B 2842 
 N3 
 opy 1 
 
 The National Education Association 
 OF the United States 
 
 TEACHERS' SALARIES AND 
 COST OF LIVING 
 
 July, I 918 
 
The National Education Association 
 
 OF THE United States , W^^xvr^^oiJJuLju 
 
 TEACHERS' SALARIES AND 
 COST OF LIVING 
 
 THE REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON TEACHERS' 
 
 SALARIES, TENURE, AND PENSIONS 
 
 JULY, 1918 
 
 WASHINGTON 
 
 The National Education Association 
 1918 
 

 CoPYEiGHX 1918 By 
 The National Education Association 
 
 MAR 22 1819 
 
 ICI.A515258 
 
 Composed and Printed By 
 
 The University of Chicago Press 
 
 ChicaffO, Illinois. U.S.A. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Introduction v 
 
 Report of the Committee on Teachers' Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions . i 
 
 I. Report on Salaries i 
 
 The Nation and the Crisis in Its Schools i 
 
 Teachers' Salaries and the Cost of Living g 
 
 How Is the Money to Be Obtained to Pay Adequate Salaries to Teachers ? 22 
 
 II. Report on Tenure 36 
 
 III. Report on Pensions 37 
 
 Preliminary Statement 37 
 
 Teachers' Pensions 37 
 
 Joint Resolution of the Committee on Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions, 
 
 AND the Commission on the N.^tional Emergency in Education ... 43 
 
 Appendix I: Replies of State Superintendents Relative to Teachers' Salaries . 46 
 
 Appendix II: Measures Adopted to Meet the Present Emergency ... 48 
 
 Appendix III: Estimated Salaries and Expenditures Necessary to Meet the 
 -Advance in the Cost of Living, 1918 
 
 Appendix IV: Percentage of Illiteracy Charted by States .... 
 
 Appendix V: Density of Illiterate Population — Two Sections Compared . 
 
 Appendix VI: Cities Reporting No Increase in Teachers' Salaries for 19 18 
 
 Appendix VII: Maximum and Minimum Teachers' Salaries in 108 Cities . 
 
 Appendix VIII: Summary of Report on Salaries Paid to Teachers in 320 Cities 
 
 Appendix IX : Increase in Salaries of Teachers in Certain Cities 
 
 Appendix X: Average Amoimt of Wealth per Teacher in the Several States 
 
 49 
 50 
 52 
 53 
 54 
 58 
 59 
 62 
 
 Appendix XI: Relation of Salaries to Expenses of 1504 Teachers in the Cities of 
 
 Missouri (December, 191 7) 64 
 
 Appendix XII: The War and Teachers' Salaries 65 
 
 Appendix XIII: Teachers' Salaries — Bibliography 70 
 
 m 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 This report of the Committee on Teachers' Salaries, Tenure, and 
 Pensions falls into three parts: 
 I. Salaries 
 II. Tenure (a brief preliminary statement) 
 
 III. Pensions 
 
 Important as tenure and pensions are, the present emergency in educa- 
 tion puts them temporarily in the background of interest as compared with 
 what is now the critically important question of salaries. The section of 
 the report devoted to salaries falls into three parts: 
 
 "The Nation and the Crisis in Its Schools," a brief general statement 
 of the situation and the remedy. 
 
 "Teachers' Salaries and the Cost of Living," a more detailed statement 
 of the economic facts that back up the generalizations of Part I. 
 
 "How Shall the Money Be Obtained to Pay Adequate Salaries to 
 Teachers?" — a discussion of the ways and means of carrying the remedy 
 suggested into practical effect. 
 
 In the preparation of this report the committee has been assisted 
 by the following persons, to whom special thanks and acknowledgments 
 are due: Harold C. Goddard, professor of English, Swarthmore College, 
 Swarthmore, Pa., for preparing "The. Nation and the Crisis in Its 
 Schools," and for valuable assistance in editing the report; Robert C. 
 Brooks, professor of Political Science, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, 
 Pa., for the preparation of "Teachers' Salaries and the Cost of Living," 
 George D. Strayer, professor of Educational Administration, Teachers 
 College, Columbia University, for collecting and reporting teachers' salary 
 data reported in Appendixes VI and VIII on "Cities Reporting No Increase 
 in Teachers' Salaries," and "Salaries Paid to Teachers in 320 Cities in the 
 United States"; John A. H. Keith, president. State Normal School, Indi- 
 ana, Pa., for supplying the data in Appendix X on "The Average Amount 
 of Wealth per Teacher in the Several States"; Uel W. Lampkin, state 
 superintendent of public instruction, Missouri, for the data in Appendix XI 
 on "Relation of Salaries to Expenses of 1504 Teachers in the Cities of 
 Missouri"; I. L. Kandel, associate in education. Teachers College, Colum- 
 bia University, for preparing the article in Appendix XII on "The War and 
 Teachers' Salaries — England and Wales"; John D. Wolcott, chief of the 
 Library Division, Bureau of Education, for the bibliography on "Teach- 
 ers' Salaries" in Appendix XIII. r^^ Committee 
 
Now THAT THE WaR Is OvER AND THE NATIONAL BUDGET, ON THAT 
 
 Account, Can Be Cut Down by Billions, the Country Will Be 
 Doubly Recreant ip It Fails to Take Prompt and Effective Action 
 IN This Matter of Its Schools. 
 
REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON TEACHERS' 
 SALARIES, TENURE, AND PENSIONS 
 
 I. REPORT ON SALARIES 
 
 Owing to the effect of the world-war on prices, the committee has 
 deemed it advisable to make a more extended report on salaries than other- 
 wise would have been necessary. Not only have definite recommendations 
 been made, but data have been appended which support the recommenda- 
 tions made. 
 
 The committee has been fortunate in securing the services of a number 
 of persons in preparing this report. While the committee agrees with the 
 conclusions and recommendations set forth, the persons writing the different 
 parts are responsible for the statements of facts. 
 
 The report is submitted with the hope that it will not only meet with 
 the approval of the National Education Association, but be found helpful 
 to legislators, school officials, teachers, and the general pubhc. 
 
 Joseph Swain, Chairman 
 Ernest C. Moore 
 Margaret A. Haley 
 David B. Johnson 
 Harlan Updegraff 
 Grace C. Forsythe 
 James Ferguson 
 Francis G. Blair 
 John W. Carr 
 
 THE NATION AND THE CRISIS IN ITS SCHOOLS 
 
 Apart from the prosecution of the war itself, there is no more urgent 
 problem now before the American people than that created by the threat- 
 ened collapse of the teaching profession. Collapse is an extreme word, 
 but so is the emergency it describes. The drafting into other work of 
 large numbers of the most capable teachers, the continual opening of new 
 doors of opportunity to thousands of others, the utterly inadequate financial 
 provision for the majority of the remainder — these are no longer matters 
 for debate. They are facts. And they are facts ominous with disaster 
 for the nation. If the American people cannot be made to see the situation 
 and to supply an early and drastic remedy, we shall run the risk, even tho 
 we win the war, of losing much that makes the war worth winning. 
 
NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 
 
 Our schools are the spring and origin of our democracy. Of what avail 
 will it be to spend our blood in defending the forms of democratic society 
 if the life that is to fill and energize them is lost ? And if our schools suffer, 
 it will be lost. It is futile to declare that this is a matter for the future. 
 If the war has taught us anything, it has taught us that the future becomes 
 the present with fatal rapidity, and that failure to provide for that future 
 in advance is criminal. Foresight then is what is wanted, and again 
 foresight, and yet again foresight. The American people now have a 
 supreme opportunity to exercise foresight in the matter of their schools. 
 Will they exercise it ? Or wiU they kill the goose that lays the golden eggs ? 
 
 INDUSTRY ATTACHES VALUE TO EDUCATION 
 
 Fortunately there are a few departments of education which anybody 
 can see are not only indispensable to the life of the nation, but are as 
 integral parts of the prosecution of the war as the building of ships or the 
 training of armies. A bhnd man can see that if the teaching of chemistry 
 or engineering or medicine in this country were to suffer, the military arm 
 of the nation would soon be crippled. Fearful lest the supply of skilled 
 workers should fall off, industrial leaders are realizing more fully every day 
 how dependent they are on the flow of trained men from the hands of the 
 schoolmasters. Within a month, for example, a manager of one of the 
 largest munitions plants in the country came to the head of the department 
 of chemistry of one of our colleges with the declaration that he was in 
 need of a chemist particularly fitted for work of a character which he 
 specified. 
 
 "You have the very man we want," said he, naming an assistant pro- 
 fessor of chemistry in the college in question. "You must let us have him." 
 
 "But I can't," repUed the professor. "Our department cannot get on 
 without him. He cannot be replaced." 
 
 "How much is he receiving here?" inquired the manager. 
 
 The head of the department mentioned the salary. 
 
 "We will double that," declared the manager without an instant's hesi- 
 tation, "if he will go to work for us tomorrow morning." 
 
 "We cannot meet that offer," said the professor, "but if you take him, 
 don't expect us to keep on sending you the groups of trained chemists 
 that that man has helpt to turn out in the past." 
 
 The manager hesitated; the thought seemed to sober him. "You're 
 right," he exclaimed. "I see it. Keep your man. He is more indispen- 
 sable to us here than he would be in our plant." And the manager went 
 away to seek some other solution of his problem. 
 
 That incident presents in miniature the relation of technical education 
 to the war. Every day this war becomes more of a war of expert knowl- 
 edge. The man behind the desk is as essential as the man behind the 
 gun. Indeed he is the man behind the gun. 
 
TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 
 
 All this is so plain in the case of subjects like chemistry, engineering, and 
 medicine that an apology is almost necessary for dwelling on it. But it 
 does not appear to be so plain in the case of subjects just as really, albeit a 
 bit more indirectly, connected with the war. And when it comes to edu- 
 cation generally, to the majority of the public it does not appear to be 
 plain at all. 
 
 EDUCATION PRESERVES FRUITS OF VICTORY 
 
 The argument in many minds seems to run something like this: "Our 
 business at present is to win the war. By all means let us keep the tech- 
 nical schools that have a bearing on that business running full blast. As for 
 the rest of the school system, time enough to attend to that when the war 
 is over." Now, if we knew that the war would be over in a year; or if the 
 country were financially at its last gasp, with taxation passing the limits of 
 the tolerable — if luxury were entirely eliminated, and waste and extrava- 
 gance things of the past; or if all the able-bodied men and women were at 
 the front, in the factory, or on the farm — then there might be a gleam of 
 reason in a proposition to close the schools till the war was over, or to let 
 them pass into the hands of admittedly inferior persons. Even under such 
 circumstances the proposal would be a desperate one. Culture and educa- 
 tion are by their nature continuous things. They are a kind of birth. You 
 cannot disturb the process of physical birth in a nation without disaster. 
 Neither can you interrupt its spiritual and intellectual life and expect to take 
 it up, unimpaired, where it was dropt. It would be tragedy indeed if the 
 present generation were to win the war only to have the fruits of victory 
 wasted by a generation incapable of understanding or using them. 
 
 A WAR OF SCHOOLMASTERS 
 
 Here it is that we touch the center of the misunderstanding concerning 
 this war and general education. This is not merely a war of chemistry and 
 engineering, a war of technical knowledge pitted against technical knowl- 
 edge; it is a war of cultures and ideals, of ideas pitted against ideas. In 
 this sense it is literally a war of schoolmasters; and only the hope of victory 
 in this latter struggle makes the sacrifices of the other conflict seem worth 
 while. But to achieve that victory the ideas and ideals for which we stand 
 must be kept pure and free-flowing at their source. For that deeper war 
 behind the other is bound to go on long after the physical strife has ceast. 
 Everywhere men make the capital mistake of supposing that the good or 
 the evil of this war is a thing that will be definitely settled on the day when 
 victory is attained and the treaty of peace signed. There could not be a 
 grosser error. 
 
 The upshot of this war for humanity, the final good or bad of it, is going 
 to depend on what the nations do as a result of it, on whether it gets the 
 better of the brain of humanity by stunning it or whether the brain of 
 
NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 
 
 J 
 
 humanity gets the better of it by understanding it. But this, in the main, 
 hes with the will and the intellect of the next generation, and the will and 
 the intellect of the next generation lie in no small measure in the keeping of 
 the teachers of the present. 
 
 MARKEDLY SUPERIOR TEACHERS DEMANDED 
 
 It has become a truism that the Germany of today is the product of the 
 German schoolmasters of yesterday. Just as certainly the America of 
 tomorrow, perhaps the world of tomorrow, will be the product of the Ameri- 
 can teachers of today. What, then, if the American teaching force of today 
 comes to consist of an inferior selection from our present teachers supple- 
 mented by high-school girls of no experience, no special training, of tempo- 
 rary tenure, and only passing interest in their work! What if the prophecy 
 of at least one publisher of textbooks be realized, who has declared that only 
 "fool-proof" textbooks must be publisht in America for the preseiit— for 
 the reason, to use his own words, that "we are going to have to deal with 
 just that type of teacher for the next ten or fifteen years"! Such a pre- 
 diction from an unsentimental business man with an eye to profits should 
 set us thinking. America must not delude herself into believing that she 
 can put her children into the hands of teachers of the "fool-proof text- 
 book" type and yet expect those teachers to turn out a generation of states- 
 men capable of grappling with the problems of what promises to be the most 
 critical period in the social and political history of mankind. To achieve that 
 result the teachers must be, on the contrary, not only not inferior, but mark- 
 edly superior, the best that can be had, not merely in training and intellec- 
 tual equipment, but in character, imagination, and social vision — men and 
 women fitted by virtue of what they are to disseminate the spirit of democ- 
 racy. We must put forever behind us the childish notion that reading, 
 writing, arithmetic, and the rest are all there is to education. For the' 
 genuine purposes of life, these are the incidental products of teaching; its 
 central products are those intangible and imponderable things, that total 
 attitude toward life, which the child takes in, as unconsciously as it takes 
 in the air, from the personality of the teacher as a whole. Woe to the 
 future if that personality be of inferior grade! 
 
 SALARIES BELOW LEVEL OF SUBSISTENCE 
 
 Yet at the present hour, as has been hinted, practically all forces 
 are making in the direction of just such inferiority. There are induce- 
 ments on every hand for the most successful teachers to leave the pro- 
 fession. There are few inducements for those with promise of success to 
 enter it. With the many branches of military service open to the teacher, 
 with hundreds of industrial concerns bidding for the services of men and 
 women with precisely the equipment that the teacher's training gives, and 
 
TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 
 
 with salaries in most of the schools far below even that modest level of 
 subsistence that the teacher has been granted in the past, the profession is 
 bound to undergo, is already undergoing, rapid deterioration. If it be urged 
 that the teacher at this crisis should be patriotic and remain at his post, 
 bearing his part of the sacrifice of the time, the answer is that there is no 
 group of workers in the country who would be less willing, if they could, to 
 escape that sacrifice. They, if anyone, are in a position to know the worth 
 of the thing that is at stake. All they ask is that they shall not be called 
 upon to carry an utterly unjust and crushing share of the burden. All they 
 ask is that they shall be treated in the spirit of President Wilson's recent 
 declaration to Congress that the load the people must shoulder must be 
 equitably placed. "If the burden is justly distributed," were the Presi- 
 dent's words, "and the sacrifice made a common sacrifice from which none 
 escapes who can bear it at all, [the people of this country] will carry it 
 cheerfully and with a sort of solemn pride.'' The teachers of the country 
 subscribe unanimously to that creed, but they also ask to have it applied to 
 their case. If it is not, what will happen to the teaching profession can 
 be predicted with accuracy. The teachers of the country will fall roughly 
 into three classes, classes which were already being defined during the 
 decade and a half of sharp rise in prices prior to 1914. The war merely 
 accelerated enormously their formation. 
 
 POVERTY DETERIORATES THE PROFESSION 
 
 First, there will be what we may call the endowed class. This will be 
 a small one and will be confined in the main to the higher branches of educa- 
 tion. It will consist of a certain number of financially independent persons 
 who will continue teaching because of the pleasure of the work or the 
 intellectual and social prestige flowing from connection with a college or 
 university. However highly we may think of individuals within this 
 group, the idea is repugnant to every democratic instinct we possess of 
 having any part of our educational system pass under what would inevitably 
 become a kind of upper-caste control. 
 
 ^ Second, there will be what, we may call the part-time class. This 
 will consist of an immense nimiber who will give only a share of their time 
 and energy to teaching: who will teach, but who will not expect their 
 teaching salary to support them. Few outside the profession have any 
 idea how largely the teachers of the country already belong to this 
 class, from the many who earn a few dollars on the side or devote what 
 ought to be their period of intellectual recreation, the summer vacation, 
 to other work, to the few who frankly make their teaching incidental and 
 double or treble their salaries by outside work. The effect of this state 
 of affairs on the profession calls for no comment. No man can serve two 
 masters in the vocational world any more than he can in the moral world. 
 The secret of a strong will is undivided attention. No one can calculate the 
 
NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 
 
 degree to which the efficiency of education in this country is already im- 
 paired thru the necessity under which thousands of teachers suffer of doing 
 two things at once. What sort of work would the nation expect of its execu- 
 tives and legislators, of its sailors and soldiers, or of its business men, if 
 after their regular day's labor they were compelled to give their attention 
 to some side line of work to eke out a living income ? Yet that is exactly 
 what the nation seems to expect of a multitude of its teachers. And bad as 
 this part-time condition is at present, it is bound, unless something radical 
 is done, to become immeasurably worse. 
 
 Then there will be a third class of teacher. For it there is no satis- 
 factory name. Were the term not certain to be misunderstood, it might 
 be called the sweated class. Perhaps the exploited class would be less open 
 to objection. This class will consist in part of teachers who, thru age, or 
 poor health, or family responsibilities, or other circumstances over which 
 they have little or no control, will be able neither to escape from the pro- 
 fession nor to add materially on the side to their teaching income, with 
 the result that they will be compelled to take what is offered them and 
 
 >' lower their standard of living accordingly. Such teachers will deserve 
 nothing but sympathy. They will be slaves in outward condition but 
 not in spirit. Much the same will be true of those teachers who, thru a 
 mistaken sense of duty, combined with ignorance of political economy, 
 remain at their desks when they could leave them. But this will not be 
 the case with what it is to be hoped will prove a small group of teachers 
 who, with both power to do otherwise and knowledge of the consequences 
 of their choice, will accept a standard of living below the minimum of what 
 makes genuine human life, as distinguisht from mere living, possible. 
 Surely it is to be hoped that the time may never come when the teacher 
 will not be willing to live simply. A certain austerity of life befits his posi- 
 tion of spiritual leadership as it does that of the minister. But simplicity 
 is one thing and a poverty that stunts the soul is another — and at the 
 opposite pole. The teacher who submits to such poverty voluntarily is a 
 slave in spirit as well as in outward fact, and his act degrades not only his 
 own profession but the working world as a whole as certainly as child labor, 
 
 y, or coolie labor, or convict labor, degrades it. 
 
 LOW SALARIES HARM THE CHILD 
 
 And even if poverty did not injure the teacher and his fellow-workers, 
 how could it fail thru him to harm the child under his care ? How can he 
 whose function is to awaken life perform that function when life, in the sense 
 of something above mere subsistence, is denied him ? And how, on the other 
 hand, can the child be expected to have respect for the things of the mind 
 when he sees those who have devoted a lifetime to them refused the reason- 
 able comforts of existence ? " Why should I go into teaching," a high-school 
 girl is reported to have askt an aunt who was urging her to adopt her own 
 
TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LI VI NO 
 
 vocation, "Why should I go into teaching when I can get two dollars and a 
 half a day more than you are getting after teaching twenty years?" 
 " Why should / want an education ? " a boy who had left school for the mines 
 is said to have retorted smilingly to the teacher who was trying to impress 
 on him the need of a high-school education for success in life, "Why 
 should I want an education ? Why, my dear teacher, I'm making a good 
 deal more than you are, now." What could the teacher say? No one in 
 his senses desires to measure the value of truth in dollars. But you will 
 never convince the rising generation that knowledge is power while it 
 beholds so many of the professional dispensers of knowledge in a state of 
 virtual slavery. 
 
 These then are the three classes — an endowed class, a part-time class, a 
 sweated or servile class. These are the divisions into which the American 
 teaching profession will split up if some radical remedy is not adopted. Is 
 this country willing to have its schools, which it has long pointed to with 
 pride as the source of its democracy, pass into the hands of an endowed 
 class, or a part-time class, or a slave class ? If it does, democracy in 
 America deserves to perish. And it will perish. 
 
 What, then, is the remedy ? 
 
 There is just one remedy — tho there may seem to be two, owing to the 
 two quite opposite ways thru which it may be attained. 
 
 THE SOCIAL NEED FOR HIGHER SALARIES 
 
 But before coming to the remedy and the methods of attaining it, let us 
 notice what, emphatically, is not the remedy. The remedy is not to raise 
 teachers' salaries sporadically, here a little and there a little, 25 per cent in 
 this enlightened city, 5 per cent in that benighted one, $500 a year in some 
 industrially booming section where teachers have grown scarce, $50 a 
 year in some out-of-the-way corner of the land where supply and demand in 
 teachers has not been perceptibly affected. "Supply and demand" — 
 that goes to the heart of the matter. The critical situation of our schools 
 will never be genuinely remedied so long as teachers' services are regarded as a 
 commodity to he purchast at the cheapest obtainable rate in the open market. 
 That, in too many places, is the present attitude toward the teacher. That 
 attitude must end, or our democracy will end. The teacher must come 
 to be taken for what he is : a public servant, performing a task of unsurpassed 
 importance to the nation, and on that account just as fully entitled to 
 adequate compensation, or its equivalent, as the soldier, the legislator, or 
 the judge. From the kindergarten to the university the teaching pro- 
 fession in America must be lifted, wherever it has fallen below it, to a level 
 that will command for it the full respect of the community and attract 
 into its ranks men and women of the first order. This demand would 
 have been imperative, it is important to notice, even tho the war had not 
 come to complicate matters. The problems of negro and alien education, 
 
NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 
 
 to mention no others, especially the presence among us of thousands of 
 foreigners who could not speak a word of English, were questions that, 
 prior to 19 14, were pressing for solution. The single staggering fact, brought 
 out in a recent letter of Secretary Lane to the President of the United States, 
 that there were in the United States in 1910 more than five and a half million 
 persons over the age of ten who could neither read nor write in any language, 
 shows better than anything else how incredibly far the country had fallen 
 short, under the free and easy method of regarding teachers' services as a 
 commodity, of creating a genuinely democratic system of education. 
 
 THE NATION MUST RESCUE ITS SCHOOLS 
 
 All this is simply a way of saying that education is a national matter. 
 The man who denies that at this hour is not worth listening to. The man 
 who denies that education is a national matter is capable of denying that 
 our Army and Navy are national matters, of thinking that our states and 
 towns and cities, left to themselves, could carry on the war. Which is 
 not to imply for a moment that education is merely a national matter. May 
 the time never come when the people in this locality or that lose control over 
 the teaching of their own children. But the child is of concern to a wider 
 region than the place in which he is born ; and the wealth of a community 
 is no measure of the promise of its human material. Can we permit boys 
 and girls of rare gifts, not to mention average boys and girls, just because 
 they happen to have been born on the outskirts of the country to have only 
 the outskirts of an education? Those boys and girls are the nation's 
 highest assets. The nation must do its share toward bearing the burden of 
 their training. The nation, the state, and the locality each has its func- 
 tion. The nation, either directly or thru the states, must subsidize and 
 stimulate the struggling community, holding it meanwhile to the highest 
 standards; the state, up to the limit of its power, must do the same; while 
 the locality must be lookt to to preserve the principles of variety and indi- 
 viduality against the encroachments of too great centralization. Just 
 now, however, it is the nation that must take the initiative and lead the 
 way — if for no other reason than because, at a moment when immediate 
 action is half the battle, legal and constitutional restrictions tie the hands of 
 many of the states and threaten a delay that will be fatal. 
 
 But suppose the nation cannot be made to see its duty. Then there is 
 only one other way, the second of the two methods already mentioned: 
 the teachers, by concerted action and the application of the principle of 
 collective bargaining, must compel the nation to wake up. 
 
 But surely this will not be necessary. The war is training the national 
 imagination to see things on a new scale. It is no longer a day when we 
 say, "This ought to be done. We will do it, provided we can get the money. ^' 
 It is a day rather when we say of whatever is vital to the public welfare, 
 "Let this be done." And then we get the money. 
 
TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 
 
 It is a day of big things. It is preeminently a day when those who are 
 serving the state must be granted the right of way. The teachers of the 
 country are not only serving the state now; they have been serving it all 
 their lives. They are the captains of the army of understanding: not alone 
 of that technical understanding upon which military victory depends, but of 
 that larger human understanding upon which depends the whole hope and 
 future of the world. If we spend billions to save the world, can we not 
 spend millions to make the world worth saving ? If we pour forth our 
 treasure without stint to those who shape our steel and iron, can we not 
 grant at least a living wage to those who are molding our life itself ? The 
 nation must come to the rescue of its schools. For a nation without educa- 
 tion is a coast without a lighthouse. 
 
 TEACHERS' SALARIES AND THE COST OF LIVING, 1918 
 
 INCREASE IN THE COST OF LIVING 
 
 In 1913 the Committee of the National Education Association on 
 Teachers' Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions publisht an extended report 
 which subsequently has been widely circulated and effectively used thruout 
 the country. The last year for which figures were obtainable at the time of 
 the completion of this report was 19 11. From the latter year until near 
 the end of 1915 there was a slow upward movement of prices, both whole- 
 sale and retail, in the United States. So gradual was this movement, 
 however, that it did not justify any large revision of the conclusions reached 
 in the report of 1913. During the years 1916 and 1917, however, there 
 has occurred an extremely rapid rise of prices, a rise so great and so sudden 
 that it makes imperative a new and thorogoing study of the whole situation 
 as it affects the teachers of the country. 
 
 The skyrocketing of prices which we are now experiencing is graphically 
 presented in Chart I,' herewith, which shows the movement in the wholesale 
 market of the United States from 1890 to 1917 inclusive. From 1890 to 
 1897 prices declined. Between the latter low-level year and 191 1, the 
 last year for which figures were available when our earlier report was pre- 
 pared, there was an increase of 44. i per cent in wholesale prices. The year 
 
 1912 showed an increase of 6.5 per cent over 191 1, but during the years 
 
 1913 and 1914 wholesale prices actually declined slightly. For 1915 they 
 were still slightly lower than for 1912. But the two succeeding years show 
 an upward rush that dwarfs all movements recorded during the whole 
 period of twenty-seven years. To illustrate: From 1897, the year of lowest 
 prices, to 1915, wholesale prices advanst 51.6 per cent, an average of less 
 than 3 per cent a year. During the two years from 1915 to 1917 alone 
 they advanst 42.8 per cent, an average of 21.4 per cent a year. To put 
 the matter in another way, the upward movement of prices has been more 
 
 ' This chart brings down to date the diagram presented on p. s. National Education Association Report 
 on Salaries and Cost of Living, 1913. 
 
lO 
 
 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 
 
 than seven times as rapid during the last two years as it was during the 
 preceding eighteen years of increasing wholesale quotations. The fact may 
 seem astounding, but it is none the less true that wholesale prices in the 
 United States were more than two and one-half times, exactly 2 . 65, higher 
 in 19 1 7 than they were twenty years earlier. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CHART 
 
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 INDEX NUMBERS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 RELATIVE RR/CES OR 
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 y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \, 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 90 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 70 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 OOCO COCOOO 000000 cooo 
 
 From the point of view of the teacher the significance of these figures is 
 unmistakable. Taking the country as a whole, strenuous efforts were 
 necessary to keep salaries advancing as rapidly as prices during the period 
 of comparatively slow upward movement. Not always indeed was the 
 advance of income kept even with the necessary increase of expenditure. 
 But to meet an upward rush so rapid as that from the beginning of 19 16 on, 
 it is manifest that almost superhuman efforts must be put forth. It was 
 
TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 
 
 II 
 
 hard to climb to the summit of the PeHon of high prices reacht in the years 
 iQii to 1915. Now suddenly Ossa has been heapt upon Pelion, and the 
 teachers of the country must begin a vastly more difficult climb. 
 
 Some further analysis of the developments of the last two years is neces- 
 sary. First, it may be noted that figures dealing wth retail prices confirm 
 
 CHART II 
 
 i8s 
 180 
 17s 
 170 
 
 i6s 
 160 
 ISS 
 ISO 
 
 145 
 
 •5 140 
 
 130 
 
 I 25 
 
 
 -■ 
 
 T 
 
 
 IT I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 1 1 INDEX /VC 
 
 /MBERS j 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 i' FtET-y^/L Pt 
 
 R/CCS \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 j^v£/RAOc roR ya 
 
 ARS ISII-/7 /NCL. 
 
 
 
 
 
 By iioNrMs 1 
 
 0/3->7//WCi.. 1 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 fVMrX*' RC*tC*V-auMCMJ 
 
 ' i-Aao*t OK^narica , { 
 
 j_L 
 
 
 
 
 1 1 1 
 
 
 ""T ' " 
 
 
 
 
 T 1 if 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ji 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 1 
 
 Xlli- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , r , , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 ....JI4I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lj I-- -- 
 
 1 .. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 _ 
 
 
 
 
 
 T 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 __..4. 
 
 :::::::::::+::::::::: :::r:::: 
 
 
 
 
 
 T t .' ^ 
 
 
 
 
 1 _ 1 1 .. .1 
 
 
 
 
 
 i ii Jit 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 1! 
 
 " """'t T ' 
 
 
 
 "1 T""":r::::iiii 
 
 _^ .. ..| 1 _ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 ::::::;.::: 
 
 IIIIIMIIII 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 T ^.\ ::::::::: \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 T ^-' 
 
 
 
 
 
 Stt-t^-J^^ 
 
 
 
 
 /H 1 
 
 J \ !/ 
 
 
 
 
 1 /' l\ 
 
 T^ 1\ / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i.airi i\/ 
 
 / '" I'V'ii! 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ J-l 
 
 
 
 
 J i i'i 
 
 It ' 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 li 
 
 1 1 Tr I ± L T TT ' 
 
 IQI4 
 
 Years 
 
 igi6 
 
 the observations made with regard to wholesale prices during this period. 
 Thus in the case of the retail prices of twenty- two principal articles of food, 
 the general level for December, 19 17, as shown by the figures of the United 
 States Bureau of Labor,' is 50 per cent higher than for December, 1915. 
 
 » These statements are based upon figures presented by the monthly review, February, 1918, of the 
 Bureau of Labor Statistics, United States Department of Labor, (see Chart II). The March number of this 
 review shows that on January 15, 1918, the retail price of food had made a further increase above the level for 
 December 15, 1917, of 2 per cent. 
 
12 
 
 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 
 
 Chart III shows in detail the movement of wholesale prices by months 
 from January, 1913, to December, 1917. The figures upon, which it is 
 based cover 296 commodities of all kinds, including farm products, food, 
 cloths and clothing, fuel and lighting, nietals and metal products, lumber 
 
 CHART III 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 "T[ .— ^.......— - 
 
 
 iSs 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 K;:: 
 
 180 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 [\\ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I7S 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 TfiS 
 
 
 
 
 /A/0£\ N 
 
 UMBERS j 
 
 
 
 
 
 """I WHOLESAU. 
 
 7 PRICES H [hi \ 
 
 160 
 
 
 
 
 AVERAOe FOR rEAf\ 
 
 'S 49//-/r//'^CLC/S/V£ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 uc3rtjtsaftamr/orK3 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 reo-mta./* 
 
 wwr« '' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 150 
 
 
 
 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ... . ... X- --4 - -- 
 
 145 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 :::::::::::::::::t: :::::::::::: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .. .. t 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 __j_ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 " -- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,=^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 f -t 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . .. ._ y _ ... .. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 _/.\ - + .,.„ji.j^. - 
 
 100 
 
 _ ": „..,<:..:ur 
 
 
 
 
 Itv / ^1>M 1 
 
 , .:. z.Vj^.7\' if 
 
 
 \.' T «;:: 
 
 ?:::? !!_:_._.!. 
 
 95 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 \ 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 t 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 < •2. O 
 
 1914 
 Years 
 
 IQl6 
 
 and building materials, drugs and chemicals, house-furnishing goods, and 
 miscellaneous articles. An increase of the cost of such basic materials 
 must of course be reflected in the retail prices of all commodities derived 
 from them. The general level of wholesale prices is shown by these figures 
 of the Bureau of Labor to be not less than 72 per cent higher in December, 
 1917, than in December, 1915. 
 
TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 
 
 13 
 
 "This increase (of wholesale prices) has been particularly great," 
 according to the Bureau of Labor, "among farm products, foods, clothing, 
 metal products, drugs, and chemicals" — all articles, with the exception of 
 metal products, which enter largely into the teacher's budget. Some of 
 
 CHART IV 
 
 27° ■ M i 1 ||!l f 1 
 
 ^ .„._.II 1 llil!.Ttll t t 
 
 s6o ^ ^n^ 1 ^ .ir , - ■ - -- -^ 
 
 _L_[ ' 1 ' 1 
 
 
 250 pp T --- - --^ - __ ,__.__ _j_ . 
 
 
 240 — ■ -|- 
 
 
 230 " ' ' ----- -- - - . . ... 
 
 
 
 1_ ^WHOLESALE PR/CES j 
 
 ^^^ 1 aro^foups or cof^MOo/nes ^ 
 
 
 l.UMO£R S aa/LOZ/VG /t^TC/ffAl. —— — 
 
 
 190 1 ■srmr/sncs—jneOk/a¥9,^*m»^^ ' \ 
 
 , ..i:::::::::::::::::::::::::: --------/- ii"T'1 
 
 
 + + 1 ^._ — +4.-4- A 
 
 170 -- -- ---(- --- - - -■}-- +--' — - — --- - 
 
 ^_ . -_, L L- . .t. _ J.. 1 _,! 
 
 Tt TT ?^ i 
 
 . ' li ^ j_ -L J 
 
 ^ ' - ' ' 
 
 ''° ..::::;::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::":":'i""""1/ : 1""" 
 
 ,_ J .,. J. 1 1 
 
 140 /'J — " tt 
 
 T 1' 1 1 /'" 
 
 130 -j-+ - ------ --, — ^. . _. 4 — _ _. .. ... 
 
 T t ■ t 1,1 
 
 "° -::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::;::::i;±::;Lt:::::::::::::::::::::::"'"" 
 
 ^ . / / ^ 
 
 "° -:::...:.:t::::_..:::tt' :::ttr'-?">' t 
 
 
 t-i---. c ^ ^^-v y 1 
 
 
 -.,.-... .,,„,,-_-.-^^ j 
 
 
 \-^' """ l"" "" -^ 
 
 
 
 1916 
 
 Years 
 
 igi8 
 
 the details of the movements of wholesale prices by special groups of 
 commodities are shown in Charts IV and V. Thus from December, 1915, 
 to December, 191 7, lumber and building materials advanst 39. i per cent, 
 fuel and lighting 59 . 3 per cent, food 66 . 6 per cent, house furnishings 73 . 2 
 per cent, cloths and clothing 92.5 per cent, and farm products, 98.1 per 
 cent. 
 
14 
 
 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 
 
 It is a matter of common knowledge that there has been no recession of 
 prices in the few months which have elapst since December, 1917, and this 
 popular impression is confirmed by Bradstreet's index numbers, which are 
 obtainable for a more recent date than the figures furnished by the govern- 
 
 CHART V 
 
 H^ < ^ O ^ < A 
 I9I3 
 
 o 
 
 
 •c >. ^ 
 
 ft -g o 
 
 < K=. O 
 
 1916 
 Years 
 
 ^ St ^ X 
 •-. < I-, O 
 
 ^ O ^ < A O 
 
 1918 
 
 ment. Bradstreet's figures are based upon ninety-six different commodities, 
 including many kinds of food products, thirteen metals, eleven chemicals 
 and drugs, seven building materials, and numerous other articles. For 
 December, 191 7, this authority quoted an index number of 17.5962. On 
 May I, 19 18, it had advanst to 18.9133. This means a price increase of 
 very nearly 7^ per cent within a period of five months. 
 
TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 1 5 
 
 With the continuance of the war, in all probability new higher levels will 
 be recorded. Further increases as rapid as those of 1916 and 1917 are by 
 no means impossible. Even after the termination of the war it is probable 
 that prices will remain high during the subsequent years of readjustment 
 and reconstruction. For an indefinitely long period, perhaps from fifty 
 to one hundred years, the payment of interest and sinking-fund charges on 
 war debts will continue to exert an effect upon the level of world-prices. 
 
 There is consequently slight ground, if any, for the expectation that 
 prices may decline as rapidly as they have advanst during the last two years. 
 On the contrary, every circumstance indicates that they will continue to 
 increase indefinitely and remain fixt at a high level for a considerable period 
 thereafter. Teachers and others with fixt incomes must deal with the 
 situation from this point of view, or else prepare to suffer a further reduc- 
 tion of real wages, i.e., purchasing power of salary, in addition to the 
 severe losses already inflicted upon them by the price movements of the 
 last two years. 
 
 WIDENING OPPORTUNITIES FOR EMPLOYMENT 
 
 Coincident with the rapid increase in wholesale and retail prices in 
 19 16 and 19 1 7 has occurred a tremendous expansion of the demand for the 
 services not only of men but of women as well. Men have volunteered 
 and have been drafted by the hundreds of thousands for our new Army and 
 Navy. Back of those in the fighting line such directly auxiliary industries 
 as shipbuilding, transportation, and the innumerable branches of munitions 
 production have absorbed a large part of the labor force of the country. 
 For the latter purposes, shipbuilding, transportation, and munitions pro- 
 duction, the supply of men has not been adequate. At least industries of 
 this character are making vigorous and systematic efforts to enlist women as 
 workers. More recently agriculture has begun to bid, almost frantically, 
 for the services of women. 
 
 Upon the teaching profession the effects of higher prices and wider 
 opportunities for employment have been complementary and cumulative. 
 Of course the results are more markt in industrial than in agricultural 
 districts, but they are apparent to a considerable degree the country over. 
 Higher prices prevail generally, even if wider opportunities for employ- 
 ment are more or less localized. Fairly well-defined cases in which teachers 
 have been forst out of the schools by sheer inability to meet the increasing 
 cost of living are of common occurrence. Far more numerous, however, 
 are the cases in which the lure of high wages in industrial undertakings, 
 with the hope of future rapid increases, has led teachers to give up their 
 profession. 
 
 As tangible illustrations the following cases may be cited from a city 
 which had a population of 38,537 in 19 10, and which, as a consequence 
 of its rapid industrial development, particularly along the lines of ship- 
 
i6 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 
 
 building and the manufacture of munitions, now claims from 60,000 to 
 75,000 or more. The city referred to is in the center of the Philadelphia 
 shipbuilding district. An investigation of this district just made by the 
 Bureau of Labor Statistics in cooperation with the Shipbuilding Wage 
 Adjustment Board and the Emergency Fleet Corporation shows that 
 expenditures per family for clothing" showed an increase in 191 7 of 51.33 
 per cent over 19 14; expenditures for furniture and furnishings an increase 
 of 49.84 per cent, for food of 54.41 per cent, for housing of 2.60^ per cent, 
 for fuel and light of 21.54 per cent, for miscellaneous purposes of 43.81 
 per cent. For the whole 512 families studied, expenditures in 1917 showed 
 an increase of 43 . 81 per cent over those for 19 14. It is from a community 
 of this character, with a rapidly increasing population and with industrial 
 wages also rising rapidly, that the following actual cases have been taken. 
 
 A fifth-grade woman teacher, of ten years' experience, salary $682 . 50 a 
 year ($65.00 per month, 10^ months a year), accepted a clerical position 
 in a shipbuilding establishment at $1144.00 a year ($22.00 per week, 52 
 weeks a year). 
 
 A special teacher of drawing in intermediate grades, at a salary of 
 $682 . 50 per year ($65 . 00 per month, io| months a year), accepted a clerical 
 position, taking charge of pay-rolls, in a shipbuilding establishment at a 
 salary of $900.00 per year ($75.00 per month, 12 months a year). This 
 teacher, a woman of thirty-seven years of age, had taught successfully for 
 fifteen years. Her only preparation for a business career was a brief course 
 which she had once taken in a business school and two summers spent as 
 bookkeeper at a summer hotel. Nevertheless her services were welcomed 
 by the shipbuilding company and an increase was promist beyond her initial 
 salary of $900.00. 
 
 A drawing supervisor, woman, of nine years' experience, salary $1050 . 00 
 per year ($100 . 00 per month, io| months per year), accepted a position with 
 a large chemical concern at a salary of $1250.00 per year, with a further 
 increase of $200.00 per year promist. 
 
 A woman teacher in the grades, thirty-four years old, of ten years' 
 experience, salary $577.50 ($55.00 per month, io| months per year), had 
 taught in a school in the Italian section of the city where she had given most 
 useful service and was greatly beloved by the children and parents. She 
 possest the qualifications not only of a teacher but of a social worker as 
 well. Fond of her profession, she attended summer session in normal school 
 at her own expense for two years to secure a higher certificate. Altho 
 anxious to continue teaching she found it impossible to maintain a standard 
 of living under stress of the higher prices of 19 16 and 19 17. Very reluctantly 
 she accepted a position in the office of a shipbuilding concern, at a salary of 
 
 ■ The small percentage of increase for housing is probably due to the fact that these families have resided 
 in the district studied for some time. As old tenants their rents have not been raised so rapidly as in the case 
 of newcomers. Certainly it is true that rentals of many properties in this city have advanst 50 to 100 per cent 
 since 1914. 
 
TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 17 
 
 $1040.00 a year. She found readjustment to new duties less difficult than 
 she had anticipated, and she is under no such strain or responsibility in her 
 new work as in the schoolroom of a crowded foreign section of the city.' 
 
 In addition to the demands of shipbuilding and munition making, the 
 teachers of the city referred to above have recently received a blank form, 
 sent out by one of the largest railroad corporations in the country, inquir- 
 ing into any qualifications they may possess for any form of railroad work 
 and requesting them to register for possible future employment. One 
 interesting question propounded in the inquiry blank is, "If satisfied, will 
 you remain in the service of the company ?" 
 
 To meet the probable resignation of experienst teachers in this com- 
 munity and in others similarly circumstanst, it was proposed at the superin- 
 tendents' convention recently held in Atlantic City that girls who have just 
 graduated from high school might be employed, in case they could spend a 
 summer in pedagogical preparation. After meeting the expense thus en- 
 tailed those able and willing to do so might receive appointments at $45.00 
 per month, payable 10^ months annually.^ Considering that in this com- 
 munity there is eager competition among a number of large industrial con- 
 cerns for the services of unskilled women workers at wages of from $15.00 
 to $18.00 per week, and that girl munition workers of slight experience may 
 easily earn $20.00 per week on a piecework basis, it does not seem likely 
 that there will be any great demand, even by scantily prepared high-school 
 graduates, for teaching positions. In rural communities, doubtless, this 
 kind of teaching material would be more largely available. 
 
 In this connection a story recently circulated regarding the attitude of a 
 publishing house engaged largely in the textbook business shows what may 
 be expected in the near future. A representative of this publishing firm, 
 delegated especially to visit college and university professors and ascertain 
 what texts they were producing or could be induced to write, was recently 
 met with the query, "What sort of books does your firm want?" To this 
 the agent of the publishing house replied: 
 
 We are not in the slightest doubt as to what kind of te.\tbooks we want for the near 
 future. We want the most elementary treatises that can be written. We want A-B-C 
 books. Books that presuppose a minimum of intelligence on the part of the teachers. 
 Books that will teach themselves. In short, fool-proof books. And we want this kind 
 of textbook because we realize that with present prices and present salaries we are going 
 to have to deal with just that type of teacher for the ne.xt ten or fifteen years. 
 
 The same problem, from a wholly different angle, is suggested by the 
 story of a high-school girl who was encouraged by her aunt to continue her 
 education in college so as to prepare for teaching. The aunt had been 
 teaching some twenty years and was getting only about $500 a year as a 
 
 ■ The cases of individual teachers cited above were supplied by Miss Lillian Dannaker, supervising 
 principal, Chester Schools, Larkin School Building. 
 
 ' In Pennsylvania the minimum state salary for provisional certificate is $45.00. 
 
NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 
 
 salary. The young high-school girl replied to her aunt, "Why should I 
 go to college to prepare to be a teacher when I can get right now by working 
 in a mill more than you are making when you have been teaching for twenty 
 years ? " The high-school girl might have added that she could get employ- 
 ment the year around in a mill and could get employment for only eight or 
 nine months in school teaching. The superintendent of schools at Benld, 
 111., reports that he excuses two or three boys in the grades at three o'clock 
 every day to work on the "second shift" at the mines. They work from 
 3.30 to 11.30 P.M., make $3 to $5, and attend school also. Mr. Elmer 
 Coatney, a teacher in the Benld Township High School, recently urged a 
 boy who had left school to work at the mine to return to school. He 
 endeavored to convince the boy of the need and value of an education. But 
 the boy replied, "Mr. Coatney, I am making more money without an educa- 
 tion than you are making with one." This is the truth, although Mr. 
 Coatney is paid $100 a month, which is more than the average wages of 
 high-school teachers iii that locality. 
 
 Remember that these districts are doing the best they can under the 
 present legal limitations on the tax rate. 
 
 As a result of the increast demand for their services a spirit of unrest, 
 entirely natural under the circumstances, has taken possession of the teach- 
 ing staff of many cities. There is a widespread inclination to try out the 
 opportunities for industrial employment during the coming summer. 
 Those who find the change advantageous will resign within the time limit 
 fixed in their contracts toward the end of the coming vacation. Not until 
 schools reopen in the fall of this year, therefore, will the full extent of the 
 industrial draft be apparent. 
 
 Only a part of those who experiment with industrial employment will 
 abandon the profession of teaching. A comparison of the advantages and 
 disadvantages of the two methods of earning a livelihood may throw some 
 light on the probable number of resignations from the teaching staffs of 
 industrial centers. In most business establishments the hours of work are 
 from 8 : 00 a.m. to 5 : 00 p.m., with one hour for lunch. The hours which the 
 teacher is required to spend in the classroom are indeed much shorter, but 
 when one counts in the additional duties performed by a teacher out of 
 hours — such as preparing lessons, grading papers, and meeting the innumer- 
 able professional demands, direct and indirect,^ upon her time — the advan- 
 tage which she enjoys in this respect is comparatively slight. Moreover, it 
 is generally admitted that the nervous strain ajid burden of responsibihty 
 carried by the industrial worker of corresponding salary are much lighter. 
 Of course the teacher's vacation periods are considerably longer than those 
 which are customary in industry. However, industrial employes are some- 
 times given full pay for the customary two weeks allowed during the 
 
 ■ See "The Teacher's Working Day," Report of the Committee on Teachers' Salaries and Cost of Living, 
 pp. 138-56. Publisht by the National Education Association in 1913. 
 
TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 19 
 
 summer. True, the teacher has two months or so of summer vacation, but 
 without pay, and if dependent wholly on her own resources she sometimes 
 finds it difl&cult to meet current expenditures during this period. More- 
 over, required professional training in summer schools, normal schools, 
 etc., makes considerable inroads into the apparently long vacation she 
 enjoys. 
 
 Much is made, perhaps too much, of the alleged better social position 
 enjoyed by the teacher as compared with the industrial employe. However, 
 a better social position without the means of maintaining the standard of I 
 living associated therewith in the public mind becomes a burden rather thanr"'^ 
 an advantage. Often it leads to pitiful little economies, unworthy shifts 
 and devices that harm one's health, lame one's self-esteem, and reveal 
 themselves to the scornful laughter of the prosperous and unfeeling. 
 
 Much has been made also of the greater social service rendered by the 
 teacher. It is a thoroly justifiable appeal, perhaps the highest that can 
 be made to those qualified for the duties of our profession, and in response 
 to this appeal such heroines of real life as Deborah of Ernest Poole's His 
 Family will continue to give themselves to the care of their big school 
 families. But this is no longer the age of asceticism. Nor is there any 
 necessary logical connection between the call of social service and poverty. 
 Finally it must be emphasized that at the present time and so long as the 
 war shall last many industries may make a direct and energetic appeal to 
 the patriotism of their workers, just as the teaching profession has always 
 done. This is preeminently true of farming, shipbuilding, and the many 
 branches of munitions making. The former advantage which teaching 
 enjoyed in its broad appeal for patriotic and social service is therefore 
 shared for the time being by many industries which are competing for the 
 services of teachers. 
 
 Finally, when it comes to a comparison of tangible rewards all the 
 advantages are on the side of industrial work. The latter usually ofifers 
 a substantial increase at the beginning over the salary of the teacher. 
 It may not offer such security of tenure as teaching, but for an indefinitely 
 long period in the future industry as a whole is likely to expand. Besides 
 larger initial salaries, promotions in industrial employment are likely to 
 come more frequently, and when they do come they usually bring with them 
 much more substantial increases of salary than those promist by the average 
 schedule of teachers' salaries, with its theoretically admirable but personally 
 somewhat invidious groups, grading, experience, and efficiency ratings. At 
 a time like the present, with new higher price levels recorded from day to day, 
 the likeUhood of occasional substantial raises of pay possesses an appeal 
 much stronger than during periods of stable prices. All things considered, 
 therefore, industrial employers are in a position to make a much stronger bid 
 for the services of teachers than ever before. And the economic qualities of 
 teachers are precisely such as to make them especially desirable employes. 
 
20 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 
 
 They possess a greater share of native intelHgence than most applicants 
 for such positions; their education is considerably better; they do not 
 expect to maintain excessively high standards of living and consequently 
 are satisfied with moderate salaries; and finally they are thoroly dependable 
 workers, capable of accepting heavy responsibilities and trained to stick to a 
 job until it is completed. In the light of these admirable industrial qualities 
 it is not strange that various kinds of business have begun to seek recruits 
 for their working forces from the ranks of school teachers. 
 
 THE QUESTION OF METHOD 
 
 The two factors already considered, rapidly increasing prices and 
 widened opportunities for employment, have brought about an acute 
 economic crisis so far as teachers are concerned. They, are inexorably 
 forcing out some teachers, while many others are being attracted into 
 business enterprises by the lure of new industrial opportunities. 
 
 Under the stress of these economic forces the question of the unioniza- 
 tion of teachers has naturally come into prominence; indeed, such a move- 
 ment for the union of teachers in affiliation with the American Federation 
 of Labor has recently been making rapid progress. Nowhere is this more 
 apparent than in the city of Washington. In Washington teachers have 
 been drafted from the schools into many branches of the civil service by the 
 simple process of taking civil service examinations. Teachers whose 
 minimum salary is $500 are metamorphosed into government clerks at a 
 salary of $1200. The result, not unnaturally, has been a demand for a 
 large increase of teachers' salaries, say from the minimum of $500 to $1000. 
 This demand has been presented very ably and effectively by the unions of 
 school teachers in Washington, and they have organized in its behalf a 
 very effective and sympathetic propaganda. 
 
 The movement has spread rapidly. Of recent date, a roster of local 
 unions includes the names of twenty-four such bodies. Not only large 
 cities such as New York, Chicago, and Washington are represented, but also 
 cities of the second class such as Chattanooga, Scranton, Schenectady, 
 Gary, Valparaiso, Norfolk, Va., and Vallejo, Calif. The literature of the 
 unionist organizations is conservative in tone. One need not be disturbed 
 by the fear that they will resort to undignified and violent measures. 
 Unions formed of American teachers may be depended upon to pursue a 
 wise, patient, and purely democratic policy. Moreover, what the teachers 
 of the country are asking of the people— their ultimate employers— is not 
 askt in selfishness but in the widest interest of the people themselves. 
 Public schools are the chief bulwark of liberty. If the teachers of the 
 country are ruined economically the schools will fail and democracy itself 
 will be imperiled. 
 
 The economic crisis which confronts teachers now is so great and so 
 immediate that it seems altogether unlikely that the advocacy of higher 
 
TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 21 
 
 salaries for teachers is likely to be overdone in the near future. It is true 
 that agitation for wage increases during war times should be made only 
 after due deliberation and on the most compelling grounds. But it is 
 certain that the teachers of the country are justified in taking such action 
 at the present time. Nor is there the least likelihood that such increases as 
 they may secure will be unduly high. In no sense will teachers become 
 war profiteers. On the contrary the strongest cooperation of all effective 
 means for the raising of salaries will hardly avail to secure adequate results 
 even to the extent of restoring to them the purchasing power which they 
 possest in 19 15. 
 
 While many of us are strongly inclined to favor agitation within strictly 
 professional lines rather than along the lines associated with the labor 
 movement, we must recognize, however, that in certain communities the 
 union method may be the better method. At least we must be prepared 
 to welcome the cooperation of the new method in every feasible way. The 
 National Education Association should therefore make special study of 
 the progress of unionism among teachers, the methods employed, and the 
 possibilities of cooperation therewith, and publish a report on these topics 
 for the guidance of its members and teachers everywhere in dealing with 
 this new form of organization. Manifestly in thqse communities where 
 teachers' unions are formed such unions are likely to become very effective 
 centers for propaganda in favor of higher salaries for teachers. Merely by 
 cooperating with the unions along statistical lines the National Education 
 Association should be able to render valuable service without unnecessarily 
 indorsing all the methods which the unions may decide to use in furthering 
 their own interests. 
 
 At the present moment the three great material issues confronting 
 teachers, namely, salaries, tenure, and pensions, have shifted largely in 
 importance, as compared with the year 19 14. Of the three, salaries are 
 much the most important and are likely to remain so for an indefinitely 
 long time. As for tenure, instead of teachers worrying about that subject, 
 it is the school boards and superintendents of the country who have to 
 worry lest they may not be able to retain their teaching staffs. With 
 teachers leaving in large numbers for industrial and other employment, 
 pensions cease to be of any great interest for the time being. The situa- 
 tion is a difl&cult one. Only by boldly and resourcefully standing out as 
 leader of the teaching profession in this emergency can the National Educa- 
 tion Association justify its existence and guarantee its future. Indeed it 
 is only by such a policy, pushed suflSiciently to secure large advances of 
 salary, that the National Education Association can hold teachers to the 
 professional point of view and to professional methods of taking action in 
 their own interest and the interest of the community. Otherwise unionism 
 will dominate the situation, as indeed it should if it proves the only means 
 to rescue the teaching profession from economic deterioration. For it 
 
NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 
 
 must be rescued from the impending bankruptcy if it is to continue to 
 perform the great, aye, the indispensable, function which has been intrusted 
 to it by the democracy of America. 
 
 HOW IS THE MONEY TO BE OBTAINED TO PAY ADEQUATE 
 SALARIES TO TEACHERS? 
 
 How is the money to be obtained to pay adequate salaries to teachers ? 
 The 19 13 report of the Committee of the National Education Association 
 on Teachers' Salaries and Cost of Living proved in detail, what many would 
 have been willing to admit without asking for figures, that even before 
 the war the teachers of the country were inadequately paid. But the war, 
 as the preceding section of the present report amply demonstrates, has 
 turned a situation that was bad into one that is critical. Something imme- 
 diate and radical must be done or there is danger of educational collapse. 
 
 School officials, as a rule, recognize this danger and are willing enough 
 to pay better salaries to teachers. But their pertinent question is, "Where 
 is the money to come from?" This is a practical problem that must be 
 answered in a practical way. Before taking it up it is desirable to know how 
 much money will be required, first, to meet the needs of our existing school 
 system in the present emergency; secondly, to extend the scope of public 
 education to meet twentieth-century demands; and, thirdly, to pay adequate 
 salaries to the teachers. It is necessary also to know what has aheady been 
 done toward obtaining the necessary funds. 
 
 In order that the committee might have up-to-date information con- 
 cerning what has been done, and opinions from all over the country as to 
 what should be done, the following questions were sent to each state super- 
 intendent. 
 
 1. About what percentage of increase of teachers' salaries, including supervisors 
 and city, town, and county superintendents, is necessary to meet present war conditions: 
 
 a) Elementary and rural teachers ? 
 
 b) Other persons engaged in public-school work ? 
 
 2. Approximate amount expended for salaries in your state according to last report: 
 a) Raised by local taxation. 
 
 h) Appropriated by the state. 
 
 3. Are the laws of your state such that local communities can levy and collect suffi- 
 cient funds to pay adequate salaries to teachers: 
 
 a) In rural communities ? 
 
 b) In towns and smaller cities ? 
 
 c) In large cities ? 
 
 4. Are there adequate funds available for additional state support ? 
 
 5. State briefly the means that are being taken in your state to secure adequate 
 fimds for teachers' salaries to meet the present emergency. 
 
 6. Do you favor national aid to the different states? 
 
 (A bill is being prepared by the National Education Association Commission provid- 
 ing for the appropriation by Congress of $100,000,000.00 for this purpose.) 
 
TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 23 
 
 Replies have been received from more than half of the state superin- 
 tendents representing every section, and their answers have been tabulated 
 in brief form (see Appendixes I and II). 
 
 If we consider the answers to the first question, we find that in order 
 to meet war conditions it is necessary, in the opinion of the state superin- 
 tendents, to increase the salaries of elementary and rural teachers from 10 to 
 50 per cent and those of high-school teachers, supervisors, town, city, and 
 county superintendents from 10 to 50 per cent. If a rough average is 
 taken, the state superintendents recommend that elementary and rural 
 teachers should have their salaries increast about t,^ per cent and all others 
 about 20 per cent. According to the publisht statistics (1914-15) the aggre- 
 gate amount expended for teachers' salaries in the United States was 
 $345,006,445.' Therefore, according to the estimate of the state superin- 
 tendents, it will require from $100,000,000 to $115,000,000 to meet the 
 present emergency on account of the rapid increase in the cost of living. 
 
 But there is another and a better way of approximating the amount 
 of money required to meet the war emergency. On April 30, 19 18, the 
 Railroad Wage Commission of the United States made a report to the 
 Director General of Railroads relative to the wages of railroad employes 
 and the cost of living. " We have had a most exhaustive study made of the 
 cost of living today," says the Commission, "as contrasted with the cost 
 of living in the latter part 191 5 To our mind it conclusively estab- 
 lishes two things: (i) that the cost of living has increast disproportionately 
 among those of small incomes, and (2) that there is a point up to which it is 
 essential that the full increast cost shall be allowed as a wage increase, 
 while from this point on the increase may be gradually diminished."^ As 
 a result of this study the commission made a table setting forth the rate of 
 increase of all wages up to $250 per month, the "vanishing-point" so far 
 as increases are concerned. This table provided the following:^ 
 
 Monthly Wages Percentage of Increase 
 
 Under $ 46 103 -44* 
 $ 46- 79 43 -41 
 
 80- 100 40.44-31.75 
 
 100- 200 31-29- 8.375 
 200- 250 8.26-0 
 
 * The increase was $20 per month. 
 
 Applying these schedules to the salaries of teachers and changing monthly 
 wages into yearly salaries, we have calculated the increases which it would 
 be necessary to make in order that the financial cbndition of the teachers 
 in 1918 might be as good as it was in 1915. The amount is $i66,og4,2ii, 
 
 ' Report of the United States Commissioner of Education for igiy, II, 54. The aggregate salaries for 1915 
 are taken instead of those for 1916 ($364,789,265, on p. 81 of the same report) because the percentage of increase 
 in wages of railroad employes is calculated on the 1915 basis by the Railroad Wage Commission. See Report 
 of Railroad Wage Commission to the Director General of Railroads, Washington, 1918. 
 
 » See Report of the Railroad Wage Commission for igi8, p. 15. ^ Ibid., pp. 20-26. 
 
24 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 
 
 or an increase oj 45.3 per cent. See Appendix III for detailed statement 
 by states. 
 
 But what about the extension of the pubhc school system? What 
 amount of money will be needed to bring our education up to the level 
 of twentieth-century demands ? 
 
 There is space here to enumerate only a few of the most pressing of the • 
 educational questions with which we are face to face. Our foreign-born 
 population must be Americanized. The widespread prevalence of illiteracy 
 must be reduced to a minimum. Industrial education, in which we have as 
 yet made scarcely a beginning, must be extended; our entire industrial 
 future is contingent on it. An adequate system of physical education 
 must be establisht and developt; the health and vigor of our people, per- 
 haps the very endurance of the Republic, depend upon it. The school term 
 in a majority of the states must be lengthened. Better attendance laws 
 must be enacted, and more effectively enforst. This last point is a matter 
 of prime importance, the fact being that, altho the average school term in 
 1 9 16 was eight months (160.3 days), yet the average daily attendance 
 of all of the pupils enrolled was only six months (120 . 9 days). There were 
 sixteen states in which the average attendance was less than five months 
 and one in which it was only 72.9 days.^ 
 
 The matter of illiteracy deserves a special word owing to conditions 
 recently revealed in a letter of Secretary Lane addrest to the President of 
 the United States and to the chairmen of the educational committees of the 
 House and Senate. The letter states: 
 
 "The war has brought facts to our attention which are ahnost unbelievable and that 
 are in themselves accusatory. There were in the United States in 1910, 5,516,163 persons 
 over ten years of age who were unable to read or write in any language. There are now 
 nearly 700,000 men of draft age in the United States who cannot read or write in English 
 or any other language. Over 4,600,000 of the illiterates of this country were twenty 
 
 years of age or more The percentage of illiterates varies from i . 7 in Iowa to 
 
 29 in Louisiana. In the first draft between 30,000 and 40,000 illiterates were brought 
 into the army, and approximately as many more near illiterates. 
 
 They cannot sign their names. 
 
 They cannot read their orders posted daily. 
 
 They cannot read their manual of arms. 
 
 They cannot read their letters or write home. 
 
 They cannot understand the signals or follow the signal corps in time of battle." 
 
 The urgent necessity for reducing illiteracy is further emphasized by 
 the fact that the number of illiterates actually increast in sixteen states from 
 1900 to 1 9 10. These states are all in the North and West and comprise 
 several of the greatest states in the Union — New York 27.6 per cent, Penn- 
 sylvania 18.3 per cent, Illinois 6.5 per cent, Massachusetts 5.6 per cent, 
 New Jersey 31.0 per cent, Connecticut 24.9 per cent, California 27.0 per 
 cent, and the state of Washington 44.7 per cent. Altho the South still 
 
 ■ See Report of the United Stales Commissioner of Education for 1017, II, 75- 
 
TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 2$ 
 
 has a very high per centage of illiteracy, yet the density of illiterate popula- 
 tion in the great manufacturing states of the North exceeds that of the 
 states in the Black Belt of the South. The former has 9 . 8 illiterate persons 
 to the square mile, the latter 7 . i to the square mile.' 
 
 The bare enumeration of these facts shows that the scope of education 
 must be greatly extended. What will it cost ? No one knows. Perhaps 
 $75,000,000 a year, perhaps more. But it must be done, cost what it may. 
 
 So far we have considered only what amounts of money are necessary 
 to meet the war emergency due to the high cost of living and to extend the 
 necessary scope of education. To rescue the profession of teaching from 
 bankruptcy will require $330,000,000 to $400,000,000 in addition to the 
 amounts named above. Few persons have ever taken the pains to study 
 the financial condition of the public-school teachers of the United States. 
 No one has ever made an exhaustive study of the distribution of salaries, 
 but until such a study is made, it is impossible to present the facts in their 
 true light. The best we have are averages, and we use those for 1914-15. 
 But the mere statement of these averages is pathetically eloquent. 
 
 The average salary for all of the 622,321 public-school teachers in 1915 was $543.31. 
 
 That is, $1 . 73 per working day thruout the year. 
 
 That is, $1 .48 per living day thruout the year. 
 
 There was not a single state in the Union in which the average salary of the teachers 
 was $1000. 
 
 There were only two states, California and New York, in which the average salary 
 of the teachers exceeded $900. 
 
 There were only three other states, Washington, New Jersey, and Massachusetts, 
 in which the average salary of the teachers was between $800 and $900. 
 
 There were only three other states, Nevada, Arizona, and Rhode Island, in which 
 the average salary of the teachers of each was between $700 and $800. 
 
 But that is not all of the story. 
 
 There were twenty-nine states in which the average salary of the teachers was below 
 the average for the United States. 
 
 There were twenty-three states in which the average salary was below $500. 
 There were twelve states in which the average salary was below $400. 
 There were three states in which the average salary was below $300. 
 There was one state in which the average daily wage was 64 cents! 
 
 If these are averages of all teachers, including principals and superin- 
 tendents, what must be the economic condition of more than 350,000 of the 
 poorest-paid teachers of the United States!^ 
 
 But the foregoing statistics represented conditions in 1915. What are 
 the present conditions relative to the salaries of teachers ? 
 
 For the most part we do not know. The most roseate optimist we have 
 heard of says that salaries have advanst 10 per cent within the last three 
 
 ' For charts and tables relative to illiteracy see Appendixes IV and V. 
 
 ' These statements are based on the table of statistics found on p. so, Vol. II, of the Report of the United 
 Slates Commissioner of Education for 1917. For detailed statement by states see Appendix III. 
 
26 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 
 
 years. If that is true, the average daily wage of the teachers in the United 
 States is now $1.63 instead of $1.48/ 
 
 But we do know something definite about the present salaries of the 
 elite of our profession, the salaries of the teachers in 320 cities of the United 
 States. These data have been collected within the last sixty days by the 
 National Education Association Commission on the National Emergency. 
 These data have been collected in such a manner as to show the number of 
 teachers receiving salaries of different amounts. The actual facts are these : 
 
 The median salary for 59,020 elementary teachers in the city schools is $816. 19. 
 
 The median salary for 3779 intermediate teachers in the city schools is $899.42. 
 
 The median salary for 13,976 high-school teachers in the city schools is $1249.50. 
 
 There are 19,017 teachers, including 338 high-school teachers, in the city schools 
 who receive less than $700 per year. 
 
 There are 2931, including 2,3 high-school teachers in the city schools, who receive 
 less than $500 per year.^ 
 
 While we do not know the worst conditions relative to teachers' salaries, 
 yet this study shows the actual condition of the best-paid group of teachers 
 in the United States to be bordering on bankruptcy. 
 
 But what was a living salary in 1915 ? What is a living salary in 1918 ? 
 
 Here again we must rely on the Railroad Wage Commission, which says: 
 
 This study of the cost of living was not made from paper statistics exclusively, by 
 the gathering of prices, and comparison of theoretical budgets. It was in no inconsider- 
 able part an actual study from life Roughly, it may be said that the man who 
 
 received $85 a month on January i, 1916, now needs 40 per cent additional to his wage 
 to give him the same living that he had then. Below that wage a larger percentage must 
 be allowed, because the opportunity for substitution and other methods of thrift decline 
 almost to the vanishing-point, while above that wage a growing proportion of the in- 
 crease will go to those things essential to cultured life but not essential to actual living.* 
 
 WHAT CONSTITUTES A MINIMUM WAGE AND A FAIR WAGE FOR TEACHERS? 
 
 Estimates have been made by charity workers and others of the amount 
 of earnings needed to keep a family above the pauper or poverty line. 
 In 1900, John Mitchell, of the United Mine Workers, stated that a minimum 
 wage of $600 a year was necessary for a worker in the anthracite region. 
 At about the same time the New York Bureau of Labor estimated $10 
 a week or $520 a year as an amount adequate for the necessities of a city 
 workingman. Dr. E. T. Devine, Secretary of the Charity Organization 
 Society of New York City, estimated $600 as the minimum. Another 
 charity official of New York City considered $624 a minimum necessary 
 for a family of five. About the same time the Massachusetts Bureau of 
 Statistics estimated $724 as a fair living wage for a family of five. These 
 
 » The average salary of all teachers in igi6 was $563 .08, or an increase of 3 . 6 per cent (see Report of the 
 United States Commissioner of Education for iQiy, II, 77J. The National Education Association Commission 
 reports 23 cities, representing 10,340 teachers, which report no increase at all. See Appendix VI. The 
 United States Commissioner of Education has forwarded to this committee data from 108 cities, showing that 
 the increases have not been general. It is difficult to make estimates from such data. See Appendix VII. 
 For conditions in Missouri see Appendix XI. 
 
 » For table giving distribution of salaries of teachers of 320 cities, see Appendix VIII. 
 
 » Report of the Railroad Wage Commission, p. 16. 
 
TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 27 
 
 estimates were all made for a period in which prices everywhere were 
 materially lower than in 191 5. Furthermore, they were not estimates 
 of an ideal standard of comfort for workingmen but represented the amount 
 which was considered necessary to keep the families of the individuals 
 concerned without providing any surplus for luxuries or comforts. 
 
 NOTES ON WHAT CONSTITUTED A LIVING WAGE FOR TEACHERS IN THE 
 
 YEARS 1915-18 
 
 While the Report of the Railroad Wage Commission does not attempt to 
 say what sum represents a hving wage for all the railroad men of the 
 country, it does attempt to show how much of an increase in wages will be 
 necessary in order to enable the members of the different wage groups to 
 secure approximately the same returns in 191 8 as in 191 5. It is manifestly 
 unfair to compare the earnings of the teachers of the country with the 
 earnings of a heterogeneous group like the railroad employes of the United 
 States. It would seem more appropriate to compare teacher's salaries 
 with the returns of some one of the groups of railway workers, like that of 
 the engineers, or conductors, or even of the brakemen. On page 18 of the 
 report of the eight-hour commission, the statement is made that "the 
 typical earnings of an eastern freight engineer was around $180 a month, 
 and that of the eastern freight brakeman, $100 a month." According to 
 the table found on the same page, typical earnings of freight brakemen in 
 the southern and western section would be about the same as those in the 
 eastern division. The skill required and the degree of intelligence necessary 
 to become a railroad brakeman cannot compare with the skill and intel- 
 ligence of a teacher; and a comparison of the earnings of the two classes is 
 therefore, if unfair at all, unfair to the teacher. On the other hand the 
 average wages of all the railway wage earners is not a good criterion since 
 the majority of railroad employes are very low grade, unskilled labor like 
 section hands, teamsters, and porters. Their pay being very low tends to 
 bring down the average of all railroad employes, whereas those branches 
 of the service which really require skill or brains are paid at very much 
 higher rates. If the wages of a typical freight brakeman are around $100 
 a month is it unfair to assume that the typical teacher ought to receive at 
 least $85 a month ? If we assume that this was a fair salary in 191 5 for the 
 average teacher of the country his annual salary would have amounted 
 to $1020 a year. 
 
 The man who received $85 per month, or $1020 per year in 1915, should, 
 according to the report, have a 40 per cent increase, or $1428, in 1918.' 
 
 " The Railroad Commission made a study of the budgets of 265 families in diSerent parts of the United 
 States (p. 93): 
 
 IS families, income of each less than $600, deficit $ 2647 .gs 
 
 los " " " " from $600 to Siooo, deficit 9991 .15 
 
 14s " " " " " $1000 to $2000, deficit 149 . 20 
 
 Total deficit for 265 families $12,788,20 
 
 This shows that the living wage for a family is not reacht until the income is well above $1000. 
 
28 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 
 
 With all the demands made upon teachers, "cultural" as well as those for 
 the "essentials of actual living," their increases in salaries should be as 
 great as those or railroad employes. On this basis the teachers should 
 have received in 1915, not $543, but $1020 a year, that is a total, not of $345,- 
 000,000, but of $648,000,000. On the same basis, according to the Railroad 
 Commission, they should receive in 1918 an average of $1428, or a total of 
 $907,000,000, in order that the average salary may be a living salary. 
 
 But cost what it may, teachers should receive not only a living wage 
 but salaries sufficient to enable them to live respectably, to keep abreast of 
 the times professionally, and to lay by something for old age. This is not 
 only reasonable but necessary if the schools are to fulfil their mission. Your 
 committee therefore submits for the indorsement of the National Educa- 
 tion Association the following: 
 
 Tentative Program on Salaries 
 
 1. An immediate increase in the salaries of all teachers sufficient to meet the increase 
 in the cost of living, these increases to be made on a sliding scale, that is, those receiving 
 the lowest salaries to be given the largest percentage of increase. 
 
 2. A minimum salary for all teachers, rural and urban, which will liable them to 
 support their families twelve months in the year. 
 
 3. A scale of increases in salary from time to time which will provide teachers with 
 a reasonable assurance of a remuneration which will enable them to live appropriately 
 without embarrassment, and which will also enable them to lay by something for old 
 age. The compensation should be sufficient to warrant yoimg men and young women 
 of first-class ability to prepare themselves properly for teaching and to remain in the 
 profession after they have once entered it. 
 
 4. After a reasonable probationary period and proper certification, tenure of position 
 during efficiency, with a fair chance of advancement to positions of greater importance 
 and emolument. 
 
 II 
 
 How can the funds be obtained to carry out such a program ? Let us 
 consider only three items: 
 
 Amount paid teachers in 1915 $345,000,000 
 
 Amount necessary, according to Railway Wage Commission, to 
 
 meet increast cost of living in 1915 303,000,000 
 
 Additional amount, required to pay living salaries to teachers in 
 
 1918 259,000,000 
 
 Amount required to extend scope of education (near future) .... 75,000,000 
 
 Total $982,000,000 
 
 If we study the replies of the state superintendents to questions 2 and 4, 
 as given above (p. 22), we find that the money for teachers' salaries comes 
 (i) from state support and (2) from local taxation; that there is no uni- 
 formity among the states as to which of these two parts should be the 
 larger; that some states, like Kansas, give no state support whatever, 
 
TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 29 
 
 while others, like Pennsylvania, give millions.' We find, moreover, that 
 almost without exception there are no additional state funds available for 
 school support until there is further legislation.^ This means that in most 
 states there is for the ensuing school year but one way to raise the large 
 sum of money needed for the immediate emerg^cy, and that is by local 
 taxation. 
 
 The answers to question 5, regarding the measures adopted to meet the 
 present emergency, are set forth in Appendix II. They are worthy of 
 careful study. 
 
 An examination of these answers makes it clear that with the exception 
 of Delaware, Maryland, Maine, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and a few 
 other states nothing has been done by the legislatures to meet present 
 emergencies. In fact, only a few legislatures have been in session since 
 war was declared. It is evident then that if funds are to be obtained at all 
 for the next school year they must be raised in most states by local taxation. 
 But except in the wealthiest communities, to increase local taxation in one year 
 sufficiently to raise enough money to increase teachers' salaries 45 per cent is 
 an impossibility. The reasons for this are two. In the first place, tax 
 oflScials dare not raise the rate so much at a single bound. In the second 
 place, legal restrictions in many states forbid the levying of such a tax 
 rate. The answer "No" to question 3 shows the states where these legal 
 obstacles exist. Salaries, in most places, will be increast more than usual 
 this year, but anything approaching a general increase of 45 per cent is 
 out of the question until there are radical changes in those state laws that 
 at present bar the way.^ 
 
 But even legislation by the difi'erent states will not provide sufficient 
 funds to carry out the program as outlined above without imposing undue 
 burdens of taxation on the people in many states.-* The faCt is that our pres- 
 ent system of school support is breaking down in the present crisis and must 
 give way to a new one. And the only new one in sight is the system of 
 national aid. The adoption of this system will involve, not only legislation 
 on the part of Congress, but an almost complete change of policy of public 
 education on the part of the nation. To bring these changes about will 
 require the compelling force of an aroused public opinion. Not a moment 
 
 ■ Pennsylvania gives $18,000,000. 
 ' See Appendix I. 
 
 3 The United States Commissioner of Education has just compiled statistics relative to the salary increases 
 in 108 cities located in 27 different states. See Appendix VII. His report shows salary schedules, minimum 
 and maximum, rather than actual salaries paid, yet even these schedules show that in many cities the increase 
 is very small or that there is none at all. The Commission on National Emergency furnishes a list of 23 cities 
 which report no increase at all (Appendi.'c VI). Appendix IX, furnisht by Grace C. Forsythe, shows increases 
 in teachers' salaries in certain cities; also increase in wages in certain industries. 
 
 4 There is no sort of correlation between the wealth of a community and the number of children to be 
 educated. This is true to a less degree in states than in school districts, yet in some states there is nearly 
 six times as much wealth per teacher as in others, e.g., Nevada has $671,816.56 of taxable wealth for each 
 teacher and North Carolina only $ii7,g47-33, or approximately only one-sixth as much. For the average 
 amount of wealth per teacher for each state, see Appendix X. 
 
30 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 
 
 must be lost, therefore, in bringing this issue in the most forcible manner to 
 the people's attention/ 
 
 Fortunately for the success of the proposed change the system of national 
 support can be justified on other grounds than that of necessity in an 
 emergency. Even if national aid were not in itself desirable, it would have 
 been resorted to to save the situation. In the unanimous opinion of the 
 committee, however, national aid is desirable and can be advocated, there- 
 fore, on the double basis of practical necessity and soundness of principle. 
 In fact, a study of the history of the systems of school support in America 
 abundantly proves that, however great the change in policy which the 
 method of national aid seems to involve, it is entirely in harmony with the 
 evolution of our public-school system, a natural next step in its development, 
 a step which, if wisdom had prevailed, would have come in the near future 
 even without the war. The briefest summary of the development in 
 question will make this plain. 
 
 EVOLUTION OP THE SYSTEM OF SCHOOL SUPPORT 
 
 Historically considered, public-school support began with the levying 
 of a local tax in the district to pay the tuition of indigent children. Then 
 permission was granted by law, whereby the voters of a district might tax 
 themselves to support a public school for all of the children of the district. 
 Next the privilege was extended to the residents of a town or township. 
 Then the taxing unit was enlarged so as to embrace a county, as in many 
 parts of the South and West. And finally, in most of the states, a tax is now 
 levied on the ratables of the state to aid in school support.^ 
 
 The theory is that education is for citizenship and that citizenship is a 
 concern of the state; that all of the taxable wealth of the state, therefore, 
 should be taxt to educate all of the children of the state. Until now this is 
 as far as the evolution has extended in practice except in reference to voca- 
 tional education. 
 
 But primarily persons are citizens of the United States, but only second- 
 arily of a state, and never of a community alone. When a foreigner takes 
 his oath, it is to the United States that he swears allegiance. The nation 
 first, the state second, demands military service and may require its citizens 
 to lay down their lives to defend the nation, or to protect life and property 
 in the state. The nation, as well as the state and the community, is inter- 
 ested in the education of its citizens. The very existence of the Republic 
 depends on the intelligence and virtue of its citizens. The appalling facts 
 concerning illiteracy and the dangers, of which the war makes us acutely 
 
 » "The local policy [of school support] is hopelessly obsolete because (i) it is unjust, (2) it is unreasonable, 
 (3) it is impossible. Unjust because communities differ so widely in their ability to raise money; unreasonable 
 because the burden of a state and nation is laid upon the town or city. Finally and most practically important, 
 the adequate support of schools by local taxation has been wholly impossible." — Henry C. Morrison, State 
 Superintendent of Connecticut, Journal of Education (April 25, 1918), p. 452. 
 
 » It does not follow that each state has past thru all these stages of evolution. Iowa and several other 
 states depend almost entirely upon local taxation for school support. 
 
TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 31 
 
 aware, from our foreign-born population show that the nation will neglect 
 the education of its citizens at its peril. It is the manifest duty of the n tion 
 to see to it that proper systems of education are maintained in all parts of 
 the Republic and to help pay the bill. This recognition should have been 
 granted and this obligation assumed long ago. Our system of school sup- 
 port is breaking under the strain of the war. To save our education the 
 next step in the evolution of this system must be taken. 
 
 But this step, so far as the nation is concerned, is not as great as it may 
 at first seem to be. From the early history of the Republic until the present 
 time Congress, in various ways, has encouraged public education and has 
 rendered financial aid. 
 
 In 1785 Congress adopted an ordinance relating to the Northwest 
 Territory providing for the reservation and sale of "lot numbered 16, of 
 every township for the maintenance of public schools thruout the township." 
 
 In 1787 this ordinance was confirmed. This reservation and grant mark 
 the commencement of a policy since uniformly observed.^ 
 
 In 1803 Congress further provided that all states in the Mississippi 
 Valley should share in the educational privileges of the ordinance of 1787. 
 
 In 1848 the grant of land was raised to two sections. 
 
 In 1896 Utah received four sections.^ 
 
 In 1836 Congress provided for the distribution of the surplus revenue in 
 the United States Treasury. Thirteen of the states devoted part or all of 
 their quota to educational purposes. 
 
 In 1850 Congress granted to the several states the proceeds arising from 
 the sale of certain swamp lands. Some of the states used this money to 
 increase their school funds. ^ 
 
 In 1862 the first Norrill Act was past by Congress allotting to the 
 different states 10,929,215 acres of land. The proceeds arising from the 
 sale of these lands form a permanent fund. The interest from this fund 
 goes to help support state agricultural colleges. In 19 16 the income from 
 this source was $916,151. 
 
 In 1890 the second Norrill Act was past, and in 1907 the Nelson Act was 
 passed creating what is known as the Norrill-Ne son fund — $2,500,000 
 is paid annually from the United States Treasury in aid of colleges of 
 agriculture and the mechanical arts."" 
 
 In 19 1 7 the Smith-Hughes Act was past. This act provides a scheme 
 of cooperation between the federal government and the states for the 
 
 • It was unfortunate that Congress did not specify that these lands should never pass out of the hands 
 of the school authorities but should be held in perpetuity for the use of the public schools. In some localities it 
 is difficult to find out what ever became of the funds obtained from sale of these lands. In Chicago there was 
 a section of school land in the very heart of the city. Most of this land has been sold, or leased for ninety-nine 
 years without revaluation. If these lands were still owned by the schools and properly managed, the income 
 would be sufficient to pay the salaries of all teachers of the city. 
 
 ' Cubberley, School Funds and Their Apportionment, p. S7- Teachers College, Columbia University, 
 IQ06. 
 
 >Ibid., p. 58. * Report of the United States Cominissioner of Education for igiy, II, 375. 
 
32 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 
 
 promotion of vocational education in the fields of agricultiire, trade, home 
 economics, and industry. 
 
 Under this act the federal government does not propose to undertake the organization 
 and immediate direction of vocational training in the states, but it does agree to make 
 from year to year substantial financial contributions to its support. This cooperation 
 of the states with the federal government is based on four fundamental ideas : first, that 
 vocational education being essential to the national welfare, it is the function of the 
 national government to stimulate the states to undertake this new and needed form of 
 service; second, that federal funds are necessary in order to equalize the burden of carry- 
 ing on the work among the states; third, that since the federal govermnent is vitally 
 interested in the success of vocational education, it should, so to speak, purchase a degree 
 of participation in the work; and fourth, that onty by creating such a relationship between 
 the central and the local governments can proper standards of educational efficiency be" 
 set up.' 
 
 In this act the federal government recognizes that a certain kind of 
 education is essential to national welfare, and that federal funds are necessary 
 to equalize the burden in carrying on the work. The next step is for the 
 federal government to recognize that public education in general is essential 
 to national welfare and that federal funds are necessary, not only to equalize 
 the burden, but to make it possible to carry on the work of education and to 
 maintain proper standards. When this principle is recognized it will be 
 necessary only to set up the machinery for carrying out the idea, and the 
 solution of the salary problem mil be under way. 
 
 Ill 
 
 What, in detail, this machinery is to be is a question which naturally 
 remains, in large measure, to be workt out. But since this Association, if 
 it indorses the method of national aid, must be prepared to make specific 
 recommendations and to take an active part in the reorganization and 
 extension of the system of school support, a tentative program is demanded. 
 The committee therefore submits the following: 
 
 1. That the management of schools remain in the hands of local authorities but 
 that they be required to maintain standards which are fixt by law or by state and federal 
 boards of education relative to: 
 
 a) Buildings and equipment. 
 
 b) Qualifications and standards of teachers. 
 
 c) Length of school term. 
 
 d) Proper enforcement of attendance laws. 
 
 e) Hygienic conditions, including medical inspection. 
 
 /) Proper provision for the education of special groups of children, such as defectives 
 and delinquents. 
 
 g) Number of pupils per teacher, minimum and maximum. 
 
 h) Forms of education, elementary, secondarj^, industrial, physical, etc. 
 
 /) Such other requirements as may be found necessary and desirable. 
 
 2. That the local boards be required to raise by taxation at least one- fourth of the 
 tfttal amount required for teachers' salaries, provided that no local tax rate for tliis purpose 
 
 ■ Quoted from Bulletin No. i, p. 7. Federal Board for Vocational Education, Washington, 1917. 
 
TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 33 
 
 shall exceed a minimum of, say, five mills (50 cents on $roo) on a fair assessment of all 
 property in the local unit of taxation. 
 
 3. That the state provide at least one-fourth of the funds for teachers' salaries, with 
 proper reporting and adequate inspection and supervision of accounts, to the end that 
 all laws and regulations may be carried out. 
 
 4. That state and national funds be apportioned on a basis which will enable local 
 school boards to maintain legal standards and to pay adequate salaries to teachers.' 
 
 5. That federal aid be given to each state to an amount, in each case, not exceeding 
 one-half of the salaries of all teachers in elementar>' and secondary schools, and that 
 additional aid be given for special purposes, such as the education of foreigners and adult 
 illiterates, the extension of physical education, and especially the training of teachers. 
 This aid should be extended in such a way as to stimulate the state and local communities 
 to maintain high educational standards. 
 
 A tentative draft of a bill extending federal aid to the different states has 
 been prepared by the Commission of the National Education Association 
 on the National Emergency in Education. This draft has been printed and 
 circulated so that proper criticisms may be offered before its final formu- 
 lation. 
 
 The tentative draft provides for the appropriation of $100,000,000 a year 
 by the federal government to the different states for educational purposes, 
 divided as follows: $5,000,000 for the instruction of illiterates; $5,000,000 
 for teaching immigrants the English language and instructing them in the 
 duties of citizenship; $50,000,000 to aid the states in the improvement of 
 public schools of less than college grade; $30,000,000 for physical education 
 and recreation; $10,000,000 to furnish better instruction in teacher training. 
 
 In addition to the appropriation the tentative draft provides for the 
 establishment of a Department of Education and for the necessary machin- 
 ery for carrying out the provisions of the proposed law. 
 
 ' The committee approves of this draft in principle but deems the amount 
 of the appropriation too small. The estimate of United States Commis- 
 sioner Claxton of $220,000,000 will come nearer meeting the requirements. 
 The passage of this or a similar measure will mark a new epoch in the educa- 
 tional history of the nation and will place public education on a basis which 
 will enable it to be properly finanst and supervised. 
 
 IV 
 
 But many things must be done before teachers really receive adequate 
 salaries. There is not only need for Congress to pass a law appropriating 
 a large sum of money for teachers' salaries, but there must be appropriate 
 school legislation in every state to supplement and make available any funds 
 that may be furnisht by the federal government. In case Congress fails 
 
 • This is one of the most difficult problems in the whole realm of school finance. A scientific solution 
 of it is greatly needed. No single basis of apportionment is satisfactory. The best systems now m use are those 
 which provide for the apportionment of part of the funds on the teacher basis, another part on the census basis 
 or better yet on the aggregate-attendance basis, and a third part, not so large as e.ther of the other two (which 
 usually should be in the form of a special appropriation), on basis of need of the poorer d.stncts. The last 
 provision is a necessity in order that proper standards may be maintamed. 
 
34 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 
 
 to act favorably, then it is to the state legislatures that teachers must look 
 for additional funds. Back of these are the local city councils and boards 
 of education. Much depends upon the action of these whether or not ade- 
 quate salaries are paid to individual teachers. But back of all these are the 
 people of the community, state, and nation, and public opinion will finally 
 decide what is to be done and to what extent the campaign for adequate 
 salaries will succeed. This is a time of war, a day when exacting demands 
 are being made upon the strength, the attention, and the resources of 
 government — national, state, and local. It is a time when people are called 
 upon to sacrifice and to pay, pay, pay. Unless the people can be made to see, 
 not only the justice of the demand, but the necessity for better salaries for 
 teachers, unless they can be convinst that proper support of the schools 
 is necessary for winning the war and for reconstruction after the war, any 
 plans which may be formulated are doomed to failure in advance. "There 
 are two armies for the defense of our civilization," says Dr. John Finley. 
 "One is the army of Present Defense; the other is the army of Future 
 Defense, and unless they both do their work well it matters little what the 
 first Army of Defense does. It is upon both armies that civilization depends 
 — if either fails all is lost." 
 
 To secure wide publicity, to collect and disseminate necessary informa- 
 tion, to prepare data for educational legislation, and to do many other 
 things which must be done, teachers must organize. Organization is abso- 
 lutely necessary to success. There will be needed: 
 
 1. Effective national, state, and local organizations among teachers, 
 with leaders of experience, knowledge, and social vision, and a large active 
 membership that is willing to study and work. 
 
 2. Committees to study the system of educational support^ and the 
 problems of taxation in each state and to make available reliable data for 
 use in formulating measures to be introduced in the various legislatures. 
 In this connection public officials and the departments of education and 
 economics in the universities and colleges can render valuable assistance 
 thru their faculties and graduate students. 
 
 3. Organization to secure the cooperation of other organizations in 
 carrying thru educational measures — labor unions, chambers of commerce, 
 granges, editorial associations, women's clubs, political parties. These are 
 the agencies whereby public opinion is created and directed, and their 
 support may be obtained by proper effort. 
 
 4. Organization for pubHcity. Educational writers and speakers should 
 be enlisted and a systematic campaign made to keep the subject before the 
 pubUc. Show the people the needs of their schools and they can he relied on to 
 see that the necessary funds are forthcoming. 
 
 ' Such research should include a study of methods of apportioning school appropriations)- order that a 
 scheme may be devised whereby the poorer districts may support their schools without placing undue burdens 
 on their people. 
 
TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 35 
 
 It will also be necessary to enlist the cooperation of the United States 
 Bureau of Education and other agencies for the collection and dissemina- 
 tion of accurate data relative to salaries, and to make investigations of the 
 economic conditions of teachers in different parts of the country and pub- 
 lish the results obtained. By this means up-to-date material may be 
 available continually.^ 
 
 Finally the committee wishes to call attention to the necessity of the 
 appointment of an official representative of the National Education Associa- 
 tion who shall devote his entire time to carrying on the work begun by the 
 committee. This person should be a member of long experience in the 
 teaching profession, capable of statistical inquiries, of wide knowledge of 
 taxation for educational purposes, and fitted especially for making effective 
 pubhc appeal both in writing and by speech. He should be guaranteed a 
 salary corresponding with his duties and should be supplied with a budget 
 which will enable him to secure efficient office help and necessary printing 
 and traveling expenses. So far as his time is not occupied by other duties 
 connected with the whole field of employment, tenure, salaries, and pensions, 
 it might well be given as adviser and director of local campaigns in cities 
 and states which might desire his services termporarily. It should be the 
 duty of this officer to keep the National Education Association constantly at 
 the head of movements for the improvement of material conditions of teach- 
 ers in this country. Such an officer should not be primarily a student of sta- 
 tistics. He should be an organizer and executive. Your committee is clear 
 that not less than $10,000 for the next fiscal year should be appropriated 
 at once for the purpose named above. The crisis is too acute to depend 
 longer on a volunteer committee, the members of which are already loaded 
 with other interests. There must be at least one representative educational 
 leader drafted to devote his entire energies to this work. 
 
 ■ The United States Commissioner of Education has kindly offered to carry out the suggestion made above. 
 He has already collected data relative to increases in salaries in 108 cities, which is publisht in Appendix VII 
 of this report. 
 
36 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 
 
 II. REPORT ON TENURE 
 
 The chairman, in accordance with the decision of this committee to 
 undertake a study of tenure of teachers, has secured the cooperation of the 
 United States Bureau of Education. Commissioner Claxton writes as 
 follows: "Mr. Hood, in this office, tells me that it will be comparatively 
 easy to get facts of tenure laws in the several states. Most states have no 
 laws on this subject. This office could, with a little help from your com- 
 mittee, compile data on this subject in a hundred cities and a hundred 
 counties which would probably be a sufficient number for your purpose." 
 Continuity of employment during efficiency and good behavior is essential 
 to any sound pension system and any sound educational system. 
 
 The committee has devoted no time or special study to the subject of 
 tenure. It is self-evident, however, that a pension system to be sound and 
 satisfactory must require mandatory deductions from teachers' salaries, 
 and this compulsory saving naturally tends toward permanent tenure. 
 
 One of the biggest things in the way of tenure legislation of which the 
 committee knows is the revised state education law for New York which was 
 past in 1 91 7, and this law gives permanent tenure during satisfactory service, 
 after a probationary period of three years, to all members of the teaching 
 and supervising force except superintendents. In New York City the 
 district superintendents of schools and the members of the Board of Examin- 
 ers are included in the provision giving permanent tenure. 
 
 Joseph Swain, Chairman 
 Ernest C. Moore 
 Margaret A. Haley 
 David B. Jonhson 
 Harlan Updegraff 
 Grace C. Forsythe 
 James Ferguson 
 Francis G. Blair 
 John W. Carr 
 
TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 37 
 
 III. REPORT ON PENSIONS 
 
 PRELIMINARY STATEMENT 
 
 The National Education Association's Committee on Salaries, Tenure, 
 and Pensions, appointed in 1911, has publisht, independently or in co- 
 operation with the United States Bureau of Education, reports on Teachers' 
 Salaries and Cost of Living (January, 1913), T/zg Tangible Rewards of Teach- 
 ing (Bulletin 16, U.S. Bureau of Education, 1914), Salaries of Teachers and 
 School Officers (Bulletin 31, U.S. Bureau of Education, 1915), and State 
 Pension Systems for Public-School Teachers (Bulletin 14, U.S. Bureau of 
 Education, 1916). 
 
 The committee has also enlisted the cooperation of the Carnegie Founda- 
 tion for the Advancement of Teaching, which, in addition to its granting of 
 pensions to university and college professors, has conducted, for a dozen 
 years, comprehensive studies of pensions for teachers, wherever such systems 
 exist. The president of the Foundation, Dr. Henry S. Pritchett, has placed 
 at the disposal of the committee all of this material, together with the 
 services of the secretary of the Foundation, Dr. Clyde Furst, and his 
 colleague. Dr. I. L. Kandel. 
 
 These gentlemen have met in extensive conference with the committee 
 and invited representatives from each state at the meetings of the 
 National Education Association and its Department of Superintendence, 
 at Detroit and New York in 1916, and Atlantic City and Pittsburgh in 1918. 
 The reports which they prepared for these meetings, the meeting at Kansas 
 City in 191 7 and the meeting of the National Council of Education at New 
 York in 1 916, have been printed in the Tenth, Eleventh, and Twelfth Annual 
 Reports of the Carnegie Foundation, which have been sent, without charge, 
 to all teachers who requested them. Addresses on pensions, deHvered by 
 Commissioner Claxton, Dr. Furst, and the chairman of the committee, 
 before the Association as a whole, at New York in 19 16, are printed in the 
 Proceedings of that meeting. 
 
 All of the material thus provided by the Foundation is brought together, 
 completed, and rearranged in Bulletin Number Twelve: Pensions for Public 
 School Teachers, which the Foundation will send, without charge, to any 
 teacher who requests it. The committee desires to record its appreciation 
 of the sympathetic and complete cooperation of the Carnegie Foundation, 
 which has thus rendered a service to every teacher in the country. 
 
 teachers' pensions 
 
 There are many reasons for teachers' pensions. Economically the work 
 of an organization is not effective unless there is a satisfactory method of 
 
38 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 
 
 retiring aged or infirm workers, with the consequent freedom from anxiety 
 concerning such risks on the part of the workers. Only a satisfactory 
 pension system can prevent either the dismissal of aged or infirm teachers 
 without resources, or the sacrifice of the best interests of the schools in order 
 to continue the employment of teachers who are no longer capable. Socially, 
 men and women of character and inteUigence are wiUing to undertake 
 difficult pubHc service that is poorly paid; but it is too much to expect them 
 also to sacrifice the prospect of security and dignity in old age and disabihty. 
 Educationally there is great need to attract, retain, and advance able people 
 in teaching as a permanent career. A good pension system helps to do this. 
 
 These facts were first apprehended in the United States a quarter of a 
 century ago. Eight systems of pensions for teachers were founded before 
 1900, twenty-three in the next decade, and thirty-six since the beginning of 
 1 910. There are now sixty-seven different systems in thirty-foiu: states. 
 The experience of this brief period has been fruitful, so that we are already 
 able to correct errors and proceed with more assurance. The time should 
 soon come when every state will have made such provision for its teachers. 
 
 The organization of the teachers' pension systems now in existence is 
 generally satisfactory, there being ordinarily a small special board upon 
 which the teachers and the pubhc are about equally represented. More 
 attention, however, is demanded by the need to have the actual administra- 
 tion under expert direction with the supervision of the state's banking and 
 insurance commissioners. 
 
 The greatest difficulty that has been encountered has been the provision 
 of adequate funds. The cost of a pension system for teachers may be borne 
 by the teacher alone, by the public alone, or by the teacher and the public 
 together. If the cost is borne by the teacher alone, he cannot afford, out of a 
 small salary, to set aside enough money to purchase adequate protection, 
 and the public fails to fulfil its obligation. If the cost is borne by the public 
 alone, the money is really taken from the teachers' salaries without their 
 agreement, and the majority, who withdraw or die before retirement, receive 
 no return for their reduced pay. When the cost is borne by the teachers and 
 the public together, the teacher receives appropriate compensation and 
 contractual security, and the teacher and the public cooperate in an eco- 
 nomic, social, and educational obligation. This principle of cooperation 
 between the teacher and the public is recognized by most of the pension 
 systems that are now in operation. 
 
 The application of the principle of cooperation, however, is not so 
 satisfactory. Only a few systems relate the amount of the contribution 
 to the prospective cost of the pensions. Frequently public money is 
 expected from sources like excise, inheritance, license, or transfer receipts; 
 or deductions, fines, or forfeitures from teachers' salaries for absence or 
 illness; or from the tuition of non-resident students, which cannot be 
 accurately estimated in advance and so cannot furnish a reliable basis for 
 
TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 39 
 
 pension payments. Equally unsatisfactory is the expectation of paying 
 pensions, when they fall due, from current school or other funds, without any 
 assurance that these funds will be adequate; or from special or general 
 appropriations, without any certainty that such appropriations will be made 
 by future and perhaps unsympathetic administrations. Indeed it is not 
 uncommon to limit in advance the sums that may be taken from such 
 sources, thus reducing the proportion of the pension that can be paid, or 
 leaving the whole question of payment largely to accident. 
 
 The only way in which absolute security can be obtained is for the con- 
 tribution of the public as well as that of the teacher to be paid annually, 
 credited to the individual teacher, and set aside to accumulate until the 
 time of his retirement. This also is the only economical method. Any 
 system which agrees to pay a pension from current funds after the teacher 
 retires, plans to spend two or three times as much money as would be 
 required if sums were set aside each year to accumulate during the teacher's 
 period of service. Any other method is parallel to issuing bonds without 
 provision for retiring them. 
 
 Pension systems are still too generally organized without estimating 
 their cost. The probable length of life of a teacher in service or after 
 retirement may be estimated from the tables of mortality that have 
 been developt by the life insurance companies, with adjustment for the 
 fact that teachers live longer than other people. Some basis is becoming 
 available for estimates of the likelihood of disability and the probable 
 length of life after retirement because of disability. It is wise to avoid, so 
 far as possible, basing pensions upon salaries at or near the age of retire- 
 ment, since no one can predict what any teachers' salary will be thirty, or 
 forty, or fifty years hence. 
 
 There is, of course, a definite relation between the benefits and the cost 
 of pensions. No one can secure expensive benefits in return for very small 
 contributions. Only failure awaits the systems which promise retirement 
 after twenty years of service or at the age of fifty; or in which teachers 
 contribute only one-half of i per cent of their salaries, or the public contrib- 
 utes only one-half as much as the teachers. 
 
 Such errors may easily be corrected by a very simple pension system 
 based upon conservative tables of mortality and upon a safe rate of interest, 
 with the provision that the teacher receives the benefit of the accumulation 
 of all of his contributions and those made for him. It is possible to esti- 
 mate with reasonable definiteness what certain desired benefits will cost, 
 or what benefits can be had for the money available. It is easy to estimate 
 what any annual contribution, beginning at any age and accumulating at a 
 given percentage, will amount to after any number of years. If then the 
 money is deposited in a central fund, each contributor can be guaranteed a 
 definite annuity for life, since the lives of all are averaged in the standard 
 mortality tables. Thus an annual contribution of $100 a year, beginning at 
 
40 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 
 
 the age of twenty-five, and accumulated at 4 per cent interest, will amount at 
 sixty-five to $8,882 . 65, at seventy to $12,587 . 06. These sums will provide 
 a man with an annuity for life, according to the McClintock Table of Mor- 
 tality and 3I per cent interest, of $1086 a year beginning at sixty-five, or 
 $1681 a year beginning at seventy. If, on the other hand, a man wishes 
 to be sure of a life annuity of $1000 a year at sixty-five or seventy, he knows 
 that this will cost $9098.60 or $8642.40 at those ages, and that it would 
 require an annual contribution of $92 or of $68 a year from the age of 
 twenty-five to accumulate these sums. The annuities from such a contri- 
 bution for women, who live longer than men, would be about four-fifths of 
 the sums that have been mentioned. 
 
 These figures imply a return of the accumulations of the teachers who 
 die before retirement and of those who withdraw from the system for any 
 reason. If it is desired for the sake of family protection, there may be also 
 a return of the balance of the accumulations of the teachers who retire but 
 die before they have drawn all of their accumulations. This also can be 
 calculated from standard mortality and interest tables. This protection 
 costs about one-fourth more than a straight annuity. If further protection 
 is desired against disabihty, this can be similarly provided, by the use of 
 the best tables that we have, with the proviso that the rates for those who 
 enter into the system in the future may be modified according to future 
 experience. 
 
 A pension system of the kind that has been mentioned is just and fair to 
 all concerned, giving the teacher secure and adequate protection at a 
 reasonable cost to himself and to the public. 
 
 Such a system provides for retirement on the basis of age or of dis- 
 ability after any suitable period of service. The age of retirement, which is 
 now usually fixt, can, if desired, be left to the teacher and the administration. 
 If the need is great retirement may be earlier, in spite of the fact that the 
 smaller accumulations would then make the pension smaller. In general, 
 retirement will in all probabiKty be later than at present because of the 
 larger pension provided by the longer accumulation, and the educational 
 desirability of keeping the able teacher in service as long as possible. 
 
 Disability can be provided for by using whatever money has been 
 accumulated at the time when retirement becomes unavoidable, perhaps 
 with some supplement from the state until statistical experience makes it 
 possible to provide specifically for disability. 
 
 The newer system provides full protection for both the teacher and 
 those who are dependent upon him, since the form of contribution sets up a 
 contractual relation which provides definite returns in case of withdrawal 
 or death. Return of contribution in case of resignation is now arranged for, 
 but return in case of dismissal and in the case of death is seldom pro- 
 vided for. Contractual arrangements for the return of contributions will 
 facilitate the desirable transfer of the teacher from one system to another. 
 
TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 41 
 
 Indeed, with the spread of sound plans, pension systems thruout the country 
 will become more and more uniform, so that the experience of each will 
 help all. Continuity of employment during efficiency and good behavior 
 is essential to any sound pension system. 
 
 Joseph Swain, Chairman 
 Ernest C. Moore 
 David B. Johnson 
 Harlan Updegraff 
 Grace C. Forsythe 
 James Ferguson 
 Francis G. Blair 
 John W. Carr 
 
JOINT RESOLUTION OF THE COMMITTEE ON 
 SALARIES, TENURE, AND PENSIONS, AND 
 THE COMMISSION ON THE NATIONAL 
 EMERGENCY IN EDUCATION 
 
 Our schools are in danger. Their present support cannot keep up former 
 standards, much less meet war demands. 
 
 The money now available is not sufficient to instruct five million illiterates, 
 to Americanize thirteen million foreigners, to provide physical and health 
 education for all children, to secure adequate school terms and attend- 
 ance, to pay teachers a Hving wage, and to provide for their professional . 
 preparation, development, security, and protection in disability and old 
 age. 
 
 The teachers of the country were not receiving a living wage before 
 the war; their present situation is critical. In 191 5 they received 
 an average annual salary of $543. The increase since then has been 
 small. 
 
 Immediate national aid is urgently needed. Increast local taxation 
 and state support will not suffice; such support will of necessity be avail- 
 able in very unequal degree even if it could be had quickly. 
 
 Education in agriculture and the mechanic and household arts has long 
 been recognized as essential to national welfare, and national funds are 
 provided to equalize its burdens and maintain its standards. 
 
 General public education is even more essential to national welfare 
 to promote the allegiance, inteUigence, moraUty, and devotion of all 
 citizens. 
 
 National support of general public education, begun in 1785, confirmed 
 in the ordinance of 1787, and extended thereafter, should now be increast to 
 the extent of a Hberal cooperation with the state, and thru the state with 
 the local community. 
 
 A national department of education should be estabHsht to carry out this 
 program of cooperation. 
 
 The National Education Association, in order to collect full information 
 concerning the present state of public education, to enlighten pubHc opinion, 
 and to aid in securing appropriate local, state, and national school support, 
 hereby authorizes the Executive Committee to secure the full time, for a 
 term of not less than three years, of an educator of recognized abiUty and 
 
 43 
 
44 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 
 
 experience, and to provide for the organization, correspondence, travel, 
 publication, and other expenses of his office, a total sum, including salaries, 
 of at least ten thousand dollars a year. 
 
 Joseph Swain, Chairman, 
 Committee on Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions 
 George D. Strayer, Chairman, 
 Commission on the National Emergency in Education 
 
 Note. — This Resolution was unanimously adopted by the National Education Asso- 
 ciation at Pittsburgh, July 5, 1918. 
 
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TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 
 
 47 
 
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48 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 
 
 APPENDIX II 
 
 MEASURES ADOPTED TO MEET THE PRESENT 
 EMERGENCY 
 
 The following extracts are the replies of state superintendents to 
 question 5 of the questionnaires sent out by the Committee on Teachers' 
 Salaries. It is the latest information on present conditions. 
 
 Alabama. — Local tax levy. 
 
 Delaware. — Last general assembly increast the school funds by taxing incomes. 
 
 Florida. — Constitutional amendment raising tax from 7 to 10 mills will carry with little 
 
 opposition in the November election. Many counties have voted to raise teachers' 
 
 salaries an average of 10 per cent. 
 Iowa. — Each district has its own budget to make up. We levy $40 per pupil and $60 in 
 
 districts transporting pupils. 
 Kentucky. — By legislature fixing a 30-cent rate for county outside of city. By consolida- 
 tion. By economizing so far as possible in expense of maintenance. 
 Maine. — The state of Maine offers this year an average increase in the salaries of super- 
 intendents thus far elected of about four hundred dollars, and there is evidently an 
 
 increase in teachers' wages of at least 25 per cent. 
 Maryland. — The recent session of the legislature increast the state appropriation $250,000 
 
 and increast the minimum salaries for teachers from 25 to 50 per cent. 
 Massachusetts. — Legislation. In 1918 minimum of union superintendents raised from 
 
 $1500 to $1800; also $550 minimum for all teachers except in towns of less than 
 
 $1,000,000 valuation. 
 Minnesota. — Increase of local taxation for school purposes. 
 Mississippi. — We are making a campaign for more money by local taxation. 
 Missouri. — An attempt has been made by a state tax commission appointed by the 
 
 governor, authorized by the state legislature, to raise the valuation of property. 
 
 The work of this commission was set aside by the state Board of Equalization. 
 Montana. — Additional special levy. 
 North Carolina. — Special local taxation for immediate relief. A movement to amend the 
 
 state constitution requiring a greater minimum length of term with proper legal 
 
 statuary enforcement. 
 North Dakota. — Have given as much publicity as possible to the necessity for a material 
 
 increase in salaries. No legislature has met. Hence no bills for it. 
 Oregon. — Principally larger district tax levy. 
 Pennsylvania. — Our new minimum-salary law advances the salary from $40 and $50 
 
 respectively to $45, $55, and $65, and the amount needed to make this increase will 
 
 be taken out of the general school appropriation, which was raised to $18,000,000 at 
 
 the last session of the legislature. 
 Rhode Island. — School committees are asking town meetings and city councils for lower 
 
 appropriations. 
 South Dakota. — By inducing school boards to levy sufficient tax. 
 Texas. — By raising valuations of property. 
 Utah. — Attempt being made to tax mines. 
 
 Vermont. — Our local boards are raising salaries in many cases 25 per cent. 
 Virginia. — Increase standard appropriations and have levy to limit. 
 Washington. — Conferences with all county officials and circular letters to all school 
 
 directors, superintendents, and principals. 
 Wisconsin. — Local authorities are increasing tax levy for that purpose. 
 Wyoming. — Maintain a teachers' employment bureau in the department of education, 
 
 which maintains standards. Convince district boards that other professions will 
 
 take desirable teachers at higher wages. 
 
TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 
 
 49 
 
 APPENDIX III 
 
 ESTIMATED SALARIES AND EXPENDITURES NECESSARY TO 
 MEET THE ADVANCE IN COST OF LIVING IN 1918 
 
 The average salaries and expenditures for teachers' salaries are taken from Report of 
 the United States Commissioner of Education for 1917, II, 50 and 54. 
 
 The estimated salaries to meet the advance in the cost of living are based on the table 
 found on page 20 of the Report of the Railroad Wage Commission for 1918, Washington, D.C. 
 
 Stole 
 
 Average Salaries 
 
 of Teachers, 
 
 1914-15 
 
 Estimated 
 
 Salaries to Meet 
 
 the Advance in 
 
 Cost of Living, 
 
 1918 
 
 Percent- 
 age of 
 Increase 
 
 Total Expendi 
 tures for Teachers' 
 Salaries, 1914-15 
 
 Estimated Ex- 
 penditures to Meet 
 the Advance in 
 Cost of Living, 
 1918 
 
 Maine 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 New York 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Minnesota (1914) 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Missouri 
 
 North Dakota 
 
 South Dakota 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Maryland 
 
 District of Columbia. . 
 
 Virginia 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Florida (1914) 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Mississippi {1913) . • . . 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Texas 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 Oklahoma 
 
 Montana 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 Colorado 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 Arizona 
 
 Utoh 
 
 Nevada 
 
 Idaho 
 
 Washington 
 
 Oregorf^. 
 
 California 
 
 United States. . . . 
 
 % 41113 
 
 47234 
 418.77 
 810.72 
 71437 
 619.36 
 075 13 
 861.86 
 465.72 
 53752 
 592.69 
 713-84 
 557-71 
 542-02 
 469 . 28 
 506.09 
 533 59 
 574-76 
 457.27 
 454-67 
 635-34 
 358-31* 
 561.83 
 1019.08 
 332-19 
 320.29 
 251-31 
 282.68 
 30s -97 
 32700 
 342.96 
 335.20 
 345.00 
 233-64 
 437-19 
 428.20 
 334.94 
 438 . 69 
 640 . 07 
 494.06 
 560.58 
 507-54 
 738-96 
 691 .66 
 725 -08 
 665.16 
 808.42 
 506.35 
 951-27 
 
 % 651.13 
 712.34 
 658.77 
 
 1143-I1 
 
 1007.26 
 878.80 
 
 1365.18 
 
 1215,22 
 705.72 
 777-52 
 847 55 
 
 1006,51 
 797-53 
 782.02 
 709.28 
 746.09 
 773-59 
 821 .91 
 697.27 
 694 - 67 
 895-83 
 598,31 
 803 , 42 
 
 1426,71 
 572.19 
 560,29 
 491-31 
 522.68 
 545-97 
 567-00 
 582.96 
 575-20 
 585-00 
 473-64 
 677-19 
 668.20 
 574.94 
 678.69 
 902 . 50 
 734-06 
 801.63 
 747-54 
 
 1041.93 
 975-24 
 
 1022.36 
 927.88 
 
 H39-87 
 746-35 
 
 1340-05 
 
 S8 
 SI 
 57 
 41 
 4t 
 41 
 40 
 41 
 52 
 44 
 43 
 41 
 43 
 44 
 SI 
 47 
 43 
 43 
 52 
 53 
 41 
 67 
 43 
 40 
 72 
 75 
 96 
 85 
 78 
 73 
 70 
 72 
 70 
 103 
 55 
 S6 
 72 
 55 
 41 
 49 
 43 
 47 
 41 
 41 
 41 
 41 
 41 
 47 
 40 
 
 2,240,982 
 
 1,200,110 
 
 1,246,816 
 
 14,789,286 
 
 1,807,332 
 
 4,363,034 
 
 46,690,195 
 
 12,301,576 
 
 25,687,143 
 
 18,789,778 
 
 11,168,718 
 
 23,179,650 
 
 11,931,113 
 
 8,850,051 
 
 10,375,297 
 
 11,174,716 
 
 10,767,962 
 
 3,695,051 
 
 2,987,437 
 
 6,217,797 
 
 7.933,519 
 
 263,608 
 
 3,495,724 
 
 1,760,667 
 
 4,156,959 
 
 3,545,573 
 
 3,487,304 
 
 2,281,249 
 
 4,385,259 
 
 1,644,481 
 
 4,270,554 
 
 4,185,097 
 
 3,579,199 
 
 2,173,717 
 
 3,451,226 
 
 11,373,280 
 
 3,567,461 
 
 6,179,928 
 
 2,775,290 
 
 856,059 
 
 4,402,243 
 
 974,608 
 
 943,525 
 
 2,572,114 
 
 484,855 
 
 2,094,87s 
 
 7,854,843 
 
 3,786,684 
 
 17,062,504 
 
 3,540,752 
 
 1,812,166 
 
 1,957,501 
 
 20,852,893 
 
 2,548,338 
 
 6,183,728 
 
 65,366,273 
 
 17,345,222 
 
 39,044,457 
 
 27,057,280 
 
 15,971,267 
 
 32,683,306 
 
 17,061,492 
 
 12,744,073 
 
 15,666,698 
 
 16,^26,833 
 
 15,398,186 
 
 5,283,923 
 
 4,540,904 
 
 9,513,229 
 
 11,186,262 
 
 440,225 
 
 4,998,885 
 
 2,464,934 
 
 7,149,969 
 
 6,204,753 
 
 6,835,116 
 
 4,220,311 
 
 7,805,761 
 
 2,844,952 
 
 7,259,942 
 
 7,198,367 
 
 6,084,638 
 
 4,412,646 
 
 5,349,400 
 
 17,742,317 
 
 6,136,033 
 
 9,578,888 
 
 3,913,159 
 
 1,275,528 
 
 6,295,207 
 
 1,432,674 
 
 1,330,370 
 
 3,626,681 
 
 683,646 
 
 2,953,774 
 
 11,075,329 
 
 5,566,419 
 
 24,035,949 
 
 $ 54331 
 
 $ 788.43 
 
 $345,006,445 
 
 511,100,656 
 
 * Exclusive of Wilmington. 
 
50 
 
 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 
 
 APPENDIX IV 
 
 PERCENTAGE OF ILLITERACY BY STATES 
 
 States in which the number of illiterates increast from 1900 to 1910. 
 Sixteen states increast in the number of illiterates, all in North and West. 
 
 TABLE A 
 
 Based oil Census of 1910, Abstract, p. 245 
 
 State 
 
 No. of Illiterates, 
 1900 
 
 No. of Illiterates, 
 1910 
 
 Increase 
 
 Percentage of 
 Increase 
 
 
 134,043 
 29,004 
 42,973 
 
 318,100 
 86,658 
 
 299,376 
 
 157,958 
 12,719 
 11,67s 
 2,878 
 17,779 
 46,971 
 27,307 
 6,141 
 12,740 
 58,959 
 
 141,541 
 
 33,854 
 
 53,66s 
 
 406,020 
 
 113,502 
 
 354,290 
 
 168,294 
 
 13,070 
 
 14,457 
 
 3,874 
 
 23,780 
 
 48,697 
 
 32,953 
 
 6,821 
 
 18,416 
 
 74,902 
 
 7,498 
 
 4,850 
 
 10,692 
 
 87,920 
 
 26,844 
 
 54,914 
 
 10,336 
 
 351 
 
 2782 
 
 996 
 
 6,001 
 
 1,726 
 
 5,646 
 
 680 
 
 5,676 
 
 15,943 
 
 5.6 
 
 
 16.7 
 
 
 
 
 27.6 
 
 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Illinois 
 
 18.3 
 6.5 
 
 
 2.8 
 
 
 23.8 
 
 
 
 
 33-7 
 
 
 3.7 
 
 
 20.7 
 
 Utah 
 
 II .1 
 
 Washington 
 
 44.7 
 
 
 27.0 
 
 
 
TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 
 
 51 
 
 
 
 
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52 
 
 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 
 
 APPENDIX V 
 DENSITY OF ILLITERATE POPULATION 
 
 Great manufacturing states of the North compared with the states of the Black Belt of 
 the South. 
 
 See Abstract of Thirteenth Census (1910), p. 28; also p. 245. 
 
 TABLE A 
 
 State 
 
 Land Area 
 
 Number of 
 Illiterates 
 
 Number per 
 Square Mile 
 
 
 GREAT MANUFACTURING STATES OF THE NORTH 
 
 
 8,039 
 1,067 
 4,820 
 
 45,409 
 7,514 
 
 44,832 
 
 141,541 
 33,854 
 53,665 
 406,020 
 113,502 
 354,290 
 
 17.6 
 
 
 31-7 
 
 
 11. 1 
 
 
 8.9 
 
 
 iS-i 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 7-9 
 
 Total 
 
 111,681 
 
 1,102,872 
 
 9.8 
 
 
 
 
 
 STATES OF THE BLACK BELT OF THE SOUTH 
 
 
 30,495 
 58,725 
 51,279 
 46,362 
 45,409 
 
 276,980 
 389,775 
 352,710 
 290,235 
 352,174 
 
 9.1 
 
 
 6.6 
 
 
 6.9 
 
 
 6.3 
 
 
 7.8 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 232,270 
 
 1,661,879 
 
 7.1 
 
 
 
 TABLE B 
 
 Rhode Island 31.7 
 
 Massachusetts 17.6 
 
 New Jersey 15.1 
 
 Connecticut 11.1 
 South Carolina 9.1 
 
 New York 8.9 
 
 Pennsylvania 7.9 
 
 Louisiana 7.8 
 
 Alabama 6.9 
 
 Georgia 6.6 
 
 Mississippi 6.3 
 
 \ 
 
TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING S3 
 
 APPENDIX VI 
 
 CITIES REPORTING NO INCREASE IN TEACHERS' SALARIES 
 
 FOR 1918 
 
 Of 320 cities of over io,ooo population, 23 report no increase in salaries. 
 List furnished by the National Education Association Commission on the Emergency in 
 
 Education, June, 1918. 
 City No. of Teachers 
 
 1. Bethlehem, Pa , 68 
 
 2. Columbia, S.C 109 
 
 3. Eureka, Cal 59 
 
 4. Greensboro, N.C 72 
 
 5. Jacksonville, Fla 196 
 
 6. Jeffersonville, Ind 41 
 
 7. Lexington, Ky 149 
 
 8. Little Rock, Ark 139 
 
 9. Los Angeles, Cal. (no change since 1914-15) 2589 
 
 10. Marshall, Tex 71 
 
 11. Massillon, Ohio 77 
 
 12. Millville, N.J 78 
 
 13. Mount Carmel, Pa 58 
 
 14. Natchez, Miss 36 
 
 15. Niagara Falls, N.Y 196 
 
 16. Pawtucket, R.I 161 
 
 1 7. Philadelphia, Pa 5593 
 
 18. Rome, Ga 39 
 
 19. Salem, Mass 154 
 
 20. Vicksburg, Miss 59 ■ 
 
 2 1 . Washington, Pa 104 
 
 22. Watertown, Mass 77 
 
 23. York, Pa 215 
 
 Total 10,340 
 
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58 
 
 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 
 
 APPENDIX VIII 
 
 SUMMARY OF REPORT ON SALARIES PAID TO TEACHERS IN 
 
 320 CITIES OF OVER 10,000 POPULATION IN THE 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 This report was made as a result of an investigation conducted by the National 
 Education Association Commission on the National Emergency, Dr. George D. Strayer, 
 chairman. 
 
 Kind of School 
 
 Salary Levels 
 
 Number of Teachers 
 Employed at Each 
 Level 
 
 Median Salary for 
 
 Each Kind of 
 
 School 
 
 *Elementary Schools 
 
 Total elementary. 
 
 *Intermediate schools (Junior high schools) 
 
 Total intermediate schools . 
 
 *High schools. 
 
 Total high schools. 
 Grand total 
 
 Soo- 
 700- 
 900- 
 1100- 
 1300- 
 1500- 
 1700- 
 1900- 
 2100- 
 2300- 
 Over 
 
 499 
 699 
 899 
 1099 
 1299 
 1499 
 1699 
 1899 
 2099 
 2299 
 2499 
 2500 
 
 $ 300-$ 499 
 
 SCO- 699 
 
 700- 899 
 
 900- 1099 
 
 I 100- 1299 
 
 1300- 1499 
 
 1500- 1699 
 
 1700- 1899 
 
 1900- 2099 
 
 2100- 2299 
 
 2300- 2500 
 
 Over 2500 
 
 $ 300-$ 495 
 
 SCO- 699 
 
 700- 899 
 
 900- 1099 
 
 HOC- 1299 
 
 1300- 1499 
 
 1500- 1699 
 
 1700- 1899 
 
 1900- 2099 
 
 2100- 2299 
 
 2300- 2499 
 
 Over 2500 
 
 2785! 
 
 15219 
 
 19807 
 
 11200 
 
 8023 
 
 1841 
 
 96 
 
 47 
 
 S9020 
 
 113" 
 
 562 
 
 1218 
 
 io6s 
 
 597 
 
 161 
 
 38 
 
 3779 
 
 33 
 
 30s 
 
 1852 
 
 2950 
 
 247f 
 
 2035 
 
 2294 
 
 mo 
 
 338 
 
 288 
 
 152 
 
 149 
 
 13976 
 
 7677s 
 
 $ 716-19 
 
 $ 799-42 
 
 51149.50 
 
 *Salaries of principals or general supervisory officers are not recorded. 
 
TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 59 
 
 APPENDIX IX 
 
 INCREASE IN SALARIES OF TEACHERS IN CERTAIN CITIES; 
 
 ALSO INCREASE IN WAGES OF EMPLOYES IN 
 
 CERTAIN INDUSTRIES 
 
 It is interesting to note that in establishing salary schedules the "equal 
 pay" principle has been recognized by the Hon. William G. McAdoo, 
 director general of railroads of the United States, by the War Depart- 
 ment and its ammunition factories, and by the National War Labor Board. 
 
 INCREASES IN TEACHERS' SALARIES 
 
 The committee has knowledge up to date of increases in salaries as 
 follows: In New York City on January i, 191 2, the minimum salary was 
 raised from S600 to $720; on January i, 19 18, the minimum was raise 
 from $720 to $800; and it was proposed that from July i, 1918, the minimum 
 should be raised from $800 to $1000. This affects only 7000 of the 21,000 
 teachers and is unsatisfactory. The Board of Education, however, beUeves 
 that this is the best use of the money available for 1918, because of the fact 
 that the national government is offering $1000 to young women equipt as 
 teachers are. Said Board has a committee working on a general upward 
 revision of all salaries, which will probably call for a total increase of 
 $4,000,000. The teachers, however, are demanding schedules more com- 
 mensurate with the present cost of hving, which schedules call for a total 
 increase of approximately $12,000,000. Naturally the question arises, 
 " Wliere is the money to come from ? " The teachers are planning to appeal 
 to the state legislature to amend the state education law by changing the 
 tax rate for teachers' salaries in cities over 100,000 from 4.9 mills to 6 mills. 
 
 The County Council of London has voted a 50 per cent increase to 
 teachers' salaries. 
 
 Fall River, Mass., has voted to increase the salary of every member of 
 the teaching corps $100 per year, dating from May 20, 1918. 
 
 Rockford, 111., has granted an annual increase of $100 from September i, 
 1918, and is considering a proposal of a $50 bonus in addition. 
 
 Hoboken, N.J., has added $300 to the annual salary of its teachers. 
 
 Paterson, N.J., had added -$200 to the annual salary of its teachers. 
 
 UNITED STATES STEEL GIVES LABOR A 15 PER CENT INCREASE 
 
 Two hundred thousand employes of the United States Steel Corpora- 
 tion were made happy by the announcement of a 15 per cent increase in 
 wages effective April 15. The advance is in recognition of the increast 
 cost of Uving. 
 
6o NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 
 
 It is estimated that the increase in wages just granted will cost the com- 
 pany yearly about $45,000,000. The annual report of the company shows 
 a 19 1 7 surplus of more than $52,000,000 and a total undivided surplus of 
 $431,660,803. 
 
 Between the end of 1915 and the last quarter of 1917 the corporation 
 raised the pay of its employes 60 per cent. 
 
 The corporation at the close of the year had 268,058 employes, compared 
 with 252,668 at the close of 1916. During the year 11,486 employes entered 
 the United States service. 
 
 STANDARD OIL RAISES WAGES THREE MILLIONS 
 
 An increase in wages averaging 10 per cent was made, apphcable to all 
 wage-earners except first-class bricklayers and watchmen, whose rates will 
 be increast 5 per c-ent^^nd lead burners, whose rates previously had been 
 raised. 
 
 All employes, without any contribution on their part, will be given 
 individual life insurance policies with benefits ranging from a sum equal to 
 three months' wages to $2000. 
 
 The old-age pension system now in vogue, where employes sixty-five 
 years of age are provided for, has been amended so that an employe may 
 retire at the end of twenty years of service on a pension. 
 
 President Teagle said that about 30,000 employes were affected by the 
 wage increase, which totaled somewhat more than $3,000,000 a year. 
 When he announced the wage increase he stated that since August i, 191 5, 
 the Standard Oil Company has granted five general wage increases for all 
 classes of labor, so that the average increase since that time has amounted 
 to 62 .8 per cent, while the rate for common labor had been increast 80 .57 
 per cent in this period. 
 
 In addition to these increases a change from a nine- to an eight-hour 
 day was made effective September 15, 19 15. This was without any change 
 in the scale of wages and was therefore equivalent to an increase in the 
 wage scale of 19 37 per cent, 
 
 RAILROAD-WAGE INCREASES 
 
 General pay increases for nearly 2,000,000 railroad employes were 
 announced by Director- General McAdoo. 
 
 Issuance of General Order No. 27 granted an increase of wages 
 on the eight-hour-day basis to all employes. The increases will reach 
 $300,000,000 a year. 
 
 The increases carry out almost entirely the recommendations of the 
 Railroad Wage Commission. They become effective next Saturday and 
 are retroactive to last January i. 
 
 In the state legislature last April a bill was introduced pro/iding a 
 20 per cent increase for all state employes receiving less than one thousand 
 
TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 6 1 
 
 ($1000) dollars, and a 15 per cent increase for those receiving more than one 
 thousand ($1000) dollars but less than two thousand ($2000) dollars. This 
 would have cost $2,900,000, and because it was understood that this amount 
 would be prohibitive the bill was past in an amended form, which provided 
 for a 10 per cent or such lower increase of all salaries under fifteen hundred 
 ($1500) dollars, so that the minimum of fifteen hundred ($1500) dollars 
 might be made. This involved the expenditure of one million ($1,000,000) 
 dollars. 
 
 PROPOSALS FOR INCREASE 
 
 The Board of Alderman of New York City on June 11, 1918, by a 
 unanimous vote adopted a resolution providing for a 10 per cent increase 
 to employes now receiving from $1000 to $2000 a year, and 20 per cent to 
 those receiving $1000 or less. 
 
 The teachers of the state of New York thru the Teachers' Council and 
 various teachers' organizations are asking for a minimum salary of one 
 thousand ($1000) dollars with a maximum for teachers in the first six 
 years of $2160, and for teachers in the seventh and eighth years of $2400. 
 This would involve an additional expenditure of $12,000,750. 
 
 The Interborough Association of Women Teachers and some other 
 associations are asking for a "war bonus" of $200 for every member of the 
 teaching and supervising force, pending a general revision of teachers' 
 salaries, to make them more nearly commensurate with the increast cost of 
 living. During the last session of the New York state legislature two bills 
 were introduced which did not become law, but which are indicative of the 
 belief that salaries should be increast in proportion to their nearness to a 
 "living wage." One of these provided that all city employes — New York 
 City — whose salary is less and not more than twelve hundred ($1200) 
 dollars shall be increast 20 per cent; those whose salary is twelve hundred 
 ($1200) and not more than eighteen hundred ($1800) dollars shall be 
 increast 15 per cent; those whose yearly salary is more than eighteen 
 hundred ($1800) and not more than twenty-four hundred ($2400) dollars, 
 shall be increast 10 per cent; those whose salary is more than twenty-four 
 ($2400) hundred dollars shall be increast 5 per cent. 
 
 The other bill provided that all state employes whose annual salary is 
 less and not more than $1080 shall be increast 20 per cent, those whose 
 salary is less and not more than $1560 shall be increast 15 per cent, those 
 whose salary is not more than $1800 shall be increast 10 per cent, and those 
 whose salary is less and not more than $2040 shall be increast 50 per cent. 
 
62 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 
 
 APPENDIX X 
 
 CHART SHOWING THE AMOUNT OF WEALTH FOR EACH 
 TEACHER EMPLOYED IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS, 1916 
 
 Average amount for each teacher for the United States is $280,754.08. 
 
 The wealth is based on the report of the Department of Commerce, Bureau of the 
 Census, for 191 2. 
 
 The number of teachers for 1916 is based on the Report of the United States Com- 
 missioner of Education^ II, 76. 
 
 The calculations were made for the Commission on Emergency in Education by John 
 A. H. Keitt, 1 918. The chart was made by John- W. Carr. 
 
TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 
 
 63 
 
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64 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 
 
 APPENDIX XI 
 
 RELATION OF SALARIES TO EXPENSES 0^ 1504 ELEMENTARY 
 
 TEACHERS IN TOWN AND CITY SCHOOLS OF 
 
 MISSOURI (DECEMBER, 1917)^ 
 
 The teachers of St. Louis, Kansas City, and St. Joseph are not included. 
 
 The facts brought out are based not upon theory but upon actual 
 salary received and actual expenses incurred during the first three months 
 of the school year 191 7-18. A study of the items included under expenses 
 wiU show that nothing has been included which is not actually essential to a 
 teacher's welfare. 
 
 In considering the report that follows the following striking facts should 
 be noted: 93 per cent stated that expenses would be greater in proportion 
 during the remainder of the school term than during the first three months. 
 
 TOTAL SALARIES 
 
 Of all elementary teachers, 12.2 per cent receive less than $360 per year; 
 31 .5 per cent receive less than $450 per year; 75 .5 per cent receive less 
 than $500 per year. 
 
 The foregoing are annual salaries. Usually paid for an eight- or nine- 
 month school term, they must be divided by twelve to get the average 
 monthly salary. 
 
 RELATION OF SALARIES TO EXPENSES 
 
 Of the teachers receiving $360 or less, 67 per cent spend more than they 
 earn in the schoolroom; 58 per cent of those receiving $405 spend more than 
 they earn in the schoolroom; 50 per cent of those receiving $550 or less spend 
 more than they earn in the schoolroom. 
 
 The foregoing allows nothing for savings and little for professional 
 growth. It covers bare Hving expenses. 
 
 Of all elementary teachers, 52.4 per cent receive less than $550 per 
 year. These must supplement their earnings in the schoolroom. 
 
 The foregoing is true notwithstanding the fact that a large percentage 
 of teachers Uve at home and by their own statements contribute nothing 
 whatever to living expenses. In the teacher-training schools 62 per cent of 
 all grade teachers are local and in the main live at home. The answers 
 from many of these local teachers show that the salary from teaching 
 would by no means support them were it not for the fact that room and 
 board cost them nothing, being paid by their parents. 
 
 ■Extract adapted from a pamphlet issued by the state superintendent, Uel W. Lampkin. 
 
TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 65 
 
 APPENDIX XII 
 THE WAR AND TEACHERS' S.\L ARIES 
 
 (Prepared for the Commission by Dr. I. L. Kandel) 
 England and Wales 
 
 The problem of maintaining an adequate supply of elementary-school 
 teachers was already becoming serious in England and Wales before the 
 war; the outbreak of the war and its continued duration have only served 
 to intensify the crisis. A large proportion of the men have joined the Army, 
 and many women have been attracted to occupations which appear at once 
 to be more obviously connected with the war activities and to offer higher 
 remuneration than teaching. At the same time the war has imposed addi- 
 tional burdens, willingly assumed but none the less demanding sacrifices, 
 on the teachers; these have taken the form of larger classes, extra work in 
 the schools, voluntary war work of different kinds, and so on. Not the 
 least of the hardships has been the depreciation of salaries due to the rising 
 cost of living, which by 191 7 had increast about 80 per cent above that of 
 1 9 14. Education authorities were confronted with several problems — 
 inability to retain teachers in the face of more attractive opportunities 
 elsewhere, inability to secure an adequate supply of candidates ready to 
 undertake several years of training at a time when remunerative occupa- 
 tions were open to them without training, and inability to find additional 
 resources when the public purse was otherwise being drained to meet other 
 demands. 
 
 The first response was to grant bonuses on salaries which never went 
 beyond the annual addition of 10 per cent and rarely affected salaries above 
 $1000 or $1 250 a year. Such increases were of course quite incommensurate 
 with the needs of the time, especially when skilled workmen could command 
 as much as $75 a week, and boys still under eighteen about $15 a week for 
 unskilled services. In only one important respect was the stringency 
 relieved by a government prohibition against the increase of rents. The 
 bonus system prevailed until about the middle of 191 7, when the govern- 
 ment came to the rescue with an addition to the educational budget of 
 about $18,000,000, which was specially earmarkt for salaries. At the same 
 time the Board of Education issued a minute recommending that the 
 minimum salary for women teachers in elementary schools should be $450 
 and for men teachers $500. The effect of the additional government grant 
 was to stimulate the estabhshment of new scales of salary. 
 
 In the meantime the government had appointed in June, 191 7, a 
 departmental committee to inquire into the principles which should deter- 
 mine the construction of scales of salary for teachers in elementary schools, 
 
66 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 
 
 and another committee to make a similar inquiry into the salaries of 
 secondary-school teachers. The first committee issued its report in 
 February, 1918. The report'^ is based on three main principles: 
 
 1. That the "authorities in constructing a scale should aim at obtaining 
 a constant supply of suitable recruits, at retaining them while other careers 
 are still open to them, and at securing service of the desired quality from 
 those who make teaching their life work." 
 
 2. That the scale "shall provide them with a reasonable assurance of a 
 remuneration that will enable them to live appropriately without embar- 
 rassment, and that they may have a fair chance of advancement to posts of 
 greater importance and emolument." 
 
 3. That the authorities "in framing their scales are taking part in the 
 work of establishing the teaching service of the country on a basis conducive 
 to the efi&ciency of the system of national education; they should proceed 
 upon a common basis of principles." 
 
 The committee, while accepting the administrative advantages of a 
 salary scale, recognized that special consideration must be given to reward- 
 ing teachers of exceptional ability, to dealing with teachers who drift into 
 a rut, to withholding increments from those teachers who are reported to be 
 inefficient. It further considered the question of equal pay for men and 
 women, for which a strong agitation has been launcht by women teachers 
 thruout the country. Finally some attention was given to removing 
 some of the inequalities in salaries paid to teachers in rural and urban 
 areas. 
 
 The chief principle adopted for the construction of salary scales was that 
 a scale with smaller increments for the early years of service, followed by 
 larger increments leading up to a salary adequate for increasing family 
 responsibihties, and then with further prospects until retirement, is superior 
 to a sharp, steep scale leading early up to a maximum, or a long and gradual 
 scale which would not yield an adequate salary when responsibihties were 
 greatest. For example, in the case of men certificated teachers, annual in- 
 crements are suggested for not less than twelve years, followed by increments 
 at intervals of not more than three years for a further period of about ten 
 years; and for women certificated teachers, annual increments for not less 
 than eight years, followed by increments at longer intervals as in the case of 
 ftien. Uncertificated teachers should have a short scale covering a period 
 of four to six years and not rising above the minimum for women cer- 
 tificated teachers, with discretionary increments in cases of individual 
 merit. Owing to the opposition of the teaching body the committee was 
 unable to recommend that increments should depend solely upon merit, 
 and it suggests that increments be automatic except in the case of definite 
 
 ' Report of the Departmental Committee for Inquiring into the Principles Which Shoula Determine 
 the Construction of Scales of Salary for Teachers in Elementary Schools. Vol. I, Report, Cd. 8939; Vol. II, 
 Summaries of Evidence and Memoranda, Cd. 8999. 
 
TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 67 
 
 default or wilful neglect, with additional rewards for exceptional merit. 
 The committee was unable to accept the principle of equal pay for men and 
 women, partly because a scale of salaries adequate for women is under 
 present circumstances inadequate for men, and partly because it is essential 
 to attract and retain suitable men in the profession. Accordingly it advo- 
 cated the principle that the minimum salaries for both men and women 
 should be approximately the same, but that the maximum for women should 
 not be less than three-fourths of the maximum for men. With reference 
 to rural and urban teachers the committee was of the opinion that service in 
 the rural districts should be made financially attractive, and that accordingly 
 salaries should be only a little lower than in urban areas. While the com- 
 mittee did not attempt to estabhsh a national scale, it offered for considera- 
 tion a number of illustrative scales and emphasized the importance of 
 avoiding such diversity that the larger school systems would draw teachers 
 away from the smaller. 
 
 The following illustrations of scale-making for certificated teachers were 
 offered : 
 
 1. Minimum S500 rising by annual increments of $25 to $800 in the thirteenth year 
 of service, and then by triennial increments of $50 to $950 in the twenty-second year of 
 service. 
 
 2. Minimum $500 rising by annual increments of $25 to $700 in the ninth year of 
 service, then by annual increments of $50 to $900 in the thirteenth year of service, and then 
 by triennial increments of S50 to S1050 in the twenty-second year of service. 
 
 3. Minimum $500 rising by annual increments of $25 to $575 in the fourth year of 
 service, then by aimual increments of $50 to $1050 in the fourteenth year of service, and 
 then by triennial increments of $50 to $1 200 in the twenty-third year of service. 
 
 4. Minimum $500 rising by annual increments of $25 to $600 in the fifth year of 
 service, then by annual increments of $50 to $1150 in the sixteenth year of service, and 
 then by triennial increments. 
 
 5. Minimum $500 rising by annual increments of $50 to $1200 in the sixteenth year 
 of service, and then by triennial increments of $100 to $1500 in the twenty-fifth year of 
 service. 
 
 1. Minimum $450 rising by annual increments of $25 to $650 in the ninth year of 
 service, and then by triennial increments of $50 to $750 in the thirteenth year of service. 
 
 2. Minimum $450 rising as in (i) to $650 in the ninth year of service, then by one 
 increment to $700 in the tenth year of service, and then by triennial increments to $850 in 
 the nineteenth year of service. 
 
 3. Minimum $450 rising by annual increments of $25 to $600 in the seventh year of 
 service, then by annual increments of $50 to $750 in the tenth year of service, and then by 
 triennial increments of $50 to $900 in the nineteenth year of service. 
 
 4. Minimum $450 rising by annual increments of $25 to $550 in the fifth j^ear of 
 service, then by annual increments of $50 to $850 in the eleventh year of service, and then 
 by triennial increments of $50 to $1000 in the twentieth year of service. 
 
 5. Minimum $450 rising as in (4) to $550, then by annual increments of $50 to $900 
 in the twelfth year of service, and then by triennial increments of $100 to $1200 in the 
 twenty-first year of service. 
 
68 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 
 
 SCOTLAND 
 
 The effect of the war on the salaries of teachers in Scotland was 
 similar to that in England and Wales, with similar attempts to meet the 
 situation by the grant of bonuses. In July, 19 17, the government 
 appointed a Departmental Committee on the Remuneration of Teachers 
 in Scotland, which considered and reported in November, 191 7, on 
 salaries in elementary and secondary schools and in training colleges. 
 The general considerations determining the report of the committee was as 
 follows: 
 
 In considering the larger and more important part of our reference, viz., the suitable 
 scales of salary for different classes of teachers, we desired to approach the question not 
 solely, nor even mainly, as one involving the interests of a single profession, but as one 
 vitally affecting the welfare of the whole community. That welfare must depend, in 
 increasing measure, upon the efi&ciency of national education; and the fundamental 
 requirement for securing this is that there should be an adequate supply of teachers of 
 high capacity, proved aptitude, and thoro training. This cannot be attained unless the 
 remuneration is such as to make the teaching profession one which may compete with 
 other professions in securing recruits of sufficient capacity arid in repaying these recruits 
 for the time and labour spent in their special training. To attract such recruits it is 
 necessary, not only that a fair salary should be offered to begin with, but — and it is an 
 even more vital condition— that sufficiently attractive prospects should be opened to 
 those who have served for a certain number of years. 
 
 Following this line of inquiry we come to the following general conclu- 
 sions: 
 
 1. That not only as a temporary war measure, but as a permanent 
 necessity in order to maintain an efficient teaching profession in the interests 
 of the country, the general remuneration of teachers must be raised, and 
 an equalization of the scale of salaries for similar classes of schools over the 
 country is desirable. 
 
 2. That this cannot be attained by any continuation or extension of the 
 bonus system. 
 
 3. That while an adequate initial salary must be provided, it is even of 
 greater importance that improved prospects should be opened to those who 
 attain a certain length of service and have proved their competency and 
 their aptitude for the profession. 
 
 4. That the scale should take account of: 
 
 a) The length and character of the preliminary training. 
 
 b) Length of service. 
 
 c) The responsibihty of the post held and its demands on the capacity 
 and energy of a teacher. 
 
 The scales recommended by the committee are in every case higher than 
 those prevaihng at present and determined by local and accidental circum- 
 stances. While aware of the large increase of expenditure involved, the 
 committee declares it to be its 
 
TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 69 
 
 firm and considered conviction, however, that the scheme .... cannot be attained 
 except, first, by an extension of school areas, and, secondly, by a very large proportion of 
 
 the additional amount required being provided by the central authority Whatever 
 
 the cost, if it is proved to be necessary for high educational efficiency, we cannot afford the 
 ultimate extravagance which is involved in undue parsimony in such a case. It should 
 not be overlookt that the aim of the proposed standard of salaries .... is not so much 
 to improve the position and prospects of the teaching profession as to secure in the future, 
 for the benefit of the state, an adequate supply of amply efficient recruits for our educa- 
 tional army. 
 
70 NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 
 
 APPENDIX XIII 
 
 TEACHERS' SALARIES^ 
 
 ''Basic Principles in the Making of a Salary Schedule for Teachers. The Findings 
 of the Evanston, Illinois, Committee of Teachers," American School Board 
 Journal, LVI (March, 1918), 26-27, 83. 
 
 Becht, J. G. "The Teachers' QuaKfications, Compensation, and Retirement," 
 Pennsylvania School Journal, LXIV (March, 1916), 393-96. 
 
 Boynton, F. D. "Minimum Salary Legislation," Journal of the New York State 
 Teachers' Association II (February, 1915), 16-20. 
 
 Boykin, J. C, and King, Roberta. The Tangible Rewards of Teaching. U.S. 
 Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 16, 1914. Washington: Government 
 Printing Office. 465 pages. 
 
 Chamberlain, Arthur H. "Teachers' Salaries. A Study of the Salary Schedule 
 in Various Cities in the United States," Sierra Educational News, XIII 
 (January, 191 7), 12-16. 
 
 Chancellor, William E. "The Future of Salaries for Ohio Teachers," Ohio 
 Teacher, XXXIII (February, 1918), 294-96. 
 
 "CoUege Teachers, Financial Status of," Eighth Report of the Carnegie Founda- 
 tion (1913), pp. 98-111. 
 
 England, Report of the Departmental Committee for Inquiring into the Principles 
 Which Should Determine the Construction of Scales of Salary for Teachers 
 in Elementary Schools. Vol. I, Report, Cd. 8939; Vol. II, Summaries of 
 Evidence and Memoranda, Cd. 8999. London, 1 918. 
 
 "Evanston's Scale and Scheme," Journal of Education, LXXXVII (February 21, 
 1918), 215-17. 
 A reply of the Board of Education of Evanston, 111., to the report of the teachers' 
 
 committee on a salary scale and scheme for grading salaries, promotions, and dismissals. 
 
 Ferguson, James. "Teachers' Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions," National Educa- 
 tion Association, Addresses and Proceedings (1915), pp. 1162-64. 
 
 Hadley, A. T. "Salaries at Yale University," School and Society, II (Novem- 
 ber 20, 1915), 751-52. 
 From the annual report. 
 
 Hoban, C. F. "The Salary Question," Pennsylvania School Journal, LXIII 
 (April, 191 5), 431-32. 
 
 Kandel, I. L. "The War and Teachers' Salaries. England and Wales, and 
 Scotland," School and Society (June 29, 1918, and July 6, 1918). 
 
 Mayman, J. Edward. "The High Cost of Living and Stationary Salaries," 
 American Teacher, VI (January, 1917), 2-4. 
 Gives a table showing the average increases, in teachers' salaries compared with the 
 
 average increases in cost of living. i 
 
 ' Contributed by Dr. Wolcott, librarian, Bureau of Education, Washington, D.C. 
 
 70 
 
TEACHERS' SALARIES AND COST OF LIVING 71 
 
 Miller, Sarah Pleis. "Have Women's Salaries Been Increased by Higher Uni- 
 versity Training?" Journal of the Association of Collegiate Alumnae, VIII 
 (April, 1 91 5), 73-79. 
 From information received from the Civil Service Bureau, teachers' agencies, city 
 
 superintendents of schools, and university authorities, the author shows that college 
 
 degrees do increase women's salaries. 
 
 Monroe, Edwin S. "Salaries and Pensions," Oklahoma Journal of Education, 
 VI (December 30, 1916), 2-4; Qanuary 6, 1917), 4-6. 
 
 Monahan, A. C, and Dye, C. H. A Comparison of the Salaries of Rural and 
 Urban Superintendents of Schools. U.S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin 
 No. 33,1917. Washington: Government Printing Office. 68 pages. 
 
 National Education Association Committee on Salaries, Tenure, and Pensions 
 of Teachers. Report of the Committee on Teachers' Salaries and Cost of Living. 
 Ann Arbor, Mich.: The Association, 1913. 328 pages. 
 
 Purcell, Helen E. " Poor Salaries for Teachers as They Affect the Child," Ameri- 
 can School Board Journal, LVI (February, 1918), 23, 83. 
 
 Putnam, Mary B. "The Laborer and His Hire," American Schoolmaster, X 
 (December 15, 1917), 433-45- 
 
 "Resolved, That Men and Women Teachers Should Receive Equal Pay for the 
 Same Grade of Work," Oklahoma Journal of Education, V (February 26, 
 1916), 3-7. 
 Contains: (i) Elizabeth Hodgson: "Men and Women Teachers Should Not Receive 
 
 Equal Salaries"; (2) Laura M. Kingsbury: "Men and Women Teachers Should Receive 
 
 Equal Salaries. A Reply." 
 
 Robinson, Winifred J. "Have Women's Salaries Been Increased by Special 
 Courses in Education?" Journal of the Association of Collegiate Alumnae, 
 VIII (April, 1915), 79-82. 
 
 "Salaries of Manual-Training Teachers," fndustrial-Arts Magazine, VI Qanuary, 
 
 1917), 36. 
 Salary schedules of manual-training teachers in 21 cities in 1916. 
 
 Severance, Lena L. "The Case of the New York State Normal School," Journal 
 of the Association of Collegiate Alumnae, VIII (April, 1916), 82-88. 
 Salaries of women teachers in New York state. 
 
 "Teachers' Salaries Notes," American School Board Journal, LVI (March, 1918), 
 
 720. 
 
 See also "Salary Schedule for Louisiana," p. 71, and "Teachers' Salaries m Massa- 
 chusetts," pp. 70-71- 
 United States Bureau of Education. A Comparative Study of the Salaries of 
 
 Teachers and School Officers. BuUetin No. 31, 1915- Washington: Govern- 
 ment Printing Office. 126 pages. 
 Winsor, Frederick. "The Underpaid Pedagogues," Atlantic Monthly, CXVII 
 
 (May, 1916), 654-57. 
 Wood, Will C. "Suggestions on the Adjustment of Teachers' Salaries," Western 
 
 Journal of Education, XXIV (February, 1918), 4-5. 
 
 For earUer references see the bibliography at end of The Tangible Rewards of Teach- 
 ing, by Boykin and King. U.S. Bureau of Education. Bulletm No. i6, 1914- 
 
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