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THE 
 
 THEORY AND PRACTICE 
 
 OF SCIENTIFIC 
 
 MANAGEMENT 
 
 BY 
 
 C. BERTRAND THOMPSON, A.M., LL.B. 
 
 Sometime Lecturer on Manufacturing 
 Harvard University 
 
 BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO 
 
 HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY 
 
/ ^ 
 
 <* 
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1917, BY C. BERTRAND THOMPSON 
 
 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 
 
 1-1 
 
 Wi}t »ibtrsfat £ress 
 
 CAMBRIDGE . MASSACHUSETTS 
 U . S . A 
 
 * SEP 18 1917 
 
 ©CI.A476115 
 
 I 7..* /. 
 
TO THE HONORED MEMORY 
 
 OF 
 
 FREDERICK WINSLOW TAYLOR 
 
PREFACE 
 
 An element of risk attaches to any effort to 
 appraise a movement while that movement is 
 still in its earlier and more enthusiastic stages, 
 especially when the appraisal is made by one 
 who is (however modestly) a participant in it. 
 The attempt is justified only by the accuracy 
 with which facts are presented and by the justice 
 and fairness of the inferences and conclusions 
 drawn. In this book I have tried to give only 
 facts which can be verified and to make infer- 
 ences with all due conservatism. The result is 
 offered for what it may be worth. There is some 
 consolation in the thought that a later genera- 
 tion may count it an original, or at least con- 
 temporary, source. 
 
 Owing to the nature of the investigations I 
 have had to make in the preparation of this 
 book, it is practically impossible to list the 
 many friends and acquaintances to whom 
 acknowledgments are due. First of all, I am 
 indebted to the late F. W. Taylor, himself, for 
 invaluable information, suggestions, and assist- 
 ance, and to his group of followers, who have 
 aided me in many ways and with whom I have 
 
VI 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 gained much of the practical experience, with- 
 out which this book would have been written, 
 if at all, from a quite different angle. 
 
 Acknowledgment is due, moreover, to the 
 many owners and managers who have kindly 
 given permission to study their plants, and 
 to them and to many employees for detailed 
 information. 
 
 I am also indebted to Dean E. F. Gay, of 
 the Graduate School of Business Administra- 
 tion, Harvard University, for stimulating crit- 
 icisms of this work in its early stages, and to 
 Messrs. E. G. Mears and H. H. Farquhar, 
 former students of mine, for help on the almost 
 interminable bibliography. 
 
 Much of this book has already been pub- 
 lished as a series of articles in the Quarterly 
 Journal of Economics, and I am indebted to 
 the editors of that journal for permission to 
 use them again in their present form. For pub- 
 lication in this book they have been revised and 
 brought up to date as fully as the exigencies of 
 a busy professional life have permitted. 
 
 C. B. T. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 I. What Scientific Management is . . . i 
 II. Frederick Winslow Taylor . . . .14 
 
 III. Scientific Management in Practice . .36 
 
 1. Statistics 37 _ 
 
 2. Applications of Scientific Management . 41 *- 
 
 3. Effects on Employees ...... 76 - 
 
 4. Relations with the Public and with Organ- 
 
 ized Labor 88 
 
 5. Failures and their Causes 97 
 
 IV. Economic Aspects of Scientific Management 105 
 
 I. Scientific Management and the Entrepreneur 107 
 II. Scientific Management and Labor . .116 
 
 1. The Influence on Basic Wages . .117 
 
 2. The Bonus Method and its Results . 121 
 
 3. Labor Unions 139 
 
 III. Larger Social Problems . . . . .156 
 
 V. The Literature of Scientific Management 173 
 
 1. Development and Theory of Scientific Man- 
 
 agement as a Whole 176 
 
 2. Scientific Management in Operation . .215 
 
 3. Scientific Management and the Railroads . 220 
 
 4. Methods 229 
 
 5. The Personal Factor in Scientific Manage- 
 
 ment 251 
 
 6. Scientific Management and Organized Labor 262 
 
 Bibliography 271 
 
 Index 309 
 
THE THEORY AND PRACTICE 
 OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 I 
 
 WHAT SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IS 
 
 Any discussion of the theory and practice of 
 scientific or positive management is confronted 
 at the outset with the question, What is scien- 
 tific management? 
 
 The development of the factory system 
 brought with it many new problems connected 
 with the organization and management of 
 labor, the structure and equipment of factories, 
 and the technique of production. By success- 
 ful manufacturers these problems have always 
 been solved in a way to make manufacturing 
 at a profit possible. Early solutions, however, 
 were necessarily crude and roughshod. With 
 the enormous increase in demand for manufac- 
 tured products, in the investment of capital, 
 and in the number of men engaged in the busi- 
 ness, with the consequent development of ever- 
 keener competition, the early methods have 
 been found insufficient. Especially within the 
 
2 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 last twenty years a degree of skill and technical 
 training has been brought to bear upon the 
 solution of factory problems which has made 
 modern factory management a thing much 
 more elaborate, refined, and effective than ever 
 before. A series of improvements in adminis- 
 tration and methods have been made by many 
 engineers and managers, and not a few of 
 them have been developed by a method which 
 might truly be called " scientific." Where, then, 
 can we draw the line between modern manage- 
 ment in general and what has come to be known 
 technically as ''scientific management"? 
 
 Out of the mass of engineers and managers 
 who are responsible for present-day methods, 
 there has grown a group originating with Mr. 
 Frederick W. Taylor, of Philadelphia, who have 
 perceived certain principles underlying the 
 practices of management hitherto unrelated 
 and uncoordinated. A collation of isolated suc- 
 cessful experiments in various details of factory 
 administration and methods has apparently 
 shown a possibility of classification and general- 
 ization. Such classification and generalization 
 are the basis for the development of a science, 
 and the term " scientific management" is ap- 
 plied generally to the body of principles de- 
 duced from experience by Mr. Taylor, and the 
 
WHAT IT IS 3 
 
 engineers associated with and trained by him, 
 and to the methods by which the resultant 
 principles are applied to industry. " Scienti- 
 fic management," therefore, is distinctively 
 scientific, since it aims to correlate and sys- 
 tematize all the best of modern developments 
 in factory administration, and to push develop- 
 ment further in accordance with the principles 
 discovered. 1 
 
 On the basis of this definition it is not difficult 
 to segregate that portion of modern factory 
 management which constitutes scientific man- 
 agement from that other portion which includes 
 the many unrelated improvements, methods, 
 and principles which are continually being 
 evolved. Scientific management as such is that 
 which has been developed and practiced by 
 those who approach the subject in a scientific 
 manner. Of these Mr. Taylor was the acknowl- 
 edged pioneer and leader both in practice and 
 theory. 
 
 Scientific management has been variously 
 referred to as a new form of industrial organi- 
 zation, a new type of administration, a new 
 
 1 Mr. Charles B. Going has published an article ("The 
 Efficiency Movement — An Outline," Transactions, The Effi- 
 ciency Society, vol. I, p. n), showing the place of scientific 
 management in the modern developments of factory organi- 
 zation and pointing out the common element in many move- 
 ments. 
 
4 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 " system." Again it is said to be a science, an 
 art, a set of laws, principles, rules, methods, and 
 processes, a policy, or even a set of forms 
 and mechanisms. Its significance depends upon 
 which of these things it is. 
 
 Industrial organization is the definition, cor- 
 relation, and coordination of parts and func- 
 tions in a group of elements made up of land and 
 buildings, capital and credit, equipment and 
 men, adapted to attain the important ends of 
 economic manufacture, sale at a profit, and 
 growth at least to the point where the effect 
 of increasing difficulties of management coun- 
 terbalances the possible advantages of further 
 expansion. System is the mechanism whereby 
 organization performs its functions of admin- 
 istration. Administration is the dynamics of 
 organization. It is the injection of initiative, 
 stimulus, and control into the static system of 
 which organization is a cross-section. Rules, 
 methods, and processes are names of varying 
 degrees of inclusiveness for the prescribed 
 procedures in the accomplishment of circum- 
 scribed and isolated results. A policy is a gen- 
 eralized rule determined empirically by a process 
 of trial and error rather than by a scientific 
 method of investigation. 
 
 Under these definitions, and in the light of 
 
WHAT IT IS 5 
 
 observation of the movement in practice, it is 
 apparent that scientific management is a type 
 of industrial organization and administration 
 with a fairly definite system of its own and 
 involves the use of rules, methods, and proc- 
 esses and, to some extent, of policies, just the 
 same as any other type of management. What, 
 then, is to differentiate it from others? 
 
 Scientific management in its best manifesta- 
 tions may be distinguished from other types of 
 management in that it proceeds on industrial 
 principles, which may be defined as gener- 
 alized rules of conduct based on law, recognized 
 or as yet undiscovered, and useful to the attain- 
 ment of important industrial ends, such as maxi- 
 mum output, low cost, high wages, equitable dis- 
 tribution, reduction of unemployment, industrial 
 peace. If we define a law as a summary state- 
 ment of fact or a description of a tendency com- 
 mon to a class of things, then an industrial law 
 is any law, physical, chemical, biological, psy- 
 chological, economic, or social, which is or may 
 be a factor in industrial management. The test 
 by which scientific management determines 
 whether any law is an industrial law, is the 
 effect of that law on economy of production 
 or conservation of energy, human or material. 
 - What makes a type of management scientific, 
 
6 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 then, is the fact that it rests on laws and principles 
 rather than on policies. To be sure, until all 
 the laws and principles of management are 
 ascertained, it still remains true that policy 
 must play a large part and that to that extent 
 management remains at least partially an art; 
 but the intention and the conscious effort to 
 reduce the field of policy and to enlarge that of 
 principle and law justly entitle any system 
 which holds to it consistently to the name of 
 scientific management. 
 
 Thus far there has been no uniformity in the 
 attempts to classify and state these laws and 
 principles. Mr. Taylor's own statements of 
 what he refers to at different times as " prin- 
 ciples, " "elements," and "new duties" vary. 1 
 
 Without attempting to state fully the laws 
 and principles on which scientific management 
 is based, it may be well to attempt at least to 
 classify them. The following schema indicates 
 the laws grouped under the "Science of Indus- 
 trial Conservation " and the principles under the 
 "Principles of Industrial Organization." This 
 distinction between the science on the one hand 
 and the principles on the other has important 
 
 1 For an interesting attempt at systematic statement, see 
 an article by Lieutenant G. J. Meyers, Journal of American 
 Society of Naval Engineers, vol. 23, p. 994, reprinted in C. 
 Bertrand Thompson's Scientific Management, p. 132. 
 
WHAT IT IS 
 
 practical bearings, particularly on disputed 
 questions regarding the relation of scientific 
 management to the labor problem. 
 
 The content of scientific management may 
 be indicated schematically in this way : — 
 
 I. Science of 
 Industrial 
 Conserva- 
 tion 
 
 A. Physical Laws 
 
 B. Psychophysical 
 Laws 
 
 II. Principles of 
 Industrial 
 Organiza- 
 tion 
 
 A. Group 
 
 kB. Individual 
 
 13 
 
 'i. Materials 
 
 2. Equipment 
 
 3. Processes 
 
 fi. Effort 
 2. Habit 
 Incentive 
 
 1. Reliance on Law 
 
 and Principle 
 
 2. Functionalization 
 
 3. Balance — Co- 
 
 ordinatio n 
 ('" exception 
 principle") 
 
 4. Harmony — Dis* 
 
 cipline . 
 
 1. Selection 
 
 2. Training 
 
 3. Specialization 
 
 4. Control 
 
 5. Stimulation 
 ^6. Reward 
 
 As a study of this schema indicates, the laws 
 of scientific management are, first, the physical 
 and chemical laws covering materials, equip- 
 ment, and processes, and, second, the psycho- 
 logical laws (undoubtedly operative no matter 
 
8 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 how dimly understood) which govern the indi- 
 vidual conduct and reactions of the human be- 
 ings involved. The principles of scientific man- 
 agement are those which govern the relations 
 of individuals to each other in organized groups 
 and the methods of procedure by which scien- 
 tific management is made effective in practice. 
 The Science of Industrial Conservation, then, 
 is based on natural laws; and natural laws, if 
 accurately determined, are fixed and inflexible. 
 They cannot be altered by a majority of votes. 
 This is the important distinction between the 
 Science of Industrial Conservation and the 
 Principles of Industrial Organization. Prin- 
 ciples, if they are, as defined, rules of conduct, 
 may be changed and in fact are constantly 
 subject to modification by consent and agree- 
 ment. 
 
 The science of industrial conservation is 
 based on physical laws so far as they apply to 
 the materials, equipment (including machines 
 and small tools), and processes involved in 
 industries. Mr. Taylor's work on the compo- 
 sition of tool steel and the proper technical 
 conditions for securing the maximum output 
 from cutting tools, as illustrated in his Art of 
 Cutting Metals, is an example. 
 
WHAT IT IS 9 
 
 The whole field of natural science is at the 
 disposal of industry so far as industry wishes 
 to utilize it. The participation of human be- 
 ings suggests the resort to the vaguer and 
 less definite group of psychophysical sciences. 
 Scientific management has at least begun to 
 investigate the laws of effort both mental and 
 physical (as in the study of fatigue), and has 
 even gone farther into the much more complex 
 field of incentive as illustrated in the effort to 
 determine the amount of bonus necessary to 
 secure the workman's cooperation in the per- 
 formance of a task. Scientific management is 
 eminently "practical," and has been somewhat 
 timid about applying the results of modern 
 psychological and physiological study. This 
 timidity will disappear, however, as psychol- 
 ogy and physiology pass beyond the stage of 
 laboratory experiment into experimentation 
 under industrial conditions. There is here an 
 excellent opportunity for fruitful cooperation 
 between the scientist and the manager, as sug- 
 gested and illustrated by H. Miinsterberg in 
 his book Psychology and Industrial Efficiency. 
 
 The principles of industrial organization may 
 be divided into those which deal with groups 
 of men and those which are concerned with in- 
 dividuals. The former refer to the relations of 
 
io SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 all the individuals in an organization. The 
 distinctive features which the Taylor System 
 has added to the already current practice are 
 those of reliance on law and principle, functional 
 foremanship, the " exception principle" in- 
 tended to aid in securing proper balance and 
 coordination of men, and the principle of disci- 
 pline (inherent but heretofore not formally ex- 
 pressed) for the conscious purpose of securing 
 harmony rather than mere upholding of au- 
 thority. This conception of self-enforced and 
 fundamental discipline has led to the revolu- 
 tionary result that the "men" themselves are 
 as insistent on the performance of managerial 
 duties by their "superiors" as their "bosses" 
 formerly were on the men's "recognition" of 
 their "authority." 
 
 In its dealings with individuals scientific 
 management lays special stress on the prin- 
 ciples of selection to fit the job, individual 
 training for their better accomplishment, an 
 extension of specialization to the utmost limit 
 which the size of the industry permits, de- 
 finite and positive control over all processes and 
 operations, and the predetermined and con- 
 scious stimulation of the men to the greatest 
 degree of exertion consistent with their con- 
 tinued health by means of a special reward in 
 
WHAT IT IS n 
 
 the form of a " bonus," a " premium,' ' or a 
 ''high rate" for superior accomplishment. 
 
 From this classification it will be observed 
 that the most distinctive contribution of sci- 
 entific management has been in the field of 
 principles rather than in that of laws. The 
 determination of laws is a long and usually un- 
 lucrative process better carried on by "pure 
 scientists" in their laboratories for the benefit 
 of all possible users than by individual manag- 
 ers restricted by a multitude of practical prob- 
 lems and interested mainly in their personal 
 advantage. Mr. Taylor's work on The Art of 
 Cutting Metals, which at times converted whole 
 sections of shops into laboratories, is the con- 
 spicuous exception which proves the rule. 
 
 On the other hand, the successful adminis- 
 tration of a new type of organization absolutely 
 requires the determination of the principles on 
 which it will be conducted. Starting, therefore, 
 with the principle of basing all productive ac- 
 tivity on law, Mr. Taylor was compelled to 
 work out the principles which have now be- 
 come known distinctively as those of scientific 
 management. The science of industrial con- 
 servation is a free field open to every one cap- 
 able of cultivating it, but the principles of 
 industrial organization as developed by Mr. 
 
12 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 Taylor are thus far the distinguishing posses- 
 sion of those trained, or strongly influenced, by 
 him. 
 
 This analysis makes clear the fact that scien- 
 tific management is the extension to industrial 
 organization of the "positive" movements in 
 current thought. The substitution of a basis 
 of scientific law and principles for guesswork 
 or tradition reminds one strongly of Auguste 
 Comte's theory of progress from the "theolog- 
 ical," through the "metaphysical," to the 
 " positive" or scientific stage of thought. 
 
 It is interesting to observe that "scientific 
 management" is "positive management" in 
 other senses as well, which flow from its es- 
 sentially scientific aim and method. Its ad- 
 ministration is marked by the positiveness of its 
 control. So far as possible nothing is left to 
 accident or to individual judgment. The time, 
 place, and sequence of all operations, as well 
 as the details of all processes, are determined 
 and enforced by the management. 
 
 The result of the application of the science 
 of industrial conservation and the principles 
 of industrial organization is to develop the in- 
 herent resources and capabilities of an organi- 
 zation far beyond the average or normal de- 
 gree of efficiency. This distinguishes scientific 
 
WHAT IT IS 13 
 
 management from the current types of " effi- 
 ciency systems," which are usually based on a 
 variety of cost-keeping built on the methods of 
 accountants rather than of statisticians and 
 supplemented by superficial observations and 
 incoordinated improvements. Their aim is to 
 "stop leaks/' "eliminate wastes," "avoid de- 
 lays": in other words, to remove a mathemat- 
 ical negative and bring an organization to a 
 normal standard. The aim of scientific or posi- 
 tive management is to carry an organization 
 beyond this normal standard and to bring it 
 to the utmost degree of efficiency of which it 
 is capable: in other words, to accomplish a 
 mathematically positive result. 
 
II 
 
 FREDERICK WINSLOW TAYLOR 
 
 The time is not yet ripe for the full story 
 of Taylor's varied and active life. He was a 
 notably two-sided man; on the one hand, a 
 scientist devoted to the pursuit of abstract 
 truth, and on the other, a highly practical man 
 deeply involved in large industrial affairs. His 
 work as a scientist, while in the main well 
 known, led him into practical applications 
 whose details have been to some extent with- 
 held from publication for practical reasons; 
 while his work as administrator and manager 
 involved relations with clients which were 
 necessarily confidential in their nature. His 
 pioneer work on the advanced frontiers of the 
 art of industrial management led him into situ- 
 ations of trial and difficulty which would make 
 a story of exceeding interest were it possible 
 to give it at this time. 
 
 Taylor has himself revealed some of the 
 characteristic experiences through which he 
 reached his development, but even with his most 
 intimate friends it was his habit to maintain a 
 high degree of reticence about certain of the 
 
FREDERICK WINSLOW TAYLOR 15 
 
 most interesting periods of his life. Perhaps 
 in the fullness of time the many records avail- 
 able in Taylor's effects and the vivid recollec- 
 tions and reminiscences of his friends will be 
 brought together and made into a volume, 
 which will be at the same time a history of a 
 highly important development in modern in- 
 dustrial life and a fitting memorial to the man 
 to whose genius this development is largely due. 
 
 To give at this time a few of the significant 
 facts which go to explain and illuminate his 
 career and the movement of which he is the 
 father, will not require the violation of confi- 
 dences nor the divulging of secrets. 1 
 
 Taylor was to a high degree the resultant 
 of his ancestors. On his father's side he came 
 of a long line of Pennsylvania Quakers. His 
 grandfather was a merchant trading with the 
 Indies; his father a lawyer. His mother's 
 family was typically Yankee. Her father was 
 one of the famous old New Bedford whalers, 
 who not only attained to considerable wealth, 
 but to the distinction of being commissioned 
 by the French Government to assist in the 
 development of the whaling industry by France. 
 
 1 Much material of an autobiographic nature may be found 
 in Taylor's books and need not be repeated here. The history 
 of his literary work is given on pages 25, 179-94 following. 
 
16 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 His mother was one of the leaders in the group 
 of women of keen intelligence and independ- 
 ence of character who contributed largely to the 
 transcendental tone of New England in the 
 middle of the nineteenth century. She was an 
 early advocate of women's rights. Her home 
 was a center of the Abolitionist movement. 
 Taylor came honestly by the moral rectitude 
 and high regard for truth and the immovable 
 firmness of conviction which characterized 
 him, together with the apparently paradoxical, 
 though really consistent (if you understand it), 
 strain of pioneer radicalism. 
 
 Taylor was born in German town, Pennsyl- 
 vania, on March 20, 1856. During much of his 
 early youth he was at school in France and 
 Germany, and before his return to America 
 made an extended trip through most of the 
 countries of Europe. During these years he 
 developed a deep affection for France and the 
 French people, and always numbered many of 
 his best friends among them. In later years his 
 favorite trip for recreation and health for him- 
 self and his wife was to the rugged but hospit- 
 able coast of Brittany. One of his last letters 
 was an appreciation of the heroic efforts of 
 France and Belgium to repel the German inva- 
 sion in 19 1 4 and the expression of an ardent 
 
FREDERICK WINSLOW TAYLOR 17 
 
 desire for the ultimate success of the French 
 arms. 1 
 
 On his return to the United States he was 
 placed in the Phillips Exeter Academy to be 
 prepared for admission to Harvard University ; 
 an ambition which he was destined never to 
 realize, however, on account of the weakness 
 of his eyesight. 
 
 One of his instructors at the Academy was 
 the famous mathematical pedagogue whom he 
 was fond of referring to as "Old Wentworth." 
 It was from Wentworth that Taylor got his 
 first idea of time study and the assignment of 
 tasks. Wentworth would give an original prob- 
 lem in geometry to his class, take out his watch, 
 and record results. As soon as a student had 
 solved it he raised his hand and the time was 
 noted. Eventually half of the class had solved 
 the problem, and the elapsed time was an indi- 
 cation to Wentworth of the number of problems 
 he could assign for a normal day's work. 
 
 When young Taylor left Exeter he was un- 
 able to continue his studies and undecided 
 about the vocation for which he was fitted. 
 Active and well-to-do, with leisure and no par- 
 ticular aim, he went in strongly for athletic 
 
 1 See Le Chatelier's memorial volume, Revue de Metallurgies 
 vol. xii, April, 1915. (Dunod et Pinat, Paris.) 
 
18 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 sports. During these years he developed a love 
 for outdoor games, a skill in playing them, and 
 a rugged physique which attended him through- 
 out life. At one time he was one of the holders 
 of the amateur double tennis championship 
 and in his later years stood high in the ranks 
 of amateur golfers. Many amusing details are 
 told about the curious results of Taylor's appli- 
 cation of his scientific methods to this game 
 hoary with age. In order to insure an accurate 
 grip on the driver and the proper swing, he had 
 a harness constructed which made it impossible 
 for him to drive otherwise than correctly. At 
 the same time, in order to lengthen the drive, 
 he had his clubs made extra long, so long in- fact 
 that they were ruled off some of the conserva- 
 tive old golf links. The head of his niblick was 
 made of a coarse rasp file with the rasps point- 
 ing upward. While this was rather rough on 
 the ball, it at least insured its getting out of a 
 hole of any depth. 1 
 
 As soon as he realized his bent toward engi- 
 neering work, Taylor got a job as apprentice 
 in the shops of the old William Sellers Company 
 in Philadelphia. This did not work out to his 
 
 1 One of Taylor's mathematical friends is reputed to have 
 devised a slide rule for calculating the strokes and angles in 
 billiards, but there is as yet no evidence of his having attained 
 the championship thereby. 
 
FREDERICK WINSLOW TAYLOR 19 
 
 satisfaction, however, and in 1878 he applied for 
 work at the Mid vale Steel Company, near Phila- 
 delphia. There was nothing open for him except 
 a clerkship, which he accepted unwillingly and 
 shortly resigned to go to work in the shops as 
 a laborer and helper. This connection was 
 destined to become decisive in Taylor's career. 
 In the course of a few years, from 1878 to 1884, 
 he held successively the positions of clerk, 
 helper, keeper of tool cribs, assistant foreman, 
 foreman, master mechanic, director of research, 
 and finally chief engineer of the entire plant. 
 In 1880, when the trouble with his eyes had 
 sufficiently subsided, he became a student in 
 the evening classes of the Stevens Institute, 
 where for three years he studied the funda- 
 mentals of engineering. 
 
 On this foundation Taylor developed a pro- 
 fessional career as engineer and manager which 
 eventually brought him to the position of one 
 of the world's leading inventors, engineers, 
 and administrators. The humble beginnings of 
 his development are given in some detail in 
 his own books. Until about 1889 Taylor was at 
 Midvale. During this period he evolved some 
 of the underlying principles of the type of man- 
 agement which has come to be known as the 
 "Taylor System." Here the methods of time 
 
20 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 study found their origin; functional foreman- 
 ship began to take form; and the experiments 
 on the cutting of metals, which later brought 
 him fame and wealth, were begun. 
 
 From the expiration of his Midvale work 
 to the beginning of his engagement with the 
 Bethlehem Steel Company is a period over 
 which the veil is still drawn. Taylor was then 
 engaged in the development and application of 
 his cost system and methods of management to 
 a considerable variety of industries, chemical 
 and mechanical. His work was carried on under 
 the greatest difficulties. Radical and revolu- 
 tionary in his methods, he was little understood 
 by those with whom he was in constant contact. 
 To add to his troubles, he was often in con- 
 flict with managers and directors remote from 
 the scene of operations, unacquainted with the 
 technology of the industry, ignorant of the op- 
 erating conditions in their own plants or the 
 problems of management which were always 
 arising, and even in some instances insisting 
 on methods of dealing with employees, sup- 
 pliers, and the market, which were inequitable 
 and oppressive and utterly contrary to Tay- 
 lor's principles. Taylor was consumed with the 
 ambition to carry on the experiments he had 
 begun at Midvale. The expedients to which 
 
FREDERICK WINSLOW TAYLOR 21 
 
 he resorted to secure funds for this purpose were 
 ingenious and successful as well as strictly ethi- 
 cal. One of the considerations on which funds 
 and equipments were advanced to him was 
 secrecy, and it is this which is largely respon- 
 sible for the dearth of detailed information 
 about his activities during these years. All 
 that can be said is that when he emerged 
 again at Bethlehem, he had arrived trium- 
 phantly at almost the conclusion of his work 
 on the cutting of metals and at nearly the 
 final development of the system of manage- 
 ment which now goes by his name. 
 
 Taylor's services were engaged by the Beth- 
 lehem Steel Company in 1896. There for three 
 years, with the assistance of a large and com- 
 petent force of engineers, he reorganized the 
 management and methods of two of the larger 
 machine shops and the foundry, and at the 
 same time completed the development of his 
 metal-cutting experiments, made substantial 
 advances in time-study methods, and did a 
 masterly piece of work on the care and mainte- 
 nance of leather belting. It was here that he 
 finally worked out the formula and method of 
 heat treatment for what is now known as high- 
 speed steel. The old story that the heat treat- 
 ment was discovered by accident through the 
 
22 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 mistake of a workman is a sheer fabrication. 
 High-speed steel is the result of four years of 
 intensive study and experiment by Taylor, 
 with the assistance of a metallurgist, Maunsel 
 White. The work was done by laboratory meth- 
 ods of the most minute and painstaking char- 
 acter and the keenest scientific training and 
 intelligence were constantly brought to bear 
 upon it. 
 
 The circumstances under which Taylor 
 closed his engagement with the Bethlehem 
 Steel Company are not clear. After he had 
 been there about three years a change in the 
 directors and executive management took place 
 and there came in a group who were unfamiliar 
 with, and apparently antagonistic to, the meth- 
 ods pursued by Taylor and his staff. Whatever 
 the details may be, the fact is that Taylor and 
 his associates left. During the following two 
 years his work was maintained to some ex- 
 tent, and then the building from which it was 
 administered, and which contained the time 
 study and other records which were its basis, 
 was burned down. For some time thereafter 
 the subordinate officials, who were familiar 
 with Taylor's work and in sympathy with him, 
 continued it as well as they could ; but eventu- 
 ally it became encrusted with a mass of foreign 
 
FREDERICK WINSLOW TAYLOR 23 
 
 accretions until on the occasion of my visit there 
 in 1912 it was barely recognizable. There was 
 some evidence, however, even then, that Tay- 
 lor's influence had not by any means been 
 effaced. I was, in fact, told that a movement 
 was under way for the definite reinstatement of 
 at least some of his methods. 
 
 One of the plants to which Mr. Taylor went 
 shortly after this was a roller bearing concern 
 in Fitchburg, of which he gives some account 
 in his books. It was there that the present 
 typical methods of foremanship and the forms 
 usually found in Taylor System plants reached 
 their final development. The routing and cost 
 systems particularly, as we find them to-day, 
 were first seen in operation there. 
 
 In 1 90 1 Taylor was engaged by James M. 
 Dodge to systematize the Philadelphia shops 
 of the Link Belt Company. Although still a 
 comparatively young man, Taylor had decided 
 to retire from the active practice of his profes- 
 sion, which he was enabled to do by the great 
 financial success of his numerous inventions and 
 of certain coal-mining operations in which he 
 had been financially interested; so he turned 
 this work over to one of his former associates, 
 Mr. Barth, Taylor himself only supervising 
 the development of the system. 
 
24 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 About 1906 one of Taylor's friends, an engi- 
 neer of high standing in his profession who had 
 become president and manager of a small ma- 
 chine shop in Philadelphia, came to him in 
 financial distress and asked for help. As usual, 
 Taylor was most generous about giving assist- 
 ance, but for two reasons made a condition 
 that the plant should be thoroughly and com- 
 pletely reorganized in accordance with all the 
 principles and methods of the Taylor System. 
 One reason — the less important of the two — 
 was his feeling that only in this way could he 
 be sure of the ultimate rehabilitation and suc- 
 cess of the company. The other and controlling 
 reason was that this afforded Taylor an oppor- 
 tunity to establish an experiment station in 
 management methods and a training school for 
 young men who wished to learn these methods 
 and extend their introduction in other plants. 
 
 For by this time scientific management 
 (though it had not yet acquired this name) 
 had passed through the stages of a profession 
 and means of livelihood, an avocation and hob- 
 by, until it had almost become a religion with 
 Taylor. In his recent years of comparative 
 leisure he had had an opportunity to philoso- 
 phize and generalize on his experiences, and the 
 far-reaching significance of his principles and 
 
FREDERICK WINSLOW TAYLOR 25 
 
 methods had dawned upon him and waxed 
 until it almost filled his mental horizon. 
 
 During these years since 1901 he had early 
 written his now classic pamphlet on Shop 
 Management, and in the years following he had 
 devoted himself to the propaganda of the move- 
 ment. He gave his time and his means freely 
 to showing its operation in the Philadelphia 
 plant to conscientious inquirers. In many in- 
 stances he traveled far at his own expense to 
 address associations and meetings of manufac- 
 turers and managers. Out of his own pocket 
 he contributed to the expenses of young and 
 ambitious engineers who were serving their 
 apprenticeship in Philadelphia. At the same 
 time he was writing his other masterpiece, The 
 Art of Cutting Metals, which was presented as 
 his Presidential Address when he was elected 
 President of the American Association of Me- 
 chanical Engineers in 1906. During his incum- 
 bency of that office he reorganized its methods 
 of administration. Later still, when scientific 
 management had become popular, he contrib- 
 uted a simplified revision and restatement of 
 his principles under the title Principles of Scien- 
 tific Management. 
 
 It was during this period that the attention 
 of labor leaders was directed to this new de- 
 
26 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 velopment. Their reaction, unfamiliar as they 
 were with the principles and methods of scien- 
 tific management, was at first suspicious, then 
 actively hostile. Taylor was untiring in his en- 
 deavors to make the subject clear to them and 
 to show them its actual operation and results. 
 In his last years he was often called upon to 
 appear before congressional committees inves- 
 tigating the operation of the system in govern- 
 ment plants. 
 
 It was in the performance of his missionary 
 work that Taylor came to his death. He was 
 invited to give an address before a number of 
 associations in the Middle West. Although al- 
 ready worn out by appearances before similar 
 associations and numerous committees, he 
 accepted the invitation; and when stricken 
 with pneumonia en route, his formerly robust 
 physique was unable to rally to the emergency 
 and he died, after a very short illness, on 
 March 21, 1915. 
 
 The regard in which he was held by his co- 
 workers, his scientific associates, and the public, 
 was indicated by the impressive memorial ser- 
 vices on the occasion of his funeral in Phila- 
 delphia, which was attended by men and women 
 in all ranks of life and from all parts of the 
 country, many of them there at considerable 
 
FREDERICK WINSLOW TAYLOR 27 
 
 personal sacrifice. A year later another me- 
 morial meeting was held in Philadelphia and 
 similarly attended. 
 
 This brief account of Taylor's career will 
 make more clear the curious combination of 
 conservatism and radicalism which was found 
 in him. He was of the distinctly " hard-headed " 
 type. Nothing counted for him except facts, 
 at least theoretically, for Taylor was only a 
 little more immune than other human beings 
 from the coloring which the emotions shed 
 over the apprehension of facts. More than 
 most others, however, Taylor was free from 
 the intrusion of selfish interest. He had no re- 
 gard for the effect the ascertainment of facts 
 might have upon any personal considerations 
 or upon accepted beliefs. It was this conser- 
 vatism in regard to truth which led eventually 
 to the radicalism of his deductions and the 
 methods based upon them. 
 
 He had an Aristotelian confidence in the 
 efficacy of facts as a convincing guide to hu- 
 man conduct. It was his belief that all action 
 is related in a definite way to surrounding 
 conditions and circumstances, among them the 
 state of knowledge of the actor, and that mo- 
 tives may be formulated and reduced to law 
 and utilized in the conduct of human affairs as 
 
28 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 gravity is in mechanics. He was a determinist 
 and a positivist. 
 
 While it is doubtless ultimately true that 
 all human action is the resultant of definitely 
 related forces, it is also true that these forces 
 and their relations are so complex and elusive 
 that they have, thus far at least, escaped our 
 grasp. It is not to be wondered at, therefore, 
 that Taylor's deterministic tendencies often 
 encountered difficulties and obstacles in their 
 practical application to personalities who at 
 least thought they had a right to a choice and 
 were capable of exercising it. * 
 
 Taylor's ideal of educational discipline was 
 that of the soldier, as exemplified at West 
 Point. His liking for Germany was confined to 
 a great admiration for her military efficiency. 
 He was himself a stern disciplinarian ; and when 
 persuasion failed, and even self-interest when 
 appealed to through the bonus method did 
 not operate, he would apply, often with consid- 
 erable effect, the "science of profanity," to 
 which also he had given attention. 
 
 Neither should it be cause for surprise that, 
 with his scientific, hard-headed temperament, 
 he at times failed to comprehend the methods 
 and motives of men of a different tempera- 
 ment. While on the whole he understood very 
 
FREDERICK WINSLOW TAYLOR 29 
 
 well the psychology of the workingman (so far 
 as there is a psychology of " the workingman " 
 as distinguished from the psychology of the 
 individual), he did not grasp sympathetically 
 the aspiration towards industrial democracy, 
 nor could he see the point of the current con- 
 tention that it does not follow necessarily, from 
 the fact that a man can do a certain thing in 
 a certain time, that therefore he ought to do it 
 in that time. Theoretically Taylor appreciated 
 the difficulty of developing a social instinct 
 and intelligence in the masses of the people, 
 but practically he had little patience with any 
 one dense enough not to see what he saw. In 
 the same way, he was unable to understand 
 the habits, attitudes, and points of view of the 
 scholar and the artist, although he was never 
 at any time lacking in the keenest appreciation 
 for genuine scholarship and artistic attainment. 
 He was too intelligent not to realize that 
 there was some sort of gap between himself and 
 certain of his fellows, To bridge it he had re- 
 course to " diplomacy." His diplomatic meth- 
 ods and their effects were a source of almost 
 as much amusement to himself as they were 
 to his friends. With the most kindly interest 
 and patience he would endeavor to convey some 
 intricate idea, or to express his theoretical re- 
 
30 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 gard for some movement such as labor union- 
 ism ; and the next moment he would be damn- 
 ing most efficiently the density of his listener or 
 the injustices and crudities of organized labor. 
 Such diplomacy was as effective as might be 
 expected. 
 
 In his scientific work Taylor displayed a 
 characteristic combination of hard-headed re- 
 gard for fact and a keen sense of industrial 
 and social values. His scientific investigations, 
 while marked by the methods and ideals of the 
 student of pure science, were always directed 
 toward the purely practical end of increased 
 production for the social good and increased 
 dividends for his employers. 
 
 In science, also, Taylor expanded the fron- 
 tiers of engineering practice. His discovery of 
 high-speed steel was epoch-making. It is safe 
 to say that it has entirely revolutionized the 
 whole machine-tool industry, necessitating as 
 it did the construction of machines to bear 
 much heavier strains than were before cus- 
 tomary. His methods of administration also 
 had an effect on the manufacture of machine 
 tools through the fact that standardization of 
 methods and instruction required a correspond- 
 ing standardization of feed and speed ratios. 
 While at Mid vale, Taylor was confronted with 
 
FREDERICK WINSLOW TAYLOR 31 
 
 a need for a new steam hammer capable of 
 handling sizes of work much larger than had 
 been met in current practice. The usual way 
 of securing the necessary stability for such a 
 hammer was to increase its weight and solidity. 
 It occurred to Taylor that stability could be 
 secured in another way : namely, by taking ad- 
 vantage of the elasticity of the material used 
 in the construction of the machine. At that 
 time the laws of elasticity were practically un- 
 known ; nevertheless, Taylor worked through 
 them and on their basis constructed a steam 
 hammer of a greatly increased capacity and 
 decreased weight, which was completely suc- 
 cessful. 
 
 The breadth of his scientific interests and 
 attainments is further indicated by the suc- 
 cess of his experiments in the cultivation of 
 golf greens, and it is said that his knowledge of 
 horticulture and fish culture was exceptionally 
 complete and accurate. 
 
 This is a temperament which, when in action, 
 is referred to as a forceful personality. His 
 leadership, whether exercised in the manage- 
 ment of an indifferent or hostile force of exec- 
 utives and workingmen, or in the control of 
 the friends who were associated with him in 
 what has become known as the ' ' Taylor group," 
 
32 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 was of the iron-handed type. He was always 
 open to conviction ; but when he had arrived at 
 a conclusion based on what he justifiably con- 
 sidered adequate grounds, he had no patience 
 with an attempt to reopen the question and 
 grope again over the field which he had fully 
 explored and mapped. At times he showed a 
 tendency to an equal permanence of conviction 
 on questions with which he was not so familiar, 
 particularly those which are the battle-grounds 
 of economists and sociologists. Discussions of 
 such questions, however, usually ended in a 
 modest confession of unfamiliarity with those 
 fields. 
 
 For it must not be supposed that the softer 
 side was lacking. Taylor was as modest about 
 what he did not know as he was firm about 
 those things which he knew he knew. He was 
 much more modest than are most of his follow- 
 ers about the finality of his system. Where they 
 have developed a ritual as well as a creed, he 
 was content with the creed, and was happy to 
 acknowledge any believer as a disciple so long 
 as he practiced the Taylor principles, no mat- 
 ter in what form they might be expressed. 
 
 He was very free to credit all his associates 
 and predecessors with suggestions out of which 
 his developments grew and with the contri- 
 
FREDERICK WINSLOW TAYLOR \ 33 
 
 butions, often quite substantial, which they 
 made to it. In his financial relations, while 
 predestined to hard-headedness by his Yankee 
 ancestry, he was exceptionally generous and 
 charitable. 
 
 Without this softer side to his character he 
 could not have had the world-wide circle of 
 friends which he was happy to possess. His 
 friends were held to him by the full faith he 
 had in them, the encouraging support he ac- 
 corded them in all their endeavors, the frank- 
 ness with which he discussed their problems 
 with them, and the sympathy and practical 
 helpfulness of his advice and cooperation. 
 Among the friends of whom he was proudest 
 were many workingmen, laborers, operators 
 at machines, straw-bosses, foremen, clerks, 
 and others in the humbler ranks. The same 
 qualities, even further refined and toned by 
 affection, were shown in his home life. 
 
 Some day, when the time is ripe for the full 
 story of Taylor's life, there will be revealed 
 all the circumstances which moulded the man, 
 and at that time, perhaps, it will be possible 
 also to show fully the effect which the man 
 had on circumstances. Misunderstandings now 
 current, due to his reticence and conscientious 
 silence and the difficulty experienced by a prac- 
 
34 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 tical man in the effort to write clearly and to 
 speak effectively on intricate subjects before 
 none-too-well-informed audiences, to manner- 
 isms of speech and gesture, and to the novelty 
 of his ideas and methods, will gradually wear 
 away. Their place will unquestionably be taken 
 by the full and ungrudging recognition and 
 appreciation of his fundamentally sound char- 
 acter and the great significance of his achieve- 
 ments. In fact, even now, the circle of his influ- 
 ence is spread around the world. By those who 
 know him and his work best he is honored as 
 a seer and a prophet, as a " master of those 
 who know." 
 
 Taylor has left many followers, but no suc- 
 cessor. As the influence of his directing spirit 
 has widened, its force has diminished. Even 
 during his lifetime the development of schools 
 began. There is the original Taylor school 
 which adheres to the letter to every form and 
 mechanism which Taylor had approved. There 
 is another school which allows a much wider 
 latitude of methods and claims to devote 
 greater attention to the human factor. There 
 is still another school which allows so much 
 latitude that it can only be called a Taylor 
 development by reason of the fact that some of 
 
FREDERICK WINSLOW TAYLOR 35 
 
 its fundamental principles and methods were 
 derived from Taylor and are still recognizable 
 in spite of the changes they have undergone. 
 In addition to these groups there are shoals of 
 imitators under the name of "efficiency engi- 
 neers,' ' " efficiency experts,' ' etc. 
 
 I do not believe it wise at this time to go 
 further into detail on these subjects on ac- 
 count of conflicting claims to leadership, the in- 
 terference of personal considerations and ani- 
 mosities (which had been effectively held in 
 check during Taylor's lifetime), and the in- 
 creasing commercialization of the movement. 
 This will be proper for discussion by the next 
 generation, when it can look back with cooler 
 and more detached vision upon events and 
 personalities which are now warm with life and 
 too close to be seen in their right perspective. 
 
Ill 
 
 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN PRACTICE 
 
 At intervals during the past four years I have 
 been investigating the actual working of scien- 
 tific management in practice. The results here 
 given are derived in the majority of cases from 
 personal visits to the plants in twelve States 
 and conferences with owners, managers, and 
 experts employed. The information in regard 
 to the others is derived mainly from the con- 
 sulting engineers. 
 
 Information was sought with reference to 
 the number, distribution, and types of plants 
 to which scientific management has been ap- 
 plied ; so much of the history and personality of 
 the men engaged as is essential to an under- 
 standing of the development of their work; and 
 the actual differences in practice between scien- 
 tific and other types of management. Atten- 
 tion was also given to the results, both in the 
 administration of plants and in the conditions 
 of individual workers. The possible social con- 
 sequences and tendencies involved in the move- 
 ment offer a tempting field for speculation 
 (which will be cultivated in another part of 
 
IN PRACTICE 37 
 
 this book 1 ), and a few significant facts bear- 
 ing on them were uncovered. In the feeling 
 that a study of the failures might be almost 
 as instructive as that of the successes, the facts 
 in regard to them also were gathered and 
 analyzed. 
 
 i. Statistics 
 
 The total number of applications of scien- 
 tific management definitely known to me is 
 212. This does not exhaust the list, however, 
 as there are some cases in which the client is un- 
 willing that his connection with this movement 
 shall be known, and others in which consultants 
 are reluctant to give information. There is an 
 uncertain number of such instances, probably 
 small, in which either the work has been com- 
 pleted or is still in process. 
 
 Of these 212 applications, 4 are to municipal 
 work, including three instances of consultation 
 and one in which a scientific management ex- 
 pert was at the head of a Department of Pub- 
 lic Works. Seven deal with railroad and steam- 
 ship companies (exclusive of repair shops, 
 which are classed as industrial) and 201 with 
 industrial plants: 181 factories (including re- 
 pair shops of four railroads), 8 public service 
 
 1 See Chapter IV. 
 
38 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 corporations, 3 building and construction com- 
 panies, 3 department stores, 1 bank, 4 publish- 
 ers, and 1 professional society. Of these 149 
 factories and repair shops are in the United 
 States, and constitute practically 1.2 per cent 
 of the 12,784 plants which in 1909 employed 
 more than 100 wage-earners. The number of 
 men in these plants, as nearly as I can esti- 
 mate, is about 52,000, constituting about 1.3 
 per cent of the 4,115,843 employed in 1909 in 
 plants employing over 100 wage-earners. 
 
 The 201 industrial plants included in the 
 above classification are distributed as follows: — 
 
 Total United States 169 
 
 New England 53 
 
 Connecticut 14 
 
 Maine 4 
 
 Massachusetts 28 
 
 New Hampshire . 3 
 
 Rhode Island 4 
 
 Middle Atlantic 58 
 
 New Jersey 3 
 
 New York 23 
 
 Pennsylvania 32 
 
 North Central 41 
 
 Illinois 18 
 
 Indiana 4 
 
 Iowa I 
 
 Michigan 8 
 
 Ohio 8 
 
 Wisconsin 2 
 
IN PRACTICE 39 
 
 Southern 10 
 
 Delaware I 
 
 Maryland 5 
 
 Mississippi I 
 
 Tennessee I 
 
 Texas I 
 
 W. Virginia I 
 
 Western 5 
 
 California 3 
 
 Oregon I 
 
 Washington I 
 
 Alaska I 
 
 Philippine Islands I 
 
 Foreign 32 
 
 Austria 1 
 
 Canada 4 
 
 England 4 
 
 France 5 
 
 Holland 2 
 
 Japan 6 
 
 Russia 9 
 
 Sweden 1 
 
 The most significant classification of man- 
 ufactories, from the point of administration, 
 is with reference to the complexity of their 
 routing and order systems. On this basis the 
 plants involved may be divided into two groups : 
 first, the assembling industries, such as ma- 
 chine shops, repair shops, garment factories, 
 of which there is in the United States a total of 
 96; and second, the relatively simple continuous 
 and intermediate type, such as printing plants, 
 foundries, textile plants, of which there is a 
 
40 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 total of 51. Both these groups may again be 
 subdivided with reference to whether they 
 manufacture on order only, for stock only, or 
 for both. Of the plants of the assembling type, 
 19 manufacture on order, 29 for stock, and 
 46 for both; while for the continuous and in- 
 termediate types, the figures are 26, 19, and 
 3 for the same subdivisions, leaving 5 for which 
 information on this point is not available. 
 The list of about 100 industries involved, classi- 
 fied according to product, is given in the foot- 
 note. 1 These figures, together with those for 
 transportation companies, public service cor- 
 porations, municipalities, and miscellaneous 
 concerns should dispose of the question of the 
 breadth of applicability of scientific manage- 
 ment to various types of work. 
 
 1 The following list will be found to differ from that pub- 
 lished in the Report of the Sub-Committee on Administra- 
 tion of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers. The 
 latter Report included some industries, such as sewing ma- 
 chines, brewing, and beet-sugar refining, in which there was 
 merely consultation or a report which did not develop later 
 into actual work; and others, such as tanks, tin cans, flour, 
 leather goods, soaps, and slate products, concerning which I 
 have been unable to get further information. 
 
 Agriculture 
 
 Bookbinding 
 
 Agricultural implements 
 
 Book cloths 
 
 Aluminum castings 
 
 Boxes (paper) 
 
 Ammunition 
 
 Box machinery 
 
 Automobiles 
 
 Brass beds 
 
 Axles 
 
 Brass castings 
 
 Banking (clerical work) 
 
 Brass products 
 
 Blank book making 
 
 Bricklaying 
 
 Bleaching 
 
 Building 
 
IN PRACTICE 
 
 41 
 
 2. Applications of Scientific Management 
 Before proceeding to a closer examination 
 of the strictly industrial applications of scien- 
 tific management, which of course constitute 
 the great bulk of those that have been made, 
 
 Buttons 
 
 Canning 
 
 Chains 
 
 Clocks 
 
 Clothing (men's, women's, 
 
 children's) 
 Composing machines 
 Concrete construction 
 Conveyors 
 Cordage 
 Corsets 
 
 Department stores 
 Desks 
 Dies 
 
 Dyeing and finishing textiles 
 Earthwork 
 Electric apparatus 
 Elevators 
 Engines 
 Envelopes 
 Firearms 
 Food products 
 
 Foundry machines and supplies 
 Furniture 
 Gas 
 Glass 
 
 Gun carriages 
 Handkerchiefs 
 Hardware 
 Hoists 
 
 Import and Export trade 
 Iron castings 
 Iron and steel tools 
 Leather goods 
 Light, electric 
 Lithography 
 Locomotives 
 Lumber 
 Machine tools 
 Mining 
 Motors 
 
 Municipal engineering 
 Musical instruments 
 
 Optical goods 
 
 Ordnance 
 
 Paper 
 
 Paper pulp 
 
 Paper products 
 
 Power plants 
 
 Printing 
 
 Printing presses 
 
 Publishing 
 
 Pumps 
 
 Railroad cars 
 
 Railroad operation (steam 
 and electric) 
 
 Railroad repairs 
 
 Registers 
 
 Rifles 
 
 Roller bearings 
 
 Rubber goods 
 
 Sashes and doors 
 
 Saws 
 
 Scales 
 
 Scientific and professional 
 
 instruments 
 Separators 
 Ship building 
 Ship repairs 
 Shoes 
 Silk goods 
 Stationery 
 Steamship operation 
 Steel castings and forgings 
 Steel products, heavy 
 Structural iron 
 Textiles 
 
 Textile machinery 
 Torpedoes 
 Turbine engines 
 Typewriters 
 
 Valves and steam fittings 
 Watches 
 Wire goods 
 Wire weaving machinery 
 
42 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 attention may be called to certain other ac- 
 tivities in which some degree of success has 
 been attained. Noteworthy among these is 
 the work of Mr. Cooke, formerly Director of 
 Public Works of Philadelphia, a disciple of the 
 Taylor school. This work, made possible by 
 the " reform " administration of Mayor Blanken- 
 burg, was marked during its three years of 
 administration by large savings in the opera- 
 tion of that important department of the city's 
 affairs. Owing to the peculiarities of the Phila- 
 delphia law, and the constant opposition of 
 Councils and the previous almost inconceivably 
 corrupt state of the department, it was not 
 possible to make a thorough application of 
 most of the fundamental principles of scientific 
 management. The results attained, amounting 
 to a saving of over $1,300,000, were due pri- 
 marily to the injection of simple honesty into 
 the department, and secondarily to the utili- 
 zation, so far as conditions would permit, of 
 expert knowledge secured wherever it was 
 obtainable. Although necessarily a crude ex- 
 ample of scientific management it accomplished 
 enough to show great possibilities if a suffi- 
 ciently long period and free hand were given 
 for its completer development. 1 
 
 1 See the following: Annual Reports of the Director of 
 
IN PRACTICE 43 
 
 The Bureau of Efficiency and Economy of 
 the City of Milwaukee has utilized the knowl- 
 edge and inspiration of Mr. Emerson in the 
 development of its plans; and the Emerson 
 Company has also been consulted by the City 
 of Seattle and the office of the Commissioner 
 of Accounts of the city of New York. 
 
 Though the administration of department 
 stores in general is so far behind that of modern 
 factories as to constitute the former a partic- 
 ularly promising field for the application of sci- 
 entific management, very little has been done 
 in this branch of business. The actual selling 
 of goods presents a problem so complex and 
 with so many variables as to raise a question 
 about the practicability of a complete appli- 
 cation of all the present methods of scientific 
 management. However this question may be 
 answered, the administration of a department 
 store includes many factors besides the selling 
 of goods, — such as their purchase, receipt, 
 storage, handling, packing and delivery, — 
 which are essentially the same as the corre- 
 sponding factory problems ; and their costs are 
 susceptible to similar treatment. In three de- 
 partment stores, to the writer's knowledge, a 
 
 Public Works, Philadelphia, 1912, 1913, and 1914. Business 
 Methods in Municipal Works, Department of Public Works, 
 Philadelphia, 1913. 
 
44 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 beginning has been made on this side of the 
 problem. 
 
 The practicability of applying some of the 
 methods of scientific management — such par- 
 ticularly as the handling of raw materials, ad- 
 ministration of tool room, and the establish- 
 ment of standard times for operations — to 
 the work of manual training schools has been 
 demonstrated in a technical training school in 
 New England, and in the department of en- 
 gineering of the Pennsylvania State College. 
 Suggestions for the wider application of these 
 and other principles to the administration of 
 colleges have been made by Mr. Cooke, 1 but so 
 far as I know there has been no opportunity 
 provided for a practical test of their usefulness. 
 
 Closely allied to the applications in manu- 
 factures and forming a convenient transition to 
 them is the work done by Mr. Emerson on the 
 operation of railroads, and by Mr. Day, one of 
 the "Taylor group," on the operation of street 
 railways and light and power plants. Owing to 
 the complexity of the subject and the intricacy 
 of the statistics available, there is dispute over 
 the actual value of the work done on the Santa 
 Fe and other railroads. Railroad statistics may 
 
 1 Academic and Industrial Efficiency, Carnegie Foundation 
 Bulletin no. 5, 1910. 
 
IN PRACTICE 45 
 
 apparently be used to prove or disprove any- 
 thing, and there is evidence of a bias on the part 
 of railroad men against allowing any value 
 to Mr. Emerson's work. In the absence of an 
 opportunity to make a personal investigation, 
 I am forced to rely on what seems to be the 
 consensus of opinion of judges as nearly unpre- 
 judiced as one is likely to find; and this con- 
 sensus seems to be that on the whole the work 
 was successful in reducing costs and improving 
 administration, particularly in the repair shops 
 and stores systems, while it was not so success- 
 ful in its application to railroad operation. 1 On 
 a road where special attention was given to 
 increasing freight train loads, the statistical 
 report shows a twenty-five per cent increase in 
 the average load in one year after the work 
 began. The value of this gain is questioned by 
 railroad men on the ground that other factors 
 supervened during this same period ; but on the 
 whole it seems that in this case also the greater 
 share of the credit is due to the scientific man- 
 agement work. 
 
 What has been done in connection with the 
 
 1 See besides Mr. Emerson's own accounts, those of Mr. 
 Charles B. Going, Methods of the Santa Fe ; F. H. Colvin, "How 
 Bonus Works on the Santa Fe," American Machinist, vol. 
 xxxvi, pp. 7, 165; C. H. Fry, Railway Age Gazette, vol. xli, pp. 
 476, 504, vol. xlv, p. 413, and other references on pp. 220-29 
 following. 
 
46 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 management of public service corporations is 
 as yet not far enough advanced to warrant the 
 formation of final judgment. So far as the ef- 
 forts have gone, however, they have resulted 
 in a definiteness of control which has made pos- 
 sible the stoppage of many leaks of frequent 
 occurrence and have contributed to the deter- 
 mination of the costs and thereby of the rea- 
 sonable rates to be charged for various types of 
 service. 
 
 Returning now to the industrial applications 
 with which this chapter will be mainly con- 
 cerned, it is advisable first to point out the 
 differences in practice between scientific man- 
 agement and other current systems. These, dif- 
 ferences are most notable in connection with 
 the handling of labor, standardization of ma- 
 terials and equipment, the specialization of 
 administration, and the application of the func- 
 tional and "exception " principles to the organi- 
 zation as a whole. The primary object of the 
 system is to increase output, reduce the cost per 
 unit of product, and raise the wages of opera- 
 tors. This is accomplished : first, by determin- 
 ing with the aid of experienced investigators 
 the best equipment, materials, and methods to 
 use; second, by selecting and training the work- 
 men best fitted to accomplish the result desired ; 
 
IN PRACTICE 47 
 
 third, by determining in advance a standard 
 of achievement for the workmen, providing 
 them with the necessary working conditions, 
 and rewarding them with a bonus for attaining 
 this standard. This standard is set with refer- 
 ence to standardized conditions, by which is 
 meant the determination and adoption of the 
 best material and the best equipment obtain- 
 able, for exclusive use until a better is found 
 and adopted. In accordance with the policy 
 of specialization, the workman's activity is 
 so far as possible confined strictly to actual 
 handling of the machine or tool and of the ma- 
 terial only so far as necessary to apply the tool 
 to it. All other work is the function of the man- 
 agement. This is what is meant by the sepa- 
 ration of planning from execution. In order to 
 bring to bear most effectively the specialized 
 planning functions, Mr. Taylor evolved, from 
 the rate-setting department at Mid vale in 
 1882 to the full complement of foremen at the 
 Fitchburg roller-bearing plant about 1900, the 
 method known as "functional foremanship," 
 by which such details of administration as 
 determination of the sequence of operations, 
 machines, tools and methods to be used, time 
 to be taken, relative importance of orders, re- 
 cording of operations, instruction of workmen, 
 
48 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 moving of materials, and maintenance of equip- 
 ment and tools, are the special functions of 
 separate foremen, each of whom is responsible 
 for the proper handling of his detail with refer- 
 ence to a varying number of men, and all of 
 whom bring to bear their specialized knowl- 
 edge on each man. This peculiar type of or- 
 ganization is in every case supplemented for 
 disciplinary purposes by the usual "line" type, 
 in accordance with which there is the custom- 
 ary grading of disciplinary authority culmin- 
 ating in the superintendent or general manager, 
 although some effort has been made to special- 
 ize this function in the hands of a "disciplin- 
 arian." In accordance with the theory that 
 the ablest men are or should be the highest in 
 the organization, the "exception" principle is 
 used (at least in all the Taylor plants) by which 
 all matters within the capacity of subordinate 
 officials are finally determined by them and 
 only such matters as are beyond their scope 
 or authority are passed up the line, thus leaving 
 the higher officials free to devote their time to 
 the broadest and most important problems of 
 administration. 
 
 • These methods are characteristic of what 
 may be called the original form of scientific 
 management as early developed by Mr. Taylor 
 
IN PRACTICE 49 
 
 and his immediate disciples. Among those in 
 the first Taylor group Mr. Gantt has made the 
 most noticeable modifications. These consist 
 mainly in simplification of forms and in some- 
 what less refinement of detail. The existing 
 form of organization is left by him as nearly 
 intact as the requirements of his central idea 
 permit, while a simon-pure Taylorite aims at a 
 complete reorganization. In practice also it 
 is to be noted that Mr. Gantt sometimes installs 
 a system with the aid of his own staff of men, 
 whom he moves from plant to plant, while the 
 other members of the Taylor group usually do 
 their work personally and alone, getting their 
 subordinates entirely from within the existing 
 organization. 
 
 Mr. Emerson's theory differs from Mr. Tay- 
 lor's mainly in the separation of what he calls 
 the "staff" from the "line;" Proceeding on 
 the same principle, the necessity of accumula- 
 ting the science involved in the industry, he or- 
 ganizes the experts in a staff of advisers whose 
 duty it is to transmit their knowledge to the 
 line officers, by whom it is passed to the opera- 
 tors and put into effect. In other words, this 
 staff has no executive authority, while in the 
 Taylor System the executives are themselves 
 the experts. Practically the Emerson methods 
 
50 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 differ much more widely than this from those 
 of the Taylor group in that it is Mr. Emerson's 
 policy to establish standards of performance 
 and a bonus for their attainment as early as 
 possible and by methods which are compara- 
 tively rough, as will be illustrated in detail 
 later in connection with the subject of time 
 study. Moreover, Mr. Emerson handles his 
 work almost entirely through subordinates, 
 among whom are some whose inadequate train- 
 ing has led to the majority of failures so far 
 scored by scientific management. As Mr. Em- 
 erson has expressed it, it is his aim to take a 
 plant that is forty per cent efficient and make 
 it sixty-five per cent efficient; and, as he .said 
 again, the Taylor System begins where the 
 Emerson System ends. 
 
 On account of the emphasis laid by certain 
 members of the scientific management group 
 on the technical and scientific aspects of their 
 work, it may be worth while to distinguish 
 between the technical and the pecuniary re- 
 sults. It would appear that in some cases the 
 interest in perfecting a method by mathemati- 
 cal and experimental means would tend to 
 overshadow the interest in reducing expense, 
 increasing output, or improving quality. How- 
 ever, a study of the work of the successful 
 
IN PRACTICE 51 
 
 practitioners shows that their investigations 
 have always been guided by financial considera- 
 tions, and in fact in the most conspicuous 
 cases, as in Mr. Taylor's experiments on metal- 
 cutting, have paid for themselves by the savings 
 attained. This coincidence of technological 
 and pecuniary advantage was evident in every 
 plant investigated. 
 
 A more important distinction, however, is 
 that between what I have chosen to call " de- 
 tailed" and " gross" results respectively. While 
 trebling the output of a machine or a group of 
 machines at a slight increase in direct labor 
 cost may be considered a successful result in de- 
 tail, it does not follow from such instances that 
 the application of scientific management to the 
 business as a whole has been successful. In the 
 absence of information as to the total (gross) 
 result, there may well be a suspicion of the final 
 value of the isolated instances of wonderful 
 improvements which have been so frequently 
 cited. This total result, however, is particu- 
 larly difficult to ascertain. I have found that 
 while the owners of private plants have as a 
 rule no hesitancy in pointing to individual sav- 
 ings and even net results of sub-systems such 
 as stores, routing, and task and bonus, they 
 are quite chary about the details of the total 
 
52 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 cost of the system as a whole and the total 
 savings and profits attributable to it. I was 
 able to get this information in a meager way 
 from a few private plants, but the best, most 
 complete, and most reliable data on this side 
 of the subject are found in reports of General 
 Crozier, Chief of Ordnance, on the applica- 
 tion of scientific management to the govern- 
 ment arsenals. These total results will be 
 discussed after the detailed accomplishments 
 have been summarized. 
 
 As the central problem out of which Mr. 
 Taylor developed his system was the control 
 of the output of labor and machinery through 
 the accurate determination of what that out- 
 put should be, from the study of which all the 
 other details of the system grew, it seems logi- 
 cal to discuss this feature first. 
 
 The determination of what constitutes "a 
 day's work," or in other words the amount of 
 output which it is possible for a capable work- 
 man to produce in a given time with given equip- 
 ment and materials, rests in the Taylor System 
 upon elementary time study. This was first 
 practiced by Mr. Taylor at the Midvale Steel 
 Company in 1882 and is still with some re- 
 finements and improvements the central and 
 
IN PRACTICE 53 
 
 most visibly characteristic feature of the sys- 
 tem. Every plant investigated showed some 
 evidence of time study, ranging from new rates 
 based on recollections of former standards, as 
 in the case of the Bethlehem and Mid vale 
 Companies, to the most elaborate and com- 
 plete records and continuous extension, as found 
 at the Watertown Arsenal and in the majority 
 of plants now actively developing the system. 
 In some industries these studies of elementary 
 motions have been carried to such a degree of 
 completion as to warrant 'the publication of 
 the results. 1 
 
 The most striking differences between the 
 original Taylor form and the derived Gantt 
 and Emerson forms of scientific management 
 are to be found in the practical methods and 
 applications of time study. 2 As practiced by 
 the immediate Taylor group, a time study is 
 
 1 Thus the elementary times in concrete construction are 
 set forth in Taylor and Thompson's Concrete Costs, and similar 
 data for the operation of machine tools, gathered over a period 
 of thirty years, and for earthwork, are now in process of com- 
 pilation for early publication. 
 
 2 See the following articles: Taylor, Shop Management, pars. 
 323-408. H. K. Hathaway, Elementary Time Study as a Part 
 of the Taylor System of Scientific Management; Industrial 
 Engineering, vol. xi, pp. 85-96. Also in C. B. Thompson, 
 Scientific Management, p. 520: C. E. Knoeppel, "Practical 
 Introduction of Efficiency Principles," Engineering Magazine^ 
 October, 1914, p. 61, and further references on pp. 234-35 fol- 
 lowing. 
 
54 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 made by first analyzing the operations of a 
 workman on a given piece or on a given machine 
 into their elementary motions; second, elimi- 
 nating all elements shown to be unnecessary; 
 third, determining by any one of several 
 methods what is known as a reasonable mini- 
 mum time for each of the remaining elements; 
 fourth, summing up the elements to get a total 
 minimum time; fifth, determining and adding 
 to this a percentage of allowance made neces- 
 sary by such factors as interference, fatigue, 
 and inertia, and adopting this final time as the 
 standard on the attainment of which the bonus 
 is paid. Mr. Gantt follows the same method 
 except that, as a rule, his studies are not so 
 minute and the allowance is rather more liberal, 
 thus making it easier for the workman to earn 
 the bonus earlier and even to go under the 
 bonus time. The Emerson method is radically 
 different from either of these, in that the analy- 
 sis of the complete operation goes down only to 
 large groups of elementary motions, on which 
 an over-all time similar to that which has been 
 determined for years in all kinds of plants is 
 ascertained. Emerson's times are expressed 
 in minutes, whereas Taylor times are in hun- 
 dredths of a minute. From these over-all times 
 deductions are made according to the judg- 
 
IN PRACTICE 55 
 
 ment of the time study man, and the result 
 is a standard which the workman is not only 
 expected to attain easily but to exceed to a 
 very considerable extent. This accounts for 
 such expressions as no per cent or 140 per 
 cent efficiency, which are possible and have a 
 meaning only with reference to the Emerson 
 type of time study. 
 
 Obviously the first cost and the difficulty of 
 the Taylor method are greatest, those of the 
 Emerson method least, and of the Gantt method 
 intermediate. In general it may be said that 
 the value of the results stands in the same 
 proportions, though none of these methods 
 is without its peculiar advantages and disad- 
 vantages. The less elaborate and expensive 
 methods have made it possible, in some plants, 
 to secure the advantages of the task and bonus 
 idea early in the course of the installation of 
 the system and at an expense which is practi- 
 cable for small concerns to meet ; while the more 
 elaborate methods are comparatively slow and 
 costly. The simpler methods have also been 
 applied to some types of work where it is diffi- 
 cult or impossible to standardize and routinize 
 elementary motions, such as drafting and die 
 cutting. On the other hand, the most exhaustive 
 type of time study insures a degree of accuracy 
 
56 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 and finality which practically obviates the 
 possibility of dispute, provides a stable basis 
 of reward from which deviation is not reason- 
 ably to be expected so long as working condi- 
 tions remain the same, and makes impossible a 
 kind of fraud on the management which is fatal 
 to the success of the system. 
 
 It is noticeable also that the Taylor form of 
 time study requires and secures the services 
 of experienced and technically trained chrono- 
 metrists, whereas the simpler forms are de- 
 ceptively easy and may be and have been 
 entrusted to inexperienced and incompetent 
 hands. This fact more than any other is re- 
 sponsible for a large proportion of the failures 
 observed. 
 
 Motion study is an inherent and inseparable 
 feature of time study and is constantly prac- 
 ticed by every expert chronometrist. In some 
 instances it is found that a stop-watch is not 
 used at all until a preliminary motion study has 
 been made and the operation simplified in ac- 
 cordance with its suggestions. The latest de- 
 velopment in this field — the use of moving 
 pictures with a timing device in the field of 
 the picture — has received much publicity, but 
 does not appear to have been used to any 
 considerable extent, partly on account of the 
 
IN PRACTICE 57 
 
 expense and partly because it has not demon- 
 strated a practical superiority over the methods 
 already current. There appears to be a pos- 
 sible field of usefulness for it in psychological 
 and industrial laboratory work. 
 
 In practically every plant where the com- 
 plexity of the work warrants, instruction cards 
 of more or less elaborateness are used. In 
 many machine shops it is the practice to issue 
 to the workman an instruction card containing 
 not only directions as to feeds, speeds, tools, 
 and major times of operations, but also the ele- 
 mentary operations listed in their proper se- 
 quence and with their minimum time given. 
 In other places I found the list of elementary 
 operations is not provided for the workman, 
 but he is given the total time and such sub- 
 periods as may be useful to assist him in 
 earning his bonus. In still other instances, 
 where the work is thoroughly standardized, as 
 in book-binding and box-making, merely the 
 total operation time is given, though in every 
 case the total times and sub-times are made 
 up in the planning department from the ele- 
 mentary data on file there. 
 
 So much has been published in regard to the 
 practical results of time study and instruction 
 card methods that it is unnecessary to go into 
 
58 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 further detail here. As might be expected, the 
 most substantial improvements have been made 
 in machine shop work, where the highly tech- 
 nical nature of the factors involved has given 
 special warrant for the assistance of expert 
 investigators. Nothing is more common than 
 instances of twofold and threefold increases 
 in output from the same machine and the same 
 workman. Larger increases — from seven to 
 ten times — are not rare. On the other hand, a 
 type of industry which would not appear to call 
 for any considerable degree of technical knowl- 
 edge, namely bricklaying, has shown equally 
 astonishing results, an increase of from 200 to 
 300 per cent in the number of bricks laid per 
 day having been demonstrated. With machines 
 other than machine tools, however, it has not 
 appeared practicable to secure such large in- 
 creases in efficiency except in the direction of 
 reducing the number of men tending one ma- 
 chine or of increasing the number of automatic 
 machines tended by one man. It is not uncom- 
 mon to find one man who formerly tended two 
 gear-cutting or screw machines now taking 
 care of five ; I have also seen machines requir- 
 ing formerly the attention of three men now 
 taken care of by two. On the other hand, 
 there are instances where the number of ma- 
 
IN PRACTICE 59 
 
 chines attended by one man was so great as to 
 make it impossible for him to secure the maxi- 
 mum output on account of the interference of 
 one with another. In these instances, of course, 
 the number of machines per man was reduced. 
 With the ordinary run of industrial machines, 
 semi-automatic and each tended by one opera- 
 tor, increases of output appear to range from 
 30 to 100 per cent — the majority, so far as I 
 have been able to find, nearer the lower limit. 
 The application of these methods to hand 
 operations has shown very variable results. 
 The extraordinary differences in efficiency be- 
 tween different workers on the same operation 
 are already well known to managers. It is 
 nothing unusual for even so-called skilled work- 
 ers to do not more than one third or one half 
 what others on the same work are able to 
 accomplish; as, for example, in cigar-making. 
 The time study and instruction methods of 
 scientific management have increased the out- 
 put of hand operators from 10 per cent to 
 about 300 per cent, the majority of the cases 
 lying between 60 and 100 per cent. Instances 
 have been found, as in the case of gold-laying 
 in a bookbindery, and in the sole-cutting de- 
 partments of shoe factories, where economy in 
 the use of material and quality of work were 
 
60 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 more important than increase in output. These 
 factors have been taken into consideration, the 
 bonus arranged accordingly, and the desired 
 improvement in economy and quality attained. 
 
 It must be understood, of course, that the 
 results described do not flow alone from time 
 study and instruction. I found that, in ac- 
 cordance with one of the fundamental tenets 
 of scientific management, the task set for the 
 operator was accomplished only with the ut- 
 most assistance of the management as repre- 
 sented in the stores and routing systems gov- 
 erning the standardization, availability and 
 moving of materials, and the inspection system 
 controlling the handling of defective work. 
 
 Where scientific management is fully de- 
 veloped the function of the purchasing depart- 
 ment is essentially different from the current 
 practice. Ordinarily the purchasing agent has 
 the widest discretion as to what he shall order, 
 when he shall order it, and in what quantities, 
 subject in general of course to the require- 
 ments of the business, of which he is one of the 
 chief judges. In the Taylor plants the require- 
 ments as to quality, quantity, and time of de- 
 livery for all materials are determined by pro- 
 duction and technical experts in the plant, and 
 the purchasing agent buys on orders and speci- 
 
IN PRACTICE 61 
 
 fications from the factory, exercising his judg- 
 ment and discretion mainly on the matter of 
 price. The governing considerations are the pro- 
 vision of materials for immediate issue when 
 required for orders and the tying up of only 
 such capital and space as are absolutely neces- 
 sary to meet this requirement. In all instances 
 of successful application, delay due to the ab- 
 sence of necessary materials has been practi- 
 cally eliminated. In many cases the variety of 
 materials carried has been reduced even to one 
 tenth of what was customary before. In almost 
 all cases the quantities of certain materials 
 have been reduced and of others increased, to 
 meet the demands as shown by the record of 
 issues. Occasionally, as in the case of several 
 large machine shops, this has made on the 
 whole a substantial reduction in the quanti- 
 ties and value of materials and of the space 
 occupied by them. One manager said that he 
 now carried one third as much material while 
 doing fifty per cent more business. In some 
 plants, however, investigation has shown that 
 storage facilities and the quantities of materials 
 carried were utterly inadequate, and this has 
 led in such cases to a considerable increase in 
 the storage space including even the addition 
 of new buildings and an increase in capital in- 
 
62 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 vested. This increase of capital was not pro- 
 portional, however, to the increase of space, as 
 the change meant in such cases greater concen- 
 tration in storerooms of materials heretofore 
 scattered over the operating area of the plant, 
 and was accompanied by a standardization of 
 material and reduction of the variety carried, 
 which resulted in an increase in the quantity 
 of the standard but a decrease in the total of 
 all materials on hand. 
 
 Next to having on hand materials to work 
 with, the most important factor in efficiency is 
 the getting of these materials to the workman, 
 together with the necessary tools and instruc- 
 tions, in the quantity and of the quality neces- 
 sary, at or before the time he is ready to work 
 on them. This is the function of what is known 
 to scientific management as the "routing sys- 
 tem* ' or (in the Emerson form) as the "sched- 
 uling" and "despatching" system. Obviously 
 the complexity of this system will vary with 
 the type of industry. At the one extreme of 
 simplicity is the continuous, non-assembling 
 industry, such as a sugar refinery ; intermediate 
 is such an industry as printing; at the other 
 extreme of complexity are the non-continuous, 
 assembling industries such as the manufacture 
 of machine tools and automobiles. In general 
 
IN PRACTICE 63 
 
 it may be said that the need of effective and 
 complete control increases with the complexity 
 of the business. Scientific management has 
 thus far been applied in the main to the more 
 complex and the intermediate type, as will be 
 seen by reference to the list on pages 40-41. 
 
 As might be expected, routing systems of 
 varying degrees of elaborateness are found in 
 practice. Many plants, such as certain type- 
 writer factories, manufacture parts for stock, 
 doing only their assembling on order. In such 
 cases the routing of parts is easily standardized 
 and administered; and the routing of the as- 
 sembling is almost equally simple. On the 
 other hand, several plants were found which 
 manufacture from beginning to end almost 
 exclusively on order, with specifications vary- 
 ing for each job. Repair shops are extreme illus- 
 trations of this. In such cases the routing 
 system is necessarily elaborate and complex, 
 and yet even in these is valuable, in the opinion 
 of the managers, for the very reason that the 
 variety and complexity of orders makes all the 
 greater the danger of error, waste of materials, 
 unnecessary motion, and delay at the ma- 
 chine. As the routing system usually involves 
 the preparation of separate job tickets, in- 
 spection orders, and move orders for each 
 
64 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 operation, its complexity is again influenced 
 by the relative length of the separate opera- 
 tions. In one plant or part of a plant the piece 
 or the lot may be at a given machine from four 
 hours to ten days, as at the Watertown Arsenal. 
 If this condition predominates, the number of 
 orders to be written and handled is relatively 
 small. Such is usually the case in machine 
 shops. On the other hand, operations on indi- 
 vidual orders and at each machine may be 
 very short, ranging down from twenty min- 
 utes to two or three minutes, as in a stationery 
 concern or a plant manufacturing small electric 
 apparatus on orders. Where these predomi- 
 nate, the amount of clerical work and handling 
 of orders is necessarily relatively great. This 
 has in fact presented one of the most serious 
 problems that scientific management has had 
 to solve. There is usually a choice between an 
 expensive completeness of control and a rela- 
 tively inexpensive but risky incompleteness; 
 and I do not believe it can be said that this 
 problem has as yet had a thoroughly satisfac- 
 tory solution. Where these conditions exist, 
 the routing system of the original type is some- 
 times used in spite of its complexity, in the be- 
 lief that it is indispensable to the successful 
 administration of the task and bonus. 
 
IN PRACTICE 65 
 
 The intended result of the routing system is 
 the complete control of the sequence and time 
 of all operations, including moving from one 
 operation to another. This result has been 
 attained with varying degrees of success. In 
 many plants the work in the factory is unques- 
 tionably controlled from the planning depart- 
 ment, with only such assistance from shop fore- 
 men as is necessary to keep things moving and 
 to carry out the orders of that department. In 
 many cases, however, numerous exceptions to 
 this control were evident, ranging all the way 
 from leaving in the hands of the foremen control 
 of the moving of materials or the assignment of 
 work to specific operators, as at the Link Belt 
 Company, to the entire administration of whole 
 groups of work according to the old methods, 
 as in the tool department of an automobile fac- 
 tory. In almost every case these conditions 
 were said to be temporary, awaiting only the 
 opportunity to extend the routing system to 
 cover every detail of operation. In a few cases, 
 however, it was stated to be a policy definitely 
 pursued and to be continued, because either 
 of the rapidity or the variety of operations or 
 their infrequent recurrence. 
 
 Evidence of the effectiveness of the routing 
 system is to be found everywhere where it has 
 
66 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 been fully developed. Work goes through with 
 a speed and certainty unknown to former types 
 of administration. In printing plants, where 
 practically every order is marked "rush," care- 
 ful planning and coordination of work have 
 almost wholly eliminated the hurry and confu- 
 sion which usually accompanies a preponder- 
 ance of " emergency" work. The manager of 
 one large plant reports that this result alone 
 has justified the installation of his routing sys- 
 tem. Waiting for work by the operator has 
 been practically eliminated and prompt delivery 
 has become a rule in plants which practically 
 never before were able to meet a promise date. 
 One automobile manufacturer who had devel- 
 oped the stores and routing systems, but not the 
 task and bonus, said that the routing system 
 alone, a most elaborate one, had unquestion- 
 ably saved him $535 per car. In other plants 
 testimony varies (according to the type of in- 
 dustry) as to whether the routing system alone 
 has been an economical institution; but where 
 these plants have gone on to the development 
 of task and bonus, they are unanimous in their 
 assertion of its value as an indispensable acces- 
 sory to that feature of management. 
 
 With reference to the inspection of materials, 
 scientific management differs from other current 
 
IN PRACTICE 67 
 
 types mainly in its insistence on what it calls 
 "first inspection," by which is meant the in- 
 spection of the first piece in a lot rather than 
 waiting for the entire lot to be finished before 
 it is inspected, the object being to detect mis- 
 understandings and inaccuracies at the begin- 
 ning of the operation and before more than one 
 piece has been spoiled. With this has gone in 
 most cases an increase in strictness of the final 
 inspection also, considered necessary in order 
 to counteract the possible tendency to neglect 
 quality in favor of speed. In all cases the ac- 
 complishment of the task and earning of the 
 bonus are contingent upon the satisfactory 
 quality of the work. 
 
 An obvious result of the "first inspection" 
 has been the reduction of waste; but more far- 
 reaching and rather unexpected results have 
 followed from the entire inspection system. The 
 first of these has been the general improvement 
 of operating methods which a rigid inspection 
 has suggested and finally brought about, as in 
 a box factory, where the close inspection of 
 lined board led to an entire overhauling and 
 revision of the methods of board lining; and the 
 second has been the substantial improvement 
 of the product which seems always to have 
 marked the development of scientific manage- 
 
68 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 merit methods. Thus, in one instance an Amer- 
 ican plant manufacturing roller bearings which 
 heretofore had been unable to compete with 
 European makers has so improved the quality 
 as to secure a foothold for its product, even 
 before the war, in spite of foreign competition. 
 One of the first results of the application of 
 the methods of elementary time study was to 
 make evident the importance and necessity of 
 standardized conditions. Time study itself 
 suggested means by which the working condi- 
 tions of the operator could be made as perfect 
 as practicable. A task set for one operator 
 under these conditions and offered for accept- 
 ance to all workers logically required the es- 
 tablishment of similar conditions for the entire 
 group. Out of this very quickly grew the policy 
 of standardization of materials, equipment and 
 plant — a policy which has been systematically 
 pursued with rather spectacular results through- 
 out the history of scientific management. First 
 among these results must be mentioned the 
 discovery of high-speed steel by Mr. Taylor and 
 Mr. Maunsel White. This discovery was a by- 
 product of the effort to standardize the tools 
 with which the task was to be performed. 
 Many illustrations of the same type of thing 
 on a smaller scale might easily be given. Suf- 
 
IN PRACTICE 69 
 
 fice it to say that almost every plant now using 
 scientific management in its original form has 
 reduced its main material requirements to spec- 
 ifications, and that in many cases these speci- 
 fications are for materials standardized and 
 improved to meet particular requirements. 
 
 Concurrently with the standardization of 
 materials has gone that of equipment. Mr. 
 Taylor's work in the standardization of cut- 
 ting tools and of belting is characteristic and 
 famous, with that of Mr. Barth on machine 
 design and also on belting running a close 
 second. This work is of course still going on; 
 and each new industry and even new plant is 
 presenting opportunities brought out by time 
 study for the continuous modification and im- 
 provement of equipment, the aim being always 
 to increase the capacity and endurance of the 
 machine and the ease with which it is handled 
 by the operator. This extends also to small 
 equipment such as trucks and hand tools. 
 Usually, however, these efforts have been di- 
 rected almost exclusively toward the immedi- 
 ately productive side of the plant, while the 
 equipment for clerical work has been compar- 
 atively neglected — so much so that one is 
 rather struck with the clumsy and incon- 
 venient mechanisms often found in planning 
 departments. 
 
70 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 Because of the policy of scientific manage- 
 ment to utilize existing plants to the utmost 
 extent and postpone construction of new plant 
 as long as possible, there has not been the op- 
 portunity for the application of scientific prin- 
 ciples to design, construction, and lay-out which 
 one would like to see. Nevertheless, one engi- 
 neering company has made a specialty of de- 
 signing plants in which scientific management 
 is to be applied, and has produced a number of 
 strikingly successful buildings from the point 
 of view of convenient arrangement of depart- 
 ments and machines within departments, and 
 the utilization of the best means for securing 
 light, heat, ventilation, and sanitation. In the 
 older plants, however, one is at times surprised 
 to find how little attention has been paid to 
 these details, with the exception of the ar- 
 rangement of machinery, which is usually 
 adequately taken care of. Lighting has had 
 special attention in a few cases where the 
 demand was imperative, and heating and 
 ventilation in even fewer still. On the whole 
 it cannot be said that these important matters 
 have had the attention they deserve. An in- 
 vestigator cannot but be unfavorably im- 
 pressed by the dinginess and stuffiness of some 
 of the plants which in other respects are such 
 
IN PRACTICE 71 
 
 good examples of modern management. This 
 condition is the natural result of the policy of 
 owners who insist that all attention be given 
 to those conditions which most directly and 
 visibly affect the output. It should be said, 
 though, that some of the owners of plants 
 to which scientific management has been ap- 
 plied have realized fully the effect of excep- 
 tionally good working conditions upon the 
 efficiency of their employees and have accord- 
 ingly taken steps which bring them at least 
 abreast of other concerns in welfare matters 
 and which have the additional advantage of 
 being based upon purely business rather than 
 charitable or paternal considerations. 
 
 At the same time that scientific manage- 
 ment was developing into its present form, the 
 subject of cost statistics was engaging the at- 
 tention of managers and experts. This detail 
 of management in fact spread its influence far 
 more rapidly than the more fundamental move- 
 ment, partly on account of the fallacious feel- 
 ing of useful knowledge that statistics are likely 
 to give and the comparative ease with which 
 they may be secured. To Mr. Taylor and his 
 associates costs, though of course important, 
 are secondary to productive efficiency. Mr. 
 Taylor was one of the earliest of the profes- 
 
72 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 sional cost experts, and the cost system that he 
 evolved and that is now in use in a few plants 
 is as simple as is consistent with effective ascer- 
 tainment, recording, and distribution of ex- 
 penditures. Without going into technical de- 
 tails, one of the distinctive features of the Taylor 
 cost system is the use of the forms for the issue 
 and movement of materials and for the control 
 of operations as the original data for cost keep- 
 ing. It is not the practice of scientific manage- 
 ment experts, however, to insist on the use of 
 this system, provided clients already have a 
 sufficiently accurate system in operation. In a 
 few instances, however (including a department 
 store), I found that the cost system alone had 
 been put in with results apparently satisfac- 
 tory. 
 
 It has been pointed out many times that the 
 principles characteristic of scientific manage- 
 ment which have proved themselves capable 
 of such successful application to production 
 might and should be extended to cover the do- 
 mains of selling and financing, with of course 
 such modifications of method as the different 
 problems presented by these subjects suggest. 
 Thus far, however, the merest beginning has 
 been made in this direction. One plant, a 
 machine shop, has applied to its sales organi- 
 
IN PRACTICE 73 
 
 zation the principles of analysis of product, 
 training and routing of men, and cooperation 
 between the management and the salesmen, 
 which it had long used in its production depart- 
 ment. This is a small concern, however, and 
 the methods thus far developed and the results 
 attained, though satisfactory, cannot be said 
 really to show the possibilities of a thorough 
 application on a large scale. 
 
 At least one of the elements of scientific man- 
 agement, namely, a detailed analysis of the 
 work of the operator with a view to setting 
 standards of accomplishment to be made a basis 
 of extra compensation in the form of a bonus, 
 has been developed with some success in con- 
 nection with the sales organizations of a num- 
 ber of concerns. The work of the salesmen has 
 been analyzed in detail and certain " points" 
 value attached to each element. The usual 
 wages or commissions are paid and in addition 
 the point system is used to insure the sales- 
 man's attention to those particular features 
 which the management wishes especially at- 
 tended to ; and the accumulation of points from 
 a basic standard is used as a guide to the pay- 
 ment of extra salaries. 
 
 The real test of the success of a system of 
 management is not to be found in such isolated 
 
74 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 examples as have been cited but rather in its 
 net effect on the business as a whole. For ob- 
 vious reasons it is difficult to get accurate in- 
 formation in regard to this from private plants. 
 The most detailed exhibit of total costs and 
 total results is to be found in the reports of 
 the Chief of Ordnance on the application of 
 the system to arsenals, particularly those at 
 Watertown and Springfield, Massachusetts, 
 and the Frankford, Pennsylvania. These re- 
 sults show in one year : — 
 
 Savings from improved shop man- 
 agement, and premium system. . . $240,461.93 
 
 Savings resulting from the use of sur- 
 plus stock 122,789.61 
 
 Total $363 > 25i-54 1 
 
 One private concern, manufacturing mold- 
 ing machines, reports that its product is now 
 three times what it was before it adopted scien- 
 tific management, while its total force has re- 
 mained the same. Another is producing slightly 
 more than it did six years ago with a little over 
 two thirds the force it then had. A plant manu- 
 facturing automobiles (already referred to) 
 reports that it is saving $535 per car; while a 
 car-building concern, in which the application 
 
 1 See Reports of the Chief of Ordnance, United States Army, 
 for 1912, 1913, 1914, and 1915. 
 
IN PRACTICE 75 
 
 of the system had extended only over one year, 
 reported already a saving of $100 per car. An- 
 other plant which had passed its dividends for 
 several years found itself in a position, partly 
 as the result of the development of the system, 
 to declare a dividend of eighteen per cent. A 
 structural iron concern reported that the total 
 cost of installing the system, $18,000, was re- 
 covered by it in savings effected within three 
 years. The results of the application of scientific 
 management to the Santa Fe Railroad are 
 hotly disputed; but on the whole it seems 
 clear that considerable economies were accom- 
 plished. 
 
 The gross results, however, are not always 
 so favorable. There have been partial suc- 
 cesses and unquestioned failures, to say nothing 
 of one curious example, a textile machine shop, 
 which at the end of three years apparently 
 showed a failure but in which a sudden access 
 of energy brought about a complete and striking 
 success. Failures, as will be shown in detail 
 later, have been in some cases due to the finan- 
 cial inability of the concern to stand the cost 
 of introduction over a sufficiently long period. 
 In a few instances this condition was accen- 
 tuated by panic conditions as in 1907; in a few 
 others the cost was excessive by reason of in- 
 
76 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 competent "experts" and the setting of tasks 
 so crudely as to make possible excessively high 
 bonuses. In general it may be said that where- 
 ever the development of the system has been 
 allowed to be carried through to a conclusion, 
 the outcome has been satisfactory; but that in 
 some cases the cost of development and the 
 slowness of returns have resulted in stopping 
 the work long before it was completed. 
 
 3. Effects on Employees 
 Thus far we have been discussing the results 
 of scientific management from the point of view 
 of the employer. A movement, however, which 
 has already affected over 72,000 employees (in- 
 cluding about 20,000 in transportation in'addi- 
 tion to the 52,000 in industrial plants), and 
 which bids fair to extend to a much greater 
 number, must be considered with equal care 
 from the point of view of its influence and ef- 
 fect on the workman. Owing to the great num- 
 ber of units involved, an exhaustive survey of 
 these effects will be out of the question for other 
 than government agency. Miss Edith Wyatt 
 investigated personally and rather fully the 
 effect of scientific management on the woman 
 employees in three plants. 1 The House Com- 
 
 i 1 See Clark and Wyatt, Making Both Ends Meet, chap. vn. 
 
IN PRACTICE 77 
 
 mittee on Labor of the Sixty-second Congress 
 made an investigation as the result of a brief 
 strike at the Watertown Arsenal, and its find- 
 ings are published in connection with their 
 report. 1 General Crozier has gone fully into 
 the question in his annual reports on the appli- 
 cation of scientific management in the arsenals. 2 
 My information is derived chiefly from these 
 sources, supplemented to some extent by such 
 personal investigation as I have been able to 
 make. 
 
 First as to wages. In no case that I could find 
 were the basic rates lower than those custom- 
 ary in the industry and locality involved. In 
 every case where the development of the sys- 
 tem had progressed to anything like completion, 
 the bonus principle was being effectively ap- 
 plied. Bonuses are figured in a variety of ways, 
 which it is unnecessary to go into here. 3 By the 
 Taylor and Gantt methods a considerable de- 
 gree of efficiency has to be attained before any 
 bonus at all is paid, but when the bonus point 
 is reached the amount of premium is compara- 
 
 1 The Taylor and Other Systems of Shop Management. 
 Special Committee to investigate the Taylor and other systems 
 of shop management. (Government Printing Office, Washing- 
 ton, 1912.) 
 
 2 Annual Reports of the Chief of Ordnance, 191 1, 1912, 1913, 
 1914. (Government Printing Office, Washington.) 
 
 3 See references on pp. 250-51 following. 
 
78 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 tively large, ranging from 25 to 100 per cent. 
 By the Emerson method a bonus is paid for 
 any increase above 67 per cent of the standard 
 efficiency on a given job. This bonus reaches 
 20 per cent when the standard efficiency is at- 
 tained and one per cent is added for each one 
 per cent increase in efficiency. The Taylor 
 method of time study and task setting makes 
 it exceedingly difficult for workmen to exceed 
 the task to any considerable extent; while by 
 the Emerson method an exceptionally good 
 workman is expected to go far beyond 100 per 
 cent, and in practice has often done so. For this 
 reason the range of bonus earned in the Emer- 
 son plants is from zero to 300 or 400 per cent; 
 while in the Taylor and Gantt plants it- has 
 ranged from 20 to about 100 per cent. 
 
 The proportions of bonus earners to non- 
 bonus earners also vary widely, depending 
 partly on the degree of completion of the de- 
 velopment of the system and partly on the 
 policy of the management. It is the general 
 expectation of the consulting engineers that the 
 bonus will be applied sooner or later to about 
 90 per cent of the employees, the other 10 per 
 cent being engaged in types of work which for 
 one reason or another are not susceptible to the 
 task and bonus method. This was found, with 
 
IN PRACTICE 79 
 
 one exception, to be the aim of the manage- 
 ment. That exception was a foundry in which 
 the manager explained that it was necessary 
 to apply the bonus only to one out of three 
 employees, as the increased efficiency which 
 this incentive produced in him would compel 
 the others to keep up with him. It must be 
 said, however, that this is utterly contrary to 
 the policy and method of the experts them- 
 selves and that, in general, no such method can 
 be expected to succeed. In practice it was found 
 that where the system had been in operation 
 three years or more, there were from 50 to 
 85 per cent of the employees earning bonuses 
 ranging from 10 to 60 or 70 per cent. In addi- 
 tion to this there was at least one plant using the 
 Taylor differential piece rate in which the low 
 rate is 10 per cent above that prevailing in the 
 community, while the high rate is 43 per cent 
 higher. 1 
 
 One case was found in Chicago in which the 
 bonus system was being abandoned because in 
 the opinion of the management the men had not 
 sufficient ambition to stir them to take advan- 
 tage of it. An investigation showed, however, 
 
 1 See Appendix I, Report of the Chief of Ordnance, United 
 States Army, 1913, for tables giving experience at Watertown 
 Arsenal. 
 
80 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 not only that the men were on the whole rather 
 shiftless but that the form of bonus offered 
 by the management was not calculated to act 
 as a powerful incentive. It can be said in 
 general that the bonus method, when employed 
 in the form recommended by the experts, has 
 acted uniformly as a stimulus to increase effi- 
 ciency, and that the claim that scientific man- 
 agement has invariably raised wages is easily 
 substantiated by the facts. 
 
 It is pertinent to inquire, however, whether 
 the increased wages due to increased output 
 are obtained at the cost of the health of the 
 employees. This question also was fully in- 
 vestigated by Miss Wyatt, with the conclusion 
 that not only was their health unimpaired 'but 
 that, on the contrary, the conditions under 
 which the maximum efficiency is secured have 
 led to improvement in health. The investiga- 
 tion at Watertown Arsenal was unable to find 
 any case of injuries to health traceable to the 
 system. Since that investigation it has been 
 alleged that there has been an increase of acci- 
 dents at the Watertown Arsenal. The analysis 
 by General Crozier shows, however, that the 
 increase of accidents has been among those 
 who are not yet working on task and bonus; 
 while for those who are operating under the 
 
IN PRACTICE 81 
 
 Taylor system there has been, on the contrary, 
 a decrease of accidents. 1 
 
 The attention given to the reduction of 
 fatigue early in the development of scientific 
 management is familiar to all who have read 
 the accounts of the work of "Schmidt," the 
 pig-iron handler at Bethlehem, and of the in- 
 spector girls at the roller-bearing factory in 
 Fitchburg. The necessity of making an allow- 
 ance for fatigue in establishing a task is too 
 obvious to call for comment; and it is now as 
 always an essential part of the work of an expe- 
 rienced chronometrist to take this factor into 
 
 1 This point is so important that it is worth while to give 
 General Crozier's statement regarding it. "Careful record of 
 all accidents is kept at the arsenal. Most of the accidents oc- 
 cur in the machine shop. During the fiscal year ending June 
 30, 1913, the total number injured in this shop was 34, of 
 which 5, or 14.7 per cent, were working on premium at the 
 time. During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1913, 57 persons 
 were injured in the machine shop, of which 13, or 22.8 per cent, 
 were premium workers. During these two years the number of 
 workmen employed in the machine shop remained about the 
 same, but the amount of premium work increased nearly four- 
 fold. That is, while the amount of premium work increased 
 about 300 per cent, the percentage of accidents to premium 
 workers increased only 8.1. During the nine months from 
 October to June, 1913, 33 machinists were injured, 10 of 
 whom, or approximately 30 per cent, were premium workers. 
 During this same period 44.8 per cent of the work in the 
 machine shop was premium work. It thus appears that the 
 percentage of accidents among the premium workers was less 
 than the percentage of premium work; that is, that the greater 
 proportion of accidents during these nine months occurred 
 among the day workers." {Report of the Chief of Ordnance, 
 1913, Appendix I, p. 68.) 
 
82 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 account, not merely with reference to the mo- 
 tions of the operator but with reference to the 
 redesign of machines and equipment to the end 
 of reducing the necessary motions to a mini- 
 mum. The result of this process is well illus- 
 trated in the case of a machinist I saw in 
 Philadelphia. This man is now operating five 
 automatic gear-cutters instead of the two 
 which used to be considered his limit. In the 
 handling of the gear blanks the worker showed 
 a precision and ease of movement resulting in 
 the maximum of accomplishment with the mini- 
 mum of effort, which is in the strongest con- 
 trast to the nervous haste which in most plants 
 is accounted speed. Incidentally it may be 
 noted that this man is now earning $i I a day. 
 One difficulty has been found in a few in- 
 stances of over-eagerness of employees to un- 
 dertake larger tasks than those proposed, with 
 the idea of earning larger bonuses. In two 
 plants, employing girls mainly, in which this 
 condition arose, operators were allowed to try 
 the larger tasks under the supervision of the 
 factory nurses. In one instance the new task 
 was obviously too great for the operator ; in the 
 other, although the operator seemed to be able 
 to accomplish it, it was felt that the arrange- 
 ment might not be permanently satisfactory ; so 
 
IN PRACTICE 83 
 
 in both cases they were put back on the tasks 
 as originally set. 
 
 The extent to which the interest, loyalty, 
 sobriety, thrift, and ambition of employees are 
 increased, as is claimed by the advocates of 
 scientific management to be the natural and 
 usual result of their work, is difficult to deter- 
 mine in detail. If one may judge from rapid 
 personal inspection of employees at work under 
 the system, there can be no question of their 
 closer application and deeper interest in the 
 work they are doing. This interest extends 
 beyond their own work to that of the manage- 
 ment. Inasmuch as the success of the worker 
 in earning the bonus depends partly on the 
 smoothness with which the administrative de- 
 partment is conducted, the foremen and other 
 executives receive numerous and forceful sug- 
 gestions on this score if anything goes wrong. 
 I have often seen workmen reminding their 
 " bosses," in no uncertain terms, of their fail- 
 ure to live up to their managerial responsibili- 
 ties. In fact, the authority of the operators 
 within their own sphere is one of the outstand- 
 ing peculiarities of a scientific management 
 plant. 
 
 Perhaps the most striking evidence of loyalty 
 of employees under scientific management is the 
 
84 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 length of time they remain with their plants and 
 the relatively infrequent changes in the pay- 
 roll. This has further been illustrated in the 
 demonstrated difficulty or impossibility of in- 
 ducing even union employees in these plants to 
 walk out or stay out in sympathetic strikes, as 
 was the case in Philadelphia in 1910. With ref- 
 erence to sobriety, experience has shown that 
 immoderate drinkers are incapable of standing 
 up to the work, with the result that they have 
 gradually eliminated themselves from these 
 plants. Thrift and ambition are qualities which 
 cannot be created by scientific management; 
 but the opportunity for their exercise may be 
 provided by a favorable environment, this en- 
 vironment including high wages and the recog- 
 nition of superior ability. Such an environment 
 is provided by the system, and my observations 
 confirm those of Miss Wyatt to the effect that 
 the favorable conditions are being taken ad- 
 vantage of. On the other hand, there have 
 been a few instances where a tendency to ex- 
 travagance and dissipation has also been in- 
 creased by the bonus. 
 
 An investigator is forcibly struck by the 
 notable increase in the personal efficiency of 
 operatives who have worked for any length of 
 time on task and bonus. This is the logical 
 
IN PRACTICE 85 
 
 result of the intensified personal instruction 
 given them by the management. Another con- 
 sequence of this instruction has been the devel- 
 opment of employees to the promotion point 
 faster than it was possible to find openings for 
 them. The condition has occasionally been met 
 by finding them better paid and higher positions 
 in other plants. Another characteristic result 
 has been the broadening of the technical pro- 
 ficiency of the employee which follows from the 
 method sometimes pursued of training them 
 in several varieties of work, in order to inter- 
 change them from one department of a factory 
 to another to meet seasonal fluctuations of the 
 demands in various departments. The possi- 
 bilities of this policy have not, however, by 
 any means been exhausted. 
 
 While the results just described apply to the 
 great majority of workers affected by this 
 system, there is no doubt that there have been 
 instances of less satisfactory consequences. It 
 seems generally true that in the first applica- 
 tion of time study methods, the operators 
 studied are made considerably discontented 
 and " nervous' ' by the process. While as a rule 
 this nervousness and discontent soon disappear, 
 there appear to be some men who never get 
 used to time study. A competent practitioner 
 
86 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 recognizing this fact transfers his time study 
 to some other operator, in which case the indi- 
 vidual too nervous to be made the subject of a 
 time study usually has no objection later to ac- 
 complishing the resulting task. There has also 
 been at the beginning of development in va- 
 rious plants considerable dissatisfaction with 
 the share of the increased profit paid to the 
 workmen as a bonus. They have not been able 
 at first to see why, if production is increased 
 ioo per cent, their wages should be increased 
 but 30 per cent. A clear explanation, however, 
 of the part taken by the management and the 
 expense undergone by it in providing the con- 
 ditions under which the increased production 
 is alone possible, has in the great majority of 
 cases been satisfactory to the employee. 
 
 While the task is set for the average good 
 worker, it has purposely been made sufficiently 
 difficult to act selectively, and there have been 
 employees unable to accomplish it at first 
 who in their discouragement have left their 
 jobs before they had reached the bonus-earn- 
 ing point. In addition to these there are un- 
 doubtedly some who were incapable ever of at- 
 taining the standards set. Bonus records as kept 
 in various plants, however, show that the pro- 
 portion of these employees is very small. On 
 
IN PRACTICE 87 
 
 the other hand, I have been unable to find 
 any evidence of overstrain in the effort to earn 
 the bonus. 
 
 The question has been raised whether the 
 rigid standardization of processes and the pre- 
 cise instructions to workmen have not tended 
 to suppress initiative, judgment, and progress. 
 Strange to say, the only evidence I have found 
 of this has been on the part of the consulting 
 engineers themselves, with some of whom the 
 comparative perfection of methods developed 
 ten years ago has tended to preclude the ad- 
 mission of the possibility of advance through 
 any apparently radical or substantial change. 
 With the workmen, however, it is generally 
 true that the greater skill resulting from stand- 
 ardization and instruction has led to a cor- 
 respondingly greater confidence and freedom 
 of initiative and suggestion, and many of the 
 detailed improvements worked out in practice 
 are credited by the experts to the workmen 
 themselves. 1 
 
 1 See C. B. Thompson, "The Case for Scientific Manage- 
 ment," Sociological Review, vol. vn, p. 315. 
 
88 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 4. Relations with the Public and with 
 Organized Labor 
 
 When we turn from the employer and the 
 employee to the third party in interest — the 
 public — we find the available data to be quite 
 limited, due mainly of course to the compara- 
 tively short time that scientific management 
 has been a real factor in industry and the rela- 
 tively small proportion of plants using it. There 
 is sufficient information available, however, 
 to point to far-reaching ultimate social effects 
 and consequences. At this point such facts as 
 we have will be briefly stated and the discus- 
 sion of economic tendencies with probable re- 
 sults continued in a later section. 
 
 That scientific management has had the 
 effect of raising losing concerns into the profit- 
 making class and thereby retaining a certain 
 degree of competition which might otherwise 
 have been reduced has been evident in several 
 cases, some of which have already been pointed 
 out in our discussion of gross results. 
 
 There is no strong evidence at the present 
 time to show that the increased efficiency of 
 scientific management has resulted in lower 
 prices to the public, for the reason that most of 
 those now using it stand in a quasi-monopoly 
 
IN PRACTICE 89 
 
 position in which there is no necessity for them 
 to reduce their prices substantially below those 
 of their competitors, notwithstanding their 
 larger profits. An interesting question is being 
 raised by the fact that public service corpora- 
 tions operated under scientific management are 
 in a fair way to show unusually large profits 
 based on rates which would be considered 
 normal for concerns operating by the usual 
 methods. Will public service commissions ap- 
 ply to these more modern concerns the eight 
 per cent rule, thus depriving them of the ben- 
 efits of their superior management? The one 
 instance in which the public has benefited 
 conspicuously by the reduction of price is in a 
 very highly competitive industry — the automo- 
 bile industry — in which the reduction in the 
 selling price of the car was apparently the es- 
 sential condition on which the concern could 
 live. In this instance a car selling with small 
 profit at $2950 has been reduced in price to 
 $1950 with a considerable increase in profit. 
 The result is said by the company without 
 qualification to be due to the application of 
 scientific management. 
 
 The one phase of the relations of scientific 
 management to the public on which consid- 
 erable information is available is that of its 
 
90 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 relations with the labor problem and more par- 
 ticularly with organized labor. The social im- 
 port of the general increase of wages through 
 the bonus for the individual employee varies of 
 course with the number of employees involved. 
 Thus far it is safe to say that it has affected 
 about 70,000. These are widely scattered, 
 however, and no notable social advantage has 
 accrued. 
 
 The selective methods of scientific manage- 
 ment would appear to have some bearing on 
 the problem of unemployment. Thus far it 
 has been the consistent policy of consulting 
 experts never to discharge an employee on 
 account of changes in the system of adminis- 
 tration. It is also their policy to spur the 
 management to such an increase in its selling 
 activity as to take up the expected increase in 
 production as rapidly as the latter is attained, 
 hoping thereby to retain or even add to the 
 number of persons employed. In many cases 
 the management has succeeded in increasing 
 its sales in the manner and with the result sug- 
 gested. In other instances, however, the result 
 has been ultimately a decrease in the number 
 employed, brought about, not by the discharge 
 of employees, but by refraining from filling 
 the places of those who in the natural course 
 
IN PRACTICE 91 
 
 of things drop out. The dropping-out process 
 has also been facilitated somewhat by the ap- 
 plication of the task and bonus, as a result of 
 which those who are for any reason dissatisfied 
 with it seek employment elsewhere. 
 
 The net effect of these changes, however, in- 
 volving as they do but a small part of the total 
 number of employees, widely scattered, and 
 resulting from a process necessarily slow in its 
 development and carried on by a small num- 
 ber of practitioners, is exceedingly slight; and 
 it cannot be said that scientific management has 
 as yet, no matter what its future influence may 
 be, seriously affected the problem of unem- 
 ployment. 
 
 The American Federation of Labor, however, 
 has devoted a considerable share of its atten- 
 tion to what it considers the dangers of scien- 
 tific management. The agitation against it 
 seems to have originated in the International 
 Association of Machinists. In 191 1, Mr. James 
 O'Connell, at that time president of the Asso- 
 ciation and later a member of the famous 
 National Industrial Relations Commission, is- 
 sued a fiery circular to his constituents con- 
 demning wholesale his conception of the Taylor 
 System. The strike of the molders at the Water- 
 town Arsenal in 191 1 drew the attention of 
 
92 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 other labor leaders to the system, and Mr. Frey 
 of the International Association of Molders 
 and Mr. Duncan, first vice-president of the 
 American Federation of Labor, Mr. John 
 Mitchell, and many other officials, have since 
 taken up the cudgels vigorously. Their oppo- 
 sition is aimed primarily at the possible weak- 
 ening of the cohesion of organized labor under 
 scientific management based on known facts; 
 and particularly against the insistence on indi- 
 vidual bargaining, which has marked the prac- 
 tice of Mr. Taylor and his associates. 
 
 At the Seattle Convention of the Federation 
 in 1 91 3 x and the Philadelphia Convention in 
 1914, 2 resolutions condemning the system were 
 adopted. At the same time a determined' and 
 successful effort has been made to introduce 
 and pass through Congress a bill to prohibit the 
 use of the stop-watch or any premium or bonus 
 system in any plant operated by the Govern- 
 ment, aimed of course at the Taylor System as 
 developed in the arsenals. 
 
 The resolutions and speeches of labor leaders 
 and their congressional advocates have thus 
 far been marked by a conspicuous lack of in- 
 
 1 See Report of Proceedings, Thirty-third Annual Conven- 
 tion of the American Federation of Labor, held at Seattle, 
 Washington, November 10 to 22, inclusive, 1913, page 299. 
 
 8 See Report of Proceedings, p. 326. 
 
IN PRACTICE 93 
 
 formation in regard to the system they are con- 
 demning ; and scientific management exponents 
 and managers of plants using the system have 
 observed a great reluctance on the part of these 
 leaders to avail themselves of the opportuni- 
 ties frequently offered them to secure at first 
 hand the information for intelligent dealing 
 with the subject. The exhaustive investigation 
 of the House Committee on Labor of the Sixty- 
 second Congress resulted in a report recom- 
 mending that no legislation 1 be made, as the 
 deleterious effects alleged by the opponents of 
 the system had not been found in practice. 
 The House Committee on Labor of the Sixty- 
 third Congress, without an investigation, re- 
 ported a bill proposed by the labor unions, 
 which was passed by both houses in the form 
 of a rider to the Fortifications Bill, prohibiting 
 the use of a stop-watch or the payment of 
 bonuses in the government works. 2 On ac- 
 count of an error of the labor leaders in attach- 
 ing this rider to the wrong bill, the payment of 
 bonuses was continued. In the Sixty-fourth 
 Congress various similar bills were introduced, 
 
 1 Report, Special Committee to investigate the Taylor and 
 other systems of shop management (626. Congress, 2d Session, 
 House Report 403, 191 2). 
 
 2 See the very interesting debate on this subject in the 
 Senate, reported in the Congressional Record for February 23, 
 I9I5- 
 
94 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 and eventually the provisions of a bill fathered 
 by Representative Tavenner, of Illinois, were 
 embodied in amendments added to several of 
 the great appropriation bills. These amend- 
 ments were passed at the instance of the unions 
 and despite the most serious opposition of rep- 
 resentative employers and many employees. 1 
 
 Mr. Taylor and most of the other practition- 
 ers of scientific management, while recognizing 
 the historical benefit of labor organizations, 
 have insisted, thus far, that there is no need 
 for them in plants enjoying the favorable 
 conditions for labor created by their system; 
 and further that in such plants there is no place 
 for collective agreements, inasmuch as in their 
 opinion all the matters which might be made 
 the subject of collective bargaining are matters 
 of fact determinable by experiment and not 
 subject to agreement or opinion. They insist 
 further that in their experience there has been 
 no necessity for considering particularly rela- 
 tions with labor unions and that such considera- 
 tion would only add to the already large diffi- 
 culties of their work. 
 
 1 See Hearings before the Committee on Labor, House Re- 
 port, 63d Congress, on H.R. 8662, April 17, 18, and 20, 1914. 
 See "Method of Directing the Work of Government Em- 
 ployees," Hearings before the Committee on Labor, 64th Con- 
 gress, on H.R. 8665. Also Report, 64th Congress, H.R. 698. 
 (Washington Government Printing Office, 1916.) 
 
IN PRACTICE 95 
 
 In spite of the fact that many of the plants 
 now using scientific management have among 
 their employees members of unions, and not- 
 withstanding the public opposition of labor 
 leaders, the only instance of actual organized 
 opposition to the original Taylor System was 
 that at Watertown already referred to, where 
 the molders walked out during the absence 
 of the consulting manager and on account of a 
 detail of the work begun without his authoriza- 
 tion. This difficulty was soon adjusted, the 
 men went back to work and have been working 
 continuously since, although in the mean time 
 the matter has been taken up by their official 
 leaders and made the subject of petitions to the 
 Secretary of War * and the agitation in Con- 
 gress already described. 
 
 There have been a few instances of "labor 
 troubles" in connection with the installation 
 of certain derived forms of the Taylor System, 
 due in general either to the bungling of a sub- 
 ordinate on the job, as in the case of a certain 
 plush mill, or to the irreconcilable attitude of 
 the union leaders, as in the case of the engineers 
 on the Santa Fe. In other plants there have 
 been conferences in a few instances between 
 
 1 See Appendix to Report of Chief of Ordnance, 191 3. 
 (Government Printing Office, Washington.) 
 
96 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 the management and representatives of local 
 unions concerning details of administration, 
 and arrangements satisfactory to both sides 
 have been effected. In a few cases the exten- 
 sion of scientific management from unorganized 
 parts of the plant to other departments highly 
 organized has been delayed on account of the 
 fear of labor union opposition. In several in- 
 stances efforts of organizers to unionize de- 
 partments using the system have failed on ac- 
 count of the satisfaction of the employees with 
 the conditions of their work. In one plant where 
 scientific management was fully developed and 
 in complete operation, the management, for 
 reasons unconnected with the system or with 
 working conditions, has itself authorized and 
 aided the organization of its employees. In the 
 great majority of applications, however, there 
 is no attention paid to the question whether 
 the employees are unionized or not; and local 
 unions conversely have ignored the develop- 
 ment of the system. 
 
 That the general satisfaction of the employ- 
 ees under scientific management has had a sta- 
 bilizing influence in the direction of industrial 
 peace has been illustrated in a number of in- 
 stances like that already cited of the general 
 strike in Philadelphia in 1910. In other plants, 
 
IN PRACTICE 97 
 
 during the I.W.W. agitation in 1911-12, the 
 employees kept themselves well outside the 
 drift toward that organization. It is evident 
 on the whole that the realization by the em- 
 ployees of the fact that scientific management 
 automatically provides, at no cost to them, 
 higher wages and better working conditions 
 than can be shown by labor organization, has 
 weakened the hold of the latter upon them. 
 When to this is added the instinctive defense 
 of the principles of collective bargaining, re- 
 striction of output, and uniform wages, by the 
 labor leaders and the reaction to a fighting at- 
 titude on the part of some leaders in scientific 
 management, we have the chief factors to 
 which must ultimately be laid the persistent 
 opposition of the labor officials. 
 
 5. Failures and their Causes 
 
 It is well known that the efforts to apply 
 scientific management have not met with uni- 
 form success. The results have ranged all the 
 way from absolute failure, by which is meant 
 the complete cessation of work on the system 
 at any point in its development and the rejec- 
 tion of what had Been already accomplished, 
 to complete success, by which is meant the de- 
 velopment and retention of all details of the 
 
9 8 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 system in their application to at least one 
 complete department of a plant. Between these 
 two extremes are many cases of partial success, 
 by which is meant the development and re- 
 tention of some important detail such as the 
 stores, routing, or cost sub-systems. 
 
 Of the 113 industrial plants for which infor- 
 mation on this point is available, and in which 
 the work has progressed far enough to warrant 
 the formation of a judgment, 59 may be called 
 complete successes, 10 partial successes, and 
 34 failures. Twenty-seven of these 34 failures 
 are connected with forms of management de- 
 rived from and more or less related to the 
 Taylor System, which amounts to 42.2 per 
 cent of the applications of such forms. Seven 
 are connected with the original Taylor forms, 
 which represent 14.6 per cent of the applica- 
 tion of these original types. Of the 28 cases 
 now to my knowledge in process, there is good 
 reason to suppose that 22 will be partial or 
 complete successes, and that 5. will probably 
 result in failures. 
 
 An analysis of the causes of failure shows a 
 noticeable concentration about two factors — 
 the personality of the consulting engineers and 
 the personality of the management. Several 
 failures are due to the inexperience and incom- 
 
IN PRACTICE 99 
 
 petence of the so-called "experts" put on the 
 job; others to their lack of adaptability to new 
 conditions or to the personality of the owners; 
 and still others to an unwillingness on the part 
 of the expert to familiarize himself personally 
 with the shop operations. In at least two cases 
 the experts spoiled their chances of success by 
 indulgence in impractical and expensive ex- 
 periments. In one instance the wholesale im- 
 portation of outside men (made necessary, it 
 is true, by the unwillingness of the management 
 to provide men from its own staff) was a large 
 contributing factor. 
 jjf* On the other hand, even more cases of fail- 
 ure are due to the management itself. Chief 
 among these has been the spasmodic way in 
 which owners, without due investigation or 
 realization of what the development of scien- 
 tific management meant, have rushed into it 
 only to begin to vacillate before the engineers 
 had had time to produce any substantial re- 
 sults. This has been the case particularly where 
 the owners have gone into scientific manage- 
 ment in response to advertising or other forms 
 of solicitation. In a considerable proportion 
 of the failures there has been marked dissension 
 in the management, notably in certain instances 
 where the foremen have for a long time en- 
 
ioo SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 joyed practical control of the business. This 
 condition is fostered also by absentee control, or 
 control by financiers or lawyers unacquainted 
 with the practice of industrial management and 
 therefore unable to adjust the inevitable diffi- 
 culties which arise between subordinate officials 
 and experts in almost every case. There must 
 be mentioned also a few cases where the sheer 
 incompetency of the management made suc- 
 cess under any system impossible. 
 
 In a fairly large proportion of instances fail- 
 ure was due to the financial inability of the 
 owners to carry through the development they 
 had begun. Occasionally this has been due to 
 lack of foresight, but in the majority of cases to 
 the supervening of a period of severe business 
 depression such as occurred in 1907 and in 
 1913-14. In one or two instances this has been 
 complicated by the cessation of sales for the 
 product manufactured, due either to a change 
 of public taste, as in the case of a factory mak- 
 ing bicycle roller bearings, or the failure of the 
 selling organization, as happened in a garment 
 factory. In but one instance to my knowledge 
 has the threat of labor difficulties been even 
 partially responsible for failure, and here the 
 situation was so complicated with financial 
 troubles (in 1907) and an unsympathetic man- 
 
IN PRACTICE 101 
 
 agement that it is difficult now to determine 
 precisely what weight should be given to this 
 factor. 
 
 As may be expected, these causes of failure 
 have in practically every case operated in com- 
 binations of two or three or more. The striking 
 fact deducible from the investigation is that, 
 with one possible exception, the failures have 
 been due entirely to the experts or the man- 
 agers and owners or both, and never to diffi- 
 culty with workmen — and this independently 
 of whether the workers were organized or not. 
 
 6. General Influence of the Movement 
 A discussion of scientific management would 
 not be complete without some reference to the 
 influence of the movement outside of its recog- 
 nized application. It is safe to say that scientific 
 management shares with the modern move- 
 ment of cost statistics the credit for the wide- 
 spread interest in the improvement of methods 
 and details in factories of every type. Cost 
 systems are easier to develop and apply than 
 production systems. They have, therefore, had 
 many more exponents and are far more gener- 
 ally found. Their showings, however, have had 
 the direct result of pointing out the necessity 
 for production systems to eliminate waste made 
 
102 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 evident by cost statistics; and the two move- 
 ments have, therefore, gone hand in hand, al- 
 though "production engineering" only now 
 is belatedly coming into its own. A brief pe- 
 rusal of the many factory and technological 
 magazines and journals, and of the proceedings 
 of the numerous meetings of manufacturers' 
 associations, gives the clearest evidence of the 
 large share of attention factory managers and 
 owners are now giving to modern production 
 systems. 
 
 It is also to be noted that since the attention 
 of railroads was so forcibly called at the famous 
 Eastern Rate Case hearings in 191 1 to the work 
 on the Santa Fe, they have been considering 
 with a great deal of seriousness, though with 
 little or reluctant acknowledgment, the kind of 
 detailed analysis, supervision, and develop- 
 ment from a new point of view which was then 
 shown to be possible and profitable. This tend- 
 ency has doubtless gained in momentum as the 
 railroads recovered from the strain of public 
 criticism brought out at that time. It is aided 
 also by the development of more refined and 
 minute cost methods which are only just be- 
 ginning to make themselves felt. That the 
 systems ultimately developed by the railroads 
 will be similar in appearance to those now found 
 
IN PRACTICE 103 
 
 in factories operated under scientific manage- 
 ment it would be rash to assert. But it is safe 
 to say that the application of similar principles 
 to their particular problems is being made to 
 some extent and will be carried to far greater 
 lengths in the reasonably near future. 
 
 Certain of the fundamental principles of 
 scientific management, such as the economy of 
 motion, energy, and time, and the detailed 
 control and coordination of the work of or- 
 ganization, have made an effective and practi- 
 cal appeal to the professions. This is evidenced 
 by the movements for greater efficiency in edu- 
 cation, legal administration, and even in the 
 conduct of social service, churches, and reli- 
 gious organizations. 
 
 And, finally, must be noted the radical change 
 which the widespread publicity given the sci- 
 entific management movement has brought over 
 the popular conception of efficiency. Hereto- 
 fore the policy of doing one's everyday work 
 in the most perfect way has been considered 
 a matter of aesthetic satisfaction, an artistic 
 pleasure, and therefore to be pursued only in 
 accordance with the dictates of one's " tem- 
 perament." Now, however, the conservation 
 of personal effort is interpreted as an impor- 
 tant phase of the broader movement for the 
 
104 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 conservation of all resources. It is considered 
 economically advantageous, and, therefore, a 
 personal and social duty. The general accept- 
 ance of this attitude will prove, in the long 
 run, I think, the greatest social benefit that will 
 have flowed from the work of Mr. Taylor and 
 his associates. 
 
IV 
 
 ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF SCIENTIFIC 
 MANAGEMENT 
 
 It may fairly be said after several investi- 
 gations that scientific management has suc- 
 ceeded in bringing about a lower cost of pro- 
 duction, higher wages, and better quality of 
 product in the industries to which it has been 
 applied. It has also already shown its effect 
 in the selection of a different type of managers 
 and of workmen from that usually found in 
 industry, a higher degree of specialization, and 
 a more individual and effective training. These 
 are the broad facts on which the following dis- 
 cussion is based. 
 
 The questions in which we are now inter- 
 ested concern themselves with the effect of 
 scientific management on business initiative 
 and enterprise and the manager or entrepreneur 
 who undertakes the risks. 
 
 Notwithstanding that it is an open question 
 whether the effect of scientific management 
 upon enterprise and industrial leadership is not 
 of more consequence than its effect upon wages 
 and the labor problem, the present tendency 
 
106 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 is to lay all the emphasis on its relations to 
 labor, in accordance with the general theory 
 that numbers are the most important element 
 in a democracy. Nevertheless, something may 
 be said for the belief that the cultivation of a 
 trained leadership is more advantageous both 
 immediately and in the long run to the masses 
 of "the people" than may be the surrender of 
 such training and leadership in the interests of 
 a hazy, ill-defined, and undirected " democracy.* ' 
 
 The interest of society in the encouragement 
 of enterprise and the development of compe- 
 tent entrepreneurs must not be lost from sight. 
 By this it is not meant to minimize the right 
 of "labor" to its just share of consideration, or 
 even to a share more than mere justice would 
 accord, in partial compensation for its historic 
 wrongs and its relative weakness. Scientific 
 management has in fact interested itself in the 
 welfare of the workingman as its prime con- 
 sideration practically from the beginning and 
 such is the first interest of its leading prac- 
 titioners to-day. 
 
 This phase of the matter will receive much 
 attention elsewhere, 1 however, and at this 
 point I propose to discuss the probable effects 
 of positive management on management and 
 the owner-manager or entrepreneur as such. 
 
 1 See pp. 116-56 following. 
 
ECONOMIC ASPECTS 107 
 
 I. Scientific Management and the 
 Entrepreneur 
 
 The effect of the characteristic "exception 
 principle," by which only those questions come 
 up to the manager and owner of an enterprise 
 which cannot be solved by those under him, 
 is a tendency to inject successfully into the 
 conduct of business a class of trained and 
 professional administrators in addition to the 
 current type of intuitive " captain of industry." 
 In the more usual types of organization the head 
 accepts the responsibility, not only for the 
 general guidance of his business, but also for 
 the handling of a great mass of detail, more, 
 in fact, than it is humanly possible to take care 
 of adequately. The result is that only the ex- 
 ceptional business man survives at all and only 
 the type verging on genius achieves success on 
 a conspicuous scale — and that largely through 
 the intuitive use of the exception principle. 
 This principle makes it possible for the average 
 man, more especially if he has been trained in 
 modern methods of analysis of problems and 
 expeditious handling of his personal affairs, to 
 dispose of such questions as come before him 
 with a far greater probability of satisfactory 
 results. 
 
108 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 I do not mean to convey the impression that 
 there no longer remains a place for enterprise, 
 initiative, and shrewdness. There is no satis- 
 factory substitute for these unfortunately rare 
 qualifications. The genius in business, like the 
 genius in invention, is still essential to the 
 progress of civilization. It is a matter for 
 very serious consideration, however, just how 
 far these qualities do enter into the success- 
 ful conduct of ordinary business. That they 
 are necessary to the conspicuous and success- 
 ful development of large-scale enterprises is 
 undoubtedly true; but it seems probable that 
 their importance in the everyday humdrum 
 management of medium and small-sized con- 
 cerns has been somewhat exaggerated. Many 
 such concerns are now operating with apparent 
 success, notwithstanding that their managers 
 show no evidence of exceptional shrewdness, 
 enterprise, or initiative. It may almost be said 
 that these qualities have already been sup- 
 planted in the majority of instances by the ca- 
 pacity for attention to detail, careful analysis 
 of not too difficult problems, and a consistent 
 willingness to work — which is not genius, not- 
 withstanding the well-known definition. Scien- 
 tific management tends to develop more of such 
 ordinary capacities, thus to increase the num- 
 ber of entrepreneurs. 
 
ECONOMIC ASPECTS 109 
 
 The new type of management has brought 
 about an increasing regard for technically 
 trained men. So true is this that engineers are 
 exhibiting a tendency to consider themselves 
 the only qualified managers. That they are 
 becoming more important in management is a 
 logical result of the increasing reliance of busi- 
 ness on science ; but scientific training of every 
 kind, not only in mechanics and chemistry, but 
 also in psychology, economics, and business 
 itself, has its importance correspondingly en- 
 hanced. It may be added that all this is at the 
 expense of the favoritism and nepotism which 
 still prevails to so large an extent. Grandsons, 
 nephews, and old college chums may continue 
 to draw dividends, and perhaps salaries even, 
 but they are in danger of being retired from 
 active participation in management. 
 ^ What may be the effect of scientific manage- 
 ment on competition and large-scale production? 
 One reason for the typical modern development 
 of industries on a large scale has been the op- 
 portunity that is presented only to large-scale 
 industry to take advantage of the increased 
 f ruitf ulness of the more minute division of labor. 
 Scientific management subdivides labor still 
 further, and thereby increases the advantage 
 which the industry large enough to utilize such 
 
no SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 subdivision may derive from it. It thus pushes 
 farther ahead the stage at which the disad- 
 vantages that develop in large-scale organi- 
 zation overwhelm its advantages. If the large- 
 scale organization succeeds in the application 
 of scientific management before its smaller com- 
 petitors take advantage of it, the result would 
 be to accentuate the advantages the larger 
 organization already has and thus to render 
 effective competition more difficult. 
 
 The fact is, however, that the large-scale 
 organization shows an inclination to rely on 
 its size alone to keep the market to itself. Its 
 smaller competitor is driven to greater effi- 
 ciency of production as well as of financing and 
 marketing, and is more likely, therefore, to de- 
 velop scientific management before the larger 
 and more confident concern considers it neces- 
 sary. The early user of scientific management 
 pays presumably the same rent and interest as 
 his competitors, and although he pays some- 
 what higher wages on account of the bonus, his 
 cost per unit of product is less, and his selling 
 price may be and often is the same as theirs. 
 He therefore gets a considerably higher return 
 and has a notable differential advantage over all 
 his competitors. If his large-scale competitors 
 are approaching, or have already passed, the 
 
ECONOMIC ASPECTS in 
 
 point of negative returns * and are not them- 
 selves using scientific management, his advan- 
 tage may be great enough to enable him to 
 maintain his position and even ultimately to 
 drive his larger competitor out. 
 
 In the mean time the advantages that the 
 early user has tend to make him, at least to some 
 degree, independent of local physical disad- 
 vantages where such exist, as in New England. 
 It is significant that a proportionately larger 
 number of manufacturers in the New England 
 States are using scientific management than in 
 any other section of the country. The disad- 
 vantages of a location in a remote corner of the 
 country, far from the sources of raw material, 
 must be overcome by superiority of manage- 
 ment. The same course of reasoning applies to 
 relative international advantages. The absence 
 of artificial props, such as a protective tariff, 
 may and in fact must be compensated by the 
 development of higher efficiency of production. 
 The fact that the advantages now derived from 
 scientific management are temporary in their 
 nature, so far as these considerations are in- 
 
 1 By "point of negative returns " is meant the point at which 
 the disadvantages inherent in any development, whose gradual 
 offsetting of advantages in such development constitutes "di- 
 minishing returns," have overwhelmed the advantages so that 
 further growth returns less than its cost. 
 
H2 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 volved, does not detract in the least from their 
 present value. 
 
 These differential advantages persist until all 
 plants have adopted scientific management — 
 a contingency which in the nature of things 
 is not likely to occur. The manager of the 
 scientifically managed plant may sell at the 
 price set by the poorest and most inefficient 
 producer whose output is still needed to meet 
 the demand. If he wishes to expand, however, 
 he will cut under this price, thus increasing 
 the sale of his own product and driving the in- 
 efficient producer out of business. The margin 
 thus tends to recede toward the more efficient 
 producers. If this tendency were to go on un- 
 impeded, eventually there would be none- left 
 except those using scientific management. For 
 various reasons, however, this is certain to be 
 a slow process. 
 
 If the fact of diminishing returns in industry 
 finds its origin, as I believe it does, in the 
 gradual development of the inherent disadvan- 
 tages which accompany the advantages of any 
 industrial growth, it is pertinent to inquire 
 whether the positive type of organization is not 
 itself subject to this apparently universal law. 
 I believe that it is. 
 
 The development of the science of industrial 
 
ECONOMIC ASPECTS 113 
 
 conservation goes on apace in its early stages 
 because the returns from research and investi- 
 gation, even when so expensive as those carried 
 on by Mr. Taylor, far outweigh the cost. As 
 these results are incorporated in current prac- 
 tice the research must be pushed farther at an 
 ever-increasing cost and in many cases with a 
 relatively decreasing return. This is illustrated 
 by the fact that a consulting management en- 
 gineer is perfectly satisfied to get ninety per 
 cent output from a machine. He could, in many 
 cases, run this up to ninety-five per cent or 
 even higher, but the cost of the last ten per 
 cent often exceeds its value. 
 
 A similar consideration applies to the devel- 
 opment of control in administration. The ad- 
 vantages of centralized planning department 
 control are clear enough in the early stages. 
 There appears to come a time, however, when 
 the increase in supervision, clerical work, and 
 printed forms, required for ever-closer control, 
 costs more than it is worth. It is difficult to 
 say just where this point of negative returns 
 is reached, but that it exists cannot be ques- 
 tioned. 
 
 Both these tendencies to diminishing returns 
 are constantly being offset by the steady flow of 
 invention which accompanies the development 
 
ii4 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 of scientific management. Every time-and- 
 motion-study-man is an inventor. Minor im- 
 provements are constantly being made in the 
 technique of mechanical processes and of cler- 
 ical work. That they have been worth more 
 than they cost is in general evidenced by the 
 fact that they continue in use. It is impossible 
 to predict how long this flow of invention will 
 persist or how far it will go. The one certainty 
 is that there is no end to it yet in sight, and 
 only by its continuance can the point of nega- 
 tive returns be indefinitely postponed. 
 
 One respect in which scientific management 
 tends to hasten the onset of diminishing returns 
 in organization itself is in its policy of increased 
 specialization. The intensive attention to' pro- 
 duction forces similar intensive application to 
 financing and distribution. At the same time 
 there must be closer adjustment of production 
 to the requirements of the market, of marketing 
 to the capacity of production, and of financing 
 to the needs of both. Increased specialization 
 is accompanied, therefore, by closer interde- 
 pendence ; and the only solution is more highly 
 centralized control. Such control demands an 
 increasingly higher grade of managerial ability 
 and enlarges the risk of failure. The excep- 
 tion principle tends to postpone the full de- 
 
ECONOMIC ASPECTS 115 
 
 velopment of this tendency, but it persists none 
 the less, and unless some other method of coun- 
 teracting it is evolved, it will eventually au- 
 tomatically put a stop to the extension of cen- 
 tralization. 
 
 X It would be interesting to speculate on the 
 bearing of these considerations on governmental 
 control and on the theory and proposals of social- 
 ism; but this would lead us quite beyond the 
 limits of this chapter. I will be content with 
 suggesting that the objection to government 
 control of various degrees up to and including 
 a completely socialistic state, on the ground 
 that the increasing magnitude of the operations 
 involved is beyond the capacity of the type of 
 managerial ability now at our command, loses 
 somewhat of its force if the type of organiza- 
 tion here described could and would be applied ; 
 although, in this connection also, the inevitable 
 incidence of the law of diminishing returns 
 must be kept in mind. It is interesting to note 
 that scientific management has been made an 
 object of special study and investigation by the 
 syndicalist leaders in Italy, doubtless with an 
 appreciation of its bearing on the fundamental 
 principles of their movement. 
 
 Thus it appears that the tendency of scientific 
 management is to enlarge the supply of man- 
 
n6 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 agers and increase the value of the trained and 
 professional administrator. While this may aid 
 the development of large-scale industry by post- 
 poning the point at which negative returns 
 will appear, in the case of those industries 
 which utilize the system, the present tendency 
 and indications are that the smaller-scale plants 
 are using scientific management first and are 
 thereby strengthening their competitive posi- 
 tion. The differential advantage which early 
 users of scientific management have tends to 
 overcome, at least temporarily, local disadvan- 
 tages under which they may labor. 
 
 This advantage tends slowly to disappear as 
 an increasing number of plants adopt scientific 
 management, partly because the differences 
 are equalized and partly because of the devel- 
 opment of a condition of diminishing returns 
 in the application of scientific management 
 itself. 
 
 II. Scientific Management and Labor 
 
 V The most interesting questions connected 
 with the effect of scientific management on the 
 labor problem are: first, its influence on basic 
 wages; second, the probable consequences and 
 effect of the method of differential payment by 
 means of the bonus; and third, the relation of 
 
ECONOMIC ASPECTS 117 
 
 scientific management to fundamental labor 
 union policies and practices.? These will be 
 taken up in order. 
 
 1. The Influence on Basic Wages 
 
 Scientific management tends to shift the de- 
 mand from labor which is already skilled to that 
 which is teachable. It draws its labor supply 
 not so much from those equipped with the usual 
 store of traditional knowledge and technique 
 as from those with the aptitude which enables 
 them to respond quickly and effectively to the 
 intensive training in the newer methods. The 
 effect of this tendency would be eventually to 
 abolish the line between " craft" groups. Fac- 
 tory labor may to-day be arranged in a hier- 
 archy of day laborers, " lumpers," automatic 
 machine tenders, helpers, skilled machinists 
 and artisans, foremen and clerks. Scientific 
 management as actually practiced trains each 
 of these grades in a variety of functions usu- 
 ally performed by other grades. Thus labor- 
 ers may easily become truckmen. Truckmen 
 may at a pinch attend the simpler automatic 
 machines. Machine tenders are easily made 
 into helpers, and helpers into skilled artisans. 
 The class of foremen and of clerks is almost 
 invariably recruited in scientific management 
 
n8 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 plants from the better men in the lower grades 
 of labor. 
 
 The characteristic functionalization in the 
 executive positions opens these positions to 
 types and grades of ability to which they have 
 heretofore been closed. Specialization puts 
 these positions within the range of men who 
 are competent in executive functions such as 
 " getting work through," inspection, or break- 
 ing in new operatives, and has made obsolete 
 the type of all-round ability (much written 
 about but rarely found) which was erroneously 
 supposed to be a requisite of the old methods. 
 More lines of promotion are thus opened and 
 the demarcation between the workmen and 
 executive groups tends still further to be oblit- 
 erated. 
 
 In short, the effect of these features of scien- 
 tific management is to break down the tradi- 
 tional lines between craft groups while at the 
 same time they develop individual differences 
 and individual abilities to the utmost and thus 
 establish a new grouping on the basis of in- 
 herent and acquired capacity. 
 
 Some economists would say that the aboli- 
 tion of craft groups would not only tend to level 
 wages by increasing the homogeneity of labor, 
 but to lower them on the whole by extending 
 
ECONOMIC ASPECTS 119 
 
 the marginal zone which they say is the con- 
 trolling factor until it includes a lower grade 
 of efficiency and productivity. Such perhaps 
 would be its effect in practice were the tend- 
 ency not offset by certain counter- tendencies. 
 
 The first of these is the greater productivity 
 of labor in the new grouping due to the positive 
 methods of scientific management. This makes 
 all grades of labor more desirable for the entre- 
 preneur. Or, if you prefer to put it that way, 
 it raises the value of the marginal workmen. 
 
 The tendency to increase the number of 
 entrepreneurs is an aid in the maintenance of 
 higher wages by intensifying the competition 
 between them for labor. 
 
 The thoroughgoing development of differ- 
 ential abilities in individuals within groups 
 clearly brings out inherent differences in effec- 
 tiveness and value which are more or less ob- 
 scured by current methods of measuring the 
 worth of workmen. Considered as "capital" 
 on the analogy of instruments (made by man) 
 and land, the "rents" for their differential abili- 
 ties are more clearly brought out, and the cap- 
 italized value of each workman is more easily 
 ascertained. As the more keenly competitive 
 utilization of land has on the whole tended to 
 raise the total amount paid to owners as rent, 
 
120 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 so it would seem fair to assume that the keener 
 competition for workmen and the clearer dif- 
 ferentiation in their worth should tend to in- 
 crease the total amount paid to them as wages. 
 
 The same differences in inherent capacity 
 which tend on the whole to raise the total of 
 wages also tend to maintain the higher wages 
 paid to the more able individuals, inasmuch 
 as the differences which under scientific man- 
 agement conditions are important are natural, 
 inherent, and practically ineradicable. 
 
 If these propositions are true we can proceed 
 to the familiar chain of reasoning to the effect 
 that increased wages tend to raise the standard 
 of living and with it to decrease the size of 
 families. This in its turn decreases the supply of 
 labor, which, assuming that its product remains 
 the same or even increases, raises its value. In 
 this way also exceptional opportunities are 
 afforded to children for still further develop- 
 ment of inborn abilities and accentuation of 
 differences. The net effect of all these is the 
 maintenance and progressive raising of wages 
 and the standard of living, with their mutual 
 and cumulative reactions. l 
 
 To-day it is probably true that the relative 
 disagreeableness of different kinds of work has 
 little if anything to do with the rates of wages. 
 
ECONOMIC ASPECTS 121 
 
 Those rates seem to be determined by a number 
 of forces, among which customary standards, 
 such differences of ability as may become ap- 
 parent under current methods, and the relative 
 bargaining powers of employees and employ- 
 ers are the controlling factors. The abolition 
 of artificial " non-competing groups" and re- 
 alignment on the basis of lines of individual 
 ability tend to accentuate differences of wages 
 due to relative efficiency and would thus seem 
 to give more scope to the influence of relative 
 sacrifice, effort, or disagreeableness. Too much 
 importance must not be ascribed to this pos- 
 sible effect. It is mentioned here because it is 
 in general agreement with what, as will be 
 shown later, appears to be the more or less 
 unconscious wage theory of those most active 
 in the origination and early development of 
 scientific management. 
 
 2. The Bonus Method and its Results 
 
 Most of the current discussions regarding the 
 relation of scientific management to wages cen- 
 ter about the payment of a bonus or premium. 
 It is customary in scientific management to 
 offer a premium of some sort in addition to or- 
 dinary wages for the performance of the extra- 
 ordinary day's work prescribed in the task or 
 
122 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 schedule made possible by standardized con- 
 ditions. This is justified on the ground that it 
 is "fair" to pay an unusual wage for an unusual 
 day's work ; that it is necessary in order to get 
 the workman to accept and utilize standard 
 conditions; that it is possible because of the 
 superior profits of the entrepreneur using scien- 
 tific management; and that it is a just recogni- 
 tion of superior qualities. In other words, it 
 is justified by its advocates, no matter by what 
 ethical theory of wages it may be tested. 
 
 There are those who question the justice of 
 the basis on which the bonus is determined. 
 That basis is roughly the lowest point at which 
 the workmen will consent to accept and utilize 
 the standardized conditions provided for them 
 and thereby accomplish the task set. Experi- 
 ence has shown that for the majority of men 
 and in average conditions this requires a bonus 
 ranging from thirty per cent to about sixty per 
 cent on the ordinary day's wages. They will not 
 attempt to do the task for less than this nor is it 
 necessary to offer them more. 
 
 But is this a fair compensation for an increase 
 of output amounting as in some conspicuous 
 instances to two or three hundred per cent? 
 Ought not this increase to be shared equally 
 with the workmen, or even, as some have put 
 
ECONOMIC ASPECTS 123 
 
 it, to be turned over entirely to them? What 
 should be done in the cases, almost as nu- 
 merous (except in machine shops), where the 
 increase in output secured is less than the bonus 
 paid and the bonus is adhered to merely in the 
 interest of consistency or because it aids some 
 other feature of administration, has not been 
 suggested. At least I have seen no proposal 
 that the workmen be asked to accept a lower 
 bonus on that account ; nor in fact is there any 
 likelihood that such a proposal would be ac- 
 cepted. 
 
 That the increased output due to the applica- 
 tion of scientific management cannot be credited 
 exclusively to the efforts of the workmen should 
 go without saying; and the theory that the 
 workman is entitled to all the increase regard- 
 less of the expenditures of the management 
 necessary to make this increase possible does 
 not call for serious refutation. The basis for 
 the division at any amount less than the entire 
 increase must be either that of necessity, which 
 may be ascertained by test, or that of some 
 hypothetical " fairness" about which there is 
 no substantial agreement. The test of neces- 
 sity therefore has the advantage of being prac- 
 ticable and easy to apply. 
 
 Without going into a discussion of the bases 
 
124 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 of social ethics, I merely state my belief that 
 justice and fairness are essentially terms for 
 social expediency. In order to secure the exer- 
 cise of high managerial ability and initiative it 
 seems necessary, as human nature is now con- 
 stituted, to insure some certain and exceptional 
 reward to the entrepreneur. Unless the man- 
 ager gets what he considers a sufficient share 
 of the increased productivity due to positive 
 management he will not undertake the expense 
 and risk of developing the system. It is neces- 
 sary, and therefore expedient and just, that 
 his share of the profits be at least sufficiently 
 large to make it worth while, in his own opinion, 
 to undertake this measure of progress. 
 
 Another question, often urged with critical 
 intent, is whether, when the present extraor- 
 dinary day's work becomes common and or- 
 dinary, the payment of the bonus will con- 
 tinue to be necessary. In other words, when all 
 plants have scientific management, will not 
 unscrupulous managers be in a position to cut 
 wages to their present levels and to use their 
 knowledge of a proper day's output as a more 
 subtle, refined, and effective method of driving? 
 
 As long as some plants have scientific man- 
 agement and others have not, those which have 
 it can maintain their advantage only with the 
 
ECONOMIC ASPECTS 125 
 
 willing cooperation of the workmen. Scientific 
 management does not work except with the 
 heartiest consent and help of the men under it. 
 To maintain this attitude it will continue to be 
 necessary to pay the unusual day's wage for 
 the unusual day's work. With the establish- 
 ment of an ever higher standard of living, the 
 practical necessity of maintaining the differen- 
 tial reward for differential abilities becomes 
 increasingly stronger. 
 
 It is conceivable though hardly probable 
 that all plants will some day have scientific 
 management. The process of development is 
 slow, due to a number of causes which will be 
 explained later. Further, it is contrary to all 
 historic evidence to suppose that any tendency 
 may be permitted to work itself out to its own 
 ultimate conclusion unrestrained and unmodi- 
 fied. Every movement involves in itself cer- 
 tain countertendencies whose force sooner or 
 later become so great as to overwhelm the 
 original tendency. This is the meaning of the 
 "law of diminishing returns," taken in its 
 broadest sense. 
 
 If these considerations are not sufficient to 
 obviate apprehension, attention may be called 
 to the fact that if all plants should have sci- 
 entific management the worker's protection 
 
126 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 would continue to reside in two forces: first, 
 the dependence of the manager on the work- 
 ers good-will; and second, the individual and 
 organized opposition of the worker to any sub- 
 stantial reduction in his standard of living. 
 Only those familiar with scientific manage- 
 ment in operation can appreciate how vitally 
 necessary to its successful conduct is the spirit 
 of willing, cheerful, and contented cooperation. 
 The mechanism of scientific management is 
 delicately balanced and may be completely up- 
 set by the intrusion of a feeling of unfair treat- 
 ment. If this protection should prove insuffi- 
 cient, the workman will still have the force of 
 established custom behind him, and in addi- 
 tion the power which his membership in a 
 union, in unionized trades, will continue to give 
 him — that is, provided some basis may be 
 reached on which scientific management and 
 labor unions in their present form may survive 
 together. If there is no such basis (a topic which 
 will be discussed presently) the chances are 
 that labor unionism, at least as it is now or- 
 ganized and conducted, will disappear; but 
 there will still remain the possibility and per- 
 haps the need for some more truly representa- 
 tive and progressive type of labor organization. 
 Another question often put by inquiring 
 
ECONOMIC ASPECTS 127 
 
 critics is whether the increase of output made 
 possible by scientific management does not or 
 would not go on faster than the market can 
 assimilate, thus leading to the wholesale dis- 
 charge of superfluous employees. By way of 
 analogy reference is made to the sufferings of 
 the chain workers, weavers, and others, and the 
 general distress which accompanied the substi- 
 tution of power-driven machinery for hand- 
 operated tools. No very close analysis of this 
 historic episode is usually attempted in an effort 
 to determine just what part the introduction 
 of power machinery did actually play in the 
 economic disturbances of the first half of the 
 nineteenth century and what share should 
 properly be attributed to the Napoleonic wars 
 and other political conditions. It is said, how- 
 ever, that after all due allowance is made for 
 other factors, one effect of the sudden intro- 
 duction of labor-saving machinery was to throw 
 large numbers of workmen out of their posi- 
 tions and to increase materially the total of 
 suffering. Is there anything about scientific 
 management to make one hopeful of more satis- 
 factory consequences? 
 
 The development of scientific management 
 is not parallel to the introduction of power- 
 driven machinery. Machinery is something 
 
128 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 which can be bought in large quantities, in- 
 stalled and operated on short notice. All it 
 requires is a large market for its product, an in- 
 vestment of capital, and a brief training in its 
 operation. Scientific management is a type of 
 organization and a set of principles which must 
 be slowly developed, can be used only by those 
 mentally prepared for it, and during the period 
 of transition and adjustment can be had only 
 from a few individuals whose time and energy 
 are limited. It involves on the part of the man- 
 agement a mental revolution and on the part 
 of the workmen a gradual habituation to new 
 methods. 
 
 The number of men capable of developing 
 the system is limited, and on account of the 
 peculiar abilities and opportunities required 
 for the successful prosecution of scientific 
 management as a profession the number of its 
 practitioners has not increased very rapidly 
 nor is it likely to in the near future. Only 
 slightly more than one per cent of the plants 
 in the United States large enough to warrant its 
 development have undertaken it and in no in- 
 stance has their increased product been placed 
 on the market before the market was prepared 
 to take it up without disturbance. 
 
 Instead of throwing men out of work it has 
 
ECONOMIC ASPECTS 129 
 
 thus far meant the more steady employment of 
 forces in plants where it is used. There has 
 been some redistribution of positions. There 
 has been no reduction on account of scientific 
 management in the number of those employed ; 
 on the contrary, there have been actual in- 
 creases recorded. It is safe to say that the 
 displacement of workers which may later be 
 possible with the more rapid spread of scien- 
 tific management will not be comparable in ex- 
 tent and influence with that already experi- 
 enced in consequence of the access of women to 
 men's occupations which has been character- 
 istic of the last half-century. 
 
 In order to reduce to a minimum the un- 
 avoidable redistribution due to the new methods, 
 it is a policy of scientific management, thus far 
 consistently adhered to, to insist on the de- 
 velopment of sales in advance of the increase in 
 production. This may be accomplished by any 
 one of several methods whose net result is to 
 maintain even employment by spreading pro- 
 duction of seasonal commodities over the en- 
 tire year and to take up the increase in the pro- 
 ductivity of men and machines by putting an 
 article of superior quality or lower price before 
 a larger market. Although the practitioners 
 of scientific management have not themselves 
 
i 3 o SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 as yet given much attention to the problems of 
 marketing and distribution, some of them have 
 pointed out the necessity of developing this 
 field and by their insistence have secured prac- 
 tical results in the way of better methods and 
 larger sales. 
 
 It is a truism that in the long run production 
 at lower cost per unit tends, after due allow- 
 ance for economic friction and variations in 
 elasticity of demand, to reduce the selling price 
 of the product and thus to stimulate demand 
 and to take up the slack due to increased pro- 
 ductivity. For a product subject to an elastic 
 demand, this would come about automatically 
 in an intelligently self-interested and freely 
 mobile economic society, such as we do not 
 live in. In our present state of development 
 intelligence is sometimes overcome by igno- 
 rance or inertia. Self-interest may be so per- 
 sonal as to override itself and free mobility is 
 hedged in by innumerable barriers physical 
 and social. With conditions as they are, the 
 tendency to an automatic increase of demand 
 in response to production at lower cost must 
 be stimulated by consciously directed effort 
 to extend the market and to reduce the cost of 
 distribution. 
 
 It is no reproach to the present group of prac- 
 
ECONOMIC ASPECTS 131 
 
 titioners in scientific management that they 
 have not attacked and solved the problem of 
 distribution. They have had all they could 
 handle in the problem of production. But it 
 will soon become a reproach to society if the 
 principles which have been so fruitful in pro- 
 duction are not studied, mastered, reshaped 
 and applied to the problem of distribution. 
 
 A criticism frequently aimed at scientific 
 management is that its methods tend to destroy 
 the skill and initiative which are alleged to be 
 the capital of the workingman, thus making it 
 more difficult, if not impossible, for him to 
 maintain his position or advance out of his 
 class. The most superficial observation of 
 plants in which the methods of scientific man- 
 agement have been fully developed must con- 
 vince any fair-minded investigator that the 
 criticism is not sustained by the facts. On the 
 contrary, in such plants the skill of the work- 
 men is on the average far above that of their 
 fellows in other establishments; and so far as 
 their capacities enable them to participate 
 either in technical advances or in the exercise 
 of managerial functions, their opportunities 
 are better and more freely utilized in scientific 
 management plants than elsewhere. 
 
 In the nature of scientific management it 
 
132 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 could not well be otherwise. Increased pro- 
 duction is secured by superior skill, that is, by- 
 better acquaintance with the materials, tools 
 and methods involved and greater dexterity 
 in their manipulation. This is due to two 
 fundamental principles: specialization, making 
 possible a high degree of attainment in a more 
 varied field; and intensive individual teaching 
 of scientifically ascertained methods, developing 
 the capacity of the workmen to its utmost limit. 
 Unfortunately skill is still sometimes con- 
 fused with variety of attainment. There is a 
 notion that the "all-round" machinist is a 
 skilled machinist. The ability to do a good 
 many things in a trade half well is apt to be 
 considered better evidence of skill than the 
 ability to do a few things perfectly. The con- 
 trary is the fact. The methods of training 
 characteristic of the scientific type of manage- 
 ment provide the workman with a measurable 
 and demonstrable skill, one of the effects of 
 which is to tone up his standard and make him 
 dissatisfied with a hazy versatility which is 
 unaccompanied with real skill in any detail. 
 With such a standard the workman with in- 
 ventive ability is enabled in the first place to 
 reach the stage of attainment at which alone 
 invention is worth while, and in the second 
 
ECONOMIC ASPECTS 133 
 
 place to distinguish with accuracy of judgment 
 what invention is useful and practicable rather 
 than merely novel and ingenious. 
 
 Initiative, both in invention and enterprise, 
 is found in widely varying degrees. In inven- 
 tion, initiative of the lower grade is if anything 
 all too common. In the vast majority of in- 
 stances invention proceeds by very short steps 
 from the known to the guessed or desired, and 
 is within the capability of any one who will 
 take the trouble to familiarize himself with the 
 immediate problem in hand. This is being en- 
 couraged and practiced every day in scientific 
 management plants. It is desirable when it 
 leads to improvement, otherwise it is a mere 
 hindrance ; and it is about as likely to be one as 
 the other. The higher type of invention which 
 comes out of the blue, as it were, is extremely 
 rare and is epoch-making in its manifestations. 
 It is the mark of genius and is not affected by 
 any such factor as a type of management. 
 
 Initiative in the sense of enterprise is com- 
 paratively rare. Its possession in even a mod- 
 erate degree distinguishes the entrepreneur 
 from the workman; its presence in highly de- 
 veloped form marks off the daring merchant 
 or captain of industry or of finance from the 
 humdrum manager of a routine business. The 
 
134 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 tendency of positive management is to provide 
 unusual opportunities for the exercise of both 
 types of initiative and therefore to encourage 
 its manifestation. 
 
 Those whose professional interests cause 
 them to be opponents of scientific management, 
 and some of their philanthropic and academic 
 sympathizers, are fond of alleging that it is 
 a speeding-up device injurious to the health 
 of the workmen. Extensive and frequently re- 
 peated investigations have thus far failed to 
 reveal anything to substantiate this criticism. 
 On the contrary, the beneficial results which 
 might be expected to follow from increased 
 wages, steady work, improved working con- 
 ditions, conscious attention to the fatigue fac- 
 tor, individual training, and the necessity of 
 fit physical and mental condition, all of which 
 are essential to the accomplishment of the task 
 as set by scientific management, have been 
 found in fact to follow. The whole aim of 
 scientific management is to substitute intelli- 
 gent economy of effort for unintelligent driv- 
 ing, and such has been its practice. When its 
 critics, confronted with the facts, resort (as has 
 one, at least, to my knowledge) to something 
 in the nature of an intuitive belief that in spite 
 of appearances scientific management in some 
 
ECONOMIC ASPECTS 135 
 
 way injures "global efficiency,' ' whatever that 
 may be, it is evidence of the survival of a meta- 
 physical stage of thought into an atmosphere 
 of scientific determination. 
 
 The emphasis laid by Mr. Taylor on the 
 value of the " first-class man" has misled many 
 people into the impression that the Taylor 
 System can find no place for any but the ex- 
 ceptionally capable worker. This is due partly 
 to a failure to grasp the meaning of Mr. Tay- 
 lor's phrase "a first-class man." In scientific 
 management a first-class man is one who is 
 adapted to the job he is doing, whether it be 
 digging a ditch, tending an automatic ma- 
 chine, acting as inspector, running a plant, or 
 organizing a combination. By applying intelli- 
 gence and discrimination to the selection of 
 men to fit the individual case and the atten- 
 tion necessary to train them to the most ef- 
 fective handling of their jobs, scientific man- 
 agement aims to make every man a first-class 
 man. It must be said that in practice this has 
 often been the result actually achieved. Ob- 
 viously this is a very different thing from the 
 selection of the exceptional man and the re- 
 jection of the average. It amounts to the de- 
 velopment in the average man of an excep- 
 tional fitness for his job. 
 
136 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 This process has an important bearing on the 
 questions revolving around the employment of 
 the subnormal and the application of minimum 
 wage legislation. At present the weak point in 
 minimum wage legislation is the fact that an 
 employer cannot be expected or compelled to 
 employ people who are not able to earn the 
 minimum wage prescribed. Where that wage 
 is fairly high, such, for instance, as has 're- 
 cently been established in the brush- and 
 candy-making industries in Massachusetts, it 
 tends to the elimination of all except those 
 who by superior capacity and knowledge have 
 raised themselves up to and beyond the point 
 at which they earn that wage. The employer 
 has the alternative either of dropping all not 
 yet up to that point or of training them so that 
 they are worth the minimum set. Scientific 
 management has shown the possibility, the ad- 
 vantage and the method of such training. It 
 points clearly and demonstrably to the solu- 
 tion of the problem how to meet the interests 
 of the employees, the employers, and the gen- 
 eral public at one and the same time through 
 minimum wage legislation; namely, by the de- 
 velopment of the efficiency of plant, equipment, 
 and employees up to and beyond the point 
 where the minimum wage is recognized as a 
 reasonable and possible standard. 
 
ECONOMIC ASPECTS 137 
 
 The superiority of the results attained by 
 scientific management on account of its closer, 
 more centralized, better harmonized, defined 
 and trained organization as compared with 
 the looseness of household and domestic in- 
 dustry points to a new means of combating the 
 sweating evil. The sweated industries are the 
 happy hunting-grounds of the traditional driver. 
 Scientific management has demonstrated that 
 applied science and the system of industrial 
 principles based upon it produce results greater 
 than those which follow from driving methods; 
 and this has been demonstrated in the gar- 
 ment-making industry, heretofore notorious 
 for its sweating methods. These results, it need 
 hardly be said, can be secured only under 
 centralized factory conditions. 
 
 The methods of scientific management also 
 have a bearing on the employment of women 
 and children. Whether the remarkable in- 
 crease in the employment of women in recent 
 years is a necessary evil or a blessing in dis- 
 guise is not altogether clear. That it has re- 
 sulted in grave social loss, both through the 
 physical injury to women and to motherhood 
 and also through the cutting of wages in com- 
 petition with men, cannot be denied. The tend- 
 ency of scientific management is to ameliorate 
 
138 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 to some extent both these harmful consequences. 
 In its regard for the physical fitness and welfare 
 of its employees, it is less likely to develop or 
 tolerate practices whose effect may be person- 
 ally and physically injurious. In its accurate 
 determination of individual ability and its 
 payment of wages in proportion to the ability 
 thus determined, it reduces the possibility of 
 unfair competition between the sexes. Whether 
 a woman is doing as much work as a man is a 
 question which may be answered objectively 
 and scientifically instead of metaphysically as 
 is the present tendency. Whether women are 
 entitled to equal pay then becomes a question 
 of fact. 
 
 Similar considerations apply in even greater 
 force to the work of children. The evil conse- 
 quences of that work are greater and more in- 
 disputable even than in the case of women. 
 On the other hand, its inefficiency relatively 
 to men's work is much more obvious. Scien- 
 tific management has already shown in many 
 cases that it does not pay to employ children. 
 It is thus in a position to reinforce, from the 
 " practical* ' business point of view, the advo- 
 cates of child labor legislation, whose argu- 
 ments are usually based on more general social 
 considerations. 
 
ECONOMIC ASPECTS 139 
 
 3. Labor Unions 
 
 Until recently the problem of the relation of 
 scientific management to organized labor had, 
 as one of its practitioners said, "merely an 
 academic interest." There was no attempt to 
 develop the system in closed shops. In other 
 shops no one inquired or knew whether there 
 were union men or not ; nor, if there were such, 
 did they offer any objection to the development 
 of scientific management. About 19 10, how- 
 ever, or even earlier, in some of the railroad 
 brotherhoods, the attention of professional 
 labor leaders was directed toward the possibili- 
 ties of this type of management. Their reac- 
 tion was unfavorable; but except for the refusal 
 of locomotive engineers to accept the bonus 
 proposals on the Santa F6 Railroad, no oppor- 
 tunity to express their organized opposition to 
 scientific management presented itself until 
 that system was extended to a detail of the 
 Watertown Arsenal, which is part of a highly 
 unionized branch of the government service. 
 This was seized upon by the leaders, apparently 
 without regard to the real feelings of the men or 
 the facts in the case, as the occasion for a brief 
 and insignificant strike and a long train of 
 government investigations, reports, petitions, 
 
140 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 and bills in Congress, whose aim is to discredit 
 scientific management generally by setting on 
 it the stamp of governmental disapproval. In 
 the last Congress this agitation was successful. 
 The affair has been of sufficient importance to 
 convert the question from one of academic 
 interest to one of general industrial and eco- 
 nomic consequence. 1 
 
 The traditional attitude of the practitioners 
 of scientific management is based on strong 
 practical considerations of which they are fully 
 cognizant, and on an economic theory which 
 is rather implicit in their discussions. In general 
 they admit certain historic advantages in trade- 
 unionism, such as the gradual shortening of 
 hours, the improvement of working conditions, 
 and the maintenance and raising of wages. 
 They admit that labor organization is still neces- 
 sary to secure and maintain these advantages 
 in plants not using scientific management. But 
 they insist that scientific management pro- 
 vides these advantages to the workingman 
 more quickly, more certainly, and in fuller 
 measure, than the labor organization ever has 
 done or can do. Reduction of hours is a not 
 uncommon practice under scientific manage- 
 
 1 As is recognized by the fact that the United States Cham- 
 ber of Commerce has appointed a committee, in response to 
 this agitation, to investigate the subject once more. 
 
ECONOMIC ASPECTS 141 
 
 merit. The standardization of conditions to the 
 point of economic perfection is a fundamen- 
 tal principle. Wherever scientific management 
 prevails, basic wages are maintained as a matter 
 of expediency, and are raised by the extent of 
 the bonus. These results are brought about 
 quickly, and without dispute or trouble. Why 
 then, they ask, is labor organization necessary? 
 
 The advocates of scientific management do 
 not stop, however, with this negative position. 
 They maintain that certain of the present 
 principles and practices of labor unionism are 
 not only incompatible with the fundamental 
 principles and practices of scientific manage- 
 ment, but are subversive of the public interest. 
 This criticism applies to such practices as re- 
 striction of output, insistence on a uniform 
 wage, collective bargaining on matters which 
 are questions of fact rather than of opinion, 
 restriction of membership, and the closed shop. 
 
 Socially controlled restriction of output may 
 under some circumstances be advisable, as 
 when there is regulation of the acreage to be 
 sown in wheat or cotton or of the amount of 
 coal to be mined year by year. The move- 
 ment for the conservation of natural resources 
 is a form of restriction enforced in the broad 
 public interest. This is an essentially different 
 
142 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 matter from privately controlled restriction, 
 whether by the entrepreneur or the workman. 
 Such restriction may be of temporary advan- 
 tage, maintaining profits for a while for the 
 entrepreneur and possibly maintaining wages 
 and postponing unemployment for a while for 
 the workman. Both these results, however, are 
 temporary and of individual benefit. Scientific 
 management aims fundamentally at the in- 
 crease of the national dividend, which any 
 form of privately controlled restriction aims 
 to reduce. Scientific management, while recog- 
 nizing that overproduction may occur as an 
 accidental result of unco6rdinated industrial 
 activity or of the friction and groping of dis- 
 tribution, denies the possibility of real over- 
 production in the sense of an excess of consum- 
 able goods over the needs of society. Scientific 
 management opposes the lump of labor theory, 
 and insists that the more economically work 
 can be done, the greater will be the demand 
 for it and the more highly rewarded the workers. 
 And there is no question that increased produc- 
 tion at lower cost per unit is desirable, at each 
 successive stage, from the point of view of the 
 entrepreneur producer. 
 
 Although labor unions are becoming less and 
 less willing to acknowledge restriction of out- 
 
ECONOMIC ASPECTS 143 
 
 put as a fundamental policy, there can be no 
 doubt that such restriction is their constant 
 practice and that in the back of their heads 
 it is their final answer to the problem of un- 
 employment. For the individual workman in 
 the individual plant much is to be said for their 
 theory. If the plant has orders for a hundred 
 units, the men's jobs will last ten times as long 
 if they take ten days instead of one day each 
 per unit. The broader social consequences of 
 this type of restriction work out slowly and 
 react only in the most obscure ways on those 
 who practice it, while its immediate personal 
 consequences are obvious and apparently ad- 
 vantageous. Even if the workman sees the 
 ultimate social disadvantage of this policy, he 
 can hardly be expected to sacrifice his present 
 personal advantage to a remote social good. 
 
 Inasmuch, however, as one of the funda- 
 mental aims of scientific management, and a 
 necessary result of all its practices and meth- 
 ods, is the increase of output, there is here, in 
 the absence of centralized social control of pro- 
 duction, an irreconcilable conflict. It would 
 appear that the ultimate social as well as the 
 immediate industrial advantage is on the side 
 of scientific management, and that, as it can- 
 not surrender its fundamental principles, it 
 
i 4 4 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 must continue to educate society to the advan- 
 tages of large output and to fight all efforts to 
 restrict it. 
 
 There is an equally fundamental conflict be- 
 tween the trade-union principle of a uniform 
 wage based on class similarity and the scientific 
 management principle of a differential wage for 
 differential abilities. 
 
 Scientific management accepts the wage cur- 
 rent in the community as its basic wage, and so 
 long as general conditions remain substantially 
 the same, considers that this wage should be 
 paid uniformly to all workmen for an ordi- 
 nary day's work. Some of its practitioners 
 may question theoretically the justice of these 
 current rates. While their theories have ap- 
 parently not been thoroughly reasoned out nor 
 stated with any great clearness, there appears 
 to be among them a feeling that basic wages 
 should be related to each other in proportion 
 to the disagreeableness, sacrifice, or "cost" 
 of different occupations, scientifically deter- 
 mined. One proposes that this determination 
 shall be on the basis of foot pounds of energy 
 expended, another on an estimate of the relative 
 total disagreeableness or irksomeness of jobs. 
 These theories are not pressed very insistently, 
 however, nor is there much tendency to ques- 
 
ECONOMIC ASPECTS 145 
 
 tion the justice of the current rates. On the 
 whole they are felt to depend upon some rather 
 hazy "law of supply and demand"; and in any 
 case the validity of this law, if there is any, is 
 outside the practical scope of a scientific man- 
 ager's business. He accepts current wages as 
 they are, as the basis on which to build a dif- 
 ferential payment for differences in ability. 
 
 For on the theory express or implied that 
 wages should be proportionate to productive 
 efficiency, it is agreed among all scientific man- 
 agement experts that it is both just and neces- 
 sary to pay more than an ordinary day's wage 
 for an extraordinary day's accomplishment such 
 as is made feasible by their methods. It is 
 necessary, as already explained, because other- 
 wise the workmen will not perform the unusual 
 day's work. It is just, because it tends to 
 encourage the exercise of superior abilities to 
 the ultimate benefit of society; whereas a uni- 
 form wage tends to reduce the effort of all men, 
 whatever their capacity may be, to the level 
 of the least efficient man who receives the uni- 
 form wage. There is also a feeling, scarcely 
 reasoned out or defined, that the workman 
 should in some way share in the increased 
 product secured at least in part through his 
 efforts. In any case there is a thorough con- 
 
146 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 viction that differential wages are essential to 
 the practice of scientific management and that 
 therefore the trade-union principle and practice 
 of uniformity is absolutely unacceptable. 
 
 The objection of scientific management to 
 collective bargaining rests theoretically on the 
 incompatibility between bargaining and the 
 accurate scientific determination of facts, and 
 practically on the numerous difficulties thrown 
 in the way of the reorganization of a plant by 
 recognition of labor unions as at present led and 
 conducted. Scientific management endeavors 
 to build up the principles of industrial organi- 
 zation as well as the science of industrial con- 
 servation upon a basis of ascertained fact, 
 where possible; and it declines to admit that 
 any facts pertinent to the discussion are not 
 ascertainable. Bargaining implies difference of 
 opinion and compromise until a basis of agree- 
 ment is reached. You do not bargain about or 
 vote on scientific facts. If the ideals of scien- 
 tific management are realized, therefore, the 
 field left open for collective bargaining is nar- 
 rowed to those matters which cannot be, or at 
 least have not been, reduced to law. 
 
 In the opinion of some this eliminates alto- 
 gether the possibility of collective bargaining; 
 for they believe there is no factor, not even the 
 
ECONOMIC ASPECTS 147 
 
 basic wage rate, which cannot be reduced to 
 accurate scientific determination, even if such 
 determination is only the resultant of an un- 
 analyzed "law of supply and demand." Others 
 (of whom I am one) believe that while the basic 
 wage rate is doubtless determined by some law, 
 natural or social, the law has not yet been 
 accurately and comprehensively defined; and 
 that therefore, theoretically at least, the basic 
 rate of wages may be a subject of bargaining. 
 But there is complete agreement that such 
 matters as the process to be used, or the time 
 which it should take to perform a given piece 
 of work, and the amount of bonus which is to 
 be paid for its performance within a standard 
 time, are questions of fact, and therefore not 
 in any sense subject to collective bargaining. 
 
 More important, however, than the theoreti- 
 cal consideration is the circumstance that col- 
 lective bargaining under existing conditions 
 requires a recognition of the union and thereby 
 brings in its train a series of difficulties and 
 conflicts which might be avoided altogether 
 by consistent refusal to deal with organized 
 labor. The bargain on basic wage rates, even 
 though theoretically consistent with scientific 
 management, does in fact involve many details 
 of organization such as the length of the work- 
 
148 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 ing day, the employment of men or women or 
 children, and the determination of what consti- 
 tutes the (customarily ordinary) day's work. 
 Further, such a bargain opens the way to 
 "dickering" over many other details, such as 
 the degree of specialization to be required, the 
 functions and authority of minor executives, 
 the principles governing inspection, and the 
 reduction of defective workmanship. All sci- 
 entific managers will testify that at best the 
 difficulties of their work are extreme, not to 
 say heartbreaking. To complicate them with 
 the necessity of conferring with committees of 
 workmen, not in the slightest degree familiar 
 with the principles of management or the de- 
 tails as they are being worked out in the plant 
 under process of systematizing, would be well- 
 nigh fatal. 
 
 To this difficulty must be added the well- 
 grounded fear of abuse of the striking power 
 of organized labor. Whatever may be said in 
 favor of the strike as a weapon to secure, under 
 the current types of management, the reason- 
 able demands of the workmen for shorter hours, 
 higher pay, or better conditions, it is difficult, 
 if not impossible, to justify the sympathetic 
 strike, and its even worse variety, the strike 
 that grows out of jurisdictional disputes. The 
 
ECONOMIC ASPECTS 149 
 
 manager, who by reason of his standardization 
 of conditions, payment of higher wages, fair 
 treatment of his employees, and development 
 of a type of organization which renders juris- 
 dictional disputes almost meaningless, has re- 
 moved practically all the tenable grounds for 
 striking, is justified in his fear of mere sympa- 
 thetic and jurisdictional strikes. 
 
 The manager's aversion to recognizing a 
 union is still further intensified by his distrust 
 of the type of leadership which is characteristic 
 of much of American labor organization to-day. 
 Even its friends must admit that the American 
 Federation of Labor is governed and controlled 
 by a type of leadership marked rather more by 
 political ability (in the objectionable sense) 
 than by a broad-minded, socially trained public 
 spirit; and one may even question whether it 
 displays a keenly intelligent and sympathetic 
 interest in the ultimate welfare of the working- 
 men. The proceedings of its national conven- 
 tions are often marked by a short-sighted 
 selfishness and disregard of social considerations 
 which is the mark of the self-seeking politician. 
 It is said, and it is doubtless true, that ex- 
 ceptions must be made to this general judg- 
 ment of current labor leadership ; but that it is 
 substantially accurate cannot be denied by any 
 
150 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 one who is more interested in the ascertainment 
 of facts than in permitting the substitution of a 
 good intention for an unfortunate reality. 
 
 A great many union men are now working in 
 scientific management plants. The organized 
 complaint against this system which has had 
 so much publicity comes from an insignificant 
 fraction of the union men actually working 
 under it, and there is at least reasonable ground 
 to believe that the real feeling of even that 
 fraction is misrepresented in the complaints 
 officially emanating from them. If this is true, 
 it is but a testimony to the fundamental rea- 
 sonableness and intelligence of the average 
 workingman. The practitioners of scientific 
 management have every means of knowing and 
 have always insisted on a recognition of this 
 native reasonableness; and if it could always 
 be found in the same degree among the "lead- 
 ers" who would represent these men on com- 
 mittees for purposes of collective bargaining, 
 the present unwillingness to consider even the 
 possibility of such bargaining would rapidly dis- 
 appear. Under existing conditions, however, 
 every day's experience provides additional prac- 
 tical arguments against collective bargaining. 
 
 The labor-union policies of restriction of 
 membership, limitation of apprentices, and 
 
ECONOMIC ASPECTS 151 
 
 the closed shop, are all, as at present practiced, 
 contrary to the principles of scientific manage- 
 ment, for reasons too obvious to call for dis- 
 cussion. The principle of organization on craft 
 lines, as exemplified in the American Federa- 
 tion of Labor, is also incompatible with the 
 tendency of scientific management to substi- 
 tute a classification of labor on the basis of 
 efficiency and teachableness for a grouping on 
 the basis of trade or occupation. This tendency 
 is in fact the most irresistible weapon that 
 scientific management now opposes to the cur- 
 rent type of labor organization as represented 
 in the American Federation of Labor. To those 
 intelligent enough to distinguish the real prin- 
 ciples of syndicalism from its crudities it will 
 be apparent that the I.W.W. represents more 
 modern tendencies and, unless it is killed by 
 its abuses, has a more promising future (partly 
 because of its greater consonance with the 
 principles of scientific management) than the 
 American Federation. 
 
 In the light of this discussion it would appear 
 that scientific management in its present form 
 and organized labor as represented in the 
 American Federation in its present form cannot 
 persist together. One or the other must be 
 modified. If history may be relied on to repeat 
 
152 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 itself, it is safe to prophesy that scientific man- 
 agement, on account of its superior economic 
 advantages, will compel the revision of labor 
 organization, while itself not entirely escaping 
 the necessity of some modification. 
 
 It is conceivable that labor organization 
 may shift its basis from restriction of output, 
 uniformity of wage, and restriction of member- 
 ship to an acceptance of the principles of maxi- 
 mum output, wages in proportion to ability, and 
 freedom of membership, while still retaining 
 its fundamental and necessary power to help 
 determine the minimum wage rate and the 
 minimum working conditions through the instru- 
 mentality of some mechanism in the nature of a 
 collective bargain. If bargaining is, as I believe, 
 the determining factor in the establishment of 
 the basic wage within certain limits, there will 
 always be a need for organization of employees 
 to enable them to offset by their combined 
 strength the strategic advantage of the em- 
 ployer due to his initiative in hiring and his 
 control of the purse-strings. The features of 
 current trade-unionism objectionable from the 
 point of view of scientific management and, as 
 I believe, from the social point of view, are un- 
 necessary to the existence of labor organization 
 in the interest of the maintenance of minimum 
 
ECONOMIC ASPECTS 153 
 
 rates and conditions. Furthermore the labor 
 politician in his present stage of evolution is not 
 only unnecessary, but is an active detriment 
 to the fulfillment of the best purposes of labor 
 organization. For the development of collective 
 bargaining on a basis of fact instead of compro- 
 mise of opinion, labor organization must secure 
 and maintain a radically different type of lead- 
 ership from that which it now has. To this 
 end all it has to do is to scrutinize its present 
 leadership carefully, appreciate how unrepre- 
 sentative and misleading some of it actually 
 is, and substitute for that element a genuinely 
 representative leadership that is law-abiding, 
 fair in intention, socially minded, honest, in- 
 telligent, and interested in the permanent wel- 
 fare of its constituents. 
 
 On the other hand, as scientific management 
 extends from the plants which are entirely 
 non-union shops, or are at least open shops, to 
 those in which unions are strongly organized 
 or even dominant, it will be incumbent upon 
 it to recognize the necessity of some kind of 
 cooperation. Even if this universe is as deter- 
 ministic as some exponents of scientific man- 
 agement insist, 1 the laws governing social and 
 
 1 See preface to the French translation of Taylor's Shop 
 Management, by Henri Le Chatelier; reprinted in Thompson's 
 Scientific Management, p. 842. 
 
154 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 economic relations and the interaction of indi- 
 viduals on each other are not yet formulated; 
 and until they are, there must remain a place 
 for bargaining. Scientific management must 
 recognize also its twofold character as a collec- 
 tion of laws on the one hand and as a set of 
 principles on the other. The laws of science are 
 not determined by counting heads; but prin- 
 ciples of conduct in a free society can be en- 
 forced only by the consent of those affected. If 
 this consent requires the cooperation of or- 
 ganized labor, so be it, provided this coSper- 
 ation does not involve the sacrifice of funda- 
 mental industrial and social principles. 
 
 Scientific management, in spite of some of 
 the claims of its more enthusiastic advocates, is 
 not an industrial panacea. It cannot put an end 
 to industrial unrest so long as personal and eco- 
 nomic friction and inequality of income and 
 opportunity persist. It is well that this is so, 
 for complete content would be stagnation. On 
 the other hand, scientific management does 
 narrow the field of unrest and tends to refine 
 the methods by which discontent makes itself 
 audible and effective. It clarifies the issues 
 between labor and capital, makes them more 
 definite and more closely circumscribed. This 
 process reduces the number of possible dis- 
 
ECONOMIC ASPECTS 155 
 
 putes and at the same time increases the possi- 
 bility of arbitrating those that are left. In the 
 long run this means less warfare and bitterness 
 and more substantial justice to both sides. 
 
 Some time ago I suggested that the labor 
 unions in their own interest should advocate 
 and compel the adoption of scientific manage- 
 ment in those plants in which they could make 
 their influence most felt. 1 I have since come to 
 the conclusion that this is Utopian. Before it 
 can be done there must be a new type of lead- 
 ership, and those policies of organized labor 
 which are incompatible with the fundamental 
 principles and practices of scientific manage- 
 ment must be abandoned. Further, the neces- 
 sary unanimity of action on the part of all 
 trades in a plant can be secured only by the 
 " industrial' ' type of organization — repre- 
 sented perhaps by the I.W.W. — not by that 
 exemplified in the American Federation of 
 Labor. 
 
 I still believe, however, that the tendency is 
 in this direction and that it can only be post- 
 poned and not diverted by the active opposition 
 of labor leaders and by public interference such 
 
 1 See C. B. Thompson, "The Relation of Scientific Manage- 
 ment to the Wage Problem," Journal of Political Economy, 
 vol. xxi, p. 630. Reprinted in Thompson, Scientific Manage- 
 ment, p. 796. Cf. Croly, Progressive Democracy, pp. 399 Jf. 
 
156 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 as was attempted in recent congressional legis- 
 lation. In the long run the effect of such inter- 
 ference is helpful to scientific management 
 because of the publicity given it and the evi- 
 dent importance attached to it even by those 
 professionally opposed. In industry, as in reli- 
 gion and politics, there is nothing like persecu- 
 tion to aid a cause which is inherently good. 
 
 III. Larger Social Problems 
 
 What progress has scientific management 
 made or is it likely to make toward the solution 
 of larger problems, such as the cost of living, 
 the reduction of unemployment, the improve- 
 ment of education and skill, the smoothing out 
 of inequalities of income, and the development 
 of democracy in industry? Its originators and 
 advocates claim the solution of these among its 
 fundamental aims. It is altogether too early to 
 give a just appraisal of its actual effect on such 
 matters; but it may be advisable to consider 
 just what scientific management does contrib- 
 ute toward the complex of factors bearing on 
 them. 
 
 It would be difficult if not impossible to show 
 that scientific management has as yet contrib- 
 uted materially to a reduction in the cost of 
 living, at least so far as that may be evidenced 
 
ECONOMIC ASPECTS 157 
 
 by a reduction in the price of those articles and 
 items which go to make up the cost of living. 
 It has been largely contributory to the reduc- 
 tion in the price of high-class automobiles and 
 this seems to affect an appreciably large part of 
 the population. In certain other matters, such 
 as the manufacture of books, it has improved 
 quality even if it has not reduced price, and in 
 this way has made a substantial contribution to 
 the national income. 
 
 The ultimate effect of scientific management 
 cannot make itself felt, however, until a con- 
 siderable number of plants within the same 
 industry have adopted it so that they begin to 
 compete between themselves. So long as but 
 one or two have it, there is no strong reason for 
 their surrendering the differential gains they 
 get by selling at the market price set by their 
 less efficient competitors. That is in general 
 the condition to-day. Further, the improve- 
 ments due to new methods are not reflected in 
 the price of the article to the consumer until 
 they directly affect consumers' goods. Scien- 
 tific management thus far has been applied 
 mainly to the production of intermediate pro- 
 ducers' goods. 
 
 The elasticity of demand may also be ex- 
 pected to have an influence on the reduction of 
 
158 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 the cost of living. When the results of scien- 
 tific management are obtained in the produc- 
 tion of a commodity whose demand is inelastic, 
 the increase in output may be expected to lead 
 to a material reduction in cost and the compar- 
 atively rapid elimination of the marginal pro- 
 ducer. If, on the other hand, the demand is 
 elastic, as in the case of watches, the superior 
 facilities of production may spread themselves 
 over a wider variety of product, resulting in 
 only a slight decrease in price and without 
 materially affecting the marginal producer 
 except after a long period. 
 
 It must be observed, however, that the lower 
 cost of production may fail partially of its nor- 
 mal effect on the market price because the cost 
 of distribution may remain unchanged or even 
 increase. Where the cost of marketing as in 
 many commodities is greater than the cost of 
 production, decreases in the latter cost are 
 relatively of less importance. Again it may 
 conceivably happen that the cost of marketing 
 the increased product due to superior produc- 
 tive efficiency may, in accordance with the law 
 of diminishing returns, increase more rapidly 
 than the cost of production has decreased, in 
 which case the net result is an increase in mar- 
 ket price. The answer to this, of course, from a 
 
ECONOMIC ASPECTS 159 
 
 social point of view is not to refrain from reduc- 
 ing the cost of production because the cost of 
 marketing may be increased thereby, but rather 
 to turn the same scientifically trained and ana- 
 lytical attention to the problems of distribution 
 that has been applied to the problem of pro- 
 duction. While it is true that many of the 
 mechanisms of the Taylor System as exhibited 
 in factories are not transferable bodily to trans- 
 portation, jobbing, wholesaling, and retailing, 
 there is none the less a reasonable ground for 
 scientific faith that the same fundamental 
 principles are applicable and must, in the inter- 
 ests of economic efficiency, sooner or later be 
 applied; and in fact a beginning has already 
 been made in that direction. 
 
 On the problem of unemployment scientific 
 management has already contributed valuable 
 experience and has pointed out the way in 
 which a partial solution may be found. One of 
 the greatest causes of unemployment, aside 
 from the maladjustments due to crises and 
 panics over which scientific management can 
 have no control, is the seasonal fluctuation in 
 demand found in so many industries. From the 
 point of view of scientific management these 
 seasonal fluctuations mean exceptionally high 
 cost of production during periods of activity, 
 
160 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 due to the sudden access of workers who have 
 to be trained quickly and to the multitude of 
 rush orders that interfere with the steadiness of 
 administration under which any system works 
 most effectively. Scientific management has 
 therefore insisted on equalizing the demand. 
 This is done by offering special inducements to 
 customers to place orders that can be executed 
 during the otherwise dull periods. The cost- 
 accounting methods, which propose to equalize 
 the cost of production by charging the loss due 
 to unused plant and equipment directly to pro- 
 fit and loss rather than to the cost of produc- 
 tion, do not relieve the management of the 
 necessity of making up this loss by more effec- 
 tive marketing. The results of the policy in- 
 sisted on by scientific management are steadier 
 employment for all workers and less fluctuation 
 in the earnings of piece workers. This is pro- 
 moted by the policy of training employees in 
 different kinds of work, so that when the de- 
 mand slackens in one department they may 
 be easily transferred to other departments in 
 which the demand is greater. 
 
 There should also be noted the effect of the 
 higher wages that accompany scientific man- 
 agement. In the first place, it tends to reduce 
 the restless wanderings of employees from plant 
 
ECONOMIC ASPECTS 161 
 
 to plant, which is one important though com- 
 paratively unexplored cause of unemployment. 
 In the second place, steadier employment, by in- 
 creasing the value of the employee to his plant, 
 tends itself to raise his wages still further. This 
 improvement when properly utilized by the 
 management reacts again on the cost of pro- 
 duction, ultimately in some cases on the selling 
 price and the demand for the product, and 
 finally back again on the demand for workers. 
 
 As yet scientific management has not in fact 
 seriously affected the problem of unemploy- 
 ment. It is safe to say that it has in no case re- 
 duced the number of men actually employed, 
 while, on the other hand, it has in several in- 
 stances increased that number. Either result, 
 however, has affected such a small number of 
 plants as to have been but an insignificant fac- 
 tor, compared with those larger and vaster 
 economic forces whose effect is registered in the 
 number of the unemployed. 
 
 Closely connected with the problem of the 
 unemployed is that of the education and skill 
 of the employee. In periods of decline in busi- 
 ness the men first laid off are those who are the 
 most costly, and as a rule these are the rela- 
 tively uneducated and unskilled. What effect 
 has scientific management on this problem? 
 
162 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 Efforts to revive apprenticeship, either in the' 
 old form under master- workmen or in the new 
 form of apprentice schools, may by this time be 
 set down as failures. To-day there is practically 
 no such thing as a master-workman who is 
 acquainted with all the traditions of his handi- 
 craft. Practically all workmen are specialized 
 and the utmost they can teach is the little 
 specialty they have learned, a specialty which 
 in many instances can be taught in a few days 
 or even in a few hours. The apprentice schools 
 attempt to give a smattering of all-round ac- 
 quaintance with the job. When they are con- 
 nected with plants, they reduce this as much as 
 possible, plunge at once into specialized train- 
 ing, teach the youth to do a limited job, .and 
 keep him doing a man's work for a boy's pay as 
 long as practicable. When they are not con- 
 nected with industrial establishments they go 
 to the other extreme and teach a mass of tradi- 
 tional technique and theory, often with the aid 
 of antiquated and obsolete equipment, which 
 is useless and promptly forgotten when the 
 youth is confronted by a real job under com- 
 mercial conditions. 
 
 Scientific management changes all this. 
 Power-driven machinery had already increased 
 output by the substitution of mechanical 
 
ECONOMIC ASPECTS 163 
 
 power, speed, and endurance, for the corre- 
 sponding human qualities. Scientific manage- 
 ment goes farther and increases output by the 
 mastery of the natural laws involved and by in- 
 creasing human skill and control. The effect of 
 scientific management, therefore, is to put a 
 premium on personal capacity and develop- 
 ment. This it does by its policy of individu- 
 alized and intensive training, specialization, 
 and the substitution of definite high standards 
 of accomplishment for the old feeling of all- 
 round but indefinite capability. 
 
 This policy, of course, gives occasion for com- 
 plaint about the effects of ever greater special- 
 ization. Since the industrial revolution began it 
 has been considered proper to mourn the disap- 
 pearance of the traditional all-round artisan. 
 But is his passing really a misfortune either for 
 himself or society? In the first place, it is 
 doubtful if there were very many of him. To 
 be versatile is not difficult, but to exhibit great 
 capability in versatility is rare. If we may 
 judge from their modern representatives, most 
 of the all-round artisans were more versatile 
 than capable. In the second place, the all- 
 round artisan was content with a standard of 
 accomplishment which is far lower than that 
 expected of and by his modern specialized sue- 
 
164 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 cessor. The workman who to-day does one 
 comparatively minute operation and does it 
 with superlative excellence is, in his own opin- 
 ion and that of society, a stronger and more 
 capable man. His standards are raised and 
 with it his self-respect and the esteem in which 
 he is held. It may be pointed out further that 
 the increasing development of specialization 
 makes possible the discovery and training of 
 exceptional capacity along special lines which 
 might otherwise be obscured by the variety of 
 duties imposed. Specialization in foremanship 
 opens a new field of promise to many who were 
 heretofore known as ordinary workmen. The 
 tendency of scientific management is to recog- 
 nize the fact that most men are ordinary, and 
 provide for the most effective cooperative util- 
 ization of ordinary capacities. Its chief means 
 for the accomplishment of this purpose is spe- 
 cialization and intensive individual training. 
 
 It is hardly necessary to add that this argu- 
 ment does not go so far as to propose the elim- 
 ination of general and trade education. The 
 social and political justification of such educa- 
 tion remains as strong as before. Moreover, 
 the tendency to substitute a knowledge of fact 
 and of law for guesswork and tradition de- 
 mands a degree of general intelligence and 
 
ECONOMIC ASPECTS 165 
 
 education which was quite unnecessary under 
 the old methods of production. Scientific man- 
 agement adds a quantitative value to educa- 
 tion. 
 
 The effect of scientific management on ine- 
 quality of income has been suggested in former 
 parts of this discussion and will be summarized 
 here. The increase in the supply of managers 
 (at least of the routine type) will, in the first 
 place, reduce the wages of management. At 
 the same time it will increase the demand for 
 capital ; and this, together with the greater pro- 
 ductivity of the capital employed, will tend to 
 raise the rate of interest. A similar increase in 
 the demand for workmen and in their produc- 
 tivity will raise general wages. The two conse- 
 quences are compatible because the sum total 
 of the " national dividend" will be larger. At 
 the same time the sharper differentiation of 
 individual abilities and the payment of wages 
 in proportion to efficiency will tend to maintain 
 and even to raise wages still higher. 
 
 Certain of these tendencies are permanent, 
 others but temporary. The increase in the sup- 
 ply of managers and the differences in ability 
 of workmen will doubtless remain. The higher 
 rate paid for capital, however, will tend so to 
 increase the amount of it that becomes avail- 
 
166 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 able as to result eventually in a return to the 
 previous rate of interest; so that in the long 
 run, if the tendencies of scientific management 
 were allowed to work out freely and without 
 interruption, rent and profits, in the narrow 
 sense, would be unaffected, interest would first 
 rise and then fall again, wages of management 
 would tend to become less, and workmen's 
 wages higher. These are obviously steps toward 
 greater equality of income than now prevails. 
 
 A question of concern to many is the prob- 
 able influence of scientific management on the 
 tendency toward democracy in industry. What 
 is meant by democracy in industry seems to 
 vary with different thinkers and with the same 
 thinker at different times. We will assume that 
 it means at least a share in the control of indus- 
 try and free opportunity for advancement. 
 
 An industry which is governed by facts 
 rather than by traditions and opinions is funda- 
 mentally democratic, at least in the sense that 
 it is immaterial whether the fact is produced by 
 the general manager or the humblest lumper. 
 Arbitrariness on either side is eliminated. Any 
 workman may appeal to the arbitrament of 
 facts with the same certainty of justification as 
 the highest official. In this sense control be- 
 comes impersonal; which is a step in advance 
 
ECONOMIC ASPECTS 167 
 
 from the current type of arbitrary personal 
 control. 
 
 On the other hand, with the increasing spe- 
 cialization of modern management a greater 
 degree of centralized control is necessary than 
 before and this control must ultimately be exer- 
 cised by one human being over another. To 
 those who consider any degree of restriction of 
 individual liberty, even in the interests of a co- 
 ordinate activity, a derogation of democracy, 
 scientific management must be undemocratic; 
 in fact any management must be. So is any 
 type of government. The only alternative is 
 anarchy. If this extreme view is not held, the 
 question becomes whether the control whose 
 necessity is admitted shall be exercised by 
 persons chosen by the controlled or by some 
 other agency. Experience with cooperative 
 productive enterprises has shown the present 
 impracticability of the selection of industrial 
 leaders by the rank and file of the employees. 
 On the other hand, a long history of favorit- 
 ism, nepotism, indifference, and ignorance has 
 shown the inadvisability of arbitrary selection 
 by owners and managers. Scientific manage- 
 ment provides a method of selection by capac- 
 ity. In other words, its type of government is 
 that of an aristocracy of demonstrated ability, 
 
1 68 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 tempered by the necessity of retaining the 
 good-will of the employees without which the 
 methods of scientific management cannot be 
 successfully operated, and further ameliorated 
 by the type of discipline which wells up from 
 beneath and is at least partially self-enforcing. 
 
 That such is in fact its result is evident to 
 any one investigating a plant in which scientific 
 management has secured a firm foothold. The 
 executives are but slightly removed from the 
 ranks of the workmen and are in fact as well as 
 in theory the servants of the men. The men 
 occupy a new position of power and responsi- 
 bility of which they are fully cognizant and 
 have even been observed reminding their 
 "bosses" of any failure in the adequate per- 
 formance of the bosses' duties. 
 
 The characteristic regard for impersonal fact, 
 the greater mobility between ranks, and the 
 keener appreciation of individual abilities, 
 characteristic of scientific management, pro- 
 vide opportunities for advancement far greater 
 than those commonly observed. There are 
 large differences in the capacity of manual 
 workers. These differences are made evident 
 by time study, are immediately recognized, and 
 the capable workman is an object of exceptional 
 esteem. A long-run effect of this is to transfer 
 
ECONOMIC ASPECTS 169 
 
 esteem from the workman to the work as such 
 and to increase the self-respect of workmen and 
 their regard for their personal rights and corre- 
 sponding obligations. All these would seem to 
 be in the direction of a sane democracy. 
 
 IV. Forecast of the Future 
 
 Unless scientific management has before it a 
 long and influential future all the foregoing 
 discussion has a merely academic interest. It 
 has established a firm foothold in the short 
 period of its existence. Whether it will live and 
 grow depends upon whether its inherent ad- 
 vantages can offset some of the difficulties now 
 in the way of its development. 
 
 Chief among these obstacles is the conserva- 
 tism and mental inertia of business managers. 
 Business is proverbially cautious, one might 
 almost say unprogressive. Managers consider 
 that even in the beaten paths the risks are great 
 enough ; and it is only the exceptionally bold or 
 the rash who will step out into the unknown, 
 even though it may look promising. As success 
 after success is scored by the pioneers, ordinary 
 managers get over their timidity. To-day there 
 is evidence of an almost undue haste to adopt 
 the new methods. The demand for scientific 
 management has brought forth a horde of 
 
170 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 "efficiency experts," untrained, incompetent, 
 sometimes quacks and charlatans, whose oper- 
 ations are tending to discredit the name and 
 purpose of the movement. This phase shows 
 signs of passing, and we seem to be settling into 
 a period where the progressive but skeptical 
 manager is coming to the front, who must first 
 be convinced, and when convinced commits 
 himself to the patient development of real 
 science in his plant. 
 
 Another obstacle is the cost of the best- 
 known systems, owing to the scarcity of experts 
 capable of developing them and the necessity of 
 finding out, by expensive experiment, the very 
 A, B, C, of the science of each new industry to 
 which the methods are applied. The cost, of the 
 first few steps which are now being taken is so 
 high that only plants able and willing to make 
 an investment of $30,000 or $40,000, without 
 the expectation of large returns for two years 
 or more, are in position to undertake the devel- 
 opment. This obstacle also tends to disappear 
 as experience demonstrates the certainty and 
 largeness of the returns from such investment. 
 
 The scarcity of engineers capable of develop- 
 ing scientific management also retards its ex- 
 tension. At present it is safe to say that there 
 are not over twenty in the entire country. As 
 
ECONOMIC ASPECTS 171 
 
 all of them give their time personally to the 
 development of their work, this puts a serious 
 limitation on the number of plants that may 
 avail themselves of their services. The only 
 remedy is the discovery and development of 
 younger men in the same field. There are signs 
 that since Mr. Taylor's death the liberal policy 
 of the originator of scientific management is 
 being restricted somewhat by his immediate 
 followers. The attention given to the subject in 
 the colleges and business schools of the country, 
 and the increasing demand for specialists in 
 this work, will aid in overcoming the difficulty. 
 
 To a certain extent the distrust of social 
 workers and the opposition of organized labor 
 tend to retard the movement; but it is my im- 
 pression that the publicity resulting from active 
 opposition, when followed by investigation and 
 publication of facts, as it usually is, tends to aid 
 it. There can be no question that the recent 
 congressional debates on scientific management 
 in the Watertown Arsenal case, uninformed as 
 on the whole they were, called the attention of 
 business men to the actual facts regarding the 
 Taylor System, and resulted in an increasing 
 interest and a desire to secure its advantages. 
 
 This enumeration of the obstacles to the 
 development of scientific management betrays 
 
172 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 their smallness and transitoriness in compari- 
 son with the greatness and permanence of the 
 forces with which its progress is allied. Already 
 it is demonstrating its capability of great indus- 
 trial and social advantage to its users. Its close 
 relationship to the movement for the conserva- 
 tion of all resources has been pointed out and 
 its far-reaching consequences as an agency for 
 the conservation of human effort have struck 
 forcibly the popular imagination. Finally, its 
 inherent democracy, as exhibited in its substi- 
 tution of fact, so far as possible, for the vagaries 
 of personality, and its provision of self-govern- 
 ment and unlimited opportunity for advance- 
 ment, tie it closely to the most intelligent 
 political movements of the day. While it would 
 be idle to deny that there are countertenden- 
 cies to all these and that there have been abuses 
 and misinterpretations of the principles of sci- 
 entific management, 1 it seems safe to believe 
 that on the whole it represents an inevitable 
 and irresistible tendency, and that therefore its 
 extension and permanence are assured, so far 
 as, historically speaking, there may be assur- 
 ance of permanence. 
 
 1 The discussion of positive management in the recent book 
 of Hoxie, Valentine, and Frey, Scientific Management and 
 Labor, seems to rest on a consideration chiefly of abuses and 
 inadequacies of the movement. 
 
V 
 
 THE LITERATURE OF SCIENTIFIC 
 MANAGEMENT 
 
 The literature of scientific management is 
 found in a few books written by practitioners of 
 the science, a few official reports growing out of 
 disputes as to railroad rates and labor difficul- 
 ties, technical articles which have appeared in 
 the Transactions of engineering societies and 
 in engineering and other technical magazines, 
 and a considerable mass of "popular" articles 
 written to satisfy the recent widespread popular 
 interest in the subject. 
 
 These books and articles may be classified, 
 for the purposes of the present review, in six 
 groups. 
 
 The first group includes those incidental to 
 or dealing with the development and theory of 
 scientific management as a whole. It consists 
 of the original publications of the pioneers and 
 such popular statements as reveal a clear grasp 
 of the movement. 1 
 
 The second group includes descriptions of 
 
 1 Many of the popular articles are evident pot-boilers, too 
 ill-considered and ephemeral to be worthy of discussion and 
 preservation. 
 
174 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 scientific management in operation, written as 
 a rule by managers of plants which have devel- 
 oped the system. 
 
 As a result of the injection of scientific man- 
 agement into the discussion of railroad rates, 
 there has arisen a considerable body of litera- 
 ture on the possibility of the application of the 
 system to railroads. This is of sufficient con- 
 sequence to constitute the third class. 
 
 In the fourth class are the many detailed 
 descriptions of methods which are either dis- 
 tinctive of scientific management, or, though 
 not peculiar to scientific management, coor- 
 dinated and assimilated by it into its own 
 system. 
 
 Those methods of scientific management 
 which affect most directly the human factor 
 in production have stimulated a literature 
 which is of sufficient importance to warrant 
 being put into a fifth class by itself. 
 
 In the sixth and last group is the series of 
 discussions dealing with the relation of scientific 
 management to organized labor. 
 
 To this classification of special books and 
 articles should be added a word regarding the 
 magazines which have dealt more or less fully 
 with the subject. One of the chief among these 
 is the Engineering Magazine, which was largely 
 
THE LITERATURE 175 
 
 instrumental in bringing to the attention of the 
 engineering profession the early work of Mr. 
 Taylor and especially the ideas of Mr. Harring- 
 ton Emerson. Industrial Engineering, which 
 was unfortunately quite short-lived, devoted 
 itself particularly to the work of the Taylor 
 group. Factory and System, especially the for- 
 mer, have published many articles on the sub- 
 ject of scientific management and their edi- 
 torial tone has been considerably influenced by 
 that movement. An excellent little magazine 
 called One Hundred Per Cent (after its original 
 name, Efficiency, had been dropped) is devoted 
 almost exclusively to the methods and practice 
 of scientific management engineers. The fol- 
 lowing pages will contain many references to 
 articles in these magazines. 
 
 The more important books and articles are 
 discussed briefly in the text. Others not suffi- 
 ciently distinctive or noteworthy to call for 
 special review, but important for students of 
 the movement, are referred to in the notes. 
 The text and notes together cover nearly ninety 
 per cent of all that has been published on the 
 subject. 1 
 
 1 Bibliographies covering scientific management may be 
 found in the Efficiency Number, Special Libraries, vol. 4, no. 5, 
 pp. 69-109, published by The Special Libraries Association, 
 Indianapolis, May, 1913, and in a selected list issued by 
 
176 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 i. Development and Theory of Scientific 
 Management as a Whole 
 
 In 1832, Charles Babbage, the eminent 
 mathematician, published a book * in which he 
 attempted to deduce from the practice of man- 
 ufacturing as it existed in his time, the general 
 underlying principles which apparently con- 
 trolled it. This piece of work, though crude in 
 the light of modern advance, was so far ahead 
 of the state of contemporary manufacturing 
 intelligence that its significance was entirely 
 overlooked, and it is only to-day that the force 
 of his analysis is evident. Although it does not 
 appear that the modern group of scientific 
 managers are in the slightest degree indebted 
 to Babbage's work, it is interesting to observe 
 in it the suggestion of the extension of special- 
 ization beyond manual labor to mental labor, 
 which is at the basis of the Taylor doctrines of 
 functional foremanship and the separation of 
 planning from execution. Babbage also fore- 
 
 myself under the title Bibliography of Scientific Management, 
 published by the American Library Association, Chicago, in 
 1916. Many references to books and articles may be found in 
 the Engineering Index, published by the Engineering Maga- 
 zine Company, and in the Bibliography of Labor, published 
 annually by the Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics. 
 
 1 The Economy of Manufactures. London, 1832. (Out of 
 print.) 
 
THE LITERATURE 177 
 
 shadows the use of timing as an aid in the de- 
 velopment of processes; but in this he was not 
 so fortunate, and the undeveloped method he 
 used is not even remotely connected with mod- 
 ern time study. 
 
 The important stimulus to the modern devel- 
 opment is found in the work of a group of man- 
 agers and engineers, members of the American 
 Society of Mechanical Engineers, who drew the 
 attention of their fellow-members to the influ- 
 ence of wages on the output of workmen. The 
 earliest of these was Mr. Henry R. Towne, 
 president of the Yale & Towne Manufacturing 
 Company. Mr. Towne has always been essen- 
 tially a thinker in industry. Early in the eight- 
 ies he wrote a paper 1 which was a plea for the 
 technically trained engineer to concern himself 
 in the financial and profit-making aspects of 
 management — to be an " economist' ' because 
 he effects economies. As a result of taking his 
 own advice in his own plant, and after a reali- 
 zation of the practical inefficiency of profit- 
 sharing as an incentive to production, Mr. 
 Towne evolved 2 and described a modified type 
 of profit-sharing which he called "gain-shar- 
 
 1 "The Engineer as Economist," Transactions, American 
 Society of Mechanical Engineers, vol. 7, p. 425. (These Trans- 
 actions will be abbreviated hereafter Trans., A.S.M.E.) 
 
 8 "Gain-Sharing," Trans., A.S.M.E., vol. 10, p. 600. 
 
178 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 ing." It consisted in modifying profit-sharing 
 by applying it to departments instead of to the 
 business as a whole, and basing it upon demon- 
 strable gains in the efficiency of departments as 
 evidenced by careful accounting. Out of the 
 discussion of this paper grew practically the 
 entire modern literature on wage systems as 
 incentives. 
 
 Prominent on this subject were the papers of 
 Mr. F. A. Halsey and Mr. James Rowan l and 
 an article by Mr. Rowan. 2 The object in the 
 mind of these managers was to provide a defin- 
 ite basis on which gains in efficiency could be 
 measured, and to bring the gain and the conse- 
 quent bonus home to the individual workman. 
 It was an attempt to remedy the defects both 
 of profit sharing with its indefiniteness and of 
 piece rates with their temptation to cutting; 
 and it amounts practically to the rough deter- 
 mination of a standard of individual perform- 
 ance and the announcement in advance of a 
 systematically graded and expected cut. 
 
 1 "The Premium Plan of Paying for Labor," Trans., 
 A.S.M.E., vol. 12, p. 755. Reprinted in Sibley Journal of 
 Engineering, vol. 16, p. 219, and in Trade Unionism and 
 Labor Problems, chap, xi, edited by John R. Commons. (Bos- 
 ton, 1905.) 
 
 2 "A Premium System Applied to Engineering Workshops." 
 Proceedings, Institute of Mechanical Engineers, March 20, 
 1903, p. 203. 
 
THE LITERATURE 179 
 
 While this discussion (the very considerable 
 literature of which is outside the scope of this 
 paper) 1 was in progress, Mr. Frederick W. 
 Taylor, at that time foreman and master- 
 mechanic of the Midvale Steel Company, was 
 trying to solve the problem of individual and 
 plant efficiency by another and an essentially 
 different method. One result of his experi- 
 ments was the development of a new form 
 of piece rate now known as the "differential 
 piece rate," according to which a workman is 
 paid a low rate per piece for ordinary pro- 
 duction and a considerably higher rate for 
 production according to a standard, deter- 
 mined by careful and accurate time study, and 
 made possible of attainment by systematic 
 training of the workman and by such manage- 
 ment of the plant as facilitates to the utmost 
 the operations performed by the laborer. Mr. 
 Taylor's first statement of his methods and 
 results was submitted to the American Society 
 of Mechanical Engineers in a paper 2 which has 
 been described by Mr. Going, the accomplished 
 
 1 An excellent review of the discussions on this subject is 
 contained in H. B. Drury's Scientific Management, Columbia 
 University Press, 1915. This discussion of the literature is the 
 best part of Drury's book, as his review of the later history of 
 the movement suffers from a lack of practical acquaintance 
 with the methods whose history he attempts to narrate. 
 
 2 "A Piece- Rate System," Trans., A.S.M.E., vol. 16, p. 856. 
 
180 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 editor of the Engineering Magazine, as "one of 
 the most valuable contributions that have ever 
 been made to technical literature." 
 
 At this stage of the development, the system 
 consisted of " three principal elements: (i) an 
 elementary rate-fixing department; (2) differ- 
 ential rate system of piece work; (3) what he 
 (Mr. Taylor) believes to be the best method of 
 managing men who work by the day." The 
 rate-fixing department analyzes and standard- 
 izes work and piece rates with the aid of ele- 
 mentary time study. This procedure differs 
 from that of other rate-fixing departments "in 
 that a careful study is made of the time re- 
 quired to do each of the many elementary oper- 
 ations into which the manufacturing of- an 
 establishment may be analyzed or divided. 
 These elementary operations are then classified, 
 recorded, and indexed and when a piece-work 
 price is wanted for work, the job is first divided 
 into its elementary operations, the time re- 
 quired to do each elementary operation is found 
 from the records, and the total time for the job 
 is summed up from these data." 
 
 The differential rate system of piece work is 
 defined briefly as "offering two different rates 
 for the same job, a higher price per piece in case 
 the work is finished in the shortest possible 
 
THE LITERATURE 181 
 
 time and in perfect condition, and a low price 
 if it takes a longer time to do the job, or if there 
 are any imperfections in the work (the high rate 
 should be such that the workman can earn more 
 per day than is usually paid in similar establish- 
 ments)." The best method of managing men 
 who work by the day "consists of paying men 
 and not positions. Each man's wages as far as 
 possible are fixed according to the skill and 
 energy with which he performs his work, and 
 not according to the position which he fills. 
 Every endeavor is made to stimulate each 
 man's personal ambition." The advantages of 
 this system, as deduced by Mr. Taylor from ten 
 years' experience with the Mid vale Steel Com- 
 pany, are: first, lower cost of production with, 
 at the same time, higher wages; second, by sub- 
 stituting knowledge for guesswork, the elimina- 
 tion of the motive for " soldiering"; third, the 
 substitution of exact knowledge leads to a 
 treatment of the men with greater uniformity 
 and justice, and their response with more and 
 better work; fourth, cooperation of the men 
 and the management is made obviously their 
 common interest; fifth, the system is rapid in 
 attaining the maximum productivity, which 
 is automatically maintained by the differential 
 rate; sixth, it selects and attracts the best men, 
 
1 82 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 develops many slow and inaccurate workmen 
 into first-class men, and discourages and sifts 
 out men who are incurably lazy or inferior; 
 seventh, "it promotes a most friendly feeling 
 between the men and their employers, and so 
 renders labor unions and strikes unnecessary." 
 
 The paper then proceeds to discuss the 
 Towne and Halsey wage systems and profit- 
 sharing, and points out the absence in all of 
 them of a definite measure of a day's work. It 
 then describes the method of elementary rate- 
 fixing and the application of the differential 
 piece rate by its means, with illustrations of the 
 results attained. 
 
 It is significant of Mr. Taylor's habit of 
 mind that this early paper is a description of 
 methods and results, including hardly a sus- 
 picion of theoretical deduction. It is a testi- 
 mony to the accuracy of Mr. Taylor's later 
 statement that scientific management is not a 
 theory to be applied to practice, but that it 
 is first and primarily a practice out of which, 
 many years after its beginning, a theory has 
 developed. 1 
 
 1 An interesting description of the application of this form 
 of piece rate is found in "The Taylor Differential Piece- Rate 
 System," Engineering Magazine, vol. 20, p. 617, by Mr. San- 
 ford E. Thompson, one of the early collaborators with Mr. 
 Taylor and a recognized expert on time study. A good discus- 
 sion of the whole matter grew out of a weak paper by Mr. 
 
THE LITERATURE 183 
 
 The difficulty of bringing a plant to the 
 necessary perfected degree of administration 
 and the apparent severity of the differential 
 piece rate led one of Mr. Taylor's collaborators, 
 Mr. H. L. Gantt, to develop a different form of 
 premium system, which retained, however, the 
 essential element of an accurate time-study 
 basis. This method, known as the "Gantt 
 bonus plan," is a time-rate method. It guar- 
 antees the operator the regular hourly or daily 
 rate, but adds a bonus for achievement of the 
 standard quantity and quality of work, known 
 as "the task." This standard is set, as with 
 Mr. Taylor's differential piece rate, by time 
 study. Mr. Gantt has published a large num- 
 ber of articles on the subject, the best of which, 
 together with his own development of the re- 
 lation of scientific management to some of the 
 human problems involved, have been collected 
 in one volume. 1 
 
 Mr. Gantt points out how by the ordinary 
 methods of management the cost of production, 
 which is at the basis of the great problem of the 
 increasing cost of living, follows a vicious circle 
 
 F. Richards, "Is Anything the Matter with Piece Work?" 
 Trans., A.S.M.E., vol. 25, p. 68, participated in by Mr. Tay- 
 lor, Mr. Emerson, and others. 
 
 1 Work, Wages and Profits. (New York, 1910.) The first / 
 edition, published in 19 10, is somewhat enlarged and consider- 
 ably revised in the second edition, 1913. 
 
184 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 of higher wages to meet higher cost and in- 
 creased cost as the result of higher wages. The 
 way out is to manage production in such a way 
 that higher wages bring a decreased cost ; and 
 this is the aim of scientific management. This 
 is accomplished by standardizing the condi- 
 tions for efficient operation, instructing the 
 workmen thoroughly in the best methods, and 
 using wages as an inducement to them to accept 
 the instruction and the conditions provided. 
 The development of the Gantt bonus and its 
 relation to piece work are described in detail, 
 and the effect of the system on the workman's 
 habits of industry and cooperation is outlined 
 and demonstrated with charts and diagrams 
 showing comparisons between old methods 
 and the new. These charts, based upon the 
 records of actual workers, are extraordinarily 
 interesting human documents, showing the 
 gradual overcoming of difficulties and the fixa- 
 tion of habits of punctuality, reliability, and 
 efficiency. The 1913 edition adds a chapter 
 to the effect that, as the great natural resources 
 of this country can be relied on less and less 
 in competition with other countries, our fu- 
 ture depends upon the application of scientific 
 methods and the increase in the efficiency of 
 operation, and concludes with a brief chapter 
 
THE LITERATURE 185 
 
 illustrating some of the detailed methods of 
 the Taylor System as developed by Mr. Gantt. 
 
 This book of Mr. Gantt's is one of the best 
 that has appeared on the subject and is en- 
 titled to rank with Mr. Taylor's Shop Manage- 
 ment and The Principles of Scientific Manage- 
 ment, as one of the standard authorities. 
 
 Scientific management, however, is not 
 merely a system of wage payment. One of 
 its essential features is the determination and 
 application of standards not only of perform- 
 ance, but of methods and equipment. In fact, 
 it is a cardinal principle of scientific manage- 
 ment that a proper standard of performance 
 cannot be attained in the absence of stand- 
 ardized methods and equipment ; and it was in 
 the effort to secure standard performance that 
 Mr. Taylor and his associates were led to in- 
 vestigations of detailed processes which have 
 themselves become classics. One of the earliest 
 of these is Mr. Taylor's " Notes on Belting," 1 
 which, with the later paper by Mr. Carl G. 
 Barth, 2 has had an immense influence on the 
 current manufacture and use of belts. An- 
 other investigation growing out of Mr. Tay- 
 lor's work was concerned with the proper com- 
 
 1 Trans., A.S.M.E., vol. 15, p. 204. 
 
 2 "Transmission of Power by Leather Belting," Trans,, 
 A.S.M.E., vol. 31, p. 39. 
 
i86 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 position and method of heat treatment of tool 
 steel, and the shape of cutting tools. This in- 
 vestigation, carried on with the assistance of 
 Messrs. Gantt, Barth, and Maunsel White, and 
 extending over twenty-six years, led incident- 
 ally to the discovery of high-speed steel, which 
 has revolutionized machine-shop practice and 
 the design and construction of machine tools 
 all over the world. The results of this investi- 
 gation are published in a paper called "The 
 Art of Cutting Metals." 1 
 
 While Mr. Taylor was carrying forward in 
 a variety of industries the development of 
 his distinctive type of management, but was 
 publishing nothing about its details, 2 Captain 
 
 1 Trans., A.S.M.E., vol. 28, p. 31. An interesting explana- 
 tion of one of the means by which Mr. Taylor's results are 
 applied in machine-shop practice is found in the paper by Mr. 
 Carl G. Barth, the mathematician of the group, on "Slide 
 Rules as Part of the Taylor System," Trans., A.S.M.E., vol. 
 25, p. 49. An illustration of the effect of such work as a stimu- 
 lus to the application of thought to management appears in 
 the article by Mr. Charles Day called "The Machine-Shop 
 Problem," ibid., vol. 24, p. 1302, which emphasizes the need 
 of coordination, analysis, and a scientific determination of 
 facts. 
 
 "The Art of Cutting Metals" is reviewed by A. Wallichs 
 and O. Petersen, Taylors untersuchungen uber rationelle Drehar- 
 beit. (Stahl und Eisen, 1907, Nos. 29 and 30, Dusseldorf.) 
 
 2 The only paper by a member of the Taylor group dealing 
 with any detail was Mr. Gantt's "Graphical Daily Balance in 
 Manufactures," Trans., A.S.M.E., vol. 24, p. 1322, which was 
 a description of the method of scheduling introduced by him 
 at the American Locomotive Works. 
 
THE LITERATURE 187 
 
 Henry Metcalf had been developing independ- 
 ently and describing 1 a system of routing and 
 accounting in the government arsenals, and 
 Mr. Oberlin Smith, president of the Ferracute 
 Machine Company, had presented an interest- 
 ing paper on the naming of machine parts. 2 
 When the opportunity came Mr. Taylor helped 
 himself freely to the suggestions in these papers 
 and incorporated them, with considerable modi- 
 fication, into his practice. 
 
 Finally, after twenty years' experience, Mr. 
 Taylor submitted to the American Society of 
 Mechanical Engineers the history and methods 
 of his system in what seemed to him to be defin- 
 ite, complete, and coordinated form. This was 
 his famous paper on "Shop Management," 3 
 which has been extensively reprinted and trans- 
 lated into French, German, Dutch, Italian, 
 Russian, Lettish, and Japanese. In response to 
 the popular interest in the subject brought 
 about by the railroad rate case in 191 1, Mr. 
 Taylor was induced to publish a less technical 
 
 1 "The Shop Order System of Accounts," Trans., A.S.M.E., 
 vol. 7, p. 440. The Cost of Manufactures and the Administra- 
 tion of Workshops. (John Wiley & Sons. New York, 1885. 
 3d edition, 1907.) 
 
 2 "The Naming of Machine Parts," Trans., A.S.M.E., 
 vol. 2, p. 366. 
 
 3 Trans., A.S.M.E., vol. 24, p. 1337. (New edition. New 
 York, 191 1.) 
 
188 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 statement under the name The Principles of 
 Scientific Management. 1 
 
 ''Shop Management" is a considerable ex- 
 pansion of the earlier paper on "A Piece-Rate 
 System," and includes much of the detailed 
 methods that had been developed by Mr. Tay- 
 lor in the intervening years, together with some 
 analysis of the industrial and economic prin- 
 ciples involved in his system. The emphasis is 
 laid throughout on the importance of "the 
 coupling of high wages for the workman with 
 low labor cost for the employer," and the event- 
 ual interest of the public in the reduced prices 
 resulting from this combination. The difference 
 between the " first-class man" and the average 
 workman, the means for selecting or developing 
 the former class, the methods of accurate scien- 
 tific time study, the philosophy and operation 
 of the task idea in management, the determina- 
 tion of standards, the separation of planning 
 and execution, the development of functional 
 foremanship and the planning department, and 
 steps to be taken in changing from ordinary to 
 "the best type of management," are dealt with 
 extensively. Emphasis is laid on the "evils of 
 
 1 Harper & Bros., New York, 191 1. A very brief resum6 
 by Mr. Taylor, " Principles and Methods of Scientific Manage- 
 ment," is found in the Journal of Accountancy, vol. 12, pp. 
 117, 181. 
 
THE LITERATURE 189 
 
 soldiering' ' and the failure of piece rates and 
 premium plans to overcome them; it appears 
 that Mr. Taylor's entire system grew out of his 
 determination to break up this practice. 
 
 The objects sought can be attained, accord- 
 ing to Mr. Taylor, most easily by the applica- 
 tion of the following principles : — 
 
 (a) A Large Daily Task. Each man in the es- 
 tablishment, high or low, should daily have a clearly 
 defined task laid out before him. This task should 
 not in the least degree be vague or indefinite, but 
 should be circumscribed carefully and completely, 
 and should not be easy to accomplish. 
 
 (b) Standard Conditions. Each man's task should 
 call for a full day's work, and at the same time the 
 workman should be given such standardized con- 
 ditions and appliances as will enable him to accom- 
 plish his task with certainty. 
 
 (c) High Pay for Success. He should be sure of 
 large pay when he accomplishes his task. 
 
 (d) Loss in Case of Failure. When he fails he 
 should be sure that sooner or later he will be the 
 loser by it. 
 
 When an establishment has reached an advanced 
 state of organization, in many cases a fifth element 
 should be added, namely: the task should be made 
 so difficult that it can only be accomplished by a 
 first-class man. 
 
 The rest of the book is an amplification of 
 the methods by which these so-called "princi- 
 ples" are applied. 
 
190 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 The Principles of Scientific Management l de- 
 velops the same ideas in a slightly different 
 way. Much emphasis is laid on the import- 
 ance of the substitution of scientific knowledge 
 and incentive on the part of the management 
 for the former reliance on the crudely stimu- 
 lated initiative of the workman. There is the 
 same discussion of "soldiering," inadequacy of 
 piece and premium systems, and a non- techni- 
 cal review of certain typical methods of the 
 system, with illustrations of the application of 
 scientific method to such diverse operations as 
 shoveling, pig-iron handling, and the cutting of 
 metals. 
 
 It is interesting to note in the later book a 
 restatement of the " principles," otherwise re- 
 ferred to as "elements": — 
 
 First. The development of a true science. Sec- 
 ond. The scientific selection of the workman. Third. 
 His scientific education and development. Fourth. 
 Intimate friendly cooperation between the manage- 
 ment and the men. 
 
 In an earlier section of the same book, these 
 "principles" are restated in slightly different 
 form as the "new duties" devolving on the 
 
 1 See the articles in the American Magazine, vol. 71, pp. 570 
 and 785, and vol. 72, p. ioi, and in World's Work (London), 
 vol. 1 8, pp. 91 and 168. 
 
THE LITERATURE 191 
 
 management. In this case they are given as 
 follows : — 
 
 First. They develop a science for each element of 
 a man's work, which replaces the old rule-of-thumb 
 method. 
 
 Second. They scientifically select and then train, 
 teach, and develop the workman, whereas in the 
 past he chose his own work and trained himself as 
 best he could. 
 
 Third. They heartily cooperate with the men so 
 as to insure all of the work being done in accord- 
 ance with the principles of the science which has 
 been developed. 
 
 Fourth. There is an almost equal division of the 
 work and the responsibility between the manage- 
 ment and the workmen. The management take 
 over all work for which they are better fitted than 
 the workmen, while in the past almost all of the 
 work and the greater part of the responsibility 
 were thrown upon the men. 
 
 It is evident from these statements that Mr. 
 Taylor does not distinguish sharply between 
 principles, duties, and methods, and it is diffi- 
 cult to see why the methods selected for eleva- 
 tion into the class of principles are limited to 
 those given and do not include such funda- 
 mental and radical departures as functional 
 foremanship and the task and bonus. This is 
 but another evidence of the fact that the Tay- 
 lor System is in reality the summation of years 
 of the varied experience of many individuals, 
 
192 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 which has not even yet been thoroughly coor- 
 dinated and developed into such a system of 
 real principles or laws as characterizes other 
 modern sciences. I believe that the principles 
 are there and that they only await definite and 
 systematic formulation. 1 
 
 In the summer of 191 1, the unionized ma- 
 chinists and molders . employed at the Water- 
 town Arsenal, where the Taylor System was 
 being developed, walked out; and on being 
 taken back petitioned that the Labor Commit- 
 tee of Congress investigate the subject and 
 recommend such legislation as would be neces- 
 sary to protect their interests. A committee 
 was appointed consisting of Mr. William B. 
 Wilson, the present Secretary of Labor, Mr. 
 William C. Redfield, now Secretary of Com- 
 merce, and Mr. John Q. Tilson, "to investigate 
 the Taylor and other systems of management' ' 
 in government shops. The investigators con- 
 fined themselves practically to the Taylor Sys- 
 
 1 Among the foreign reviews of Taylor's books may be 
 mentioned especially the following: G. Deherme, "L'Or- 
 ganisation scientifique du Travail," La Cooperation des IdSes, 
 3me Ser., N° i8 f 16 Sept., 1912, Paris. R. Lucion, "Le Tay- 
 lorisme," Revue Economique Internationale, vol. 3, no. 2, 
 August, 1912, pp. 389-403. Francesco Giannini, UOrgani- 
 zazzione Scientifica del Lavoro. (Roma, 1912.) Giovanni 
 Aichino, Organizazzione Scientifica delle Oficine. (Torino, 
 19 12.) A. Wallichs, Taylors Werkstattenorganisation. (Dtissel- 
 dorf, n. d.) 
 
THE LITERATURE 193 
 
 tern, held hearings at the principal navy yards, 
 and took testimony of workmen, foremen, 
 managers, "efficiency experts," and practically 
 the entire group of Taylor System engineers. 
 The result of their investigation was a brief 
 report that no legislation was necessary. More 
 useful, however, was the publication of the 
 great mass of testimony taken. 1 This report of 
 the hearings is a perfect mine of information in 
 regard to the history, methods, practice, and 
 results of the Taylor System and must be 
 strongly recommended as one of the funda- 
 mental sources on the subject. 
 
 Another important body of testimony is that 
 introduced by Mr. Louis D. Brandeis as part of 
 the case of the shippers in the "Eastern Rate 
 Case" 2 which is carefully sifted, analyzed, and 
 coordinated in Mr. Brandeis's brief. 3 
 
 The most important publication by Mr. Tay- 
 lor, in addition to those mentioned, is a book 
 
 1 Hearings before the Special Committee of the House of 
 Representatives to investigate the Taylor and other systems 
 of shop management. (Washington, 19 12.) 
 
 2 Interstate Commerce Commission Reports, vol. 20, p. 243. 
 
 s A part of this brief was published under the title Scientific 
 Management and Railroads. (New York, 1912.) The testi- 
 mony in this case had no effect on the decision of the Inter- 
 state Commerce Commission; but the spectacular and seem- 
 ingly extravagant form in which some of the testimony was 
 given by persons outside the Taylor group, but influenced by 
 it, caught the popular fancy and was responsible for the great 
 publicity the movement suddenly attained. 
 
194 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 prepared by him and Mr. Sanford E. Thomp- 
 son, 1 which includes, in addition to an acute 
 analysis of concrete construction, certain chap- 
 ters on time study and valuable tables of unit 
 times determined in accordance with the Tay- 
 lor methods. 2 
 
 An interesting series of articles illustrating 
 the breadth of Mr. Taylor's interests is that in 
 the "Cultivation of Golf Greens," 3 detailing the 
 methods and results of experiments with which 
 he occupied his leisure time on his estate near 
 Philadelphia. 
 
 Although the Taylor System has been ap- 
 plied to many types of industry other than 
 machine-shop production in which it originated, 
 little has been published on these applications 
 
 1 Concrete Costs. (John Wiley and Sons. New York, 19 12.) 
 
 2 Two interesting articles by Mr. Taylor, "Why Manu- 
 facturers Dislike College Graduates," Sibley Journal of Engi- 
 neering, vol. 24, p. 195, and "A Comparison of University and 
 Industrial Methods," Stevens Indicator, vol. 24, p. 37, set 
 forth his convictions in regard to the place of college graduates 
 in manufacturing and particularly his criticisms of their point 
 of view and the handicaps under which they labor and for 
 which their college training is responsible. Chief among these 
 are the inability to concentrate on an undertaking and bring 
 it through to a conclusion, the failure to recognize the impor- 
 tance of punctuality and the value of time and discipline, 
 and a lack of appreciation of the point of view of the work- 
 ingman. 
 
 There is an interesting comment on this in Mr. D. C. Jack- 
 son's "Criticism of the Engineering Schools," Stevens Indi- 
 cator, vol. 27, p. 25. 
 
 3 Country Life in America, February-June, 1915. 
 
THE LITERATURE 195 
 
 by those closest to the movement. Among the 
 detailed discussions of other industries, how- 
 ever, must be mentioned the book by Mr. 
 Charles Day, 1 dealing with the construction 
 and lay-out of factories. Mr. Day points out 
 the influence of the design of the plant upon the 
 efficiency of operation and details the work in- 
 cident to its planning and building, from the 
 selection of the site to the construction of build- 
 ings and the installation of equipment. Excel- 
 lent illustrations are given of the best lay-out 
 and routing of materials in factories of different 
 types. Mr. Gantt has published a short paper 
 dealing with the textile industry, 2 and Mr. Day 
 has pointed out the possibility of application 
 to diverse industries, including public service 
 corporations. 3 
 
 The printing industry, 4 mining, 5 agricul- 
 
 1 Industrial Plants. (New York, 191 1.) 
 
 2 "The Mechanical Engineer and the Textile Industry," 
 Trans., A.S.M.E., vol. 32, p. 499. See also Anon., "The Effi- 
 ciency Engineer," American Wool and Cotton Reporter, Febru- 
 ary 11, 1915, vol. xxix, p. 156. 
 
 3 "Management Principles and the Consulting Engineer," 
 Engineering Magazine, vol. 41, p. 133. 
 
 4 Anon., "Scientific Management — Can it be applied to 
 the Printing Industry?" An editorial, The Printing Art, vol. 
 17, pp. 223-26. May, 191 1. 
 
 6 G. A. Collins, "Efficiency-Engineering Applied to Min- 
 ing," Bulletin, American Institute of Mining Engineers, no. 
 69, 1912. P. B. McDonald, "Efficiency Engineering in Lake 
 Mines," Engineering and Mining Journal, October 28, 191 1, 
 vol. 92, pp. 845-46. 
 
iq6 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 ture, 1 and timber preserving, 2 have also had at- 
 tention. Particularly suggestive articles on the 
 application of scientific management to public 
 business have been written by the well-known 
 engineers, M. L. Cooke, of Philadelphia, 3 and 
 Guy C. Emerson, of Boston. 4 
 
 Growing out of the contributions of Mr. 
 Taylor and his original group are a number of 
 articles dealing with the theory of scientific 
 management as it appears to those who first 
 met it in its developed form. Among the most 
 interesting of these are the Report of the Sub- 
 Committee on Administration of the American 
 Society of Mechanical Engineers. 5 This report, 
 after pointing out the reasons for the present 
 great popular interest in the subject, attempts 
 to find the one basic principle in the movement, 
 and discovers it in "the transference of skill." 
 Just as the introduction of machinery meant 
 "the transference of skill from the inventor or 
 
 1 W. J. Spillmann, " The Efficiency Movement in its Rela- 
 tion to Agriculture," Annals, American Academy of Politi- 
 cal and Social Science, vol. 59, p. 64. 
 
 2 E. A. Sterling and D. Burkhalter, " Efficiency and Scien- 
 tific Management in Timber Preserving Plants," Railway and 
 Engineering Review, March 16, 1912, vol. 52, pp. 237-39, 2 44- 
 
 s "Scientific Management of the Public Business," American 
 Political and Scientific Review, vol. ix, no. 3. 
 
 4 "Scientific Management in the Public Works of Cities," 
 National Municipal Review, October, 1913, vol. 2, pp. 571-82. 
 
 5 "The Present State of the Art of Industrial Manage- 
 ment," Journal, A.S.M.E., May, 1913, p. 871. 
 
THE LITERATURE 197 
 
 designer to the power-driven mechanism," so 
 scientific management is the transference of 
 skill from the manual worker to the planning 
 department and functional foremen, resulting 
 in the saving of labor and the increased output 
 and reduction of cost. The report includes a 
 collection of interesting attempts to state the 
 underlying principles of scientific management. 
 Mr. Forrest E. Cardullo * has compared 
 "conventional," "systematic," and "scien- 
 tific" management, with illustrations of ad- 
 ministration of the various types. Then follows 
 a discussion of the causes of current inefficiency, 
 which may be grouped into three classes : those 
 which are chargeable primarily to the employer, 
 those which are chargeable primarily to the 
 workman, and those which are chargeable 
 primarily to our political and industrial system. 
 They include mental laziness, prejudice against 
 so-called "non-productive" labor, timidity of 
 capital, lack of foresight and adaptability, 
 mental inertia, lack of study of industry, ineffi- 
 cient wage systems, and avarice, on the part of 
 the management ; and on the part of the work- 
 men, disinclination to work at other than their 
 accustomed pace, lack of ambition, mental 
 
 1 "Industrial Administration and Scientific Management," 
 Machinery, vol. 18, pp. 843, 931; vol. 19, p. 18. 
 

 
 198 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 laziness, and enmity to their employers; and 
 on the part of the political and industrial sys- 
 tem, periodical depressions, seasonal variations 
 in work, intense individualism, wasteful com- 
 petition, and sudden changes in laws, customs, 
 fashions, and social conditions. The paper 
 closes with an enumeration of the objections to 
 scientific management and the answers to them 
 and is, on the whole, one of the best contribu- 
 tions to the subject. 
 
 Lieutenant G. J. Meyers * has made an inter- 
 esting attempt to deduce and formulate "laws" 
 of management. He gives the following synop- 
 sis of laws : — 
 
 Law I. What to do. 
 
 Law II. Instructions before work starts. m 
 
 Law III. Machines and tools. 
 
 Law IV. Workmen. 
 
 Law V. Insure instructions are carried out. 
 
 Law VI. Costs. 
 
 Law VII. Study for improvements. 
 
 Each statement begins: " It is necessary in any 
 activity.*' Thus Law I is in this form: "It is 
 necessary in any activity to have a complete 
 knowledge of what is to be done and to prepare 
 instructions as to what is to be done before the 
 work is started"; and so for each topic in the 
 
 1 "The Science of Management," Journal, American Soci- 
 ety of Naval Engineers, vol. 23, p. 994. 
 
THE LITERATURE 199 
 
 synopsis. The formulation of each law is fol- 
 lowed by a brief statement of the reasons for it 
 and the method of its application. The paper 
 is a highly interesting essay in the formulation 
 of industrial principles. 1 
 
 The present writer 2 has pointed out that the 
 time study methods of the Taylor System pro- 
 vide a definite basis for one side of the wage 
 bargain : to wit, the content of a day's work, but 
 
 1 To these should be added the following: Mr. H. P. Ken- 
 dall's "Management: Unsystematized, Systematized and 
 Scientific," Scientific Management, Tuck School Conference, 
 
 1912, p. 112; reprinted in Industrial Engineering, vol. 10, 
 p. 374; also in Proceedings, 27th Annual Convention of the 
 United Typothetae and Franklin Clubs of America, pp. 140- 
 65 (Chicago, 1913. 250 pp.), and in Journal of Political 
 Economy, July, 1913, vol. 21, pp. 593~6i7, — a comparison of 
 the types of management mentioned, based on the writer's 
 personal experience with the last two and a wide acquaintance 
 with the first. Mr. Tracy Lyon's brief review of principles in 
 "Scientific Industrial Operation," in Technology and Indus- 
 trial Efficiency, p. 200. (New York, 191 1.) Reprinted in 
 Iron Age, vol. 87, p. 922, and in Industrial World, vol. 45, p. 
 464. Mr. A. Hamilton Church's "The Meaning of Scientific 
 Management," Engineering Magazine, vol. 41, p. 97, which 
 is one of numerous suggestive but unsuccessful attempts to 
 find "the one" principle underlying the movement. Finally, 
 the editorial, "Scientific Management More Than a Labor 
 Problem," Industrial Engineering, vol. 11, p. 467, pointing out 
 the inclusiveness of the method. See also Coburn "The Sci- 
 ence and the Art of Management," Iron Age, January 23/ 
 
 1913, vol. 91, pp. 248-49; and John H. Van Deventer, "The 
 Ultimate Type of Management," Engineering Magazine, June, 
 1915, vol. xlix, no. 3, p. 394. 
 
 * C. B. Thompson, "Relation of Scientific Management to 
 the Wage Problem," Journal of Political Economy, vol. 21, 
 p. 630. 
 
200 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 makes no attempt to determine the equivalent 
 day's wage, except to provide a means through 
 the bonus or differential rate for the application 
 of the principle that superior service should be 
 paid at a superior rate. 
 
 M. LeChatelier's Introduction to the French 
 translation of The Principles of Scientific Man- 
 agement discusses the fear both on the part of 
 the employers and the workmen, that the radi- 
 cally new methods of scientific management 
 will bring about critical economic problems of 
 readjustment; and lays this fear to ignorance 
 of the gradual working-out of economic changes. 
 Professor Veblen has included scientific man- 
 agement in his broad survey of the influence of 
 types of industrial organization and ''culture" 
 on technological proficiency. 1 
 
 Mr. Morris L. Cooke, formerly director of 
 Public Works in the City of Philadelphia, and 
 one of the later additions to the original Taylor 
 group, was retained by the Carnegie Founda- 
 tion to make an investigation of academic effi- 
 ciency from the point of view of an industrial 
 administrator. 2 Mr. Cooke discusses current 
 types of university organization, the college 
 
 1 The Instinct of Workmanship and the State of the Indus- 
 trial Arts. (New York, The Macmillan Company, 1914.) 
 
 2 "Academic and Industrial Efficiency," Bulletin, Carnegie 
 Foundation, no. 5, 19 10. 
 
THE LITERATURE 201 
 
 teacher as a producer, research, the economical 
 use of buildings, functional activities, financial 
 administration, and student administration. 
 According to him, there is no present gauge to 
 efficiency in academic work and, while recog- 
 nizing that the product of the university is of so 
 intangible a nature as not to be subject to exact 
 measurement, he points out the possibility of 
 the application of a unit, the student-hour, to 
 the measurement of administrative efficiency. 
 His discussion is brought to bear in detail upon 
 the administration of a physics department and 
 includes an application of some of the methods 
 of industrial administration. 1 An interesting 
 
 1 The following articles may be taken as samples of the 
 comment provoked by this study: " Educational and Indus- 
 trial Efficiency," Science (n. s.), vol. 33, p. 101, by Richard 
 C. Maclaurin, President of the Massachusetts Institute of 
 Technology, who is apprehensive that the methods proposed 
 by Mr. Cooke will consume too much of the time of officers 
 of instruction and will tend to distract attention from the 
 fundamental purpose of a university; "Educational or Ad- 
 ministrative Efficiency," Engineering Magazine, vol. 40, p. 
 606 (anonymous); and "Scientific Management and Aca- 
 demic Efficiency," Nation, vol. 93, p. 416, by Professor A. G. 
 Webster. Mr. Cooke's proposals are appreciatively reviewed 
 by Professor H. F. Person in "Academic and Industrial Effi- 
 ciency," Dartmouth Alumni Magazine, vol. iv, p. 126 (1912); 
 and "Academic Efficiency," Bulletin, Society for the Promo- 
 tion of Engineering Education, vol. iv, no. 2, p. 39 (1913). See 
 also Industrial Engineering, vol. 9, pp. 216-17 (March, 191 1), 
 a reply to Maclaurin. There is a series of papers by "practical 
 men," not particularly well informed and highly theoretical, 
 on "Scientific Management and Efficiency in College Ad- 
 ministration." (Ithaca, New York, 1913.) Henry LeChatelier, 
 
202 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 attempt to establish standards in elementary 
 education, with suggestions of reforms based 
 on business standards is made by J. M. 
 Rice. 1 
 
 Interesting suggestions for the partial or 
 complete application of the Taylor System to 
 varied industries are made by Mr. F. B. Gil- 
 breth 2 when he shows the revolutionary result 
 of the application of motion study to a trade so 
 ancient as laying bricks, and by Mr. B. M. 
 Ferguson 3 who details the favorable results of 
 his experiments, particularly in its application 
 to outdoor construction. 
 
 The success of the application of the Taylor 
 System to the government arsenals drew the 
 attention of engineers in the navy to the possi- 
 bility of its application to their branch of the 
 service. This is discussed by Mr. C. S. Brewer 4 
 
 in "Le Systeme Taylor, Science experimentale et psychologie 
 ouvriere," Paris, 1914, Bulletin, la Societe des Amis de l'ficole 
 Poly technique (Paris, 19 14), discusses the bearing of scientific 
 management on the modification of technical training. The 
 same subject is handled by H. Diemer in "Factory Organi- 
 zation in Relation to Industrial Education," Annals, Ameri- 
 can Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 44, p. 130. 
 
 1 Scientific Management in Education. 282 pp. (New York 
 and Philadelphia. Hinds, Noble & Eldredge, 1913.) 
 
 8 Bricklaying System. (New York and Chicago, 1909.) 
 
 8 "The Application of the Taylor System to Gas Works," 
 American Gas Light Journal, vol. 95, p. 225, and Progressive 
 Age, vol. 29, p. 830. 
 
 4 "Scientific Management in the Army and Navy," World's 
 Work, vol. 23, p. 311. 
 
THE LITERATURE 203 
 
 and by Lieutenant-Commander W. B. Tardy. 1 
 Particularly interesting is the Report of the 
 Civilian Expert Board 2 on Industrial Manage- 
 ment of United States Navy Yards. This 
 Board, appointed by the Secretary of the Navy, 
 and consisting of Messrs. H. L. Gantt, Har- 
 rington Emerson, and Charles Day, investi- 
 gated the present functions and conditions of 
 navy yards. They discussed the efficiency of 
 their management in comparison with that of 
 industrial plants and made certain recommen- 
 dations in regard to the nature of the work 
 properly to be performed in navy yards and 
 "that scientific management be introduced and 
 perpetuated in the navy yards which it is 
 decided to operate. ,, Former Secretary George 
 von L. Meyer 3 seems to have favored this 
 development. 
 
 Mr. Wilfred Lewis, in "Conserving the Data 
 of Scientific Management/' 4 suggests the op- 
 portunities for colleges to assist in securing 
 
 1 "A Plea for a Standard Organization of the Engineer 
 Division Aboard Ship," etc., Journal, American Society of 
 Naval Engineers, vol. 23, p. 681. 
 
 2 Prepared by direction of Hon. George von L. Meyer, Sec- 
 retary of the Navy. (Washington, 19 12.) 
 
 3 "The Business Management of the Navy," Scientific 
 American, December 9, 191 1, vol. 105, p. 513. See also editorial, 
 "Scientific Management on Sea and Shore," Scientific Ameri- 
 can, June 3, 191 1, vol. 104, p. 542. 
 
 4 Iron Age, December 5, 1912, vol. 90, pp. 1324-25. 
 
204 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 and participating in the results of scientific 
 management investigations. 
 
 The most ambitious attempt to apply the 
 Taylor principles to selling has been made by 
 Mr. Charles W. Hoyt. 1 He describes such 
 modern methods as training classes, salesmen's 
 conventions, standardized talks, and he outlines 
 rather inadequately the application of the 
 scientific method of approach to the problems 
 of salesmanship. 2 A good description of the 
 methods of routing salesmen employed in a 
 well-known scientific management plant is 
 given by Mr. H. W. Brown. 3 
 
 The growing realization that perhaps the 
 greatest economic waste from which we suffer 
 is due to the inefficient management of house- 
 hold economy has resulted in some attention 
 being given to the working of the Taylor prin- 
 ciples in domestic management. Perhaps the 
 most thoughtful book on this subject is that of 
 
 1 Scientific Sales Management. (New Haven, 1913.) 
 
 2 Other articles dealing briefly with this subject are Mr. 
 Amasa Walker's "Scientific Management Applied to Commer- 
 cial Enterprises," Journal of Political Economy, vol. 21, p. 
 388, and Mr. J. George Frederick's " Applying the Science of 
 Management to Selling," Industrial Engineering, vol. 12, 
 p. 204. See also Enrico Alfredo Masino, "I Sistema Taylor 
 Applicato alle Imprese Commerciali," Rivista dellp Societa 
 Commerciali, Fasc. 8-9. (Roma, 1913.) 
 
 8 " Scientific Handling of Salesmen," Industrial Engineering, 
 October, 1914, vol. 14, no. 3, p. 358. 
 
THE LITERATURE 205 
 
 Mrs. Mary Pattison, " Principles of Domestic 
 Engineering,' ' x which builds up from the funda- 
 mental concept of the nature and purpose of 
 the home and includes some of the results of 
 her work at the Housekeeping Experiment 
 Station at Colonia, New Jersey. Another stim- 
 ulating book on the subject is that of Martha 
 B. and Robert W. Bruere, 2 and there is a good 
 article by Lucy M. Griscom in the Journal of 
 Home Economics. 3 A most suggestive article is 
 that by Mr. J. B. Guernsey, 4 which, however, 
 is rather too vague and theoretical to be of 
 practical service. 
 
 A widespread interest in scientific manage- 
 ment has led to the consideration of its applica^ 
 tion, of course in modified form, to the profes- 
 
 1 Colonia, New Jersey, 19 15. 
 
 2 Increasing Home Efficiency. (New York, The Macmillan 
 Co., 1912. 318 pp.) 
 
 3 "The Elimination of Waste in the Household," Journal 
 of Home Economics, June, 1910, vol. 2, pp. 292-97. 
 
 4 "Scientific Management in the Home," Outlook, vol. 100, 
 p. 821, keenly criticized in "Scientific Management in the 
 Home," ibid., vol. 102, pp. 72-74. See also H. P. T., "House- 
 keeping as a Business," ibid., June 8, 1912, vol. 101, pp. 
 303-05; Francis E. Leupp, "Scientific Management in the 
 Family," ibid., August 12, 191 1, vol. 98, pp. 832-37; Frank 
 B. Gilbreth, "Scientific Management in the Household," 
 Journal of Home Economics, December, 19 12, vol. 4, pp. 
 438-47; and M. Atkinson, "The Application of Scientific 
 Methods to Housekeeping," Living Age, October 24, 1908, vol. 
 259, pp. 227-33. Cm page 240 will be found references to the 
 application of time and motion studies in household manage- 
 ment. 
 
206 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 sions. Professor W. F. Ostwald l shows where 
 it may be useful to scientists in their work. 
 Dean Shailer Mathews 2 indicates how church 
 management may profit by it, and H. W. Jes- 
 sup 3 uses it with considerable effect in a severe 
 criticism of judicial methods. 
 
 It is not strange that the best-known and 
 most popular books on the principles of scien- 
 tific management are not those written by its 
 originator and his co-workers; they are the 
 product of persons who have been influenced 
 by them and whose gift of expression is more 
 highly developed. Foremost among these are 
 two books by Mr. Harrington Emerson, 4 
 marked by a breadth of interesting informa- 
 tion, and a capacity for inspiring, almost poetic, 
 elucidation, which have made them the most 
 popular expositions of the subject. 5 
 
 1 "Scientific Management for Scientists," Scientific Ameri- 
 can, January 4, 1913, vol. 108, pp. 5-6. 
 
 2 Scientific Management in the Churches. (Chicago, Uni- 
 versity of Chicago Press, 1912. 66 pp.) 
 
 ■ "Legal Efficiency," Bench and Bar, March, 1913, vol. 4, 
 pp. 55-68. 
 
 4 Efficiency (New York, 19 10), and The Twelve Principles 
 of Efficiency (19 12). 
 
 6 Three other simplified expositions worth mentioning are 
 The Primer of Scientific Management (New York, 1912), by 
 Mr. F. B. Gilbreth; The Psychology of Management (New York, 
 1913), by Mrs. L. M. Gilbreth; and an excellent presentation 
 by Lauritz A. Larsen, Scientific Management. (New York, 
 Alexander Hamilton Institute, 191 1.) 
 
THE LITERATURE 207 
 
 Mr. Emerson discusses certain typical ineffi- 
 ciencies and their significance, the causes of 
 national industrial prosperity, the strength and 
 weakness of existing systems of organization. 
 He then proceeds to an exposition of his own 
 method of line and staff organization, the de- 
 termination and realization of standards, cost 
 accounting, the location and elimination of 
 wastes, and the Emerson bonus system. His 
 method differs from that of Mr. Taylor in two 
 respects : in the first place, in the line and staff 
 organization, the staff consisting of the experts 
 occupies an auxiliary and advisory relation to 
 the management, whereas in the Taylor Sys- 
 tem, the experts are the functional foremen and 
 are an integral executive part of the organiza- 
 tion; in the second place, the Emerson bonus 
 proceeds on the rough determination of a stand- 
 ard efficiency which he calls one hundred per 
 cent ; the workman who attains sixty-seven per 
 cent or less gets his guaranteed day wages, and 
 is paid a bonus on a sliding scale for every in- 
 crease in the percentage of efficiency; at one 
 hundred per cent the bonus amounts to twenty 
 per cent of his wages and one per cent is added 
 for each additional one per cent of efficiency. 
 As the task is not originally so accurately and 
 thoroughly set as in the Taylor System, the 
 
208 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 workman can, and frequently does, exceed the 
 one hundred per cent mark. 
 
 Mr. Emerson states the principles of man- 
 agement as follows: (i) clearly defined ideals; 
 (2) common sense; (3) competent counsel; (4) 
 discipline ; (5) the fair deal ; (6) reliable, imme- 
 diate, and adequate records; (7) dispatching; 
 (8) standards and schedules; (9) standardized 
 conditions; (10) standardized operations; (11) 
 written standard-practice instructions; (12) 
 efficiency reward. Most of these are not by any 
 means peculiar to scientific management, nor 
 can it be said that Mr. Emerson's application 
 of them is distinctively original. Incidentally 
 it is interesting to note the gradual change from 
 Mr. Emerson's acknowledgment of indebted- 
 ness to Mr. Taylor, in certain discussions in the 
 American Society of Mechanical Engineers, to 
 the reversal of this position in his later pub- 
 lished work. Mr. Emerson has made charac- 
 teristic suggestions for the application of his 
 principles to waterworks, 1 high schools, 2 and 
 many other activities. 
 
 Within the last few years an extensive liter- 
 
 1 "The Principles of Efficiency Applied to Waterworks." 
 Proceedings, American Waterworks Association, 19 12. 
 
 8 "Scientific Management and High School Efficiency," 
 Official Bulletin High School Teachers' Association of New 
 York City, no. 35, November 9, 1912. 
 
THE LITERATURE 209 
 
 ature on the general principles and methods 
 of scientific management has been growing 
 up in Europe. The best analysis of principles 
 is that to be found in the various publica- 
 tions of the distinguished French engineer, M. 
 LeChatelier. 1 
 
 Another French engineer, M. de Freminville, 
 has investigated the subject in the United 
 States and published his results with illumi- 
 nating comments. 2 A German engineer, Hugo 
 Borst, also visited the States and reported his 
 conclusions in an interesting address. 3 Profes- 
 sor Wallichs has given considerable publicity 
 to the methods of the Taylor System as he 
 derived them from Mr. Taylor's books. 4 In a 
 long list of articles based on such knowledge as 
 may come from reading on the subject may be 
 
 1 Organisation Scientifique, Principes et Application. (Dunod 
 et Pinat, Paris, 1915.) See also LeChatelier, Revue de Metal- 
 lurgie, vol. xn, April, 1915, which contains reprints of a number 
 of articles as a memorial to Mr. Taylor. 
 
 2 " Le Systeme Taylor, Memoires," Bulletin, Societe d'En- 
 couragement pour l'lndustrie Nationale (March, 1914, Paris), 
 and "Le Systeme Taylor et L'Organisation Scientifique de 
 Travail dans les ateliers," La Reforme Sociale, March, 19 14, 
 vol. 67, p. 321. 
 
 8 Das Sogennante Taylor -System. (Stuttgart, 1914.) 
 4 " Moderne Amerikanische Fabrikorganisationen (System 
 Taylor), Technik und Wirtschaft," Monatschrift des Vereines 
 Deutscher Ingenieure. (V Jahrgang, 1912, Heft. I. Berlin); 
 "Erhohung der Wirtschaftlichkeit durch Moderne Arbeits- 
 verfahren (System Taylor)," Armierter Beton (VI Jahrgang, 
 January, 1913, Berlin); and "Amerikanische Grundsatze der 
 Betriebsleitung," Der Tag, December 8, 191 1. 
 
210 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 mentioned especially those of A. C. Allingham, 1 
 Wilhelm Wirz, 2 G. Schlesinger, 3 S. Valenti 
 Camp, 4 A. Voight, 5 Rudolph Seubert, 6 and 
 Gine Scanferla. 7 All these are significant 
 mainly for their showing of the widespread 
 interest in the new industrial doctrines. 8 
 
 Out of the large number of books written 
 within the last five years on the general subject 
 of factory administration, four of the most im- 
 portant devote attention to a discussion of sci- 
 entific management and show in general con- 
 siderable influence by it. The most noteworthy 
 
 1 "Scientific Shop Management on the Taylor System," 
 Proceedings, Junior Institution of Engineers, November and 
 December, 1912, London. 
 
 2 "Taylors Betriebsystem " (Zurich, 1913); and "Taylors 
 Betriebsystem," Zeitschrift fur Handelswissenschaft und Handel- 
 spraxis (1913, H. 5, P- I33)« 
 
 3 "Practical and Scientific Management: The Taylor Sys- 
 tem from the Viewpoint of a German Engineer," Industrial 
 Engineering, September, 1913, vol. 13, pp. 376-80. 
 
 4 " Indagaciones y Lecturas; La Direccion Cientifica del 
 Trabajo Humano," Estudio, vol. vn, p. 232, August, 1914. 
 
 6 "Taylors System in Deutschland," E,lsassisches Textil- 
 Blatt, July 1-8, 1913. 
 
 e Amerikanische Fabrikorganisation nach System Taylor. 
 1911. 
 
 7 "Note sul sistema Taylor per l'organizzazione del lavoro 
 nelle officine," Industria, December 15, 1912. 
 
 8 For a collection of articles covering the theory and some 
 details of the practice of scientific management, from Ameri- 
 can sources mainly, see C. B. Thompson's Scientific Manage- 
 ment (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 19 14); and the 
 reviews of the same in the Nation (New York), December io, 
 1914; and J. S. H., "Industrial Efficiency," Protectionist, 
 December 4, 1914, p. 542, vol. 26, no. 8. 
 
THE LITERATURE 211 
 
 of these are by Mr. Charles B. Going, 1 Mr. 
 Dexter Kimball, 2 and Mr. A. Hamilton Church 3 
 — these are especially valuable for the setting 
 they give scientific management in the devel- 
 opment of modern administrative methods. 
 Messrs. Galloway, Hotchkiss, and Mayor, 4 
 Hugo Diemer, 5 Norris A. Brisco, 6 J. Russell 
 Smith, 7 Oscar E. Perrigo and Hugo Diemer, 8 
 and Frederick A. Waldron, 9 have published 
 books and articles on the general principles 
 of factory management, showing very strongly 
 the influence of the Taylor and allied sys- 
 tems. 
 
 It is natural that such a radical and far- 
 reaching movement as scientific management 
 should meet criticism. It has in fact been a 
 veritable storm-center. Much of the criticism 
 
 1 Principles of Industrial Engineering. (New York, 191 1.) 
 
 2 Principles of Industrial Organization. (New York, 19 13.) 
 * Science a r nd Practice of Management. (Engineering Maga- 
 zine Company, New York, 1914.) Reviewed in Manufac- 
 turers' Record, October 29, 1914, vol. 66, p. 63. 
 
 4 Business Organization. (New York, 1912.) 
 6 Factory Organization and Administration. (New York, 
 1910.) 
 
 6 Economics of Efficiency. (New York, 19 13.) 
 
 7 Elements of Industrial Management. Reviewed by C. B. 
 Thompson in American Economic Review, vol. vi, p. 377, 
 1916. 
 
 8 "Raising the Efficiency of Men and Machinery," System, 
 April, June, September, 1906. 
 
 9 "Modern Methods of Shop Management," Iron Age t 
 April 28, 1910. 
 
212 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 is aimed at details and will be discussed later; 
 but the following articles go for the system root 
 and branch and should properly be enumerated 
 here. The most comprehensive criticism is that 
 by Admiral John R. Edwards, 1 who sums up 
 the comments of most of the adverse writers, 
 and adds on his own account that scientific 
 management does not cover the whole of man- 
 agement, and that in any case management is 
 an art rather than a science, that the Taylor 
 System antagonizes the workmen and neglects 
 the personal equation, and that whatever ad- 
 vantages have come from it have been inci- 
 dental by-products. Another severe criticism 
 is that by Mr. A. Hamilton Church, 2 who at- 
 tacks particularly certain extracts from' Mr. 
 Taylor's writings, leading to the conclusion 
 that Mr. Taylor does not show a science. 3 Mr. 
 Church and Mr. L. P. Alford 4 undertook to 
 enumerate the principles of management and 
 pointed out the place of the Taylor System in 
 
 1 "The Fetishism of Scientific Management," Journal, 
 American Society of Naval Engineers, vol. 24, p. 355. 
 
 2 "Has Scientific Management Science?" American Ma- 
 chinist, vol. 35, p. 108. 
 
 8 The same point is made in an editorial called "The Science 
 of Management Defined, and the Scope of this Science," En- 
 gineering and Contracting, vol. 39, p. 339. 
 
 4 "The Principles of Management," American Machinist, 
 vol. 36, p. 857. Reviewed by Mr. D. S. Kimball and Mr. J. 
 Calder, ibid., p. 965. 
 
THE LITERATURE 213 
 
 them. 1 Mr. Waldron 2 has indicated what seems 
 to him the insufficient attention the Taylor 
 System has given to the balancing of functions. 
 The system is severely criticized by Mr. John 
 Calder. 3 
 
 As already stated, most of the popular ar- 
 ticles on the subject are obviously journalistic 
 and ephemeral. The most spectacular discov- 
 eries of Mr. Taylor and his co-workers lend 
 themselves easily to " popular" treatment; and 
 the possible results of the application of the 
 stop-watch and the micrometer appeal effec- 
 
 1 Other important general criticisms are those by Mr. Dex- 
 ter S. Kimball, "Another Side of Efficiency Engineering," 
 American Machinist, vol. 36, p. 263, developing briefly some 
 of the social and economic implications of the movement and 
 calling attention to the absence of a discussion of distribution; 
 by H. G. Bradlee, "A Consideration of Certain Limitations 
 of Scientific Efficiency," in Technology and Industrial Effi- 
 ciency, p. 190 (New York, 191 1); reprinted in Stone & Web- 
 ster's Public Service Journal, vol. 8, p. 323, pointing out that 
 for the most effective application conditions must be uniform, 
 work repetitive, and the area of operations small; by Mr. E. C. 
 Peck, "Systematic versus Scientific Management," Iron Age, 
 vol. 88, p. 364, drawing attention to the scarcity of real experts 
 and the dangers of inexpert work; and by Mr. James R. 
 Johnson, "A Manager's View of the Taylor System," Ameri- 
 can Machinist, vol. 34, p. 885, representing the point of view of 
 the typical successful manager, that we should let well enough 
 alone. See also "Industrial Management," Engineering, 
 June 27, 1913; and " Management as seen by the British Tech- 
 nical Press," American Machinist, vol. 40, no. 6, pp. 257-58. 
 
 2 "Factors of Management other than Labor," American 
 Machinist, February 13, 1913, vol. 38, pp. 276-78. 
 
 3 "Overvaluation of Management Science," Iron Age, 
 March 6, 1913, vol. 91, pp. 605-06. 
 
214 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 tively to the imagination of magazine and 
 newspaper writers. Most of their work contains 
 nothing new or significant. A conspicuous ex- 
 ception to this is a series of articles under the 
 caption "The Golden Rule in Business/ ' pub- 
 lished by Miss Ida M. Tarbell in the American 
 Magazine at intervals during 191 4, 1915, and 
 1916. The few popular articles of real value are 
 listed below. 1 
 
 1 The following contain good enough ideas, well enough 
 expressed, to warrant listing and recommending them: Mr. 
 A. G. Popke's "The Relations of Capital, Labor and Efficiency 
 in Manufacturing," Engineering Magazine, vol. 43, p. 857, 
 pointing out the necessity of increasing efficiency; Mr. E. 
 Perry's "The Outsider and the Busy Business Man," ibid., 
 vol. 40, p. 249, answering the old saw that improvement 
 should come from the inside and not from the outside expert; 
 a series of articles by Mr. E. M. Wooley, — "The One Best 
 Way," System, vol. 20, pp. 227, 356, 460, 614; "Scientific 
 Management in the Office," ibid., vol. 21, p. 3; "Getting Out 
 the Mail," ibid., vol. 21, p. 284; "The Wanton Waste of 
 Labor," ibid., vol. 21, pp. 13,173; "Lost Motions in Retail 
 Selling," ibid., vol. 21, pp. 366, 465, — well written and sugges- 
 tive; Mr. H. S. Philbrick's "Scientific Management," World 
 To-day, vol. 21, p. 1167, developing the idea that scientific 
 management is a resumption of the direct oversight over pro- 
 duction which had gradually vanished; an anonymous article, 
 "What is Scientific Management, and What Does it Do?" 
 Industrial Engineering, vol. 9, p. 1 ; an article, also anonymous, 
 on "Efficiency Program," Independent, vol. 70, p. 739; an 
 anonymous article entitled "Aspects of Scientific Manage- 
 ment," Nation, vol. 92, p. 464: and an excellent article by Mr. 
 F. B. Copley, "How it Works: What Manufacturers and 
 Workmen are Getting out of Scientific Management," Amer- 
 ican Magazine, vol. 75, p. 11, summarizing the results of an 
 extensive investigation and approved personally by Mr. Tay- 
 lor. Other articles are listed in italics without comment in 
 the Bibliography, p. 271. 
 
THE LITERATURE 215 
 
 2. Scientific Management in Operation 
 
 As yet little has been published summarizing 
 the results of the application of scientific man- 
 agement in any large proportion of the plants 
 which are using it. The nearest approach to a 
 complete review of its present status is in the 
 Report of the Sub-Committee on Administra- 
 tion of the American Society of Mechanical 
 Engineers, referred to above. 1 It is significant 
 that one of the signers and, I believe, the actual 
 writer of this report, is Mr. L. P. Alford, men- 
 tioned above as one of the critics of the move- 
 ment. Mr. Alford has written another excellent 
 article, 2 based on the experience of a well- 
 known Philadelphia company. Mr. G. D. Bab- 
 cock, production manager of the Franklin Au- 
 tomobile Company, has published an excellent 
 statement of the methods and results of the 
 system in that plant. 3 Mr. A. W. Shaw, editor 
 of the magazine System, gives a good brief re- 
 
 1 See also Symposium on "What Efficiency Means," Inde- 
 pendent, November 30, 19 14, vol. 80, no. 3443, which includes 
 expressions from C. W. Eliot, L. D. Brandeis, J. P. Mitchell, 
 F. A. Vanderlip, C. H. Gary, and others. See also a brief de- 
 scription by A. Wallichs, in "Eindriicke vom Amerikanischen 
 Maschinenbau," Werkstattstechnik, 1912, Heft. 1. Berlin. 
 
 2 "Scientific Management in Use," American Machinist, 
 vol. 36, p. 548. 
 
 3 " Results of Applied Scientific Management," Iron Age, 
 vol. 93, pp. 1402, 1454, 1512, 1572; vol. 94, pp. 14, 90, 134. 
 American Machinist, vol. 40, no. 25, pp. 1063-68. 
 
216 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 view, 1 describing the work of the system at the 
 Tabor Manufacturing Company in Philadel- 
 phia, and suggesting the method of its applica- 
 tion to business problems in general and the 
 results that might reasonably be expected from 
 it. The experience of the Link Belt Company of 
 Philadelphia is described by Mr. James M. 
 Dodge, its late chairman 2 and a complete and 
 detailed explanation of the operation of the 
 Taylor System in that plant is given by Lieu- 
 tenant Frank W. Sterling. 3 The experience of 
 the same plant is the basis of an article by Mr. 
 C. W. Adams, its superintendent. 4 The same 
 methods, as worked out by the Midvale Steel 
 Company, are described by Mr. H. L. Arnold. 5 
 An excellent description of the early application 
 of the system at the Bethlehem Steel Works is 
 published by Mr. H. L. Gantt, 6 and the story 
 
 1 "Scientific Management in Business," Review of Reviews, 
 vol. 43, p. 327. 
 
 2 "A History of the Introduction of a System of Shop Man- 
 agement," Transactions, A.S.M.E., vol. 27, p. 720. 
 
 3 "The Successful Operation of a System of Scientific Man- 
 agement," Journal, American Society of Naval Engineers, 
 vol. 24, p. 167. 
 
 4 "The Differential Piece Rate," American Machinist, vol. 
 34, p. 18. See also "Methods of Management that Made 
 Money," Industrial Engineering, January, 191 1, vol. 9, pp. 
 21-27. 
 
 6 "Preeminent Success of the Differential Piece Rate Sys- 
 tem," Engineering Magazine, vol. 12, p. 831. 
 
 6 "A Practical Application of Scientific Management," 
 Engineering Magazine, vol. 41, p. 1. 
 
THE LITERATURE 217 
 
 of its introduction and results at the Tabor 
 Manufacturing Company is told by Mr. Wil- 
 fred Lewis, the president of the company. 1 
 There is an interesting account of a prema- 
 ture experiment in a French company by Mr. 
 Georges de Ram, a young French engineer who 
 had had some experience in American plants. 2 
 The methods described in Mr. H. P. Kendall's 
 paper 3 are in the main those of the large print- 
 ing and binding establishment of which he is 
 the general manager. Mr. Carl G. Barth gives 
 an interesting anecdotal account. 4 Lieutenant- 
 Commanders W. B. Tardy 5 and A. M. Cook 6 
 give the results of the application of the prin- 
 ciples of the system to gunnery practice and to 
 the administration of a navy yard. The same 
 subject is also dealt with by Mr. Holden A. 
 
 1 "An Object Lesson in Efficiency," in Technology and In- 
 dustrial Efficiency, p. 173. (New York, 191 1.) 
 
 2 "Quelques Notes sur un Essai d' Application du Systerae 
 Taylor dans un Grand Atelier de Mecanique Francais," Revue 
 de Metallurgie, September, 1909. Paris. 
 
 8 "Management: Unsystematized, Systematized, and Sci- 
 entific," Scientific Management, Tuck School Conference, 
 1912, p. 12. Abstract in Industrial Engineering, vol. 10, p. 
 
 374. 
 
 4 "Betterment of Machine-Tool Operation by Scientific 
 Metal Cutting," Engineering Magazine, vol. 42, p. 586. 
 
 5 "Scientific Management and Efficiency in the United 
 States Navy," Engineering Magazine, vol. 41, p. 545; American 
 Review of Reviews, vol. 44, p. 229. 
 
 6 "Scientific Management Methods at a Naval Magazine," 
 Engineering Magazine, vol. 42, p. 75. 
 
218 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 Evans in a series of articles. 1 The application 
 to an automobile repair shop of the modifica- 
 tion of the Taylor System used by Mr. Emerson 
 and his disciples is described by Mr. A. Flack. 2 
 Two extended and complete accounts are 
 those by Mr. Charles B. Going and by Gen- 
 eral William Crozier. Mr. Going's article 3 de- 
 scribes the results achieved by Mr. Emerson in 
 the application of his form of scientific manage- 
 ment to the Santa Fe Railroad, and presents 
 the conclusions of a disinterested spectator re- 
 moved from the stress of the conflict between 
 the railroad managers and their critics. It will 
 be discussed in more detail in the next section. 
 The reports by General Crozier on the applica- 
 tion of the Taylor System to government ar- 
 senals 4 are exceptional in that they give de- 
 tailed costs and comparisons to an extent not 
 considered practicable by the managers of pri- 
 vate concerns. The 191 1 report gives an excel - 
 
 1 "Reduction in Cost of Navy Yard Work," American 
 Machinist, vol. 33, p. 1200; "General Instruction for Machine- 
 Shop Methods," ibid., vol. 31, p. 610; "Detailed Instruction 
 for Machine-Shop Methods," ibid., p. 645; "Do Taylor's 
 Methods Increase Production?" ibid., vol. 34, p. 1133; "Out- 
 put under Scientific Management," ibid., p. 1202. 
 
 2 ' ' Machine-Shop Experience with the Principle of Efficiency 
 Reward," Engineering Magazine, vol. 41, p. 641. 
 
 3 "The Methods of the Santa Fe," Engineering Magazine, 
 vol. 36, p. 909; vol. 37, pp. 9, 225, 337, 541. 
 
 4 Reports of the Chief of Ordnance, 1911, 1912, 1913, and 
 1 914. (Government Printing Office, Washington.) 
 
THE LITERATURE 219 
 
 lent brief r6sum6 of the introduction of the 
 system in the Watertown Arsenal, and a rather 
 full demonstration of the statement that "the 
 practical effect of these methods at the Water- 
 town Arsenal has been a material reduction in 
 the cost of general manufacture at that place," 
 and describes the beginning of the trouble at 
 that arsenal with the molders and machinists. 
 The 1 9 12 report pursues the same subject and 
 quotes comparisons of the cost of production at 
 Watertown and other arsenals where the sys- 
 tem had begun to be installed with bids on the 
 same items from outside concerns. The appen- 
 dix to the 1 91 3 report gives the recent petition 
 of the Watertown employees for the abolition 
 of the Taylor System, and the extended and 
 conclusive reply of General Crozier. 
 
 Accounts of a tentative application of scien- 
 tific management to municipal and govern- 
 mental work are found in the reports of the 
 Milwaukee Bureau of Economy and Efficiency 1 
 and in the report of the President's Commission 
 on Economy and Efficiency. 2 
 
 1 Bulletin no. 19, Eighteen Months 1 Work, Milwaukee, Wis., 
 April 15, 1912. 44 pp. Bulletin no. 20, Garbage Collection, 
 Milwaukee, Wis., January 15, 191 2. 24 pp. 
 
 2 Washington, D.C., Superintendent of Documents, 1913. 
 See also an article by Fred H. Colvin, " Management at Water- 
 town Arsenal," American Machinist, September 12, 19 12, vol. 
 37, pp. 424-27. 
 
220 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 3. Scientific Management and the 
 Railroads 
 
 In the Eastern Rate Case, the application of 
 the railroads to the Interstate Commerce Com- 
 mission for permission to raise freight rates was 
 met by the shippers, under the advice of Mr. 
 Louis D. Brandeis, now Associate Justice of the 
 Supreme Court of the United States, with the 
 counter-argument that, instead of raising the 
 rates to spend more money, they should make 
 their operation efficient to get more out of their 
 present expenditure. In the course of the hear- 
 ings, the following testimony was introduced: — 
 
 Mr. Brandeis. You have been quoted, Mr. Emer- 
 son, as stating that in your opinion, by the intro- 
 duction of proper efficiency system of scientific man- 
 agement, the railroads of the United States could 
 effect an economy of perhaps #300,000,000 a year, 
 or not less than #1,000,000 a day. 
 
 Mr. Emerson. That is correct — that is, I have 
 been quoted as having stated that. 
 
 Mr. Brandeis. Is it your opinion that that is the 
 fact? 
 
 Mr. Emerson. At least that. 1 
 
 Although, as stated above, the decision of the 
 Commission was not affected by this testimony, 
 
 1 Brief on Behalf of Traffic Committee of Commercial Or- 
 ganizations of the Atlantic Seaboard, before the Interstate 
 Commerce Commission, re Investigation of Proposed Ad- 
 vances in Freight Rates by Carriers in Official Classification 
 Territory, p. 92. 
 
THE LITERATURE 221 
 
 the publicity it received stirred up an intense 
 discussion, much of which on the part of the 
 railroads showed signs of the spirit of the man 
 who has been stung. This attitude was due, at 
 least partly, to a highly sensational article in a 
 popular magazine, 1 and is fairly well repre- 
 sented in an address by Mr. Howard Elliott, 
 late president of the New York, New Haven & 
 Hartford Railroad. 2 
 
 The best summary of the testimony bearing 
 on this subject is by Mr. Louis D. Brandeis, 3 
 who has analyzed the meaning, the require- 
 ments, and the effects of scientific manage- 
 ment, and who groups the evidence of the wit- 
 nesses in accordance with the analysis. In an 
 earlier article 4 Mr. Harrington Emerson had 
 pointed out that, in his opinion, the railroads 
 could save $300,000,000 a year, and his articles 5 
 
 1 C. Moffett, "Saving $1,000,000 a day for American Con- 
 sumers," Hampton's Magazine, March, 1911, vol. 26, pp. 346-56. 
 
 2 Efficient Railway Management. (St. Paul, Minn., 191 1.) 
 7 pp. Railway Library, 1910, Chicago, 2d series, pp. 1 10-13. 
 
 3 Scientific Management and Railroads. (New York, 191 1.) 
 Ably reviewed by Mr. Edward D. Jones in the American Eco- 
 nomic Review, vol. 1, p. 833. 
 
 4 "Preventable Wastes and Losses on Railroads," Railway 
 Age Gazette, vol. 45, p. 12. 
 
 6 "How Railroad Efficiency can be Measured," Engineering 
 Magazine, vol. 42, p. 10; and "The Methods of Exact Measure- 
 ment Applied to Individual and Shop Efficiency at the Topeka 
 Shops of the Santa Fe," American Engineer and Railroad Jour- 
 nal, vol. 81, p. 221. Mr. Emerson's work in the Santa Fe work- 
 shops is praised by Mr. W. J. Cunningham in the discussion of 
 
222 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 suggest the method by which he approaches 
 this conclusion. Mr. Emerson had been re- 
 tained by the Santa F6 to develop his form of 
 scientific management in part of their work, 
 and the results are described by Mr. Charles B. 
 Going, 1 who outlines the problems of the road 
 and describes Mr. Emerson's treatment of the 
 stores-keeping, shop-order, and works-order 
 systems, maintenance of motive power, the 
 bonus system, the apprentice system, and rela- 
 tions with the employees. The bonus system is 
 further described by Mr. Fred H. Colvin, editor 
 of the American Machinist. 2 
 
 Mr. Taylor's address on scientific management before the New 
 England Railroad Club (October 10, 191 1). The following 
 articles are also of interest in this connection: David Van 
 Alstyne, " Efficient Shop Management," Railway Age Gazette, 
 May 5, 191 1, vol. 50, pp. 1051-53; F. L. Jandron, "Efficiency 
 and the Railway Wage Problem," Engineering Magazine, No- 
 vember, 1912, vol. 44, pp. 241-47; Clarke J. Morrison, "Fac- 
 tors Influencing Railway Operating Efficiency," November, 
 191 1, vol.42, pp. 241-50. 
 
 1 Methods of the Santa Fe. (Engineering Magazine Company, 
 New York.) 
 
 2 "How Bonus Works on the Santa Fe," American Ma- 
 chinist, vol. 36, pp. 7, 165. See also two articles by Mr. Charles 
 H. Fry, associate editor of the Railway Age Gazette, in that 
 magazine, vol. 41, pp. 476, 504, followed by an editorial on the 
 same subject, vol. 45, p. 413. Mr. Fry outlines the organiza- 
 tion of the work on that road and illustrates with charts and 
 statistics the results attained, particularly in machine-shops. 
 
 It is generally understood that the influence of Mr. Emerson 
 pervades the book of Mr. H. W. Jacobs, Betterment Briefs (New 
 York, 1909, 2d ed.), dealing with Santa Fe machine shop im- 
 provements; reviewed in the Railway Age Gazette, vol. 47, p. 
 1192. 
 
THE LITERATURE 223 
 
 Severe criticism of Mr. Emerson and his 
 methods was made by Mr. Wilson E. Symons. 1 
 Mr. Symons attacks Mr. Emerson's statistics, 
 shows the impossibility, in his opinion, of a 
 million dollars a day saving, denies that Mr. 
 Emerson's work on the Santa Fe was of any 
 value, and gives examples of what he considers 
 real railroad efficiency. Whatever may be the 
 worth of Mr. Symons's statistics, it is evident 
 to any one acquainted with scientific manage- 
 ment that he knows practically nothing of the 
 latter subject, and the paper is valuable mainly 
 by reason of the discussion participated in by 
 many well-known railroad men. 2 
 
 The bitterness of the reaction by some rail- 
 
 1 "The Practical Application of Scientific Management to 
 Railway Operation," Journal, Franklin Institute, vol. 173, 
 pp. 1, 140, 271, 365. See also his reply to an editorial criticism 
 of his own paper in the Railway Age Gazette, vol. 51, p. 1107. 
 
 2 In the same journal appeared a defense of Mr. Emerson by 
 Mr. C. J. Morrison, "Letter on Scientific Management" 
 {Railway Age Gazette, vol. 50, p. 214), and a fair criticism with 
 acknowledgment of variation of the Emerson and the Taylor 
 methods in an anonymous article on "What is Scientific Man- 
 agement?" {ibid., vol. 50, p. 839). Two good editorials on the 
 subject are contained in the Railway Age Gazette: one of which 
 (vol. 50, p. 18) holds that "the basic principles underlying scien- 
 tific management are correct," and the other (vol. 50, p. 210), 
 that "the value and effectiveness of scientific time study can- 
 not be questioned." Some justification of Mr. Emerson's criti- 
 cism of the efficiency of the railroads may be found in an article 
 by Mr. L. C. Fritch, a well-recognized railroad expert, on 
 "Opportunities for Economy on Railways," ibid., vol. 51, p. 
 1059. 
 
224 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 road men is illustrated in a series of anonymous 
 articles, 1 with such titles as "Extravagant 
 Claims," "Impractical Theories," "Neglect of 
 Human Element," "Unscientific Method and 
 Impatience for Results," and "Neglect of 
 Large Factors," which criticize severely some 
 of the practices the writer had apparently met 
 with. It is unfortunate that no means of identi- 
 fication are given, and there is apparently some 
 point to the comment in the letter by Mr. F. L. 
 Hutchins 2 to the effect that the writer of the 
 articles was mistaken in his classification of 
 "efficiency men." The articles are well worth 
 reading, however, as they appear to describe 
 accurately the kind of things done by the many 
 ill-prepared and inexperienced practitioners of 
 "efficiency." 
 
 The objection to scientific management on 
 the railroads on the ground that interference 
 of the labor unions makes it impossible, is 
 voiced by Mr. J. O. Fagan, 3 who reiterates 
 his point that the difficulty with the railroads 
 is the employees. 4 There is also an ilium- 
 
 1 "The Mistakes of the Efficiency Men," Railway Age 
 Gazette, vol. 50, pp. 29, 230, 391, 849, 1059. 
 
 2 Railway Age Gazette, vol. 50, p. 268. 
 
 8 "The Dream of Scientific Management on Railroads," 
 Journal of Accountancy, vol. 12, p. 1. 
 
 4 See also the discussion between Mr. Fagan and Mr. E. H. 
 Abbott in "Humpty Dumpty's Question, and Its Answer," 
 
THE LITERATURE 225 
 
 inating and fair discussion of this subject by 
 Professor W. J. Cunningham, of Harvard Uni- 
 versity. 1 
 
 Other fundamental objections to the applica- 
 tion of scientific management to railroads are 
 discussed by Professor Cunningham. 2 After 
 stating the principles of the Taylor System, he 
 discusses the testimony of Mr. Emerson and 
 points out the vagueness of the methods pro- 
 posed by him. He criticizes severely Mr. Emer- 
 son's statistics and particularly the method by 
 which he arrives at the one million dollars a day 
 saving. Acknowledging the success of scientific 
 management in commercial undertakings, he 
 points out four essential differences between 
 manufacturing establishments and railroads: 
 (1) area and extent of activity; (2) nature of 
 
 Outlook, vol. 97, p. 543. The subject is also dealt with in an 
 anonymous article in the Iron Age, "Railroad Efficiency and 
 the Labor Unions," February 23, 191 1; and the responsibility 
 for the problem is traced in an anonymous article, ' ' Genesis of 
 Railway Brotherhoods," Railway Age Gazette, vol. 50, p. 782; 
 the point is also mentioned by Mr. W. D. Hines in "Scientific 
 Management for Railways," Nation, vol. 91, p. 576. 
 
 An excellent example of the official attitude of the organized 
 railroad employees may be found in an article by the President 
 of the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers, Warren S. 
 Stone, Efficiency as the Employee Sees It (Railway Library, 
 191 1, Chicago), pp. 216-24. 
 
 1 "The Railroad Question: Brotherhoods and Efficiency," 
 Atlantic Monthly, September, 1909, vol. 104, pp. 289-302. 
 
 2 "Scientific Management in the Operation of Railroads," 
 Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol. 25, p. 539. 
 
226 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 product and output ; (3) relations with the pub- 
 lic and the Government ; and (4) relations with 
 labor unions, — any one of which, in his opin- 
 ion, makes an application of the system to rail- 
 roads impracticable. He then shows that the 
 railroads have in fact for some time been apply- 
 ing scientific management of their own kind, 
 and that the remedy for their administrative 
 difficulties lies in a further application of the 
 same methods by better and more efficient 
 men. 
 
 Another railroad man, Mr. C. de L. Hine, in 
 a stimulating and suggestive book, 1 develops 
 the thesis that specialization has already been 
 carried too far on the railroads and that what 
 they need is decentralization rather than the 
 increased centralization characteristic of scien- 
 tific management. 2 
 
 One of the principal arguments of the rail- 
 roads was that, so far as scientific management 
 was applicable to railroading, it was already 
 being applied, as was pointed out in Mr. Cun- 
 ningham's article already referred to. An at- 
 tentive study of the examples given by the rail- 
 road writers, however, shows that in the main 
 
 1 Modern Organization. (New York, 1912.) 
 8 Attention should also be called to two editorials in the 
 Railway Age Gazette, vol. 50, p. 265 and p. 387. 
 
THE LITERATURE 227 
 
 they have mistaken isolated applications of 
 scientific methods for the systematized organ- 
 ization of administration, which is meant by 
 " scientific management." * 
 
 In the mean time, practical heed is being 
 given to the possibility of making some form of 
 application of the new system to railroading. 
 For obvious reasons little is being published on 
 this point, and any reference to the fact that 
 the methods are those of Mr. Taylor or Mr. 
 Emerson is carefully avoided. 2 
 
 The fact seems to be, as expressed 3 by Mr. 
 C. C. Leech, that "the efficiency men simply 
 got in wrong," and that when personalities came 
 to be forgotten, the railroad managers were as 
 
 1 See Mr. C. B. Brewer's *' Substitute for the Rate Increase," 
 etc., Scientific American, vol. 104, p. 596; Mr. B. S. Hinckley's 
 "The Scientific Thought Applied to Railroad Problems," in 
 Technology and Industrial Efficiency, p. 181 (New York, 191 1); 
 Mr. S. M. Felton's "Scientific Management of American Rail- 
 ways," ibid., p. 221 ; and an anonymous article, "The Compar- 
 ative Merits of Functional and Geographical Systems of Or- 
 ganization," Engineering News, vol. 64, p. 692. 
 
 2 This is shown in the articles by Mr. W. J. Harahan on 
 "Scientific Management," Railway Age Gazette, vol. 50, p. 212; 
 by Mr. M. H. C. Brombacher on "Application of Scientific 
 Management to a Railway Shop," ibid., vol. 51, p. 23; by 
 Messrs. H. F. Stimpson, L. W. Allison, J. S. Sheafe, and C. J. 
 Morrison, on "Application of Scientific Management to a 
 Railway Shop," ibid., vol. 51, p. 33; and by Mr. B. A. Franklin 
 on "An Efficiency Experiment Station for the Railroads," 
 Engineering Magazine, vol. 42, p. 1. 
 
 8 "A Letter on Efficiency," Railway Age Gazette, vol. 51, 
 p. 221. 
 
228 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 alive as any one to the possibilities of improve- 
 ment. 1 As evidence of the truth of this 2 may 
 be cited the work in the Canadian Pacific 
 shops, where scientific methods have been in- 
 stalled by Mr. Gantt and maintained and de- 
 veloped by Mr. Vaughan, a leading railroad 
 expert. 3 Mr. Colvin 4 described the same work 
 and Mr. Zepp 5 shows how scientific manage- 
 ment has been applied abroad in a large railway 
 car factory. Accounts of applications on the 
 
 1 An anonymous article, "Scientific Management of Rail- 
 way Shops," Machinery, vol. 10, p. 16, calls attention to the 
 steps taken by railroads to investigate efficiency as a result of 
 the agitation; and an editorial in Engineering and Contracting, 
 "The Railways and Scientific Management," vol. 35, p. 379, 
 points out that scientific management is now being applied to 
 the railroads. 
 
 E. R. Dewsnup, "Freight Car Efficiency," Western Railway 
 Club, Official Proceedings, 1907-08, shows the need of a sta- 
 tistical study of car accounting, interchange and equipment, 
 and points out the failure to attack and solve real problems. 
 E. H. De Groot, "The Switching Factor in the Efficiency Prob- 
 lem," St. Louis Railway Club, Proceedings, June 9, 191 1, vol. 
 16, pp. 21-24, discusses the current inefficient lay-out of tracks 
 from the same point of view. 
 
 2 In spite of the conclusion by Mr. George J. Burns, in 
 "Notable Efficiencies in Railway Machine-Shop Operation," 
 Engineering Magazine, vol. 42, pp. 161, 386, 616, that the 
 setting of standards in a railroad shop is impossible. 
 
 1 "Canadian Pacific Shop Management," American Ma- 
 chinist, vol. 35, p. 1 164; and "Scheduling Locomotive Repair 
 Work on the Canadian Pacific Railway," Industrial Engineer- 
 ing, vol. 8, p. 380. 
 
 4 "Time-Saving Railroad Shop Methods," American Ma- 
 chinist, October 5, 191 1, vol. 35, pp. 628-31. 
 
 6 "Letter on Efficiency," Railway Age Gazette, vol. 51, p. 
 643. 
 
THE LITERATURE 229 
 
 Frisco Road 1 and in the shops of the Milwau- 
 kee Electric Railway 2 have also been pub- 
 lished. 
 
 4. Methods 
 
 In current discussions of scientific manage- 
 ment so much emphasis has been laid upon such 
 things as time study, motion study, functional 
 foremanship, instruction cards, and slide rules, 
 that there is serious danger of these mechan- 
 isms of the system being taken for the system 
 itself. With the warning, however, that de- 
 tailed methods, either separately or in mere 
 aggregation, are not scientific management, it 
 is worth while to report the best of the articles 
 and books which have appeared describing 
 these methods. Nor is it superfluous to warn 
 readers of these articles that the methods dealt 
 with are so technical in their nature that their 
 successful practice requires not only an expert 
 in the methods used, but an expert in the 
 proper adjustment of these methods to each 
 other and particularly to the entire spirit of 
 scientific management. 
 
 There is an excellent series of articles dealing 
 
 1 "Mechanical Department Progress on the Frisco," Rail- 
 way Age Gazette, November 6, 1914, vol. 57, pp. 845-50. 
 
 2 "Efficiency Engineering in the Shops of the Milwaukee 
 Electric Railway," Electric Railway Journal, March 21, 19 14. 
 
230 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 with the method of approach to the system, 1 
 most of which are amplifications of the warn- 
 ings so liberally scattered through Mr. Taylor's 
 own books. The point of all of them is that no 
 management should undertake to develop the 
 Taylor System in its plant, unless it is prepared 
 for a very considerable expenditure of time, 
 money, and effort and a slow process of mental 
 revolution on the part of itself and its em- 
 ployees. 
 
 Of the growing shelfful of books on the entire 
 subject, the best is, of course, Mr. Taylor's 
 Shop Management referred to above. This book 
 
 1 The best of these are Mr. James M. Dodge's "The Spirit 
 in which Scientific Management should be approached," 
 Scientific Management, Tuck School Conference, p. 142; ab- 
 stract in Industrial Engineering, vol. 10, p. 350; Mr. H. K. 
 Hathaway's "Prerequisites to the Introduction of Scientific 
 Management," Engineering Magazine, vol. 41, p. 141. Atten- 
 tion may also be called to C. Bertrand Thompson's "How the 
 Taylor System Works," Factory, November, 1914, vol. 13, p. 
 325; ibid., December, 1914, vol. 13, p. 409; Henry P. Kendall, 
 "The Attitude of Management and Men," Industrial Engi- 
 neering, May, 1913, vol. 13, pp. 201-02; F. W. Taylor, " Chang- 
 ing from Ordinary to Scientific Management," ibid., vol. 11, p. 
 267; George F. Card, "Scientific Management," American 
 Machinist, March, 191 2. The editor has an excellent editorial 
 in Industrial Engineering on "Installation of Scientific Man- 
 agement," vol. 10, p. 301; and there is a good article in the 
 Iron Age by Mr. E. M. Taylor, "Modern Methods and the 
 Business Specialist," vol. 84, p. 184. There is a suggestive and 
 humorous account of the way not to do it, called "Echoes from 
 the Oil Country," by Mr. W. Osborne, American Machinist, 
 vol. 34, p. 1036; and another by Mr. H. K. Hathaway, in the 
 discussion of Mr. Taylor's "Art of Cutting Metals," TransaC" 
 tions, A.S.M.E., vol. 28, p. 281. 
 
THE LITERATURE 231 
 
 deals mainly with machine-shop practice, but 
 the principles and methods are developed in 
 such a way that their application to other types 
 of industry is not difficult if made by those 
 sufficiently trained. The book on Concrete 
 Costs by Mr. Taylor and Mr. Sanford E. 
 Thompson, referred to above, applies scientific 
 management to concrete construction. The 
 other books detailing methods of application 
 are written by men who have studied more or 
 less with Mr. Taylor, or have been strongly in- 
 fluenced by his methods. One of the best of 
 these is by Mr. F. A. Parkhurst, 1 which includes 
 a series of articles reprinted from Industrial 
 Engineering. The book includes an outline of 
 the organization of a plant under scientific 
 management, and detailed statements of the 
 functions of all the principal functional fore- 
 men, an analysis of routing, stores systems 
 and time study, a discussion of standardization 
 and many illustrations of forms and appliances. 
 The methods described are based on the prac- 
 tice of the Ferracute Machine Company, and 
 differ only slightly from the approved practice 
 of the original Taylor group. Another excellent 
 book by Mr. Holden A. Evans, formerly Naval 
 
 1 Applied Methods of Scientific Management. (New York, 
 1912.) 
 
232 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 Constructor at the Mare Island Navy Yard, 1 
 deals particularly with machine-shop, smith- 
 shop, and woodworking-shop methods, and il- 
 lustrates reductions in cost accomplished by 
 these methods in navy yards under the author's 
 supervision. In addition to its treatment of 
 costs, it is concerned mainly with such develop- 
 ments in the direction of scientific management 
 as may be undertaken by a manager not spe- 
 cially trained in the Taylor methods. 2 
 
 Perhaps the most complete description of 
 detailed methods of scientific management, as 
 at present practiced, is that published by my- 
 self. 3 There is an excellent description of some 
 of the methods of the Tabor Manufacturing 
 Company in a book by a young German engi- 
 neer who studied for some time in that plant. 4 
 The methods of the Emerson type of scientific 
 
 1 Cost Keeping and Scientific Management. (New York, 1 9 1 2 . ) 
 
 2 There is a good statement of underlying principles in Mr. 
 Evans's article, "Scientific Factory Management," American 
 Machinist, vol. 33, p. 1 108. The A. W. Shaw Company has pub- 
 lished a little book, How Scientific Management is Applied (Chi- 
 cago, 191 1 ), consisting of a series of reprints of System articles. 
 
 8 C. Bertrand Thompson, Report on Scientific Management. 
 (Chicago, A. W. Shaw Co., 1917.) Many of the articles in C. B. 
 Thompson's Scientific Management (Harvard University 
 Press, Cambridge, 19 14) deal with detailed methods. See 
 reviews in Textile World Record, November, 19 14; Manufac- 
 turers' Record, October 29, 1914; Engineering Record, Novem- 
 ber 14, 1914. 
 
 4 Aus der Praxis des Taylor-Systems. (J. Springer, Berlin, 
 1914.) 
 
THE LITERATURE 233 
 
 management are described in some detail by 
 Mr. C. E. Knoeppel. 1 
 
 The application of scientific management to 
 foundries and machine shops is given in some 
 detail by Mr. Knoeppel 2 in a series of articles 
 reprinted from the Engineering Magazine. This 
 is an interesting and well-written description 
 of the application of scientific management as 
 interpreted by Mr. Emerson and his disciples. 3 
 
 Mr. Walter N. Polakov 4 has published a 
 valuable series of articles on the scientific man- 
 agement of power plants and Mr. P. R. Moses 5 
 has also made contributions of value. 
 
 1 Installing Efficiency Methods. (Engineering Magazine 
 Company, New York, 19 15.) Attention may be called, also, 
 to a rather sketchy book by B. A. Franklin, Experiences in 
 Efficiency. (Engineering Magazine Company, New York, 1915.) 
 
 2 Maximum Production in Machine-Shop and Foundry. 
 (New York, 191 1.) See also Knoeppel, " Current Foundry In- 
 efficiencies and Practices," Foundry, September, 19 14; and 
 Frederick A. Parkhurst, " Scientific Management in the Foun- 
 dry," American Institute of Metals, September, 191 4. 
 
 3 Attention may be called to articles by Mr. Holden A. 
 Evans, "Detailed Instructions for Machine-Shop Methods," 
 American Machinist, vol. 31, p. 16, and "An Analysis of Ma- 
 chine-Shop Methods," ibid., p. 568; and by Mr. Frederick A. 
 Waldron, " Modern Methods of Shop Management," Iron Age, 
 vol. 85, p. 982, which are almost too brief to be very useful. 
 
 4 "Power-plant Betterment by Scientific Management," 
 Engineering Magazine, April-September, 191 1, vol. 41, pp. 
 102-12; 278-92; 448-56; 577-82; 796-809; 970-75. 
 
 6 "Scientific Management in Isolated-plant Operation," 
 Engineering Magazine, February, 1913, vol. 44, pp. 714-20; 
 and "Scientific Management in Power-Plant Operation," 
 Engineering Magazine, Mareh, 1913, vol. 44, pp. 885-93. 
 
234 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 The best articles describing the functions of 
 the planning department are those by Mr. H. 
 K. Hathaway, 1 in which he outlines briefly the 
 duties of the functional foremen and illus- 
 trates the practical working of the extension 
 of specialization to mental and supervisional 
 work. 
 
 Perhaps the most distinctive feature of scien- 
 tific management in the popular conception of 
 the term is its time study. Current methods of 
 time study, however, are frequently confused 
 with the Taylor method. In ordinary practice 
 watches are often used to determine roughly the 
 time an operation usually takes, and the result 
 is sometimes made the basis of a piece rate. 
 This type of time study is known to the Taylor 
 group as an "over-all" study and is never used 
 by them. The Taylor method consists in the 
 analysis of operations into their elementary 
 units, the determination of the best methods 
 and time for the performance of each of these 
 
 1 "The Planning Department," Industrial Engineering, 
 vol. 12, pp. 7, 53, and 97. With these should be read an anony- 
 mous article, "The Foreman's Place in Scientific Manage- 
 ment," Industrial Engineering, vol. 9, p. 197; and the criti- 
 cisms of functional foremanship in Mr. John Calder's "The 
 Production Department," Transactions, The Efficiency Soci- 
 ety, vol. 1, p. 155. Professor Dexter S. Kimball discusses the . 
 development and advantages of the Taylor form of functional 
 organization in "Choosing a Form of Organization," Factory, 
 July, 1914, vol. 13, p. 21. 
 
THE LITERATURE 235 
 
 units, and their summation into a total time for 
 the entire job. 
 
 The best descriptions of elementary time 
 study as practiced by the Taylor group of engi- 
 neers are those by Mr. H. K. Hathaway, 1 Mr. 
 H. W. Reed, 2 Mr. D. V. Merrick, 3 and Ralph 
 W. Langley. 4 A comparison of these articles 
 with the tables of operating times given in 
 Babbage's Economy of Manufactures will effec- 
 tively dispose of any claim that the Taylor 
 methods were anticipated by Babbage. 
 
 Mr. Sanford E. Thompson, one of the early 
 associates of Mr. Taylor, has contributed an 
 interesting article of a more general nature on 
 the same subject. 5 The sections of Taylor's 
 Shop Management on time-study methods were 
 written by Mr. Thompson. 
 
 The practice of time study involves motion 
 
 1 "Elementary Time Study as a Part of the Taylor System 
 of Scientific Management," Industrial Engineering, vol. II, 
 p. 85. 
 
 2 "A Time Study under the Taylor System," American 
 Machinist, vol. 35, p. 689. A good article is that by Mr. N. E. 
 Adamson, Jr., "The Taking of Time Study Observations," 
 Industrial Engineering, vol. 10, p. 439. 
 
 3 "Making Instruction Cards from Time Studies — How 
 Time Study as a Part of Taylor System is Analyzed — Es-. 
 tablishing Standard Times," Iron Age, March 11, 1915, p. 
 560. 
 
 4 "Notes on Time Studies," Industrial Engineering, Sep- 
 tember, 1913, vol. 13, pp. 385-87- 
 
 5 "Time Study and Task Work," Journal of Political Econ- 
 omy, May, 1913, vol. 21, pp. 377~87- 
 
236 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 study. The aim of motion study is to determine 
 the most effective motion to accomplish a de- 
 sired result; and one of the elements in the 
 determination of its effectiveness is the time it 
 takes to execute it. Time study and motion 
 study, therefore, go hand in hand, but it is not 
 impossible to make an effective and profitable 
 motion study without the use of any timing 
 device. There is an interesting foreshadowing 
 of modern motion study in an experiment car- 
 ried out in 1837. This was described by Th. 
 Lefevre, 1 a foreman in the famous printing 
 plant of the Didots, who was struck with the 
 fact that the traditional lay-out of the printer's 
 case was not the one best adapted to the setting 
 of type, in that usually the compositor -had to 
 reach farthest for the most frequently used let- 
 ters. Lefevre, therefore, redesigned the case 
 with a view to the maximum economy of effort 
 and, after a test of both lay-outs, adopted the 
 revised case for his plant. After some years of 
 struggle with the traditions of the printing fra- 
 ternity, the new case was abandoned; but the 
 experiment is a good early illustration of the 
 application of motion study. 
 
 The best descriptions of motion study as such 
 
 1 Guide Pratique du Compositeur. (Paris, 1883, nouvelle 
 edition.) 
 
THE LITERATURE 237 
 
 are given by Mr. Frank B. Gilbreth. 1 Mr. Gil- 
 breth endeavors to list the variables affecting 
 the efficient performance of manual work, and 
 to point out the extent of their influence. They 
 are classed as variables of the worker, including 
 anatomy, brawn, contentment, creed, earning 
 power, experience, fatigue, habits, health, mode 
 of living, nutrition, size, skill, temperament, 
 and training; variables of the surroundings, 
 including appliances, clothes, color, entertain- 
 ment, heating, lighting, quality of material, 
 rewards and penalties, size of unit moved, 
 special fatigue-eliminating devices, surround- 
 ings, tools, union rules, and weight of unit 
 moved; variables of the motion, including 
 acceleration, automaticity, combination with 
 other motions, cost, direction, effectiveness, 
 foot-pounds of work accomplished, inertia and 
 momentum overcome, length, necessity, path, 
 play for position, and speed. The application of 
 motion study to operations so small that they 
 cannot be noted by the human eye unaided is 
 accomplished by means of moving pictures. 2 
 
 1 Motion Study. (New York, 191 1.) See also chap, xiv of 
 his Bricklaying System. (New York & Chicago, 1909.) 
 
 2 "Micro- Motion Study — a New Development in Effi- 
 ciency," Scientific American, vol. 108, p. 84. An illustration of 
 the kind of results achieved is given by Mr. H. L. Gantt, 
 "'Hipped' on Motion Study," Industrial Engineering, vol. 8, 
 p. 307, and by Mr. William D. Ennis, "An Experiment in 
 
238 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 Mr. Gilbreth has devoted a great deal of 
 attention to the development of methods for 
 the study and representation of motions. 1 
 Among the ingenious appliances devised by 
 him for this purpose should be mentioned his 
 "chronocyclegraphs," the name he gives to 
 photographs of motions taken by attaching 
 small electric lights to the hands of the opera- 
 tors in such a way that the course of the motion 
 is recorded by the light on the negative as a 
 continuous line. By introducing a circuit- 
 breaker the light may be made to flash at inter- 
 vals of a second or any fraction thereof and the 
 photograph of the flash indicates the direction 
 of the motion. 2 On the basis of these photo- 
 graphs he has constructed " motion models," 
 wire contrivances reproducing in three dimen- 
 sions the lines in the photographs. 3 The appli- 
 
 Motion Study," ibid., vol. 9, p. 462. Professor Walter D. 
 Scott, "The Rate of Improvement in Efficiency," System, 
 vol. 20, p. 155, presents a useful side-light on its application. 
 The following articles show how it may be used in fields out- 
 side manufacturing: Mr. E. M. Wooley's "Lost Motions in 
 Retail Selling," ibid., vol. 21, pp. 366, 465, "Getting Out the 
 Mail," ibid., p. 284, and Mr. J. G. Frederick and Mr. H. S. 
 McCormack's "Motion Study in Office Work," ibid., p. 563. 
 
 1 See Robert Thurston Kent, "Micro-motion Study in In- 
 dustry," Iron Age, January 2, 1913, vol. 91, pp. 34-37. 
 
 2 Chronocyclegraph Motion Devices for Measuring Achieve- 
 ment. Second Pan-American Congress, Washington, D.C., 
 1916. 
 
 3 Motion Models : Their Use in the Transference of Experi- 
 ence and the Presentation of Comparative Results in Educational 
 
 
THE LITERATURE 239 
 
 cation of these studies to the reconstruction of 
 work for soldiers crippled in the present war 
 is indicated in two interesting articles. 1 In a 
 recent book, Fatigue Study, there are further 
 suggestions on the use and value of refined 
 motion studies. 2 
 
 Unfortunately, there is as yet no comprehen- 
 sive study of industrial fatigue. Many inves- 
 tigators have been working on the subject of 
 human and animal fatigue, but their experi- 
 ments have been carried on almost exclusively 
 in physiological laboratories. A mass of valu- 
 able data has been accumulated in this way, 
 but there still remains an opportunity for some 
 one familiar with the results of these researches 
 to extend them to industrial conditions and 
 determine the laws governing fatigue in indus- 
 try. On the basis of such investigation practical 
 rules may be developed for application to indus- 
 trial and commercial conditions. 
 
 The statement sometimes made that the 
 founders of scientific management had formu- 
 lated the laws of fatigue is altogether too 
 
 Methods. American Association for the Advancement of Sci- 
 ence, Columbus, 1 916. 
 
 1 "Motion Study for the Crippled Soldier," Journal, 
 A.S.M.E., December, 1915, p. 669; "Motion Study for Crip- 
 pled Soldiers," American Association for the Advancement of 
 Science, 19 16. 
 
 2 Fatigue Study. (New York, 1916.) 
 
240 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 broad. The element of truth in it lies in the 
 fact that in certain specific instances the length 
 of time during which a carrier of materials 
 should be under load has been determined, as 
 in the famous case of "Schmidt, the pig-iron 
 handler," and in a number of instances rough 
 determinations of the proportion and distribu- 
 tion of rest periods in the course of a day's 
 work have been made. 1 In no instance, how- 
 ever, to my knowledge, has this work been car- 
 ried on by any one properly equipped with the 
 necessary knowledge of physiology and anat- 
 omy and of the present state of the science of 
 fatigue. 
 
 Motion study is spectacular in its nature and 
 deceptively easy to grasp. It is not to be won- 
 dered at, then, that there have been many sug- 
 gestions of its application to housework, 2 but 
 there is thus far no record of the practical re- 
 sults when the stop-watch, the chronocycle- 
 
 1 Frank C. Heard, "Turning Out More Work by Resting," 
 Factory, July, 1912. 
 
 2 Frank B. Gilbreth, "Motion Study in the Household; 
 Reducing the Cost of Work in Effort and Time," Scientific 
 American, April 13, 1912, vol. 106, p. 328; Florence Cushing, 
 "Shop Methods Applied to Household Administration," 
 Journal of Home Economics, November, 1910, vol. 2, pp. 581- 
 82; Marie Urie Watson, "Scientific Housecleaning," Crafts- 
 man, December, 1912, vol. 23, pp. 353-55; "Laboratory 
 Motion Study " ; an editorial; Engineering and Mining Journal, 
 February 17, 1912, vol. 93, p. 344. 
 
THE LITERATURE 241 
 
 graph, and the motion model have been oper- 
 ated on the cook and the housemaid. 1 
 
 The result of properly directed time and mo- 
 tion study is the standardization of methods and 
 equipment to secure the largest output in the 
 minimum time with no material increase of effort. 
 
 Several good accounts of the effects of motion 
 study have been published. 2 
 
 Once standardization is effected, the method 
 is reduced in detail to writing in the form of an 
 instruction card 3 which is given the operator 
 as a guide to the accomplishment of the pre- 
 determined standard of production. 
 
 The multiplicity of data from which instruc- 
 tion cards are compiled must be reduced to such 
 
 1 For an amusing and imaginative account of possibilities 
 in this direction reference may be made to a series of stories 
 about "Efficiency Edgar," which appeared in the Saturday 
 Evening Post during 191 6. 
 
 2 Robert T. Kent, "Motion Study in the Box Shop," In- 
 dustrial Engineering, August, 1913, vol. 13, pp. 325-30; "Mo- 
 tion Study for the Moveman," ibid., March, 1913, vol. 13, pp. 
 99-102; Leo J. Cleary, "How Six Managers Saved Lost Mo- 
 tion," Factory, November, 1912, vol. 9, pp. 408-09, 432; N. E. 
 Adamson, Jr., "Production Betterment by Time Studies," 
 Iron Age, April 4, 191 2, vol. 89, p. 835. 
 
 3 These instruction cards are illustrated in the article by 
 Mr. Hathaway on time study referred to above, and in the 
 following: Mr. H. W. Reed's "Following a Fixed Schedule 
 Under the Taylor System," American Machinist, vol. 35, p. 
 1020; and "Two Turret Lathe Instruction Cards," ibid., vol. 
 36, p. 915. See also Mr. Frank B. Gilbreth's "The Instruction 
 Card as a Part of the Taylor Plan of Management," Industrial 
 Engineering, vol. 11, p. 380. 
 
242 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 form that they can easily be made available. 
 Particularly is this true in the case of the condi- 
 tions affecting the most economical cutting of 
 metal. The vast body of information on this 
 subject, as given in such a work as Mr. Tay- 
 lor's " Art of Cutting Metals/' 1 must, for prac- 
 tical purposes, be made handy for use by the 
 instruction-card man. This is the purpose of 
 the slide rules devised and described by Mr. 
 Carl G. Barth. 2 Mr. Barth shows how the 
 same methods by which slide rules for the solu- 
 tion of ordinary mathematical problems have 
 been constructed, may be applied to the con- 
 struction of slide rules for the solution of the 
 more complicated mathematical problems in- 
 volved in the determination of the proper speed, 
 feed, and depth of cut for machine tools. Tech- 
 nical details of the results of these methods are 
 given in a highly interesting series of articles 
 by Mr. L. P. Alford. 3 
 
 1 Transactions, A.S.M.E., vol. 28, p. 31. 
 
 2 "Slide Rules as Part of the Taylor System," Transactions, 
 A.S.M.E., vol. 25, p. 49. See also L. Descroix, Les regies et 
 cercles & calcul de Fred W. Taylor et Carl G. Barth pour V applica- 
 tion du Sysfeme de Taylor dans V atelier mecanique (Dunot et 
 Pinat, Paris, 1908); Fr. Selter, "Ueber einen Versuch mit dem 
 Taylor-Kalkulationssystem in Deutschland," Werkstattstech- 
 nik, 1910, pp. 129-41 ; R. Poliakoff, "Charts for Taylor's Cut- 
 ting Speeds and Feeds," American Machinist, November 26, 
 1914, vol. 41, pp. 935-36. 
 
 3 "The Respeeding of Lathes," American Machinist, vol. 
 41, no. 23, p. 973; "The Respeeding of Machine Tools," ibid., 
 
THE LITERATURE 243 
 
 In spite of the fact that standardization is 
 so fundamental a feature of scientific manage- 
 ment, not much of consequence has been writ- 
 ten on the subject. 1 In an article by Mr. P. 
 Ballard, 2 the movement is criticized as not 
 scientific, because its standardization methods 
 stand in the way of progress. This illustrates a 
 common fallacy in the discussion of standard- 
 ization as that term is used by the scientific 
 managers. It must be understood that stand- 
 ardization in their sense does not mean stand- 
 ardization of product, which is the common 
 
 vol. 41, no. 24, pp. 1017-21; "Standard Boring-Bar Cutters, 
 Gibs, and Keys," ibid., vol. 41, no. 27, p. 1148; "Standardizing 
 Lathe Tool Posts," ibid., vol. 41, no. 25, p. 1062; "Standard 
 Taper Sockets and Shanks," ibid., vol. 41, no. 25, pp. 11 12-15. 
 
 1 The best available are in the articles by Mr. Charles Day, 
 "Advanced Practice of Economical Metal Cutting," Engi- 
 neering Magazine, vol. 27, p. 549; Keppele Hall, "The Stand- 
 ardization of Papers," Paper, January 19, 1916; Robert T. 
 Kent, "Scientific Management in the Office, " Iron Age, Jan- 
 uary 7, 1915, vol. 95, no. 1, p. 82; Carl Bennett Auel, "Stand- 
 ardization in the Factory," Iron Age, December 3, 1914, vol. 
 94, no. 23, p. 1280; and in a book : by Mr. C. U. Carpenter, 
 Profit-Making Management. (New York, 1908.) There is a 
 brief but suggestive article by Mr. E. M. Wooley on "Scien- 
 tific Management in the Office," System, vol. 20, p. 3, dealing 
 with the standardization of office equipment and supplies, and 
 a characteristic note by Mr. Frank E. Gilbreth on "The First 
 Case of Standardization," Transactions, The Efficiency Soci- 
 ety, vol. 1, p. 257, taking the shape of a brick as his ex- 
 ample. 
 
 2 "Scientific Management and Science," Cassier's Magazine, 
 vol. 41, p. 425. See also Henry Harrison Suplee, "Some Basic 
 Principles of Efficiency," Cassier's Magazine, September, 
 1912, vol. 42, pp. 233-38. 
 
244 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 acceptance of the term, but the determination 
 of the best material, equipment, and process 
 discoverable at any given time and adherence 
 to it until a better is found. So far from stand- 
 ing in the way of progress, this conception 
 of standardization rather stimulates and aids 
 more rapid improvement, for it makes possible 
 substantial improvements on the solid basis 
 of what is already known, instead of the labo- 
 rious rediscovery of methods already worked 
 out and even, perhaps, abandoned for good 
 cause. 
 
 In the Taylor System, the term " routing" 
 has two significations. Sometimes it refers to 
 the physical lay-out of plants and the relation- 
 ship of departments, — in this sense it is most 
 completely treated by Mr. Charles Day; l 
 more usually, however, it is concerned with the 
 analysis of the sequence of operations on the 
 work and the determination of the place and 
 time for each operation and group of opera- 
 tions. On this latter, the most intricate feature 
 of the system, little has been published out- 
 side of Mr. Taylor's Shop Management. 2 
 
 1 Industrial Plants. (New York, 191 1.) 
 
 2 The only references of consequence outside the books are 
 the articles by Mr. H. L. Gantt, "The Mechanical Engineer 
 and the Textile Industry," Transactions, A.S.M.E., vol. 32, 
 p. 499; C. W. Adams, "Planning Work Ahead to Save Time," 
 Factory, February, 1909; A. Wallichs, "Taylors Erfolg auf den 
 
THE LITERATURE 245 
 
 Another characteristic feature of the Taylor 
 System is the extensive use of classification and 
 mnemonic symbolization. A series of articles 
 by the present writer points out the purposes 
 and methods of classification and mnemonic 
 symbolization and its application to the various 
 functions of costs, administration, stores sys- 
 tem, routing, and filing. 1 
 
 The use of the mnemonic system for facili- 
 tating the finding of costs has been described 
 in a brief article. 2 
 
 Although the Taylor System has a distinctive 
 type of cost accounting, its details have not 
 been published. The first part of Mr. Holden 
 
 Gebiete der Fabrikorganization," Stahl und Eisen, 19 12, no. 2, 
 Diisseldorf; J. A. Furer, "Management in the Drafting- 
 Room," American Machinist, April 25, 1912, vol. 36, pp. 662- 
 65; H. C. Wight, " Routing Work by Schedule," Factory, May, 
 1912, vol. 8, p. 358. 
 
 1 C. B. Thompson, "Giving a Business a Memory," System, 
 vol. 22, p. 588; "Memory Tags for Business Facts," ibid., vol. 
 23, p. 21; "Taking Factory Costs Apart," ibid., p. 131; "List- 
 ing Stock to Index Wastes," ibid., p. 260; "Keeping Tab on 
 Finished Parts," ibid., p. 386; "Right Filing and Easy Find- 
 ing," ibid., p. 586. 
 
 The only other article on the subject is a brief abstract of a 
 paper by Mr. H. G. Benedict, "The Mnemonic Symbolizing 
 of Stores under Scientific Management," Industrial Engineer- 
 ing, vol. 12, pp. 24, 69. Reference should be made to an early 
 article by Oberlin Smith, "Naming and Symbolizing," Engi- 
 neering Magazine, June, 191 1, vol. 41, pp. 461-70, reprinted 
 from Transactions, A.S.M.E., 1882. 
 
 2 "A Mnemonic System for Distributing Labor Costs on 
 Construction Work," Industrial Engineering, vol. 9, p. 328 
 (anonymous). 
 
246 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 A. Evans's book 1 deals with the subject, but 
 not exactly in the manner in which it is prac- 
 ticed by the Taylor group. 2 
 
 In a recent book on factory costs some de- 
 tails of the Taylor System are indicated. 3 The 
 best description of the Taylor methods for a 
 machine shop is to be found in a book by Ru- 
 dolph Seubert, referred to above. 4 Some details 
 of the application of these methods to rein- 
 forced concrete work are given in an article by 
 John S. Nicholl. 5 The general attitude of the 
 Taylor group toward current cost-accounting 
 methods is well indicated in the articles by H. 
 L. Gantt. 6 A good example of the influence of 
 
 1 Cost Keeping and Scientific Management. (New York, 191 1.) 
 
 8 Mr. A. Hamilton Church's, The Proper Distribution of 
 Expense Burden (New York, 1908), and Production Factors 
 (New York, 19 10), describe a method arrived at by him quite 
 independently, which has been used in part for some time by 
 the Taylor group. There is a brief anonymous article on "Cost 
 and Time Keeping Outfit of the Taylor System," American 
 Machinist, vol. 29, p. 761, and another by Mr. Charles J. 
 Simeon on "The Scientific Management of a Foundry," Iron 
 Trade Review, vol. 50, p. 68, which deal with some of the 
 mechanical details. 
 
 8 C. B. Thompson, How to Find Factory Costs. (Chicago, 
 A. W. Shaw Co., 1916.) 
 
 4 Aus der Praxis des Taylor- Systems. (J. Springer, Berlin, 
 1914.) 
 
 6 "Scientific Cost-Keeping Methods for Reinforced Con- 
 crete Work — The Field and Office System of the Aberthaw 
 Construction Company," Engineering Magazine, January, 
 1913, vol. 44, pp. 511-25. 
 
 6 " Non-Productive Labor — The Fallacy of Its Use as a 
 Measure of Efficient Operation," Engineering Magazine, Jan- 
 
THE LITERATURE 247 
 
 scientific management on accounting methods 
 is a recent book by E. T. Elbourne based on 
 English practice. 1 
 
 The Taylor method of administering a tool 
 room is admirably described by Mr. R. T. 
 Kent, 2 emphasizing the importance of stand- 
 ardization, classification, maintenance, and con- 
 trol. The administration of belting is discussed 
 by Mr. F. W. Taylor. 3 
 
 Attention has often been called to the fact that 
 the second cardinal principle in Mr. Taylor's 
 system, the scientific selection and training of 
 employees, has received no systematic treatment 
 at the hands of the Taylor group, at least so far as 
 selection is concerned. Training is duly empha- 
 sized and illustrated by Mr. Gantt in his Work, 
 Wages, and Profits referred to above. There are 
 two good popular articles on the subject by Mr. 
 E. M. Wooley, "The One Best Way," and "The 
 Wanton Waste of Labor," referred to above. 4 
 
 uary, 1915, p. 577; "The Misleading Effect of Wrong Stand- 
 ards," Industrial Engineering, May, 1913, vol. 13, p. 202; 
 Editorial on Gantt's "Measuring Efficiency," American 
 Machinist, vol. 41, no. 24, p. 1047. 
 
 1 Factory A dministration and A ccounts. (Longmans, Green & 
 Co., London, 1914.) 
 
 2 "The Tool Room under Scientific Management," Indus- 
 trial Engineering, vol. 9, p. 87. 
 
 3 "Notes on Belting," Transactions, A.S.M.E., vol. 15, p. 
 204. 
 
 4 See also Harry F. Porter, "Showing Unskilled Labor 
 'How,'" Factory, October, 1914, vol. 13, pp. 268, 311-14. 
 
248 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 There has been some preliminary discussion 
 of the application of scientific methods to the 
 selection of employees, but it has been on the 
 part of men influenced by, but as a rule not di- 
 rectly connected with, the movement. Profes- 
 sor Walter Dill Scott * has written interestingly 
 on the subject, as has also Mr. R. J. Burke. 2 
 Mr. Gilbreth has suggested a simple plan for 
 systematizing promotions. 3 A movement for the 
 more intelligent guidance of youth in the selec- 
 tion of vocations has brought in its train a study, 
 as yet rather superficial, of the requirements of 
 various trades and professions. It is at least an 
 excellent beginning in the right direction. 4 
 
 The only thing I have found on the selection 
 of employees by any one even remotely con- 
 nected with scientific management is a pam- 
 phlet by Mr. Harrington Emerson, 5 and this is 
 
 1 "Selection of Employees by Means of Quantitative Deter- 
 minations," Annals, American Academy of Political and Social 
 Science, vol. 65, p. 182, 1916. 
 
 2 "Written Specifications for Hiring," Annals, American 
 Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 65, p. 176, 1916. 
 See also "Labor Problems in Scientific Management," Iron 
 Age, December 10, 1914, vol. 94, p. 1369 (anonymous). 
 
 3 "The Three Position Plan of Promotion," Annals, Ameri- 
 can Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 65, p. 289, 
 1916. 
 
 4 Frank Parsons, Choosing a Vocation. (Boston, Houghton, 
 Mifflin & Co., 1909.) Meyer Bloomfield, Vocational Guidance 
 of Youth. (Boston, 191 1.) 
 
 6 The Scientific Selection of Employees. (The Emerson 
 Company, New York.) 
 
THE LITERATURE 249 
 
 an argument for the application of a system of 
 selection which can be characterized only as 
 a refined and slightly modernized phrenology, 
 described in a book by the originators, Dr. 
 Katherine M. H. Blackford and Mr. Arthur 
 Newcomb. 1 
 
 It is evident from this survey that the liter- 
 ature dealing with the actual methods of apply- 
 ing scientific management, while still far from 
 complete, is growing into a respectable volume. 
 The slowness with which these details are made 
 public is due to a number of factors, one among 
 which is the natural reluctance of specialists to 
 divulge the details of their profession, because 
 of their apparently well-grounded fear that the 
 attempt to describe methods which must be 
 modified to meet a wide variety of contingen- 
 cies must necessarily be inadequate and to a 
 certain extent misleading, and that therefore it 
 is safer not to attempt at all to describe them in 
 writing. In view, however, of the rapid exten- 
 sion of scientific management to many varieties 
 of industries, and the comparative scarcity of 
 qualified "experts," it appears that the time is 
 ripe for such an exposition of methods as may 
 be immediately and directly useful to any man- 
 ager of the requisite intelligence to sense their 
 
 1 The Job, the Man, the Boss. (New York, 19 14.) 
 
250 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 place in the system and to apply them with the 
 thoroughness and discretion necessary. 
 
 This criticism of meagerness does not apply 
 to one of the principal methods of scientific 
 management — the use of wages as an incen- 
 tive. There is nothing new about such use of 
 wages, but the method of the Taylor group is 
 characteristically different. With them wages 
 are not used primarily as an incentive to pro- 
 duction but as an incentive to the acceptance 
 of standardized conditions and training and the 
 following of instructions. Increased production 
 is the direct result not of the bonus or differ- 
 ential piece rate systems but of the utilization 
 by the employee, in consideration of higher 
 wages, of the improved methods, materials and 
 equipment provided him by the management. 
 This was the point, though it is not made very 
 clear, in Mr. Taylor's paper on "A Piece-Rate 
 System and Shop Management' ' referred to 
 above, and it runs all through Mr. Gantt's 
 Work, Wages, and Profits. 1 
 
 1 This is brought out a little better by Mr. Harrington Em- 
 erson in a paper on "A Rational Basis for Wages," Transac- 
 tions, A.S.M.E., vol. 25, p. 868. Out of the mass of books and 
 articles on this subject, the following are also suggested, not 
 necessarily because they are written by members of the Taylor 
 group, which few of them are, but because a study of them will 
 help make clear the philosophy of the use of wage systems by 
 that group. The following are comparative discussions of vari- 
 ous methods of wage payment: Mr. S. E. Thompson's "The 
 
THE LITERATURE 251 
 
 5. The Personal Factor in Scientific 
 
 Management 
 
 The apparently cold-blooded statements of 
 Mr. Taylor in Shop Management and The Prin- 
 ciples of Scientific Management in regard to his 
 methods of training employees and the mathe- 
 matical determination of the incentives which 
 actuate their conduct have led to a considerable 
 discussion of the treatment of the "human fac- 
 tor" by scientific management. Discussion is 
 
 Taylor Differential Piece Rate System," Engineering Maga- 
 zine, vol. 20, p. 617; "Differential Piece Rates" (anonymous), 
 Engineering, vol. 80, p. 413; Mr. Clive Hastings's "The Effi- 
 ciency of the Worker and His Rate of Pay," American Engineer 
 and Railroad Journal, vol. 81, p. 238; Mr. Harrington Emer- 
 son's "Different Plans of Paying Employees," Iron Age, vol, 
 82, p. 1150; and Mr. C. B. Thompson's "The Reason for a 
 Payroll," System, vol. 22, p. 249, and "When Higher Wages 
 Pay," ibid., p. 339. See also Sanford E. Thompson, "Time- 
 Study and Task Work," Journal of Political Economy, May, 
 1913, vol. 21, pp. 377-87; H. L. Gantt, "Equitable Labor Com- 
 pensation and Maximum Output," Cassier's Magazine, vol. 25, 
 pp. 540-45, April, 1904; C. J. Morrison, "Short-Sighted 
 Methods in Dealing with Labor," Engineering Magazine, vol. 
 46, no. 4, pp. 566-70; J. T. Towlson, "A British View of Shop 
 Efficiency," American Machinist, August 24, 191 1, vol. 35, 
 pp. 361. To get one's bearings in the discussion, the articles 
 by Messrs. Towne, Halsey, and Rowan, referred to above, 
 should be read, and the following: Mr. W. O. Walker's "The 
 Value of Incentives," American Machinist, vol. 26, p. 996; and 
 Mr. C. J. Morrison's "Piece Rates versus Bonus," ibid., vol. 
 36, p. 178. Highly interesting in this connection are also Mr. 
 Carroll D. Wright's Profit-Sharing, Bureau of Statistics of 
 Labor, no. 15; and the Report of the British Board of Trade on 
 Profit Sharing and Labour Co-Partnership in the United King- 
 dom. (London, 19 12.) 
 
252 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 usually based on the truisms that system can- 
 not take the place of honesty and intelligence; 
 that specialization can be carried too far; that 
 driving is an undesirable feature of factory 
 management; that the workmen should not be 
 made into automata; that they should not be 
 set working against each other's interests; that 
 attention should not be centered exclusively 
 upon men above the average of ability; that the 
 factors of habit and prejudice should not be 
 ignored ; that no solution of economic problems 
 is complete which ignores the problem of dis- 
 tribution ; and that the desires and aspirations 
 of the men toward self-government and democ- 
 racy must be recognized. Most of these points 
 are mentioned in the Report of the House Com- 
 mittee on Labor appointed to investigate the Tay- 
 lor and other Systems of Management, 1 leading 
 to the conclusion that no recommendations 
 were necessary, presumably because the criti- 
 cisms suggested did not apply to the Taylor 
 System. 
 
 The importance of a consideration of the 
 human problem is emphasized by Mr. William 
 C. Redfield. 2 Mr. James M. Dodge, formerly 
 chairman of the Link Belt Company, whose 
 
 1 Government Printing Office, Washington, 19 12. 
 
 2 "The Moral Value of Scientific Management," Atlantic 
 Monthly, vol. no, p. 411. 
 
THE LITERATURE 253 
 
 recent death has deprived scientific manage- 
 ment of one of its foremost advocates, and the 
 workingmen in his extensive plant of one of 
 their best friends, was always insisting on the 
 importance of a just mental attitude toward 
 the human factor. 1 Interesting and convincing 
 illustrations of the practical application of this 
 attitude are given by Mr. Feiss, the manager of 
 a large clothing factory. 2 
 
 The nature of the psychological problems in- 
 volved and an indication of the method of ap- 
 proach to their solution are discussed at some 
 length by Professor Hugo Mtinsterberg. 3 The 
 significance of the work begun by Mr. Taylor 
 and his associates as it appears to a psycholo- 
 
 1 "Industrial Management," Industrial Engineering, Au- 
 gust, 1913, vol. 13, pp. 330-32. See also F. G. Coburn, "Labor- 
 Saving Management and the Present," American Machinist, 
 vol. 40, no. 2, p. 78, and Robert T. Kent, "Enlisting the Fore- 
 men's Cooperation," Industrial Engineering, July, 1913, vol. 
 13, pp. 285-88. 
 
 2 "Personal Relationship as a Basis of Scientific Manage- 
 ment," Annals, American Academy of Political and Social 
 Science, vol. 65, p. 27, 1916. See the review, "The Beginnings 
 of a New Science," Survey, April 19, 1913, vol. 30, pp. 95-96. 
 
 3 Psychology and Industrial Efficiency. (Boston, 1913.) See 
 also Professor Miinsterberg's interesting article, "Psychology 
 and the Navy," North American Review, February, 1913, vol. 
 !97» PP- i59 _ 8o; Gilbreth's The Psychology of Management 
 (New York, Sturgis & Walton, 1914); and Horatio Willis 
 Dresser's Human Efficiency; A Psychological Study of Modern 
 Problems (New York, G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1912). The latter 
 is a highly transcendental study of individual efficiency from a 
 psychological standpoint. 
 
254 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 gist is emphasized, and examples are given of 
 the more refined methods by which the psy- 
 chological laboratory may be made an aid in 
 the discovery of principles for industrial appli- 
 cation. 1 
 
 In a remarkable book by Miss Josephine 
 Goldmark, 2 there is a suggestion that, although 
 scientific management has thus far avoided the 
 pitfall of driving, there has not been the inten- 
 
 1 The fear that scientific management is an effort to substi- 
 tute a system for integrity and ability is voiced by Mr. F. J. 
 Whiting in "The Personal Equation in Scientific Manage- 
 ment," Stone & Webster's Journal, vol. 8, p. 411. The fear of 
 over-specialization finds expression in an editorial in Engineer- 
 ing (London) on "Scientific Management," vol. 93, p. 289, and 
 is apparently the point of an article by Dr. Luther H. Gulick 
 on "The Human Element," Transactions, The Efficiency So- 
 ciety, vol. 1, p. 181, and of one by Mr. A. Hamilton Church on 
 "Intensive Production and the Foreman," American Machin- 
 ist, vol. 34, p. 830. The answer to these may be deduced from 
 Mr. M. P. Higgins's " Intensified Production and its Influence 
 upon the Worker," Engineering Magazine, vol. 20, p. 468; Mr. 
 Frank H. Rose's "The Rise of Labor Through Labor-Saving 
 Machinery," ibid., vol. 27, p. 836; Mr. A. E. Outerbridge, Jr.'s 
 "The Educational Influence of Machinery," ibid., vol. 9, p. 
 225; "The Emancipation of Labor by Machinery," ibid., p. 
 1012, and especially Frank B. and L. M. Gilbreth's "The Ef- 
 fect of Motion Study upon the Workers," Annals, American 
 Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 65, p. 272, 1916. 
 The value of scientific management in finding the place to 
 which the laborer is best fitted and in fitting the man perfectly 
 to fill it is emphasized in an editorial in Machinery, "Helping 
 a Man to Find His Place," vol. 18, p. 279; in Mr. David Van 
 Alstyne's "Profitable Ethics," in Technology and Industrial 
 Efficiency, p. 207 (New York, 191 1); and in Mr. Harrington 
 Emerson's "Ethics and Wages," Outlook, vol. 99, p. 682. 
 
 2 Fatigue and Efficiency. (The Russell Sage Foundation. 
 New York, 1912.) 
 
THE LITERATURE 255 
 
 sive and scientific study of fatigue which might 
 reasonably be expected from the scientific atti- 
 tude of the leaders in the movement. Mr. F. H. 
 Dwight * insists that the bonus, as applied at 
 the Bethlehem Steel Works, is but another 
 method of driving. The completest answer to 
 the criticism of practice, no matter what may 
 be said in regard to the absence of a scientific 
 study of fatigue, is made by Clark and Wyatt, 2 
 who give the results of an intensive investiga- 
 tion of the effect of the Taylor System on 
 women employed under it. This inquiry, begun 
 with the expectation of finding the science of 
 driving reduced to practice, ended after ex- 
 haustive personal study in many plants in a 
 complete exoneration of the Taylor-Gantt 
 methods from this charge. 3 A study of the 
 methods pursued in a scientific management 
 plant will go still further to dispel this illusion. 4 
 The criticism that scientific management 
 
 1 "The Taylor System as a Machinist Sees It," American 
 Machinist, vol. 34, p. 989. 
 
 2 Making Both Ends Meet. (New York, 191 1.) See espe- 
 cially chap. viii. 
 
 * Other significant articles on the same subject are: "Scien- 
 tific Management as viewed from the Workmen's Standpoint," 
 Industrial Engineering, vol. 8, p. 377, and Mr. Wilfred Lewis's 
 "F. W. Taylor and the Steel Mills," American Machinist, 
 vol. 34, p. 655. 
 
 4 Richard A. Feiss, "The Health Factor in Output," Fac- 
 tory, December, 1914, p. 399, vol. 13, no. 6. 
 
256 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 suppresses the initiative and ambition of the 
 workman is presented by Mr. Frank C. Hud- 
 son 1 and further discussed by Mr. Holden A. 
 Evans, 2 and particularly and most effectively 
 by Mr. Charles B. Going 3 who points out that 
 one distinctive feature of the modern systems 
 of management is the restoration of the indi- 
 viduality of the workman. 
 
 The complaint that the effect of the task and 
 bonus method is to concentrate the efforts of 
 each workman exclusively upon his own success 
 and well-being, has not been dignified with a 
 formal article, but is given expression occasion- 
 ally in the hearings before the House Commit- 
 tee on Labor. It is pretty effectively answered 
 in an article by Lieutenant E. D. K. Klyce, 4 
 which points out the absolute necessity of 
 mutual helpfulness and cooperation in the 
 Taylor System. 
 
 Mr. Taylor talks so much about the "first 
 class man" and has emphasized so little his 
 explanation that by the first class man he 
 
 1 "The Machinist's Side of Taylorism," American Machin- 
 ist, vol. 34, P- 773- 
 
 8 "Effect of the Taylor System: What is to Become of the 
 Mechanic?" ibid., vol. 33, p. 1095. 
 
 8 "The Efficiency of Labor," Review of Reviews, vol. 46, 
 
 P. 329. 
 
 4 "Scientific Management and the Moral Law," Outlook, 
 vol. 99, P- 659- 
 
THE LITERATURE 257 
 
 means the man adapted to the job he is doing, 
 that the supposition is only natural that this 
 system aims at the selection of the best only 
 and the elimination of the average and medi- 
 ocre. 1 
 
 The undue haste with which outside follow- 
 ers of scientific management have attempted 
 to revolutionize the methods and habits of 
 thought of workmen and employers has called 
 forth impressive and valuable warnings from 
 Mr. James Hartness. 2 
 
 Mr. Gantt has given some excellent practical 
 advice to managers as to the scope and nature 
 of the qualifications they should possess, which 
 is particularly applicable in case they are con- 
 sidering the development of scientific manage- 
 ment in their plants. 3 
 
 The relation of scientific management to 
 
 1 Illustrations given by Mr. Taylor do unquestionably show 
 the strongly selective effect of his method; but this should not 
 be allowed to distract attention from the effect of systematic 
 training on the development of average and mediocre into 
 "first class" men. This misunderstanding underlies the criti- 
 cism in Mr. John R. Godfrey's "Eliminating the Inefficient 
 Man," American Machinist, vol. 34, p. 1232. 
 
 2 " The Factor of Habit," Transactions, The Efficiency So- 
 ciety, vol. 1, p. 237. Still more effective is his book, The Hu- 
 man Factor in Works Management. (New York, 1912.) 
 
 8 Industrial Leadership. (Yale University Press, 19 16.) 
 Reviewed by C. B. Thompson, American Economic Review, 
 vol. 6, no. 2, p. 380, 1916. See also H. L. Gantt, "The Meeting 
 of Minds in Engineering," American Machinist, vol. 41, no. 5, 
 p. 212. 
 
258 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 larger social problems is hinted at by Mr. Tay- 
 lor in The Principles of Scientific Management, 
 and the ultimate bearing of the application of 
 the system to social welfare, through the reduc- 
 tion of the cost of production and the increase 
 of the purchasing power of the consumer, is 
 briefly suggested. Mr. Gilbreth points out the 
 effect of motion study as an increase of national 
 wealth. 1 Professor Nearing shows the relation 
 between the cost of living and efficiency. 2 E. P. 
 Howes gives an example (perhaps imaginative) 
 of the general effect of efficient methods on 
 wages, living conditions, and the civic aspect 
 of the community. 3 
 
 If it could be supposed that the tendencies 
 inherent in the system would be allow.ed to 
 work themselves out to their logical conclu- 
 sions, social and economic consequences of a 
 far-reaching nature would reasonably be ex- 
 pected. This possibility has raised unduly the 
 hopes and enthusiasm of some of the advocates 
 of the movement and has brought down upon 
 it the criticism of those calmer individuals who 
 
 1 "Motion Study as an Increase of National Wealth," 
 Annals, American Academy of Political and Social Science, 
 vol. 59, p. 96. 
 
 2 "Efficiency Wage Standards," Popular Science Monthly, 
 March, 1912, vol. 80, pp. 257-62. 
 
 3 "^Esthetic Value of Efficiency," Atlantic Monthly, July, 
 1912, vol. no, pp. 81-91. 
 
THE LITERATURE 259 
 
 realize, in the first place, that no economic tend- 
 ency ever does or can work out to its logical 
 conclusion, and, in the second place and par- 
 ticularly, that production and consumption are 
 but a part of the entire economic problem. 
 
 A few exceptionally thoughtful articles crit- 
 icizing scientific management from the social 
 point of view have been written by Euro- 
 pean scholars on the basis of an academic 
 knowledge of the movement. There is a 
 friendly criticism discussing social advantages 
 and possible objections by Wilhelm Koch- 
 mann. 1 Another excellent criticism is that by 
 E. Lederer. 2 J. M. Lahy has written a keen 
 criticism of some elements in the system point- 
 ing out particularly the comparative neglect of 
 the element of fatigue. 3 A Spanish scholar, C. 
 Montoliu, has reviewed most of the European 
 and some of the American literature on the 
 subject. 4 
 
 1 " Das Taylorsystem und seine volkswirtschaftliche Bedeu- 
 tung," Archiv fiir Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik, March, 
 1914, vol. 38, p. 391. 
 
 2 "Die oconomische und sozialpolitische Bedeutung des 
 Taylorsystems," Archiv fiir Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpoli- 
 tik, May, 1914, vol. 38, p. 769. 
 
 3 "La Methode Taylor peut-elle determiner une Organiza- 
 tion scientifique du Travail," Grande Revue, September 25, 
 
 1913, P- 345- 
 
 4 "El Sistema de Taylor y Su Critica," Estudio. (1915. 
 Barcelona.) 
 
260 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 Those who are looking for a panacea for so- 
 cial ills and who suppose that scientific man- 
 agement was offered as such a panacea are keen 
 to point out that it does not deal finally with 
 the problem of distribution. Professor Edward 
 D. Jones 1 was acute enough to see that Tay- 
 lor's work developed a principle of distributive 
 justice, — namely, the rewarding of the indi- 
 vidual for his individual performance, — and 
 was not disappointed that it did not go farther 
 in this matter than it professed to go. Mr. 
 Dexter S. Kimball, in the article mentioned 
 above, Mr. Ralph E. Flanders, 2 and Mr. W. H. 
 Herschel 3 have pointed out, with the air of 
 making a discovery, that the Taylor System 
 does not solve the problem of distribution. 
 Mr. Louis Duchey 4 hails the failure of the 
 system to solve the system of distribution and 
 its one-sided emphasis on production as the force 
 which will do most to intensify class conscious- 
 ness and hasten the destruction of capitalism. 
 
 1 "Review of Taylor's 'Shop Management,'" American 
 Economic Review, vol. 2, p. 369. 
 
 2 "Scientific Management from a Social and Economic 
 Standpoint," Machinery, vol. 18, p. 764. 
 
 8 "Social Philosophy and the Taylor System — Will the 
 Ultimate Result of the Taylor System be Beneficial?" Engi- 
 neering News (London), vol. 65, p. 577. 
 
 4 "Scientific Business Management. What is it? What 
 Effect will it have on the Revolutionary Movement?" Inter- 
 national Socialist Review, vol. 11, p. 628. 
 
 
THE LITERATURE 261 
 
 The relation of scientific management to the 
 unemployment problem has received attention 
 in two articles by M. L. Cooke * and one by Mr. 
 C. E. Reitzel. 2 
 
 The test of democracy has of course been 
 applied to this movement. That a clear defini- 
 tion of democracy as applied in industry is 
 sadly needed has been indicated in an excellent 
 article by President Hopkins. 3 Mr. Meyer 
 Bloomfield 4 points out, apparently with some 
 misgiving, that the loyalty of the employee 
 must be secured by keeping the enterprise dem- 
 ocratic; while Mr. Paul U. Kellogg, 5 one of the 
 editors of the Survey, is more specific to the 
 effect that this new industrial force must be 
 socialized. Mr. H. B. Drury is still more spe- 
 cific when he demands that scientific manage- 
 ment must recognize the function of free play 
 
 1 "Scientific Management as a Solution of the Unemploy- 
 ment Problem," Annals, American Academy of Political and 
 Social Science, vol. 61, 1915. " Casual and Chronic Unemploy- 
 ment," Annals, American Academy of Political and Social 
 Science, vol. 59, p. 194. Reviewed in La Revue Ulectrique, 
 May 19, 1916. 
 
 2 " Industrial Output and Social Efficiency," A nnals, Ameri- 
 can Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 59, p. 125. 
 
 8 Ernest Martin Hopkins, "Democracy and Industry," 
 Annals, American Academy of Political and Social Science, 
 vol. 65, p. 57, 1916. 
 
 4 "Scientific Management: Cooperative or One-Sided," 
 Survey, vol. 28, p. 312. 
 
 6 "A National Hearing for Scientific Management," Survey, 
 vol. 25, p. 409. 
 
262 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 from below. 1 Mr. Frank T. Carlton 2 goes still 
 farther by pointing out how the movement 
 should be made democratic by giving the work- 
 man a voice in the determination of the condi- 
 tions and the rate of bonus under which he will 
 work. Scant agreement with this conception 
 can be found in the writings of Taylor. His 
 attitude and that of men of similar training and 
 experience 3 is that the employee has no right 
 to control or participate in the management of 
 the establishment. If this is strictly true, there 
 is obviously in scientific management no place 
 for recognition of trade-unionism, the collective 
 bargain, and other mutually agreed arrange- 
 ments. 
 
 6. Scientific Management and Organized 
 Labor 
 
 The attitude of Mr. Taylor and his immedi- 
 ate followers toward labor organization is diffi- 
 cult to determine from their writings. Thus 
 Taylor says, in Shop Management: "There is no 
 reason why labor unions should not be so con- 
 
 1 " Democracy as a Factor in Industrial Efficiency, " A finals t 
 American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 65, 
 p. 15, 1916. 
 
 2 "Scientific Management and the Wage-Earner," Journal 
 of Political Economy, vol. 20, p. 834. 
 
 3 "The Human Element in Scientific Management," by 
 Messrs. H. R. Towne, Oberlin Smith, John Calder, A. C. Hig- 
 gins, and A. Falkenau, Iron Age, vol. 89, p. 912. 
 
THE LITERATURE 263 
 
 stituted as to be a great help both to employers 
 and men. Unfortunately, as they now exist 
 they are in many, if not most, cases a hinder- 
 ance to the prosperity of both." He acknowl- 
 edges the current obligation of society to 
 organized labor for increased safety, shorter 
 hours and in some cases better working condi- 
 tions. It appears to be his belief, however, that 
 where scientific management is practiced fully 
 and completely, the workingman is automati- 
 cally protected by the self-interest of his em- 
 ployer, owing to the fact that the administra- 
 tion of the task and bonus is dependent on the 
 willing cooperation of the man and the main- 
 tenance of his efficiency through the complete 
 standardization of conditions. Nowhere is he 
 very clear, however, on the practicability of the 
 collective bargain in a scientifically managed 
 regime; while on the other hand he is definite 
 and forceful in his denunciation of some of the 
 methods of unionism, particularly the restric- 
 tion of output. 
 
 Whatever Mr. Taylor's real view of the mat- 
 ter may be, the fact is that the labor unions 
 have taken a violent antipathy to scientific 
 management. 1 This is at least partly due to 
 
 1 The best of the articles ont his subject are the following: 
 E. Pouget, L 'Organisation du surmenage (le systeme Taylor). 
 (Paris: Riviere, 191 3.) A biting criticism of the entire move- 
 
264 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 what one writer calls Mr. Taylor's "unfortu- 
 nate and tactless statements " * in regard to 
 labor. There are, however, other and more fun- 
 damental reasons for this lack of agreement. 
 An anonymous writer in the Electrical Rail- 
 way Journal 2 points out that specialization, 
 through its easy training of the unskilled, 
 strikes at the heart of labor unionism as at 
 present organized. An editorial in the World's 
 Work 3 prophesies that "the foolish unions will 
 oppose it as they opposed the introduction of 
 machinery, and lose." The Century Magazine 4 
 observes that the labor union insists upon 
 "equality." Mr. G. F. Stratton, in the Out- 
 look, 3 finds the point of divergence in the fact 
 
 ment by Angelo Mariotti, II Sistema Taylor e Vorgariizzazione 
 scientifica, don Marzio, June 20, 19 14, who reviews briefly 
 German and French Syndicalist criticism. Howard T. Lewis, 
 "The Problem of the Efficiency of Labor," Popular Science 
 Monthly, vol. 82, pp. 153-62, February, 1913. Harlow S. Per- 
 son and others, "Industrial Efficiency and the Interests of 
 Labor," American Economic Review, March, 1912, supplement, 
 vol. 2, pp. 117-30, and two highly optimistic articles by H. 
 Godfrey: "Attitude of Labor towards Scientific Management," 
 Annals, American Academy of Political and Social Science, 
 1912, vol. 44, p. 59, and Increased Efficiency, Brotherhood of 
 Railway Mechanics, Convention Number, 1912. 
 
 1 Mr. C. H. Stilson, "Letter on Scientific Management," 
 American Machinist, vol. 35, p. 175. 
 
 2 "Scope of Scientific Management," vol. 41, p. 451. 
 
 3 "Scientific Management and the Labor Unions," vol. 22, 
 p. I43H- 
 
 4 "Taking Ambition out of the Workman," vol. 82, p. 462. 
 6 "Ca-Canny and Speeding Up," vol. 99, p. 120. 
 
THE LITERATURE 265 
 
 that the unions set a minimum wage which the 
 employers treat as a maximum. The chief rea- 
 son, however, appears to be found in the policy 
 of restriction of output. The belief that restric- 
 tion of output is a confirmed labor-union policy 
 is apparently borne out by the Eleventh Special 
 Report of the United States Commissioner of 
 Labor, on the " Regulation and Restriction of 
 Output," 1 — one of those Government reports 
 which, like the Report on the Hearings before 
 the Labor Committee investigating the Taylor 
 System and the Report of the Civilian Expert 
 Board on Industrial Management of United 
 States Navy Yards, which favored the applica- 
 tion of scientific management to the navy 
 yards, was suddenly and mysteriously "out of 
 print" almost immediately after publication. 
 
 As was seen in an earlier section, railroads in 
 their controversy with the scientific managers 
 have not hesitated to point to the opposition of 
 the labor unions as one of the reasons for the 
 impracticability of the application of the sys- 
 tem to their industry, and to substantiate their 
 argument, as in an article in the Iron Age, 2 
 by quoting the restrictive laws of such an or- 
 
 1 Government Printing Office, Washington, 1904. 
 
 2 "Railroad Efficiency and the Labor Unions," vol. 87, 
 p. 476. 
 
266 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 ganization as the International Iron Molders* 
 Union. 1 
 
 The published expressions of labor-union 
 leaders referring directly to scientific manage- 
 ment have ranged from an attitude of sus- 
 pended judgment to one of bitter antipathy. 
 Mr. John Golden, of the Textile Workers, 2 is 
 non-committal, but suspicious. Mr. J. P. Frey, 
 of the Iron Molders, 3 is sure that it is at least 
 unscientific. Mr. James Duncan, vice-presi- 
 dent of the American Federation of Labor, 4 
 conveys the impression that scientific manage- 
 ment is the summation of all the evils of all the 
 generations of oppression of the workingman. 
 Yet this opinion is mild compared with that of 
 the before-mentioned Mr. James O'Connell 
 (formerly a member of the National Commis- 
 sion on Industrial Relations, which also "inves- 
 
 1 Other interesting articles on the attitude of the unions 
 toward premium plans are those by Mr. H. M. Norris, "Actual 
 Experience with the Premium Plan," Engineering Magazine, 
 vol. 18, pp. 572, 689, and Mr. James O'Connell, "Piece Work 
 not Necessary for Best Results in the Machine Shop," ibid., 
 vol. 19, p. 373. 
 
 2 "The Attitude of Organized Labor," Journal of Account- 
 ancy, vol. 12, p. 189. 
 
 8 "Relation of Scientific Management to Labor," Iron 
 Trade Review, vol. 52, p. 917, and in Journal of Political Econ- 
 omy, May, 1913, vol. 21, pp. 400-11, and American Federation- 
 ist, April, 1913, vol. 20, pp. 296-302. Also Enrico Alfredo 
 Masino, VOstilita degli Operai e delle loro Organizazzione. 
 (Rome, 1913.) 
 
 4 "Efficiency," Journal of Accountancy, vol. 12, p. 26. 
 
THE LITERATURE 267 
 
 tigated" scientific management) in an official 
 letter to the Machinists' Unions, in which he 
 says: " Wherever this system has been tried it 
 has resulted either in labor trouble and failure 
 to install the system, or it has destroyed the 
 labor organization and reduced the men to vir- 
 tual slavery, and low wages, and has engen- 
 dered such an air of suspicion among the men 
 that each man regards every other man as a 
 possible traitor and spy. . . . We trust that you 
 will be impressed with the importance of this 
 matter, and will see the impending danger. Act 
 quickly." There is a bitter and flippant attack 
 by John Mitchell, of the Mine Workers, in a 
 book published by him in 191 3. * The pub- 
 lished articles in newspapers on this subject are 
 very numerous ; they are not listed here as they 
 are variations on the same theme. 
 
 The Machinists' Union and after it the 
 American Federation of Labor have made the 
 application of scientific management in govern- 
 ment arsenals, particularly in the arsenal at 
 Watertown, Massachusetts, the object of their 
 official attack. Reference has already been 
 made to the report of the committee appointed 
 
 1 The Wage-Earner and his Problems, p. 59. Washington, 
 D.C., Ridsdale, 1913. See also Samuel Gompers, "The 4 Effi- 
 ciency ' Scape-Goat," American Federationist, July, 1913, vol. 
 20, pp. 53I-33- 
 
268 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT 
 
 to investigate the trouble there in 191 1. In the 
 19 1 3 Report of the Chief of Ordnance, 1 General 
 Crozier deals with the petition of the Water- 
 town employees referred to above. This peti- 
 tion was evidently the first gun in the campaign 
 inaugurated by the American Federation of 
 Labor at their 1913 convention in Seattle, at 
 which they decided officially to fight the exten- 
 sion of the Taylor System. 2 
 
 The best articles counseling the unions to 
 take a saner point of view are those by Mr. 
 Louis D. Brandeis, 3 in which he argues that 
 scientific management is but the application of 
 thought and knowledge to industry, that in- 
 creased efficiency and production operate in the 
 interest of the workingman, and that its .prog- 
 ress and ultimate success are inevitable. The 
 
 1 Report of the Chief of Ordnance, 1913. (Government Print- 
 ing Office, Washington.) See also "Labor Efficiency," Outlook, 
 November 1, 19 13, vol. 105, pp. 467-68. 
 
 2 American Federation of Labor, Report of Proceedings, 
 33d Annual Convention, held at Seattle, Washington, Novem- 
 ber 10-22, 1913. Interesting articles bearing on this subject 
 are those by Mr. Max H. C. Brombacher, "The Rock Island 
 Arsenal Labor Trouble," Iron Age, vol. 89, p. 476; by Lieuten- 
 ant-Colonel W. S. Peirce, on "Government Shop Manage- 
 ment," ibid., p. 476; and an article, "Scientific Management 
 at United States Arsenals," ibid., vol. 88, p. 1022, which in- 
 cludes a statement of former Secretary of War Stimson. 
 
 3 "The New Conception of Industrial Efficiency," Journal 
 of Accountancy, vol. 12, p. 35, and "Organized Labor and 
 Efficiency," Survey, vol. 26, p. 148. See also chapters in 
 Brandeis's Business — A Profession. (Boston: Small, May- 
 nard & Co., 1914.) 
 
THE LITERATURE 269 
 
 same thought is expressed by Mr. Harrington 
 Emerson. 1 
 
 On the other hand, scientific managers have 
 been freely advised to recognize more fully the 
 necessity of cooperation with the unions. This 
 is the attitude of Mr. John R. Commons, 2 who 
 points out that the bonus system implies an 
 individual bargain with the workman, and 
 therefore strikes at the very existence of the 
 union, unless its terms can be made the subject 
 of a collective bargain; of Dr. John H. Gray, 3 
 and of the present writer, 4 who holds that the 
 labor unions may and should assist in the de- 
 termination of the standardized conditions and 
 of a day's work and its attainment, and that 
 the existence of the unions is and will continue 
 to be necessary to maintain an adequate mini- 
 mum wage. 
 
 1 "The Fundamental Truth of Scientific Management," 
 Journal of Accountancy, vol. 12, p. 17. See also Charles T. 
 Root, "Efficiency and Lower Prices," Iron Age, December 15, 
 1910, vol. 86, pp. 1344-45, and "Labor Unions and Efficiency," 
 Nation, April 6, 191 1, vol. 92, p. 334. 
 
 2 "Organized Labor's Attitude Towards Industrial Effi- 
 ciency," American Economic Review, vol. 1, p. 463. 
 
 8 "How Efficiency Should Benefit the Employer, the Em- 
 ployee, and the Public," Transactions, The Efficiency Society, 
 vol. 1, p. 67. 
 
 4 C. B. Thompson, "The Relation of Scientific Management 
 to the Wage Problem," Journal of Political Economy, vol. 21, 
 p. 630. 
 
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 Wages as Incentive 
 
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 299 
 
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304 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 307 
 
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INDEX 
 
 Abbott, E. H., 224 n. 
 
 Adams, C. W., 216, 244 n. 
 
 Adamson, N. E., Jr., 235 n., 
 241 n. 
 
 Administration, the dynamics 
 of organization, 4. 
 
 Alford, L. P., 212, 215, 242. 
 
 Allingham, A. C, 210. 
 
 Allison, L. W., 227 n. 
 
 "All-round artisan, the," 163. 
 
 American Federation of Labor, 
 attitude of, toward scien- 
 tific management, 91 ff.; 
 quality of leadership of, 149, 
 155; incompatibility be- 
 tween, and scientific man- 
 agement, 151; 267, 268 and 
 n. 
 
 American Society of Mechan- 
 ical Engineers, 25, 177, 215. 
 
 Apprentice schools, 162. 
 
 Apprentices, limitation of , 150. 
 
 Arnold, H. L., 216. 
 
 Atcheson, Topeka and Santa 
 Fe R.R., 44, 45 «., 95, 102, 
 139, 218. 
 
 Atkinson, M., 205 n. 
 
 Auel, Carl B., 243 n. 
 
 Automobile industry, routing 
 system in, 66; lowering of 
 prices with increased profit 
 due to scientific manage- 
 ment, 89, 157. 
 
 Babbage, Charles, The Econ- 
 omy of Manufactures, 176, 
 177, 235. 
 
 Babcock, G. D., 215. 
 
 Barth, C. G., 23, 185, 186 and 
 «., 217, 242. 
 
 Benedict, H. G., 245 n. 
 
 Bethlehem Steel Co., Taylor's 
 service with, 21, 22; his 
 work then comes to naught, 
 22, 23; 81, 216, 255. 
 
 Bibliographies, 175 n. 
 
 Blackford, Katherine M. H., 
 and Newcomb, Arthur, The 
 Job, the Man, the Boss, 249 
 and n. 
 
 Blankenburg, Rudolph, Mayor 
 of Phila., 42. 
 
 Bloomfield, Meyer, Vocational 
 Guidance of Youth, 248 ».; 
 261. 
 
 Bonus system, considered, yj 
 ff.; results of, 79, 80, 121 ff.; 
 effect of, on health of em- 
 ployees, 80; accident statis- 
 tics of those working under, 
 80, 81; condemned by Con- 
 gress, 92, 93; bases on which 
 bonus is determined, 122, 
 123; probable permanence 
 of, 124/.; 9, 11, 47. 
 
 Bonuses, dissatisfaction with 
 amount of, 86, 87. 
 
 Borst, Hugo, 209. 
 
 Bradlee, H. G., 213 n. 
 
 Brandeis, Louis D., brief in 
 Eastern Rate Case, 193 and 
 n. ; Scientific Management 
 and Railroads, 221 ; Business 
 a Profession, 268 n.; 215 n.; 
 220 and «., 221. 
 
 Brewer, C. S., 202. 
 
 Brewer, C. B., 227 n. 
 
 Bricklaying, astonishing re- 
 sults of scientific manage- 
 ment in, 58, 202. 
 
 Brisco, Norris A., Economics 
 of Efficiency, 211. 
 
3io 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Brombacher, M. H. C, 227 n., 
 
 268 n. 
 Brown, W. H., 204. 
 Bruere, Martha B. and R. W., 
 
 Increasing Home Efficiency, 
 
 205. 
 Burke, R. J., 248. 
 Burkhalter, D., 196 n. 
 
 Calder, John, 212 «., 213, 234, 
 »., 262 n. 
 
 Camp, S. V., 210. 
 
 Canadian Pacific Ry. Co., 228 
 and n. 
 
 Card, George F., 230 n. 
 
 Cardullo, Forrest E., 197, 198. 
 
 Carlton, Frank T., 262. 
 
 Carpenter, C. H., 243 n. 
 
 Century Magazine, 264. 
 
 Children, bearing of scientific 
 management on employ- 
 ment of, 138. 
 
 Chronocyclegraph, 238. 
 
 Church, A. Hamilton, Science 
 and Practice of Management, 
 211; The Proper Distribution 
 of Expense Burden, 246 «.; 
 Production Factors, 246 «.; 
 199 n., 212, 254 n. 
 
 Clark, S. A., and Wyatt, 
 Edith, Making Both Ends 
 Meet, 76 n., 255. 
 
 Cleary, Leo J., 241 n. 
 
 Closed shop, 151. 
 
 Coburn, F. G., 199 n., 253 n. 
 
 Collective bargaining, objec- 
 tion of scientific manage- 
 ment to, 146-148, 150, 153. 
 
 Collins, G. A., 195 n. 
 
 Colvin, F. H., 45 n., 219 n., 
 222, 228. 
 
 Commons, John R., 269. 
 
 Competition, 109, no. 
 
 Comte, Auguste, 12. 
 
 Congress, Sixty-second, Re- 
 port of House Committee 
 on Labor, 77, 93, 192, 193, 
 252. 
 
 Congress, Sixty-third, Report 
 of House Committee on 
 Labor of, 93; prohibits 
 stop-watch and bonus sys- 
 tems, 93. 
 
 Congress, Sixty-fourth, pro- 
 hibits stop-watch and bonus 
 systems, 94, 140. 
 
 Conservation, Industrial. See 
 Industrial Conservation. 
 
 Conservatism of managers, an 
 obstacle to progress of scien- 
 tific management, 169, 170. 
 
 Control in administration, 113, 
 114, 115. 
 
 Cook, A. M., 217. 
 
 Cooke, Morris L., 42, 44, 196 
 and n., 200, 201 and »., 261. 
 
 Copley, F. B., 214 n. 
 
 Cost, of scientific manage- 
 ment, an obstacle to devel- 
 opment, 170. 
 
 Cost of living, influence of 
 scientific management on, 
 156-159. 
 
 Cost system, Taylor's, 23, 71, 
 72 ; literature concerning, 
 
 245 #• 
 
 Craft groups, tendency to 
 abolish line between, 117, 
 118, 119. 
 
 Croly, Herbert, Progressive 
 Democracy, 155 n. 
 
 Crozier, Gen. William, re- 
 port on savings under scien- 
 tific management in three 
 Arsenals, 74, 77, 79 «., 80, 
 81 and «.; 52, 218, 219, 268. 
 
 Cunningham, W. J., 221 n. p 
 225, 226. 
 
 Cushing, Florence, 240 n. 
 
 Day, Charles, Industrial 
 Plants, 195 and n.\ 44, 186 
 n., 203, 243 n., 244. 
 
 Day's work, the, 52 ff. 
 
 Democracy in industry, ten- 
 dency to, 166 ff. 
 
INDEX 
 
 3ii 
 
 Department stores, difficulty 
 of applying scientific man- 
 agement to, 43. 
 
 Descroix, L., 242 n. 
 
 Design, etc., application of 
 scientific management to, 
 not developed, 70, 71. 
 
 Dewsnup, E. R., 228 n. 
 
 Diemer, Hugo, Factory Organ- 
 ization and Administration, 
 211; 201 n. 
 
 "Differential piece rate," 179, 
 180, 181. 
 
 Diminishing returns, law of, 
 125. And see Negative re- 
 turns. 
 
 "Disciplinarian," the, 4$. 
 
 Discipline, principle of, 10, 48. 
 
 Distribution of product, 129- 
 
 131. 
 
 Dodge, James M., 23, 216, 
 230 »., 252, 253. 
 
 Domestic management, 204, 
 205 and n. 
 
 Dresser, Horatio W., Human 
 Efficiency, 253 n. 
 
 Drury, H. B., Scientific Man- 
 agement, 179 «.; 261. 
 
 Duchey, Louis, 260. 
 
 Duncan, James, 92, 266. 
 
 Dwight, F. H., 255. 
 
 Eastern Rate Case, 102, 193 
 and n., 220, 221. 
 
 Education of employees, 161^*. 
 
 Edwards, John R., 212. 
 
 Efficiency, increase of, under 
 scientific management, 84, 
 85 ; change in conception of, 
 103, 104. 
 
 Efficiency systems, current 
 types of, how differentiated 
 from scientific management, 
 
 13. 
 
 Effort, Laws of, 9. 
 
 Elbourne, E. T., Factory Ad- 
 ministration and Accounts, 
 247. 
 
 Electrical Railway Journal, 264. 
 
 Eliot, C. W., 215 n. 
 
 Elliott, Howard, 221. 
 
 Emerson, Guy C., 196 and n. 
 
 Emerson, Harrington, how 
 his theory differs from Tay- 
 lor's, 49, 50; Efficiency, 206- 
 208; The Twelve Principles, 
 206-208; The Scientific Se- 
 lection of Employees, 248, 
 249; 43, 44, 45 and »., 182 
 »., 203, 218, 220, 221, 222, 
 223 and n., 225, 227, 250 n., 
 
 Emerson Co., 43. 
 
 Emerson System, application 
 of time study in, 53, 54, 55; 
 bonus system of, 78, 207; 
 49, 50. 
 
 Employees, effects on, 76 ff. t 
 161 ff.; increased interest, 
 loyalty, etc., of, 83, 84; in- 
 creased efficiency of, 84, 85; 
 initiative and skill of, how 
 affected, 87, 131-133; or- 
 ganized labor and, 90-97; 
 difficulties with, not among 
 causes of failure, 10 1; effect 
 on, in respect to number 
 employed, 128, 129; effect 
 on health, 134; selection 
 of, 248, 249. 
 
 Engineering Magazine, 174, 
 201 n. 
 
 Engineering practice, Taylor's 
 service to, 30. 
 
 Engineers, capable of develop- 
 ing scientific management, 
 scarcity of, 170, 171. 
 
 Ennis, William D., 237 n. 
 
 Enterprise, initiative in, 133. 
 
 Entrepreneurs, 107 ff. t 119, 124. 
 
 Equipment, standardization 
 of, 46, 47. 
 
 Evans, Holden A., Cost Keep- 
 ing and Scientific Manage- 
 ment, 231, 232, 245, 246; 
 217, 218, 256. 
 
312 
 
 INDEX 
 
 "Exception" principle, 10, 
 
 48, 107, 114. 
 Experts. See Personality. 
 
 Factory, 175. 
 
 Factory management, modern, 
 in general, distinction be- 
 tween, and scientific man- 
 agement, 2, 3. 
 
 Fagan, J. O., 224 and n. 
 
 Failures of scientific manage- 
 ment and their causes, 97- 
 101; personality of experts, 
 98, 99; shortcomings of 
 management, 99, 100; finan- 
 cial difficulties, 100; due to 
 labor difficulties in only one 
 case, 100, 10 1. 
 
 Falkenau, A., 262 n. 
 
 Fatigue, reduction of, 81, 82. 
 
 Feiss, Richard A., 253 and n., 
 255 and n. 
 
 Felton, S. M., 227 n. 
 
 Ferguson, B. M., 202. 
 
 Ferracute Machine Co., 231. 
 
 First-class man, the, 135. 
 
 Fitchburg, roller-bearing con- 
 cern in, Taylor's work at, 
 23, 47, 81. 
 
 Flack, A., 218. 
 
 Flanders, Ralph E., 260. 
 
 Foremanship, methods of, 23; 
 functional, refined, 47, 48. 
 
 Frankford Arsenal, 74. 
 
 Franklin, B. A., Experiences 
 in Efficiency, 233 n. 
 
 Frederick, J. George, 204 n. t 
 237 n. 
 
 Freminville, C. de, 209. 
 
 Frey, J. P., 92, 266. 
 
 Fritch, L. C., 223 n. 
 
 Fry, Charles H., 45 »., 222 n. 
 
 Functional foremanship. See 
 Foremanship. 
 
 Furer, J. A., 244 ». 
 
 Galloway, L., Hotchkiss, G. 
 B., and Mayor, J., Business 
 Organization, 211. 
 
 Gantt, H. L., modifications of 
 original Taylor methods 
 introduced by, 49; methods 
 of time study followed by, 
 53, 54; his bonus plan, 183, 
 184; Work, Wages and 
 Profits, 183 and »., 184, 185, 
 247, 250; Industrial Leader- 
 ship, 257; 186 and n., 195, 
 203, 216, 228, 237 n., 244 »., 
 246 and n., 250 n., 257 n. 
 
 Gantt System, bonus system 
 under, 77, 78. 
 
 Gary, E. H., 215 n. 
 
 Gilbreth, F. B., Bricklaying, 
 202 ; The Primer of Scientific 
 Management, 206 n. ; Motion 
 Study, 237, 238; Fatigue 
 Study, 239; Motion Models, 
 238, 239; Psychology of 
 Management, 253 n.\ 205 n., 
 240 n., 241 n., 243 n., 248, 
 254 n., 258 and n. 
 
 Gilbreth, Mrs. L. M., The 
 Psychology of Management, 
 206 n.; 254 «. 
 
 Godfrey, John R., 257 n. 
 
 Going, Charles B., Principles 
 of Industrial Engineering, 
 211; Methods of the Santa 
 Fe, 222; 3 n. f 45 »., 179, 218, 
 256. 
 
 Golden, John, 266. 
 
 Golf, as played by Taylor/ 18. 
 
 Goldmark, Josephine, Fatigue 
 and Efficiency, 254, 255. 
 
 Gompers, Samuel, 267 n. 
 
 Gray, John H., 269. 
 
 Griscom, Lucy M., 205. 
 
 Guernsey, J. B., 205. 
 
 Gulick, Luther H., 254 n. 
 
 Hall, K., 243 n. 
 
 Halsey, F. A., 178, 182, 250 n. 
 
 Hand operations, variable re- 
 sults of application of sci- 
 entific methods in, 59. 
 
 Harahan, W. J., 227 n. 
 
INDEX 
 
 313 
 
 Hartness, James, 257. 
 Hastings, Clive, 250 n. 
 Hathaway, H. K., Elementary 
 
 Time Study, etc., 53 n.\ 230 
 
 »., 234, 235, 241 n. 
 Health, of workmen, effect of 
 
 scientific management on, 
 
 134. 
 
 Heard, Frank C, 240 n. 
 
 Herschel, W. H., 260. 
 
 Higgins, A. C, 262 n. 
 
 Higgins, M. P., 254 n. 
 
 Hinckley, B. S., 227 n. 
 
 Hine, C. de L., Modern Organi- 
 zation, 226. 
 
 Hines, W. D., 224 n. 
 
 Hopkins, Ernest M., 261. 
 
 Hotchkiss, G. B. See Gallo- 
 way. 
 
 Housekeeping Experiment Sta- 
 tion, 205. 
 
 Howes, E. P., 258. 
 
 Hoyt, Charles W., Scientific 
 Sales Management, 204. 
 
 Hudson, Frank C., 256. 
 
 Hutchins, F. L., 224. 
 
 Incentive, 9, 10, 11. 
 
 Income, inequality of, influ- 
 ence of scientific manage- 
 ment on, 165, 166. 
 
 Individual abilities, develop- 
 ment of, 118, 119. 
 
 Individuals, scientific manage- 
 ment and, 10. 
 
 Industrial Conservation, Sci- 
 ence of, 7, 8, 11, 112, 113. 
 
 Industrial Engineering, 175, 
 199 n., 201 n. 
 
 Industrial law, 5. 
 
 Industrial organization, prin- 
 ciples of, 4, 7, 9 ff. 
 
 Industrial plants, in which 
 scientific management is ap- 
 plied, 38-40; classification 
 of, 40 n. 
 
 Industrial Workers of the 
 World, 97, 151, 155. 
 
 Initiative of employees, how 
 affected, 87; and scientific 
 management, 108; in in- 
 vention and enterprise, 133, 
 
 134- . 
 
 Inspection of materials, in 
 scientific management and 
 other systems, 67; "first in- 
 spection," 67, 68. 
 
 Instruction cards, 57. 
 
 International Iron Molders 
 Union, 266. 
 
 Interstate Commerce Com- 
 mission, 193 n., 220. 
 
 Invention, increased by de- 
 velopment of scientific man- 
 agement, 113, 114; initia- 
 tive in, 133. 
 
 Iron Age, 265. 
 
 Italy, scientific management 
 studied by syndicalist lead- 
 ers in, 115. 
 
 Jackson, D. C, 194 n. 
 Jacobs, H. W., Betterment 
 
 Briefs, 222 n. 
 Jandron, F. L., 222 n. 
 Jessup, H. W., 206. 
 Johnson, James R., 213 n. 
 Jones, Edward D., 221 »., 260. 
 
 Kellogg, Paul U., 261. 
 Kendall, H. P., 199 »., 217, 
 
 230 n. 
 Kent, Robert T., 238 n., 241 n., 
 
 243 n., 247, 253 n. 
 Kimball, Dexter S., Principles 
 
 of Industrial Organization, 
 
 211; 212 n., 213 n., 234 n., 
 
 260. 
 Klyce, E. D. K., 256. 
 Knoeppel, C. E., Installing 
 
 Efficiency Methods, 233; 53 
 
 n., 233 n. 
 Kochmann, W., 259. 
 
 Labor, method of handling, 46, 
 47; subdivision of , 109, no. 
 
3H 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Labor, organized, and scien- 
 tific management, 91 ff., 
 J 39 ff-> certain principles 
 and practices of, condemned 
 by advocates of scientific 
 management, 141; restric- 
 tion of output constantly 
 practiced by, 141-143; wage- 
 question, 144, 145; collec- 
 tive bargaining, 146-148; re- 
 cognition of unions, 147, 
 149; the strike question, 148, 
 149; union men in scientific 
 management plants, 150; 
 divers policies of, contrary 
 to principles of scientific 
 management, 151; possibili- 
 ties of cooperation by mutual 
 modifications, 1 51-154. 
 
 Labor problem, questions con- 
 cerning effect of scientific 
 management on, n6Jf. 
 
 Labor unions. See Labor, or- 
 ganized. 
 
 Lahy, J. M., 259. 
 
 Langley, Ralph W., 235. 
 
 Large-scale organization, 109, 
 no. 
 
 Larsen, L. A., Scientific Man- 
 agement, 206 n. 
 
 LeChatelier, H., Organisa- 
 tion Scientifique, etc., 209 
 and ».; 153 «., 200, 201 n. 
 
 Lederer, E., 259. 
 
 Leech, C. C, 227. 
 
 Lefevre, Th., 236. 
 
 Leupp, Francis L., 205 n. 
 
 Lewis, Howard T., 263 n. 
 
 Lewis, Wilfred, 203, 217, 255 
 n. 
 
 Link Belt Co., 23, 65, 216, 252. 
 
 Literature of scientific man- 
 agement, classifications of, 
 
 173-175- 
 
 Lyon, Tracy, 199 n. 
 
 McCormack, H. S., 237 n. 
 McDonald, P. B., 195 n. 
 
 Machinery, power-driven, in- 
 troduction of, not parallel 
 to development of scien- 
 tific management, 127, 128. 
 
 Machine-shop work, improve- 
 ments in the methods of, 58. 
 
 Machines, industrial, increase 
 of output of, 58, 59. 
 
 Machinists' Union, 267. 
 
 Maclaurin, Richard C, 201 n. 
 
 Managers. See Entrepreneurs. 
 
 Manual training schools, 
 methods of scientific man- 
 agement applied in, 44. 
 
 Mariotti, Angelo, 263 n. 
 
 Masino, Enrico A., 204 n., 
 266 n. 
 
 Materials, standardization of, 
 46, 47- 
 
 Mathews, Shailer, Scientific 
 Management in the Churches, 
 206. 
 
 Mayor, J. See Galloway. 
 
 Membership in unions, re- 
 striction of, 150. 
 
 Merrick, D. V., 235. 
 
 Metals, Taylor's work on 
 cutting of, 20, 21. And see 
 Taylor, F. W. 
 
 Metcalf, Henry, The Cost of 
 Manufactures, etc., 187 and 
 n. 
 
 Meyer, George von L., 203 
 and n. 
 
 Meyers, G. J., 6 n., 198, 199. 
 
 M id vale Steel Co., Taylor's 
 service with, 19, 20, 30, 31; 
 
 • 47, 179, 181, 216. 
 
 Milwaukee, Bureau of Effi- 
 ciency and Economy of, 43. 
 
 Milwaukee Electric Ry., 229. 
 
 Minimum-wage legislation, 
 136. 
 
 Mitchell, John, The Wage- 
 Earner and his Problems, 
 267; 92, 215 n. 
 
 Moffett, C, 221 n. 
 
 Montoliu, C, 259. 
 
INDEX 
 
 315 
 
 Morrison, Clarke J., 221 n., 
 223 n., 227 «., 250 n. 
 
 Motion study, an inseparable 
 feature of time study, 56; 
 use of moving pictures in, 
 56, 57; literature concern- 
 ing, 237 ff. 
 
 Moving pictures, used in mo- 
 tion study, 56, 57. 
 
 Miinsterberg, Hugo, Psy- 
 chology and Industrial Effi- 
 ciency, 9, 253 and »., 254. 
 
 National Industrial Relations 
 Commission, 91. 
 
 Nearing, Scott, 258. 
 
 " Negation returns, point of," 
 11 and n., 112 ff. 
 
 New England, scientific man- 
 agement in, in. 
 
 New York City, Comm'rs of 
 Accounts of, 43. 
 
 Nicholl, John S., 246. 
 
 Norris, H. M., 266 n. 
 
 O'Connell, James, 91, 266 and 
 n., 267. 
 
 One Hundred Per Cent, 175. 
 
 Organization, on craft lines, 
 151. And See Industrial 
 Organization. 
 
 Organized labor. See Labor. 
 
 Osborne, W., 230 n. 
 
 Ostwald, W. F., 206. 
 
 Outerbridge, A. E., Jr., 254 
 n. 
 
 Output, increase of, under sci- 
 entific management, 123, 
 127, 128; increase of, post- 
 poned to development of 
 sales, 129, 130; restriction 
 of, 141-143- 
 
 Parkhurst, F. A., Applied 
 Methods of Scientific Man- 
 agement, 231; 233 n. 
 
 Parsons, Frank, Choosing a 
 Vocation, 248 and n. 
 
 Pattison, Mary, Principles of 
 Domestic Engineering, 205. 
 
 Peck, E. C, 213 n. 
 
 Pecuniary and technical re- 
 sults of scientific manage- 
 ment, distinguished, 50-52. 
 
 Peirce, W. S., 268 n. 
 
 Pennsylvania State College, 
 44. 
 
 Perrigo, Oscar E., 211. 
 
 Perry, E., 214 n. 
 
 Person, H. F., 201 n. 
 
 Personality of experts a po- 
 tential cause of failure or 
 success, 98, 99. 
 
 Petersen, O., 186 n. 
 
 Philadelphia, application of 
 scientific management in 
 Dep't of Public Works of, 
 42. 
 
 Philbrick, H. S., 214 n. 
 
 Piece-rate system, 179, 180, 
 181. 
 
 Polakov, Walter N., 233. 
 
 Poliakoff, R., 242. 
 
 Popke, A. G., 214 n. 
 
 Porter, Henry F., 247 n. 
 
 Pouget, E., 263 n. 
 
 Power-driven machinery. See 
 Machinery. 
 
 Premiums. See Bonus system. 
 
 Prices, not lowered by scien- 
 tific management, 88, 89 ; the 
 automobile industry an ex- 
 ception, 89. 
 
 Printing plants, routing sys- 
 tem in, 66. 
 
 Production engineering, 102. 
 
 Professions, application of 
 scientific management to, 
 205, 206. 
 
 Psychophysical sciences, 7, 9. 
 
 Public, the, and scientific 
 management, 88, 89. 
 
 Public service corporations, 
 46. 
 
 Purchasing department, func- 
 tion of, 60-62. 
 
3i6 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Railroads, and scientific man- 
 agement, 44, 45, 102, 103; 
 literature concerning, 220- 
 229. 
 
 Ram, Georges de, 217. 
 
 Redfield, William C, 192, 252. 
 
 Reed, H. W., 235, 241 n. 
 
 Reitzel, C. E., 261. 
 
 Rice, J. M., Scientific Man- 
 agement in Education, 202. 
 
 Richards, A. F., 182 n. 
 
 Root, Charles T., 269 n. 
 
 Rose, Frank H., 254 n. 
 
 Routing system, 62 ff.; results 
 of, 65; effectiveness of, 65, 
 66; literature concerning, 
 244; 23, 62 Jf. 
 
 Rowan, James, 178, 250 n. 
 
 St. Louis and San Francisco 
 R.R. Co., 229. 
 
 Sales, development of, 129. 
 
 Sales department, possible ap- 
 plication of scientific man- 
 agement to, 72, 73. 
 
 Scanferla, G., 210. 
 
 Scheduling and despatching 
 systems. See Routing sys- 
 tem. 
 
 Schlesinger, G., 210. 
 
 Schmidt, at Bethlehem Steel 
 Co., 81, 240. 
 
 Scientific American, 203 n. 
 
 Scientific management, de- 
 fined, 2ff. ; how distinguished 
 from other types, 5 ff.; 
 scheme of laws and principles 
 on which it is based, 7, 8 ; and 
 psychophysical sciences, 9; 
 eminently "practical," 9; 
 principles stressed in deal- 
 ings with individuals, 10; 
 its most distinctive contribu- 
 tion in the field of principles 
 rather than in that of laws, 
 11, 12; further defined, 12; 
 positiveness of its control, 
 12; how distinguished from 
 
 current "efficiency systems," 
 13; its aim summarized, 13, 
 whole number of applica- 
 tions of, 37; statistics of 
 distribution, etc., 37 ff.; 
 in department stores, 42; in 
 manual training schools, 43; 
 value of its methods in oper- 
 ation of railroads, 44, 45; in 
 other public service corpora- 
 tions, 46 ; primary objects of, 
 and how accomplished, 46 
 ff.; modifications of orig- 
 inal form of, by Gantt and 
 Emerson, 49, 50; technical 
 and pecuniary results of, 
 distinguished, 50-52; time 
 study, 52 ff. ; possible appli- 
 cation of, to selling and fi- 
 nancing, 72, 73; real test of, 
 its net effect on business as 
 a whole, 74, 75; gross results 
 of, less favorable, 75, 76; 
 effect of, on employees, 
 76 ff.; and the public, 88, 
 89; effect on prices, 88, 89; 
 and organized labor, 90 ff.; 
 J 39#-; general influence of 
 movement, 101-104; appli- 
 cation of, and the need of in- 
 itiative, enterprise, etc., 108, 
 effect of, on competition and 
 large-scale production, 109, 
 no; subdivision of labor 
 in, 109; effect of, on inven- 
 tion, 113, 114; tendency of, 
 to enlarge supply of mana- 
 gers, etc., 115, 116; and the 
 labor problem, 116 ff.; its 
 effect on wages, 120, 121, 
 160, 161; the bonus system, 
 121 ff.; development of, not 
 parallel to introduction of 
 power-driven machinery, 
 127, 128; effect of, on num- 
 ber of workmen employed, 
 128, 129; and on their health; 
 134; and the sweating sys- 
 
INDEX 
 
 317 
 
 tern, 137, 138; bearing of, 
 on employment of women, 
 137; and children, 138; and 
 the American Federation of 
 Labor, 151; possibilities of 
 cooperation with organized 
 labor, 1 51-154; not an in- 
 dustrial panacea, 154; and 
 the cost of living, 1 56-1 59 ; 
 and the problem of unem- 
 ployment, 159-161; effect 
 of, on education and skill of 
 employees, 1 61-165; on in- 
 equality of income, 165, 
 166, and on the tendency 
 toward democracy of indus- 
 try, 166 j#".; forecast of fu- 
 ture of, 169-172; literature 
 of criticism of, 212 Jf. And 
 see Cost System, Failures, 
 Routing System, Taylor, 
 F. W., Taylor System, Time 
 Study. 
 
 Scientific training, increased 
 importance of, 109. 
 
 Scott, Walter D., 237 n., 248. 
 
 Seattle, 43. 
 
 Selection, principle of, 10; by 
 capacity, 167-169; of em- 
 ployees, 248, 249. 
 
 Sellers Company, 18. 
 
 Selter, Fr., 242 n. 
 
 Seubert, R., Aus der Praxis 
 des Taylor-Systems, 232, 
 246; 210. 
 
 Shaw, A. W., 215. 
 
 Sheafe, J. S., 227 n. 
 
 Simeon, Charles J., 246 n. 
 
 Skill, effect of scientific man- 
 agement on, 131-133. 
 
 Smith, J. Russell, Elements of 
 Industrial Management, 211 
 and n. 
 
 Smith, Oberlin, The Naming 
 of Machine Parts, 187 and 
 «.; 245 n., 262 n. 
 
 Specialization, 10, 114, 118, 
 132, 162, 163, 164. 
 
 Specialization of administra- 
 tion, 46, 47. 
 Spillman, W. J., 196 n. 
 Springfield (Mass.) Arsenal, 
 
 74- 
 Standard of achievement, how 
 
 set, 47. 
 Standard of living, 120, 125, 
 
 126. 
 Standardization of materials, 
 
 and equipment, 46, 47, 68, 
 
 69; literature concerning, 
 
 243, 244. 
 Steel, high-speed, method of 
 
 heat treatment of, 21, 22; 
 
 an epoch-making discovery, 
 
 30, 68, 69. 
 Sterling, E. A., 196 n. 
 Sterling, Frank W., 216. 
 Stimson, Henry L., 268 n. 
 Stimpson, H. F., 227 n. 
 Stimulation. See Incentive. 
 Stop-watch system, 92, 93. 
 Stone, Warren S., 225 n. 
 Stratton, G. F., 264, 265. 
 Strikes, organized labor and, 
 
 148, 149. 
 Suplee, H. H., 243 n. 
 Sweating system, scientific 
 
 management as a means of 
 
 combating, 137, 138. 
 Symons, Wilson E., 223 and n. 
 System, defined, 4. 
 System, 175, 232 n. 
 
 Tabor Manuf'g Co., 216, 217, 
 232. 
 
 Tarbell, Ida M., 214. 
 
 Tardy, W. B., 203, 217. 
 
 Tavenner bill, 94. 
 
 Taylor, E. M., 230 n. 
 
 Taylor, Frederick W., pioneer 
 and leader in theory and 
 practice of scientific man- 
 agement, 2, 3, 6, 8; prin- 
 ciples of industrial organi- 
 zation developed by, 11, 12; 
 Sketch of his career, 14 ff.\ 
 
3i8 
 
 INDEX 
 
 while with Midvale Steel 
 Co., evolves some of the 
 underlying principles of his 
 system, 19, 52; difficulties 
 encountered in development 
 and application of his 
 methods to various indus- 
 tries, 20; radical and revo- 
 lutionary in his methods, 
 20; his devices for securing 
 funds, 21; his work on cut- 
 ting metals, 21; with Beth- 
 lehem Steel Co., 21, 22; 
 invents method of heat 
 treatment of high-speed 
 steel, 21, 22, 68; results of 
 his work at Bethlehem de- 
 stroyed, 22, 23; brings cer- 
 tain parts of his system to 
 final development at Fitch- 
 burg, 23; reorganizes ma- 
 chine-shop in Phila., as an 
 experiment station and 
 training-school, 24, 25; sci- 
 entific management becomes 
 almost a religion to, 24, 25; 
 devoted himself to spread- 
 ing the propaganda of the 
 movement, 25; President of 
 American Association of 
 Mechanical Engineers, 25; 
 his labors with labor leaders, 
 25, 26; his death and fun- 
 eral, 26; sketch of his char- 
 acter, 27-34; his scientific 
 work, 30 ff. ; left followers, 
 but no successor, 34, 35; 
 and the method of func- 
 tional foremanship, 47; how 
 Emerson's theory differs 
 from his, 49, 50; first prac- 
 tices time study at Mid- 
 vale, 52; his cost system, 
 72; attitude of, toward or- 
 ganized labor, 94; his " first- 
 class man," 135; and the 
 differential piece rate, 179 
 ff.; investigations of de- 
 
 tailed processes, 185 j(f.; 48, 
 49, 5i, 53, 7i, 92, 104, 113, 
 171, 207, 208, 214 n., 227, 
 230 and n., 247, 250, 256, 
 257 and n., 262, 263, 264. 
 
 His writings: The Art of 
 Cutting Metals, 8, 11, 25, 186 
 and n., 242; Shop Manage- 
 ment, 25, 53 n., 153 n., 185, 
 187, 189-192, 192 n., 230, 
 231, 235, 244, 251, 262, 263; 
 Principles of Scientific Man- 
 agement, 25, 185, 188, 189, 
 200, 251, 258; "A Piece- 
 Rate System," 179 ff., 188; 
 "Notes on Belting," 185; 
 "Cultivation of Golf 
 Greens," 194; Miscellane- 
 ous articles, 194 n. 
 
 Taylor, F. W., and Thomp- 
 son, S. E., Concrete Costs, 
 53 n., 194, 231. 
 
 "Taylor group," the, 31, 32. 
 
 Taylor System, distinctive 
 features of, 10; underlying 
 principles of, evolved dur- 
 ing Taylor's service with 
 Midvale Steel Co., 19; 
 begins where Emerson Sys- 
 tem ends, 50; methods of 
 time study followed in, 
 53 ff- '■> bonus system under, 
 77, 78; opposition of organ- 
 ized labor to, 91 ff.; opposi- 
 tion to, at Watertown Ar- 
 senal, 95; and the Santa Fe 
 engineers, 95 ; what it really 
 is, 191, 192; report of Water- 
 town Arsenal Investigating 
 Committee on, 192, 193; 
 literature in criticism of, 
 212 ff. 
 
 Technical and pecuniary re- 
 sults of scientific manage- 
 ment distinguished, 50-52. 
 
 Technical training, impor- 
 tance of, in scientific man- 
 agement, 109. 
 
INDEX 
 
 319 
 
 Thompson, C. Bertrand, Sci- 
 entific Management, 6, 53 «., 
 
 J 53 n -> J 55 n -> 2I ° n -i 2 3 2 W -J 
 Report on Scientific Man- 
 agement, 232; How to find 
 Factory Costs, 246 n.; 199, 
 230 »., 245 n., 250 w., 257 n., 
 269 w. 
 
 Thompson, Sanford E., 182 n., 
 231, 235, 2 50 n. And see 
 Taylor, F. W. and Thomp- 
 son, S. E. 
 
 Tilson, John Q., 192. 
 
 Time study, first practiced by 
 Taylor at Midvale, 52; 
 various methods of, dis- 
 cussed, 53 ffr, results of, 
 57 ff.] demonstrates impor- 
 tance of standardized con- 
 ditions, 68; first effects of, 
 85, 86; literature concern- 
 ing, 234 ff. 
 
 Towlson, J. T., 250 n. 
 
 Towne, Henry R., 177, 182, 
 250 n., 262 n. 
 
 Unemployment, problem of, 
 90, 91; reduction of, and 
 scientific management, 159- 
 161. 
 
 United States Chamber of 
 Commerce, 140 n. 
 
 Van Alstyne, David, 221 n., 
 
 254 n. 
 Van Deventer, John H., 199 
 
 n. 
 Vanderlip, F. A., 215 n. 
 Vaughan, Mr., 228. 
 Veblen, Thorsteen B., The 
 
 Instinct of Workmanship 
 and the State of the Indus- 
 trial Arts, 200. 
 Voight, A., 210. 
 
 Wages, effect of scientific 
 management on, 77, 120, 
 121, 160, 161; application 
 of the bonus system, 77 ff. ; 
 uniform and differential, 
 144, 145, 147, 148. 
 
 Waldron, F. A., 211, 213, 
 233 n. 
 
 Walker, Amasa, 204 n. 
 
 Walker, W. O., 250 n. 
 
 Wallichs, A., i86w.,209,2i5 n. 
 244 n. 
 
 Watertown Arsenal, strike of 
 molders at, 91, 95, 192, 193; 
 64, 74. 77, 79 »•, 80, 81, 139, 
 171, 219, 267. 
 
 Watson, Marie U., 240 n. 
 
 Webster, A. G., 201 n. 
 
 White, Maunsel, 22, 68, 186. 
 
 Whiting, F. J., 254 n. 
 
 Wight, C. H., 244 n. 
 
 Wilson, William B., 192. 
 
 Wirz, Wilhelm, 210. 
 
 Women, bearing of scientific 
 management on employ- 
 ment of, 137. 
 
 Wooley, E. M., 237 «., 243 n., 
 
 247. 
 
 World's Work, 264. 
 
 Wright, Carroll D., Profit- 
 Sharing, 250 n. 
 
 Wyatt, Edith, 76. And see 
 Clark, S. A. 
 
 Zepp, F. F., 228. 
 

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