V V 7 ^*^ V^V* *V^"V* "v* ^♦* ^"^ : -lilr- : ****** . J§§|": •* FRANKLIN JOHNSON, D. D. Professor in the University of Chicago /<^ or c^v. %Ul 896 , , 0«K PHILADELPHIA AMERICAN BAPTIST PUBLICATION SOCIETY MDCCCXCVI k 3^ & 2g 5*7 Copyright 1895 by the American Baptist Publication Society ®1CI THE MEMORY OF MY FATHER Rev. HEZEKIAH JOHNSON CONTENTS Introductory, ix I. The Septuagint Version, i II. Quotations from Memory, 29 III. Fragmentary Quotations, 62 IV. EXEGETICAL PARAPHRASE, 74 V. Composite Quotations, 92 VI. Quotations of Substance, 103 VII. Allegory, 116 VIII. Quotations by Sound, 139 I. Change of Reference not involving any material change of the words quoted, or of their meaning, 140 II. Change of Reference effected by an intentional change of the language quoted, . . . . 1 54 III. Change of Reference produced without altera- tion of the language, but by the use of it in a new sense, 167 vii viii CONTENTS IX. Double Reference, *. . . 186 I. The Case Stated, 186 II. The Debate, 186 III. The Usage of Literatures, 198 IV. How Double Reference is Indicated, . . . 222 I. By Means of Overflow of Language, . . . 222 II. By Means of Types, 224 V. Double Reference in Scripture, 231 VI. Final Propositions, 331 X. Illogical Reasoning, 336 XL Rabbinic Interpretation, 372 INTRODUCTORY The principal difficulties which have been found with the quotations of the New Testament from the Old may be stated as follows : i. The writers of the New Testament, instead of translating their quotations directly from the Hebrew, and thus presenting us with exact transcriptions of the original text, have taken them generally from the Sep- tuagint version, which is not free from faults. 2. Their quotations from the Septuagint are often verbally inexact, *and their variations from this version are seldom of the nature of corrections, since they seem usually to have quoted from memory. 3. They sometimes employ quotations so brief and fragmentary that the reader cannot readily determine the degree of support, if any, which the quotation gives to the argument. 4. They sometimes alter the language of the Old Testament with the obvious design of aiding their argument. 5. They sometimes present in the form of a single quotation an assemblage of phrases or sentences drawn from different sources. 6. In a few instances they give us, apparently as quotations from the Old Testament, sentences which it does not contain. X INTRODUCTORY 7. They regard some historical passages of the Old Testament as allegories, and thus draw from them in- ferences of which the original writers knew nothing. 8. They often " quote by sound, without regard to the sense." 9. They habitually treat as relating to the Messiah and his kingdom passages written with reference to persons who lived and events which happened centu- ries before the Christian era. 10. When they understand the passage which they quote, they often argue from it in an inconclusive and illogical manner, so that the evidence which they ad- duce does not prove the statement which they seek to support by means of it. 11. They deal with the Old Testament after the manner of the rabbis of their time, which was uncriti- cal and erroneous, rather than as men inspired by the Holy Spirit to perceive and express the exact truth. I present the difficulties thus broadly in the begin- ning, that they may be in the mind of every reader as he pursues the discussions which follow. I shall ex- amine them in the light of general literature. I am far from consenting to all the conclusions reached by Matthew Arnold in his •' Literature and Dogma " ; yet, with him, I think it just to regard the writers of the Bible as the creators of a great literature, and to judge and interpret them by the laws of literature. They have produced all the chief forms of literature, as his- tory, biography, anecdote, proverb, oratory, allegory, poetry, and fiction. They have needed, therefore, all the resources of human speech, its sobriety and scien- tific precision on one page, its rainbow hues of fancy INTRODUCTORY XI and imagination on another, its fires of passion on yet another. They could not have moved and guided men in the best manner had they denied themselves the utmost force and freedom of language ; had they refused to employ its wide range of expressions, whether exact or poetic; had they not borrowed without stint its many forms of reason, of terror, of rapture, of hope, of joy, of peace. So also, they have needed the usual freedom of literary allusion and citation, in order to commend the gospel to the judgment, the tastes, and the feelings of their readers. Bearing all this in memory, I shall inquire whether in their quotations from the Old Testament the writers of the New have disregarded the laws of literature. These laws are of two kinds : first, those which be- long to all literatures of all ages and nations, like that of truth, or that of beauty ; and secondly, those which change with season and clime, the dictates of eva- nescent or local taste and custom, like the absence of rhyme from ancient poetry, the parallelism of Hebrew poetry, or the alliteration of English poetry. In quot- ing from the Old Testament, do the writers of the New violate the fundamental law of all literature, which is that of truth ? Or do they observe this, and do the accusations made against them proceed from forgetful- ness, either of the laws of literature in general, or of temporary laws, the literary custom, prevalent in their age ? The answer will be found in the following pages, where I have sought to secure for the writers of the New Testament a candid hearing in the court of the republic of letters, a commonwealth of which, to say the least, they are illustrious citizens. Xll INTRODUCTORY My argument turns partly upon the modes of ex- pression which all great writers of all languages and all ages adopt by instinct as the most convenient means of transferring their thoughts to others. It also turns often upon the special modes of expression employed in Greek literature, since the New Testament was written in Greek ; and hence something must be said here concerning the acquaintance of the authors of the New Testament with Greek literature. I shall limit the inquiry to the Apostle Paul and the writer of the Epistle to the Hebrews, for it is with their quo- tations that the chief difficulties are found. Little, however, need be said about the unknown writer of the Epistle to the Hebrews, for, though his style is far from that of Plato or Demosthenes, his work shows him to have been a master of the Greek tongue in its literary forms. He uses it not lamely, partially, stammeringly, but with such ease and power as few of the Greeks themselves attained. It has been well said 1 that his words are "martialed grandly," and "move with the tread of an army, or with the swell of a tidal wave." If, as is now generally con- jectured, he was Apollos, his skill in the use of Greek is explained by the notice of him in the Acts : 2 Apol- los was " born at Alexandria, an eloquent man, and mighty in the Scriptures." "Born at Alexandria," he would use Greek as his native tongue. It was pre- cisely at Alexandria that Greek literature was most sedulously studied in the apostolic age, and learned Jews were not behind others in their admiration of it, i By the Rev. William T. C. Hanna. 2 18 : 24. INTRODUCTORY Xlll as is proved by the writings of Philo, every page of which is saturated with it. Moreover, the " eloquence " of this man was exhibited in Greek, the language of Ephesus and Corinth, where we find him preaching. The Greek of the epistle is of an Alexandrian cast ; and its eloquence, which is very great, is that of an orator, rather than an essayist, for the words are often chosen for their sonorous quality, and the whole work is marked by a solemn pomp of sound, by resonant and harmonious sentences, so that the reader is often tempted to think of it as music rather than as lan- guage. It would be as absurd to suppose that one unacquainted with the best Greek literature wrote this epistle, equally wonderful for its language and its thought, as to suppose that one unacquainted with the best English Literature wrote Burke's orations or Coleridge's "Aids to Reflection." The Greek of the Apostle Paul is not the same in kind with that of this writer. It is ordinarily less even and sustained, and more broken, tumultuous, and eager ; yet at times it rises higher, and attains unex- ampled tenderness and beauty, as in i Cor. 13, which is an exquisite poem, a lyric of love to God and man. It has been said that the Greek of the apostle is not his own, but that of an amanuensis, who translated his thought into Greek ; but a little consideration will show that this supposition is erroneous. He must have employed various amanuenses, as his epistles were writ- ten at intervals through many years and at many dif- ferent places. But his style, though bearing marks here of haste and there of leisure, or here of mid-life and there of advancing years, is always that of the Apostle XIV INTRODUCTORY Paul. This could not have been the case had his many different amanuenses been also his translators ; each one would have given us his own peculiar style. Furthermore, this apostle on several occasions quotes from minor Greek poets (Acts 17 : 28 ; Titus 1:12). A writer familiar with the minor poets of a people is not ignorant of the major ; if he has mastered his Cowper and his Burns, so as to have them at hand for ready use in extemporaneous speech, he has not neglected his Milton and his Shakespeare. The words which Paul quotes in his address at Athens he attributes to " certain of the Greek poets " ; he uses the plural, and thus shows that he has read them in two authors, Aratus and Cleanthes. Yet again ; in this addresss he follows in a striking manner the order of thought which he found in Aratus ; the poet says : Zeus fills the haunts of men, The streets, the marts ; Zeus fills the seas, the shores, The harbors ; everywhere our need is Zeus. We also are his offspring. The apostle says : In him we live and move and have our being ; as certain even of your own poets have said, For we also are his off- spring. Both place the thought of our own life in God imme- diately before that of his paternal relation in us. To say that the apostle picked up the words of Aratus and Cleanthes in the street, where they were a commonplace phrase, that he used the plural instead of the singular only by accident, and that he followed INTRODUCTORY XV the sequence of thought found in Aratus without being aware of it, is to resort to such desperate measures as amount to a confession of error. Again. The Apostle Paul knew that he was ap- pointed by God to carry the gospel to the Gentiles, and it is incredible that he should not wish to become acquainted with Gentile modes of thought and speech, so as to be prepared the better to accomplish his min- istry. The missionary to any people does not consider himself adequately equipped for his office till he has learned as much as possible of their books ; and since such a study is the dictate of ordinary common sense we ought not to suppose that it was neglected by the apostle who was emphatically "a wise master-builder." Lastly. He had abundant opportunity. He was born in a Greek-speaking city, and spent his early boy- hood there. His father had lived long enough in the Gentile world to acquire Roman citizenship. Thus Greek was his native tongue. It is true that he went to Jerusalem early ; but he returned to Tarsus after his conversion, and passed years in it before his severer labors began. Thus Godet writes 1 : It has often been denied that the quotations from Greek poets which are to be found in St. Paul's writings are proofs of his having had a certain degree of Greek culture ; and to sup- port this denial it has been asserted that he was too young when brought to Jerusalem, and there educated, to have previ- ously imbibed the elements of profane literature. But those who maintain this view forget this sojourn of Paul at Tarsus, when he must at least have been considerably over thirty, since before the age of thirty he would hardly have been sent on a mission to Damascus as delegate of the Sanhedrin. During the 1 " Studies on the Epistles," p. 4. XVI INTRODUCTORY few years which he now spent with his relatives, waiting until God should call him to his work among the Gentiles, he had time to acquire a good knowledge of their literature, and no doubt tried to do so, in order to be more fit for the work which lay before him. The literary resources of his native town, at that time a rival of Athens and Alexandria, would therefore, no doubt be made use of by him as far as this was possible for a Jew. At least six, 1 and perhaps eight years elapsed between the conversion of Saul of Tarsus and his call to An- tioch by Barnabas, when the vast activities of his min- istry to the Gentiles began. The interval must have been one of preparation. These arguments are sufficient, in the absence of counter evidence, and henceforth the burden of proof is on the other side. Is there any evidence that the apos- tle was not acquainted with Greek literature ? There is none whatever. If there is none, then his skill as a writer of Greek, his quotations from Greek poets, his birth of Greek-speaking parents and in a Greek city, his abundant opportunities to study the works of the great Greek authors, his call by God to preach to the Gen- tiles in Greek, his amazing activity of mind and body, his scrupulous care to take every advantage of circum- stances in presenting the Cross to the Gentile world ; all these things join to render it impossible to doubt that he was well acquainted with Greek literature. It is not necessary to say, however, as some have done on these grounds, that he was a master of Greek literature, a specialist, an expert. In order to save space I have merely referred to the See the chronological table in Farrar's " St. Paul," Vol. II., p. 624. INTRODUCTORY XV11 longer passages of Scripture which I have discussed, and have not produced them in full, and it will be neces- sary at times for the reader to turn to these in his Bible and examine them in the light of their context, that he may weigh my argument intelligently. It will be rightly inferred that my plan does not em- brace the discussion of all the quotations, but only of those with which some difficulty has been found. I think I have omitted none that have been called in question by any recent scholarly writer with whose work I am acquainted. I have paid special attention to the criti- cisms of Kuenen in his " Prophets and Prophecy in Israel," because they are the boldest and the ablest expression of negative criticism on this subject. I have also kept in view the works of Dopke and Toy. So far as I am aware, this is the first attempt ever made to compare the quotations of the New Testament from the Old with those of general literature. I have no doubt that, laboring in a field so vast and so wholly untrodden, I may have erred in certain minor details of my work. But I think that my main conclusions will not be disproved, for I have sought to render my cita- tions from ancient and modern literature so abundant that no one can call in question the chief statements which they support. I have also sought to make them so clear that any person may verify them for himself. I have kept before my mind the wants of the reader acquainted only with English, and have avoided, as far as possible, technicalities which he could not appreci- ate or weigh. I have used throughout my work the Revised version of the Bible, except where I have said that I cite from some other .version. In a few in- XVlii INTRODUCTORY stances I have followed the American revisers where they differ from the English. In quoting from the Greek and Latin writers, I have availed myself of approved translations wherever I could, and I hope that this general acknowledgment of my indebtedness will be deemed sufficient, and that thus I shall be freed from the necessity of encumbering my pages with a multitude of footnotes of no value to the reader. I have compared the translation with the original in almost every case, that there might be no doubt of its substantial accuracy. I have drawn spe- cially from Bryant's " Homer," Jowett's " Plato," and Goodwin's "Plutarch." I have thought of two methods of treating the dif- ficulties which I have stated. One would be to take up the quotations as they occur in the New Testament and weigh in turn the objections brought against each. This would possess the advantage of a well-recognized order in the succession of the books and chapters and verses. But inasmuch as the same objection is often made to a score of the quotations, it would have to be presented and discussed many times, and the repeti- tion would be wearisome. Moreover, as the reader will perceive on advancing farther in this study, the dis- cussion of each objection is so voluminous that it can- not be given more than once. I have chosen, therefore, a second method, and shall discuss the difficulties in turn, and shall take up the quotations as they are brought forward by certain critics to illustrate these difficulties. This method, however, is subject to a serious disadvantage. It frequently occurs that sev- eral difficulties are found with one and the same quota- INTRODUCTORY XIX tion, and hence it becomes necessary to consider the passage in several different chapters, so that the entire discussion of it can be followed only by turning to several places. I have endeavored to modify this dis- advantage, as far as possible, by abundant cross refer- ences. For invaluable assistance in the preparation of this book I am indebted to my wife, and to my son, Frank- lin Johnson, Jr. Franklin Johnson. University of Chicago, October, 1895. THE QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT FROM THE OLD THE SEPTUAGINT VERSION THE quotations of the New Testament from the Old are not usually exact translations of the Hebrew ; the majority of them are drawn from the Greek version called the Septuagint, and follow this where it agrees with the original, and also where it departs from it. Less frequently they adhere to the Hebrew and abandon the Septuagint. In some instances, finally, they abandon both as far as mere language is concerned. Some of the quotations belong in part to one of these classes, and in part to another or to others. The proportion of quotations from the Septuagint is stated thus by Kuenen, 1 whose argument I am about to consider : A German scholar, who has subjected the whole of the cita- tions in the epistles of Paul to a very exact examination, comes to the conclusion that an unacquaintance with the Septuagint is shown in only two of the eighty-four, while of the remaining eighty-two there are only twelve which vary essentially from this translation. Another, whose book is itself a continuous 1 " Prophets and Prophecy in Israel," p. 455. 2 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT proof that he would gladly give a different testimony, begins by acknowledging that "the Old Testament quotations are for the most part either borrowed word for word from the Septuagint, or at least agree with that translation. The passages from the Hebrew text form a minority which is hardly worth noticing." Turpie, 1 on careful examination, finds that the writers of the New Testament, even when they have quoted in a general way from the Septuagint version, have de- parted from it somewhat in thirty-six per cent, of their quotations, have altered it to a less accordance with the Hebrew in nearly twenty-eight per cent., and to a closer accordance in nearly four per cent., and have kept it unaltered in not quite thirty-three per cent. The ma- jority of these variations are the result of memory- quoting, and will be accounted for in our next chapter ; at present we have to consider only the fact that the Septuagint was used by the writers of the New Testa- ment as the basis of their quotations. The first of all the arguments adduced by Kuenen to prove that the writers of the New Testament mis- take in their exegesis of the Old, is drawn from this prevalent use of the Septuagint, and I shall permit him to state it here in his own way : If now the Greek translation were an accurate reproduction of the original, or if, where it varies, it followed a better text than that which has been preserved to us in the manuscripts and edi- tions, this use of it would be nothing surprising, or would even testify to the accuracy of the New Testament writers. But the contrary is true. In the two hundred and seventy-five passages of the New Testament which contain citations from the Old, of course only a comparatively small part of the Old occurs. Yet 1 " The Old Testament in the New." THE SEPTUAGINT VERSION 3 we notice more than one divergence of the Septuagint from the original, which either is of very doubtful value or merits distinct disapproval, whether it be that the translator had an incorrect text before him, or that he did not understand his original, and therefore gave a wrong rendering of it. The rest of the argument consists of examples to show that the faults of the Septuagint are not always amended when the writers of the New Testament quote it, but are often transferred to their pages without no- tice. I admit this, and hence need not reproduce the proofs which Kuenen has collected. In only a few instances, however, does Kuenen claim that the New Testament writers have gained any ad- vantage in argument by quoting the inexact translation of the Septuagint, instead of making an exact transla- tion for themselves ; and in all these examples he is mistaken, as I shall now show. One is the quotation of Isa. 59 : 20, 21 and 27 : 9, in Rom. 11 : 26, 2J. Isa. 59 : 20, 21. A redeemer shall come to Zion, and unto them that turn from trangression in Jacob, saith the Lord. And as for me, this is my cov- enant with them. Isa. 27 : 9. By this shall the iniquity of Jacob be purged, and this is all the fruit of taking away his sin. Rom. 11 : 26, 27. There shall come out of Zion the Deliverer ; He shall turn away ungod- liness from Jacob : And this is my covenant unto them, When I shall take away their sins. The quotation in the epistle is thus composite, being 4 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT formed of two different passages from the prophet. The ancient custom of quoting in this manner will be considered in our fifth chapter. There are three marked changes in the quotation : First, the prophet says "a redeemer shall come to Zion " ; while the apostle quotes him as saying " out of Zion." However, even Kuenen does not complain of this, and Toy writes : " No additional Messianic sense is gained by the alteration." I pass it by, therefore, as of no significance. This first change, which is confessedly without sig- nificance, is made by the apostle himself. The second is made by the Septuagint, and is accepted by the apostle because it does not affect his argument in any way. The prophet says the " deliverer shall come to them that turn from transgression," but the Septua- gint, followed by the apostle, " he shall turn away un- godliness from " the people. That the change does not affect the argument of the apostle will be apparent if we state the argument and then look back at the orig- inal passage. The argument is that " all Israel shall be saved," or in other words, that the Jews in general shall turn from sin and accept the Messiah as their Re- deemer. This is also the teaching of the prophet in the text quoted and in the context. Going back to the eighteenth verse of the chapter quoted from, we find a prediction of judgments: "According to their deeds, accordingly he will repay, fury to his ad- versaries, recompense to his enemies ; to the islands he will repay recompense." In the next verse the result of this interposition of God is portrayed ; it is a gen- eral turning of the world to the true God : " And they THE SEPTUAGINT VERSION 5 shall fear the name of Jehovah from the west, and his glory from the rising of the sun. When the enemy shall come in like a flood, the spirit of Jehovah shall drive him away." That this prediction refers to the com- ing of the world to Jehovah is held by interpreters in general, among whom I may mention Cheyne, Hender- son, Alexander, Knobel, and Delitzsch, the last of whom paraphrases it as follows : " In all quarters of the globe will fear of the name and of the glory of Jeho- vah become naturalized among the nations of the world." Therefore the prophet is looking forward into the Messianic age. Then follows the promise quoted by the New Testament writer : " A redeemer shall come to Zion, and unto them that turn from transgression in Jacob." That those who " turn from transgression in Jacob" are the Jewish people in general, and not a small remnant, is evident from the preceding verse, which foretells the conversion of the world. There- fore the change made by the Septuagint and not cor- rected by the apostle renders the passage neither more nor less a prophecy of the gathering of the Jews into the church ; and it is as such alone that he uses it. Kuenen lays greater stress on the third change ; for the apostle cites from the Septuagint its free version of the second passage, as of the first. But, just as the first of the two prophecies of which the quotation is composed proclaims the coming of the Deliverer to Israel in general, as really in the Hebrew form as in the Greek, so the second proclaims the purging of sin from Israel in general, as really in the Hebrew form as in the Greek. Let us examine it also in the light of its context. Beginning at the sixth verse, we see that the 6 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT time to which the prophecy looks is the Messianic age : " In the days to come shall Jacob take root, Israel shall blossom and bud ; and they shall fill the face of the world with fruit." That this refers to the world at large, and not merely to the Holy Land, is held by such interpreters as Cheyne, Bredenkamp, and Delitzsch ; the last of whom writes : " The prophet here says, in a figure, the same that the apostle says in Romans n : 12, that Israel, when restored once more to favor as a nation, will become ' the riches of the Gentiles.' " In the seventh and eighth verses God de- clares that he will afflict Israel, though not beyond measure. In the ninth verse he depicts the effect of the affliction. 1 " Therefore, by this shall the iniquity of Jacob be purged ; and this is all the fruit " of the affliction, " to take away his sins." The removal of the sins of Israel in the Messianic age is thus asserted as strongly by the original Hebrew as by the Septuagint version which the apostle quotes. Here again, the change which he adopts from the Septuagint gives him no advantage whatever, except possibly that of a brief statement of the purport of the entire prophecy. Let us sum up the results of our discussion of this quotation. The changes to which Kuenen objects were found by the New Testament writer in the Sep- tuagint version, and he did not go out of his way to correct them, because they did not at all concern the movement of his argument, nor alter the essential meaning of the prophecies to which he appealed. It is fair always to ask what it is that a writer seeks 1 So Alexander, Hitzig Henderson, Knobel. THE SEPTUAGINT VERSION 7 to prove or to illustrate by a quotation, before we pro- nounce him guilty of unfaithfulness in retaining in it some imperfection of the version to which he appeals. If this rule were observed, the difficulties which have been found with Heb. 2 : 6-8, would vanish at once. The writer of this epistle is proving the lofty nature of man, and quotes from the Septuagint version of Ps. 8 : 5 for the purpose : " Thou madest him a little lower than the angels." Many critics tell us that the Hebrew word here rendered " angels," means God; and others regard themselves as bound to show that it means angels, or to abandon the doctrine of plenary inspiration. The contest over the passage has been persistent, writers of one school maintaining that it proves the author of the epistle to have been ignorant or careless of the He- brew, and not inspired, and writers of another school maintaining the accuracy of the translation which he adopts. " Unless it had so signified," says Turpie, 1 " it would not have been found in the inspired writings of the New Testament translated by such a word." The whole controversy is idle, for the New Testament writer gains nothing by the substitution of the word angels for the word God, if that is indeed the meaning of the Hebrew word. Were the case reversed, had the Hebrew said angels, and had the New Testament writer quoted it as saying God, this would have been to secure an unfair advantage for his assertion of the lofty nature of man. It might be maintained, indeed, that he loses a certain force of proof by adopting the Septuagint statement, which lifts man near to the 1 " The Old Testament in the New," p. nq. 8 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT angels, instead of the Hebrew, which perhaps lifts him near to the Godhead ; but it is evident that he con- siders the more moderate declaration of the Septua- gint as strong enough for his purpose. His argument would be exactly the same, whether he quoted the psalmist as saying God, or as saying angels ; for in either case he would prove the very lofty nature of man, which is all that he wishes to do. In carrying his argument to its conclusion, it still remains adequate to his purpose to write " angels," with the Septuagint, instead of " God," with the He- brew, if that is the meaning of the Hebrew word. His course of thought is this : Man was made origi- nally " a little lower than the angels," or than " God " ; he was " crowned with glory and honor " ; he was " set over the works" of nature ; and " all things were put in subjection under him." Such were his constitution and his earthly lot by the divine appointment at his creation. That the psalm here quoted refers to the original state of man, and not to his present degrada- tion in sin, is held by such interpreters as Dean John- son in the " Speaker's Commentary," Toy, in his " Quotations," and Delitzsch. The last great critic calls it "a lyric echo of the Mosaic account of the creation," and adds : " The poet regards man in the light of the purpose for which he was created." This purpose, however, man does not now fulfill ; the position for which he was formed he does not occupy ; he has fallen far below the magnificent inheritance provided for him. But the intention of God in the creation of man is fulfilled in Jesus, the Son of Man, the ideal Man, the Head of humanity. As a man, he was made THE SEPTUAGINT VERSION 9 "a little lower than the angels"; 1 or, if one prefers, "than God," since he himself testified, " My Father is greater than I." 2 Thus the argument is perfect, no 1 In our Common version of Heb. I : 6, we read : " And again, when he bringeth in the first-begotten into the world, he saith, And let all the angels of God worship him." There is no discrepancy between that pas- sage and the one before us. That sees Christ in his concrete personality ; this in his human nature. Moreover, that passage, according to the best interpreters, must be referred either to his resurrection or to his second coming, and hence to his glorification, for the sentence must be rendered, not, " And again, when he bringeth," but, as in the Revised version, " When he again bringeth," when he a second time bringeth, " his first- born into the world"; and moreover, the Greek word rendered "bring- eth " is in a future tense, and in the margin of the Revised version is ren- dered " shall have brought." 2 The interpretation of the passage up to this point is universally ac- cepted. From this point on, however, interpreters differ. The difference does not concern my argument, which relates only to the earlier part of the text. Yet I may say that 1 hold the view of Stuart and Hofmann. The incarnation, though it was the humiliation of the Son of God, may be considered as the exal.ation of the son of Mary, the bringing into being of a human nature of the highest possible type, but confined, as we are, to the body and exposed to want and pain and mortality. In this sense Christ was " made a little lower than the angels " " because of the suffer- ing of death ' ' to which man is doomed for his sin ; he was " crowned with glory and honor" and "all things were put in subjection under him," " that by the grace of God he should taste death for every man." That is, he was made man because we are exposed to physical and spiritual death ; he was made man that he might die for us. But he was not made sinful and degraded man ; he was made as man was made in the begin- ning, but "little lower than the angels," or "than God," and "crowned with such glory and honor" as the first man possessed before his sin. The Gospels give us abundant evidence on every page that he had do- minion over nature during his earthly ministry, so that there is no need to refer the passage to his present state of exaltation. This interpretation seems to me the only one grounded in a simple and grammatical reading of the text and context. By him we are to attain our lofty nature and destiny: God is to " bring many sons unto glory" through the "author of their salvation " ; for now, since the incarnation of Jesus, " he that sanctifieth and they that are sanctified are all of one" common. human IO QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT matter which of the two meanings is adopted. It is worthy of further observation that the great majority of commentators, theologians, and preachers, though they may not agree as to its interpretation, find it suffi- cient as it stands, and feel no need of the substitution of the word "God" for the word "angels." Another illustration of the equal value to the argu- ment of the Septuagint translation and of the Hebrew original, though it is possible that they differ slightly in sense, is found in Heb. I : 7, where the writer quotes from Ps. 104 : 4 : Who maketh his angels winds, And his ministers a flame of fire. The quotation follows the Septuagint almost exactly. It is said by many that the passage in the Hebrew, interpreted in the light of its context, presents a dif- ferent thought, which would require in English a dif- ferent order of the words : Who maketh winds his messengers And flaming fire his ministers. It is claimed, that is, that in the Hebrew God is said to make winds and flames obey him and accomplish his purposes as his angels do, while in the Septuagint he is said to make the angels obey him and accomplish his purposes as the winds and flames do. This view of the Hebrew is admitted to be very doubtful ; ' but for- nature. Delitzsch differs widely from Hofmann concerning this passage, yet expresses great admiration of his labors in elucidating it. Zimmer criti- cizes the exegesis of Hofmann in his " Exegetische Probleme," and yet cannot help praising it. His objections lead me to a higher estimate of it. 1 Against it are Ellicott and Alford. THE SEPTUAGINT VERSION II tunately we need not discuss it ; we need only consider what it is the writer of the epistle here teaches, in order to perceive that the evidence is perfect in either case. His statement is that the Son of God is supe- rior to the angels. His proof is that God institutes a comparison between the angels and the winds and flames, while he never compares his Son to such inani- mate forces, but speaks of him as divine, saying, "Thy throne, O God, is for ever and ever." Our conception of Christ would be very different had God instituted a comparison between him and the inanimate forces of nature, and had said, He maketh the winds his Son And a flame of lire his first-born ; Or, He maketh his Son a wind And his first-born a flame of fire. Some of the foremost biblical critics 1 find in this passage of the Old Testament a proof that its writer held the winds and flames to be a sort of drapery or real embodiment of the angels, and the angels to be the moving spirits of these their corporeal abodes ! One would think that these men were not accustomed to poetry. The fact which underlies the comparison — for we have only a comparison here — is the ministerial office alike of the angels and of the winds and flames, while Christ is Lord of all. This is the argument. Hence the sacred writer does not need to enter into any minute and teasing discussion of the Hebrew, or to depart from the only Bible accessible to his readers, 1 As Gesenius. 12 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT since the poetic comparison between the angels and the inanimate forces of nature is perfectly clear, which- ever view of the Hebrew is taken. It is objected, again, that the Hebrew says nothing about angels, but speaks only of " messengers " in a general sense, so that the writer has gotten from the Sep- tuagint a proof which he could not have found in the original. The same Hebrew word means messenger and angel, just as the same Greek word means both. The angels are the special messengers of God, and hence they are designated by this convenient term. It is therefore mere assertion that in the passage before us the original writer meant messengers in general, and not angels. The assertion is not sustained by a particle of proof of any sort. On the contrary, there is no passage in the Old Testament, unless this is an exception to an otherwise universal rule, in which the word is used of purely inanimate forces ; it always re- fers to an intelligent being, either celestial or terres- trial. That the word signifies angels in this place is understood by the two greatest Hebrew lexicographers, Gesenius and Fiirst, and by the vast majority of com- petent Hebrew critics. Another example adduced by Kuenen is the quota- tion of Isa. 29 : 13, made by our Lord, and recorded in Matt. 1 5 : 8, 9 and Mark 7 : 6, y. The prophet wrote : " The Lord said, Forasmuch as this people draw nigh unto me, and with their mouth and with their lips do honor me, but have removed their heart far from me, and their fear of me is a commandment of men which hath been taught them." The Pharisees criti- cised the disciples for " transgressing the tradition of THE SEPTUAGIXT VERSION 1 3 the elders " in neglecting to " wash their hands when they ate bread." Their Master answered the critics, telling them that they placed their tradition above "the commandment of God," and set aside the latter to observe the former. He gave them an example of their breach of the divine law by means of their tradi- tion, citing the well-known case of the "corban." Then he quoted Isaiah's condemnation of those who worship with the lips only, and not with the heart, and render a service which is merely " a commandment of men," and not such as God himself requires. Nothing could be more appropriate than this passage. Nor is it either more or less appropriate in its Sep- tuagint form, which the evangelists adopt, with a slight change, as follows : This people honoreth me with their lips ; But their heart is far from me. But in vain do they worship me, Teaching as their doctrines the precepts of men. Our Lord says truly that in these words Isaiah prophesied of the Pharisees to whom he quotes them. Isaiah prophesied to the Jews of his own time ; but, as the Scriptures are for all men of all ages and all places, he also prophesied of all those who at any time bring to God an external worship, and put human pre- cepts in the room of the divine. This is no accommo- dation of the prophecy ; since it inheres in the very nature of prophecy, which is an expression of the will of the unchanging Deity, that its underlying principles shall be of universal and perpetual application. The Septuagint differs a little both from the He- B 14 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT brew and from the form of the passage used by the evangelists. It has : But in vain do they worship me, Teaching precepts of men, and teachings. This sentence the evangelists slightly alter, in order to express the real meaning of the prophet. Thus Broadus writes : Matthew and Mark have slightly modified the Septuagint into "teaching teachings (which are) precepts of men." This not only improves the phraseology of the Septuagint, but brings out the prophet's thought more clearly than would be done by a literal translation of the Hebrew, for Isaiah means to distinguish between a worship of God that is taught by men, and that which is according to the teaching of God's word. Such verbal changes to develop the sense more clearly are considered in our fourth chapter. Yet another example adduced by Kuenen is Amos 9:11, 12, as quoted by James in Acts 15 : 16, 17. The prophet predicts the raising up of the " tabernacle of David," " as in the days of old," "that they may possess the remnant of Edom, and all the nations, which are called by my name, saith the Lord that doeth this." Instead of "the remnant of Edom," the Sep- tuagint and James have "the residue of men." This is the change criticised by Kuenen, on the ground that it favors unduly the thesis of James, who wished to show that the gospel was designed for the Gentiles, and not for the Jews only. It does not do this, how- ever, for, in any case, the very next phrase of the quo- tation is sufficiently sweeping and emphatic : And all the Gentiles, upon whom my name is called. THE SEPTUAGINT VERSION 1 5 Whether "the residue of Edom, and all the nations," or "the residue of men, and all the nations," are to be brought into the kingdom of David, surely makes no difference. Kuenen would limit arbitrarily the expres- sion, " all the nations upon whom the name of the Lord is called," to the peoples immediately around Palestine, whom Jehovah was to conquer by means of Jewish armies. Toy takes a somewhat similar view, but goes farther in the right direction, and says well, that the prediction, though it related " immediately to the res- toration of the political fortunes of Judah, and in this sense was never fulfilled, doubtless involved in the prophetic feeling the establishment among the nations of the true worship of the one true God, and so found its realization in the spread of Christianity over the world." But let us take the passage with the limita- tions of its scope which Kuenen prescribes. Even thus, it will teach what James found in it, the truth that the kingdom of God shall not be confined to the Jews under the reign of the " Son of David," but shall break through its ancient walls, and be extended over the Gentiles around the Holy Land. The posi- tion taken by James was not that the kingdom of the Messiah was destined to become strictly universal, but that it was destined to throw down the barriers of the one people and embrace other peoples as well. This was all he needed to prove ; for no Jew who admitted this truth would care to dispute the question of strict universality. I shall close my discussion of this pas- sage with a single sentence from Hackett : " The cita- tion from Amos was pertinent in a twofold way : first, it announced that the heathen were to be admitted 1 6 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT with the Jews into the kingdom of Christ ; and sec- ondly, it contained no recognition of circumcision, or other Jewish ceremonies, as prerequisite to their recep- tion." Still another instance brought forward by Kuenen is the quotation of Gen. 12:3, and perhaps 22 : 18, in Gal. 3 : 8. The promise to Abraham, according to this critic, was that all peoples of the earth should bless themselves or each other by making use of his name, as one might say : " May I be or may you be as fortu- nate as Abraham was." " It was understood differ- ently," the critic adds, "by the Greek translator, who renders it thus : ' In thee shall all the people of the earth be blessed.' The Apostle Paul adopted this interpreta- tion from him, and thus naturalized it in the Christian world." The apostle combined in his quotation the essence of two promises made to Abraham, according to the lit- erary custom illustrated in our fifth chapter. It is admitted by all that the meaning of the two is the same. The only question is whether the interpretation given by Kuenen, or that given by the apostle, is the correct one. The great majority of Hebrew scholars sustain the latter, among whom are Keil, Cook, Lange, and Delitzsch. The question is not one of mere grammar, but of the meaning of the promise It is freely admitted that the sentence in the Hebrew text is reflexive, and may be translated literally : " In thee shall all nations bless themselves." But the meaning will then be, as De- litzsch says : They shall wish themselves blessed as Abraham was, and by the same means by which he THE SEPTUAGINT VERSION 1 7 secured his blessing, that is, by faith. And thus desir- ing the blessing of faith, they shall obtain it. To limit the reference of the promise to a mere glib proverb, is to belittle both it and the God who gave it. The na- tions were to bless themselves in Abraham not only in word, but also in deed. Thus the Septuagint, adopted by the New Testament writer, expresses the real thought of the Hebrew text. Again. In Heb, 12 : 5-13, the sacred writer exhorts his readers not to be discouraged by sufferings, which, he reminds them, are evidences that God deals with them as with sons, and hence of their divine sonship. To prove this proposition, he quotes from Prov. 3 : 11, 12 : My son, regard not lightly the chastening of the Lord, Nor faint when thou art reproved of him ; For whom the Lord loveth he chasteneth, And scourgeth every son whom he receiveth. This is from the Septuagint. In the Hebrew the last line is as follows : Even as a father the son in whom he delighteth. On account of this difference Kuenen complains that the quotation is taken from the Septuagint instead of the Hebrew. But it is evident at a glance that the proposition of the writer is proved by the passage in either form, and in one form just as cogently as in the other ; so that not the slightest advantage to the argu- ment is either gained or lost by the use of the Septua- gint version. But, granting that the faults of the Septuagint, in 1 8 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT the passages quoted, do not affect in any way the argu- ment of the New Testament writers, were they not bound, nevertheless, to correct these departures from the Hebrew original, or to translate directly from it ? Why quote from versions in the least degree imper- fect ? Kuenen insists that it was wrong for them to do so. The objection, however perplexing at first, loses its force at once when brought into the court of gen- eral literature. The writers of the New Testament quoted from the Septuagint because it was the only written version of their time. The Jews in general had long ceased, not merely to speak and write, but also to read Hebrew ; even to the majority of those who lived in Palestine it was a dead language ; and it was necessary for them to " search the Scriptures," if at all, in some translation with which they were acquainted. The learned Jews read Hebrew ; but that they had lost all minute and critical knowledge of it is evident from the puerile interpretations of the rabbis and from the numerous errors of the Septuagint version, completed two centuries before the apostolic age. At the same time, this Septuagint version, being the sole version which they possessed in writing, was a work of the very first importance. It was necessary for the apostles to appeal to it, since it contained the only documentary evidence to which the great mass of their readers could turn to verify the Christian argument from history and type and prophecy. The world of the apostolic age, even the Jewish world, stood much farther from the Hebrew Old Testa- ment than our modern world does, with its untiring microscopic criticism and its wealth of commentaries THE SEPTUAGINT VERSION 19 distributed to every Christian home and bringing the results of the ripest learning to every child in the Sunday-school and at its mother's knee. The world of the apostolic age was much more dependent upon the Septuagint, its one written version, and upon such oral versions as the rabbis might make in the synagogues, than we are upon our modern versions. The New Testament was not written for a limited number of learned men ; but for the great world, and for the churches gathered out of it, and thus for people of ordinary intelligence. In quoting from the Septua- gint, its writers did as all religious writers of all ages have done, in so far as they have addressed the people not technically learned ; they quoted from the version which their readers knew. The writer in English, what- ever his denomination, quotes by preference from the ordinary English version, or from the Revised, though neither is free from errors. The writer in German, however widely he may differ from the creed of Luther, quotes from the version of Luther, unless there is some special reason for an appeal to another. The writer in Burmese, even if an Episcopalian, quotes from the Burman version, the work of a Baptist missionary. This is the common law of religious literature. Thus the writers of the New Testament dealt with the inaccuracies of the common version of their time much as the conscientious theologian of to-day deals with those of the versions most accessible to the peo- ple. The theologian, in quoting from either of the well- known English versions, does not reject any text which he wishes to use because its language seems to him less exact than some other form of words, if the divine 20 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT thought is preserved in its integrity. Nay further, when he finds in it some slight inaccuracy of meaning, if this has nothing to do with his argument, he takes the passage as it is, and refrains from adverse comment, lest he enfeeble his production by endless and unprof- itable digressions. If, however, the inaccuracy stands in his way, he removes it, and brings out the full light of the truth which it obscured or concealed ; and, on the other hand, if it is of a nature to favor his cause unduly, he refuses to avail himself of it, "not handling the word of God deceitfully." To quote from a version unknown to his readers and not trusted by them, or to overload his pages with perpetual teasing emendations of the version which he employs, would be foolish, as it would debar him from the world and render his work futile. So the writers of the New Testament, in citing from the Greek, seldom corrected the version to which they appealed, unless to do so was necessary to their course of thought ; and they refrained from using in- accuracies of which they might easily have taken ad- vantage. A good instance of the passing over of a verbal in- accuracy which might have been pressed into the ser- vice of the writer is found in Heb. 10 : 5-9 : When he cometh into the world, he saith, Sacrifice and offering thou wouldest not, But a body didst thou prepare for me ; In whole burnt offerings and sacrifices for sin thou hadst no pleasure : Then said I, Lo, I am come (In the roll of the book it is written of me) To do thy will, O God. THE SEPTUAGINT VERSION 21 Saying above, Sacrifices and offerings and whole burnt offerings and sacrifices for sin thou wouldest not, neither hadst pleasure therein (the which are offered according to the law), then hath he said, Lo, I am come to do thy will. He taketh away the first, that he may establish the second. The quotation is from Ps. 40 : 6-8. It has primary reference to the psalmist himself. Its secondary refer- ence to Christ will be shown in the ninth chapter of this book, and need not detain us here. That which I wish especially to observe is the phrase of the Hebrew text : "Mine ears hast thou opened," and the departure from it of the Septuagint, which reads : "A body didst thou prepare for me." The author of the epistle quotes from the Septuagint, but he makes no use of this phrase in his argument. Yet it is one that might have been employed with force. The writer might have exhibited the psalmist as predicting the prepara- tion of the body of Christ in the incarnation with ex- press reference to its sacrifice as a substitute for the sacrifices which God "would not." Indeed, many have leaped to the conclusion that he really bases his rea- soning upon it, so appropriate is it to his purpose. Thus Toy 1 says: "'This argument might have been made without the quotation, but a desirable support from the Old Testament seemed to the author to be presented in the Septuagint phrase ' a body thou hast prepared me.' " The impression, however, that the author of the epistle has rested his argument upon the phrase of the Septuagint is erroneous. It is true that a phrase at the first glance distantly resembling that of the 1 " The Quotations in the New Testament." 22 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT Septuagint occurs a little farther along in the epistle : " By which will we have been sanctified through the offering of the body of Christ once for all." But that this is quite independent of the phrase quoted from the Septuagint is evident from the following considera- tions : i. The two phrases are not the same in any particu- lar except that both contain the word " body." The Septuagint has : " A body didst thou prepare for me " ; and the epistle : " By which will we have been sancti- fied through the offering of the body of Christ once for all." Could any two statements be more diverse? 2. Not only are they different in form, but they are thoroughly different in meaning. The phrase of the Septuagint, were it genuine, would refer to the incar- nation ; but that of the epistle refers solely to the crucifixion. One looks to the birth of Christ, and the other to his death. It is true that this distance might have been bridged over by the writer of the epistle ; he might have said that the body of Christ was pre- pared with reference to its crucifixion, and thus have brought the expression into his argument. He has pointedly failed to do this, which shows that he did not regard the phrase in question as belonging in any way to his course of reasoning. 3. We may not only prove thus that the phrase of the epistle cannot have come from the Septuagint ver- sion of the psalm, being thoroughly different from it both in form and meaning, but we may go farther and show whence it did come. Its source is not far to seek. It came from Christian history ; and nothing was more natural to a Christian writer of the apostolic age THE SEPTUAGIXT VERSION 23 than to speak of the crucifixion of our Lord as " the offering of the body of Christ." 4. The argument which the writer derives from the psalm closes before the introduction of the phrase in question. The argument is that the Mosaic sacrifices have been abolished by the self-sacrifice of Christ, in obeying the will of God and coming into the world to die. The only phrases of the psaim which the writer uses in drawing his conclusion are these : " Sacrifices and offerings thou wouldest not," and, " Lo, I am come to do thy will." The psalmist, says the writer, " taketh away the first, that he may establish the second." Here his argument ends. 5. When the writer comes to the phrase in question he has passed from his direct argument from the psalm, to speak, not of the incarnation of Christ, but of our sanctification through his death. Christ says, " when he cometh into the world," " Lo, I am come to do thy will." But it was the will of God that he should die for us, and hence " by that will we have been sanctified through the offering of the body of Christ once for all." If we admit, for a moment, what I think incorrect, that in the phrase, " the offering of the body of Christ," we are to find a direct reference to the phrase, " a body didst thou prepare for me," it will be evident, even then, that the writer lays no stress upon the expression of the psalm, but gives emphasis only to the obedience of Christ, and regards that as the real substitute for the sacrifices of the old dispensation. This is granted by so free a critic as De YVette, ' who says : " Had the 1 Quoted by Tholuck, " Kommentar," at Heb. 10 : 10. 24 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT Septuagint translated, < ears hast thou prepared me,' the entire sense " found in the passage by the New Tes- tament writer " would have remained," and in the words of the psalmist " the idea of the fulfillment of the di- vine will as the true atonement would always have lain preserved." It should be added that the underlying: sense of the phrase in the Septuagint is the same with that of the Hebrew phrase, though the language is so different. The Hebrew says : " Mine ears hast thou opened," that is, to hear the divine voice in an obedient spirit. The Septuagint says : "A body didst thou prepare for me," that is, as an organ by means of which I may obey the divine voice. Thus in both cases the obedience of Christ unto death is presented to the reader as the sub- stitute for the sacrifices of the Mosaic dispensation. This is maintained by all critics, of all schools. The writer of the epistle, therefore, might have employed the phrase of the Septuagint with some emphasis ; and his refusal to do so is an interesting evidence of his scrupulous care to keep within the bounds of propriety in his use of the Old Testament. In a number of instances, however, the writers of the New Testament show their knowledge of the He- brew text, and quote from it, if there is special occasion to do so. In the Gospel by Matthew the Hebrew is used, in- stead of the Septuagint, perhaps more frequently than elsewhere. Westcott, ' following Bleek, calls attention to the fact that when Matthew himself speaks and 1 " Introduction to the Study of the Gospels," p. 229, note. THE SEPTUAGINT VERSION 25 refers to the fulfillment of prophecies, he leans to the Hebrew original ; while, when he represents others as speaking and quoting, he leans to the Septuagint ver- sion. Westcott infers from this that the apostle com- posed his Gospel of two kinds of material : first, of his own peculiar reminiscences and reflections, in which he quotes from the Hebrew, because familiar with it ; and secondly, of an oral statement of the life of Christ shaped by the earliest teachers of Christianity and taught to the Gentiles and the Greek-speaking Jews, in which the Septuagint was used, because it was the only Bible which the hearers possessed and to which they could appeal. This oral Gospel, according to the theory, the apostle, when he committed it to writing, respected too much to change. The speculation is interesting. I give here a few illustrative instances of recurrence to the Hebrew text for reasons which we can weigh and appreciate : At Matt. 2:15, Hosea 1 1 : 1 is quoted as a prophecy of Christ : " Out of Egypt did I call my son." The quotation follows the Hebrew exactly. The Septua- gint says : " Out of Egypt I called back his children " ; and the word "children," being plural, could not be ap- plied to Christ as an individual ; and thus the typical character of the verse is lost. At Matt. 8:17, the evangelist quotes from Isa. 53 : 4 : " Himself took our infirmities and bare our dis- eases." The Septuagint has : " He bears our sins and suffers for us," which would seem to refer especially to the crucifixion. Translated literally, as in the margin of the Revised version, the Hebrew has : " He hath borne c 26 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT our sicknesses and carried our sorrows." We see at once why the New Testament writer abandons the Septuagint and recurs to the Hebrew : he is speaking of miracles of healing, to which the Hebrew words directly refer, while the Septuagint version does not preserve the reference of the prophecy to sickness. At Matt. 12 : 18-21 we find a quotation from Isa. 42 : 1-4, beginning with the lines : Behold, my servant whom I have chosen ; My beloved in whom my soul is well pleased. This is from one of the prophecies which refer to Christ directly. But the Septuagint gives an erroneous inter- pretation of the passage, rather than a translation, and wholly obscures the reference to Christ, and thus ren- ders the passage unsuitable for the purpose of the New Testament writer : Jacob is my servant ; I will lay hold on him : Israel is my chosen ; my soul has accepted him. At Luke 23 : 46 our Lord, when about to die, quotes a line of Ps. 3 1 15: Into thy hands I commend my spirit. The Septuagint has the future tense, " I will com- mit," which is not quite appropriate, since our Lord utters the words, not with reference to what he intends to do at some time more or less distant, but with refer- ence to his spiritual act at the moment of speaking. Hence Luke here abandons the Septuagint for the He- brew form of the sentence. THE SEPTUAGINT VERSION 2*] The quotation of Zech. 12 : 10 at John 19 : 37 is another example. The evangelist is recording the piercing of the side of Jesus by the Roman soldier, and says : " Another scripture saith, They shall look on him whom they pierced." This is in every way appro- priate to the event. The Septuagint is exchanged for the Hebrew, because it contains no reference to the piercing: "They shall look to me because they mocked." At Rom. 9 : 17 the Apostle Paul speaks of the divine sovereignty, and to prove this doctrine quotes the words uttered by Jehovah to Pharaoh and recorded at Exod. 9 : 16: "For this very purpose did I raise thee up, that I might shew in thee my power, and that my name might be published abroad in all the earth." The apostle follows the Septuagint in a general way. But the Septuagint is more impersonal : " For this pur- pose hast thou been preserved," is a form of language which does not assert clearly the divine agency, and the apostle therefore abandons it for that of the Hebrew, which is personal. Moreover, the statement that God had "preserved" Pharaoh to show forth his power by means of him, would not illustrate his supreme sover- eignty quite so well as the statement that God had "raised him up " for this very purpose. There are thus two reasons for the preference shown by the apostle for the Hebrew in this part of his quotation. After a careful study of the New Testament in its relation to the Septuagint version of the Old, I can find no fault with these words of Tholuck : x 1 "Kommentar zum Briefe an die Hebraer," Beilage I., p. 37. 28 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT It is a remarkable fact that, although all the authors of the New Testament seem to have used the Septuagint translation, yet where that translation — at least as it lies before us 1 — wholly wanders away from the sense of the original, or becomes entirely destitute of meaning, they either resort to another trans- lation, or themselves translate the text independently. We do not recall a single place, either in the Gospels or in the epistles of Paul, where a text of the Old Testament, as to its essential contents, has been disguised by the use of the Septuagint version. 1 Referring to the uncertainty of the text of the Septuagint version. II QUOTATIONS FROM MEMORY THE quotations in modern literature are usually, though not uniformly, fairly exact in language, as well as in thought. But the writers of the New Tes- tament seem often to quote from memory, and, while scrupulous to give the sense of the passage in so far as it affects their argument, they are not careful of the precise language. They sometimes depart from the subsidiary shades of thought in subordinate phrases, if these have nothing to do with their teaching. They sometimes exercise even greater freedom if the quota- tion is used merely for literary allusion or decoration. It should be observed, therefore, that verbal exact- ness in quoting is a habit only recently introduced in literature. It was impossible, in effect, before the in- vention of printing made books abundant and the con- struction of indexes and concordances rendered it easy to find any passage at will. It has prevailed especially since the invention of quotation marks, which seem to call attention to the very words, and even letters, and to certify their correctness. Yet even to-day it is far from universal ; and in the age of the apostles centu- ries were to elapse before it should be thought of by any one. Sanday * has well said : "The ancient writer had not a small compact reference Bible at his side, 1 " The Gospels in the Second Century," p. 29. 29 30 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT but, when he wished to verify a reference, would have to take an unwieldy roll out of its case, and then would not find it divided into chapter and verse like our mod- ern books, but would have only the columns, and those perhaps not numbered, to guide him." It should be added that the Apostle Paul, at least, and perhaps others of the authors of the New Testament, often wrote during a journey, or in prison, where books were not easily procured. The writers of the Old Testament, whose inspired example would possess for the writers of the New the authority of a divine law, quoted with reference to the sense, and not the exact language. Thus, the Ten Commandments, as given in the twentieth chapter of Exodus, are declared to be a reproduction of that which God proclaimed on Sinai : " God spake all these words." The same claim is made for the Ten Commandments as given in the fifth chapter of Deuteronomy : " These words 1 Jehovah spake unto all your assembly, in the 1 It should be stated that "^1, the Hebrew term here rendered " word," usually refers to the larger outlines of expression, and also to the ideas ex- pressed, rather than to each individual word. It is like the Greek Adyo? in this respect. We have no word in English exactly corresponding to it in meaning; but perhaps UTTERANCE is as nearly like it as any at our ser- vice. The Ten Commandments are always called the " ten words " in the Old Testament (Exod. 34 : 28 ; Deut. 4 : 13 ; 10 : 4) ; and never the Ten Commandments ; they are thus named because they are the ten utter- ances of God's will. Those passages which have been held by some theo- logians to teach the doctrine of verbal inspiration, like I Cor 2 : 13, can- not justly be cited in its favor, because the original terms in these passages which we translate " word " and " words " have this larger meaning, and do not refer to the exact phraseology. So when it is said, as in the place immediately before us, " these words Jehovah spake, and added no more," the reference is general, and not to the minute details of the language em- ployed. We might render the sentence : " These thing? Jehovah spake." QUOTATIONS FROM MEMORY 31 mount, out of the midst of the fire, of the cloud, and of the thick darkness, with a great voice : and he added no more." The claim is well founded in both cases ; for, though these two editions of the law differ at cer- tain points very widely in language, the underlying sense is the same. This may be called the uniform rule of quotation in the Old Testament : compare 2 Sam. 23 : 17 and 1 Chron. 11 : 19; 2 Sam. 5 : 19, 20 and 1 Chron. 14 : 9-1 1 ; 1 Kings 9 : 3-9 and 2 Chron. 7 : 12-22. If we turn to the apocryphal writings associated with the Old Testament we shall observe the same liberty in the citations from the canonical Hebrew Scriptures. There is more quoting in Baruch than in any other of these productions ; and here, as elsewhere, it is usually so free that perhaps it should be called an echo, rather than a reproduction, of the sacred authors. The book, Dr. Bissell 1 says, " is substantially made up of reminiscences more or less clear, or quotations more or less direct, from the various books of the canonical Scriptures, especially Jeremiah and Daniel, Nehemiah, Isaiah, and Deuteronomy. Compare Baruch 1 : 3-14 with Jer. 26 : 32 ; Baruch 1 : 15-2 : 29 with Dan. 9 : 7-19; Baruch 2 : 21 with Jer. 27 : 11, 12." The reader can judge, by these instances, the freedom with which the writer of the book quotes, and of which all the writers of the Apocrypha avail themselves in their use of the Old Testament. No one can represent better than Plato the most 1 "The Apocrypha of the Old Testament," Vol. XV. of the Lange series. I assume, with the support of the great majority of critics, that Baruch was written before our era. 32 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT careful literary habits of the classical Greek writers. His works are adorned with many quotations from the poets, and specially from Homer ; but, though usually exact, he is often not so ; and he is much more careful of the rhythm of the original than of the words. The following instances will be sufficient to illustrate his freedom : i. In the "Ion," section 538, he reproduces three lines of the " Iliad," XXIV., 80, but substitutes three words of his own for as many of the text, an average of one for each line. 1 THE ORIGINAL. *H dh fAoXvftdaivrj ix&Xtj ic puoobv opouozv, tjts xar aypa'jXoco ftobz xi- paz i{ij3££Jau7a ip%STOLC 0)[JL7)GT7]GCV ill lydlJOl K^pa (pip oi) a a. THE QUOTATION. C H dk fioXoftdaivrj exiXq ic ftvaabv txaveu, yj zs xaz dypa'jAoco /3ooc xi- paz, ipp.sp.au7a ipyszac aoprjazyjOt just cydu- 01 rJ t pa vjacrrj os roc Itztzo^ dpta- zspb: iyyp>u(sd-/J7co, 1 En vjaaji os roc 7tzzoc aoca- rspbz iyyocpKfdrjrco, cue du to: TZ/c^uLvq ys ooo.aai- ojz fir) zoc TttyfiVi} ys 6oaoo= zou dxpou IxeaOat x'jx'ao'j ~oa t To1o' Acdoo o' dke- aodac inaooeiv. zac axpov IxeaOm xuxAou TZOOjTOiO' Acdo'J o" d/J- acrOau sTZOJjpstv. 3. In the "Ion," section 539, he quotes from the "Odyssey," XX., 351, the address of Melampus to the suitors, with three substitutions of words and the omission of a whole line. THE ORIGINAL. ~' A dsdoc, xi xaxbv zoos ~da- yszs ; vjxzl usu uuscov slXbaza: xztpalai zs -pbaco-d zs vspds zs youva. Oificoyrj os oso-^s, osodxpyv- zac os rzapscar aupLOLZt o 1 sppdoazoi'. zolyot xaXak zs piaodaar etdcoAcov os Jtkeou rzpdO'jpov, TZAsrq os xal auAy, tefievatv > Eps^baos u~b ^b- tpov Vjshoz ds obpavou i^anoXtoXe, xoxr^ sTzedsdpoasv dyjJjz. THE QUOTATION. JaifiovtoC) zi xaxbv zoos Tida- yjzs ; VOXTt flSV upscov elXbazac xetpakal zs Tzpoacond zs vspds zs yuia, olacoyrj os didye, osodxpuu- zat os -apecar slocoAcov rs irXiov rrpbdupov, tzasctj os xal auAiij lefievcov Loijoaos urzo £0- COV JjSACOC OS obpavob i^a-oAcoAs, xaxrj o' s-cosdpopzv dylb^z. 4. In the "Symposium," section 178, he quotes a brief passage from Hesiod's " Theogony," at line 116, omitting two entire lines, and drawing together the words preceding and following them. 34 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT THE ORIGINAL. THE QUOTATION. Auzdp i-stza Auzdp ixscza ra? eupuarepvot;, nduToav yaC e'jp'jozzpvoz, Tidvzcov Ido^ dcrcfuAkc at si edoz d(F(faA£z «'£-'j [adavdzcov, dc syouot xdprj ijff y Epo^. VC(f6zVTOC ' OX'J p7I0U,~] Tdpzapd r fjepoevra. p'J%oj ydovbq, eupoodsiys, /jd" *Epoz. 5. In the "Laws," book IV., section 706, he quotes at length from the " Iliad," XIV., 96, the rebuke with which Ulysses answered the advice of Agamemnon to launch the ships and abandon the camp, but substitutes three words of his own for as many of the poet. THE ORIGINAL. 0~ xsAeai, rroXspoco auviazab- roc xal duzvjz, vr t o.z Ibaai'kp.oDZ clXao £Xx£- psv, dfp izc fidXXov Tpcoal pkv suxzd yeuyzcu, imxpaziouffi izsp ip~r^, ■fjptv d" aizbz oledpoc. i~cp- psTTTj. O'j yap Wyacol oyfjaovGcvnolepov, vycov alao eXxopsvdcou, dXX d7ro7ra-zavio>j, ipcorj- aouai os ydpl lT h- * Evda xs or) ftovXy dyXrjaszat, opyaus Xaajv. THE QUOTATION. #c xeXeat rroXJpoco auvsazab- zoz xal duzYfi vyj.^ ioaaiXpooQ dXad" sXxscv, d(pp' izc pdXX.ov Tpcoal psu euxzd yivyzac ssX.dopsvocai rrsp ip~r^, fjp~iv d* ainbt: dXsdpoz i~cp- pi~7}' oi) yap Wyacoi ayrjaouacv ~oXJpou vqcov aX.ao kXxopsvdcuv, d//' d-Q-a-zo.vsouocv , ipco7J- aouac ds ydppr^. y Evda xs ay ftouXr] dyXytrszac, oV dyopsuscz. QUOTATIONS FROM MEMORY 35 6. In the "Republic," book II., section 363, he quotes from the " Odyssey," XIX., 109, but omits en- tirely the second line of the passage. THE ORIGINAL. 3 ' H ftaocAriOc. awjaovo^, oare Oeoudrjz dvdpdatv iu TzoWoioi xal l p&AAov imxXei- O'JG aVUP(D7IOC, yifli axouo^TSGGc vzcozazr. THE QUOTATION. "AoiOYjV paXkov eicuppoveowf avdpco-ot, Yj TCC CLZCOOVTZGGi VeatT&TT] dptpeneAqrou. 14. In the "Republic," book V., section 469, he quotes from the "Works and Days" of Hesiod, line 121. In the original there are thirteen words. Plato omits six of these, and replaces them with four others. ducc-sAYjZa.'. THE ORIGINAL. Toe pkv oalpovic, eiGt Acb^ psydXo'j oca ftouXdz eGdAoi, iire%06vtoe, (f'jAaxz^ OwjTaiv dvOpcoTZcov. THE QUOTATION. 01 peu daipovez dyvol i-rydo- VtOt TSAsdo'JGCV, iG0Aoc\ dAe&exaxoe, (pulaxe<: pSp6~COV dvdpdiT.iOV. 38 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 15. Usually the changes which Plato makes in his quotations do not affect his course of thought. But there is at least one remarkable exception to this rule. In the " Laws," book VI., section yyy, he quotes from the " Odyssey," XVIL, 322, to show that slavery cor- rupts the enslaved. Homer says : On the day that one becomes a slave, The Thunderer, Jove, takes half his manliness away. This is in the exact direction of Plato's argument. But he carelessly diverts it from its proper bearing by mak- ing it read : Jove takes half his understanding away. He introduces also several other verbal changes. THE ORIGINAL. p Hpaau yap t dpezr^ dnoai- vurat eupuoTra Zebz avepoz, eut av fuv xard 006- THE QUOTATION. u Hptou yap ts vooi) aTiausips- rat eupuona Zsuz dvdpcov ouz du drj xavd dou- hov fj/iap ehjOc. Aristotle is even less careful of verbal accuracy. 1 Thus in his " Rhetoric," book I., chapter 15, section 1, he borrows from the " Antigone " of Sophocles. " The quotation," says Welldon, 2 " is made somewhat loosely, as though the passage would be familiar to every one." Cope 3 says that Aristotle "usually misquotes" Homer; and again that " his fashion is " to misquote in general. 1 See, for example, Grant's " Aristotle," " Nicomachian Ethics," III., 8, 4, no'.e. Aristotle not seldom attributes his quotations to the wrong sources. 2 "The Rhetoric of Aristotle," Welldon, p. ioi, note 2. 3 In his " Rhetoric of Aristotle," Vol. I., p. 207, note, and p. 276, note. QUOTATIONS FROM MEMORY 39 The latest of the great Greek writers with whose productions any of the apostles would be acquainted is Plutarch, who was born a. d. 40, and must have pub- lished many of his works before the end of the first century, when it is supposed the " beloved disciple " was about to close his life. Plutarch quotes in the same inexact manner with others. Thus in his treatise on the " Delay of the Divine Justice," at the beginning of the twentieth chapter, he has a citation from the " Works and Days " of Hesiod, which, as Hackett 1 points out in his note on the passage, is " apparently from memory," as it is not literal. At the close of his treatise on "The Love of Wealth," he quotes a short line from the " Iliad," XXIII. , 259, omitting a word. THE ORIGINAL. Nqajv d' ixcpep aeOXa, Xeft/}- xdq, re rp'Trodds vs. THE QUOTATION. Nyjcov S" ixipepe Xi^zdQ vs rpcTcoodz re. In his treatise on " The Folly of Seeking Many Friends," section 5, he quotes a line from the "Iliad," V., 902. In the original there are eight words ; in the quotation, nine ; three of which, however, are wrong. THE ORIGINAL. c J2c ff or otto^ yd.Xa Xeoxbv THE QUOTATION. Qs & or orrb^ fdX.a Xzuxbv iyopipcoaev xal eoqas. I cite, as an instance of inexact quotation in Greek 1 " Delay of the Deity in the Punishment of the Wicked," p. 13&, note 1. 4-0 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT literature later than the apostles, the following lines from the "Iliad," XX., 127. They are found in Lu- cian's " Philopatris." Whatever web the Parcae at his birth For him have wove, that is his fate on earth. Tooke 1 translates the lines thus, and adds: "The author quotes the passage from memory, with his own alterations." Cicero may be taken as the best example of the Latin writers, and though often verbally exact, he is not uni- formly so. Thus in his " Letters to Atticus," IV., 7, he quotes three words from the " Odyssey," XXII., 412, but mis- takes as to one of them. THE ORIGINAL. 0u% ooiq, xvapLSVocacv. THE QUOTATION. 0u% ooir) (pdc[i£vocacv. In his "Letters to Atticus," I., 16, he quotes from the " Iliad," XVL, 1 12, but omits three words from the latter half of the first line. THE ORIGINAL. "Eaters vuv fiot, Mouaat 'OAufima dco/iaz lyouoat, 01Z7ZCOC, dr] TTpCOTOV Ttup ifineae. THE QUOTATION. * E(T7TSTS VUV JUOC MoiHTCU, 07T- tzioc, drj npajzov nop e/i- Treae. In his "Letters to Atticus," II., 11, he quotes two lines from the " Odyssey," IX., 27, inserting a word which is not in the original. 1 Tooke's " Lucian," II., p. 723. QUOTATIONS FROM MEMORY 41 THE ORIGINAL. Tprffju \ dXX dyad}] xouporpofo^' oh rot iycoye rjc yol^c, ditvapat yXuxspcorspov aXXo idea- 6ac. THE QUOTATION. Tpvj^sT, dXX' dyadrj xoopozpoipoz' ourt dp iycoys rjz ycii-qc, duvapac yXuxepco- zepov dkXo idiodac. In his "Republic," book I., section 32, he quotes a line from Ennius, with the word " regni " in the second place. In the " De Officiis," book 1, section 8, he quotes the same line with the word in the sixth place. In his "Republic," book I., section 41, he quotes three lines from the "Annals" of Ennius; but omits the closing word of the first, and a whole line between the second and third. See "The Republic of Cicero," by G. G. Hardingham, p. 112, note 145. The following, from Trollope's " Cicero," i states very well, if somewhat strongly, the attitude of the Latin writers in general toward Greek literature, and the great freedom with which they quoted it : The Romans, in translating from the Greek, thinking nothing of literary excellence, felt that they were bringing Greek thought into a form of language in which it could thus be made useful. There was no value for the words, but only for the thing to be found in them. . . The general liberty of translation has been so frequently taken by the Latin poets — by Virgil and Horace, let us say — that they have been regarded by some as no more than translators. . . There has been no need to them for a close translation. They have found the idea, and their object has been to present it to their readers in the best possible language. Similarly Reid says, in his "Academica of Cicero" : 2 1 Vol. II., P . 253. * Pp. 24, 51. 42 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT The philosophical works of Cicero were merely transcripts from the most approved Greek writings on the subjects with which they deal. The arguments in favor of dogmatism are frequently stated by Cicero to be wholly taken from his old teacher, Antio- chus of Ascalon. That Cicero did not rely on his own recollec- tion of Antiochus' lectures, but transcribed the opinions from a book or books by the master, can be clearly proved, though the fact is nowhere stated. . . His writings are in fact, to a great extent, translations, though free translations, from the Greek sources. It would be easy to extend these evidences from the classics, but I shall close with three instances from Seneca, who was a contemporary of the Apostle Paul. In his seventy-sixth letter, he quotes from the "yEneid," VI., 103, with a mistake of one word for another. THE ORIGINAL. Non ulla laborum, O virgo, nova mi facies inopinave surgit : Omnia praecepi, atque ani- mo mecum ante peregi. THE QUOTATION. Non ulla laborum, O virgo, nova mi facies inopinave surgit : Omnia praecepi, atque ani- mo mecum ipse peregi. In his eighty-sixth letter he quotes a line from the " Georgics," I., 215, but adds a word, and also substi- tutes one word for another. THE ORIGINAL. Vere fabis satio ; turn te quoque, medica, putres. THE QUOTATION. Vere fabis satio est ; tunc te quoque, medica, putres. In his ninety-third letter he quotes ten lines from the " Georgics," III., 75, omitting two lines in the heart of the passage, and mistaking a word in the third line. QUOTATIONS FROM MEMORY 43 Philo conformed to the methods of quoting which were pursued alike by the Hebrew and the classical writers, being familiar with the productions of both. As he was born about twenty years before Christ, his books may have assisted to form the style of some of the authors of the New Testament ; but whether this is true or not, they illustrate the literary customs of the first century. His quotations are from the Septuagint, like those of the apostles and evangelists ; but he sometimes shows an acquaintance with the original Hebrew, and leans toward it. Siegfried, l who has ex- amined his quotations with much care, has assembled a great number which are inexact. I give but a single example : In his treatise on " Meeting for the Sake of Receiv- ing Instruction," he quotes from Lev. 18 : 1-5. He begins with verses 1 and 2 and a part of verse 3 ; then a succeeding part of verse 3 is omitted and its closing words are given ; then follows the beginning of verse 4, then the omitted portion of verse 3, then a further por- tion of verse 4, then verse 5. The early Fathers of the church continued the cus- tom of quoting with little reference to verbal exact- ness. Reuss 2 says of their quotations : " They are mostly only small fragments taken out of the Scriptures and applied to various uses in the later theological works ; and these uses did not always require strict adherence to the original words, bat permitted quota- tion from memory simply, which is oftener the case 1 See his ,three articles in Hilgenfeld's " Zeitschrift fur wissenschaft- liche Theologie," 1873. 2 " History of the New Testament Scriptures," Vol. II., section 394. 44 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT the farther back we go." Hence, these quotations are of little use in establishing the text of the New Tes- tament. Indeed, the custom of verbal exactness in quoting is not yet a century old. In the time of Jeremy Taylor it was still unknown, and in his works he cites the Scrip- tures with the utmost freedom. Dr. Ezra Abbot took pains to count in how many ways this author quoted a single passage of the New Testament (John 3 : 3-5). He says: 1 " I have noted nine quotations of the pas- sage by Jeremy Taylor. All of these differ from the common English version, and only two of them are alike." He shows that the same verses are quoted in the Book of Common Prayer a without regard to verbal precision. The propriety of quoting from memory, and without regard to verbal exactness, is admitted by Kuenen; 3 but he accuses the writers of the New Testament of sometimes altering not only the words, but also the es- sential meaning of certain passages. He says : It is not to those numerous divergences which have little or no effect upon the meaning of the citation that I wish to direct attention. But along with these, others of a less innocent nature occur. The alterations introduced, designedly or un- designedly, by the New Testament writers, are often very essential. They affect the thought of the Old Testament writer, substitute something else in its stead, give it a specific direction, or limit it in such a way that it is made to apply to one single object. It was with regard to such modifications that I thought myself justified in asserting that they cannot but exert an influ- 1 "The Authorship of the Fourth Gospel," p. 39. 2 Public Baptism of Infants. Baptism of Those of Riper Years. 3 " Prophets and Prophecy in Israel," p. 459. QUOTATIONS FROM MEMORY 45 ence on the judgment formed regarding the inferences which are deduced (by the New Testament writer) from the citation. For him who adheres strictly to the original, these inferences have no force as proofs. This is a grave accusation, for it affirms that the au- thors of the New Testament have altered, perhaps "designedly," some of the passages of the Old which they quote, so as to transform them by this violent method into "proofs" of teachings to which, in their original state, they bear no testimony. Kuenen at- tempts to sustain this charge of ignorance or design by seven examples, five of which I shall examine here, leaving two to be considered in other chapters, where they properly belong. We may be certain that these examples are the strongest and clearest which Kuenen could discover ; for a critic so able and so much accus- tomed to debate would not fail to select the most effect- ive weapons. If therefore they shall turn out to be quite innocent, because quite in accordance with the laws of literature, we may dismiss more briefly any others which we may be called upon to notice in the farther progress of our work. The first instance is Isa. 28 : 16, as quoted in Rom. 9:33; 10 : 1 1 ; 1 Peter 2 : 6, 8. The Hebrew reads, as translated by Toy : " Behold, I found in Zion a stone, a precious corner-stone, solidly founded ; he who trusts shall not make haste." The accusation of Kuenen is based on the fact that the passage is quoted in the New Testament with the addition of the words " in him," so that it reads : " He who trusts in him shall not make haste." He objects to the words "in him," "because," he says, "they make it possible to 46 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT understand the trusting of which the prophet speaks as trusting in the Christ. If they are omitted, then, of course, he means trusting in Jahveh." The answer is two-fold. First, the words " in him " are found also in the Tar- gum on the passage, 1 proving that the rabbis were ac- customed to insert them as an explanation of the mean- ing. 2 They also considered the passage Messianic, as the Targum shows. It referred primarily to Jehovah, who, the prophet says, in the disasters of Israel from the hostilities of the Assyrians, will set himself and his word as a firm foundation-stone. Those who be- lieve on him, or on it, shall not make haste to flee from the enemy. But the rabbis may have been quite right in seeing in the verse also a prediction of the Messiah, on the principle of double reference, which I shall con- sider in the ninth chapter of this book. But secondly, we do not need to insist upon this. We may allow Toy, who belongs to the same school of criticism with Kuenen, to express for us the view which we may adopt, and which at once refutes the charge which we are considering : " The spiritual principle an- nounced by the prophet — that God is a firm foundation for those who trust in him, and a terror to those who willfully reject him — finds a new illustration in every new manifestation of him, and the most striking of all in the last and highest self-manifestation in Jesus Christ." We may carry this thought a little farther. The apostles taught that Christ was " God manifest in 1 Toy, " Quotations," p. 146. 2 The custom of adding to a passage words designed to explain it will be considered in our fourth chapter. QUOTATIONS FROM MEMORY 47 the flesh." Hence, to believe on Jehovah truly was to believe on Christ, and to believe on Christ was to believe on Jehovah : " Whosoever denieth the Son, the same hath not the Father : he that confesseth the Son hath the Father also." l All Christians to-day hold this. Much, therefore, of that which was said of Je- hovah could be applied to Christ with perfect pro- priety, as in the quotation before us, where the effect of faith in Jehovah and the effect of faith in Christ are justly held to be similar or identical. Another instance of such a change in the quotation as Kuenen thinks cannot be justified, he finds in Rom. 1 1 : 2-4, where the sacred writer quotes from 1 Kings 19 : 10-18. If we turn to the Old Testament passage, we read that Elijah in a moment of discouragement, mourns that he is left alone in his allegiance to Jeho- vah, while all the rest of his nation have become Baal- worshipers. The result may be stated in the words of Kuenen : The complaint is answered by Jahveh commanding him to anoint Hazael to be king of Syria, Jehu to be king of Israel, and Elisha to be a prophet. " It shall come to pass," so it is said farther, " that him that escapeth the sword of Hazael shall Jehu slay ; and him that escapeth the sword of Jehu shall Elisha slay. Yet I will leave seven thousand in Israel, all the knees that have not bowed before Baal, and every mouth which hath not paid homage to him." The meaning is not for a moment doubtful : the judgment to be executed by Hazael, Jehu, and Elisha, of course strikes the wicked ; . . . only those faithful to Jahveh, seven thousand in number — a round number, of course — shall be spared, and shall remain after the punishment has been executed. But of this narrative Paul takes the first verse, the 1 1 John 2 : 23. 48 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT complaint of Elijah, and the last, the prophecy concerning the sparing of the seven thousand, and cites them in such a way that he brings them into immediate connection with each other. For in place of " I will leave, ' ' he writes : "I have reserved to myself seven thousand men who have not bowed the knee before Baal." Elijah complains, "I am left alone" ; God re- plies, "Thou art mistaken; there are still seven thousand faithful men remaining." Of this opposition, or if it be pre- ferred, of this correction of Elijah, there is no trace to be found in the original. True, the inference may also be derived from it that Elijah was not the only servant of Jahveh, and had there- fore been guilty of exaggeration in his despondency ; but in the quotation as given by Paul this stands in the foreground as the real chief matter. The first charge against the writer of Romans is that he changes the tense of the original, and makes God say, not " I will leave seven thousand," but " I have reserved seven thousand." This change, however, makes absolutely no difference with the course of thought pursued by the apostle, which is as follows : Elijah deemed himself alone in his faithfulness ; but God declared that it was not so, that a very large number should be preserved from idolatry and from its punishment. "In the same manner, then," the apostle continues, " at the present time there is a rem- nant according to the election of grace." " As there was a remnant of old, so there is a remnant now. " Let the reader change the tense of the quotation and make it future or past, as he prefers, and he will see that the historic parallel remains wholly unaffected. When Kuenen denies that the answer of Jehovah was intended to cheer the despondency of Elijah by showing him that he was not alone, he goes very far in QUOTATIONS FROM MEMORY 49 order to discover a small objection to the New Testa- ment. It is difficult to understand how any fair man, after reading the narrative, can say : " Of this correction of Elijah there is no trace to be found in the original." The entire answer was adapted to remove the dis- couragement of the prophet, and Toy is right in calling it " God's consoling word to Elijah." Does the apostle consider the answer of God to Eli- jah a prediction of a remnant of Israel in his own days ? Toy 1 answers in the affirmative, and there need be no objection to this view. The argument would then be as follows : " As God was careful even in such times of declension to keep a remnant of Israel true, so will he be careful now. His mercy, so conspicuously displayed then, is a pledge and prophecy that his mercy to his chosen people shall never fail." This use of sacred history is common. Knowing that God is unchangeable, we say : " He made his gospel prevalent over ancient heathenism, and this is a sure prophecy of the success of modern missions to the heathen." " He did not permit the Roman government to destroy his holy word in the third century, and this is a sure prophecy that he will not permit it to be destroyed by any of its foes, but will give it to the world." " He sustained me wonderfully in my great trials last year, and this is a sure prophecy that he will not desert me in those which are to come." But we are not obliged to take this view. Toy bases it on the word rendered " then " in both our Common and Revised English versions of verse five. He con- 1 "Quotations," p. 154. E 50 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT siders this word as equivalent to " therefore." But it is by no means always so ; and it is perhaps not usually so. Thayer 1 gives this as its primary, though not its only meaning, and adds that " others regard the primary force of the word as confirmatory and continu- ative, rather than illative," and cites Passow, Liddell and Scott, Kiihner, Baumlein, Kriiger, Donaldson, Rost, Klotz, and Hartung, as holding the latter opin- ion. If we read the passage in this latter way, we shall regard its author as referring to the story of Eli- jah merely for an encouraging example, a vivid illustra- tion, a historic parallel. Another instance of what Kuenen regards as un- warranted change is found at I Cor. 14 : 21, 22, where the Apostle Paul quotes Isa. 28 : 11, 12, as follows: " In the law it is written, By men of strange tongues and by the lips of strangers will I speak unto this people, and not even thus will they hear me, saith the Lord. Wherefore tongues are for a sign, not to them that believe, but to the unbelieving." The truth which the apostle here illustrates, is that the gift of tongues is not an evidence of a high degree of faith, as is that of prophecy, but of a relatively low degree of faith. He illustrates it by quoting a passage in which Isaiah upbraids the people for their disobedi- ence. The prophet had pointed out to them their true rest, but they would not enter into it. He therefore declares that God will speak to them " by men of for- eign tongues and by the lips of foreigners," referring to the Assyrians, who were destined to carry them 1 " Lexicon," at the word ovv. QUOTATIONS FROM MEMORY 5 1 away captive to a land where they would hear a for- eign speech. This is to befall them because when they were admonished "they would not hear." Now in place of this last phrase, "they would not hear," the apostle has, " and yet for all that they will not hear me." This is the change which Kuenen condemns, affirming that it favors, if it was not designed to favor, the teaching of the apostle that the gift of tongues is a sign to the unbelieving. But it does not in the least. The original may be considered even stronger, since it connects by a direct assertion the affliction of foreign tongues with the unbelief of the people, making the latter the cause of the former. Toy is much more moderate here than Kuenen, and says : " The apostle gives the verbal sense of the Hebrew with general correctness in his translation." The difficulties found with the passage arise chiefly from misinterpretation. The erroneous view often advanced is this : When the writer says that " tongues are for a sign to the unbelieving," he has in mind the heathen who might be present in the Christian assem- bly. These heathen would not understand the sign ; they would say: "Ye are mad." Hence the writer changes the quotation to make it correspond with this rejection of the sign, and represents the prophet as saying : " And not even thus will they hear me, saith the Lord," instead of : " Yet they would not hear." But this view of the statement that " tongues are for a sign to the unbelieving " is wrong, for the follow- ing reasons : (i) The unbelievers upbraided and threat- ened by Isaiah, in the passage quoted, are not the heathen — they are the Jews ; and hence the "unbeliev- 52 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT ing" in Corinth to whom "tongues were for a sign" were not the heathen, but the erring people of God, of whom the faithless Jews were a type. (2) The Apostle Paul was not so foolish as to say that "tongues are for a sign to a class of men who would not prob- ably hear them at all, and who, if they heard them, as he himself says, would necessarily suppose the speakers to be insane. (3) The antithesis established in the sen- tence shows that the writer is thinking of an unbeliev- ing church, as contrasted with a believing church, when he says that " tongues are for a sign, not to them that believe, but to the unbelieving : but prophesying is for a sign, not to the unbelieving, but to them that believe." Who are they "that believe" in this case? Not the heathen, but a church well advanced in Chris- tian faith. The "unbelieving" therefore are not the heathen, but a church little advanced in Christian faith. (4) Let us assume for a moment that the " unbeliev- ing " are those without the church, and the " believ- ing" those within, and see what conclusion we are driven to. "Tongues," in that case, "are a sign" to those without the church, and yet produce no good effect upon them ; while " prophecy " " is not a sign " to those without, and yet becomes the means of their con- version. The "philosophic apostle" never reasoned in this way. Evidently, then, the two " signs," " tongues " and " prophecy," are considered in this passage as "signs" in relation to the church, and not in relation to those without the church, though in relation to these also "prophecy" might be called a very valuable " sign," since it is adapted to reach their minds and consciences. QUOTATIONS FROM MEMORY 53 Is it said that the apostle would not apply the word "unbelieving" to the Corinthian church? But in Titus 1 115 he applies it to recreant Christians, and in John 20 : 27 our Lord himself applies it to Thomas, one of his apostles. Then why should it not be ap- plied here to a church proven by the whole epistle to have been complacent in the toleration of most fright- ful sins in its communicants ? Is it said that the writer applies the word " unbe- lieving " in the very next verse to the heathen ? Yes ; he permits it to return to its ordinary reference there, as is natural. This sudden shifting of the reference of a word is common in- all literatures, and I could readily adduce a hundred instances of it both from classical English and classical Greek ; but the follow- ing examples from a single book of the New Testa- ment may suffice" : the word " temple," John 2 : 19, 20; the word " born," 3:6; the words "lifted up," 3 : 14; the word "water," 4 : 10, 11 ; the word "thirst," 4 : 14, 15; the words "to eat," 4:32, 33; the word "harvest," 4:35; the word "meat," 6 : 27 ; the word "bread," 6 : 32 ; the words "eat" and "flesh," 6 : 52, 53, 63 ; the word "father," 8 : 38, 39, 56; the word "God," 10 : 35, 36; the word "sleep," 11 : 11, 12; the word "wash," 13 :8; the word "world," 17 : 24, 25. The interpretation of the passage which I have given is sustained by Beet, Conybeare, Storr, Flatt, Baur, Schulz, Kling, and many others. The argument of the apostle then is as follows : Had the Israelites before the captivity believed Jehovah, they would have listened to Isaiah the prophet, and 54 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT would have been nourished and guided by the gift of prophecy ; but as they were unbelieving, the best that God could do for them was to speak to them in the unknown tongues of foreigners. Even so, had the Corinthian Christians been in a believing state, they would have possessed the gift of prophecy, and would have been nourished and guided by their prophets ; but as they were relatively unbelieving, the best that God could do for them was to send them the lowest of spiritual gifts, that of unknown tongues, a sign to strengthen the feeble remnants of such faith as they possessed, but also a sign signifying the feebleness of their faith. By seeking greater faith they would attain higher gifts and receive the grace of prophecy, while still retaining in due measure the " tongues " on which they set such an exaggerated estimate. Meyer, in his third edition, regards the " tongues " of the Old Testament passage as typical of the " tongues" of the apostolic age, since the foreign speaking of the Assyrians is declared by Isaiah to be in some sense the speaking of God to his people. " The analogy," says Kling, stating the view of Meyer, " between the type and the antitype is founded on the extraordinary phenomenon of God's speaking to his people in a for- eign tongue ; " and, I may add, speaking in this way instead of through his prophets. I have no special objection to this view; yet I incline to that of Shore, 1 who regards the citation as " rather an illustration" than a proof ; and of Hodge, who says that " Paul does not quote the passage as having any prophetic refer- 1 In Ellicott's " New Testament Commentary.' 5 QUOTATIONS FROM MEMORY 55 ence to the events in Corinth." It is a vice of many commentators to see in every quotation of the New- Testament an effort to prove something ; whereas the great majority of them, as of the quotations in general literature, are merely for illustration, for ornamentation, or for force of language. The only reason for suppos- ing that the quotation here is for proof of doctrine, is found in the Greek word rendered " wherefore," at the beginning of the twenty-second verse. But this word is not necessarily one of logical inference. Gould 1 gives it only the force of "and so," or "so that." Meyer renders it here by " sonach," which his English translators render in turn by "accordingly." The Greek word is used here with a verb in the indicative, and not in the infinitive ; and " the distinction," says Winer, "seems to be this: with the indicative it pre- sents the facts in succession purely externally as ante- cedent and consequent ; while with the infinitive it brings them into closer connection as issuing one from the other." The " tongues " referred to by Isaiah were very dif- ferent from the "tongues" referred to by Paul; and many critics regard the parallel as chiefly one of words rather than of the things signified. I do not agree with them, for there is a very real analogy between the two cases, taken as a whole. But if their view shall commend itself to any reader, he will find abundant instances of this sort of illustration in all literatures, as I have shown in our eighth chapter. Still another example of alleged unwarranted change i " American Commentary." 56 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT adduced by Kuenen is found in 2 Cor. 6:18, where the Apostle Paul is rehearsing certain admonitions and promises made to the children of God, and using them as the ground of his exhortation to abstain from the pollutions of the heathen world. Among these prom- ises is the following : I will be to you a Father, And ye shall be to me sons and daughters. It is to this that Kuenen specially objects. Accord- ing to him, and many others with him, it is from the address of God to David concerning Solomon in 2 Sam. 7:14: "I will be his father, and he shall be my son." The apostle changes the person and the number, in order to make the passage apply, not to Solomon, but to Christians, which, the adverse critic holds, he has no right to do. There can be no objection to the supposition that the words spoken by God concerning Solomon are in the mind of the apostle, and are adapted by slight changes to their new position in his writings. The promise made to David concerning Solomon was based upon the character of both, and, inasmuch as God " changeth not " and " is no respecter of persons," they belong to every devout soul. This promise is often used in the modern pulpit, and in modern religious literature, in the same manner, as the voice of God to us. Indeed, the great majority of the promises of holy Scripture were made to individuals who lived cen- turies ago, and not directly to us. Yet we always quote them as pointing to ourselves. Nor do we con- sider it necessary to excuse ourselves when we do so ; QUOTATIONS FROM MEMORY 57 the immutability and impartiality of God enter so deeply into Christian consciousness that we never think of calling them in question, or of reasoning to establish them. This is the view of the writers of the New Testament, as, for instance, in I Cor. 10 : n : " Now these things happened unto them by way of ex- ample : and they are written for our admonition, upon whom the ends of the ages are come." The criticism of Kuenen would forbid us to apply any promises of the Bible to ourselves, except those of a very general nature. "Thy brother shall rise again," would not be for us. "Them that are fallen asleep in Jesus will God bring with him," would not be for us. " Believe on the Lord Jesus, and thou shalt be saved," would not be for us. We cannot admit the objection based upon the application to all Christians of words spoken con- cerning one whom God recognized as his child. Nor can we condemn the apostle for the slight grammatical changes by which he adapts the words to their new position, for we often quote in the same manner. We say : " Your brother shall rise again," when we are at- tending the funeral of a young Christian man, and are endeavoring to console his bereaved family. We say : " He has fallen asleep in Jesus, and therefore God will bring him with Christ at the last day." We say : " Be- lieve on the Lord Jesus, and ye shall be saved," apply- ing to many hearers or readers the promise given to a single individual. In a thousand such instances we change the grammatical person, the number, the tense, and yet quote faithfully. I am not confident, however, that the quotation is taken from 2 Sam. 7:14. It seems to me to be rather 58 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT a summing up of various expressions in the prophets, like those of Ezek. 36:28: " Ye shall be my people, and I will be your God ; " or like those of Jer. 31 : I, 4, 20, 22, 33 : " I will be the God of all the families of Israel, and they shall be my people ; " " Thou shalt be built, O virgin of Israel ; " " Is Ephraim my dear son ? Is he a pleasant child?" " O thou back-sliding daughter;" " I will be their God, and they shall be my people." This is the more probable, since the quotation 1 with which the whole series here opens is a combination and condensation of two passages, such as I shall illustrate in the fifth chapter of this book. The application to Christians of promises made to penitent and believing Israel needs no argument to justify it, since it is con- stantly illustrated in every sermon and every religious book. One more of the examples of freedom in quoting which Kuenen adduces to condemn, is in Eph. 4 : 8. The Apostle Paul is speaking of the spiritual gifts of Christ to his people. They are " according to the measure of the gift of Christ " ; that is, as many com- mentators hold, according to his wise and holy pleasure ; or, perhaps better, according to his abundance and lib- erality. To illustrate the statement that the spiritual gifts of the church are from Christ, the writer quotes from Ps. 68 : 18 : When he ascended on high, he led captivity captive, And gave gifts unto men. 1 2 Cor. 6 : 16: "I will dwell in them and walk with them," from Lev. 26 : II, 12 and Ezek. 37 : 27. Toy calls the citation a " combination of the two passages, and condensation." QUOTATIONS FROM MEMORY 59 But turning to the psalm, we perceive that the second of these lines is as follows : Thou hast received gifts among men. Here apparently is a radical change ; in the psalm the person addressed receives gifts from men ; in the quota- tion he distributes them among: men. The explanation is to be found largely in the remark of Meyer, l that the Hebrew word rendered ''received" " has often the proleptic sense to fetch, that is, to take anything for a person and to give it to him." The apostle, in the opinion of Meyer, makes '■ an exposition of the Hebrew words, which yielded essentially the sense expressed by him." He read the psalm as say- ing : " Thou didst receive gifts to distribute them among men" ; and, to quote Meyer again, "translated this in an explanatory way." The " Speaker's Com- mentary " gives the following instances of this use of the Hebrew word: Gen. 18 : 5; 27 : 13 ; 42 : 16; Exod. 27 : 20; Lev. 24 : 2 ; and 2 Kings 2 : 20. Ellicott 2 says the word is used "constantly" in this sense. " It appears," according to Toy, " that such a translation existed among the Jews ; for it is found in the Peshito-Syriac and the Targum." Even if the Hebrew word had not contained this thought, the apostle would have found the psalm full of it, and would only have expressed the meaning of the whole sublime ode by his phraseology. A father of the fatherless and a judge of the widows Is God in his holy habitation. 1 " Commentary on Ephesians." 2 " Commentary on Ephesians." 60 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT He bringeth out the prisoners into prosperity. Thou, O God, didst send a plentiful rain, Thou didst confirm thine inheritance when it was weary. Thou, O God, didst prepare thy goodness for the poor. She that tarrieth at home divideth the spoil. Blessed be the Lord Jehovah, who daily beareth our burdens. Such are some of the expressions of this psalm con- cerning the gifts of God to men. Moreover, as all interpreters agree, the psalm cele- brates a victory, or a series of victories. It represents the conqueror as returning home crowned with glory and laden with the fruits of success. Now, ancient warfare always resulted in the spoiling of the van- quished ; men enlisted in the army in the hope of en- riching themselves with plunder ; and the victor, who stripped his foes and received gifts from the peoples he subdued, made large distribution to his followers ; to take was to give ; and the two things would readily be associated in the thought as one. The explanation of the verse given by the apostle in this change of its form, if we are to recognize a change, would strike his readers as a natural and obvious method of bring- ing out the real meaning of the original. The literary custom of changing a quotation in order to explain it will be considered in our fourth chapter, and the Messianic character of the psalm in the ninth. It might have been gratifying to us, in a certain sense, had the writers of the New Testament quoted the Septuagint version with verbal exactness, as they would have contributed much, in that case, to the restoration of the text of this version, now in some disorder. But this one small advantage would have been overbalanced QUOTATIONS FROM MEMORY 6 1 by disadvantages of a serious kind. Had the writers of the New Testament departed from the literary cus- toms of their age, to quote with verbal exactness in all instances, their example would have been cited as ir- refutable proof of verbal and mechanical, instead of dynamic inspiration. Their freedom in quoting has done much to deliver us from this view, once so generally held, and now as generally abandoned. But further ; such careful adherence to the letter of the Greek version would have been regarded as a divine seal set upon this version ; and it would have taken the place of final authority which the Roman Catholics sought to give to the Latin Vulgate by a decree of the Council of Trent, 1 and no subse- quent discovery of its many blemishes would have suf- ficed to undo the mischief or relieve the sensitive con- sciences of the faithful, who would have been cast into distressing perplexity by this plenary approval of a work which their reason could not but pronounce im- perfect. But also unbelievers would have seen their opportunity, and critics of the school of Kuenen would have been the first to reproach the writers of the New Testament both for holding an erroneous doctrine of inspiration and for ignorance of the faults of the Sep- tuagint version. These writers were wise, therefore, in quoting as they did, with primary reference to the meaning, and with a certain disregard of the language. i Schaff, "The Creeds of Christendom," Vol. II., p. 82. Ill FRAGMENTARY QUOTATIONS THE writers of the New Testament often make use of quotations so brief and fragmentary that the reader cannot readily determine the degree of support, if any, which is thus gained for the argument. This is for substance one of the objections of Kuenen, who writes as follows of the psalms usually termed Mes- sianic : Of these psalms some verses, or occasionally a single verse, are quoted as prophecies concerning the Christ, or as contain- ing words of the Christ, generally without the difficulties in the way of such an explanation, which can be drawn from other parts, being discussed or removed. It is true that brief and fragmentary quotations from the Old Testament occur in the New, but the blame implied in the statement of Kuenen is unjust, and re- sults from inattention to the quotations in general lit- erature. The following are characteristic examples of the brief quotations censured by Kuenen : Heb. I : 5, from Ps. 2 : 7 : " Thou art my Son, this day have I be- gotten thee." Heb. 1 : 6, perhaps from the Septua- gint of Deut. 32 : 43 : " And let all the angels of God worship him." Heb. 2 : 12, from Ps. 22 : 22 : " I will declare thy name unto my brethren ; in the midst of the congregation will I sing thy praise." 62 FRAGMENTARY QUOTATIONS 63 Heb. 2:13, from Isa. 8 : 18 : " Behold I and the children which God hath given me." When we read such quotations as these we naturally ask, Whence do they come ? Finding their sources, we ask again, With what right are they referred to Christ or to his people ? And again, W T hy was not the whole context quoted in each case, so that every reader of the text might judge for himself of the propriety of the use made of it ? Upon reflection it becomes manifest, however, that to have quoted the whole context in every such case would have swelled the New Testament to immoderate proportions and thus have prevented its general use. It would also have rendered the argument too compli- cated and tortuous for our comprehension. Moreover, in order to render the reasoning of the sacred writer sufficient for the demands of the captious reader, it would have been necessary at every point to explain at length the relation of the Old Testament to the New as its ground-work, its seed-form, its prototype, its prophecy. Let us now examine the last of these examples as an illustration of what I have just said. The context which it is necessary to understand embraces several chapters, which of course could not be brought into the epistle without violating all laws of literary proportion and rendering the argument insufferably tedious. Then again, the original passage refers to Christ and his peo- ple only as the germ in the soil refers to the plant which it is to unfold ; and, to satisfy Kuenen and the critics of his school, it would be necessary to express this view and to justify it, in connection with the quo- tation, though not for the satisfaction of such readers 64 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT as the New Testament writer immediately addressed, to whom the Old Testament was a familiar book of prophecy containing in many places typical foreshad- owings of Christ and his church. Still further, only half a sentence is quoted ; its grammatical form in Greek, as in English, shows its incompleteness, and challenges the mind at once to think of the remaining words and of their setting in the prophecy. Frequently long passages from the Old Testament are compressed in the New by the omission of portions, and the retention only of enough to show their distinct relation to the matter brought forward by the writer. Instances of such abridgement are found at John 12 : 40 ; Acts 2 : 25-28 ; 8 : 32, 33 ; 15:16; Heb. 2 : 6. At Heb. 4 : 3, two lines only from Ps. 95 : 11 are quoted, because the longer passage, on which the whole argument turns, has been produced in the preceding chapter. This kind of compression is common in all literatures. With us, it is often indicated by dots to show where portions of the passage have been omitted ; but frequently we employ no such device. None was employed by the writers of antiquity, for no punctua- tion of any sort had been invented. It is not to such compression, however, that the chief objection is made, but to the quotation of brief phrases designed to bring to mind the longer passages from which they are taken. The same thing occurs in the quotations of all liter- atures, and the reader is supposed to know the con- text for himself, or to turn to it, if unfamiliar with it. A few examples will prove this statement, as far as it concerns ancient literature, and show that the FRAGMENTARY QUOTATIONS 65 writers of the New Testament quote quite like other writers. The first is from Plato's " Symposium," section 174. Jowett translates it thus : " I am afraid, Socrates," said Aristodemus, "that I may be the inferior person, who, like Menelaus in Homer, To the feasts of the wise unbidden goes. But I shall s'ay that I was bidden by you, and then you will have to make the excuse." " Two going together, he replied, in Homeric fashion, "may invent an excuse by the way." What is the story in Homer from which these quota- tions are made ? What light does it throw upon the situation of the speakers in the dialogue? The Greek readers of the " Symposium," familiar with Homer from the cradle, would know at once. But the majority of modern readers must turn to the " Iliad " before they can answer these questions, and those who do so, gain a higher appreciation of the ready wit with which Socrates replies to his friend. The literary art of Plato, in deal- ing thus with the great poem, is perfect. Every writer must assume that the reader possesses a certain degree of intelligence, and every reader must lend the writer the assistance of his intelligence. Human life has its limits, and if all quotations and literary allusions had to be accompanied by elaborate explications, no literature could be mastered within the few short years allotted to us on earth. If we turn over a single leaf of the " Symposium," we come to another instance of the same kind : 66 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT Eryximachus proceeded as follows : "I will begin," he said, " after the manner of Melanippe in Euripides, ' Not mine the word ' which I am about to speak, but that of Phaedrus. For he is in the habit of complaining that, whereas other gods have poems and hymns made in their honor, the great and glorious god, Love, has no encomiast among all the poets who are so many." Here we have but half a line. The whole line is quoted by another Greek writer, but the context is lost, and with it our ability to enjoy the wit of the speaker. The first quotation in the " Laws " presents a contrast to these. Here the speaker quotes a part of a line from Tyrtaeus, a Spartan citizen enamored of war : I sing not, I care not about any man. After this fragmentary quotation, the speaker contin- ues, giving in his own prose the substance of what fol- lows in the poem. He then tells us something about the views of war which the poet held, inferring from his expressions that he sings the praises of foreign war and not civil. Here enough of the context is sketched in to enable us to form some conception, though a dim one, of the argument of the poem. There are in Plato probably as many literary allusions and brief quotations which suppose in the reader an ac- quaintance with the context, as of this latter kind, which is accompanied with an explanation of the con- text. Jowett says that their fragmentary character is a striking feature of the quotations from the poets in Aristotle : " They are often cited in half-lines only, FRAGMENTARY QUOTATIONS 67 which would be unintelligible unless the context was present to the mind. We are reminded that the Greek youth, like some of our own, were in the habit of com- mitting to memory entire poets." A very few instances from Aristotle will suffice to illustrate his custom. In his " Rhetoric," book I., section 6, we have three examples on a single page. " It is a general rule that whatever our enemies desire or rejoice at, the opposite of this is clearly beneficial to ourselves. Hence the point of the lines, Sure Priam would rejoice." Here the whole passage of the " Iliad," beginning at I., 255, is suggested: it is the speech in which Nestor tries to reconcile Achilles and Agamemnon. Immediately afterward we have the words of the "Iliad," II., 176: Yea, after Priam's heart ; and of the " Iliad," II., 298 : 'Tvvere shame to tarry long. Welldon says of these quotations : " The point lies not in the mere words quoted, but in the context." In his treatise on " The Learned Retained in Great Families," section 5, Lucian quotes from the "Theog- ony" of Hesiod, line 179 : For every man by poverty subdued. The line itself says little to the purpose of the author, and it is quoted only because it is the opening of a 68 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT long passage on the evils of poverty, of which he would remind the reader. Tooke writes : " Lucian quotes only a few words as from a common-place saying. And if I were to subjoin in a note all that dear Theognis says concerning poverty in the passage referred to, perhaps the reader would not thank me for my trouble." In his "Oration on the Departure of Sallust," Julian quotes three words from the " Iliad," XL, 401 : Ulysses was alone. He says that he is reminded of these words by his own situation since Sallust has gone from him. Bat he is thinking of the whole passage, which tells how Diomed was wounded by Paris and thus compelled to quit the field, leaving Ulysses unsupported in the fight. This is evident from the next sentence, in which he speaks of the darts which have been launched at you by sycophants ; or rather at me through you ; as thinking no method so certain as that of depriving me, if possible, of the society of a faithful friend, an alert defender, and a sharer, with the utmost alacrity, in all my dangers. In the seventy- fourth letter of Julian, he writes to Libanius about a certain Aristophanes as follows : After this, perhaps you may ask, why we have not placed his affairs in a more prosperous state, and removed every inconveni- ence attending his disgrace ? When two go together, You and I will confer ; for you are worthy to be consulted. Here, as in Plato, these few words from the " Iliad " FRAGMENTARY QUOTATIONS 69 are intended to suggest the whole story to which they belong. In the letter of Gallus to Julian, his brother, he com- mends highly the piety of Julian, saying : You are zealously employed in houses of prayer, and can hardly be removed from the tombs of the martyrs, but are en- tirely attached to our worship. I must apply to you that expres- sion of Homer : Shoot thus. The two words quoted are from the "Iliad," VIIL, 282, the address of Agamemnon to Teucer, who was slaugh- tering the Trojans with his arrows. The king cried with admiration : Thus ever shoot, and become the glory of thy people. Gallus intends to remind his princely brother of the whole passage, and to say : " Continue this devotion, and become the glory of the church, the leader of the people in religious things." In " Strabo," book IX., section 24, is the following instance : In the Theban territory are Therapnae and Teumessus, which Antimachus has extolled in a long poem, enumerating excellences which they had not : There is a hillock exposed to the winds. But the lines are well known. These instances from Greek literature have been taken almost at random. If we turn to Cicero, the chief Latin writer of prose, we find the same custom. In the " Tusculan Disputations," book II., section 8, he argues, /O QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT against Epicurus, that pain is a real and serious evil. He endeavors to prove this by an appeal to the poets. He quotes first from Sophocles, who represents even Hercules as lamenting his torture in the tunic which Deianira had put on him. He quotes next from ^Eschylus, who depicts the agonies of Prometheus bound. In both cases he reproduces the passages at such length that no one can question their bearing on the subject of the debate. But in the " Academics," book II., section 16, we have a pair of quotations of the other kind. Here his asser- tion is, that illusions of the senses, such as those of dreams and intoxication and madness, may be distin- guished from the genuine testimony of the senses by their lack of clearness. For proof he appeals to En- nius, who, "when he had a dream, related it in this way : The poet Homer seemed to stand before me. And again in the Epicharmus he says : For I seemed to be dreaming and laid in the tomb. The reasoning of Cicero is this : One who remembers to have seen a man in reality does not say, " I seemed to see him " ; but one who remembers to have seen a man in a dream, is obliged by the obscurity of the vision to say that he seemed to see him. The lines from Ennius are quoted to prove that the theory put forth by Cicero was held by this great poet. We can- not be certain, however, that the lines possess any value as evidence. It is very possible that Ennius used the word " seem " not because the figures of the dream FRAGMENTARY QUOTATIONS 7 1 lacked clearness, but only because he reflected after- ward when awake that they lacked substantial reality, and therefore were only a seeming, however clear. The context has perished and left us in ignorance of the meaning. The ancient readers of Cicero would be in no doubt on this subject, for from the one quoted line they would recall the entire context. In his letter to his brother Quintus, I., 2, Cicero re- cords the arrival at Rome of Statius. The people, who expected to behold a man of heroic mold, were disappointed with his appearance. After this state- ment there follow five Greek words, of no significance in themselves, but highly significant as part of the long passage in the " Odyssey," IX., 513, in which Polyphe- mus expresses his disappointment with Ulysses, the whole of which Cicero wishes to bring to the mind of his brother. In his first letter to Atticus, Cicero speaks of his candidacy for the consulship, and says that his ambi- tion to gain the office may be forgiven, and then quotes, without explanation, the " Iliad," XXII., 159: No common victim, no ignoble ox. We can only conjecture as to the applicability of the line to the case of Cicero, till we turn to the context, and find that it is the story of the pursuit of Hector around the walls of Troy by Achilles, who ran " with fiery speed" because the prize of the race was, "no common victim, no ignoble ox," but a great warrior and great glory. The quotation becomes pregnant with- meaning when we read it in the light of its con- text, and learn that the race of Cicero for the consul- 72 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT ship engaged all his energies because the prize was so worthy of his utmost endeavors. In his letter to Atticus, II. , 25, Cicero instructs his friend to say for him some complimentary and pleasing things to Varro, who was then in power. " For, as you are aware," he adds, " he is of a singular disposi- tion." Then follow three Greek words from a furious speech in the " Andromache " of Euripides, denouncing the Spartans as " crafty in counsel, kings of liars, con- coctors of evil plots, crooked, and thinking nothing soundly, but all things tortuously." The three words quoted by Cicero are designed to recall the whole pas- sage, and to intimate to his friend that it is as good a description of Varro as of the Spartans. He continues the same subject, and adds: "But I do not forget this precept." Then follow three Greek words, which of themselves express no precept and make no sense. They are the opening words of line 393 of the "Phoenician Maidens" of Euripides, and are designed to recall the whole line, which is a pre- cept of patience : It is necessary to bear with the follies of those in power. In his sixteenth letter to Atticus, Cicero speaks of a letter from his friend Quintus, and says that the begin- ning and the end differed widely. He then throws in three Greek words : In front, a lion; but behind — We should form an entirely wrong conception of his full meaning if we failed to turn to Homer's descrip- tion of the Chimaera, the whole of which Cicero in- FRAGMENTARY QUOTATIONS 73 tends to apply to the letter of Quintus as an illustra- tion of its discordant character. All our modern literatures are so full of these frag- mentary quotations that it seems superfluous to pro- duce instances from them. No reader can fail to find examples for himself. Perhaps half the mottoes at the head of the numbers of the " Spectator " are of this class. The New Testament, in presenting to us a few such fragmentary quotations, shows only that its authors were moved by instincts and complied with customs of expression common to all writers of all ages and nations. G IV EXEGETICAL PARAPHRASE 1 SHALL consider in this chapter the statement that the authors of the New Testament sometimes alter the language of the Old with the obvious design of aid- ing their arguments. The principal instances of this kind which have been adduced are Matt. 2:6; 3:3; 11 : 10; 15 : 8, 9 ; Luke 2 : 23 ; John 2:17; 19 : 37 ; Acts 2 : 17-21 ; 7 142, 43. Let us examine these examples. At Matt. 2 : 6, Micah 5 : 2 is quoted, with several changes adapted to bring out the real meaning. The prophet writes : " But thou Beth-lehem Ephrathah, which art little to be among the thousands of Judah, out of thee shall one come forth unto me that is to be ruler in Israel." In the quotation we have " land of Judah," instead Ephrathah " ; " art in no wise least," instead of "art little"; "princes," instead of "thou- sands " ; " be shepherd of," instead of " be ruler " ; with the words "for" and "my people" and "a governor," inserted, and the words "unto me " omitted. Some of these changes may be due tc memory-quoting ; but others are clearly exegetical. Thus the word " Ephra- thah " was antique and obscure, and the words " land of Judah " took its place as an explanation. Further, says Toy : The form of the sentence is changed in order to bring out what was conceived to be the prophet' s implied thought, that Bethlehem, 74 EXEGETlCAL PARAPHRASE 75 though insignificant in size, had been, by its selection to be the birthplace of the Messiah, raised to a lofty position in Israel : hence the insertion of the negative, " art in no wise least," and of the "for," to show that the following assertion contains the ground of the city's greatness. This in fact is the real thought of the prophet, as all interpreters hold. The entire passage was regarded by the Jews as Messianic, as we see here and at John 7 : 42, and in the Targum. It has the coloring of tem- poral victory and temporal sovereignty, because these were types of spiritual blessings, as I shall show in our ninth chapter. The substitution of "be shepherd of," for " be ruler in," is made in order to give the substance of the next verse but one in the prophecy : " He shall stand, and shall feed his flock " ; and it illustrates again the manner of quoting discussed in our sixth chapter. In one instance an alteration made by the Septuagint is adopted by the New Testament writer apparently because it brings out clearly the relation of the passage, as a prophecy, to its fulfillment. It is at Matt. 3 : 3, where Isa. 40 : 3 is quoted as follows : The voice of one crying in the wilderness, Make ye ready the way of the Lord, Make his paths straight. Broadus comments on this quotation as follows : In the Hebrew, the accents indicate and the parallelism proves, that "in the wilderness " belongs to "make ye ready " ; and so the Revised version of Isaiah. Matthew, as also Mark and Luke, follows the Septuagint in connecting that phrase with "crying," and in omitting the parallel phrase "in the desert" from the next clause. This change does not affect the substantial meaning, and it makes clearer the real correspond- 76 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT ence between the prediction and the fulfillment, " preaching in the wilderness," verse 1, "crying in the wilderness," verse 3. It might without impropriety be supposed that Matthew himself altered the phraseology to bring out this correspondence, but in many similar cases it is plain that he has simply followed the familiar Septuagint. At Matt. 11 : 10, Mark 1 : 2, and Luke 7 : 27, is a quotation from Mai. 3 : 1, as follows : Behold I send my messenger before thy face, Who shall prepare thy way before thee. Thus the New Testament speaks, in the third person. But in the original passage Jehovah speaks in the first person : " Behold, I send my messenger, and he shall prepare the way before me." Thus Jehovah predicts that he himself shall come to Israel after first sending a herald to prepare the way, according to Oriental cus- tom. The writers of the New Testament held that Johovah really came in Christ, and that the pre- diction of the advent of Jehovah was fulfilled in the advent of Christ, and they introduced such verbal changes in the passage as served to bring out its real meaning, saying "thy face," instead of "my face," and " thy way," instead of " a way before me." The changes are strictly exegetical. At Matt. 15 : 8, 9, there is a quotation from Isa. 29 : 13, with the adoption of a change effected by the Sep- tuagint, apparently because it sets forth more clearly the real meaning of the prophet than a close rendering of his language would have done. The Hebrew reads : " And their fear toward me is the commandment of men, taught." That is, their religion is merely tra- EXEGETICAL PARAPHRASE JJ ditional, and not a thing derived from the word of God and their own experience of his grace. Instead of this, the Septuagint has, " But in vain do they worship me, teaching precepts of men and teachings." Matthew, and also Mark (7 : 7), slightly modify the Septuagint, and say, In vain do they worship me, Teaching doctrines the precepts of men. Says Broadus : This not only improves the phraseology of the Septuagint, but brings out the prophet's thought more clearly than would be done by a literal translation of the Hebrew, for Isaiah means to distinguish between a worship of God that is taught by men, and that which is according to the teaching of God's word. At Luke 2:23, the law of consecration of the first- born of males is quoted from Exod. 13 : 2, in such a manner as to explain it. The law is this : " Sanctify unto me all the first-born, whatsoever openeth the womb among the children of Israel, both of man and of beast : it is mine." In the twelfth and fifteenth verses of the same chapter the first-born are limited to the males, and in quoting the earlier verse, Luke brings the word "male " into it exegetically, to save space and express the real meaning of the passage. At John 2 : 1 7, Ps. 69 : 9 is quoted : The zeal of thine house shall eat me up. The Hebrew verb is in the perfect tense, as is also that of the Septuagint Greek, while the evangelist, ac- cording to the best reading, changes it to a future. This is paraphrase to express the real meaning of the 78 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT quotation, which, like many other parts of the psalm, are plainly Messianic and hence predictive. The change brings out the predictive character of the passage. At John 19 : 37, Zech. 12 : 10 is quoted as follows : " Again another Scripture saith, They shall look on him whom they pierced." The prophet wrote, how- ever, " They shall look unto me whom they have pierced." It was God who spoke through the prophet, declaring, that the Jews had pierced him, and John would teach us by his change of the pronoun that it was the same God whom they pierced on the cross, slaying the Messiah through the agency of the Roman soldier, their official and chosen representative. " The evangelist," says Wright, " is not quoting the passage in the words of the prophet, but rather giving the pur- port of it from his own point of view." He expresses thus his identification of the Jehovah of the Old Tes- tament with the Christ of the New. That the passage is a prediction of the event to which the evangelist ap- plies it, as well as the sufferings of Christ in the larger sense, is evident from the Hebrew word for "pierced," which occurs in ten other places, and " is nowhere used," Wright declares, "except in the literal accepta- tion of piercing or stabbing, and generally to the effect of slaying." Also the verb for "mourn" is the one which "properly expresses mourning for the dead." How can Jehovah be pierced ? This question has occasioned great difficulty, which writers have sought to overcome by various devices. The translation of the Septuagint, " They shall look to me because they mocked," is supposed to be based on the idea that the heart of Jehovah was pierced by the unbelieving words EXEGETICAL PARAPHRASE 79 of his disobedient people. Calvin, Rosenmiiller, Ge- senius, and others, refer the piercing to the obstinate and provoking sins of the nation, a metaphorical sense which the Hebrew word nowhere bears. Keil sup- poses the angel of Jehovah to be pierced, instead of Jehovah himself ; but for this guess there is no kind of support. Equally conjectural is the suggestion of Hit- zig, that Jehovah identifies himself with the prophet, and speaks of himself as pierced because Zechariah was set at naught. Toy would remove the difficulty by translating the passage thus : " They shall look to me in respect to him whom they have pierced ; " that is, " the people of Jerusalem shall exhibit a kindly and prayerful spirit ; and, in their sorrow for their slain brethren of Judah, shall look to me, their God, for com- fort." According to Wright, Kimchi and others have advocated this view. But all these violent expedients are unnecessary. The prophecy, in so far as it relates to the piercing, was strictly fulfilled in Christ, in whose sufferings and death Jehovah was pierced. That part of the prophecy which relates to the penitence of Israel is yet to be fulfilled, when " they shall look " with mourning "upon him whom they pierced." Toy is so fully assured of the view which he adopts that he makes it the ground of an adverse criticism of the evangelist, whose " reference to the piercing of Jesus' side," he says, "is based on a translation and exegesis of the Hebrew that cannot be maintained." The "translation and exegesis" adopted by Toy, how- ever, are ignored or rejected by the great mass of He- brew scholars, among whom I may mention the revisers of the English Old Testament, Wright, Meyer, who 80 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT calls the construction "tortuous," Chambers, in the Lange commentaries, Drake, in the Speaker's Com- mentary, Hengstenberg, who pronounces the theory on which it is based " a pure invention of the empirical grammarians," Briggs, Calvin, Rosenmuller, Gill, Maurer, Luthardt, Hitzig, Keil, and Ewald. Toy seeks to support his construction of the Hebrew sen- tence by an appeal to Ewald' s Grammar. * But if the rule thus referred to leads to the construction adopted by Toy, Ewald himself did not know it, for in his translation and commentary he gives us the construc- tion found in the Gospel by John, though not the pro- noun employed there. The exegesis of Toy is not made good, even by his own construction of the sentence. If the prophet means that the Jews shall mourn " for their slain brethren of Judah," how can he repeatedly and uni- formly employ the singular, " him," for this innumer- able multitude ? To say that Israel shall " look to God in respect to him whom they pierced," and shall "mourn for him," is to employ inadequate expressions, if they refer to the sorrow of the people for the slaughter, not of one, but of thousands. The Common version of Zechariah reads : " They shall look upon me." The Revised version has "unto me." The Hebrew, as Toy says, may mean either. He adds that "unto" alone is applicable here, because the speaker is God, and men are not supposed to look "upon" him, but only "unto" him in prayer. The moment we regard the passage as a direct prophecy of 1 I 333, a, footnote 3. KXEGETICAL PARAPHRASE Si Christ, however, this objection disappears ; for men looked "upon" God in Christ, who himself declared: " He that hath seen me hath seen the Father." But, while the objection of Toy to the translation "upon" is not valid, a careful consideration of the meaning of the prophet will lead us to prefer " unto." The " look- ing " of which he speaks is not mere physical gazing with the eyes of the body ; it is spiritual ; it is behold- ing in penitence, in faith, in gratitude, in love ; as is evident from the added statement that "they shall mourn for him as one mourneth for his only son." This kind of looking is expressed better by the word "unto," than by the word "upon," as in the New Tes- tament phrase, "looking unto Jesus." But if "unto" is used in the passage as it stands in the Old Testa- ment, it should be used in the passage as it is quoted in the Gospel by John. The Greek expression, exactly like the Hebrew, is one that may mean either " upon " or "unto." Our revisers have created an unnecessary difference between the Old Testament and the New by writing " unto " in the former and " upon " in the lat- ter. The word " upon " in the Gospel suggests that the evangelist considered the prophecy fulfilled in the mere physical gazing, by those who slew Christ, upon his pierced body. But the Apostle John, the greatest literary genius of his age, profound, poetic, mystic, spiritual, would have been the last man to give such a shallow interpretation to the prophecy. He utterly abandons the Septuagint form of it, and adheres closely to the Hebrew, from which he departs in but a single word, where the change is useful as an exegesis of the passage. But his close adherence to the Hebrew and SZ QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT his exegetical change of this single word, show that he had studied the passage carefully. He must therefore have understood it to predict the repentance of those whose sins pierced the body as well as the soul of the Son of God. He must have intended to find in it an event yet in the future, the looking of the Jews in penitential mourning "unto him whom they pierced." His choice of a Greek expression for "unto" which is different from the Septuagint, and exactly coexten- sive with the Hebrew expression in its range of pos- sible meanings in the connection in which he employs it, is still another evidence of his care in translating and interpreting the prophetic sentence. To sum up our discussion. The exegesis of John is based on a straightforward and natural construction of the Hebrew text, and on his perception of the divinity of Jesus ; while other views are induced by a certain reluctance to recognize the passage as a direct Mes- sianic prediction, or to recognize Jehovah in Christ ; or by some other supposed polemic convenience. If we consider the passage as a direct prophecy of Christ, we account for every feature of it ; but all other hy- potheses require us to do it some violence. The quotation at Acts 2 : 17-21 of Joel 2 : 28-32, illustrates still further the custom of changing a pas- sage to bring out its real meaning. The apostle places "saith God " near the beginning of the passage, to call attention at once to the source of the prophecy, and prepare the mind to listen to it with proper rever- ence. The prophet has "afterward," which the apos- tle changes to "in the last days," a phrase that, as Hackett w T rites, "denotes always in the New Testa- EXEGETICAL PARAPHRASE 83 ment the age of the Messiah, which the Scriptures represent as the world's last great moral epoch." The apostle's phrase, having this uniform reference, ex- plains the real sense of the prophet's phrase, for the passage is a direct prediction of the Messianic age, to which the prophet refers when he says " afterward." The other changes have no special significance, and may be the result of the memory-quoting discussed in our second chapter. The last of these passages is found at Acts 7 : 42, 43, where Amos 5 : 25-27 is quoted. Instead of the Septuagint reading, "the figures which ye made for yourselves," Stephen says, " the figures which ye made to worship them," thus bringing into prominence the real sense of the passage, which is a charge of idol- atry. Toy says that the substitution of " beyond Babylon" for " beyond Damascus " is an inadvertence, or a scribal error, which arose from a recollection of the Babylonian captivity. But it seems to me only another change introduced designedly to interpret the passage. When Amos wrote, about 770 b. c, the Assyrians were but little known, and hence the prophet told the people that they should be carried away " be- yond Damascus," using the most impressive phrase which they would be able to understand. When Stephen quoted the passage, he could do so in the light of history ; and it was then known that the prophet had referred to the Babylonian exile. From our examination of these passages, the state- ment with which this chapter opens is amply justified ; the writers of the New Testament, in quoting from the Old, sometimes change its language with the obvious in- 84 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT tention of aiding their argument. It must be added, how- ever, that no changes are made for the purpose of inject- ing a meaning into the original passage ; in every such case the New Testament writer does but seek to brine: out more clearly the real thought of the Old Testa- ment writer ; if he exchanges one word or phrase for another, he does so for exegetical purposes ; and, with- out exception, the view which he takes of the quota- tion is justified when we study it fairly from his point of view. These changes, therefore, are aids to the understanding of the Old Testament, as well as to the belief of the New. Moreover, these changes are exactly such as we find in all literatures. They are so common that we give them a special name, and call them paraphrase. Webster defines paraphrase as " a re-statement of a text, passage, or work, expressing the meaning of the original in another form, generally for the sake of its clearer and fuller exposition." Dryden says that " in paraphrase the author's words are not so strictly followed as his sense." Wherever we find paraphrase in literature, and it is universal, we find the exact parallel of the Scriptures now under review. I do not refer, when I say this, to the many volumes which consist wholly of paraphrase, like Stier's "Reden Jesu," Geikie's "Words of Christ," Erasmus' " Paraphrase of the Gospels," Pope's " Iliad," Trol- lope's " Commentaries of Caesar," and Fallue's " Ana- lyse Raisonnee." I shall produce numerous instances strictly like those of the New Testament, and shall show by these examples that it is a common custom to quote with an exegetical change of language, the inser- EXEGETICAL PARAPHRASE 85 tion of a word or phrase, or the substitution of one word or phrase for another, to bring out the sense which the writer discovers in the passage quoted. I shall appeal to books readily accessible to the reader, where quotations of the kind now before us are so nu- merous that I have found some difficulty in limiting my selection and choosing those which I reproduce rather than a multitude of others equally pertinent. Mansel, in his " Limits of Religious Thought," page 55, quotes Luke 24 : 5, 6, as follows: "Why seek ye the living among the dead? Christ is not here." In the same work, page 120, he quotes Ps. 22 : 9, as follows : " Thou art he who took me out of my mother's womb : thou wast my hope when I hanged yet upon my mother's breasts." Guthrie, in his " Gospel in Ezekiel," page 379, quotes 2 Cor. 12:9 in this form to show clearly that the " weakness" spoken of is that of man: " My grace shall be sufficient for thee, and my strength made per- fect in your weakness." Wayland, in his "Moral Science," page 157, quotes Luke 1 7 : 9, as follows : " Doth he thank that servant because he hath done the things that were commanded him ? I suppose not." The change here is made in order to bring out the thought obscured to the com- mon reader by the antique verb " trow." Dr. A. J. Gordon, in his "Ministry of Healing," page 194, quotes Phil. 3:21, omitting the phrase "our vile body," and substituting for it the phrase "the body of our humiliation," thus bringing forth the real meaning of the apostolic writer : " Who shall fashion anew the body of our humiliation that it may be conformed to the 86 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT body of his glory." On page 196 of the same book, he quotes thus from the Lord's Prayer : " Deliver us from the evil one." Both these exegetical changes were to appear two years later in the Canterbury revision. Sears, in his " Fourth Gospel the Heart of Christ," has many such exegetical alterations. On page 272 he reproduces in the following form the words uttered by John at the baptism of Christ : " I have more need to be baptized by thee." On page 309 the words spoken by Christ to Nicodemus appear as follows : '* If I tell you of those heavenly things you will not be- lieve them, for you do not understand the earthly things that represent them and image them forth. You stick in the letter, and cannot rise out of it." Conybeare and Howson's " Life and Letters of St. Paul" has many similar examples of exegetical para- phrase. Thus on page 6 of Vol. I., Ps. 147 : 20 is re- produced in the following form : " He dealt not so with any nation ; neither had the heathen knowledge of his laws." In the same volume, page 42, Ps. 78 : 5-7 appears with several explanatory alterations : "The Lord made a covenant with Jacob, and gave Israel a law, which he commanded our forefathers to teach their children ; that their posterity might know it, and the children which are yet unborn ; to the intent that when they come up they might shew their children the same ; that they might put their trust in God, and not forget the works of the Lord, but keep his com- mandments." In the same volume, page 54, Ps. 122 14 is quoted with a change of " unto the testimony of Israel " for EXEGETICAL PARAPHRASE 87 "to testify unto Israel," which the writer evidently re- gards as a better translation. Ruskin, "Modern Painters," Vol. V., page 149, re- produces Ps. 19 : 2-4 in this form, making it express what he regards as its real meaning : "•Day unto day uttereth speech, and night unto night showeth knowledge. They have no speech nor language, yet without these their voice is heard. Their rule has gone out throughout the earth, and their words to the end of the world." The writings of Dawson are full of these paraphrases. In "The Origin of the World," page 14, he gives Heb. 11:3 this form : " By faith we understand that the ages of the world were constituted by the Word of God, so that the visible things were not made of those which appear." On page 100 of the same book, Gen. 1 : 2 is given as follows : " And the earth was desolate and empty, and darkness was upon the surface of the deep ; and the Spirit of God moved on the surface of the waters." Dr. William M. Taylor, in his " Daniel the Beloved," page 22, quotes Rom. 14 : 21, inserting the words "to do " as exegetical of the verse : " It is good neither to eat flesh, nor to drink wine, nor to do anything whereby a brother stumbleth or is made weak." On page 133 of the same book, he quotes Dan. 7:25, and intro- duces exegetically the word " two " : " And they shall be given into his hands for a time, two times, and the dividing of time." The great sermon of Robert Hall on " The Senti- ments Proper to the Present Crisis," has for its text 88 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT Jer. 8:6: "I hearkened and heard, but they spake not aright : no man repented him of his wickedness, saying, What have I done ? every one turned to his course, as the horse rusheth into the battle." On the second page of the sermon, the text is quoted with a change of "rushed" for "turned." The change is made in order to produce a more vivid impression of the prophet's real thought : " Every one rushed to his course as the horse rusheth into the battle." Farrar, in his "Saintly Workers," page 113, quotes Rom. 13 : 14, taking out the words "to fulfill," and inserting the words " to subdue," thus completely re- versing the language of the last member of the verse, though still preserving its meaning : " Put ye on the Lord Jesus Christ, and make not provision for the flesh, to subdue the lusts thereof." I could produce a thousand such examples of exeget- ical quotation from English, German, and French liter- ature. They are not accompanied by any explanation, or even by any reference to the original Hebrew and Greek ; it is taken for granted that every intelligent reader is familiar with the Bible, will remark the changes for himself, and will understand the purpose of the author in making them. I now present a few examples from ancient litera- ture, to show that the same custom was known in the apostolic age. Lysias, in his funeral oration over those who fell at Salamis, speaks as follows : " Greece might well on that day go into mourning over yonder tomb, and la- ment for those that lie buried there, seeing that her own freedom and their valor are laid together in one EXEGETICAL PARAPHRASE 89 grave." He is speaking near the tomb, and points to it. Aristotle quotes the sentence in his " Rhetoric," book 3, chapter 10, section 7. But, as he is not near the tomb, and cannot point to it, he alters the sen- tence in order to explain what tomb is referred to, and makes Lysias say: "Greece might well go into mourning over the tomb of those who died at Salamis, for her freedom and their valor were buried in one grave." In his treatise on "The Contradictions of the Stoics," section 47, the Stoic whom Plutarch is criticising quotes Homer as saying: Receive whatever ill or good He sends to each of you. Goodwin translates the verses thus, and appends this note : " The words ' or good ' are not found in Homer." The lines are from the " Iliad," XV., 109, and constitute a part of the angry speech of Juno against Jove. She tells the assembled gods that Jove is supreme, that resistance to him is vain, and that the only wise course is to re- ceive patiently " whatever ill he sends to each." This is to declare that Jove is the absolute dispenser of events, both good and evil, and the doctrine that he sends whatever good any one receives the Stoic regards as implied in the words, and as needing to be brought out distinctly by his exegetical alteration, which also serves to show the relevancy of the passage to the ar- gument. In Porphyry's " Life of Plotinus," section 22, in quoting the thirty-fifth line of Hesiod's "Theogony," he gives it as follows : 90 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT But why do I speak these things of the oak or the rock ? 5 AXXd ri'/j rauxa nepi dpuu y nepc nirp'qv Xiyztv ; But the word "Uyetv" is not in the original. Bouillet says in his note on the passage : " The word is implied in the verse of Hesiod, and Porphyry has expressed it for the sake of clearness." Philo, in his treatise on "The Changes of Scripture Names,'' section 46, runs together fragments of Gen. 18 : 14 and 17 : 19, and changes the latter fragment exegetically, to exhibit his view of its meaning. He has been saying that the name Sarah stands for virtue or wisdom, and the name Isaac for laughter, or the joy that produces it, and he now quotes God as declaring : "And at that time shall wisdom bring forth joy to thee." In his treatise on the " Allegories of the Sacred Laws," book I., section 7, in the course of an argument to show that holiness pertains to the character, and not to mere external observances, he quotes Num. 6 : 9. The passage really refers to ceremonial uncleanness from contact with the dead, but he finds in it a deeper reference, and alters it accordingly : "If a sudden change comes over him, and pollutes his mind, he shall no longer be holy." In the same treatise, book III., section 63, he argues that the soul cannot be nourished by man, but only by God, and quotes as evidence the words of Jacob to Leah in Gen. 30 : 2, as follows, transforming them to bring out the meaning which he believes they contain : " Thou hast greatly erred ; for I am not in the place of God, who alone is able to open the womb of the soul." EXEGETICAL PARAPHRASE 91 The Apocrypha of the Old Testament presents ex- egetical paraphrase among its most prominent features. "Generally," writes Churton, "the didactic portions of the Apocrypha may be regarded as a collection of par- aphrases upon passages of Holy Scripture, or of re- flections upon them." V COMPOSITE QUOTATIONS THE writers of the New Testament sometimes present in the form of a single passage an assemblage of phrases or sentences drawn from different sources. The following are all the instances of this kind which Toy adduces : Matt. 21 : 13; Mark 11 : 17; Luke 19 146; from Isa. 56 : 7 and Jer. 7:11. Luke 1 : 17; from Mai. 3 : 1 and 4 : 5, 6. Acts 1 : 20 ; from Ps. 69 : 25 and 109 : 8. Rom. 9 : 25, 26; from Hosea 2 : 23 and 1 : 10. Rom. 9:33; 10 : 11; from Isa. 28 : 16 and 8 : 14. Rom. 11:8; from Isa. 29 : 10 and Deut. 29 : 4. Rom. 11 : 26, 27 ; from Isa. 59 : 20, 21 and 27 : 9. 2 Cor. 6 : 16; from Lev. 26 : 11, 12 and Ezek. 37 : 27. Gal. 3:8; from Gen. 12:3 and 18 : 18. Thus there are but few of these composite quotations in the New Testament. An examination of these passages will show that where the quotation is intended for proof, it is always composed of fragments which originally related to the subject of the argument ; and all of them except one or two are brought forward as proofs. An example of this kind is found in the appeal which our Lord made to the Old Testament to justify his expulsion of the traders from the temple, Matt. 21 : 13 ; Mark 11 : 17 ; Luke 19 : 46. He exclaimed: "It is written, My 92 COMPOSITE QUOTATIONS 93 house shall be called a house of prayer : but ye make it a den of robbers." The first half of the quotation is from Isa. 56 : 7, and the second from Jer. 7:11. In both places the theme of the prophets is the temple and its right uses, so that the two members of the sen- tence are fitly united. In Mark, the first member is quoted in full : " My house shall be called a house of prayer for all the nations." It is probable that our Lord quoted it in this form ; for the dealers had their stalls in the court of the Gentiles, thus especially hindering the prayers of foreigners. There were two offenses : first, the turning the house of prayer into a house of mer- chandise, where cunning and chicane held rule, which is kept in mind chiefly by Matthew and Luke ; and secondly, the obstruction of Gentile worship, which Mark couples with the other. Some of the composite quotations will meet us in the other chapters of this book, where those few of them which have been made the ground of special objections will be studied, Censure of a general kind has been passed on all these quotations, simply because they are composite ; and in this chapter I shall answer the objection by showing that they follow a custom common to all ancient literatures. Thus Plato, in his " Ion," section 538, quotes the " Iliad " as follows : " Made with Pramnian wine ; and she grated cheese of goat's milk with a brazen knife, and at his side placed an onion, which gives relish to drink." There are no such successive lines in Homer ; as a 94 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT whole, the extract is formed by Plato himself out of two passages, " Iliad," XL, 638, 630. Yet the quota- tion is quite correct, as both passages refer to the same thing. THE QUOTATION. Ocvuj TTpajULPStaj im d" aqetov XV7J TOpOV xvqart yaAxeirj' izapd de xpo- fJLUOV TZOTW OipOV. THE ORIGINAL. Line 638. ^Ev tw pa oft xuxyae yovrj, eixula deffiLV, Line 630. yakxetov xdveov ini de xpo- ptuou, tcotw 6ei- ovrec *A%aeoi. Book IV., line 431. Iijfj deed 'tores a'rjfxdvTOpa^ dtupl de izdatv. In the " Republic," book III., section 391, Plato quotes Achilles as saying to Apollo : " Thou hast wronged me, O far-darter, most abominable of deities. Verily I THE QUOTATION. v laav tievea izveiovre^Ayaxoi, acyjj decdcozei; (Tytidvzopaz. COMPOSITE QUOTATIONS 95 would be even with thee, if I had only the power." This is from the "Iliad," book XXII., lines 15 and 20. ZCDV THE ORIGINAL. Line 15. * ' EfiXatpdq, fi\ 'Exdepye oX.ocozaze Tidvzwv. Line 20. s H a dv TcoaifiTjV, ec ptoc Suva /tfCfe :pecin. THE QUOTATION. * ' Efilaipac, fi exdepye, decov oXocoroLTe ndvTtov ■q a dv Tcacrifiqv, el' poc Suva- piz, ye Tzapeirj. In Xenophon's " Memorabilia," book I., chapter 2, section 58, the lines quoted are from the "Iliad," II., 188 and following, and 198 and following. THE ORIGINAL. Lines 188, 189, 190, 191. 'Ovzcva pev paGc/SjO. xal i$o- yov dvdpa xcyeir^ zbv z decdiaaeadac- d// 1 auzo^ ts xddqao xal dX.- X,ooz Idpoe )mo>jz. Lines 198, 199, 200, 201, 202. a 0v d* au dvjpou r dvdpa idot fioocovzd t i0ov dxoue, THE QUOTATION. a Ovzcva pev ftaacXJ^a xal ezo%ov dvdpa xtyziq, zbv S* dyavotc, erteeaacv iprjzu- aaaxe Tiapaazd^' dacpovc ', 06 ae iocxe xaxbv a>z decdiaaeadac, dXJ a'jzoz ze xddr,ao xal dX- Xoi>z wp'je X.aou^. ' Ov o au drjpoo z dud pa I'doc ftoocovzd r icpe'jpoc, zbv axrjzzzpii) eX.daaax.ev bpox- Xrjaaaxi ze pudcp' dacpovc\ dzpepaz y\ao, xal d)lcov uuOov dxoue, 96 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT oc aso (fsprspoi star au dTTToAs/ULOz xal avaXxc^, outs nor iv 7zoXkp.ii) ivap ptoc, out £vi ftouXrj. o? fi(pioo, oc rs Oavoju dsdobz dxdyrjas tox?^, dppTj-bv ds roxsbai ybov xai -svdoz idqxs. In his " Consolation to Apollonius," section 26, Plu- tarch quotes Homer as saying : Whilst others may lament with weeping eyes, The darkness of the night doth them surprise. This is Goodwin's translation. The line in Plutarch is made up partly from the " Iliad," XXIII. , 109, and partly from the "Odyssey," I., 423. THE ORIGINAL. " Iliad," XXIIL, 109. Mopop.svoiai ds zolai (pdvq pododdxrulo^ 'Hwz. " Odyssey," I., 423. Tolot ds rspnopsvoiai pslaz ini eanspoz fjXOzv. THE QUOTATION. Mopopsvoiai ds rolai fisXaQ im ianspoq, rjXds. COMPOSITE QUOTATIONS 99 In the dissertation of Maximus Tyrius on "The In- stability of Pleasure," the following lines occur as a single sentence. I adopt Taylor's translation : Where rain and raging tempest are unknown, But a white splendor spreads its radiance round. They are from the " Odyssey " ; the first part is from IV., 566, and the second from VI., 44. THE QUOTATION. y E vd" dux i(JT out dp ystpwv TToXu^, OUTS 7ZOT bpftpCp SsusTar dXXd pdX' dcdprj 7T£7iTaTac av£ Aristotle quotes Plato at some length, begin- ning with the words : " The life of pleasure, says Plato, is more desirable with wisdom than without wisdom." Barthelemy Saint-Hilaire writes, in his note on the passage : " This is not a textual citation of Plato ; it is only a condensed statement of his theory." In his " Rhetoric," book III., chapter 4, section 1, Aristotle quotes Homer as saying of Achilles : He rushed on like a lion. 'O? Se Aewv krropovaev. These words are not in Homer ; but, as Cope says, '•'all the substance is there." The reference is to the long description of the lion in the " Iliad," XX., begin- ning at 164. At the opening of chapter five of his " Delay of the Divine Justice," Plutarch writes : But first see how, as Plato says, God, making himself con- spicuous as the example of all things good, bestows human vir- ion 104 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT tue, in some sort his own likeness, on those who are able to be followers of God. Hackett has this note on the passage : The sentiment here ascribed to Plato is not found, in so many- words, in any passage of his writings, but is consonant with what he has taught in various places. This mode of quotation is not uncommon in Plutarch, nor is it unnatural in any writer. It should not have excited so much surprise that the writers ot the New Testament have occasionally alluded, in like manner, to predictions as existing in the Old Testament, which are not found there verbally, but in sense only. Of this class, as I understand it, is the prophecy referred to in Matt. 2 : 23. Epictetus writes, chapter XXVIIL, near the begin- ning : As Plato affirms: The soul is unwillingly deprived of truth. " This," says Thomas Wentworth Higginson, in a note to his translation of the sentence, " is not a literal quotation from Plato, but similar passages are to be found in his ' Laws,' IX., 5; 'Sophist,' section 29; 'Protagoras,' section 87, etc." Thus, the sentiment of several long passages is gathered up and presented in a single brief saying. Maximus Tyrius, Dissertation XXII., the first para- graph, quotes as from the " Odyssey" the line : Self-taught am I ; the gods impart the song. No such line is anywhere in Homer ; but a sentiment like that which it expresses is found in the " Odyssey," XXII., 347, of which the quotation is a reminiscence, chiefly in other words. Lucian, in his " Defence of the Portraits," section QUOTATIONS OF SUBSTANCE IO5 28, refers to "the prince of philosophers," by which term only Plato could be designated, as teaching that " man is an image of the deity." No such words are to be found in Plato, or, indeed, in the whole library of the Greek philosophers. Something distantly resem- bling the sentiment is found in the First and Second "Alcibiades " and in the " Republic " ; and Lucian, living at a time when Christian truth was beginning to per- meate the atmosphere, summed up, almost in the lan- guage of Holy Scripture, the vague guesses of the greatest of the pagan thinkers concerning the nature of the soul. If the reader wishes to learn what search has been made in Greek literature for the declaration which Lucian quotes, let him consult the edition of Hem- sterhuys, Vol. VI., p. 420, the last note on the page. In the first "Ennead" of Plotinus, book IV, section 16, is this : " Plato was right when he said that if one would be wise and happy, he must receive the good from above, must look toward it, must become like it, must live according to it." These words are not in Plato ; but the sentiment is found in various places, as the "Theastetus," section 176, the " Phaedo," section 42, the " Republic," book VI., section 509, and book X., section 613, the " Laws," book IV., section 716. THE QUOTATION. ' Opdcoz yap xal IlXdrcov ixdtdev to dyadbv a&ot Xafift&vew, xal npoz exsivo ftX&Tietv top piilXopTa aocpbp xal eudaifiopa iaeadai xal ixsipuj bpocouadac xal xar ixeivo Cfjv. In the third "Ennead" of Plotinus, book III., sec- tion 4, he quotes Plato as saying : " The soul is brought into other animals after it has changed its nature, and 106 QUOTATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT the reason has altered itself in order to become the soul of an ox, which before was the soul of a man." This sentence is not in Plato, but is a general summary of the doctrine of the "Timaeus," section 42. THE QUOTATION. v Odsv xal e«c to. aXla £wd, cp^acv, daxpiveadat, oXov alXys T7£