and from ten to fifteen feet in length,. 162 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF SIZE. Which is the larger, one of your marbles or this pebble ? " Some marbles are larger than this pebble, and some are smaller." Now one of you may come and select the smallest thing on the table, and tell me what it is, " A grain of sand." Now let one come and select the largest fruit. "An apple." Note. — Before introducing the subject of these lessons, the teacher should provide a variety of objects of different sizes, widths, and lengths. Large and small books, large and small marbles, bullets and shot, large and small balls, large and small boxes, grains of sand, gravel-stones, pebbles, fruit of various sizes, straight sticks and strings of various lengths ; also foot-rules, yard- sticks, cups and measures. LESSON 11. TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OP LENGTH. To give the idea of length, the teacher may show the children strings or sticks of different lengths, in- quiring which is the longest and which the shortest. The pupils should also be directed to take these sticks and place them together, and thus determine their relative lengths. Next let them draw lines on the blackboard of va- rious lengths, and call upon the pupils to point to those which are shortest, or longest, and to select laths of the same lengths as the lines. IDEA OF MEASURE. 163 Ask which girl has the longest hair, which boy has the shortest hair. Require the children to divide lines, drawn in dif- ferent directions upon the blackboard, into two, three, or four equal parts. This is an important exercise, and should be practiced frequently. The other pupils may be required to express their opinion of the cor- rectness of these divisions ; the question may be final- ly determined by actual measurement. [Holding up two books.] Which of these books is the larger ? Here are two hats ; which is the larger ? Which is the longer slate ? This exercise may be continued, thus directing attention to all the promi- nent objects about the room. LESSON HI. TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OP MEASURE.* Which is the longer, this inch-rule or your little finger ? Is your pencil as long as your thumb ? Which finger is the longest ? * It is of little use to require children to repeat the tables of measures unless we first make them familiar with the units of measure upon which the tables are based. A child can have no idea that twelve inches make a foot until it knows what one inch is, nor that three feet make a yard until it learns the length of one foot. It can not comprehend the quantity of fluid that it takes to make a gallon, or four quarts, imtil it knows how much is one quart. These things or units the child can never learn by repeat- ing them ; it must see them, measure them, before it can understand and know them. Young children can readily learn these things, if they are rightly presented, even before they can read. b 164 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF SIZE. Now I will draw a straight line on the blackboard, and after you have measured its length with your eyes, or guessed at it, you may apply this inch-rule, and thus determine its true length. Here is a book ; how many inches long is it ? " Six, seven, five." Let us apply the inch-rule, and see who is right — one, two, three, four, five, six, seven ; seven is right. James, you guessed seven; take the rule and measure the next object. The girl or boy that guesses nearest to the correct length is entitled to take the rule and test the accuracy of the guesses on the next object. How many inches long is this knife ? " Four^ two, three, four, three." James measures and counts — " one, two, three, and almost another inch." Say then that it is nearly four inches long. " The knife is near- ly four inches long." After the children have become familiar with the length of one inch, two inches, and three inches, so as to measure quite accurately with the eye, give them a foot-rule, tell them to apply their inch-measure to it, and learn how long it is. In this manner they will come to hnoio that ticelve inches inake one foot by actual experience. Children may amuse themselves in this way for hours and days by guessing at lengths and distances, and then measuring them to ascertain how nearly they had guessed. While the amusement is profita- ble to the child, the most valuable feature of this ex- ercise is that it trains the eye and the judgment in determining length and distances. IDEA OF KELATIVE DISTANCE. 165 Occasionally the teacher might give each pupil a three or a six-inch rule while at their seats, and allow them to amuse themselves by measuring their fingers, slates, etc. They might be requested to draw lines on their slate, guess at their lengths, and then meas- ure them. LESSON lY. TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF RELATIVE DISTANCE. Which of you resides nearest to the school ? Who has the greatest distance to come? Does James re- side as near to the school as Henry ? Which boy has the longest walk to reach home from school ? Which is the nearer to the school-house, the store or the gro- cery ? Which would be the longer walk, from here to the church, or to the post-office ? Lucy, whose house is nearest to the one where you reside ? George, can you tell me which is nearer to your house, the drug-store or the shoemaker's ? Mary, w^hat streets must you cross to go to the milliner's ? Which is the farther, the bridge or Mr. Smith's or- chard ? A great number of similar questions should be ask- ed, until the idea of relative distance seems to be clearly imderstood by every child. See " Programme of Course," p. 362-366. i 166 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF SIZE. LESSON V. TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF MEASURED DISTANCE. ^ Place in the hands of the children foot-rules, and let them measure these with an inch-rule until they learn to know how many inches make one foot. Next, let them measure the table, a door, a bench, and other objects, and thus become familiar with the length of a foot, and its use in measuring. Draw marks on the blackboard one, two, or three feet long; request the pupils to guess at the length of the line, then to determine the accuracy of the guess by actual measurement. The pupil who guesses near- est to the length has the honor of applying the rule to determine the guesses at the length of the next object. When the children have had sufficient practice in measuring with a foot-rule to be able to judge quite accurately of the length of a foot by the eye, and in applying the rule for determining length, a yard-stick may be given them, with directions to measure the lepgth and width of the schocJ-room, also of the play- ground. Give them sufficient examj^les in applying the foot to the yard, that they may clearly understand that three feet inake one yard. In their measurements with the yard, require the pupils to state the number of feet which any object or distance exceeds the full yards, as two yards and one foot, three yards and two feet, etc. IDEA OF MEASUKED DISTANCE. 167 If the yard-sticks which are placed in their hands are properly made, the children can also be taught, while measuring strings or tajje, to tell how many yards and parts of a yard are in each piece, as five yards and one half, etc. Distances in the field or in the street may be meas- ured with the yard-stick, and these may be extended as far as a hundred yards. The exercise of guessing at any given distance, in yards, should be practiced, and the accuracy of the guess determined by measure- ment. Too much importance, in training the child in a knowledge of distance and of measurement, can hardly be placed upon these exercises, which require the actual use of the rule and yard-stick in measuring. It is ichat the child does that it learns to Jcnoio. How to measure a Quarter of a Mile.— Give two boys a string ten yards long. One of the boys takes hold of one end of the string, and walks along the sidewalk or in the street, or wherever they are to measure the distance assigned them, until the string is drawn out to its full length, while the other boy stands still at the place where the measurement is to commence. The boy who takes the lead carries eleven sticks and four pebbles. When he has carried his end of the string to its entire length, he drops a stick on the walk, or thrusts it into the ground at the end of the string, then proceeds as before. As the boy who fol- lows comes to the stick, he holds his end of the string at that point until the leader has drawn it strais^ht 168 DEVELOPING IDEAS OF SIZE. again and deposited another stick. The second boy now picks up the stick and goes forward to the place of the next, and procelionic method^ yet it differs widely from that in its application, as it pro- vides a distinct character for each sound in the lan- guage, so that the child learns forty or more letters instead of twenty-six. As the letters are learned, they are combined into words in which the sounds are al- ways the same as the name of the letter. This meth- od removes that great stumbling-block in the way of elementary reading, the use of the same letter to rep- resent various sounds. Experiments have been tried in several places by teaching children to read from phonotypic characters first, and when they have learned to read fluently in primary readers with these letters, those with the com- mon letters are substituted. This plan is commended by many good teachers; but it is objected to by oth- ers on the ground that it imposes on pupils the task of learning an extensive alphabet that is afterward not used in our books. THE V70RD METHOD. The " word method" consists in teaching woVds by their forms, the same as one learns the names of ar- THE WORD-BUILDING METHOD. 273 tides of furniture, of dress, or of animals, by looking at them as a whole. In using this method, familiar words are first selected, and the children are taught to distinguish them by their shape, and to speak them at sight. In this manner they begin early to learn that Avords mean something. Some Avho use this method teach the names of the letters, or their sounds, after several words have been learned ; others leave the child to pick up the names of the letters as best it can. It is justly claimed that this method " teaches children to read at sight." It does not, however, provide for teaching the formation of words by letters, or spelling ; consequently the child fails to acquire from it the ability to represent ideas by means of combining letters into words. THE WOED-BUILDING METHOD. This plan was presented some five years ago as a new method, and its author claims for it that it "unites all the advantages of the old system of teach- ing to read, by first commencing with the alphabet, and the new and preferable one which begins with entire words." It commences with words of one let- ter, A, I, O, and gradually forms new words by pre- fixing or afiixing single letters. The child is first taught to pronounce the words, afterward the names of the letters. The separate letters of the alphabet are to be taught by asking questions similar to the following: What letter is placed after a to form an? after an to form and f before and to form land? etc. M 2 274 ELEMENTARY READING. We believe that the preceding methods embrace the principles most commonly used in teaching ele- mentary reading, although there are different combi- nations of parts of these methods, which are more or less successful according to the tact of the teachers who devise and use them. OBJECTS OF TEACHING EEADINCJ. Before describing what we regard as a better meth- od than either of those already mentioned, let ics coji- sider the objects i7itended to he accomplished by teach- ing reading. The first object in elementary reading should be to teach the child to recognize the printed forms of the words with ichich he is familiar in speech. Primary reading should not be regarded as a means of extend- ing the child's vocabulary of words ; therefore the words introduced for him to learn should be those familiar to his ear, and should be presented that they may also become familiar to his eye. Conversation is the natural method of acquiring a knowledge of words by their sound ; reading should be learning to linow them by sight. From the preceding statements, it is evident that the child's reading lessons should afford the pleasure and stimulus which arises from the recognition by the eye of something already known to the mind. The lessons should be systematically interwoven with his speech by combining them with familiar conversations. The subjects of the reading lessons should be things with which he is familiar from observation. They OBJECTS OF TEACHING READING. 275 should consist of short sentences which express com- plete thoughts. Columns of syllables or single words are not suitable for reading lessons. The second object in teaching reading should be to provide a means of gaining hnoidedge^ whereby the child may learn what others have acquired by years of observation and research in the great book of ISTa- ture. The ability to obtain knowledge from reading, and to feel its sentiment, can not be attained without understanding what is read, and without feeling the sentiment there can be no good reading. To gain knowledge from reading, then, there must be both an understanding and a feeling of the sentiments and thoughts of the author. To attain this clear under- standing and feeling, the several steps must be made interesting and the curiosity awakened. This can be most effectually accomplished by attention to the statements previously made, under " the first object in teaching reading." A third object in teaching reading should be to fur- nish a means of communicating our thoughts to oth- ers^ and of receiving theirs in return. For this pur- pose it is necessary that the child should perceive not only that the words which he learns are representa- tives of ideas, but how he also can form those words to express his own thoughts. Oral spelling is but a poor apology for accomplishing this important result ; it can only be successfully attained by forming the words with the hand, as with letter-cards, pencil and slate, or paper, or upon the blackboard. This princi- ple is usually lost sight of in nearly all the methods of 276 ELEMENTAEY READING. teaching reading commonly pm'sued. Teaching spell- ing by means of printing or writing the words is an approach toward it, but it must be connected with and made a part of the reading exercise itself to fully answer this purpose. Another object^ and a very important one, in teach- ing reading, should be to cultivate a taste for it. A recent German author, writing of his own country, says, " On an average, there is only one in every hund- red who can not read, and in some states only one in a thousand." Yet those Avho are familiar with the habits of the people in Germany tell us that, so far as reading is concerned, the masses might almost as well have never been taught to read, for not one in a hund- red ever thinks of reading. It is true that obstacles may intervene between learning to read at school and the practice of it in subsequent life, to cause a part of this neglect of reading ; such as the absence of the popular and cheap newspaper, the high prices of books, etc. ; yet in a country where there are more than 2500 bookstores, 150 public libraries, and where from 8000 to 10,000 new books are published every year, there can hardly be insurmountable obstacles. This neglect of reading must be attributable in no small degree to the failure of so teaching it as to develop a taste for it, and to associate pleasure with its use. What a lesson for educators to contemplate ! Can it be said that the ability to read is all that is neces- sary to be taught ? Is there no higher duty than to train the pupils to read, according to the rules of the elocutionist, the several lessons assig^ned them ? OBJECTS OF TEACHING READING. 277 The relations that the ability to read should sustain to the future duties in life, and the best means of caus- ing that ability to aid in preparing for those duties, are among the most important objects that can claim the attention of teachers and the friends of education. We fear that the mighty influence of reading upon the mind and character of the future citizen is not sufiiciently understood by those who have the power of directing this influence in early life. These considerations should influence the choice in selecting reading -books for schools, also those fox home reading. The books used in the school, in ad- dition to lessons adapted to elementary instruction, should have a higher aim than merely to aid in ac- quiring the ability to read. The lessons should be connected intimately with the world of objects around, presenting the interesting facts concerning them so as to enkindle a desire to read and learn more about them. Besides, these lessons should be sufliciently varied and extensive to present some idea of the lead- ing departments of knowledge, especially of those that come from observations of nature and the manual la- bors of man."^ To consider the art of reading in an * Those familiar with the new series of readers prepared by Marcids Willson will recognize these principles in their ar- rangement; simple conversations about familiar objects, or pic- tures of them, for the first reading lessons, succeeded gradually by the introduction of the natural history of animals, birds, fishes, reptiles, plants, minerals, etc., and all interspersed with a variety of miscellaneous exercises, to secure the necessary elocutionary training. 278 ■ ELEMENTARY READING. elocutioDary view only or chiefly, is to lose sight of its most important object. To enable teachers most successfully to cultivate in their pupils correct habits of reading, and such a taste for it as will be likely to continue through life, we would suggest that every senior, grammar, or high school should be provided with a library of suitable books to furnish entertaining and profitable instruc- tion. The subjects treated in the library books should be associated with the lessons in school as far as pos- sible. In view of these objects for which reading should be taught, the question asked by the teacher should not be. By which method can I succeed in getting children to repeat the words of a sentence fluently in the least time ? but rather. What method is most com- pletely in harmony with the natural development of the faculties of children, and what processes of train- ing will render the ability to read the most useful in afterlife? In answer to this last inquiry, we will proceed to give a philosophical and practical method for teaching children the elementary ste^JS of reading by THE OBJECT METHOD. The most suitable introduction to teaching reading consists of familiar conversations similar to those de- scribed under " Development in Observation," on pages 26, 27, and 28. After a brief conversation about some familiar object, which should be shown, or a pic- ture of it (and it would be better still if both the ob- THE OBJECT METHOD. * 279 ject and picture could be presented), the teacher pro- ceeds to the first step in developing ideas of reading by asking, What do I hold in my hand ? "A cap." "What do you see on this chart? "A cap" — "a picture of a cap." Those of you who think it a cap may hold up your hands. Those who think it a picture of a cap may hold up their hands. That is right; it is the picture* of a cap, and not a real cap. What is a cap for ? " To wear on the head." Why do boys wear caps on their heads ? " To keep them warm." Can you wear the picture of a cap ? Now look at me ; I am making the %oord cap, [The teacher prints the word cap on the blackboard with chalk, or takes letter-cards and forms the word on a table, or in a grooved stick, before the children. The lower-case, or small letters, should always be used in these first lessons.] Now look at me again ; what have I in my hand ? " A cap" — " a reed cap." What do you see in this book ? "A picture of a cap." What is this on the blackboard ? [on the table, or in the stick, as the case may be.] " The word cap." What do you do with a real cap ? " Wear it on the head." Can you wear the word cap ? " No." I will now make another word cap. [After form- ing the word, the teacher points to both the words.] What is this word? "Cap." And this? "Cap." ISTow I will make more words. [Form this word * If the teacher can draw readily with chalk, she should also draw the picture upon the blackboard. 280 ELEMENTARY READING. two or three tiraes.] What is this ? and this ? and this ? " Cap"—" cap"—" cap." Who will take the pointer and sIioay rae the icorcls cap? Jane may. Now Henry may point to them. [Show the word cap in a book.] What is this in the book ? " The loord cap." Now tell me how many real caps I have. " One." How TiniMij picture caps ? " One." How many word caps ? One in the book, and four on the , " Five." Placing the letters cap, two or three of each, upon the table, the teacher says. Now Avho will try to make the word cap with these letters? Charles and Ella may try. Very well done ; now John and Mary may form the word. Proceed in this manner until each pupil is able to form* the word, and to speak it at sight, whether on the board, in the book, on a card, or made with the letter-cards. These steps are quite sufficient for one lesson ; yet, if properly taken, the interest of the children may be kept up almost to the pitch of excitement. Philosophy of this Method. — Before proceeding with the second lesson, let us examine the philosophy of this method. First. It commences with what the child already knows, using it as a means of communicating other knowledge. Second. It teaches the child words as representatives or signs of objects or ideas, and leads him to distinguish the difference be- tween an object, the picture of it, and the word or name of it, and at the same time to consider the uses of each ; thus the first lesson becomes a process of training which develops thought. Third. It leads not only to the ability to speak the word at sight, but trains the child to form it himself from the several letters THE OBJECT METHOD. 281 which compose it, thus securing all that is practical in spelling. This plan of word-forming is natural, and in accordance with the practical operations of the mind in spelling, as used in the duties of life. First, there is the idea to be represented; second, the hand produces the word by placing letters in their proper positions, or in forming them thus with the pencil or the pen. We never begin to represent our ideas through words by placing a group of letters together and then calling over their names to ascertain what they spell. The idea comes first, the mode of representing it foUoivs. Fourth. It takes advantage of that natural desire in the child to do, and by gratifying this desire it secures the influence of that principle, previously pointed out in this work, that it is what the child DOES that it learns to know. Second Exercise. — What word did you learn at the hist lesson? ^'Cap." Show me that word on the blackboard or on the chart. Now show it to me in this book. Emma may select the letters to make the word. [It would be well to have only the letters of the word to be formed before them at first, but there should be two or three of each letter.] We will now learn a new word. What is this ? *' A cat" — " a picture of a cat." You do not seem to agree ; which shall we call it, a real cat or the picture of a cat ? "A picture of a cat." Very well ; let us try to remember this. Who will tell me something about a cat ? Now see me make the laord cat. [The teacher forms two words cat with the letter-cards, or prints them on the blackboard.] What did I tell you I was making? "The word ca^." How many words cat have I made ? " Two." Lucy may come and point to them. 282 ELEMENTAEY BEADING. What is tliis ? " The picture of a cat." Can a^^c- ture of a cat catch mice ? Can it see ? Can the xoord cat run ? Placing several ^'s on the table, with the letters used to form the word cop, call upon the pupils to make the word cat. When they can do this readily, require them also to form cap^ then to speak both words at sight. Show the word cat on the chart, then both words, until each pupil can name them readily. Now point to these two words on the blackboard or on the chart, and request the children to tell their names until they can give them promptly. Finally, call upon a child to point to the word cat and tell something about it. " A cat can run," might be the remark. Let another point to the word and say something else. " The cat can mew." Each pu- j^il may in turn be required to tell other things about the cat ; as, " The cat can pur — catch mice — lajj milk — has four feet — has long feelers — can see at night," etc. This is a reading lesson of no small importance, al- though but a single word of it has been learned, or is represented before the children. It aids in develop- ing thought, awakens an interest in the child, and forms the habit of natural, conversational tones in reading. A similar exercise should be conducted as each new word is learned. If the children can use a slate and pencil, let them try to print these words on slates after they return to their seats. For this purpose, the words should re- main on the blackboard or on the cards before them. THE OBJECT METHOD. 283 Third Exercise. — Place before the children the words previously learned — cap, cat — and request them to name each at sight, as it is pointed at. Then call upon the pupils, one at a time, to point at these words as the other children in the class name them. Require them also to point out these words in a book. Next they may form the words with the letter-cards. Now present a new word, and proceed as before, observing the successive steps in developing the les- sons : First. 8how the object or the picture, or describe the action or quality to be represented, and talk with the children about it. Second. Make the word before the class, and teach the pupils to recognize its form and to point it out. Third. Require the children to fonn the word with letter-cards. Fourth. Require them to 2^oi7it out and 7iame at sight the new word ; also those of the preceding les- sons. Fifth. Require each pupil to point to the word and read it by saying something about that which it rep- resents. These exercises may be continued until the forms of a large list of familiar words have been learned. At first those words that are familiar in conversa- tion might be selected, which can easily be formed from such as have already been learned, paying some attention also to similarity of vowel sounds, as rat^ mat^ hat^ bat^ fat^ fan^ ran^ man^ ham^ bag^ rag^ fun^ gun^ rim, sun, tub, rub, pin, tin, fin, ox, box, fox, dog, 284 ELEMENTARY READING. log, hog, hoy, toy, cow, owl, leg, egg, shy, sly, fly, dry, big, fig, dew, oneio, new, few, top, hop, mop, stop, etc. Sounds of Letters. — During these exercises it will be proper to introduce the sounds of the letters in the words learned. The child can as easily be taught to make the sound of a in hat as of a in hate \ of i in it as of i in fire J of in OX as of in nO \ or to make the sounds of f, hj 1, or m as to utter their names. It is well, also, to spell words by their sounds, with- out naming the letters, as an exercise in articulation. The time to commence this exercise, and how ex- tensively to practice it, must be determined by the teacher. It should not take the place of either step indicated in the preceding exercises. The form of the word, and how to make it, shoidd he learned before the sounds of its letters are introduced to the child. Names of Letters. — The names of the letters may be taught as new ones occur in the words learned, if thought advisable. However, these should not be learned for their direct use in learning to read, but because they are the names of things that must fre- quently be spoken about. They should be learned on the same principle that we learn the names of the boys and girls in a school, so as to enable us to desig- nate those to whom or of whom we speak. The forms of the letters having previously been learned in making the woi'ds with the letter-cards, it will readily be seen that the learning of their names will be a simple and easy process at this stage. THE OBJECT METHOD. 285 The names of the letters might be taught without devoting special attention to them by simply speak- ing them whenever the occasion presented. For in- stance, if a child, in forming the word cap^ should use an e instead of a C, the teacher might say, You have made a mistake by using an e in place of a C- Suppose the word mat is to be formed with the let- ter-cards, the teacher might say. Place the m first, then the a, and the t last. Thus various opportuni- ties occur for teaching the names of the letters with- out giving this subject special attention. When all the letters have been learned, they should be present- ed in their alphabetic order. This will be important in subsequent years for using dictionaries, etc. No pains need be taken to teach the cajDital letters; the children will learn them by their use at the com- mencement of sentences, proper names, etc. Names of Actions. — A little tact in picturing out these words by actions and descriptions will enable the teacher to give a clear understanding of those which we term verbs, or names of actions ; also of the names of qualities, etc. Suppose the word run is to be taught: the teacher might ask. What must the dog do to catch a pig ? "It must run." What do you do when you go as fast as you can? "Run." What animals can run? Very well. Now I will make the loord run. What is this word ? " Run." Here is a word in a book like the one I have just made ; what is it ? "Run." I will make more words run. What is this ? and this ? 286 ELEMENTARY READING. Next, let the children make this word with letter- cards. Then require them to point ont these words in the same manner as was done with those repre- senting names of objects. The reading lesson should follow by j:)lacing appro- priate names previously learned with the word repre- senting action, as, "dog run,"- "cow run," "cat run," etc. Let the pupils point at the words thus repre- sented, and read as follows, using other words in ad- dition to those before them, viz.: "The dog can runf " See the.co?^ rxinf "I saw a cat run on the fence." The qualifying words^ as white, black, good, bad, slow, fast, long, short, etc., may be readily taught by the aid of this " picturing out" process to first explain the meaning, so that there can be no doubt about the child's understanding it. The smaller words, forming the joints and hinges of sentences, as the, an, at, of, in, to, by, for, and, etc., may easily be taught by using them in sentences with words previously learned. For instance, " The dog ran at the cat." The frequent introduction of this class of words into sentences will soon render their forms familiar. These words also should be made with the letter-cards after they have been learned by their forms. A little explanation will also enable the children to understand that class of words which are used as sub- stitutes for names, as he, she, you, it, etc. Making Words in the Air.— Children may be trained to form letters and words in the air with THE OBJECT METHOD. 287 their fingers. Print the word hat on the blackboard in large letters, then let them trace out the shape of the letters with their fingers. In a little time they will learn to fiDrm words thus quite rapidly. This will prove entertaining to them, and greatly aid in learning to print or write the words. Speaking Words at Sight.— Much practice should be given the j^upils in speaking words at sight. For this purpose, the words learned should often be pro- nounced. They might be printed near one end of the blackboard whenever cards containing them could not easily be provided. Reading-cards save much of the time necessarily spent in preparing the lessons. Reading Lessons. — Let the pupils furnish a part of their own reading lessons. This is a very impor- tant step, yet one seldom pursued by teachers, al- though so easy of practice, after the elementary read- ing lessons before described, where only one or two words were represented or had been learned. Suppose the word hoy to be the subject of the les- son. Request each pupil to say something about the boy, which the teacher may print on the blackboard or represent with the word-cards.^ One pupil might say, " A boy ;" another, "A good boy" — " a bad boy" * The box of letter-cards contains several hundred familiar words, each on a separate card. These word-cards are intended to be used in forming sentences with words that have been learned, thus saving the time which would be necessary to form each word from the letters alone. 288 ELEMENTARY READING. — "a boy can run" — "the boy has a cap," etc. If words not previously learned are thus given by the pupils, let the teacher form or print those not too dif- ficult to be easily taught at this stage, and proceed as in the second exercise. It will seldom be necessary to omit any words thus, as the very fact that the chil- dren used them in conversation will indicate that they understand them by sound, and can easily learn to know them by sight. If some arrangement, by means of a shelf or a table in one corner of the room, could be provided, Avhereby the pupils, two or three at a time, might go and use the letter and word cards in forming words and sen- tences between the reading exercises, it Avould prove a great assistance to the children in learning to read. Reading Apparatus.— The apparatus desirable for ihe,/i7'st step in elementary reading should embrace a series of readmg-charts^ letter-cards, word-cards, a blackboard, slates and lencils, and a primer. The words on the chart first used should consist of those which are familiar to children, and be chiefly composed of the names of objects, with each represented by a picture. During the first lesson, only one word and its picture should be presented ; all others on the chart ought to be covered. At the subsequent lessons, the words previously learned should be shown, as well as new ones. A reading-chart, at which all the pupils in the class may look at once, is a great aid to the teacher in sustaining their attention. THE OBJECT METHOD. 289 It would be an advantage to have some of the charts contain a part of the lessons in the first reading-book or primer, that when the child begins its reading from the book it will meet with familiar words and sen- tences. Use of Books. — As the number and variety of words learned increase, books may be gradually intro- duced, until reading lessons can be given from them alone. Should new words occur, while thus using the reading-l)Ook, which the child has a difficulty in un- derstanding or remembering, resort to the objects, the " picturing out" process, and the letter-cards or black- board, as before described. It would be well to give some attention to the words in the primer, or the first reading-book to be used subsequently, in these elementary reading les- sons. However, the learner should not be confined to these words, since those familiar in conversation, such as cat, dog, boy, girl, cow, horse, cart, plate, stove, will be more easily learned than the short words of two or three letters usually found in the first books for children — as, at, an, to, in, by, go, for, and, had, sad, ban, pat, tan, nor, the, kin, wan — because they more clearly perceive their meaning, and readily asso- ciate them with familiar objects of which the words are names. The length of the word to be taught is of less importance than its familiarity; the latter, then, should be the guide in selecting words for the elementary reading exercises, giving the preference to short words which are familiar. 290 ELEMENTARY READING. Elocution. — The elocutionary processes of teaching reading do not properly fall within the period for which these lessons are intended; yet a few simple suggestions may be useful. Begin at once to require the pupils to speak words in their natural conversational tone ; but if that man- ner be found to be bad, correct it in the conversation, and through that in the reading exercise. If the child is requested to speak the word cat^ see. that it utters it distinctly and naturally, and so of every other word. When words are combined into sentences, if the children commence reading with unnatural tones, let the teacher ask them to look at her and repeat what they said; thus. Look at me; what did you say? That is right ; now repeat it once more. Very well ; now look at the words, and repeat it in the same way again. By such a course, the bawling, drawling, mo- notonous, unnatural tones will speedily be broken up. It is well for the teacher to read short sentences, and require the pupils to repeat them after her in concert, subsequently to have each pupil read the same alone. Thus it is seen that, to teach reading successfully, there must be a living teacher, and that teacher must be active in her work. Rules are of little use compared with the living example. N.B. — For an outline of the steps to be taken in teaching chil- dren to read, see ** Programme of the Grades and Steps," jj. 362, 366,370. OBJECT LESSONS, THEIR NATURE AND DESIGN. Lessons on " common things" are quite frequently- confounded with " object lessons." Some teachers who are in the habit of giving occasional instruction about the things of every-day life suppose that they are practicing the latter system. This misunderstand- ing of the true principles of object-teaching is one of the most serious obstacles to its successful introduc- tion into schools. Their predominant use is the de- velopment of the perceptive faculties and the cultiva- tion of habits of accurate observation, not an exercise of the memory. The information which they give is a means of training the mental powers rather than an end to be attained. Development is the end^ in- struction the means for attaining that end. This is most emphatically true of the early period of training with object lessons; but, as the habits of observation become established, the end gradually partakes more and more of that of obtaining knowl* edge, until these lessons assume the form and uses of studies pursued for the end and objects for which knowledge itself is acquired — to fit one for the occu* pations and duties of life. 292 NATUKE AND DESIGN OF With this view of the subject, let us examine the diiferent processes of conducting the exercises in " object lessons." One teacher holds before the pu- pils some object and describes it, telling its form, color, material, where obtained, uses, etc. Then the pupils are asked to repeat the leading facts which have been thus stated; or, if it is supposed that the children know something about the object from hav- ing been previously told, the exercise consists, per- haps, of questions, such as, "What is this object? Of what is it made ? To what kingdom does it belong ? Where is it found ?" etc. Neither of these processes develop the perceptive faculties ; they merely exercise the memory with words, without cultivating habits of observation. Telling the child that which it should be led to observe is not developing its mind. Load- ing the memory with words to be repeated is not education. Some teachers limit these object lessons to speci- mens collected in cabinets of curiosities ; the conse- quence is that such lessons become mechanical and uninteresting as soon as the novelty of the objects themselves has passed. Often these specimens are such as are rarely seen by the children, and they fail to awaken the desire to examine more common ob- jects, and to cultivate those habits of accurate, mi- nute, and ready observation which will make the chil- dren familiar with and interested in every thing around them. These lessons should be so conducted as to embrace a wider range of objects than those generally present- OBJECT LESSONS. 293 ed, and to include those of the house, the shop, the garden, the field, the forest, the mine, and the sea- shore ; and they should be continued from childhood up to the investigations of the man of science. Moreover, it is not a sufficient use of the object for the teacher simply to hold it up before the class, and, on the strength of her own observation, proceed to state its properties, or even to request the children to look at it, and tell what they can see, if it possesses properties which must be felt or heard to be under- stood. It is the children's own sights and touchy and hearing that are to be exercised. To do this success- fully, the object itself must not only be seen^ but han- dled and heard whenever it is possible. This is often neglected, because it seems needless with a familiar object; but it is not enough for the teacher to hold up a piece of sponge, and squeeze it, to show that it is soft and elastic, or to show that lead is heavy by handling it herself All of this should be done by the pupils, and they be led to observe and describe these qualities, the teacher giving the name of such as are not known, after the quality has been perceived ; thus the idea justly precedes the name. Perhaps we can not present the true use of object lessons more clearly and forcibly than by quoting the words of Herbert Spencer on "Intellectual Educa- tion :" " It needs but a glance at the daily life of the in- fant to see that all knowledge of things which is gain- ed before the acquirement of speech is self-gained. * * * In manhood, too, when there are no longer 294 NATUKE AND DESIGN OF teachers at hand, the observations and inferences re- quired for daily guidance must be made unhelped, and success in Hfe depends upon the accuracy and completeness with which they are made. Is it proba- ble, then, that while the process displayed in the evo- lution of humanity at large is repeated alike by the infant and the man, a reverse process must be follow- ed during the period between infancy and manhood ? and that, too, even in so simple a thing as learning the properties of objects ? Is it not obvious, on the contrary, that one method must be pursued through- out ? and is not nature perpetually thrusting this method upon ns, if we had but the wit to see it and the humility to adopt it ? * * * " Listen to the eager volubility with which every urchin describes any novelty he has been to see, if only he can find some one who will attend with any interest. Does not the induction lie on the surface ? Is it not clear that we must conform our course to these intellectual instincts, that we must just systema- tize the natural process, that we must listen to all the child has to tell us about each object, must induce it to say every thing it can think of about such object, must occasionally draw its attention to facts it has not yet observed, with the view of leading it to notice them itself whenever they recur, and must go on by- and-by to indicate or supply new series of things for a like exhaustive examination ? * * * " To tell a child this and to shoio it the other, is not to teach it how to observe, but to make it a mere re- cipient of another's observations — a proceeding which OBJECT LESSONS. 295 weakens rather tlmn Btrengthens its powers of self-in- struction, which deprives it of the pleasure resulting from successful activity, which presents this all-attract- ive knowledge under the aspect of formal tuition, and which thus generates that indilFerence and even dis- gust with which these object lessons are sometimes regarded. On the other hand, to pursue the true course is simply to guide the intellect to its appropri- ate food, * * * and to habituate the mind from the beginning to that practice of self-help which it must ultimately follow." " Children should be led to make their own inves- tigations and to draw their own inferences. They should be told as little as possible, and induced to (lis- cover as much as possible. Humanity has i)rogressed solely by self instruction ; and that, to achieve the best results, each mind must progress somewhat after the same fashion, is continually proved by the marked success of self-made men." A very important point to be attended to is the adaptation of the lessons to the different stages of ad- vancement in the children to whom they are given. A child of five years is quite a different being, intel- lectually, from one of ten ; hence we should not at- tempt to lead children to the observation of thos^ qualities that require the exercise of faculties which are not developed until the period of youth, nor to consider a subject which requires a previous training to understand, before that training has been given. To illustrate this idea more clearly, we will indicate the properties of objects that may be presented, in 296 NATURE AND DESIGN OF succession, for observation during the first three years of school-hfe. These divisions will serve as guides to the teacher in adapting lessons to the different stages of development among her pupils, although she may not be able to conform strictly to them. The first stage. During this period the pupil may be required to distinguish objects by their names^ to observe and name their parts^ to describe their form^ size, color, and uses. However, ybrm, color, and size should not be con- sidered in these lessons until some ideas had been previously developed of such properties. Before that has been accomplished, the pupil's attention should be chiefly directed to more general and obvious points. Yet the consideration of these properties need not long be postponed, for the elementary ideas oi form, color, and size may be developed by means of these object lessons, if the successive steps be observed as previously indicated under these respective divisions. The second stage. During this period, which may commence at or before the close of the first year of school-life, the lessons should embrace the form, col- or, size, loeight, material, qualities, and uses of ob- jects, and the simple inquiry, where obtahiedf or, by whom made ? The teacher should here train the pupils to a sys- tematic application of the ideas and principles as pre- viously developed under the several divisions of Form, Color, Number, Size, Weight, etc. The third stage. During this period, which should seldom commence before the beginning of the third OBJECT LESSONS. 297 year of school-life, the pupils may consider, in addi- tion to those of the previous stages, the 2:>oi?its ofrese7n- blance in color, 'materials, formatioii, and uses, and he led to observe by which sense the different qualities are discovered. By these exercises they learn to com- mence a natural system of classification in knowledge. Of course, the early consideration of these several points must be limited to such as are easily perceived by the senses; but, as these habits of systematic ob- servation become more familiar, the attention will gradually be led to consider them more minutely and thoroughly. In drawing out the following series of lessons for the different periods of object training, we have aimed to select such a variety of objects that our sketches may readily suggest to the teacher how all similar ob- jects should be presented. It would be useless, how- ever, for us to attempt to draw out all the lessons for a course of even one year, much less for a period of two or three years. It would require several volumes to accomplish this; besides, it is far better for the teachers to acquire the habit of drawing out their own lessons.* Those who learn to do this with skill will be far more successful than those who confine them selves to the sketches prepared by others. The first series of object lessons, from having for their aim habits of observation and description, should embrace chiefly those objects with which the children are already familiar. * For suggestions relative to the preparation for these lessons, we refer the teacher to previous remarks on that subject on page 20 ; also to ' ' suggestions for writing sketches" on page 24. N 2 A GRADUATED COURSE OF OBJECT LESSONS. FIRST SERIES. NAMING AND DESCEIBING OBJECTS. Properties to he considered. In the lessons of this series, the object and its properties may be considered as follows, viz. : Observe mid name the object and its parts; describe itsform^ size, color, and uses. I.— A Chair. Place a chair before the children, and request those who think they can tell its name, and point out and name its parts, to hold up their hands. Call upon one pupil for its name ; one to come and point out and tell the name of one part; another to point out and name some other part, and so on until all the parts have thus been mentioned, as the back, seat, legs, bay's, upper side of the seat, under side of it, front of the chair, top, frame, etc. Who can tell me the form and position of these parts? [The hands of the pupils are raised as be- fore, and only those speak whose names are called.] James. *' The seat is flat and horizontal." George. " It is lower at the back than in the front — ^it is not quite horizontal." Lucy. " The back is slanting." OBJECT LESSONS. 299 Martha. " The horizontal piece at the top of the back is flat." Ella. "The bars are horizontal." Mary. " The bars are parallel also." William. " The legs are nearly perpendicular." Hiram. " The seat resem- bles a square.". Charles. " It is narrower at the back than in front." Adin. "Its edges are curved." Thomas. " The legs and bars are round like a cylin- der." Robert. "The legs are tapering — smaller at the bottom than at the top." Very well done. Now tell me something about its size. Eddy. "The chair is about three feet high." You may take the tape and measure it. Frank. "The seat is about one half of the height of the chair." Su- san. " The seat is about an inch and a half in thick- ness." Wilson. "The legs are longer and larger than the bars." Who will name the colors on the chair ? Proceed as before, calling upon different pupils, until all the colors have been mentioned. Now let us consider the uses of a chair. Who can tell me for what it may be used ? David. " To sit on." John. " To stand on when we want to reach up high." What is its chief use ? " To sit on." What are the uses of its parts ? Ella. " The seat is to sit on, and the back to lean against." Arthur. " The legs support the chair." Henry. " The cross- bars make the chair strong." Suppose the chair had no back, would it be as com- fortable as it is now ? " No, we could not rest well when tired." Why not ? " There would be nothing to lean the back asjainst." 800 A GRADUATED COURSE OF Suppose it had no seat, what would be the conse- quence ? " There- would bo nothing to sit upon ; it would not be of any use." Suppose it had no legs. "The seat would be on the floor ; it would be too low to be of use." Suppose it had no bars. "The chair would soon fall to pieces." How many parts are there in this chair ? Of which parts are there only one ? " Of the seat and the back." How many legs are there ? " Four." Why does a chair have four legs instead of two or three ? "Because it will stand better on four legs than on less." How many bars are there ? Now repeat together the names of the parts of the chair as I point to them. It will be perceived that the teacher simply leads the children to observe and describe, and that by the fewest possible questions, that they may acquire the habit of self-dependence. The interest is kept up by the anxiety of each pupil to point out and describe some part. There will doubtless be some pupils who are slow to observe, or less anxious to participate in the exercise than the majority of the class are ; these should be encouraged, and called upon to describe the simpler parts. The preceding sketch of a lesson on a chair will serve as a model for lessons on the following objects, viz. : table, pail, stool, bench, rake, hoe, gate, door, desk, box, basket. Each fifth lesson on objects ought to be a review OBJECT LESSONS. 801 of the four preceding ones, that greater freedom in description may be attained from famiharity, and also to fix the leading points more firmly in the mind. 11.— A Watch. Holding a watch before the children, the teacher asks, What is this ? "A watch." Now observe its parts, and tell me what you can see. Florence. " I see the face." Delia. " The hands." Where are the hands ? " On the face." Olivia. " The face is Avhite." John. " It has figures on it." Wilhe. " It is circular." Very well. What else do you see? Edward. " There is a "glass over the face." Walter. " There is a rim around the face." What is the use of this rim ? " To hold the glass." What else can you say about the watch ? " It has a case." Henry. "The case will open." Joseph. "It has a stem." Porter. " There is a ring in the stem." What is the use of the ring ? " To take hold of when pulling the watch from the pocket, and to fasten the chain to the watch." Is there any part of the watch which you do not see ? " Yes, we can not see the wheels on the inside." What do those wheels do? "Move round." Does any part of the watch which you can see move round ? " Yes, the hands." Who can tell me what these hands are for ? Ella. " To point out the time of day." How many hands are there? "Two." Are they both alike ? " No ; one is longer than the other." You have told me several parts that you could see; now is there any way by which you could tell that 302 A GRADUATED COURSE OF there is a watch in my hand without seeing it ? " We could hear it if it was near to our ears." When you hear the watch, what do you say that it does ? " It ticks." Now what is the use of a watch ? " To show us what time it is." Is there any thing else that tells us tlfe time ? " Yes, a clock." Which is the largest, a watch or a clock ? About how large is a watch ? "About two inches in diameter, and half an inch thick." Now repeat the names of all the parts that have been mentioned. "Face, hands, figures, glass, rim, case, stem, ring, wheels." If the children are familiar 'with common words when these lessons are introduced, the names of the parts should be printed on the blackboard. The following objects may be treated in a manner similar to these sketches, viz. : clock, wind-mill, wheel, etc. III.— A Pin. Let each pupil hold a pin, examine it, and tell its parts, shape, and use. For the sake of brevity, we will omit the names of pupils, and give only the ques- tions or remarks by the teacher, and the replies or ob- servations of the children. Now tell me what you observe concerning the ob- ject in your hands. " It is a pin" — " it has a head and a point" — "the head is round" — "the point is sharp" — " the part between the head and the point is straight." You may call that part the shank. " The OBJECT LESSONS. 303 shank is straight" — " it tapers near the point" — " the shank is cylindrical." What are its uses ? " To keep together parts of our dress" — " the point is sharp, so that it can be pushed through the cloth easily" — " the head is to push against" — " the head helps to keep the pin in its place." Now repeat the parts of the pin. "The head, shank, point." This lesson will indicate the parts to be considered, and the manner of conducting lessons with other ob- jects, as needle, awl, gimlet, nail, etc. IV.— A Thimble. What is this on my finger ? "A thimble." What can you say about it ? " The surface is curved" — " it is full of little hollows." What is the use of these little hollows ? " To keep the needle from slipping when pushing it through the cloth." You may call these little hollows cells. "It tapers a little toward the upper end" — "the top is closed" — " the bottom is open" — " it has a rim around the bottom" — "it has a border around it, be- tween the rim and the cells" — " it is hollow" — " the inside is smooth" — " the outside is rough." What is its use ? " To prevent the finger from be- ing pricked when sewing." Now name the parts. " Surface, cells, top, bottom, rim, border — outside, inside." This sketch will suggest how to conduct lessons on a cup, a hat, plate, candlestick, button, etc. 304 A GRADUATED COURSE OF v.— Review— Chair, Watch, Pin, Thimble. To-day we will talk about the objects upon Avhich your last four lessons were given. How many can remember what those objects were? James, you may tell me what was the object for the first lesson. " A chair." Mary may tell the name of the object for the sec- ond lesson. " A watch." Henry may tell the name of the object for the third lesson. "A pin." Susan may name the object for the fourth lesson. " A thimble." Who can tell us any thing about the chair? Ed- ward. "The principal parts of the chair are its seat, legs, back, bars." William. "The seat and bars are nearly horizontal." Charles. "The legs are nearly perpendicular, and the back is slanting." Martha. " The chair is to sit upon, and the back to lean against, to rest us when tired." Who can tell us something about the watch ? Jo- seph. "It is circular, -and has a glass over its face." Ella. " It has hands to point out the time." Hiram. " The watch ticks." Delia. " The face of the watch is white." Porter. " There are figures on the face." Adin. " It has a rim around it to hold the glass." Who can tell us about the pin? George. "The pin has a round head and a sharp point." William. " The part between the point and head is tlie shank." OBJECT LESSONS. 805 Horace. "The shank is straight and round like a cylinder." Herbert. ' " The pin is used to fasten on clothes." Who will tell us about the thimble ? John. " The thimble is worn on the finger when sewing, to pro- tect it from injury while pushing the needle through the cloth." Julius. "Its little cells prevent the needle from slipping when pushing it." Henry. " The surface of the thimble is curved ; it has a top which is usually closed ; it has a rim around the bottom." These reviews may be extended or condensed, as the age of the pupils and their familiarity with the subject suggests. VL— A Key. The teacher holds a common key before the chil- dren. " A key" — " it has a ring" — " one end is hol- low." You may call that end the barrel. " The bar- rel is cylindrical" — " there are rings around the bar- rel" — " there is a piece on one side of the barrel, near the end." You may call that the lip. " The lip has notches in it." Call those notches grooves. Now can you tell me the uses of the key and its parts ? " The key is used to lock and unlock doors, drawers, trunks, chests, closets, gates" — " the ring is the handle by which the key is turned." [The teach- er may show a lock with one side removed, so that the action of the lip on the bolt may be observed.] What is the use of the lip? "To move the bolt in the lock which fastens the door." 306 A GRADUATED COURSE OF Now name the parts of the key as I point to them. "Ring — barrel — lip — groove." VII.-A Cart. As this is an object which the teacher can not take into the school-room, the manner of conducting the lesson must necessarily be different from either of the preceding ones, unless a model or a picture be shown to the pupils. It is well to consider occa^onally ob- jects that are familiar without their actual presence. It happens frequently that many points remain unno- ticed in the things which we see every day, and, if properly conducted, occasional exercises on this class of objects, without their presence, will very materially aid in developing habits of careful observation. To suggest how such lessons may be conducted, we will suppose there is neither a model nor a picture before the pupils. There is a very familiar object which is often seen in the streets of a city and in large villages. It is also used on the farm. When seen in the city, there is usually a horse attached to it ; but when used on the farm, it is generally drawn by a pair of oxen. Now who can tell me what this object is ? "A cart." What parts of the cart can you remember ? "Wheels" — "two poles to go each side of the horse." You may call the poles shafts. What is the use of the shafts? " To guide the cart while it is drawn" — " to hold it in its proper place." What other parts of the cart can you mention ? " The bottom"—" the box." OBJECT LESSONS. 807 Do all carts have boxes? What are the carts used for which have boxes ? " In the city they carry sand, brick, coal, etc." What is the shape of the wheels ? " Circular." In what position are they placed ? " On the edge." What holds them in this position ? We will talk more about the cart to-morrow. In the mean time I wish each pupil to examine a cart, and come prepared to tell all about it in the morning. A Cart.— Second Exercise. What were we talking about at our last lesson? " A cart." What parts of a cart did we mention ? " Wheels"—" shafts"— " bottom"— " box." Who can now tell me any thing more about the cart ? " The wheels have spokes" — " there is a rim around the ends of the sj^okes" — " the tire is outside of the rim, and holds it in its place." Of what material are the rim and tire made ? "The rim is made of wood, and the tire of iron." What other part have you observed ? " The axle" — " the linch-pin"— " the hub." Who can tell what part is called the hub ? " The centre ; the part where the spokes are fastened." Yes, that part is called the huh^ the hoh^ or the nave. What is the use of the axle ? " It supports the load, and holds the wheels upright." What is the use of the spokes ? " The spokes keep the rim in its circular form and support the cart." What is the use of the wheels ? " To support the axle, and to help move the cart by turning round upon the axle." 808 A GRADUATED COURSE OF Similar inquiries miglit be continued until the pupils have described all parts of the cart, and told their uses. The preceding lessons will indicate methods for conducting exercises with the following objects, viz. : pencil, knife, saw, chisel, pincers, hatchet, hammer, shovel, spade, trowel, stove, candle, boot, shoe, glove, stove-pipe, spoon, broom, fork, and various tools used by mechanics ; also farming implements and house- hold utensils. SECOND SERIES. DEVELOPING IDEAS OF THE QUALITIES OF OBJECTS. Properties to he considered. The lessons of this series may embrace, in addition to the 7iame^ parts^ form., color., and size., as considered in the first series, the weight., onaterial^ qualities^ and uses of objects; also the simple inquiry, lohere obtained? or by whom Tnade f I.— Glass. Qualities — Transparent and brittle. Glass is an appropriate object to select for the first lesson in the second series, because the qualities which characterize it are so palpable to the senses. Pieces of glass should be passed to the children and exam- ined by each. By this means each individual in the class is called upon to exercise his own powers of ob- servation upon the object presented, while the teacher OBJECT LESSONS. 309 proceeds to draw out the ideas of the children con- cerning it. What is the name of this object? "Glass." I wish to write the word upon the blackboard; what letter shall I make first ? " G." What next ? " 1." Next? "a." Next? "S." Next? "S." Next? "You have made the word, and don't want any more letters." [Holding up the glass.] What is this? " Glass." What is this on the blackboard ? " The word glass." Now who will tell me something about glass? Mary. " We can see through it." Ella. " It will break easily." Is there any other glass in this room ? " Yes, in the windows." Why do Ave -put glass in windows? " So we can see through." Suppose there were no windows in this room, could you see what is in it ? " No." What then must be in the room to enable you to see while in it ? " Light." Then for what other purpose is glass used in windows besides for seeing through ? " To let the light in." Can you see through the door when it is closed ? Can you see through the blackboard ? Here is a glass bottle filled with water. Can you see through it? "Yes." Then what else can you see through besides glass ? " Water." Now I will tell you a word which means can be seen through; it is transparent ; so that when you hear any one say that any object is transparent^ it means that that object ca7i he seen through. What, then, may Ave say of glass ? " Glass is transparent." 810 A GRADUATED COURSE OF Can you think of any thing* else that is transpa- rent ? " Water." Let me write it ; what letters must I use ? " W a t e r." I will now write that long word which means can he seen through on the board. What is the word ? " Transparent." Suppose I should let this piece of glass fall upon a stone, what would be the consequence ? " The glass would be broken." If I should let this piece of wood fall, would it break like the glass ? " No." I will tell you a word that means easily broken; it is brittle. Let me write it on the board. " B r i t- I I e," brittle. When any one says that glass is brittle^ what do they mean ? " That it is easily broken." Now tell me what are the words upon the board. " Glass, water, transparent, brittle." What may you say of glass ? " It is transparent and brittleP What does transparent mean ? " That you can see through it." What does brittle mean? " That it will break easily." For what is glass used ? II.— Slate. Quality — Opaque. What have I in my hand ? "A slate." Who will tell me the names of its parts, and point them out ? Henry. " Slate-frame, slate, sides, ends, corners, sur- faces." How many of each of these parts has it ? Joseph. " One frame, two sides, two ends." * See Lesson XYIIL, page 131. OBJECT LESSONS. 311 George. " Four corners, two surfaces." What is its shape ? " Oblong." What is the shape of its corners ? " Right angles." How long is the slate ? How wide is it ? William may take the tape and measure it, then tell us how long it is. John may measure and tell us how wide it is. What is its color ? " Dark gray," or " reddish dark gray." * Lift it, and tell me of its weight. " It is heavy." Edwin. " It will weigh about a pound." John may weigh it. Of what are slates made ? Eddy. " Stone and wood." Which part is stone ? " That used to mark on." Which part is wood ? " The frame." Are slates used for any thing else besides to mark on ? " Yes, for roofs of houses." In cities slate is much used for roofs in place of shingles, for they last longer, and prevent the roof from taking fire easily. Would slate make good windows ? " No." Why not? it would not break as easily as glass. "We could not see through it." But suppose you did not want to see through the windows, and should put in slate instead of glass, would it answer the purpose of a window ? Lucy. " No, for it would not let light into the room." Then what may we say about slate? "We can not see through it, and it does not let light pass through it." Now I will give you a word which means can not he seen through; it is opaque. Look at me as I print it on the blackboard, and name the letters as I malie them. Opaque, opaque. 812 A GRADUATED COUESE OF When you can see through an object, what do you say of it? "It is transparent^'' When you can not see through an object, what do you say of it ? "It is opaque^ Then opaque means not transparent. Who can tell me other objects that are opaque? Edwin. " Wood." Daniel. " Iron, coal, etc." III.— Water. Qualities — Liquid, transparent, colorless, tasteless, inodorous. What is in this tumbler ? " Water." I will now print the word on the blackboard — W a t e r. [The teacher pours a little of the water upon a piece of newspaper or cloth.] What has the water done to this paper ? " Made it wet." Now observe me. [The teacher pours the water out in drops.] Does the water hold together when I pour it out little by little ? " No, it forms into drops." Here is a little milk ; observe it as I pour it out, and tell me whether it holds together or not. " It forms in drops, like water." I will now tell you a name for any thing that you can pour out so as to form it into drops, like water, milk, etc. It is called a liquid. Now what may you call water and milk? "Liq- uids." Observe me as I print the Avord liquid^ and name the letters as I form them. Can you mention any other liquids ? " Cider, beer, the juice of oranges and lemons." Look into this cup of water ; what do you see ? " The bottom." Now what do you see ? "A white button on the bottom." OBJECT LESSONS. 813 What, then, may you say of water ? " We can see through it ; it is transparent." Here is a red wafer, a green leaf, a yellow flower, and a blue flower ; which of these is like the color of water ? " Neither of them." I will put the yellow flower in the water; now what color is the flower ? " It is yellow still." You remember that I told you, when you could see through any thing, and the objects at which you look- ed did not change their color, the object seen through had no color. Now what shall we say of water ? "It has no color." Very well; you may say water is colorless^ which means that it has no color. [Print the word colorless as before.] Here is some fresh water in this tumbler ; you may taste it, and tell me what you observe. " It is cold." What taste do you perceive? Has it any taste? " No." What, then, may you say of water ? " It has no taste." It is tasteless. [Print the word taste- less.] Smell of the water, and tell me what it smells like. " I can not smell it." What, then, may you say of the smell of w^ater ? *' Water has no smell." We say any thing that has a smell has an odor ; if it has no smell, it is without odor, or i?iodorous. AYhat, then, can you say of water? "It is inodor- ous." This is a long word, but I will print it on the blackboard for you. Name the letters as I make them — I nodorOUSj inodorous. What does inodorous mean ? " Has no smell." O 814 A GEADUATED COUESE OF What use have you made of water to-day ? " "We have washed our hands and faces with it." Suppose the water was sohd, Uke the stone of a slate, could you wash with it ? Is a slate liquid ? What quality must an object have to be used for washing ? *' It must be a liquid." Milk is a liquid ; Avould it be good for washing ? " No, it would not make us clean." Would not beer or cider answer for washing, since both are liquids ? " No ; they both have an odor and a color, and would not cleanse from dirt." For what else do you use water ? " For drinking." Yes, water is essential to every person, and God has kindly supplied it in great abundance. Now let us see what has been learned about water. "It is a liquid; it will wet; it is transparent; it is colorless; it is tasteless; it is inodorous ; it is very useful for washing and for drinhingP IV.— Milk. Qualities — Opaque, soft, liquid, nutritious. What is in this glass? "Milk." Where do we get milk ? " From the cow." How do you know that this is milk, and not water ? "Because it is white." But I might put chalk into water and make it white ; would it become milk then? "No." Is there not some other way to determine whether this is milk or not ? " Yes, by tasting it." What kind of taste has it ? " Sweet taste." Does it feel like water when you take it in your mouth ? " No, it is softer." OBJECT LESSONS. 815 When I poured the water out of the cup little by- little, how did it fall ? " In drops." Now observe me as I pour the milk from this glass little by little. "It falls in drops." What did we call water when we found that it could be poured out so as to form drops ? "A liquid." What, then, may we call milk ? "A liquid." Can you tell me in what milk is like water? "It is a liquid, because it will form into drops." [The teacher pours a little milk on a piece of cloth, and the children observe that it wets it.] What has the milk done to this cloth ? " Wet it." If I should pour water on this cloth, what would be the effect? " It would wet it." How is milk like water ? " It will make things wet, and will form into drops." What do we call those things which make others wet and form themselves into drops ? " Liquids." What use do we make of milk ? " We drink it." Why are little children fed upon milk? "To make them grow." Because milk will make them grow, we say it is nourishing. Bread and meat are nour- ishing. Food that is nourishing we call nutritious. Observe me as I write the word on the blackboard — N utritious. Milk is nourishing, and we call it . Why do we say that milk is nutritious ? " Because it is nour- ishing." From what animal do we obtain milk? "From the cow." Do you know of any other animal that gives milk? "Yes, the goat." Now repeat all you know about milk. "Milk 816 A GRADUATED COURSE OF comes from the cow and from the goat" — "milk is white" — " we can not see through it ; it is opaque" — " it tastes sweet" — " it feels soft to the mouth" — " milk is a liquid ; it will "wet and form into drops" — " it is nutritious, and very good for food." V. Review— Glass, Slate, Water, Milk. I have brought you to-day the four things upon which you have had lessons this week, that you may look at them again, and tell me what you observe, and Avhat you remember that we learned about them. William, what do you observe ? "A piece of glass, a slate, some water, and some milk." John, what can you tell us about the glass ? " It is called transparent^ because we can see through it." Henry. " It is said to be brittle, because it is easily broken." Walter. " The slate can not be seen through, so we say that it is opaque." George. " The slate is a kind of stone." Martha. " The frame is made of wood." Mary. " Water will wet and form into drops when poured out slowly, so w^e call it a liquid." Ella. " Water is transparent ; we can see through it." Lucy. " It has no color, and no taste, and no smell." Susan, can you tell us any thing about milk ? " It is white and sweet." Hiram. " We can not see through milk ; it is opaque." Adin. " Milk is a liquid ; it will form into drops and will wet." Joseph. " It is good for food ; it is nutritious." OBJECT LESSONS. 317 It is better, in these reviews, for the pupils to tell as much as possible about the objects without being led by questions, as it forms habits of self-dependence, and causes them to rely upon their own observations rather than upon those of the teacher and her prompt- ing questions. VI.— India-rubber. Qualities — Elastic, tough, opaque, smooth. Show the children a piece of India-rubber, and ask its name. Then call upon a child to come and bend it, and stretch it before the class ; or, which would be better, pass pieces of it to the pupils, so that each one might feel it and stretch it. After calling attention to its shape, size, etc., and while stretching it, ask, What am I doing with it ? What can you say of its shape and size now ? " It is narrower and longer than before." When I let go of it, what does it do ? "Returns to its shape again." Try it, and see for yourselves if it will return to its shape after being stretched. Now who will tell me something about this piece of India-rubber ? Ellen. "It stretches when pulled." Kate. " It returns to its place when I let it go." Su- san. " It will bend, and also return to its place when I let it go." Very well ; now I will give you a name for this quality : when any thing will stretch on being pulled, and return to its place again when let go, it is called elastic. So, when it returns to its place again after bending, it is said to be elastic. Will rubber do both of these? Then what may we say of it? "Rubber is elastic." 818 A GRADUATED COURSE OF Pull this rubber string, and tell me if it tears or breaks easily. "It does not tear or break easily." Then you may say it is tough. [Print the word on the blackboard as before.] I suppose you know what tough means when yon get a piece of beef that is hard to cut, and which you can not chew finely. Can you see through the rubber? "IN'o." Then what may you say of it ? ." It is not transparent ; it is opaque." Feel the rubber, and tell me if it is rough. " It is smooth." ISTow who can tell me the uses of India-rubber? " To rub out pencil-marks on paper" — " to make balls" — " to make overshoes" — " to make suspenders." Vll.—Sponge. Qualities — Porous, absorbent, elastic, soft. Let the children handle pieces of sponge that have been moistened with water and squeezed as nearly dry as possible. The teacher may proceed, as in the lessons of the first series, to lead the children to ob- serve and describe the objects shown them. All who think they can answer or say any thing about the ob- ject are requested to hold up their hands, but only those whose names are called may reply, except to some general questions where it is evident that all know the answer. What is the name of this object ? " Sponge." Who can tell me something about it ? Alice. " Its color is light brown." Julia. "It is full of little OBJECT LESSONS. 819 holes." These holes in the sponge are called /)ore.^. Can you tell me of any common object that you see every day which is full of little holes or 2^o?'es, like the sponge ? " Bread" — " cake." Yes ; and because the sponge is full of pores, it is said to be 2^orous. Now what may you say of bread ? " Bread is porous." [Print the word on the blackboard.] Let us now try to find out some use for these pores in the sponge. Here is a little water on this slate ; I will place the sponge in it. What do you observe? " The water has disappeared ; the sponge has sucked it up." Suppose I should put some bread into a bowl with but a little milk in it, what would become of the milk ? "The bread would soak it up." I w^ill give you a better terra than either soaks it up or sucks it up to describe what the sponge and the bread do. You may say that the bread absorbs the milk. I will print the word on the blackboard, that you may see it. Now what may you say of the sponge and the w^ater ? "The sponge absoi'bs the water." Very w^ell; and because the sponge absorbs water, we say it is an ab- sorbent. [Print the word as before.] Who will tell me when we may say an object is an absorbent P "When it absorbs water or milk." What does ab- sorb mean ? " Drink up, soak up, or suck in." Now squeeze the sponge, then let go of it, and tell me what you observe. Walter. " It returns to its own shape again." Was it as large when you squeezed it as it is now ? " No." Then what effect does squeez- ing have upon it ? " Makes it smaller while squeezed." 820 A GRADUATED COURSE OF Suppose I should squeeze this piece of silver, would it become smaller ? *' No." What does the si^onge do when you squeeze it, then let go of it ? " It comes back to its own shape again." We say that an object is elastic when it returns to its own shape again after being squeezed. Here is a bunch of wool ; squeeze this, and tell me whether it is elastic. Does it spring back again after being squeezed ? " Yes ; it is elastic." How does the sponge feel to the hand ? " Soft." For what is sponge used? "For washing." Yes; and it is because the sponge is so soft and absorbent that it is so useful in washing. It sucks uj^ the water so readily, and then lets it run out again so easily when squeezed, that it is the most useful substance known for washing carriages. IsTow examine the sponge carefully, and tell me whether you think it grows or is made. Those of you who think it grows may tell me where you think it is found, on land or in the water. Listen to me, and I will tell you something about the sponge. It is found in the water, growing on the rocks. It is believed to be formed by a kind of ani- mal which lives in the pores, and feeds on the sub- stances that are carried into its pores by the water. They can not move about, but always remain fastened to the rock or stones where they first grow. The inhabitants who live near the water where sponges grow are taught to dive for the sjoonge when they are children, and they learn to remain under the Avater from one to two minutes at a time, jDulling the sponges from the rocks to bring u]) to the surface. OBJECT LESSONS. 821 I can not tell you more now, but some day I will get a book on natural history and read to you more about the sponge, and those who dive into the water to gather them. Now repeat what you have learned about the sponge. "It is 2yorous, and absorbs water; it is elas- tic and soft ; it grows on rocks under water." VIII.— Whalebone. Quality — One kind of elasticity. Call one of the children to take a piece of whale- bone, and show the others what he can do with it. Let him bend it, and then let go of one end, at the same time requesting the pupils to observe what hap- pens. The teacher may now call upon the pupils to tell what they can about the object shown. What is this at which you have been looking? "Apiece of Avhalebone.^' What is its shape ? "That of a line." Adin. "That of a straight line, before it was bent." What was its shape when bent ? " That of a curved line." Here is a piece of tape ; bend this, then let go of one end, and see what it will do. " It remains bent." When you bend the whalebone and let go of one end of it, Avhat does it do ? " It goes back to its own shape again." What did we call the India-rubber when we bent or stretched it, and on being let go it returned to its own shape again? "Elastic." Yery good. Now, since the whalebone returns to its shape again after being bent, we will call it elastic. 02 822 A GRADUATED COURSE OF Now let US see how many things we have examined that are elastic ; also how the elasticity of these differ from each other. Who will describe the elasticity of the India-rubber ? Wilson. "When we pull India-rubber it will stretch, and when let go it returns to its place again." Thomas. " When we squeeze a sjDonge it becomes smaller, but when we let go it returns to its shape again." Robert. " When we bend whalebone and let go, it returns to its shape again." Why is India-rubber said to be elastic ? "Because, after being stretched^ it goes back to its shape again when left to itself." Why is sponge called elastic ? " Because, after having been squeezed^ it takes its own shape and size again when the pressure is removed." Why is whalebone said to be elastic ? " Because, when he7it^ it goes back to its place again Avhen left to itself" Now who will tell me of all of these ? Hiram. " If we stretch rubber, or squeeze sponge, or bend whale- bone, and let go of them, each will return to its shape again." Whalebone is obtained from the jaw-bone of the whale, the largest animal that inhabits our globe. Whalebone is used in umbrellas, in whips, etc. IX.— Wool. Qualities — Soft, absorbent, elastic. What have I in my hand ? "Wool." Where does OBJECT LESSONS. 823 wool come from ? "It comes from the sheep's back." I will make the word icool. James, will you describe a sheep? "A sheep has four legs, with split hoofs, a round body, a small head, and is about four feet long and three feet in height. Its body is covered with wool." How is the wool obtained from the sheep ? " It is cut oif with large shears." When is it cut off? " When the weather becomes warm in the beginning of summer." What is done Avith the sheep before the wool is sheared from them ? " They are taken into a stream of water, or into a large tub into which clean water runs, and the wool is washed." Who can tell me of what use wool is to the sheep ? "To keep them warm." Yes, wool is the sheep's clothing. Can the sheep make its own clothing ? " No." Who gives the sheep their clothing? "God; He makes the wool grow." [The teacher passes the wool to the pupils, that they may handle it and learn how it feels.] How does the wool feel ? " Soft." What more can you say of it ? How does it look ? " It is like a bunch of fine, crooked hair." Feel of it again, and tell me what you observe. " It feels dry" — " it feels warm." Does it feel warm like the fire ? " !N'o, but it is not cold like a piece of glass." Wool is very useful for clothing, for it prevents the warmth of the body from passing away, and thus it keeps us warm. 324 A GRADUATED COURSE OF Here is a little water in this basin. I will place some wool in it. What do you observe ? " The watei* has disappeared ; the wool has sucked it up." What did we say of the sponge when we found that it would suck up water ? " That it is an ahsorh- entP Very well ; I will make this word. What may we say of wool ? " It is an absorbent.'''* Why do we call any thing an absorbent? "Because it sucks up water or other liquids." Squeeze the wool and then let go of it. What do you observe ? " It is elastic.^'' I will make this word on the blackboard. What is the color of wool? " White." Did you ever see a black sheep ? For what is wool used ? " For making cloth for coats, pantaloons, vests, and cloaks ; for flannel, blank- ets, shawls, carpets, stockings, hats, etc." What is done with the wool when cloth is made of it? "It is spun into yarn, and the yarn is woven into cloth."* Now who will tell me what has been learned about wool ? John. " It comes from the sheep's back." Sarah. " It is soft.'" Henry. " It will absorb water." Ellen. " It keeps us loarm.'''' Edwin. " It is elastic^ Ann. " Wool is loMteP Susan. " Sometimes wool is * The extent to which the teacher should lead the pupils to consider and describe the processes of manufacture of woolen goods must depend upon their age and their familiarity with the process employed. In a town where woolen goods are manu- factured, it would be proper to talk upon this subject quite mi- nutely. OBJECT LESSONS. 325 hlackP It is used for making stockings^ flannel^ cloth^ carpets^ blankets^ etc. Let us read these words about wool which I have made on the blackboard. X.— Review— India-rubber, Sponge, Whalebone, Wool. The leading facts learned and the ideas developed during the four preceding lessons should now be re- viewed. In conducting these reviews, the teacher should lead as little as possible, and depend chiefly upon the pupils to tell what they have observed or may observe from seeing and handling the objects. The reviews previously drawn out will suggest how to proceed. The eight lessons now given in the Second Series will serve as models for conducting exercises on the following objects, viz. : cider, beer, vinegar, ink, oil, burning fluid, turpentine, alcohol, ice, stone, willow, ratan, cotton, flax, hemp, silk, bread, blotting-paper, feathers, hair, bristles, etc. Some of these objects possess qualities not pre- viously described, as the hitter taste of beer, the sour taste of vinegar, the odor of turpentine, coldness of ice, hardness of stone, flexibiliti/ of the willow and ratan, fibrous nature of the cotton, flax, hemp, and silk, crumbling of the bread, lightness of feathers, etc. The teacher should be careful to develop all of these ideas as minutely as other qualities have been drawn out in the preceding lessons. 826 A GRADUATED COUESE OF XI.— Sugar. Qualities — Sweet, soluble, fusible. Distribute among the pupils small pieces of sugar, requesting them to hold and retain it ; then ask them to tell what it is, and where and how it is obtained. In describing its manufacture, the teacher will proba- bly find it necessary to communicate much of the knowledge necessary to complete the lesson. In do- ing this, pictures should be used to exhibit such oj)er- ations as are not familiar to the pupils. Take a piece of the sugar into your mouth and tell me how it tastes. "It is sweetP I will make the words sugar and sweet. Observe me as I place a piece of sugar in this tum- bler of water. What do you perceive ? " The sugar has dissolved." Here is some salt. I will place this in the water. " The salt has dissolved." ISTow I will tell you what we say of a substance or any object when it can be dissolved in water or any other liquid : we say that it is soluble. Let me print this word on the blackboard ; you may name the let- ters as I make them — S 1 U b 1 6. What does soluble^ mean ? " May be dissolved." * The teacher should have a clear perception of the difference between soluble and fusible, between the melting or fusion of a substance by fire and that of the solution of it in water or any other liquid. When a substance becomes a liquid under heat, as butter, lard, wax, lead, it is evident that the change is merely a change in the condition of the substance itself, without the mix- OBJECT LESSONS. 827 What may you say -of sugar and of salt? "They are soluble." Look at me again; what am I doing? "Holding a piece of sugar over the flame of the candle." What do you observe? "The. sugar melts." What eflect has heat upon sugar ? " It melts it." I have another hard word for you to learn. When any object will melt by heat, we say it infusible. I will print the word, and you may name the letters that I use— F u s i b 1 e. Who will tell me what fusible means ? Hiram. " May be melted with fire." What may you say of sugar ? " It is soluble and fusible.'''' What is its color ? " White." Is all sugar white ? " No, some of it is brown." What is the use of sugar ? " To sweeten things." What things are sweetened with sugar? "Tea, cof- fee, cake, pudding, pie, fruits," etc. What have you learned about sugar ? ture with it of any thing else, and such" a change is usually follow- ed by a return to its former solid state on cooling. But in the solution or dissolving of any substance, such as sugar, salt, or gum, in water or any other liquid, the substance mixes with the fluid in which it is dissolved, and its particles are diffused throughout the whole of it. Now the original substance can not be easily recovered from the solution. It is highly important that the teacher should herself under- stand clearly all the ideas to be developed in the lesson before she attempts to present it to her pupils. 828 A GRADUATED COURSE OF XII.-Glue. Qualities — Soluble, fusible, fidhesive, tenacious. I have in my hand a substance with which some of you may not be familiar. You may take it and tell me what you observe. James. " It is hard and of a brown color." Rosa. " It is a little transparent." You may say it is semi- transparent^ which means partly or half transj^arent. Walter. " It is glue." Very well ; I will make the word glue. What letters shall I use ? " G 1 U e." I will also make that long w^ord semi-transparent. What docs transparent mean? "May be seen through." Then what does semi-transparent mean ? If I place this piece of glue in warm water and let it remain, it will dissolve. What, then, may we say of glue ? " It is soluble in warm water." Observe this piece as I hold it over the candle. Edwin. " It melts ; glue is fusible.'''' Let me make this word— F U S i b 1 e. When melted, glue is ready for use. For w^hat is glue used ? " For sticking pieces of wood together." Because it is so sticky or adhesive when melted, and so hard when it cools and dries that it holds the parts stuck together with great strength or tenacity., it is' very valuable. But, before telling you any more, I will make the words adhesive and tenacious, and you may tell me what they mean. Adhesive. What does this word mean ? "Sticks to." When is glue adhesive P "When melted." OBJECT LESSONS. 829 Tenacious. What does this word mean ? " Holding fast." When is glue te9iacioits .^ "When it is cold, dry, and hard." Persons who build houses, and those who make furniture, and those who bind books, use glue. Now who can tell me what classes of persons use glue ? George. " Carpenters." Martha. " Cabinet-makers." John. " Book-binders." Glue is obtained from the hoofs of animals, but the best glue is made from the skins of animals. The small cuttings which the currier rejects when he is making leather are washed in lime-water to remove the grease, then they are boiled until the soluble parts are dissolved. It is then strained, and the liquid is boiled until it becomes a jelly. It is then placed in the air to cool and harden. Now repeat what you have learned about glue. Xlll.-Coal. Qualities — Black, bright, brittle, hard, opaque, in- flammable or combustible. What is this substance which I hold in my hand? " Coal." I Avill make the word coal. Is coal made by man ? " No, it is dug out of the earth." This is called a natural substance^ because it was not made by man. Look at it, and tell me what you observe. Augusta. "It is black:'' Emma. "It is bright:'' The words black and bright are made now on the blackboard. [The teacher strikes it lightly with a hammer and breaks it.] What do you now observe ? " It is easi- ly broken ; it is brittle:"* 830 A GKADUATED COURSE OF Take fi piece of this coal in your hands, and tell me how it feels. " It is hardy Now look tlirough it. "We can not ; it is not transparent." What may you say of it ? " It is opaqiLe^ Let us see if we have all these words on the black- board — Coal^ blacky bright^ brittle^ hard^ opaque. If I put this coal on the fire, what will take place ? "It will burn." Suppose I should put wood on the fire, what would take place? "The wood would burn up." Can you name any other objects that would burn in fire ? Any thing that burns readily when put in the fire is said to be inflammable. This is a long word, but I think you will remember it when you see the word, and observe that flame is a part of it. You know what a flame is. ISTow, since coal burns when put in the fire, what may we say of it ? " It is inflammahle^ Yes ; and that is what makes it so useful. It would not be good for any thing if it would not burn. Who can tell me for Avhat coal is used besides to make a fire for cooking our food ? [If in a city, there will be some pupils who have seen coal used for pro- ducing steam, and perhaps for making gas.] If we had no coal, what sliould Ave use for our fires ? "Wood." Where is wood obtained? "From trees." It would take a great many trees to furnish all the wood for the fires in a large city, and it would soon become very scarce ; but coal is so abundant in the earth that there is no fear that we shall ever get out of fuel. The places where coal is dug from the earth are OBJECT LESSONS. 831 called coal-mines. The hole or well into which the men go to reach the mines is called a shaft. The men who work at digging coal and drawing it out of the mines are called colliers. I will write these words on the blackboard, that you may remember them. Now let US see how many can tell something that has been learned about coal. " Coal is a natural sub- stance" — " it is dug out of the earth" — " it is bright" — " it is brittle"—" it is hard"—" it is opaque"—" it is inflammable" — " it is used to burn when we cook our food,^and to warm our rooms in winter" — "it is used to make gas for lighting the streets and our homes" — " the place where it is dug from the ground is called a coal-mine" — " the passage to the mine is called a shaft" — " the men who procure the coal are colliers." XIV.— Lead. Qualities — Heavy, bright, dull, hard, easily cut, fu- sible, insoluble. What is this ? " Lead." Can any of you tell me where lead comes from ? Does it come from an ani- mal ? Does it come from a plant or a tree ? "It comes out of the earth." Yes, it is dug from places in the earth called lead-mines. It is a 'mineral. You remember about the coal in the ground, which is so useful in making fires ; now we find that lead comes from the ground also. Thus you see that God is kind to store up in the earth so many useful things. Take this piece of lead in your hand. What do you find? "'\\>\% heavy r 832 A GRADUATED COURSE OF Look at it, and tell me what you see. *' Part of it is hrightP What part is bright ? " The part where it has just been cut?^ How does the other part look ? " DullP Yes ; when lead is freshly cut it is bright, but when it has been for some time in the air it be- comes dull. Now feel of the lead. '' It is harcV^ But see — what am I doing ? " Cutting it." Yes, and it does not make my knife dull. Does it seem hard to cut ? "No, it is cut easily." What, then, may you say about it ? " It feels hard^ but it is easily cut!''' See, I am holding some lead in the flame of the can- dle ; what happens ? " It melts" — " it is fusible in fire." I will put some in this tumbler of water ; does it dissolve ? " No." Then what may you say of lead in water ? " It is not soluble in water." What happened to the lead when I put it in the water? "It fell to the bottom." Here is a piece of wood ; I will put this in the water. John. " The wood swims." What does the lead do ? " The lead sinks." Why does the lead sink when the wood swims ? " Because the lead is heavy and the wood is light." Let us see if we have made all these words about lead on the blackboard. You may repeat the words as I point to them. Lehd^ lead-mines^ heavy ^ bright^ dull^ cut^ hard^ fusible^ insoluble. This last word means " can not be dissolved in water." Is there any child here whose father works in lead ? One, two, three hands up. John, what does your OBJECT LESSONS. 833 fatfier do ? " He makes shot." Henry, what does your father do with lead ? " He lays pipes to convey water into houses." Then he is called what ? "A plumber." Horace, what does your father do with lead ? " He is a plumber also." Persons who work in lead are called plumbers^ but plumbers are generally those who lay lead pipes for conveying water. Can any one think of any other use for lead ? "Bul- lets are made of it" — " it is used for sinkers on fish- lines and on fish-nets." Now let us see how many can tell something about lead. The next lesson should be a review of the last four lessons ; and those Avill suggest the modes of conduct- ing lessons on the following and other objects, so as to develop ideas of the several qualities belonging to them, viz. : Salt — Soluble, saline, granulous, sparkling, opaque. Alum — Transparent, soluble, astringent. Honey — Sweet, fluid, sticky. Gicm-Arahic — Semi-transparent, soluble, adhesive. Wax — Fusible, sticky, smooth, opaque. Putty — Plastic, adhesive, hardening. Mortar — Plastic, adhesive, sets and hardens. Plaster of Par/5— Setting and hardening quickly. Chalk — White, soft, friable or easily crumbled, ef- fervescent in acids.* * This quality may be readily shown by placing a piece of chalk in strong vinegar. 834 A GRADUATED COURSE OF Iron — Hard, ductile, tenacious, elastic, malleable, fusible. Iron exceeds in hardness other metals when converted into steel. It is more ductile than gold, and may be drawn into a wire as fine as human hair. It is the most tenacious of the metals ; a wire of one tenth of an inch in diameter will support 550 pounds. In the state of steel it is the most elastic of metals. It is also the most useful of metals. Copper — Heavy, tenacious, sonorous, fusible, elaS' tic, ductile, malleable, poisonous. It is eight times heavier than water. A wire one tenth of an inch in thickness will support 300 pounds. It is the most deeply- sonorous of all the metals. It is more easily melted than iron. It is next in elasticity to iron. Silver — Heavy, ductile, malleable, tenacious, fusi- ble, brilliant, reflective, not affected by common acids. Silver is about eleven times heavier than water. It can be drawn into the finest wire. It can be reduced to an extreme thin- ness. A wire of silver one tenth of an inch in thickness will sup- port 200 pounds. 6ro^c?— Heavy, malleable, ductile, tenacious, fusible, brilliant. Gold is considered a perfect metal, because it does not change nor lose any of its weight when melted. It is nineteen times heavier than water. It is the most malleable of metals : a piece of gold of the size of a pin's head may be hammered out so as to cover a space of fifty square inches. It is so ductile that one dol- lar can be drawn out into a wire that will reach nearly two miles. Its tenacity is much less than that of iron. A wire one tenth of an inch in diameter will support 160 pounds. OBJECT LESSONS. 835 THIRD SERIES. DEVELOPING IDEAS OF THE MATERIALS, EOEMATION, AND RESEMBLANCES OF OBJECTS. Properties to he considered. The lessons of this se- ries, in addition to a more complete consideration of the principal parts and qualities embraced in the les- sons of the second series, should consider the inate- rials^ formation., and resemblances of objects^ and the pupils should be led to observe by which sense the different qualities are discovered, thus to take the first steps toward a natural system of classification of knowledge. After the children's observation has been called out on an object, some information may be given on the natural history or manufacture of it. I.— Paper. What is this ? " Paper." Take pieces of it and then tell me what you observe. William. *' It is smoothy^ Jane. "It is white?^"^ Hold it betAveen your thumb and finger ; now what do you observe ? " It is ^^M^."* Try again. " It is %A^."* Hold it np toward the window, and place your finger against the side toward the window. "I can see through it — it is transparent^ Can you see through it as well as you can through glass? What is the difference? * Proceed, as in the lessons of the former series, to make the words on the blackboard, and also request the children to print them on their slates when thev return to their seats. 836 A GRADUATED COURSE OF " We can see every thing quite clearly through glass, but through paper we can only see light, and the out- line of objects which are close to it." What do we say of glass ? " It is transparent^ When we find an object through which we can see only light, we say it is translucent. Let me explain this word. Here is a piece of window-glass ; we can see through it clearly, so we say it is transparetit. Here is a piece of glass which has been ground on one side ; it still allows the light to pass through it, but we can not see through it clearly, so we say it is tra7isluce7it. Now mention -some objects that are transparent. " Glass and water." ISTow mention some that are translucent. " Ground glass, horn, thin paper." How do you learn that objects arc transparent or translucent ? " By our eyes." Now see what you can do with the paper. " I can bend it and fold it." Take this handkerchief, and see if you can hend and fold it. When any thing is easi- ly bent or folded, we say it is pliable. James, can you tell us why paper is said to be pliable f " Because it is easily bent and folded." Lucy, will you tell us what we say of an object that can be easily bent and folded? ''''\\>\^plidbW How do you learn that pa- per is smooth^ thin^ and pliable ? " By our hands — by feeling." Observe what takes place when I put a piece of this paper into the fire. " It burns." Then what may we say of it ? " It is inflammdbleP Why is it inflam- OBJECT LESSONS. 337 mable ? " Because it burns readily." Tell me some other things that are inflammable. Of what use is this kind of paper? "To write upon." Yes ; and when you are grown up perhaps you will go to live far away from your father and mother, and your brothers and sisters ; then it would be very pleasant to receive from them a sheet of pa- per, with writing over it, telling you all about home ; and how happy they would be if you should send them a sheet of paper with writing on it, telling them what you were doing, and all about the country where you lived. Can any one tell me what such a piece of paper is called ? "A letter." I hope all of you will learn to v/rite letters before you leave school. Can any of you tell me where we get paper? "At the store." Yes, I knew that before ; but I want to be told whether it grows, like a plant, or whether it is dug out of the ground, like coal, and lead, and iron. How do we get it, since it does not grow and is not dug out of the ground ? " It is made." Yes, paper is made by man ; now Avho will tell me what it is made out of? "It is made of rags." Yes; the best paper is made of Ii7ie7i rags. Now who will tell me of what liiieii is made ? I will tell you. Linen is made oiXhe fibrous stem of a ] !ant called ^«£t'. Do you know v^h^i fibrous means? Take this rag and pull out some of the threads ; now see what the threads are made of. " Yery fine, hair- like threads." If you should take the stem of a plant of flax and peel off the outside of it, you would find it composed of little slender threads, called fibres, P 838 A GRADUATED COURSE OF When we say any thing is fibrous, we mean that it is composed of little threads like the fine hairs or fibres which make the threads of this cloth. After you have told me all you have found out about paper, I will read to you something about its manufacture from " Hazen's Popular Technology, or Professions and Trades." II.— Leather. What is this ? " Leather." Take these pieces and tell me what you observe. Ella. " One side is black, and the other is a light brown." John. " It is smooth." Is it smooth on both sides ? Hiram. " The black side is smoother than the brown side." What can you do with it? "Bend it — it isjflexi- hleP Why do you say it is flexible f " Because it may be easily bent." What could you do with paper besides bending it ? " Fold it." Because paper could be both easily bent and folded, we say it is pliable. Leather is easily bent, but not easily folded, so we say it is flexible. What else could you do with paper? "Tear it." Try to tear the leather. "We can not tear it." Why ? " Because it is tough." When do you say a thing is tough? "When it can not easily be torn." You say this leather is smooth, flexible, and tough ; take it between your thumb and finger, and see if you can observe any thing more of it. " It is thin." " It is light." How did you discover that leather is smooth, flexi- OBJECT LESSONS. 889 hle^ toughs thin^ and light f " By our hands." Yes, by feeling it. Now shut your eyes. What is near j^our face? "Leather." Did you see the leather while I held it near your nose ? " No." How, then, did you know that I held it there ? " We could smell it." What may you say, then, of leather ? " It has a smell." Any thing that has a smell is said to be odorous. What, then, may we say of leather ? " It is odorous." How did you find out that leather is odorous? " By smelling it." How did you find out the color of the leather? " By looking at it." What qualities did you find out by the hand ? For what is leather used? Are you wearing any thing made of leather? Why is leather good for shoes ? " It is tough." Can you think of any other reason why it is good for shoes ? James. " It is flex- ible." Emily. " It is thin and light." Paper is thin and light; why would it not make good shoes? "It would not keep out water." Now we have found out a very important reason why leather is good for shoes : it keeps the water from our feet. Because it will keep out water so well, we say it is water-proof. Who will now tell me several reasons why leather is good for shoes ? " Because it is tough., flexible.^ thin., light., water-proof., and lastingP- Who can tell me where we get leather ? Is it made from the fibres of a plant ? Is it dug from the ground ? " No ; it is the skin of animals." Can you mention 340 A GRADUATED COURSE OF some animals, the skins of which are used for leather ? " The cow, the calf, the horse, the sheep, the dog, the hog." • Does the skin of either of those animals look like this leather ? What is the difference ? " Their skins are covered with hair." What must be done to them in making leather? "The hair must be scraped off, and the skin tanned." Observe this piece of leather when I put it in the fire. "It frizzles up." "It has a very unpleasant smell." Do you remember what happened when I put the paper in the fire ? " It was soon burnt up.'' That, you remember, was made from a vegetable — a plant. Leather is an animal substance, and when it burns it frizzles up and gives out a disagreeable odor. For what is leather used ? Now repeat what has been said about leather, after which I will read to you a description of its manufacture from " Professions and Trades." III.— Honey-comb. What is this ? "A piece of honey-comb." Where does it come from ? "A bee-hive." Who placed it in the hive ? " The bees made it there." The bees have no hands and no tools, yet they can make such beautiful comb. How did they learn to make it? " God taught them how." Yes, God has taught all animals to do whatever is necessary for their comfort. IS'owlook at this honey-comb and tell me what you observe. "It is full of holes." These holes are called cells. OBJECT LESSONS. 841 Who will describe the cells f Charles. " The cells have six sides, six corners, and a bottom.'''' What is the other end of the cell called ? " The top." What is there around the top ? " An edge." How deep are the cells? Measure them. "About half an inch deep." How large are they in diameter ? " About a quarter of an inch." Take a piece of this honey-comb in your hands and tell me what you observe. Ellen. "It is sticky." Freddy. "It is light." Susan. "It is yellow." Hold it up to the light. " I can see light through it." Can you see through it as you can through glass ? " No." What, then, may you say of the hon- ey-comb ? " It is translucent^'' Why is it said to be translucent f " Because we can see the light through it, but can not see objects clearly through it." What am I doing with the honey-comb ? " Squeez- ing it." " You have crushed it." Did it break easi- ly ? Then what may we say of it ? " Honey-comb is brittle." Observe it as I hold a piece in the flame of the can- dle. " It melts." When does it melt ? " When it is heated." What use does the bee make of the cells ? " It puts honey in them." Where does the bee get the honey? "From flowers." Yes; in summer the bee collects honey from flowers, and stores it up in some of the cells of the honey-comb. Some of the cells it uses for another purpose ; the young bees are kept in them, and are fed and watched by the old bees till they get their wings, when they begin to work too. 842 A GRADUATED COUESE OF What do we make of honey -comb? "Wax." What is done with the comb to make it into wax? " It is melted." Who can tell me for what wax is used ? George. " My father is a tailor ; he uses it to wax his thread, to keep it smooth and strong." Now rei^eat all you have learned about the honey- comb. " Honey-comb is made by hees^ who put into it the honey which they get from floioers. It is formed of a number of little cells^ each of which has six sides and six corners^ a bottom^ and a to2y with an edge. Wax is very lights tlmi^ and sticky ; its color is light yellow ^ it is translucent j it is brittle^ and melts when heated. Tailors use it to make their thread smooth and strong. It is also used for candles." IV.— Rose Leaf. What is this ? "A leaf" Where are leaves found ? " On plants and trees." What leaves do cows and horses eat ? " Those of grass." What leaves do we sometimes eat? "Those of lettuce, cabbage, and spinach." I will give you a word by which you can at once speak of trees, grass, lettuce, cabbage, etc. It is veg- etables. All plants and trees are called vegetables. Where do vegetables come from? "They grow out of the ground." Suppose I had a piece of ground, and I desired to have some corn grow upon it, what must be done to have corn grow there ? " Corn must be planted." But suppose I wanted some lettuce to OBJECT LESSONS. 343 grow on a jmrt of the ground, what must be done ? " Sow some lettuce-seed." Where must the corn and lettuce-seed be put be- fore it will grow ? " In the earth." Would the corn and lettuce be big at once ? If I should put an api^le-seed in the ground, what would happen ? I will tell you. A little white root would burst out of it and go down into the ground, and a little green shoot would come up and put out some little leaves. At first it would be very small, but it would grow so that in a few years it would become a large tree and bear apples. Suppose I should plant a stone in the earth, what would grow? Now I think you know what vegeta- ble nieans. Look at this leaf, and tell me the names of its parts. By what j^art do I hold it ? " By the stem." W^hat is the use of the stem? "To support the leaf, and attach it to the plant." What other parts of the leaf do you see ? " The edge." What do you observe on the edge of the leaf? " Little points and notches." Those points are called teeth, because they are like the sharp-pointed teeth of some animals. A leaf that has such points on its edge is said to be toothed. What may we say of the edge of this leaf? "It is toothed!''^ Why is it said to be toothed ? " Because it has points like the teeth of some animals." Examine this leaf, and tell me what other parts you observe. " A line down the middle of it." That line is called the middle rib. See whether it is the same 844 A GRADUATED COURSE OF on both sides of the leaf. " It sinks in on one side, and stands out on the other." Can any one tell me what the hollow line made by the plow in the field is called ? "A furrow.''^ What is the raised part on each side of the furrow called ? "Them^^e." What is the middle rib on this side of the leaf like ? " Like ^.furfoioP What is the middle rib like on the other side of the leaf? " Like a ridged What, then, would be good names for the rib of the leaf on its dif- ferent sides? "The furrow rib on the upper side, and the ridge rib on the under side." Why do we call one the upper and the other the under side? "Because that is the position of the leaf when on the tree." E'ow observe the leaf again ; there are other lines upon the leaf. Where do these lines commence, and where do they end ? " They commence at the mid- dle rib^ and end at the edgeP These lines are called veins. Li what are they like the middle rib? "They sink in like furrows on the upper side of the leaf, and rise up like ridges on the under surface of it." Do you observe any thing more in the leaf? "It is green.'''' "The under side is didl^ and the upper side is bright?'' Feel of it. " It is iJ/im." " It is soft.'" Any thing more ? " It bends easily ; it can be folded easily." " It is pliableP What more do you observe when you feel it ? "It is light and smoothP OBJECT LESSONS. 345 . What is its shape ? " Like an agg—ovaV Now tell me all that you can remember of this les- son about the leaf. "The leaf is a vegetable substance ; it grows on a stem; it has a toothed edge; it has a middle rib, which is like a furroio on the upper sur- face, and like a ridge on the under side; it has also many veiiis, which are like furroios on the tcpjyer side, and like ridges on the tmder side. Its color is green; its shape is ovcd. To the touch it is t/mi, soft, and smooth; it bejids easily ; the upper side is bright, and the under side is dullP Since there is less danger of erring in the manner of conducting the lessons of the third series than with those of the first and seco7id, a fewer number of ex- ample lessons will suffice for illustrating the mode of drawing them out. It is believed, therefore, that those already given here Avill suggest the proper course to be pursued with other objects. But the teacher should be careful to avoid any stereotyped set of questions in conducting these exercises ; let the object itself suggest the parts, qucdities, materials, and uses whiuh should furnish the points for conver- sation. Again we would remind the teacher not to ask lead- ing questions, yet so to conduct the exercises as to guide the pupils in their observations and direct their attention to the parts or quaUties desired. Do not tell them wherever they can learn by observation, or the use of either their sense of sight, feeling, smell- ing, tasting, or hearing. One of the chief uses of this P2 34:6 A GKADUATED COURSE OF course of object lessons is to train the senses in a sys- tematic mode of gaining knowledge. Those teachers who have carefully observed the successive steps in this course of graduated object les- sons will now be able to proceed readily with lessons on other objects, drawing out the sketches themselves. Many of the objects which were mentioned as suit- able for lessons during the first and second series are also suitable for those of the third, as some points connected w4th their materials, qualities, formation, and uses, w^hich the pupils would not have been able to comprehend at those stages in their development, may now^ be brought forward, and the lessons made more useful by a more complete and thorough ob- servation. As a matter of convenience to the teacher, we will add a list of objects suitable for lessons at this stage, indicating some of the leading points for considera- tion ; and, of course, the uses of each object, its forma- tion and materials, should also be considered in every lesson. It is hoped that this list will be found to con- tain an ample variety of subjects to suggest all that may be required by the primary teacher. Note. — We have purposely omitted animals from these lessons, not because they do not form suitable subjects for lessons during this period of development, but because we have found it necessaiy to prepare a second volume on Object Lessons, in order to develop the lessons on Natural History as fully as it is deemed necessary for a systematic course of primary training. OBJECT LESSONS. 347 SUBJECTS FOR OBJECT LESSONS. Cawplior. — Semi-transparent, aromatic, easily crumbling or fria- ble, very inflammable, medicinal, volatile, soluble in spirits. Bread. — Porous, absorbent, opaque, edible, wholesome, nutri- tious, soft, moist. Rice. — Hard, absorbent, nutritious, vegetable. £(jg^ — Oval, white, hard, eatable, opaque, nutritious, shell brittle, thin. Ginger. — Pungent, dry, fibrous, vegetable, medicinal, aromatic. Pepper. — Hard, pungent, odorous, aromatic, vegetable. Nutmeg. — Oval, hard, opaque, vegetable, pungent, aromatic, odor- ous. Cinnamon. — Agreeable to the taste, aromatic, pungent, brittle, medicinal, vegetable. Vinegar. — Sour, liquid, odorous, medicinal. Ink. — Black, opaque, liquid, fluid, poisonous, useful. Bell. — Barrel, hollow, circular, sonorous, metal, clapper, heavy, uses of the different kinds of bells. Mirror. — Smooth, bright, reflective, brittle, manufactured. Cork. — Light, elastic, compressible, cylindrical, inflammable, veg- etable. Horn. — Hard, translucent, odorous when burnt, soft when boiled, animal substance. luory. — Hard, white, smooth, solid, durable, animal substance. Book. — Outside, inside, edges, corners, binding, stitching, leaves, pages, sides, top, bottom, back, title-page, preface, contents, margin, type, paper, leather. /Sassors.— Blades, bows, shanks, rivet, points, edges, curved bows, steel, hard, opaque, solid. Qz«V/.— Barrel, feather, elastic, transparent, pith, hollow, light, animal substance. /icorn. — Oval, solid, smooth inside, rough outside, hard, nut, veg- etable substance. Pine Cone.— Conical, brown, scales, hard, odorous, vegetable sub- stance. 348 A GRADUATED COURSE OF OBJECT LESSONS. Muff. — Fur, skin of an animal, soft, warm, flexible, cylindri- cal. Starch. — White, soluble in warm water, sticky, vegetable sub- stance. Brick. — Hard, oblong, sides, ends, corners, color, size, weight, mineral, manufactured. Tree. — Trunk, roots, limbs, branches, leaves, bark, buds, sap, veg- etable. Cheese, butter, apple, peach, plum, gooseberry, cherry, orange, currant, peas, corn, bird's-nest, earthenware, china, soap, coffee, tea, balloon, gun, brush, flannel, buttons. USE OF PICTURES. In tliis connection it may be well to add that pic- tures should be shown, in addition to the objects, whenever convenient; and especially should pictures be shown whenever the object for the lesson can not be presented for examination. An instructive exercise may be had by showing a picture to the pupils, requesting them to observe all the objects represented in it ; then remove the picture, and call upon them to describe it by telling what it represents. DEVELOPMENT OF MORAL IDEAS. " Simple thoughts of God and Christian virtues, impressed upon us in early childhood, are never erased from memory or heart." " Train up a child in the way he should go" is not only God's command to parents, but it is society's first demand on both teacher and parent. This training, too, is one of the first needs of the child's own nature. With it, happiness is within his reach ; without it, not only is his own happiness impossible, but he will in- terfere with that of others. This training should be commenced very early. As soon as emotion is felt it may be biased by education. The impressions that adhere longest to us, and are the deepest, are those of which we remember not the ori- gin — those which we imbibed unconsciously in infan- cy. The child's disposition may issue from this pe- riod with a strong bent to good. Then there are no obstacles to overcome ; nothing to unlearn ; the affec- tions are soft and pliable. If this period pass without moral training, the difficulties are greatly increased, the affections take a bent of their own. The great means of training the moral feelings is to draw them out into action. A feeling without action is mere sentiment ; it does nothing. If we would cul- 850 DEVELOPMENT OF MORAL IDEAS. tivate kindness, we must show kindness in our deeds ; if reverence, we must exhibit the example of rever- ence ; if we would develop ideas of justice, honesty, truthfulness, we must improve the opportunities of daily intercourse to exemplify them. It will be of little use to tell the child about rever- ence, justice, honesty, truthfulness, if these are never acted before it ; it is only by acts that the child can know them. We have too much abstract teaching in morals, as well as in mental education. The law of exercise is of universal application to moral and mental, as well as in physical training. And there is greater room for activity here than most of us at first suppose. The daily lessons and occurrences of the schoolroom, and the incidents of the playground, fur- nish opportunities for the most eiFective lessons in morals. To seize upon these opportunities, and to im- prove them in the right spirit, should be the earnest aim of every teacher. Let the golden rule be the key-note in moral train- ing ; teach the children to do to others as they would have others do to them. This j^ositive teaching is the characteristic feature of the morality of the New Tes- tament. Much of this instruction may be most profitably given incidentally, without stated times for moral training; yet there are first ideas of God, virtue, right, love to others, duty, etc., which should be taken up and presented in regular succession for the develop- ment of simple moral and religious truths as a founda- tion for future instruction. DEVELOPMENT OF MORAL IDEAS. 851 Children should be taught ideas of God as a kind father y of God as the maher of all things y' of aii immortal mind j of conscience; of truth ; of ohe- dle7ice ; oi industry ; oi cleanliness ; of order. And all of this training should be simple, familiar, and free from technical phrases and formal teaching ; it should be chiefly illustrated by examples and incidents from life. " Our Father, who art in heaven," should be the key-note of this instruction ; then love, reverence, and obedience to Him would have a real significance to the young. Let the fundamental ideas of religion be thus estab- lished in early childhood, and they will shine out clear- ly in future years, an anchor of rescue to the soul when happiness and life seem about to be wrecked forever. Simple moral truths thus early implanted in the heart have rescued many a noble youth from the whirlpool of corruption, when all other lessons of wisdom had been w^ashed away by the waves of passion. A few lessons and subjects for lessons will suggest Avhat course may be pursued here. LESSON I. TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF GOD AS A KIND FATHER. I wish to talk with you, children, about those you love. Tell me (addressing each pupil individually) whom you love. "Why do you love your mother? Why do you love your father? your sister? your 352 DEVELOPMENT OF MORAL IDEAS. brother ? What did your mother do for you before you came to school this morning ? What will she do when you go home ? If you are sick, or any one hurts you, to whom do you go and tell your trouble ? Who is pleased to hear that you have been a good child ? Who works to get money to buy your clothes and food for you to eat ? In this manner, by familiar conversation, the teach- er should lead the children to talk freely upon the dif- ferent acts which show the love of their friends, and endeavor to call out their warmest feelings of love and gratitude in return. Why do your parents thus feed and clothe you, and watch over you when you are sick, and kiss you? Yes, because they love you. All of you have some kind friends who love and care for you. Now, children, listen very attentively to what I say, and I will tell you about a Friend that you all have — one who is kind to all of you — one who loves you better than your father or your mother does — one who takes care of you at all times — one who watches over you when you are asleep as well as when you are awake ; for he never sleeps — one who is ready to give you all things you ask him for. Do any of you know who it is that I mean? This good friend is God. You can not see him, but he always sees you, and knows all about you. He tells us to call him Father because he loves us as a father. He is in heaven — he is our Father in heaven. Now tell me what kind, good Friend we all have ? What does he tell us to call him ? Why does he tell DEVELOPMENT OF MORAL IDEAS. 853 lis to call him Father? Who is this good Friend? Where is he ? What does he do for us ? The children may now be required to repeat, God is our Father in heaven. He loves us, and takes care of Its, and is always doing us good. The teacher should aim to impress the children with a feeling of reverential love to God. This love may be awakened by bringing the affection to their parents into lively exercise, and then directing it to their heavenly Father; their reverence may be awakened by making them feel that God is far above us in heaven ; though invisible to our eyes, that he still cares for and watches' over us day and night— that he is our heavenkj Father. Much of the effect of these lessons will depend upon the manner and feeling with which they are given. LESSON II. TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF GOD AS THE MAKEE OF ALL THINGS. Let US now talk about making different things, chil- dren. Who made your shoes for you ? Who made your dress ? Could things make themselves ? No, it would be very silly to think they could. Who made the bread you eat ? Could the bread make it- self? Other questions should be asked, leading the children to see that things must have a maker, and that they could not make themselves. 854 DEVELOPMENT OF MORAL IDEAS. Can your father make any thing ? Here allow the children to talk about what their different fathers can do. The art of the teacher is first to call out the mind and heart into activity, and then to direct the thoughts and feelings. You can tell me who made your shoes, your clothes, and the bread you eat, but I want to talk about some- thing much more beautiful than these, and see if you can find out who made them. You have all seen the sun. How brightly it shines ! It warms us and gives us light. Can any of you tell me who made this beau- tiful sun? It was God who made the sun to warm us and give us light and heat. What did God make ? Why did he make the sun? What did I tell you about God the other day ? All of you may repeat it together. " God is our Father in heaven ; he loves us, and takes care of us, and is always doing us good." What has God made ? " God made the beautiful sun that warms us and gives us light." If there were no sun you could not see. It would also be cold, and nothing would grow. God is good, then, to give us the sun. Who made the sun ? For whose good has God made the sun ? What good is it to us ? It gives us light and warmth, and causes the grain to grow. God makes all the trees, and plants, and flowers grow ; he made all the animals and birds, and he made us also. Now let us think what he has given us. How do you know Avhat is in this room ? " We can see the things." What do you see with? "Our eyes." Who gave you eyes ? DEVELOPMENT OF MORAL IDEAS. 855 How do you know I am talking to you? "We can hear you." With what do you hear? "With our ears." Who gave you ears ? How do you know that fur is soft and iron hard? " By feeUng them." Who gave you feeUng ? How do you know that sugar is sweet and lemon sour ? " By tasting them." Who gave you taste ? How do you know that the rose has a pleasant odor ? " By smelling it." Who gave you smell ? Now all these things give you pleasure ; it is pleas- ant to see, and hear, and feel, and taste, and smell ; and these things should make you happy, and make you love God for giving you so many senses to add to your happiness. • LESSON HI. TO DEVELOP IDEAS OF THE SOUL.* Have dogs, and horses, and cows bodies? Yes, God gave them bodies. Have they bones, and flesh, and blood, and skin ? Yes, all of these animals have bodies as well as you. Are their bodies like yours ? How many legs have you? How many legs has * In a little volume entitled "Peep of Day," published by the American Tract Society, ideas of the body, of God as a father, and of the soul, are admirably drawn out in simple illustrations for children. We are chiefly indebted to that volume for this lesson on the soul. We can not do a better service in illustrating how to proceed in moral training than by commending that book to teach- ers and parents. 856 DEVELOPMENT OF MORAL IDEAS. the dog? Has the dog arms? Has the dog hands? No, the dog has legs instead of arms. Your skin is smooth, but the dog is covered with hair. Is the cat's body like yours ? Is the chicken's body like yours ? How many legs has the chicken ? Has the chicken feet like yours ? Have you feathers on your skin ? Have you wings ? Is your mouth like the chicken's beak ? Has the chicken any teeth ? No, the chicken's body is not at all like yours ; yet the chicken has a body, for it has flesh, and bones, and blood, and skin. Has a fly a body ? Yes, it has a black body, and six black legs, and two wings, like glass. Who gave bodies to dogs, horses, cows, chickens, and flies ? Who keeps them alive ? Can a dog or a horse thank God ? No ; dogs, and horses, and cows, and chickens can not thank God ; they can not think of God. They never heard of God. They can not understand about God. Why can they not understand about God? Because they have no souls, or minds, like yours. Your soul can think of God, and thank him for all that he does for you. It knows right and wrong. Have you a soul? Yes, in your body there is a soul, or a tnind, which will never die. When God made your body he placed your soul in it. When God made the dogs and horses he jDut no souls in their bodies, and they can not think of God. Can I see your soul ? No, I can not see it. No one can see it but God. He knows what you are thinking now. DEVELOPMENT OF MORAL IDEAS. 857 Which is the best part, your body or your soul? Your soul is a great deal the best. Your body can die, but your soul can not die. Your body is made of dust. God made the dust into flesh, and bones, and blood. Your soul is made of the breath of God. Some day the dog will die, and its body Avill be thrown away. The dog will be quite gone when its body is dead. But when your body dies your soul will still live ; it will go back to God, who gave it. Your body will decay, and turn to dust again ; but your soul will live forever ; it will never die. It is your soul that thinks ; if we wish to make any thing, we can think how to make it, and then use the tools to make it. If we want more tools, we can make them too. Birds can build nests, but they can not use tools, nor make any thing except what God taught them to do. Animals can learn a few things, but children can learn a great many things. In a similar manner should the teacher proceed to develop ideas of right and wrong, and of a conscience. Here ample illustrations will occur to exhibit what is meant by right and wrong ; and the pupils should fre- quently be called upon to decide in simple cases which is the one and which the other. A little volume by Jacob Abbott, " Learning about Right and Wrong," w^ill be useful here. Illustrate the unkindness of calling names, and of mocking the aged or infirm ; of pinching and teasing each other. 358 DEVELOPMENT OF MOKAL IDEAS. Truth, honesty, kindness, obedience, industry, cru- elty to animals, cleanliness, order, punctuality, self- control, gentleness, etc., should all be explained, and the children taught to distinguish them. Finally, take the examples of the Great Teacher as a model. Observe how he selected familiar scenes and objects to illustrate his truths. Study his methods, seek his guidance, accept his promises, and success must be the crown. AN OUTLINE OF A GRADUATED COURSE OP ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION BY OBJECT LESSONS. This outline is intended to embrace an entire course of " Object Les- sons" for primary education, showing lohere and ]iow to commence ele- mentary instruction, and the appropriate order of subjects, or " studies," and the mode of proceeding during the first years of school training ; and also to indicate the relation of these exercises to the human mind in its several stages of early development. Grades. — The several subjects of the lessons herein presented are di- vided into ^rmc^es, intended to harmonize with Nature's educational proc- esses, and to correspond with the different stages of development of the child's mind, also with the consequent classification of pupils during the first three or four yeai's of school-life. The lessons of the "First Grade" are designed for children of about five years of age in school, or about four years when given at home. Steps. — The steps are intended as guides for the teacher in the order and methods of presenting the successive lessons in each of the grades. It is, however, quite impossible to designate the precise length of time, or definite number of exercises that should be devoted to any given " step" or "grade," or to observe the exact bounds of either ; these points must be left to the skill and judgment of the teacher. Furthermore, it is not expected that there will be a uniform length of time devoted to the various "steps" and " grades" in different schools. The best rule that can be given in this matter is, whenever the minds of the pupils have become well developed in all that pertains to the lessons of any "step" or "grade," they are prepared to proceed with the next. Neither is it expected, nor desired, that the methods pursued in giving the lessons will be the same with all classes ; these must frequently be varied to adapt them to the minds and habits of different children, yet the principles should always be strictly adhered to, for these are as un- changeable as the laws of mind. It is of the greatest importance that care be taken to awaken and keep up a lively interest in the several lessons, and to make each "step" and *' grade" familiar by a variety of illustrations before the succeeding one is undertaken ; meanwhile not allowing the children to become sur- feited with any subject, or series of exercises. Should symptoms of in- attention from such a cause appear, an immediate change of the sulyect, or manner of presenting it, should be made. 860 OUTLINE OF A GRADUATED COURSE. Parts of Lessons. — Notwithstanding the great variety necessary in the modes of conducting lessons, there are certain general forms which should be observed. Each lesson ought to be arranged by the teacher into three principal parts — the beginning, the middle, and the end. The beginning of the lesson should prepare the way for the instruction to fol- low, and connect it with the previous lesson. The middle should con- tain the body of the lesson, or the new instruction given, and the illus- trations necessary to make it clear, interesting, and impressive to the pu- pils. The end should embrace a summary or gathering up of the crumbs of instruction in a brief review of the lesson, and a natural association of the ideas presented, also a practical application of the knowledge gained. During this process the memory of the pupils should be exercised in re- producing the principal points of the lesson. RELATION OF THE EXERCISES UNDER THE GRADES TO THE DEVELOP- MENT OF MIND. First Grade. — This grade is designed to embrace exercises for the development of the perceptive faculties, and for leading to habits of at- tention and simple observation, also for aiding memory by associating words with things, thus extending the child's vocabulary and ideas to- gether. Second Grade. — This grade is designed for the cultivation of the perceptive and conceptive faculties, of habits of attention and observa- tion, of the memory of things and facts, of comparison by resemblances, and of language by means of description. Third Grade. — This grade affords more extended exercises for at- tention, conception, comparison by resemblances and by differences, thus leading to simple classification, for imagination, for the memory of things, ideas and relations, for simple reason ; also more systematic ob- servation, and increased facilities for cultivating language and the pow- ers of expression. Although development and discipline are the prominent features of the three preceding grades, yet a gradual and increasing acquisition of knowl- edge takes place as a means to this forming process of the mind. And this very training which most successfully "forms the mind," or devel- ops it, also furnishes it with its first stores of knowledge. Fourth Grade. — This grade extends to the period when discipline of the mind ceases to be the chief object, and the acquisition of knov/1- edge begins to assume a more important place in education. Now the child goes to books for a part of his information instead of deriving it almost entirely through the aid of the teacher. He learns to compare the ideas obtained from books with personal observations. His powers of imagination, memory, reflection, reason, and judgment are brought under cultivation. OUTLINE OF A GRADUATED COURSE. 861 Moral Instruction. — Throughout each of these grades attention should be paid to the cultivation of humane feelings, kindness, moral and religious sentiments ; and especial attention should be called to the wisdom and goodness of God as displayed in the wonderful adaptation of His various works to the places and uses for which they were designed. A CONDENSED OUTLINE PROGRAMME. This condensed outline programme is intended to show at one view the relation of the several subjects, grades, and steps of Object Lessons to an entire course of ele- mentary instruction. The relation of each grade to the development of the mind, and the mode of pro- cedure in each' step, are explained in the full programme given in the following pages. First Grade. Second Grade. 1 Third Grade. Fourth Grade. 1st Step. 2d step. 3d Step. Ist step. 2d step. 3d Step. 1st step. 2d step. 3d Step. 1st step. 2d Step. 3d step. Form 2 8 2 3 2 3 1 Color 9, 3 ?, 2 2 3 3 2 2 3 3 1 1 2 c & Number Size 2 2 3 3 2 2 3 3 2 2 3 3 d e Human Body and ) Physical Exercises j Sound and Singing 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 Reading and Spelling. . 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 Drawing and Writing . 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 Place— Geography 2 3 2 3 2 3 ■A 2 / Objects 9, 3 2 3 2 3 2 9 h k m Animals 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 2 2 S I 2 Plants Language and Compo- ) !-ition ) Weight 2 3 2 3 n a. Elements of Geometry, d. Painting, or Coloring Pictures, c. Arithmetic, d. Ta- bles of Measures, e. Physiology. /. Simple Physical Geography, g. Technology, or Manufactures, h. Zoology, k. Botany. I. Collections of Minerals, m. Grammar. n. Natural Philosophy. All of these subjects may be introduced during the fourth and fifth years of school- ^ife ; some as regular studies, others through reading lessons, and some as occasional topics for investigation, conversation, and discussion, Q 862 PROGRAMME OF GRADES AND STEPS. FIRST GRADE. Relation to Mind.— The exercises of this grade are designed for the develop- iflent of the perceptive faculties ; for leading to habits of attention and simple observ- ation; also for aiding memory by associating words with things, thus extending, at the same time, the child's vocabulary and ideas. FIRST STEP. Review this step before taking the next. Form.— Lead the children, by conver- sational exercises, to simple observation of the shape of objects ; to distinguish ob- jects by their form ; and to notice comers and sides. Use Chart No. XII. and the "Forms." gee "Primary Object Les- sons," p. 49, 50. Color. — Lead the children to distin- guisli, point out, select, and name the pri- mai-y colors simply as prominent colors. Use Chart No. XIII., colored cards, worst- eds, ribbon, etc. See "Primary Object Lessons," p. 112-114. Number.— Lead to the simple percep- tion of number by counting pebbles or oth- er objects ; also by the counting of pic- tures, words, and letters on the Charts Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4. When the idea of one as a number, as one pebble, one boy, is clearly peixeived by the children, proceed to give ideas of two, three, four, etc. See " Pri- mary Object Lessons," p. 13S, 139. Size. — Develop the idea of size in gen- eral ; first, of large and small, then of long and short. See " Primary Object Les- sons," p. 160-1G2. Human Body.— Lead the children to distinguish, point to, and name the principal parts of the human body ; also give simple physical exercises. See " Pri- mary Object Lessons," p. 190-192, and 229. Sound. — Develop ideas of sound in general, and teach children to distinguish sounds ; also to sing simple airs. Let them also practice simultaneous movements, as clapping the hands, marching in step, etc. See " Primary Object Lessons," p. 182-184. Reading* — Since the first step in teaching children to I'ead should be to Continued SECOND STEP. Review this step before talcing the next. Form. — Lead the children to distin- guish straight and curved sides ; also de- velop ideas of the forms of lines, as straight, waved, and curved ; and of surface. Use Charts Nos. XL, XII., and the "Forms." See " Primary Object Lessons," p. 51-59. Color. — Teach the children to distin- guish, match, and name primarj' and sec- ondary colors as prominent colors ; also to point them out on the Chart of "Familiar Colors," and to select them in cards, worst- eds, and articles of dress, etc. See " Pri- mary Object Lessons," p. 114-118. Number. — In this step represeot numbers by marks and dots, and after- ward by figures. Develop ideas of the for- mation, succession, comparison, and order of numbers. Teach counting to twenty. See " Primary Object Lessons," p. 139-14T. Size. — Develop ideas of relative or comparative size, and of distance. First, of larger and largest, smaller and smallest ; then of longer and longest, shorter and shortest. See " Primary Object Lessons," p. 162-1G5. Human Body.— Lead the children to distinguish, point to, and apjily the names to the parts of the principal parts of the body; also give physical exercises. See " Primary Object Lessons," p. 192-194, and 230. Sound. — Give the children exercises in imitating vocal sounds, and in distin- guishing objects, persons, and animals bv the sounds which they produce ; and teach them to classify these sounds ; also to give descriptive names of them. See "Pri- mary Object Lessons," p. 184. Reading- and Spelling- The pu- pils having learned to read at sight famil- on jynge 3G4. PROGRAMME OF GRADES AND STEPS. 868 FIRST GRADE. Selation to Mind.— The exercises of this grade are designed for the develop- ment of the perceptive faculties ; for leading to habits of attention and simple observ- ation ; also for aiding memory by associating words with things, thus extending, at the same time, the child's vocabulary and ideas. THIRD STEP. Review this step before taking the next. Form. — Develop ideas of angles, and teach children to dLstinguish and name an- gles ; also to describe them as to form and size, and to represent them. Use Chart No. XI. and " Forms." See " Primary Ob- ject Lessons," p. 60-6S. Color. — Give a variety of exercises in arranging colored cards, worsted, or paper; also use the Chart of "Familiar Colors," so as to secure a ready discrim- ination of the leading colors. Let the chil- dren name objects having either of these colors. Number.— Teach addition and sub- traction of numbers by objects; but go no further in this step than the number five. Teach counting as far as fifty. See '' Pri- mary Object Lessons," p. 148-153. Size. — Develop the idea of positive or measured size and distance. Teach the children to apply measures to determine size, length, and distances by inches and feet. See '•'■Primary Object Lessons," p. 1G3, IGG, 167. Human Body. — Direct attention to the position- and uses of the parts of the body, as limbs, joints, and feet. Give physical exercises. See " Primary Object Lessons," p. 1P5-200, and 230. Sound. — Teach the children to imi- tate sounds made by the human voice, as the pronunciation of words, elementary sounds of the language, singing; also sounds made by instruments. See "Pri- mary Object Lessons," p. 185, 186. Reading- and Spelling-.— in ad- dition to the reading lessons from the Continued SUGGESTIONS. Bevieii) the grade be/ore proceeding to another. Form.— The greatest variety of exer- cises should be given with each step. The " Forms" of wood or pasteboard ; also the Chart of "Lines," No. XI. ; of "Forms," No. XII. ; of "Leaves," No. XIX., should be used. In addition, the teacher should use the blackboard freely during these exercises, and the pupils use their slates while in their seats. Color.— During the exercises of this grade the Chart of " Familiar Colors," No. XIII. ; also colored cards, worsteds, and other colored objects, should be used with each lesson, and the children led to ob- serve with considerable accuracy. A great variety of exercises should be devised for keeping up the interest and giving famili- arity. For information for the teacher, see " Primary Object Lessons," p. 99-111. Number.— The teacher may furnish entertaining and profitable occupation for the younger pupils while at their seats, by providing them with large colored beads for stringing ; first, one of each color in succession, then two of each color, then three, four, and so on, up to twenty-five of each, making strings of fifty beads. During the third step the teacher might say, " String two white beads, then enough blue ones to make five ; string three blue beads, then enough white ones to make five ; string- three white beads and three blue ones; string four white beads and three blue ones ; string four white beads and four blue ones," and so on. For class exercises in number, the children may be called to say, " Two beads and tliree beads are five beads ; four beads and three beads are seven beads," etc. The same combination of beads might be used in subtraction : thus, " One bead fi-om five beads leaves four beads," etc. The children may also be requested to 071 page 365. S64: PROGRAMME OF GRADES AND STEPS. FIRST GRADE. FIRST STEP. Revieio this step before taking the next. teach them to recognize, by the ei/e, the signs or forms of those words with the sounds of which they are already familiar by the ear, the exercises in elementary reading should commence with teaching the forms of the simple ivords used and heard by them in conversation. First, teach the names of objects^ then of qual- ities of the objects, and then ivords which represent actions ; and Illustrate each by use in phrases and sentences. The common words which serve as joints and hinges in language, as a, an, the, this, that, in, it, at, for, by, of, on, and, etc., may be added when commencing the formation of sentences. The words embraced in the last class should be taught almost entirely by their use in short phrases, as '•'• cat and rat," '■'• a green tree," "an old dog," "the good boy." During this first step in reading no word should be presented to the children with Avhich they ai-e n(Tt familiar by both its sound and use. In teaching tlie fo7-m of the word, care should be taken to secure the association of its sound and its mean- ing with it. To accomplish this thorough- ly, the children should learn to read at sight a large number of words and phrases which they commonly use in conversation. During this step much practice should be given them in forming words with letter- ctrds^ and in 2'>nntin.g them on their slates. Use the blackboard and slates freely; letter-cards, and Charts Nos. I., II., and III. See " Primary Object Lessons," p. 27S-2S7; also "Manual of Object Les- sons." Drawing".— Give the children small sticks, two or three inches in length, to place in different positions; first, two sticks, then three, four, etc. Then teach them to make dots on their slates as far apart as the length of one of these sticks, and to connect the dots with marks, thus, Next teach them to draw lines, without dots, to represent the different po- sitions in which the sticks may be placed. Use Chart No. XI. See " Trimary Object Lessons," p. 04, 95. Continued SECOND STEP. Review this step before taking the next. iar words and phrases, phonic spelling, or the sounds which compose the words may be added to the exercise. Several words having the same short vowel sound should be presented first, then those of other short sounds, that in learning them the pupils may derive aid from their analogy, as cat, rat, bat, hat, ox, box, fox, sun, gun, run, etc. Afterward the long and other vowel sounds may ba introduced with words in classes. But during this step the sounds only should be taught, not the names of the sounds. Let the word be first spoken, then the sounds which compose it be ut- tered separately. It is presumed that the pupils will now have learned the names of the letters while using them in forming words with letter-cards, and in printing on their slates, and they may occasionally spell words orally by naming the letters. But neither of these spelling exercises should be used to the exclusion of reading words at sight, on which the chief depend- ence should be placed for teaching children to become fluent readers. Use the black- board, letter and word-cards, the "Prim- er," and Charts Nos. IL, III., IV., VIL, and VIII. See " Primary Object Lessons," p. 2S4-2S9; also "Manual of Object Les- Drawing".— Request the children to draw curved lines, also straight and curved lines combined, in as many positions and forms as they can invent, the teacher placing a few examples on the board as il- lustrations. Use Charts Nos. X. and XL See " Primary Object Lessons," p. C6, 97. on jjage 360, PROGKAMME OF GRADES AND STEPS. 865 FIRST GRADE. THIRD STEP. Review this step before taking the next. '' Charts," and the books, many exercises should be had in printing on the black- board phrases and sentences which the children may give. It will prove not only an exceedingly interesting exercise to them, but also a most profitable one in de- veloping language. It will teach them to think and to express their thoughts ; in other words, to compose. Here practical spelling may also be taught by requiring the pupils to tell what letters to use in forming the words. Phonic spelling may be continued with exercises similar to those of the preceding step. Reading words at sight should continue to receive much at- tention. The inflections and emphasis used in conversation should be applied in reading the phrases and sentences of this grade, as well as in all subsequent lessons. Use the blackboard, word -cards. First Eeader, and Charts Nos. IV., V., VI., VII., and Vin. Proceed to the Second Reader whenever the children have become famil- iar with the First. See '' Manual of Object Lessons." Drawing".— Teach the children to draw various figures with right angles, then with acute angles, then with obtuse angles ; also to see how many angles they can make with two straight lines, then with three lines, then foui", five, etc. Use Charts Nos. X. and XI. See " Manual of Object Lessons." Continued SUGGESTIONS. Revicio the grade before proceeding to another. see in how many ways they can string beads of two colors so as to make five, as two white, two blue, and one white; two white, one blue, one white, and one blue. Size. — During these exercises a great variety of objects, as shot, bullets, mar- bles, balls, pebbles, buttons, strings, laths, cubes, books, etc., should be provided for use, and their relative and measured sizes determined. Lines should be drawn on the blackboard by the teacher first, and then by pupils, and afterward copied by the children on their slates. Dots may be made, and the distances between them compared and measured. The relative and measured distances of objects from each other may be treated in the same manner. The Chart of '•'• Lines and Meas- ures," No. XL, should be used. Human Body.— That these exer- cises may be made as active as possible, the children should be required to point to the parts and joints, and to move them in every way that they can while naming the parts, etc. They should also frequently join in physical exercises. Sound.— The chief design of these ex- ercises is to train the ear to readily observe sounds, and to give flexibility to the organs of speech by uttering- them. The teacher should devise a variety of exercises for this purpose. There should be frequent exer- cises in singing. Reading* and Spelling-.— The ex- ercises during this grade may be regarded as preparatory to reading. Spelling should be combined with and made a part of the reading exercise, and it need not be taught otherwise during the first grade. It should not precede the reading. Constant care should be observed to prevent the children from acquiring an unnatural pronuncia- tion or tone. See that in all cases an easy, natural voice is used in speaking the words, phrases, and sentences, and that the pu- pils understand their meaning. Do not commit the error of depending entirely upon the "phonic method," or the "word on page 367. S66 PEOGEAMME OF GEADES AND STEPS. FIRST GRADE. FlRyT STEP. Review this step before talcing the next. Place. — Develop ideas of place by means of the position of objects on a ta- ble ; also by the position of objects in the room ; then represent position on the black- board and on slates. See "Primary Ob- ject Lessons," p. 245, 24G. Objects.— First introduce conversa- tional lessons about objects, leading the children to observe and name them ; also to point out and name their principal parts. See "■ Primary Object Lessons," p. 26-35, and 298. Animals.— The exercises in this step should be at first conversational, with a view to awaken an interest in animals, and lead the children to more attentive ob- servation of them. These exercises may be followed with lessons leading the children to name animals at sight of the pictures representing them; also to distinguish, point out, and name their principal parts. See '•'• Manual of Object Lessons." Plants.— The lessons of this grade should commence with conversations about plants, flowers, trees, etc., for the purpose of directing attention to them as objects. Let the children bring parts of plants, as leaves, on one daj^, roots on another, flow- ers on another. Talk about the leaves, roots, stems, and flowers on the days on which they are brought, leading the pu- pils to observe the forms and principal parts of plants, and to point them out on the charts. Use Chart No. XIX. See "• Manual of Object Lessons." IVIinerals.— Teach the children to ob- serve and point out common minerals, in which the prominent peculiarities can be readily distinguished by sight and touch, as the common stone, slate, sand, clay, iron, lead, copper, etc. ; also to give their names at sight. During this ''step" the children should be taught to distinguish and name these minerals simply as stone, slate, iron, lead, etc., without classifying them, or using the general term mineral. See "■ Manual of Object Lessons." Continued SECOND STEP. Review this step before talcing the next. Place.— Teach the children to point Avith their fingers toward, and to walk in the direction of, the cardinal points ; tlien of the semi-cardinal points ; illustrate the necessity of fixed points ; also represent these on the pupils' slates and on the black- board. See "Primary Object Lessons," p. 247-251. Objects.— Teach children to point out and name objects and their parts, and to give simple descriptions of their form, col- or, size, etc. See " Primary Object Les- sons," p. 298-305. Animals. — Lead the children to ob- serve, point out, name, and describe the principal parts of animals ; first, of famil- iar ones, afterward those Avhicli are sel- dom seen. See "Manual of Object Les- PlantS.— Require the children to tell what parts of plants are called roots ; what parts stems, leaves, flowers, etc. ; also where they must look for each of these. Lead them to observe the forms of roots, stems, leaves, etc., and to point out simi- lar forms on Charts Nos. XIX., XXI., and XXII. See " Manual of Object Lessons." IVSincrals. — Let the children point out articles in the room which are made in part, or wholly of iron ; then articles made of slate, of brass, etc. Show them articles that are made in part of minerals, and re- quest the children to point out and name the minerals used. Name familiar imple- ments, and let the children tell from mem- ory whether they are made of iron, lead, copper, or of stone, etc. See "Manual of Object Lessons." on page 368. PROGRAMME OF GRADES AND STEPS. 367 FIRST GRADE. THIRD STEP. Revieio this step before taking the next. Place.— Develop ideas of a map, by representing the position of objects placed upon the table, by drawings on their slates and on the blackboard ; also by drawings of the school-room, with the location of the principal objects within it, and apply- ing the cardinal points. See "Primary Object Lessons," p. 252-255. Objects.— Teach the children to de- scribe the form, size, color, and uses of objects, and to obsen'e the adaptation of parts to uses. See '•'' Primary Object Les- sons," p. 305-308. Animals.— Lead the children to de- scribe the form and color of familiar ani- mals, the number and position of their limbs, and the uses of each to the animals ; also the uses of common animals to man. Use Chart No. XV. See " Manual of Ob- ject Lessons." Plants.— During this step the names of the forms of roots, leaves, flowers, stems, etc., may be introduced, after the children are able to readily distinguish the various shapes of each. Require the children to select the plants which represent the forms named ; also to point out the forms on the Charts as the names are given. Use Chart No. XIX. See "Manual of Object Les- sons." IWinerals.— Let the children state from memory the various uses of iron, giv- ing the names of implements or articles in which iron is used. They may do the same with other familiar metals and min- erals. Show them a mineral, as a piece of quartz, or of slate, and request them to bring other pieces of the same kind of stona See " Manual of Object Lessons." Continued SUGGESTIONS. Review the geade before proceeding to another. method," or the antiquated, mechanical, alphabetic method, in teaching reading; but begin where Nature begins — with ob- jects, and proceed to their representatives, bringing to aid, in their proper time and place, all that is beneficial in each of the methods. During the first and second steps of this grade the materials or apparatus for teach- ing reading should chiefly consist of read- ing charts., letter-cards., the blackboard, and slates. There are great advantages in having the children in a class, and all looking at the same object or lesson, during the elementary steps of reading. It con- duces to a mutual sympathy and common activity, which can not be attained where each child reads singly, or where each looks individually at a separate book. The best of all methods is that which adheres to the suggestions of Nature with the greatest simplicity and steadiness, and proceeds gradually from the known to the unknown, remembering that it addresses itself to children and not to men. Dravring* — During the exercises of this grade the pupils should copy '•'•lines" and "forms" from Charts Nos. XI. and XII. ; also learn to print letters and words on their slates. When they have become familiar with and can readily form the printed letters, words in script characters may be introduced. Place.— During the exercises of this grade the pupils may be required to hold some small object, as a rule or a book, in various positions, as before, behind, above, in front, to the left, to the right. One may stand in the middle of the room, and name every thing that is before him, then eveiy thing on the left, also on the right, then above, then behind. Teach them also to point out different parts of objects and pictures, as the upper and lower parts, or top and bottom, right and left sides, etc. Objects.— During the exercises of this grade the children should be required to handle and examine each object attentive- on page 369. 868 PEOGRAMME OF GRADES AND STEPS. FIRST GRADE. FIRST STEP. Review this step be/ore taking the next. Langliag'e. — The first exercises in language should consist of the formation of phrases and sentences with the familiar words which the children have learned to recognize at sight. These exercises should he introduced in connection with the read- ing lessons during the fii'st grade. When they have learned a few words, select one, as hat., and request them to say something about it, at the same time printing on the blackboard what they say, as "a black hat ; a white hat ; a fur hat ; a straw hat ; a wool hat; a boy's hat; a man's hat." Continue tliis exercise from day to day with new words as they are learned. See *' Manual of Object Lessons." SECOND STEP. Revieiv tJiis step be/ore talcing the next. Langruagfe.— When the children have become familiar with a large number of words representing names and qualities, those representing actions may be intro- duced and sentences formed. Suppose the word cat has been selected for the subject : ask the children to tell what the cat can do, and print on the blackboard, "the cat mews ; the cat catches mice ; the cat runs ; the cat scratches," etc. Then let them point to the words which tell what the cat does. See '•'• Manual of Object Lessons." PROGRAMME OF GRADES AND STEPS. 869 FIRST GRADE. THIRD STEP. Review this step before taking the next. Language— During this step the children may be led to form sentences hav- ing a subject, quality, and action com- bined, as ''the black cat ran; the young dog plays." See "•Manual of Object Les- sons." SUGGESTIONS. Review the geade before proceeding to another. ly, and to point out the parts, form, and colors named. They may also state what they can do with the object. Animals. — in giving the lessons of this grade it would be well to select famil- iar domestic animals at first, and to re- quest the children to make observations out of school, and to state, when the les- son is reviewed, what they had seen. If the animal, or a stuffed specimen, could be placed before the children, it would be of great advantage; if neither of these can be used, a picture of the animal should be placed before them. Although we have indicated the leading points which may be taken up during this " grade," yet the teacher should enliven the exercises by all the variety possible within the sphere of the ''steps," and by all means avoid dry fomiality. Moral lessons should be min- gled with these exercises whenever appro- priate. Plants. — The lessons with plants should be given during those portions of the year Avhen the plants themselves can be readily procured, and the stems, leaves, flowers, etc., for each lesson should be ex- hibited to the children, and they be en- couraged to bring similar specimens to school for examination. Minerals.— The exercises with min- erals during this grade should be limited to such specimens as can be procured by the children in the vicinity of the school or of their homes ; and the aim should be rather to lead them to distinguish one mineral from anotlier, than to teach their names. The names should not be given until the pupils have learned to distin- guish the minerals themselves. Lang'Uag'e.- During the exercises of this grade the pupils should be required to print on their slates all the sentences placed on the board in the lessons on lan- guage, and be encouraged to add others of their own. These preparatory exercises will lead to subsequent ones that will lay the foundation for a knowledge of lan- guage, both as to its laws of construction and its correct use. Q2 870 PKOGRAMME OF GRADES AND STEPS. SECOND GRADE. Relation to Mind.— Tlie exercises of this grade are designed for the cultiva- tioii of the perceptive and conceptive faculties ; of habits of attention and observation ; of the memory of things and facts ; of comparison by resemblances, and of language by means of description. FIRST STEP. Review this step before taking the next. Form.— Teach the positions of lines and the description of them ; also of plane figures with three and four sides. Use Charts Nos. XI. and XII., and the blaclc- board. See " Primary Object Lessons," p. GS-76. Color.— Develop ideas of shades, hues, and tints, and teach the children to dis- tinguish tliem ; also to write lists of ob- jects of given colors on their slates, as red objects, those containing green, etc. Use Chart No. XIII. See "Primary Object Lessons," p. 118-122. Number Teach addition and sub- traction of numbers by objects. Add the numbers 1, 2, and 3 to, and subtract them from, numbers from 3 to 10 ; also add 1 to numbers up to 20. Ciive exercises in count- ing to 100. See "■Primary Object Les- sons," p. 152, 153. Size. — Develop ideas of width, asAvide and narrow; of thickness, as thick and thin ; of height, as high and low, tall and short ; of depth, as deep and shallow. See "•Primary Object Lessons," p. lGS-171. Human Body.— Lead children to distinguish the different forms of the feet of animals ; to observe the forms and uses of their own hands ; also of the adaptation of parts of the body to the habits and modes of life. See ''^ Primary Object Les- sons," p. 201-215. Sound.— In addition to the cultivation of the ear by singing, and other simple ex- ercises for distinguishing sounds readily, the teacher may now introduce exercises from the Chart of *•■ Elementary Sounds" to train the vocal organs. See " Manual of Object Lessons." SECOND STEP. Review this step before taking the next. Form. — Teach the shape and descrip- tion of solids bounded by straight lines. Use the "Forms" and ^ Solids ;" also Chart No. XII. See "Primary Object Lessons," p. 77-80. Color.— Mix primary colors and de- velop ideas of secondary colors. Show the diagrams on Chart No. XIII. which illus- trate the mixing of colors. Let the chil- dren give descriptions of the formation of secondary colors. See " Primary Object Lessons," p. 123-12G. Number.— Teach addition and sub- traction, by objects, of numbers from 2 to 3, to and from numbers fi'om 5 to 20 ; also the addition of 1 to numbers up to 50. In- troduce addition and multiplication of numbers from 1 to 5. See " Primary Ob- ject Lessons," p. 154. Size,— Develop Ideas of comparative width, thickness, height, and depth, as wider, widest; narrower, narrowest; thick- er, thickest ; taller, tallest, etc. ; then of measured width, thickness, height, etc. Use Chart No. XI. See " Primary Object Lessons," p. 170, 171. Human Body.— Lead the children to distinguish parts of the head ; the eyes and the sense of seeing; the ears and hear- ing, etc. See " Primary Object Lensons," p. 205-213. Sound. — Lead the children to observe the property of length or tirne in sound, by uttering long and short sounds, both in the elementary sounds and also in singing. Continued on page 372. PROGRAMME OF GRADES AND STEPS. 371 SECOND GRADE. Relation to Mind.— The exercises of this grade are designed for the cultiva- tion ot the perceptive and conceptive faculties ; of liabits of attention and observation ; of the memory of things and facts ; of comparison by resemblances, and of language by means of description. THIRD STEP. Review tJds step be/ore taking the next. Form. — Develop ideas of a circle and its parts, and teach the children to de- scribe circular figures. Use Charts Nos. ^I. and .XII., and Forms and Solids. See "■ Primary Object Lessons," p. 81-86. Color. — Teach the children to classify colors into primary and secondary; also to arrange shades, hues, and tints of each class with its appropriate leading color. Let them describe the colors of familiar objects from memory. Use Chart "No. XIII. See "Primary Object Lessons," p. 127-129. Number.— Teach addition and sub- traction of numbers, from 3 to 5, to and from numbers from 5 to 20 ; also the addi- tion of 2 to numbers up to 50 : also the ad- dition and multiplication of numbers from 1 to 10 by numbers from 2 to 5. See " Pri- maiy Object Lessons," p. 154. -Show the necessity of standard measures. Measured distances may now be extended from feet to yards. See " Pri- mary Object Lessons," p. 171. Human Body.—Lead the children to observe the nose and the sense of smell ; the mouth and the sense of taste, and the power of speech ; also the sense of touch. Present various objects, and let the chil- dren determine their fonns by feeling. See "• Primary Object Lessons," p. 214-222. Sound.— Teach the children to heat time while counting, then while singing. Introduce various simultaneous move- ments and utterances to aid in cultivat- ing accurate observation of sound and time. SUGGESTIONS. Review the gkade before proceeding to anotlier. Porm. — During these exercises in form, the forms^ cJiarts, blackboard, slates, and a great variety of objects, should be used. The children may be taught to cut or tear paper to represent the plane figures. Color. — During these lessons of the second grade, experiments should be made with, the prism, showing that the primary and secondary colors are all found in the rainbow. The teacher should devise a va- riety of exercises with the chart of "Fa- miliar Colors," and with cai-ds, ribbons, flowers, etc., to illustrate these lessons. Number.— The exercises in this grade should be performed with pebbles, beans, cubes, or buttons as counters, and repeat- ed by the use of figures on the blackboard, and on the slates by the pupils ; also re- peated in oral exercises. The exercises in figures should be copied by the pupils on their slates while at their seats, and sim- ilar ones added by themselves. The use of the signs of addition, subtraction, and multiplication, and of equality, may be in- troduced during this grade. Size. — During the exercises of this grade, the pupils should have much prac- tice in measuring with rules, tape, etc., the size of objects, and short distances. Human Body and Physical Exercises. — Appropriate physical ex- ercises should be introduced in connection with each lesson on the Human Body. Sound. — Require the children to read the same sentence, first by speaking the words slowly and very distinctly, then by speaking them quickly and distinctly. Train the ear to observe clear and distinct articulation. Continued on page 373. ^i72 PEOGRAMME OF GRADES AND STEPS. SECOND GRADE. FIRST STEP. Review this step before taking the next. Reading* and Spelling".— Having now finished tlie reading cliarts and taken up reading-boolcs, great care should be ex- ercised to sustain the attention of pupils, and guard against all pernicious habits. A ready and natural pronunciation of the words in each lesson should be secured. For attaining this the teacher may require the pupils to pronounce alternately each word in a sentence once or twice, then each to read the sentence singly after the teacher. This plan may be varied by the teacher and pupils pronouncing alternate- ly phrase by phrase, then each reading the sentence or paragraph singly. It may be varied again by the pupils pronouncing the words simultaneously, then reading the sentence singly. Conversations should be had with the pupils relative to each lesson ; also exercises in phonic spelling, to aid in securing distinct articulation; and wi'iting the words should be continued as a practical exercise in orthography. Still use tlie blackboard freely. See '•'■Manual of Object Lessons." Drawing- and Writing" — Let the children draw figures with curved lines, also with curved and straight lines com- bined. During this step written Avords may be introduced. Use Chart No. IX. ; also the blackboard. See '' Manual of Ob- ject Lessons." Place. — Continue the representation of place by teaching the children to draw maps of the school-house and play-grounds. See '' Primary Object Lessons," p. 256-25S. Objects. — Lead the children to point out, name, and describe parts of objects ; also develop ideas of qualities; usually present but a single quality at a lesson. See ^'Primaiy Object Lessons," p. 308. Animals. — Lead the children to ob- serve and describe the form^ color, and hnJjifs of animals ; also their uses to man. Use Chart No. XV. See "Manual of Ob- ject Lessons." SECOND STEP. Review this step before taking the next. Heading- and Spelling^.— The ex- ercises of the first and second steps of this grade are, to a great extent, necessarily of a mechanical nature, yet the narrative or subject of the lesson, and the meaning of the words, should be intimately asso- ciated with the forms of the words, phi-ases, and sentences, by means of conversations at the time of reading. Familiarity with the form and meaning of the words, dis- tinct articulation and correct pronuncia- tion, emphasis, inflection, and modulation should each receive due attention, with a view to cultivating naturalness and a con- versational style in reading. But onejjoint at a time should be the rule. By attention first to the foim and meaning of the words, then to articulation and correct pronunci- ation, emphasis, inflection, etc., one after another, until habits are formed in each, all may at length be easily attended to at once. Continue spelling by printing words on the slates. See "Manual of Object Lessons." Drawing- and Writing-. — in drawing, let the children now commence representing the shape of single plane sur- faces ; in writing, copying words from tlie chart and blackboard. See "Manual of Object Lessons." Place.— Teach the children to draw maps of the schoolroom, and of tlie play- ground, by measurement ; develop ideas of the scale of a map. See '•'■ Primaiy Object Lessons," p. 25S-261. Objects.— Develop ideas of the mate- rials and prominent qualities of objects. See " Primary Object Lessons," p. 308-315. Continued Animals.— In addition to the form, color, and habits of animals, lead the chil- dren to observe their comparative sizes ; also their structure, and their adaptation to the uses of man. Use Charts Nos. XV, and XVIII. See " Manual of Object Les- sons." on 2'>nn<> ?>1A. PROGRAMME OF GRADES AND STEPS. 378 SECOND GRADE. THIRD STEP. Review this step before taking the next. Reading- and Spelling-. — The child's future progress in reading will greatly depend upon the thoroughness with which he is trained during this grade. His familiarity with the worrjs found in Second Keaders should now enable the teaclier to make it a chief point in training to lead him to read in a natural, conversational style. It will be found a great aid toAvard securing this style to frequently ask a pu- pil, at the close of a sentence or short par- agraph, what he read, or, rather, "■What did you say?" requiring him to answer without looking on the book. When he succeeds in repeating the sentence well, let him look on the book and repeat it just as he did without looking at it. Require the pupils to spell the new words in each lesson. See "•Manual of Object Lessons." DraM(ring- and Writing.— Let the pupils draw the forms of leaves of plants, and such objects as can easily be repre- sented by simple lines. They may also continue to practice writing words in script. Use Charts Nos. XIX. and XVII. See " Manual of Object Lessons.'" Place. — Give exercises upon an out- line map of the school district, or village, or the city, teaching the children to meas- ure and estimate distances by the given scale. See " Primary Object Lessons," p. 261, 262. Objects.— Give exercises on the ma- terials, qualities, and uses of objects, and the adaptation of materials and qualities to their uses. See ••' Primary Object Les- sons," p. 316-333. Animals.— Lead the children to ob- serve resemblances in the form and struc- ture of animals, and to notice the corre- sponding resemblances in their habits. Use Olxarts Nos. XV., XVL, XVII., and XVIII. See '■'• Manual of Object Lessons." Continited SUGGESTIONS. Revicio the geade before ji^'oceeding to another. Reading-.— The reading lessons of this grade should be short, and the subject of each be carried home to the child's under- standing, and made interesting to him by familiar conversations. The common prac- tice of asking questions about the lesson is not sufficient for this purpose. Frequent- ly request the pupils to tell what they have read, sometimes at the close of each para- graph or verse, sometimes at the close of the lesson. See that they have secured the ideas of the lesson, for, without these, the repetition of the Avords will be of no DraTVing-.— The exercises of both the first and second grades are designed chief- ly for training the eye and hand, and may be performed on slates and the blackboard. The effort put forth in trying to represent an object by drawing exercises and devel- ops the conceptive powers. Place. — These exercises in place are intended to be preparatory to geography, and they should be so conducted as to pi*e- pare the way for gi'adually extending the observation of the child beyond its imme- diate home and school. Objects — Care should be taken to commence the lessons on each object at the point or quality Avith which the child is fa- miliar, proceeding at once to that which is naturally associated with this point, yet which is unknown to the child. Avoid a monotonous manner in the successive ex- ercises. Animals, — The lessons on animals may be so presented as to afford a great and attractive variety. With some, as the cat, dog, or hen, the lesson may com- mence with form or structure; Avith the horse, cow, or sheep, Avith their uses ; Avith the haAvk, fox, or wolf, Avith their habits. on page 375. 874 PKOaRAMME OF GRADES AND STEPS. SECOND GRADE. ElKST STEP. Review this step before taking the next. Plants. — Lead the children to perceive uses of roots, stems, and buds of plants. See '•'• Manual of Object Lessons." Minerals. — During this step the teacher may lead the children to notice the different kinds of stones which they see in the streets or the fields, and to bring speci- mens, that they may learn their names. See ^ Manual of Object Lessons." Lang'Uag'C. — Select a familiar ob- ject, as a cap, book, knife, or pencil, and lead the pupils to apply to it words which express its qualities or describe it. Write each word on the blackboard, and require the class to read all as the summary of the lesson. See " Manual of Object Lessons." Weig"!!!. — Develop ideas of weight in general, as light, lighter, heavy, and heav- ier. See "Primary Object Lessons," p. 174-178. SECOND STEP. Review this step before taking the next. FlantS. — Lead the children to per- ' ceive uses of leaves, llowers, and seeds of plants. See " Manual of Object Lessons." Minerals.— The pupils, having learn- ed to recognize and name several miner- als, may now be led to compare each new specimen found with those previously ex- amined, and to decide whether it resembles either of those or not. See " Manual of Object Lessons." Lang'uag'e. — Continue to present ob- jects, and to write the names on the black- board ; also to write the words given by the class for describing them. Lead the chil- dren to arrange these words into descrip- tive sentences. See "Manual of Object Lessons." Weig'ht. — Show the necessity of standard weights, and the use of scales and weights. See " Primary Object Les- sons," p. 179-181. PROGRAMME OF GRADES AND STEPS. 875 SECOND GRADE. THIRD STEP. Review this step before taking the next. Plants. — Compare plants -with ani- mal?, and develop ideas of vegetable life. See " Manual of Object Lessons." lYIinerals.— The simplest composition of rocks may be presented. Having learn- ed to distinguish quartz, feldspar, and mica, the pupils may now be shown pieces of coarse granite, and requested to observe that this rock is composed of those three minerals. See "Manual of Object Les- sons." Ziangliag'e. — Names of familiar ob- jects which are not present may now be introduced, and the qualities given, as trees are tall, low, large, small, bushy, straight, crooked, old, young, green, etc. See "■ Manual of Object Lessons." Weig^ht. — Give the children exercises in weighing books, bags of beans, shot, sand, etc. SUGGESTIONS. Review the grade before proceeding to another. Plants.— See Suggestions for the First Grade, p. 369. Minerals.— Small cabinets of miner- als, comprising the principal fonnations of rocks, and the chief minerals composing them, should be provided to aid in illus- trating these lessons. Lang'Uag'e.— In addition to the ex- ercises of this grade, the teacher may greatly aid her pupils in forming habits of correct speech by requiring them always to speak correctly in school. This require- ment might be enforced by declining to answer questions in which a law of lan- guage is violated. Wcigrht.— Let the children have much practice in judging of the weight of ob- jects, and of comparing the estimated with the actual weight by weighing. 876 rilOGKAMME OF GllADES AND STEPS. THIRD GPw\T)E. Rcl4. _ Size. — Give the children a variety of exercises in drawing lines, as those of a given length in a vertical, horizoirtal, and oblique position ; then of drawing lines of a given length, dividing them into two, tiireo, four, or more equal parts ; also of drawing curved lines of given lengths. Human Body. — Develop ideas of the teeth, their different forms and uses. See '•'•Primary Object Lessons," p. 218, and >22'3-223. SECOND STEP. Revieio this step before takhvj the next. Form. — Keview plane figures, lines, surfaces, and solids, requiring the chil- dren to represent them on the blackboard, or otherwise. Color. — Develop ideas of emblems of color, commencing with lohite as the em- Wem of purity., or with green as the em- blem of hojie. See '■'Manual of Object Lessons." Number.— During this step introduce division of numbers, from 2 to 10, by the use of counters, as into ones^ into ^ro.s, into tlirees^ into /ours, and into fives. Then represent the same with figures. Also combine multiplication with division. Sec ••' I'rimary Object Lessons," p. 155- 15G. Size. — Exercise the children in draw- ing angles and squares with sides of given sizes, as a triangle with sides of one inch, a square with sides of two inches, three inches, etc. Then let them draw circles of given diameters ; afterward, circles of given circumferences. Use Chart No. XL Sec '■'• ^Manual of Object Lessons." Human Body.— Lead the children to the observation of hair and its uses, also of bones and their uses. See "Primary Object Lessons," p. 224-220. Sound.— The Oliart of '^ P-lcmentary Sound.— Teach the children ideas of Sounds" may still be profitably used by force in sound, and to produce loud, full varying the exercises. The attention of j sounds, and soft, steady ones. These ex- the pupils may now bo directed to pitch crcises may be connected with the ele- or tone. mentary sounds ; also with singing. Contimied on page 378. PROGRAMME OF GRADES AND STEPS. 377 THIRD GRADE. nelation to Mind.— Tlie exercises of tliiri grade afford more extended facilities for the cultivation of attention and observation; of the conceptive faculticH; of com- parison by resemblances and by differences, thus leading to simple classification ; of imagination; of the memory of things, ideas, and relations ; of simple reason; also for a more thorough cultivation of language and habits of accurate description. THIRD STEP. Reinao this step before talcing the 7iext. Porm.— Teach children to describe and to classify common objects by their forms. Teach them the degrees of circles, also ele- vation and inclination. Use Chart No. XI. See " Manual of Object Lessons." Color.— Develop ideas of harmony of colors by placing together colors which liarmonize, and by tlie side of them those that have the most striking discord. Use Chart No. XIV. See '^Manual of Object Lessons." Number.— Combine addition, multi- plication, and division in the same exer- cise ; as, 2-|-2-f 2=6 ; then 3 times 2 are C ; in G there are 3 twos. See ^' Manual of Object Lessons." Size.— Give exercises in drawing fig- ures of two inches square ; then of two square inches ; then of three inches square, and of three square inches ; also of two feet square, and of two square feet. Dis- tance may now l)e extended to rods, and even a mile. Use Chart No. XI. Sec "Primary Object Lessons," p. 167-1 OS. Human Body. — Develop ideas of the blood, its formation, circulation, etc. ; also ideas of the general adaptation of the organs of the human body to its wants'. See "Primary Object Lessons," p. 220-228. Sound. — Introduce various exercises of modulation in reading, embracing time, pitch, and volume of sounds. SUGGESTIONS. Review the gradk before proceeding to another. Form. — Although development of the powers of observation should be the lead- ing aim in all of the previous steps of form ^ yot as a means to, as well as a consequence of that development, the children should now have attained such a knowledge of form as to be able to describe common objects readily, using the proper terms for their shapes, and also be able to write the descriptions on their slates. Color.— During the lessons of this grade a great variety of exercises should be had with vaiious objects and materials of different colors, as ribbons, worsteds, flowers, articles of dress, and the colors upon the various colored charts, as well as with tho.^e of "Familiar Colors" and "Chromatic Scale of Colors." Number.— Addition and multiplica- tion should be so combined in this grade, also subtraction and division, that the chil- dren may clearly perceive that multiplica- tion is an abbreviated addition, and di- vision an abbreviated subtraction. Let them have much practical work. They might be allowed to take a foot-rule, and find the lengths of several objects, as books, slates, desks, and laths, in inches, and then find the sum of their inches ; or find the length of one desk, then of a given num- ber of them, each of the same length, by multiplying. Let them count the number of panes of glass in a row, tlicn the num- ber of rows, and ascertain how many imnes are in the window. Size.— During this grade give varied exercises in estimating or judging of size, length, width, and height of objects, lines, etc., and then of testing the accuracy of these judgments by measuring the same. Let the pupils thus estimate the distanco around objects. Continued onimge 3TD. 878 PROGRAMME OF GRADES AND STEPS. THIRD GRADE. FIRST STEP. Review this step be/ore taking the next. Reading*. — Tliere are two prominent points to be attained in reading, without which no one may hope to become a good reader, however attentive he may be to other things. The first is under stundimj^ the second expression. These two points should chiefly occupy the attention of teachers and pupils during the period of elementary training. That attention to the ideas represented by the words and sentences may become more habitual, it may be made the prominent feature dur- ing this step. Let, then, the understand- ing of each lesson read receive the first at- tention. When it consists of words, lead the children to understand and associate each word with the object, quality, or ac- tion represented by it. When phrases or sentences are read, the idea to be convey- ed should be clearly comprehended. New words, a few at a time, may properly be introduced into sentences before the child knows their meaning, since that can usual- ly best be learned from their use with those which are already familiar; but the mean- ing should be explained in connection with and at the time of the use of the new word. See '' Manual of Object Lessons," Drawing and Writing".— Let the pupils draw horizontal, perpendicular, and oblique lines ; then divide them into two, three, four, or five equal parts, to give skill to the hand and the eye. Simple direc- tions for forming the small script letters may now be profitably given. See "• Man- ual of Object Lessons." Place. — Develop ideas of the surface of the country by the children's own ob- servations of land, water, hills, valleys, and mountains. See '^Primary Object Lessons," p. 2G3-265. Objects. — Lead the children to ob- serve the prominent qualities and resem- blances of objects ; also their materials and uses. See "■ Primary Object Lessons," p. S35. SECOND STEP. Revicio this step before taking the next Reading".— During this step attention may be confined to expression., which in- cludes correct pronunciation, emphasis, inflection, etc. Care should be observed that pronunciation, emphasis, and inflec- tion be not presented as independent fea- tures in reading, but as parts of expres- sion., and expression as inseparable from the understanding. The children should be trained to give certain inflections and emphasis in reading, not because the marks indicate them, but rather because the cor- rect expression of the sense renders it nec- essary to give them, that those who hear may understand what is read. It is well first to train the pupils to give the inflec- tions, and subsequently to call their atten- tion to them, as an aid in readily under- standing how to read new sentences at sight. See " Manual of Object Lessons." Drawing" and Writing. — Place simple drawings before the children to be copied. The teacher may show how to proceed in copying, by placing a drawing on the blackboard, line by line, and re- quiring the children to imitate the same as he proceeds. Directions for forming the capital script letters may now be given. See "Manual of Object Lessons." Place. — Develop ideas of rivers, ca- nals, lakes, oceans, and of other bodies of water; also of such divisions of land as islands, capes, etc. See '' Primary Object Lessons," p. 266-268. Objects.— Compare the qualities, re- semblances, and differences of objects ; also their materials, formation, and uses; and the adaptation of formation to uses. See " Primary Object Lessons," p. 33S. Continued on page 880. PKOGRAMME OF GRADES AND STEPS. 379 THIRD GRADE. THIRD STEP. Revicio this step before takiiig the next. Reading",— During this step new les- sons may be taken, and the attention of the pupils be directed to both the under- standing and the expre.'ifsion in each. It may be well to first analyze the lesson so far as to call attention to the main sub- ject, the scenes or principal events, and the conchcsio7i, fact, or j}ri7iciple to be in- culcated by it. This analysis will give the U7ider standing ; then let it be read so as to harmonize the exjnession with the meaning. The teacher must set correct examples in style of reading, for good read- ers are not produced by rules, but by the training of the living teacher. See " Man- ual of Object Lessons," Drawing* and Writing".— Draw- ing-cards may now be placed before the pupils to be copied, without the lines being drawn by the teacher. The children may be led to observe that capital letters are used in writing to commence the names of persons and places. See "•Manual of Object Lesaons." Place.— Develop ideas of a village, a city, a township, and a county. Teach the pupils to point out and describe the several towns of their o^vn county from an outline map of it. Objects.— Train the pupils to describe the qualities an^materials of objects; also to classify them by their resemblances and differences. SUGGESTIONS. Eevieio the geade before 2)roccedi7ig to another. Human Body. — Appropriate physi- cal exercises should be introduced with each step of this grade. Sound. — The exercises in sound, of this grade, may be made chiefly auxiliary to reading. Reading*. — it is of far less importance that the child clearly comprehends the meaning of each word separately which he reads, than it is that the subject be sim- ple and intelligible to him, and the struc- ture of the language adapted to his capac- ity. The connection of a new word in the sentence usually explains its meaning. This is the way in which children learn language — by its use in connection with things which they observe. They acquire a knowledge of words through familiarity with other words in sentences ; they learn parts of sentences from the whole, or words by their use with other words. However, the new words of a lesson should be ex- plained by illustrations. Dravring*. — During this grade the chart of writing, No. IX., may be used ; and Chart No. X. may be introduced dur- ing the third step. Place. — Models made of plaster-of- Paris, or even of wood, would prove useful in giving clearness and adding interest to these introductory lessons of geography. Objects.— The lessons on objects, dur- ing this grade, may embrace such an ob- servation as will include a description of the form, color, size, weight, materials, uses, and localities of objects. Continued on page 3S1. 380 PROGEAMME OF GRADES AND STEPS. THIRD GRADE. FIRST STEP. Review this step before taking the next. Animals.— Lead the children to ob- serve both the resemblances and differ- ences in the form, color, and size of ani- mals, and in their habits, modes of life, and food. Use Charts Nos. XV., XVI., XVII., and XVIII. See "■ Manual of Ob- ject Lessons." Plants. —Lead the children to observe the prominent qualities which distinguish plants from animals and minerals ; also to classify objects into three divisions, as an- imal, vegetable, mineral. See "Manual of Object Lessons." Minerals.— The children may be led to observe sand, and to ascertain of which mineral it is chiefly composed. The uses of sand and quartz may be considered. Feldspar and clay may also be presented in a similar manner. See " Manual of Ob- ject Lessons." ILangliag'e. — Select some familiar ob- ject, and request the children to say what they can of it ; as, '■'•an apple may be round, oval, red, white, yellow, russet, green, streaked, large, small, sour, bitter, sweet, hard, soft, mellow, lipe, green, juicy, mealy." Write the Avords given on the blackboard, then request the pupils to say what words may be xised to describe the same apple; as, "the apple is round, red, large, sweet, ripe, and mellow." Proceed Avith other familiar objects in a similar manner. See " Manual of Object Lessons." Weig"ht Teach the pupils the table of Avoirdupois Aveight, chiefly by illus- trations from weigliiug objects. SECOND STEP. Review this step before taking the next. Animals.— The children may noAV be led to compare animals Avith a view to sim- ple classification. The localities in Avhich they are found may also be considered. Use Charts Nos. XVI., XVII., and XVIIL See '■'Manual of Object Lessons." Plants.— Lead the children to observe hoAv plants obtain their food ; compare their mode of taking nourishment Avith that by Avhich animals obtain their food ; also compare the mode in Avhich the nour- ishment of plants is distributed through the different parts Avith the Avay in Avhich the nourishment is couA-eyed throughout the animal body. See " Manual of Object Lessons." IVEinerals. — Lime and its uses, Avith the limestone formations, marble, etc., may be appropriately considered during this step. See " Manual of Object Les- sons." Saang'Uag'e. — introduce sentences Avith the A'erb have. Write the sentences given by the pupils on the blackboard ; as, ' ' the cat has four feet ; the cat has sharp claws ; the cat has a round head ; the cat has short ears; the cat has long feelers." Then lead the children to express the same in a contracted sentence ; as, " the cat has four feet, sharp claAvs, round head, short ears, and long feelei's." Vary the exer- cises by using the verb see; as, "I saw a horse ; I saAv a man ; I saAv a dog ; I saw a bird." Then folloAV Avith the contracted form; as, "I saAv a horse, a man, a dog, and a bird." See " Manual of Object Les- sons." Weig-ht. — Teach the table of TroTj Aveight by illustrations from Aveighing Avith the appropriate Aveights and scales, and by comparing it with Avoirdupois weight. PROGRAMME OF GRADES AND STEPS. 881 THIRD GRADE. THIRD STEP. Review this step be/ore taking the next. AxiilUclls. — In addition to the form, color, size, habits, modes of life, and local- ities of animals, the children may be led to observe what implements and articles of dress are made from parts of animals. See "■Manual of Object Lessons." Plants. — Lead the children to observe the form, color, and size of the trunk, limbs, leaves, bark, etc., of different kinds of trees. Thus teach them to distinguish one kind of tree from another. See " Man- ual of Object Lessons." Minerals. — Coal, its qualities, uses, and where obtained ; also slate, its uses, etc., may noiy be presented. See "Man- ual of Object Lessons." Lang'uag'e. — Let the children de- scribe familiar objects, as in the first step ; then tell what they have, as in the second step; and follow these by telling where the object is found, how obtained, and for what it is used. Also request them to tell how the several words describe the object, Avhether a? to form, color, size, taste, or- der, use, or nature, etc. See " Manual of Object Lessons." Weigrht.— The table of Aiwthecarips'' weight may be taught during this step, by illustrations from weighing with the scales and the appropriate weights, and by comparing it with Avoirdupois weight. SUGGESTIONS. Revicio the grade before 2>roceeding to another. Animals.— During all the lessons on animals a spirit of kindness should be cultivated toward them, and appropriate moral lessons be drawn from the subject, whenever a principle can thus be made readily apparent to the children. Plants. — During the lessons on plants the children should be induced to exam- ine the plants themselves frequently and attentively. Minerals. — The specimens talked about should be examined by the children at the time of the lesson. The informa- tion given them should consist of descrip- tions of the objects examined, rather than of what is usually termed scientific knowl- edge. LangCUagCe. — During all of these ex- ercises in language constant use should be made of the blackboard. With some of them, however, the pupils may copy the sentences upon their slates. These les- sons, when properly conducted, will do more than the same length of time spent in reading toward leading children to un- derstand the use of words and sentences in enabling them to express their thoughts. Weig"ht.— Care should be taken to secure a clear knoAvledge of A voirditpois weight before presenting any other, and instruction in the other tables may be as- sociated with this. 582 PKOGRAMME OF GRADES AND STEPS. FOURTH GRADE. Relation to Mind.— This grade extends to the period when discipline of the mind ceases to be the chief object, and when the acquisition of knowledge begins to assume the more important place in education. Now the child goes to books for a part of liis information, instead of deriving it almost entirely through the aid of the teacher, lie learns to compare the ideas obtained from books with personal observa- tions. His powers of imagination, memory, reflection, reason, and judgment may now be brought more directly under cultivation. FIRST STEP. Form. — Take a general review of form, making numerous practical applications of tlie principal features and ideas under each grade. Color. Take a general review of the principal colors, with their classification and description. Give exercises in harmony of colors, and teach the children to recognize and name the colors which harmonize. Use Charts Nos. XIII. and XIV. See '•'■ Man- ual of Object Lessons." Number, or Arithmetic. — Teach notation from units to hundreds ; also the addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division by units, tens, and hundreds. See " Manual of Object Lessons." Size, and Tables of IVIeasure.— During this grade the teacher should de- velop clear ideas of the tables of length, width, distance, surface, capacity, and other measures as given in arithmetic, illustrating the ideas by using the measures them- selves, as far as possible, so that tiie table shall be firmly associated with the objects by which it is represented and with which it is used. See '•'• Primaiy Object Lessons," p. 15S, 159, 16G, 1G7, 173. Human Body, or Physiology. — it win now be appropriate to place some book in the hands of the pupils, that they may commence simple lessons in physiology. Dr. Hooker's Child's Book of Nature, Part II., is very suitable for this purpose. Sound, or Music— The notes of music may now be introduced, and the chil- dren be taught to read and sing them. Reading".— Diu-ing this grade it Avill be well to give much attention to training the children to remember what they read, so that they will be able to relate it to oth- ers intelligibly. As one successful method for accomplishing this, assign, at first, a short lesson, and when it has been read, require all the pupils to close their books, then each in turn to tell something that was read in the lesson, as if relating it to another. This practice should be continued sufficiently long to form such habits of attention to what is read that the class may take up a new piece, read it through, and then relate all the ideas that it was intended to convey. Spelling should be practiced chiefly by writing. See *•' Manual of Object Lessons." Drawing" and Writing.— simple lessons in perspective drawing may be in- troduced during this grade. Use Chart No. X. In wilting the pupils may commence the use of the pen and ink and paper. See " Manual of Object Lessons." Place and Geography.— The child should learn the rudiments of geography from the page of Nature immediately before him. Take him upon a hill, and point out the valley below, the stream winding through it, and the lake or pond ; its islands, little bays, headlands, and capes, and the mountains that touch the horizon beyond. When he has become familiar with these, he is ready for the definitions pertaining to them. From the ideas of a school district, village, township, and county previously attained, he will be prepared to comprehend a state or country. Mankind commenced learning geography at home ; in a like manner should the child begin, because it is natural. Contimied on page 384. PKOGRAMME OF GRADES AND STEPS. 383 FOURTH GRADE. Relation to Mind.— This grade extends to the period -v^hen discipline of the mind ceases to be the chief object, and when the acquisition of Icnowledge begins to assume the more important place in education. Now the child goes to books for a part of his information, instead of deriving it almost entirely through the aid of the teacher. He learns to compare the ideas obtained from books with personal observa- tions. His powers of imagination, memory, reflection, reason, and judgment may now be brought more directly under cultivation. SECOND STEP. Form, or Geometry. — in this grade Form merges into Elementary Ge- ometry, and the pupils may now com- mence its study from elementary books. See "•Hill's First Lessons in Geometry." Color and Taste.— Develop ideas of the application of harmony in colors to dress, furnishing rooms, painting, etc. Use Chart No. XIV. See "Manual of Object Lessons." Number, or Arithmetic— Teach the tables by objects. Continue notation by periods, as first period, '•'■hundreds;" second period, '•'■ thousands ;" third period, "millions;" using ciphers at first, thus, 000,000,000. Teach fractions by objects. See " Primary Object Lessons," p. 156,157. Also " Manual of Object Lessons." Size. — See first step of this grade. Human l^ody, or Physiology. — See first step in this grade. Sound, or Music See first and third steps of this grade. Reading*. — in carrying out the plan given in the first step of this grade, it may be well sometimes to ask questions rela- tive to the lessons, but these should be so put as to draw from the pupils something more than a response in yes or no. Drawing*. — See first step of this grade. G-eOg"raphy.— The pupils are now prepared for ideas of the shape of the earth, forms of continents, ranges of mountains, course of river,^, etc., through the use of the globe and maps of the world. The productions of the land, localities of fruits, grains, animals, etc., may follow. Out- line maps, so arranged as to indicate, by different colors, the various climates, pro- ductions, etc., would greatly facilitate in- struction in this grade. THIRD STEP. Geometry.- See second step of this grade. Color and Painting-.- The color- ing of simple pictures, in water colors, may now be introduced. Arithmetic— See second step. Take up arithmetic from the book, both written and mental. Elementary books may be placed in the hands of pupils. Size.— See first step of this grade. Physiology.— See first step of this grade. Music — The rudiments of music may be presented, and the children taught to sing from the book during this grade. Reading. — Sometimes it may be well to let one pupil read the entire lesson, while the other members of the class listen, and then require them to tell what was read. Drawing- and Writing. — See first step of this grade. Geography. — See second step of this grade. Introduce an appropriate text- book for the pupils Avhich treats of the physical features of the country before taking up civil geogi'aphy and history. Continued on page 385. 384 PEOGRAMME OF GRADES AND STEPS. FOURTH GRADE. FIRST STEP. Objects. — In addition to describing the qualities of objects, let the children tell by what sense each quality is observed. See ''• Manual of Object Lessons." Animals. — The pupils may now enter upon a more systematic classification of animals, and take up the study of natural history with the aid of books. Willson'a Third and Fourth Readers are appropriate for this grade. Use Charts Nos. XVI., XVIL, and XVIII. See '^ Manual of Object Lessons." Plants.— The pupils may now be introduced to a more systematic study of plants, and their classification. To aid in this, books may be placed in the hands of the chil- dren of this grade. Dr. Hooker's Child's Book of Nature, Part I., Gray's How Plants Grow, and Willson's Fourth Reader, are suitable for this purpose. Use Charts Nos. XIX. and XX. See "Manual of Object Lessons." D'linerals. — The observation of minerals may be extended so as to embrace the simpk-r manufacture of articles from minerals and metals, and the processes by which these may be changed in form, quality, or nature. See " Manual of Object Lessons." Eiang'Uag'C. — The pupils may be required to give a list of names of objects, which the teacher should write on the blackboard, and they copy on their slates. This may be followed with a list of words which express qualities. Next he may request them to place the words expressing qualities appropriate to the objects before their names. Subsequently proceed in a similar manner with words expressing actions. Then re- quire the pupils to give the names of objects to be written before the verbs, so that the appropriate actions will be expressed. See " Manual of Object Lessons." Weig-ht, or Natural Philosophy.— Simple lessons in natural philosophy may now be introduced. Dr. Hooker's Child's Book of Nature, Part III., is admirably adapted for the first book, and Willson's Fourth Reader is also appropriate. PROGRAMME OF GRADES AND STEPS. 885 FOURTH GRADE. SECOND STEP. Objects.— The obsen^ation of objects Bliould be gradually extended to processes of the manufacture of familiar articles. Animals, or Zoology.— See first step in this grade. Plants, or Botany.— This subject should still be pursued chiefly, if not en- tirely, during the season of plants, and the lessons illustrated by specimens as far as possible. See first step of this grade. DUinerals. — Frequent examinations of the specimens of minerals must be re- lied upon to render the information de- rived from books practical. Siangliagce. — Give exercises with sin- gular and plural nouns, and train the pu- pils to observe the appropriate changes in the verbs. Gi'adually lead to the forma- tion of longer sentences. See " Manual of Object Lessons." Weig"ht.— See first step of this grade. THIRD STEP. Objects. — Visits of observation to workshops, railroads, shipping, etc., may now be made with great profit to the pupils. Animals.— See first step in this grade. Plants, or Botany.— See first and second steps of this grade. Minerals.— Sc of this grade. first and second steps R Langxiag-e, or Grammar.— Dur- ing this grade the exercises in language become more like the elementary lessons in grammar. They may be extended to the analysis of languages, and grammar taken up as a study. Natural Philosophy.— See first step of this grade. PEOGEAMMES; THE NECESSITY FOR THEIR FREQUENT CHANGES IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS. The earliest exercises of the child's senses excite in its mind a desire to know something about what it sees, hears, feels, tastes, smells, etc. This desire for information, or curiosity, increases with the delight ex- perienced by new accessions of knowledge, and results in a continual mental activity and restlessness during the child's Avaking hours. It is also a provision of nature that, as soon as the infant mind has taken in such knowledge of an object as its limited capacity can readily receive without aid, the child no longer manifests any interest in that object, or curiosity toward it ; and unless a skillful instructor assists it in gaining still farther knowledge and tll^s continuing its interest, the child soon turns to seek information from something new. But, even when thus aided, the amount of information which the undeveloped mind has power to grasp, or capacity to receive at one time from the. same object, is very limited, to say nothing of the fatigue which it might experience by efforts to attend to the same subject for a long time; hence the child must of necessity change its attention frequently from one subject or class of objects to another. The same principles apply to the mind in youth and in maturity, the results differing only in quantity or degree. As the mind attains degrees of development which enable it to gain more knowledge from an object, and acquires habits of attention which give it the power of observing the same subject for a longer time, there is less necessity for frequent changes. These facts account for that fondness of variety, or love of novelty, or curiosity, as this trait, which is so prominent in children, is variously called. Nevertheless, after an interval during which the mind has been occupied with other things, the same object will afford fresh interest by repeating the information given before, and by recalling the pleasure experienced during its first reception. Some objects will thus secure the attention and interest of children longer than others, because of the variety of the information which may be received from them, and the greater number of senses and faculties which they excite to action. Objects that move, and those which the children can themselves cause to move, and to assume various positions and shapes, belong especially to this class. Now it is of great import- ance that parents and teachers remember these facts during the early training of children. In conformity with these provisions of nature, and their relation to the capacity of the infant mind, the first lessons of iiistrvction should he WEEKLY PROGRAMMES. 387 shoi-t and frequently alternate. But as the mind becomes stronger from repeated exercises, the habits of continuous attention become fixed, and its capacity enlarged by development, the lessons may be increased in length, and the same subjects continued longer under investigation. As a plan for these changes in the exercises, and the order of taking up succcessive subjects, we present the following programmes to aid teach- ers in adapting a course of Object Lessons to their schools. WEEKLY PRQGRAMMES— FIRST GRADE. Exercises may be given, each day, in all the subjects indicated in the programme for the week. Four days of the week may be devoted to new lessons, and the fifth to reviewing the lessons of the previous days. The programme may be changed each week at first, afterward as often as every two Aveeks. The exercises in some of the subjects, especially in reading, should be presented twice during the same day. The length of the exercises of this grade may be from ten to twenty minutes each. The figures in the columns of weeks indicate the subjects and steps which are to be taken up daily during those weeks. Foiin , Number Human Body- Drawing Reading Color Size Place Animals Plants Sound Language.. . . Objects Minerals First Step. Seconp Ste p. T Hiun Step. 1 •o 1 1 5 > 1 1 i s 1 1 % ^ I .5 i i ■a o 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 3 3 3 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 This programme embraces only thirty weeks, but it can easily be ex- tended to forty or forty-six weeks, if desirable, by increasing the time for each step ; or, if necessary, it may be contracted to twenty-four weeks. The j^rs^ step in some subjects should not be presented until the chil- dren have had several exercises in others, because it is necessary for them to possess some knowledge of the subject thus previously presented in order to a ready understanding of those taken up later in the course. 388 WEEKLY PKOGRAMMES. WEEKLY PROGRAMMES— SECOND GRADE. Exercises may be given each day in all the subjects indicated in the programme for the week, or some of the subjects may be presented only every other day, as circumstances may seem to require. Four days of the week may be devoted to new lessons, and the fifth to reviewing the lessons of the previous days. The programme may be changed once in two weeks at fii-st, subsequently once in three weeks. The length of the exercises of this grade may be irom fifteen to thirty minutes each. The figures in the columns of weeks indicate the subjects and step which are to be taken up during these weeks. Form Number Hunin,n Body- Drawing Reading Color Size Place Animals Plants Sound Language . . . , Objects Minerals Weight First Step. Second Step. T HiRD Step. I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 T 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 j^ T 1 1 1 1 1 \ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 « "2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 f 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 ■5 t- 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 3 I 3 3 3 3 3 > 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 l 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 "3 1 3 3 3 3 1 > 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 The programme for this grade may be contracted to twenty-four weeks, or extended to forty-four weeks, as the ages and advancement of the pupils may render necessary. The last week of the step may be spent in a review of the step, and the last two or three weeks of the grade in a brief review of the grade. PROGRAMMES FOR THE THIRD GRADE. The programme for the tliird grade may be essentially the same as those for the second, with the same order of exercises in the different steps ; but the programme should be changed once in three weeks dur- ing the first step, and the same subjects may be continued for four weeks during the second and third steps. To give greater variety, and gain time for more subjects during a given four weeks, some of them, as weight, size, minerals, color, plants, animals, etc., might be taken up every other day, or even only twice each week. The length of the ex- ercises of this grade may be from twenty to forty minutes each. DAILY PROGKAMME — FIRST GRADE. 389 PROGRAMMES FOR THE FOURTH GRADE. During this grade, such of the subjects as naturally blend with each other may be combined and taken up together ; as form and drawing ; objects and minerals ; color and plants ; number, size, and weight ; an- imals and human body. The programme may be changed once in four or eight weeks, as circumstances seem to demand. Exercises in some of the subjects may be given only once or twice during each week. The length of the exercises may range from tJiirtij to fifty minutes each. DAILY PROGRAMME FOR A GRADED PRIMARY SCHOOL. FIRST SRADE. First TTeeA;, First Step. Fourth "Week, First Step. 9 00 A.M. Opening Exercises. 9 00 A.M. Opening Exercises. 9 15 A.M. Number. 9 15 A.M. Reading and Spelling 9 30 A.M. Drawing. 9 35 A.M. Size. 9 40 A.M. Reading and SpeUing. 9 50 A.M. Language. 10 00 A.M. Recess. 10 00 A.M. Recess. 10 15 A.M. Singing. 10 15 A.M. Singing. 10 20 A.M. Form. 10 20 A.M. Animals. 10 40 A.M. Pliysical Exercises. 10 40 A.M. Physical Exercises. 10 45 A.M. Drawing. 10 45 A.M. Color. 11 00 A.M. Recess. 11 00 A.M. Recess. 11 15 A.M. Singing. 11 15 A.M. Singing. 11 20 A.M. Human Body. 11 20 A.M. Objects. 11 40 A.M. Phy.sical Exercises. 11 40 A.M. Physical Exercises. 11 45 A.M. Singing. 11 45 A.M. Singing. 12 00 M. Intermisdon. 12 00 M. hitermission. 1 00 P.M. Singing. 1 00 P.M. Singing, 1 15 P.M. Reading and Spelling. 1 15 P.M. Reading and Spelling. 1 85 P.M. Phy.?ical Exercises. 1 35 P.M. Physical Exercises. 1 40 P.M. Drawing. 1 40 P.M. Place. 2 00 P.M. Recess. 2 00 P.M. Recess. 2 15 P.M. Singing. 2 15 P.M. Singing. 2 20 P.M. Number. 2 20 P.M. Animals. 2 40 P.M. Physical Exercises, 2 40 P.M.a^hysical Exercises, 2 45 P.M. Human Body. 2 45 P.M. Language, 3 00 P.M. Recess. 3 00 P.M. Recess. 3 15 P.M. Singing. 3 15 P.M. Singing. 3 20 P.M. Form. 3 20 P.M. Color. 3 40 P.M. Physical Exercises. 3 40 P.M. Physical Exercises. 3 45 P.M. Singing and Precepts. 3 45 P.M. Singing, etc. 4 00 P.M. Dismisdon. 4 00 P.M. Dismission. Should the teacher have two sections or classes under her training, she may ai'range her programme so that the exercises with the B class will follow those of the A class on the same subject, and each consume about the same length of time that is designated in the programme. In that case there would be time for presenting only two or thi-ec of the subjects twice during the day. While the A class is under training, the B class may be engaged with their slates in drawing, printing, or writing, or be employed in stringing large colored beads, or plaiting pa- per, or. measuring, with short rules, their slates, pencils, desks, etc. The A class may be similarly employed while the B class is attending to the exercises of the programme. 890 DAILY PEOGRAMME — FIRST GRADE. A constant, instructive, and pleasing occupation for all the pupils will se- cure the success oj" any school ; and the teacher who possesses the tact to manage a school thus is worthy of the largest salary, and Avould be cheap at any price. DAILY PROGRAMME FOR A GRADED PRIMARY SCHOOL. FIRST GRADE. Two divisions under one teacher, one other in the thi7'd step. Fifth Week, Second Step. (Lowest Class.) Monday. 9 00 A.M. Opening Exercises. class in second step, and the 9 15 A.M. Number. 9 25 A.M. Using Slates. 9 40 A. M. Iteading and Spelling. 10 00 A.M. Recess. 10 15 A.M. Singing. 10 20 A.M. Printing Words. 10 40 A.M. Form. 11 00 A.M. Recess. 11 15 A.M. Singing. 11 20 A.M. Plants. 11 35 A.M. Physical Exercises. 11 40 A.M. Measuring by inches. 12 00 M. Intermission. 1 00 P.M. Singing. 1 10 P.M. Reading and Spelling. 1 30 P.M. Printing "Words. 1 50 P.M. Number. 2 00 P.M. Recess. 2 15 P.M. Singing. 2 20 P.M. Stringing Beads. 2 35 P.M. Objects. 2 50 P.M. Sound. 3 00 P.M. Recess. 3 15 P.M. Singing. 3 20 P.M. Human Body. 3 35 P.M. Plaiting Paper. 3 50 P.M. Pliysical Exercises. 4 00 P.M. Dismission. Fourth Week, Third Step. (Higliest Class.) 00 A.M. Opening Exercises. 15 A.M. Using Slates. 25 A.M. Number. 40 A.M. Printing Words. 00 A.M. Recess. 15 A.M. Singing. 20 A. M. Reading and Spelling. 40 A.M. Drawing. 00 A.M. Recess. 15 A.M. Singing. 20 A. M. Measuring by inches. 35 A.M. Physical Exercises. 40 A.M. Plants. 00 M. Intermission. 00 P.M. Singing. 10 P.M. Printing Words. 30 P. M. Reading and Spelling. 50 P.M. Using Slates. 00 P.M. Recess. 15 P.M. Singing. 20 P.M. Number. 35 P.M. Stringing Beads. 50 P.M. Sound. 00 P.M. Recess. 15 P.M. Singing. 20 P.M. Plaiting Paper. 35 P.M. Human Body. 50 P.M. Physical Exercises. 00 P.M. Dismission. Should there be more than two classes under the same teacher, it might be necessary to take up a less number of subjects each day, or to devote less time to some of them. Should it be deemed advisable to devote more time to some of the subjects in the second and third grades, less time may be given to others, or they might be taken up less fre- quently. It is not presumed that programmes can be furnished ready-made which the teachers may copy entire for their own schools, but it is hoped that all teachers of tact will be able, from an examination of these pro- grammes and the accompanying suggestions, to arrange and adapt a course of instruction by object lessons, embracing more or less of the subjects indicated in the preceding pages, which will render their own schools greatly superior in efficiency for the development and proper training of the faculties of children. APPAEATUS DESIRABLE IN OBJECT TEACHING. For General Use. — Blackboards, with white and colored Crayons ; and Slate and Pencil for each pupil. For Elementary Reading. — Letter and Word Cards, Bead- ing Charts, and Primary Readers. For Form. — Chart of Lines and Forms ; Box of Forms and Solids; Gonigraph; Laths. For Color. — Chart of Colors; colored Cards; colored Cray- ons ; Box of Water Colors ; Glass Prism ; Worsteds, Ribbons, and Paper of various Colors. For Number. — Numeral Frame ; Buttons, Beans, and Peb- bles. A shelf, of about one foot in width, should be ai-ranged across one end of the room. Let four inches of the back part of the shelf be divided into compartments of four inches wide by eight inches long, and about one inch in depth. Into each alternate box place beans and jDebbles. When a class is to be exercised in the first ideas of number, let them stand in front of the shelf, each occupying sixteen inches of space, and using a box of beans and one of pebbles while adding, subtracting, multiplying, etc. For Size and " the Tables." — Foot Rule ; Yard-stick ; Tape Measure ; Gill, Pint, Quart, Gallon, Peck, and half Bushel Meas- ures ; Squares of Pasteboard or thick Paper one inch, one foot, and one yard ; pieces of Twine, Cord, Rope, Cable ; pieces of Wire of various sizes ; Shot, Bullet, Grape, Ball ; Grains of Sand, Grav- el, Pebble, and Stone ; Sticks and Strings of different lengths ; Paper, Cloth, and Boards of different thicknesses ; strips of Paper, Ribbon, etc., of different widths ; small and large Bags, Boxes, etc. For Weight. — A pair of Scales, with two i oz., four 1 oz., four 4 oz., two 8 oz., one each of 1 lb. and 2 lb. weights; Balls or Cubes of Cork, Wood, Lead, Iron ; Bags of Feathers, Cotton, Wool, Beans, Oats, Pebbles, Shot. For Sound.— Chart of Elementary Sounds ; Bells, Flute, Tri- angle, etc. 392 APPARATUS DESIRABLE IN For Place. — Outline Maps of School District, Village or City, Town, County, State; Pictures and Maps of Divisions of Land and Water, as Island, Isthmus, Cape, Bay, etc. For Object Lessons. — Articles used in domestic economy, as Cup and Saucer, Spoon, Knife and Fork, etc. Articles used in different trades, as Trowel, Shovel, Hoe, Rake, Hammer, and Nails of various kinds and sizes, Saw, Gimlet, Au- ger, Chisel, Plane, Needle, Pins, Scissors, Pincers, Awl, Painter's Brush, etc. Textile fabrics, as Cotton, Linen, Woolen, Silk, in their differ- ent stages from the raw materials to thread and cloth. Vegetable products, as pieces of different kinds of Wood, Grains, Leaves, Flowers, Fruits, Seeds, Nuts. Animal products, as Fur, Feathers, Leather, Whalebone, Ivory, Shells, etc. Minerals, as Coal, Slate, Marble, Lime, Iron, Lead, Copper, Tin, etc. Such a collection could readily be made by inviting the aid of pupils and their parents. It should consist of the smallest and cheapest articles of each class. Such a museum should be kept in a separate room, or a large closet to which the pupils have no ac- cess. The objects should not be placed where the pupils can see them at will, lest they become so common to the eyes of the chil- dren as to detract from their interest when used in a lesson. There is a temptation to overuse objects by frequent exhibitions of them, and this sometimes results in a distaste among the children for the most valuable collection. The true method for the use of any col- lection of objects or appai'atus is to use them only when needed for an illustration, or to form the to})ic of a lesson ; at other times they should not be exposed to the eyes of the children. Pictures or charts are very important accompaniments of ob- jects. Those illustrating Natural History, men, quadrupeds, birds, fishes, reptiles, insects, trees, plants ; economical uses of animals ; sources of m-anufacture ; sources of vegetable food ; sources of medicines; poisonous plants, etc., are of great assist- ance in communicating instruction on these subjects. These charts and illustrations should not be suspended on the walls of the schoolroom until they have been used for lessons. As far as possible, they should be new to the children when first em- ployed in illustrating lessons. After they have been made symbols by having instruction attached to them, they may be left in view of the children imtil they become familiar with them. It is appropriate to place upon the walls of the schoolroom mot- toes, and pictures representing beautiful scenery, and subjects in- teresting to children, not designed for lessons. It gives a cheerful aspect to the room, and improves the taste of the pupils. OBJECT TEACHING. 893 Teacher's Library. — The teacher should be provided with a library of works on teaching and education, and books of reference. A small sum thus invested by the Board of Education or Trus- tees in a permanent library for the teachers would amply repay it- self in the general improvement of the school. There is as m\ich necessity for the teacher to have a library relating to his profession, and books of reference, as for the physician, or lawyer, or minis- ter to have libraries pertaining to their professions. The follow- ing would form a suitable list of BOOKS OF REFERENCE FOR PRIMARY TEACHERS. [Works indicated thus * are published in England.] Northend's Teacher's Assistant. Edgeworth's Practical Education. Dr. Hooker's Child's Book of Nature; Child's Book of Common Things ; Primary Geography. Hill's First Lessons in Geometry. Brande's Encyclopedia of Science, Literature, and Art. Hazen's Professions and Trades. Evenings at Home. Peep of Day ; Line upon Line. Reading without Tears. Cowdery's Moral Lessons. Sedgwick's Morals of Manners. Mudie's Observation of Nature. Uncle Philip's American Forest ; Natural History. Prof. Rennie's Natural History of Insects ; Quadrupeds ; Birds. Mayhew's Wonders of Science. " Peasant Boy Philosopher. Wells's Science of Common Things. Gray's How Plants Grow. Abbott's Learning to Think ; Learning to Talk ; Learning to Read; Learning about Common Things; Learning about Right and Wrong. Barnard's Object Teaching. Exercises on the Improvement of the Senses.* The Observing Eye.* Arithmetic for Young Children.* Geography for Young Children.* Information on Common Objects.* Mayo's Lessons on Objects.* Hints and Helps.* By Rev. Wm. Short. 894 BOOKS OF REFERENCE. PROFESSIONAL LIBRARY FOR TEACHERS. nVorks indicated thus * are published in England.] Barnard's American Journal of Education. 10 vols. [The papers contained in the two following volumes are in- cluded in the above Journal of Education.] American Contributions to the Philosophy and Practice of Education. By Professor William Russell ; Rev. Dr. Hill, President of Antioch College ; Rev. Dr. Huntingdon ; Gid- eon F. Thayer, late Principal of Chauncey Hall School ; Rt. Rev. Bishop Burgess, and others. Pestalozzi and Pestalozzianism, with Sketches of the Educa- tional Views of other Swiss Educators. Barnard's National Education in Europe. Page's Theory and Practice of Teaching. Holbrook's Normal Methods. Northend's Teacher and Parent. Abbott's Teacher. Mayhew's Popular Education. The School and the Schoolmaster. Palmer's Teacher's Manual. Ogden's Science of Education and Art of Teaching. Spencer's Education, Intellectual, Moral, and Physical. Tate's Philosophy of Education. * Stow's Training System of Education.* Wilderspin's Education for the Young.* Currie's Early Infant Education.* Young's Infant-School Teacher's Manual.* Chambers's Infant Education.* Mayo's Model Lessons ; Manual of Elementary Instruction ; In- fant Education.* THE END. ( School and Family Charts. By Marcius Will son and N. A. Calkins. Accompanied by a Manual of Object Lessons and Elementary Instruction. These Charts are each 22 by 30 inches in size, and abound in colored illustrations. They are mounted on eleven binder's board cards ; and are also furnished in sheets, in which form they may be sent by mail. I. ELEMENTARY CHARTS. No. I. — Elementary Reading; Familiar Objects Represented by Words and Pictures. This chart contains sixty familiar words, embracing all the letters of the alphabet, beginning with such words as cap, cat, dog, fox, box, etc., each having its appropriate colored illustration. The type is sufficiently large to be easily read at a distance of twenty feet. From this chart the children learn words by sight, as they learn to recognize the objects themselves. No. H. — Reading; First Lessons. This chart contains most of the words and several of the illustrations on Chart No. 1, together with the words necessary to form such phrases as cap and cat, hen and egg, a green tree, the good boy, an arm chair, the dog is old. No. IIL — Reading; Second Lessons, containing ail the Words on the First Chart, ivithout the Illustrations. Here the words are ar- ranged in phrases, as " A green tree, a pig, and a large fish." The use of this chart ia designed to give facility in reading, at sight, the words which have been previously learned by the aid of pictures. No. IV.— Reading ; Third Lessons. No. V. — Reading ; Fourth Lessons. No. VI.— Reading ; Fifth Lessons. The charts Nos. 4, 5, 6 are designed to familiarize the children with reading words in phrases and sentences, and also to introduce inflections and emphasis. Each lesson is accompanied with colored illustrations. No. VII. — Elementary Sounds. On this chart the vowels and consonants are classified into long and short vocals, sub-vocals, and aspirates. The children are led to distinguish the various sounds by means of an arrange- ment in which a word ends in, or contains, a given sound, and is followed by a word commencing with the same sound, as me, e, eat; mold, o, old; d, did; path, th, thin. The vowel sounds are also arranged so as to correspond with the order of the changes in the position of the mouth in their formation, that when one sound is finished the mouth will be in proper position for commencing the, next sound. No. VIII. — Phonic Spelling, furnishes exercises to illustrate, in connection with the ''Manual," the methods of introducing the analysis of spoken words into sounds, as an aid to distinct articulation and orthoepy ; also to show how the analogy between the spelling and the sounds of various classes of words may be used to facilitate learning to read during the elementaiy lessons. 2 School and Family Charts, No. IX. — Writing, Familiar words are here introduced in writing, also both the small and capital letters ; to furnish correct models for their formation, and to lead the children to become early accustomed to read and write words in script. No. X. — Drawing, and the Elements of Perspective, con- tains Exercises to aid the teacher in the introduction of simple constructive draw- ing, and to give ideas of perspective. No. XI. — Chart of Lines and Measures, illustrates the forms and positions of Lines^ also of angles^ circles, and paits of circles^ degrees of circles, angles of elevation and inclination, and furnishes exercises for the eye in standard measurements. No. XII. — Forms and Solids. On this chart are represented the surfaces of the common plain figures and solids. II. COLOR CHARTS. No. XIII. — Familiar Colors, presents a popular view of the colors familiar in painting, dress, and flowers. The primary, secondary, and ter- tiary colors are each represented in distinct groups, and the prismatic colors as seen in the solar spectrum. In addition, each color is represented by a colored square of two inches in size, arranged in order from its shade to its tint, as the Reds, from Crimson to Pink ; the Blues, from Indigo to Sky Blue, &c. This chart is also ac- companied with a duplicate set of hand-cards, corresponding in size and color to the representations on the chart. No. XIV. — Chromatic Scale of Colors, is designed for a more scientific presentation of the subject of colors, their combinations, modifica- tions, tones, tints, etc., and to illustrate their laws of harmony and contrast in na- ture, dress, and painting. III. NATURAL HISTORY CHARTS. No. XV.— Zoological : Economical Uses of Animals. Representatives of some of the leading orders and divisions of Quadrupeds. Con- taining twenty groups of animals, colored. ^■^o. XVI.— Zoological ; the Classification of Animals. CLASS II. This chart exhibits specimens of the five divisions of the Human Race ; also the classification of the Mammalia. No. XVII.— Zoological : Class II., Aves, or Birds. Clas- sification of Birds, containing illustrations, colored, of Birds of Prey, Perchers, Climbers, Scratchei-s, Runners, Waders, and Swimmers. No. XVIII.— Zoological : Class III., Reptiles; Class IV., FISHES, containing colored illustrations of Turtles, Crocodiles, and Lizards, Snakes, Frogs. Of Fishes, the perch, herring, shark, cod, carp, pike, sturgeon, etl, lamprey, cat-fish, salmon, and ti"ont families. School and Family Charts. 3 No. XIX. — Botanical ; Forms of Leaves, Stems, Root-g, and FLOWERS, Avith illustrations of the general forms and arrangement of leaves ; forms of the margins and apexes of leaves; curiosities of lea\es; forms of the stems of plants ; forms of roots of plants ; forms of flowers. No. XX.-— Botany; the Classification of Plants. 1st. The Linntean system of classification. 2d, The Natural Method. No. XXI. and XXII. — Botanical ; Economical uses of PLANTS. These charts contain colored illustrations of common Fruits ; common Root Plants ; the Cereals, or Corn Plants ; Rare Fruits from warm countries ; Medicinal Plants ; Plants used for Beverages ; Plants used for Manufactures ; Plants used for Coloring, Spices, Miscellaneous uses. N.B. — The " MANUAL" will he found indispensable to a thorough and system- atic course of instruction from these charts. PRICES.— I. ELEMENTARY CHARTS. Mounted, 2 charts on a board, each board, 60 cents ; the same, in sheets, sent by mail, prepai, each chart, 25 cents. IL COLOR CHARTS. The pair, mounted, together with a set of accompanying Hand Color-Cards, $1 SO ; Familiar Color Chart, in sheets, with Hand Color-Cards, by mail, prepaid, 90 cents ; Chromatic Scale of Colors, in sheets, by mail, pre- paid, 60 cents. IIL NATURAL HISTORY CHARTS. Mounted, 2 charts on a board, each board, 90 cents ; the Same, in sheets, sent by mail, prepaid, each chart, 35 cents. Whole set, mounted, $9, Whole set, in sheets, by mall, prepaid, $7 30. HARPER & BROTHERS, Publishers, Franklin Square, New York. MANUAL OF OBJECT LESSONS AND ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION. For Teachers and Parents. Containing a series of graded lessons in Natural History — Animals, Vegetables, and Minerals — Lan- guage, Harmony of Colors, and Drawing ; and an outline of a Graduated Course of Elementary Instruction by Object Lessons, with Programmes for the Grades and Steps in the Course. By N. A. Calkins, Author of "Primary Object Lessons." Illustra- tions. 12mo, Cloth. (In Press,) HARPER & BROTHERS, Publishers, Franklin Square, New York. Willson's School and Family Keaders. A Series of School and Family Readers, aiming at the highest de- gree of Usefulness, and splendidly Illustrated. Consisting of a Primer and Seven Readers. By Makcids Willson. The Primer, and the First, Second, Third, Fourth, and Fifth Readers are now ready. The leading objects aimed at on the part of the author have been to construct a Series of Readers that shall not only present the very best means and methods of teaching Reading as an Akt, but which shall also contain a large amount of Use- ful AND Entertaining Knowledge. The Primer and First and Second Readers mainly aim at the attainment of the first object by laying the foundation of correct Habits of Reading at the very he- ginning of the pupil's course, while the more advanced Readers, still keeping rhet- orical instruction in view, especially aim to pojndarize^ to the capacities of chil- dren, the " Higher English Branches" of study, so that some useful knowledge of the various departments of Natural History and Natural Science may be ob- tained by all the pupils in our schools. The Leading Points of Merit claimed for these Readers are: 1st. They present an unusual Varietij in matter and manner, and will prove ex- ceedingly interesting to Children. M. They will secure the highest degree of _2Jrac.'d with Questions for the use of Schools, and illustrated with 150 Maps and Engravings. Square 12mo, Muslin, $1 25; Sheep, $1 38. Harrison's Latin Grammar. An Exposition of some of the Laws of the Latin Grammar. By Gesner Harrison, M.D., Professor of Ancient Lan- guages in the University of Virginia. 12mo, Sheep exti'a, $1 00. Haswell's Mensuration. For Tuition and Reference, containing Tables of Weights and Measures ; Mensuration of Surfaces, Lines, and Solids, and Conic Sections, Centres of Gravity, &c. To which is added. Tables of the Areas of Circular Segments, Sines of a Circle, Circular and Semi-elliptical Arcs, &c., &c., &c. By C. H. Haswell, Marine Engineer. 12mo, Sheep, 75 cents. Henry's History of Philosophy, Epitome of the History of Phi- losophy. For Colleges and High Schools. 2 vols. 18mo, Muslin, 90 cents. Herschell's Natural Philosophy. 12mo, Muslin, 60 cents. Hooker's Child's Book of Nature. The Child's Book of Nature, for the use of Families and Schools ; intended to aid Mothers and Teachers in training Children in the Observation of Nature. In Three Parts. Part \. Plants. — Part H. Animals. — Part III. Air, Water, Heat, Light, &c. By Worthington Hooker, M.D., Yale College. Illustrated by Wood-cuts. The Three Parts com- plete in one vol. Small 4to, Muslin, $1 '25 ; Separately, Muslin, 50 cents each. Hooker's Natural History. For the use of Schools and Families. 12mo, Muslin, $1 00. Hooker's Science for the People. An Elementary Work on Nat- ural Philosophy, for Schools and Families. Kane's Chemistry. With Additions and Corrections. By John William Draper, M.D. With about 250 Wood-cuts. Svo, Muslin, $1 50 ; Sheep txtra, $1 75. Lee's Elements of Geology. Engravings. 18mo, Half Sheep, 50 cents ; Muslin, 45 cents. Lewis's Platonic Theology. Plato against the Atheists ; or, The Tenth Book of the Dialogue on Laws, accompanied Avith Critical Notes, and fol- lowed by extended Dissertations on the main Points of Platonic Philosophy and Theology, especially as compared with the Holy Sci'iptures. By Taylee Lewis, LL.D. i2mo, Muslin, $1 50. Liddell's School History of Rome. {See Student's Historical Text- Book.<) Liddell and Scott's Greek-English Lexicon. Based on the Ger- man Work of Francis Pasbow. With Corrections and Additions, and the Inser- tion, in Alphabetical Order, of the Proper Names occurring in the Principal Greek Authors, by Professor Henry Drissler, M.A., Columbia College, N. Y. Koyal Svo, Sheep extra, $5 00. Loomis's Treatise on Arithmetic. A Treatise on Arithmetic, Theoretical and Practical. By Elias Loomis, LL.D., Professor of Mathematics in Y'ale College. 12mo, 352 pages, Sheep extra, 75 cents. Loomis's Elements of Algehra. Elements of Algebra, Designed for the use of Beginners. 12mo, 281 pages, Sheep extra, 62^- cents. Loomis's Treatise on Algebra. A Treatise on Algebra. Svo, 350 pages. Sheep extra, $1 00. Loomis's Elements of Geometry. Elements 'X)f Geometry and Conic Sections. Svo, 234 pages, Sheep extra, 75 cents. Loomis's Trigonometry and Tables. Trigonometry and Tables. 8vo, 360 pages. Sheep extra, $1 50. The Triqnnometry and Tables^ bound separately. The Trigonometry. $1 00; Tables, $l'00. Harper Sf Brothers' Books for Schools and Colleges. f »5heep extra, $1 50. , r xr ^ i extra, $1 00. , . -n ^- i extra. a>i I'rcs.i.) a . • ■ Lowry's Universal Atlas. From the most Recent Authorities. 4to, Half lloan, $5 00. MTlintock's First Book in Latin. Comprising Grammar, Exer- Sog^so"; o/Languages'iu Dickinsua OoUeg.. 12mo, Sheep extra, .5 c.nts. MTlmtock's Second Book in Latin. Containing Syntax and Rea^iu?Letsons -aSe; foraging a sufficient Latin Header. With Ixn.tat.ou Exercises and a Vocabulary. l-2mo, Sheep extra, .5 cents. MTlintock's First Book in Greek. Containing a full View of theFoVm^ot WordsT^-ith Vocabularies and copious ^^''^^'^l^''^%^}'^l,t ConstanT Imitation and Repetition. With brief Summaries of the Doctrme of the Ve?b, and of the Rules of Syntax. 12mo, Sheep extra, 75 cents. MTlintock's Second Book in Greek. Containing Syntax, with T^eadin^SS^Di^^ in Prose ; Pro.ody and the Dialects, ^vith Reading Lessons in Verse^ Forming a sufficient Greek ileader. With Notes and a copious Vocahu- lary. 12mo, Sheep extra, T5 cents. Markham's (Mrs.) History of France. A History of France from the CoiqueTof Gaul by Juliu, C«.sar to the Reign of Louis Philippe. With Con- vSitTons at the End of each Chapter. Map, Notes, and Questions and a Supp^e- StbiinS^-ig down the History to the Present Time. By Jacob Abbott. 12mo, Muslin, $1 00. Maury's Principles of Eloquence. With an Introduction, by Bishop Potter. ISmo, Muslin, 45 cents. Mill's Logic. A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive : bein^ a connected View o/the Principlesof Evidence and the Methods of Scien- tific Investigation. By J. S. MiLT..- 8vo, Mu4in, $1 50. Mills's Literature and Literary Men of f eat Bntain and Ireland. By AcKAHAM Mills, A.M. 2 vols. 8vo, Mushn, $3 50; Half Calf, $5 50. Morse's School Geography. A New System of Geography, for th- us. of Schools. Illustrated by more than 50 Cerographic Maps, and numer- ous Engravings on Wood. 4to, Half Bound, 50 cents. Noel and Chapsal's French Grammar. 12mo, Muslin, 75 cents. Olmsted's Astronomy. Engravings. 12mo, Muslin, 75 cents. with Additions. 12mo, Sheep extra, $1 00. 8 Harper ^' Brothers' Books for Schools and Colleges. Parker's Aids to English Composition. Aids to English Compo- Bition, Prepared for Students of all Grades, embracing Specimens and Examples of School and College Exercises, and most of the higher Departments of English Composition, both in Prose and Verse. A New Edition, with Additions and Im- provements. 12mo, Muslin, 8U cents ; Sheep extra, 90 cents. Parker's Geographical Questions. Adapted for the use of Morse's, Woodbridge's, Worcester's, Mitchc'll's, Field's, Malte-Brun's, Smith's, Olney's Goodrich's, or any other respectable Collection of Maps: embracing, by way of Question and Answer, such Portions of the Elements of Geography as are neces- sary as an Introduction to the Study of the Maps. To which is added a concise Description of the Terrestrial Globe. 12mo, Muslin, £0 cents. Proudfit's Plautus's "Captives," With English Notes for the use of Students, by Professor John Pkoudfit, D.D. ISmo, Paper, 38 cents. Potter's Principles of Science. The Principles of Science applied to the Domestic and Mechanic Arts, and to Manufactures and Agriculture, with Pvcflections on the Progress of the Arts, and their Influence on National Welfare. By Kt. Kev. Alonzo Pottee, D.D. With Illustrations. 12mo, Muslin, 75 cents. Potter's Political Economy. Political Economy: Its Objects, Uses, and Principles ; considered with Reference to the Condition of the American People. With a Summary for the use of Students. ISmo, Half Sheep, 50 cents. Potter's Hand-Book for Readers and Students, intended to assist Private Individuals, Associations, School Districts, &c., in the Selection of Useful and interesting Works for Reading and Investigation. By A. Pottek, D.D. ISmo, Muslin, 45 cents. Kenwick's Natural Philosophy. Engravings. 18mo, Half Sheep, 75 cents. Kenwick's Mechanics. Applications of the Engravings. 18mo, Half Sheep, 90 cents. RenAvick's Chemistry. Engravings. 18mo, Half Sheep, 75 cents. Robinson's Greek Lexicon of the Testament. A Greek and En- glish Lexicon of the New Testament. By Edward Robinson, D.D., LL.D., Pro- fe.ssor of Biblical Literature in the Union Theological Seminary, N. Y. A New Edition, I'.evised, and in great part re-written. Royal 8vo, Muslin, $4 50 ; Sheep extra, $4 75. Robinson's Buttmann's Greek Grammar. i^See Buttmann's Greek Gravimar.) Russell's Juvenile Speaker. The Juvenile Speaker ; comprising Elementary Rules and Exercises of Declamation, with a Selection of Pieces for Practice. By the Rev. E'eancis T. Russell, A.M. 12mo, Muslin, 60 cents ; Half Bound, 70 cents. Salkeld's Roman and Grecian Antiquities. With Maps, &c. ISmo, Muslin, 38 cents. Salkeld's First Book in Spanish. A First Book in Spanish ; or, A Practical Introduction to the Study of the Spanish Language. Adapted to every Class of Learners ; containing full Instructions in Pronunciation ; a Gram- mar ; Reading Lessons, &c. 12mo, Sheep extra, $1 00. Schmucker's Psychology. 12mo, Muslin, $1 00. School (the) and the Schoolmaster. A Manual for the use of Teachers, Employers, Trustees, Inspectors, &c.,