Book ' w>o CORfRIGHT DEPOSm AMERICAN EDUCATION SERIES GEORGE DRAYTON STRAYER, GENERAL EDITOR AMERICAN EDUCATION SERIES GEORGE DRAYTON STRAYER. GENERAL EDITOR EVERY TEACHER'S PROBLEMS BY WILLIAM E. STARK SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS HACKENSACK, N. J. AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY NEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO BOSTON ATLANTA V3 Copyright, 1922, By AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY All rights reserved EVERY teacher's PROBLEMS £.P. X MADE IN U. S. A. DEC -i "22 ©C1A692138 EDITOR^S INTRODUCTION Books dealing with the technic of teaching have almost invariably emphasized the importance of the inductive method. These same books have commonly proposed certain principles based upon psychology, and have sought to indicate the validity of these generaHzations by more or less pertinent illustrations ; but they have been almost wholly deductive in their method of deahng with the principles of teaching. The author of this book has em- ployed the inductive method in his discussion of every teacher's problems. The solution of problems has been urged as a method of stimulating the intellectual life of pupils, but the questions appearing in the pedagogical treatises have seldom involved the more difficult situations with which teachers have to deal every day of their professional life. In this book the author proposes many problems that have actually re- quired solution as a part of the day's work. He has so grouped them that one is able to arrive at certain gener- alizations or statements of principle as a result of thinking through carefully the successful solutions proposed. The book will prove most helpful because of the reahty of the issues discussed. It cannot fail to be intellectually stimu- lating because it is an embodiment of sound pedagogical procedure. Out of a rich experience in teaching, supervision, and ad- ministration Mr. Stark has brought together problems 5 6 editor's introduction dealing with the technic of teaching, with discipKne, and with social relationships which occur in every teacher's Ufe. The suggestions which grow out of the proposed solution of problems occurring in the classroom are supple- mented by discussions of the relation of teachers to super- visors, to parents, to the community, and to the profession in which he serves. One is convinced as he reads the text that not only are the problems themselves real, but that the solutions pro- posed and the discussion provided are genuine. Teachers of hmited experience will gain much from reading the dis- cussion of their most difficult problems as developed by experienced teachers. Those who have been longer in the profession will find much that is helpful in the varying points of view expressed and in the sane and well-matured conclusions which are presented by the author. No one can read the book sympathetically and fail to respond to the plea which it makes for a higher t3^e of professional service. George D. Strayer. PREFACE This book is an attempt to help teachers to acquire a professional attitude toward their work and to grow in professional knowledge and skill. Its distinctive feature is its method of developing principles through the study of concrete situations. The body of each chapter consists of an account of the active process of solution of typical cases, in which teachers, principals, superintendents, and parents take part. It is hoped that the reader will join the group, answering the arguments presented by the actors in each Uttle educational drama and making his own contribution to the discussion. Following the development of each series of typical prob- lems, comes an explicit statement of the principles which have appeared implicitly in the course of the solutions. These statements are to be regarded, not as rules to be learned but as suggestions to be studied critically. It would be well for the reader to make his own formulation of principles before reading those given in the book and to use the latter for comparison with the results of his inde- pendent thinking. At the end of each chapter is given a series of problems, taken from various departments of the school, which the reader should work out for himself. He should do this carefully, testing his proposals in the light of his princi- ples, and questioning the soundness of each step in his so- lution. One problem to which the reader has devoted his 7 8 PREFACE best thought will be more valuable than a dozen treated superficially. The reader must bear in mind that other solutions are possible besides those suggested. In many cases it is im- possible to tell with certainty what is the best solution. The problems as stated do not give the whole situation. Even if a given problem were before us in the form of the actors themselves, instead of a mere verbal statement, we should not have the whole situation unless we knew every- thing about the people concerned and everything about their environment which might possibly have a bearing on the case. Thus to state the situation completely would be an enormously compHcated matter, even if one could have the necessary knowledge. Consequently the solution of a problem will depend partly upon factors which are not stated, but which are assumed by the person who attempts to solve it. If the additional factors assumed by two per- sons are different, their solutions will be likely to differ. For example, in Problem 5 (page 26), if a person assumes that the teacher of the higher grade has a very strong spirit of service and plenty of endurance, he may regard it as the best plan to promote the boy on trial and let this teacher give him a great deal of individual instruction. On the other hand, if he assumes crowded classes and in- experienced teachers, his solution may be quite different. Let nobody suppose that all the problems given in this book will be completely solved. Many of them will con- tinue to be problems as long as there are children to be educated and human nature remains complex and variable. But they are all problems which teachers have to face. We shall have to do something about them. If we learn PREFACE 9 to deal with them more wisely, regarding our own solutions not as final but as the most promising plans which we can devise with our present knowledge — tentative steps to be tried and improved as we gain more Hght — we shall be making progress toward a real educational profession. The author would like to make sincere acknowledgment to those who have helped, but he finds it impracticable to mention them by name. Without doubt those who have contributed most to whatever merit the book may possess are the pupils, teachers, principals, supervisors, and par- ents with whom the author has worked during the past twenty-odd years, who have taught him many things about human nature, and who have given him constant stimulation, by example or encouragement or challenge, in his efforts to solve his own problems. CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. Some Preliminary Trials at Problem Solving . 13 Some General Principles II. Problems of Discipline 30 Rules and Punishments III. Problems of Discipline 41 Child Nature and Habit Formation IV. Problems of Discipline 57 The Child's Attitude ; Self -Direction ; Ideals V. Problems of Subject Matter 78 Selection of Educational Material ; Relation of Sub- ject Matter to Purpose; Making a Course of Study ; How to Test the Value of Subject Matter VI. Problems of Subject Matter 116 Appropriateness of Material for Children of Various Grades; Differentiation of Subject Matter VII. Problems of Method 134 Relation of Method to Purpose ; the Socialized Reci- tation ; the Common Recitation ; the Project Method VIII. Problems Due to Variations in Ability of Pupils 167 Language Handicap ; Group Teaching ; Rapid Pro- motions . IX. Problems Involving Economy of Time . . .186 Distinguishing the Important from the Non-Essen- tial ; Efficiency and System ; the Value of Planning 10 CONTENTS II CHAPTER PAGE X. Problems of Health 212 Hygiene at School and at Home; the Teacher's Responsibility; Cooperation with Parents; the Influence of Example ^ XI. Problems of Relationship with Supervisors . 229 Purpose of Supervision ; the Teacher and the Super- visor; Cooperation XII. Problems of Relationship with Administrative Officers 251 Accepting Criticism ; Cooperation with Superintend- ent; Assignment to' Posts; Contracts ^XIII. Problems of Relationship with Other Teachers 277 Jealousy and Prejudice ; Mutual Help ; Teamwork ^XIV. Problems of Relationship with Parents . . 296 Cooperation; the Face-to-Face Method; the Child Labor Problem ; Educating Parents XV. Problems of Professional Growth . . .318 Keeping out of the Ruts; Learning the Trade; the N. E. A. ; Making Teaching Respectable XVI. The Teacher as Problem-Solver . . . .351 Recognition of Problems; the Problem Method of Teaching Index 361 EVERY TEACHER'S. PROBLEMS CHAPTER I SOME PRELIMINARY TRIALS AT PROBLEM SOLVING Some General Principles Problem 1. — A boy has been very troublesome in school. He is lazy and often impudent; occasionally plays truant; has given trouble in previous grades. His teacher, Miss A., de- clares that he is a nuisance and ought to be expelled. The principal takes the case up in teachers' meeting and asks teachers for their views. Several teachers agree with Miss A. that the boy should be expelled for the good of the school. One asks what is to become of him after expulsion and another replies with some heat that that is ''up to his parents "; he has had his chance and thrown it away ; the school has no further responsibility. One teacher says that expulsion will please the boy, that what he needs is something that will hurt him. She thinks he ought to be thrashed soundly. At this Miss B., who has tried several times to speak but has stopped modestly as other more forceful spirits claimed attention, jumps to her feet and, in a voice shaking with excitement, cries out : "He is thi'ashed unmercifully every day of his life except when he runs away. I had him in my class last year and I know what his home is like.'' 13 14 SOME PRELIMINARY TRIALS In response to the principaFs inquiry as to what she would advise, Miss B. replies: "I am not sure what is best, but I am sure that thrashing will accompHsh absolutely nothing with that boy except to make him more bitter, and I know that if he is turned out of school to run the streets, he will become a criminal in a very short time. It may not be possible to save him. It seems almost impossible to get behind the sullen, silent opposition with which he meets every advance. He apparently is at war with the whole world, and after seeing his home, I can understand this state of mind. Once or twice I succeeded in getting him to respond a little to my efforts to be friendly, and I think that if one could gradually win his confidence and be patient with him, it might be possible to make a man of him." The principal says : *' We have a number of very different opinions. Let us see if we can agree on any factors in the case. The ideas which you have expressed are these : 1. The boy's conduct is a detriment to the school, and he should therefore be expelled. 2. He deserves no consideration because he has shown no appreciation of the opportunities afforded him. 3. The school has no responsibihty for his future since he has defied its efforts in his behalf. 4. He should be made to suffer for his transgressions. 5. His behavior seems to be due, in part at least, to his environment outside the school. 6. He is in a fair way to become a menace to the com- munity. 7. There is a possibility of making a good citizen of him through methods adapted to his own peculiar nature. Let me now propose some questions : SOME GENERAL PRINCIPLES 1 5 1. If it should prove to be impossible to keep the boy in school without injury to the other pupils, should we be justified in excluding him?" There is general assent, one teacher remarking: "The greatest good to the greatest number." 2. "Where does our responsibility to the boy and his parents end?" After some discussion, the teachers agree on the answer : "When we have done everything that we can to help him to make the most of himself." 3. "Has the community any interest in the matter?" The conclusion is easily reached that it is important for the community that the boy shall become as good a citizen as he is capable of becoming. 4. "Should the treatment of the boy be influenced by a desire to pay him back for the trouble which he has caused or for his insulting behavior toward us?" All agree that this should not be done, although it would be in accord with one's natural impulse. One teacher suggests that the boy should be regarded as a sick person, an interesting, if exasperating, case and that teachers should look upon his behavior as a symptom of his moral ill-health, in no way humiHating to the physician who is treating him. 5. "Can we use a standard method in dealing with this case?" There is a chorus of "Noes." Miss B. says: "No two children are alike. We have got to try to understand each one and use the method which will win response. It is the result that counts." • Miss A. then says: "I wish to withdraw my recom- mendation and try again." This is approved, with the 1 6 SOME PRELIMINARY TR-IALS understanding that if further effort by the teacher and the principal should prove ineffective, the boy should be ex- cluded from school and that, in that case, the principal should try to have him placed in an institution where he could be under proper control without endangering the welfare of others. Problem 2. — The question arises as to whether a girl in the senior class of the high school shall be allowed to graduate. She has had to repeat a number of subjects and has spent five years in completing the course. She has worked much harder than the average student, but has had great difficulty in meeting the requirements, especially in mathematics and Latin. In household arts courses, her work has been exceptionally good and she has shown so much ability in managing social affairs that she is always made chairman of the class committee in charge of such events. Her final marks are "excellent" in household arts and physical training, "passable" in English and history, and "poor" in Latin. At a conference of the teachers concerned, the household arts teacher says that the girl is the best that her depart- ment has ever turned out ; that she will be a great success as a homemaker and will have influence among the people with whom she associates. The history teacher says that, on the basis of marks in recitations and examinations, she would not have passed, but he has no doubt that, in the duties of practical citizenship, she will surpass many of the students of high scholarship. Therefore he has given her a passing mark. The Latin teacher. Miss A., declares that she cannot conscientiously pass this student. The stand- ard of the school must be considered. If pupils are gradu- ated merely because they are good cooks and show desirable moral qualities, the school will lose its reputation for scholar- ship. SOME GENERAL PRINCIPLES 17 The principal then closes the conference with this state- ment: "The general consensus of opinion is that Helen is entitled to a diploma, but Miss A. feels that this would be a serious mistake. The responsibility for the decision rests upon me. I may, if I choose, accept the majority opinion as most likely to be right or as involving less of arbitrary authority on my part. I believe, however, that if we think over calmly and open-mindedly what has been said, we shall be able to discover some underlying principles upon which we can all agree. If we succeed, we shall be able to work together more effectively and we shall be better able to solve other problems as they arise. Our differences seem to be due to the fact that we are giving different emphasis to the various factors in the case, in accordance with different ideals. We all want to do the right thing and we shall be more confident that we are right, if we think out clearly the reasons for our opinions. I am going to ask you, therefore, to reflect on these questions and to meet me to-morrow to decide the matter. 1. Should the chief aim of the school be to prepare pupils to meet college entrance requirements ? 2. Is the development of moral quaHties a proper fuJic- tion of the school ? 3. Are academic studies of more value than homekeeping activities for all girls ? 4. Should the high school be regarded as primarily for pupils of the ' academic ' type ? 5. Will the public interest be best served by enforcing a rigid scholarship standard in the high school? 6. What purposes are served by the award of a diploma ? E. T. PROS. 2 l8 SOME PRELIMINARY TRIALS 7. Will the accomplishment of these purposes be affected if the diploma is awarded in such a case as the one before us? 8. If the answer is ' Yes, ' will the public interest be best served by refusing graduation to this pupil, or by modi- fying the plan of graduation so that pupils of Helen's type will be eligible?" At the meeting next day, it is agreed : 1 . The chief aim of the school should be to help students to fit themselves for the greatest possible usefulness as citizens. A secondary aim should be to enable candidates for college entrance to meet the requirements. 2. The development of moral qualities is an important function of the school. Teachers should keep this aim in mind and give every possible encouragement to the develop- ment of such quaHties. 3. For some girls, the homekeeping activities are more stimulating to growth than the usual academic studies of the high school. From the standpoint of education, the question is not ^' Which is the more worthy subject for study? " but "Which will do most for this pupil? " 4. The high school should not be regarded as a ''select" school. It should welcome any pupil whose needs can apparently be better served in the high school than in any other accessible institution. 5. A rigidly enforced scholarship standard would not be in the public interest, since its effect would be to eliminate many pupils who would profit by more education. The point is made that a flexible standard would be more difficult to administer but it is agreed that the only standard con- SOME GENERAL PRINCIPLES 1 9 sis tent with the purpose of education is "the pupil's best." The effect ought not to be a general lowering of standard but a raising of the requirements for the abler pupils. 6. The diploma has ordinarily been used as an incentive to study and as a certificate of accompKshment. It was agreed, however, that in practice, the diploma means noth- ing very definite in the way of accomplishment. Among those who receive the diploma there is a great variation in actual attainment and there is no evidence that a student who obtains one will make a better citizen than one who does not. 7. The award of a diploma in the case in question might affect the value of this distinction if students simply gained the idea that failure in a course or two would not interfere with their graduation, but would not do so if they realized that industry and good citizenship in school affairs are as essential to graduation as the receipt of certain marks. The award of a diploma to a pupil whose scholarship is inferior would be misleading if it were understood to be based upon scholarship alone, but need not cause confu- sion if the basis of the award is clearly stated in the document. 8. It is the general opinion that the diploma might safely be given in this case if a suitable note were added to the diploma and a statement were made at the graduation exercises that graduation is taken to mean not merely the attainment of a certain standard of scholarship but also the exhibition of desirable qualities of citizenship, coupled with earnest effort. It is felt that the diploma should, in every case, state as explicitly as possible the abilities and accomplishments of the pupil receiving it. 20 SOME PRELIMINARY TRIALS Problem 3. — A teacher of strong and attractive personality- has always a model class, from the standpoint of orderHness. Classes, which have been troublesome with other teachers, " eat out of her hand," after the first half hour. Children adore her and respond to her slightest wish. After leaving her class, they revert promptly to their previous habits. She has often heard herself referred to as a wonderful teacher and has received the grateful tributes of parents. During a vacation, she attends a lecture, in which the speaker emphasizes the danger of relying upon a dominating personality in the education of children. He says that such a teacher ought not to estimate the results of her work by the conduct of the children while they are under her influence, but by what they do after they leave her. This sets her thinking. After a time, she writes to a friend : *'I have been through a week of heart-searching and humiliation. I see clearly that, instead of the paragon that people have called me, I have been a downright failure. It has always been so easy to get anything that I wanted from the children, that I have allowed myseK to make puppets of them and have become famous for my skill in pulling the strings. Bless the man who showed me what I was doing ! I am eager to get back to work and see whether I can do some real teaching. I am going to try desperately to give my boys and girls something 'for keeps.' I have got to lead them to think, to have ideas of right and wrong, and to learn to decide things for themselves, instead of doing whatever they think will please me. Children like me, and therefore it ought not to be impossible to interest them in ideas that I believe in. The problem will be to interest them in the ideas themselves and in their own power to think and act." SOME GENERAL PRINCIPLES 21 Problem 4. — The course of study in a city school system calls for the teaching of the parts of speech in the fifth grade. A teacher becomes very much discouraged over the results of her efforts to carry out the requirement. Most of the children manage to learn the definitions, but only a few seem to grasp the ideas clearly. With the exception of the few who do well and enjoy a sense of superiority, the children show little interest and quickly become inattentive. The teacher sees an article in an educational magazine in which the writer declares that grammar has no place in the elementary school. This comforts her until she mentions it to the superintendent, who retorts with much emphasis that grammar is the best means of mental train- ing in the curriculum. He advises more drill. The teacher decides that she will not be "stumped** by this problem. She goes to the library and looks up all the references that she can find on the teaching of grammar. The doctors disagree but the most convincing articles all take the position that much of the grammar which is ordi- narily taught in the elementary school serves no useful pur- pose. The teacher can think of no ground for disputing the contention that grammar in the elementary school should be limited to facts and principles which will actually help children to speak or write better English or under- stand better what they read. She reads accounts of some tests in which children who had studied grammar showed no superiority in these abilities over those who had not. She then visits the classes of several fifth-grade teachers whose work has been highly recommended. In some of these classes, she sees grammatical work of the same type as her own, and observes some teaching devices which inter- est her. She notices, however, that many of the children exhibit the same lack of interest and failure to understand grammatical ideas as her own pupils. In one class, the work 22 SOME PRELIMINARY TRIALS is of an entirely different character. When she arrives, the children are about to write a story. They discuss their plans orally and a few tell their stories. The class offers criticism and the teacher puts in an occasional ques- tion. There is vigorous discussion upon the selection of words which will best express the meaning and give the reader the clearest picture of the characters and the action of the story. Our teacher is interested to see that, while there is no mention of parts of speech, the children seem to understand the function of verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, and use them far more skillfully than any other class which she has visited. She notices especially the keen interest and active participation of everybody. When the stories are completed, she is permitted to examine all of them. She is surprised to find that there are fewer granmiatical errors than her own children make after all her drill, and she is amazed at the freedom of expression, choice of words, and variety of ideas. At the close of the session, she asks the other teacher for a brief conference, explains her own difficulties, and begs to know how such results as she has seen can be obtained. The other teacher says: *'I think I understand the diffi- culty because I have been through the same experience. I have tried the drill method and convinced myself that it is a failure in teaching little children to speak and write. It is attempting to force the thoughts of adults upon minds which have no capacity for absorbing them. A few excep- tional children grasp the ideas but in most cases the result is mere parrot imitation, with no effect upon the use of EngHsh. Children like to do things and love to express themselves SOME GENERAL PRINCIPLES 23 when they have something to say. They have vivid imag- inations when you give them a chance. On the other hand they have Kttle or no interest in analysis. That will come later, for some of them at least. What we teachers need to do is not to take our own thoughts and methods of work and attempt to drill them into the children, but to study the children themselves, see what interests them most, and show them how to improve their work. Then we are working 'with the grain,' not against it. One secret of success with children of this age which the 'drill teacher' is apt to overlook is not to keep them work- ing on the same thing too long. When the children began to get restless, I used to 'prod' them, call for attention, and impose punishments. But the plan never worked. Now when I notice any flagging of attention, I quickly change to some other kind of work for a time. The result is that far more is accomphshed because the children are working hard with me instead of offering more or less pas- sive resistance. This study of children is a fascinatirg occupation, in- finitely more interesting than hearing recitations of text- book lessons. No one, I think, has very exact knowledge of child nature as yet, but a lot of progress is being made by teachers who take a scientific attitude toward their work. The classroom teacher has the best possible opportunity for observation and experiment, and I am trying to get a little new light every year." Our teacher says to herself on her way home : "I think I see the way out of my difficulty, if Mr. Jones willlet me try a different plan of teaching EngHsh." But Mr. Jones, as she says, is another problem. 24 some preliminary trials Method of Solution We have now taken up several problems and suggested the ways in which teachers attempted to work them out. In none of the cases was a complete, final solution reached, but a better understanding of the problem was gained and a tentative solution arrived at, to be tested by experiment. This method will be found applicable to most school prob- lems. Education has not become a science and it is un- safe to be dogmatic. Conclusions should be accepted tentatively, to be tested by experience and modified as new knowledge is gained. In most of the problems, the particular questions have suggested more general ones and the answers given have depended upon general ideas or convictions. These general ideas are not axioms. They are behefs rather than scien- tific principles, and must be given up if experience shows them to be invalid. They represent, however, our best thought on the subject, not mere opinion, but judgments based on aU our present knowledge. We must make use of such general ideas, for otherwise every problem which arises must be worked out anew. When we acquire general ideas to which we can refer our specific problems, and by hard thinking we succeed in tying them together into a consistent view of the educational field with which we are acquainted, we have a philosophy of education. Then we are not obliged to base our opinions merely upon tra- dition or fashion or authority. Our views depend upon fundamental ideas which we have thought about and believe in, and which we can defend. Our trial problems have brought out some fundamental principles, that is, they are fundamental in the author's SOME GENERAL PRINCIPLES 2$ philosophy, and are a constant guide to him in his solution of problems. They are stated more explicitly below. The reader does not need to accept them ; in fact, should not do so without questioning them thoughtfully. He should, however, formulate principles of his own. After studying the principles, rejecting and substituting as much as he needs to do in order to be consistent with himself, he ought to be prepared to attack the problems which follow. Principles for the Guidance of the Teacher IN THE Solution of Problems 1. The purpose of education should be kept in mind at all times. The solution of any problem should be consistent with this purpose. 2. The purpose of education is to secure the develop- ment of each individual to the greatest degree of happiness and usefulness of w^hich he is capable. The happiness of the individual and his usefulness to society will often con- flict unless the individual comes to accept the public welfare as a dominating ideal. The teacher should aim to culti- vate in the pupil a desire to make the most of himself for the common good. As the pupil acquires this ideal, the process of education should become one of cooperation between the teacher and the pupil. 3. The success of the teacher, in the light of the pur- pose of education stated above, will depend upon his knowl- edge of the nature of the child, the laws of child develop- ment, and the needs of society, as well as upon his skill in dealing with children. The teacher's professional study should therefore include child study, sociology, and the art of teaching. 26 SOME PRELIMINARY TRIALS 4. The teacher should aim to make himself a scientific worker in the pubHc service. He should take an objective rather than a personal attitude toward his work and to- ward the people with whom his work brings him into con- tact. If he himself beheves strongly in the ideals of the public welfare and the progress of humanity, he will not be disheartened or made bitter by misunderstanding or lack of appreciation. He will regard such behavior as defects of human nature, or individual development, or public sentiment, — a stage in the progress of humanity, to be regarded objectively, to be ''allowed for" as one allows for a head wind or a muddy road, to be overcome as far as possible, but not to be resented or combated or despised as a personal affront. If the teacher is seriously concerned with the best possible development of the children in his class, he will think of them as imperfect growing plants to be nurtured. He will not be discouraged or made angry if some of them are lazy or troublesome or dishonest. He will take such characteristics as signs of defect, to be studied and removed if possible. He will not be reHeved when a boy is sent to reform school, although he may try to have the boy sent there for his own good. He will be dissatisfied when, and only when, a pupil has failed to make the prog- ress of which he was apparently capable. Problems for the Reader to Solve Problem 5. — A pupil is older than the other children in the class, but does very poor work in most subjects. Although he has already repeated the grade, his average for the year falls below the passing mark. Outside of school, he plays with boys of higher grades and is a leader among them. He makes a good deal of money by selling papers and doing odd jobs. The PROBLEMS TO BE SOLVED 27 teacher feels that he does not belong with the younger children but does not see how she can properly promote him. She fears that, if she does so, the teacher of the higher grade will criticize her. Problem 6. — A teacher receives the following note : Miss Jones : You have done a very mean thing to my daughter. She came home all in a tremble and she does nothing but cry. She knows you don't like her and so you did not promote her for spite. She has worked very hard and she has a right to be promoted. I shall see that she gets her rights. How do you know what she can do when you never call on her? You can rest assured that she will never return to your class. I shall send her to another school first. This matter will be taken to the board of education. Mrs. John J. Anderson Problem 7. — A boy in the third year of high school, who has exceptional ability, announces to the teacher that he is about to leave school, to take a position in a business office. The teacher calls on the boy's mother to urge that he continue his education. The mother says that she had expected to send him to college, but when a friend, who is a partner in a very lucrative business, offered to give him a position, and assured her that the boy would have an opportunity to make far more money than he could earn in a profession, she thought it too good a chance to miss. Problem 8. — A board of education, finding it necessary to raise teachers' salaries, and fearing the criticism which a large increase in taxes is likely to cause, discusses various plans of retrenchment. Among the proposals are elimination of kinder- garten classes, reduction of the number of teachers with increase in the size of classes, and elimination of manual training. The board appoints an evening for a public hearing on the proposals and invites teachers especially to give their views. Problem 9. — The principal of a school urges the introduction of manual activities, and proposes that teachers prepare them- 2$ SOME PRELIMINARY TRIALS selves for the work. Some of the teachers oppose the plan on the ground that it will make a great deal of extra work. They start a petition asking the board of education not to approve the scheme, and all but one of the teachers sign. This teacher says that, before she commits herself, she wants to be sure that she is doing the right thing. She will think the matter over until the next day and will then either sign or give her reasons for not doing so. Problem 10. — A new teacher is assigned to a school in which there are many children of foreign parentage, coming from poor homes. Some of them are dirty and ill-mannered. Her room- mate, who teaches in a school where, she says, there is " a nice class of children," asks: "Why don't you ask the superintend- ent to transfer you to another school? " Problem 11. — A boy in one of the upper grades makes little effort during the practice periods in penmanship. The teacher tries to " stir him up " and frequently keeps him after school for practice. He says that he doesn't see any use in everlast- ingly making circles and writing words over and over, that he can write well enough when he feels like it. The teacher retorts that it is not his place to say what he should do in school, that he will have to do the regular work and might as well make up his mind to it. She works very hard and continues to keep him after school, but his writing does not improve. Problem 12. — A teacher is given the opportunity to select some new reading material for her class. The principal merely stipulates that she shall give reasons for her choice. Problem 13. — A high school teacher has a class which he says is the dullest one that he has ever had. Several of the students drop out during the term and two thirds of them fail in the term's work. He doesn't see why such people should be allowed to come to high school. Problem 14. — A high school teacher is dissatisfied with the poor recitations made by her pupils. They are inclined to give mono- syllabic replies. She constantly asks questions and frequently feels obliged to interpret pupils' answers so that the class will PROBLEMS TO BE SOLVED 29 understand what was meant. She visits a class in another school in which the pupils take a very active part in the class exercise. They engage in very vigorous discussion, while the teacher, who sits in the back of the room, speaks rarely. Our teacher wishes that she could have such students. REFERENCES Strayer, G. D., and Norsworthy, N., How to Teach, Chapter I. Bagley, W. C, School Discipline, Chapter IV. Sears, J. B., Classroom Organization and Control, Chapter I. Strayer, G. D., A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, Chapter I. Engleman, J. O., Moral Education in School and Home, Chapter H. Patri, Angelo, A Schoolmaster of the Great City, Chapters I, II. CHAPTER II PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE Rules an® Punishments Problem 15. — A teacher who has been much annoyed by- frequent cases of tardiness, makes a rule that any pupil who is tardy must remain after school that day for an hour, and that his name must be placed on the tardy list for one week. Soon afterwards, a little boy arrives, a few minutes after the opening of school. He is very much out of breath and in tears. The teacher says sternly : " Write your name on the tardy list and remain this afternoon." The child writes his name on the blackboard under the word tardy following those of several old offenders. He is pale and restless all day. The next morning, before school, the principal comes into the classroom and tells the teacher that the boy's father called him up the previous evening, in high temper, saying that the child was sent to the drug store for medicine, that he protested that he would be late for school but was assured that it was his duty to do the errand for his sick mother and the teacher would ex- cuse him. The father expressed his opinion of a school that punishes children for obeying their parents. The principal re- quests the teacher to report to him that afternoon how she plans to deal with the matter. The teacher has the problem on her mind all day. Her first impulse is to excuse herself. The father ought to have gone for the medicine himself. The boy ought to have told her why he was late although she knows in her heart that she wouldn't have listened to him, even if he had had courage to try to explain. Suppose she had asked for an explanation and had excused him, what would have become 30 RULES AND PUNISHMENTS 3 1 of her rule? The children would think that rules would not really be enforced. The boy did not really deserve to be punished but it was better for the class. And what a mean thing the father had said — that the school was trying to make children disobey their parents, when she was working her head off for their children ! She would give a good deal if that man could have a chance to teach the class for just one day. At noon, when she has a chance to think without interrup- tion and has recovered from her excitement, she begins to feel differently. She knows that she has not been fair to the youngster, and he is such a timid, well-meaning little chap ! She is even able to put herself in the father's place. Just before the close of school, she says: "Children, put away your work. I have something to say to you. I made a mistake yesterday when I punished Eddie for being late. I have since learned that it wasn't his fault. He had to get some medicine for his mother who is sick. That was the right thing for him to do. He ought to have been praised, not punished, for doing his duty, when he was afraid of being late. So we will rub out his name from the tardy list, and put it under the words obedient to duty. That means doing the right thing even if you may be pun- ished for it. I am going to take back that rule, and I am going to trust you children never to be tardy again if you can help it ; but if your mother or father tells you that it is your duty to do something which will make you late, do it and then tell me about it. If anyone is careless and is late when it is his own fault, I shall have to punish him to help him to 32 PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE remember, but I hope that nobody will be punished again when he has done right." After reporting to the principal what she has done, she says: *'I am going to see Mr. Brown to-night and try to make him believe that, although I made a mistake this time, the school is really trying to teach the children to do their duty." Problem 16. — A high school boy has a strong distaste for school and urges his parents to let him go to work. They are ambitious for him and insist on his remaining until he graduates. He is inattentive in class, seldom prepares his lessons, and some- times " cuts " classes. Two of his teachers, meeting by chance, begin to discuss the case. One says: ''I met Mr. Lane yesterday and ad- vised him to send George to work. He is simply wasting his time. He does nothing in school, and punishment only makes him sullen. I won't have him in the room when he comes unprepared. He has sat in the office most of the time this week while his class has been reciting." The other replies: *'You may be right in advising his going to work, but I have the feeling that we owe it to the parents and to the boy himself to get him to take advantage of his opportunity for an education if we possibly can. I re- member that, at his age, I was determined to leave school but my father and one of the teachers induced me to stay and I have always been grateful to them. If it had not been for that one teacher, I should probably be a clerk now instead of doing what is to me the finest work in the world." The first teacher retorts: ''You talk about getting him to take advantage of his opportunity, but how are you going to do it ? He hates school and no punishment affects him, RULES AND PUNISHMENTS 33 because he knows that the worst that you can do to him is to dismiss him, and that is just what he wants." The other goes on: "That is just the trouble. . If we get angry with him and punish him in resentment, it only makes him worse. If we really want to change his attitude and keep him in school, we have got to learn how to treat him so as to produce that effect. As I see it, the worst possible method is to keep him idle by sending him from the class. We must try to get him interested. For the time being, it does not matter much whether he does exactly what we have laid out for the class, provided he exerts himself on some- thing and gets rid of the idea that school is simply a place where unsympathetic teachers try to compel him to do tasks which he despises. I am not proposing that he should be allowed to do just what he likes, but if we want to help the boy, we have got to change his attitude before we try to make him conform to the school regime. I know that he has good ability and is capable of getting very much interested in problems requiring hard thinking. Once in a while, a matter comes up in class which appeals to him. Several times, on such occasions, he has shown more knowledge and common sense than any of the other students. A few days ago, when he came unprepared, I kept him after school, but instead of making him study, I set him to work helping me on some new apparatus. He worked splendidly and made a suggestion which led to a decided improvement in the contrivance. After an hour, I told him that he might go but he stayed on until the work was finished. The most interesting part of the whole affair was that the next day, he had his lesson perfectly and took active part in the recitation. I am inclined to think E. T. PROB. 3 34 PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE that if we are friendly, give him a chance to do things occa- sionally in which he excels, and encourage him at such times, and if, when we impose punishments, we let him see that our purpose is not merely to make him do something dis- tasteful, he will gradually get out of his present state of mind and become a credit to us. At any rate I think that method is worth trying out." Problem 17. — A teacher leaves the room for a few minutes. On her way back she hears a great deal of noise, which stops the moment she enters the room. She knows that there has been disorder but is not sure of the individuals who have been responsible. She immediately delivers a stinging lecture to the class saying that she is ashamed of them, that this is the first class that she has not been able to trust. She orders the whole class to stay after school. There are many sullen looks and an unusual amount of disorder during the rest of the session. For several days she notices an unfriendly spirit, even among pupils who have never before given the slightest trouble. The situation worries her and she finally takes it to the principal, saying that she does not see what has got into the class. The pupils seem to dislike her and to delight in doing things to annoy her. Then she bursts into tears. The principal asks if she can think of anything which could have turned the class against her and she finally speaks of the episode which resulted in the punishment of the class, although she cannot see how that can account for the subsequent behavior, since she has often kept pupils after school without arousing any resentment. The principal then points out that children have very strong convictions about what they call unfairness. It seems probable to him that the pupils have deeply resented the injustice of her rebuke and punishment of the whole class for an offense of which perhaps only a few were guilty. RULES AND PUNISHMENTS 35 He says: "You will have to work patiently to restore their confidence in you. You must be very careful to be just. Don't distrust the class or let the pupils feel that you dis- trust them as a group. Rather encourage them to take pride in the class and its power to be self-directing. When you scold or punish a whole class it has little effect, except to lower the class tone. On the other hand if you commend the class whenever you can properly do so, it helps to de- velop a good class spirit." Problem 18. — A teacher has the practice of requiring pupils who misbehave or whose work is unsatisfactory to her to re- main after school. Her room is always well filled for at least a hah hour after school closes. There is no evident improve- ment. If there is any change it seems to be for the worse. The principal asks her to talk over the situation. The teacher is inchned at first to resent any criticism of her work and to insist that she is doing all that anyone could do with such children. He points out that this same class was regarded as a particularly good one the previous year and that she had much the same difficulty before these children came to her. Then she begins to cry, saying that she is evidently a failure, that she works all the time and is worrying herself sick. The principal says: "Now don't be absurd. Miss D. I have watched your work and I know that you have qualities which we can't afford to lose. You are up against a prob- lem, that's all. Now just face it calmly and let's see if we can get at the diflSiculty. When you first met this class did the children impress you as particularly bard ones to manage?" "No," she says, "for the first day or two, they were 36 PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE delightful. I thought they were remarkably well-mannered and bright, but gradually they seemed to become careless and then troublesome and now they won't do anything until they are forced to do it. I hate to be inflicting pun- ishments constantly, but I can't allow them to be idle and disobedient." The principal replies: "It seems probable that there is something in your method of dealing with the children which breaks down previous good habits and tends to estabhsh worse ones. When the children came to you, they were courteous and responsive. What has happened to change this attitude? I wonder if you soon began to make demands upon the children which they did not under- stand, and if you punished them when they could not see that they were to blame. I do not know whether that is the case but if so, it would explain their behavior. If chil- dren come to feel that a teacher does not understand them, if they are punished for failure to do something which they do not understand, they are sure to lose confidence in her. Then, instead of being actively helpful, they are apt to sit back and wait for the teacher to act. It is certain that the present lack of sympathy between teacher and class is having a very bad effect. If it continues, the situation is bound to grow worse, just as a spirit of confidence and good feeling is bound to stimulate a group to greater effort and continual improvement. You must be careful not to expect too much of the chil- dren. Remember that they cannot see into your mind even as well as you can see into theirs. Make sure that you and they understand one another. Praise and encourage them whenever they have made a good effort, but don't make RULES AND PUNISHMENTS 37 the mistake of praising them when they know that they don't deserve it. They will think that you are trying to buy their good will or that you are ^easy,' and that is as bad as to be unjust or harsh. Don't punish a child re- peatedly. If the punishment does not accomplish the purpose promptly it is a failure. Repetition makes the child callous. Try a different method. Your problem will be hardest at first because you will have to overcome a strong prejudice and bad habits, but if you are determined to solve it, if you study the children carefully and are patient, you will presently win out. As you get more experience, you will learn to deal with the children, so that many of the situations which are now troublesome to you will be properly and almost uncon- sciously met and overcome." Miss D. then says: ''I believe you are right. I am not conscious of having made unreasonable demands nor inflicted unjust punishments but I am quite sure that the children do not understand me and I am very ready to beHeve that I have not understood them. I shall try to get a spirit of cooperation in place of law and punishment." Principles Relating to Rules and Punishments 1. Uniform inflexible rules are dangerous. A rule should be regarded as a means not an end. The application of a rule should be interpreted in the light of the purpose of education. 2. Pupils should understand the purpose of a rule. They should be encouraged to cooperate as far as possible in the making and enforcement of necessary rules. 3. Punishment should be used in a manner consistent 38 PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE with the purpose of education — not by rule. Punish- ment should never be inflicted in a spirit of revenge. 4. A good punishment accomplishes its purpose without frequent repetition. 5. Punishment should fit the offense — not be arbitrary. 6. Enforced idleness should rarely, if ever, be used as a penalty. 7. A child should not be punished unless it is clear that he is to blame. 8. It is never wise to punish a whole class for the fault of an individual. 9. Punishment often repeated loses its effect. When such punishment seems to be necessary, it is usually a sign either that too much is expected of the child or else that he is not cooperating. Problems for the Reader to Solve Problem 19. — Some of the members of a class begin to throw paper wads. The teacher becomes exasperated, and directs that the boy stand who threw a wad that has just been seen. Nobody moves — she tries again without result. Then she directs that the whole class stay after school until the guilty one confesses. Problem 20. — A teacher observes disorder in one corner of the room and feels sure that she knows the culprit. She orders him to stay after school. He protests that he has not done anything, but she says : " Don't you dare to talk back to me — you may stay for a week." He looks at her angrily, mutters, and is thereafter sullen and indifferent. Problem 21. — A young teacher makes a good start. Children are well behaved at first, but soon begin to misbehave. She begins to scold and impose severe penalties, realizes that she has gone too far and suddenly tries to be sympathetic — some- times sentimental. The class gets worse and worse, becoming RULES AND PUNISHMENTS 39 very disrespectful. Children are very rude and noisy, and even throw things before her eyes. Problem 22. — A boy has never been tardy during six or more years of school life. He lives nearly a mile from school. On a cold, slippery morning he is two minutes late. The rule is that pupils who are tardy shall remain after school for 30 minutes. Problem 23. — A teacher of a country school becomes exas- perated by the carelessness of the children and says : " The next child who drops a pencil will be whipped." In a few min- utes, a httle girl who is the pet of the class jumps up to show the teacher a drawing which she has just finished and brushes her pencil off the desk. Problem 24. — The lawn in front of a school building is dis- figured by a path worn by children who cut across the corner to save steps. Problem 25. — A child is restless, shuffles his feet, squirms on his seat, and annoys the child in front of him. The teacher makes him sit in a chair in the front of the room facing the wall and tells him to keep perfectly still if he doesn't want a whipping. He remains there for thirty minutes. Problem 26. — A child who is troublesome is sent to the coat- room where he remains for the rest of the session, more than an hour. Problem 27. — A young teacher has trouble in controlling her class. When ordinary punishments fail, she sends a pupil to the principal. This seems to have a good effect at first, so on the spur of the moment she uses the same method for a very small offense. Before long she is sending pupils to the prin- cipal every day, and yet the class is very disorderly. The pupils do not seem to fear the punishment. She feels that the principal is not " backing her up." Problem 28. — A kindergarten class is set to work making a box. One of the children just plays with his material, spoils his paper, and smears paste on another's work. The teacher tries without success to get him to work and then tells him to go and stand in the corner. 40 PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE Problem 29. — A high school girl hands in a story as an English exercise, which seems familiar to the teacher. She finally dis- covers it to be an exact copy of a story published a few years before in a popular magazine. Problem 30. — A library book which has been missing for some days is found in a pupil's desk. He maintains that someone must have put it there. REFERENCES Bagley, W. C, School Discipline, Chapters X-XIII. Morehouse, Frances M., The Discipline of the School, Chapters X, XI, XIII, XIV. Sears, J. B., Classroom Organization and Control, Chapter VII. Engleman, J. O., Moral Education in School and Home, Chapter V. Perry, A. C, Discipline as a School Problem, Chapter XXV. CHAPTER III PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE Child Nature and Habit Formation Problem 31. — A kindergarten child frequently acts in a selfish manner. When there is anything to eat, he reaches for the biggest piece. If a new toy is brought to school, he tries to ap- propriate it and screams if prevented. If he sees another child at work with material which pleases his fancy, he tries to take it for himself. When rebuked he cries passionately and insists on going home. A new teacher, coming to take the class, is warned by the retiring teacher that " this child is completely spoiled. You can't do anything with him." The new teacher says to herself: ''Maybe I can't but I can try. If I am to be an expert in training little children, I shall have to learn how to deal with such cases. This looks like an opportunity for me to grow." During the first few days, she watches the child closely and discovers that he has plenty of ability. In anything which interests him, he works persistently and intelligently, but if he doesn't want to do a thing, he is as stubborn as a mule. The selfish traits, of which she has been warned, are very evident. By calling upon the mother, she soon learns that the same characteristics are even more pronounced at home. The child rules the household. When denied what he wants, he screams as though in a frenzy, and the frightened mother gives in. 41 42 PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE The teacher thinks about the case a great deal. She sees that the situation is perfectly natural. The selfishness is easily accounted for. It is the universal inheritance. The trouble is that this high-spirited boy has never been trained to control his selfish impulses, (^he habit of get- ting what he wants is firmly fixed and the habit of pleas- ing others is absent. The problem is to develop the second habit and weaken the first. The experience of the previous teacher and observation of the child's home have shown that ordinary punishment or scolding has no good effect, so our teacher experiments with other methods. She discovers that the boy is much more responsive to praise than to blame, and she takes care to commend him when he has done anything well. She shows pleasure when any of the children act generously and disappointment when anyone is selfish. When the boy acts like a robber baron, she says: ''Henry doesn't feel like working with us now. People can't work together unless they are kind to each other. We will let Henry work by himself until he wants to be kind." He is not allowed to rejoin the group, regardless of "tantrums," until he shows a real desire to do so in a good spirit, and then he is welcomed back cordially. Gradually the com- bined effect of affection for the teacher, association of con- siderate behavior with the right to take part in the class activities, and satisfaction whenever he does well, de- velops new habits of social behavior which control the selfish impulses. Problem 32. — In a fourth grade, a boy slyly kicks the boy in front of him. The latter turns around and scowls and flien goes on with his work. Presently the kick is repeated, the CHILD NATURE AND HABIT FORMATION 43 kicker enjoying the impotent rage of his victim. He keeps a furtive eye on the teacher and is apparently intent on his book when her attention is attracted by the movement of the boy in front. The latter is just turning back to his work and is told sternly to pay attention to his own affairs. This delights the tormentor and he snickers in a carefully measured tone. At the next kick, a few minutes later, the boy in front is out of his seat like a flash and raining blows on the other. The teacher is horrified. She seizes the pugilist by the collar and drags him protesting to the principal's ofiice. She is very much excited and feels that the boy's offense is unpardonable. She starts to pour out her story in the presence of several other persons. The principal says: "Wait a minute," and clears the office. Then he says calmly: ''Now let's get at the facts. Bob, tell me just what happened." The boy is still angry and at first is incoherent in his reply, but cool questioning, with no suggestion of distrust or contempt, gradually brings out the facts and cahns him down. The principal then says : "Now, while I am talking with Miss E., I want you to do an errand for me. When you get back, we will decide what must be done to straighten this matter out." The other boy is then summoned. He is not inclined to accept much blame, saying that he was just having a little fun with Bob by making him mad. When asked what he would have done if Bob had done the same thing to him, he said he would have "laid for him after school." He is then told to wait outside the ojB&ce until sent for. "Now, Miss E.," says the principal, "I think we have the facts. What shall we do ? " "I think both boys should be whipped," she replies. "Bob had strong provocation, but such behavior in the classroom 44 PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE is intolerable. He could have told me that Jack was kick- ing him. He acted like a wild beast. It was a disgrace to the school and an insult to the teacher." The principal replies : "I feel as strongly as you do that such a thing must not occur again, but we must not allow ourselves to be so overcome by the disgracefulness of the occurrence as to regard these children as criminals. Both of them were following deep-seated instincts. One of them took a mean advantage of the other and rejoiced in his discomfort, but that is a trait of human nature which is very strong in many individuals and which has to be trained out of them. The other boy lost his self-control and became for the moment a savage. A part of his nature, for which he is not responsible, is still savage, along with much that is civilized and lovable. We must not judge these boys by ourselves. We could not possibly have behaved as they did, although I suspect that we some- times do things in a more refined way which are based on the same instincts. We have built up ideals and habits and customs which control our natural impulses. Bob's control apparatus was not strong enough to prevent the explosion. It must be developed. Now, in trying to devise the proper method of treatment, we shall have to consider the interest of the boys and the influence of the affair upon the class. I doubt if whipping would help the boys much. Both of them were prepared for a fight in which they would probably receive more physical punishment than if they were whipped. We don't care especially to make their bodies sore, but we do want to put some restraining influence into their minds. My notion is to have the boys come in for a conference, let them CHILD NATURE AND HABIT FORMATION 45 see for themselves, without preaching at them, that the good name of the school and the welfare of the class have been injured by their behavior, and that we must find a way to overcome the injury and prevent its recurrence. I should like to tell them a little about instincts and habits and how people have become civilized. I hope that they will feel ashamed of having let their feelings control them as if they were animals, and will be anxious to prove that they are their own masters. They may possibly offer to try to make things right with the class, although that is expecting a good deal from youngsters of their age. If they do not offer to do it, you can talk the matter over with the class yourself, and if the boys show a good spirit, the other children will suffer no harm. As to punishment, it seems to me that, since the boys have shown an uncivilized behavior unworthy of the class, the natural penalty would be to consider them not full members until they have proved that they can be counted upon to be good citizens. They might be denied some privileges for a few days and then be reinstated by vote of the class, or they might not be permitted to take part in the class activities, simply working as individuals and reciting after school during the probationary period. If the empha- sis, until the affair is settled, is placed consistently upon self- control and regard for the rights of others as essentials of good citizenship, the occurrence may result in real prog- ress for the class as well as for the boys themselves.'* Problem 33. — An eighth-grade class has the habit of " talking out." Pupils interrupt each other and even interrupt the teacher. If one child starts to ask a question, another is apt to break in, in a louder tone. E the teacher asks a Question, 46 PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE several reply at once. She often feels obliged to preface a question with the warning: "Raise your hands if you wish to answer." She continually says : '* Sh-sh," " Wait until I call upon you," " Is your name Mary?" etc. The teacher is greatly troubled by the situation. She wants to have a natural, friendly atmosphere in the recita- tion and believes that pupils ought to be encouraged to express themselves, yet she feels obliged to repress them constantly and realizes that, in spite of frequent admonition, they are making no progress in courtesy toward the person who has the floor. While reading a book on educational psychology, she finds in the chapter on habit formation some illustrations which remind her of her own problem. She studies the chapter with interest, criticizing her own practice in accordance with the principles stated by the author. The first point which claims her attention is the state- ment that, if an act brings satisfaction to the person who performs it, it is more likely to be repeated than if it brings discomfort. ''That," says the teacher to herself, ''would seem to justify me in rebuking or punishing pupils who speak out, but the discomfort is apparently not sufiicient. Perhaps I ought to use more severe penalties, but if I do that, it will surely kill all spontaneity in class discussion and probably spoil the friendly relationship between me and my pupils. I believe that the cure would be worse than the disease." Reading on, the teacher meets this: "Repetition of an act tends to ^x it as a habit." "Therefore," she thinks, "my boys and girls must be prevented from interrupting each other and so strengthening the habit. I wish he would CHILD NATURE AND HABIT FOEMATION 47 tell me how to do it. Of course, if that were the only con- sideration, I might accomplish the purpose by removing all temptation. I might abandon class discussion, at least for a time, do all the talking myself, and let the pupils write their answers and put any questions that they have to ask into a question box. I should think, however, that such a method would destroy interest, and I hate the pros- pect of reading all those papers. I wonder, after all, if the habit would be broken up by removing temporarily all opportunity for talking. How long would it take? I might try it and see, but I'll wait until I have read the whole story.'' "In order to fix a good habit or to overcome a bad one, satisfaction or discomfort should always be associated with the action. If a 'bad actor gets away with it ' occasionally, the process of rooting out the habit is greatly retarded." ''Have I been living up to that principle?" she asks herself. "Have I been consistent in commending pupils who await their turn and showing disapproval whenever anyone interrupts ? Let me see if I can recall what happened to- day during the history period. I remember asking : 'What date is this?' Half the class immediately said, 'November nth.' It did not occur to me to show any disapproval, and, although several children had raised their hands instead of speaking, I accepted the answer in concert and asked: 'Do you know of any historical event which took place on November nth?' Again several hands went up but others promptly answered, 'Armistice Day' or 'The end of the War,' and Wilbur jumped out of his seat en- thusiastically and, speaking in a manner to compel atten- tion, said : 'The German representatives agreed to the terms 48 PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE that General Foch said they must accept if they wanted to stop fighting.' I was carried away by his enthusiasm and asked him some more questions. The class became so much interested that many wanted to talk, and I am afraid that those who talked loudest got most attention. This soon led to confusion and I called for quiet and said : ' Please remember to raise your hands.' It took some time, several rebukes, and a few appointments for 'after school,' to induce the whole class to wait, after a question had been asked, until someone was called on. I don't doubt that I forgot myself several times and accepted spontaneous answers, even during the last part of the period. It seems evident that I did not act consistently in accordance with the principle. If I had done so, I should have ignored the spontaneous answers at the beginning of the period and called on someone whose hand was up. I wonder if that would have destroyed the enthusiastic interest with which the recitation began. I must try it. It is certain that to-day's method was wrong. I made no progress in over- coming the bad habit, and the repression used during the last part of the period entirely destroyed the interest awak- ened at the beginning." "Sometimes the easiest way to destroy a bad habit is to develop a good one which opposes it." "Ah! There's an idea!" she exclaims. "If I could build up a habit of courtesy toward others, it would act as a check on the tendency to 'speak out,' and it would not discourage spontaneity as much as constant repression. Control does not develop courtesy. There is no reason why it should. How can a habit of courtesy be built up ? The first three principles seem to apply. 'A feeling of satisfac- CHILD NATURE AND HABIT FORMATION 49 tion associated with an act encourages its repetition/ 'repetition tends to make the act habitual/ and 'any lapses interfere with the formation of the habit.' I have been fixing my attention on the bad habit and trying to check it by rebuke and punishment. I must concentrate upon courtesy and consideration for others. I must praise .a pupil every time he refrains from interrupting when he evidently has something to say. I must always recognize pupils who act courteously in preference to those who do not. I must give plenty of opportunity for the exercise of courtesy — that cuts out the proposal to allow no talking at all — but I must try to avoid any lapses. The pupil who forgets and 'speaks out' must get no encouragement. I shall have to try to make him sorry. There's the trouble ! Give the pupil plenty of rope but don't let him hang him- self. I don't see how to do it, but perhaps this writer has som-e more help to offer." "In establishing a habit, the interest of the led,rner has an important influence. Mere repetition without interest and therefore without attention is not effective." "That's the point that I needed," she thinks. " If I merely make the pupils go through the motions of courteous action, they won't become courteous. I must get them interested in it. I think I see how to do it. We can take as our stand- ard the procedure in a conference of well-bred adults. If the group is not too large, no formal organization is needed in such a meeting. The well-bred person refrains from interrupting, no matter how eager he is to speak. He awaits his opportunity, Kstening courteously to the person who has the floor. In a group as large as an ordinary class, even adults need a chairman who recognizes those E. T. PROB. 4 50 PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE who ask permission to speak. Either the hand signal or the usual phrase, 'Mr. Chairman,' or, if the teacher is presiding, ' Miss Jones ' will serve the purpose. I beheve that the pupils will be interested in working out with me a plan for controlling our recitations or con- ferences. We might attend a well managed meeting of adults and discuss the procedure. The class may want to adopt some rules. At times one of their number might act as chairman.'' Our teacher tries out the plan. She finds, as she expected, no difficulty in securing the interest of the pupils, but she discovers that the interest is not strong enough to con- trol their action for a long period. She goes back to her book and finds the statement that, in acquiring a new habit, it is harmful to continue practice for too long a period, as fatigue may actually destroy the gain made at first. She therefore explains this fact to the pupils and says that she will help them by controlling the recitation or changing the work as soon as they show signs of falling below their standard. She makes a practice of commending their efforts when she relieves them of responsibility, and holds out to them the prospect of gradually increasing the length of time during which they are able to control themselves .in courteous, businesslike discussion. The result is that pupils become interested in their own progress, keep their self-control time record, frequently say: "Please try us ten minutes longer to-day," and show strong disapproval of any members who spoil the class record. The teacher admits that this method requires much harder work, on the part of the teacher, than that of rigidly controlling all recitations, but she feels that her pupils CHILD NATURE AND HABIT FORMATION 5 1 are gaining much in ability to think and speak and in self- control. Problem 34. — A high school teacher receives an anonymous letter saying that some of the boys in his class have been betting on football games. He keeps all the boys after school, reads them the letter, and asks what they know about the matter. Nobody speaks. Then he asks each boy in turn whether he knows anything about it. The first boy says he has nothing to say, and all the others follow suit. The teacher then says : " You are getting yourselves into serious trouble by refusing to answer my question " ; but there is no response except some sneers and ugly looks. As the principal is absent, the teacher orders the boys to report at the office before school the next day. That evening he calls on the principal, shows the letter, and tells the story. The principal thanks him for trying to settle the matter and especially for taking the trouble to report it in person, without waiting until morning. Then he says: "The most serious factor in the case is that the boys are now banded together, ready to die in defense of a principle. They think that you were trying to make them give information which would lead to the detection of the guilty ones. That has made them hostile as a body toward you, and this feeling has probably obscured in their minds all condemnation of the gamblers, although some of them had probably disapproved of the gambHng before the other issue arose. To boys of this age, telling on another is the worst offense in the calendar." The teacher is offended and suggests that the principal is defending the boys and blaming him. "Oh, no!" says the principal. "You did a perfectly natural thing. I should probably have done exactly the same if I had not worked with boys so long that I know some of their pecu- liarities. The important thing now is to straighten these 52 PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE boys out and safeguard the school. You naturally thought that the boys would look on the matter as you do. The fact is that they do not. There is no use in saying that they ought to do so. We are educating boys and we must act in accordance with boy nature. Approached in one way, boys are chivalrous and loyal to the best ideals. Approached in a way which is contrary to their code, they can be as unyielding as any martyr." The next morning when the boys and the teacher are assembled in the office, the principal says: ''Boys, Mr. J. has told me about the letter which he received yesterday and about his trouble with you. As the letter is not signed, he could not call upon the writer to give his evidence for the charge against the good name of the school, so naturally he took the matter to you. He was surprised and hurt because he thought you had refused to help, but I have explained to him that you did not understand him and he did not understand you. He and I agree on this matter. If the charge is false, we want to know it. It will be repeated and will probably get into the newspapers. If we have your assurance that it is not true, we can deny it and chal- lenge anyone to produce any evidence in support of it. If it is true, we count upon you to put a stop to the practice and to see that the smirch on the reputation of the school is wiped out. We do not want to know which of you are guilty, but we want you as a class to see that any money which has changed hands is returned, and we want your assurance that you will not permit any boy to remain a member of the class who persists in gambling. Now you may go to the classroom and settle the matter. We will wait here until you send your spokesman to report." CHILD NATURE AND HABIT FORMATION 53 At the end of a half hour, one of the boys comes to the of&ce and reports that two members of the class won a dollar each from boys in another school, that they have promised to return the money, and that all the boys have agreed not to gamble as long as they are members of the school. Principles Relating to Child Nature and Habit Formation 1. Child nature is complex and can be understood only by careful study and close observation. 2. Instinctive behavior, accompanying selfish desire, anger, jealousy, fear, etc., can be changed only by patient effort. 3. The standards of adults, especially of adult women, cannot be appreciated readily by the young boy. 4. The ideas, prejudices, and interests peculiar to childhood must not be ignored or despised by the teacher. 5. A calm, sympathetic treatment of a child's difficulties will accomplish far more than impatience. 6. The satisfaction of doing well is often a more potent influence upon conduct than shame or discomfort. 7. In the early stages of the formation of a habit, action must be repeated by the learner at frequent intervals, and any inconsistent action must be avoided. 8. Consistent action by the teacher is necessary for the forma- tion or maintenance of habits. 9. In attempting to establish or change a habit, the interest of the learner is important. Therefore the period during which he is put to the test should be limited by his power of attention. 10. In attempting to root out a bad habit, it is often more effective to develop a good one which opposes it than to concentrate attention upon the bad one. 11. A habit can be formed or changed much more readily by cooperation than by the individual effort of the teacher. 12. Habits established in conformity to ideals are likely to be more permanent than those established by fear. 54 problems of discipline Problems for the Reader to Solve Problem 35. — A girl of ordinary ability is very self-conscious and aspires to excel. She is jealous of an abler girl who usually gets higher marks and is much more popular. The first girl disparages the other, saying that she is a snob and a teacher's pet; refuses ostentatiously to speak to her. She reports at home that the teachers are unfair. Problem 36. — A high school girl is " boy crazy." She dresses elaborately and is continually patting and smoothing her hair. She annoys the teachers and distracts attention by smiling and whispering to boys who sit near her in class. She is very con- spicuous in the corridors and always manages to be on the point of starting for home when certain boys come out, after school. Her school work deteriorates. Some of the teachers think the case is serious. Problem 37. — Two boys have a fight on the way to school. One of the girls tells the teacher. Problem 38. — In a second grade, one pupil tells of an interest- ing experience. Another emulates him, telling a highly improb- able story. The teacher asks: "Is that true?" He insists that it is, and sticks to his story in spite of all that she can do. Problem 39. — A boy is called to account for frequent misbe- havior. He promises to do better and is reinstated in his class with the understanding that if he misbehaves again he will be suspended. For several days he is on his good behavior and then falls from grace. When reminded of his promise, he says he forgot. Problem 40. — A sixth-grade boy who is older and larger than the other members of his class has become a " buUy." Problem 41. — Miss B. sees a boy in disorder and asks for an explanation. He replies : " Someone is throwing things at me." " Do you know who did it? " she asks. "Yes, but I won't tell," is his answer. CHILD NATURE AND HABIT FORMATION 55 Problem 42. — A primary teacher notices that the children have developed a habit of running to her with "tales" about their classmates. She knows that she has been unconsciously allowing "tattling" to gain headway. The chief offenders seem to be some of her "best" pupils. She realizes that the matter needs attention. Problem 43. — A teacher inspects the reading books of her class which have been in use only a few weeks and finds them incredibly soiled and torn. She has spoken several times about the need of taking good care of the new books. Evidently her words have had no effect. Problem 44. — A teacher is dissatisfied with the manner in which certain pupils recite. They speak in tones scarcely audible to him and the class. They address him alone and feel no responsibility for the interest and instruction of classmates. The teacher attempts to persuade them to speak louder and to the class, by explaining that it is discourteous not to make one's self heard. Finally he says that anyone who fails to make himself heard will be told to sit down, and will be marked " zero." The result is that these pupils are ignored and fail in the term's work. Problem 45. — An English teacher tries to create a feeling for the correct usage " It isn't." The expression is used correctly in the classroom. On her way to school she overhears the con- versation of a group of her girls and all her pride vanishes as she hears " It ain't." She feels that the odds are against her and that, unless home surroundings and other associations supple- ment her efforts for correct usage, the task is hopeless, so she lets the matter drift. Problem 46. — A class is very much interested in " Ivanhoe " and many times the brighter pupils eagerly wave their hands as a slow pupil recites. The teacher has frequently requested the pupils not to wave their hands, jump out of their seats, or in any way embarrass the pupil reciting. The request is frequently forgotten in their eagerness to tell, until a frown, a sharp word, or a domineering manner brings silence, kills ardor, and brings class work practically to a standstill. The teacher visualizes 56 PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE a prim orderly classroom where each pupil is at his best. She desires spontaneity, and quick thinking, and she is not get- ting either. Problem 47. — Pupils of an eighth grade which has been con- sidered careless and lazy as a class are advised by their teacher to call a meeting to discuss plans for improvement. They talk freely, have good ideas, and show genuine desire to reform. At the end of a week, absolutely no improvement is noticeable. Problem 48. — A child is brought to the kindergarten by his mother. He is very timid, clings to her hand, and when she starts to leave him, screams in terror and resists all efforts to pacify him, until the mother takes him home. She cannot get him to go to school again, and appeals to the teacher. Problem 49. — A teacher, noticing that one of the pupils is not paying attention during the reading lesson, calls on him suddenly. He is confused, hesitates, and begins to read in the wrong place. The teacher says : " Go to sleep again. Helen may read." The boy flushes and slinks into his seat. Problem 50. — A teacher is dissatisfied with the work of her class in spelling and announces that every misspelled word must be rewritten twenty times. This does not have much effect. Problem 51. — A class makes a poor showing in fire drill. Pupils move too slowly and there is a good deal of talking and laughing. The teacher criticizes the performance, emphasizes the importance of the drill, and warns the pupils to be on the alert the next time. The class seems to be impressed, but at the next drill, three weeks later, does Httle better. REFERENCES La Rue, D. L., Psychology for Teachers. Thomdike, E. L., Educational Psychology, Briefer Course, Part I. Strayer, G. D., and Norsworthy, N., How to Teach, Chapters IV, DC. Earhart, L. B., Tj^es of Teaching, Chapter II. Sechrist, Education and the General Welfare, Chapters XIII, XIV. Dewey, J., Democracy and Education, Chapter IV. Strayer, G. D., A Brief Course in the Teaching Process. Engleman, J. 0., Moral Education in School and Home, Chapter IH. CHAPTER IV PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE The Child's Attitude, Self-Direction, Ideals Problem 52. — A boy defaces the school building by writing on the plaster walls. On entering the school, the teacher ob- serves a group of children examining the scrawl. A boy re- marks jokingly: ''That loots like your writing, Tom." Tom repHes : " Sure, it's my writing." The teacher asks him if he really did it, and he says again: ^'Sure." ''Aren't you ashamed of yourself!" she exclaims angrily. "Go to the office and report to Mr. Brown what you have done." The principal insists on his making a public apology. The boy refuses at first but when the principal starts to write a letter to his father, he consents rather than take the inevitable whipping. When called upon to make his apology, he mumbles a few words and slinks sullenly into his seat. The teacher overhears some of the boys talking about the matter. One says: "He was a fool to tell. They wouldn't have caught him if he had kept still." In a day or two, there is more writing on the walls but all efforts to discover the offender are fruitless. The deface- ment continues until teachers or monitors are placed on guard, so that pupils are never without supervision. One of the teachers. Miss B., is greatly distressed by the situation. She detests the police work and feels that it is having a bad effect upon her class. After a time, she de- 57 58 PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE cides to discuss the matter with her pupils. She explains her desire to be relieved of the necessity of doing guard duty, saying that it makes her appear distrustful of the pupils, whereas she knows that they are perfectly capable of taking care of themselves. She suggests that if the members of the class are wilHng to take the responsibiHty for their conduct when she is not present, she will ask the principal to excuse her from the duty of watching them. The class seems to welcome the suggestion, but one of the pupils objects that, if there should be any marking of the walls, this class would be blamed. ''But the other pupils will not be left alone," says the teacher, ''so if we take care of ourselves, there will be no trouble." The pupil is not convinced. "They can't watch all the time," he argues. "When somebody is trying to prevent you from doing something, it makes you want to do it. Old Jones is always watching his orchard and complaining to the poHceman, but the boys keep swiping his apples; it's such fun to fool him. All the fellows are looking for a chance to mark the walls and they'll do it pretty soon." "I see," says the teacher, "but suppose our class should propose that the whole school adopt my scheme. Do you think that the other classes would agree to do their part?" "I think so," replies the boy, "but I don't know about Tom and his crowd. They are sore because he had to apologize." "Well," says the teacher, "let us think it over. We needn't say anything about it to anyone else until we decide what to do." She then goes to the principal, explains her own point of view, and reports the class discussion. He listens with in- child's attitude, self-direction, ideals 59 terest until she has finished her statement and then says : "I have been thinking about the matter a great deal. It is clear that we have not handled it properly, and a bad spirit has grown up, but I have been puzzled as to the best way to overcome it. I like the idea of having your class take the lead, but first I must see if I can change Tom's attitude. That forced apology was a blunder. Indeed, I have come to the conclusion that, unless an apology is voluntary and sincere, it is worse than useless." At the first convenient opportunity, the principal says to the boy : "Tom, you remember the trouble that we had a Httle while ago." The boy nods. "Well, there is one thing that I want you to know, and that is that I respect you for owning up when nobody knew who did the damage. It was a square thing to do. And there is one thing that I want to understand myself. Why were you so unwilling to apologize?" The boy hesitates but finally says : "Be- cause you wanted to make a fool of me before the school." "So that was it," says the principal. "Well, since you felt that way about it, I am very sorry that I made you apologize. You had injured the building which belongs to all of us, so I thought you ought to apologize to all of us. If you had felt about it as I thought you ought to feel, you would not have been making a fool of yourself but setting yourself right before the school. But there was no use in saying the words if you didn't mean them, so I am sorry that I forced you to do it. Now I think I know a much better plan than the one we are using for preventing injury to the building, but we shall need your help. It is absurd to make teachers act as policemen. They can't prevent injury if pupils really 6o PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE want to cause damage. But why should pupils want to do so ? It is their building and I should like to have them take charge of it. Do you think they can?" ^'Yes, if they want to," is the boy's answer. *'Will you help?" asks the teacher. "Yes," is the half-hearted reply. Miss B.'s class prepares a letter to the principal, asking that the pupils be permitted the same freedom as before the trouble, provided they agree to take care of the build- ing. The letter is read at an assembly of the upper grades, and the principal requests each class to discuss the matter and to write him a letter stating whether the class wishes to have the proposal adopted. All the classes vote ap- proval and each appoints a committee to have oversight of its room and a delegate to a school committee which is to see that the building outside the classrooms receives proper care. Tom is made a member of the committee. Problem 53. LINCOLN JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL OFFICE OF THE PRINCIPAL NOTICE TO TEACHERS THE SUBJECT OF THE NEXT TEACHERS' MEETING WILL BE CONDUCT DURING INTERMISSION PERIODS Mr. Evans will report on his day of observation in the H- School, where pupils pass from one recitation room to another without supervision and without forming in files. He recom- mends that we adopt the same plan. Come prepared to dis- cuss this proposal. Edw. B. Jackson Principal CHILD'S ATTITUDE, SELF-DIRECTION, IDEALS 6 1 Mr. Evans speaks as follows: ''What I noticed especially was the fine spirit. I arrived just as the pupils were passing from one recitation room to another. I was surprised to see that there were no files and many were talking and laugh- ing. I assumed that the teacher in charge of this part of the building must be absent from his post. I asked where I could find the principal and was directed to the ofiice on the second floor. As I went up the stairway, pupils stepped aside courteously to allow me to pass but showed no embar- rassment, giving the impression that the condition which had surprised me was not unusual. As I reached the head of the stairs, I was prepared to greet the teacher who would naturally be there, but no teacher was in sight. As I walked along, glancing through the doors, I saw teachers talking with pupils, writing on the blackboards, or seated at their desks. None of them acted as if he belonged any- where else. Evidently they were not expected to supervise pupils during the intermission. This was at first a real shock. It had never occurred to me that such an arrangement was possible. As the idea penetrated my mind, I stopped instinctively and looked for the inevitable 'rough-house.' To my amazement there were no signs of it. The pupils all seemed to know where they were going and were on their way in what would have seemed a perfectly natural manner if they had not been in school. 'Probably there are monitors' I thought, but I saw none. I noticed a few cases of ' fooling ' but not enough to overcome the mental 'jolt' which this new phenomenon had given me. In a minute or two the corridors were empty, the bells rang for the next recitation, and the building was quiet. 62 PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE As soon as I had introduced myself to the principal, I asked about the monitors. ' We do not believe in monitors,' said he. 'Then how do you get such good order?' I asked. 'If our teachers should stay in their classrooms during intermission periods, we should have running and pushing and unKmited noise.' 'It takes time to make the change,' he replied. 'We always had filing under the supervision of teachers until two years ago, but we had to deal constantly with infractions of discipline and teachers were harassed by the duty of controlHng pupils when they ought to have been relaxing a bit between classes. Worst of all, pupils were getting no valuable training which would be of use outside the school. We discussed the matter thoroughly with the pupils and then tried out the present plan. We had trouble for some time, partly from pupils and partly from teachers, who could not overcome their fixed ideas and to whom anything but marching in file without talking was disorder. However, the school as a whole liked the new plan and gradually became used to it. Now we rarely have cases of real disorder. We are all proud of our school and what it stands for. One of our ideals is ability to take care of myself so as not to interfere with the rights or comfort of other sJ The idea took hold of me at once. I caught myself thinking about it as I sat in the recitation rooms, and by the time I reached home, I had transformed our own school — in my mind's eye. Why shouldn't we adopt the plan? " The report precipitates a vigorous discussion. Some teachers support the recomniendation, but many offer objections. One says: ''It would never work with our pupils. Can you imagine what Ed. Murphy and the child's attitude, self-direction, ideals 63 Romelli boy would do if we left them to take care of them- selves?'' This brings an appreciative laugh. Another says : ^'I know a teacher who was in that school last year. She says the plan is just a fad of the principal's, the teachers don't like it, and she herself was so disgusted that she couldn't stay." A third remarks: ''They tried a scheme like that in a school in my home town, and it was such a failure that the principal was dismissed, and the school board appointed a man who had the reputation of being a rigid disciplinarian." The teacher who started the argument soon sees that no progress is to be made by prolonging it. The teachers are taking sides and ignoring arguments which do not support their own views. He has set his heart on a trial of the plan but realizes that it will be a failure unless it is started under favorable conditions, not the least important of which is the confidence and support of the teachers. He says: "Per- haps I have judged too hastily. Evidently the problem is not a simple one. I was so delighted with what I saw the other day that I was eager to transform our school at once, but I see now that we should be inviting failure if we should make the change without studying the matter carefully and profiting by experience elsewhere. I suggest that a committee be appointed to study the matter. Let other teachers visit the school which impressed me so much. If they go on different days, the combined observations ought to settle the question as to whether the plan is really work- ing well, or whether I saw the school under exceptional conditions. We ought to have also all the facts about the other experiments which have been mentioned in our dis- cussion. In what respects have the successful trials dif- 64 PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE fered from the failures? What are the causes of the failures? Were the same conditions met in the successful cases? If so, how were they overcome?" The suggestion is accepted and the committee appointed. Letters are written to principals and teachers who are known to have had experience with a plan of unsupervised movement of pupils outside the classrooms, and visits are made to other schools. Several weeks later the committee reports as follows : "We first visited the H School whose plan was de- scribed at the last meeting. We are able to confirm the report made then. The plan is working well in that school. We saw a few cases which might be regarded as disorder, but not nearly as many as in other schools in which pupils were always under supervision and passing in file. We were all impressed with the attitude of the pupils. They seem to have learned to take care of themselves and to take pride in their ability to do so. We asked one of the boys about it. He turned out to be a newcomer, having moved into town within a month. He said: *It seemed funny at first. We always marched in file where I came from, but when I saw the way the other fellows did I soon caught on. Somehow you don't feel so much like rough-housing, when nobody is looking for trouble. ' We then visited another school which was reported to have a similar plan in force. In this case, we were not favorably impressed. The attitude of the pupils seemed different. There was much more noise and less evidence of self-control. We saw a good many examples of rudeness and some scuffling. There was no movement in file, but there were student monitors and we saw teachers admonish- child's attitude, self-direction, ideals 65 ing pupils, although we were told that they were not required to exercise any responsibility. Next we paid another visit to the H School and asked the principal some questions which had been sug- gested by our visits and by the letters which we had re- ceived in reply to our inquiries. Following are the ques- tions and his replies : 1. Is there anything peculiar in the home training or previous experience of your pupils, which accounts for their response to the plan in operation ? ^ I think not. This is an average high school, as far as the personnel of its students is concerned.' 2. How do you account for the difference in attitude and behavior between your own students and those of other schools where the plan has not succeeded? ^ There are probably several reasons. One of them may be a difference in preparation. We discussed the matter very thoroughly in our teachers' meetings, in assembly, and in the classrooms, before we tried it. We did not try to force it, but waited until the great majority of pupils and teachers were eager to begin. Another reason may be in the attitude of the teachers. We realize that the plan involves a hard test for youngsters and that they need help and encouragement. The great- est difficulty at first was due to teachers who persisted in taking matters out of the hands of the pupils, and who were always watching for trouble and discipHning the offenders. Pupils respond to suggestion readily. They know now that we have confidence in them. We encourage them and when something goes wrong, take them into counsel and help them to correct the trouble. E. T. PROB. 5 66 PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE Another difference may be in the understanding of the plan. Some failures are due to an attempt to deal with it as a mechanical scheme, whereas it is really a matter of ideals. The essential point is not absence of teachers or informahty of movement. It is desire in the minds of the pupils to depend upon themselves. The other features naturally follow. Perhaps the chief difference is due to the importance which teachers attach to the purpose aimed at. We believe that one of the most important duties of the school is to develop ideals and habits which are needed in the good citizen. One of these is to attend to one's own affairs without interfering with other people. From this point of view, the question was not the adoption of this scheme or that, but, 'How can we train pupils to be self-directing?' We have taken this training to be a definite responsibility, a test of our success. Therefore we have met the various difficulties which have arisen not as signs that pupils can- not be made responsible for their own conduct, but as factors in our problem which must be studied.' " "We recommend" — the committee continues — "that the plan as carried out in the H School be adopted, provided that, after discussion, at least four fifths of the teachers approve. If approved, we recommend that the subject be taken up carefully with the pupils in a series of assembhes, followed by discussions in class meetings. We suggest that a committee of pupils visit the H School, talk with the pupils there, and then tell our school what they have seen and heard. We recommend that the plan be put in operation when a large majority of the pupils show a strong desire for it." CHILD^S ATTITUDE, SELF-DIRECTION, IDEALS 67 Problem 54, — In marking a set of examination papers, a teacher notices a peculiar mistake and, a little later, she finds exactly the same error in another paper. She therefore compares the two papers and finds that parts of them are almost identical. The similarity is too perfect to be accidental and, since the abler student sits in front of the other, she is forced to con- clude that both have shared in the deception. In accordance with her usual practice, she marks both papers "zero" and notifies the two pupils to see her at the close of school. When confronted with the evidence, one admits that, at the request of the other, she passed back the sheets as she finished them. She protests against the mark given her and, when told that a person who helps another to cheat is just as guilty as the cheater, she says it isn't fair, that she would have been considered a snob if she had refused the request. The other girl says that she copied only a small part of the paper and she ought not to be marked "zero." The teacher says that cheating is a grave offense and that, in addition to the mark, there will be a severe penalty. To this the pupil retorts that lots of the pupils do the same thing and she doesn't see anything very bad about it. Her brother has told her how the students fool their professors at college. Our teacher sees that punishment alone will not change the girls' attitude, and she fears that they are right in their estimate of class sentiment. She feels the need of reflec- tion upon the problem, so she tells the girls to think the matter over and they will discuss it further the next day. She detests cheating, but she knows that there was plenty of it when she was in school, and she recognizes that little wiU be accomplished by merely punishing the occasional cases, which are managed so crudely as to make detection 68 PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE easy. So long as class sentiment tolerates cheating, drastic punishment will probably make pupils more wary. She must find a way to make cheating contemptible in the eyes of the students. She decides that she ought first to understand the pupils' point of view, so she invites a few of the clear-headed mem- bers of the class to meet her, explains that she has dis- covered some cases of cheating and wants to know what the class think about it. Most of the pupils say that they don't cheat themselves, but nobody thinks much about it because it is so common. They agree that a pupil who re- fuses to loan his paper or whisper the answer when asked to do so is considered a ''goody-goody." Some of the cheating is just for the fun of fooling the teacher. She then takes the problem up with the class. She asks if anyone knows of a case when a baseball game was won by cheating. Some cases are described. "Does our team know those tricks?" she asks. "They know them but they wouldn't use them," answers a boy. "But why not? There might be a close game, when, by cheating a Kttle the game would be saved." "But we'd feel mean. We'd rather lose," he protests. "Everybody would say that we couldn't win fairly." " But suppose nobody knew except the player who cheated." "Well, if we found him out, we'd kick him off the team, and if we didn't, he'd kick himself, if he is any sort of a fellow. He'd know he was yellow, and all of our fellows are good sports." "How about other games," she asks, "tennis or cards?" The class agrees that the principle is the same — no fun in win- ning unless you do it fairly. "Well, do you feel the S9,nie way about cheating in child's attitude, self-direction, ideals 69 school?" No answer. "If you were working for a prize, would you be satisfied to get it by cheating? " There is a general shaking of heads. One pupil says: "That would be just like playing a game." "But it is different to cheat the teacher, I suppose." The class looks a Httle em- barrassed and somewhat puzzled. Finally one says: "It does seem different. You see the teacher is there to stop cheating. She isn't in the same class with you." "I see," says the teacher. "Cheating her is like stealing apples. It is rather exciting because you may be caught, and it is good fun to fool the older person, when it would be mean to cheat against one of your own number." Several pupils nod. Others look doubtful. "Now what is the teacher try- ing to do ? " she goes on. "To help us to learn," someone says. " So when you cheat her, you are trying to beat her in her efforts to help you. Who is really being cheated, do you think?" "We are," answer several. "Now see here, boys and girls. I really want to help you to succeed. If you deceive me, making me believe that you know more than you do, it is rather stupid, isn't it? I can understand the fun of fooling the teacher when she is trying to catch someone, but it seems rather mean as well as stupid to fool her if she is just trying to help you. I think we ought to work together, don't you?" They nod. "And wouldn't you feel prouder of the class if it should stand for no cheat- ing, for earning honestly what you get?" There is general assent. The teacher writes on the board : " We stand for fair play and honest work." " Shall we make that our class motto ? " she asks. "Those who want to vote for it say 'Aye'; those opposed, 'No.' It is a unanimous vote." 70 PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE Problem 55. — A high school teacher is the faculty member of a literary society, membership in which is highly prized. New members are admitted by majority vote. Candidates for ad- mission are required to read an original composition. At one of the meetings, the son of a junk dealer whose manners and per- sonal appearance have made him unpopular, reads an essay which is far superior to any of the others. When the votes are counted, it is found that three candidates have been elected, but the unpopular boy lacks several votes of receiving a ma- jority. One of the members immediately protests, saying that C.'s composition was the best, and appealing to the teacher's judgment. She says that, in her opinion, the essay was one of the best pieces of work by a high school student that she has ever heard. Then someone moves that another vote be taken. The motion is carried although many of the students refrain from voting. When the ballots are counted, the result is found to be the same as before. The boy who made the protest now declares that he will not be a member of a snobbish society and starts to leave the room. The teacher interposes, saying that it will injure the club and the school if the matter is allowed to rest with a decision which some of the members consider unjust. She suggests that the action taken be rescinded and that the election be postponed to a special meeting, thus giving time for careful consideration. This plan is adopted and the rest of the day's program is carried out. During the next few days, several pupils come voluntarily to discuss the matter with the teacher, and she consults others on her own initiative. One pupil says : "C. would spoil the society. He is so unbearably conceited, he would talk all the time just as he does in class." Another argues : "He isn't really smart. He just works all the time. He child's attitude, self-direction, ideals 71 has probably been working on that composition for a month just to force himself in." Another says: "You can't snub him. He never seems to know when he isn't wanted." Another member declares: "He isn't clean. If fellows like C. are coming into this club, I shall resign." The teacher thinks the matter over with care. She feels that, in justice to the boy, he ought to be admitted but she is aware that the descriptions of his disagreeable personal characteristics are based on fact. She must try to help him to overcome them. She considers the possi- bility of insisting on his admission and even refusing to remain a member of the society unless this is done, but on reflection she sees that such action would merely be dodging the chief problem. She will have to try to lead these boys and girls to adopt sound ideals in their relation- ships with other people. At the special meeting the teacher says: "Before we vote again for new members, I think we ought to settle some questions about the aims of the society. My first question is this : ' Is the chief purpose of the club to give pleasure to the members or has it some more important purpose?'" Several views are expressed, among them: "To help us to write better." "To help us to understand and enjoy good Kterature." "To develop Hterary abihty in the school." "What should be the conditions of membership?" she asks next. Various answers are given, most of them equiv- alent to "abiUty to write well." One says : "It won't do to admit members who don't fit in." Nodding of heads indicates that this appeals to most of the members. "Why?" asks the teacher. "Because we won't care so 72 PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE much for the club and we won't do as good work, unless we work together. If we take in people who don't fit, there will be two parties instead of a team." ''Would it be wise to admit members who haven't much abiHty or interest in writing, because they are congenial?" The general sentiment is negative. "Why?" ''Because nobody would take pride in being a member. People want to get in because they have to work for it." "Would it be a good thing to have it understood in the school that some people could not hope to become members, no matter how well they might write?" This causes a good deal of discussion. One member says that if social standing were considered, the club would get the reputation of being snobbish, that in a public school everybody ought to have a chance. The teacher then says : "We are facing one of the great problems which every democratic organization has to meet. We believe in a general way that everyone ought to have the same chance, but naturally we have dislikes and prej- udices. It is easy to form into classes or groups, but if we do so, the groups do not understand each other and soon come to dislike each other. Then we have antagonism instead of cooperation. Some of the wisest men have thought about this problem and nobody has solved it, be- cause it is human nature to be more interested in one's self and one's friends than in the other fellow. One of these wise men has proposed an ideal for the members of a democratic organization which I like best of all that I have read. It is that each member should feel an interest in helping another to make the best of himself. He may not wish to be like the other fellow, but he will not despise CHILD'S ATTITUDE, SELF-DIRECTION, IDEALS 73 him or try to prevent his success. He will try to help him to overcome his difficulties and to do his best. Now how can we solve this problem for our society? We want our organization to be of the greatest possible value to the school. We want to do all that we can to encourage those who have the capacity for good literary work to develop it. We don't want to shut the door against anyone who has literary talent, and yet we must have members who can work together heartily if we are to do our best work. Have you any suggestions?'^ One member says : "It seems rather silly for thirty people to be afraid of one. If we really take an interest in the new member and admire his work, we can probably help him to change the things which make people dislike him. He will have to overcome them some time, or he won't be able to make the best of himself. It would be a fine thing if our club could help to set him right." Another says : "Why not have an understanding with new members that, besides meeting the literary test, members of the club must be good club members and work well with the rest? We might admit candidates who pass the literary test but riot make them full members until they have shown abiHty to work well with the crowd." Principles Relating to the Child's Attitude 1. The teacher should aim to have the child understand and become interested in the purpose of a requirement. 2. Confidence in the good will and ability of pupils is stimu- lating to effort. Distrust often has the opposite effect. 3. The teacher should aim to develop self -direction. 4. Restrictions upon voluntary individual action should be made only when the welfare of the individual or of the group clearly makes this necessary. Social behavior does 74 PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE not develop where children merely follow commands. A sense of responsibility cannot grow unless there is oppor- tunity for exercising it. 5. In attempting to place responsibility upon pupils, care should be taken not to give them more than they can carry successfully. Failure is discouraging. Success is stimu- lating. 6. In attempting to correct a fault, the teacher should be careful not to discourage a valuable attitude which is asso- ciated with it. 7. The teacher must be careful not to misjudge a pupil's motive. 8. An enforced apology is valueless. It is usually prompted by a desire to humiliate the offender. It does not change his attitude, except for the worse. 9. Voluntary conformity to standards of the group is a more valuable social attitude than response to a stronger per- sonality or acquiescence through fear of consequences. 10. Many offenses are more effectively handled through . ap- peal to public sentiment than through attempts to catch and punish the culprit. 11. Pupils should learn to help one another. The development of individuals may be made a class problem. 12. Probably the most important duty of the teacher is the cultivation of ideals in the minds of the pupils. Habits developed by external control are apt to break down when conditions change. Ideals, sincerely held, may have a permanent influence. Problems for the Reader to Solve Problem 56. — A boy in Miss A.'s class is whipped by two boys in a higher grade. The whipping took place on the school grounds. The next day, Miss A. sends for the two boys and ques- tions them. Their only reply is : "I don't know." After de- taining them after school for four days, they still refuse to talk. Miss A. feels that if she lets them go without an explanation, they will boast that they have "put it over on her." She is anxious to settle the matter without appealing to higher authority. child's attitude, self-direction, ideals 75 Problem 57. — In a sixth-grade class, there is a boy whom the teacher suspects of smoking and other bad habits. His attitude in the classroom is apparently satisfactory, but she knows that his influence upon the other boys is harmful. Discussions of the dangers of evil companionship seem to bring no good result. Problem 58. — At a teachers' meeting at the beginning of a school year, it is suggested that teachers give special attention to the problem of developing initiative and power of self-direc- tion. The principal remarks that this concerns only teachers of the third grade and above, as little children must obviously be controlled by adults. He thinks that in the kindergarten and first two grades, the task of the teachers is to develop habits of obedience. Some of the teachers of these grades protest that even the youngest children can learn to be self -directing in many ways. The principal says : " You will have to prove it to me. You may have a free hand for this term, but I want to see results." Problem 59. — A boy mimics the teacher, repeating her words in a tone audible to most of the children. The teacher hears him and is very angry. She sends him to the principal with a note saying that he has been unbearably impudent and she will not have him in her class until he has apologized publicly. Problem 60. — A young teacher visits the class of an experi- enced teacher. The latter has the practice of dismissing her class by giving commands, thus : " Girls, one." Girls are expected to turn in their seats. " Two." Girls rise and face the rear. " Three." Girls pass to the coat room. " Boys, one," etc. The visiting teacher has had a less formal method of dismissal but is interested in the plan observed and puts it into effect in her own classroom. At the next visit of the super- intendent, he asks the reason for the change. She is surprised because she had expected to make a good impression. He asks her to think the matter over and tell him which method is best and why. Problem 61. — A teacher prepares for an examination by having textbooks brought to the front of the room, and an- nouncing that anyone who is caught looking at another paper 76 PROBLEMS OF DISCIPLINE or communicating with anyone else will be required to put his paper in the waste basket. He patrols the room during the examination and destroys the paper of a pupil who signals to another for the purpose of borrowing an eraser. Nevertheless some pupils succeed in cheating. Problem 62. — A boy of thirteen hates school, plays truant occasionally, and makes little effort. Problem 63. — A new high school building soon shows evidence of deterioration. Desks are scratched and cut, varnish is worn off chair rails, furniture is broken, and walls are badly soiled. The principal asks the teachers to make an earnest effort to solve the problem. Problem 64. — A child is habitually dirty and unkempt, is sullen and uncommunicative. Other children avoid him. Problem 65. — A senior class in the high school has been di- vided into debating teams. On the day preceding the first debate, the teacher overhears a girl say : " We've got to win this debate ; I made a bet of a soda with Helen." The teacher realizes that she has the desired interest on the part of the de- bating class, but she is dismayed at the outcome. She is in- clined to think that more than one bet has been made. She won- ders whether she should ignore the bets, call off the debates, give strict command that there is to be no betting, or what? Problem 66. — A school song is written by a talented high school student and is set to music by the instructor but the students show little enthusiasm for it. They deHght in a song written by another pupil although the words are doggerel, the theme mere boasting, and the language very inferior. The music is a popular rag-time tune. They are almost unanimously in favor of adopting the second song as the school song and ask to have it on the graduation program. The music teacher and some of the English teachers realize that they have not succeeded in accompHshing purposes which are prominently stated in the course of study. Problem 67. — During a fire drill children are orderly while under the eye of a teacher, but talk when she cannot see them. child's attitude, self-direction, ideals 77 Some push, others loiter. They regard the drill as a routine which does not call for any individual responsibility. Problem 68. — The subject of class discussion is " Immigra- tion." Most of the boys and girls are of American parentage but the father of a Polish boy is just taking out naturalization papers and another member of the class is an Italian. A snobbish attitude is taken by a few of the pupils. A hurt look comes into the eyes of the two foreigners but the teacher is the only one who notices it. REFERENCES Strayer, G. D., and Norsworthy, N., How to Teach, Chapter XI. Earhart, L. B., T3^es of Teaching, Chapter XL Bagley, W. C, School Discipline, Chapters I, V, VI, VII, XIV. Morehouse, F. M., The Disciphne of the School, Chapter XV. Sechrist, F. K., Education and the General Welfare, Chapter XV. Dewey, J., Democracy and Education, Chapters III, XXVI. Strayer, G. D., A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, Chapter XIV. Strayer, G. D. and Engelhardt, N., The Classroom Teacher. CHAPTER V PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER Selection of Educational Mateioal; Relation of Subject Matter to Educational Purpose; Making a Course of Study; How to Test the Value of Subject Matter Problem 69. — A teacher is at work upon her lesson plans. She is about to introduce the class to long division and is puzzling over the selection of suitable problems. The textbook presents the new process by working out an abstract example. Follow- ing this is a large number of similar examples and then several pages of problems many of which are quite artificial. The teacher feels that this material is not satisfactory but is finding it difficult to think of anything better. At this point her roommate comes in and ralKes her on the seriousness with which she takes this lesson planning. She says : ^'What's the use of wasting your evenings trying to improve on the textbook? That isn't the teacher's business. We have troubles enough managing children and getting them to learn what is in the books. I can't bother my head to decide what to teach. That is the super- intendent's business. If we are told what the children are expected to know at the end of the term, we can pound it into their heads. Here, look at my plan book. If you would make out yours the same way, you would have time to get more fun out of Kfe." Our teacher opens the book and finds a record like this : 78 SELECTION or EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL 79 Reading: Begin page 114, line 9. Arithmetic: Problems, page 211. History : Chapter V to bottom of page 84. Geography : Finish Europe. Spelling : Lesson 10. "I divide the assignment for the term," the roommate adds, '^so as to leave a few weeks for review at the end. That's all there is to it." "Beautifully simple," observes the first teacher, "but is it education ? I can't forget that I have the lives of forty children in my hands for a year. I am expected to do my part to prepare them for citizenship. Nobody seems to know just how this is to be done, but I can't believe that we can make citizens by just covering ground in a textbook which is written for sale through the whole country and without having in mind the specific needs of individual children. Doing all these artificial examples doesn't seem to fit children to meet situations outside the school. They seem to be learning to do things which the school calls for without fully comprehending them. Apparently they are not getting practical experience and if I am right they are wasting valuable time." "Well, why should we worry?" retorts the other. "We girls can't expect to do better than the 'big bugs' in edu- cation, can we?" "No, except perhaps in our own jobs. We have one great advantage, I think, and that is that we are with the children all the time. We know them indi- vidually and know how they respond to the material which we teach them. The people who write the textbooks have to shoot in the air, so to speak. If we don't adapt their material to our own pupils and supplement it by mate- 8o PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER rial which we collect ourselves for their special use, why should it reach the mark?'' ^'What are you working on now?" asks the roommate. "Long division." ''Well, surely that doesn't need any adaptation. Long division is just long division. The children have just got to learn how to do it and practice until they can do it without mistakes. The textbook gives you all the practice problems you need, I should think." ''That's the way it used to look to me," our teacher answers, "but I find two difficulties. Some of the children don't learn to divide accurately, even with endless practice, and others, who learn the process perfectly and delight in it, don't seem to know when to use it, especially when the problem is of a different sort from those in the book. They seem just to be learning a 'stunt' for use in school. They aren't interested in finding out something. They are just as well satisfied with an absurd answer as a correct one, until it is marked wrong." "Oh! Children have always been like that and always will be," objects the friend. "You are looking for the mil- lennium." "No, I'm not," retorts the other. "I don't ex- pect perfect work from children, but if long division is really suitable material for fourth graders, it must be possible for most pupils in that grade to learn to use it practically. I notice that the boys in my class who sell papers or help their fathers in the store are quick and accurate in making change. They seem to acquire, through practical experi- ence, a confidence in deahng with situations requiring the use of arithmetical processes which our school work does not give. I am trying to think of a way of taking up long division which will help the children to master it as a tool SELECTION OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL 8 1 as these boys have learned to calculate in their small busi- ness experience." ^' Have you made any progress ? " asks the friend. "Per- haps a little. One reason why the boys learn to make change so well is probably because they have a strong mo- tive. They don't learn to make change as an exercise. They have to learn it or they will lose money or irritate a customer. If I can think of something which my children really want to know and which depends upon long division, perhaps they will be more eager to learn the process and will do so with a clearer understanding of what it is all about than if I use the abstract example in the book." "There are plenty of concrete problems in the book," suggests the roommate. "But not the kind that I want. They are all made up by the author. Nobody would ever solve many of them in real life, and none of them are real problems for my children in the sense that they want to know the answers for their own purposes. Take this one, for example: *A man gives a box of 156 apples to 12 boys. How many apples will each boy receive ? ' Children won't be much excited over that problem. Probably not one of them will ever be in such a situation and if it should really happen, they would probably distribute the apples one at a time and do it more quickly than by counting the boxful and using long division." "I wonder if fourth-grade children ever have occasion to use long division for their own purposes," the room- mate queries. "That is just what I have been trying to decide," says the first teacher. "As a matter of fact, I doubt whether many people have occasion to use the pro- cess very frequently. The only occasion that I can think E. T. PROS. — 6 82 PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER of when I have used it this fall is in working out averages and percentages in my monthly reports." "Do you think long division ought to be postponed until later in the course?" asks the other. "It is always taught as early as the fourth grade. There must be a reason for that." "I don't know," is the reply. "It would seem sensible to postpone it until children have a need for it, but there may be a danger in such a plan. I was talking recently with a teacher who taught for several years in a private school, where they tried just that scheme. It seemed to work splendidly for a time. The children were enthusiastic in their interest and became very skillful in thinking out and executing their own problems, but in the upper grades, when they were nearly ready to enter another school, it seemed necessary for them to learn some of the things which had been omitted but which they would be expected to know. This teacher said she had a terrible time in teaching long division. The children found it mere drudg- ery. Now, you know, fourth-grade children like to work at long division and often work out absurdly long examples just for the fun of it. It seems as though there were a period when children are interested in such mechanical work and can easily master it. If that is so, we ought to take advantage of it, but the difficulty is to make it mean any- thing to them, to have them think what they are doing instead of merely juggle with figures. There ought to be some very careful experiments to determine whether it is really important that children should learn this abstract work far beyond their powers of applying it practically. In the meantime, I must teach it and use the best material that I can find for making it real." SELECTION OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL 83 "Still I don't see how you are going to find anything better than the problems in the book," objects the room- mate. "I am going to begin," the first teacher answers, "by thinking of what children do and think about in and out of school and see if I can find any situations where long division would be useful. Then I can bring about the situa- tion in class and let the children discover the need of dividing and realize that they don't know how. If I can reach that point they will be ready to learn the process for a purpose, and after they have used it in solving their own problems, we can probably carry it further without losing sight of its meaning." A few days later, the fourth-grade teacher is again at work but with a different expression on her face. The roommate notices the change and says: "Don't keep me in suspense. Evidently the fourth graders have met long division. How did it happen?" "Not quite as I expected," the other replies. "I had been trying to dis- cover a way to make the introduction and, after all, it hap- pened accidentally. When I went to school the morning after our talk, I found a notice from the principal saying that the appropriation for supplies had been exhausted and we should have to manage for the rest of the year with those already in hand. Immediately after the opening exercises I explained the situation to the children and told them that unless we were very careful in the use of paper and pencils, we should have nothing to work with at the end of the term. I asked them what we could do to prevent this. Someone said: ^Be careful not to drop pencils and break the points.' Another said: 'Be careful not to make mistakes and spoil the paper.' Then one, of the 84 PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER children surprised me by saying : ' Let's see how much paper there is for each day and then never use any more than that.' I saw at once that here was my chance, so ahhough my program called for a language lesson, I said 'I think that's a fine idea. Shall we do it?' The class was keenly in- terested. They were not thinking of arithmetic at all, but here was a real problem. We divided up the work of counting the supplies, and incidentally they discovered that a ream package of paper contains five hundred sheets. The children, found that we had 3367 sheets of pencil paper. After a good deal of puzzling and argument in which I took very little part, they decided that they would need to know how many more days of school there were. With the help of a calendar, they found that there were 47 days. Then the question was before us : ' How many sheets can we use each day ? ' We decided to think about this until the next day and we agreed that it would be fun to find out how to do it ourselves instead of asking anyone at home to help us. I noticed that some of the children were working on the puzzle at odd times during the day. The next morning, one of the boys announced that he knew pretty nearly how many sheets we could use daily. There would be a little more than nine weeks, with five school days in each week. If it were exactly nine weeks, there would be 374 sheets for each week and that would allow the use of 75 sheets a day except on Fridays when there would be only 74. After he had explained his plan carefully, the class saw that this would be nearly right, but if we should use 75 sheets a day, nothing would be left for the last two weeks. SELECTION OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL 8$ The children agreed that the proper daily allowance was less than 75 sheets but there were many different opinions as to the proper figure. Some thought that 74 sheets would be right but most of the class thought that too many. 'Can you prove that 74 is too many?' I asked. They studied this question for a time and several wrong pro- posals were made. Finally someone who had been working with his pencil announced: 'If we use 74 sheets a day, we should need 3478 sheets for 47 days.' That gave the clue to other members of the class and in a few minutes they had dis- covered that we could use 71 sheets each day and 30 sheets would be left over. Our problem was done but we still had to work out the daily allowances of paper for ink and drawing paper. I said: 'Would you like to have me show you a quicker way to find the answer?' Of course they would, so I took the original problem and showed them how to find how many times 47 will go in 3367. They knew the answer and were quite excited when they found that my answer was the same, although it took only a few minutes to work it out. They worked it out in the new way for themselves and then calculated the allowances of the other kinds of paper. The children have become interested in the process and are eager to have practice problems. I cannot tell yet whether this method of introducing long division will have any permanent effect upon their abihty to divide, but at this stage they certainly understand better than any of my previous classes what long division is for and when to use it." 86 PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER Problem 70. — A sixth-grade teacher, Miss E., complains that she cannot cover the work in geography assigned to the grade. The course of study statement is : " Geography of South Amer- ica, Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia." In the textbook 172 pages are devoted to these continents. The class is pro- vided with geographical readers also. The principal appoints a committee of teachers, including Miss E., to consider the sixth- grade assignment and, if it is thought to be unsatisfactory, to recommend definite changes. The chairman of the committee first calls upon Miss E. to explain her experience. She says: "I am convinced that too much material is assigned to the sixth grade. I began the year's work by attempting to have the pupils master the facts in the textbook as we went along. I had to give sometimes three or four days to assignments that had been intended for a single lesson and when I questioned pupils on the work that we had been over a few weeks previously, I found that they had forgotten a great deal of it. At the end of the first h^lf year, I found that we had covered little more than a fourth of the work, so I have been going more rapidly but the pupils are not mastering the facts. I believe in thoroughness but that is impossible if we pre- tend to cover so much ground. To-day I counted the nimiber of separate facts mentioned on three pages of the textbook which I turned to at random, and I found about eighty facts on each of two pages and sixty on the third. Multiply 60 or 70 by 172 and see if it doesn't show the task to be impossible." One of the older teachers says : '*0f course it's impossible if you put it that way. I have been teaching the sixth grade for a good many years, but I am sure that I don't know all the facts in the textbook." SUBJECT MATTER AND PURPOSE 87 "Then why not cut down the number of facts to be studied ? I don't see any use in pretending to teach a lot of things when we know they won't be learned. We ought to teach as much as can be done thoroughly and put the rest off to the next grade." Someone makes the objection that there is the same difficulty in other grade assignments and says that the proposed plan would make it impossible to cover the geog- raphy of the world in the elementary school course. One teacher thinks that geography ought to be continued in the high school, but another objects that, since so many pupils never go to high school, the geography of the world ought to be covered in the elementary grades. Next, the suggestion is made that the most important facts in the assignment of each grade be agreed upon and the rest eliminated. The conference adjourns at this point with the understanding that all the members of the committee will go over the assignment and come to the next meeting with definite opinions as to which parts are most important and which may be omitted. At the next meeting it soon appears that there is no gen- eral agreement upon the relative importance of the various topics treated in the textbook. Almost every item seems to someone too valuable to omit and, on the other hand, hardly a statement receives unanimous endorsement as an essential element of one's geographical knowledge. The task begins to look discouraging, until one of the members of the committee says : "I don't believe that the chief result of a study of geography is a knowledge of facts. Of course one must know a good many facts and is bound to acquire them if he has any interest in the subject. He will retain 88 PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER them, too, if he makes any use of them, and if he doesn't use them, he'll never miss them. I wonder if it isn't a mistake to try to load up a child's mind with information which he may possibly use some time. A great deal of such information is forgotten as we know, and when a person actually has need of some bit of geographical knowl- edge, he usually has to find out for himself by asking ques- tions or consulting books. I don't believe we need to worry if our pupils do not master all the facts in the textbook provided they acquire a real interest in geography and ability to make use of maps and indexes to find out the answers to geographical questions." This leads to a discussion of the purposes of studying geograpliy. Such suggestions as these are made : to under- stand geographical references which one meets in one's reading or in conversation, to get ideas and information needed in travel or planning journeys, to enable one to do business intelligently outside one's own community, to enable one to appreciate one's own country, to develop interest in other lands and people, to enable one to think and act intelligently upon political questions involving domestic and foreign problems. A vigorous discussion results in a general agreement that it is hopeless to attempt to learn in school all the geograph- ical knowledge that one may need to use and that in most cases the only effective plan is to get the information when it is needed. It is pointed out that when one has had occasion to look up facts for a particular purpose, they are likely to stick in his memory. The objection is made that many people never acquire the habit of looking up geograph- ical references which they do not understand, but read SUBJECT MATTER AND PURPOSE 89 a newspaper article, for example, mispronouncing the names and having the vaguest possible ideas of the places referred to. This suggests that development of interest in geog- raphy and training in working out geographical problems should be given much attention by teachers. ''Are we to discard the textbook?" asks one doubtful teacher. *'No," says another, ''but I think it should be used more as a reference book and less as material for close consecutive study." "How are we to develop that keen interest in other states and other lands which we have been talking about? " someone asks. " There is so little in the book about any one thing that it is not very exciting reading and does not make things real. It is just a compendium of facts." "That's right," says another. "The geographical readers are much more interesting. I think we ought to have a class library with books of travel and lots of pictures. My class got more" real knowledge of China from a visit to a museum than from any number of regular lessons." "Still I don't see just how to go to work," says the teacher who first criticized the sixth-grade assignment, " and what recommendation are we going to make to the superintendent?" The chairman suggests that these questions be left for the next meeting. At that time he asks if anyone has a definite plan to propose. One of the teachers responds as follows : " We have agreed on the importance of developing a habit of attacking geographical problems as they arise. That has suggested to me the possibility of taking a series of problems as the basis of the work of the grade. I have made a Hst of such problems. There will not be time, I go PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER think, to study all of them and probably everyone will have others to propose. Some will naturally be suggested by current events and I think that it would be well to allow the pupils some choice. Here is my Kst : 1. Taking a trip to South America, or Egypt, or any of the other countries. 2. Geography in the newspaper. 3. How we get our clothing or our food. 4. School children in other lands. 5. Making a class collection of foreign post-cards, pictures, etc. 6. The homes of foreign-born members of the class. 7. How business is done with foreign countries'. I think that by means of such problems we could arouse the interest and give the training which we desire to give. At the same time pupils would probably learn many of the facts which we have been trying to teach and many others. It is not unlikely that the children would become sufficiently interested in foreign countries to read rather widely both in the textbook and in other books." The idea wins favor, various other problems are suggested, and discussion shows that very many of the conventional facts will naturally be brought out in the study. ''We are forgetting one thing," says the teacher from Missouri. "The examination! The superintendent will call for the location of Stockholm and the pupils will not know whether it is a river in India or an African desert." It is clear that an examination of that sort would spoil the whole scheme. Therefore in the report which the chairman is authorized to make, he adds to the statement of purposes agreed on by the committee and the list of suggestive problems, a recommendation that, if a uniform SUBJECT MATTER AND PURPOSE 9 1 examination is to be given to all of the sixth grades, it be not a catechism upon geographical facts but a test of pupils' ability to work out geographical questions by the use of textbooks, maps, and any other available reference material. Problem 71. — A high school teacher of history, who is a can- didate for a position, has an interview with the superintendent. The latter asks him to state his idea of the purpose of teaching history to high school students. The teacher replies that the chief purpose is to give pupils a knowledge of the past which will enable them to understand the problems of the present. The superintendent then says : *' In teaching a class in American history, what material ordinarily given in the textbooks do you consider of most value for your purpose? " The teacher is unable to give a satisfactory answer. " Is there any his-^ torical material which is not usually included in high school textbooks which would be of greater value for your purpose than some of the usual material? " The teacher has no ready answer to this. He is mortified but excuses himseh by saying that he had not expected such questions and would need time to answer them satisfactorily. " Very well," says the super- intendent, "suppose you take time to reflect and send me your answers in a few days." On the way home, the teacher is at first depressed. He feels that he has made a poor impression and will probably lose the position. He thinks that it will be a waste of time to study the superintendent's questions and write his answers. Such a paper, however well done, will not over- come the prejudice which his lack of definite ideas on these questions must have caused. He doubts whether any other superintendent would ask such questions. Then he falls to musing on the problem: "What historical material is of most service in understanding the present? Have I been teaching anything which has no such value? Do the books omit anything which would be of especial value 92 PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER for this purpose?" Suddenly he says to himself: "I'll work this out, position or no position. I've been talking gHbly about teaching history as a basis for understanding present problems and, when I'm challenged, I find that this is a mere phrase to me without any definite meaning. I believe that a knowledge of history ought to help one to understand present problems, but, as a matter of fact, I have made very little use of my own knowledge in this way. I may as well admit that w^hat I have really been aiming at IS a mastery of the textbook. What I ought to do is to select the historical material which fits the broader purpose." Setting to work, the same evening, the teacher turns over the leaves of the textbook in search of topics which will help to interpret present problems. He finds the process discouraging. There is a multitude of facts and events set forth as a record of what happened long ago — interesting to anyone who enjoys history but suggesting no evident connection with the life of to-day. Then it occurs to him to begin at the other end, to consider v/hat sort of knowledge a person needs, to cope with present problems, and then to see what history has to offer of such knowledge. After many hours of hard thinking and considerable revision of his first draft, he produces the following letter : My dear Mr. Avery : I have done some hard thinking on your questions and here are my answers. Whether or not you offer me the position, I am grateful to you for making me face problems which I had never recognized. I have come to the conclusion that the most useful lessons of history are a knowledge of human nature — the way people behave in given circumstances, — of the important discoveries which people have made which have been a benefit to mankind and upon which our modern life depends, and of the fruitful SUBJECT MATTER AND PURPOSE 93 ideas which have had an important influence in shaping our customs and institutions. The advantage of using historical material in developing such knowledge is, I think, that it fur- nishes us with episodes which are more nearly complete than we can observe in current happenings. Causes and effects can be more clearly distinguished. Furthermore, the situations are usually less complex than those of modern life and are therefore more easily understood. For the study of human nature, we ought to select situations in which such traits as courage, cowardice, loyalty, disloyalty, self-sacrifice, selfishness, cooperation, jealousy, public spirit, individualism, self-restraint, indulgence, thrift, extravagance, toleration, narrow-mindedness, leadership, fair-mindedness, prejudice are exemplified and their influence made apparent. For example, the services of discoverers, explorers, and pioneers in paving the way for our comfortable mode of life should be appreciated. The dependence of civilization upon the courage and enterprise of the pioneer in whatever field ought to be emphasized. We still have need of pioneers. The struggle for independence, the political controversies, the various wars, the economic problems can all be taught as situations involving many of the elements which make up our difficulties, present and to come. If we succeed in interesting the students in the people who took part and in what they did, and if we help them to see similarities between the historical situations and those of the present, I think we shall develop sound ideas of human relationships and standards of conduct which will be permanently useful. The study of history ought to teach one to be patient but hopeful. We are prone to inveigh against the discomforts, injustices, and evils of the present. By contrasting our sur- roundings with those of our fathers we can easily see that civil- ization is making progress. We ought to show our students that these great advances have taken time and perseverance, with temporary defeat and retrogression. The study should not be limited to mechanical inventions, the effect of which is so easily perceived, but should include the growth of our institu- tions, political, social, and economic. As examples we may mention the development of a strong national government as contrasted with the aggregation of mutually jealous colonies 94 PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER under the Articles of Confederation and the growth of public schools since the days when education was the privilege of the well-to-do. You asked me what material ordinarily given in the history textbooks I had found most useful in preparing pupils to under- stand present problems, and what material not ordinarily in- cluded could well be substituted for the conventionally accepted matter. It seems to me, on reflection, that on the whole, the textbook material is too meager. In the effort to keep the books within the limits of a year's work and at the same time to cover the most important events in our country's history, the authors have reduced the story to a bare outline and in so doing have eliminated the details which are needed for- vividness and a sense of reality. If we are to get pupils keenly interested in real people living real lives, we must have something more than summaries. Obviously, however, we shall not have time to go into great detail in regard to every phase of American history. There must be selection and variation of emphasis. Bearing in mind the chief purpose which we have set up for teaching history, I make two suggestions. First, I should have a large amount of cursory reading to arouse interest, give a sense of reality, and furnish a background. There should be no attempt to make pupils master the details of this reading. It should not be done for examination purposes. We know from experience that even when we seek to have pupils master a textbook of moder- ate size, they forget most of the details very soon after the exam- ination. The important thing is that they should retain the fruitful ideas which will be of permanent value. They can look up the details whenever they need them. Secondly, I should select a limited number of topics for very careful study and discussion — such topics as will be most valuable in bringing out the ideas which we want pupils to re- tain. The formation and development of the national govern- ment, the growth of ideas, institutions, and laws in regard to social justice, and the development of education in the joint interest of the state and the individual are among the topics which I should choose. This method would omit, except for cursory reading, many topics upon which pupils are usually examined but I believe that MAKING A COURSE OF STUDY 95 it would give a much better educational result. If our students carry away with them a real interest in history as a record of human Ufe, some accurate knowledge of human nature, and sound ideals in regard to public spirit, obedience to law, co- operation, the value of morality, and the influence of leadership, we need not be greatly alarmed if they are unable to name the presidents in order or have forgotten the terms of the Missouri Compromise. I have already suggested that pupils should read history in more detail than the ordinary textbook affords. I think there is also need of material of a different sort. Besides the lives of political and military heroes, we ought, if possible, to study the work of men and women who have made important contribu- tions in other fields, — science, medicine, engineering, business, public service, education, religion. If you can find time to comment on these suggestions, I shall be glad to have your criticisms. Yours very truly, Henry E. Taylor Problem 72. — As a preliminary to a revision of the course of study, teachers are asked to point out deficiencies in the existing course for their grades. The first-grade course is stated as follows : Reading: Phonetic system. Word building. Perception cards. Blackboard work. Drill on " blend " and " family " words. Primer and two first readers. Al- phabet. Oral reproductions. Mother Goose rimes. Fairy and nature stories. Simple dramatization. Poems suitable to the grade. Spelling of words selected from the readers. Large free writing. Short written compositions. , Addition and subtraction facts of i, 2, 3, 4 to 100. Writing and reading numbers to 100. Simple problems. Use of pound, yard, pint, quart, etc. Easy drawing, color work, weaving, paper folding, paper cutting, pasting, sewing, basketry. Singing and games. Simple calisthenics. Nature study. g6 PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER A first-grade teacher prepares to write her criticisms. She reads over the statement of the course, and jots down the following notes : "Reading: Not enough books. Glass ought to read at least five. Some children can read ten." "Too much formal number work.'' "That's not much in the way of criticism,'^ she thinks. "Suppose those changes were made, would the course be satisfactory then ? Let's see whether there are any impor- tant omissions. Ah! There's nothing about health. I am sure that some of our health lessons are quite as impor- tant as spelling or number combinations. And then take the work that I have been trying to do to develop courtesy and self-reliance and cooperation. There's nothing to suggest that. Of course, a teacher might develop those quaHties while teaching what the outline calls for, but then she might not. As far as the outline goes, a teacher has done her full duty if the children have read two books, whether or not they have grown in self-reliance. The statement would give the impression that learning to read, learning mmiber facts, and the other bits of knowledge are the important things, and the character elements are incidental, supposed apparently to develop as a by-product. They won't unless the teacher keeps them in mind. Ought they not to have a place in the course of study, since it is intended for the teacher 's guidance ? The ground to be covered in formal knowledge seems reasonable enough, but that is all there is to the outline. My children do almost everything that is Hsted but the statement does not suggest living, growing, happy children. A first grade might cover this course of study and be a very I MAKING A COURSE OF STUDY 97 dull affair. There ought, I thinli, to be more suggestion of activity. Let's forget the outline for a while and think of the chil- dren — think of them as they come in from the kindergarten, and then think of the changes that ought to take place in them in a year. After that, I can try to suggest what we should give the children to think about and to do, in order to produce the changes. Undoubtedly that will be a much harder thing to do than to criticize the amount and kind of formal subject matter laid out for the grade, but it will be interesting to see what I can do with it." The teacher takes a fresh sheet of paper and writes: " I .' Children at the beginning of the first grade. ' ' Under this she writes various notes at intervals after reflection, sometimes crossing out what she has written and making substitutions. The result is as follows : "No two children are alike. Some are self-possessed, others timid. Some talk freely, others usually silent. Extent of vocabularies differs much. Ideas differ as widely as vocabularies. Some very well-mannered, others very crude. Most are affectionate, a few unresponsive. Some have learned to work pretty well with others, some act selfishly and need to be constantly controlled. Nearly all are obedient. Most of the children are eager to learn to read, a few already know a few words, a few show no active interest. Some show much imagination and abiHty in drawing and making things. Class shows all degrees of abiHty in this respect. Most of the children know some songs and stories, but there is great variation. Practically all enjoy stories and games and especially making things. Variation in ideas of number. Variation in knowledge of E. T. PROB. 7 98 PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER nature and interest in it. Some are daintily dressed and habitually clean. Some are ragged through no fault of their own. Some are dirty. A few are very frail. Some are apparently undernourished. 2. Children at the end of the first year. Still very unlike. Differences even more marked in some cases than at beginning. We cannot expect to overcome this. Chil- dren differ in capacity. What we want is a full year's growth for each one. A few of the children should already have been advanced to a higher grade. A few more should be ready to ^skip.' Some will not have made normal progress for a first grade. They should have made good progress for them, and they ought to continue, not just start over again. There should have been general progress in social and moral habits and ideas — working with others, self-direction, kindness, politeness, trustworthiness, clean- liness, health, abihty to plan, and carry out plans, skill in using hands, ability to choose the better of two things, from the standpoint of beauty, usefulness, right. There should be keen interest in each other, ambition to do one's best for the group. AbiHty to read for one's own enjoy- ment and the enjoyment of others, and ambition to read better; abihty to write well enough to accomphsh the individual's purposes. Same standard in use of numbers, in talking, drawing, and handwork. Especially, ambition to learn new things and become more skillful in order to carry out one's own plans. Knowledge of nature and es- pecially, interest in finding out new and beautiful things. Individual progress in overcoming defects; diffidence, selfishness, lack of initiative, lack of perseverance, errors of speech, etc." MAKING A COURSE OF STUDY 99 The teacher reads over her notes and says: ''Now for the hard part." She writes : "S- Course of study planned to accompHsh these changes." As before she thinks and jots down notes, crosses out, and makes substitutions. This is the result : "The teacher's aim should be to have a group of happy, active, growing children, interested in each other and each other's growth, ambitious to grow themselves in order to do their part in making others happy. There should be as much doing as possible, and much cooperative group work. Work should be done with a purpose — a purpose that is the children's own. The things to be done should be such as children are naturally interested in and which will give opportunity for varied activity. Experience shows that they are usually interested in the lives of people with whom they come in contact. They love to play house, and store, to be postman, etc. The best project that I know of is playing house. Let the children build a doll's house, make furniture for it, decorate it, dress the dolls who are to occupy it. Let them dramatize or play the home activities: getting the meals, cleaning, having meals, etc. This sort of play will give the motive for learning to use their hands, for planning and executing, for choosing the best. It will give opportunity for learning good manners and ideas about health. It will give the teacher opportunity to put right ideas and ambitions into the children's minds without preaching. Perhaps there are other projects which will do as well, but this seems to be the best one that has been tried. In building and equipping the house, a good deal will be lOO PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER learned about niimbers, measuring, and judging distances, and this project will provide plenty of opportunity for training in language. The motive for learning to read is to enjoy books and to read to others. The method is suggested well enough (for a brief statement) in the present outline. There must be provision for individual differences. The class should have a library of suitable books which children can read when they have time. Some will read a great many. There should be opportunity for a child to read a new story to the rest of the class. Children can help others in learn- ing to read and help themselves at the same time. The books can be chosen so as to give the children valuable ideas. Writing invitations and signs, keeping accounts, and playing school will furnish a motive for learning to write. SpelHng must be learned in order to be able to write. Drawing will be used to make things clear to others, as well as for decoration, and just for fun, but the teacher should encourage the children to come to her for help when they get into difficulties. Then thiey can learn a new thing for keeps. The teacher should make a collection of stories which will bring out ideas which she wants the children to grasp — • stories of people who made themselves strong, or did others a good turn, or who never let the giant Laziness get the better of them. It will be great fun to get acquainted with all the birds and flowers that can be discovered, to show them to the class and perhaps to make some collections. Our outline ought to have a list of the best books, stories^ MAKING A COURSE OF STUDY lOl songs, and games for first graders. That is something that we shall have to work out. It will help teachers, too, if we make a collection of children's work of various sorts — not merely the best. We can have five or six samples of a given piece of work, ranging from the best to the poorest, and indicate what percentage of a class may be expected to reach each degree of skill." ''There," says the teacher, after reading over her state- ment. '' That's the best I can do now. I have got something out of my thinking, whether my criticisms are accepted or not. When we get our ideas together, we ought to be able to improve on that dry-as-dust course of study." At a conference of the first-grade teachers, everyone is called upon for criticisms upon the existing course. Our teacher explains how she attacked the problem and reads her notes. Most of the teachers find themselves in sym- pathy with her point of view and feel that the new course of study statement should be worked out on the lines which she has suggested. There are, however, two main objec- tions: first, that the proposed plan is too general. The ideals are fine but most teachers, especially young teachers, will feel the need of a specific statement of the material to be used, in order to accomplish the results aimed at. Sec- ondly, that there should be a more definite statement of the formal knowledge which children are expected to acquire. Without such a statement, there will be great variation in accompKshment among classes as well as individuals. In offering the first objection, one of the teachers says : "You say that the children should become interested in each other's growth. I think so too, if it can be done, but the outline ought to show just what material to use, and I02 PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER how to go to work." Our teacher replies: "I think there is a danger in attempting to accomplish such a result by prescribing exact procedure. The most important thing is for the teacher to believe, with all her might, that the children ought to acquire this attitude and that they can do so. If she understands little children, she will find the means of influencing them in the desired way much more effectively when she has her own youngsters in mind than if she follows a prescribed plan of work. She can use stories which suggest the idea, she can commend children when they show the desired attitude, and she can drop a remark here and there while the children are at work. The impor- tant thing is the aim not the exact subject matter. We must be careful not to focus attention on the subject matter and lose sight of the aim." Someone suggests that the objection might be overcome by appending to the course of study a detailed statement of the experience of a teacher who had been successful in developing the attitude in question. It could be explained that the statement ought not to be followed slavishly, that it is given merely as an illustration to show that the aim is practicable and to suggest ways of setting to work to accomplish it. This suggestion is approved. In regard to the second objection, it is pointed out that we must expect variations in formal knowledge possessed by the children, unless we deliberately stunt the growth of the abler ones, and make parrots of those who develop slowly. If we know definitely what individual children have acquired and assure ourselves that they can use what they know, the variation need not cause worry. It is agreed, THE VALUE OF SUBJECT MATTER IO3 however, that teachers would be greatly aided by a state- ment of the formal knowledge that children ordinarily acquire by the end of the first grade when taught in the manner proposed. Approval is given to the proposal that some such statement as the following be given in the course of study : " The aim is not to have the children acquire formal knowl- edge for its own sake, but to have them learn to understand , and to do things which they can do with a purpose. In the activities suggested in the foregoing outline, first-grade children ordinarily acquire the following formal knowledge : Reading : per cent make little progress, too immature or mentally defective. Probably should not attempt reading at this stage. per cent manage to read primer and one first reader. Slow in memorizing words and in applying phonic prin- ciples. Need much drill and review. per cent read primer and two or three first readers and parts of others. per cent read primer, five or ten first readers. Read with enjoyment whenever opportunity offers. per cent read anything that interests them including books considerably beyond their grade. Note: Percentages to be adopted tentatively, by compiling the records of all teachers, and revised from time to time. Similar statements to be given for spelling, writ- ing, and number work." Problem 73. — High school teachers are required to submit their examination papers to the principal for approval. An English teacher hands in the following paper for a first-year class : I04 PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER 1. Write a page on the siege of Torquilstone Castle. 2. Write a description of a Saxon home at the period in which the scene of " Ivanhoe " is laid. 3. How was one of the following traits shown in some charac- ter in " Ivanhoe " : Loyalty, bravery, devotion, service, revenge ? 4. Explain the meaning of the following terms : Holy Grail, Knight Templar, zecchin, drawbridge, gramercy, life- in-death, albatross, quarter-staff, sorcerer. 5. How are sentences classified as to form? Give an ex- ample of each. 6. Classify as parts of speech all the words in the following passage : Ernest saw him. There he was beneath the arch of green boughs; and there, too, through the vista of the forest, appeared the Great Stone Face. And was there, indeed, the resemblance to which the crowd had testified ? Alas ! Ernest could not recognize it ! He beheld a war- worn and weather-beaten countenance, full of energy, and expressive of an iron will; but the gentle wisdom, the deep, broad, tender sympathies, were altogether wanting in old Blood-and-Thunder's visage. The principal criticizes the paper on the ground that it is too exclusively a test of memory, and requests that it be revised so as to test power in the use of English and in understanding of important ideas suggested by the reading done during the term. The teacher is hurt and inclined to be angry. He was rather proud of this paper, having made an earnest effort to frame questions which would test the pupils' knowledge of '' Ivanhoe," to the study of which four or five weeks have been devoted. In composition, narration and description have been emphasized and the first two questions were intended to test pupils' ability to apply the principles studied. The grammatical questions were based on TESTING THE VALUE OF MATERIAL I05 work which had occupied a lot of time. It was grammar school work, to be sure, but the pupils didn't seem to know the difference between a complex and a compound sentence and were absurdly inaccurate in distinguishing between the parts of speech. He proposed to condition in grammar any pupil who failed on those two questions. The matter remains upon the teacher's mind during much of the day. He imagines the interview with the principal when he goes to discuss the matter. Various clever and cutting remarks pass through his mind. Perhaps the principal would Hke to make out the paper himself. In the evening, he sits down, with the idea of preparing overwhehning argimients in defense of his original questions. The first criticism is that the questions depend too much upon memory. It is true that a good many facts are needed to answer the questions, but any pupil who has paid attention during the term ought to remember most of them. Suppose he were to modify the questions so as to require a less exact memory of details, would the result be a better test of power in the use of English? It occurs to him that a pupil who has forgotten some of the details might not be able to write much on some of the questions, and might spend his time trying to recall details and so fail to do himself justice in his use of English. "What sort of test," he thinks to himself, "would be likely to call forth the best writing that a person can do?" His first thought is: "Let him write on the subject that interests him most." He writes : "i. Write a page on the subject in which you are most interested." He has hardly finished this statement when he draws a I06 PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER line through it, saying: ''No, that won't do. Most boys — and some girls, I imagine — would not be wildly eager to write a page about anything unless they had a strong motive for it. They would chew their pencils, and write a sentence at a time with the aim of getting the page filled." Another objection occurs to him. "Writing on the subject which interests one most is not an adequate test. Few people enjoy writing just for the sake of writing even on an interesting subject. Most people would want to talk about it, but they wouldn't care to write. A few of my pupils would shine in such work ; but they are the pupils whom I do not need to test. Isn't it true that we all have to do some writing where the motive is not to ex- press our thoughts on an interesting subject, but to make an impression on other people who are expected to read what we write ? It is the impression that we are interested in. Why can I not set up a situation in which a high school freshman shall have a motive for writing as well as he can ? " He makes a Hst : a. A letter to a person on whom the writer is anxious to make a definite impression. h. A contribution for the school paper or local paper or a literary society. c. Preparation for a social gathering or a dub meeting in which the pupil will be expected to contribute something interesting. d. A report on some subject assigned by a teacher, or a re- port as an officer or committeeman to a club meeting. "Now," says the teacher, "how can I set the stage so that the pupil will be face to face with a real problem in composition?" After much reflection and frequent changes, he evolves the following : TESTING THE VALUE OF MATERIAL I07 " The first part of the examination is to test your ability to write eflfectively. Choose one of the first two problems and one of the other three. Try to forget that you are writing an exami- nation and imagine yourself in the situation described in the problem. Think of the person or persons whom you are ad- dressing and try to plan your writing so as to produce the effect upon them that you want to make. Problem A. Chicago, January 5, 192 1 Dear I am sorry that you weren't up in time to walk to the station with me when I started on this business trip. I wanted to ask you to do something while I was away. Mother will be expecting to hear from you and I don't need to remind you to write for I am sure that you will do that, but I want you to do a good job. It must be pretty tedious for her in the hospital, and letters will make it easier for her. She will be glad, of course, to get any sort of letter, even if it is the usual thing: ' Dear Mother : I hope you are feeling better. There isn't anything new, and I haven't much time to-night. I'll write again soon.' But that sort of letter isn't what I expect of you. Mother isn't stupid and she can't help feeUng, 'He doesn't care much.' You really do care and if you go at your letter as you do a tennis match or anything else that you are determined to do well, you will make her know how much you miss her and will make her happy for days. See if you can't make her smile. Give her something to think about. From your affectionate Dad Problem B. Dear Prepare to be shocked, outraged, and then overwhelmed ! Your staid little town is in danger of excitement beyond any- thing that it has experienced since Washington spent a sleepless night in its best hotel. A famous family is about to descend upon you — perhaps. Father has been transferred to the New York office and the family council is debating the question, ' Where shall we live? ' loS PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER Sister is the leading advocate for a flat in the great city, but Mother is just as strong for the negative and she usually gets the decision. So the question is East Orange, or Mount Vernon, or Hackensack? Which? Here's your chance to boom your own village. The main question is schools or, more exactly, high schools. Father has friends who live in the first two places and they are loud in their praises of their high schools, but wouldn't it be splendid if we could be in school together ! When Father told his friends that he had heard the Hackensack schools well spoken of, they said : ' No doubt they are very good for a small place, but of course they could hardly be equal to those of larger and wealthier cities like Mount Vernon and East Orange.' Do send me some ammunition ! Yours ever, Jane Problem C. At a meeting of the editors of a school paper, the proposal is made that a representative of the freshman class be ap- pointed. This is vigorously opposed by some of the older students on the ground that freshmen are too young to write anything worth reading. It is finally decided to have a trial and if anything really good is submitted, to choose the author of the best piece of work. Problem D. A boy is usually very silent at meal times. One day, after a friend has been his guest at dinner, his mother has a talk with him. She asks: 'Why didn't you help to entertain Henry? You just sat still and ate. He kept trying to start conversation but you never said more than a word or two in reply and you never volunteered a remark.' ' I couldn't think of anything interesting to say,' he replies. ' I think that is a kind of mental laziness,' she continues. ' You should have felt some respon- sibility for making the meal enjoyable. Even when we have no guests, everyone ought to have something to contribute at meal times. Otherwise our meals would be like feeding time for animals.' ' Well I have tried to talk,' he retorts, ' but I can't. I can't seem to think of anything worth while, and if I do, I TESTING THE VALUE OF MATERIAL IO9 can't put it in an interesting way.' * I am going to make a suggestion,' she replies. ' It will take some effort, but it will be worth doing. Do some thinking before mealtime. Think over your experiences, the people you have met, funny things you have heard, and write them out so as to make them interest- ing. After you have done this a few times, it will become easier, I think. Try it for to-morrow.' Problem E. You have probably had to prepare some piece of written work to present to the class in one of your subjects, say history or science. Assume that you now have to write your report on this subject. Remember that you are expected to know more about the matter than your classmates. Present it in such a way as to interest them and enable them to carry away the im- portant ideas." "I will show that to Mr. G.," thinks the teacher, *'as a substitute for my first two original questions. I think, myself, that it is a better test of power in the practical use of English. Now let's look at his other criticism. He wants me to test the pupils' understanding of important ideas suggested by the reading. Now what are the im- portant ideas that pupils ought to get from ' Ivanhoe,' the * Ancient Mariner/ and the 'Vision of Sir Launfal'?" He writes : '^Ivanhoe: Ideals of courage, unselfish love, endurance, strength, loyalty to friends, protection of the weak. Un- worthiness of ideals of selfish power, oppression of the weak, use of others for one's own satisfaction, cruelty, revenge." He thinks: "It is the human qualities, made real in the stirring scenes of the story which ought to make the im- pression. It doesn't matter much whether the details of the story are accurately retained if these ideals sink home. I had some such idea in framing my third question. Can I no PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER improve on it? My question might test only memory." After reflection, he writes again. "i. What character in 'Ivanhoe' do you admire most? Describe your vision of him and explain what caused you to attribute to him the quahties which you see in him. What character do you dislike most ? Explain in a similar way. If those two people were living at the present time explain the behavior which you would expect of them." Going on to the next question, the teacher says to him- self : ''That is a straight memory question. I can easily improve on that." Rewrites: "2. What did you enjoy most in the 'Ancient Mariner' and the ' Vision of Sir Launf al ' ? What did you get from them that is worth remembering? Was the time which you spent on them well spent? Why?" At this point, the teacher's time is exhausted. He takes his notes to the principal and receives cordial approval of his revised questions. "What about the last two ques- tions?" the principal asks. "Well," says the teacher, " I have spent a lot of time on those points and I want to see what the pupils know about them." "What is your aim in teaching them ? " is the next question. "Why," the teacher replies, "to enable pupils to write correctly." "If a pupil answers the questions perfectly, will his EngHsh be correct ? " "Not necessarily," is the reply. "Suppose a pupil is ignorant of the scheme of classification of sentences and unable to identify every word under the proper heading, will his English necessarily be incorrect ? " "Perhaps not." "Then, why insist on this formal knowledge? It seems to me that in your previous questions, you have sufi&cient basis for judging the quality of his English. If such classi- TESTING THE VALUE OF MATERIAL III fications as you have been teaching are really necessary or helpful for correct use of English, it ought to be possible to test pupils in their power to apply this knowledge." Principles Relating to Subject Matter 1. The amount of subject matter available for education is limitless. No one person can give attention in a long life to more than a small fraction of the knowledge which the race has acquired. Obviously we must try to find sound bases for selection. 2. Subject matter should be selected in accordance with the purpose of education, that is, holding the purpose in mind, we must try to select that which is most likely to contrib- ute to its accomplishment. 3. The needs of society should be an important criterion of selection. 4. Absorption of subject matter should not be regarded as an end in itself. It should be used as a means of aiding the development of the pupil. 5. Subject matter which is of current value should take prece- dence over conventional knowledge. 6. Acquirement of important ideas, ideals, and attitudes should be sought rather than the memory of details . Pupils should be trained to find information for themselves as needed. Sub- ject matter may often be used as a sort of scaffold for de- veloping ideals, interests, and habits of work. This scaffold- ing is not of permanent value. Do not try to fix it in memory but make sure that the main structure is firmly established. 7. The actual effect of subject matter studied upon a pupil's interests, attitudes, and conduct is a better test of its value than adult conceptions of what it ought to accomplish. We must rely less upon memory of facts as a test of educa- tional accomplishment and learn to measure the more fun- damental effects of our teaching. 8. Knowledge which is gained through experience in which it is employed for a purpose is more serviceable than that which is studied without relation to a felt need. The most 112 PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER eilective education involves much doing by children under the stimulus of their own purpose. 9. A very few central themes or projects for a grade are better than a multitude of bits of information and isolated pro- cesses. The first named type of subject matter encourages continued thinking, organization of ideas, and application of processes. 10. The best material for developing habits, ideals, interests, and abilities is that which is most closely related to the interests of the pupils. Problems eor the Reader to Solve Problem 74. — Teachers of the first grade are asked to make recommendations as to what work, if any, in arithmetic should be included in the course for the grade. Problem 75. — A teacher of an elementary grade has worked in a system whose course of study included handwork consisting of miscellaneous exercises giving practice in cutting, pasting, sewing, etc. She goes to work in another system in which "Industrial Arts" furnishes much of the subject matter of the elementary grades. Information about industrial materials and processes which calls for a good deal of the class time is new to her. A greater variety of handwork is called for than she has been used to, but there is not time to develop much skill. She is puzzled about the purpose of the plan and is in- clined to doubt its value, so she appeals to another teacher for an explanation. Problem 76. — A high school teacher who has been used to following a definite outline based upon college entrance re- quirements enters a system in which he is expected to plan his own courses. He learns that the principal and superintendent will expect him to have good reasons for any topics which he includes in the course. Problem 77. — A teacher of arithmetic is asked to review a new textbook and make a recommendation in regard to its substitution for the book in use. She is expected to demonstrate the soundness of her advice. SELECTION OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL II3 Problem 78. — A sixth-grade teacher has always depended upon the supervisor for subjects of lessons in drawing. The illness of the supervisor throws the teacher upon her own re- sources for several weeks. The supervisor will want to know what she has done and why she has done it. Problem 79. — A teacher of French realizes that very few of her students ever make any use of the language. Apparently they take the subject either because it is required for college en- trance or because they prefer it to the available alternate sub- jects or because their friends take it or because it is fashionable. She wonders whether the language studied with those motives and never used after the course has been completed is serving any important educational purpose. Problem 80. — A Latin teacher reads criticisms of the educa- tional value of Latin. He is perfectly confident that Latin is the most valuable subject of the curriculum, and the articles only make him angry. In defending his position he makes vehement assertions which do not seem convincing to anyone except himself and those who hold opinions like his own. Problem 81. — A teacher of mathematics hears a lecturer say that the study of algebra is a waste of time except for those who enter fields of work in which it is needed as a tool. His incli- nation is to deny this but he realizes that the sensible thing to do is to accept the statement as a challenge, and try to find out the truth of the matter. He has always enjoyed teaching algebra, but he has no desire to spend his life in work which is of doubtful value. Problem 82. — A high school teacher is interested in educa- tional aims. He likes the phrase, " preparation for citizenship," and reflects upon the relation of the curriculum to this purpose. Much of the work seems to have very little direct bearing upon this aim. He feels that the students ought to spend more time upon the problems of the present, and tries to make a list of such problems, which would be appropriate for high school students. E. T. PROB. — 8 114 PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER Problem 83. — A parent remarks to a member of the board of education that the schools are wasting their time on fads and frills and the ignorance of the children is appalling. He ques- tioned his boy the other night, and found that he hadn't the slightest idea of the location of Kamchatka, or Tierra del Fuego, or Timbuctoo. He didn't even know the capital of Vermont. The board member calls upon the boy's teacher and wants to know why she is neglecting geography. Problem 84. — A political organization petitions the board of education to require all pupils in the graduating class of the ele- mentary school to know the names of all national, state, county, and local officers representing the district. The teacher wonders whether such knowledge is valuable enough for eighth-grade pupils to warrant withdrawal of the time required from other subjects. She realizes that the board is very likely to grant the petition unless convincing reasons for refusing it are offered. Problem 85. — A teacher is present when a group of people begin to tell reminiscences of their school days. They dwell on the subjects which they studied and which they no longer remember. One took calculus in college, but couldn't now do a problem to save his life. Another studied Greek for several years, but declares that he can now remember only a few letters of the alphabet. Another can remember that he once studied ancient history. He knows that he hated it and that is about all that remains in his mind. A fourth recollects that he once learned how to do examples in " present worth " and " partial payments," but he hasn't the least idea what the terms mean. The teacher wonders whether there is any use in teaching facts which will be soon forgotten. Problem 86. — The father of a high school girl complains that her education has not fitted her to meet her own problems. She has always received high marks, but is inclined to de- pend upon him for decisions which he thinks she ought to make for herself. She wanted to go to a camp the previous summer, so he told her to find out what she would need in money and equipment, and asked the mother to let the daughter work out her own problem. The result was that she sent for money the day after she arrived at camp, and wrote every few days for something that she needed. SELECTION OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL II5 Problem 87. — At a teachers' meeting, there is a discussion on the subject of spelling. It is agreed that many children make mistakes on very common words. One of the teachers feels that time is being wasted on words which many of the pupils will never have occasion to write, but another objects that it will not do to omit any of the words in the spelling book as some of the pupils may have occasion to use them later. REFERENCES Earhart, L. B., Types of Teaching, Chapters I, X, XI, XV. Sears, J. B., Classroom Organization and Control, Chapter XI. Miller, I. E., Education for the Needs of Life, Chapter IV. Dewey, J., Democracy and Education, Chapters VI, XIV. King, L, Education for Social Efi&ciency, Chapter XL Strayer, G. D., A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, Chapter XVIII. Engleman, J. 0., Moral Education in School and Home, Chapters VI-XXI. McMurry, F. M. , How to Study, Chapters III-VL Strayer, G. D., and Norsworthy, N., How to Teach, Chapter XII. CHAPTER VI PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER Appropriateness of Material for Children of Va- rious Grades ; Differentiation of Subject Matter Problem 88. COLUMBIA PUBLIC SCHOOLS OFFICE OF THE SUPERINTENDENT NOTICE TO ALL TEACHERS A recently enacted law requires that all pupils in the public schools of the state shall study the subject of Fire Prevention at least one hour per month. We are free to decide how the sub- ject shall be presented in the various grades and I wish your help in working out plans so as to obtain the maximum benefit from the requirement. A general teachers' meeting will be devoted to the discussion of this subject. In the meantime, please give it your best thought. You will naturally give chief attention to the work in your own grade, but you should bear in mind that pupils will study the subject each year and it will therefore be necessary to consider the relation of your own work to that to be done in other grades. A. B. Campbell Superintendent At the meeting, the first speaker says : *' It seems to me that the law is absurd. The intent is all right but the legislators evidently don't understand the needs of the schools. The curriculum is already overcrowded, and how are we to find time to give an hour to this subject every ii6 MATERIAL FOR CHILDREN OF VARIOUS GRADES II7 month from the kindergarten to the end of the high school?" Another says : ''It calls for too much time. With an hour a month, the subject will be exhausted in a year. If we make out a syllabus including everything worth while that can be taught about fire prevention and then divide it among the grades, there will not be enough for any one grade to occupy an hour a month ; and unless the material is divided up in that way, the same things will be repeated, year after year. The fire-prevention lessons will become tedious and perfunctory and all the time will be wasted." ''There is another serious objection," says a third. " The subject is not suitable for all grades. The young children will not understand it and the high school students will make a joke of it. The pupils in the upper grades of the elementary school will be interested in the subject and can easily cover the whole ground. I think we ought to try to have the law changed so as to limit the instruction to the seventh or eighth grade. That will avoid waste of time and bring better results." Then opposing arguments are offered. A kindergarten teacher says: "There will be no diihculty in interesting five-year-olds in fire prevention if it is taken up in the proper way. Of course, if you make out a syllabus and then cut it up into sections giving a bit to each grade, probably none of the slices will fit. I think that is the wrong way to go at it. We ought to select those phases of the subject which are within the experience of the chil- dren to be taught or which can be made real and interesting to them, and present them in a manner consistent with their intelligence." Another says: "Repetition need not make the work Il8 PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER tedious. If used skillfully it will add to the interest. I have no faith in the plan of Kmiting the subject to one grade. If the idea is to make a permanent impression, it must come up again and again, but at each new appearance it must involve new applications and so become a bigger idea." The superintendent then enters the discussion. *'I am not defending the law. In general, I believe it is a mistake to fix courses of study and time allotments by legislation. Such action prevents the flexibility which is needed for adapting educational means to the varying conditions throughout the state and it often leads to a perfunctory compliance with the law in place of a purposeful study of the needs of the schools. Nevertheless, I believe that this law may result in a real improvement in our school work. We realize that much of the material in our course of study holds its place through the force of custom. We would like to have our schools deal more directly with important civic problems. If we can succeed in making a permanent impression upon our pupils in regard to the injury to humanity which is caused by preventable fires and if we can establish ideals of individual responsibility for controlling this danger in the public interest, we shall agree, shall we not, that the time spent can easily be taken from subjects which contribute less to the common good. The law gives us a chance to work this out and protects us from the cry of ^fads and frills,' which is sure to be raised against any change from the curriculum of the 'good old days.' Probably the law will need modification, but I doubt whether we are prepared to say just how it should be changed. Let us try the plan out and see how much we MATERIAL FOR CHILDREN OF VARIOUS GRADES IIQ can accomplish. After a year or two of experience, if we find that the law hampers us, we shall be in a position to suggest desirable changes and to offer evidence in sup- port of our suggestions." As there is not time for much discussion of details, teach- ers are asked to hand their suggestions to a committee which is to work out a tentative syllabus. The super- intendent asks what principles should guide the committee in selecting material for the various grades. After considerable discussion the following principles are agreed upon : 1. The chief purpose is to develop an attitude, not to teach facts. The pupil should come to reahze that fire is necessary to civilized people, but is a serious danger, unless carefully controlled. He should acquire a sense of respon- sibiHty for conducting himself and cooperating with others so as to prevent fires as far as possible. Information is to be used to develop this attitude and to enable the pupil to act intelligently. 2. As far as possible the pupil should learn about fire prevention under the stimulus of his own purpose. There- fore the work should be put in the form of problems or projects. 3. That material is best for a given grade which arouses the greatest interest. This can be determined by experi- ment. 4. The child's own relation to fires should be an important criterion for selection of material. Actual experiences of children of the grade will be better starting points than imaginary situations. Situations in which a child of a given age might cause or prevent a fire are to be chosen 120 PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER rather than those in which he can have no active partici- pation until he is older. 5. Some aspects of fire prevention cannot involve action by children of school age, for example, the attitude of the voter or tax-payer toward expenditure for fire prevention. Such situations should be taken up by pupils as a part of their preparation for citizenship, whenever they are old enough to understand and appreciate them. 6. Methods of presentation and study must be adapted to the interests and capacities of the pupils. At the first meeting of the committee, the teachers' suggestions are read. There is much variation even among the papers written by teachers of the same grade, and plans proposed for a certain grade are in some instances very much like those given by other teachers of much higher grades. Someone suggests that everything proposed by the teachers of a given grade be put together so as to obtain a consensus of the opinions of those who know the children best, in regard to what material is appropriate. Objection is made that this method will lay too much stress upon subject matter and it is finally decided to suggest problems and projects which are thought to be suitable for different grades and to indicate subject matter which is likely to be used in working out the problems, using the teachers' suggestions as a check on the ideas of the members of the committee. These projects are suggested, at first without attempting to designate the exact grade, since there is a good deal of difference of opinion as to where they belong. material for children of various grades 121 Projects in Fire Prevention Kindergarten and Primary Grades : 1. To learn how to help the firemen. 2. To find the best little fireman's helper (search for stories of children who helped). 3. To make a set of rules to help little people to keep fire chained up. 4. To make up a play to show the other children how to prevent fire from breaking loose. Middle Grades : 5. How to make homes safe against fire. 6. Keep a record of fires in the town — the losses — the causes. How could they have been prevented? 7. Who has done most to prevent fires ? Biography. 8. What materials will not burn ? Fire-proofing. 9. What things burn easily? How to keep them from catching fire. 10. What causes fires from within the house ? 11. What causes fires from without the house? Upper Grades : 12. What a housewife needs to know about fire. 13. What a camper needs to know about fire. 14. What fire dangers are there in our town? What can we do to lessen them ? 15. Organization of a fire patrol. 16. How does electricity cause fixes? 17. What is our town doing to prevent fires? 18. When property is destroyed by fire, who is the loser? High School : 19. Why America's fire loss is so much greater than that of other countries. 20. How can fire insurance rates be reduced ? 21. Is our national government doing enough to prevent fire losses ? 22. Publicity campaign : To show our citizens that they are pla3dng with fire ; why they ought to stop it, and how. 23. How much do we spend for fire protection? Is it too much? 122 PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER 24. Who is responsible when Hves are lost by fire ? 25. Scientific control of fire. Inventions. 26. History of fire prevention. It is proposed that teachers make selections from among these projects, try them out, and report results in detail. In this way it is thought that the most valuable projects for the various grades will be determined and detailed suggestions ob- tained in regard to methods. Problem 89. — A high school teacher belongs to a teachers' association. At one of the meetings a paper is presented ad- vocating differentiation of courses in the upper grammar grades. This leads to a vigorous discussion in which many different points of view are ardently set forth. Some of the members believe that differentiation is dangerous, that even in the high school there should be a uniform course of study. A majority believe that variation should begin at some stage in the school course but there is no agreement as to where this stage lies. Some would start in the fourth grade, others in the last year of the high school. A few think that there should be some dif- ferentiation even in the earliest years. The interest is so keen that it is decided to continue the subject at the next meeting. Our teacher feels that he ought to take part and, as he is a new member, is anxious to make a good impression. He therefore sets to work to study the question carefully. The teacher recalls that, in preparing for debates, he has found it useful to make a list of possible arguments on both sides of the question. He therefore begins his study by jotting down arguments in support of differentiation and writing beside them opposing arguments. When com- pleted, his statement is as follows : In Favor of Differentiation Opposed to Diferentiation I. The world's acciunulation i. All the people of a nation of knowledge and experience should possess certain knowl- is far too great for any one per- edge in common, in order that MATERIAL FOR CHILDREN OF VARIOUS GRADES 1 23 son to acquire it all. Further- more, it is constantly increas- ing. Therefore there must be selection. 2. The needs of society call for a great variety of activities. Therefore people should be trained in different ways. 3. There is a wide range of native capacities among peo- ple. To develop the possibil- ities of individuals of different capacities, there must be vari- ation in education. 4. Individuals of a given de- gree of maturity have been subject to different environ- mental factors: home, associ- ations with people, travel, etc. This variation in experience calls for differentiation in edu- cation. 5. Variation in interests must be taken into consideration if individuals are to attain the greatest possible degree of happiness and usefulness. Lack of interest in what the school offers causes many pu- pils to leave school earlier than they need. they may understand each other and act in harmony. 2. In a democratic country, nobody should be denied the opportunity to enter any field which he may choose. Differ- entiation tends to limit such opportunity. 3. It is impossible to deter- mine a person's capacities early in life. Nobody has the right to steer an individ- ual in a definite direction, on the assumption that his capac- ities will not permit him to travel other roads. 4. It is impracticable to make allowance for the compli- cated influences which affect a pupil outside of school. 5. Interests are transitory. A person who does only what interests him becomes " soft." 6. It is impossible to tell in advance how long a child will remain in school. Therefore it should be assumed that he will remain until the end of the course. 6. The time during which chil- dren remain in school varies. The course of study should, as far as possible, be adjusted to 7. It will cost too much to provide differentiated courses. Differentiation will necessitate organization of smaller classes. 124 PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER the length of the individual's 8. It will be more difficult school career, so that he will to secure competent teachers, be as well prepared as possible Teachers can be more easily for a happy and useful life. trained for a uniform course. Having set down the arguments on both sides of the question our teacher proceeds to examine them. The first statement in favor of differentiation seems to him self-evident. There must be differentiation in order that the world may profit by inherited knowledge and in order that progress m.ay continue. The only questions are where differentiation should begin and on what principles it should be made. He assents also to the proposition that some knowledge should be held in common. This, he feels, is not inconsistent with difi'erentiation, but may offer a clue as to the time for beginning to differentiate. He is inclined to admit that a uniform course of study would be easier to administer and less expensive than a plan of differentia- tion, and this would suggest that the knowledge needed in common should be imparted during the period of compulsory education. Would it be a sound principle, then, to post- pone differentiation until all the material of general value has been taught? Several questions upon the validity of this principle occur to him : I. Is the purpose to be served by uniformity of knowl- edge more important than that which calls for differentia- tion, so that, if either is sacrificed, it should always be the latter? For example, is it important for the public welfare that a child who has unusual talent in music or art should be taught the elementary facts of geography even if this curtails his time for practice during the elementary school period? DIFFERENTIATION OF SUBJECT MATTER 1 25 2. Can all the knowledge that should be held in com- mon be acquired in the years of childhood or does some of it demand greater maturity? The teacher questions the ability of children under fourteen to grasp some of the ideas of citizenship which are of the greatest importance to the public welfare. 3. Can the abilities and ideas which are of general value be most effectively taught by the use of the same subject matter with all children? He is unable to come to any definite conclusion but feels that he ought to keep his mind open to the possibility that some differentiation may be advantageous even in the early years of the school course, and that some meas- ure of uniformity may be needed to the very end. The argument that the needs of society require differen- tiation of training must, he thinks, be admitted by everyone. The question here also is not whether there shall be differen- tiation, but' when shall it begin and what shall be its nature? It may be that paths should not begin to separate until after school days are over, but in that case the schools will con- tribute nothing toward the special training needed for the various kinds of service to be rendered. It seems to him that the usual course does in fact provide much better for the small minority which is headed toward a professional career than for those who will fill the humbler positions. Is it not probable that some of the material which is suitable for the type of pupil who will later go to college may well be dispensed with in the case of the pupil who will become an artisan and that some ideas are important for the latter which are not significant for the former at the same age? The second argument for the negative was emphasized 126 PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER very strongly at the meeting of the association. One of- our cherished ideals is that any American boy may hope to be president of the United States. ' ' It would be undemo- cratic," asserted the opponents of differentiation, ''to en- courage or even to permit a child to take a side path leading away from the road to the top." This seems plausible, but as our teacher reflects upon it, he comes to the conclusion that it ignores many evident facts. If the development of all children toward their greatest possibihties of happiness and usefulness can be gained by keeping them in the same path as long as they remain in school, it would be unwise to allow them to branch off into routes which will limit their future progress, but if, on the other hand, this uniform course fails to provide the best development of all children, then keeping them together in a road, which, for many of them, does not lead to their destinations, would cause serious waste. The fact is that a large proportion of boys and girls turn aside from the general school path at various points along the way, and from that time on travel very divergent routes. Has the uniform school course given such pupils the best preparation for their future Hves? If not, they have paid a high price for their brief journey toward the summit which only a few ever reach and there has been a corresponding loss to the pubKc. Our teacher wonders whether it would not be easier for pupils who show at any time unsuspected possibilities, to regain the path leading to higher education than for those who fail in a course designed for all to make up the time spent in work without real progress. The third argument in favor of differentiation seems to the teacher to be the most fundamental consideration of all. DIFFERENTIATION OF SUBJECT MATTER 1 27 His own experience accords with the statement that children differ widely in capacity and his reading of the results of scientific studies has convinced him that the variation is even wider than casual observation would indicate. He knows that some children respond to material which others are unable to comprehend and that the ablest are often bored by subject matter which seems to fit the duller mem- bers of a class. It seems reasonable to believe that the amount and kind of subject matter should be adapted to the individual abiUties of the pupils in order to produce the best results. The objection that a child's capacities cannot be deter- mined with certainty seems pertinent but not conclusive. While children often develop in an unexpected way, careful observation during the elementary school period is not valueless. The intelligence tests, while not an infallible guide, are an important aid. He agrees that no teacher ought to take the responsibility of steering a pupil in a definite direction but this does not seem to him a valid reason for permitting no differentiation. If a teacher confines his efforts to a search for subject matter which will stimulate a pupil to greater effort or which will be of value in a course which the pupil has already marked out for himself, there would seem to be Kttle danger of harming him. The reaction of the pupil to the material seems more important than the material itself. The variation in pupils due to different environmental factors and variations in interest are facts of common observation. Our teacher can find no reason to doubt that the development of individual pupils would be fur- thered by taking these into account. He sees the diffi- 128 PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER culties involved in attempting to study home influences and other elements of environment which have helped to make the child what he is, but he is not satisfied with the contention that these conditions are too complicated for practical consideration. This appears to be a question of cost. If an elementary teacher has forty or more pupils in a class, or if a high school teacher has to deal with more than a hundred individuals, he will hardly be able to make a careful study of many of them. If, however, it appears to be a public necessity that education should be made more effective, and if failure to consider individual peculiarities can be shown to be a retarding factor, it seems probable that public sentiment can be developed in support of greater expenditure in the interest of better results. *'It is true," admits our teacher, "that pupils' interests are frequently transitory." He sees a danger in allowing individual whims to dominate school work, but he has in mind many cases in which pupils have done the hardest kind of work under the stimulus of their own purposes, and others in which insistence upon work which made no appeal to pupils produced effort chiefly by the teacher. He is inclined to think that enthusiastic effort in carrying out a plan which proves to be of temporary interest results in more development for the pupil than performance of tasks which seem more valuable to the adult, but which call forth Httle response from the child. Should any attempt be made to adjust the course of study to the probable length of the pupil's school career? The advocates of uniformity fix their attention upon what seems to them an ideal course, through which all the pupils who are capable of mastering it are to pass. In practice DIFFERENTIATION OF SUBJECT MATTER 1 29 this scheme acts as a sieve. A very small proportion of the pupils graduate from the high school. The great majority drop out along the way. In very many of these cases, failure is the cause of withdrawal. Many could certainly be held in school longer if the work were better adapted to their needs. It would seem sensible to make experimental changes in the course with a view to keeping pupils longer in school and, since so many drop out early, to try to see that an individual shall get that which will be of most value to him. The argument that we cannot tell how long the school career of an individual pupil will be is true, of course, but the assumption that a pupil will remain until the end of the high school course will be wrong in a large majority of cases. With many pupils we can tell approximately how long they will remain. It seems probable that, by adjusting differen- tiated courses so as to provide for the needs of pupils of different types, we can eHminate some of the waste and increase the probability that an individual pupil will come in contact with the subject matter which is of most value to him. The objections of increased cost and difficulty of securing competent teachers are recognized by our teacher as real but not vital considerations. They can be overcome, he thinks, if the result aimed at is of sufficient importance. After such reflection as outHned above, the teacher formulates the following tentative propositions : I. The principal elements in education are the develop- ing child and the needs of society. The course of study is to be regarded not as an end in itseff, but as a means of developing the child toward his greatest happiness and E. T. PROB. 130 PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER usefulness. The aim should be to select subject matter in accordance with its value for individual development. 2. There is no stage at which the needs of all members of a group of pupils are identical. Hence some variation in subject matter will probably be desirable at all stages. 3. It is important that some ideas and facts be held in common in order that people may understand each other and may act in harmony. In acquiring this common knowl- edge, however, it may sometimes be economical for different individuals to make use of different material. 4. The multipHcity of services required by society de- mands a variation in training individuals. The aim should be to have each individual fit himself for a Hf e of the greatest usefulness of which he is capable. 5. The degree of differentiation should increase as the child grows older. Until he has discovered the field in which he is likely to be most useful, his education should not be narrowly limited. 6. Material which arouses keen interest and earnest effort contributes more to a child's development than that which has been selected on logical grounds as the most important knowledge. 7. The actual effect of subject matter upon a pupil's development and the actual use which he makes of it are better tests of its educational value than preconceived ideas of what it ought to accomplish. 8. Practical difficulties of cost and deficiencies of edu- cational facilities and teaching ability interfere with a thoroughgoing application of the foregoing principles. The aim should be to overcome the obstacles as rapidly as pos- sible. differentiation of subject matter 13i Additional Principles Relating to Subject Matter 11. It is probable that some things can be learned more econom- ically at one age than at another. We must try to discover the facts in regard to this question. 12. Repetition is essential to learning. It is not good practice to select a body of important subject matter and divide it among the various years of the pupil's course. Important ideas should recur again and again. 13. Material which is likely to be used by nearly everyone should have first place. Material which will be of use to a few should be left to be acquired by them as needed, unless they can acquire it without imposing it upon the rest of the class. 14. There should be differentiation in accordance with abihties, interests, environment, future plans for education, voca- tional plans. Differentiation should increase as pupils become more mature. 15. The determination of the most valuable subject matter for a given grade or locality or group of pupils requires thorough study and experimentation. 16. Breadth of interest makes for happiness and efficiency. The range of subject matter must not be too closely limited. 17. As a pupil becomes older, he should concentrate his attention more and more upon a certain field. Problems for the Reader to Solve Problem 90. — A teacher is put on a committee to work out a course of study in geography for the elementary schools. As she begins to think about the problem, she finds that she has no very clear ideas of what should be assigned to a given grade. The only clue that she can think of is to find out what is done in other school systems and what is included in the commonly used textbooks. It occurs to her that a better basis for the selection of material ought to be used by the committee. Problem 91. — A teacher who is acquainted with both the kindergarten and first-grade work sees a problem concerning 132 PROBLEMS OF SUBJECT MATTER the difference in demands made upon the two classes. In the kindergarten, effort is put mainly upon handwork, games, story plays, rhythm, and song. Progress is often rapid but there is no definite curriculum — merely the general aim of securing the natural development of the child through home and play experiences. In the first half of the first grade there are definite assignments; for example, in reading, the primer is to be completed and reviewed and a supplementary reader finished. Half of the class take the work easily and naturally. The other half struggle and need much pushing and drilling. The teacher feels that the transition from one t3^e of work to the other is too sudden. She finds plenty of sympathy for her point of view but nobody seems to know what changes ought to be made. Problem 92. — A third-grade teacher reads an article urging that children of all grades should be trained in habits and ideals leading to good citizenship. She is impressed by the author's view, and, as no definite suggestions are given as to work which would be appropriate for children of different ages, she under- takes to select suitable material for her grade. Problem 93. — A seventh-grade teacher has to make prepara- tion for a lesson on current events. Problem 94. — The time allotment for the fourth grade allows thirty minutes per week for nature study but makes no specific requirements. A teacher undertakes to make an outline of work for the year. Problem 95. — An eighth-grade teacher is asked by a parent to recommend a course for her daughter who is about to enter high school. The girl has average ability but no marked pref- erences. She will not go to college and it is not probable that she will have to earn her living. The subjects open to her in the first year at high school are Enghsh, Latin, French, Spanish, ancient history, algebra, commercial arithmetic, elementary science, bookkeeping, t3^ewriting, cooking, sewing, drawing. She can take at most five subjects and must ta,ke four. ^ DIFFERENTIATION OF SUBJECT MATTER 1 33 Problem 96. — A course of study for the second grade provides that the work* center about the theme '' Primitive Life." A parent cannot see any sense in it and says that the schools are wasting time in silly fads. Problem 97. — A candidate for a high school science position is asked whether he would have the same subject matter in physics for boys and girls. Problem 98. — A common practice in junior high schools is to have the same course of study for all pupils except that a pupil is permitted to choose one or possibly two subjects from a short list of electives. In other schools, pupils are grouped according to ability or future plans, and subject matter is selected in accordance with the supposed needs of each group. A teacher in a school of the first t3^e declares at a gathering that the second plan is not sound. A representative of the second type of school feels that she ought to stand up for her own school, but doesn't feel sure of her ground. Problem 99. — A high school teacher of science makes the remark that science should not be studied in the elementary school. Pupils who have had some work in science feel that they know all about it and are unfitted for taking up the subject in a serious way. He wants to lay the foundation himself so that it will be right. Problem 100. — A teacher desires to modify the course of study which she considers unsuited to her class. She meets the ob- jection that if any of the pupils are later transferred to another school, they will not be able to work in the same grade. Problem 101. — One of the schools in a city school system draws its pupils almost entirely from homes in which little or no English is spoken and where American ideals are httle un- derstood. Poverty is common and children leave school early to help in the family support. A teacher thinks that the course of study prescribed for the city is not well adapted to this particular school. The superintendent asks her what changes she would recommend. CHAPTER VII PROBLEMS OF METHOD Relation of Method to Purpose; the Socialized Recitation; the Common Recitation; the Project Method Problem 102. — The principal of a school observes a lesson in a second-grade classroom. The teacher gives out sheets of colored paper to the pupils, first directing them to sit with folded hands until she tells them what to do. She has a pupil dis- tribute scissors. Then she holds a sheet up where most of the pupils can see it, places a ruler along one edge, and says : " Now watch and see just what I do." She then makes a dot opposite the two inch mark and says : " Now you may all do just as I did and then lay your pencils down." Most of the children do it instantly. Some do not understand and look to see what others have done. Some put the dot on the wrong edge. The teacher goes about examining each paper and directing those who have made mistakes. She rebukes one or two who guessed what was to come next and made more than one mark. It takes her several minutes to see that all the papers are right. Then she holds up the paper again and puts a similar mark on the opposite edge of the paper, after which the pupils do it, and have their work approved or corrected. Successive steps in making marks and ruling lines are carried out in the same way. After a half hour, the teacher says: " We shall have to stop now. Put your name on your paper." The principal learns that the lesson is to be continued " day after to-morrow." At that time he observes the same procedure, involving cutting and pasting. As the work nears completion and the children discover that the result is to be a box, the teacher has a good deal of trouble to prevent some of them from going ahead with- out waiting for her directions. Finally the boxes are completed. It would take close observation to detect any difference between them. 134 METHOD AND PURPOSE I35 The principal says : "I have a few questions to ask about this lesson. What purpose did you have in view in planning and carrying out the work? Did the accomplishment come up to your expectations? Can you suggest any better method of accomplishing your purpose ? I wish you would consider these questions and discuss them with me to-morrow afternoon." The teacher spends very little time in preparation for the interview as she Ixas answers ready immediately. She considers the lesson very successful, having produced as good a set of boxes as she has ever seen in a second grade. She is somewhat curious to know what the principal has in mind but she feels quite capable of defending her method against any objections which he may raise. The principal opens the conference by saying : *'That was a remarkably fine set of boxes which your class produced. You were very successful in directing and controlling the class and getting a uniformly good product. I want to discuss the lesson with you because I know that your chief purpose was not to get boxes and I have some doubts as to whether there was as much education in the lesson as you might have accomplished. Now just what was your purpose?" "To train the pupils to use their h,-ands, to measure, draw, cut, and paste accurately," she replies. "Were you satisfied with the results ?'' "More than satisfied," she answers. "You say your- self that the results were remarkably good." "You misunderstood me," the principal objects. "I said the boxes were remarkably good, but they were not the results you set out to accomplish. The question is whether the children got as much training in the processes involved as they might have had in the time spent. You do not 136 PROBLEMS OF METHOD realize how much of those boxes was your own work and how Kttle the children contributed." '^Why I hardly touched the work/' she retorts indig- nantly. ''True! but you directed every step. No child was allowed to go wrong. You did all the planning and prac- tically you did the work because, although you did not actually draw the lines or hold the scissors, you stood over the children and saw to it that the work was done as you intended. You alone knew what it was all about. The children were not trying to do their work accurately in order to accompHsh a purpose. They were simply obey- ing you." ''But suppose I had allowed more freedom," the teacher objects. " Some of the children would have spoiled their paper at once, and we should have had very few decent boxes." "Very lilcely, but that would have done no harm, would it, if the children had learned more by making mistakes? " "Well, how would you have done it? " she asks rather caustically. "Oh! I couldn't do it very well, myself," he answers. "I could not handle little children as you do, but I should like to suggest a method which I wish you would try. I think you could get more development for the children. See what you think of it. In the first place, I think you should have a different purpose, or an additional purpose more important than the others. The chief purpose would be to give the children experience in making plans and carrying them out. To do this, they would need to learn to use rulers, cut and paste, METHOD AND PURPOSE 137 and you would help them in this, but I think that, in trying to make something which they really wanted to make, most of the children would learn these processes more rapidly than if they are allowed merely to do what the teacher directs. It would be best to have the plans originate with the children and to allow different children to work on different projects, but in order to simpHfy the problem and keep it as much like your own as possible, let us suppose that every- one is to make a box. You might show the children several boxes of different colors, sizes, and shapes, telling them that the boxes had been made by some little friends of yours to hold Christmas candy, that you had thought they might like to make some like them. You will agree that the children would be eager to do so. They would choose the box which pleased them most. If any of the class wished to make a box different from any of the samples and if you thought that he could do it, you would encourage him to try, or possibly advise him to make one like the model first and afterward work out his own plan. Then would come the question of how to go to work, and here would be an opportunity for the children to think, which ought not to be lost by telling them too much. You might leave the boxes for a day or two where the children could examine them carefully before beginning the work. There might then be a discussion of the various steps. Some of the children will probably suggest that the boxes be unfolded so as to see just how the paper is cut. Some will see, without help, what measurements to make. The others can be given whatever help they need. They will 138 PROBLEMS OF METHOD appreciate the advantage of working out the problem first with cheap paper so as to avoid spoiling the good paper by making blunders. You ought not to be troubled by mis- takes, if a child is doing his best. Simply help him to dis- cover his error and avoid making the same mistake again. If you use this plan, you must expect much greater varia- tion in the product than you got the other day, but do you not think that the children will learn more?'' ^'Yes," she admits. ^'I can see that there would be more opportunity for thinking and more training in self- reliance. The children would be more interested in the work. The chief difficulty that I see is in guiding forty children. I could do it with a small group but I am not sure that it would be practicable with a regular class. However, I will try it. I begin to see that there is not much educational value in the sort of handwork which I have been teaching and, if necessary, I can cut down the number of lessons and divide the class into two sections. Perhaps some of the abler children can act as assistants. At any rate, you have given me a new idea." Problem 103. — Miss D. observes a " socialized recitation." She is impressed with the mental activity of the children and with the freedom with which they express themselves. On trying the plan in her own class, she finds that pupils tend to use set forms of expression, criticize trivial faults, and show Uttle ability to see the important points of the subject or their relations. Miss D. discusses her dif&culties with other teachers. Most of them have observed so-called "socialized recita- tions" and a few have tried to introduce them in their own classes. All have observed the same faults which THE SOCIALIZED RECITATION 139 disturb our teacher. Pupils say, one after another, such things as "Excuse me, John. You said 'river' and you should have said 'rivers.' " "I liked your reading, Mary, because you read with good expression and you stood well." The pupil criticized says : "Thank you, Helen ; thank you, Albert." One of the teachers exclaims : "It all seems so artificial. The children talk more than in the usual recitation and the teacher doesn't monopolize so much of the time. I suppose that is an improvement, but there is no spontaneity. The children aren't really developing initiative or cooperation or abiUty to think and speak for themselves. They are just copying the teacher, going through conventional motions without any real purpose. If that is all there is to the ' socialized recitation' I think it is a waste of time." "There are greater possibilities in the socialized recita- tion," Miss D. declares. " I know because I saw something entirely different when I visited Miss W.'s class at the Bur- ton School. The children were natural but very enthusiastic. They spoke freely and did the best thinking that I have ever seen children do. There was nothing parrot-like about it. They were thoroughly in earnest. It is possible to have a genuine social spirit in the classroom for I have seen it. I have missed something and I am going to find out what it is." Miss D. decides to observe closely a socialized recitation of the unsatisfactory type and compare it with Miss W.'s work, and see if she can detect the causes of the difference in results. She explains her purpose to one of the teachers and arranges to visit the latter's class. The lesson observed is on the geography of the Western 140 PROBLEMS OF METHOD States. The teacher calls upon one of the children to take charge. The girl goes to the front of the room and pro- ceeds to ask questions: *'Name the Western States, John!" John rises and says : ''California, Oregon, Wash- ington, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, Utah, Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico." Several children stand. John addresses them in turn: "Helen!" ''Excuse me, John, you said 'Utaw' and you should have said 'Utar.' " "Thank you, Helen. Henry!" "Excuse me, John, you left out Nevada." "Thank you, Henry. Louise !" "Ex- cuse me, John, you should have said : 'The Western States are California, Washington/ etc. You didn't give a com- plete sentence." "Thank you, Louise." Another question is asked and the same procedure follows. Presently the leader calls upon another pupil to take her place, and so it goes on. It is evident that the questions are all aimed to get a reproduction of the textbook statements. Some of the pupils invariably offer criticisms. Some take no part at all. The teacher occasionally says: "I noticed an error," or puts in a question. At the end of the period, she says : "For to-morrow you may take the next topic 'Industries of the Western States' on page 325." Miss D. then writes to Miss W. and asks permission to see another socialized recitation, preferably one in geog- raphy. Miss W. appoints a time. When Miss D. enters the classroom. Miss W. says: "Children, Miss D. has come to visit us again. She is interested in our work in geography. I think she would like to know just what we have been doing." One of the pupils promptly rises and says: "We are travehng all over the United States — THE SOCIALIZED RECITATION I41 making believe, you know. Each of us has studied all about one of the states and he takes us with him to visit it. To-day, Arthur is going to take us to Colorado." Arthur then comes to the front of the room, bringing a pile of pictures, pamphlets, newspapers, etc. He pulls down the map of the United States and picks up some time- tables. Then he says: "We start from the Pennsylvania Railroad Station in New York at lo a.m. The fare to Denver is $75.00 and the berths on the sleeping car cost $20 more." Someone asks: "How much will the whole trip cost?" "Well," he replies, "we ought to allow at least five dollars a day besides the railroad fares back and forth, and we shall be gone three weeks." He does some figuring on the blackboard. "We ought to have $250 anyway and we may want to buy some things, so I think we would better take $300." He points to the map and says : "We go across New Jersey, stopping at Trenton, and get to Philadelphia at 12.20. In the afternoon, we travel across Pennsylvania and get to Pittsburgh late in the eve- ning. We don't see anything of Ohio because we are asleep and when we get up in the morning we are nearly across Indiana. We get to Chicago at 8.00 o'clock in the morn- ing and stay there until i.oo o'clock, when we take a train on the Chicago, Burlington, and Quincy Railroad for Denver. That takes us through Illinois, Iowa, and Ne- braska. We cross the Mississippi at Burlington, and the Missouri at Council Bluffs and Omaha." "Do we go on a ferry ? " asks one of the class. "No, there are bridges at both places. In the morning we are in Nebraska and it takes us most of the day to get across the state. In the afternoon we begin to go up hill and they 142 PROBLEMS OF METHOD put on two engines. Late in the afternoon, we see a faint line of white, away on ahead, and someone says : ' There are the Rocky Mountains.' They are still a very long way off. The air is so clear that you can see a very long distance." One of the pupils interrupts: "My uncle told me a story about that," and then he tells the story of the man who had been so often deceived by distances in the clear Colorado air that he would not trust his judgment when he came to a little brook, two or three feet wide, but took off his clothes, prepared to swim. Arthur continues : "The mountains get nearer and nearer, and as we come to Denver, they seem almost on top of us, but in all the eastern part of the state the land is a prairie with ranch-houses once in a while and lots of cattle and a few cowboys riding ponies with high Mexican saddles. There are hardly any trees, just a few cottonwood poplars along the banks of streams." He passes around some pictures of the ranch country and answers questions about them. Then he announces the arrival in Denver and shows pictures and pamphlets describing the city. He tells about trips to Colorado Springs, Cripple Creek, Pueblo, and Grand Junction, visits a gold mine and a smelter, climbs Pikes Peak, and explains the irrigation systems. He shows pictures of the canyons and the snow-covered peaks and of camping parties with saddle and pack-ponies. The pupils have many questions to ask and information to give, which they have learned from parents or other relatives. The dis- cussion is adjourned until the next day and, in the mean- time, the pictures and reading matter, a riding quirt, a THE COMMON RECITATION I43 sugar beet, and a lump of gold ore are put on a table where pupils can examine them at their leisure. Miss D. contrasts the two recitations. One of them seems artificial and barren, the other natural and full of life. As she thinks over what she has observed she is impressed with the difference in state of mind of the two sets of pupils. In one case all were attending chiefly to the words of the textbook. All knew the material or had read it at least. They were merely quizzing each other on a formal lesson. In the other case, the leader had a lot of fresh material to contribute, — more than he had time to give. He knew his subject and was eager to tell about it. The other pupils wanted to know. Naturally they asked questions. They couldn't help it. The leader wasn't trying to remember the answer to a question. He was trying to make a point clear. It was a genuine socialized recitation because it was a true social situation. In the first case, the pupils used stereotyped expressions and be- haved according to rule because there was nothing else for them to do. They had nothing in their minds but the words of the book and there was nothing to stimulate them to spontaneous behavior. They had either to keep still or act like parrots. Miss D. concludes that in order to have a socialized recitation, there must be subject matter which naturally calls for give and take between the pupils, something to be told or something to be learned which some of the class know and the others want to find out, or something involv- ing real difference of opinion which naturally leads to argu- ment. *' In other words," she says, "a good socialized recitation is not a recitation at all. It is a conversation." 144 PROBLEMS OF METHOD Problem 104, — A high school teacher uses the common recita- tion method, assigning a lesson for outside study, and calling upon pupils to recite at the next recitation. The teacher asks innumerable questions, sometimes changing the question three or four times before permitting a pupil to answer. Replies are usually meagre and poorly expressed. The teacher works hard but the pupils put forth Httle independent effort. Exami- nations induce vigorous " cramming," but tests given a few months after the completion of the course show that little has been retained. The teacher discusses the problem with the superintend- ent and is advised by the latter to read a book on methods of teaching. This book describes very clearly the common type of recitation which the teacher recognizes as his own. The author maintains that the indifference and poor re- sponse of the students are the natural results of the method employed. The teacher is taking all the responsibiHty. He alone knows what is to come next. For the pupils the course is simply a series of tasks upon which they will be quizzed. They have no purpose except to pass in the course and, in the case of a few, to get high marks. They are not eager to find out anything or to accomplish any- thing. The teacher is constantly trying to find out what they don't know and the only fun for them is to beat him at this game. The author says that the pupils ought to be taken into counsel in planning the course and assigning the work. There should be cooperation between teacher and pupils. The latter should be given more responsibility. The teacher should be guide and inspirer rather than slave- driver. The teacher is inclined to think that this is a pretty theory of one who has no practical knowledge of high school boys and girls. However, it interests him. It would be THE COMMON RECITATION 1 45 fine if it could be done. He thinks about it a good deal and it influences his attitude toward his pupils, without his being fully conscious of the change. He begins to depend somewhat upon pupils to ask questions about points which they do not understand and uses more of the recitation period in discussing such points and developing new work, instead of quizzing the class upon every item of the lesson. Gradually the pupils come to see that, if they are to meet the tests satisfactorily, they must take respon- sibility for mastering the work as they go along, and, if they fail to ask for help where they need it, it is their own loss, not the teacher's. Toward the end of the term, he asks one day, on the spur of the moment, "How much can we take for next time?" and is surprised that the class is ready to take more than the usual assignment. One of the pupils says : "Let's finish the work as soon as we can so as to have some time for review." As the teacher refrains more and more from immediate answers to pupils' questions, discussion develops and pupil participation becomes more free and spontaneous. By the end of the term, the teacher has become thoroughly interested in the idea of cooperation between teacher and pupils and, on beginning work with new classes, he follows a more definite plan. On the opening day, he discusses with each class the scope of the course and suggests that, before the next lesson, the pupils look over the textbooks so as to get an idea of the work to be done. Then he gets one of the classes into a discussion on the way to organize the recitation periods so as to make the best use of the time. In his manner of speaking he makes himself one of the group about to undertake an interesting enterprise. It is agreed E. T. PROB. lO 146 PROBLEMS OF METHOD to organize as a study club. A chairman is appointed to preside at the class meetings and a program committee is appointed with the teacher as one of the members, to assign topics for study and discussion. As the work progresses, the pupils themselves call for tests to see how well they have mastered the topics studied. The teacher finds himself commending the class frequently. A few pupils need prodding but there is very little of the indifference and passive resistance which formerly exas- perated him. Problem 105. — A seventh-grade teacher finds her class to be very slow and inaccurate in the fundamental processes of arith- metic. She gives a great deal of practice, marks papers reli- giously, keeps pupils after school, and still finds that very little progress is made. She sets herself the task of devising a more effective method. The teacher thinks about her problem and discusses it with other teachers. She tries a few devices recommended by the others but sees no appreciable improvement. Her own efforts are not having the desired effect and the pupils themselves, although they seem to be trying, have no enthusiasm. The constant criticism and poor marks are apparently bringing about a hopeless indifference. She must find some way to get the pupils interested in the problem. Finally, at the suggestion of a friend, she writes to the teacher of methods in the normal school from which she graduated. He advises her to begin by giving some of the standard tests in the fundamental processes. He explains that these tests have been given to hundreds of classes and the results pubhshed. The children will probably be THE COMMON RECITATION 1 47 interested to see how they stand in comparison with other seventh grades and how much progress they can make by the end of the term. The results of the tests will also show her more definitely where the weak spots lie. The teacher explains the tests to the class. The pupils are interested at once and exert themselves to make a good showing. The results are surprising in several ways. Although the average scores are below the standard in all the processes, they are not very much below it except in addition, while in division the class average is almost exactly the same as the standard. The most striking thing about the results is the wide variation in the scores of indi- vidual pupils. One pupil did more than twice as many examples as the class average, without making a mistake, while a few got hardly one right answer although they did less than the average number of examples. In general, those who worked most quickly were most accurate and those who did well in one process did well in the others. It is easy to interest the class in working to raise the class score above the standard. The teacher notices much better effort during the term and considerable improvement in the regular work in arithmetic. At the end of the term both teacher and class are eager to find out how much has been gained. It is found that the class averages have improved in all four processes but the gain is greatest in division and least in addition. The score in the latter is still below the standard. The variation in individual scores is even greater than before. Some have made remarkable gains, some have apparently stood stiU, and a few have lower scores than in the original test. 148 PROBLEMS OF METHOD The teacher concludes that the chief value of the tests has been to make the problem more definite and to arouse the interest of the pupils. On the whole, the improvement has come where apparently it was least needed. The weak spots have not been overcome and some time has been used in individual cases in acquiring a quite unnecessary degree of skill. It might better have been devoted to something more important. The problem now is to discover the causes of individual weaknesses and the means of correcting them. The teacher explains these conclusions to the class and proposes that they make their chief effort during the new term to improve the work where the tests have shown the poorest results. As a class, they will make their chief attack upon addition and as individuals, upon their particular weaknesses. She observes the work of individual pupils closely and makes several discoveries. The first day she keeps her eye on a pupil who is fairly accurate but extremely slow. She notices that he stops frequently in adding a column of figures and with vacant eyes seems to be going through some mental process. She watches him more closely. Suddenly she notices that his fingers are moving. A seventh-grade boy counting on his fingers ! It is unbe- lievable but a study of other members of the class reveals several who have the same habit. One who shows the same signs, but whose fingers are still, is finally detected in making movements of his foot as he counts, and later a girl confesses that she has for years got the result of a combination, which did not immediately come to mind, by touching her teeth with the tip of her tongue as she counted. Here was a definite interfering habit to be broken up. THE COMMON RECITATION 1 49 These pupils must master the number combinations so that the responses will be automatic. The teacher sets them to work on tables and devises games in which an immediate answer to a number combination is necessary to success. After a few days' work of this sort, these pupils begin to gain speed. Another pupil is found to be very slow in writing numbers. He is helped by copying figures, timing himself, and trying to beat his record. Many prove to be able to add very short columns correctly, but make mistakes when the number of addends is increased beyond a certain point. They are denied, for a time, examples which are beyond their power and are encouraged to work at the limit of their ability, gradually increasing the length of the columns as they succeed in adding the shorter ones without mistake. With some, the errors are almost always made in ''carry- ing" from one column to the next. Special drill on this step gives them prompt improvement in accuracy. A few are victims of nervous excitement, calculating rapidly and accurately part way through an example and then ''going to pieces." This is reported to the normal school teacher, who in turn reports it to a psychologist. At the suggestion of the latter, these pupils are advised to rest for an instant once or twice in the course of the example. The effect is immediate. The success of pupils, who had for years been considered hopelessly inaccurate in arithmetic, naturally raises their spirits. A keen interest in individual progress is aroused. At the end of the term, the class score in addition is above the standard and nearly all the pupils have made progress in the processes in which they were especially weak. The teacher realizes that she has not fully solved the 150 PROBLEMS OF METHOD problem. Indeed one of the most prominent ideas which she has gained in the course of her study is the complicated nature of the mental processes involved in arithmetical computations. Nevertheless, she knows that she has made progress and has confidence that the causes of pupils^ difficulties can be discovered. She intends to continue on the same line, asking the help of experts in cases which baffle her own efforts. Problem 106. — A teacher of English takes up with her class Scott's *' Lady of the Lake." Her regular method is to call upon a pupil to read a short passage, after which errors are corrected, allusions and figures of speech explained, and grammatical questions are asked. She introduces a brief study of versifi- cation. Occasionally compositions are required on the subject matter of the poem. Very few of the pupils show much in- terest and some declare that they hate poetry. At a meeting of teachers, someone makes the statement that if first-year high school pupils do not enjoy the "Lady of the Lake," some- thing is wrong with the teaching. After the meeting, our teacher "button-holes" the man who made the remark with the intention of making him eat his words. She says: "I don't agree with what you said. I think mere enjoyment is not a sufficient motive for teach- ing Hterature. If we are simply to give the students a good time all we have to do is to give them ' Spicy Stories ' or the 'NeapoHtan Magazine' or the most absurd detec- tive stories. I beheve our job is to counteract all this trashy, impossible fiction by making them acquainted with things that are uplifting." "So do I," says the other. "I beheve that the 'Lady of the Lake ' is good material for the first year of high school but it is of no use to teach it unless it interests the pupils. A METHOD IN LITERATURE 151 If they are indifferent to it or bored by it, our time is wasted. My point is that it must be taught in such a way that pupils will enjoy it." "Don't you think," says our teacher, "that everyone ought to know the masterpieces of Enghsh literature?" "That all depends, I think, upon the effect of the knowl- edge. Merely knowing that Scott wrote the ' Lady of the Lake ' and knowing that one has studied it do not seem to me sufficient reasons for spending much time on the book. That is a good deal like pride of family — a sense of superi- ority because one is related to a famous person, without being any better in conduct because of the relationship. That kind of Hterary study produces intellectual snobbish- ness. To be of any great value, a knowledge of the master- pieces must have some real effect upon a person, make him finer in some way, make him behave differently than if he did not possess it." "But I don't see any better way to present the poem to the pupils," our teacher goes on, "than to teach them what I know about it. I get keen pleasure in reading poetry and I am sure that I get an intellectual, even a moral inspira- tion from it. Part of my enjoyment comes from ability to recognize the allusions, knowledge of the forms of verse, acquaintance with the Hfe of the author, and even my back- ground of linguistic and grammatical knowledge. I have tried to give the pupils knowledge of this sort as it applies to the ' Lady of the Lake ' so that they will be able to appre- ciate it, but they don't seem to care for anything that takes real study and thought." "I know just how you feel," the other replies. "I have had the same experience, but I have come to the conclusion 152 PROBLEMS OF METHOD that it is a mistake to assume that children ought to like what we like and for reasons which appeal to us. In the first place, we probably have more taste for literature than the average person, otherwise we would not be teaching EngKsh. Furthermore, we have mature minds and a background of literary knowledge which can be acquired only by years of study. If we simply emphasize the things which appeal to us, or if we try to get pupils to understand the poem as we do, we shall shoot over their heads and probably give them a distaste for the poem which we want them to appreciate." By this time, our teacher is beginning to think that this man may not be so far off the track as she thought. She asks, ''Well, how would you teach it?" "My plan," he answers, "is to formulate carefully the purposes which I want to accomplish and then try to find a method of presentation which will produce the desired result. If one method doesn't work I try another." At this point the speaker is interrupted and carried off by the chairman of the meeting, and our teacher has no opportunity to resume the conversation. Nevertheless, she has caught his idea and proceeds to think it out. "What do I want to accomplish in teacliing the ' Lady of the Lake'? " she asks herself. She ponders this question and jots down the thoughts which occur to her. Afterward she arranges them like this : My Purposes in Teaching the "Lady oe tee Lake" I. To stimulate ideals and aspirations: courage, patriotism, unselfishness, generosity, pure love. A METHOD IN LITERATURE 1 53 2. To give an appreciation of Scottish character: hardihood, clan spirit, love of country. 3. To develop an appreciation of natural beauty, and life in the open. 4. To develop enjoyment of good poetry and a desire to read more. 5. To broaden the pupils' vocabulary and ideas. The teacher gives much thought to the method of pro- ducing these effects. She realizes, in the light of her recent discussion, that it will not do to make a task of the poem. She must present it so that it will produce exhilaration. She concludes that the acquirement of new words and ideas will have to be a by-product, rather than an object of direct study. When she meets her new class, she begins by saying that they are about to read a poem which has become famous and has given pleasure to thousands of people. The scene is laid in Scotland and the poem was written by a man who was a great lover of his country. She tells very briefly about Scott's life and shows his picture. Then she shows photographs of the Scottish Highlands and makes such places as Ben Lomond and Loch Katrine realities in the minds of the pupils. She tells them a little about clan loyalty and the strife between Highland and Lowland. Fi- nally she speaks of the bards and explains that this poem is written as though sung by one of these bards. Then she begins to read the poem, occasionally giving a word of explanation, but putting all her effort into the reading, watching her class and striving to make them respond to the rhythm of the verse and the pictures of wild life and action of the characters in the story. The first lesson is promising. The interest and enjoy- 154 PROBLEMS OF METHOD ment of the pupils is evident. At the end of the period, the teacher says : ''If you will finish reading the first canto yourselves, I will read the next one to you to-morrow." The reading proceeds rapidly. Many of the pupils read ahead. There are occasional questions and discussions started on the initiative of students, but the teacher makes no attempt to deal with details of language or allusion, except when questioned. She does most of the reading which is done in class, but occasionally permits a pupil who has read ahead and shown unusual appreciation to read for a time. In a few days, the poem has been completed. Pupils are enthusiastic. They discuss the characters and some have voluntarily learned passages which especially appealed to them. They are quite ready to go over the poem again more carefully, in order to understand passages which were not perfectly clear. During this second reading, the assignments are shorter. There is more discussion and frequent use of the dictionary. Pupils are encouraged to prepare passages which they like best to read to the class. They select favorite bits for memorizing. Finally some theme writing is done, but the teacher is careful to allow pupils to select subjects which really interest them and even includes in a Hst of suggested titles some which have nothing to do with the ''Lady of the Lake." Her purpose in doing this is to avoid the possibihty of dulling the edge of a pupil's enjoyment of the poem. When the work is finished and she refers to her statement of purposes, she is convinced that she has come nearer to accompKshment of what she set out to do than she has ever done before — with this book, at least. The oral and THE PROJECT METHOD 1 55 written discussions have shown that many of the pupils have gained real inspiration and some have already asked for other poems "as good as this one." A few have written some passable verses in the style of the "Lady of the Lake." The new ideas and new words have been used freely in themes and discussions. Problem 107. — At a teachers' meeting, the principal of a school says to the teachers : " Everybody seems to be talking about the ' project method.' I don't know much about it myself but I think we ought to look into it and see whether it has any value for us. I wish you would all find out as much as you can about the method, and experiment with it if you please. Then we can discuss it at a later meeting." At the close of the meeting, a discussion is started among several of the teachers. A primary teacher says: "As nearly as I can find out, the project method is letting chil- dren do as they please. A friend of mine told me about a first-grade teacher who, she says, is 'dippy' on the subject. She has what she calls a *free period,' when the children do what they like. They build with blocks, or make things with paper and paste, or draw, or do anything else that they please. They simply choose what they want to do, help themselves to material, and go to work — or rather play, I should call it. I don't believe there is any sense in that sort of thing in school. There is time enough for play out of school hours. If children are to do what they please, what is the use of a teacher?" Another says: "That's not project method. In the Canfield schools, they claim to be basing all their work on projects. One class studies pottery, another the silk industry, another paper-making, etc. Take paper-making, for example: The class learn how paper is made and 156 PROBLEMS OF METHOD make some themselves, instead of the usual work in manual training. The language work is based on paper- making. They read about it and write compositions on the subject, and do arithmetic problems about mak- ing and selling paper. The teachers claim that the children are much more interested in their work than when they have unrelated lessons in reading, language, arith- metic, and manual training, that they do more thinking, talk and write more freely." ''I don't see how they can cover the ground in the regular subjects that everyone ought to know," interposes one of the teachers. "Neither do I," answers the previous speaker, ''but they claim that they do." Another says : ''I know a case in which the whole school worked on the same project. They wanted to send some dolls to children in the European countries which were devastated by the war. The special class made wooden dolls and each class had one. They made complete outfits of clothing and httle trunks to pack them in. The parents became interested and contributed material, and the janitor made dolls' furniture for the lowest classes, where the children could not do it themselves. One of the teachers told me that the children worked like beavers and did better sewing than anyone would have thought possible. They wouldn't tolerate poor work but insisted on ripping out big stitches and doing the work over until it satisfied the class. She said the project did more than anything that had ever happened before to develop a sense of unity and pride in the school." One of the group says : "I thought that 'project method' was just a new name for the socialized recitation. The THE PROJECT METHOD 1 57 purpose seems to be to have the children more active, to have them take the lead rather than follow directions, and to think and talk more for themselves." "The project method reminds me of the elephant and the four blind men," laughs Miss P., who has been merely Hsten- ing. "What it is depends upon the direction from which you approach it. I'm completely muddled." That eve- ning she goes to the library and takes home a book on the project method. For the next few days, during her spare time, she reads and thinks, attempting to apply the author's conception of project teaching to the illustrations given at the recent discussion. Finally she exclaims: "Eureka! The wall, the tree, the snake, and the rope are all merged in the elephant. The essential idea in the project method is purpose. We learn most rapidly and most effectively when we are trying to carry out a purpose which we earnestly wish to accomplish, and, as the author says, one of the most valuable habits which one can acquire is that of trans- lating desire into purpose and 'seeing it through.' The project method, as I see it now, changes the whole scheme of education. Instead of a process of pouring in or molding, education consists of guiding the child in accomplishing his purposes. We must help him to get hold of valuable purposes and show him how to work them out in the most economical ways. That is our job ; but we must be sure to give him a chance to work under the stimulus of his own purpose. All of those ideas of project teaching which the other teachers spoke of the other day fit into this conception. The free period is an obvious method of giving children a chance to form a purpose and carry it out. There are 158 PROBLEMS OF METHOD doubtless practical difi&culties in making the free period valuable, but the idea is consistent with the aim of project teaching. The paper-making is a cooperative project. If the children really become sufficiently interested in it to acquire a real purpose to work it out, it accords with the new plan of education. The doll-project is cooperation involving more people. The testimony indicates that it produced in the children the right mental attitude. The socialized recitation, if it involves genuine purpose and activity on the part of the children, is one type of project work." A week or two later, the principal calls for teachers' ideas on the project method and Miss P. explains her view and how she acquired it. "I can't see anything new in the scheme except the name," says one. ''We have always done such things as you mention. I remember that nearly twenty years ago we used to make butter in the fourth grade. What is the sand table work which we have been doing for years but projects?" "It isn't altogether new," Miss P. replies. "I suppose there have always been teachers who have succeeded in having their children work with a purpose, but I doubt if many of them knew what they were doing. They didn't use a thought-out method and much of the time they simply heard lessons. Besides, they were rare teachers. I believe it is a new idea to most of us. At any rate, now that I understand it, I think I can use the method consistently and deliberately, rather than once in a while by accident." "I can't see why you call it a method," objects another. "It seems to me that you are proposing to change the subject matter, abandoning the traditional outline of facts THE PROJECT METHOD 1 59 and processes, or at least changing the order in which they are taught, and substituting larger units of thought in which the various items of knowledge come in as they are needed." "That isn't the way I look at it," says Miss P. " I don't believe it is chiefly a question of subject matter. Of course we must have projects which appeal to the children, but the fundamental idea is purpose. The subject matter is chosen in accordance with that principle. To me, it is a method of education by which we stimulate purposing and develop abiHty to carry out purposes. It involves, for the teacher, keeping in the background when her direction would interfere with the pupils' effort, and giving help and advice when this will help the pupils to gain power. The mastery of subject matter is not the important thing for the teacher, although it may be, at times, for the child. You spoke of abandoning the traditional material. I don't believe that is an essential feature of the method. In so far as the acquirement of this material is necessary, the acquire- ment may become a project in itself. If the pupil sees the need of it and purposes to master subject matter or a new process, it becomes a project for him. Learning the multiplication table or preparing for college entrance exam- inations may be real projects, if the pupil undertakes to accomplish these things instead of working under the direc- tion of a teacher who has determined that he shall accom- pHsh them. We teachers have been monopolizing purposes. We have got to share them with the pupils." After this meeting several of the teachers try to make use of the project method. A month later experiences are reported and discussed at the teachers' meeting. One says: "My chief difficulty is to tell how far the teacher l6o PROBLEMS OF METHOD ought to go in starting a project. Ideally, I suppose, the projects ought to come from the children — they want to do something and we guide them as they carry out their plans so that they may learn as much as possible — but practically I find that comparatively few have projects to suggest. Is it any better to have a class work on a project initiated by one of their number than on one which is intrinsically more valuable, proposed by the teacher?" Before anyone can answer, someone remarks: "If you wait for the children to decide what they want to do some of them will never do a thing except copy someone else." Then Miss P. says: "I think we can answer such ques- tions of procedure if we keep in mind our general purpose of education and the special aim set up in the project method. We want all the children to make the best possible growth and, to further this,, we want everyone, as nearly as possible, to work with a purpose of his own. It does not matter where he gets his purpose, if he really has it and if it is one that will mean growth for him. It would be absurd, I think, to sit still and wait for the spirit to move a child before we did anything. How did we ourselves get hold of the purposes which have proved to be of greatest value to us? If we attempt to analyze them, I imagine that we shall find that in a good many cases they resulted from suggestions made by others, sometimes from direct advice. Sometimes we began to do what somebody else was doing and presently became intensely interested. Even in cases where the fully formed purpose was the result of deliberation, most of the ideas involved in it probably came from others. In the case of a cooperative enterprise THE PROJECT METHOD l6l it is obviously impossible that all the participants should have initiated the plan. Perhaps the most important thing that the teacher can do is to get children interested in doing worth while things. She should, I think, take advantage of desires expressed by the children, offering suggestions for making them more valuable or more practicable, but she should often make the first suggestions herself. I find that such a suggestion followed by discussion usually results in a plan which the children consider their own. The only danger, as far as I can see, is the possibiHty of forcing on the children some- thing which does not, in fact, produce a genuine purpose. When this happens the teacher should promptly drop the plan and find a better one." A teacher says: ^'I can't seem to prevent a few of the children from doing all the thinking and most of the talk- ing." Several suggestions are offered for meeting this difficulty. The proposal to deny such pupils opportunity to speak or to give them minor tasks is disapproved because it would retard their own growth. The best suggestion is to make individual pupils or groups of pupils especially responsible for definite parts of the project. One says: " I doubt whether we can prevent certain pupils from taking the lead or whether we ought to try to do so. We need leaders. The work of the world is done under leadership, and, while we ought to try to have everyone do as important a part as he can, we shall have to expect a few to play the principal roles." *'What shall we do with the pupils who shirk or who are inert? " asks a teacher. Miss P. answers : ''I have thought about that, and I think our general purpose suggests the E. T. PROB. — 11 1 62 PROBLEMS OF METHOD answer. I can't believe that a child will get his best growth through idleness. I should try to get him interested in the game, but if I failed, I should make him work. Until he gets a purpose of his own, he will have to follow mine. I suspect that there may be some people who ought always to be guided by another's purpose, but we ought not to assume that in any case until we have used every effort to get the youngster moving under his own steam." Someone says: "I wonder if 'project method' will be like 'correlation,' 'motivation,' and 'socialized recitation' — an educational fashion of a year or two." The principal replies: "I have no doubt that it will, in the sense that you mean. It will probably be talked about and will monopoHze the programs at . educational gatherings and teachers who like to be in fashion will be project methodist fanatics for a season and then the term will fall into disuse. However, I think the idea will persist. The underlying ideas of the terms which you mentioned are probably having more real influence upon teaching to-day than when the names were in everybody's mouth. Indeed, they have all contributed to this new method. I believe that the idea underlying the project method is a real discovery and will do much to improve teaching. Perhaps if we give our attention to the idea and use the name sparingly, we shall be less inclined to abandon it when the next panacea is advertised." Principles Relating to Method I. Method should be adapted to purpose. It is easy for a teacher to fix attention upon method to such an extent as to lose sight of the purpose. PRINCIPLES RELATING TO METHOD 1 63 2. That method is best which accompHshes the purpose with a minimum expenditure of time. 3. The teacher should aim to develop methods by which ail the pupils of her class are stimulated to do- their best,, to work in response to their own motives, and to do their own thinking. 4. Methods should be adapted to the age of the children, and as far as possible to individual peculiarities. With Httle children, there should be opportunity for much physical activity. In all grades there should be more doing and less mere listening and reciting than common practice permits. 5. A teacher must guard against the employment of the super- ficial form of a popular method without having studied its full significance with reference to purpose and to child psychology. 6. One should examine one's methods in the light of results. If results are poor, don't blame the pupils, but try to find out where the method is at fault. 7. Repetition is essential to learning, but monotony kills inter- est. Variation is necessary to keep attention at a maximum. 8. It is wasteful to attempt to teach too many things at once. It is better to accept crude results temporarily than to try to correct everything according to a standard which is be- yond the pupils. Problems tor the Reader to Solve Problem 108. — A common method of teaching spelling is to assign, say, ten words from the spelling book, give the pupils ten minutes or so to study them, and then dictate the words. Pupils mark each other's papers. In a class whose teacher uses this method, more than half the class usually write perfect papers. Some have four or five mistakes. In a test at the end of the term, very few get a hundred per cent, one gets twenty-four per cent and half the class falls below eighty per cent. In written papers in composition and on examination papers there are many mistakes. Problem 109. — A sixth-grade teacher usually introduces a new lesson in history or geography by having the children read the new material aloud from the textbook, different pupils 1 64 PROBLEMS OF METHOD reading one paragraph each in turn. The facts are not grasped or retained very well and pupils show no power to apply their knowledge to questions which do not call for direct reproduction of the author's statements. Problem 110. — A mathematics teacher uses the following method regularly. New topics are explained, problems from the textbook are assigned, usually in the order given in the book. At the next lesson the same problems are put on the board, each pupil doing one. The teacher corrects errors and pupils are expected to compare results with their own work. Papers are handed in and marked by the teacher. Many of the pupils continue to be inaccurate. Investigation shows that some pupils spend 15 minutes on an assignment, others as much as two hours. The teacher occasionally finds papers that are identical, although having many mistakes. Problem 111. — A teacher finds that there is a great variation in ability in her class in arithmetic. Some of the class find the work very easy. Others are failing and making little progress in spite of a large amount of drill. The teacher feels that the work is not meeting the needs of these pupils, but does not see how to do better in the time available. Problem 112. — A teacher discovers a new device for drill which arouses intense interest. Pupils gain surprisingly for a few days, but gradually lose interest and seem to be making no progress. Problem 113. — A contest arouses keen interest but the pupils of least ability fail first and take their seats. Those who need practice least get the most. The teacher tries to devise a plan which will retain the interest and at the same time stimulate all the pupils. Problem 114. — A teacher of foreign language whose whole training and experience has been in accordance with a gram- matical approach to language study and who enjoys grammatical analysis, goes to work in a school whose principal favors the '' direct method." She thinks the new method slovenly, a device for making language study easy. " Pupils trained in it know nothing definitely," she says. She is sure she is right, and yet cannot convince the principal. PROBLEMS OF METHOD 1 65 Problem 115. — A prize is offered to the pupil who gets the highest marks for the term. Some pupils show great interest in their marks and parents complain that the teacher is showing favoritism. Most of the pupils are indifferent because they know they cannot hope to win. Problem 116. — In a primary grade, the teacher has hygienic practices and good manners dramatized. A parent who sees children making believe to brush their teeth and chewing imag- inary oatmeal thinks it a silly performance — mere play. Problem 117. — A common method of teaching language (English) is to have pupils learn rules and definitions of language elements — such as punctuation, grammatical and rhetorical principles — and write many exercises appyling rules. Pupils are, of course, expected to apply this training in the writing of compositions. Compositions show many errors and little origi- nality. Problem 118. — A teacher is much concerned because her pupils make so many errors in oral language. She constantly corrects them, but this seems to have little effect. Pupils seem to be incurably careless. Problem 119. — A teacher of drawing uses many lessons in which pupils draw from an object such as a spray of flowers or leaves. Most of the pupils are only mildly interested and some are bored. The superintendent wants to know what she is aiming at in such lessons. She replies that she is aiming to develop an appreciation of the beautiful. He expresses doubt as to whether this is an economical way to accomplish the purpose, and asks her to devise a method which will develop apprecia- tion more directly than by careful copying of beautiful objects. Problem 120. — In current discussion of educational methods, much stress is laid upon the pupil's motive in doing his work. A teacher says : " That sounds well, — but what motive has a pupil for studying the geography of South America — he must know something about it, and he might as well get to work and learn it, just because he is required to learn it." 1 66 PROBLEMS OF METHOD Problem 121. — A pupil makes a mistake in giving the results of a combination of numbers, for example 7X9. The teacher says with a question mark in her tone " 7 times 9? " The pupil repeats his answer. " Try again," she says, " you certainly know that." He gives another wrong answer. " Think," she says, " 7 times 9 ! " After one or two more attempts, he hits on the right answer. A supervisor who is observing the lesson, remarks that it would have been better to tell the child the right answer at once. This puzzles the teacher because she has always felt that it was a mistake to tell a child anything which he could get for himself. Problem 122. — A certain teacher relies to a great extent upon marks as an incentive to effort. Pupils who lose the place are given *'zero." Some of the pupils compete very vigorously for high marks and sometimes complain that they have not been marked fairly. The poorest students seem indifferent. REFERENCES Strayer, G. D., and Norsworthy, N., How to Teach, Chapters IH, V-VIII, XIH, XIV. La Rue, D. W., Psychology for Teachers, Chapters IX-XH. Thorndike, E. L., Educational Psychology, Briefer Course, Part II. McMurry, F. M., How to Study. Earhart, L. B., Types of Teaching, Chapters IV-XV. Sears, J. B., Classroom Organization and Control, Chapter XIV. Miller, I. E., Education for the Needs of Life, Chapter V. Dewey, J., Democracy and Education, Chapters XII, XIII, XV. King, I., Education for Social Efficiency, Chapters XIV, XV. Strayer, G. D., A Brief Course in the Teaching Process, Chapters IV-XII. Stevens, R., The Question as a Measure of Efficiency in Instruction. CHAPTER VIII PROBLEMS DUE TO VARIATIONS IN PUPILS' ABILITY Language Handicap; Group Teaching; Rapid Promotions Problem 123. — In a certain grade, there are a few children of foreign birth who have very little command of English. They cannot express themselves well, and have great difficulty in getting the meaning from books which are easily understood by the other children. In other respects they are, on the whole, up to grade. One or two of them are far ahead of the class in practical arithmetical ability. The teacher has been patient with these little foreigners. She realizes that they are handicapped and she desires sin- cerely to do as much as possible for them, but her efforts are very discouraging. They keep making the same awful mis- takes in speech, no matter how often they are corrected. They get the most absurd ideas when called upon to study a textbook. In oral reading, they mispronounce words constantly and show that they do not understand what they are reading although they cheerfully blunder ahead. And their compositions! ''Impossible'^ is the only word for them. At times, she is convinced that they are "plain stupid," and yet occasionally flashes of unexpected intelli- gence prevent her from abandoning the task as hopeless. She shows another teacher a composition written by one of the foreigners and they have a good laugh over it. "Did you ever visit Angelo's home?" asks the other. "No." 167 1 68 VARIATIONS IN PUPILS ' ABILITY "Let's go together and call on the family. I went to see them last year, when the older sister was in my class. They are very interesting." The visit is a revelation to our teacher. She finds a family of twelve and three boarders besides, in a little house which would have been snug quarters for three or four according to her way of thinking. The mother and grand- mother do not understand a word of English and the father has very little advantage of them in this respect. Italian is evidently the language of the home for children as well as adults. The cordial welcome touches her heart. Angelo's teacher is a guest of honor. With the older sister as interpreter, they talk about the children and about school. She starts to tell about the boy's difficulties because of his poor command of English, but soon realizes that she is not making herself clear and is glad of it when she sees how proud the family is of Angelo and how wonderful it is to them that the children can speak the foreign tongue. Our teacher goes home with a greater sympathy and a new respect for her foreign-born pupils. Instead of think- ing of them as dullards, she finds herself wondering how, amidst such surroundings, they have made so much prog- ress. This new point of view affects her treatment of the children. Unconsciously, she encourages and praises where before she had often shown disappointment. The children respond to this treatment by renewed enthusiasm and greater efforts to please. The teacher visits other homes and a real understanding and affection grows up between her and the little foreigners. The English problem is still unsolved, but she goes to work upon it with determination. She feels that these chil- LANGUAGE HANDICAP 1 69 dren, some of whom are retarded several years already and will probably leave school at fourteen, ought not to fail of promotion if she can possibly prevent it. To avoid waste of time for the class by having the other pupils listen to the stumbling oral reading of the Itahans, she takes the latter by themselves while the others are studying. She is soon convinced that the reading matter of the grade is too difficult and she gets easier books from the lower grades. Gradually this leads to differentiation within the small group. Some make better progress than others and are given more difficult books. The teacher and pupils become in- terested in the individual problems of the several members of the group in mastering oral reading. One day, without premeditation, she asks one of the abler American children to help one of the foreigners in a lesson involving study from a textbook. This works so well that she adopts it as a regular method. She frequently says to herself : *^If I only had more time for the foreign group ! If I had them alone, I could put twice as much time on English. They could afford to give less time to other subjects. English is the important study for them." The difficulty is that time devoted to special work with the foreign group must be taken from the rest of the class. "There ought," she thinks, "to be a special teacher who could give her time to small groups of pupils who need special help." She makes this suggestion to the principal who agrees that it is a good idea which he will support. Until it can be brought about, he adopts her alternative plan of giving the foreigners double time in Enghsh by sending them into the lower grade during its English period. 170 VARIATIONS IN PUPILS' ABILITY Problem 124. — In an eighth grade, pupils vary in age from eleven to sixteen. The youngest are the ablest in most school work. Tests show that some of the class have no more ability in certain subjects than the average sixth-grade pupil. The tests convince the teacher that her usual method of teaching the class as a whole is very poorly adapted to the needs of pupils at the two extremes of the class. On the one hand, the abler pupils are marking time as they go over work which calls for no effort. They are missing the growth which comes through attacking real diflSiculties. On the other hand, the pupils of least ability are forming habits of inaccuracy and superficiality. They are skimming over work which they do not really understand and constantly making mistakes in problems which are too difficult for them. ''This method," thinks the teacher, "does not fit our ideal of helping all children to make the most of themselves. It is calculated, rather, to make the abler o!nes mediocre and to spoil the chance of the slower ones for fitting them- selves to do well what they are capable of doing." She goes over her Hst of pupils and, using the results of tests and other knowledge of individual abilities, selects those who are most likely to suffer from mass teaching. About one sixth of the class falls in each of the two groups at the upper and lower extremes. The remaining two thirds, while differing considerably in ability and attain- ment, are nearly enough alike to be taught as a group with- out serious loss. Taking first the ablest group, she selects two pupils of exceptional ability and good physical develop- ment and suggests to the principal that they be promoted at once to the high school. "They can learn nothing in this LANGUAGE HANDICAP 171 grade," she says, "and I am sure that in a few weeks they will be leading the high school class." Several of the others she designates as tentative candi- dates for a double promotion at the end of the term. These pupils are excused from recitations and lesson assignments which would involve no growth for them. The teacher takes them as a group for brief lessons in Latin and allows them to work by themselves much of the time on this sub- ject and on algebra. As all of these pupils have good ability, they are able to forge ahead with their books as a guide and with occasional help and encouragement from the teacher. The result is that this small group of pupils loses its listlessness and becomes energetic. At the end of the term, a considerable part of the first term's work in Latin and algebra has been accomplished and, with some study during the summer, most of the pupils are successful in gaining a double promotion. To a few of the abler group who are immature or physi- cally frail, no high school work is assigned. They spend the time, when the class is working on material which would not be of value to them, in stimulating reading of standard hterature, history, science, travel, etc. One pupil who is in poor health is advised, after a conference with the principal and the mother, to come to school only in the morning and to spend the afternoon out of doors. Taking the Ust of pupils who have least abihty, the teacher finds two who apparently cannot make much prog- gress without a good deal of individual help. She arranges with the principal to have them spend an hour each day with a special teacher who gives a part of her time in aiding backward pupils. The rest she teaches as a group in work 1^2 VARIATIONS IN PUPILS ABILITY which they especially need and which they cannot have with the main body of the class. She varies lesson assignments so that, as nearly as possible, pupils will have work which calls for their best effort but which is not beyond their powers. She tries to develop pride in doing each job well and in making progress in overcoming individual difhculties. Gradually, in the formal processes such as spelling, writing, arithmetical operations, and in silent reading, the whole class learns to work individually to a considerable extent, each one trying to progress as rapidly as possible. The work is divided into convenient sections and any pupil is free to present himself for a test on a section whenever he thinks he has mastered it. In such subjects as literature, science, and civics, in- volving discussion, the whole class meets as a group. Some contribute much more than others and there is considerable variation in lesson assignments, the amount of individual reading and the difficulty of special topics assigned for study being adapted to the abihties of the individual pupils. The teacher feels that in such subjects as these, pupils gain much from exchange of ideas and from partici- pation in a social group even if they differ in grasp of the subjects discussed. Problem 125. — In a first-year high school class, the teacher finds a good many students who are not up to " high school standard." They fail in all tests and recite very poorly, never volunteering to speak. On the other hand, he is very much pleased with some of the students. He points to their high marks in his tests as evidence that the tests were fair. He thinks that the trouble is that the first-named group is not pre- pared for high school work. Some of them are not " high school material " at all. These students soon drop out. GROUP TEACHING 1 73 The teacher takes the first opportunity to express his views to one of the elementary school principals. "What is the use," he asks, "of sending such stuff to high school? It simply wastes their time and ours. They can't do the work, and they simply clog the school machine until they see that they don't belong in high school. Then they quit and go to work. It seems to me that some of these people ought to stay in the elementary school for at least a year longer and some of them ought to be advised to go to work. Then they caji be earning a Hving instead of failing in the high school." "Apparently you and I have different views of the func- tion of the high school," the principal replies. "You seem to think that it is the duty of the school to maintain a certain standard of scholarship. The standard is the fixed element. Pupils who do not or cannot meet it are to be rejected or eliminated if they are so unwise as to enter. The school is for the benefit of a select group. I believe that the proper function of the high school, as of all other schools, is to do everything possible to help boys and girls of all sorts to make the most of themselves. It ought to accept the pupils as they are and help them to grow, instead of rejecting them because they do not conform to an arbitrary standard. The criterion for deciding whether a boy or girl should go to high school ought, I think, to be this : ' Can the high school do more for his development than the elementary school or industrial life?' I admit that, if your view of the matter should prevail, it would be a mistake for such pupils as we are discussing to go to high school, but I believe that the mistake would be yours. You recommend that some of these people stay a year 174 VARIATIONS IN PUPILS' ABILITY longer in the elementary school. We have tried that plan a great many times, but it has the very effect which you deplore. The pupils leave school. They are older than the other pupils and do not feel that they really belong 'with a lot of kids.' They come to dislike school and are glad to leave it. We try hard to persuade them to stay, but we are handicapped. I am confident that the high school with its varied equipment, its method of control adapted to older pupils, and its athletic activities, could, if it would, do far more for these people than we can possibly do.'* Our teacher objects that lowering the standard to fit poor students will spoil the school for the good ones. ''How," he asks, "can they prepare for college? They will never cover the ground in four years, and they will get into lazy habits." "I don't want any lowering of standard," the principal declares. "I want standards adapted to the abilities of the students. If we are aiming to educate real boys and girls, we must abandon the idea of a single arbitrary standard, which can fit only a few of them. Here ! " (handing him a book) "read this and you will see what I mean." The teacher reads the book which records careful studies of individual differences among children and adults. It gives him a new idea. He has always been aware, of course, that people differ but he has never realized before how significant these differences are for interpreting the behavior of people. He has assumed that most people could, if they were sufficiently energetic and ambitious, accompKsh about as much as anyone else. The facts reported in the book show that in any group of persons there is wide varia- tion in any trait that may be considered and that, to a INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 1 75 considerable extent, these differences are due to inheritance. He realizes for the first time that even the energy and ambi- tion needed for the highest success probably depend a good deal upon heredity. The idea of native capacity which sets bounds to an individual's growth is strongly impressed upon him. This idea keeps recurring in the teacher's consciousness during the next few weeks. As he works with his classes, he notices plenty of confirming evidence. He gives some tests which are difficult enough so that nobody can finish them in the time allowed and yet contain questions suffi- ciently easy to enable the poorest student to answer some of them. The results when tabulated prove to be consistent with measurements reported in the book. The majority of the class receive marks not very far from the average, and the farther a mark is above or below the average the fewer are the pupils receiving it. One pupil has almost perfect scores in several tests, although the teacher had not realized that he was much more capable than several others. He sees now that he had never before really tested this pupil's ability. The work has been too easy for him. He notices also that the students whose work had been unsatisfactory are by no means alike. A few of them have marks as good as the average, while one or two answered only a single question correctly. As he reflects on this matter of individual differences, he finds himself adopting the view of the elementary school principal in regard to the function of the high school. He begins to vary the lesson assignments so as to give the abler pupils stimulating tasks without discouraging the slower members of the class, and he sometimes works with 176 VARIATIONS IN PUPILS ' ABILITY the poorest students in a separate group for a part of a period. When he notices that one of this group is absent, he fears that the fellow is becoming discouraged and promptly looks him up, although a few weeks before, he had been wishing that this pupil knew enough to quit. He has the satisfaction of having nearly every member of the class finish the term, with the assurance, also, of several that it was his help and encouragement which had prevented their dropping out. Problem 126. — Teachers are incHned to be skeptical in re- gard to rapid promotions. Some teachers rarely recommend a child for special advancement. They feel that the best pupils in the class are about what the normal child should be. They fear that children who advance rapidly will suffer later. Very few children are promoted during the term, yet tests show that some children are as capable as the average child two years in advance of them. At the end of the term, the superintendent calls a conference to consider the question of rapid promotions. The superintendent opens the conference by saying that, in his opinion, the schools are not providing adequately for the abler children. *'Slow and dull pupils," he says, "are held back and so take more than the normal amount of time to complete a given amount of work. If this is the proper thing to do, it would seem logical that the ablest pupils should take less than the normal period, in covering the same amount of work. I am aware that many teachers do not approve of rapid promotion and I have no intention of insisting arbitrarily upon it. The decision in such a matter ought not to rest upon mere opinion. I have called this conference for the purpose of studying the prob- lem with you. With our combined experience and the opportunity to make any studies that we please of the RAPID PROMOTIONS 1 77 pupils in our schools, we ought to be able to find out the truth about this matter and come to an agreement as to what we ought to do." He then calls for reports from all the teachers in regard to the probable number of promotions and non-promotions. On the average, about ten per cent of each class are expected ito repeat the grade. One teacher expects three double promotions from her class and another five, but nobody else reports more than one case of double promotion and nearly- all the teachers have no such cases to report. In the whole school system, not one pupil has been promoted during the term. Commenting on the reports, the superintendent says: **It would appear, then, that about ten per cent of our pupils are so inferior in ability that they must repeat the term's work, but only a mere handful are of such superior merit as to warrant us in permitting them to advance more rapidly than the rest. For some reason, nearly all these superior pupils have been in Miss C.'s class or Miss F.'s class. Apparently these two teachers are always lucky, for every year they recommend several double promotions. Do you think that the actual abiKties of our pupils corre- spond to these promotion figures?" Most of the teachers think that the exceptional records of Miss C. and Miss F. are due to their own peculiarities of judgment rather than to the superior ability of their pupils. They agree also that there is a considerable varia- tion of ability among the pupils marked for regular pro- motion, but very few think that any of these have such exceptional ability as to warrant special promotion. "Can w^e get any accurate measures of ability," the E. T. PROB. — 12 lyS VARIATIONS IN PUPILS' ABILITY superintendent asks, ''which will enable us to base our judgment upon facts, rather than opinions?" Someone suggests that averages of the monthly marks be used. Another thinks that the standard tests in arithmetic, read- ing, etc., would involve less of the personal equation. An- other proposes standard intelligence tests. The superin- tendent then appoints a committee to collect such figures and present the facts at the next meeting. The committee prepares charts based on the three kinds of data. There is a general similarity in the results in every grade, the only marked exceptions being in the tabu- lations of certain teachers' marks, where a few show a very large number of high marks and others a preponderance of low ones. The typical distribution of the measures of ability of the members of a class shows a synnnetrical arrangement about the middle mark. Half the class is included among the marks near the middle and, as the marks recede from the median, either above it or below it, the number of children who received these marks diminishes rapidly. The highest marks are usually about as far above the median as the poorest ones are below it. All of the teachers are surprised at the range of abilities in every grade. The similarity of the results in every tabu- lation convinces nearly everybody that superior children are to be found in every class, but when the question of rapid promotion is brought up, there are very few converts. ''I think it is a great mistake to hurry these children along," says one. ''The first thing you know, they will be breaking down. I know a girl who had to stay out of school for two years and the doctor said it was the result of over- work. If these children can do the work so easily, let them RAPID PROMOTIONS 1 79 have more time in the open air. Some of the parents have told me that they don't want their children pushed." Several heads nod vigorous approval, but the superintend- ent asks: "Are the superior pupils in greater need of open air than other pupils? Do pupils who receive rapid promotion break down more frequently than other pupils? " Several teachers say, "yes," and start to tell about cases of which they have heard, but the superintendent asks again : "How can we get the facts in regard to the questions which I just asked? Will a few isolated instances help us?" Teachers shake their heads at this last question and one suggests: "We can look up the school attendance. If the superior pupils have been as regular as the average, that would indicate that they are not inferior in health." Another says: "We might take all the pupils who have had rapid promotions and compare their attendance with the average both before and after the special advancement. If the special promotion has affected their health we might expect their attendance to fall off in comparison with the class average." A committee is appointed to look up these facts. Then someone says: "It is not so much a question of health as of maturity. Some of the ablest pupils are the youngest in the class. They may be able to get along all right for several years, but if you keep advancing them, when they get to the upper grades or the high school, they will not be mature enough to understand the work and presently they will have to repeat a grade." This argument appeals very strongly to many teachers. The superintendent starts to ask another question but a teacher exclaims: "We can test that in the same way. i8o VARIATIONS IN PUPILS' ABILITY Take all the cases of rapid promotion and see how many have had to repeat grades afterward. If their record, as compared with the rest of the class, is just as good after the special promotion as before, the objection falls to the ground." This study is assigned to another committee. At the next meeting, the first committee reports that it has studied the attendance records of two classes taken at random. It finds no evidence that pupils of superior ability are inferior in health. The attendance records of some fall below the average, but in both classes the average at- tendance of the superior group has been better than that of the whole class. The committee reports also on forty- six cases of rapid promotion. In individual instances, attendance after the special advancement was poorer in comparison with the class average than before, but taking the group as a whole, the later attendance, in comparison with the class record, was almost exactly the same as before the promotion. The committee appointed to investigate the effect of immaturity on the subsequent school career of pupils receiving rapid promotion reports a similar result. The committee looked up all the cases which it could find in the records. Several had already graduated from high school and some had received more than one special pro- motion. In a few cases, pupils had failed of promotion after having received a double promotion, but all but one of these were pupils who were older than the average for their grades and therefore do not affect the question of immaturity. In general, pupils who have received rapid advancement have continued to stand well in their classes. A teacher says: ^'Admitting that, on the average, RAPID PROMOTIONS iSl superior pupils may be advanced rapidly without injury, what about the individual children who are not strong or who are very much younger than their classmates?" It is agreed, after brief discussion, that such pupils should advance at the normal rate, staying out of school part of the time, or, if it is merely a question of age, taking addi- tional reading, or nature study, or shop work. "Are there any remaining doubts about the wisdom of rapid promotion for superior pupils?" asks the superin- tendent. There is no reply, but evidently some "are of the same opinion still." "We have made an earnest effort," he continues, "to find out what we ought to do. All the facts point in one direction. I feel, therefore, that we ought to give the plan a thorough trial. Where our standard tests show that a pupil has exceptional ability we ought to give him every possible opportunity to advance unless there is some good reason for holding him back. But we ought not to consider the question settled, for we have studied only a small number of cases. We ought to keep a record of results, and be prepared to modify our practice if further experience shows that we are wrong." Principles regarding Variations in Ability of Pupils 1. Although children of a certain grade have certain common characteristics which should be understood by the teacher, they present so many differences that it is most important to think of them and deal with them as individuals. 2. No two children in the class have the same inherited traits, physical and mental. They have been influenced by very different factors of environment : home, school, neighborhood, associates, etc. Ideas, habits, ambitions, temperaments are unlike. 3. A teacher should take advantage of available knowledge in l82 VARIATIONS IN PUPILS' ABILITY regard to the previous experience of his pupils. The knowledge of their former teachers should be sought. Acquaintance with the home environment is essential to intelligent action by the teacher. 4. A pupil's capacities, rather than a general ideal of what children ought to be, should guide the teacher in his work and in interpreting results. 5. A much greater amount of differentiation in subject matter and method is possible than is usually employed. Work of a formal nature can be presented in such a way that the pupil can make its accomplishment an individual problem. ' 6. It is at least as important that gifted pupils make the most *^ of their talents as that handicapped pupils be given work that / suits their abilities. i Problems for the Reader to Solve Problem 127. — A primary teacher puts before her class the project of making Christmas boxes. Some of the children have quite definite ideas of what then* boxes should be like. A few would, if permitted, go ahead with the work without help. Many wait to be told what to do, and some of these make blun- ders unless they are shown every step and watched carefully. If allowed to work freely, a few do the work very rapidly and well, others go ahead " slap-dash " and spoil their material. If the whole class is required to await directions and inspection* of work, interest flags, and accomplishment is small. Furthermore the teacher realizes that the children are getting no training in thinking and seK-directed execution. Problem 128. — The children in a certain class show wide variation in abihty in arithmetic and spelling. The teacher realizes that many are not making as good progress as they might if their individual needs could be attended to. With thirty-five in the class, she does not see how she can do more than to help a few especially dull ones and those who lose time because of sickness. Problem 129. — In a high school class in science, there are eleven boys and sixteen girls. Two of the boys and haK of the girls are of a mentally docile t3^e who try hard to master any ABILITY 183 assignment which is given. They do not really grasp the signifi- cance of much that is studied and show little interest or ability in applying their knowledge independently. Four of the boys and one girl are keenly interested in scientific things, have read a great deal of popular science and experimented with home- made apparatus. They find the ordinary textbook work rather dull, but have more knowledge of applications, in a superficial way, than the teacher. The rest of the boys vary in ability from good to poor. They have no special interest in science but most of them have no great difficulty in understanding it. The rest of the girls vary in general ability from good to poor. They have not the slightest interest iri science and find it " all Greek." Not being of the docile type, they do not make any strenuous effort. Problem 130. — A teacher is called upon to report which of her pupils should be promoted. She realizes that there are great variations in ability among the members of the class, and a corresponding variation in their knowledge of the subject matter of the course for the grade. Few have really mastered it, although most of the class were able to write passable tests when the work was freshly in mind. She feels the need of some principle upon which to base her decision. Problem 131. — All children do practically the same work in music and drawing in school. Unless a parent can afford to provide private lessons, a pupil with special ability has no chance to develop it. Problem 132. — The superintendent suggests that the needs of pupils of different abilities and interests can probably be provided for to some extent, even in high school classes, by making dif- ferent lesson assignments for different groups and sometimes using a part of a period for teaching a part of the class while the rest are working by themselves. Most of the teachers of the upper grades and the high school regard this as quite imprac- ticable and ignore the suggestion. One teacher decides to give it a thorough trial and sets to work to think out a method of using it and testing the results. Problem 133. — At the opening of the school year, a principal suggests that teachers look up the previous records of their l84 VARIATIONS IN PUPILS' ABILITY pupils and consult their former teachers, in order to get all the available information about them. One teacher remarks to another : "I make it a point not to listen to anything about a new class. I don't want to get any prejudices. I prefer to get acquainted with the children myself." Problem 134. — A musician who has recently moved to town brings his thirteen-year-old boy to school. The father says that the boy is talented and is making splendid progress with the violin. He practices five hours a day. The father wants him to come to school only two or three hours a day and take only English and history. The principal is willing to make this arrangement, if the eighth-grade teacher consents. She is incUned to object, but is asked to think it over. Problem 135. — In a certain school district, about twenty-five per cent of the pupils are negroes. Most of the teachers regard them as an inferior, repulsive race. They think of them as a homo- geneous group, ascribing to all the uncleanliness, viciousness, and stupidity which they observe in individual cases. They think of white children, in comparison with the negroes, as a markedly superior group. The tendency is to think: of a dainty little white girl from a home of refinement and a dirty, uncouth negro boy, who has been brought up amid squalor and degrading influences, as t)^es of the two races. One of the teachers feels that the negroes are not given a fair chance. There are many heated arguments which have no effect upon the opinions of the disputants. The teacher wonders what she can do to get a square deal for the negroes. Problem 136. — A teacher has two annoying pupils in her class. A girl appears to be inattentive and stupid during recitations. She frequently shows that she knows little or nothing about a subject that the class has just been discussing. She apparently pays Httle attention to the teacher's directions. The teacher knows that she is capable of doing better work, because she reads well, writes excellent compositions, and does well on exam- inations which are based on matter which she has studied in textbooks. A boy is often listless, sometimes even falls asleep in the classroom. VARIATIONS IN PUPILS' ABILITY 185 REFERENCES Strayer, G. D., and Norsworthy, N., How to Teach, Chapters X, XV. Thorndike, E. L., Educational Psychology, Briefer Course, Part III. Sears, J. B., Classroom Organization and Control, Chapter X. Sechrist, F. K., Education and the General Welfare, Chapters X, XII. Terman, L, M., The Intelligence of School Children. Terman, L. M., The Measurement of Intelligence, Chapters I, II, V. Strayer, G. D., and Engelhardt, N., The Classroom Teacher, Chapters IV, VIII, IX. CHAPTER IX PROBLEMS INVOLVING ECONOMY OF TIME Distinguishing the Important from the Non-Essen- tial; EFnciENCY and System; the Value of Planning Problem 137. — A teacher plans her recitations, but seldom succeeds in accompUshing the work laid out; frequently con- tinues the assignment for a second, sometimes for a third day ; usually has to skim over the last part of the work of the term, omitting some things which would be valuable if there were time ; declines to take up some questions proposed by pupils, because there is not time for them. The teacher becomes more and more dissatisfied with her work and even thinks of giving up teaching. Other teachers tell her that she is setting too high a standard. One says : ^'I simply cover the course of study and flunk pupils who don't do reasonably well. There's no use in breaking your heart trying to make them all come up to your ideal." This affords no comfort to our teacher. She cannot bring herself to pass on to a new lesson when the class- has not mastered the previous work. One day she reads an account of a successful business man who has died recently. The article lays stress on the magnitude of his accomplishments and reports a conversa- tion in which he attributed his success to a habit of defining his purposes and putting complete faith in his ability to accomplish them. ''I don't waste time," he is reported to have said, "by making a move until I know just where I i86 THE IMPORTANT AND THE NON-ESSENTIAL 187 am going. When I know just what I want, I look for the essential elements of the problem and bring my whole effort to bear in mastering them. I try to make every minute count in accompHshing my purpose." This fires the teacher's ambition. She begins by asking herself the question, "Do I know just what I am trying to do?" and concludes that she has been attempting to have all of her pupils master the sub- ject matter of the textbooks so that they will know it ac- curately. ''There may be something wrong in my method of teaching," she thinks, "or I may be trying to do the wrong thing. I have certainly tried my best to cover the course of study thoroughly and I have never succeeded. I have only a certain amount of time. I can't change that. Either the task is impossible in the time allowed, or I have been wasting time on non-essentials. What are the essentials, then?" She sees that she has been making no distinction between the various parts of the course, but has been trying to cover it all thoroughly. She tries to select the parts which might be omitted with least loss to the pupils, and has difficulty in deciding what to leave out. It is hard to admit that any item which she knows herself is not important for the pupils. Presently she sees that the very attempt to differentiate between the important and the non-essential implies a change of aim. The moment she abandons the idea of teaching everything in the books, she must have some basis of selection. The trouble is that she has no clear idea as to what that basis should be. This leads her to consider what the course of study is for. Her first thought is based on the 1 88 PROBLEMS INVOLVING ECONOMY OF TIME idea which has really actuated her up to this time, although she has never formulated it definitely, namely, that it is a statement of the knowledge which everyone should possess, but this immediately brings her back to the starting point. What knowledge should everyone possess? As a matter of fact, there is great variation in the knowledge which different people have. Her own experience convinces her that it is impossible to give all the pupils in a class the same knowledge in a given time, unless the amount is set far below the capacity of many of the members. It occurs to her also that mere knowledge is not the most valuable possession. Some people who are walking encyclopedias are not at all efficient. After continued reflection, and some reading on educa- tional aims, she comes to the conclusion that it is impossible to have all the pupils in a class accomplish exactly the same things in a given time and that the teacher's aim should be to enable each one to get as much development as he is capable of getting during the term. This leads her to mod- ify the assignments for study. She begins to hold some pupils responsible for a more comprehensive grasp of a subject than others. She tries to see that the poorest students understand ideas and processes which they must use in later work, but she does not expect them to do as much reading or to work out as many examples as the abler pupils can do. She finds that this recognition of individual capacity enables her to make more rapid progress and presently discovers that a fair proportion of the class will have done considerably more, by the end of the term, than the course of study calls for. Having grasped the idea that the mastery of subject THE IMPORTANT AND THE NON-ESSENTIAL 189 matter is not to be regarded as an end in itself but as a means of individual development, the teacher gradually formulates more definitely her ideas in regard to the nature of such development. She begins to work to arouse in- terests which will lead pupils to read and think more on their own initiative. She tries to develop self-reliance and comes to believe that it is more important that the pupils shall have a desire to find the answers to questions and ability to use books efficiently in getting needed information than that they shall know all the facts in the textbook. She no longer feels conscience smitten if a few pages of a text are not discussed in class, and she feels free to depart at times from the order in which topics are treated by the author. She selects for special study and discussion matters which she thinks will be particularly stimulating and will put fruitful ideas in the pupils' minds. At the end of the term the teacher formulates her solution of the problem of covering the course of study in the time allotted, thus: 1. The purpose is not to cover the subject matter of the course of study but to make use of this in furthering the de- velopment of the individual pupils of the class according to their capacities. 2. The most important elements of such development are stimulating interests, ambitions, ideas which are likely to be used frequently, self-reliance, ability to use books, maps, and other material to get needed information, ability to help other members of the class and to get help from them. 3. The subject matter for class discussion should be that which involves most difficulty, or is needed for understanding work which is to come later, or which will start new interests and valuable ideas. Other material which is needed for con- necting the topics taken up in class can be gone over rapidly, either by the teacher or by individual reading by the pupils. I go PROBLEMS INVOLVING ECONOMY OF TIME 4. It is wrong to attempt to have all pupils do exactly the same work. The class should be taught in groups a part of the time. Pupils can work individually on certain kinds of work, with occasional help from the teacher. Some pupils should have harder assignments for study than others. 5. Every pupil should be encouraged to accomplish as much as he can in a given time. Problem 138. — A pupil of good ability is sick for three months of the term. He is then given private lessons and has no diffi- culty in completing the work and rejoining his class at the be- ginning of the new term. This suggests to the teacher that there must be a great deal of time lost by children in ordinary school work. She wonders whether it would be possible to enable pupils to accomplish more in a given time. With this idea in mind, the teacher observes her pupils closely and studies her own habitual procedure to see if she can discover opportunities for saving time. It has always been her practice to have a great deal of oral reading. In history, geography, hygiene, etc., her usual plan has been to take up a new lesson by having pupils read short passages in turn. The first day of her study of the time problem, she notices that as individual pupils read — some of them read- ing so poorly as to necessitate frequent correction or repeti- tion — many of the other pupils, who have their books before them and are supposed to be following the text, seem to be bored. She sees that they are making practically no eJEfort and realizes, as she observes them, that they have really no incentive for effort. She notices one pupil turn- ing a page when there is no occasion for him to do so, and, moving quietly behind him, discovers that he is reading two or three pages in advance of the oral reader. She starts to rebuke him for not keeping the place, but thinks better of it and simply watches him from time to time THE IMPORTANT AND THE NON-ESSENTIAL 191 during the rest of the lesson. When she directs the class to put away books, this pupil has read five or six times as much as the rest of the pupils. She immediately questions him on the subject matter which has been read aloud and is surprised to find that he knows the essential facts. After school, she asks him to tell her the substance of what he read in advance of the class, and is convinced that he has gained a better idea of it than the average pupil has obtained of what he has listlessly followed as other pupils read aloud. The next day she has the whole class read silently some new material, telling them to read until she stops them but to make sure that they understand what they read, and to ask questions when they meet difficulties which they cannot conquer themselves. There is much variation in the amount read, but everyone has done much more than the usual lesson assignment. To her amazement, she discovers, on questioning the pupils, that as a rule those who have read most have the best understanding of what they have read. She concludes that her old practice of having forty pupils sit with open books, following the oral reading of a few individuals, is a terrible waste of time. On substituting silent reading for most of the oral work, she is troubled for a time by the impossibility of keeping the class together. If she gives a fixed assignment some of the pupils finish it in six or seven minutes while others have not mastered it in twenty. She meets this situation partly by getting additional reading material for the fast readers and partly by working with the class in groups. One day, a parent complains that the assignment for home study was unreasonable. Her daughter spent an hour and a half on the arithmetic lesson and was sent to 192 PROBLEMS INVOLVING ECONOMY OF TIME bed protesting, before she had finished all the examples. The teacher thinks that the assignment was a fair one and asks all the pupils to report on the time spent on the lesson. One or two had spent nearly as long as the girl above mentioned, most of the class had completed the work in 25 to 40 minutes, and a few — most of whom had perfect papers — had spent only fifteen minutes. ''More waste time there," thinks the teacher. "Some of these children could easily do twice the work which I am giving them." She varies the assignments with the aim of having pupils work more nearly in accordance with their abilities. Even grouping the class does not fully meet the situation, for there are differences among the children of any group which she forms. In the effort to keep two of the pupils busy, she tells them one day, that they need not work with the rest of the group but may take their books and go ahead as fast as they can. She has no further trouble with these pupils. They occasionally ask for help, but at the end of the term they have completed the whole of the next term's work in several subjects and a double promotion is the obvious result. The teacher finds various other leaks in her store of minutes. It occurs to her that it may not be profitable to have the whole class study the same spelling lesson and listen while the words are spelled over and over. For a day or two, she dictates the new lesson without giving any opportunity for study and finds that many of the class already know the words. Thereafter, she makes spelling an individual problem. The pupils are told what words they are expected to master during the term and are offered tests, on any part of the work, whenever they are ready THE IMPORTANT AND THE NON-ESSENTIAL 193 for them. They keep notebooks of their individual diffi- culties and put their chief effort upon these. Before long the teacher's enthusiasm for saving time com- municates itself to the pupils and many of them acquire a good deal of ability to work on their own problems, espe- cially on the formal parts of arithmetic, spelling, language, and penmanship. The necessity of teaching the pupils in groups and giving more attention to individuals, which becomes apparent as soon as the teacher undertakes seriously to have every- body work up to his capacity, makes economy of the teacher's time a pressing problem. More and more she turns over to pupils duties which she had been performing herself. All such matters as the care and distribution of material, keeping blackboards in order, caring for plants, writing lessons on the blackboard, adjusting shades, regu- lating the ventilating damper, are gradually assumed by the pupils in order to give the teacher time for work which she alone can do. Even the labor of correcting exercises is reduced to a considerable extent, as pupils learn to work on their own problems and to make use of standards and keys in checking their results, and realize that only by being scrupulous in this checking can they be sure of meeting the tests which the teacher uses regularly to determine their progress. Problem 139. — A teacher becomes discouraged with the amount of work which she has to do : marking papers, planning lessons, reports, and conferences. She has to work late to make preparation for the next day and is sometimes so tired that she has to omit the preparation. This tends to become increasingly frequent. She cannot find time for professional reading or recreation. E. T. PROS. — 13 194 PROBLEMS INVOLVING ECONOMY OF TIME The teacher notices an advertisement of a book on per- sonal efficiency and sends for it. The author's experience has evidently been in the commercial field and she finds no references to her own specific problems, but she notes several principles which are suggestive and she proceeds to apply them to her own case. 1. To be efficient one must be systematic. He must lay out his job in accordance with his time, and have a regular time for performing regular duties, and stick to his program. If he simply does the first thing which confronts him, he is likely to be always behindhand, and important duties will be neglected. 2. To be efficient one must take time for regular exercise, for recreation, and for cultural development. He must not allow his work to make a slave of him. Except in rare cases of emergency, he should not allow his work to encroach upon his time for the other important parts of an all-around life. 3. One should cultivate the habit of working at top speed while he works, and dropping work completely at other times. He should study to discover ways of economizing time. 4. One should reduce all regular duties to a habit. It is wasteful in the extreme to make a new problem of matters which arise every day. Find the best way of doing a thing and do it regularly until it becomes automatic. The teacher begins by trying to lay out a time program. She makes a list of the principal features of her life as she thinks it ought to be: school duties during school hours, school duties out of school hours, professional study, cultural activities, recreation, physical exercise, religious life, social and community activities. She then makes out a tentative schedule, revising it frequently as she works, until she has evolved the following : EFFICIENCY AND SYSTEM 195 Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday Bath, five-minute exercise, dress 7 8 Breakfast and morning paper 8 Bath, exer- cise, dress Misc. uncom- pleted sch.work sewing, shopping Breakfast 9 10 SCHOOL 9 Mending etc. 10 II T2 II Church 12 LUNCHEON I Recrea- tion or cultural enjoy- ment, excursion, theater, concert, etc. Dinner 3 SCHOOL Walk 3 or 4 Social call 5 4 Tearhers' meeting Exercise and recreation 5 Exercise School work Dress for dinner 6 7 Dinner and sociability Supper 7 9 8 9 School work Profes- sional reading School work Liter- ary Club School work Cultural 9 reading Reading for recreation TT. Read- ing 10 II 196 PROBLEMS INVOLVING ECONOMY OF TIME The teacher finds a good deal of difficulty in adapting her habits to her program. She has regarded seven o'clock as her time for rising, but, more frequently than not, she has worked until midnight or later and has been so tired in the morning that it has usually been 7.15 to 7.30 when she finally mustered courage to get out of bed. The first day after she makes her program, she follows it accurately until night. Then marking papers and planning lessons for the next two days occupy her until eleven, and she had counted on reading a chapter or two after finishing her work. She decides that she will sleep better if she reads a few minutes and the book is so interesting that she is not in bed until 12.30. The result is that she does not wake until 7.30 and has to rush to get to school on time. Everything goes wrong that day. She thinks the program scheme is impractical anyway. The next morning some of the statements in the book on efficiency come to mind. She recognizes the author's description of the average person, who, he says, is only fifty per cent efficient, as a fair statement of her own be- havior of the past twenty-four hours. She grits her teeth and jumps out of bed with the exclamation: *'I'll make myself follow that program until I've given it a fair trial." She sticks to it rehgiously for two weeks and finds that it gradually becomes easier. Some of the daily duties are really becoming habits, and she is coming to enjoy the regular exercise and feel better for it. Her greatest difficulty is to keep her school work within the time limits. She has to spend a good part of Sunday on it, to catch up. As she is pondering this difficulty on the second Sunday evening, she takes up the efficiency book EFFICIENCY AND SYSTEM I97 again and notices the advice about working at top speed and studying to discover ways of economizing time. She sets to work to fit her school duties into the time assigned. "I have allowed as much as I can spend without getting narrow or else getting sick. That means that I must keep to the time limit, and do it without doing any poorer work with the children." The plan of working hard during her work periods helps a good deal. She succeeds in eliminating day dreaming and listless paper marking, although the effort to concentrate attention and keep moving rapidly tires her until she be- comes accustomed to it. Presently she becomes interested in estimating the time needed to do a given piece of work and comparing the actual time spent with the estimate. After a few weeks, she finds herself working at a higher level of speed and is actually less tired than when she used to plod wearily through a set of papers. The effort to economize time leads her to discover various ways of reducing the amount of out-of-school work without any apparent loss to the pupils. She finds that there are other ways of helping children than having them write endless papers to be marked by the teacher. In some cases the work can be taken up orally, and some children can check up their own work. She finds, too, that the form of the papers affects the time of marking to a surpris- ing extent, and she works out schemes of testing pupils' mastery of certain subjects through tests in which the an- swers are given in such brief form that they can be checked very rapidly. During the first two weeks, the teacher holds so strictly to her program, that her friends think she is getting to be a 198 PROBLEMS INVOLVING ECONOMY OF TIME crank. She refuses a dinner invitation and stays away from an entertainment at the church. She has done this delib- erately, however, in order to test the plan and get some habits well established. As soon as the plan is running smoothly, she finds it possible to use it with some flexibility. She does not allow herself to take every evening off, but when some special event occurs, she anticipates it by doing some extra work on Saturday or makes up the lost time by cutting a little from her time for reading or recreation. After she has had her plan in operation for about two months, she is asked to take part in a play to be given by the Literary Club. Her first impulse is to refuse, because it will be necessary to give two evenings a week to rehearsal and, during the week of the performance, every evening will be required. She knows that she would get a great deal of enjoyment, and would come to know the other participants intimately, and she realizes that she ought to broaden her social experience. After debating the question carefully, she decides to accept and proceeds to adjust her program to the new undertaking. By cutting out a part of her usual recreation for two weeks before the rehearsals begin, she gets ahead of her schedule for professional reading. She decides that while working on the play, she will omit attendance at the regular club meetings and will cancel her regular evening of professional reading, making up some of this on Saturday morning or Sunday. During the week of the performance, she decides that she will have to omit her exercise in the afternoon, on some days at least. By anticipating a part of her school work, on the previous Saturday, she can meet this special emergency without encroaching upon her obligations to the childrep. EFFICIENCY AND SYSTEM 1 99 The outcome of this deliberate attack upon her own prob- lem is that the teacher gains better health, does better work, and takes real enjoyment in her work. The job is no longer too big for her. During the progress of the experiment, she has said noth- ing to her friends about her plan, because she has not been sufficiently confident of success to invite the pleasan- tries which would be showered upon her if the scheme should be a "fizzle." The undertaking means so much to her that she feels that she could not bear the "I told you so's" of the worldly-wise. She can hear a particularly incorrigible joker referring constantly to "our efiiciency expert." One evening after she has got well out of the woods, one of a group who are chatting after dinner remarks on the change in our teacher. "You are a diJBferent person," says the former. "I never saw you looking so well. What is it, Christian Science or deep breathing?" "Guess again," says our teacher. "It's true that I have been converted, but the cult is one that you probably never heard of. I belong to the Society of the Systematic. Wait! I'll show you my bible"; and she gets her book on efficiency. Then she tells them the whole story. The time schedule arouges plenty of mirth as well as some serious questions. "Heavens!" says one, "thirty minutes from bed to breakfast ! and you haven't bobbed your hair either ! " "Work every evening ! " says another. "How about *all work and no play ' ? " "If that's a teacher's life," exclaims a third, "I'd rather sell ribbon!" and, turning to a girl who wears a solitaire diamond, "Where would you put Bob in that schedule?" "I never could live by rule," says another, "I should feel like a jail bird. 200 PROBLEMS INVOLVING ECONOMY OF TIME Half the fun in life would be gone if I had to do everything by the clock. I would rather go on a bat once in a while even if I had to sit up all night to catch up with my work afterward." Our teacher laughs with the rest. She is sure of her ground, as far as her own problem is concerned, so the criticisms do not trouble her. ''You must bear in mind," she says, ''that this is w^' schedule. It is not intended for anyone else. It works well for me. I am happier than I have ever been before, since I began to teach, and I know that I am doing better work. I feel better, and although I am not working so many hours as I used to do, I am ac- complishing a great deal more. One of you suggested that I was making my life ' all work and no play,' but if you count up the time assigned to school duties, you will see that I spend, on an average, only about eight and a half hours a day, and that Saturday is free for other things. Furthermore, I have not assigned any def- inite school work for vacations. I expect to do some professional reading during the summer and occasionally I shall go to summer school, but I mean to spend some of my vacations in travel and other kinds of recreation. I doubt whether we can ever make teaching a true profession if we reduce the time devoted to the job and to professional growth much below my allowance. I notice that young men who are going ahead in other professions seem to work evenings a good deal and take very much shorter vacations than we do." "But," objects one of the others, "there isn't the nervous strain in the other professions that there is in teaching." "Perhaps that is true/' our teacher answers, "I used to find EFFICIENCY AND SYSTEM 201 myself worn out at the end of the week, and had to be treated as a semi-invalid most of the summer, but I find that since I have been working systematically, I feel per- fectly well. I think that the regular Hfe, regular sleep, and regular exercise are doing very much more for me than a few hours a week taken from work and devoted to more or less aimless indulgence. Then the sense of mastery over my work has a good effect on my health, I think. I used to be constantly worried and discouraged because I could never seem to catch up. When I went to bed, my conscience was not at rest because there was so much work left undone. Now I finish my work and forget it completely when I turn to other things. I enjoy my recreation so much that I believe I get more out of it than if I spent twice as much time in relaxation. But, as I say, this schedule may not fit anyone else. Anyone who thinks that he can do better without following a systematic plan has no need of such a scheme as this. Anyone who feels the need of system would probably need to make his own schedule. Individuals differ so much that no fixed plan could possibly fit everybody. For my own part, I feel that spending more than a half hour in getting ready for breakfast is a waste of time, and I imagine that those who insist that they must have a full hour could really learn to present themselves in just as attractive form in less time, if they really desired to save minutes for some- thing more important. However, if they really need an extra half hour, they would have to modify the schedule accordingly, — move the times for retiring and rising for- ward, for example. Anyone who feels the need of more free evenings might 202 PROBLEMS INVOLVING ECONOMY OF TIME manage by spending a part of Saturday on school work and doing all his professional study during the summer." "What about Elsie and Bob?" asks one of the scoffers. "They probably feel capable of managing their partnership without any help from me," is the retort, "but before I let any young man put a ring on my finger, he has got to agree to spend some of his evenings in preparing himself to earn a good income. I have a notion that one could learn to exchange all the endearments, which are really essential to a fair state of bliss, without hanging on the gate until mid- night every day in the week. If not, teaching ought not to be allowed to interfere. Get out the wedding invitations at once ! " Problem 140. — A teacher spends most of the time, during the first few days of a school year, in registering pupils, assigning seats, obtaining and distributing textbooks and supplies, giving directions in regard to school procedure, dealing with delayed questions of promotion, etc. Children have very little to occupy their time. She appeals to them frequently to be quiet, as the disturbance interferes with her work. When she is ready to begin regular teaching, the class has developed some bad habits which are overcome with diffiiculty. A number of pupils come to school a week late. Parents explain that it seemed un- necessary to return from the country during the first week, be- cause the children said that they would not lose anything. At a teachers' meeting a week after the opening of school, a discussion arises in which all the factors mentioned in the problem are brought out. Many of the teachers are fully aware that the difficulties are due to the fact that the chil- dren come to school before teachers are ready for them. "If I could only be free," says one, "to do the preliminary work without having forty squirming children to distract THE VALUE OF PLANNING 203 me, it would be a blessed relief ! I feel as if all the good of my vacation had gone in a week." Several suggestions are offered. One teacher proposes that, as soon as pupils are registered, they be dismissed for a few days. Another suggests that school be dismissed at noon during the first week, and one thinks that school ought to begin a week later. "The children would lose nothing," she says. The principal then asks : "What is our chief problem — to reheve ourselves of annoyance, or to make the first week of school profitable for the children?" All agree that the latter is the more important consideration. "How can we make it more profitable ? Let us consider the suggestions that have been made. First, suppose that we dismiss the pupils after registration. What would they gain? " Some- one declares that they would not get into bad habits through idleness in school. They would realize that when school is in session it means real work. The objection is made that more pupils would avoid returning for registration and the irregularity of the opening days would merely be extended. Others make the point that when school has once begun, to have all the children turned out with no regular occupa- tions would be demoralizing. "Many of the children are bored with vacation by this time," says one, "and they want to get back to school." There are similar objections to the other proposals. The principal points out that school began on September 8 th and that the school year is only 38 weeks in length. "It seems to me," he says, "that we ought not to reduce the number of actual school days, but to find a way of making every day valuable. Let us study the problem 204 PROBLEMS INVOLVING ECONOMY OP TIME from that point of view. What changes are needed to make the opening days as profitable for the pupils as the later ones?" Answers come thick and fast. "They should have seats assigned, and have textbooks and supplies from the beginning." "The teacher should be free to give her whole attention to teaching, instead of making reports and stopping every few minutes to talk with a messenger from the ofhce." "All pupils ought to be on hand when school opens, instead of straggling in all the way from a day to a week late." "Pupils who have been absent from examinations at the end of the previous term or who have been making up work during the summer should have been tested and assigned definitely to a grade when school opens." Then discussion centers upon ways and means of accom- plishing the desired changes. The argument points to the conclusion that, in order to have the regular work begin as soon as school opens, it would be necessary that teachers should assemble at least one day earlier than usual. Most of the teachers find it very difficult to admit this conclusion. They agree with the argument until the final step is reached but the idea of returning from vacation earlier than usual conflicts with a very deep-seated conviction. They immedi- ately turn the debate in the opposite direction, starting with the usual date for the return of teachers as the bed-rock of their faith, and attempting to modify the proposals which had at first been acceptable. One suggests that they get along the first day without textbooks and supplies and attend to this matter after school. Another reverts to the proposal to close school in the afternoon for a day or two. Several argue that the loss of time during the opening days THE VALUE OF PLANNING 205 has been much exaggerated. The discussion is back at the starting point, but the center of attention has shifted from the difficulties of the first days of school to the danger of losing a day or two of vacation. The principal realizes that there is no chance of obtain- ing a calm, well-considered decision. So he says : ''We do not need to decide the question now. I am not disposed to insist upon a change from the usual plan until there is a general agreement in favor of it. We all want to do what- ever we can to improve the school and I have no doubt that we shall in time find the right solution. Next spring, be- fore school closes we can decide what to do." When the question is reopened in June, the attitude is practically the same as before. So the principal cuts short the discussion and says: "I think that some experimental evidence would help us. I should be glad to cooperate with any of you who would like to try the plan of making as much preparation as possible before the opening of school." Three teachers who volunteer to take part in the experi- ment agree to return two days before school opens and to do some thinking on the matter during the sunmier. One of these teachers, Miss A., spends a couple of days shortly before her return in planning lessons for the first week. She sends for copies of two new textbooks which are to be introduced and makes herself thoroughly famihar with them. She collects illustrative material, makes notes of some of her own vacation experiences, which will interest the children, and plans lessons in which they can tell about their own doings during the summer. She visualizes the class as it will assemble on the opening day, and tries to 206 PROBLEMS INVOLVING ECONOMY OF TIME devise plans which will enable every child to be profitably employed from the moment when he arrives at school. She writes to two of her new pupils asking them if they would like to help her in making preparations. She noti- fies children whose promotion is doubtful when to report for examination, and asks the principal to insert notices in the newspapers requesting pupils who are to attend the school for the first time to report on a certain day for registration and assignment to grade. The three teachers meet the principal at the appointed time and discuss details of organization. The teachers receive their keys and their allowances of books and suppHes. Miss A. promptly sets to work the pupils who have examina- tions to take and assists in the registration and assignment of new pupils. With the assistance of the children who have come to help, she labels and numbers the new books, arranges equipment, mounts pictures on the bulletin board, and transfers the classroom library from the closet to shelves accessible to the children. She arranges to have her win- dow-boxes filled with plants, and has the janitor replace some broken inkwells and repair a window shade which had been overlooked. A set of books is placed on each desk, pencils are sharpened, and other supplies are made ready for rapid distribution. A seating plan is made and a card bearing the pupil's name and the nimiber of his coat- hook is placed on each desk. A form for registration and textbook record and a program of recitations are written on the blackboard, also the following notice : "First find your desk and coat-hook. Afterward, until the bell rings, you may talk quietly with one another or look over your new books." THE VALUE OF PLANNING 207 On the opening day, the teacher stands at the door of the classroom and has a pleasant word for each arrival as she shakes hands. She has made herself familiar with the names and has acquired a good deal of information about individuals from their previous teacher, so when the bell rings she knows who is present and can call almost every pupil by name without reference to the seating plan. She introduces the new pupils to an assistant who stands with her at the door and who, in turn, introduces them to the other pupils and helps them to find their seats. After the opening exercises and a few words of greeting, the teacher says : "We are going to try to make this one of the best days of the year. Some of us have been getting everything ready so we can start right to work." Then she explains briefly about the registration and textbook record and has pupils distribute paper and pencils. In a few minutes the records are collected and the first lesson begins. The teacher exerts herself to make the work interesting and the pupils respond with enthusiasm. At the close of the day, she makes her reports to the ojQ&ce and goes home at four o'clock, leaving most of the teachers examining pupils, or working on reports, or waiting in line to see the principal. By previous arrangement, parents of pupils in the classes of the three teachers were notified early in the sunmier that all preparations would be made in advance and were asked to cooperate in the effort of the teachers to make the first week of school as valuable as any other week. The result is that, in Miss A.'s class, all but one pupil are on time. When he appears at the beginning of the second week, he soon finds that he is a fish out of water. He stays after school, appeals to his parents for help, and gets more and 2o8 PROBLEMS INVOLVING ECONOMY OF TIME more discouraged. When the first monthly report is received, his parents engage a private tutor. His mother confides to Miss A. that the youngster declares that he will not go away at all next summer unless his father prom- ises to bring him back before the opening of school. At the first general teachers' meeting, the principal re- fers to the experiment and asks the three teachers to relate their experiences. They are so enthusiastic and the pleas- ure which they have taken in their work is so obvious to those who have been going through the harassing task of getting classes into working order, that most of the teachers agree that all should return early. The principal says: ^'I have had to begin school twice this year, but it has been worth the trouble. I see, as I never did before, that when several people have to do a piece of work together, the only way to economize time and get the best service from every- body is to have preparations made in advance so that each one can go to work as soon as he reports for duty." Principles Relating to Economy of Time 1. The teacher's aim should be to secure the maximum of accomplishment in a given time in carrying out the purpose of education. This involves a. Keeping the purpose in mind h. Economy of the teacher's time c. Economy of the pupil's time 2. It is necessary to concentrate attention on the important things, to give less attention to the less important, and to elim- inate the unnecessary. 3. For economy of time, as well as for the educational effect, it is important that each pupil should, as nearly as possible, put forth his best effort. This will require differentiation in the work assigned. Mass teaching encourages habits of mental laziness in pupils. PROBLEMS INVOLVING ECONOMY OF TIME 209 4. Teachers should not do work which pupils can do with no loss to themselves. Details of classroom management should be assigned to pupils in accordance with a system which will require little or no attention from the teacher. She should save herseK for more important work. 5. Economy of time requires system. One should have a definite time for important duties such as preparation of work, professional study, cultural activities, recreation, exercise. 6. In order to save time regular duties should be reduced to habits. One must live up to one's program. 7. In activities involving the participation of several people, time will be wasted unless a plan is developed in advance. Pu- pils should never be idle while the teacher is doing work which only she can do. Such work should be done outside of class time. Problems for the Reader to Solve Problem 141. — A teacher feels that it is necessary to assign some written work every day, so as to be sure that all pupils work. As a result he is always swamped with papers and usually several days behind in marking them. Problem 142. — A teacher works hard in preparing lessons and in teaching. She realizes that her pupils are putting forth little effort during class periods except during the few minutes when they are reciting. She is aware that there is little demand for individual effort when the pupil's part is to listen to the recitations of others or to follow the book while other pupils read, but does not see how to get more individual activity. Problem 143. — A teacher plans to start for home on the evening of the last day of school. In order to be ready, she be- gins collecting books several days ahead, gives pupils written work while she works on reports. Some of these are hurried. Books and materials are put away without careful arrangement. She would like to leave things in better order but can't take time to do it, now that she has her reservation. She plans to return early and fix things up. Many children are absent during the last few days. One parent explains that, since examinations are over, there seemed to be no need of keeping the child in school and arrangements had been made to go away on a vacation. E. T. PEOB. — 14 2IO PROBLEMS INVOLVING ECONOMY OF TIME Problem 144. — A primary teacher organizes her class in two sections for a part of the work. While she teaches one class in reading, the other copies arithmetic examples from the board, such as 3 + 2 = ? 5 + 2 = ? etc. Some pupils finish the work very quickly and get into mischief. Many make mis- takes. Problem 145. — A teacher is made chairman of a committee to plan and carry out an exhibit of school work. He recalls that as a member of the committee, the previous year, he felt that a great deal of time was wasted. At the first meeting of the committee, the chairman did not seem to have any very definite ideas, and as none of the members had made any prep- aration, much time was consumed in lengthy and rather indefinite discussion. No definite duties were assigned the committee members and he himself had felt obliged to ask frequently what he was expected to do. These requests had apparently worried the chairman and resulted in assignment of some trivial tasks, some of which proved to be unnecessary. Several members of the committee did nothing at all and finally absented themselves from committee meetings. Some plans which were agreed upon miscarried because directions to the teachers were misunder- stood or were issued too late. The chairman worked so hard that she was sick for a week after the exhibit. She felt that the other members of the committee were not supporting her, while they felt that the affair was poorly managed. The new chair- man determines to profit by last year's experience. Problem 146. — Once during the year, each class presents an assembly program to the school. Dates are assigned at the beginning of the year. One teacher, who is asked to have a dramatic exercise, is disturbed because she has never done such a thing before. It will mean making costumes and decorations, and drilling children in their parts. Some of the teachers have worked late at night for a week or two before the performance in order to get costumes finished, and have complained that the preparation took a great deal of time from the regular work of the class. Problem 147. — A teacher is constantly directing her class. In distributing material and collecting it, assigning lessons, PROBLEMS INVOLVING ECONOMY OF TIME 2 IT dismissing the class, and conducting the lessons, she gives orders and is alert to see that they are carried out. She feels that the class needs constant supervision and she is nervous whenever she has to leave the room for a moment. She drags herself to school even when she ought to be in bed, because she knows that the class will go to pieces if she is absent. Her teaching is not very good because the division which is engaged in " seat- work " claims so much of her attention, and marking papers leaves her Uttle time for preparation. Problem 148. — A high school teacher of English is discouraged by the grind of marking compositions. She always has a great pile of papers to go over and is frequently several days behind. Her conscience will not permit her to allow papers to go un- marked or to overlook any errors. Pupils keep making the same errors. Problem 149. — Teachers are required to read at least two professional books each year and report upon them. A teacher hands in voliuninous abstracts of her two books. The work has cost her many weary hours and yet the superintendent is not satisfied. He wants to know what important new ideas she has gained which she can use. He asks what permanent value the written abstracts have, and asks her to try, when she makes her next report, to get full value from her reading in less time. Problem 150. — A mathematics teacher has the practice of having pupils do all the examples in the book, and having those assigned for a lesson put on the blackboard next day and cor- rected. He is unable to finish the work assigned for the term. When it is suggested that it is not necessary to do every example, he says that the students apparently need more practice rather than less. Problem 151. — How would one define loo per cent efficiency for a teacher, in so far as the time element is concerned? REFERENCES Sears, J. B., Classroom Organization and Control, Chapter IX. Sechrist, F. K., Education and the General Welfare, Chapter XVIII. Strayer, G. D., and Engelhardt, N., The Classroom Teacher. CHAPTER X PROBLEMS OF HEALTH Hygiene at School and at Home; the Teacher's Responsibility; Cooperation with Parents; the Influence op Example Problem 152. — A teacher is annoyed by the insistence of the superintendent upon what she regards as petty details. Almost every time that he visits her room, he looks at the thermometer, then closes the steam-valves or opens a window. The shades are never adjusted to suit him. He frequently points out to her a pupil's seat which is too high or too low. When she re- ceives a notice, calling upon teachers to inspect their pupils care- fully at the beginning of each session, and to send to the office any child who shows signs of illness, she is ready to resign. " Teachers have enough to do," she exclaims, " without playing janitor and nurse." In spite of her annoyance, the teacher never purposely neg- lects any of the matters which give the superintendent such concern, but she finds it almost impossible to keep them in mind. She frequently determines, when she draws the shades over the windows in the morning, to shut out the glare of direct sunlight, that she will adjust them as soon as the sun is high enough to leave the desks on the farther side of the room in shadow, and to roll them up entirely the moment the sun passes behind the end of the building. Nevertheless she usually becomes so absorbed in teaching that she fails to notice the condition of light in the room \mtil long after the proper time for adjustment has passed and not infrequently the shades remain throughout the 213 HYCIENE AT SCHOOL AND AT HOME 2l3 day as she placed them when she arrived in the morning. She plans to have the seat of every new pupil adjusted on the day when he enters the class, but more often than not she forgets to do so. Now and then she calls upon the class to straighten up but most of the time she fails to observe that some individuals maintain bad postures habitually. Again and again, she reahzes at the end of the day that she has forgotten to make an inspection of the class at the beginning of the session. A little sister who is the idol of her heart is in the eighth grade. The child is not strong but is passionately devoted to her books. She doesn't care for active play but loves to read, curled up in an arm-chair. She has been aihng for some time and it is finally decided to take her to a speciahst. When the teacher reaches home on the day of the examina- tion, her mother meets her with a grave face. The doctor has found that the child has a serious curvature of the spine. It will take a long time to correct the trouble. ''But what is the reason for it?" our teacher asks, as soon as she recovers from the first shock. ''We have always been so careful of her!" "The doctor says that cases like this are not at all unusual with school children," the mother replies. "Edith has been growing very fast and her habit of sitting in a cramped posture has caused the bones to become distorted and this has interfered with the normal action of some of the internal organs. If she had been active and spent much of her time in vigorous play, the effect of unhygienic posture in school might have been counteracted, but now he says that we must not think of allowing her to go to school for a year or two." The child is broken-hearted and the older sister is both 214 PROBLEMS OF HEALTH grief-Stricken and angry. "What is the use," she demands, "of compulsory education which ruins a child's health? I don't care whether she ever knows anything or not, if she is only well and happy." After a time a saner mood comes to her, and she begins to study both sides of the question. She knows, of course, that children must go to school. Indeed, the real blow to this httle sister of hers is not the thought of suffering, but the reaHzation that she is to be deprived of her chief interest and that she must drop behind her class. "But the schools must take care of the children's health," our teacher exclaims. "That must be the first consideration. Teachers ought to be trained in hygiene and physical education, even if they have to sacrifice scholarship." Then it comes over her, all at once, that she herseh has been a sinner. She sees what the super- intendent has had in mind in fussing about temperature, ventilation, and the adjustment of seats. The teacher goes back to her work, a different person. She no longer has to force herself to remember the regula- tions about health. She has become an enthusiast. She feels her responsibility keenly and, from that time on, the first thing she tries to find out when a pupil enters her class is not his ability in arithmetic or spelHng but the con- dition of his eyes, his habits of standing and sitting, whether he is well nourished, and whether he is afflicted with ade- noids. "I'll try," she says to herself, "to see that the minds of these children have a chance to develop ; but whatever else I do, I am going to see that there is a fair deal for their bodies." COOPERATION WITH PARENTS 21 5 Problem 153. Miss D. : Kindly stop telling the children to keep their windows open at night. I know better than you do how to take care of children. My advice is that you attend to your own work and not meddle with people's home affairs. Yours truly, Margaret Jones Miss D. is naturally indignant when she reads this rude note. She crumples it into a ball and flings it into the waste basket with unnecessary force. "All right!" she snaps to an imaginary audience, "there'll be no more med- dling from me ! Meddling, indeed ! That's what a teacher gets for concerning herself about the children's welfare. I'll stick to routine lessons. If parents insist on living in the dark ages, let them take the consequences." Without deliberate intention, she is curt and haughty, for a day or two, in her treatment of the little Jones girl. This solution of the problem does not, however, bring satisfaction to the teacher. She is too deeply interested in the health of her pupils to calmly ignore their lives outside of school when she knows that many of them are forming habits which are bound to interfere with proper physical development. As this aspect of her hasty, half- intended resolution impresses itself on her mind, she says to herself : "You're a nice kind of teacher ! nursing a grudge against an ignorant, tradition-bound woman, and taking it out on the children ! You've been steering in the wrong direction, just as we did when we lost our bearings in the fog last summer. Now get back on the course. Your aim is to help these boys and girls to develop strong, healthy bodies and you must not allow yourself to be diverted." 2l6 PROBLEMS OF HEALTH She muses on the difficulties to be overcome and her new elation begins to subside. ''What can a teacher do," she sighs, ''if the parents refuse to cooperate? And when they not only refuse to help but actually combat or ridicule the ideas which we try to implant, it seems hopeless." Then her fighting blood begins to flow again and she declares : "We've simply got to have cooperation. If parents have to be educated, so be it. We must find the way. Here's where we begin to train Mrs. Jones and Miss D. to work in double harness." For several months she devotes herself to what she calls "the Jones Plot." She sets her heart upon success and refuses to be discouraged by rebuffs or unrewarded efforts. A genuine interest in the child soon causes the latter to respond with warm affection, but for a long time the mother resists her tentative efforts. She schools herself to be pa- tient and avoid spoiHng her plan by undue precipitancy. The battle becomes a stealthy siege rather than an assault. One or two brief illnesses which keep the child at home give the teacher occasion for calling at the house. At the second visit, the youngster's entreaties result in an invitation to come in. The bond of affection between the child and the teacher, the latter's unfailing good nature, and a consistent avoidance of any expression of controversial opinions gradu- ally break down the wall of reserve. When she is invited to dinner, the teacher learns that there are other reasons than an unventilated sleeping room to account for the puny development of her little friend. Finally the resistance weakens to the point where the mother begins to seek the teacher's advice. By that time, however, the latter has become so cautious that she is able to refrain from pressing THE teacher's RESPONSIBILITY 21 7 her advantage too far, leaving it to the enemy to make the overtures for peace, and limiting herself to a cordial re- sponse. In the end, the long campaign not only succeeds in opening the windows but causes an improvement in diet and establishes a friendship which leads naturally to a fruitful cooperation in the interest of the child's health. Problem 154. — A teacher, who is admired by her class, teaches the regular work in hygiene. The pupils recite glibly on the necessity of plenty of sleep and exercise, the importance of warm clothing in winter, and the injury caused by stylish shoes. The teacher, however, likes pretty clothes, wears very thin garments, even in the coldest weather, and dainty shoes with pointed toes and high heels. She doesn't get as much sleep as the hygiene book calls for and doesn't enjoy any vigorous exercise except dancing. The children don't know this, of course, but they do know that she is sick rather frequently. The teacher first becomes conscious of the problem when one of the girls in her class appears in a gauzy waist, with her hair done up in poor imitation of the latest style. The costume seems to her very inappropriate for a school girl and, when several other girls do their best to follow suit, one of them wearing high heeled pumps, probably borrowed from her older sister, the teacher feels that it is time for action. She therefore calls on the mother of one of the children and, as tactfully as she can, suggests that Helen's premature assumption of the role of debutante is having a bad effect upon the class. The mother is half provoked and half amused. *' Don't you know what is the matter with the girls ? " she exclaims. ''Whom do you suppose they are trying to copy?" "Some movie actress, I suppose," the teacher ventures. At that the mother bursts into a real laugh. "My dear young lady," she says, "if you will 2l8 PROBLEMS OF HEALTH look in your mirror — a long mirror — you will see where they got their model. The imitation is very poor, I admit, but you are the pattern of those children. Their end and aim is to be like you. All you have to do, to make them wear anything or do anything that you wish, is to set the ex- ample." The teacher is mortified and very much upset. "The impudent Httle minxes 1 " she sputters as she walks home. ''What business have fourteen-year-old children to try to copy my clothes ? Must grown women wear pinafores to induce infants to dress properly? I'll take that nonsense out of them ! " She begins to rehearse the speech which she will make to the girls the next morning. ''You must not expect to do just what grown people do. They can do things safely which would be harmful for girls of your age. You look silly when you try to be grown-ups. You ought to wear good warm clothing, and broad, low-heeled shoes, and you ought to go to bed regularly by half past eight or nine. What will become of our attendance record, if you don't take care of yourselves?" As she makes her silent speech with the faces of the girls in her mind's eye, she imagines their reaction. She feels that she must be convincing and somehow she is conscious of flaws in her argument. She knows that the girls will Hsten to whatever she says without offering to dispute her statements, but as she delivers her imaginary lecture, she is interested in what is going on in their minds, and seems to hear their objections as if they were putting their thoughts into words. "Why will thin clothes in winter do us any more harm than they will you?" "Are high heels and narrow toes really good for young ladies?" "Do you THE teacher's RESPONSIBILITY 219 always go to bed early enough to get plenty of sleep?" "How about your own attendance?'' She tries to put these objections out of her mind but they keep recurring. "I guess I'm not cut out for a teacher," she thinks. "I can't reconcile myself to going to bed with the birds and dressing like a nun. I think a girl of my age is entitled to some fun. Guess I'll be a stenographer. Apparently they don't have to pose as early Christian martyrs." In the evening she meets one of the older teachers, a woman whom she respects highly and who has often helped her solve her teaching problems. She naturally pours out her tale to this friend and tentatively advances her notion that she is in the wrong vocation. The older woman smiles and says: "You might change if you were selfish enough to put mere pleasure and freedom of responsibility ahead of a really unusual opportunity for service, but you won't. You have a gift, which most teachers would give anything to possess, — the power of winning the admira- tion of children and immediate response to your suggestions. This gives you the opportunity to influence children to an unusual degree. You have no right to refuse that opportunity even if you wished to do so, which I doubt." This idea dominates our teacher's reflections for the next few hours and before she goes to sleep she has made her decision. The next day, instead of calling the girls for the contemplated lecture, she appears in the feminine counterpart of a business suit, with the only pair of low- heeled shoes which she possesses. She notices with amuse- ment the discomfiture of the girls who are trying to be in style. She does not need to say a word about the inappro- 22Q PROBLEMS OF HEALTH priateness of their garb. The offending garments soon disappear. The teacher proposes that the class make a special effort this month to keep fit and see if they cannot improve the attendance record, saying that she herself is going to be very careful about sleep and exercise. She has no diffi- culty in arousing an enthusiastic interest, since she is interested herself. The ideal of vigorous health becomes strongly impressed on the minds of the pupils. Under the leadership of the teacher a troop of girl scouts is organized and at the end of the year she realizes that she has never been happier nor in better health. Curiously enough her friends seem to find her as attractive as ever. She begins to think that popularity is not merely a matter of clothes. Problem 155. — A teacher is dissatisfied with the results of her teaching of hygiene. The pupils learn the subject matter given in the textbook and can quote piously the precepts of health, but their own habits seem to be as unsanitary as ever, and there is no apparent diminution in the amount of sickness. The teacher tries the effect of admonition. When she sees children bolting their lunches and rushing out to the playground, or coming into the room on a rainy morning with wet feet or drenched clothing and trying to avoid detection for fear of being sent home for dry garments, she preaches little sermons. The pupils listen apparently but without much interest. Few of them seem to take her words to heart. The candy stores and soda counters continue to do a thriving business. Pupils read with a glare of sunlight on their books and eat lunches with un- washed hands unless she takes the responsibility of direct- ing their actions, and then obey rather impatiently. She THE INFLUENCE OF EXAMPLE 221 has to be on the watch to prevent some individuals from wearing rubbers or overshoes throughout a school session. Many have dirty teeth and do all they can to avoid going to a dentist even when the medical inspector reports the need of immediate attention. Not infrequently she notices festering cuts and bruises covered with dirty bandages or not protected at all. Children rarely remember, when coughing or sneezing, that there is danger of giving others a cold like their own. On attending a football game, she sees boys drinking from a common cup, although they have been used to drinking fountains in the school and know their purpose perfectly. Most of the players throw them- selves on the ground during intermissions although reeking with perspiration. Neither talks to the class nor personal advice seems to have any appreciable effect. Relating her experiences to a group of friends, our teacher says: "Knowledge may be power, but power which is not properly appKed is of very little use, I wonder if it is possible to educate children so that they will live up to their light, when their natural inclinations point in the other direction." "Why should you expect more of children than of adults ? " one of the group inquires. "Don't we all continue to drink coffee at midnight, neglect to take regular exer- cise, sit up until 3.00 A.M. to finish an exciting book, and eat indigestible food? Most people do what they like to do, regardless of the well-known laws of health, until they are dreadfully frightened by a narrow escape from death, or knowledge that they are afflicted with disease. Even then many take occasional risks when the effect of the first shock has passed away.'' 222 PROBLEMS OF HEALTH "That's just the point," our teacher declares. "As a race we are wasting our physical resources. That is the reason, I take it, why hygiene has been made a part of the course of study. Some people realize that the pubKc wel- fare is threatened by the prevalence of unnecessary sick- ness, premature decadence, and untimely death. There- fore they have sought to combat the danger by educating the youjig. Apparently they have made the mistake of supposing that ill-health is chiefly due to ignorance. I think we have evidence enough to prove that mere knowl- edge of hygiene will not solve the problem. Unless we can learn how to make people want to be strong and get them to develop habits that are consistent with their knowledge, we might as well stop teaching hygiene alto- gether." This point of view wins general assent. Some of the group are pessimistic but the minds of one or two begin at once to search for remedies. Presently one of these inter- rupts the conversation with an enthusiastic outburst. "Let's form ourselves into a study club on health edu- cation. I'm tremendously interested. It may be too big a problem for us and perhaps the situation is hopeless, as some of you seem to think, but if we confine our efforts to the education of Miss G.'s class and everybody does some hard thinking, we ought to be able, among us, to hit upon some way of making progress." Some of the party are incHned to laugh at the proposal but a few take it seriously and all agree to meet a week later and continue the discussion. At that time it appears that some of the group or club, as the originator of the idea insists on calling it, have given the subject no further THE INFLIfENCE OF EXAMPLE 223 thought. Others have pondered the problem from time to time but confess that they have made no headway. One of them says: "It seems to me that the only thing that can be done is to tell people the facts about health and disease and then leave the responsibility with them. People of the thoughtful, conscientious type — a small minority — will make use of this knowledge and the rest of us will ignore more or less of it until it is too late. I disagree with the view that we ought to stop teaching hygiene because so few people put their knowledge into practice. Every- body should be informed. Some of the facts will probably sink in and affect the conduct of some individuals at some time or other. That is very far from an adequate solution, of course, but, for the life of me, I can't see how you can make a person take care of himself unless he wants to do so and has enough will power to do what he knows he ought to do." One of the most thoughtful members of the club then takes the floor. "I agree with the last speaker," he says, "and I have been puzzling over the question, 'How can a person be educated to want a thing so much that he will do nothing which he knows will stand in the way of his desire ? ' When a person has not enough will power to do what he ought to do in order to accomplish something, it really means that his desire for that thing is not as great as his desire for something else which conflicts with it. With most of us, instinctive desires and those which have been stimulated by custom are too strong to be overcome in our everyday actions by the rather indefinite ideal of conservation of health. If pupils are to learn to make the most of themselves physically, they must be led to want 224 PROBLEMS OF HEALTH to be strong and well even more than they want unlimited cake, or freedom from the nuisance of toothbrushing, or postponement of the pain associated with a visit to the dentist. As I thought about the question, it occurred to me to try to trace back some of the ideals which have had a con- siderable influence on my life and have enabled me at times to avoid what might be regarded as the easier or the pleas- anter course. I thought that this method might furnish some clues to the proper procedure for educating children in matters of health. I discovered, on reflection, that some of these ideals first became impressed upon my mind through reading, but usually they were associated with people whom I admired or for whom I had a strong affec- tion. Even in the cases in which the ideal had its source in a book which I had read, it was almost always represented by an interesting character saying something or doing something which I admired. This was always true in the case of ideals which I could definitely trace back to the years of childhood or youth. I am inclined to think, therefore, that Miss G. would do well to try to bring her pupils into contact with people who are attractive to children of their age and whose lives make self-denial for the sake of physical well-being appealing." This suggestion opens a new path for the other minds whose thoughts had been traveling in a circle, and many illustrations are offered in harmony with the last speaker's experience. It is agreed to follow out the new lead and bring to the next meeting concrete suggestions for work in the classroom. This meeting proves to be intensely inter- esting, with many suggestions and vigorous discussion. THE INFLUENCE OF EXAMPLE 22$ The most valuable proposals which Miss G. carries away in her notebook are these : 1. Enthusiastic devotion by the teacher to the health ideal in her own life, with occasional references to her experiences, not in the form of exhortation to do likewise, but casually, as one talks to friends about the things which are very near his heart. 2. Public approval of worthy examples among the members of the class. 3. Occasional visits from individuals attractive to young people who are good exponents of the doctrine of health. 4. Interesting books for boys and girls in which characters which they admire meet successfully situations involving a choice between right and wrong in regard to physical welfare, or in which characters who keep themselves fit are able to accomplish things which appeal to boys and girls. A considerable number of such books is listed. At later meetings, Miss G. is able to report the results of some of the suggestions as she puts them to the test. Unexpected difficulties are encountered and remedies suggested. The process of developing habits consistent with ideals occupies the club for several meetings, and the value of commendation of the smallest progress, encourage- ment of those who become disheartened, avoidance of lapses when one has begun a new course of action, and the stimulation of group interest are all emphasized by concrete experiences. By the end of the term, Miss G. herself has acquired a stimulating ideal which has already made an appreciable change in her life. The class has become keenly interested in their own physical welfare and has made real progress in developing hygienic habits. They have formed a Keep Fit Club whose members are ashamed when they are sick E. T. PROB. IS 226 PROBLEMS OF HEALTH and are really exercising a good deal of self-control in the effort to maintain a record of "No time lost by sickness." The club occasionally invites physicians, physical training instructors, and athletes to speak at their meetings. Some individuals are refractory and very few are proof against the temptations of the appetite, but as Miss G. remarks: "We can afford to wait for the millennium." Principles Relating to Health 1. A vast amount of waste and unhappiness is due to sickness and physical weakness. Hence one of the most important problems, both for the pubUc and for the individual, is the con- servation of health. 2. Most people fail to make the most of themselves physi- cally, partly from lack of knowledge, partly from lack of ideals. The schools can do no more important work than to impart knowledge necessary to health, cultivate hygienic habits, and especially to inculcate ideals of physical efficiency. 3. In deaUng with the problem of children's health, coopera- tion between the school and the home is needed. ) 4. Teachers should be as much interested in the health of ^ little that is tangible. He is perfectly sure that there must have been losses but it seems difficult to prove it. There are one or two cases of notable failure in discipline by young teachers but these are offset by some conspicuous examples of success. "What we need is a MAKING TEACHING RESPECTABLE 335 cost accounting system," he thinks. ''If we cculd only show that increased expenditure produces results in terms of knowledge and character, people would be willing to invest in education just as stockholders support a new out- lay when they see a prospect of increased dividends. Small chance of that ! You can't measure the results of education in any definite way. You can't tell how a boy or girl is going to turn out until long after he has left school, and then you don't know whether he has succeeded because of his education or in spite of it." He runs over his own experience and has to admit that, while he learned a great deal during the first year or two, his work was probably about as effective five years ago as it is now. "No wonder," he thinks, ''that people are not demanding that my pay be raised for fear of outside com- petition for my services. I shall have to make my work stand out. We tell the youngster, who is starting in as an office boy, to make himself indispensable, but how can I make myself indispensable to tax-payers whom I never see?" This idea of lack of contact between teachers and the people who support the schools is turned over frequently in the teacher's mind. He becomes interested in analyzing the opportunities for becoming widely known. He thinks of individuals who are prominent in the town. There are the members of the municipal government, of the board of education, officers in various organizations, and a few who, while occupying no office, are frequently mentioned in the papers, are always appointed on committees to deal with special community enterprises, and are frequently called upon to speak at public meetings. Some of these ^$6 PROFESSIONAL GROWTH people are not particularly able. There are some small tradesmen and a few artisans. Some have never had even a grammar school education and murder the king's English. But there is something interesting about the personality of every one. He becomes absorbed in observing these men and comes to envy them a common characteristic which he lacks. They are almost invariably "good mixers" and they make a business of mixing. He himself is rather diffident and feels ill at ease and at a loss for conversational material when he finds himself in a heterogeneous group although he can talk by the hour with another teacher. He wonders whether there is anything pecuhar about teaching which unfits a person for being a man among men, or is it that teaching attracts only the type of man who does not enjoy general social intercourse? If neither of these supposi- tions is true, why is there no teacher among the real leaders in community affairs? He knows from his own experience that it is very easy for a teacher to become isolated from the rest of the community. His work is absorbing, taking many of his evenings. It does not bring him into contact with men outside the pro- fession. He has little occasion to discuss the subjects which other men are apt to talk about when they get together. He realizes that it would improve the standing of teachers if they were more active in community affairs and if they had a wider circle of friends. He wonders whether teachers ought to take the initiative in this, and whether a person like himself could learn to be more sociable. The teacher has heard reports of the enormous fees which prominent lawyers and specialists in other fields receive. MAKING TEACHING RESPECTABLE 337 Outward evidences indicate that these men have become rich. He sometimes speaks contemptuously of people who will pay such exorbitant charges^ and yet apparently there is no lack of competition for their services. Discussion of this subject and reflection upon it convince him that these specialists have mastered a field in which people have urgent need of advice. They will pay high fees because they have confidence that they will get expert service which others cannot render. He wonders if education can ever be developed to such a degree, and dreams of the educational speciaHst who is able to diagnose individual cases and pre- scribe for children as skillfully as the oculist deals with defective vision or the consulting engineer directs the solution of a problem of water supply. All this reflection upon the puzzle has suggested nothing very definite in the way of a solution, but it has impressed the teacher with the magnitude of the problem and made him more interested in the causes of his unsatisfactory status and less inclined to blame other people. He is influenced still by the president's advice and is determined to make a success of his life. A conversation with a man who has the reputation of being a genius in remembering people's names, in which the latter declares that it is simply a matter of attention, that almost anyone can do the trick if he makes a business of it, leads the teacher to make a determined effort to develop some social ability. He joins the Improvement Association in his own ward and attends a dinner of his political party. He forces himself to take the initiative in speaking to sev- eral men, and exerts himself to carry on conversations. He has one or two opportunities to correct some false im- E. T. PROB. — 22 338 PROFESSIONAL GROWTH pressions about the schools, but he takes pains to show an interest in subjects introduced by others. Before going to meetings, he prepares himself by rehearsing topics of con- versation and even memorizes some humorous stories — heretofore he has been in the habit of declaring that he could never remember a joke. All this is at first very distasteful but it gradually becomes easier and even enjoy- able. He makes many acquaintances and begins to take satisfaction in the number of people who nod and smile, when he meets them on the street, or pass a famihar greeting at the post office or in the bank lobby. When he is made chairman of a committee of the Improvement Association, he feels that he is really on his way. The teacher's dream of an educational specialist, able to diagnose and prescribe accurately for educational ills, has a permanent effect upon his mind. He recognizes it as a dream, yet it comes to be a dominating idea. The first practical effect is a decision to volunteer as Scout Master of a troop of Boy Scouts connected with one of the churches. This position has already been offered to several other teach- ers who have felt that they could not afford the time. Our teacher is influenced in his decision by recognizing an opportunity to study boys. The educational specialist of his vision understands children thoroughly, their interests, their motives, the stimuli which will bring out the best that is in them. He finds in this new work a really fascinat- ing occupation. He realizes very quickly how little he has understood boys as individuals, and he has some rather discouraging experiences at first, but his attitude of the student, observing human phenomena and experimenting in order to learn the truth, helps him to remain cool when AN EDUCATIONAL SPECIALIST 339 boys are pesky and to be patient with refractory individuals. Gradually he acquires a reputation as somewhat of an authority on boys. Parents consult him and his first published article is on ^'Some Traits of Boy Nature.'* A new sense of achievement brings exhilaration and a passion for work. The need of some means of measuring the effect of teach- ing is another problem which occupies the teacher's mind. His first attempt is to compare the marks of two successive classes, using the same examination paper. The results are not very convincing and he is still puzzling over the matter when he accidentally learns that others have been working on the same problem and that already a good deal of experimenting has been done with standard tests. He reads all the articles which he is able to find on the subject and corresponds with one or two of the authors. The result is a conviction that the problem is much more com- plicated than he had supposed and that his own tests cannot give any reliable information, because they involve so many uncertain factors, such as the relative ability of the two classes tested and variabihty in judgment of the teacher who marks the papers. He sees a lifetime of work for the edu- cational specialist. The teacher consults a professor at one of the universities. He tells about his desire to study education scientifically, shows his article on Boy Nature, and explains the work which he has been doing and some of the questions which baffle him. The professor describes courses which would be of value and says that, in order to get very far, the teacher would need to spend at least two years in study. The teacher thinks that his financial problems would probably 340 PROFESSIONAL GROWTH make this impossible, and the professor suggests the possibility of a fellowship amounting to a few hundred dollars. The teacher has a talk with his wife and then goes to the president of the board of education. He explains his ambition and then asks: "Will the board give me a leave of absence?" Instead of replying, the president puts a question of his own. "How are you going to finance your scheme?" "Borrow the money," the teacher repHes. "Have you found anyone to lend it to you?" "Not yet, but I hope that I can find some people who have enough confidence in me to take a chance on my making good." "Suppose the board refuses a leave of absence," the president says sharply. "Then," replies the teacher with his chin up, "I shall resign. Here is a chance for a life work which needs to be done and which I am sure I can do. I'm going to do it." "You are taking a big risk," the president suggests. "Right," says the teacher, "the same risk that you took when you started your business." The president slaps him on the back. " Good for you," he says, "I had a notion that you had the stuff in you. I think I can answer for the board of education." As the teacher offers his hand and expresses his thanks, the older man adds: "When you go to see your friends about that loan, tell them that I am betting a thousand dollars on you." During the teacher's residence at the university, he receives several offers of positions at considerably better salaries than he has earned. One of them, a principalship, AN EDUCATIONAL SPECIALIST 341 pays a sum which would have satisfied him before he started on his new career. It is a temptation to avoid incurring further financial obligations, but he has the feeling that his backers might think him a quitter and he decides to stick to his purpose. Toward the end of the second year, when the prof essor under whom he has done his most important work is con- gratulating him upon his doctor's dissertation and assuring him that its publication will mark a real step forward in scientific knowledge of education, the teacher refers to his return to pubHc school work. The professor says: *'You can make much more money in private practice. When your book is published you will be recognized as an authority in the special field which you have been studying. You are one of a very few who are able to examine an unusual child with any degree of precision and prescribe suitable treatment for him. There are many people who are deeply concerned about children who are not developing normally. If such people discover that they can get expert advice, not mere guessing, they will crowd your office. If you continue to work as you have been doing, you could, in time, build up a select clientele and make a large income." ''I have thought of that," the teacher repHes. "I think it could be done, but I have a sort of prejudice against using my special knowledge as a monopoly for the benefit of the wealthy and primarily for my own profit. It has always seemed to me somewhat of a scandal that the legal pro- fession which theoretically is devoted to justice and right should apparently determine its charges on the basis of 'what the traffic will bear.' I have taken pride in the •thought that teaching is a public service a^d I think that I 342 PROFESSIONAL GROWTH shall be happier in making whatever contribution I can to public education.'' Shortly before the time of the teacher's return to work in the local schools, a proposition is submitted to the board of education, on the recommendation of the superintendent, for the employment of the former teacher as assistant superintendent. It is explained that his duties will be to make scientific studies of all sorts of school problems, to examine and recommend treatment for exceptional children, and to train teachers in similar work. There is strong opposition to the plan. A few members of the board support it but the majority are opposed to the creation of a new position. One of the newspapers commends the opponents of the proposition for refusing to waste the people's money on fads. The editor writes, with the positiveness of the self-appointed seer, on the necessity of resisting all such fantastic departures from the traditional training in fundamentals which has produced our great men. A Httle later, the teacher receives from another school system an offer of a position similar to the one proposed. His impulse is to accept, but he has set his heart on the creation of a market for expert educational service in his own community. Finally a compromise is effected by which the teacher is to return to his position in the high school, but is to have a lighter program of teaching than is assigned generally, in order that he may give a part of his time to intensive study of school problems. The matter is settled shortly before the end of the school year and the teacher secures permission to give some tests which will enable him to make comparisons at th^ end of th^ AN EDUCATIONAL SPECIALIST 343 following year. He uses standard tests of intelligence and of achievement in English, mathematics, and Latin, apply^ ing them to all the pupils in the freshman class of the high school. He also measures the intelligence of eighth-grade pupils who will form the new freshman class and consults with them and, in some cases, with their parents, in regard to their choice of courses and subjects. Some of the parents heed his advice and others insist on having their children take the course which is generally regarded as more high- toned than the alternatives. At the beginning of the new year, he gives tests in several subjects to all the freshmen and, on the basis of the results of these tests and his intelligence measures, advises the principal in regard to the best grouping of the pupils in recitation sections. In his own classes, he frequently divides the students into groups, varying the work in accordance with different capacities. He gives tests and succeeds in interesting pupils in measuring their own progress. At his own request, he is made *' faculty adviser" of the freshman boys. He studies them individually and becomes very well acquainted with them. He shov/s an interest in their hobbies and develops a relationship which leads boys to confide in him and to ask his advice. In a few cases of serious misbehavior or moral delinquency which would naturally lead to suspension or expulsion, he offers to be responsible for the boys and, with one exception, succeeds in using the experience as a means of strengthening the character of the offender. He meets the boys outside the classroom in athletics, occasional hikes, and at club meetings. For lack of time, he is obliged to decline persistent appeals for similar wort with older boys. 344 PROFESSIONAL GROWTH At the end of the year, he again measures the achievements of the freshmen, using tests which have been scientifically- prepared so as to be of exactly the same difficulty as those used at the beginning. He analyzes the results and pre- pares simple charts showing the facts in a striking form. He also studies the number of withdrawals from the fresh- man class in comparison with previous years and compares the percentages of failure in the various recitation sections. With the help of these charts he is able to convince first the high school faculty and then the members of the board of education of these facts : 1. Withdrawals from the freshman class have been reduced from an average of 35 per cent during the previous three years to 16 per cent, although withdrawals from other classes have been practically the same as in other years. 2. The reduction in withdrawals has been greater for freshman boys than for girls. 3. The average rating in the subjects tested is, on the whole, higher than at the end of the previous year. Where new teachers have succeeded experienced teachers the results are poorer. Where classes have been taught by the same teachers for the two successive years, the average ratings in the two tests are about the same, the differences corresponding closely to the differences in pupil abiHty as shown by the intelligence tests. The mathematics classes taught by the man who has qualified as an expert show a much higher average achievement than that displayed by corresponding classes in the tests of the preceding June. 4. Progress during the year in the various recitation sections varies widely. When children of nearly the same degree of intelligence are compared, th,Q va-ri^tion is strikijig. TESTS OF ACHIEVEMENT 345 5. With one or two exceptions, the progress is distinctly greater in the classes taught by experienced teachers than in those of beginners. The class taught by one EngHsh teacher who is known by her associates to be a superior teacher has gone far ahead of the others although the average intelligence of her group is not the highest. There are fewer cases of little or no progress in the classes taught by the investigator than in any of the others. There are also in his classes more cases of striking progress by the ablest pupils. In other classes, some students who rank highest in intelligence have advanced comparatively little in power to use EngHsh or in ability to analyze mathe- matical problems. 6. Teachers' marks do not correspond closely with the ratings in the standard tests. There is a general agree- ment but many exceptions. Teachers' marks correspond fairly well with measures of native ability but are very inconsistent with measures of progress. Some pupils who have failed, according to the judgment of teachers, have made excellent progress in terms of their own initial achievements. 7. On the whole, the classes which are most homogeneous from the standpoint of intelligence have had fewest failures. Only one of the pupils who insisted on taking the college preparatory course, against the advice of our teacher, has passed in Latin, and this individual has been advised by his teacher not to continue the subject. The superintendent renews his recommendation for the appointment of an assistant to deal with research. This time the board is sympathetic but the teacher suggests that, before action is taken, an effort be made to convince 346 PROFESSIONAL GROWTH the public of the need of such work. With this purpose in view, a report of the year's experiment, illustrated by re- productions of the charts, is printed for general circulation. Newspaper comment is secured and opportunities are sought for discussion of the subject at various meetings. The result is that the editor who had, the year before, called for resistance to fads, chides the board for false economy in employing inexperienced teachers, and declares that investi- gations like the one applied to the freshman class ought to be carried out in every department of the school system. *^The public demands results," he writes. ''It does not expect the board to sacrifice efficiency for the sake of a few dollars. It wants the best for its children and it is willing to pay whatever is necessary to get results." At the same meeting at which the teacher is elected assistant superintendent, a communication from a prom- inent citizen is read, in which the teacher's work with the freshman boys is referred to in enthusiastic terms and appeal is made for the employment of more men in the high school. Soon after the meeting, one of the teachers congratulates the new appointee somewhat wistfully upon his promotion. *'0h! Your turn will come next," the other repHes en- couragingly. ''No such luck!" exclaims the first man. " There are mighty few such positions and, of course, I haven't your ability anyway. My ambition doesn't run so high, but I would like to earn a respectable living." "Let me tell you my story," says the new assistant superintendent. He explains his own disheartened state after ten years of teaching and the incidents which started \^ on his new course. '■! am confident," he declares, PROFESSIONAL GROWTH 347 "that there is a career in education for any man who sees the possibilities in it and who has ability enough to have any right to be intrusted with the education of children. The idea that a man cannot amount to anything in school work unless he becomes a principal or superintendent is all wrong. There is room for the finest kind of professional work in the classroom. There are problems there that are worthy of the best effort of any man or woman, no matter how able ; and when we learn to take our work in a truly professional way; when we realize that it is the biggest, finest job in the world, that it needs just as careful, exact study as any of the other professions ; when we fit ourselves to do our work scientifically and demonstrate that we can bring about important and definite changes in ability and character of boys and girls ; then people will get a new idea of education and teachers will win the respect and the re- muneration which professional teachers deserve." Principles in Regard to Professional Growth 1. The work of teaching should be regarded as a great pro- fession, worthy of the best ability and of the most thorough study. 2. Education is still in a relatively crude stage of develop- ment in comparison with other professions. Much of our educa- tional material and methods is based upon opinion rather than knowledge. Aims are not all in accord with scientific fact. The professional teacher will strive to keep abreast of new dis- coveries in the field and to test his methods and ideas. 3. The professional teacher will have a philosophy of educa- tion. He will not limit his interest to a small field. 4. The professional teacher will keep an open mind, will avoid prejudice, will welcome new ideas. 5. The professional teacher will learn from others, through books, meetings, observation, and study under leaders. 348 PROFESSIONAL GROWTH 6. The professional teacher will welcome advice and criticism and will be critical of his own work. 7. The professional teacher will feel a responsibility for the advancement of the profession. He will take part in profes- sional associations, report his own experiments in meetings or in publications. 8. A teacher should set apart a definite time for professional study. 9. The professional teacher will be scientific. He will not hold fast to old methods, merely because he is used to them. Neither will he adopt new methods merely because they are the fashion. He will constantly try to get new light on his problems, to improve his work. He will experiment and study results carefully. 10. The professional teacher will regard professional training and growth as absolutely necessary — as necessary to him as are tools to the artisan. Such training will come first, not last, in his program. Problems for the Reader to Solve Problem 232. — A teacher of very long experience feels that she is getting " stale." The work does not interest her as much as formerly. She knows the books by heart. She is annoyed by the frequent suggestions of new methods made by the principal and teachers who have had less experience than she. She used to be regarded as an exceptionally strong teacher, and was always proud of her results. Problem 233. — A teacher, on graduation from normal school, begins work in a school providing very little supervision. The principal has a superficial view of education, has to spend most of his time in teaching, and, aside from that, devotes himself to routine. The teacher tries to put into practice the principles studied at normal school but finds that they do not seem to work. Other teachers tell her that they are not practical. She gradually adopts routine methods of little educational value but easy to use and making control of the class simpler. After two years these methods have become habitual. She does no prof essioaal reading except in magazines giving superficial, rule- PROFESSIONAL GROWTH 349 of-thumb methods and devices. A number of superintendents, to whom she has been recommended by the normal school, visit her but stay only a little while and go away without offering her a position. She realizes that they are not satisfied and won- ders why. Problem 234. — A teacher of six or eight years of experience is skillful in dealing with children and gets good results in or- dinary school work. She does some professional reading but finds some of the books, which are highly recommended, hard to understand. They seem theoretical, offering little that she can apply to her work. She feels that she ought to gain a deeper insight into the problems of education, and has often thought that she would like to take some professional courses, but there is so much else to be done that she puts it off from year to year. Problem 235. — A teacher who is a candidate for a position is asked by the superintendent to state the chief problems which she has encountered. She does not understand what he means, is not aware that she has any problems, says that she never had any trouble. Oddly enough, the superintendent does not seem to regard this uneventful career as a sign of merit. Problem 236. — A teacher decides to take a professional course, but has difficulty in deciding what to take. Those which are most valuable are available for him only in the summer and he does not wish to spend the summer in study. Problem 237. — A grade teacher is ambitious and decides to specialize in some single subject. A friend has done this and earns considerably more money than she. She has some doubt whether she will like it. Problem 238. — A teacher is anxious to know whers her weak- nesses Ue, so that she may improve her work. Problem 239. — A teacher is expected to spend a day each year in visiting schools. She has not received much benefit from previous visits and would prefer not to go. The principal agrees to excuse her if she is convinced that she can learn nothing from $SO PROFESSIONAL GROWTH the work of other teachers whom she might visit, but advises her to think the matter over and see if she cannot plan her day so as to gain something of benefit to the school. Problem 240. — A girl goes to normal school because she thinks teaching will be agreeable work. The long vacations appeal to her. On taking a position, she finds the work pleasant enough, but has no desire to remain in it long. As she expects to be married in a few years, she sees no need of doing any more studying. In a chance conversation, someone expresses the opinion that teachers, as public servants, are under obligation to make themselves as efiicient as possible, regardless of the time during which they intend to teach. Problem 241. — A teacher undertakes much work in addition to his regular duties in order to add to his income, teaching in the evening school, and taking a business position during the summer. He has no time for studying, arranges his work so that he can get through with his necessary duties, such as marking papers, in a minimum of time. A superintendent tells him that he is not investing his time wisely. REFERENCES Strayer, G. D., and Engelhardt, N., The Classroom Teacher, Chapter XVI. Miller, I. E., Education for the Needs of Life, Chapter VI. Sears, J. B., Classroom Organization and Control, Chapters XV, XVII. Palmer, G. H., The Ideal Teacher. Strayer, G. D., and Norsworthy, N., How to Teach, Chapter XV. CHAPTER XVI THE TEACHER AS PROBLEM-SOLVER Recognition of Problems; a Working Philosophy OF Teaching; How to Solve Problems "What have been the chief problems in your work as a teacher?" This question has been asked again and again by the author during interviews with candidates for teach- ing positions. In a majority of cases, the teacher has at first looked blankly at the questioner and then replied some- what doubtfully : "I have always gotten along all right," or, "Oh! I have had no trouble v/ith discipHne, if that is what you mean." How amazing ! A person who has been engaged in one of the most complicated and difficult undertakings in the world has met no problems ! His eyes have been open but unseeing. The physician has a problem, often many problems, in every case. The automobile mechanic has all sorts of problems in the cars which are brought to him for adjustment. The housewife has problems of costs, of economy of time, of relations with servants. And the teacher has problems — multitudes of them — if he will but learn to recognize them. Every child offers a whole series of problenis. There are problems in the course of study and in methods of teaching. Many parents are harder to deal with than the hardest exercises in algebra. The principal himself is often a puzzle. 351 352 THE TEACHER AS PROBLEM-SOLVER The trouble is that most of us, whether teachers or candle- stick makers or plain citizens, have never learned to take the problem attitude. We are not scientific. We do most things according to habit or fashion. When things go wrong, we growl, or complain of our hard luck, or find fault with the other fellow. We regard a difficulty not as a challenge to our ability but as a misfortune for which we, at least, are not to blame. The scientific person, the problem-solver, has a clear purpose. Obstacles to the accomplishment of the purpose are not enemies or nuisances but facts. ^ His job is to study them, to discover the best means of overcoming them. In every walk of life we need more problem-solvers. We need them especially in teaching, because our present procedure in that field is so terribly unscientific, so dependent on rule- of- thumb and fashion and untested opinion. The Problem Method of Learning to Teach There is much truth in the old adage, *' experience is the best teacher." If taken as the sole guide, experience is a slow and bungling instructor and is often wrong. Teachers who work everything out for themselves, neglecting the counsel of those who have been over the road, and shutting their eyes to the visions pointed out by the leaders whose sight is exceptionally keen, waste endless time for them- s 3lves and their pupils. They spend their lives in hard work, much of which is expended in the wrong direction, and fail t) attain a standard of accomplishment which some had reached before they began. Furthermore, they are almost sure to acquire strong convictions which are false. Anyone THE PROBLEM METHOD 353 who has attended educational conventions knows that teachers of long experience often argue passionately on opposite sides of a question, when obviously both cannot be right. Nevertheless, the attempt to prepare for teach- ing or to improve one's work as a teacher by filling one's mind with principles and rules of practice, not associated with concrete situations, is usually very ineffective. The trouble seems to be that when one reads or hears some bit of wisdom which is the outcome of numerous experiences on the part of the writer or speaker, but which calls forth no definite appHcations in the mind of the reader or listener, it lies isolated in the latter's mind, like an elaborate piece of furniture in a barely equipped house — of no present use and unrelated to the rest of the furnish- ings. It is put away for future use and is usually forgotten. Even when the occasion presents itself for the proper emplojonent of the article the owner may not recognize the opportunity, having no backgound of experiences in which it has served a similar purpose. On the other hand, an article which has been obtained to meet a real present need becomes a part of one's life and is often found to be serviceable in ways which were not anticipated. The author has often visited the classrooms of young teachers who had graduated from excellent normal schools but whose practice was not at all in accord with the prin- ciples which they had studied. They had met practical situations which the preparatory course had not made familiar to them. The principles which they had studied did not seem to fit the conditions. Instead of learning to adapt the principles to the new situations, they had shelved the principles and acquired, through the method of trial » E. T. PROB. — 23 354 THE TEACHER AS PROBLEM-SOLVER and error or by copying other teachers, a technic of teach- ing which would work. The ideals of the normal school had been laid aside for use under different conditions. In the meantime bad habits of teaching were becoming fixed. It would be of great advantage to the novice if he could obtain his preliminary training as apprentice to an expert practitioner, who would guide him in his dealing with practical problems, aid him in mastering principles which furnish the key to their solution, and show him how to find in educational literature the light which he needs in order to understand and deal with his present difficulties. The beginner would then be learning by experience. What he learned would not be isolated rules or principles but knowl- edge associated with concrete classroom situations. It would not be a veneer, connected with normal school pro- fessors and examinations, but a part of his daily experience with Johnny Jones and Mrs. Smith. Such an ideal plan is probably impractical. We have not enough practitioners with ^'the root of the matter in them" to train the new members. Teachers must obtain much of their prehminary training in large groups before they begin to teach. Nevertheless, it is possible, I think, to change the method of study so as to gain some of the advantages of the experience method of learning. The person who desires to fit himself for success as a teacher cannot usually begin by attempting to teach a class, but he need not begin at the other end by trying to absorb knowledge of education in the form of general prin- ciples and precepts which have for him no concrete reality. Will it not be worth while for him to face problems of just THE PROBLEM METHOD 355 the sort which he will be sure to meet when he begins to teach ? He has an imagination and, while no statement of a problem can take the place of the real thing, it may put him in a state of mind similar to that in which he should face his pupils. He has before him a real situation. He is asked what he would do. He blunders and makes unwise proposals, just as in practice he will blunder and do unwise things, but the questioning of the instructor and the criti- cism of his classmates will help him to see where he is wrong. When he is asked to explain why he proposes a certain course of action, it will appear that he has more or less hazy ideas about the purpose of education or the phenomena of child development, which discussion in connection with the con- crete problem will correct and make more definite. Thus principles will be acquired which are not mere words, but beliefs which are connected with real cases. Even teachers of experience will agree that often, when they read educational books without a specific purpose in view, not much of the material remains long in the mind in a form definite enough to influence their teaching. On the other hand, when a teacher consults a book in order to obtain help in the solution of a teaching problem, and, having found what he wants, immediately puts it to use, he is more likely to remember what he has learned and to use it again. To sum up the foregoing paragraphs, the most effective method, for most people, in learning to teach, as in learning to do anything else, is to begin with concrete problems, through these to acquire general principles, and then to make use of these principles until action in accordance with them becomes habitual. 356 the teacher as problem-solver Value of a Working Philosophy of Education We have explained the advantage of beginning with concrete cases, but if every situation which arises is regarded as a separate problem, we shall make Httle progress. It has been said that if we had not the power of forming habits, it would take us half a day to put on our clothing and the other half to remove it. It is equally true that a teacher who failed to reduce much of his conduct in the classroom to habitual action, and to acquire general prin- ciples to guide him in meeting the multitude of situations which confront him in the course of a day, would accomplish little and would soon be worn out. It is the new situation which calls for treatment as a problem. This should be studied carefully until the best solution is gained, but out of the study should come the power of meeting quickly and confidently other situations as they arise. It is not merely a precedent which should be acquired, for there are as many bad precedents as good. It is rather a principle or set of principles, which the study of the problem has made clear and explicit, and which will henceforth be a famihar beacon in voyaging upon unfamiliar waters. We are prone to act impulsively, without clear, con- sistent reasons for our actions. These cases later plague us as precedents. We are charged with being unjust or vacillating. We promote one pupil and ''flunk" another without having reasons which carry conviction even to ourselves. Sometimes we acquire very strong convictions without an adequate basis for our faith. We believe in the Austrian A WORKING PHILOSOPHY OF tE ACHING 357 method of subtraction, in the value of Latin for all pupils, or in suspension as a punishment for truants, and yet cases arise which we have to treat as exceptions. The trouble is that our ideas, beliefs, and practices are a jumble of more or less unrelated elements, gained from experience or from books or people in whom we have con- fidence. They are not knit together by big fundamental ideas about our work, which we have thought through and made the framework of our thinking and doing. Our views are full of inconsistencies which we have never straightened out. We beheve them and hold to them. If we are challenged, we dodge. The greatest boon which a teacher can possess, for his peace of mind and his professional success, is a consistent philosophy of education, to which he has given his best thought and which rules his conduct. Such a philosophy will not be an unchanging belief, for experiences which are inconsistent with it will force the teacher to modify it. If he grows, it will become richer as he becomes older and wiser, but, as far as it goes, it fits his knowledge and experi- ence. There are no spots of which he is aware which are mental aliens. The teacher who becomes a problem-solver will have to make up his mind as to the purpose of education, and no solution will satisfy him which is not consistent with this purpose. He will seek constantly to know more about the facts of child nature and the needs of society and will mold his philosophy of education and his methods of teaching to fit them. As he meets new situations, he will make use of the principles which he has already acquired and will fit his new principles into the growing structure. 358 THE TEACHER AS PROBLEM-SOLVER How TO Solve Problems If one would become a problem-solver, one must think for one's self Accepting statements which one reads or hears, without considering the facts in the case or the reasons for the statements, is not thinking. One must learn to weigh evidence and to test conclusions. Much of the mental activity which passes for thinking consists in devising arguments to bolster up a belief which one has adopted without any thoroughgoing consideration and which one is unwilling to abandon. Almost everyone, if he considers conscientiously the basis of his political allegiance, will agree that he has not a consistent, unassail- able basis for his belief. He is an ardent RepubHcan or a devoted Democrat. An argument by a supporter of the other party seems to him silly or false. It makes him angry to read an editorial on the other side. Anything which is said or written in favor of his candidate or his party, or against the other candidate or party, pleases him and is accepted as gospel. The fact is that he is not looking for the truth. He knows the truth in advance and is almost ready to fight anything or anybody that opposes it. The same sort of "thinking" is common enough in the educational world. A teacher becomes an adherent of "supervised study." He puts it into practice and at once notices a great improvement. Any criticism of the plan only makes him firmer in his conviction. Favorable results are attributed to the new method. Shortcomings are explained as the effect of adverse conditions. Another teacher is unfavorably impressed when he first hears of "supervised study." Perhaps a friend teaching in another HOW TO SOLVE PROBLEMS 359 system has remarked that the method is a failure. Our teacher opposes its introduction, points out all the objec- tions which he can think of, and interprets the good results reported as accidental or due to other causes than the method itself. Both teachers are fooling themselves. They are not trying to solve a problem but to support a conviction acquired in a more or less accidental way. The true problem-solver does not start with a bias but with an open mind. He is ready to consider any suggestion which comes to him, but only as something to be tested. He asks himself constantly ''Why?" He will discard an idea which seemed clever, if a fair test shows that it will not work. He will welcome criticism and will be critical himself of what seems at first to be a real discovery. To illustrate the point, let us suppose that a teacher has reported that a neighboring school has introduced a plan of supervised study. Home study is abandoned, the periods are lengthened, and each teacher is expected to devote half the period to supervision of pupils in preparing the new lesson. The teacher reporting the plan is enthusiastic about it and urges that it be adopted. The problem- solving teacher will not immediately take sides and offer superficial arguments for his position. He will suggest that the matter be studied. Perhaps a committee will be appointed to visit the other school, observe the work and talk with teachers and principal. On his return, he will report as chairman of the committee what he has learned about the plan. If, as is probable, he has found that there are valid arguments on both sides of the question, he may conclude that the method is not a satisfactory solution of the problem of teaching pupils to study, and will give his 360 THE TEACHER AS PROBLEM-SOLVER reasons for advising against a change, or he may consider it promising enough to be given a careful trial in one class. If the decision is adverse, our teacher will seek for some other solution of the problem. If a trial is decided upon, he will help to devise a method of testing the effect of the new plan in comparison with the prevailing method. Conclusion The aim of this book has been to help teachers to recog- nize their problems, to work them out, to formulate prin- ciples, and to organize these principles into a working philosophy of education — in short, to become professional, problem-solving teachers. Whether this aim has been realized must be left to the reader's judgment. REFERENCES Strayer, G. D., and Norsworthy, N., How to Teach, Chapter VII. La Rue, D. W., Psychology for Teachers, Chapter XII. McMurry, F. M., How to Study, Chapter DC. Moore, E. C, What is Education? Chapter I. INDEX Numbers in heavy-faced type refer to problems for which solutions are given in the text; numbers in italics refer to problems which are merely stated, to be solved by the reader; numbers in ordinary type refer to pages. Ability of pupils, variations in: see Individital Differences. Administrative officers, relations with: autocratic superintendent, 183-269; conscientious principal, 179-251 ; con- flict of authority, 186-27$', coopera- tion, 294-274, 195-274; criticism, 171^-251; disapproval of officer's procedure, 190-274, 792-274, iq3~ 274; discipline, 17-34, 18-35. 32-42, 34-51, 52-57; easy principal, 179- 251 ; factional controversy, 167- 237; frankness, 179-251; going over superintendent's head, 180-255 ; i new assignments, 181-260, 19J-274, ' tgB-275, 228-318; opposition to superintendent, 180-255, 1^9-274, 19(5-274; personal problems, 166- 229 ; preparation for opening school, 140-202 ; principles, 272 ; promotion, 126-176, 140-202; release from con- tract, 182-264 ; resentment over sup- posed personal injury, 187-27$ ; sending pupils to principal, 27-39, 184-273, 18S-273; suspicion of prejudice, 188-273 ; teacher who asks favors, J99-275 ; teacher who is not reappointed, 197-275. Aims, see Purpose. Algebra, value of, 81-113. Americanization, 2 1 6-303 . Appreciation: of beauty, 179-165; of music, 66-76, of poetry, 106-150. Arithmetic: ' correcting individual weaknesses, 105-146; in first grade, 72-95, 74-112 ; long division, 69-78 ; number combinations, 12/-166 ; variation of ability in, 128-1S2; wrong type of seat work, 144-210. Board of Education: appeal of organ- izations to, 54-114 ; appeal of parents to, 6-27, 83-114, 214-296, 221-316; appeal of teachers to, 9-28, 167-237, 180-255, 1^9-274; cooperation of teachers with, ^-27, K52-227; male teachers, 231-331 ; teachers' salaries, 231-331. Boy Scouts, 231-331. Child's attitude : principles, 73 Child nature: appetite, 158-227; boy problem, 231-331; bully, 40-54; first grade children, 72-95 ; girl who is "boy crazy", 36-54; imagination, 38-54; instinctive dislike, 55-70; 64-76, 68-77 ', kindergarten children, 31-41 ; older boys will not tell on each other, 34-51, 41-54; principles, 53; pugnacity, 32-42, 57-54; resentment toward injustice, 17-34, 20-38; re- sponse to confidence, 52-57; self- conscious child, 55-54; sullen child, 1-13; tattling, 57-54, 42-55 ; teasing, 32-42 ; timid child, 4^-56. Citizenship, training for: cooperation of parents and pupils needed, 215- 299, 216-303; democratic attitude, 55-70; fire prevention, 118; health, 155-220; high school curriculum, 52-114; many children leave school too early, 89-122, 216-303; ma- terial for third grade, 92-132 ; value of history, 71-91. See also Self- direction. College entrance requirements, i7- Compulsory education, 216-303. Cooperation: between teachers, 200- 277; with administrative officers, 167-237, 180-255, 181-260, J95-274; with parents, 153-21 5, 214-296, 215-299, 217-308; with pupils, 17- 34, 18-35, 33-45, 34-51. 104-144, 105-146; 147-210; with supervisors, 361 362 INDEX 166-229, 167-237, 168-244, ^75-249, l7<5-249, 177-249- Corporal punishment, see Punishment. Criticism : by administrative officers, 179-251, 186-2"/$; by educators, ^0-113, 5z-ii3; by parents, 6-27, 83-114, ^7-115, Q6-133, 153-215, 217-308, 220-316, 22Z-316; by pupils, 204-293 ; by supervisors, 73~io3, 121-166, I4Q-2I1, 167-237, Z70-248 ; by teachers, 70-86, 72-95, 86-iis, 99-133, 125-172, 126-176, 152-212, 166-229, 176-237, 168-244, 170-248, 174-249, 17^-249, 180- 255, 183-269, 18S-273, 180-274, 193-274, 200-277, 202-284, 203-286, 205-293, 210-294, 2J7-294, 2I2~ 294; of administration, 126-176, 183-269, 75^-274, 205-293, 270-294; of administrative officers, 180-255, 185-273, 1 Q 3-27 4 ; of course of study, 70-86, 72-95, ^0-113, 57-113, 83- 114, 86-11$, 57-115, 96-133, 99- 133 ; of examinations, 72-103, 277- 294; of method, 727-166, 200-277, 217-308; of pupils, 125-172; of school, 207-293, 220-316; of super- visors, 152-212, 166-229, 168-224, 770-248, 774-249, 775-249; of teachers, <5-27, 149-211, 153-215, 770-248, 179-251, 186-273, 202-284, 203-286, 204-293, 272-294, 227- 316; of textbooks, 7-91. Current events, P5-132. Course of study, see Subject matter. Curriculum, see Subject matter. Differentiation in course of study: arguments pro and con, 89-122; primary grades, 72-95; grammar grades, 124-170; junior high school, P5-I33; high school, 2-16, 95-132, 125-172, 752-183; different en- vironments, 700-133 ; obstacles, 707- 133 ; science for boys and girls, 97- 133; talented pupils, 757-183, 754- 184. Diploma : basis of award, 2-16 ; signi- ficance, 18. Discipline: beginner's difficulties, 202- 284; betting, 34-51, 65-76; boy who hates school, 16-32, 62-76; boy who won't try, 77-28; bully, 40-54; carelessness, 25-39 ; cheating, 2^^-40, 54-67, d7-75 ; child who interferes with others, 28-30; control of instinctive behavior, 32-43 ; co- operation with principal, 184-273, 185-273, 186-273; disorderly class, 17-34, 18-35, ■rp-38, 27-38, 27-39, 51- 56; fighting, 57-54; girl who is "boy crazy," 5(5-54; idleness, 140-202; in- jury of school property, 24-39, 43- 55, 52-57, 63-76 ; intolerance, 55-7P ; lazy, impudent truant, 1-13 ; lying, 55-54 ; impudence, 59-75 ; inatten- tion, 49-56 ; probable culprit, 20-38, 50-40; restless child, 25-39; self- conscious child, 55-54 ; selfish child, 31-41 ; smoking, 57-75 ; stubborn pupil, 56-74; talking out, 33-45, 46-55; tattling, 57-54, 42-55 ; tardi- ness, 15-31, 22-39 ; timid child, 48-56. Drawing, 75-113, 779-165, 757-183. Dull pupils, 75-29, 183-269. Economy of time : difficulty in covering course of study, 70-86, 137-186; eliminating waste, 138-190 ; living by program, 139-193 ; misdirected effort, 146-210, 747-210, 149-21 1 ; prepa- ration in advance, 140-202, 745- 210; principles, 208; teacher who is "swamped" with work, 139-193, 747-209, 745-211; waste of pupils' time, 742-209, 745-209, 744-209, 750—211. Education, purpose of, 25. Efficiency: definition, 757-211; prin- ciples, 194; scientific method, 231, 331 ; system, 139-193 • English composition: correction of errors, 775-165, X45-2ii; drill, 777- 165; foreign children, 123-167; grammar, 4-21 ; literary society, 55-70 ; real problems, 73-103. English literature: aims, 73-103, 106- 150 ; examination, 73-103 ; teaching a poem, 106-150; testing mastery of ideas, 73-103. INDEX 3^3 Examinations : affect teacher's freedom in choice of subject matter, go; cheating, 61-75; criticising an ex- amination, 73-103. Experience: measuring the value of, 231-331 ; learning by experience, 352. Experiment : developing self-direction, 200-277 ; economizing time, 140-202 ; effect of rapid promotion, 126-176; overcoming differences between high school and elementary school teachers, 203-286; "seUing" education, 231- 331- Expvdsion, 1-13. Fire prevention, 88-116. First grade: arithmetic, 74-112; course of study, 72-95 ; developing initiative, 5^-75 ; relation to kindergarten, pi- 131. Foreign children: attitude of other pupils, 68-77; language handicap, 123-167; modified course for, 100- 133; parental influence, 216-303. Frankness: between teacher and ad- ministrative officer, 179-251, 180- 255, 184-273 ; between teacher and supervisor, 166-229, 167-237, lyi- 249, 174-249- French, value of, 79-113. Geography: course of study, go-isx; essential facts, 70-86, ^5-114; proj- ects, 70-86 ; purpose of studying, 88 ; socialized recitation, 103-138; suit- able assignment for given grade, 70- 86 ; use of textbook, 70-86. Gossip: 167-237, 180-255, 20(5-293, 270-294, 2ii-2g4, 272-294. Grading of pupils: 5-27,75-28, 125- 172, 126-176, J50-183, 183-269. Graduation, 2-16. Grammar: aim in teaching, no; tests, in; value in elementary school, 4- 21. Habits: breaking bad habits, 42-55 to 47-56, 49-56, 105-146; drill, 50-56, 51-56; health, 155-220, 158-227; principles of habit formation, 53; pupils' habits reflect teacher's prac- tice, 74-29, 18-35, 27-38, 103-138. Health: children's dress, 154-217; classroom hygiene, 152-212 ; coopera- tion with parents, 153-215 ; effect of rapid promotion, 178; exercise, 154- 217; of teachers, 139-193, 759-227 to 163-228] principles, 226; sleep, 154-217; teacher's example, 154- 217; teacher's responsibility, 152- 212. 154-217, 7<54-228; translating knowledge into habits, 154-217, 165- 228. High School: course of study, 71-91, 76-112, 7P-II3, 81-113, 82-114, 83-114, 87-115, 88-116, 89-122, p5- 132, 97-133, 9P-133; discipline, 29- 40, 34-51, 36-54, 61-75, <^5-76, 227- 317; examinations, 73-103; extra- curricular activities, 198-275; func- tion of, 17, 18, 75-29, 125-172; graduation, 2-16; ideals, 55-70, 66- 76, 68-77; individual differences, 125-172, 729-182, 752-183; men teachers, 231-331 ; methods, 74-29, 71-91, 104-144, 106-150, 170-164, 774-164, 722-166; not understood by elementary teachers, 203-286; teacher's attitude, 75-28, 125-172, 229-322; withdrawal from, 7-27, 16-32. History : purpose of teaching, 71-91 ; selection of material, 71-91 ; wrong method, 709-163. Home and school association, 217-308, 225-316. Home environment: degrading home, 1-13; foreign home, 216-303; un- hygienic home, 153-215; teacher should understand, 13, 123-167. Home study, 138-190. Ideals: control of conduct, 53-60; cooperation among teachers, 201-281, 203-286; democracy, 55-70, 64-76, 68-77 ; fair-play, 54-67 ; good taste, 66-76; health, 154-217, 155-220, 158-227, 164-228; honesty, S4-67, d7-65 ; principles relating to, 74 ; professional spirit, 230-326; self- 3^4 INDEX control, 32-42, 33-45, 67-76; teacher's chief duty to develop, 66, 66-76 ; need of common ideals, 200- 277 ; use of history in developing, 71-91 : use of literature in develop- ing, 106-150. Individual differences : group teaching, 152-183: foreign children, 123-167; in arithmetic, 105-146, 111-164, 122-182 ; in handwork, /27-182 ; in mathematics, 1 10-164; in music and drawing, 131-183 ; in reading, 138-190; in science, 129-182; in spelling, 105-163, 125-182; in tem- perament, 15; mass teaching inef- fective, 124-170; principles, 181; pupils who are below "high school standard," 125-172; rapid promo- tion, 126-176; relation to promotion, 130-183; talented pupil, 154-184; variation in lesson assignments, 132- 183 ; variation in a single grade, 72- 95, 124-170. Industrial arts, 75-112, 102-134. Interest : arousing interest in overcom- ing deficiencies in arithmetic, 105- 146; developing interest in poetry, 106-150; relation of repetition to, 117; more effective than domination, 214-296; variation in children's interests calls for differentiation of subject matter, 128; test of ap- propriateness of subject matter, 4-21. Junior high school, Q8-133. Kindergarten : developing initiative, 55-75 ; importance of, 8-27 ; punish- ment, 25-39 ; spoiled child, 31-41 ; teaching fire prevention, 117; timid child, 45-56; transition to first grade, 91-13 1. Language : correcting errors of speech, 45-55, 115-165 ; grammar in the elementary school, 4-21 ; problem of the foreign child, 123-167 ; rules and definitions ineffective, / 17-165. See also English composition. Latin, value of, 50-113. Leaving school: distaste for school, 16-32 ; exploitation of children, 216- 303; for financial advantage, 7-27; from the high school, 125-172, 231- 331; variation in length of school career calls for differentiation in course of study, 128. Lesson assignments: pupil partici- pation, 104-144; too much written work, 141-209; variation in accord- ance with individual needs, 124-170, /52-183, 137-186, 138-190. Lesson plans, 69-78, 75-113, 95-132, 107-155, 744-210, 1^5-228, 175-249. Manners, training in, 217-308. Manual training, see Industrial Aris. Marks: claim of unfairness, 55-54; threat of "zero," 44-55; unre- liability, 231-331; use as incentive, 122-166. Mathematics: wrong method, 710-164, 150-21 1. See also Arithmetic ani Algebra. Measurement : of ability, 126-176, 183- 269 ; of results of teaching, 231-331. Memory : avoid examinations which are exclusive tests of, 73-103; value of forgotten knowledge, 55-114. Men teachers, 231-331. Methods : conflict of opinion in re- gard to, 166-229, 172-249; drill, 105-146; English literature, 106- 150; experiment the best test of, 166-229; geography, 70-86; group teaching, 124-170; handwork, 102- 134 ; history, 72-95 ; individual progress, 124-170, 138-190; prin- ciples, 162; project method, 107- 155 ; relation to purpose, 102-134, J19-165, 120-165; socialized reci- tation, 103-138; spelling, J05-163; testing ability in composition, 73- 103 ; transforming the dull recitation, 104-144. Motivation : in arithmetic, 69-78, logr 146 ; in composition, 73-103 ; in French, 79-113; in geography, 120- 165; in high school, 104-144; lack of, ZJ-28, 16-32, 102-134, 742-209; wrong motive, 775-165. mDEX 3^S National Education Association, 230- 326. Nature study, Q4-132. Parents, relations with: angry parent, 215-299, 220-316; conflict of ideals, 7-27, 215-299, 216-303, 2/^-315; cooperation, 16-32, 140-202, 164- 228, 224-316; domineering parent, 214-296, 217-308; foreigners, 123- 167, 216-303 ; meddlesome parent, 217-308; parental indifference to child's welfare, 216-303 ; parent who accepts child's version, 221-316; parent who combats school influence, 153-215, 214-296; parent who con- demns school methods, ^5-114, 57- iiS, 116-165, 217-308, 222-316; parent who wants favors, 2x5-315, 21^316, 225-316; principles, 314; xmreasonable parent, 6-27, 214-296; when teacher is in the wrong, 15-30, 215-299, 22(5-3 1 6, 227-217. Parent-teacher association, see Home and School Association. Penmanship, jj-28, 222-316. Philosophy of education, -24, 356. Prejudice : against foreigners, 68-77 ; against negroes, 155-184, 225-316; against new duties, 180-255, 181- 260; against new ideas, 153-215; against new methods, p-28, 62, 132- 183, /55-183, 166-229, 168-244, 200- 277 ; against new plans, 53-60, 126- 176, 18Q-274 ; against people, 55-70, 201-281, 20(5-293, 167-237, 187-273, 188-273; against reduction of va- cation, 140-202, 236-3/^g, 205-293 ; against teachers of another depart- ment, 203-286, 211-294; in favor of one's own interests, ^0-113. Principal, see Administrative officers. Principles: general, 25; child's at- titude, self-direction, ideals, 73 ; child nature and habit formation, 53 ; economy of time, 208; health, 226; method, 162 ; professional growth, 347 ; relations with administrative officers, 272; relations with other teachers, 293 ; relations with parents. 3x4; relations with supervisors, 247; rules and punishments, 37 ; subject matter, iii, 131 ; variation in pupils' ability, 181. Problems : how to solve, 358 ; learning to teach by studying problems, 352, teacher who has no problems, 235-' 349, 351- Professional growth: broadening field of interest, 228-318 ; challenge of the bigger job, 228-318; education as pubUc service, 231-331 ; education as a science, 229-322, 231-331; financ- ing professional education, 231-331; "jack of all trades," 241-350; joy in teaching, 229-322; keep out of the ruts, 228-318; learning from others, 259-349 ; narrow view of the subject specialist, 229-322; participation in professional associations, 230-326; principles, 347; professional in- fluence, 230-326; recognition of problems, 255-349 ; "rule of thumb " teacher, 225-348, 353 ; salaries, 231- 331 ; standing of profession, 231-331 ; teacher who is "stale," 252-348; temporary teacher, 240-350; time for professional study, 139-193, 234- 349, 236-34^ ; understanding problem of education, 229-322; use of va- cations, 25(5-349. Profession of teaching : calls for mutual helpfulness, 201-281 ; depends on scientific method, 231-331 ; requires evening work, 200; should exert a national influence, 230-326; stand- ing affected by teacher's conduct, 182-264. See also Professional growth. Projects: fire prevention, 121; for fifth grade, 168-244 ; for first grade, 95; health club, 225; in geography, 90, 168-244; in handwork, 137; in self-control, 33-45, 47-56, 52-57; study club, 104-144. Project method: what it is, 107-iSS; essential idea purpose, 157; is it a method? 158; supervisor's part, 168-244; teacher's part, iS9, 168- 244. 366 INDEX Promotion: criticism of teacher's judgment, 195-274; factor of ma- turity, 126-176; of backward pupils, 5-27, 183-269; parents' complaints, d-27, 220-316; rapid promotion, 124-170, 126-176, 138-190; relation to individual differences, 130-1S3 ; to high school, 125-172. Publicity: newspaper agitation, 180- 255, 215-299 ; salary campaign, 230- 326; "selling" education to the public, 231-331. Punishment: avoid enforced idleness, 38, 25-39, 2(5-39; avoid forced apology, 52-57, 59-75 ; corporal punishment, 13, 215-299; don't punish a whole class, 17-34, i9~3^ ', expulsion, 13 ; keeping pupils after school, 18-35; principles, 38; re- venge, 1-13 ; should be just, 15-30, 18-35, 20-38, 50-40; should fit offence, 21-38; should fit purpose, 15-30, 16-32, 28-39, 29-40, 32-42, 54-67; should not need frequent repetition, 18-35. Pupil's ability, see Individual differences. Pupil's attitude : boy who hates school, 16-32, 62-76; during recitation, 104-145 ; pupil who doesn't see the use of a requirement, Ji-28; pupil who is at war with the world, 13 ; toward cheating, 54-67 ; toward in- justice, 52-57 ; toward other children, 55-70, 64-76, 68-77; toward re- sponsibility, 53-60 ; toward telling on another, 34-51, 4^-54- Purpose: essential element in project method, 107-155 ; guide to conduct, 66, 71, 125-172, 153-215, 236, 214- 296, 215-299; of course of study, 137-186; of education, 25, 357; of teaching grammar, 1 10 ; of teaching handwork, 102-134; o^ teaching =+ory, 71-91; of teaching poetry, -0-150. Reading: problem of the foreign child, 123-167; selection of material, 12- 28 ; standards in first grade, 103 ; teacher's reading, 4-21, 33-45, 149- 211, 139-193, 229-322, 254-349; time wasted in oral reading, 138-190. Relations with other teachers : barrier between high school and elementary school, 203-286; conference on personal problems, JO-28, 154-217, 179-251, 229-322,230-326, 231-331; conference on school problems, 1-13, 2-16, 4-21, p-28, 16-32, 53-60, 69- 78, 70-86, 72-95, 88-116, 89-122, po-131, 103-138, 106-150, 107-155, 126-176, 155-183, J55-184, 140-202, 167-237, 168-244,228-318; coopera- tion, 5-27, 200-277, 275-295; ex- clusive teacher, 209-293 ; fault- finding, 212-294; helping the begin- ner, 202-284; homesick teacher, 208- 293 ; interest in each other's work, 200-277, 202-284; jealousy, 201- 281, 204-293, 201-294; opposing public sentiment, 205-293 ; partisan- ship, 207-293, 2JZ-294; prejudice, 20(5-293; principles, 292. Reports, 180-255. Resignation, 166-229, 182-264, 231- 331- Responsibility, see Teacher^s respon- sibility. Retardation, 5-27, 124-170, 183-269. Rules: inflexible rules dangerous, 15- 30, 22-39, 25-39, principles relating to, 37- Salaries: attitude of public, 231-331; relation to demand and supply, 231- 331 ; jealousy in regard to, 270-294; payment according to merit, 263; work of the N. E. A., 230-326. Self-control, see Self-direction. Self -direction : development of, 3-20, 32-42, 33-45, 39-SA, 46-55, 47-56, 53-60, 5^-75, 104-144, 107-155, 138-190, 200-277; more effective than domination, 17-34, 52-57, 60- 75, <57-75, 67-76, 102-134, 147-210, 217-308; principles, 73. Self-reliance, see Self -direction. Socialized recitation: genuine and counterfeit forms contrasted, 103- 138; relation to project method, 107-155. INDEX 367 Spelling: fiction of the "good old days," 217-308 ; minimum essentials, ^<5-ii5; wrong method, 105-163. Standards: "high school standard," 125-172; of discipline, 2/2-294; of promotion, 130-183; proper standard the pupil's best, 2-16; variable standard, 72-95. Standard tests : use in improving work in arithmetic, 105-146; use in measuring results of teaching, 231- 331- Subject matter: algebra, 81-113; appropriateness of material for vari- ous grades, 4-21, 69-78, 116, po-131, 92-132, p6-iss, 9Q-133, 229-322 ; arithmetic, 69-78, 74-112, 77-113; citizenship, 82-114, 84-114., 92-132; current events, 95-132 ; diflferentia- tion, 89-122, 97-133, 95-133; draw- ing, 75-113; first grade, 72-95, qi- 131; French, 79-113; geography, 70-86, 55-114, 90-131, 103-138, 137-186; high school, 7<5-i32, 57- 115,^5-132; history, 71-91 ; kinder- garten, 9Z-131; Latin, 50-113; literature, 73-103 ; nature study, Q4- 132 ; not an end in itself, 102 ; principles for selection of material, 119, 137-186; principles relating to, III, 131; reading, 12-28; relation to project method, 107-155 ; science, P7-I33, PP-133, /00-133, 701-133; spelling, 5<5-ii5; teacher's responsi- biUty for selecting, 69-78, 71-91 ; value of forgotten knowledge, 55- 114; what should everybody know? 54-114. Superintendent, see Administrative of- ficers. Supervised study, 358, 359. Supervision, value of, 166-229, 17S- 249. Supervisors, relations with: attitude toward criticism, 73-103, 102-134, 166-229, 170-249, 772-249; con- flicting ideas, 774-164, 752-183, 755- 183, 152-212, 166-229, J72-249; cooperation, 88-116, 167-237, 168- 244, 16Q-24S, 172-249, 775-249, 176- 249, 777-249 ; frankness, 168-244, 769-248,777-249; in developing new work, 168-244; is supervision nec- essary? 166-229, 775-249; jealousy of supervisor, 167-237; justifying selection of subject matter, 72-28, 7d-ii2, 77-113, 97-133, 100-133, 707-133 ; misunderstanding, 168- 244, 774-249 ; principles, 247 ; self- consciousness, 166-229; supervisor who bosses, 775-249. Tardiness: of teacher, 179-251; rules and punishments, 15-30, 22-39. Taxes : public attitude toward support of schools, 231-331. Teacher: should be scientific, 26, 352; should have confidence in himself, 231-331 ; should not be diverted from his purpose, 214-296; should not take a personal view, 26, 5-27, 9-28, 70-28, 32-42, 153-215, 214- 296, 215-299, 228-318; should set a good example, 154-217. Teachers: relations with other. See Relations with other teachers. Teacher's attitude : toward administra- tive oflScers, 179-251; toward col- leagues, 200-277 to 275-294; toward criticism, 102-134, 152-212, 179-251 ; toward extra-curricvdar activities, 795-275 ; toward handicapped pupils, 75-28, 74-29, 123-167, 125-172, 7<54-228; toward his professional career, 231-331; toward new plans, 9-28, 53-60, 126-176, 180-255, 759- 274, 790-274; toward professional ideals, 70-28; toward pupils' delin- quencies, 1-13, 34-51, 4P-S6, 59-75; toward supervisors, 166-229, 167- 237, 774-249; toward transfer, 181- 260; toward unreasonable parent, 153-215, 214-296, 215-299. Teachers' meetings, 13, 2-16, jf:'''6o, 72-95, 88-116, 107-155, I2feai.76, 140-202, 200-277, 201-281. Teachers' responsibility: for construc- tive criticism, 795-274; for con- tributing to the influence of the profession, 230-326; for helping to 36S INDEX settle a controversy, 167-237 ; for developing self-control, 4-21 ; for get- ting a thorough professional equip- ment, 234-349, 240-350, 241-350; for health of children, 152-212, 157- 227; for his own health, 159-227, 160-22'/ ; for hygienic conditions of school, 22S-163 ; for keeping a con- tract, 18.2-264; for keeping children in school, 216-303 ; for participating in public affairs, 231-331 ; for re- fraining from public criticism of colleagues, 180-255; for reporting defects to person responsible, 180- 255 ; for selecting subject matter, 12-28,69-78, 76-113; for setting a good example, 154-217; for sharing in school administration, 194-274-, for success of the whole school system, 8-27, 181-260, 228-318; for acquaint- ance with pupils' homes, 224-316; for welfare of pupils, 183-269. Textbooks: deficiencies of, 69-78, 71- 91; selection of, 77-113; use in geography, 70-86. Time, see Economy of time. Transfer: of teacher to another grade, iQi-274, 228-318 ; to another school, 10-28, 163-228, 179-251, 181-260. Truancy, 13. Variation in ability of pupils, see Individual differences. Visiting schools : to establish an entente between high school and elementary school teachers, 203-286 ; to study a method, 4-21, 103-138; teacher who gains nothing by visiting, 239-349, Withdrawals, see Leaving school. Working papers, 216-303.