TODD'S 
 
 COUNTKY HOMES 
 
 t> 
 
 How to Save Money. 
 
 A PRACTICAL BOOK BY A PRACTICAL MAN. 
 
 CONTAINING 
 
 FULL AND RELM.BLE DIRECTIONS EOR CHOOSING A HOME, 
 
 ERECTING EVERY DESCRIPTION OF HOUSES AND 
 
 OUT-BUILDINGS, PAINTING, GLAZING, &c.; 
 
 TOGETHER WITH 
 
 Invaluable Suggestions and Information on 
 
 DOMESTIC ECONOMY, GENERAL FARMING, FANCY GARDENING, FRUIT 
 
 RAISING, BREEDING AND MANAGEMENT OP HORSES, 
 
 CATTLE, SHEEP, SWINE, POULTRY; 
 
 THE WHOLE EMBRACING THE RESULTS OF A 
 
 LIFE-LONG EXPERIENCE. 
 
 Profusely Illustrated with Plans and Perspectives of Buildings, besides 
 THIRTEEN FULL-PAGE ENGRAVINGS. 
 
 By,SERENO EDWARDS TODD. 
 
 rORMEBLT ASSOCIATED WITH THE "CULTIVATOR," "THE COUNTRY GENTLEMAN," "AMERICAN AGRI- 
 CULTURALIST," AND "NEW YORK TIMES," AND, AT PRESENT, WITU "THE NEW 
 YORK OBSEEVEK," AND "WORKING FAEMEE." 
 
 SOLD BY SUBSCRIPTION ONLY. 
 
 HARTFORD PUBLISHING COMPANY, HARTFORD, CONN.; 
 
 J. A. STODDARD & CO., CHICAGO; J. D. DENISON, NEW YORK; 
 
 G. P. HAWKES, boston; J. LAWS & CO., SAN FRANCISCO. 
 
 POWERS & WEEKS, CINCINNATI, OHIO. 
 
 1870. 
 
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1870, by 
 
 SERENO EDWARDS TODD, 
 
 In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, for tlie Eastern 
 
 District of New York. 
 
 
DEDICATED 
 
 TO 
 
 Hon. D. D. T. MOORE, 
 
 PROPRIETOR OF " MOORE'S RURAL NEW YORKER.'' 
 
 Respected Friend : — Knowing your deep interest in the permanent 
 improvement of the agriculture of our country, as well as your high ap- 
 preciation of every honest effort to render the world wiser and mankind 
 better, permit me to dedicate to you, this little volume, as a token of the 
 friendship which, though commenced in mortal life, it is hoped, may 
 endure after our career on earth is ended. As you will perceive, I have 
 made no attempts of a literary character, except to intersperse, now and 
 then, a few poetic effusions to serve as literary buoys to a large cargo of 
 heavy ballast. As you are well aware, in lieu of polished professors 
 within classic halls, Dame Nature has been my tutor ; domestic animals my 
 classmates ; and the love of the stable, the barn-yard, and the stubborn 
 soil, my text book. Hence, I have appeared with the completed task of a 
 rough hewer, whose muscles have been hardened by grappling with billets 
 of wood and shapeless bowlders, and whose fingers have been stiffened by 
 unremitting manual labor. I offer no apology for the dust on my farmer's 
 toga from the mechanic's workshop, nor for the bespattered insignia of a 
 ditcher equipped with India rubber boots, and perfumed with the nectar 
 of the stercorary. I trust, that during some leisure moment, you may 
 derive as much satisfaction from .perusing some of my paragraphs, as I 
 have while penning them. With my best wishes for a long, happy and 
 
 useful life, I remain, 
 
 Faithfully yours, 
 
 SERENO EDWARDS TODD. 
 
illustratio:n's. 
 
 
 Frontispiece. 
 
 opposite page 45 
 
 (1 
 
 104 
 
 (( 
 
 194 
 
 (( 
 
 276 
 
 (1 
 
 328 
 
 (( 
 
 368 
 
 <( 
 
 440 
 
 (( 
 
 " 483 
 
 I. Country Homes, 
 II. Pioneer Seeking a Home, 
 
 III. The Farmer at Home, 
 
 IV. The Luncheon, . 
 V. Building a Log Cabin, 
 
 VI. The Well-to-do Farmer, 
 VII. The Shiftless Farmer, 
 VIII. Spring-time, 
 IX. Race, Road and Working Horses, 
 
 1. Carriage Horse. 2. English Race Horse. 
 3. American Trotter. 4. Percheron. 
 X. Favorite Breeds of Cattle, 
 1. Ayrshires. 2. Jerseys. 
 3. Devons. 4. Durhams. 
 XI. Noted Breeds of Sheep, 
 
 1, Thorougli-bred Merinos. 
 
 3. Thorough-bred Leicester. 
 XII. Most Profitable Breeds of Swine, . opposite page 599 
 
 1. Suffolk. 2. Yorkshire. 3. Cheshire. 
 
 4. Essex. 5. Chester White. 6. Berkshire. 
 
 XIII. Best Breeds of Poultry, ... *' " 635 
 
 With about seventy smaller illustrations, representing Perspec- 
 tives OF Dwelling-houses, with plans of the first and second 
 floors, Barns and Out-buildings, different kinds op Grain, etc. 
 
 518 
 
 " " 565 
 2. Thorough-bred South Downs. 
 4. Thorough-bred Cotswolds. 
 
PEEFAOE. 
 
 " A useful book may live from age to age ; 
 And those unborn may read its printed page." 
 
 An author is always expected to record, in the pref- 
 ace, certain plausible reasons, as an apology, for writ- 
 ing a book. Yery few writers, however, ever men- 
 tion the primary object in writing a book, which is 
 making money. Some write for the sake of notoriety, 
 and money, while others have other objects in view, 
 and money. Yet, we rarely meet with a person who 
 will acknowledge that money had any influence in 
 prompting him to become an author. To be brief, 
 then, my apology for presenting this book to the public 
 is money. But, in gaining the desired reward for my 
 labors, I had a magnanimous and philanthropic object 
 in view, which is, to aid a very few of the one hundred 
 thousand or more young men, boys and ladies, just 
 commencing their career in life, who need counsel, and 
 advice, in their efforts to rise to a glorious manhood. 
 
 The arrangement is such, that the book may be ex- 
 amined, readily, by a reference to the subjects in the 
 Index. In order to embody as much practical informa- 
 tion, as the prescribed limits would permit, I have 
 
VI AUTHOK S PKEFACE. 
 
 merely recorded the leading thoughts, and a few of the 
 more important details connected with the various 
 subjects. The chapters on general farming, and those 
 on domestic animals, cover ground that has been 
 written upon by very few authors. I have endeavored 
 to render each chapter as complete as j)Ossible, under 
 the circumstances. After a beginner has become 
 familiar with all the details and suggestions laid 
 down in each chapter, he will be well prej)ared to 
 peruse more voluminous publications, appropriated to 
 each subject. Some of the articles were originally 
 written, while connected, editorially, with the American 
 Agriculturist, New York Times, and the New York 
 Observer. My chief aim has been to tell beginners 
 what to do and how to do- it, enforcing the precepts 
 by my own practical experience. 
 
 SERENO EDWARDS TODD. 
 Brooklyn, L. I. 
 
PUBLISHERS' PEEFACE. 
 
 In presenting this book to the patronage of a discriminating 
 public, whose patience is often tried, and whose time is fre- 
 quently wasted by agents importuning them to buy some 
 worthless work, the publishers deem it not unsuitable for them 
 to offer a few words, by way of preface, which the modesty of 
 the author might leave unsaid. It is not our purpose to dis- 
 cuss the importance of such a work as the present, for its 
 value is admitted by every one, but simply to point out the 
 special merit of this book in regard to several things, which, 
 for the sake of system, we may enumerate as follows : 1st. The 
 qualifications of the author. 2d. The difference between this 
 work and others of a similar character, 3d. The return which 
 it makes as an investme7it. 
 
 The Qualifications of the Authoe. — Born in circum- 
 stances which required the exercise of economy, perseverance 
 and industry, Mr. Todd's life has been one of successful activity. 
 With an education, superior to that acquired by most young 
 men who are self-made^ he is, at the same time, no theorist or 
 day dreamei', but has " been through the mill," and is thoroughly 
 versed in the subjects upon which he writes. His early life 
 and struggles for independence, his experience in trading with 
 sharpers, his shrewd economy and foresight, his wealth of re- 
 source and ingenuity, and his gradual rise in the world, form 
 the subject matter of one entire chapter, portraying in a simple, 
 graphic manner, the every day life of a man who is bound to 
 push his way in the face of obstacles, and who always has an 
 
Vlll PUBLISHERS PREFACE. 
 
 honest eye to the main chance. At one tune a builder of 
 houses, at another a maker of sleighs and buggies ; again a 
 farmer and raiser of stock ; now studying the convenient ar- 
 rangement of rooms in a dwelling-house, and now the best 
 method of sheltering cattle ; to-day, raising wheat, and to-mor- 
 row, building an ice-house ; a little while ago, deep in the mys- 
 teries of paint, mortar, calcimine and varnish, and anon watch- 
 ing the effects of deep plowing and underdraining. The 
 author's time has not been misspent, and the fruit of his long 
 experience and research has been widely enjoyed over our entire 
 land. Such journals as the Country G-entleman, American Ag- 
 riculturist, New York Times, New York Observer, and Hearth 
 and Home, have employed his services to enrich their columns, 
 while the sale of '•'■Todd's Young Fariner^s Manual,^^ and '•'•Todd's 
 American Wheat Culturist,^^ attest the estimation in which his 
 opinion and advice are held by practical men throughout the 
 country. 
 
 The Points of difference between this "Work and 
 OTHERS OF A SIMILAR CHARACTER. — The real difference be- 
 tween one thing and another of the same kind, is not always to 
 be ascertained by a superficial examination, but we desire to 
 assist those who really wish to learn whether this book is like 
 every other farmers' book or not, by mentioning its most promi- 
 nent, distinctive features. One of the most noticeable, is the 
 fact that it is not an advertising medium. It is a very easy and 
 cheap method of getting up a book, to obtain from dealers all 
 over the land, descriptions of their specialties, finely illustrated, 
 and to unite these all in one heterogeneous mass, under the title 
 of " Information for the people." This has been carefully 
 avoided in preparing the present volume, as an examination of 
 its pages will testify. Another feature is the union of mechan- 
 ical and agricultural topics. Several works on rural architec- 
 ture have been published, and also a large number on the dif- 
 ferent farming operations, but in no volume with which we are 
 acquainted, has the due proportion of the two topics been so 
 carefully observed. The eminently practical nature of the work 
 
PUBLISHERS PREFACE. IX 
 
 13 also deserving of mention. Every detail in house-building, 
 even to buying the nails and putting on the laths, is carefully 
 explained. Complete estimates of the cost of building, are 
 given, plans and specifications are multiplied, and numerous 
 fine perspectives of various styles of cottages, barns and out- 
 houses, are introduced. The comfort and convenience of every 
 member of the fiimily is thought of: the attractiveness and 
 utility of the grounds and farm, receive due attention. The 
 care taken in the mechanical execution of the book, is also com- 
 mended to the notice of those who are familiar with the ' slip- 
 shod ' manner in which subscription books are too often put 
 together. It would be more profitable to buy cheap paper, em- 
 ploy cheap printers and binders, and sell the book at a lower 
 price, but it is the aim of the publishers to sell such books as 
 shall retain as regular customers, those who once enter the list 
 of their patrons. 
 
 The Return which it makes as ax Tnyestment. — It is 
 always well, and in the present " hard times" it is especially 
 proper, to inquire, " What return shall I get from the use of 
 my money in a certain way," and to the man who is hesitating 
 about the paying properties of this book, we offer the following 
 suggestions. Are you about to build or buy a house ? This 
 treatise on that very subject, will enable you to save hundreds 
 of dollars. That sounds large, and you may be incredulous, 
 but we will prove it. Here are complete estimates, which will 
 serve as models that can be applied to any structure, enabling 
 you to calculate accurately the fair cost of any building, and 
 thus to save the overcharge to Avhich you would, otherwise, 
 inevitably be subjected. Here are plans and perspectives, 
 which will render it easy for you to devise your own structure 
 — an expensive job, when put into the hands of an architect. 
 Have you spare time and some mechanical genius ? Here are 
 suggestions about buying timber, the quantity, size and quality 
 of the stuff required, the method of digging cellars and laying 
 foundations, and the way to commence a house and carry it 
 on to completion, in its minutest details. Here are recipes for 
 
X PUBLISHERS PEEFACE. 
 
 making mortar, cement, w^hitewash, varnish, paint, calcimine, 
 etc. Have you a farm ? Here are directions for its most prof- 
 itable cultivation, oiFered by a man who has a thorough knowl- 
 edge of that branch of industry. Are your efforts confined to 
 the limited space of a garden ? These pages will give you 
 many valuable hints in regard to its successful management. 
 Have you a horse, a cow, a pig, or a flock of hens ? Tliis book 
 treats largely and minutely of the proper method of rearing, 
 feeding, using, and making money out of the domestic animals, 
 and will help you to be a good judge of all kinds of farm prod- 
 ucts, even if you are interested in them only as a purchaser. 
 Are you striving to economize, and to " make both ends meet ? " 
 Our author has been through all this before you, and has here 
 recorded his experience, by which you may readily profit. 
 Finally, are you puzzled and perplexed over some question 
 arising out of the manifold duties of the household and farm ? 
 The chances are that you can find its complete solution, or 
 at least a hint in the right direction, between the covers of 
 " Todd's Country Homes." 
 
 We have often been requested to publish such a book, and 
 have become convinced that the popular demand for it, is suflS- 
 cient to warrant us in this undertaking. Neither the author 
 nor the publishers have spared any pains to produce a first class 
 work of real value^ and we are confident that the universal 
 verdict of our customers, will sustain us in the opinion which 
 we here express, that " Todd's Country Homes " is 
 
 The Best Subscription Book of the Year. 
 
CO]N"TEI^TS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 The Builders' Glossaky. — Containing clear and intelligible definitions 
 of more than one hundred technical terms in building, . . . .17 
 
 CHAPTER H. 
 
 CHOOSING A HOME. 
 
 The Salutary Influence of Home — Location of Farm Buildings — Site for 
 Summer Residence — Where shall we Locate 1 — Flee to the Country — Plot- 
 ting the Fiirm and laying out the Field — Economy in the grovvmg Trees 
 — Beginning to Build a House — Prelimmaries for Building — Tlie Laborer's 
 Kitchen — Estimate of Cost — Suggestions about Aspect — How to compute 
 the cost of a House — Excavating for Cellars — Estimate of Expense — 
 Foundation of Buildings — Construction of a Cellar — How to Build Abut- 
 ment Walls — Rendering a Wet Cellar Dry — Causes of Wet and Damp Cel- 
 lars — Half walls for Cellars — Regulating Temperature of Cellars — Honest 
 Tricks of Joiners — Joiner's Contract and Specifications — Working Sea- 
 soned Timber — The Height of Buildings — Size of Building Timber — 
 Best Form of Joists — Cheap House for a Beginner — Bill of Materials — ^A 
 Poor Man's Cottage, 30 
 
 CHAPTER in. 
 
 RURAL ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Hazel-Dell Cottage, with Plans — Cheap Italian Villa, with Plans — Cost of 
 Coaskuction — Oyster-Shell ViUa — Important Suggestions to Beginners — 
 
Xll CONTENTS. 
 
 Koof of Dwelling-liouses — Bracket Finish — Automatic Dirt-Catcher — Re- 
 shinghng Old Roofs— How to Raise a Roof— Gutters, Eave-troughs and 
 Spouting — Batten Doors — Air-tight Doors — Management of Flooring — 
 Preservation of Timber in Buildings — Suggestions about Concrete Walls 
 — Sea-side Park Cottage, with Plans — Morning-Glory Cottage, with Plans 
 — Clerk's Cottage — Cobble-stone Houses — Mechanic's Cottage, with Plans 
 — Suburban Cottage, with Plans — How to make Good Mortar — Hydraulic 
 Mortar — Doing Mason Work in Freezing Weather, 120 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 PAINTING AND ORNAMENTATION. 
 
 The Philosophy of Painting — Painting Buildings and Farm Implements — 
 Materials for Making Paint — Suggestions for Boiling Oil — Making Paint 
 of White Lead — How to Paint an Old House — Dead-white Paint — To 
 make a LightLead Color— Blue Paint— Green Paint— Red Paint— Care of 
 Paint-Brushes— To make Rough Paint Smooth— Shellac Varnish— To 
 make Old Varnish Dry— Coal- Tar or Tar-Paint— Benzole— How to Paint 
 Window-Blinds— Portable Staging for a Roof— Painting and Glazing 
 Window-Sashes— How to make Good Putty— A Putty Knife— Sanding 
 Paint— How to Whitewash Neatly— Calcimining Walls— Hanging Wall- 
 Paper, 193 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 WELLS AND CISTERNS. 
 
 Value of a Good Well-Suggestions about Digging Wells— How to Exca- 
 vate—A Well-Digger's Bucket— The Size of Wells— How to Stone a 
 Well— How to Dig Wells in Slate— Practical Advantages of a Syphon- 
 Making Cement Water-Pipe— The Core-Rod-How to Build Wooden 
 Cisterns— Brick or Stone Cisterns— Water-Lime Cisterns— Covering Cis- 
 terns—The Capacity of Cisterns— Drain-Tiles for Water-Pipe— Raising 
 Water with a Wind-mill- How to make Wooden Water-Pipe— Lead 
 Water-Pipe- Manner of Joining Tin-lined Pipe— Joining Lead Pipe with- 
 out Soldering, "'^^ 
 
CONTENTS. xm 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 BARNS AND OUT- BUILDINGS. 
 
 Manner of Framing a Large Barn— Selecting Durable or Perishable Timber 
 —Cut Nails, and How to Use them— The Way to Purchase Building 
 Materials— Framing Buildings by the Scribe or Square Rule— A Cheap 
 Barn and Out-Building— A Cheap Cornice, 239 
 
 CHAPTER VH. 
 
 VENTILATION. 
 
 Thorough Ventilation of Living-Rooras — ^Necessity of Ventilation — ^Natural 
 Means of Ventilation— Cold Air Better than Warm Air— Suggestions 
 about Night Air — How to Ventilate — Examples of Successful Ventilation, 263 
 
 CHAPTER Vm. 
 
 DOMESTIC ECONOMY. 
 
 Personal Reminiscences — Commencing Life — A Fiddling Farmer — The Old 
 Maid's Money — Beginning to Live — Making Choice Pork — Management 
 of Hams — Planning and Building my own House — How I built our House 
 Without Money — How the Nails and Shingles were Procured — How the 
 Laths were Obtained — The Circular Stairs — Cementing the Bottom of the 
 Cellar — How the Window-Blinds were Obtained — The Manner of Making 
 the Doors — Making the Brackets — Our Bridal Harness — How I got our 
 Bridal Buggy — Our Sleigh and Bridal Cutter — How I paid for my Wife's 
 Muff — Saving Money in New Inventions — How to get a Patent — Care 
 and Management of Shoes — Black your own Boots — Shoes to Fit the 
 Feet— Remedy for Cold Feet, . . 273 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 ICE AND ICE-HOUSES. 
 
 Construction of Ice-Houses — Balloon Frame of an Ice-House — Erecting the 
 Superstructure — Saving Ice without a House — An Underground Ice- 
 House, 319 
 
XIV CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 GENERAL FARMING OPERATIONS. 
 
 Large vs. Small Farms— Outfit of a Small Farm— Learning to be a Farmer 
 —A Renovating System— Under-draining Wet Land—The Proper Depth 
 of Drains— Thorough Tillage— How to Plow Deep— Maintaining the 
 Fertility of the Soil— Rotation of Crops— Making Beef, Pork and Mutton 
 —Manure— Culture of Wheat— How to Improve the Seed— Best Soil for 
 Wheat— Preparation of the Soil for Wheat— Prevention of Smut in 
 Wheat— Drilhng in Wheat— Cultivation of Oats— Quantity of Seed per 
 Acre— Manuring the Soil for Oats— The Proper Time to Cut Oats— How 
 to Save Seed Oats— Cultivation of Rye— Ergot in Rye— Cultivation of 
 Clover in all its varieties— Cultivation of Barley— Importance of Clean 
 Seed— When to Harvest Barley— Making Malt, 328 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 HORTICULTURE AND POMOLOGY. 
 
 The Kitchen Garden— Under-draining Gardens— Preparation of the Soil- 
 How to Spade a Garden— General Principles of Horticulture— When to 
 Plant Seeds— What Seeds to Plant Early— The Great Utility of Weeds- 
 Garden Tools— How to Transplant— Cultivation of Carrots— Of Parsnips 
 —Of Asparagus— Of Beans— Of Lima Beans— Of Beets— Of Egg-Plants— 
 Of Celery— Of Melons and Squashes— Of Field Peas— Of Garden Peas— 
 Of Tomatoes— Of Turnips— Of Indian Corn— Of Sweet Corn— Of Irish 
 Potatoes— Of Cauliflowers— Of Cabbages— Planting an Orchard— The 
 True Way to Produce Fruit Trees— Why, When, and How to Prune- 
 Treatment of Wounds— Mulching Trees and Plants— The Correct Way 
 to Water Plants— Insects— Renovating Old Fruit Trees— Cultivation of 
 Gooseberries— Of Currants— Of Strawberries— Of Raspberries and Black- 
 berries—Of Grapes— Pruning and Training— Management of Old Vines, . 407 
 
 CHAPTER XH. 
 
 BREEDING AND REARING OF HORSES. 
 
 The Denominations of Horses — Choice of Stallions — Horses for Agricul- 
 tural Purposes — Selecting Breeding Mares — To make Barren Mares 
 
CONTENTS. XV 
 
 Breed— Preparations for roaling— Working Brood Mares— Management 
 of Foals— The Way to Break Colts— Manner of Bitting Colts— Riding 
 Colts— Feeding Horses— Preparing Feed for Horses— Kcjuvenating Old 
 Horses— Watering Horses— The True Way to Drive Horses— Abuse of 
 the Check -rein— Fatal Effects of Overdriving— Light for Horse Stables- 
 Hobbling Horses, 483 
 
 CHAPTEK XIII. 
 
 BREEDING AND REARING NEAT CATTLE. 
 
 Denominations of Cattle— Points of an Excellent Milch Cow— Exercising 
 Milch Cows— Maintaining a Full Flow of Milk— Apples for Milch Cows 
 —Roots for Cattle— Previous Management— The Right Way to Milk- 
 Remedy for Kicking— Management of Heifers— How Long should Cows 
 be Milked 1 — Pure Water for Milch Cows — Abortion in Cows — Cause of 
 Garget in Milch Cows — Making Excellent Butter — How to Work Butter 
 — Packing Butter — Making Yellow Butter in Winter — Daily Care of 
 Bulls — How to "Rarey" an Ox or Bull — Management of Calves — Wean- 
 ing Calves — Stock from Hay to Grass — Fattening Old Cows and Oxen — 
 The best kind of Food for Fattening Stock, 518 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 BREEDING AND REARING SHEEP. 
 
 Common Denominations of Sheep— Selecting Stock Rams— Management of 
 Yeaning Ewes— Rearing Lambs by hand— Owning a Strange Lamb— Re- 
 viving a Chilled Lamb— Weaning Lambs— Docking Lambs— General 
 Management of Young Sheep— The True Way to Handle Sheep- Deter- 
 mhiing the Age of Sheep— Feeding Sheep, and Making Mutton— Why 
 Making Mutton is not more Profitable— Feeding Sheep in tlitf Day-time- 
 Making Fancy Mutton— Peas and Beans for Sheep— Mutton the Best 
 Meat— Washing Sheep— Shearing Sheep— Way to Hold a Sheep when 
 Shearing— Winter Management of Sheep— Tagging Sheep, . . .565 
 
XVI CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 REARING AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE. 
 
 Denominations of Swine — The Great Value of Swine — Rules for Crossing 
 Swine — Ci-ossing Large Breeds with Small Ones — How to Select Breeding 
 Swine — Cross Breeds Better than Pure Breeds — Breeding from Young 
 Sows — Preparation for Farrowing — Management after Farrowing — Man- 
 agement of Pigs — The Piggery — How to make Doors for a Piggery — How 
 to make Hog-troughs — The Neat Habits of Swine — Grinding Grain for 
 Domestic Animals — The Advantage of Cooking Feed — Fattening Swine — 
 Swine Hygiene — Treatment for Scours, 599 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 REARING AND MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY. 
 
 Denominations of Poultry — A Ton of Poidtry — Improving the Breed of 
 Poultry — Management of Turkeys — How to Make Turkeys' Nests — A 
 Cheap Rustic Hennery — Management of Young Chickens — Eggs and 
 their Management — Eggs for Sitting — How to Keep Eggs Fresh — Con- 
 stant Access to Food — Remedy for Lice, 635 
 
TODD'S COUNTRY HOMES. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 " Between broad fields of wheat and corn, 
 Is the low home where I was born ; 
 The peach-tree leans against the wall, 
 And woodbines wander over all." 
 
 T. B. Read. 
 
 EUKAL AECHITECTUEE. 
 
 THE BUILDER'S GLOSSARY. 
 
 Every person who is about to aid in erecting a 
 building, should have a correct understanding of the 
 various parts of an ordinary edifice. To aid beginners 
 in performing their labors in an intelligible manner, it 
 has been deemed best to insert the following Glossary, 
 which will enable any one, at a glance, to understand 
 the correct signification of all ordinary architectural 
 terms. Boys and young men should study this Gloss- 
 ary, that they may be able to get the correct idea, 
 when a given part of a building is spoken of 
 
 Abacus is the upper portion or member of the cap- 
 ital of a column on which the architrave is placed. 
 
 Abutment is the solid mass of earth or masonry at the 
 end of a bridge or pier. Or it may be the solid part of 
 a pier which supports an arch on which a bridge rests. 
 
 Arcade, the covered walk along the side or middle 
 of a building, where columns support the arches. 
 
 Arch is a curved, self-sustaining structure of wood, 
 stone, or other material, with the ends supported on 
 
18 todd's countey homes, and 
 
 pillars, or abutments. The ^e^z-stone of an arch is the 
 last stone that is laid in the crown. Arches are built 
 over a frame of wood, or other material ; and after the 
 key-stone is put in its place, the frame or earth beneath 
 is removed. 
 
 I am acquainted with a farmer who made an ice- 
 house in the abutment of his large barn, on the slope 
 of a hill. He first removed the earth, and carried up 
 the side walls to the point where the arch was to com- 
 mence. Then, instead of incurring the expense of a 
 costly, wooden frame, the lumber for which would be 
 a dead loss, he built a platform of planks on strong 
 posts, even with the top of the walls; and then piled 
 earth on the platform, rammed it down and smoothed 
 off the surface to correspond with the form of the un- 
 der side of the arch. The arch was then made of wide 
 flat stones, set on the edge. Narrow boards were laid 
 on the form of earth that was to support the arch. 
 After the key-stones were all put in their places, the 
 earth form was removed. A wooden form would have 
 cost four times as much as this form of earth, without 
 subserving any more satisfactory purpose. 
 
 Attic is the garret of a dwelling-house, or the upper 
 story, immediately beneath the roof. V\^hen a house 
 has a flat roof, so that the walls overhead in the upper 
 rooms are not inclined, the upper story is not properly 
 called the attic, but the upper or third story. 
 
 Balcony is a projection from the outer wall of a 
 building. It is usually placed before a window, or 
 door, in one of the upper stories. A balcony is sup- 
 ported by columns or by brackets; ^nd a railing en- 
 closes the space occupied by the floor. 
 
HOW TO SAVE MONEY. 19 
 
 Balusters are the upright portions of a railing or 
 balustrade. These pieces are sdme times turned round, 
 and sometimes are four-square, or of an octagonal form. 
 They are sometimes called banisters; but incorrectly so. 
 
 Balustrade is the railing made of the hand rail, the 
 banisters, the " newel post " and corner posts, along a 
 flight of stairs. (See newel post.) 
 
 Barge-hoards, or verge-boards, are the finishing 
 boards on the gable end of a building, the upper edge 
 of which is even with top of the roofing boards. 
 
 Batten is a strip of board, either thick or thin, nar- 
 row or wide, secured to the surface of smooth work. 
 Narrow strips, called battens, are nailed over the cracks 
 of boards that are put on buildings vertically. 
 
 Bay is the mow of a barn, which extends to the 
 ground below the main floor. 
 
 Bay Window consists of an exterior projection of a 
 house provided with circular, or angular windows, rest- 
 ing on a foundation that extends below the surface of 
 the ground. 
 
 An oriel window is similar to a bay window, the only 
 difi'erence being in this, that the oriel window rests on 
 brackets, or cross-joists, while the bay window rests on 
 a foundation that extends to the ground. 
 
 Bead is a round or half-round moulding; or some 
 ornamentation like a string of beads. 
 
 Bond-timber, timber laid in a wall horizontally, for 
 tying it together. 
 
 Boudoir, private ladies' room, for calls, dressing- 
 room, etc. 
 
 Box-shutters, shutters folding into cases, on the in- 
 side of windows. 
 
20 todd's country homes, and 
 
 Bracket, a support for shelves, stairs, balconies, but 
 now more commonly for projecting roofs. (See illus- 
 tration of a bracket under the head of a bracket finish, 
 on a subsequent page.) 
 
 Buttress, a lateral projection, a prop or support of 
 masonry against the sides of a building, to resist pres- 
 sure and stiffen walls. 
 
 Campanile, a tower on a building, serving as a 
 belfry. 
 
 Capital, the upper, projecting and ornamental part 
 of a column. 
 
 Casement, applied to windows divided into two parts 
 by the mullion, and hung on hinges. 
 
 Cess-pool, a well or cistern under the mouth of a 
 drain, to receive the sediment which flows from a water 
 closet, or from the kitchen. 
 
 Cobble-stone, a round stone, often used for walls of 
 buildings by imbedding in regular courses in mortar or 
 cement. 
 
 Collar-beam is a piece of timber of any desired size, 
 which extends from the lower end of one rafter to 
 another. The ends may be nailed to the sides of the 
 rafters ; or the rafters and beam may be framed to- 
 gether. 
 
 Colonnade, a range of columns. 
 
 Column, a pillar consisting of base, shaft or body, 
 and capital. 
 
 Coping, the capping stone or brick covering of a 
 wall, wider than the wall itself, to throw off the water. 
 
 Corinthian Order, an order of Grecian architecture. 
 
 Cornice is the projecting finish beneath the eaves 
 and at the gable ends of a roof. 
 
HOW TO SAVE MONEY. 21 
 
 Corridor is a kind of gallery or passage way, either 
 on the inside or the outside of a building, which fur- 
 nishes easy communication with various apartments 
 of the edifice. 
 
 Course, a continuous horizontal range of stones or 
 brick in a wall, row of studs, or layer of shingles. 
 
 Cross-bridged, the cross-bracing placed between a 
 series of timbers or joists. 
 
 Cupola, a spheroidal roof or dome, but more com- 
 monly a small structure on the top of a dome. 
 
 Curh-roof, sometimes mwisarc^-roof, but more com- 
 monly in the United States, gamhrel-rooi, a roof with 
 the lower half inclined at a steeper angle. 
 
 Deafening, a floor covered with mortar placed be- 
 neath a common floor, to exclude sound, and prevent 
 the passage of flames. 
 
 Details is an expression applied to the drawings of 
 the separate parts of a building, usually termed work- 
 ing drawings. 
 
 Doric is an order of Grecian architecture, interme- 
 diate between the Ionic style of architecture and the 
 Tuscan. This style of architecture is plain, simple and 
 strong. 
 
 Dormer-window is the window in the tjmpanum of 
 a pediment. (See pediment.) Dormer-windows are 
 made only in sloping roofs. 
 
 Dovetail is the form of a joint in which tenons and 
 corresponding ganes are made in the form of the tail 
 of a dove, when the feathers are spread. 
 
 Dowel, or dowel-pins, are pins employed to hold two 
 pieces of wood together more securely. 
 
 Dumh-waiter is a kind of cupboard that is employed 
 
22 todd's countky homes, and . 
 
 to elevate or lower dishes or food from one story to 
 another. 
 
 Elevation is a representation or engraving of only 
 one side of a building. Elevation differs from perspec- 
 tive in this particular, that in a perspective drawing 
 two sides of a building are seen. 
 
 Entablature includes all the parts of an order of arch- 
 itecture above a column. When the entablature is s^do- 
 ken of, the entire cornice is embraced in the idea. 
 
 Fascia is a band, or fillet, for ornamentation, some- 
 times spoken of as fillets. 
 
 Frieze is the middle portion of an entablature, be- 
 tween the architrave and cornice. (See Webster's Il- 
 lustrated Dictionary.) 
 
 Furring means studs, or pieces of plank spiked to a 
 brick or concrete wall, on the inside, for holding the 
 lath. Also, thin strips of boards or lath nailed to nar- 
 row joists, to make the edges even with the wide ones, 
 for receiving the lath. 
 
 Gable means the triangular end of a roof above the 
 plates of a building. 
 
 Gain or gane is a notch, or cut, in the framing tim- 
 bers of a building for receiving joists or sleepers. 
 
 Gingerbread work embraces ornamental wood carv- 
 ing and all fanciful cut work and ornamentation of 
 dwelling-houses. 
 
 Girders are any beams or joists that serve to hold 
 the various parts of a frame together. In common 
 parlance, these parts of a frame are called "girts." 
 Any timbers or strips that extend from stud to stud, or 
 from post to post, are girders. 
 
 Gothic Architecture represents the pointed style of 
 building. 
 
HOW TO SAVE MONEY. " 23 
 
 Headers are the bricks that are laid across the stretch- 
 ers or the courses of bricks that are laid lengthways 
 of the wall. 
 
 Hawhe, a board about a foot square, for holding mor- 
 tar when a mason is plastering. 
 
 Hod, a kind of triangular tray, employed by tenders 
 to carry mortar and bricks. It is provided with a long 
 handle, so that the tray may rest on the shoulder of 
 the laborer. 
 
 Hl2')ped-roof means a roof with sloping ends, or that 
 slants on every side of the building; and terminates 
 in a point or nearly so, at the summit. 
 
 Hydraulic Cement is mortar made of water-lime and 
 sand, which hardens like stone under water, and is used 
 for cisterns, cellar bottoms, and for many other pur- 
 poses. (See water-lime.) 
 
 Ionic Order, a Grecian order of architecture. 
 
 Italian Architecture is an irregular and beautiful 
 style of modern architecture, possessing many of the 
 characteristics of the Roman, and a variety nearly 
 equal to that of the Gothic. It has projecting eaves, 
 arcades, balconies and ornamental chimney-tops, with 
 rather flat roofs. 
 
 Jamh-casing, the perpendicular casings of a window 
 or door which extend crossways of the hall. 
 
 Joists are the timbers of a floor, which extend from 
 beam to beam, or from stud to stud, as in a balloon 
 frame. The beams or sticks of timber on which the 
 first floor rests are sometimes called sleepers. 
 
 Mastic, any kind of plaster or cement that is em- 
 ployed to cover the outside of concrete, brick, or other 
 buildings. (See the manner of covering the oyster- 
 shell house in this book.) 
 
24 todd's countky homes, and 
 
 Landing, the floor at the head of a flight of stairs, 
 or portion of a flight. 
 
 Lintel is the head-piece of a door or window-frame, 
 sometimes of stone and sometimes of wood. 
 
 Lobby is a waiting-room, or entrance to some of the 
 rooms of a dwelling. There may be a stairway in a 
 lobby, or not. 
 
 Mullion, the upright post, or bar, dividing the two 
 or more parts of a window. 
 
 Newel, or newel post, is the column about which the 
 steps of a spiral staircase wind. 
 
 Notch-hoard, the board which receives the ends of 
 the steps of a flight of stairs. 
 
 Oriel-Window, a projecting window, supported on a 
 corbel or other projection. It differs from a bay-win- 
 dow, the latter being made with a foundation resting 
 on the ground. 
 
 Ovolo, a convex moulding, the profile of which forms 
 about a quarter of a circle on its lower inclined side. 
 
 Panel, a sunken space, most commonly applied to 
 the portion of a door between the upright pieces called 
 styles, and the horizontal pieces called rails. 
 
 Parlor, the sitting-room or living room of a family, 
 or for the common intercourse of a family; but at 
 present more commonly restricted to a room for visit- 
 ors. In other words, it is one of the rooms that people 
 in the country keep to look at about once a week. 
 
 Pedestal, the lower part or base of a column, con- 
 sisting of the die or square trunk, the cornice or head, 
 and the hase or foot; also, the support of a vase, 
 statue, &c. 
 
 Pediment, the triangular or circular part of a portico, 
 
HOW TO SAVE MONEY. 25 
 
 between the roof and top of the entablature. The flat 
 portion is termed the tympanum. , 
 
 Pendent., an ornament hanging from the vault of a 
 roof in Gothic architecture ; but more commonly from 
 the peak of a gable — the lower part of the ornament 
 being the pendent, and the portion above the roof the 
 hip-hioh ov jinial. 
 
 Perch, a term employed in measuring stone work, 
 either dry or laid up in mortar, signifying sixteen and 
 a-half feet long and one foot square; or 16 1-2 cubic 
 feet. The perch differs from the roc:? in this particular: 
 There may be several perches in one rod. When laying 
 stone fence, the builder estimates his work by the rod, 
 and not by the perch. A pole is 16 1-2 feet square. 
 
 Piazza, usually a covered walk on one or more sides 
 of a building, supported on one side by pillars. It is 
 used nearly synonymous with veranda, although the 
 latter generally means a portion of a building that has 
 a lean-to roof. (See veranda.) 
 
 Pitch of a roof is spoken of in various terms. When 
 a building is sixteen feet wide, and the ridge of the 
 roof is four feet higher than the plates, the roof is said 
 to have "a quarter pitch." When the ridge is one- 
 third the width of the building higher than the plates, 
 the roof has a "third pitch." When the length of 
 each rafter is equal to the width of the house, the pitch 
 is a "Gothic pitch." But, when the rafters are longer 
 than the width of the building, the roof is said to have 
 a "knife-edge pitch." 
 
 Plate is the stick of timber that supports the lower 
 ends of the rafters. In a balloon frame, the plate is 
 simply a piece of scantling nailed on the up^Dcr ends of 
 the studs. 
 
26 todd's country homes, and 
 
 Rdbhet, a cut made on one side or edge of a board, 
 or casing, to receive a door; or the edge of some other 
 board or casing. 
 
 Rafters are the pieces of timber that rest on the 
 plate to support the roof. Joist-rafters are timbers 
 which supjDort the roofing on the upper side, and the 
 ceihncr on the under side. 
 
 Roof, the upper covering of a building, whatever 
 may be the pitch. (See Worcester's Illustrated Diction- 
 ary for diagrams of the various kinds of roofs. Read, 
 also, pitch of roof, in a preceding paragraph.) 
 
 An M-roof is made by allowing the eaves of two or 
 more roofs to come together, thus forming a valley. 
 
 Rough-cast, a kind of mastic, or a rough mortar or 
 cement for covering the exterior walls of buildings, 
 mixed with pebbles, or small shells. 
 
 Rubhle, small rough stones, used for walls or filling 
 between walls. 
 
 Rustic-work, building with the faces of stone left 
 rough, and the joining sides wrought smooth. Also 
 ornamental wood structures, with the bark on ; or rus- 
 tic work may be made of roots of trees, scraped clean 
 and put together in the form of chairs or long seats. 
 
 Scarf-joint, a joint made by cutting away corres- 
 ponding portions of timbers so as to unite them, mak- 
 ing one long piece. 
 
 Shaft, the princij)al or central part of a column ; the 
 chimney above the roof. 
 
 Shoe, the projecting part of a water pipe at bottom, 
 to throw the water from the building. 
 
 Siding, the exterior side covering of boards to a 
 building. Siding are often called clapboards. 
 
HOW TO SAVE MONEY. 27 
 
 Sill, the lower horizontal timber of a frame, door or 
 window. 
 
 Specification, an exact written description of the dif- 
 ferent parts of a building to be erected. 
 
 Springer, the base of an arch ; the roof of a groined 
 house. 
 
 Stack, a number of chimney-shafts combined in one. 
 
 Stile, the vertical piece in framing or paneling. 
 
 Strut, an oblique timber in a frame, serving as a 
 brace. The term brace is usually applied to smaller 
 and shorter pieces. 
 
 Stucco, a fine plaster for covering walls, and for in- 
 terior decorations. It is sometimes made of pulverized 
 marble and plaster of Paris ; but the best is made of 
 two parts of sharp and perfectly pure sand, and one 
 part of the best and purest lime, the latter slackened 
 with water to a fine powder, sifted and mixed with the 
 sand. This is especially designed for inside work. 
 Stucco is sometimes spoken of as mastic, which see. 
 
 Stud, an upright piece of timber inserted in or nailed 
 to a sill to support the plate of a building. Stud is a 
 term usually applied to the upright scantling of a frame. 
 
 Surhase, a cornice or series of mouldings above the 
 pedestal ; also applied to the board which passes hori- 
 zontally around the walls of a room, to j)rotect them 
 from the backs of chairs. 
 
 Terra Cotta, baked clay ; architectural decorations, 
 vases, chimney-tops, etc., made of a mixture of pure 
 clay and broken flints, crushed pottery, and other ma- 
 terials and burned to the hardness of stone. 
 
 Tie, timber serving to bind walls or other parts of 
 a building together. 
 
28 todd's country homes, and 
 
 Trap, a small water reservoir in a drain-pipe, to in- 
 tercept bad odors and retain sediment. The door is 
 made so as to let water out of a conduit, but to prevent 
 the liquids returning. For this purpose the door fits 
 water-tight against the end of the conduit, which is 
 slanting like a steep roof of a building. 
 
 Truss, a horizontal timber supported by bracings 
 above, so as to form a long span without posts below. 
 
 Turret, a small tower usually attached to, and form- 
 ing part of another tower. 
 
 Tuscan, the simplest order of architecture, formed in 
 Italy in the fifteenth century. 
 
 Valley, the receding angle formed by the meeting 
 of two inclined sides of a roof 
 
 Venetian-hlind, a window-blind made of slats of wood 
 strung together so as to be raised or lowered by a 
 string on the inside of a window. 
 
 Venetian-door, a door having panes of glass on each 
 side for lighting the entrance hall. 
 
 Veranda, a covered walk on the side of a building, 
 like an awning, with slender pillars, and frequently 
 partly enclosed with lattice-work. It differs from a pi- 
 azza, as there is a floor or rooms above a piazza, but 
 never above a veranda; a veranda is usually understood 
 to be more secluded than a piazza. An arbor veranda is 
 where the roof is merely a frame covered with foliage. 
 
 Verge-hoard, the gable ornament of wood work — 
 often called harge-hoard. 
 
 Vestibide, an entrance to a dwelling-house. (See 
 Webster's or Worcester's Dictionary for a definition 
 of vestibule, which may, with propriety, be spoken of 
 as a lohh?/.) 
 
HOW TO SAVE MONEY. 29 
 
 Villa, a country house for a wealthy person. 
 
 Volute, a scroll or spiral ornament, which forms the 
 principal distinction of the Ionic capital, and is also 
 found in the Corinthian and Composite. 
 
 Water-closet, a privy, supplied with a stream of 
 water, or water pipe, to keep it clean. 
 
 Weather-board, a board on the gable from the ridge 
 to the eaves ; the outer boards of a building nailed so 
 as to overlap and throw off rain. 
 
 Weather-moulding, a moulding or drip-stone, over a 
 door or window, to throw off rain. 
 
 Well-hole, the space enclosed by the walls of a cir- 
 cular staircase. 
 
 Working-drawings, drawings of different parts of a 
 building, according to accurate measurement, including 
 plans, elevations, profiles and sections, by which the 
 builders are to be guided. 
 
 Wainscot, the wooden lining on the interior surface 
 of a side wall. Wainscoting differs from ceiling in this 
 respect, viz., boards that are employed overhead are 
 said to be "the ceiling," while on the sides the boards 
 are called " the wainscoting." 
 
OHAPTEE II 
 
 CHOOSING A HOME. 
 
 The Salutary Influences of Home — Location of Farm Buildings — Site for 
 Summer Residence — Laying out the Farm — Preliminaries for Build- 
 ing — The Laborer's Kitchen — Suggestions about Aspect — How to 
 Compute the Cost of a House — Excavating Cellars — Foundation of 
 Buildings — How to build Abutment Walls — Rendering Wet Cellars 
 Dry—The Height of Buildings — Estimates of Cost — A Poor Man's 
 Cottage. 
 
 " Be this our home — that ever-hallowed spot — 
 To plant a palace, or a lowly cot." 
 
 It has alwaj^s seemed to be an institution of divine 
 appointment, that every well-regulated family should 
 have a home ; and, that children, after they have ar- 
 'rived to years of manhood and womanhood, should quit 
 the paternal abode, as honey-bees swarm, to fulfil their 
 appointed destiny. This is as it should be. And the 
 arrangement is compatible with man's social and moral 
 nature. A family without a home, seems like a forlorn 
 and weary pilgrim without kindred, a place of abode, 
 or a country that he can call his own. Every person 
 should do his best to own a home. The first money 
 he can spare, ought to be invested in a dwelling, where 
 his family can live permanently. Viewed as a matter 
 ^ of* economy, a home is important, not only because 
 
 he can ordinarily build cheaper than he can rent; 
 but because of the expense caused by a frequent 
 
HOW TO SAVE MONEY. 31 
 
 change of residence. A man who in early life, 
 builds a home for himself and family, will save some 
 thousands of dollars in the course of twenty years, 
 besides avoiding the inconvenience and trouble of 
 removals. 
 
 Parents should encourage their children to make 
 some preparations for a home of their own, years be- 
 fore they are of age. If parents in the country would 
 encourage their sons to direct their thoughts and en- 
 ergies towards securing a home of their own, soon 
 after they have become of age, and would render them 
 only a little pecuniary aid, at a period, when beginners 
 need help most, we should see very different citizens, 
 and a far more desirable state of society, both morally 
 and religiously. 
 
 In choosing a location for a home, one should have 
 a correct understanding of his own requirements. If 
 a man is a mechanic, or a clerk, or helper, he will need 
 only a garden spot, not larger than he can cultivate 
 advantageously and profitably. If he purposes to be 
 a farmer and to raise grain, and various kinds of stock, 
 he should go where land is comparatively cheap and of 
 excellent fertility. Let me suggest the importance of 
 not paying a fabulous price for a farm, for agricultural 
 purposes, where the soil will not produce crops of any 
 kind, in sufficient quantities, to pay one per cent, 
 interest on the money invested. If one desires only 
 a few roods of earth, it will be of comparatively little 
 account, what the character of the soil is. In case the 
 land cannot be ploughed for the rocks, it must be 
 borne in mind that it is an expensive job to clear even 
 a small field of bowlders. 
 
32 todd's country homes, and 
 
 the salutary influences of home. 
 
 " How dear to our liearts are the scenes of our childhood, 
 When fond recollection presents them to view ! 
 The orchard, the meadow, the deep-tangled wild wood. 
 And every loved spot, that our infancy knew." 
 
 A home ! A cheerful homo ! A home with beauti- 
 ful surroundings ! A delightful and pleasant home ! 
 There is music and a rapture in the sound ! A pleas- 
 ant, happy home is, to the aspiring and panting soul, 
 what nourishing food is to the jaded body, "^here is 
 something agreeable to our better nature in having a 
 home that we can call our own. It is a form of prop- 
 erty that is more than a mere temporal possession. 
 The cheering influences of home speak to the heart, 
 enlist the sentiments and ennoble the possessor. The 
 associations that spring up around it as the birthplace 
 of children — as the scene of life's holiest emotions — as 
 the sanctuary where the spirit cherishes its purest 
 thoughts — are surely of priceless value to all ; and 
 whenever their influence is exerted, the moral sensibili- 
 ties are improved and exalted. 
 
 Home, that briefest word of our good old Saxon 
 tongue — there lies in it the wealth of all language, of 
 all affection, of all virtuous joy, of all pure memories, 
 of all innocent hopes ; the prattle of the infant, the 
 gleeful laugh of childhood, the song of the maiden, the 
 cheerful labor, the merry pastime, the sweet repose of 
 evening when toil is ended, the united meal, the house- 
 hold stories, music, and diversions, the various ages, 
 interests, and plans revolving about one center, and 
 that center, love. There is no place in this wide world 
 like a cheerful home. There is no other place where 
 
HOW TO SAVE MONEY. 33 
 
 the affections are so securely entwined; where the 
 world can be shut out from our thoughts ; and where 
 we can give ourselves up to such pure enjoyment ! 
 Home is not merely four square walls adorned with 
 gilded pictures ; but it is where love sheds its light on 
 all the dear ones who gather round the sweet home 
 fireside, where we can worship God, with none to 
 molest or make us afraid. Have you such a home ? 
 If you have, love that place above all others. Cherish 
 the dear ones you meet there from day to day. Scat- 
 ter sunbeams ; dispense kind words to the sorrowing ; 
 and thus strive to make home attractive. If young 
 ladies love flirtation, gay attire, and the reward of a 
 coquette, more than a happy home, they can pay their 
 money and take their choice. 
 
 ." 0, girls, get a home of your own ! 
 It sure is an excellent plan ! 
 And get, with your home, a nice pretty man ; 
 And never keep house all alone." 
 
 It is often that we find more true enjoyment in the 
 home of the poor, than in the marble mansions of the 
 rich. It has been said that an honest man is the noblest 
 work of God. Grant it. Yet, a cheerful home, with 
 beautiful surroundings, where love inspires the heart of 
 the inmates, is a little heaven below. There is nothing 
 more congenial to our natures than the hallowed influ- 
 ences of home. Aside from the transcendent pleasures 
 and enjoyments that a home affords, in youth and mid- 
 dle age, every one should strive, in early life, to choose 
 a place of abode that hie will love, and be satisfied with, 
 until life's latest end. Every industrious young man 
 who will exercise proper economy in his expenses, may 
 
34 TODD^S COUNTRY HOMES, AND 
 
 dress respectably, and save enough funds, in a few 
 years, to purchase a small home. Or, he can fritter 
 away his hard-earned dollars, for gewgaws, jews-harps, 
 and unsatisfying pleasures, and end his career like a 
 town pauper. 
 
 LOCATION OF FARM BUILDINGS. 
 
 The first and most important consideration connected 
 with the erection of farm buildings of any description, 
 is the location. If the surface of the land is one con- 
 tinuous plain, there will be very little choice in the lo- 
 cality for dwelling-house, grain-barn, hennery, piggery 
 or any other buildings. But when the surface is hilly 
 or gently undulating, location is everything. There 
 are many considerations of a pecuniary character which 
 should be allowed to have their proper influence when 
 one is making choice of a location for his buildings. 
 If the location be on the slope of a lake, or the bank 
 of a river, or if nothing but a bubbling brook, the 
 source of which is a mountain spring, meanders through 
 the forests or green fields, the location of buildings 
 should be chosen with reference to the water, both for 
 considerations of beauty in laying out the grounds, and 
 utility and convenience incident to the eminent advan- 
 tages of a stream of water. If practicably not too 
 inconvenient, let the location for farm-buildings be 
 chosen where water may be conveyed in tubes to points 
 round about the buildings, for stock and other purposes. 
 
 Another point of transcendent importance is, choos- 
 ing a location near the center of the farm. The usual 
 custom is to squat every building as near the borders of 
 the highway as the law will allov/ them to be placed, 
 without any regard whatever, to convenience of access 
 
HOW TO SAVE MONET. 
 
 35 
 
 to distant fields. The custom of locating farm-build- 
 ings along the highway, has become so prevalent all over 
 the country, that very few people have sufficient pluck 
 to strike out a beautiful serpentine drive to the center 
 of their land and choose a location for buildings. 
 
 
 
 HON. HORACE GREELEY S RESIDENCE. 
 
 Hon. Horace Greeley has furnished one of the most 
 striking and illustrious examples on this subject. A 
 narrow carriage-way leads from the main road along 
 the hill-side, through the wild old woods, more than half 
 a mile, among growing timber, where the dwelling- 
 house is surrounded on every side by old and towering 
 denizens of the forest. During the growing season, 
 the music of the waving trees, and the delightful shade 
 render such a location doubly attractive; and in win- 
 
36 todd's country homes, and 
 
 ter, when chilling winds and pelting storms sweep fu- 
 riously by, the surrounding trees break the force of the 
 cold winds; and thus render a home and its surround- 
 ings far more comfortable and pleasant, than if the 
 dwelling were standing in a bleak locality. 
 
 The accompanying illustration of Mr. Greeley's ru- 
 ral residence on the Harlem Railroad, about one hour's 
 ride from New York City, was originally engraved for 
 the '^Hearth and Home,'' in which there is a more full 
 account given of his farming operations, than I can re- 
 cord in this work. When I was last at Mr. Greeley's 
 place, this residence was not occupied, on account of 
 the feminine delusion, that the trees round about the 
 dwelling, rendered the place damp and unhealthy. 
 Mr. Greeley thought that by cutting away a few of the 
 large trees, the difficulty would be obviated. And he 
 thought right. When furious winds are perpetually 
 sweeping away the entire atmosphere around a dwell- 
 ing, and bringing forward a fresh supply of air, it is a 
 delusion to think that a house in the woods can be 
 damp and unhealthy. 
 
 SITE FOR SUMMER RESIDENCE. 
 
 Mr. J. Wilkinson, a writer on landscape gardening, 
 says: — A site for a summer residence only, is most de- 
 sirable, on the summit of a hill in order to secure the 
 luxury of the fanning breezes from every point; while 
 for a permanent residence, both the dwelling and sta- 
 bling should, if practicable, be so located as to be 
 somewhat protected from the most unpleasant winds. 
 Where all the other characteristics, other than protec- 
 tion from the chilling blast, are afforded in a site, the 
 
HOW TO SAVE MONEY. 37 
 
 defect can be supplied in a few years by planting a dense 
 belt of evergreens. The introduction, however, of this 
 artificial protection, should be performed by one skilled 
 in the art of landscaping, that the least number of 
 trees sufficient to produce the effect may be used ; that 
 the varieties and the form of heads most desirable for 
 the purpose ; and that such as will best withstand ex- 
 posed situations, may be selected. 
 
 If it is desirable to secure water views, narrow open- 
 ings will suffice, leaving the imagination to supply the 
 extent of the surface of the sheet, a portion of which 
 is seen. Very deceptive effects can often be produced 
 on this principle, in cutting out vistas in woodland, by 
 carefully avoiding showing the margins of the sheet, 
 or stream exposed to view, and by opening the vistas 
 at such points as shall present partial views of the same 
 stream, or sheet, as remote from each other as possible, 
 by which the stranger is impressed with the idea of a 
 great extent of water surface, while in reality it is very 
 limited. 
 
 Elevated sites on the margins of navigable streams 
 are particularly beautiful and desirable, infinitely more 
 so, than those bounded by a water horizon, as in an 
 ocean scene. There is no more beautiful feature in a 
 landscape than a water-wheel, to secure w^hich, from a 
 favorable point of view, minor features may be sacri- 
 ficed. Too enlarged views is a common error with 
 those who are inexperienced in the selection of the 
 rural home. Hence an " elephant " is purchased, which 
 can neither be kept with pleasure, nor disposed of at 
 cost. Many embark in the purchase of a country resi- 
 dence with the erroneous idea, that the means necessary 
 
38 todd's country homes, and 
 
 to secure a title of the premises, erect the necessary 
 buildings, and supply the various features of decora- 
 tion that their limited experience suggests as constitut- 
 ing the acme of perfection, is all that will be required. 
 But ignorance of what will be the cost of what I have 
 enumerated, and no allowance for the perpetual cost 
 of their maintenance, often leads the purchaser to un- 
 dertake much more than he has the means to accom- 
 plish. Hence, not unfrequently, conspicuous features of 
 decoration are commenced, and of necessity are indefi- 
 nitely abandoned, and thus remain, perhaps for years. 
 
 These suggestions, it is hoped, will deter many young 
 and ambitious men from commencing a project which 
 they have not the means to complete. The cost should 
 be carefully counted, when means are limited. Then, 
 if the plan be spread out on paper, as it always should 
 be, a beginner may accomplish something every year, 
 as his limited means may accumulate. The man who 
 is in debt for his land, who has a place for every dol- 
 lar as soon as the money is earned, may often accom- 
 plish much towards embellishing his home, improving 
 his grounds, and rendering the surroundings j)leasant 
 and attractive, by simply appropriating his unoccupied 
 days in performing little jobs that he has not money to 
 pay some one else for doing. Locations and plans 
 should be studied, and improved, if possible, for several 
 months before ground is broken for the foundation of 
 any building. Works on rural architecture should be 
 perused; and the ideas of experienced landscape en- 
 gineers should be made familiar. 
 
 It appears odd to live a hundred rods from the 
 beaten track of the highway; because, a prevailing 
 
HOW TO SAVE MONET. 39 
 
 custom, which stands directly in the face and eyes of 
 convenience, prompts people to locate their dwelling- 
 l\oiises where every itinerant interloper that travels 
 the streets, by raising on tip-toe, may peep into the 
 parlor or bed-room windows. People often think it is 
 inconvenient " to live away off in the fields ; " because,, 
 when they go to church, to mill, to post-office, or any- 
 where else, they must travel so far before they reach 
 the highway. 
 
 Now we will suppose, for example, that it is a hun- 
 dred rods from the further side of a farm to the high- 
 way ; which will be attended with the most convenience 
 and economy, to locate the buildings near the center 
 of the farm, and thus save an untold amount of carting 
 manure to the field, and products of the farm to the 
 barn, and spend a few minutes longer in riding from 
 the house to the highway, or, to cart a large propor- 
 tion of heavy materials one hundred rods ? 
 
 There is no need of going into details on this point. 
 The simple suggestion will be sufficient to induce a 
 thinking farmer to put into practice what has been al- 
 luded to. I have seen farms half a mile or more long, 
 of a triangular form, with all the buildings on one 
 corner. It is easy to calculate how much more time is 
 consumed, and how much more team labor is required 
 to perform the necessary carting on those farms, than 
 if the buildings were located near the middle of the 
 entire tract. In numerous instances, dwelling-house, 
 barn, and all other buildings, are located so unsatisfac- 
 torily, that it would pay well to have everything moved 
 to a more convenient and desirable location. Farmers, 
 as a general rule, have too little regard for location. 
 
40 todd's country homes, and 
 
 where shall we locate? 
 
 Then stick close to the farm, stick close my boy! 
 And EDUCATE yourself to iioe ! 
 Do NOT give up the farmer's joy, 
 For all the city's death and woe! 
 
 Elmee. 
 
 Where shall I go to find a home? Untold numbers 
 of young men, both single and married, are asking this 
 question, every day of their lives, with growing solici- 
 tude. To one and all, let me be heard from Maine to Cal- 
 ifornia, wherever you go, do not go to a city. If you 
 are in the country, remain there. And, if all your asso- 
 ciations and interests are in the pent up city, flee to the 
 country, just as soon as you can raise funds enough to 
 get where you can purchase a piece of land. If you are 
 not pleased with the unimproved land in New Jersey 
 and other localities round about New York City, go to 
 work in sober earnest, and save money enough to j^ay 
 your fare to the great West, or the North-west ; and 
 there buy 160 acres of government land. Or if you 
 have not the money to purchase, squat on it; get an ax 
 and mattock; put up a log cabin for your habitation; 
 and raise a little corn and potatoes. Be contented and 
 keep your conscience clear, and live like a freeman, 
 your own master, with no one to give you orders, and 
 without dependence on any body. Do that, and you 
 will be honored, respected, influential and rich. But 
 go to the city and accept a clerkship and you sink at 
 once all independence. A man may give you a place 
 to-day, and kick you out to-morrow. But if you own 
 an acre of land, it is your kingdom ; and your cabin is 
 your castle. You are a sovereign ; and you will feel it in 
 every throbbing of your pulse ; and every day of life will 
 assure me of your thanks for having thus advised you. 
 
HOW TO SAVE MONET. 41 
 
 There is nothing like a piece of land, with the cheer- 
 ing prospects of a happy and respectable home to de- 
 velop an ambitious boy or man into a good citizen. 
 Nothing will subdue that roving propensity which leads 
 a man all over the world, like a piece of good land, a 
 comfortable house, and 
 
 "A little wife well willed." 
 
 Economize your time, and save your money to pur- 
 chase a home. Don't fritter away your dimes for candy 
 and glittering gewgaws which can be of no earthly 
 benefit, in any way. Tear away from your mother's 
 apron strings ; and don't squat down between a rock 
 and a stump, just under the eaves of father's back door. 
 Get away from the paternal homestead. Go where peo- 
 ple will see and appreciate your virtuous manhood. 
 When a man remains where he was reared, his neigh- 
 bors, and especially his relatives, will see nothing in 
 him but the little tricks of boyhood, and the mistakes 
 of early manhood. Locate among strangers. Relatives 
 will respect a friend tenfold more, if he lives a hun- 
 dred or a thousand miles away, than if his possessions 
 were near by. Go where land is cheap ; and where the 
 soil is fertile. Don't purchase the first goose-pasture 
 that some "sharper" may offer for an excellent garden 
 spot. Hire out for a few months, if you have but little 
 money; and take time to look around. A man may 
 frequently make more money by looking around, for a 
 few months, than he can to purchase at once. 
 
 FLEE TO THE COUNTRY. 
 
 But in the country's healthy sphere, 
 The FARM so joyous, glad and bright,^ 
 Aha ! my boy ! yon'U find that here. 
 Temptation leads you not from right ! 
 
 ^ 
 
42 todd's country homes, and 
 
 Young men, boys, girls and middle-aged men, if you 
 have ever cherished the thought of leaving the coun- 
 try, for a livelihood in the city, as you value your own 
 welfare and happiness, abandon the idea at once. 
 There is no room for you in the city. There are no 
 positions for you. There are too many in the cities 
 already. The country needs your services. You can 
 have no encouragement to rise in the scale of being, 
 if you go to the city. City advantages are, at present, 
 swallowed up in its disadvantages. The crowded state 
 of the city; the increase of population; the demand 
 for houses; the inadequate supply; the inordinate and 
 extortionate charges of the landlords; the rapacity of 
 every description of tradesmen and shop-keeper; the 
 inflated prices of property; the great cost of living; 
 the difficulty of convenient transportation within the 
 city limits, between either extremities; the over- 
 crowded, unhealthy, dirty, cheerless abodes, are all 
 tending to drive people with limited means into the 
 country. 
 
 If you desire to change your country life for a life 
 in the city, think well before you act. The road before 
 you is not so smooth and pleasant as it looks. Some 
 seek clerkships in public offices. To those, I say, in 
 words of earnest warning, never surrender the com- 
 forts of your home in the country, and the certain inde- 
 pendence of your vocation, for the petty salary you 
 can earn in an official station. The man who is depen- 
 dent on official salary for support, becomes the slave 
 of party. He holds his place by an uncertain tenure. 
 He has hardly a chance for advancement. He dwarfs 
 his intellect; too often belittles his manhood; and at 
 
HOW TO SAVE MONEY. 43 
 
 length becomes the most dependent of call dependents; 
 and when, hi the course of time, changes come, he finds 
 himself without occupation and without means. There 
 are more than 10,000 boys and young men in New 
 York City, barely existing in the low capacity of 
 helpers; and hoping, that at some future period, for- 
 tune will smile on their pathway of life. But, they 
 ought to remember, that there is only a certain amount 
 of wealth in the city; and only a limited number can 
 be wealthy. The large proportion must always be 
 poor, unless they flee to the country. 
 
 How I wish some good angel would guide my pen, 
 while I portray the dark side and the wonderful dis- 
 advantages of city life! How many thousands can tell 
 the tale of doleful poverty! How many, a step higher 
 on the scale, can utter bitter complaints of hard work 
 and scant pay! Higher yet, there comes a class of 
 shop-keepers, faithful toilers, whose daily gains barely 
 pay the expenses of a livelihood; and to whom the oft- 
 recurring face of the landlord is like an apparition of 
 terror. But between these and the rich classes, who 
 sit down to costly suppers and dress in purple and fine 
 linen, there are found thousands of families of the en- 
 ergetic business or professional men of the city, who, 
 apparently, in comfortable circumstances, are subjected 
 to the payment of extravagant prices for board, or 
 house rent, and long for some effectual and permanent 
 relief. They sigh for a home in the country. Let me 
 say to such anxious souls, turn all your available efiects 
 into money, and hie away to the country, where you 
 can get a home of your own; live independently; and 
 have food that is fit to eat; and air that is not charged 
 
/ 
 
 44 todd's country homes, and 
 
 with pestilential effluvia. If you have a talent for 
 trade and no taste for your country life, then take your 
 chances amid the great struggling multitude. But 
 recollect, that in mercantile and manufacturing pur- 
 suits, where one man succeeds, many fail. The great 
 ocean of trade and commerce is filled with wrecks. A 
 few only of those who embark upon it, reach the haven 
 where they desire to be; and to the innumerable hosts 
 who sink in its turbulent waters, but little aid is ten- 
 dered, and but little sympathy extended. You who 
 from your country home, look upon this great mercan- 
 tile ocean, see none of the many who have been en- 
 gulfed within it. Rejoice that you are free from the 
 perils to which they were exposed. None who own 
 and till the soil, fail to win, if they labor industriously 
 to achieve an independent livelihood and an honorable 
 success. The crops may sometimes fail; the land may 
 be parched; blight and disease may attack your cattle 
 and your flocks; but, for one season of misfortune, 
 there will be many of abundance and prosperity. The 
 providence of God may send you sometimes temporary 
 disaster; but you will not be utterly ruined, as the 
 merchant can be, by the folly or the treachery of swin- 
 dlers. Envy not the smartly-dressed clerk, nor even his 
 rich employer, surrounded by the splendors of city life. 
 The brightness of the outside wrappings is not always 
 a guarantee tliat there are cheerfulness and peace of 
 mind within. Many of these men may more justly 
 env}'- you your sound sleep of nights, of which their 
 over-anxious and overwrought brains so frequently de- 
 fraud them. 
 
 Large cities are a dreadful abode for young men and 
 
HOW TO SAVE MONEY. 45 
 
 boys. Every influence tends to demoralization. Temp- 
 tations to every species of corruption, immorality, 
 vice and crime, beset young men and boys, wherever 
 they go. Most employers — if they have any of the 
 religion of the Bible — leave it at home, when they go 
 to their business. Clerks and helpers, after their daily 
 task is done, are turned into the streets, to run the 
 gauntlet among the vilest wretches that walk the foot- 
 stool. There are no restraining and constraining influ- 
 ences to help boys and young men resist besetments to 
 vice and crime. Go where they will, there is some al- 
 lurement to gambling, immorality, vice, revelry, dissi- 
 pation, rum, wretchedness and ultimate ruin. Do not 
 flatter yourselves that you can withstand any tempta- 
 tion that may overtake you. Untold numbers of smarter 
 men and boys than you, have cherished the same delu- 
 sion; and before they were aware of it, they found 
 that their feet had slipped. Parents in the country, 
 let me entreat you, by the love you bear to your chil- 
 dren, persuade them to keep away from the city. The 
 professions are largely overstocked. There are scores 
 of applicants for every subordinate position. Only a 
 few can rise. The large proportion must fill subordi- 
 nate positions. Amid the rivalry and strife to rise, 
 aspirants must dwell in an atmosphere of envy and 
 the most contemptible jealousy. But, in the country, 
 and on the farm, these pernicious influences are un- 
 known. The quiet, simple, independent life of a suc- 
 cessful farmer is highly favorable to the development 
 of pure morals and sturdy integrity, as well as to hap- 
 piness and contentment, which are better than the most 
 powerful drugs for insuring health and longevity. 
 
46 TODD'S COUNTRY HOMES. 
 
 PLOTTING THE FARM AND LAYING OUT THE FIELDS. 
 
 After a title to a farm has been secured and the site 
 for the buildings has been selected, it will be well to 
 draw a plot of the grounds on a large sheet of drawing- 
 paper, which may be inclosed in a wooden frame ; or 
 the plot may be delineated on a large board, neatly 
 planed. Let the deed of a farm be taken to a good 
 surveyor, who has the proper instruments, and he will 
 be able to delineate the shape of any farm, with the 
 different distances of a proper proportion to each other, 
 with the outside lines running at the same angle in the 
 plan, that they do on the farm. The larger the plan 
 is, the better it will be. The next step will be, to lay 
 out the farm into fields of the most convenient shape 
 and size. If the farm is a large one, the fields may be 
 proportionately large. But if the farm is small, and the 
 proprietor designs to keep a limited number of cattle, 
 or animals of any kind, the fields must be small. It 
 should always be the aim, in dividing a farm into fields 
 by fences, to have the boundaries of each field run 
 about at right angles. But when a farm is cut up with 
 highways, railroads, and deep gullies, which do not run 
 parallel with the outside boundaries, the young farmer 
 must exercise a little judgment and skill in giving them 
 a shape that will be most convenient of access from the 
 barn. If the buildings are so located that the fields 
 must necessarily be all on one side of a lane, leading 
 to the barn, it would be more convenient to have the 
 fields eighty or one hundred rods long, and of a narrow 
 width, and let them extend from the farther boundary 
 of the farm to the lane, than to have the fields square, 
 
LAYING OUT THE FARM. 47 
 
 and be obliged to cross one or two fields in order to 
 reach a distant field. Sometimes it seems desirable to 
 make the fields of an irregular shape in order to allow 
 animals in each field to have access to water. But it 
 is not always advisable to give a field an irregular 
 shape for the sake of a stream of water, when it can be 
 brought to that field for small expense. It is alw^ays 
 desirable to have the fields of a uniform size, especially 
 when one adopts, in raising crops, a rotation system. 
 
 The first settlers of our country were accustomed to 
 locate their buildings almost anywhere ; and to clear and 
 cultivate the best and dryest land first; and to fence 
 around those parts of the farm which w^ere too wxt to 
 plow; and to keep them for pasture only. The result 
 was, that the fields of many farms were as irregular in 
 shape as a shapeless rock. When the location is such 
 that wet places can be drained, the fences should be 
 made in the desired places, and all wet places and cor- 
 ners made dry by ditching. Having decided upon the 
 form and size of each field, let marks be delineated in 
 the plan to represent the fences. Lot each field be 
 designated in the plan by some name, or title, or by 
 some tree, or rock, or pool; or they may be designated 
 as the fields A, B, C, &c. This plan, or map, should 
 be placed w^here every one connected with the fiirm, can 
 see it often, and understand the location of every field, 
 and woods, and yard, and building, from the map. 
 Now, if there are little streams running across the farm, 
 let them be represented by dotted lines, running at 
 about the same angle in the map that they do on the 
 farm. When imderdrains are made in any field, dotted 
 lines should be made on the map to represent them. 
 
48 todd's country homes. 
 
 The distances should be accurately measured in the 
 field, and the number of rods from a given corner where 
 a certain ditch crosses the boundary of such a field, and 
 how many rods it runs in a given direction, and how 
 many rods from a certain corner it crosses the fence 
 towards the outlet, should be indicated on the map. 
 Should there be branches in a main ditch, let the dis- 
 tance from a given side of the field be accurately meas- 
 ured, in rods or feet, and noted down with the dotted 
 lines on the map. If the ditches are filled with tile, 
 stone, or wood, in any form, let it be noted on the map, 
 and also the time when the ditches were made. 
 
 The advantage to be derived from knowing exactly, 
 to one foot or less, where an underdrain is located, may 
 often be of more or less pecuniary profit, in case a cer- 
 tain ditch should fail to discharge the surplus water, 
 where it is located, in consequence of some little ob- 
 struction, which could be readily found if the exact 
 location of the drain were known. 
 
 Aside from the beauty of a residence among the trees 
 of the woods, there is a wonderful 
 
 ECONOMY IN THE GROWING TREES 
 
 That stand round about dwelling-houses and out-build- 
 ins-s, in the protection afforded to fruit-trees and winter 
 grain. The farmers of our entire country have made 
 a most lamentable mistake in removing all the old for- 
 est-trees that stood on that side of the farm, whence 
 came the prevailing winds in winter. Every young 
 man, and old one, too, who contemplates choosing a 
 location for farm -buildings, ought to spare the trees 
 round the dwellings and out-buildings. Plant your 
 
BENEFIT OF TREES. 49 
 
 buildings, if the land be level, near the center of your 
 fiirm, and let a dense belt of trees, a few rods wide, 
 encircle them. Then, let another belt of timber, a 
 few rods in width, continue to grow round about the 
 outside of the entire farm. More grain, grass, fruit, or 
 any other product of the land, can be grown on seventy- 
 five acres, with twenty-five covered with heavy forest- 
 trees, than can be produced on one hundred acres de- 
 nuded of trees and exposed to the sweeping winds of 
 the winter months. It is admitted by many of the 
 best tillers of the soil in the country, that trees are 
 directly beneficial in protecting the soil from deteriora- 
 tion, from the action of ice and snow and sweeping 
 winds, which destroy or bear away the most fertile por- 
 tion of the land. And it has been observed in those 
 countries which are being rapidly denudated that, with 
 the destruction of trees, droughts and sudden disas- 
 trous floods increase. The rapidity with which our ex- 
 tensive forests are being converted into farms, and the 
 change of woody wildernesses into cities, towns, and 
 villages, while giving evidence of the spirit of progress, 
 contains an element of evil which may afford grounds 
 of alarm. It is a fact not to be gainsayed that forests 
 do afford the amplest protection to fruit-trees from the 
 disastrous effects of frosts and violent wintry storms. 
 A great many farmers who cultivate winter wheat and 
 various kinds of fruit, have noticed the deterioration 
 of their crops, when the protecting shelter of a body 
 of trees has been removed from the vicinity. When 
 the time arrives that our country shall be completely 
 denudated, our fruit will very materially deteriorate 
 both in quality and quantity. 
 
 4 
 
50 todd's country homes. 
 
 An English writer says, "That the stripping of a 
 country of its forests is most injurious to its prosperity; 
 and may, under certain circumstances, prove absolutely 
 ftital ; may, to speak broadly, change it into a useless 
 desert, to be revived, if at all, only by costly works for 
 artificial irrigation. It is nearly certain that the deso- 
 lation of Numidia, once a granary, now a desert, is due 
 to the wilful destruction of the trees by the barbarians ;> 
 that the Babylonian plain has been desolated by the 
 same cause ; and that the Punjab was rapidly becoming 
 a desert. The trees had been cut by successive devas- 
 tators, Runjeet Singh himself being among the worst, 
 until the kingdom was as bare as a hand, and Lord 
 Lawrence was compelled to undertake planting as a 
 political duty. The desolation of Judea once so 
 thoroughly cultivated, is in all probability due to the 
 same cause. The French begin to attribute the in- 
 creasing sterility of their southern provinces to the 
 same cause, which is felt, though in a less degree, in 
 Lombardy ; and above all, in Spain, where rapid and 
 systematic felling is destroying all chance of a future 
 for agriculture. Let me urge every person who owns a 
 home to spare his forests and ornamental trees." 
 
 BEGINNING TO BUILD A HOUSE. 
 
 " When we do mean to build a domicile, 
 We first survey the plot, then draw the model ; 
 And when we see the figure of the house. 
 We then compute the cost of the erection, 
 Wliich, if we find out weighs ability, 
 What do we then, but draw again the model." 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 A dwelling-house, in some respects, resembles the 
 character of the builder. It is a job for life. Gross 
 
BEGINNING TO BUILD. 51 
 
 mistakes in its construction cannot easily be corrected. 
 It has repeatedly been stated that a person needs to 
 lead one life, in order to understand how to meet all 
 life's difficulties with proper intelligence and manly for- 
 titude. So with building a dwelling-house ; a person 
 should possess a correct understanding of all the re- 
 quirements of the builder, in order to secure the ac- 
 complishment of a satisfactory job. An ambitious 
 young man desires to have every part of his dwelling 
 as nearly of the requisite dimensions as may be. For 
 this reason, a vast deal of planning and forethought 
 will be essential before operations are commenced. 
 
 The first consideration of importance, is to deter- 
 mine how many rooms will be desirable, and how large 
 each one may be made. Then, another important point 
 •will be to arrange the rooms in the most economical 
 and satisfactory manner. These things will require 
 the combined acumen and practical wisdom of practical 
 builders and females who are competent to manage all 
 the household affairs, from the drudgery of the kitchen 
 to the dusting of the parlor furniture. Many intelli- 
 gent housekeepers understand what a family really will 
 require better than many professional architects. And 
 yet, in the details, females are liable to make mistakes, 
 by not really understanding what would be the final re- 
 sult, if this plan were adopted, or that item neglected. 
 
 When one has access to another house which is 
 nearly of the desired plan, it will be an easy task, by 
 conferring with an intelligent builder, to plan such 
 alterations and make such improvements as may be 
 desired. It is always well to submit plans to a prac- 
 tical builder, as lie will be able to tell at a glance 
 
62 todd's country homes. 
 
 whether the workmen will be likely to encounter any 
 difficulties in the details of the job. If this be not 
 done, we may have another instance of the fast female 
 who planned her dwelling and employed workmen to 
 complete it, forgetting the stairs, until the house was 
 finished. Then, proper allowance must be made for 
 the right thickness of the outside walls and partitions. 
 The height of rooms is another important considera- 
 tion. The upper rooms of many a cozy dwelling-house 
 have been rendered very unpleasant by being made 
 too low. One or two feet in the height of a house, is 
 really a small consideration, w^hen compared with the 
 aggregate expense of the entire edifice. It is an ex- 
 cellent practice to make high rooms, between joints. 
 But low rooms are like a disfiguring blotch on one's fair 
 character, which cannot be removed, except with great" 
 difficulty. An imaginary dwelling should be set up 
 before the mind, and every room, door, and window 
 should be viewed with the perception of a master 
 builder, as the same things will appear after the edifice 
 is completed. If dwelling-houses were planned in the 
 foregoing manner, we should not meet with so many 
 egregious mistakes in an attempt to produce a dwell- 
 ing possessing the desirable requisites of good taste in 
 architectural proportions, and a convenient disposition 
 of the various apartments and completeness of work- 
 manship. 
 
 PRELIMINARIES FOR BUILDING. 
 
 The man who builds a city wants access to a large 
 revenue. So a person who erects only a cozy cottage, 
 must have money. If money is so scarce, that every 
 dollar must be earned, dime by dime, at hard-fisted in- 
 
PRELIMINARIES FOR BUILDING. 53 
 
 dustry, or by literary drudgery, it is eminently import- 
 ant to devise the most economical means for making 
 every dollar count. But, before making a choice of 
 any plan, let me suggest the eminent importance of 
 not erecting a dwelling that will not be in keeping 
 with one's available means. If a person has a small 
 piece of land, and but a few hundred dollars to invest 
 in a house, let him beware of the common error of erect- 
 ing a dwelling that will cost more than the entire farm 
 would sell for, at a forced sale. Because some proud 
 or rich neighbor lives in a palatial mansion, do not act 
 the stupid part of launching into debt for a costly villa, 
 or mansion, for the sake of keeping up appearances, by 
 building a large dwelling that your family do not w^ant. 
 Put your money where it will "jink" more than in a 
 costly house. The man who has limited means and 
 who invests $4,000 in the erection of a house, that is 
 really beyond his means, when a neat cottage costing 
 f 2,000 M^ould be more in keeping with his circum- 
 stances, wrongs himself and his family, and sets a per- 
 nicious example to those around him. A large and ex- 
 pensive dwelling is like a great debt on the hands of 
 the owner. What a perpetual draft there will be on 
 his little revenue, when one has erected a house beyond 
 his means, as there will be a perpetual draft in the loss 
 of interest on the redundant money invested. The loss 
 on this score will be equivalent to twice the amount of 
 the annual legal interest, as we can compute the loss 
 of the interest money on the sum invested, and the in- 
 terest on the amount which must actually be paid. 
 Then, there is the natural deterioration, which is a loss; 
 the unnecessary expense of keeping a dwelling that 
 
54 todd's country homes. 
 
 one did not want, in repairs ; furnishing rooms that the 
 family did not need; and the constant taxation on 
 property that is a serious disadvantage to any person. 
 Save your money by not building a dwelling too ex- 
 pensive for your means. 
 
 Let me repeat the thought, that when a person is 
 about to erect a dwelling-house, he should first ascer- 
 tain what he wants; and then understand the expense 
 of erecting the building. If one really understands 
 what he or she wants, there will be little dijB&culty in 
 perfecting the plan. It is an excellent rule to compare 
 the cost with the means, before deciding on the plan. 
 It is much better to build a small house within means, 
 than to have a large, fine house, hard to keep in order, 
 and encumbering the owner with a heavy and annoy- 
 ing debt. A great error with many is an attempt to 
 build finely, when they themselves and every one else 
 Itnows that the proprietor could not ajQPord it. Attend to 
 real wants and substantial conveniences, and avoid the 
 gratification of imaginary wants. Multitudes of young 
 men, who had only limited means, have invested hun- 
 dreds of dollars in a costly and spacious, palatial man- 
 sion, when they had no earthly use for it. Large parlors 
 cost a great many dollars; and if they are not furnished, 
 they will be an intolerable annoyance to the gentle 
 housewife. 
 
 The wisest man that ever existed, in his advice to 
 tillers of the soil says : " Prepare thy work without ; 
 and make it fit for thee in the field; and afterwards, 
 build thy house." And he might have added, with 
 eminent propriety, that instead of investing a large 
 amount in a costly dwelling, build a cozy little cottage ; 
 
A CONVENIENT KITCHEN. 55 
 
 and thus save enough funds to erect a nice poultry- 
 house, stable and piggery. 
 
 THE LABORER'S KITCHEN. 
 " Here, no state chambers, in long line unfold, 
 Bright with broad mirrors, rough with fretted gold ; 
 Yet, modest ornament with use combined. 
 Attracts the eye, to exercise the mind." 
 
 Jacques. 
 
 If there be any one portion of the dwellings of the 
 manual laboring population, which should be rendered 
 comfortable, convenient and attractive, it is the kitchen; 
 because, in this room the family will live. A frugal 
 meal tastes better in the kitchen, than in an uncheer- 
 ful dining-room. Most people feel more in an element 
 that is congenial to a good nature, when they are in 
 the kitchen, than when encircled by the restraints and 
 constraints of a parlor, that the fastidious housewife 
 deems too nice to be occupied. The kitchen is the 
 great center of life and comfort. Neighbors will visit 
 infinitely better in the kitchen than in a parlor. La- 
 boring men and females spend more time in the kitchen 
 than in any other apartment of the dwelling-house. 
 Therefore, it should be spacious, properly ventilated, 
 and everything connected with it should be convenient 
 and in its arrangement, plain, neat, and comfortable. A 
 kitchen should always be finished with nice wainscoting. 
 
 There is no place in cold and rainy weather like a 
 spacious kitchen for comfort and convenience. When 
 old Boreas tunes his February harp-strings to concert 
 pitch, and wintry storms wreck the sky, and every- 
 thing is frozen up tight, the kitchen is the most desir- 
 able apartment in the dwelling, because there is heat 
 enough to keep the entire family warm. People who 
 
56 todd's country homes. 
 
 make a little seven-by-nine kitchen, fall into an egre- 
 gious error. The first house the writer ever erected, 
 had a small kitchen, which was spacious enough, it is 
 true, for wife, myself and a kitten. But, when the 
 bending heavens strewed our pathway of life with 
 primroses, and a charming duplicate looked up at my 
 right hand, and another at my left, and still a third 
 twined its angelic arms around papa's neck, wife and 
 I both saw that our kitchen was too small. So far as 
 space is concerned, most people in the country should 
 reverse the order of their parlors and kitchens. The 
 rule is, the country through — at least so far as my 
 observations have extended — that most farmers erect 
 a nice and expensive house, with a costly parlor or 
 two, and furnished with beautiful carpets, window- 
 shades and other adjuncts of a parlor, and go and look 
 into the — almost sacred — apartment about once a 
 week ; and in many instances, the parlor is carpeted ; 
 the dining-room is a sacred sanctorum ; the kitchen is 
 too nice for occupancy, and the family live in the wood- 
 house, or in some scavenger's shanty, that has been 
 joined on the farther end of all the buildings. Multi- 
 tudes of well-to-do people live precisely in the manner 
 described. What is the use of having a house, with- 
 out making a fair and respectable use of it ? 
 
 Let the kitchen be sufficiently large for a stove and 
 a dinner-table, and space wide enough for a person to 
 pass around the table at meal-time. There is little 
 danger of making a kitchen too large. The whole coun- 
 try is full of houses with kitchens intolerably small. 
 
 The arrangement of the kitchen should be such, that 
 one can go out of doors, down cellar, up stairs, and in 
 
A CONVENIENT KITCUEN. 67 
 
 the pantry from the kitchen. Always plan your 
 kitchen first. Then make every other room in the 
 house conform to the arrangements of the kitchen. 
 If practicable, let the kitchen and dining-room be so 
 arranged that they may be made, when necessary, as 
 one room. The stairway, instead of having a cold out- 
 door, should be central, and should receive the surplus 
 heat, to temper the atmosphere of the upper rooms. 
 
 The old style of building, with a hall separating the 
 principal rooms of the house, above and below, is as 
 well contrived to make a cold house as anything can 
 be. It makes one shudder to think of going into this 
 open hall, or into the principal rooms opening into it. 
 They are not much used now — the family room beina: 
 in the rear, or in a wing, entered from without by a 
 side door. The whole front has a dark, uninviting 
 look in the evening ; and it is not an economical way 
 to build a dwelling-house. 
 
 The kitchen may be considered the great center -of 
 domestic operations. The frugal housewife must neces- 
 sarily spend more of her time in the kitchen than in 
 any other apartment of the dwelling. When the fire 
 has been started and certain articles of food are cook- 
 ing, she needs to have the sleeping and toilet-room as 
 near the kitchen as it can consistently be located, so 
 that she may step in for a few moments, and still be 
 where she can supervise the operations of the kitchen. 
 If her toilet and sleeping-room be up stairs, or beyond 
 another apartment, the practice will be adopted of 
 combing and dressing the hair in the kitchen, which 
 neat housekeepers never will allow. Besides this, the 
 main sleeping-room which is to be occupied by the 
 
58 todd's country homes. 
 
 head of the family, should open in the kitchen, or so 
 near the kitchen as to be convenient of access in case 
 of .sickness. Then, in cold weather, the sleeping-room 
 may be warmed, little or much, by the fire in the din- 
 ing-room, or the fire of the kitchen. Besides this, the 
 dining-room or the living-room should be contiguous to 
 the parlor, without a broad hall between them; and the 
 parlor and living-room should be so conveniently ar- 
 ranged, that guests maybe introduced into either room 
 from the front door, without passing through one of 
 the other rooms. As the mistress of the kitchen must 
 necessarily go frequently into the cellar, from the 
 kitchen, to carry articles of food, and to return the 
 same to the kitchen, it would be a very unsatisfactory 
 arrangement to have the cellar door at the farther side 
 of a room that joins the kitchen. Economical house- 
 keepers often experience the inconveniences of such an 
 arrangement of rooms. In many dwellings, the pantry 
 cannot be reached from the kitchen without passing 
 through some other room, which every intelligent house- 
 keeper will acknowledge is an unsatisfactory arrange- 
 ment. There should be also a back stairway, where 
 those in the kitchen may reach the upper story, without 
 passing through other rooms, and thence up the lobby 
 or parlor stairs. 
 
 THE GROUND-PLAN. 
 
 The ground-plan. Figure 1, page 62, will exhibit, at a 
 glance, the entire arrangement of all the apartments, 
 doors, windows, and stairs. It will be perceived that 
 on entering the front door, into the lobby, E, a door 
 opens into the parlor, and one also into the living-room, 
 D. This is an excellent arrangement. Then, if a per- 
 
GKOUND PLAN. 
 
 59 
 
 son were to call at the kitchen door, which opens on 
 the side veranda, he can be welcomed, either into the 
 living-room, from the same veranda, or into the kitchen. 
 Every ambitious housekeeper will be pleased with such 
 a convenience in the plan of a house. Now, While the 
 stranger or friend may be either in the living-room or 
 parlor, one can go from the kitchen to any room in the 
 house, except the library, without passing through 
 either of the rooms, where callers or guests may be 
 waiting. Such an arrangement will be in perfect accor- 
 dance with the wishes 
 of every female who 
 must be equipped for 
 the wash-tub one hour, 
 and the next hour be 
 performing the duties 
 of a chambermaid. The 
 sleeping-room, C, should 
 open into the kitchen 
 and the parlor ; and, if 
 desirable, a door may 
 be made to open into 
 the living-room. The 
 Fig. 1. living-room and parlor 
 
 are joined in a very satisfactory manner. From the 
 kitchen, one can go up stairs, and down cellar, out of 
 the kitchen, beneath the stairs. These are very rare 
 conveniences. I represents a small clothes-room open- 
 ing into the bed-room. K shows where a china closet 
 may be made, with door opening into the kitchen, and 
 near the dining-room. In case such a closet is not de- 
 sired, the space may be employed as a closet for clothes. 
 
60 todd's country homes. 
 
 In the recess, P, at the end of the pantry, there may 
 be a sink and a cistern-pmnp. Or the sink and pump 
 may be placed at some oth«r part of the kitchen, and 
 an outside door be placed where a window is indicated. 
 If it were desirable, a veranda might be made on the 
 other side of the wing ; or a veranda may be provided 
 for both sides. In case a well is to be dug, let it be 
 sunk close to the end of the veranda, so that by one 
 step down, one may come to the " old oaken bucket 
 that hangs in the well," or to the pump. 
 
 A door is indicated to open from the kitchen into a 
 wood-house. In case there should be no apartment on 
 that end of the wing, a window might be made where 
 the door is indicated ; and the one in the recess may 
 be dispensed with. It will be perceived, that the 
 library. A, may be warmed satisfactorily by the fire in 
 the living-room ; and, if desirable, the library may be 
 occupied as a small bed-room for one person. 
 
 Now, in case this plan were thought to be too large 
 on the ground, it would not be difficult to reduce the 
 size of every room, except those in the wing, and still 
 have rooms quite as large, or even larger, than the 
 rooms of a great proportion of the dwellings in small 
 villages and in the country. But the actual expense 
 between the size here indicated, and a similar edifice, 
 four feet shorter and two to four feet narrower, would 
 not exceed forty or fifty dollars. And no ambitious 
 family in possession of such a convenient dwelling of 
 the dimensions indicated, would be willing to have 
 the size of the rooms reduced, for three times the 
 amount of the actual expense. Spacious sleeping 
 apartments ought always to be provided, whatever 
 
FACILITIES FOE VENTILATION. 61 
 
 may be the size of other rooms. Contemplate, for a 
 moment, the available extent of the sleeping-room in- 
 dicated in the plan. By opening the doors, all the 
 space and fresh air of the parlor, the living-room, 
 kitchen, lobby, library, the second story, and cellar 
 can be made to contribute to the requirements of fas- 
 tidious sleepers, who never like to inhale air that has 
 been in the lungs and mouths of others. It will be 
 exceedingly difficult to arrange a system of family 
 rooms in a more satisfactory manner than this, in order 
 to secure perfect ventilation of the sleeping apartments 
 during the hours of repose, when the pure breath of 
 heaven is quite as desirable, as at any other time. 
 With a window at one end, and a door or two at the 
 other, one can ventilate his sleeping apartment so per- 
 fectly that the room would always appear as pure and 
 sweet as a mountain spring house. The most satisfac- 
 tory place for a chimney will be in the corner of the 
 sleeping-room, C, where it will be entirely out of the 
 way, and where the stove-pipes can enter it from both 
 the parlor and dining-room. If the chimney be carried 
 straight up to the roof from this point, stove-pipes can 
 enter it from the upper rooms also, which will be a 
 satisfactory arrangement. 
 
 PLAN OF THE SECOND FLOOK. 
 
 The arrangement or disposition of the rooms on the 
 second floor may be varied, somewhat, to suit the con- 
 venience of the occupants. The different apartments 
 will require but little explanation. The stairs in the 
 lobby, as will be perceived, should be made on a circle. 
 The landing-place is at the end of the dotted line. 
 
62 
 
 TODDS COUNXrtY HOMES. 
 
 Beneath the lobby stairs, there can be a small clothes- 
 room, which will always be a convenient place for 
 overcoats, overshoes, and umbrellas. A clothes-room 
 
 may also be made be- 
 tween the rooms A and 
 B if it is desirable. A 
 narrow hall-way may be 
 constructed at the head 
 of the back stairs, or the 
 stairway may open into 
 the room. There can 
 be two or three windows 
 to light the room A, or 
 only two. Then, there 
 can be a window in the 
 lobby, and another on 
 Fig. 2. the front side of D, or 
 
 not. The roof of the veranda is shown in front, a 
 few feet shorter than the house. And it can be made 
 simply like a lean-to roof, or of the hipped roof style, 
 as represented. The roof of the rear part is also repre- 
 sented by the parallel lines. 
 
 The foregoing suggestions will be sufficient for ex- 
 plaining the plan. The next consideration will be to 
 determine whether this arrangement of the pantry and 
 outside kitchen door will correspond with desirable con- 
 venience of access from the out-buildings. The kitchen 
 door and well should be on the side of the wing nearest 
 the out-buildings. In case they are not, all that will be 
 necessary will be to simply turn the plan upside down, 
 from left to right, bringing the pantry, bed-room, stairs, 
 lobby, and library all on the other side of the edifice. 
 
ESTIMATE OF COST. 63 
 
 BILL OF MATERIALS. o 
 
 bquare ft. 
 
 175 joists 2 X 8, 16 ft. long, 3,733 
 
 20 studs, 4 X 4, 16 ft. long, for corners and window studs, 427 
 
 150 studs, 2x4, 16 ft. long, 1,600 
 1 cross-sill, 4 X 8, 24 ft. long, to support ends of the lower joists 
 
 at the middle of the house, 64 
 33 joist rafters, 2x8, 14 ft. long, the ends to project two feet 
 
 from the plate, 616 
 
 1,300 feet of roof boards, 16 ft. long, 1,300 
 
 1,600 feet of flooring, for lower and upper floor, 1,600 
 700 feet of good box-boards, 1 6 ft. long, planed on one side and 
 
 matched, for frieze and ceiling beneath the ends of rafters, 700 
 
 1,500 feet of clap-boards, 1,500 
 2,000 feet of plank of different thicknesses, and some inch boards 
 
 for casings, for doors and windows, 2,000 
 
 The thickness is not herewith given, as it is not 
 known how the rooms are to be finished. But 2,000 
 feet will be more than enough, provided the lumber 
 be procured of the most economical width and length. 
 It is always best to get all such lumber, if convenient, 
 not less than fourteen feet in length. If lumber for 
 door-casings be only twelve feet long, it will not work 
 economically, as the strips will not make two lengths. 
 But, if the pieces be fourteen feet long, they will make 
 two lengths without any waste. Then, if the boards 
 or planks for most door-casings be either twelve feet 
 or sixteen feet long, there wall usually be more waste 
 than if the lumber were fourteen feet long. 
 
 CASH COST FOR MATERIALS. 
 Including the joists, studs, and roof boards, all of which may be 
 of common spruce or hemlock, there are 7,800 square feet, 
 which, at $20 per M, will be $156 00 
 
 In some localities the price will be less Ihan these figures. 
 
 Amount carried forward, $156 00 
 
64 todd's country homes. 
 
 Amount brought forward, $156 00 
 
 1,600 feet of flooring, and 1,500 clapboards, at $30 per M, 93 00 
 
 2,000 feet of clear stuff, at $40 per M, 80 00 
 
 Sill for front veranda, 26 feet long, 3x6, and a plate of the 
 
 same size, 78 feet, at 2 cts. per foot, 1 56 
 
 There will be a sufficient number of joists not used to make 
 the frame of the verandas. 
 12 panel doors for the lower part of the house, 6 feet 8 inches 
 
 long by 2 feet 8 inches wide, $3 each, 36 00 
 
 5 panel doors for the upper rooms, 6 feet 6 inches long by 2 
 
 feet 6 inches wide, at $2.75 each, 13 75 
 
 It will be quite as well to make batten doors for clothes- 
 rooms and closets. 
 Sash and glass for 20 windows, say $2 each, 40 00 
 
 Of course this estimate will depend entirely on the locality 
 where such materials are sold, and upon the kind of glass and 
 the size of the panes, as the larger the panes are, the more 
 expensive the windows will be. 
 1,204 feet of roofing, including the veranda, at 8 cts. per foot, 96 32 
 In this estimate the computation is made for plastic slate 
 roofing, which is one of the cheapest and most durable of roof- 
 ing materials. Tin will cost more than this estimate, and will 
 not be so durable. 
 The cost of hinges and fastenings for the doors, will also depend 
 on the quality and kind. Good knobs and good hinges may 
 be obtained for 75 cts. per door on an average, 12 75 
 
 If weights and pulleys are employed, of course the expense will 
 be increased according to the weight of the windows. But, if 
 - the latest style of listening be employed, the expense will not 
 
 exceed 75 cts. per window, say 15 00 
 
 300 lbs. of nails, at 5 cts. per lb , 15 00 
 
 100 lbs. of lath nails, at 7 cts. per lb., 7 00 
 
 In computing the laths required, we estimate them to be four feet 
 long by one and a half inches wide. Then, if they are put on 
 one-fourth of an inch apart, each lath will cover 84 square 
 inches, and 1,000 laths will cover 583 square feet. Not 
 making any allowance for doors, windows, and base, there are 
 
 Amount carried forward, $566 38 
 
ESTIMATE OF COST. 65 
 
 Amount brought forward, $566 38 
 
 about 5,120 square feet to be covered with laths, requiring 
 8,500 laths. But as doors and windows and base will occupy 
 more than the space covered by 1,000 laths, we will compute 
 the estimate at 7,000 which, at $3 per 1,000, which is a high 
 figure, will be 21 00 
 
 In computing the estimate for the plastering mortar, we will 
 make calculations for covering 4,000 square feet, although the 
 space, if measured after the windows and doors are finished, 
 will not equal these figures. Then we will estimate the mor- 
 tar to be three-fourths of an inch thick after it is laid on, 
 although mortar is seldom put on as thick as this, which will 
 take 108 cubic inches per square foot, or 432,000 cubic inches 
 to be covered with mortar. Now, as there are about 2,150 
 cubic inches in a bushel, dry measure, by dividing 432,000 
 by 2,150, we have a fraction over 200 bushels of mortar re- 
 quired, which will be a very large estimate. In some locali- 
 ties, the sand, lime, hair, and mixing will cost 30 cts. per 
 bushel ; in other places not 20 cts. But we will compute 
 the cost at 25 cts. per bushel, which will amount to 50 00 
 
 If sand can be obtained near by, the mortar will not cost $50. 
 The lathing will cost more or less, just as the management 
 of the builder is economical. If a slow mason at high wages 
 be employed to lath, who will nail on only five or six hun- 
 dred in a day, the lathing may be made to cost $40 or $50. 
 On the contrary, if boys be employed to lath by the bunch, 
 or by the thousand, the cost ought not to exceed S2 per 1,000, 14 00 
 
 A faithful and quick lather can nail on two to three thou- 
 sand laths in a day. I have employed men who have done 
 more than this. 
 
 The plastering is another item depending entirely on the man- 
 agement of the builder. There are about 148 square yards; 
 and there will be less than this number by actual measure- 
 ment. At ten cents per yard the cost will be 14 80 
 
 Masons frequently compute the cost of plastering as high as 
 30 cts. per square yard. But if walls are to be papered, it 
 is useless to expend unnecessary labor in floating and trowel- 
 Amount carried forward, $666 18 
 
66 todd's country homes. 
 
 Amount brought forward, $666 18 
 
 ing the surface. Let the finishing be done true and smooth, 
 without expending three times as much labor as is actually 
 necessary. We will compute the plastering at 30 00 
 
 If a heavy bracket cornice be made, nearly 1,000 feet of two- 
 inch plank will be required for brackets, 20 00 
 Joiners' bill, of 100 days' work, at S3 per day, 300 00 
 Helpers, 20 days, at $1.50 per day, 30 00 
 100 lbs. white lead, at 12^ cents per lb., 12 50 
 15 gallons of boiled oil, at $1.10 per gall., 16 50 
 If some cheaper paint, such as Brandon yellow, be used, the ex- 
 pense will be much less. Painting two coats within and 
 without, six days, 18 00 
 Cellar and foundation wall and chimney, from one hundred 
 to two hundred dollars, according to the materials employed 
 and the price of mason's labor, say 175 00 
 
 Amount of all the items, $1,268 18 
 
 It will be perceived that I have made a liberal esti- 
 mate for every item ; and have included several doors 
 and windows belonging to the rear part of the dwell- 
 ing. In many localities, such a structure can be built 
 for much less than these figures, as labor and lumber 
 are both lower than I have computed the prices in this 
 estimate. In case the prices of materials are higher 
 than these figures, it will be very easy to add, or take 
 from the prices herewith indicated, so as to make the 
 prices conform to the rates in different parts of the 
 country. 
 
 In order to cover all possible extra expenses in erect- 
 ing the front stairs, eave-troughs, and leaders, another 
 hundred dollars may be added, making $1,368.18. 
 
 It will be easy for any intelligent mechanic to com- 
 pute the expense of a house of the style indicated, 
 when it is desirable to make the outside walls of bricks. 
 
ESTIMATE OF COST. 67 
 
 cobble-stones, gravel and -mortar, or of oyster-shells, 
 or clam-shells and mortar. (See Oyster-shell Villa, 
 page 127.) 
 
 In case a young man were half a mechanic, and 
 possessed proper independence and ambition, if he 
 were within two miles of a liberal supply of oyster- 
 shells, and had bass-wood, or white-wood timber of his 
 own, he could erect an elegant house for only a few 
 hundred dollars in money. Many farmers have maple, 
 bass-wood, and other kinds of timber on their own land, 
 which could be sawed into joists, studs, and rafters, 
 that would prove quite as satisfactory as to purchase 
 other kinds of timber. A builder must learn to em- 
 ploy such materials as he can obtain on his own ground. 
 If stones of any kind are abundant, let the walls be 
 made of stone. If gravel, or shell are near by, use 
 them. If gravel and clay abound, make adobe walls, 
 and cover the outside with cement. 
 
 The foregoing estimate can be used as a model or for- 
 mula, by which estimates of the cost of any building 
 can be computed accurately. It will require but little 
 ingenuity on the part of any one who contemplates 
 building, to ascertain, very nearly, the number of joists, 
 laths, feet of flooring and roofing, number of doors, 
 windows, etc., which will be required in the particular 
 case under consideration. The same is true of the 
 various items which enter into the calculation, one of 
 which — the varying cost of materials — I have already 
 alluded to. When these have been ascertained, a j^leas- 
 ant and, surely, a profitable evening's work, will be to 
 substitute the appropriate figures in the place of those 
 which I have just employed, perform a few simple 
 
68 todd's country homes. ' 
 
 operations in addition and multiplication, and have, as 
 the result, a sum which will approximate, very closely, 
 to the real cost of the proposed structure. This same 
 method may be employed by any one who proposes to 
 purchase a house, already built. Let him examine it 
 thoroughly, obtain a plan, if possible, learn the quality 
 of material used, and help employed, and he can esti- 
 mate, accurately enough, the real cost. Add to this 
 the fair value of the land which is to go with the house, 
 and one can demonstrate by figures which " won't lie," 
 whether the price asked for a certain piece of property 
 is a fair one or not. This subject is still further ex- 
 plained and its advantages noted, in later portions of 
 this book, to which I would refer the reader. 
 
 APPEARANCE OF ONE CORNER OF THE FRAME. 
 
 The illustration herewith given (p. 69) represents one 
 corner of the balloon frame, resting on the cellar wall 
 about two feet above the surface of the ground. Sills, 
 2x8 inches, are first laid on the surface of the wall, 
 with the corners halved together. The joists are then 
 put in their respective places, on the top of the sills, 
 lengthways of the building. The ends of the joists at 
 the middle of the house, may rest on the surface of the 
 cross-sill, or in gains. A strip 2 x 4 is then nailed, as 
 represented, on the upper edges of the joists, and the 
 side studs stand on this strip. In case the studs were 
 one foot longer, they might stand on the sill, by the 
 side of the ends of the joists. Before the studs are set 
 up, a " stud pattern " should be laid on each one to 
 make the place for the girt, and to square each end. 
 The tie, or girder. A, is simply a strip of board four 
 
A BALLOON FRAME. 
 
 69 
 
 inches wide, nailed in the gains of the range of studs. 
 After the studs have been put up, plumbed both ways, 
 and nailed at the bottom and through the girder, the 
 joists, B, B, of the chamber floor, may be put in their 
 places, and allowed to rest on the girder, A, until the 
 outside faces of the studs are all driven either inward 
 
 A BALLOON FRAME. 
 
 or outward, until they are in a perfect line. Then let 
 the ends be nailed as represented in the illustration at 
 B, B. The ends of the upper joists may be supported 
 at the middle of the frame by a range of partition 
 studs, having a two-inch stud laid flatways on the 
 upper ends, which will be quite as satisfactory as a 
 
70 . todd's couxtry homes. 
 
 beam with gains for the ends of the joists. At C the 
 plate is represented as nailed on the top ends of the 
 studs. In case it were desirable to make the rooms a 
 few inches higher, two or three two-inch strips might 
 be laid above the plate. D, D, represents the rafter- 
 joists, projecting two feet beyond the plate. The 
 frame is twenty-four feet wide. Therefore, by slitting 
 one joist fourteen feet long, in two equal parts, diagon- 
 ally^ we get two rafter-joists, which will give the pitch 
 of the roof, sufficiently steep for tin or plastic slate. In 
 case shingles were to be employed, it would be neces- 
 sary to use rafters. The rafter-joists might be each of 
 one piece, in which case, there would be more waste. 
 The ends that project may be planed, and the under 
 side of the roof boards painted ; or the under side of 
 the rafter ends may be ceiled. 
 
 It will always be found an excellent practice when 
 erecting a balloon frame, where laths four feet long 
 are to be nailed to the studs and joists, to have a meas- 
 uring rule four feet long, and graduated by marks 
 sixteen inches apart, so that places for all the studs 
 may be made exactly sixteen inches from center to 
 center. Such a measure will greatly facilitate the 
 erection of a balloon frame ; and be the means of pre- 
 venting mistakes in the correct distances between 
 studs. The remaining portions of this frame will be 
 readily understood without any allusion to them. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF PERSPECTIVE. 
 
 The accompanying perspective (p. 71), which has 
 many excellent and very attractive points about it, 
 represents one style of finishing a structure that corre- 
 
PERSPECTIVE OF VILLA. 
 
 71 
 
 spends with the ground-plan and the plan of the 
 second floor. It will be perceived that the boards are 
 put on vertically. But the same frame could be cov- 
 ered with cla]3boards, if such a covering were preferred 
 to vertical siding, with battens over the joints. The 
 form of the roof may be varied to suit the taste of al-. 
 most any person. In case plastic slate or tin were 
 employed, the roof might be nearly flat, as represented 
 
 by the skeleton of a portion of the frame preceding the 
 elevation. In case a steeper roof or even a Gothic 
 roof were desirable, the style that might suit most sat- 
 isfactorily could be adopted. If two windows only 
 were made in front above the veranda, a pediment 
 over • each dormer-window could be grafted into the 
 roof The front veranda could be made the entire 
 length of the dwelling ; or, which would appear more 
 
72 TODD'y COUNTKY HOMES. 
 
 tasty, six feet shorter than the front. In case the roof 
 of the upright part were flat, the roof of the veranda 
 should also be flat If the mam part of the structure 
 were finished with a bracket cornice, a bracket cornice 
 of corresponding j)roportions should be made on the 
 veranda. 
 
 In the perspective, a tower is represented, the cost 
 of which was not computed in the bill of materials, and 
 which may be omitted or adopted, as one's fancy may 
 dictate. The cost of the tower will depend, of course, 
 entirely on the manner of finishing the inside and the 
 roof. 
 
 If winding stairs, built around a center-pole, were 
 adopted, the expense would be very much less than if 
 winding stairs were made with a hand-rail and a well- 
 hole. A neatly -finished tower would give a very at- 
 tractive appearance to such a villa, especially if the 
 roof were finished with a well-proportioned cornice. 
 Such a tower should, be made about eight feet square. 
 Then, at the top, a charming little room could be fin- 
 ished off as an observatory, or a cool sleeping-room for 
 a student in the summer. .Such a tower should be 
 supported by four corner-posts, about 4 to 6 inches 
 square, and the studs need be -only 11 x 4 inches 
 square. In case corner-posts 6 inches square were em- 
 ployed, the inside corners of each post should be cut 
 out square to receive the ends of the lath. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS ABOUT ASPECT. 
 
 By aspect we are to understand, position, view, and 
 points of the comjjass, at which a dwelling stands. 
 With many people, a dwelling-house, or barn, must 
 
LOCATIOK OF A HOUSE. 73 
 
 always be erected to stand north and south, as nearly 
 as may be, even if one corner stands to the street. 
 AsjDCct has a special reference to placing the front, or 
 rear of a house or barn, at the windward, or leeward 
 of prevailing winds and storms. 
 
 Lord Bacon's advice to beginners, when they were 
 about to choose a site for a dwelling-house, was to avoid 
 ill ways, ill markets, and ill neighbors. In addition to 
 such excellent suggestions, it is proper to add that 
 there are other considerations of quite as much impor- 
 tance as any that have been alluded to. Location, in 
 all its phases, should be studied for several days, or, at 
 least, until one is entirely satisfied that he has decided 
 upon the most desirable location that is available. In 
 latitudes where cold, northerly storms prevail, it has 
 been affirmed that none but a ninny will ever erect 
 his dwelling on the summjt of a hill, unless there should 
 be another hill at the windward of the location, to 
 shield the dwelling and out-buildings from the cold and 
 furious storms of winter. In contradistinction to such 
 a quaint maxim, it has been contended that he who 
 builds his dwelling in low, flat ground, by the side of 
 a river, furnishes custom for the ajjothecary and physi- 
 cian, employment for surgeons and coffin-makers, and 
 frequent jobs for grave-diggers. If the sunny side of 
 a slope is available, or the south side of a ridge or hill, 
 such a locality will be exceedingly desirable. In case 
 the farm should extend back over one-fourth of a mile 
 from the highway, it would be a matter of great con- 
 venience and economy, in many respects, to locate the 
 dwelling and out-buildings near the middle of the cul- 
 tivable land. 
 
74 todd's countky homes. 
 
 Touching aspect, no rule can be given that will hold 
 good in all localities, as a northern or eastern aspect, 
 in some sections of the country, will be found uncom- 
 fortably cold and cutting in winter ; while in other 
 latitudes, g, southern and western aspect will be disa- 
 greeably hot and wet. Every person must decide for 
 his own locality, what aspect will coincide, most satis- 
 factorily, with his particular site. In many sections of 
 the country, the coldest and most severe storms always 
 come from the north and west. In such places, a 
 southern aspect will be found decidedly preferable to 
 any other, as.a kitchen and living-room would be more 
 pleasant and comfortable on the south, than on the 
 north side of the dwelling, during cold weather. By 
 such an arrangement, the pantry will appear on the 
 north side of the kitchen, which will be a more desira- 
 ble place in the summer, than if it were on the south 
 side. 
 
 In localities where furious storms prevail in winter, 
 the aim should always be, if practicable, to locate the 
 buildings behind some hill, or forest, where the dwell- 
 ing-house and abodes of domestic animals may be 
 screened from the chilling blasts and pelting storms. 
 A great many beautiful rural residences are constructed 
 entirely according to the direction of the highway, 
 rather than the aspect. But aspect should never be 
 sacrificed in a dwelling-house, and in the arrangement 
 of farm buildings, to the variable direction of a public 
 street. Let locality and aspect always be chosen with- 
 out any regard to the highway, even if one corner of a 
 dwelling, rather than the front, or side, be presented to 
 the street. Above, all, let the common practice be 
 
COUNTING THE COST. 75 
 
 avoided, of squatting a dwelling-house so near the 
 borders of the highway, that every passer-by can peep 
 into the front windows. In the country, it is always 
 desirable to provide for a spacious door-yard. Half an 
 acre or more ground between the front door and the 
 street; will not be lost, as it can be appropriated to the 
 production of grass. If a dwelling be located near the 
 highway, the side next to the street should stand par- 
 allel with it. But, when the homestead is in the mid- 
 dle of the farm, other considerations, besides a position 
 parallel with the street, or a north and south line, 
 should determine which way the front of a dwelling 
 should stand. 
 
 HOW TO COMPUTE THE COST OF A HOUSE. 
 
 Of course, many unprincipled builders will sneer at 
 the idea of attempting to ascertain, by computation, 
 about how much a house will cost. But, by only a 
 little figuring and conference with a practical honest 
 builder, one can determine, within a few dollars, what 
 will be the expense of a dwelling-house of a given size 
 and style of the architecture. An honest joiner can 
 state about how long time will be required to erect the 
 frame ; how many square feet of flooring there are ; 
 about how many feet a man can lay in a day ; how many 
 windows and doors there are ; how much time will be 
 required to make each door and window ; how much 
 time will be consumed in making the cornice and put- 
 ting on the roof; how long it will take one joiner to 
 put up the stairs, and finish off each room. Take each 
 piece of work by itself, and note the number of days 
 and parts of days required to finish every piece of 
 
76 todd's country homes. 
 
 work. The price of the joiner work on a small house 
 can be computed, in this manner, satisfactorily accu- 
 rate, for all practical purposes. If the doors, window- 
 sashes and blinds are to be purchased, count the num- 
 ber and set down the cost. Now, that you know how 
 many windows and doors there are, you can estimate 
 the cost of the hinges, latches, locks, glass, weights, or 
 fastenings, and ascertain at the hardware store, the 
 cost of such materials as you desire to make use of 
 In estimating the quantity of flooring, it will be well to 
 purchase a few boards more than the estimate, so as to 
 have enough to complete the job. Make an estimate 
 of the number of feet required for the casings of one 
 door and one window. Then, multiply the number of 
 feet of lumber by the number of windows and doors. 
 This figuring will give correct data. 
 
 Take the measure of the sides of every room for the 
 base-boards and you will have another starting-point. 
 Ascertain about how much lumber you will want for 
 finishing the pantry ; and purchase boards a foot or 
 more wide, and sixteen feet long, rather than take lum- 
 ber of all lengths and of various widths. A great 
 many dollars can be saved, in the lumber for one house, 
 by simply purchasing boards of the desired width. The 
 longer they are, the less waste there will be. 
 
 A beginner, whose available funds are limited, should 
 have a full bill of all the necessary materials, drawn up 
 plainly, so that one can see at a glance, exactly what 
 will be required. He can then communicate with 
 lumber dealers, dealers in hardware, door and blind 
 manufacturers, and thus be able to figure up the cash 
 cost of anything he may propose to build. In case 
 
EXCAVATION. 77 
 
 one could procure most of the timber on his own land, 
 a bill would be of great aid, when cutting the saw-logs 
 for studs and joists. 
 
 EXCAVATING FOR CELLARS. 
 
 The correct and most economical way of excavating 
 ground for cellars is, to perform most of the labor with 
 a team, plow, and dirt scraper, where such appliances 
 can be used. When the team can be driven into the 
 cellar from one direction, and out on the opposite side, 
 two men and a team will be able to excavate a large 
 space in one day. 
 
 After as much earth has been excavated with a 
 scraper as can be advantageously, the next most eco- 
 nomical way to remove the dirt is, to throw it out with 
 shovels on the sides of the cellar, and haul it away with 
 a dirt scraper; or to shovel the dirt on wagons and 
 cart it away. The most expensive manner of making 
 excavations is to have it done with laborers and wheel- 
 barrows, or with one-horse carts. Most builders have 
 no correct idea of the much greater expense of making 
 an excavation by means of w^heel-barrows and one- 
 horse carts, than with vehicles drawn by two horses. 
 Here is an opportunity to save money, simply by the 
 exercise of a little correct engineering. Excavations 
 are frequently made for buildings, which cost just three 
 times as much as is really necessary, simply because 
 the management of the laborers was not according to 
 correct, philosophical and economical principles. Here 
 lies the error. Several men are employed, each with 
 a one-horse cart, to haul away the earth. The cart 
 alone is usually about as much of a load as an ordinary 
 
78 todd's countey homes. 
 
 horse should draw. Consequently, each cart can carry 
 only six or eight bushels of earth at one load. If each 
 man were to drive two strong horses, and carry three 
 times as many bushels of earth, at every load, who 
 does not see that the expense of carting will be greatly 
 reduced ? As a general rule, a horse that draws a 
 huge dirt-cart, hauls back and forth, at every load, an 
 equivalent to four, or six hundred pounds of earth, in 
 the form of an unnecessarily heavy vehicle. Some one 
 must pay, dearly -too, for carting so many redundant 
 pounds of a heavy cart, instead of earth. 
 
 Another thing is often lost sight of when excavations 
 are being made. Two men are frequently sent with 
 only one team and one wagon. This is poor economy 
 and expensive management. You are doubtless j)ay- 
 ing a teamster $4 or $5 per day. He should not spend 
 much of his time shoveling ; because, when he shovels, 
 and his team is standing still, you will be paying at 
 the rate of $4 or $5 per day for a single laborer, when 
 you could employ two or more shovelers for that price. 
 
 Here is an opportunity to save money, by employ- 
 ing a sufficient number of laborers to shovel, to keep 
 the teamster constantly moving. The most economical 
 way when carting peat, clay, or earth of any kind, is 
 to have two wagons. One laborer who is able to earn 
 a laborer's wages at shoveling earth, can load a wagon 
 as soon as the teamster can drive ten to forty rods, 
 unload it, and return. Therefore if two wagons are 
 used he will just keep a teamster moving. Where the 
 shoveling is fair, a laborer can throw on four loads, or 
 tons per hour ; and by using two wagons, and changing 
 the team every load, a ton of earth should be carted 
 
EXPENSE OF EXCAVATING. 79 
 
 every fifteen minutes. This is not an extraordinary 
 estimate. Faithful laborers are capable of doing this 
 amount of work with comparative ease. A builder 
 may save many dollars when excavating for his cellar, 
 by simply laying his plans according to the foregoing 
 suggestions. 
 
 EXCAVATING BY THE CUBIC YAED. 
 
 It is a very easy thing to determine, within a few 
 dollars, how much an excavation will be likely to cost, 
 when all the earth must be removed with a wheel-bar- 
 row, or be carted away. Of course, the solidity of the 
 ground must be taken into the account, as a man will 
 shovel tw^o cubic yards on a wagon, where the earth is 
 light and porous, sooner than one yard, where he must 
 dig up every inch of it with a pick. But the carting 
 will be about the same, in both instances. 
 
 A span of horses, if the traveling is fair, will take a 
 cubic yard of earth every load. Therefore, by allow- 
 ing men and teams to work one day, at excavating, a 
 builder can make a satisfactory estimate as to the entire 
 expense of a given excavation. Let us suppose a case: 
 An excavation is to be made for a house, 30 feet long, 
 by 16 feet wide, and 4 feet deep. Now, 30 by 16 
 multiplied by 4 equals 1,920 cubic feet of earth ; or, as 
 there are 27 cubic feet in a yard, there will be 71 
 cubic yards or loads of earth in making the excavation. 
 Then a man and team will cart four yards an hour, if 
 he uses two wagons, a distance of one-eighth of a mile; 
 or forty loads or yards in a day. If the earth can be 
 shoveled without being picked up, one man will load 
 four wagons per hour. If a part of it must be picked 
 
80 todd's countey homes. 
 
 up, two men will be required to load it. If the earth 
 is very compact, three men will be required to load 
 the earth as fast as one man can cart it away. There 
 are 71 cubic yards or loads, which a teamster, with 
 two wagons, will cart in two days, with ease, if the 
 earth is loaded in good time. Now, if a teamster's 
 wages be |3 pet day, and shoveler's wages $1.50 each, 
 we can determine exactly how much an excavation 
 will cost. Two days for a teamster and team, |6 ; two 
 men to shovel two days each, at |1.50 per day, will 
 equal $6 more. If the ground is very hard, add the 
 wages of another man — $3 dollars for two days, which 
 will make $9 for the shoveling; or, f 15 for the entire 
 work. In localities where wages are either more or 
 less, than the foregoing figures, this estimate will not 
 show the correct expense. 
 
 This estimate is within bounds, where laborers work 
 their full time, and with faithfulness equal to their 
 wages. But, if a shoveler is half an hour behind time, 
 and must squander awa}^ about fifteen minutes in every 
 hour, in getting a drink, and firing up his pipe, the 
 cost will be increased beyond my figures. 
 
 ANOTHER ESTIMATE OF EXPENSE. 
 
 Now let us see how much the expense will be, for 
 excavating for the same cellar, by employing two men, 
 with one ^vagon, instead of two men to shovel, and a 
 teamster with two wagons. 
 
 The teamster's wages will be $3, and his assistant 
 $1.50, or $4.50 per day. If the digging is hard, the 
 two will not excavate more than one yard per hour, or 
 ten yards per day. As there are 71 yards, it will take 
 
FOUNDATIONS. 81 
 
 them seven days, at a cost of $31.50 to excavate, for 
 the same celhir, which cost only $15, by employing 
 the right men in the right place. 
 
 Some biiiklers contend, that the most economical 
 way to excavate for a cellar is, to employ men with 
 wheel-barrows. The expense of excavating with 
 shovels and wheel-barrows will be from twelve and a 
 half cents a cubic yard, to thirty cents per yard, ac- 
 cording to the compactness of the ground, and the dis- 
 tance the earth is to be wdieeled. 
 
 The correct way to arrive at some definite conclusion 
 in this matter is, to employ a faithful man, for one 
 day, with a wheel-barrow ; and let him excavate a 
 square hole, as large as he can dig out in a day. Then 
 measure it, and make the estimate for the entire cel- 
 lar. But, if possible, let most of the work be done with 
 a plow and scraper, as teams will perform more labor 
 than men. 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF BUILDINGS. 
 
 The durability of any building will be greatly en- 
 hanced by moans of an excellent foundation. It is 
 unwise policy to rest a building on a foundation that 
 will yield in a few years. In many localities the earth 
 is so soft that a cellar may be sunk to any desired 
 depth with a shovel. When heavy buildings are 
 erected on such ground, there is much danger that 
 some corner may settle, to the serious injury of the 
 edifice. Boards or planks are frequently laid on the 
 ground beneath the foundation wall. But such a prac- 
 tice cannot be denounced in too strong language, as 
 boards, in such places so favorable to speedy decay, 
 
 . 6, 
 
82 todd's country homes. 
 
 will soon loose their solidity, and thus allow the wall 
 and a portion of the superstructure to settle. The 
 true way tb prepare a foundation in such places is to 
 excavate the dirt, say six inches lower than the bottom 
 of the cellar, and three or more feet wide, stamp the 
 earth thoroughly with a rammer, and lay thick flag- 
 ging-stones on the bottom, resting on a bed of cement. 
 Such a foundation will not be expensive, and it will 
 remain intact for ages after the men who built the wall 
 have been forgotten. If the land is at all springy, let 
 drain-tiles be laid entirely around the outside of the 
 foundation, to catch and conduct away the excess of 
 moisture that would render the cellar or basement of 
 the building undesirably damp. A few dollars ex- 
 pended in a proper manner, and at a correct period, 
 will not fail sometimes to enhance the value of a build- 
 ing or cellar more than a hundred dollars. A poor 
 foundation beneath a fine superstructure is often a 
 source of grief that a few dollars can never mitigate. 
 And let me urge, at this point, the importance of pre- 
 paring a permanent foundation for every barn and 
 other out-building. If the country affords no other 
 material than bricks, miles away, lay a firm foundation, 
 if the superstructure is to be nothing but a hennery or 
 piggery. And let the bottom stones, or bricks, be 
 placed so far in the earth that frost will never disturb 
 them. When the earth freezes and thaws beneath a 
 wall for a few successive winters, some part of the 
 building will most assuredly be thrown from its de- 
 sired position. Always exercise unusual care in plac- 
 ing the foundation stones at each corner. So long as 
 the corners continue unmoved, the foundation walls 
 
CONSTRUCTION OF CELLARS. 83 
 
 and the superstructure will remain firm and whole. 
 Barns and other out-buildings that do not stand over a 
 cellar proper, should have a convenient basement be- 
 neath them. Even on level ground, the earth may be 
 excavated two or three feet, and the convenient room 
 of one storj more be secured beneath the same roof, 
 by the expenditure of only a few dollars more than 
 is required to place a building on half a foundation. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF THE CELLAR. 
 
 The cellar of a dwelling-house, or an out-building, 
 should be constructed with extreme care, especially 
 where there is an excess of water in the land. A cel- 
 lar should be dry. A damp, wet cellar is an intoler- 
 able nuisance. Fruit and vegetables will freeze much 
 sooner in a damp cellar, than if the same apartment 
 were dry. The ground is sometimes so " springy " 
 that water will bubble up all over the bottom of the 
 cellar. In most instances, the cellar should extend 
 under the entire building ; and if it is so wet as to re- 
 quire drainage, the trenches for the foundation wall 
 should extend below the cellar, and be filled to the 
 level of the cellar floor with finely-broken stones. The 
 trenches under the walls should all have a fall to the 
 place of discharge, or where they shall connect with the 
 main drainage conduit. This conduit, when practica- 
 ble, should be a close pipe, and should always be 
 trapped, to prevent the cool air of the cellar from 
 flowing out through the conduit, and a corresponding 
 amount of warm air being drawn into the cellar, which 
 will be the effect without the use of the trap. A nar- 
 row channel should be sunk in the bottom of the exca- 
 
84 . todd's country homes. 
 
 vation, into which two-inch tiles should be laid. Be- 
 fore any tiles are laid, the water-channel should be 
 formed from the highest point to the place where the 
 water will discharge, and water should be poured into 
 the chainiel at the most elevated place, and the bot- 
 tom filiould be graded until water will pass off readily. 
 The tiles should be laid at least eight or ten inches 
 lower than the cellar bottom. Let the tiles be placed 
 beyond the outside of the wall, if convenient, so that 
 the water, as it descends from the surface, may be 
 received by the tiles, and be conveyed away before 
 the channel is half fdled. By having a tile conduit 
 entirely a-round the cellar, and nearly one foot lower 
 than the cellar bottom, the veins of water will be cut 
 off^ and the earth will be comparatively firm and dry. 
 Serious mistakes are often experienced when construct- 
 ing a cellar, by guessing at the inclination of the water 
 channel. As this conduit is to be made only once for 
 life, a person cannot be too careful to make every part 
 exactly right. A few pails of w^ater will show exactly 
 when the grading is correctly done. 
 
 Sometimes a conduit is made of stones. But stones, 
 for such a purpose, are not so desirable as tiles, because 
 rats will work dirt into the channel, and thus obstruct 
 the water-course. But they cannot fill the tiles with 
 any obstruction. Let the hardest tiles, that will never 
 crumble when exposed to the water, be selected for the 
 foregoing purpose. 
 
 HOW TO BUILD ABUTMENT WALLS. 
 
 Foundation walls of buildings which rest against a 
 bank of earth, such as the wall of a large barn stand- 
 
ABUTMENT WALLS. 85 
 
 ing on a side hill, are frequently tliriist inward after a 
 few years, so that a whole broadside will be in danger 
 of flilling inward. If the earth against which the wall 
 Avas built, were full of water flowing from springs, or 
 from the roof of the superstructure of the building, 
 the expansion and heaving of the ground in cold 
 weather, will almost always, thrust a wall inward a 
 trifle. Then, after the top has begun to overhang, that 
 portion midway between the corners will be thrust 
 over further and further every winter. 
 
 I have in mind a number of large and valuable 
 barns and dwelling-houses which were supported by 
 a foundation-wall eighteen inches thick, portions of 
 which were thrust inward so far, during three winters, 
 by the expansion of the earth, that a large j)i^oportion 
 of the wall on one side, was necessarily taken down 
 and rebuilt. Had every stone been properly laid at 
 the outset, the wall would have stood for ages, and 
 effectually resisted all action of the alternate freezing 
 and thawing; of the earth. 
 
 Foundation walls of buildings, and walls of abut- 
 ments, are seldom built as such structures should be. 
 The inside face is usually carried uj) perpendicularly. 
 In this position, the lateral thrust of a small force, at 
 the top of the wall, at which point the earth acts with 
 the greatest force in cold and freezing weather, will 
 drive the top inward more and further every winter. 
 When the top of a perpendicular wall has been thrust 
 inward by the frost, it never settles back to its original 
 position. 
 
 The correct way to put up a foundation for a dwell- 
 ing, or any othe;^ edifice, is, to carry up the inside face 
 
86 TODp's COUNTRY HOMES. 
 
 battering. If, for example, a stone waU one and a 
 half feet thick and six and a half feet high is desired, 
 the top need not be over ten or twelve inches wide for 
 an ordinary edifice. For the wall of a heavy barn, the 
 bottom should be not less than two to three feet broad, 
 with the inside face battering to a breadth of fifteen 
 inches on the top. If such a wall be laid up in good 
 mortar, it will efiectually resist all action of the frost. 
 
 Wherever the ground is springy, it is eminently im- 
 portant, that a space of one foot or more between the 
 earth and the outside of the main wall, should be filled 
 with loose stones, to convey all water down to the tiles 
 before it comes in contact with the main wall. By this 
 means, a twofold object will be secured — a dry wall 
 within, which will do much toward forming a dry cel- 
 lar, and a foundation that frost and rain will never 
 move. 
 
 When stone walls are built along a hill, the face 
 should always be carried up still more battering than 
 beneath a superstructure. Then, even if the frost were 
 to thrust the entire wall bodily, toward a perpendicular, 
 the structure would settle back to its original position 
 as soon as the frozen earth was deprived of the frost. 
 But a perpendicular wall would soon be thrown to the 
 ground. 
 
 There is another point in erecting a cellar-wall, or 
 a wall along a bank of earth, which will be found of 
 ejninent importance, namely, " chocking up " the broad 
 stones on the back side. If this is neglected, or im- 
 properly done, the rear side of the wall will settle a 
 trifle beneath the superincumbent pressure, and the 
 middle will "bulge inward," so that a whole side will 
 
IMPORTANT DETAILS. 87 
 
 need to be taken down and rebuilt. It is scarcely 
 necessary to suggest that all such walls should be 
 erected in the former part of the season, so that the 
 mortar may have ample time to become thoroughly 
 dry and hard before cold weather. 
 
 » 
 
 IMPORTANT DETAILS. 
 
 Many masons require more or less watching, when 
 building a foundation wall, to see that every interstice 
 is jfilled with stone chips and mortar. When a stone 
 wall is being carried up by a bank of earth, masons 
 who do not care what they do, will often fill in with 
 earth instead of stones and mortar. If the wall be 
 built by contract, let the proprietor not fail to see that 
 the best of lime, cement and sand are employed for 
 making mortar, and that the joints of the surface of 
 the wall be neatly pointed both within and without 
 Else, a mason will plead that " pointing a wall is no 
 part of building it." Therefore, an extra charge must 
 be incurred, when the pointing would have been done 
 at the same price, had it been mentioned in the con- 
 tract. It is one of the tricks of an honest trade on the 
 part of contractors to " slip out " of doing as much as 
 possible. Inexperienced beginners should therefore, 
 call the roll of items, until the list embraces every 
 stroke of the hammer, trowel, and paint-brush. 
 
 In case the stairs of the outside cellar-way are not 
 made of stone, but of wood, let the ends of the plank 
 treads and risers be supported — not by the wall — but 
 in such a manner that they can readily be renewed, in 
 case of a premature decay of the timber. Let there 
 be at least two windows at each end of the portion of 
 
88 todd's country homes. 
 
 the cellar beneath the upright part of the dwelling, so 
 as to secure .satisfactory ventilation. And, in those 
 sections of country where the cold is liable to freeze 
 vegetables, let double windows be provided, one sash 
 and an air-tight l)lind fitted neatly to each window. 
 The jamb casings of the outside cellar doOr should be 
 at least one foot wide, so that a door may be hung on 
 each side, for the purpose of producing a spacious air- 
 chamber between the doors, to exclude the cold. 
 
 Masons dislike to build a wall with a battering face ; 
 and if they can talk the proprietor out of the notion of 
 it, they will do so. Yet if one will insist in having the 
 details herewith given, followed out to the letter, it 
 will be seen that the foundation will prove far supe- 
 rior to another wall, having a base of eighteen inches, 
 instead of two feet. A wall with a battering face will 
 never be thrust inward by the freezing and expansion 
 of the earth on the outside. If a wall be three feet 
 at the bottom, and one at the top, it will be much 
 stronger than if the same quantity of materials were 
 laid in a two-foot wall. 
 
 As soon as the foundation wall is finished, the earth 
 on the outside should be graded, so as to descend from 
 the house, on every side, as much as two or three 
 inches in every rod, so as to carry all surface water 
 directly from the wall, and also, to relieve the wall of 
 that inward thrust by the expansion of the surface of 
 the ground, when it freezes. The greater the slope 
 of the surflice of the ground towards the wall, the 
 more powerful and severe Avill be the thrust against 
 the outside tendino; to throw the wall inward. On the 
 contrary, the greater the inclination of the slope aioay 
 
EEXDERIXG A WET CELLAR DRY. 89 
 
 • 
 
 from the wall, the lighter will be the thrust from the 
 freezing and consequent expansion of the same ground. 
 In case the excavating be done by contract, let the 
 proprietor see to it, that the surface is properly graded, 
 as has been suggested. The surface should always be 
 graded with a level sk)pe on every side of the build- 
 ing, rather than with an inclined slope, as no edifice 
 presents a finished architectural appearance, when the 
 sill of one side, is nearer the surfiice of the ground at 
 one end than at the other. 
 
 RENDERING A WET CELLAR DRY. 
 
 If a cellar be wet, after the house is finished, there 
 are two ways of rendering the apartment dry ; one of 
 whicli is, to cut a ditch entirely around the outside of 
 the dwelling-house, and lay tiles in the bottom of the 
 channel ; and the other is, to dig a channel in the cellar 
 around the outside, close to the wall, and lay a cor.rso 
 of drain-tiles in it. The ditch on the outside of the 
 wall, may cut off all the veins of water when it is sunk 
 two feet deep ; and if the veins be fir down in the 
 earth, the channel must be dug lower than the bottom 
 of the cellar wall, in order to cut off the water. 
 
 The leader, or water-pipe, should discharge into the 
 tile-drain, for the purpose of keeping the passage open. 
 If all the water is conducted to the cistern, let the dis- 
 charge-pipe empty into the tile-drain. If a person can 
 have every part of the water-works about his dwelling 
 operate properly at all times, it w^ill be a source of 
 eminent satisfaction. It can be done, however, if the 
 foregoing directions be observed in the construction of 
 every part of th« cellar. 
 
90 todd's country homes. " 
 
 • 
 
 An excess of water or too much dampness arises, in 
 some instances, from surfoce water, and in others from 
 spring-veins that crop out in the cellar. In many in- 
 stances, when the excavation is being made for a cellar 
 in heavy, springy ground, water-veins are cut oflf two 
 or three feet below the surface of the ground. 
 
 When such is the case, the water in those veins will 
 be discharged behind the cellar Avail, and will settle 
 down and pass along on the surface of the cellar bot- 
 tom. Sometimes, however, the veins of water are not 
 reached until the excavation is about completed. Then, 
 when the water-veins, which pass through the earth 
 like the blood- veins through the body of a living ani- 
 mal, are filled with water, the bottom of the cellar will 
 often be covered with water, even when a good under- 
 drain has been provided to convey it away as soon as 
 it has accumulated in sufficient quantities to flow out 
 through the water-course. 
 
 I have had occasion to examine several cellars, the 
 bottoms of which are below the surface of the East 
 River, and which aforetime were always so wet, at high 
 tides, as to be unfit for even a store-room of any kind. 
 But they were rendered satisfactorily dry for eating- 
 saloons, simply by covering the sides and bottom with 
 a heavy coat of the best hydraulic cement, and after it 
 had dried, applying an overcoating of plastic slate ma- 
 terial. The plastic slate should be spread on, while 
 warm, with a plastering trowel, just as a wall is made 
 in a dwelling-house. Any cellar that cannot be drained 
 may be rendered perfectly dry by cementing the sides 
 and the bottom, and covering the cement with the 
 plastic, made of coal tar and slate flour, both of which 
 
HOW TO SAVE MONEY. 91 
 
 can be obtained at a trifling expense. If the correct 
 proportion of tar and slate flour be mingled together, 
 the material will be as impervious to water as one un- 
 broken piece of Vermont slate, sufliciently large to ex- 
 tend over the entire cellar bottom. If the work be 
 properly done, the bottom and sides of the cellar will 
 be as water-tight as a jug. Too much pains cannot be 
 taken to render a cellar dry, as its dryness or damp- 
 ness has a very great influence upon the health of those 
 who live over it.' 
 
 CAUSES OF WET AND DAMP CELLARS. 
 
 If a cellar were cut in a solid rockj it might be one 
 of the worst places that can be imagined, for dampness 
 to gather on the face of the side walls. As the surface 
 of a rock in the foundation of a house, below the sur- 
 face of the ground, is frequently so much colder than 
 the atmosphere, as soon as aqueous vapor fills the cel- 
 lar, it will be condensed on the walls. Then, when a 
 stone wall is laid up in wet ground, so that the damp- 
 ness from the ground can come directly in contact with 
 the wall, and saturate the mortar, and keep the tem- 
 perature of the stones in the wall, so. low that the sur- 
 face will condense a damp atmosphere, the cellar is 
 liable to be more or less wet. If the surface of the 
 wall be covered with large drops of water, of course, 
 the entire cellar will shortly be filled with aqueous 
 vapor, which will make everything so damp, that an 
 unsightly mould will appear on the surface of every 
 article. 
 
 In case the earth is full of water-veins round about 
 the cellar, and so near the cellar bottom, that the water 
 
92 todd's country homes. 
 
 will ooze to the surface, except in dry weather, a cellar 
 will usually be disagreeably wet and damp. When 
 there are no eave-troughs for the roof, a large num- 
 ber of barrels of water will frequently be poured so 
 closely to the foundation wall, that, unless the surface 
 of the earth is so compact and sloping, as to convey 
 it away from the wall, as fast as it falls, or unless there 
 is a good drain to receive it, the cellar will be wet and 
 cold. 
 
 When ordinary bricks are emploj^ed for building a 
 foundation, if the damp ground is permitted to come in 
 close contact with the wall, the bricks and mortar will 
 be so saturated with water, and wall be so cold, that 
 the inner surface will condense aqueous vapor, and 
 render the cellar extremely wet. In many instances, 
 flag-stones, that are laid for a walk, where the ground 
 is wet, will be so cold and damp as " to sweat," as we 
 express it, colloquially, by condensing the aqueous 
 vapor of the surrounding atmosphere. But if the 
 ground were dry beneath the stones, no vapor would 
 be condensed. And so it is with cellar Avails. Let the 
 mortar and stones, or brick wall, be kept dry, and the 
 surface of the wall will not condense the aqueous vapor 
 of the atmosphere. Wet and cold Avails Avill, almost 
 always, cause a cellar to be damp. Apples, or vege- 
 tables will freeze in a damp cellar much sooner than in 
 one that has damp walls. 
 
 HALF WALLS FOR CELLARS. 
 
 In some sections of country where building-stone is 
 very scarce, and the subsoil is compact and hard, the 
 cellar Avails may be built with a small amount of stone. 
 
HALF WALLS FOR CELLARS. 03 
 
 after the following manner : Excavate the ground of 
 the size of the oelhir, about one foot deep, and buikl the 
 foundation wall two feet high, making calculations to 
 grade up on the outside neaily one foot high. Let the 
 wall above the ground be ciirried up with square tim- 
 ber laid on the wall to the desired heii^iit. If a wall is 
 built of two courses of stone, the frost will be excluded 
 from the cellar much longer than it will if the stones 
 extend entirely across the wall. Now, leL the cellar 
 be dug about three and a half feet below the bottom 
 of the walls, leaving a square shoulder of earth, not 
 less than two feet wide, entirely around the cellar. 
 Then let the shoulder of earth be well plastered with 
 water-lime mortar, both on the side and on the top. 
 This shoulder will be found a very convenient shelf to 
 place barrels on in the winter. I know of cellars that 
 have been built in this manner fifteen years; and are 
 now as good as when they were first built. But the 
 frost must be kept out of such cellars, or it will injure 
 the plastering, and make it peel off. The middle of 
 such cellars should be the hio;hest; and a orutter should 
 be made around the outside to carry off the water. 
 My own cellar is built in this manner; and altliough it 
 has been built ten years, and has been injured by the 
 frost only a little in two places, still I regret that the 
 walls were not built from the bottom of the cellar with 
 good stone. These considerations with reference to 
 the foundation wall, are equally applicable to the 
 foundation of a barn or other out-buildings. Every 
 building should have a good stone wall under it, laid 
 up in lime mortar. 
 
94 todd's country uomes. 
 
 REGULATING THE TEMPERATURE OF CELLARS. 
 
 Notwithstanding all that has been penned, touching 
 dry and agreeable cellars, if the windows are small and 
 few, it will be very difficult to have a nice cellar. As 
 a general rule, the cellar windows are not half as large 
 as they should be. More than this, the sashes should 
 be so fitted to the frames that the windows may be 
 opened and closed without difficulty. 
 
 A great many people often complain of bad butter, 
 white, soft, and hard to come. They are troubled to 
 keep anything in their cellars. Meat will spoil in a 
 day or two. Fruit will mould. And the cellar is any- 
 thing but a pleasant place to be in ; and this all when 
 the season is not so very warm ; but rather cool and 
 uniform. The temperature, it must be remembered, is 
 the thing at fiult; and that is under the control of the 
 windows. The temperature may be regulated by sim- 
 ply shutting them in warm weather and opening them 
 in cold. At night usually is the time to open the win- 
 dows. Sometimes, with a north wind, the windows 
 may be kept open all day, even if the sun is quite 
 warm, the air itself being still cold. Keep them open 
 while cold, whether a day or a week; but close them 
 at the first approach of warm air. 
 
 Warm air, if permitted to enter your cellar, will blpw 
 out the cold air, although the cold air is much the 
 heaviest, and would remain, were there no wind. But 
 the wind will force it out. Then, the cellar will soon 
 be warm ; and once warmed, it will be difficult to get it 
 as cool again as before. It can be done, however, if 
 the after weather prove quite cold and lasting, for 
 
HONEST TRICKS OF JOINERS. 95 
 
 several clays. In no case let the warm wind enter the 
 cellar in the summer. When the cellar is filled with 
 cool air, let the windows and doors be kept closed, and 
 the atmosphere will remain cool and sweet. Some- 
 times the windows are shut for a week, or for two 
 weeks, and even more, with only occasional whiffs of 
 air let in early at morning. This warms slightly. But 
 the temperature soon gets cooler, the cold walls absorb- 
 ing the warmth with little effect on the temperature. 
 It must be considered that, in a clean cellar, the air is 
 not consumed and rendered foul -by the lungs of living 
 beings, as in an occupied room. The air, therefore, 
 may be kept cool and sweet, by simply opening and 
 closing the windows at proper times. 
 
 It is an excellent practice, when making a new cellar, 
 to make arrangements for putting up a stove in the 
 cellar, in very cold weather, to keep out the frost. In 
 some localities, the frost can be kept out, by simply 
 having double sashes and glass in each window-frame. 
 But a small stove with a little fire in it, would cost but 
 a trifle, and would be a sure way of maintaining the 
 desired temperature of the cellar, in which vegetables 
 and fruit might be stored. 
 
 HONEST TRICKS OF JOINERS. 
 
 Builders and contractors aim, as much as possible, 
 to keep people in ignorance of the actual cost of all 
 kinds of edifices. They will often sacrifice honor, and 
 every principle of integrity, when there seems to be an 
 opportunity offered for them to take a contract, for two 
 or three times more than would be a fair price. I am 
 sorry to say, that professional builders, as a rule, when 
 
96 todd's countey homes. 
 
 requested to make a fair estimate of a dwelling, will 
 almost always, fix the price from one to four thousand 
 dollars higher than would be a lair price. I frequently 
 meet with contracts for building houses in which the 
 contractor often makes $10,000 over and above all 
 cash expenses, for simply supervising the work. 
 
 I trust the inquiring reader will pardon an egotis- 
 tical allusion, touching the point in question. A few 
 years ago, a feeble church desired to make some im- 
 provements in their house of w^orship. They adver- 
 tised, and obtained the sealed proposals of several pro- 
 fessional builders. The job was then put up for the 
 lowest bid. As the crier was about to knock it off*, I 
 bid one-half the lowest bid. I.t was like a bomb-shell 
 among the builders ! I was a farmer. Did I expect 
 to do that job in a workman-like manner for that price? 
 Tlie answer was, I do ; and to midve a nice thing out 
 of it also, I replied. After denomicing me as a fool, 
 and affirming that it was utterly impossible for any one 
 to purchase the materials for that price, one of the 
 best builders underbid me, and took the job. A young 
 journeyman who did most of the work assured me, 
 that they made a considerable more than day wages, 
 at that job, even at those low figures. 
 
 A friend of mine, who was erecting a house w^ortli 
 about $6,000, employed a professional builder to jore- 
 pare a bill of materials, for which he received $10. I 
 made a bill and estimate one evening gratuitously, for 
 the same house, and saved the proprietor $1,000 in 
 materials and $600 in the work. 
 
 In order to give a fair idea of the mode of procedure, 
 it ^N\\\ be necessary to have the entire plan of the 
 
joiners' contract and specifications. 97 
 
 house so well understood, that the eye can picture 
 every part as it will appear, after the edifice is finished. 
 Expert builders, when preparing diagrams of a build- 
 ing, making estimates of work, and executing a given 
 job, usually set up an imaginary frame, or building 
 complete — a regular " air castle ; " and when they 
 think, or speak of any part of the edifice, the imagin- 
 ary edifice looms before the eyes of their imagination. 
 Every joist, stud, and other pieces all appear, just as 
 they will look when the re«? frame, or finished build- 
 ing, stands complete, and ready for its occupants. 
 
 These thoughts are brought out, that beginners may 
 be prepared to meet jockeys, with certain suggestions, 
 which will prompt them to be somewhat cautious in 
 some of their statements. If a builder states that 
 2,000 feet of flooring will be required, let him indicate 
 exactly where that quantity of lumber may be used. 
 If he says 10,000 feet of joists and studs will be needed, 
 let him state where he will use such a quantity of lum- 
 ber. And so, let the beginner examine every item 
 with extreme care. 
 
 JOINERS' contract AND SPECIFICATIONS. 
 
 To aid beginners in making a satisfiictory bargain 
 for erecting a house, I herewith submit a form of con- 
 tract and specifications, which will enable a builder, or 
 any one else, to determine, at a glance, whether the 
 clifierent parts of a superstructure are being built as 
 the proprietor desires to have them. ' One of the most 
 disastrous practices in the erection of a commodious 
 edifice is, rushing the work along at all hazards, before 
 the timber and lumber are half seasoned, and without 
 
 7 
 
98 todd's country homes. 
 
 allowing the walls to shrink and settle a trifle, as the 
 walls of almost every edifice will, during the first year 
 after the building is put up. Manj^ builders will jockey 
 their employers by making an estimate, at the outset, 
 for the most expensive lumber, doors, glass, and paint; 
 and after they have secured the job, will use second 
 rate materials, -and even culls, which did not cost more 
 than half the estimated price. Erecting a nice and 
 commodious cottage, or villa, is a job for all your life- 
 time. If one makes mistakes in building a house, by 
 using poor materials, it is not a desirable job to be 
 constantly making repairs or alterations. A knotty 
 board, or a shaky siding may be taken off, and a sound 
 one put in its place. But whoever engages in such a 
 job with any feelings of satisfaction, after a fair price 
 has been paid for prime materials ? So many window- 
 panes, that will give every object that is seen through 
 them, the appearance of a double-and-twisted contor- 
 tion, be removed from the sashes, and clear, trans- 
 parent glass put in their places. But who cares to 
 perform such a perplexing job ? 
 
 After the plan has been fully matured, let working 
 drawings be made, if possible ; at least, make out a 
 rude diagram of the plan and superstructure. Then, 
 take the items separately, and designate exactly, what 
 is to be performed, and the manner of doing the work. 
 The form of the contract may run thus, with variations 
 to suit circumstances: "This document is to certify 
 that we, A. B. and Co., agree to erect a cottage for D. 
 C, of Newark, N. J. Said building to be of wood, 
 thirty by forty feet square on the ground, with twenty 
 feet posts, or walls, with a cellar six and a half feet 
 
joiners' contract and specifications. 99 
 
 high in the clear." Now describe the form of house 
 and arrangement of rooms as minutely as you choose. 
 
 The cellar is' to be four and a half feet deep, meas- 
 uring from the surface of the ground ; the earth to be 
 dropped in the low places in the front yard, and the 
 surfoce neatly graded around the dwelling. The foun- 
 dation wall to be all built of good hard stone, laid in 
 best lime and sharp sand mortar. Base course two 
 feet six inches wide, of large flat stones, the top of base 
 eight inches below cellar floor ; the rest of the walls 
 eighteen inches thick, the portion above ground outside 
 laid in courses and pointed ; foundation for veranda, 
 porch columns, and for chimneys, outer stone stairs, all 
 laid in the best lime-mortar. Here specify, explicitly, 
 all about any division walls in the cellar, and the kind 
 of bricks to be employed ; also the lathing, plastering, 
 and chimneys, how to be done, and when to be finished. 
 Let everything be written out so definitely, that a boy 
 ten years old could examine the work, and judge 
 whether it were performed according to contract. 
 Read over your specifications every day for a week ; 
 revise and add to, until you have made a note of every 
 item. 
 
 The timber to be of a given size ; the joists to be not 
 smaller than two by eight inches, and sixteen inches 
 apart ; and the studs two by four inches, and sixteen 
 inches from center to center. Here describe the form 
 of roof; the materials for covering it; the finish; the 
 windows and kind of glass, the sashes, to be made of 
 timber free from sap-wood and painted with two heavy 
 coats before the glass is set. Describe the doors, stating 
 whether they may be small or large, thick or thin. 
 
100 todd's countky homes. 
 
 Then describe the manner of finishing off each room, 
 and the kind of paint to be used. Describe the floor 
 boards as not over six inches wide, one inch or more 
 thick, matched, free from loose knots, and to be sunned 
 in hot and dry weather, not less than two weeks before 
 the boards are laid. Describe the stairs ; the width, 
 thickness, and length of the treads, the height of risers 
 and the form of the hand-rail and banisters. • The house 
 to be completed in a neat and workman-like manner, 
 for so much, by the first of July ; and the remainder to 
 be ready for occupancy by November first. Pay when 
 the agreement states. Then, both parties sign each 
 document, and each take a copy. 
 
 WOEKIXG SEASONED TIMBER. 
 
 All kinds of timber, whether it be in the form of 
 sills, summers, joists, studs, or boards, will shrink, both 
 endways of the timber and sideways of the grain of the 
 w^ood. When erecting certain styles of houses, un- 
 seasoned joists or studs may be employed as satisfac- 
 torily as seasoned timber. But, as a general rule, the 
 joists of every house should be most thoroughly sea- 
 soned before the inside wood-work is finished. When 
 unseasoned joists are employed, the shrinkage allows 
 the entire floor to settle away from the base-boards on 
 the side of every room next to the outer walls. By 
 this means a large opening is sometimes formed be- 
 neath the base, w^hich admits currents of cold air. 
 Besides this, wdien partition studs are set up before the 
 joists have ceased to shrink, the shrinkage and settling 
 of the floor in the middle of a room, more than it set- 
 tles at the outer walls, cracks the partition walls and 
 deranges the joiner's work. 
 
WORKING SEASONED TIMBEE. 101 
 
 In nearly all the. elegant houses that are built in the 
 city with wooden joists, the stairs, if secured to one 
 side of the building, will be found to slope to such an 
 extent that one end of the risers and treads are nearly 
 an inch lower than the other end. This is a very com- 
 mon and serious defect with costly buildings in every 
 part of our populous cities. People are in such hot 
 haste to finish a dwelling after the foundation is laid, 
 that certain parts, which appear to be well done, after 
 a few months, prove very unsatisfactory, simply because 
 the joists were not thoroughly seasoned before the in- 
 side work was finished. The old Connecticut rule used 
 to be to allow the edifice to stand nearly one year after 
 the frame was enclosed, before finishing the inside. 
 
 Many experienced persons, in the ordinary affairs of 
 life, have little idea of the extent of shrinkage of all 
 kinds of timber. Some kinds of timber will shrink 
 every time the surface is dressed off! Boards and 
 planks that have been kept under shelter for ten years, 
 when dressed out and employed as casings, or for 
 making doors, will often shrink enough to form un- 
 sightly cracks at every joint. Lumber that has been 
 sawed for several years should never be worked up 
 in an eleo-ant house before it has been kiln-dried or 
 
 o 
 
 exposed, for at least two weeks, to the scorching sun- 
 shine and drying winds. 
 
 Siding, or clapboards, are frequently employed to 
 cover buildings before they are thoroughly seasoned. 
 The result is, many of them are checked from end to 
 end by the contraction of the boards, from the middle 
 to the nails that secure them to the studs of the build- 
 ing. It is a common occurrence for siding to split 
 
102 todd's countet homes. 
 
 badly each way from the nails, for which the workman 
 who drove the nails is censm^ed ; whereas the real 
 cause of the cleft is attributable to shrinkage after the 
 boards were secured in their places. 
 
 The wainscoting and floor-boards of kitchens fre- 
 quently shrink out of the matching, thus rendering a 
 room as open as a basket, when the joints should be 
 water-tight ; and they would continue to remain tight 
 for an age, were the boards heated thoroughly in a 
 kiln, or in a stove-room, before they are secured in their 
 places. Let it be borne in mind that seasoned lumber 
 will shrink after it is worked up, unless kiln-dried. 
 
 A neighbor near my residence covered his house 
 with seasoned pine boards ; and in less than one month 
 after they were nailed on, almost every board had 
 shrunk out of the matching. Unless the lumber for 
 the outside covering of a barn, or any other building, 
 can be exposed to the sun for a month or more, or 
 kiln-dried, it will be found an excellent and satisfactory 
 practice to secure the boards with one or two small 
 nails to the side of the frame, and let them have an 
 opportunity to shrink for a month or more ; then re- 
 joint the edges, drive the boards together, let the 
 paint-brush follow the hammer in quick succession, and 
 the inmates of a dwelling will not be heard to complain 
 of airy-walls. Dealers in lumber, and sometimes build- 
 ers, who know better, will assure the proprietor of a 
 building that lumber is seasoned as much as is really 
 necessary. But one month after a job has been fin- 
 ished often reveals gaping joints and unsightly cracks 
 in wood-work that ought not to shrink any more than 
 the material of which a piece of costly furniture is 
 
THE HEIGHT OF BUILDINGS. 103 
 
 made. Nothing detracts so much from the elegance 
 and apparent cash value of a costly dwelling-housCj as 
 floors that are shrunk out of the matching, contracted 
 door panels and gaping joints, where they ought to 
 be water-tight, open joints in the wainscoting, and 
 shrunken casings about both windows and doors. Such 
 things are a disfiguring blotch in a neat house. 
 
 THE HEIGHT OF BUILDINGS. 
 
 Now that horse-forks for elevating hay, grain, and 
 straw have come into general use, farmers can occupy 
 the attic of a high barn quite as adviintageously as a 
 building with only twelve feet posts. The great facility 
 with which crops can now be pitched tw^enty, or even 
 thirty feet, has removed all objection to a barn with 
 high posts. 
 
 In order, therefore, to secure the advantages of a 
 spacious and commodious barn, let the posts be twenty- 
 four or more feet long. The expense of roofing is no 
 more for a high building than for a low one. A high 
 barn affords a large amount of convenient space, which, 
 if jjroperly arranged, can be occupied in a most advan- 
 tageous manner. If a barn is too low, let the entire 
 superstructure above the sills be elevated to the de- 
 sired height with jack-screws, and let the posts or studs 
 be spliced. When the lower rooms of a dwelling-house 
 are unsatisfactorily low, it will not be found an expen- 
 sive job to elevate the superstructure one or more feet, 
 and to splice all the posts and studs at the lower ends. 
 
 The height of dwelling-houses, and the height of 
 rooms within, is a consideration which must be regu- 
 lated somewhat by the length and breadth of the 
 building. Few builders err by making rooms too high, 
 
104 todd's country homes. 
 
 as high rooms are always far more pleasant and health- 
 ful for the occupants than apartments that are but a 
 trifle higher than the length of a tall man. 
 
 Buildings for stables are often made unprofitably 
 low. No building should be employed as a horse-stable 
 which is so low that high horses can reach the upper 
 wall when they throw up their heads. The height of 
 sheds, beneath certain parts of a barn, should be suffi- 
 cient to admit a team, on the surface of an annual 
 deposit of the accumulations of the stable, without 
 hitting their heads. 
 
 Sheep sheds are frequently made much higher than 
 is really necessary; while the apartments for neat 
 cattle and horses are dangerously low. Many a valu- 
 able horse has ruined himself, in a low stable, by 
 striking his head against the timbers above him. 
 
 The additional expense of making a room, or all the 
 rooms of a house a foot or more higher than what may 
 be called low, is a small consideration, in comparison 
 with the great superiority of a high room over a low 
 one. Sleeping-rooms, more than all others, ought to 
 be high, on account of more complete ventilation, if 
 from no other consideration. Wings and leantos of 
 buildings are frequently but one story and a half; and 
 very low at that ; whereas, only a few dollars for ma- 
 terials and work, would have given an additional story, 
 of great value. 
 
 The upper rooms of many a cozy dwelling-house 
 have been rendered very unpleasant by being made 
 too low. One or two feet in the height of a house is 
 really a small consideration, when compared with the 
 aggregate expense of the entire edifice. It is an excel- 
 
SIZE OF BUILDING TIMBER. 105 
 
 lent practice to make high rooms, between joints. 
 But low rooms are like a disfiguring blotch on one's 
 fair character, which can not be removed except w^ith 
 great difficulty. 
 
 SIZE OF BUILDING TIMBER. 
 
 It is not the largest and heaviest timber that makes 
 the strongest and most permanent frame. Builders 
 fall into an egregious mistake by employing building 
 timber unnecessarily large for the purposes required. 
 A plank two inches thick and eight wide, resting on a 
 substantial wall of stone or brick, will subserve as sat- 
 isfactory a purpose for a sill of a large house, as a stick 
 of timber eight inches square. An injudicious custom 
 has induced builders to employ sometimes three times 
 more timber in making a frame than is really needful. 
 A builder should study and endeavor to understand the 
 strength of materials. He who can save a dollar's 
 worth of timber, by providing the different parts of a 
 frame of the most proj)er and desirable size, saves 
 another dollar besides the first one, in the labor re- 
 quired to fit the timber for its appropriate place in the 
 frame. There is a vast deal of philosophy and science 
 in having every piece of timber in an edifice of such a 
 form as to render the frame more stiff and permanent. 
 Sills, summers, beams and posts, of both dwelling- 
 houses and barns, are often made preposterously large. 
 
 There is timber enough in many of the old houses 
 and barns in the first settled localities of our country 
 to make two buildings of the same size of the present 
 one. In many country barns, the posts and beams are 
 sufficiently large and strong for a bonded warehouse 
 of some great seaport. Two small posts and a small 
 
106 todd's country homes. 
 
 beam, if properly put together, will sustain a superin- 
 cumbent pressure of surprising weight. 
 
 THE BEST FORM OF JOISTS. 
 
 The form of joists is a point that is not, to appear- 
 ance, properly appreciated and understood. A stick of 
 timber, for example, three inches by four, twelve feet 
 long, would make a joist of a very unsatisfactory form. 
 But let the same quantity of timber be sawed into 
 joists eight inches wide, by one and a half inches thick, 
 and it will sustain double the weight, with less spring 
 or deflection. In order to give desirable solidity to any 
 floor, the joists must be wide, or deep up and down. 
 
 Inch boards one foot wide, and sixteen or eighteen 
 feet long, would make joists that would spring but 
 little ; whereas, let joists of the same length and six 
 inches wide be employed, each containing the same 
 amount of timber as a board, and a floor laid on them 
 would spring up and down to such an extent as to 
 render the room exceedingly unpleasant to live in. 
 
 Joists sixteen feet Ions: should never be less than 
 eight inches wide. Ten inches wide would be prefer- 
 able. Joists eight or ten feet long will be correspond- 
 ingly stiff, if they are only six or seven inches wide. 
 Let it be borne in mind, that joists and beams should 
 be wide, up and down, whether they are narrow or 
 broad. Before the floor is laid, let the joists be 
 strongly cross-bridged. If joists are not cross-bridged, 
 the floor will spring, when a person walks across it, to 
 such an extent as to shake the entire dwelling. 
 
 HOW TO BUILD A CHEAP HOUSE FOR A BEGINNER. 
 
 The aggregate expense of erecting a decent dwell- 
 ing is usually so enormous that a person of moderate 
 
HOW TO BUILD A CHEAP HOUSE. 107 
 
 means will often be so discouraged at the comtempla- 
 tion of startling bills for items, that he at once re- 
 solves to abandon the idea of building. Dealers in 
 lumber and building materials often allow themselves 
 to take undue advantage of the ignorance and inex- 
 perience of persons who have not a definite idea of the 
 general requirements and minute details of even a 
 small house. To aid beginners in securing a comfort- 
 able habitation for a few months, or for a year or two, 
 when the pecuniary means are quite small, it is pro- 
 posed to record some practical directions in selecting 
 lumber and in completing the superstructure, without 
 being swindled out of twice the value of the edifice 
 required. 
 
 We will suppose, for example, that one desires to 
 erect at once a small, cheap, and comfortable dwelling, 
 that will accommodate four to six persons, at a distance 
 of several miles beyond the borders of any settlement. 
 His cash capital does not exceed six hundred dollars. 
 A small house is desired within one month, which can 
 be erected without absorbing the last dollar of this 
 limited revenue. Can it be done ? Yes, we say ; done 
 with as much facility as a backwoodsman can split out 
 a thousand rails and build forty rods of fence. And 
 we will tell what to do and how to do it, so that a 
 dwelling maybe commenced on the middle of October, 
 and by the first of November be ready for occupancy, 
 without expending three hundred dollars. 
 
 In numerous instances, a poor man jDurchases a small 
 place, at a distance from a convenient boarding-place, 
 and wants only a small edifice, for a few months, until 
 something more desirable can be erected. A small 
 
108 todd's countey homes. 
 
 family, of three or four persons, could live in such a 
 cozy domicile, in case of urgent necessity, during the 
 entire summer, without having the building plastered. 
 Then this little extemporaneous cottage, which only a 
 sprinkling of love will render the dearest spot on earth, 
 may afterward be employed for a work-shojD or store- 
 house, or it can be allowed to remain where it was 
 erected, and be joined to the upright part of a larger 
 
 dwelling as a wash-room, 
 kitchen, or wood-house. Such 
 a building may be conven- 
 iently employed for a vari- 
 ety of useful purposes. But 
 the grand point is, to have it 
 'pK)NEEK^lx>TTAGE. subscrvc a satisfactory pur- 
 
 pose in the present exigency, thus saving a large pro- 
 portion of limited means at a period when to a begin- 
 ner every available dollar seems to play a wonderful 
 part. 
 
 As the prices of building material vary largely in 
 different localities, the cost of each item can be com- 
 puted according to the rates in each market, thus en- 
 abling persons in different parts of the country to pur- 
 chase the required bill of materials, place them on a 
 couple of wagons, transport them twenty miles from 
 any human habitation, and develop a cozy cottage in 
 a few days. 
 
 Let the frame be of the " balloon style " of architec- 
 ture, rather than of large sills, posts, and heavy beams, 
 all of which will be found much more expensive in 
 every respect, and at the same time will not make a 
 building so strong and stiff as if the frame were of the 
 
A BILL OF MATERIALS. 109 
 
 balloon style, without posts, beams, girders, and heavy 
 sills. 
 
 Those who have always been accustomed to see large 
 timbers employed in the erection of edifices of all 
 descriptions may experience a lack of confidence in a 
 balloon frame. But, if a person having a fair under- 
 standing of the strength of materials will only investi- 
 gate and compare the merits and demerits of a framed 
 building and a balloon frame, he will perceive at once 
 that the latter will be much stiflfer and stronger, in 
 every respect, than a frame made of large timbers, 
 united by means of mortises and tenons. In such a 
 balloon frame as it is proposed to erect, such a thing 
 as a mortise or tenon will not be required. 
 
 A BILL OF MATERIALS. 
 
 It is proposed to erect the building on several small 
 posts, rather than on a foundation-wall, as the super- 
 structure is required for immediate occupancy. After 
 the building is finished, the excavation for the cellar 
 may be made, first in the middle and at one end, and 
 the wall carried up to the sill, and then at the other 
 end. But if stones or bricks can be obtained conven- 
 iently, and the house is to remain as a wing to a larger 
 superstructure, let a foundation wall of brick or stone 
 be laid before the sills are placed in position. But if 
 the sills are to be supported by posts, there should be 
 five on a side, and one at the middle of each end, 
 making in all twelve posts, four by four inches square, 
 and three and half feet in length, to be set in the 
 ground not less than two feet, with {he lower end of 
 each resting on a flat stone or piece of plank one foot 
 square. The beginner may take a copy of the follow- 
 
110 todd's country homes. 
 
 ing bill, without consulting a professional architect, go 
 to the luniber-yard and hardware store, and purchase 
 every item for his cottage, with the assurance that 
 there will be no lack of necessary materials, and but a 
 small amount of surplus lumber, that may be employed 
 for some other purpose. The bill will require, then— 
 
 FEET. 
 
 3 sticks, 4x4 inches, 14 feet long, for posts, 60 
 
 1 plank 12 feet long, to saw in pieces, 24 
 
 2 sills 16 feet long, 4x4, 43 
 24 joists 2x7 inches, 12 feot long, for lower and the upper floor, 
 
 18 inches apart, 336 
 
 4 scantling 1 6 feet long, 2x3 inches, 2 of which are for plates, and 
 
 2 for supports for the ends of the chamber floor joists, 32 
 
 26 pieces for rafters, 10 feet long, 2x4 inches square, 180 
 13 " collar beams," 8 feet long, 1x5 inches, to nail from one rafter 
 
 to another, 52 
 
 6 studs, 13 feet long, 2x3 inches, around doors and windows, 42 
 
 360 feet of roof-boards, 360 
 
 Total of coarse lumber, 1,129 
 
 450 feet of flooring, 16 feet long, planed and matched, 450 
 
 Weatherboards, 8 inches wide, planed on one side, and matched, 1,000 
 
 10 boards, 16 feet long, 10 or 12 inches wide, for stairs and shelves, 160 
 
 4 pieces for verge-boards, 10 feet long, 1x4 inches, 14 
 
 Total of second quality lumber, 1,524 
 
 ITEMS COMPDTED IN CASH. 
 
 The 1,129 feet of rough lumber, computed at 2 cents per foot, 
 which is more than such lumber will cost in many localities, 
 will amount to $22 58 
 
 The 1,524 feet of matched lumber, dressed on one side, at 3 
 
 cents per foot, will cost, 45 72 
 
 About 3, 5<)0 shinglos,»18 inches long, 14 00 
 
 20 pounds shingle-nails, at 7 cents, 1 40 
 
 50 pounds eight-penny nails, at 7 cents, 3 50 
 
 15 pounds ten-penny nails, at 7 cents, 1 05 
 
A BILL OF MATEKIALS. Ill 
 
 4 window-frames, and making, $9 50 
 
 Sash and glass for 4 windows, 6 00 
 
 1 batten door and casings, latch, etc., 3 50 
 
 2 gallons of boiled oil, $2.25, and 1 pail of good white lead, $2.50, 4 75 
 300 bricks for chimney and mortar, and laying-up, 5 50 
 Joiner $3 per day, and helper $1 per day, for six days, which is 
 
 a liberal estimate of time, ' 24 00 
 
 Total expense, ' $141 50 
 
 In some localities, the expense will exceed the fore- 
 going amount. In others, where labor and lumber are 
 cheaper, the cost will of course be less. But in each 
 locality, the price can be computed to suit the locality. 
 An active joiner and an ambitious helper, who can saw 
 off a board to a mark, and drive nails, will complete 
 such a house in less than six days ; while the joiner 
 who has no other job on hand, and is anxious to " spin 
 out " as much time as possible, will spend twenty days 
 in performing a small job that he has ability to com- 
 plete in six days. 
 
 In case the house is to be erected where small round 
 sticks of timber can be readily obtained for foundation 
 posts, the square timber alluded to may be dispensed 
 with. If rails or poles can not be obtained for staging, 
 a few scantling, fourteen feet long, must be purchased 
 for that purpose. All the foregoing materials may be 
 carried on three ordinary two-horse wagons to a dis- 
 tance of several miles, with a joiner and his tools. 
 Many pioneers, at the West, can purchase the amount 
 of lumber required, in Chicago, for example, and have 
 the materials forwarded to their destination, with the 
 satisfactory assurance, that they will have the materials 
 requisite to build a little cottage, and not enough more 
 on hand, after the edifice is finished, to build half of 
 
112 todd's country homes. 
 
 •another house. A cousin of mine, after conferring 
 with me, before he went to Illinois, as to the most 
 practicable and feasible way of getting a place for his 
 family to sleep, after he arrived where he expected to 
 live, purchased his bill of materials, had them shipped 
 by railroad, then carted thftm several miles, with two 
 wagons ; and in less than six hours after the lumber 
 was unloaded, they were moving into their new 
 domicile, far away on the prairie. 
 
 COMMENCING OPERATIONS. 
 
 If the lumber is seasoned as it should be, every board 
 should be spread out in the sun for six days at least, 
 before the floors are laid or the sides are put up. If 
 this sufri2;estion be not heeded, even seasoned lumber 
 
 DO ^ 
 
 will shrink nearly or quite out of the matching in a few 
 weeks. During a few rainy days let the dry boards be 
 piled up closely, and covered with the widest, to carry 
 off the rain. Then, after the storm is over, let the 
 lumber be spread out again in the sun. With the fol- 
 lowing instructions, an active young man who is 
 scarcely half a joiner wdll be able to put up a cottage 
 with satisfactory dispatch. 
 
 After the foundation-posts have been set firmly in 
 the ground, and the two sills placed on the top of 
 them, lay on the joists, one and a half feet apart, from 
 center to center, and nail them to the sills. Saw off 
 the ends square with the outside of the sills. Now set 
 up a board at each corner on both of the long sides of 
 the foundation, nail the bottom to the sill, plumb and 
 stale-aft them. Let a piece of rough board be set np 
 near the middle of each side, the lower ends nailed to 
 the sills, and the middle stale-afted. Now put up ca 
 
COMMENCING OPERATIONS. 113 
 
 piece of scantling sixteen feet long, one inch by three 
 square, seven and one-half feet from the top of the 
 lower joists, as a support for the ends of the joists of 
 the upper floor. Let this be secured by driving nails 
 through the corner boards that have been plumbed, 
 into it. After the weather boards on both sides of the 
 building have been put in their places, and the lower 
 ends nailed into the sills, and nailed firmly to the 
 scantling that supports the chamber floor joists, let the 
 ends of the upper joists be sawed off square, and placed 
 on these cleat supports, sixteen inches apart. Then 
 drive several nails through the weather-boards into 
 the ends of each joist. If the ends of the joists be 
 sawed off squarely, the building, when finished, will be 
 much stiffer, than if the frame were made of large tim- 
 bers secured with tenons and mortises. The chamber 
 floor may now be laid ; a scantling two by three inches 
 nailed firmly to the inside of the top of the boards, for 
 plates, on each side of the house, and the rafters and 
 roof put on. 
 
 As a substitute for shingles, there are several kinds 
 of paper felting, saturated with coal tar or other chem- 
 icals, which may be employed at a very cheap rate, 
 and which may be covered, after the house is finished, 
 with a coat of plastic slate, which will be cheaper than 
 shingles. In such a case, the roof might be made with 
 less pitch than for shingles. In many parts of the 
 country "roofing-paper" is employed instead of shin- 
 gles. Such paper is very strong, and impervious to 
 water, so that after a heavy coat of paint is applied to 
 the surface, the roof will be as tight as tin, and much 
 cheaper than either tin or shingles. 
 
114 todd's country homes. 
 
 The materials required for lathing and plastering 
 will be fiirring-pieces, two inches square, sixteen inches 
 apart ; about twenty bunches of lath ; twenty pounds 
 of lath-nails ; one bushel of hair; ten bushels of stone 
 lime ; nine boards twelve feet long and six wide for 
 base ; and a mason two days to do the plastering. 
 Any one can compute the cost of all these materials, 
 at prices to suit his own locality. This style of house 
 will be cheaper and stronger, than a balloon-frame 
 covered with clapboards. In localities where lumber 
 is much cheaper than I have here computed the cost, 
 a comfortable little cottage can be erected amazingly 
 cheap. Any man who has ingenuity enough to plumb 
 a corner-board, saw off a plank square, and drive a nail 
 true, can be his own builder* Two active carpenters 
 can erect such a cottage, and do the work well, almost 
 as soon as good old Jonah's gourd sprung into life, 
 withered and died. 
 
 Thus for, in the erection of this cottage, I have made 
 no account of the finish on the gable ends, as the verge- 
 boards are supposed to be plain and nailed to the raft- 
 ers. At the eaves, the ends of the rafters project, 
 having only a plain facia three inches wide, nailed to 
 the ends. The ends of the rafters should be planed 
 and painted. 
 
 A POOR MAN'S COTTAGE. 
 
 The illustration of a cottage, under this head, repre- 
 sents a house that I employed men to build, for a poor 
 man, with a small family. The cottage cost me much 
 more than such a building should cost; because, I 
 could not be on hand to superintend the work. I was 
 obliged to write to my M^orkmen, while I remained in 
 
A POOK MAN S COTTAGE. 
 
 115 
 
 New York, and tell them what I desired to have them 
 do. Had I been near by, where I could have super- 
 vised the work, once or twice daily, the expense for 
 labor, would have been much less than it was. Yet, 
 the experiment will be of value to others, as I shall 
 give a bill of all the ma- 
 terials, with the cost of 
 each. Then, others can 
 make use of the same 
 bill, should they desire 
 a cottage similar to this 
 one. For a small fam- 
 ily, having only a few a cheap cottage. 
 hundred dollars to invest in a dwelling-house, this 
 style of architecture and arrangement of the rooms, 
 will be as satisfactory, as almost any cheap cottage 
 that a poor man can devise. The length is 28 by 16 
 feet. Tho lower part is divided into two rooms, by 
 the stairs and cellar-way. By this arrangement, there 
 are two rooms 16 by 12 1 feet square. The stair-way 
 occupies about three feet, including the studding, which 
 is two inches thick on both sides of box stairs. The 
 height of this house is sixteen feet. The upper part is 
 divided into four bedrooms, 8 by 11 feet, with a win- 
 dow in each room. There is a hall, up stairs, about six 
 feet wide, from which all the rooms can be entered. 
 The middle window, up stairs, lights the hall. Should 
 it be deemed desirable, the upper part may be divided 
 into either two, or three rooms, as well as four. There 
 are but two outside doors, which are 6| feet long by 
 2^ feet wide. The back door is nearly opposite the 
 front door. The cellar is under the entire house ; and 
 
116 todd's country homes. 
 
 is six and a half feet in the clear, with two windows 
 at one end, and an outside door-way for entering the 
 cellar. Should it be desirable to have more room, a 
 wing, similar to the illustration of the Pioneer's Cot- 
 tage, on preceding page, may be erected in the rear 
 of this upright part ; or a lean-to may be built the 
 entire length of the house, on the bacl^ side. Every 
 part of this house was built of fliir materials. The 
 lumber was not of the first quality ; neitlier was it poor, 
 knotty and shaky. The joists are 2 by 8 inches, and, 
 16 inches apart, from center to center, so that four-feet 
 lath would extend from one to another without being 
 eawed off to fit. The studding is 2 by 4 inches. But, 
 were I to build another such house, the studs should 
 be only 1 by 4 inches, as studs" of that size would be 
 sufficiently strong for such a dwelling ; and the expense 
 would be only half as much, for the studding. The 
 outside is covered with clapboards, six inches wide. 
 The four lower windows are fifteen lights, of 8 by 10 
 panes; and the upper windows are twelve lights, of 8 
 by 10- glass. The roof is covered with plastic slate. 
 The joist-rafters are made of 2 by 8 inch joists, 18 feet 
 long, the ends projecting beyond the j)lates one foot 
 on each side. The joist-rafters were taken to the ma- 
 chine shop, and the upper corners sawed off slanting, 
 from each end to the middle. Consequently, every 
 joist-rafter is 2 by 8 inches at the middle, and 2 by 1, 
 at each end. The slant gives only seven inches pitch 
 to the roof, which is sufficient for plastic slate or tin. 
 The joist-rafters are just as strong of this form, as if 
 those upper corners were not sawed off. The founda- 
 tion walls are brick, eight inches thick, which made a 
 
A POOR man's cottage. 117 
 
 wall sufficiently strong for sustaining such a superstruc- 
 ture. All the bricks below the surface of the ground 
 should be laid in hydraulic mortar. (See mortar.) 
 Great care should also be exercised, to use no brick be- 
 low ground that will disintegrate. 
 
 A BILL OF NECESSARY MATERIALS FOR ERECTING SUCH A 
 
 COTTAGE. 
 Excavating for cellar, $7 00 
 
 Eight thousand bricks delivered, at $11 50, 92 00 
 
 Twenty bushels of lime, 10 00 
 
 Masons and tender, at $5 per 1,000, 40 00 
 
 Four sticks 2 by 8 inches, 14 ft. long, for side sills, and two for 
 
 end sills, 2 by 8 inches, 16 ft. long, at $30 per 1,000 feet, 3 51 
 
 Forty-four joists, 2 by 8 inches, 16 ft. long, for the first and the 
 
 second floors, 27 72 
 
 Twenty-two rafter joists, 2 by 8 inches, 18 ft. long, at three cents 
 
 per foot, 15 84 
 
 Seventy pieces for plates and studs, 16 ft. long, 2 by 4 inches 
 
 square, 21 GO 
 
 Thirteen hundred feet of clapboards, at three cents per foot, 39 00 
 
 Fourteen hundred feet flooring and roofing, matched, 42 00 
 
 Twelve boards, 16 ft. long, for cornice, 6 00 
 
 Eighteen boards for base, 6 inches wide and 16 ft. long, 1 62 
 
 Two pieces of plank, 2 by 7 inches, 16 ft. long, for window sills, 
 
 planed, • 1 12 
 
 It will require a strip for the jambs and face-casings, about 40 
 feet long, for each window, of which there are nine. Then 
 there are nine doors, requiring about three pieces, 16 ft. long 
 and 1 by 4 inches wide, for each door, or about sixty pieces, 
 1 by 4 inches and 16 ft. long, for casings, planed on one side, 
 at three cents per foot, 8 10 
 
 Six pieces, 16 ft. long, 3 by 1 inches, planed on one side, for 
 
 the facia or verge-boards. 75 
 
 Three hundred feet of boards, 12 or 16 ft. long, half of it 8 
 inches wide, for the risers of the stairs, and half of it 9 inches 
 wide, for the treads, 9 00 
 
 Ten pieces, 16 ft. long, 4 by 1 1-4 inches, for water table, or 
 
 outside base, and for comer boards, 1 75 
 
118 todd's country homes. 
 
 Paper for roofing, 
 
 Plastic slate roofing, 1 bbl., 
 
 Putting it on the roof, 
 
 One hundred and twenty lights sash, at six cents each, 
 
 Two boxes glass, at $3 50, 
 
 Ten Ib.s. putty and glaziers' points, 
 
 Forty-eight bunches of four-feet lath, at $4 90 per 1,000, includ- 
 ing freight. 
 
 Thirty pounds lath-nails, at seven cents per pound, 
 
 One keg of eight-penny and one keg of ten-penny nails, at six 
 cents per pound of 100 each, 
 
 Eight barrels of lime for plastering, at $1 25, 
 
 Three hundred feet of boards, and thirty of timber, for the ve- 
 randa, at three cents per foot, 
 
 Four panel-doors, at $2 75 each, 
 
 Lumber for eight batten doors, including cellar-doors, say 200 
 feet, at four cents per foot. 
 
 Lumber and sashes for cellar-windows. 
 
 Joiner-work (which is too much,) 
 
 Hinges, or butts, for twelve doors. 
 
 One gross inch-screws, for hinges. 
 
 Three gross 1 1-2 inch screws, for batten-doors, at seventy-five 
 cents per gross. 
 
 Eight gallons of oil, at SI, 
 
 Three pails of white lead, at $2 60, 
 
 Painting two coats and glazing, 
 
 Eight door latches. 
 
 Two door-knobs and lock, 
 
 Window-fastenings, 
 
 Lathing, twenty-five cents per 100 lath. 
 
 Plastering, mixing mortar and tending masons, 
 
 Hair for mortar, two bushels, 
 
 Add freight and cartage. 
 
 Amount, $615 77 
 
 I have computed two boxes of glass, although only 
 
 about one and one-half are requisite. But two boxes 
 
 w ill not cost so much as the glass of a box and one-half, 
 
 $2 30 
 
 7 
 
 00 
 
 3 
 
 00 
 
 7 
 
 20 
 
 7 
 
 00 
 
 
 60 
 
 23 
 
 52 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 00 
 
 10 
 
 00 
 
 9 
 
 90 
 
 11 
 
 00 
 
 8 
 
 00 
 
 3 
 
 50 
 
 88 
 
 00 
 
 1 
 
 20 
 
 
 60 
 
 2 
 
 25 
 
 8 
 
 00 
 
 7 
 
 80 
 
 21 
 
 00 
 
 
 80 
 
 
 75 
 
 
 54 
 
 12 
 
 00 
 
 23 
 
 00 
 
 1 
 
 50 
 
 14 
 
 80 
 
A POOR man's cottage. 119 
 
 when purchased by the pane. I have made no account 
 of the sand, as it cost nothing, having been obtained 
 where the celhir was dug. 
 
 It will be perceived that when the two foregoing 
 structures are placed together, they will form a con- 
 venient and commodious home for any small family, 
 who are not afflicted with that direful curse of the 
 human family — wicked pride. In case one could have 
 access to timber on his own land, near a saw-mill, such 
 a dwelling could be built astonishingly cheap. A 
 faithful joiner would do the joiner work in a shorter 
 time than I have indicated in the bill ; and an ingen- 
 ious man who is not half a joiner, could do much of 
 the work with his own hands. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 KURAL ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Hazel-Dell Cottage— A Cheap Italian Villa— Oyster Shell Villa— Roofs 
 of Dwellings — Bracket Finish — Plastic Slate Roofing — Dirt Catcher — 
 Re-shingling Old Roofs — Doors — Windows — Flooring — Preservation 
 of Timber — Concrete Walls — Park Cottage — Morning Glory Cot- 
 tage — Clerks' Cottage — Cobble-stone Houses — Mechanics' Cottage — 
 Suburban Cottage — Making Mortar — Mason Work in Cold Weather. 
 
 THE HAZEL-DELL COTTAGE. 
 
 Fig. 1. — PERSPECTIVK OF THE COTTAGE. 
 
 This cozy little domicile is designed for a small family. 
 The building consists of an upright part, fifteen feet 
 
THE HAZEL-DELL COTTAGE. 
 
 121 
 
 wide, and twenty-six feet long, with a rear part twelve 
 feet by sixteen square, with a lean-to in the corner, 
 which furnishes a passage-way from the front parlor to 
 the kitchen. 
 
 The plan will nearly explain itself. P S, Fig. 2, is 
 a passage from the porch, 4 ft. wide. P, parlor, 12 by 
 15 ft. D, dining-room, 111 by 13 ft., with a china 
 closet, 3 by 3 ft. P S, rear passage to kitchen, 4 ft. 
 wide, communicating with the stairs to the second 
 floor, and C C, a coat closet, 3 by 3 ft. K, kitchen, 12 
 by 12 ft. P Y, pantry, 6 by 12 ft. S, kitchen, sink 
 and pump. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 PLAN OF THE FIRST FLOOR. 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 PLAN OF THE SECOND FLOOR. 
 
 Fig. 3, P S, passage, 3 to 5 ft. wide communicating 
 with the bedroom C, 10 by 12 ft. over dining-room, 
 and C, bedroom, 12 by 15 ft., over parlor. B R, bath- 
 room, 6 by 6 ft. S R, servants' room, 8 by 12 ft. 
 C L are closets. 
 
 The foundations ai:e of stone, with a cellar built un- 
 der the extension. The first story is 9 feet high, the 
 second story is 9 feet in the middle, and 4 at the sides 
 of the rooms. The lower part weather-boarded, hori- 
 zontally, and the upper part, from the plates, boarded 
 vertically, and furred off from the wall four inches, and 
 
122 todd's country homes. 
 
 terminated with a moulding and facia. The roofs pro- 
 ject boldly at an angle of 45 degrees 20 and 24 inches 
 over the walls, and are covered with pine shingles. 
 
 The arrangement of rooms on both floors may be 
 varied from this plan, so as to be more satisfactory to 
 some persons than the design herewith given. The 
 passage-way leading into the parlor from the front door, 
 might be dispensed with entirely. Or, if a small lobby 
 is desirable, let it be made near the corner of the room. 
 The china closet, which is at the front of the house, 
 would be flxr more convenient if placed on the side of 
 the room nearest the kitchen. 
 
 Such a house may be erected of wood, bricks, stone, 
 or concrete, for $1,000 to |2,000, according to the lo- 
 cality. In the vicinity of New York, where labor is 
 expensive and the price of lumber high, the expense 
 would amount to about |2,000. A few hundred miles 
 distant, if a person were a discreet and economical 
 manager, a house of this style could be erected for 
 $1,000 to $1,200. If cobble-stones could be gathered 
 near by, the building would not cost more than $1,000 
 in certain localities. 
 
 A CHEAP ITALIAN VILLA. 
 
 The perspective herewith given. Fig. 1, represents 
 a commodious and cheap villa of the Italian style of 
 aiTchitecture. I am sure that very many people, who 
 desire simple, and yet beautiful buildings, will be 
 pleased with this illustration, which in appearance is 
 tasteful, without the common fault of excessive orna- 
 mentation, while the arrangement is exceedingly con- 
 venient. The dinino:-room is well situated in its rela- 
 tion to both kitchen and parlor, and two small bed- 
 
A CHEAP ITALIAN VILLA. 
 
 123 
 
 rooms are provided for on the ground floor ; but one 
 large sleeping-room, in place of two, would please 
 many families better. This style of architecture has 
 many points of excellence to recommend it. Many 
 persons admire the appearance of a cottage that is 
 enclosed with boards put on vertically, far more than if 
 the boards run horizontally. Besides this, if the boards 
 be seasoned, as they always should be, so that they 
 
 Fig. 1. PERSPECTIVE OF THE REAR. 
 
 will not shrink out of the matching, this style of cov- 
 ering will make a tighter house, than if the sides were 
 covered with clapboards. 
 
 Should it be thought desirable, a Gothic roof might 
 be employed, instead of a roof so flat as is shown by 
 the illustration. Yet, by having a bracket finish, simi- 
 lar to the pattern shown on a succeeding page, and a 
 projecting roof, as represented by the illustration, the 
 
124 
 
 TODD S COUNTRY HOMES. 
 
 villa would present a very tasty and elegant appear- 
 ance. A heavy bracket finish, with a roof projecting 
 not less than two feet, is by no means a costly orna- 
 mentation ; and yet, it is so elegant as to please almost 
 every person, who possesses correct notions of the re- 
 quirements of rural architecture. The outside boards 
 for such a house should not be more than ten inches 
 wide. Before the battens are nailed on, a coat of paint 
 should be applied to both the boards and the battens. 
 
 It is scarcely neces- 
 sary for me to explain 
 the arrangement of the 
 rooms on the ground 
 floor, as the diagram 
 shows distinctly the di- 
 B.RooM I mensions of every apart- 
 ment. By adding the 
 dimensions of each room, 
 the size of each part 
 may be readily deter- 
 mined. The tower, it 
 will be understood, is 
 built over the porch. 
 
 Fig. 2.— PLAN OF GKOUND FLOOR. 9 by 9 fCCt, wllicll iS 
 
 larger than necessary. In the estimation of some 
 builders, the tower will be considered a needless ex- 
 pense. The lower story forms the open porch ; the 
 second may be used as a library or bedroom ; and the 
 third, as an observatory, a summer sleeping-room, or a 
 room for drying herbs, etc., and as a means of reaching 
 the roof, in case of fire. It is the most picturesque 
 and not least valuable part of the house. At all events, 
 
A CHEAP ITALIAN VILLA. 
 
 125 
 
 this style of architecture requires that appendage to 
 improve the appearance of the edifice, and to render 
 it complete. 
 
 DAIRY H. 
 
 Plan B. — A, wood-house ; B, kitchen ; C, parlor ; D, hall ; E, porch ; F, sitting- 
 room ; G, G, bedroom ; a, pantry ; b, b, closets. 
 
 Fig. 3 represents the apartments of the same edifice 
 arranged differently from the first plan, or Fig. 2. 
 The arrangement cannot fail to meet the requirements 
 of numerous families who desire a neat and substantial 
 villa, which can be erected for a moderate sum. 
 
 Fig. 4 (p. 126) represents the manner of preparing 
 the frame. The sill is represented as six inches thick. 
 But, if a substantial wall be carried up from the bot- 
 tom of the cellar, the sills need not be more than two 
 inches in thickness. The lower ends of the studs are 
 secured by nails toed-in, as represented in the illustra- 
 
126 
 
 TODD S COUNTRY HOMES. 
 
 tion. The ribs are placed diagonally at an angle of 
 forty-five degrees, and nailed to the studs at each in- 
 tersection. These ribs serve as braces to the building, 
 besides acting as supports for the outside boarding. 
 It will be seen that it re- 
 quires no more lumber for the 
 ribs placed diagonally than 
 to put them on horizon- 
 tally ; yet they make the 
 building much stifFer. This 
 house might be rolled over^^^x 
 and not be crushed, pro- \ 
 vided every stud, joist, and ^^r 
 rib and board was nailed as "^|-, 
 
 ■IWM _J Hi?- 
 
 securely as it should be. All riSj^4:J^;^,::i^'-^ 
 
 the loists are 18 feet lonac " \..''^^ 
 
 2 by 8 inches, and 16 inches arrangement of studs and ribs. 
 
 apart, so that the lower joists will rise 2 inches above 
 
 the sills, which are 6 by 8 inches. 
 
 COST OF CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 The cost of erecting such a dwelling-house, will de- 
 pend entirely on the locality. But almost any person 
 wdio has a fair idea of the lumber required in construct- 
 ing a house ; can make out a bill of all the materials, 
 and compute the cost of everything, in his locality, 
 even the labor of the different workmen, within fifty 
 dollars, before a blow has been struck towards the con- 
 struction of any part of the building. 
 
 Let me urge a single point in regard to the season- 
 ing of the boards before they are nailed on. I well 
 remember a house that w^as covered with boards placed 
 vertically before they had been sunned thoroughly. 
 
AN OYSTER-SHELL VILLA. 
 
 127 
 
 The result was, that almost every board shrunk out of 
 the matching; and the cracks were so large, and ad- 
 mitted so much rain during a driving storm, that the 
 entire building had to be covered with clapboards. A 
 little care in sunning the boards, before they were put 
 on, would have saved several hundred dollars in cash, 
 besides damage to the walls. 
 
 AN OYSTER-SHELL VILLA. 
 
 The beautiful country villa represented by the ac- 
 companying perspective, was erected, in 1856, on the 
 
 PERSPECTIVE OF OTSTER-SHETX VILLA. 
 
 outskirts of "the City of Elms" (New Haven,) Conn., 
 by my friend, Solomon Mead, inventor of Mead's coni- 
 cal plow. The novel feature in the construction of 
 this elegant edifice, is, the outside walls are composed 
 chiefly of oyster-shells, mingled with mortar and formed 
 into a wall similar to concrete. I have seen this build- 
 ig ; and I ever admired its symmetrical proportions ; 
 
 mir 
 
 and because its walls were built of such rare material, 
 
128 todd's country homes. 
 
 subserving such an excellent purpose, I feel assured 
 that my readers will feel a deep interest in looking at 
 this picture of the perspective, and in thinking of the 
 commendable ingenuity of Mr. Mead, who superin- 
 tended its construction. 
 
 The house measures 40 ft. by 36 ft. on the ground, 
 with a continuous veranda, on every side. The height 
 of the walls is 26 feet, to the rafters, on the top of the 
 plate. The height of the first story is 10 feet. The 
 second story is 8 feet. The third story is about 8 feet. 
 Mr. Mead has kindly furnished the following fiicts : 
 
 "The solid walls are one foot thick all the way up. 
 The sides of doors and windows and tops of the same 
 were laid with bricks, projecting about one inch and 
 one-half from the main wall. The chief jDart of the 
 building material was oyster-shells. I drew 25 loads 
 or so of small stones for building the house, before I 
 thought of the shells. When I first thought of using 
 the shells, I had never heard of such a house, nor have 
 I known of any other being built in this vicinity. The 
 shells cost me less than the expense of picking up the 
 stones wovild have been, for the same building, as the 
 shells could be shoveled, when put in a suitable place 
 for shoveling, and thus greatly advance the work. The 
 shells have also this advantage, they hold the wall to- 
 gether better, and are not so heavy for a wall; and 
 the wall is therefore, not so liable to crack from its own 
 weight. I used about 2,500 bushels of shells for the 
 walls, with about 25 loads of small stones, besides the 
 bricks around the doors and windows. The cost of 
 shells was about two cents per bushel, delivered on the 
 ground, or $50.00. Oyster-shell lime, sand, water, and 
 
AN OYSTER-SHELL VILLA. 129 
 
 about ten barrels of cement, were required for each 
 story. The only object of cement was to cause the 
 walls to dry a little faster, and thus to make a little 
 more rapid progress in construction. The oyster-shell 
 lime was readily obtained at about six cents per bushel. 
 
 '• The plan of construction was something like this : 
 A large mortar bed was made about eight feet wide 
 and sixteen feet long, on which was wheeled about 
 eight or ten barrels of shell-lime, about twice as much 
 sand, and fine gravel, which was mixed into a soft mor- 
 tar by a plenty of water and the use of a shovel and 
 hoe. 
 
 "The shells were then wheeled or shoveled into this 
 bed, as many as the mortar would cover and fill. The 
 shells and mortar were then shoveled over, mixing; the 
 mortar through the shells, which prepared the contents 
 of the bed for the curb in which the wall was first 
 put up." 
 
 After the foundation w^all was laid, straight-edged 
 joists were set up perpendicularly, on both sides of the 
 place where the wall was to be made. As the wall was 
 one foot thick, the upright timbers were sixteen inches 
 apart on the inside. Boards were then placed on the 
 inside of the uprights, with a narrow strip of inch-board 
 Jjetween every upright and the main board, thus form- 
 ing a mould, which was filled with the mortar and shells. 
 When the material had become satisfactorily hard, the 
 strips of inch-board between the uprights and the main 
 boards were removed, so that the mould-boards could 
 be raised without disturbing the wall. As the wall pro- 
 gressed, narrow strips of boards, about two and one-half 
 inches wide, were laid in the inside part of the wall, 
 
130 todd's country homes. 
 
 say two feet apart, to which the furring was nailed. 
 The furring consisted of strips of boards, about two 
 inches wide. On the top of the wall, as the summit of 
 each story was reached, strips of boards, about five 
 inches wide, were laid on the wall, on the inside, for 
 supporting the ends of the joists. In the upper edge 
 of every third joist, a strong pin Avas inserted, standing 
 outward into the wall, for the purpose of keeping the 
 wall from spreading. Mr. Mead says: "This house is 
 dryer than any dwelling within my knowledge. The 
 walls are perfectly sound and tight ; and I know of no 
 objection to this plan of building, except the limit of 
 time to the most favorable period of the season, for 
 mortar to dry. It is impossible to complete a house of 
 such material, in a few weeks, as every course of mortar 
 must have sufficient time to dry, before it w411 be safe 
 to place more weight above it. It is important that 
 the walls should have ample time to dry through and 
 through before winter." 
 
 I have thought of another plan, which is to make 
 the shells and mortar into blocks, say a foot square, and 
 two or three feet long. By putting the same into 
 moulds of suitable size, the house could be built in a 
 short time, by having the blocks seasoned one year be- 
 fore they are to be laid up. The blocks could then be 
 laid up very rapidly; and for anything I can perceive, 
 would make a good Avail. As the walls were being built, 
 several pieces of scantling, two by three, Avere laid in 
 the middle of the bed over a windoAA^, eighteen inches 
 above it, six or eight feet long. Short pieces nailed 
 to the scantling helped to give it adhesion. These 
 pieces Avere bedded in the Avail and covered AA-ith shells 
 
AN OYSTER-SHELL VILLA. 131 
 
 and mortar, and thus became a part of the wall. The 
 pieces of scantling bind the wall together. A few sncli 
 were placed about the corners and nailed there, thus 
 securing the position of the wall as well as practicable. 
 After the roof was put on, the outside was covered with 
 stucco, or mastic, and afterwards painted. (See mastic 
 in the glossary, front part of this book.) 
 
 The manner of computing the cost of such a dwell- 
 ing will be, to estimate the number of joists required 
 for each floor. Then compute the amount of flooring 
 requisite for each story. Next, ascertain the number 
 of division studs required between the rooms of each 
 story. Then, the cost of one window and one door can 
 be estimated; and the amount of each multiplied by 
 the number required. Then, after the style of cornice 
 has been decided upon, the builder can estimate within 
 one hundred feet, the quantity of lumber required for 
 either a heavy box cornice, or any style of bracket fin- 
 ish. The amount of roofing can also be computed, 
 within a few dollars, whether the material be tin, plastic 
 slate, Vermont slate, or shingles. The mastic finish on 
 the outside, and the walls on the inside, may be com- 
 .puted by the square yard. If a veranda be desired on 
 more than one side of the edifice, let the builder make 
 a fair estimate of the lumber required for a veranda on 
 one side. Then, it will be easy to ascertain the cost of 
 a veranda on every side. If a cupola is desired, let 
 the cost of the lumber be computed, the windows, roof- 
 ing, and every other item. Thus, by taking up each 
 item separately, an honest builder will be able to ap- 
 proximate to the aggregate cost of such an edifice, 
 within fifty or eighty dollars. Any joiner who is com- 
 
132 todd's country homes. 
 
 jDetent to do the wood-work, if he understands the 
 fundamental rules of arithmetic, can prepare a bill of 
 materials in two hours, that will surprise one, w^hen it is 
 shown by figures, how cheaply such a villa can be 
 erected, when oyster or clam-shells are abundant. 
 Laro'e sfravel stones and small boulders will also sub- 
 serve a satisfactory purpose, in lieu of shells. 
 
 IMPORTANT SUGGESTIONS TO BEGINNE-KS, WHEN BUILDING. 
 
 It is not proposed to offer counsel to experienced 
 builders, who may be . entirely flimiliar with all our 
 suggestions. But the following paragraphs, some of 
 which were originally penned for the "Manufacturer 
 and Builder," which, for a limited period edited by 
 the . writer, will be of great value to beginners, pro- 
 vided they will heed the advice. Some builders will 
 not practice what they know. Therefore, if a beginner 
 can have the advantage of good suggestions, he will 
 be able to know whether a boss-builder performs a job 
 correctly, or whether he slights some portions of his 
 contract. 
 
 When you are ready to build, make a plan of your 
 proposed house, and study and change it until you are 
 satisfied that it can not be any better, and that the 
 house built according to it, will suit all who are inter- 
 ested. But be sure and make all the changes on 
 paper; do not have any to make when the work is 
 under way. 
 
 Always count the cost before beginning your pur- 
 chases. If you have not about money enough to finish 
 the house, do not begin it ; but put what you have in 
 the bank, to draw its seven per cent interest, and add 
 to the sum, until you have enough. By so doing, you 
 
SUGGESTIONS TO BEGINNEKS. 133 
 
 will not need to mortgage, you will receive the seven 
 per cent instead of paying it, and you will save law- 
 yers' fees and your peace of mind, and enjoy the oc- 
 cupancy of your new domicile, far more than if you were 
 perpetually harrassed with the unhappy thought, " it 
 is mine, but not paid for." 
 
 In arranging your plan, it is well to remember that 
 doors which are used most in passing through a room, 
 should be opposite one another, and not cross-cornered. 
 The front windows should be arranged symmetrically 
 with respect to the outside, and partitions inside be 
 made to suit. Do not have a step between two rooms 
 on the same floor, but put them all into the stairs be- 
 tween stories. 
 
 The situation of the chimney, if possible, should be 
 central, so as to admit openings into all rooms. If you 
 intend to let the job, get some responsible contractor 
 to estimate it, and look it over yourself to see that it 
 is all right. If you are to do your own work, make 
 out a bill of everything that will be required, in detail, 
 make your purchases, stack your lumber up to dry, 
 and proceed to work. 
 
 Since the foundation is at the bottom of everything, 
 and will be the "root of all evil," if it is not a good 
 one, it must receive the first and best attention. If 
 you wish a good cellar, the foundation must be of 
 stone, and built up in the shape of a wall, inclosing the 
 cellar. The excavation must be made below the reach 
 of frost; and if good solid earth is reached, the walls 
 may be started from that. Two or more low windows 
 should be placed in the walls, on both sides of the 
 house, so as to ventilate the cellar. 
 
134 todd's countky homes. 
 
 K you wish to put up brick walls, a water-table 
 must be laid on the foundation-walls, consisting of cut 
 stone; or if that is too expensive, of slabs of stone, 
 similar to the wall, trimmed at the joints and outside 
 edges, and the top beveled to shed the water. It 
 should project one and one-half or two inches from the 
 face of the walls. If a cellar is not an object, and 
 wood is to be used for walls, the foundation may con- 
 sist of oak or cedar posts, well smeared with coal-tar, 
 driven below the reach of frost, and sawed off level 
 at the required height. The sills should be about 
 eight by eight inches, halved and pinned together at 
 the corners, and securely fastened to the posts or wall. 
 The lower joists should be two by eight inches, twelve 
 to sixteen inches apart. Be sure and cross-bridge your 
 floor-joists, before they are put out of level by scaffold- 
 ing, or any other weight. Lay off the spaces on the 
 sills, for doors and windows, then you may put up your 
 studding, say of two by four inch scantling, set edge 
 out. Put in a double stud on each side of all doors 
 and windows, and at the corners of the house. The 
 most expeditious way to mark the places for studs, is 
 to make a measuring stick, say four or eight feet long. 
 Then, if the studs are to be one foot, or sixteen inches 
 apart, let the marks be indicated accordingly on the rule. 
 If a joiner attempts to lay out the distances for his 
 studs with a two-foot rule, unless he is extremely care- 
 ful, he will make mistakes. Do not be talked into the 
 very common error of beginning to build in the latter 
 part of the season. 
 
 If sand must be obtained at a distance, begin a year 
 beforehand to haul it, so that there may be no delay 
 
KOOFS OF HOUSES. 135 
 
 Avhen the mortar is needed. As soon as joists and 
 studs are sawed, "stick them up," on the edges, to 
 keep them straight. Let unusual care be exercised in 
 procuring lime and cement. It is bad policy to pur- 
 chase air-slacked lime, or old cement, that has lost its 
 strength. Let all outside wood- work be painted, before 
 the surface gets wet, as w\ater will raise the grain and 
 render the work rough, wdien it is dry, thus requir- 
 ing more paint. Do not suffer yourself to be talked 
 into a gross deception employed by many builders, that 
 it is impossible to determine how much a house will 
 cost, beforehand. Builders who make such a plea, 
 know better. They know that an intelligent joiner 
 can compute the cost of a house, as accurately as a 
 tailor can estimate the expense of a gentleman's over- 
 coat. 
 
 THE ROOF OF DWELLING-HOUSES. 
 
 Some persons have become so much accustomed to 
 seeing a roof, that a house without a showy and ex- 
 pensive roof appears so odd, strange and wanting in 
 beauty, that they can see no more symmetry in a really 
 commodious and tasty villa, than in a square box. It 
 is not denied that there is great beauty in a roof. And 
 yet, if we had been accustomed to see dwellings with a 
 covering so flat, that the cornice hides every part of 
 it, we should look upon a villa with a steep, showy 
 and expensive roof, as the most homely and odd struc- 
 ture that a mechanic could devise. A flat roof that 
 cannot be seen from the ground, is far cheaper than a 
 steep roof. And to many people, a cottage with a pro- 
 jecting, and very flat roof, appears far more in keeping 
 with their ideas of architectural beauty, than a steep 
 
136 tudd's country homes. 
 
 roof. A steep roof, with gables and dormer windows, 
 will make a house apjDear much larger than it really is ; 
 and they will give it a more spacious appearance, than 
 if the same rooms were covered with a flat roof Those 
 persons who fancy gables, dormer windows, pediments 
 and truncated roofs, will not be satisfied with a flat 
 roof As to the expense, I need hardly state that a flat 
 roof that cannot be seen, if covered with plastic slate 
 or tin, will -constitute about the cheapest and best roof 
 that can be made. The steeper the roof is, of course, 
 the greater will be the quantity of roofing material 
 required to cover it ; and consequently, the larger will 
 be the cash expense. Pediments are always expen- 
 sive ; and unless every part is made with extreme care- 
 fulness, the valleys will leak. If shingles, or slate be 
 used to cover a roof, of course, it must be steep ; and 
 the steeper a roof is, the less liable it will be to leak, 
 as the water will be conducted down, even on the un- 
 der side of poor shingles, on a steep roof, which would 
 not carry off the rain, were the sides not more than a 
 quarter pitch. (See pitch of roof in glossary.) But, 
 whether a roof be steep or flat, there is great beauty 
 in having the eaves project beyond the wall ; and the 
 amount of projection must be regulated by the size of 
 the edifice. There is little danger of giving too much 
 projection. A projecting roof adds largely to 'the 
 beauty of a cottage, or a villa. And more than this, 
 there is great economy in protecting the walls, es- 
 pecially if they are painted, by means of a project- 
 ing roof, on every side of the house. 
 
 In sections of the country where snow and ice are 
 liable to accumulate on a roof near the eaves, so as to 
 
BRACKET FINISH. 
 
 137 
 
 dam up the water, and cause it to back up beneath the 
 shmgles, and flow down on the walls inside of the dwell- 
 ing, it is important that the roofing material should be 
 water tight, like tin, or a coat of plastic slate. Then, 
 it will be impossible for water to find its way through 
 the roof, even if ice should accumulate at the eaves. 
 The walls of many fine villas that were covered with 
 shingles, or Vermont slate, have been damaged exceed- 
 ingly, by the water backing up from the eaves. 
 
 A BRACKET FINISH. 
 
 The illustration given in this connection represents a 
 side view of a bracket nailed to the cornice-boards. 
 
 The brackets for a house two 
 stories high should be about four 
 feet long, and not less than two 
 feet wide at the widest point. A 
 pattern should be made of the 
 desired form, as shown by the en- 
 graving, with which each bracket 
 is marked out. The brackets 
 may then be sawed out on a 
 scroll-saw table. The cornice- 
 boards are first nailed to the 
 studs, after which the ])rackets 
 are held in the desired place and 
 nailed from the inside. If a bracket should come di- 
 rectly opposite a stud, the nails can be slanted, so as to 
 enter the bracket. The under side of the roof-board is 
 planed, so that the surface may be painted. As the 
 brackets will be entirely protected from storms, the 
 planks of which they are made, may be sawed out of 
 bass-wood, whiterwood, or any other kind of cheap tim- 
 
 A WOODEN BRACKET. 
 
138 todd's country homes. 
 
 ber, as such lumber, in a dry j)lace, will subserve just 
 as good a purpose as more expensive timber. 
 
 I once erected a tasty suburban villa, having a 
 bracket finish, the brackets of which were similar to 
 the illustration, and were sawed out of elm plank ; and 
 the cornice-boards were white bass-wood, thoroughly 
 seasoned. This lumber subserved as satisfactory a pur- 
 pose as pine, which would cost twice as much as the 
 elm and bass-wood. 
 
 It may be seen by the illustration, that representa- 
 tions of nails are shown, as having been driven through 
 the frieze-board into the edge of the bracket. One of 
 the most expeditious and accurate ways to make a pat- 
 tern for such a bracket, is, to cut a small one out of a 
 piece of thick paper, hold it by the side of a lighted 
 lamp, so that its shadow will fall on a board, held 
 against the wall. Then, mark out a full-sized bracket 
 by the shadow of a small bracket. In this way, brackets 
 of different sizes may be marked out with accuracy, and 
 with great facility, by holding the paper pattern, nearer 
 the light, if it is desirable to increase the size of the 
 desired pattern. 
 
 This style of finish is admirably adapted to the im- 
 provement of an old farm-house, which has very little 
 cornice, or simply a large moulding for verge-boards, as 
 the "cornice-boards can be nailed on without disturbing 
 the walls, or tiny of the interior of the building; and 
 the nails that hold the brackets may be toed in. Such 
 a finish is not expensive, and an active, ingenious man 
 or boy, can make such a finish, and put it up about 
 as well as an experienced joiner. Furthermore, the 
 beauty which such a finish will impart to either an old 
 
SLATE KOOFING. 139 
 
 house, or a new one, for a country residence, far 
 transcends the beauty of a heavy Cormthian cornice, 
 which is adapted only to palatial mansions and other 
 edifices in a city. A bracket finish is more in keeping 
 with the country than the heavy and expensive cor- 
 nices which should never be seen, except on a city 
 bank, or on some large public building. 
 
 PLASTIC SLATE ROOriNG. 
 
 It is a subject of congratulation that science has re- 
 cently enabled builders to avail themselves of a mate- 
 rial for roofing, that possesses the merit of cheapness 
 aiid durability at the same time. I allude to the plastic 
 slate roofing. I have no tin, plastic slate or shingles 
 to sell. But I have seen, in the city of New York, 
 enough of plastic slate roofs to warrant me in stating 
 that this material is the cheapest, the most durable, 
 and will render the best satisfaction of any material 
 that can be employed for covering buildings. I have 
 examined a number of large buildings in New York 
 City that are covered with plastic slate, and more 
 beautiful roofs were never seen. Water may stand and 
 back up, for any length of time, on them, and not a 
 drop can get through to wet the walls. Those large 
 buildings seem to be covered by one broad and un- 
 broken piece of slate, as durable as stone itself, and, 
 to all appearance, they will remain perfectly water- 
 proof, and fire-proof also, for hundreds of years after 
 the men who made them have been forgotten. 
 
 The materials employed in making this kind of roof- 
 ing are inexhaustible, and as cheap as the fragments of 
 quarried slate and gas-tar, both of which may be ob- 
 tained at so cheap a rate, that the expense of forming a 
 
140 todd's country homes. 
 
 durable roof will be less than it can be made of shingles 
 of any kind, or of metal. Some parties at first expe- 
 rience serious difficulty in making a satisfactory roof 
 of coal-tar and the flour of slate. But, by repeated 
 experiments, they learned that their failures were at- 
 tributable to want of skill in mingling the two sub- 
 stances. Experiments showed that when the tar and 
 the flour of slate were mingled in the proper propor- 
 tions, the material would reconstruct readily, and form 
 a most perfect roof, which will last as long as natural 
 slate. I have had the plastic slate applied to a leaky 
 tin roof on my own house in Brooklyn, and I do not 
 hesitate to recommend it as the cheapest and most 
 durable roof that can be put on a building. A writer 
 in the Working Farmer sa.ys: "It is a palpable fact, 
 that pulverized slate-rock, mixed with coal-tar, and 
 exposed in a thin layer to solar or other heat, does 
 become a solid body, non-absorbent and undecay- 
 ing; and having no other suitable word, we call it 
 " stone " — " slate-stone." To call it by any other name 
 would mislead the people. This change is brought 
 about by natural laws. But the time of its accomplish- 
 ment depends on the degree of heat and the thickness 
 of the layer. No matter if it remained a hundred 
 years in a semi-hard and flexible state, it will always 
 be impervious to w\ater and steam, and a shield against 
 fire. But the fact is, coal-tar alone will 7iot stay; it 
 will fly off in the air; and what is left is solid slate or 
 stone." 
 
 There is only one objection to plastic slate on a 
 dwelling-house, which is, the coal-tar will color the 
 water, and injure it for culinary purposes, until the 
 
DIET CATCHER. 141 
 
 material becomes hard. But in order to have clean and 
 pure water, a device similar to the illustration in the 
 next paragraph may be employed with satisfactory re- 
 sults. Where such an automatic dirt-catcher is em- 
 ployed, the water may be collected from a roof of any 
 kind, and be free from all impurities. Plastic slate is 
 being employed for roofing, very extensively, in almost 
 every State of the Union. And, the plastic material is 
 used for other purposes besides roofing. In New York 
 City, the spacious stable of one of the Ice Companies 
 is in the second story. Horses ascend on a cleated in- 
 clined plane, to reach their stables. The first floor is 
 used for a carriage-house. To make the stable floor 
 "leak-tight," and thus prevent the liquid of the stables 
 from flowing down into the carriage-room, the first 
 floor on the joists, was covered with a heavy coat of 
 plastic slate. Then, before the plastic had become 
 hard, a plank floor was laid directly on the plastic slate. 
 By this means, the timbers were preserved from decay ; 
 and the stable floor was rendered tight. See how to 
 use plastic slate for making wet cellars dry, under the 
 head of cellars. 
 
 , AN AUTOMATIC DIRT CATCHER. 
 
 The illustration in this connection, represents a de- 
 vice for turning the filthy water collected on a roof 
 out of the cistern. There is usually more or less dust, 
 dirt, and filth on almost all kinds of roofs, which is 
 swept off" by the first dash of a shower of rain. Roofing 
 which is composed in part of coal tar, will color and 
 scent all the water of a large reservoir, unless that 
 which falls first, can be turned away from the cistern. 
 
 There have been several patent devices brought out 
 
142 
 
 TODD S COUNTEY HOMES. 
 
 for this purpose, which required an o]3erator to be on 
 hand, during a shower, to adjust the parts. But this 
 device is entirely automatic, simple, easily constructed, 
 and always reliable. If a shower of rain falls during 
 any hour of the night, no one is required to hasten to 
 the water-conductor to turn away the first washing of 
 a dirty roof; and then, to direct the clean water into 
 the cistern. The device consists of a large barrel, open 
 at the top, standing on a plank, about six or eight feet 
 long, near one end of it, as shown in the illustration. 
 
 AUTOMATIC DIRT CATCHER. 
 
 A large stone, or a number of small stones, or a pile of 
 bricks, not quite as heavy as the barrel full of water, 
 occupies the other end of the plank. The plank as 
 will be seen, rests on the sharp edge of a stick of tim- 
 ber. A portion of the leader from the eave-trough, is 
 represented, which conveys the water into the cistern. 
 The barrel is supposed to be empty. The first water 
 that falls on a filthy roof carries with it all the filth 
 
EE-SHINGLING OLD KOOFS. 143 
 
 • 
 
 and odor, and everytliing is received in the barrel. 
 By the time the barrel is full, the roof is as clean as 
 a scoured kitchen floor; and so soon as the barrel has 
 received a larger number of pounds of water, than 
 the weight of the balance-stone, on the other end of 
 the plank, the barrel of water descends, and the stone 
 rises. The water from the roof, by this time, will be 
 clear and clean; and instead of flowing into the short 
 trough extending from the leader to the barrel, the 
 stream is received in the section of the funnel-shaped 
 leader, which is moved in the proper position by the 
 descent of the barrel, to receive the water from the 
 main leader, or tin spout. After the shower, the water 
 is let out of the barrel, when the stone will go down 
 and the barrel will rise, and adjust itself for another 
 flood of foul liquid from the roof. 
 
 With the aid of this illustration aiid explanation, any 
 person of ordinary intelligence will be able to arrange 
 such an apparatus, to operate in a satisfactory manner. 
 If the roof is a spacious one, it will be necessary to 
 place a hogshead or tierce on one end of the plank, as 
 one-fourth part of the filthy water collected on a large 
 roof, would fill a barrel. In cold weather, the barrel 
 or hogshead should be emptied before the water freezes. 
 If there are any more desirable devices than this, for 
 turning the foul water out of a cistern, I have not met 
 with them. 
 
 EE SHINGLING OLD EOOFS. 
 
 When an old shingle-roof has become so leaky as to 
 require a covering of new shingles, it is a great mis- 
 take to remove the old ones. Yet, this is almost always 
 done, before the jiew shingles are put on. It is a far 
 
144 todd's country homes. 
 
 better practice, however, to lay the new roof directly 
 over the old one. If there be moss on the shingles, 
 scrape and sweep it off clean. Then, apply a heavy 
 coat of coal-tar to the old shingles, and proceed to put 
 on the new shingles, just as if there were no old 
 shingles on the roof. If the shingles are thick, and 
 the roof-boards soft wood, it will be necessary to use 
 six-penny nails, for fastening on the new shingles. 
 But, if both the old shingles and the new ones are thin, 
 and the roof-boards are hard wood, ordinary shingle 
 nails may subserve a satisfactory purpose. The nails 
 must be long enough to draw every shingle down tight, 
 and retain the shingle in its proper place. 
 
 Every practical man will perceive, at a glance, the 
 advantage of covering the old roof with new shingles. 
 The old shingles will be of little value after they are re- 
 moved ; whereas, they will aid in rendering a roof more 
 tight. To strip an old roof, and to break down or drive 
 in all the nails, is more of a job than one would suppose, 
 until he has had some experience in doing such work. 
 
 The coat of coal-tar tends to preserve the old shingles, 
 and render the entire roof more durable. A few 
 pounds more of nails will be required, to nail through 
 the old shingles. But the extra expense will not equal 
 the cost of taking off the old roof 
 
 One of the most satisfactory ways to render a tin 
 roof tight, is, to cover it with a coat of plastic slate 
 roofing. Our own house, in Brooklyn, is covered with 
 a tin roof, which w^ould leak in spite of all the tinker's 
 efforts to solder up the cracks. I then had a coat of 
 plastic slate spread directly on the tin, and our roof 
 has never leaked since. Judging from its appear- 
 
RAISING A EOOF. 145 
 
 unce, the plastic slate roof will last a hundred years, 
 or more. This covering seems like one large piece 
 -of Vermont slate, extending over the entire roof. 
 
 HOW TO RAISE A ROOF. 
 
 It is frequently necessary to elevate the entire roof 
 of a house, so as to make the rooms in the attic, of 
 desirable height. In some instances, a roof may be 
 raised a few feet in height, with little difficulty. On 
 the contrary, it may require skillful engineering to 
 raise a roof that has no collar-beams secured to the 
 rafters, even a few inches. Some means must be em- 
 ployed to prevent the plates from spreading. If collar- 
 beams are nailed to the rafters, the studs may be saAved 
 off beneath the plates, on both sides of the building. 
 Now, elevate one side, say six inches, by means of 
 three or four joiner's bench-screws, placed on blocks 
 beneath the plate. Block up the plate, put the screws 
 under the other side, raise it one foot liigh and block 
 it up. Then elevate each side, alternately, one foot at 
 a time. When the roof is at the desired height, splice 
 the studs beneath the plates, by sawing the ends off 
 square, and nailing strips on each side of the two pieces 
 that are to be joined together. If there are no collar- 
 beams to hold the foot of the rafters from spreading, 
 the sides of the roof will be liable to fall down flat, as 
 soon as the plates are cut loose. 
 
 In case there is a stiff plate on each side of the 
 Iniilding, two wooden bench-screws would be sufficient 
 to elevate one side at a time. 
 
 GUTTERS, EAVE-TROUGHS AND SPOUTING. 
 
 Every building that stands on a wall, should be pro- 
 vided with suitable eave-troughs, or gutters, with 
 
 10 
 
146 todd's country homes. 
 
 leaders or spouting, to conduct all the water that falls 
 on the roof, into a spacious cistern, or into a subter- 
 ranean conduit. Many an elegant dwelling has been 
 seriously damaged, by allowing the water from the roof, 
 to be discharged on the ground, near some corner of 
 the building. And one of the worst effects of discharg- 
 ing water from the gutters of buildings on the surface, 
 is that it is liable to get under the foundations, at, or 
 near its place of discharge ; and by softening the ground 
 at this point, cause the building to settle unequally, 
 which is injurious to a plastered dwelling. If water is 
 allowed to flow from a leader on the surface of the 
 ground, a small open trough should convey it away from 
 the building, at least thirty feet from the wall. The 
 earth around the foundation wall of a building, should 
 be kept as dry as practicable. When there is no eave- 
 trough on a house, or barn, and all the water is allowed 
 to fall from the roof to the ground, near the wall, the 
 whole earth frequently becomes so thoroughly satur- 
 ated with water and the wall gets such a drenching, 
 that the frost of winter freezes the earth behind the 
 wall, and eventually thrusts the wall over into the cel- 
 lar. The correct way is to extend the tin spouting to 
 within some ten inches of the surface of the ground, 
 and at this point, insert the tin tube into the upper end 
 of a glazed earthen pipe, without any elbow in the tin 
 pipe. Place an earthen bend of pipe below frost in 
 the ground, and continue the pipe in the ground, join- 
 ins; all the discharsjes from the building; into one main 
 pipe, which leads into the cistern or drain. If this is 
 well done, none of the water which falls on the build- 
 ing will be absorbed by the foundation walls, or find 
 
BATTEN-DOORS. 147 
 
 its way into the cellar. Another very desirable result 
 is also attained — the water will seldom freeze in the 
 spouting, and rupture it. 
 
 Thus arranged, and with a wire strainer in the gutter 
 over the mouth of the spouting, to prevent leaves from 
 getting in the spouting, it will need no repairs for many 
 years, nor any attention, except to remove the leaves 
 from the gutters, when the water shall be found to over- 
 flow in consequence of the leaves obstructing the pas- 
 sage. When leaves accumulate on the roofs of build- 
 ings, they should be removed every few days. It is 
 far better to remove them, than to be to the expense, 
 as is frequently done, of making sieves, or screens of 
 wire, to exclude them. It is an excellent practice to 
 let the water from the tin leaders, be discharged into 
 the tile drains, at the bottom of the foundation wall, 
 as a stream of water will keep the passage clear. 
 
 A WORD ABOUT BATTEN-DOORS. 
 
 Most house-joiners will sneer at the idea of having a 
 batten-door in any part of a dwelling-house. But, in 
 a plain, cheap house, a neatly made batten- door, with 
 a bead on one side of every joint, always looks as neat 
 and tasty as an expensive panel-door. Besides this, a 
 neat batten-door, made of straight-grained, narrow 
 boards, looks more harmoniously when contrasted Avith 
 ,the plain casing and other wood- work of a cheap dwell- 
 ing-house. Saying nothing of the appearance, batten- 
 doors have the merit of great economy to recommend 
 their use in constructing a cheap house. One panel- 
 door will cost more than three batten-doors. If the 
 inside of a house is to be finished with panel-work 
 under the windows, and heavy face casings and mould- 
 
1-18 todd's country iiomijs. 
 
 ings are put around the door-ways and window-frames, 
 panel-doors should be used in order to be in keeping 
 with the rest of the work. It may suit most people 
 better to have a panel-door for the front entrance of a 
 cheap house. But all the inside doors may be batten- 
 doors. Very few people would be able to tell, after 
 spending a day or. two in a cozy cottage, whether the 
 house was furnished with batten or panel-doors. 
 
 The boards of which batten-doors are to be made, 
 should always be dressed out and sunned thoroughly, 
 for eight or ten days, before the pieces are put together. 
 A better plan still than sunning the boards is, to lay 
 them up over head, in a store-room, where they will 
 soon season so thoroughly, that the pieces will shrink 
 but little. 
 
 In order to show something of the economy of bat- 
 ten-doors, the writer will state, that when accustomed 
 to work at building houses, he never desired over two 
 hours to dress one side of the stuff of a batten-door, put 
 the pieces together, and hang it. Most house-carpen- 
 ters will make and hang more than five batten-doors in 
 a day, when the stuff is planed on one side and matched. 
 If a workman cannot make and hang a batten-door in 
 two hours, he cannot perform a fair day's work. These 
 points are alluded to, because som.e house-joiners, who 
 are receiving great wages, will often squander a whole, 
 day in making and hanging one batten-door. 
 
 The most expeditious way to make a batten-door is 
 to saw the lower ends of the boards square, fasten one 
 end of the battens to one board with four wood-screws, 
 drive the other boards together, put on the door-clamp, 
 squeeze the pieces together and fasten the batten Avith 
 
AIE-TIGHT DOORS. 149 
 
 screws, rather than wroiight-nails. One screw is worth 
 more than two nails in making a batten-door, as the 
 screws will hold much more than nails. Then, by hav- 
 ing the lower end square with one side, the door can be 
 set up to its place, the top and one side marked off with 
 a pencil in less time than is required to write out these 
 directions, the side and top sawed off to the mark, and 
 the door hung in a few minutes. 
 
 HOW TO MAKE AIR-TIGHT DOORS. 
 
 It is extremely desirable, many times, to construct 
 doors in such a manner as to subserve nearly as good a 
 purpose as a solid wall. This may be done satisfac- 
 torily and at a trifling expense. Such doors are de- 
 sirable for ice-houses, fruit-preserving houses, and for 
 cellars. When neatly made, they will exclude a vast 
 deal of cold from a cellar, or from fruit apartment. 
 
 There are two ways of making air-tight doors. One 
 is to hang a panel or a batten-door on each side of a 
 wide jamb-casing, and bevel the edges of each door, 
 say about one-eighth of an inch in the thickness 
 of the stiles, and bevel the edges of the casing, so as 
 to correspond with the edges of the door. There should 
 be a space of about one-eighth of an inch all around be- 
 tween the edges of the door and the casing. Then 
 nail pieces of woolen cloth, or strips of list on the 
 door, and in the rabbet of the casing. 
 
 Another way is to make two box-doors, one for each 
 side of the wall, or door-way, having beveled edges 
 covered with cloth, just as the edges of the doors 
 alluded to, in the preceding paragraph, are covered. A 
 plank frame is first made, similar to a door-casing, with 
 jamb-casings, or stiles six inches wide. Boards are 
 
150 todd's country homes. 
 
 then nailed on both sides of the frame, thus forming a 
 space six inches wide, in each door, which is filled with 
 saw-dust or tan-bark. These doors are then neatly hung, 
 so as to fit tight to the casing. If the wall be a thick 
 one, there will be an air-chamber a foot wide between 
 the doors. It will pay well to make such doors for 
 cellars, beneath out-buildings, as the weather must 
 necessarily be exceedingly cold to freeze vegetables 
 beyond such an entrance. 
 
 SIZE OF WINDOWS, AND PANES. 
 
 To some persons, large panes of glass appear really 
 magnificent, and large windows seem to add to the 
 grandeur of a splendid palace. Yet, after all, there are 
 some strange notions cherished about the size of win- 
 dows, as well as the number of windows with which 
 each room is provided. 
 
 The object of windows is to admit the light. The 
 side of a house will appear just as beautiful with four 
 windows, as with eight, and vice versa, provided we are 
 only accustomed to think that a house with either 
 number looks the best. Many people, as well as some 
 house carpenters, have capricious notions concerning 
 the size of windows and the number there ought to be 
 in each room of a dwelling. The custom is to get all 
 the large and expensive windows you can into every 
 room; and then, put on blinds outside, shutters inside, 
 and from one to three different curtains and shades to 
 each window. That is the custom. And a more arbi- 
 trary, unphilosophical, unreasonable and unwise prac- 
 tice does not prevail. Window-blinds, sash, frames, 
 shutters, glass, curtains, and everything employed about 
 a window, are made of expensive materials. What 
 
SIZE OF WINDOW-PANES. 151 
 
 reason is there, therefore, in making large and expen- 
 sive windows to admit the light, and then exclude it 
 with shutters and shades? It is always desirable to 
 have an abundance of light in every room. But on 
 the score of economy, the correct way is to make only 
 as many windows as are really necessary, and to have* 
 the blinds and shades so constructed, that light can be 
 admitted throug-h the entire window when it is re- 
 quired. The larger the panes of glass are, and the 
 larger the squares of the sashes, the more expensive 
 the windows will be. In point of economy, therefore, 
 it is better to have fifteen panes of glass, eight by ten, 
 in each window, than to have the same space filled 
 with only two, or with four large panes. The glass in 
 windows, is liable to be broken by numerous unfore- 
 seen casualties. If the panes are large, the expense 
 may be one dollar or more to put in a new light. 
 Whereas, were the glass not more than seven by nine, 
 or eight by ten inches square, the cost of putting in a 
 new light, where a pane has been broken, will be only 
 a few cents. A window with the panes only six or 
 eight inches square coincides more harmoniously with 
 economical architecture, than glass two feet square. 
 Many dollars may be saved by purchasing window sash 
 and glass of a small size, as small panes are more 
 fashionable than large ones. But whatever may be the 
 size or shape of the windows, let them be so con- 
 structed that the upper sashes can be shoved down- 
 wards, for the purpose of ventilation. 
 
 MANAGEMENT OF FLOORING. 
 
 Floor-boards ought to be dried in a kiln, and heated 
 so thoroughly, that they will not shrink out of the 
 
152 todd's country homes. 
 
 matcliing, after having been laid a few months. Even 
 when lumber has been seasoned five years, under shel- 
 ter, and then laid for a floor in a dwelling-house, the 
 boards will shrink, sometimes one-fourth of an inch 
 per every foot. But, if the boards be sunned in hot 
 weather, for two weeks, and the floor laid while the 
 boards are warm and dry, they will not shrink out of 
 the matching. 
 
 Flooring should never be more than six inches wide ; 
 because, floor-boards will shrink more on the upper 
 side, than on the lower side. Then, if they be wide, 
 they will be warped badly, and thus make an. uneven 
 floor. If the boards be narrow, the surface will not 
 be so uneven, as if the boards were wide. When a 
 floor is not to be covered with a carj)et, the boards 
 should be "blind nailed," which is done by driving the 
 nails in the edge of each board on the upper side of 
 the tongue. 
 
 The joints of flooring in the kitchen, and other places 
 where water is liable to enter, should be thoroughly 
 smeared with good paint, as each board is laid. A few 
 cents' worth of paint will often save as many dollars 
 in the durability of the boards. 
 
 White-ash and sugar-maple timber will make an ex- 
 cellent floor for a kitchen. In order to have a neat 
 and smooth floor, free from dirt cracks, put the boards 
 overhead in the kitchen, for at least two months. 
 Then, let them be planed and matched, in a planing- 
 machine. The ends of the boards may extend under 
 the base-board, on one side of the room, and the other 
 ends can be sawed off" square to fit the base, with a 
 tight joint. All kitchen floors should be put down in 
 
PRESERVATION OF TIMBER. 153 
 
 this manner, so that a new floor can be laid, without 
 tearing off the base, and thus injuring the wall. I 
 once laid a maple floor in this way, after the boards 
 were thoroughly seasoned; and it was a beauty. The 
 surface was oiled, so that grease spots could not be dis- 
 covered in the wood; the joints were water-tight. 
 
 PRESERVATION OF TIMBER IN BUILDINGS. 
 
 In many instances, multitudes of small borers Avill 
 work in the frame timber of a barn or house, to such an 
 extent that a large proportion of the interior of posts 
 and beams will be reduced to "• powder post." I have 
 seen beams made of sugar-maple trees bored to powder 
 to such an extent, that there was danger of crushing 
 beneath the superincumbent pressure. 
 
 When timber is cut down in the spring of the year, 
 or in the former part of summer, and worked up in a 
 frame, borers will almost always work in the beams and 
 posts. And sometimes they will be found committing 
 their depredations in frame timber- that was hewed or 
 sawed out in autumn. After such borers have entered 
 a stick of timber, it is not practicable to dislodge them 
 or to arrest their ravages. But timely remedies are 
 available. 
 
 As soon as the frame is erected, smear the surface of 
 the timber with coal-tar. This will be found an effect- 
 ual remedy, as the poisonous material in the tar is so re- 
 pulsive to the flies that deposit the eggs in the timber 
 from which the borers are hatched, that no eggs will be 
 deposited there. A heavy coat of paint will subserve 
 the same purpose as tar. But oil paint would be too 
 expensive. 
 
 In some sections of the country, a kind of bumble-bee 
 
154 todd's countey homes. 
 
 will make honey-comb of the wood-work of a house, if 
 the surface is not coated with paint, or coal-tar. I have 
 frequently seen the bumble-bees bore holes in the wood- 
 Avork of verandas of dwelling-houses, and cut out re- 
 cesses capacious enough for their nests, and there they 
 w^ould propagate and rear their yoimg. When all other 
 wood-work was coated with paint, I have known them 
 to enter the under side of an unpainted board-seat on 
 the veranda, and cut out the interior, so that the board 
 was a mere shell. An hour spent in the morning 
 knocking these invaders down with a light bat, will be 
 time profitably appropriated. A boy or girl with a 
 light bat will soon exterminate them. 
 
 Another means of rendering frame timber durable, 
 is to bore a hole from the outside of the timber to the 
 lower side or bottom of every mortise, crack, or recess 
 in the timber that will retain water. By this means, 
 when water finds its w^ay from any source into such 
 cavities, it will be provided with a convenient egress, 
 thus saving the timber from decay. Sills of barns and 
 houses frequently have large cracks on the upper side.' 
 When the kitchen floor is cleaned, if water finds its 
 way into such cracks when there is no outlet, the tim- 
 ber must decay in a few years. Proprietors of houses 
 should explain to their domestics the injury that is lia- 
 ble to result from deluging the floor with water. Floors 
 and all other parts of a dwelling can be cleaned and 
 kept clean, without using so much water that it will 
 run down into the timber of the frame, to its injury. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS ABOUT CONCRETE WALLS. 
 
 There are a few important considerations in regard 
 to building concrete or oyster-shell houses, which 
 
CONCRETE WALLS. 155 
 
 should be carefully observed. I will allude to them 
 briefly. Do not carry up the walls too rapidly. A bed 
 of mortar, after it has set, is very tender, and a wall 
 will collapse with only a little jarring. If the walls be 
 carried up too rapidly, they will crush with their own 
 weight. If sufficient care is not taken in regard to a 
 dry foundation, water will freeze in the wall and make 
 trouble. The work should be done in fine weather; 
 and in stormy weather the walls should be well cov- 
 ered. The lime used should be uniform in quality, 
 and fresh. The sand and gravel should be clean; and 
 trials should be made beforehand, to know the most 
 desirable proportions of lime, sand and gravel. A few 
 bushels of inferior lime may ruin a good wall. The 
 limited number of people who persevere in erecting 
 concrete walls, and because they cannot get regular 
 mechanics to do the work at reasonable prices, do it 
 themselves, often meet, at first, with the accidents and 
 mishaps to which all inexperienced persons are liable, 
 when they undertake to do work at which a regular 
 apprenticeship ought to be served. For this reason, 
 a person should make extensive inquiry as to the de- 
 tails of the work to be done; and, in some instances, 
 it will be an excellent plan when about to build a 
 gravel-wall house to put up some small building, or an 
 L, first, so as to learn all those little matters of manip- 
 ulation, which cannot well be described, and fairly get 
 your hand in before undertaking to put up a house of 
 considerable size. The use of small stones, even of the 
 size of one's fist, among the gravel, is no disadvantage, 
 and, if not present, they may be added. If, however, 
 no stones of an .intermediate size between small gravel 
 
156 todd's country homes. 
 
 and large flat stones exist, as is very often the case, 
 the stones may be broken up, or laid in the wall with 
 the mortar. Such a wall, however, is a departure from 
 the proper concrete wall, though perhajDS equally good, 
 if well laid. It may be laid in flasks, or curbing, 
 like concrete. The lime need not be of such quality 
 as is necessary for fine, smooth mortar. No matter 
 how coarse it is, if it be only freshly burnt, and capa- 
 ble of making a strong mortar. If it sets quickly, so 
 much more rapidly the work may be pushed forward. 
 Oyster-shell lime answers perfectly well. It ought to 
 be thoroughly burned, arid unslacked.- 
 
 A satisfactory plan, sometimes adopted in the con- 
 struction of concrete, or gravel walls, is to lay up stone 
 or brick at the corners, at least, and j)erhaps at other 
 points in the wall, if it be of great length. Between 
 the piers, the wall is built of concrete, the boards, or 
 curbing, being kept in place by the piers, so that the 
 irregularities incident to careless work, when no piers 
 are built, are avoided. Blocks of concrete may be em- 
 ployed instead of bricks, or stone. The use of the 
 blocks of concrete instead of stone or brick, to lay piers, 
 is an excellent and convenient way to secure perpen- 
 dicular corners and regular walls, without the use of 
 stone or brick. It has been recommended by some 
 builders, who have had experience in this matter, to 
 construct regular flasks, or moulds, made eight feet 
 long, fourteen inches high, as wide as the wall is thick, 
 and made to take apart easily. In these the concrete 
 is placed, and when it has set, the flasks are removed ; 
 and after a few days, the blocks become sufficiently 
 firm to stand satisfactorily. These flasks, which con- 
 
THICKNESS OF CONCRETE WALLS. 157 
 
 sists of two wide planks, are held together by half-inch 
 bolts, extending through the planks, and the wall also. 
 When the flasks are to be raised higher, the bolts are 
 drawn out of the wall, put through holes near the lower 
 edge of the planks, and the flask is supported by the 
 bolts which rest on the top of the wall. There is much 
 said against the construction of concrete buildings, gen- 
 erally, by those who have never attempted to build an 
 edifice of such materials. As joiners generally con- 
 sider these kinds of buildings an innovation upon their 
 rights, without having given them a thought, they are 
 opposed to them. Those building upon this plan, will 
 have to depend largely upon their own ingenuity and 
 skill. There are many good buildings of concrete, 
 which will stand for ages to come; and others equally 
 durable may be erected, if excellent materials are em- 
 ployed. 
 
 THICKNESS OF CONCRETE WALLS. 
 
 The correct way to make concrete is to mould the 
 sand and lime in flasks, and dry the blocks under shel- 
 ter for nearly one year before laying them in a wall. 
 For an ordinary two or three-story dwelling-house the 
 walls of the two lower stories should be not less than 
 one foot thick. The upper stories will be comparatively 
 strong with the lower ones, if the walls are made only 
 eight or nine inches in thickness. More than this, if 
 the walls of the upper story be only eight or nine 
 inches thick, the superincumbent pressure will be less 
 on the walls of the lower story than if the work were 
 made one foot thick to the top of the building. When 
 about to erect a concrete building, the builder should 
 have a perfect understanding of what is required, as 
 
158 
 
 todd's country homes. 
 
 experiments with this material are sometimes disastrous 
 and enormously expensive. 
 
 In making concrete blocks, it is far better to mould 
 them of a size suitable for one man to handle with ease. 
 If they are too heavy to be laid by one man, some of 
 the corners will be knocked off almost every time a 
 block is laid down. For this reason, let the moulds, 
 
 PERSPECTIVE OF COTTAGE AT SEA-SIDE PARK. 
 
 or flasks, be made of hard, smooth wood, one foot wide, 
 six inches deep, and not over one and one-half feet 
 long. If any part of the wall is to be eighteen inches 
 thick, the blocks should be nine inches wide, six inches 
 thick, and eighteen inches long, so that every fourth 
 course may be laid cross-ways of the wall, for the pur- 
 pose of binding the courses beneath it. 
 
 The beautiful perspective as seen above, which has 
 many claims upon the attention of my readers, will 
 
SEA-SIDE PARK COTTAGE. 
 
 150 
 
 furnish a style of architecture that will harmonize 
 with the taste and requirements of a great many peo- 
 ple. A cottage of which this is the representation, 
 was recently erected in Connecticut. The joiner work 
 is plain and neat, and the steep, projecting roofs and 
 gables impart an architectural finish to it, which will 
 be in excellent keeping with rural surroundings, where 
 " grove nods to grove, with shady walks between." 
 
 The following plan of the first floor will give a more 
 correct idea of the interior arrangement of the rooms : 
 
 FIRST FLOOR. 
 
 SECOND FLOOR. 
 
 Size of cottage, 40 feet front, by 28 feet deep, with a 
 kitchen-wing in the rear 19 by 23 feet. The main 
 roof has two slopes, the lower portion covering or 
 making front and rear verandas. The roofs are well 
 broken up with gables, ornamented with sawed vertical 
 boarding and bracing. The chimneys are topped out 
 large and bold, giving more character to the roofs. 
 The cottage is painted in pleasing tints, a darker shade 
 being used for the projecting portions. H shows the 
 main hall ; P the parlor ; S R the sitting-room ; D the 
 
160 todd's countky homes. 
 
 dining-room ; C cliina-closet ; K the kitchen, with P 
 the pantiy, and S the sink-room ; V V show the front 
 and rear verandas and porches. On the second floor 
 there are four chambers C C C C, and two small rear 
 bed-rooms. Over the front porch there is a pleasant 
 little chamber, and back of the main staircase a bath- 
 room. 
 
 Such a cottage will be found much more spacious 
 than many small families would really require. But 
 the dimensions may be diminished to suit the require- 
 ments of the occupants. If desirable, the rooms may 
 also be arranged differently. 
 
 The correct way to compute the cost will be, to de- 
 cide upon the plan, the height of the building and the 
 pitch and projection of the roof Then, let any one 
 who understands making out a bill of materials for a 
 dwelling, make a written estimate of the quantity of 
 lumber and other materials, computing the price of 
 each, according to locality. • 
 
 I am aware, that shrewd architects, who will not 
 build such a cottage, unless they can make from one 
 to three thousand dollars on it, will aver that we can- 
 not approximate the cost, with any satisfactory degree 
 of certainty. But they know better, when they make 
 such an assertion. An experienced joiner can deter- 
 mine within a few dollars, the cost of everything. He 
 can compute the quantity of timber, flooring, &c., with 
 suflicient accuracy for all practical purposes. Then he 
 can calculate how many days an honest and faithful 
 joiner will require to enclose one side, put on the roof, 
 lay the floors, and finish ofl* room after room. The 
 cost can be shown by figures with as much accuracy as 
 
MORNING-GLORY COTTAGE. 
 
 161 
 
 a tailor can compute the price of materials for a man's 
 overcoat. 
 
 MORNING-GLORY COTTAGE. 
 
 rERSPECTIVE OF COTTAGE. 
 
 The perspective of the accompanying beautiful cot- 
 tage, reminds one of a rose in a honeysuckle glen. It 
 was designed by Mr. George E. Harney, and can be 
 built cheaply. This view of the elevation has some 
 ornamental features, which, though not absolutely nec- 
 essary, were thought by Mr. Harney to heighten the 
 
162 
 
 TODD S COUNTRY HOMES. 
 
 artistic effect of the design. Thus the veranda, the 
 balcony, the widely projecting eaves, the heavy brack- 
 ets, the dormer windows, truncated gables, etc., may 
 be adopted or rejected, according to each one's taste 
 or purse. As to the plan and arrangement of rooms, 
 the architect says: 
 
 " The front door opens into a vestibule, A, six feet wide 
 and nine feet long. From the rear of this, a passage 
 extends to the staircase 
 hall, E, w^hich opens out 
 to the yavd, or into aj 
 w^ood-shed, if desu'ed. 
 B, the parlor, is fifteen! 
 feet square, and con-' 
 nects by means of aj 
 small passage with thei 
 living-room, D . This 
 living-room is tw^elve 
 
 Dy seventeen, and opens plan of morning-glory cottage. 
 into the staircase hall at a point convenient to the back 
 entrance of the house. Across the hall, and near the 
 head of the cellar-stairs, is a good-sized closet or store- 
 room, a, fitted up with shelves and cupboards, and 
 lighted by a single wdndow. The sitting-room, C, meas- 
 ures thirteen by fifteen, and has two doors, one open- 
 ing into the vestibule, and the other into the passage 
 back of it. The second floor is divided mainly like the 
 first, and comprises three chambers, a bathing-room, and 
 five closets — besides the hall. According to an estimate 
 made in 1862 for a house on this plan, such a cottage 
 could have been built for from fifteen to seventeen 
 hundred dollars, in New England, where all kinds of 
 
ECONOMICAL WAY OF BUILDING. 1G3 
 
 building materials are very costly. But, in many 
 localities, where a man could cut most of the lumber 
 on his own land, and get it sawed in the winter, when 
 manual labor is cheap, such a house could be com- 
 pleted for $1,000." 
 
 The truncated gable possesses about as much artistic 
 beauty as a bob-tailed pullet. Yet many persons will 
 declare that, to their view, the style is charming. Such 
 features increase the expense more than one would sup- 
 pose. The dimensions of the apartments may be 
 varied to suit the requirements of the family. As the 
 style of architecture is extremely plain, an economical 
 way to get such a cottage would be, for some men, to 
 let a son of sixteen, or more, work with a joiner, for a 
 few months, and learn how to dress out stuff true; how 
 to make door and window-frames; how to put his tools 
 in order, and, if he possess a fair share of ingenuity and 
 ambition, he will be able to build such a house in a 
 neat and workman-like manner in a few weeks. By 
 having the stuff dressed out at a planing-mill, an active 
 joiner can perform every item of labor, on such a cot- 
 tage, in two months. But let a person employ four or 
 five sub-joiners, who will work, as many of them are 
 accustomed to — to keep moving and accomplish as 
 little as they can — and the expense of the joiner work 
 will be doubled. 
 
 I once employed a joiner to erect a dwelling which 
 had about as many doors, windows and siding, as this 
 cottage. The work on this cottage would not exceed 
 the work on the house alluded to by twenty days. I 
 told him at the outset, pleasantly, that I thought, after 
 having made a careful estimate, that I could build that 
 
164 todd's country homes. 
 
 house alone, in forty or forty-five days. I made an 
 estimate how long it would require for each item of 
 labor. Now, said I, I want to determine how long it 
 will take one man to do that work. Here are a little 
 hand-book and pencil, with which I would like to have 
 you enter every half-day's work, whatever it may be. 
 You may do the writing in the time that I pay you for 
 working. I shall pay you all the wages you demand, 
 and I want you to perform a dollar's worth of work 
 for every dollar I pay you. No man could take offense 
 at these suggestions. Well, the result was, that this 
 joiner completed my job, without my supervision, in 
 forty-two and one-half days. A neighbor had employed 
 him, he said, to build a house, the previous season, as 
 nearly like mine as he could make two houses, and his 
 house cost eighty-five days' work of joiners. This il- 
 lustrates the great saving which may be effected by a 
 little care in supervising the work. 
 
 I herewith give an illustration of a neat, commodi- 
 ous and cheap little cottage which was recently built by 
 a young carpenter, for his own family. The whole ex- 
 pense, when items are computed at New York City 
 prices, amounts to $669.29. This bill was rendered by 
 the proprietor soon after the house was complete. I 
 have seen the cottage, and I feel confident that a 
 great many young men, who are just beginning married 
 life, would be well pleased with a neat little home like 
 this, which can be erected of excellent materials and 
 workmanship, for a few hundred dollars. 
 
 The plan will be found to meet the wants of any re- 
 spectable small family, who do not cherish high notions 
 of a large and expensive dwelling. In localities where 
 
CLERK S COTTAGE. 
 
 165 
 
 lumber and building materials are not so expensive as 
 thej are around about New York City, such a cottage 
 may be built for one or two hundred dollars less than 
 the cost would be, where every board and joist must 
 be purchased at an extortionate price. 
 
 The mason's bill in the erection of this cottage was 
 f 38.00. In many places the same bill would be one- 
 third less. The joiner's work was thirty-four day's 
 
 PERSPECTIVE OF A CLERk's COTTAGE. 
 
 labor, computed at $3.00 per day. The lumber, paint, 
 bricks and glass, were all purchased at New York 
 prices. In localities where a person could cut logs for 
 the lumber on his own land, such a house could be 
 erected for three or four hundred dollars. The frame 
 is of the balloon style, which requires less timber, 
 while the building is stiffer, than if large posts and 
 beams were employed. 
 
166 
 
 TODD S COUNTRY HOMES. 
 
 Figure 2 represents the ground plan of the house. 
 The upright portion P, B, is 24 feet by 16; and the 
 wing K, P, V, is 16 feet by 12. P, in the upright part, 
 indicates the parlor, 12 by 16. And P on the end of 
 the wing, is the pantry. B is the bedroom ; K is the 
 kitchen ; and V is a veranda. At E an entry and a 
 stairway is represented. There are four windows in 
 the parlor, two of which might be omitted; and thus 
 reduce the cost several dollars. 
 
 The studs and joists might be made of almost any 
 kind of timber. Even sugar-maple, or elm, or ash 
 
 would subserve a satr 
 isfactory purpose. The 
 siding might be of bass- 
 wood, provided the 
 boards were thoroughly 
 painted; and the nail- 
 holes filled with putty 
 to exclude the rain. 
 In sections of country 
 where stone is abundant, 
 the expense of building the cellar wall would be 
 trifling. In case bricks were used, a wall eight inches 
 thick would be sufficiently heavy for such a house. 
 There should be a cellar under the upright part, at 
 least. And the extra expense of putting a cellar 
 beneath the wing also, would amount to only a few 
 dollars more, than would be required to erect a wall 
 beneath the point of conjunction of the upright part 
 and of the kitchen. 
 
 The flooring for the entire dwelling, except the 
 kitchen, might be made of bass-wood, in case that tim- 
 
 GROUND PLAN. 
 
GOOD FLOOEING. 167 
 
 ber were abundant. Bass-wood makes excellent floor- 
 ing, provided the boards be thoroughly seasoned, before 
 the floor is nailed down. But in the kitchen, where the 
 floor must be deluged with water, every washing day, 
 bass-wood will not subserve a satisfactory purpose, as 
 such flooring would soon decay. White-ash, or maple 
 will make a superior floor, if the boards be sawed nar- 
 row, say six inches wide, and thoroughly seasoned be- 
 fore the edges are matched. Then, let the edges be well 
 painted, as every board is laid down, and let the sur- 
 face also be painted, or well oiled, which is better. If 
 the work be well done a better floor could not be de- 
 sired. After such hard boards have been seasoned not 
 less than one year, in an airy place, under shelter, the 
 most economical way to dress them out and match the 
 edges, is to take the lumber to a planing-mill ; and 
 have every board plajied to a uniform thickness. Then, 
 let each board be "blind nailed," by driving the nails 
 over the tongues ; and the floor will be as smooth as if 
 the whole were one large board. 
 
 By beginning to make preparations for such a dwell- 
 ing, one or two years before the frame is to be set up, 
 one can economize much more satisfactorily, than if all 
 the materials were purchased, just as the workmen are 
 about ready to use them. 
 
 The time of the year in which the cellar wall is 
 erected, and the frame put up, is a consideration of 
 much practical importance. There are many argu- 
 ments greatly in favor of commencing early in the 
 spring of the year, rather than late in the season. 
 When a cellar wall is laid up in the spring with lime 
 mortar, as such walls always should be, the mortar 
 
168 todd's country homes. 
 
 will have sufficient time to become thoroughly dry be- 
 fore cold weather. On the contrary, if such work is 
 deferred until autumn, the weather is often so wet, 
 and the ground so damp, that the mortar does not be- 
 come dry. Then, freezing weather comes on, the green 
 mortar expands, and the stones and bricks heave to 
 such a degree, that the wall will always be very unsat- 
 isflictory. Besides this, if the wood-work has not had 
 sufficient time to season, before the mortar for the walls 
 is laid on, there will be numerous unsightly cracks, 
 which would not have appeared, if the work had been 
 done at the right season of the year. 
 
 The man who commences building early in the sea- 
 son, will always experience decided advantages over 
 him who does not begin until autumn. It is always 
 the better way to erect the cellar walls, early in the 
 spring, put up the house, enclose and paint it one 
 coat. Then, in the fall, lath, plaster and finish it. 
 
 COBBLE-STONE HOUSES. 
 
 In many localities, cobble-stones are so abundant on 
 a farm, or along the bed of a river, that they furnish 
 the cheapest and most economical material that can be 
 employed for erecting a dwelling-house. If lumber is 
 at all expensive, where cobble-stones are numerous, 
 the cash cost of erecting the outside walls of a house 
 with them will be much less than to build of wood, 
 and keep the wood-work neatly painted. Cobble-stone 
 work never requires any paint. This is a consideration 
 of no little importance. One hundred dollars will 
 shortly be exhausted in simply keeping a wooden 
 house properly painted. But a hundred dollars will 
 defray the expenses attending the erection of a large 
 
COBBLE-STONE HOUSES. 169 
 
 amount of wall, when the cobble-sto-nes are gathered 
 not far away from the place where they are to be 
 used. When cobble-stones and sand can be obtained 
 within the distance of a mile, it will be cheaper, and 
 more satisfoctory to build a cobble-stone house, than 
 to use either bricks or wood, unless lumber is very 
 cheap. 
 
 When the stones are collected, they are assorted, so 
 as to have those of a given size by themselves. A few 
 holes of different sizes are made through a hard board, 
 or plank ; and the cobbles of different sizes are passed 
 through the hole that will just allow them to slip 
 through. Then, those of a given size are all laid to- 
 gether. A cobble-stone house does not require lath- 
 ing on the outside w^alls. In this respect, there is a 
 great saving of cash expense. 
 
 The manner of building a cobble-stone house is, to 
 place the joists for the lower floor on the foundation 
 wall, just as if a brick building were to be erected. 
 Now, set up straight-edged studs, or joists, just two 
 inches from the face of the inside wall. Place a strong 
 board on the inside of the studs; and build the wall 
 against this board on the inside. Put an inch strip 
 loosely between the board and every stud. Then, 
 when you desire to raise the board up, take out the 
 inch strips, and the board Mali be loose, and it can be 
 raised the width of it, without disturbing a single stone. 
 The face stones are laid by a line. Flat stones, broken 
 pieces, and stones of irregular form may be used for 
 filling up the middle. A face course of cobbles is laid 
 in stiff mortar, The middle is then leveled up with 
 stones, and grouting is then poured in, so as to fill 
 
170 todd's country homes. 
 
 every interstice. The workmen then move forward 
 to another side of the house, and lay a course or two 
 of stones. By the time they have worked around on 
 all sides of the building, the grouting will be sufficiently 
 stiff to receive another course of stones. Cut stones 
 are, sometimes, considered essential at the corners of 
 a cobble-stone house. But, cobbles may be laid at the 
 corners, as well as along the sides of a building. When 
 cut stones are not employed, let a round corner be 
 formed. This will look more satisfactory than a square 
 corner, made of cobbles. Blocks of cut stone at the 
 corners, will increase the expense, unnecessarily; but 
 to some people, cut-stone corners seem to be absolutely 
 essential to a respectable architectural appearance of 
 the edifice. Yet, it is all a matter of taste, whether one 
 employs cut stones at the corners or not. I admire 
 round corners more than square ones, built with square 
 stones. The outside wall of a cobble-stone house 
 should be built in warm and dry weather, so that the 
 grouting may set as soon as practicable. If the weather 
 be damp and lowery, the wall will not become suffi- 
 ciently solid to support its own weight, more than two 
 feet in height. When mortar has barely set, it is ex- 
 ceedingly tender, and will not resist scarcely any jar, 
 or superincumbent pressure. Consequently, if a side 
 wall be hurried up too fast, there is danger that it will 
 all collapse, or be crushed beneath its own weight. It 
 is good policy, therefore, when erecting a cobble-stone 
 house, not to employ too many masons. Let one ma- 
 son work alone. He will carry up the walls as fast as 
 they should be biiilt. 
 
 Another point of transcendent importance, is, to 
 
FINISH OF A PARLOR. 171 
 
 have the choicest quality of mortar, and grouting. 
 One cannot exercise too much care in providing strong 
 lime and sharp, clean sand. The strength of the wall 
 will depend almost entirely on the mortar. If the sand 
 is fine and filled with mould, or fine earth ; and if the 
 lime be of an inferior quality, a stone house, erected 
 with such mortar as those materials would make, would 
 be a dangerous edifice to dwell in, as the walls would 
 have no strength. 
 
 The roof of a stone house should project from two to 
 three feet, for the purpose of protecting the walls from 
 driving storms, as much as possible. A protracted rain 
 beating furiously against a stone house, may wet the 
 mortar and grouting, through and through. 
 
 In many instances, persons lay out much expense in 
 finishing off a parlor, when they might have had far 
 better materials at half the cost, by simply going to 
 their own timber lots, cutting a few logs, and having 
 them sawed in lumber of the desired size. Butternut, 
 the various kinds of oak, chestnut, and many other 
 kinds of timber, will make a beautiful finish for dining- 
 room or parlor, and with a right management, in most 
 localities, stuff" of the foregoing kinds of timber may 
 be obtained as cheaply as pine. In many places, it 
 will not cost half so much as pine lumber. It is an er- 
 roneous notion that everything about a dwelling-house 
 must be made of the choicest quality of pine. I have 
 seen rooms finished with chestnut, or with red oak, 
 and the wood-work was really beautiful. Doors, cas- 
 ings, base and all, were simply dressed off" smoothly, 
 then oiled and varnished. Such wood-work may be 
 washed or scrajied, whenever the surface becomes dirty ; 
 
172 todd's country homes. 
 
 then oiled and varnished again, and the surface kept 
 neat and bright, cheaper than the same work could be 
 painted. 
 
 As the kinds of lumber just alluded to, are more 
 liable to spring and warp than pine, much care should 
 be exercised in having the lumber sawed of the most 
 desirable size, and also to have every panel, stile, and 
 piece of casing seasoned so thoroughly, before the 
 doors are made, or the casings put up, that the joints 
 will not open before the building has been finished a 
 year. Let the lumber be sawed out not less than one- 
 fourth of an inch thicker, and one inch wider, than it 
 is to be dressed. Stick it up very straight, under shel- 
 ter, where the air can circulate through the pile. 
 After it has seasoned not less than six months, let it 
 be thoroughly kiln-dried in a kiln, or store-room. 
 Then, let the pieces be taken to a planing-mill, dressed 
 out, and edged with a circular saw. By performing 
 most of the planing and sawing by machinery, such 
 hard wood may be worked with comparative ease. 
 But it is a laborious and expensive job to dress out 
 hard wood stuff for doors and casings by hand. For 
 dressing out such hard wood stiles and casings, a hori- 
 zontal planer, or timber-dresser, will be far better than 
 a revolving planer. 
 
 A COZY COTTAGE FOR A MECHANIC. 
 
 Such a cottage will coincide perfectly with the taste 
 and pecuniary circumstances of thousands of beginners, 
 in all parts of the country, who are not able to fur- 
 nish a parlor in a satisfactory manner. Others who 
 are abundantly able, prefer to adorn the living-room, 
 and thus enjoy daily, the luxuries of comfort and ease. 
 
mechanic's cottage. 
 
 173 
 
 and do not, as a few are wont to do, lavish all orna- 
 ments on the parlor wall, leaving the kitchen and liv- 
 ing-room comparatively unfurnished, uninviting and 
 cheerless in aspect. 
 
 PERSPECTIVE OF MECHANIC'S COTTAGE. 
 
 The size of this cottage may be made to conform to 
 the requirements of the family. But many people will 
 find the plan of principal floor (No. 2) best suited to 
 their wants and conveniences, for the reason that a par- 
 lor is dispensed with. The chamber of the upright part 
 
174 
 
 TODD S COUNTKY HOMES. 
 
 may be divided in small rooms or^ left undivided, as the 
 wants of the family will decide. 
 
 Herein is 
 
 a common 
 error among architects 
 and builders of which 
 I desire to speak, viz., 
 the jDlan or idea of hav- 
 ing the kitchen situated 
 in one of the rear rooms 
 of the house, or in such 
 No. 1.— PLAN OF FIRST FLOOR. ^ posltlou that a dlrcct 
 
 view of the highway from the kitchen window is im- 
 possible. 
 
 Who is able to give good reasons to excuse this old- 
 fogy style of architecture ? Ask the tens of thousands 
 of American farmers' wives, who spend a great portion 
 
 of their lives in the daily 
 monotonous labor of 
 kitchen duty; and, as 
 far as my observation 
 extends, their almost 
 unanimous answer 
 would be: If I were 
 ever to build or have 
 No. 2.-PLAN OF GROUND FLOOR. thc planulug of auothcr 
 house, the kitchen would occupy a front and sightly 
 position, and not be, as at present, secluded in this un- 
 barred dungeon from an immediate view of the moving 
 panorama of highway travel. The foregoing is penned 
 in no fault-finding mood, but is offered as a suggestion 
 to those whom it may concern. The entire style of 
 finish of this perspective may be varied to suit the 
 
 PEO DOOM, 
 7X12, 
 
 Sro ROOM. 
 7X12 
 
 LAUN'DUr 
 
 AND 
 V/VASUROOM. 
 
 WOOD 
 SHED 
 
 STORE 
 
 ROOM 
 
 LlVrWC ROOM, 
 18X14 
 
 h 
 
 KITCHEN. 
 16 X 14. 
 
INCKEASING THE HEIGHT OF ROOMS. 175 
 
 taste of the builder. There may be a gothic roof, or a 
 flat roof. Instead of the style of cornice represented 
 in the perspective, a neat bracket finish may be adopted 
 similar to the bracket finish on a subsequent page. 
 Or, if preferable, the roof may be nearly flat, and cov- 
 ered with plastic slate roofing, 
 
 HOW TO INCREASE THE HE-IGHT OF ROOMS WHEN TOO LOW. 
 
 It is frequently very desirable to make a story, 
 both below and above, one foot or more higher between 
 the joints, than it was originally made. When the at- 
 tic story is to be made higher, if the roof is a poor one, 
 it would be the best and cheapest operation to take it 
 to pieces and raise the sides to the desired height, and 
 then, erect the roof as when a new house is built. But 
 when a roof is a good one, and it is desirable to raise it 
 any number of feet, let collar pieces be spiked to the 
 rafters to keep them from spreading ; and then, raise it 
 bodily with screws, with or without the plates, to the 
 desired height. If the rafters are spiked very tightly 
 to the plates, it will be better to raise the plates with 
 the roof, and then put another set of plates in the place 
 of the first ones. 
 
 I once performed a job in less than one day, by the 
 assistance of two men, of increasing the height of all 
 the lower rooms of a two-story house. The lower 
 rooms were eight and one-half feet between joints, and 
 it was desirable to make them ten feet high. Four 
 screws were placed under the side sills of the house, two 
 of them a few feet from one end, and two others about 
 the middle of the building. One end of the house was 
 elevated about twenty inches, where it was sustained 
 on shores, placed under the beams, and girts. The 
 
176 todd's country homes. 
 
 sills and floor were then lowered with the screws to 
 their original position, when the ends of the posts and 
 studs at one end of the building, were all scarfed, or 
 " spliced," and the sills were then raised again with 
 the screws, and the shores were taken out, and the 
 building was then lowered on the foundation. Then, 
 the two end screws were placed near the other end, 
 and that end was elevated and sustained on shores, 
 and the floor lowered, and the remainder of the posts 
 and studs were scarfed, and the shores were then 
 removed, and the house lowered to its original posi- 
 tion. 
 
 Barns and out-buildings which are too low, may be 
 raised, in a short period of time, ten or more feet 
 higher; and the posts scarfed, at an expense of a few 
 dollars. If the spaces below the main beams of a barn 
 are about right, let the roof only be raised ; but, if the 
 arrangement of the timbers is about as one desires, 
 above, and not below the beams, raise the superstruc- 
 ture and scarf the posts, or put a part of a new frame 
 beneath the old one. 
 
 A CHEAP SUBURBAN COTTAGE. 
 
 The tasty perspective on the next page, which pre- 
 sents an exceedingly attractive appearance, will meet 
 the fancy and requirements of a great many small fami- 
 lies, who have only a limited competence. This house 
 was designed for a lot sixty feet wide, on a village 
 street, and should be placed quite near the line, on the 
 left-hand side of the lot, leaving the wide open space 
 on the other side for a road or paths, and grass-plots. 
 If desirable, in re-arranging the plan, to suit different 
 localities, let a plot be drawn on paper, then turn it 
 
A SUBURBAN COTTAGE. 
 
 177 
 
 upside down; and every room will appear on the other 
 side of the dwellino*. " The dimensions of this dwellintr 
 may be made to suit the wants of a flxmily. The fol- 
 lowing ground-plan will furnish a fair idea of the ar- 
 rangement of the rooms. No. 2, represents a parlor, 
 either 14 or 16 feet square. No 3, is the kitchen, 16 
 by 16. No 4, is a nursery, or sleeping-room, the size 
 of which will depend on the dimensions of the other 
 
 Am 
 
 PERSPECTIVE OF SUBURBAN COTTAGE. 
 
 apartments. No. 5, is a pantry or sink-room ; and No. 
 6, a store-room. The pantry has a pump and sink, 
 and the store-room is fitted up with shelves and cup- 
 boards. The stairs are in the front hall ; and under the 
 principal flight is the stairway to the cellar. The 
 second story has three bed-rooms, two good-sized dress- 
 
178 
 
 todd's country homes. 
 
 ing-rooihs, and a convenient bathing-room. The frame 
 is made of hemlock ; the walls are filled in with brick 
 laid on edge in mortar, and then sided with narrow, 
 
 clear white-pine siding. 
 The roof is covered 
 with hemlock boards, 
 and shingled with sawed 
 cedar or pine shingles. 
 The projection of the 
 eaves is three and one- 
 half feet; and the gables 
 have scolloped edgings 
 or verge-boards. The 
 inside is lathed and 
 plastered and hard fin- 
 ished throughout. The 
 floors are of pine floor- 
 plank . The bases are six 
 inches high, moulded, 
 and the window and 
 door trimmings are four 
 and one-half inches wide, moulded. The doors are all 
 four-paneled, one and one-quarter inches thick, moulded 
 on the exposed side, and all have locks and brown 
 mineral trimmings. The closets all have shelves and 
 drawers and clothes-hooks. The principal story is nine 
 feet high; and the chambers nine feet high in the 
 center, and five feet at the eaves. The plan of the 
 second floor is similar to the arrangement of the first 
 floor. But, the partitions between the rooms may be 
 varied at pleasure. No. 2, may be njade smaller; and 
 No. 3, can be made larger. If one desires a bath-room, 
 
 FIRST FLOOR. 
 
SUGGESTIONS ABOUT MORTAK. 
 
 179 
 
 the entire plan of the second floor may be arranged to 
 
 suit the wants of the oc- 
 cupants, as a stud parti- 
 tion may be set up, on 
 this floor, beneath the 
 rafters, so as to make 
 the rooms more of a uni- 
 form size. The plan will 
 not suit most people. 
 But the style of archi- 
 tecture, the projecting 
 roof, bay window, and 
 general appearance, ex- 
 ternally, render it a cot- 
 tage of symmetrical pro- 
 portions, which is not ex- 
 pensive, although it looks 
 
 well, which is a point of eminent importance in such a 
 
 suburban cottage. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS ABOUT MOETAE. 
 
 It is a common maxim, that good mortar is the life 
 of masonry. For hundreds of years past, mechanics 
 have made mortar; and writers have penned long es- 
 says on the manner of making good mortar and poor; 
 and still, the knowledge possessed is more theoretic 
 than practical. 
 
 In some portions of the Eastern hemisphere, the 
 ancients had more sense in this respect than we, as 
 they studied well the nature and properties of this 
 great material. And they were well repaid in the en- 
 durance of their structures, which, after centuries up- 
 on centuries of existence, are to-day more stable and 
 
 SECOND FLOOR. 
 
180 todd's country homes. 
 
 more likely to remain, than nine-tenths of the buildings 
 that we, in our generation, attempt to make lasting. 
 As most people are to some extent builders, they have 
 the best of reasons for desiring to know all that they 
 can, as to the proper materials, and best methods of 
 making and using it. Hon. George Geddes once as- 
 serted, that it is not practicable to lay down in any 
 form of words such instructions as shall remove every 
 dif&culty, and enable all men to become masters in the 
 art of compounding the necessary materials for first- 
 rate mortar; but it is thought to be entirely possible 
 to so present the important points involved as to aid 
 most farmers in this important matter. It might be 
 supposed that masons should possess all the knowledge 
 necessary in regard to mortar, as they spend their lives 
 in using it ; but, in fact this is not so. In great cities, 
 skilled masons may yet be found; and occasionally, one 
 may yet handle the trowel in the rural districts. The 
 greater part of mechanics, away from large towns, have 
 been led to the adoption of the branches they follow, 
 more by natural taste and personal ingenuity, than 
 from a settled purpose of early life, that has carried 
 them through any regular apprenticeship. The schools 
 have been busy teaching what have been called liigher 
 branches, than the principles involved in mechanic arts ; 
 and it has thus been, as a general rule, beyond the 
 reach of the self-taught mason to acquire a knowledge 
 of the leading principles involved in the making of the 
 best mortars from the materials within his reach. 
 
 The object aimed at in making mortar is, to produce 
 a substance in a plastic form that can be molded into 
 any desired shape, which will turn to stone. When 
 
SUGGESTIONS ABOUT MOKTAR. 181 
 
 mortar is to be used for cementing stone or brick to 
 each other, it should possess the property not only of 
 attaching itself firmly to the stones or bricks, but it 
 should have cohesive power that will hold its own 
 parts in contact ; in fact, it should be an artificial stone 
 filling all the space between the parts of the wall, and 
 as strong as natural stone. 
 
 Whatever of this hardness and strength mortar 
 lacks, after a sufficient lapse of time to allow the proc- 
 ess of crystallization to become complete, by just so 
 much does it come short of perfection. In the admix- 
 ture of the lime with the sand, for the production of 
 mortar, the greatest care must be taken, that the ingre- 
 dients are most intimately mixed, and that no foreign 
 matter be mingled with the mass. The water, if hot, 
 causes the mortar to set more rapidly ; and only suffi- 
 cient should be applied to give consistency to the 
 mass. The exact quantity of water to be used in 
 slacking must depend on the capacity of the lime to 
 absorb it. 
 
 There are three important concomitants in making 
 good mortar, which are, dean and sha7y sand, strong 
 and fresli lime, and thorough working of the mortar 
 after the materials have been rendered plastic. When 
 there is loam and other substances in sand, it will not 
 make hard mortar. The sand must be clean and sharp. 
 In order to convey a fair idea of what is required in 
 making mortar, it is only necessary to imagine all the 
 particles of sharp sand as bowlders resting on each 
 other. Now then, in order to have a hard mortar, 
 after it is dry, we want to fill all the interstices be- 
 tween the particles of sand with good lime. These 
 
182 todd's country homes. 
 
 interstices must not be filled with clay or any other 
 earthy matter. The most reliable rule for making the 
 best quality of mortar is, to put all the lime in the sand, 
 that can be, and not add to the bulk of the sand. If 
 sand, the particles of which are of unequal dimensions, 
 (some fine and some coarse,) have well slacked, lime 
 of proper quality added to it, and the whole mass he 
 thoroughly mixed and worked, the lime should exactly 
 fill every interstice, so as to form a solid mass ; and this 
 being so, crystallization will be perfect. Air-slacked 
 lime should never he used in constructing permanent 
 walls. In cases where it is important that the mortar 
 should be set rapidly, more lime will be necessary. 
 
 It is a very laborious job to work over the mortar 
 for a large house, when it is performed by hand labor. 
 When lime and sand are mingled together, and in a 
 few days laid on the lath, the plaster will shrink and 
 the wall will be covered with cracks, and the plaster 
 will soon crumble off But if about two bushels of 
 clean, sharp sand are mixed with one bushel of un- 
 slacked lime, and the mass is worked over once in two 
 or three weeks for a few months, a wall that is made 
 of it will appear like slate, and will not crack, unless 
 the building, or some parts of it change their position, 
 as is frequently the case, by seasoning. In order to 
 have good mortar, that may be spread like good but- 
 ter, it must be mixed and worked over often enough 
 to have the lime slack most thoroughly, and " to work 
 the shrinkage outJ" If mortar should be worked over 
 once in ten days, for a year, it would be all the better 
 for it, and will make a better wall. 
 
 To facilitate the labor of mixing mortar so frequently 
 
SUGGESTIONS ABOUT MORTAR. 
 
 183 
 
 as is desirable, when my house was erected, I con- 
 structed a rude machine for mixing it with horses, 
 which subserved an excellent purpose. It was a very 
 cheap concern; and such a device will pay for itself 
 in one day. This machine is represented by the ac- 
 companying illustration. It consists of a post, a, about 
 six inches in diameter, very firmly set in the ground, 
 not less than three feet deep, and about two feet high. 
 Put an iron band on the top to keep it from splitting. 
 
 A MORTAR MACHINE. 
 
 An iron bar, &, (a small crow-bar will answer,) passes 
 loosely through the sweep c, into the center post, a. 
 Next, lay a floor — water level — on the ground, and 
 nail the side boards, which should be sixteen or twenty 
 inches wide, to stakes driven into the ground. The 
 side boards should be placed in an octagonal form, as 
 shown in the figure, although if the sides were circular 
 it would be preferable. The floor should be about 
 fourteen or sixteen feet diameter in the clear. The 
 sweep c, should be six inches square in the middle, 
 thirteen feet long, and the outer end may be made 
 smaller, or not. The paddles, or legs, should be made 
 of hard wood, two by four inches square, firmly in- 
 serted in the sweep, c, with a two-inch tenon, about 
 
184 todd's country homes. 
 
 four inches apart. The form of the legs is shown in 
 E. They are made similar to the wings of a wind- 
 wheel, with the two corners, which are in a diagonal 
 direction from each other, dressed off smoothly, so 
 that each knife-like leg will work the mortar toward 
 the center. They should be not less than three-fourths 
 of an inch thick after they are dressed out. If they 
 are too thin they will break in mixing stiff mortar. 
 
 Let the lime and sand be put in ; then, hitch a horse 
 at the end of the sweep, and commence mixing as the 
 water is poured in, until it is so soft that it will flow 
 slowly, and the surface become level. Shovel the mor- 
 tar from the corners into the middle every time it is 
 worked out. When a large quantity of mortar is nec- 
 essary, two or more places may be made, and the same 
 sweep used for all of them. When the sun shines, the 
 mortar should be covered with boards. . Keep the sur- 
 face of the mortar covered with water, when not work- 
 ing it; and if there should be too much water, when it 
 is to be worked over again, let it be dipped off. It 
 should be worked over at least once in ten days, and 
 should never be allowed " to set," or become so hard 
 that it can not be readily worked over with a trowel. 
 Let the mortar be first mixed in the spring, keeping 
 it well worked all summer; and if there is as much 
 lime in it as there should be, it will spread like butter, 
 and make walls as smooth and hard as stone. These 
 directions were followed, to the letter, in mixing the 
 mortar for my own dwelling-house. Some of it was 
 worked over, once in ten or twelve days, for more 
 than six months before it was used, and my masons 
 affirmed, that they had never before handled mortar 
 
SUGGESTIONS ABOUT MORTAR. 185 
 
 that spread so neatly, and made such firm walls. The 
 hair for the first coat, should never be put in until a 
 few days before the mortar is be used, because the 
 lime will destroy it. In separating the bunches of hair, 
 some prefer to put it in a large tub, and allow it to 
 soak for a few days, and then have it well stirred until 
 there are no bunches; and some prefer laying it on a 
 floor, and whip it to pieces with an elastic whip. 
 
 When making mortar for plastering a house^if clean 
 pit sand be used three parts of sand are mixed with 
 one of lime. If river or sea sand be made use of, two 
 parts of sand are given to one of lime, which will be 
 found a proper proportion. If to river or sea sand, 
 potsherds ground and passed through a sieve, in the 
 proportion of one-third part, be added, the mortar will 
 be still better. 
 
 Mortar for outside walls that are exposed to the 
 weather, should have some hydraulic lime in it. All 
 foundations that take moisture from the earth should 
 be made of hydraulic lime. It will take more hy- 
 draulic lime to make a given quantity of mortar than 
 it will of quicklime, and generally it will cost more, 
 but if the structure is a valuable one, the increased 
 cost will be justifiable. I have used equal parts of 
 quick and hydraulic lime in stone walls, and was well 
 satisfied with the cement. Above the water tables of 
 stone buildings, this mixture of the two kinds of lime 
 does very well. In laying either stone or brick, it is 
 important to use strong pressure to compact the mortar 
 in the joints. The mason does this on stone by the 
 free use of his hammer, and on brick by striking each 
 brick as it is laid smartly with the handle of his trowel. 
 
186 todd's country homes. 
 
 This is important, and in pointing, the mortar should 
 be well pressed into the joints, and thoroughly com- 
 pacted. 
 
 The usual practice among builders has been, for a 
 long time past, to lay on one thin coat of mortar with 
 which hair has been mingled, smooth the surface with 
 a trowel, then sweep it with a stiff broom, for the pur- 
 pose of rendering the surface rough, so that the next 
 coat will adhere with more firmness than if the second 
 coat were spread on a smooth surface. The first, or 
 the "scratch-coat," is then allowed to become dry be- 
 fore the second coat is laid on. When the second coat 
 is put on, the moisture of the mortar is absorbed so 
 rapidly by the dry wall that the wall is not so hard or 
 durable as if it had been a long time drying. Every 
 intelligent mason knows that where mortar is dried 
 rapidly it has very little tenacity. Masons say of such 
 mortar, "it has no strength." When mortar is em- 
 ployed in laying up very dry bricks, the dampness will 
 be absorbed so quickly that the mortar will bind the 
 bricks together but little better than clay. But if the 
 bricks be saturated with water, so that the mortar takes 
 several days to dry, the bricks and mortar will unite so 
 firmly that, when dry, they can be separated only with 
 great difficulty. Yet the mortar in both instances is 
 the same before it is laid between the courses of brick. 
 The rapid drying in one instance materially injures its 
 strength, while drying slowly secures the greatest pos- 
 sible tenacity and firmness. This same fact is observ- 
 able when a second coat of mortar is spread on the dry 
 "scratch-coat" of a wall. The wall will never be so 
 firm as it would have been had all the mortar been 
 
SUGGESTIONS ABOUT MORTAR. 187 
 
 spread on the lath in a single coat and finished oS at 
 once. 
 
 In order to satisfy ourselves that one heavy coat of 
 mortar will make a better wall than two light or thin 
 coats, let us look into the philosophy of the change 
 which the mortar undergoes during the process of hard- 
 ening. Colloquially, we say, "the mortar has set" 
 when it changes from a plastic to a solid state. If the 
 mortar be allowed to dry slowly, there will be an im- 
 portant chemical change. Carbonic acid, which gives 
 solidity to limestones, and which is expelled when lime 
 is burned, will be absorbed by the plastic mortar, and 
 will unite with the lime, forming a very porous car- 
 bonate of lime. The process must necessarily be very 
 slow. Therefore, the moisture in the mortar must re- 
 main for a long time, or the process of hardening will 
 not progress. If a coat of mortar be spread on a hot 
 stove, the water that renders the lime and sand plastic 
 will be driven off so quickly that the process of hard- 
 ening by chemical affinity will be very incomplete, for 
 mortar will not harden after it has become dry. But 
 let an equal portion of the same kind of mortar be 
 spread on a cold plate of iron, and kept in a close, cool 
 room, where the process of hardening will be going on 
 for several weeks, and it will be seen that th.e mortar 
 which was allowed to dry slowly will be firm and tena- 
 cious like slate, while that piece which was dried rapidly 
 on a hot plate of iron will be entirely destitute of es- 
 sential firmness and solidity. These facts naturally 
 suggest the important inquiry as to how to make the 
 best wall. The most important point to be kept in 
 view is, to avoid, as far as practicable, rapid drying of 
 
188 todd's country homes. 
 
 the mortar. A house should therefore never be plas- 
 tered in hot weather. Very early in the spring would 
 be better than summer. But late in autumn will al- 
 ways be found the best season for plastering, as the 
 process of drying will be going on for several weeks, 
 thus favoring largely the chemical process of harden- 
 ing. Were a dwelling erected in the former part of 
 the growing season, the plastering should not be done 
 till the last month of autumn, as the walls would be 
 all the better for allowing the casings, studs, and 
 other wood-work to become thoroughly seasoned be- 
 fore the mortar is laid on the lath. Before the first 
 coat of mortar is laid on, a hand-hydropult should 
 be employed in every room, to wet the lath. And 
 in order to have this job performed thoroughly, the 
 lath should be sprinkled several times before the mor- 
 tar is applied. 
 
 I know that most masons will sneer at this sugges- 
 tion. But reason and experience assure us that it will 
 be better to wet the lath before the mortar is applied, 
 so that the dry and porous wood will not absorb the 
 moisture from the mortar, which is eminently essential 
 to the hardening of the wall. The labor of fifteen 
 minutes with a hand-hydropult in wetting the lath of 
 a room, before the mortar is laid on, would be worth 
 the value of many dollars in securing a hard and tough 
 wall. There is no uncertainty on this subject. Were 
 one side of a room lathed with wire-cloth, and another 
 side with wooden lath, and the same kind of mortar 
 applied to both, it would be seen that the wall on the 
 iron lath would be much tougher and harder than the 
 mortar on the wooden lath, simply because the dry 
 
HYDKAULIC MORTAR. 189 
 
 wood absorbed the water from the mortar, which was 
 essential to the chemical process of hardening. 
 
 After the lath has been thoroughly sprinkled with 
 water, let a coat of mortar with which a liberal supply 
 of hair has been mingled be laid on the lath. Then, 
 by the time that room is finished, the mason may com- 
 mence where he plastered first, and lay on the second 
 coat, in which there is no hair. The first coat will 
 have set sufficiently by this time to remain intact, and 
 yet the mortar will be so green, or fresh, that there 
 will be a complete union between the two coats. If a 
 third coat of "hard-finish" is yet to be applied, the 
 plastic should be run on before the first mortar has be- 
 come quite dry. By adopting this practice, the walls 
 will not only be very much firmer, but the expense of 
 mason-work will be much less. 
 
 HYDRAULIC MORTAR. 
 
 This kind of mortar is made of the best quality of 
 sand and hydraulic cement, or what is often spoken of 
 as water-lime which is a species of lime which, when 
 mingled with sand and rendered plastic by adding wa- 
 ter, will harden in wet places, or even under water, 
 where mortar made of common lime (oxide of calcium) 
 and sand would never become hard. Water-lime is 
 the hydraulic cement of commerce, which is usually 
 bought and sold in a powdered condition by the bushel 
 or barrel. Water-lime is merely the common lime 
 (oxide of calcium) combined with a sufficient quantity 
 of iron, manganese, silex, alumina, and some other for- 
 eign matter to prevent slacking. Chemists tell us that 
 when forty parts of clay are added to one hundred parts 
 of lime, the mixture will not slack by the application 
 
190 todd's country homes. 
 
 of water. But if the mixture be reduced to powder by 
 grinding, mingled with sand and wrought into mortar, 
 it will harden rapidly. In order to determine the value 
 of water-limestone, the fragments must be burned in 
 a kiln, ground to powder, and made into mortar while 
 fresh. Old water-lime loses the capacity to harden af- 
 ter it has been ground to powder a few months. Wa- 
 ter-lime should be tested frequently when mortar is 
 being made with it, as there is much sold which is of 
 very little value. Water-lime of the best quality, is 
 alone suitable for walls that are to resist the direct ac- 
 tion of water. Remembering that all mortar made of 
 lime and sand shrinks in setting, it follows that large 
 stone bedded in even the best hydraulic mortar, cannot 
 be depended upon for a wall that will be secure against 
 water leaking through it. Plastering on the side next 
 the water is therefore necessary in the construction of 
 cisterns, and this is not always a perfect protection. 
 After the plastering is dry, make a wash of hydraulic 
 lime, and go over the plastering several times with this 
 wash, using a brush as in whitewashing. This will close 
 up the fine cracks if there are any, and the wall will 
 then be perfectly tight. 
 
 In mortar made of quicklime for brick-work by ma- 
 chinery, it has been found that one bushel of unslaked 
 lime that did not quite double its bulk by slaking, made 
 a sufficient quantity to fill all the interstices of five 
 bushels of fine sand — and this was abundantly rich in 
 lime. But it must be remembered that this mortar 
 was made by machinery, and the power was not spared 
 in mixing. Mixed coarse and fine sand requires less 
 lime than fine sand. The superiority of ancient mor- 
 
MASON-WORK IN" FREEZING WEATHER. 191 
 
 tar consisted, as I have tried to show, first in the se- 
 lection of materials ; but it consisted, secondly, in the 
 great amount of labor that was given to the mixing 
 and working the mortar. Very little water was used, 
 but an immense amount of labor. Felibien says, "It is 
 a maxim among old masons to their laborers that they 
 should dilute with the sweat of their brow, i. e., labor 
 it a long time instead of drowning it with water to 
 have done the sooner." The whole secret of what has 
 been considered the lost art of making the Roman ce- 
 ment lay in the skill in selecting and in the manipula- 
 tion of the materials. The climate of Italy is mild, 
 and time has completed the work. In addition to my 
 own experience in the use of this kind of mortar, I 
 have availed myself of the experience of Hon. George 
 Geddes, who has favored me with some of the foregoing 
 suggestions. 
 
 DOING MASON-WORK IN FREEZING WEATHER. 
 
 K it is possible to avoid doing mason- work in hot 
 weather, as well as in freezing, the work will always be 
 stronger and better, in every respect, as no mortar 
 will harden satisfactorily in hot weather, or in cold 
 weather. Still, many builders and masons have con- 
 tended that if a wall of either brick or stone is laid in 
 mortar, when the weather is so cold as to freeze every- 
 thing up tight, it will not injure the mortar, provided 
 the wall remains frozen, until the mortar has had suffi- 
 cient opportunity to become quite dry, while the tem- 
 perature of the weather continued below freezing point. 
 It is true that when mortar can remain in an atmos- 
 phere below zero, until it has dried out, it will appear 
 quite firm. But reason and experience teach that any 
 
192 todd's country homes. 
 
 mortar will be far better, in every respect, if it can be 
 allowed to dry gradually for several months, when the 
 atmosphere is above freezing point. When mortar in 
 a plastic state, freezes and thaws, every practical builder 
 knows, that the strength of the lime is nearly destroyed. 
 If hard pieces of good mortar be exposed to the influ- 
 ences of alternate rain and frost, the strength of the 
 lime will be overcome, and the mortar will disintegrate, 
 and become like dry ashes in a few weeks. These facts, 
 familiar to every observing mechanic, assure us that 
 there will be but little strength in a wall that is laid 
 up in freezing weather. The hardening process which 
 mortar undergoes, before it has really become as com- 
 pact as it will be, is a slow chemical change. As the 
 water in the mortar disappears, the lime must have a 
 long period to absorb carbonic acid from the atmos- 
 phere, for the purpose of increasing the solidity of the 
 mortar. Brick chimney tops are often carried up in 
 cold weather ; and the result is that, in many instances, 
 there is but little more strength in the brick-work, than 
 if a mortar of ashes had been employed. The same is 
 true of brick walls of, dwelling-houses that are built in 
 cold weather. When the weather is so cold that hot 
 water must be employed to temper the mortar, and to 
 keep it from freezing, until it can be used, the entire 
 wall will freeze up tight in the course of a few hours. 
 The result is, that, " there is no bond in the mortar," 
 as masons express it. The strength of the lime has 
 been destroyed, just as the power of lime to form a 
 good mortar is destroyed, when it is allowed to ^' air- 
 slack" before it is mingled with sand. 
 
CHAPTEE TV. 
 
 PAINTING AND ORNAMP^NTATION. 
 
 The Philosophy of Painting — Painting Buildings and Implements — Ma- 
 terials for making Paint — Linseed Oil — Boiling Oil — White Lead Paint 
 — How to Paint an Old House — Various kinds of Paint — Painting 
 Window Sashes — Putty — Putty Knife — Whitewashing — Calcimining 
 — Hanging Wall Paper. 
 
 The Philosophy of PAiNTiNG.^-When moisture 
 comes in contact with iron, there is a chemical union; 
 the oxygen of the air unites with the iron, and forms 
 oxide of iron, or, what is familiarly called rust. There- 
 fore, every time any rust is formed, the surface of the 
 iron is rendered rougher and rougher. When water, 
 or moisture, comes in contact with wood, the grain of 
 the wood is raised ; and when it comes to dry, the wood 
 shrinks; and this shrinking and swelling will soon in- 
 jure the surface, rendering it rough. 
 
 Now, in order to prevent water from injuring the sur- 
 face of wood, or iron, we spread a covering over it, to 
 exclude the water, just as we cover a horse with oil 
 cloth to keep him dry ; only, when we paint we apply 
 the blanket, or covering, while it is in a liquid state. 
 This covering soon changes into a thin pellicle, or 
 blanket, which will exclude the water. Therefore, by 
 excluding the moisture, we keep the grain of the wood 
 smooth, and the surface of iron bright tind smooth also. 
 
 13 
 
194 todd's country homes. 
 
 Any material, therefore, that may be spread thinly on 
 the surface of wood, or of iron, and thus exclude the 
 influence of water, will make a good paint. The phi- 
 losophy of painting is, therefore, the protection of the 
 surface of buildings and implements from the injurious 
 effect of wet and dry weather. 
 
 Painting Buildings and Farming Implements. — 
 Farmers should know how to paint their buildings, 
 tools and farming implements in a neat and workman- 
 like manner; and they may just as well do all their 
 own painting and varnishing as to pay some painter 
 twice as much as it is actually worth to perform a given 
 job. In the spring and during warm days in winter, 
 and at any other season of the year, if a farmer has 
 only a little instruction in preparing paint and putting 
 it on, he, and those in his employ, may do all the paint- 
 ing, when they could do nothing else, which would be 
 of much account. Farmers are quite apt to think that 
 it requires a vast amount of wisdom and skill to pre- 
 pare paint and put it on; and some painters like to 
 make them think that it is far better to pay a very ex- 
 orbitant price to a painter to have an implement painted 
 than to undertake to do it themselves, and then fail. 
 But there is no danger of failing in ordinary painting. 
 Suppose the first, or even the second coat of paint, hap- 
 pens to be a little too thick or too thin, when it is put on. 
 After it is on, it will preserve the timber just as well — 
 which is the chief object in painting — and no one will 
 care to know, so far as ^'looks'' are concerned, after 
 the implement has been used twice, whether a novice 
 or an experienced workman painted it. After the first 
 coat of paint is Hry, let every crack and nail-hole be 
 

PHILOSOPHY OF PAINTIN"G. 195 
 
 filled with putty. Never putty nail-holes before apply- 
 ing one coat of paint, as the putty will not adhere sat- 
 isfactorily to wood. If nail-holes are not filled with 
 paint or putty, the water that will be absorbed around 
 the nails, wall soon cause the wood to decay. The bet- 
 ter way for people who have but little painting to do, 
 is to procure a small pail of paint, and purchase boiled 
 oil, rather than raw or unboiled oil. A genuine article 
 of either paint or oil can be selected only by experts. 
 A small tin pail of white lead, ground in oil, will be 
 sufficient to paint a great many tools. Should the 
 paint not all be used, let the surface be covered with 
 oil, and the lid kept on, and the paint will not become 
 hard for ten years, so long as the pail is kept in a cel- 
 lar. In order to derive the full advantage of paint, the 
 joints of wood-work should be thoroughly painted, before 
 the pieces are put together. Window-frames should be 
 painted when .the sills and jamb-casings are joined to- 
 gether. The painter ought always to follow the wood- 
 w^orker, before any part of the work has been allowed 
 to get wet. After a planed board has been wet once 
 or twice, the surface will be rough, the pores of the 
 wood will open, and much m.ore paint will be required 
 to cover a given surface, than would have been nec- 
 essary before the surface was wet. It is better for the 
 building and far more economical to paint it frequently, 
 thus keeping every part in prime order, than to allow 
 portions most exposed to become shabby, and to suflfer 
 for want of paint. 
 
 For painting farm implements and tools of any kind 
 when the object is chiefly to protect the materials from 
 rain and sunshine, let a quantity of white lead be pre- 
 
196 todd's country homes. 
 
 pared, as for painting white. Now, put in either blue 
 paint, yellow paint, black, red, or any other color, 
 adding, also, more oil and liquid-drier, until the desired 
 color has been formed. It is best to use white lead for 
 the purpose of forming more of a hody, or impervious 
 covering on the wood, than other paint will make. 
 Paint may also be made by simply stirring Venetian 
 red or Brandon yellow, both of which are very cheap, 
 into boiled oil and liquid-drier, until the mass is of the 
 consistence of thin cream. A half pint of drier mingled 
 with two quarts of boiled oil will cause good paint to 
 dry in twenty-four hours. 
 
 Materials for Making Paint. — Any substance that 
 will become dry, after it is applied to the surface of 
 wood, or iron, and which will form a thin pellicle, or 
 blanket, that will exclude water, will make good paint. 
 Linseed oil is of such a nature that it will soon dry, 
 when spread out thin, and will form a cover, that 
 will exclude water. For this reason there is no other 
 kind of oil that is equal to linseed oil, for painting. 
 There is so much grease, or oleaginous substance, in 
 lamp oil, kerosene, and sweet oil, that they will not 
 dry like linseed oil. For this reason such oils are not 
 good for painting. 
 
 Paint is mingled with oil, for the purpose of keeping 
 the oil as much on the surface as possible, and for mak- 
 ing a thicker and heavier coat, or pellicle, which wall 
 resist the action of the atmosphere, or the influence of 
 wet and dry. The material, therefore, which will make 
 the toughest and most durable covering, w^hen spread 
 out thinly, will be found to subserve the most satisfac- 
 tory purpose as a paint. 
 
MATERIALS FOR MAKING PAINT. 197 
 
 Good linseed oil is superior to any other known ma- 
 terial for painting outside work, as it forms such a 
 tough pellicle. This oil is expressed from flax-seed. 
 The shining slippery seed is usually ground by being 
 crushed beneath a pair of very heavy stones called 
 "chasers" which revolve on the periphery like a cart 
 wheel crushing the seed beneath their ponderous 
 weight. Flax-seed cannot be ground, advantageously, 
 in an ordinary grist-mill, as the oil in the seed will 
 cause the meal to clog between the stones. In some 
 mills the seed is first passed through iron rollers, to be 
 crushed or ground. One of these rollers is made to 
 revolve more rapidly than the other, which subjects 
 each seed to a pulling as well as to a crushing process. 
 The meal is taken from the mill to the "chasers," 
 where it is subjected to another crushing process, 
 more severe than the first. The chasers are two large 
 circular stones, about five feet in diameter and eighteen 
 inches thick, rolling upon a third stone in the same 
 manner of an old-fashioned bark or cider-mill. These 
 heavy stones start the oil from the seed. And to keep 
 it from adhering to the chasers it is moistened with 
 water. The meal is next put into an iron cylinder, 
 which is kept revolving over a fire until the water is 
 evaporated. Much of the skill of making oil depends 
 upon this heating process. It must not be scorched. 
 And yet, it must be brought up to a high temperature, 
 so that it will readily give out its oil. The meal is 
 kept under pressure about an hour; and two presses 
 will work up about ninety-six bushels of seed every 
 twenty-four hours. The mill is usually kept running 
 night and day. The product is not far from two gal- 
 
198 todd's countey homes. 
 
 Ions of oil from a bushel of seed, a little more or less, 
 according to the quality of the seed and the skill in 
 pressing. The process of making cotton-seed oil and 
 cake is nearly the same. 
 
 Suggestions about Boiling Oil. — We boil oil for 
 the purpose of evaporating or driving off the oleagin- 
 ous or greasy portion of it, so that it will dry more 
 readily. Some painters have told beginners, that oil 
 must be boiled, until it will burn a feather or quill. 
 This rule is not correct, for oil will burn a quill be- 
 fore it is boiled half enough. Any person who know^s 
 how to make molasses and sugar, can boil oil well. 
 All that is necessary, in order to boil well, is to keep 
 a steady fire, just hot enough to make the oil roll 
 gently, for at least three or four hours. Let a table- 
 spoonful of litharge be put into about one gallon of oil 
 before it is boiled ; and when the oil is boiling, it is 
 well to stir it often, should anything settle to the bot- 
 tom of the kettle. 
 
 When adulterated linseed is being boiled, there will 
 be a great waste, as a large part of the poor oil will be 
 driven off by evaporation. If spirits of turpentine, 
 benzine, or petroleum be mingled with linseed, during 
 the boiling, they will all be driven off and lost. There- 
 fore, if one can procure a pure article of linseed oil, it 
 will be far more economical, in the end, for outside 
 work, than cheap, adulterated oil. 
 
 Making Paint of White Lead. — If the white lead, 
 or zinc white, has been ground fine, as it always should 
 be before it is used, mingle boiled oil enough with it 
 to make it about of the consistence of thick cream. 
 Then pour in lacquer enough to make it thin enough to 
 
now TO PAINT AN OLD HOUSE. 199 
 
 spread readily with a brush. Good paint will always 
 show for itself when it is just thick enough to flow well. 
 
 We usually make white paint, and then obtain any 
 other desired color by mingling paint of other color 
 with the white. I refer to ordinary painting. White 
 lead will form a good body of paint so much cheaper 
 than blue or green, or some kinds of yellow, that we 
 use it in preference to making paint of a given kind 
 that is very expensive. 
 
 How TO Paint an Old House. — When the paint 
 has disappeared to such an extent that the surface of 
 the siding is rough and full of minute sun-cracks, the 
 dry and porous wood will absorb three times as much 
 oil as will be required to cover the same extent of sur- 
 face were the siding new and just planed. Indeed, 
 the absorptive capacity of such weather-beaten lumber 
 is so great, that the dry grain of the timber will ab- 
 sorb a large proportion of the oil and leave the paint 
 on the surface, where it will shortly dry into a powder, 
 and the storms will remove it in a comparatively brief 
 period. 
 
 The grand object in covering the surface of the sid- 
 ing with paint is, to protect the grain of the wood from 
 getting soaked with water, as the grain expands every 
 time water is applied to it, and contracts, forming 
 cracks on the surface whenever it has an opportunity 
 to become dry. These are the conditions and difficul- 
 ties to be met. The object will be to cover the surface 
 of the old boards with a durable coat of paint, at the 
 cheapest possible expense. If good oil paint be applied 
 until the small cracks are all filled, and until the po- 
 rous grain of the dry w^ood will absorb no more oil, a 
 
200 todd's countet homes. 
 
 coat of paint will be formed that will wear almost an 
 age. But the large quantity required would cost much 
 more than most people will care to expend in painting 
 an old house, when some cheaper material will subserve 
 the same satisfactory purpose. The idea is to fill the 
 porous and cracked surface with a cheap material that 
 will prevent the oil from separating from the paint and 
 entering; the wood. It is not essential to the dura- 
 bility of the siding that the wood beneath the surface 
 be saturated with oil, so long as the surface is properly 
 protected with a thin coating impervious to water. 
 
 Before the oil paint is laid on, make a gallon of good 
 paste, of wheaten or rye flour, then have ready a pound 
 of cheap rice and a half pound of cheap glue boiled to 
 a consistence as thin as very thin molasses, that may 
 be poured out quickly, and stir the three ingredients 
 together while they are hot, and apply it with a brush, 
 so as to fill up all the sim-cracks and cover the rough 
 surface of the siding, thus forming a smooth foundation 
 for the oil paint. A larger quantity may be made with 
 the same proportion of material, as I have indicated. 
 The siding should be scraped clean and smooth, in case 
 moss has collected on the surface, and sizing sufficient 
 to fill the cracks should be applied with care, while 
 warm, by some person who will lay it on smoothly. In 
 case it be daubed on too thickly, a heavy scale will be 
 liable to peel off. Cover the coat of sizing immediately 
 with good oil paint. A few gallons of such sizing cost- 
 ing only a few dimes, will save more than fifty dollars 
 in painting a building. If this sizing is allowed to get 
 soaked with warm rains, before the oil paint is applied, 
 much of it will be washed away. 
 
VARIOUS KINDS OF PAINT. 201 
 
 Dead- WHITE Paint. — Take the best kind of white 
 lead, or zinc white, and grind it in the purest linseed 
 oil. Then mingle with it Demar varnish, or white var- 
 nish, sufficient to make it thin enough to flow well from 
 a brush. If paint be prepared in this way, of good 
 materials, it will be dry in a few hours after it has 
 been laid on. In case one has not access to a good 
 paint-mill, it would be as well to purchase a small can 
 of white lead, that has been ground. 
 
 To MAKE A Light Lead Color. — Let the paint be 
 prepared as for dead-white paint, in the direction just 
 given, and then mingle a very little lamp-black with 
 it. As much as one can take up on the point of a 
 small knife will color a dish of white paint. Care 
 must be exercised, lest too much black be put in. The 
 black may be ground fine with the blade of a large 
 knife. 
 
 Blue Paint. — In the first place, prepare white paint 
 (see making white paint,) and then mingle blue paint 
 with it, and stir it thoroughly, until no streaks can be 
 discovered in it. Then dip your brush, and paint a 
 little. If it seems too light colored, put in more blue, 
 until it appears dark enough. A small quantity of blue 
 paint will make a large quantity of paint, if it be pre- 
 pared in this manner. Blue makes the neatest and 
 most durable paint for painting tools and implements. 
 
 Green Paint. — There are several kinds of green 
 paint, to which we cannot allude in these very brief 
 directions, which will all make good paint. Examine 
 the green paints at the store. Make a white paint (see 
 white paint), and then mingle green paint with it — 
 stirring it thoroughly — until it appears to be of right 
 
202 todd's country homes. 
 
 color and shade. The more green there is pnt in, the 
 darker will be the paint. Green paint is usually very 
 heavy ; therefore care must be exercised to have it of 
 the proper consistence, or not too thick. If it be too 
 thick, it will not flow freely from the brush, and will 
 not be smooth when it is dry. 
 
 Red Paint. — Red paint is frequently made of oil, 
 lacquer and Venetian red. This will make a very dull- 
 looking red, and very cheap also. To make red of a 
 lighter color, make white paint as directed, and then 
 mingle red lead, or any other kind of red paint, with 
 the white, to suit the fancy. 
 
 Paint is sometimes made of pure red lead, oil and 
 lacquer. But, as red lead is so very heavy, it is rather 
 difficult to lay it on smoothly, unless in a very warm 
 room, and unless a person has had some experience in 
 painting. These directions have been prepared to aid 
 beginners, in very ordinary painting. 
 
 Care of Paint Brushes. — Hold a new brush, with 
 the hair end up and handle down, and open the bris- 
 tles, and pour in about a spoonful of good varnish. 
 Allow the varnish to become dry; and the brush will 
 never shed its bristles when it is used in painting. 
 The varnish will also keep brushes from shrinking and 
 falling to pieces. 
 
 Brushes are usually kept in water, to prevent their 
 drying up — but water is not half so good as oil for 
 keeping them soft and pliable. 
 
 As soon as you have finished a job of painting, wipe 
 out the brush clean, and wrap it in a piece- of paper 
 and hang it in a small deep vessel, containing oil, let- 
 ting the brush descend into the oil up to the wrapping 
 
VARIOUS KINDS OF PAINT. 203 
 
 cord. In this way brushes of different colors, and even 
 varnish brushes, can be clean and always ready for 
 immediate use. It is impossible to keep brushes, and 
 especially varnish brushes, soft and pliable in water. 
 
 To MAKE Rough Paint smooth. — When paint has 
 become rough by cracks, and when there are small 
 seams in the wood that cannot be filled with putty, 
 take a few spoonfuls of white lead (English white lead 
 is best) and mix it up with boiled oil and lacquer, about 
 as thick as it can be mixed. Then take a small portion 
 of it at a time and rub it into the cracks with the 
 fingers, until the surface of the paint is smooth and 
 even. Now smooth it ofi" with a stiff" brush, dipped in 
 benzole or in spirits of turpentine, and let it dry. This 
 is the easiest and most expeditious way to make the 
 surface of rough paint smooth. 
 
 To MAKE Shellac Varnish. — Put a quantity of 
 shellac in a bottle and pour in alcohol enough to cover 
 it. Cork it tight, and place it on a shelf in a warm 
 room, where the shellac will dissolve. Shake the bot- 
 tle occasionally ; and, if it is not all dissolved in three 
 or four days, put in a little more alcohol. , This forms 
 a good varnish, for varnishing almost any thing, which 
 will dry in half an hour.. 
 
 To MAKE OLD Varnish DRY. — Poor vamisli some- 
 times, when applied to furniture, is a source of vexa- 
 tion. To make it dry and hard, apply a coat of ben- 
 zole, or spirits of turpentine, with a varnish brush, in 
 a warm room. After tvfo or three days, apply a coat 
 of good varnish, and let it dry thoroughly before using 
 the furniture. This is a certain remedy for "sticky" 
 varnish. Good varnish will always become hard in a 
 
204 todd's country homes. 
 
 short time, while cheap varnish, sometimes will not be- 
 come hard in several years. 
 
 Coal-Tar, or Tar Paint. — But very few people 
 appreciate the value of this substance as a preserva- 
 tive of wood and iron, when it is used as a paint. It 
 possesses wonderful antiseptic properties, and there is 
 no kind of oil paint that will preserve wood or iron 
 from decay, when it is exposed to the weather, equal to 
 coal-tar. It is less durable when it is exposed to sun- 
 shine than when it is always in the shade, or in wet 
 and damp places. This peculiarity makes it one of the 
 most valuable substances that can be used for painting 
 the ends of fence posts that are in the ground. No 
 other substance is equal to it. Gas companies, who 
 were accustomed to use iron pipe, are now using wooden 
 pipes, which have been saturated in coal-tar, and there 
 is no doubt that such wooden pipes will last for one 
 hundred years. One of the members of the gas com- 
 pany in Ithaca, told me that they had examined wooden 
 pipes saturated with gas-tar, which had been under 
 ground for twenty- two years, and they showed no 
 decay. 
 
 The way to make it dry. — Gas-tar needs no prep- 
 aration, only for painting tools and imj)lements. It 
 needs something to make it dry. For this purpose, let 
 it be warmed in an iron kettle — not boiled — and min- 
 gled with about one quart of benzole to one gallon of 
 gas-tar. This will make a beautiful black varnish, 
 which will dry in a few hours. If it does not dry 
 quickly enough, put in a little more benzole. 
 
 Benzole. — Benzole is a volatile and nearly transpa- 
 rent fluid, which has the appearance of spirits of tur- 
 
PORTABLE STAGING FOR A ROOF. 205 
 
 pentine. It can be obtained at most drug-stores, at 
 about fifty cents per gallon. It is frequently used as a 
 good substitute for spirits of turpentine, and is very 
 much cheaper than that liquid, and for some purposes, 
 it is far more effective than it. 
 
 The way to paint Window-Blinds. — There is a 
 correct rule for painting window-blinds, in order to do 
 it neatly and quickly. In the first place, nail a strip of 
 wood an inch or two in width across the end of a 
 barrel; two barrels will make two benches for resting 
 the blinds on. Place them just far enough apart, so 
 that the ends of the blinds will rest on the sticks on the 
 ends of the barrels ; lay the blind down flatly and paint 
 along the inside of the stiles and the sides of the slats, 
 near the ends; turn the blind on one edge, and paint 
 the nery ends of the slats, and smooth off the inside of 
 the stiles and bars ; now paint the slats and the adjust- 
 ing rod, and the last thing, paint the stiles and bars. 
 When the paint on blinds is drying, keep the slats 
 open; and do not put so much paint into the sockets 
 of the slats as to prevent their being folded or adjusted 
 easily. Let the ends of the stiles of blinds and doors be 
 thoroughly painted to exclude water. When the ends 
 are not painted, rnucli water will be taken up by the 
 wood, to the serious injury of the timber. 
 
 Portable Staging for a Roof. — The accompany- 
 ing figure represents a portable staging to be placed on 
 
 the roof of a building when one is painting the roof. 
 It consists of a plank with three cleats nailed across it, 
 
206 todd's country homes. 
 
 as shown in the illustration, and legs with iron points in 
 the ends of them, to support one side of the plank, and 
 an iron-pointed spike passes through the other end of 
 the cleat. The legs are made just long enough to hold 
 the staging in a level position when it is on the noof. 
 The pointed spikes keep it from sliding, when a work- 
 man is on it. 
 
 Painting AND Glazing Window-Sashes. — The most 
 common way of managing window-sashes is, to paint 
 them with a very thin coat of paint, and then, set the 
 glass. But this is by no means the better way; be- 
 cause, the expense of painting, after the panes of glass 
 are all set with putty, will cost more than twice as 
 much labor as will be required to paint the same sur- 
 face before the glass is set. 
 
 The true way is to fit the sashes first, to their re- 
 spective frames. Then, apply two heavy coats of 
 paint. Let the bottom and edges of the bars be 
 painted, as well as the sides. Never allow glass to be 
 set before a heavy coat of good white lead and oil 
 paint is applied to that part of the bars where the 
 putty comes in contact with the wood. Putty some- 
 times peels off, after a house has been built a year, or a 
 few years. Putty will not adhere, satisfactorily, to 
 wood, unless the surface, is first covered with a heavy 
 coat of paint ; except where the wood is not exposed 
 to the influences of wet and dry weather. 
 
 How TO MAKE Good Putty. — The putty of com- 
 merce, that is usually kept for sale at stores, is some- 
 times miserably poor stuff for setting window-glass, as 
 it will never harden. The better way is to procure a 
 few pounds of whiting, wet it with linseed oil, either 
 
HOW TO MAKE GOOD PUTTY. 207 
 
 raw or boiled, and knead it, as dough is prepared for 
 bread. Boiled oil will make putty harder than it will 
 be, if the whiting be mixed with raw oil. Putty can 
 be colored, by mingling with it paint of any desired 
 color. When much white lead, or red lead is used in 
 making putty, it will become very hard, after a few 
 months. The putty of commerce is sometimes pre- 
 pared with a poor quality of whale oil, that will never 
 make hard putty. Wheat flour may be mingled with 
 putty, when it is not sufficiently stiff to work smoothly. 
 But, wheat flour will render putty extremely hard. 
 
 To keep putty from drying, so as to be unfit for use, 
 wrap it in an oiled paper, or put it in a tin cup, and cover 
 it with oil. Every family should keep a little putty, at 
 hand, and a putty knife also, so that a pane of glass 
 may be set at pleasure, without being obliged to em- 
 ploy an itinerant jobber, at an extortionate rate. 
 
 It is frequently desirable to use a kind of putty that 
 is called " hard stopper," such as carriage makers use 
 to putty up cracks in their work. Such '' hard stop- 
 per " is made thus : Take dry white lead, and mix with 
 one-third turpentine and two-thirds English varnish; 
 then pound it well, until it is as stiff as you like it. 
 After this stopper is pressed into cracks it should always 
 be allowed to get hard, before a coat of paint is put 
 over it. If you wish your putty to dry very quick, 
 put in more turpentine, or about the same amount as 
 you do of varnish. 
 
 How TO Putty m Glass. — Spread a few thicknesses of 
 paper on a table, or work-bench, and lay a window-sash 
 on it. The paper will prevent the paint getting marred. 
 Lay the panes in their places, with the convex, or 
 
208 todd's countky noMEs. 
 
 rounding side up. Spring the middle down to its place, 
 and fasten it there with glaziers' points, a paper of 
 which can be purchased at hardware stores, for a few 
 cents. Or, points may be cut out of a piece of thick 
 tin, with a pair of sheep-shears. 
 
 The most convenient instrument for driving in the 
 points is, a large chisel, having square edges. Some 
 panes of glass will require four to six points to hold 
 them down to the wood ; while some others will need 
 only two points. When the edges of glass spring up 
 and down, it will be found difficult to apply the putty 
 satisfactorily. 
 
 How TO MAKE A PuTTY Knife. — Take a piece of 
 band-iron about one-eighth of an inch thick, and one- 
 inch and one-half wide, and six or eight inches long, 
 and cut off the corners on one end, as shown by the 
 
 A PUTTY KNIFE. 
 
 accompanying figure, and punch a hole in the other 
 end to hang it up by. Now, grind the corners 
 smoothly and true, and grind it flat on one side and 
 bevel it on the other side like a chisel. After grind- 
 ing it, scour it bright on a whetstone of very fine 
 grit, or with scouring brick, so that it will slip well 
 on the putty. If the surface is coarse, rough or rusty, 
 the putty will not slip on it, and cannot be spread 
 well with it. 
 
 What ails the Paint that it does not dry ? 
 — Sometimes a good painter is so unsuccessful as to get 
 on a coat of paint that will never become hard, and in 
 warm weather, particularly, everything that comes in 
 
PUTTY XNIFE^ PAINT, ETC. 209 
 
 contact with it will adhere to it. The fault usually is 
 in the oil or lacquer, or in both. Sometimes the oil was 
 scorched a little when being boiled, and sometimes the 
 lacquer was good for nothing. 
 
 The remedy in such a case would depend a little on 
 circumstances. If there is a heavy coat of poor paint, 
 which is not very smooth, the better way would be to 
 remove it with some tool that will take it off smoothly. 
 A thin piece of steel, two or three inches square, as 
 thick as a hand-saw blade, ground square across on the 
 edge, with a little scraping edge turned over on one 
 side, as cabinet-makers prepare such a device for scrap- 
 ing or dressing up mahogany, will be a good tool for 
 that purpose. Let the paint all be scraped off smooth, 
 and good paint laid on. When such paint is very thin, 
 and sticks but little, it may be well moistened with 
 spirits of turpentine, or benzine, and afterward painted 
 with paint that will be hard when it is dry. Some- 
 times, by giving the poor paint a coat of Demar varnish 
 or shellac, it will not stick. 
 
 Old paint should always be thoroughly cleaned before 
 a new coat is applied. When it is a little dirty or 
 greasy the best of paint will not stick well. Tools and 
 implements that have tar or lamp oil on them should 
 be well cleaned before painting; otherwise the paint 
 will not stick and dry well. Sometimes when the oil 
 is cold and stiff, and the wood or iron to be painted is 
 freezing cold, all the skill and ingenuity of a painter 
 cannot spread the paint and have it dry satisfactorily. 
 Paint and varnish will crawl when everything is not all 
 right. If varnish or paint will not remain where it is 
 applied, warm the oil, or the varnish, and warm the 
 
 14 
 
210 todd's country homes. 
 
 materials to be painted, and kee-p everything warm 
 until the paint is dry. 
 
 Sanding Paint. — It is frequently desirable to sand 
 paint, to keep idlers from marking the surface, or from 
 whittling the edges and corners of the work. The 
 most convenient way to sand paint of any kind is, to 
 have a dredging-box made of tin, of sufficient capacity 
 to contain about one quart, with a handle on one end, 
 and the other perforated, with numerous small holes. 
 Dry the sand and pass it through a fine sieve. Then, 
 lay on a heavy coat of paint, over a square yard or 
 two, and throw sand into it, with the dredging-box, 
 until the paint will retain no more. If a heavy coat 
 is required, let the first coat of sand be painted with a 
 heavy coat of thick paint, and another layer of sand 
 applied. The color of the sand, will, of course, modify 
 the color of the paint. 
 
 How TO Whitewash Neatly. — The reason why 
 people drop about as much on the floor, as they spread 
 on the wall, is, the wash is not properly prepared, and 
 the brush is a small, cheap thing, utterly unfit for the 
 business. A brush with long, thick hair, will hold the 
 fluid best, when applying it overhead. If a person has 
 the wash of the right consistence, and a good brush, he 
 can whitewash a large parlor without allowing a drop to 
 fall. When it appears streaked after drying, it is too 
 thick, and needs diluting with cold water. Apply the 
 wash back and forth in one direction, and then go cross- 
 wise, using a paint-brush at the corners, and a thin piece 
 of a board to keep the brush from the wood-work, or the 
 border of the paper. If the walls have been white- 
 washed, let them be swept thoroughly; and if colored 
 
HOW TO WHITEWASH NEATLY. 211 
 
 with smoke, wash them clean with soaj)-suds. In order 
 to make whitewash that will not rub off, procure fresh- 
 burnt lime, not that partly air-slacked. The large lumps 
 are best. The fine portions and small lumps will not 
 make a wash that will stick well. For this reason, lime 
 that has been burned several months is not so good as 
 that just from the kiln. Put a pound or two into a vessel, 
 and pour on boiling water slowly, until it is all slacked, 
 and is about as thick as cream. Then add cold rain- 
 water until it will flow well from the brush. Stir often 
 when using it. A few drops of bluing added will give 
 it a more lively color. One or two table-spoonfuls of 
 clean salt, and one-fourth pound of clean sugar to a 
 gallon of the wash, will make it more adhesive. Color- 
 ing matter may be mingled with the wash, to give it 
 any desired tint. To make a light peach-blow color, 
 mingle a small quantity of Venetian-red. For a sky- 
 blue, add any kind of dry blue paint, stirring it well 
 while mixing. To make a wash of a light straw-color, 
 mingle a few ounces of yellow ochre, or chrome yellow. 
 The coloring matter should be quite fine to prevent its 
 settling to the bottom of the vessel. 
 
 Calcimining Walls. — Those who calcimine walls 
 endeavor to keep others ignorant of the materials em- 
 ployed, and the manner of using them. Yet any per- 
 sons who know how to whitewash can prepare and put 
 on calcimine material, just as- satisfactorily as they can 
 whitewash. Calcimine is only a kind of whitewash, 
 somewhat different from lime wash. It is made of white 
 ghie and Paris white, both of which may be procured 
 at the drug or hardware stores. The proportions are 
 about as follows, viz. : one-fourth pound of glue to six 
 
212 todd's countky homes. 
 
 pounds of Paris white. Some persons prefer seven or 
 eight pounds of the white to one-fourth pound of glue. 
 In preparing the calcimine, soak the glue over night 
 in tepid water. The next day, put it in a tin pail with 
 a quart or more of water, set the tin pail in a kettle of 
 water over the fire, and bofl and stir the contents till 
 the glue is reduced to a thin sizing. Put the Paris 
 white in a pail, pour on hot water, stir it until it is like 
 milk. Now add the dissolved glue, stir thoroughly, 
 and apply it to the wall with a calcimining brush, or 
 with any other brush, while the material is warm. 
 Some gravel stones, or nails, should be placed in the 
 bottom of the kettle for the glue-pail to rest on ; other- 
 wise the glue may be scorched. This will make a 
 beautiful white, almost equal to new white paint. If 
 it is desired, coloring matter may be added, to suit 
 the fancy. Calcimining walls is really no better, nor 
 whiter than common whitewash, which will not cost 
 one-quarter so much. But jobbers will talk our good 
 wives into the notion of having walls calcimined, because 
 they thus secure a five or ten dollar job, when fifty 
 cents would cancel the entire expense for whitewash- 
 ing, and the walls would look and be equally neat and 
 durable. 
 
 Hanging Wall Paper. — Hanging wall-paper is 
 light and easy work, which may be done by females 
 as well as males. The materials necessary for pa- 
 pering are, a papering-board, ten or twelve feet long 
 and about two feet wide, planed smooth ; a large 
 paste-brush, a pan of paste, a pair of long shears, 
 a light, straight-edged pole, and a soft brush-broom. 
 Now, take a roll of paper, and measure around 
 
HANGING WALL PAPER. 213 
 
 the room, to ascertain how many w£ole strips are 
 required for the walls. Cut the desired number of 
 strips of the right length, so that the edges will 
 match, and lay them all on the board, with the wrong 
 side up. If the wall has been whitewashed, sweep 
 it thoroughly, and wash it with vinegar and water. 
 As paste expands paper, and renders it tender, the 
 paste must not be put on until the wall is ready 
 to receive it. When the paper is so tender that 
 it will hardly hold itself together, double the upper 
 end of a strip over a smooth stick. Begin in one 
 corner of the room, and let the strip hang perpen- 
 dicularly; and as soon as it is right, stick the top 
 fast to the wall. Instead of using a bunch of cloth 
 to rub it on with, sweep it on with a soft brush-broom, 
 by commencing at the top, and sweeping downwards 
 and outwards from the middle of the strip. A bunch 
 of cloth will sometimes blot the colors, but a soft broom 
 will not. As soon- as a strip is pasted on the wall, run 
 the back of the shears along the upper edge of the 
 base, or mop-board, then pull the lower end of the 
 paper away from the wall, and cut it oflf, and afterwards 
 sweep it on. When a strip does not hang exactly 
 plumb, take hold of the bottom and pull it from the 
 wall, until it hangs only by an inch or so at the top. 
 Then adjust it, and sweep it on again. When turning 
 a corner of a room, it will be more convenient to cut a 
 strip of paper in two, lengthways, so that the joint will 
 come exactly in the corner, than to attempt to put on 
 a whole strip by bending it in the corner. New paper 
 can be pasted over the old, if that be on firmly. It is 
 better to apply the paste to the paper than to the wall. 
 
214 todd's countkt homes. 
 
 as dry paper is elastic, and will not adhere until it 
 has become wet. Let the paste be made of good 
 wheat or rye flour, and keep it of the right consistence. 
 Paste should be so thick that it may be spread like 
 soft butter, rather than so thin that it will wet the 
 paper. 
 
CHAPTER Y. 
 
 WELLS AND CISTEKNS. 
 
 Value of good Wells — Digging Wells— Cement Water Pipe— Cisterns- 
 Drain Tiles for Water Pipe — Cement Water Pipe — Lead Pipe — Tin- 
 Lined Pipe — Cisterns — Wooden and Cement — Wind-mills for Raising 
 Water. 
 
 THE VALUE OF A GOOD WELL. 
 
 The great importance of a good well at every barn, 
 where water cannot be obtained from some other source, 
 less expensive than digging wells, need not be argued. 
 In the summer, all the stock, and the teams in particu- 
 lar, often suffer for want of good water ; while during 
 the foddering season, when storms prevail, cattle in 
 some instances will not go to drink for a whole day, or 
 even longer, because the water is at a distance from 
 the barn. Then when thirst compels them to leave 
 the yard, and break their own path through snow-drifts 
 to obtain water, they will drink too much. On their 
 way to and from the water, they drop much manure, 
 which is wasted. The annual waste of manure, and of 
 flesh and fat, caused by driving animals to the brook for 
 water, and by the lack of abundance of it, will, on many 
 farms, equal the expense of making a good well once a 
 year. Milch cows cannot yield a full flow of milk, in 
 summer or winter, without an abundance of clean water. 
 Pure, clean water from a well-kept cistern, is much more 
 
216 todd's countky homes. 
 
 healthful than water from many of the stock ponds, 
 which during the summer months, when water is most 
 needed, are but little more than mud-holes. See that 
 the liquid of the stables or yard does not find its way 
 into the cistern. Most persons who have never experi- 
 enced the advantage of a barn-cistern or well, would 
 avail themselves of a good one, if they knew how little 
 cost and trouble are required to make a- large spacious 
 reservoir, that will always contain a bountiful supply 
 of water. 
 
 The rule that I always observed, when I was accus- 
 tomed to take care of domestic animals, is, never to 
 offer water to an animal that is so turbid, or in such an 
 unclean vessel, that I would not quench my own thirst 
 from the same source of supply. The sense of taste is 
 exceedingly acute in all kinds of domestic animals, 
 and they do not like to drink impure water. Untold 
 numbers of animals are poisoned to death, every season, 
 by being required to drink either cistern, or well-water 
 which has been impregnated with the poisonous drainage 
 of the stable. I have often seen water drawn from a well 
 in a yard, or beneath a stable, which looked like wine. 
 When animals are compelled to drink such liquid it will 
 operate like poison, as the noxious material in the water 
 is poison. Experienced physicians assure us, that many 
 of our diseases, especially those of a low type, are due 
 in a great measure, to impurities of drinking-water. 
 Dysentery, typhoid fever, and summer diseases of a se- 
 vere and fatal kind, have frequently been traced to 
 springs and wells which were so situated, that the 
 water must necessarily receive much surface filth. In 
 thickly settled portions of the town, the old shallow 
 
THE VALUE OF A GOOD WELL. 217 
 
 wells have often become the direct recipients of the 
 surface drainage of filthy grounds, without attracting 
 the slightest attention from those who use the water. 
 Whether distant springs or deep wells are found to be 
 necessary, the expense of obtaining pure water should 
 not for a moment interfere with the accomplishment of 
 the desired object. Such works not only repay indi- 
 rectly by promoting the public health, but directly by 
 improving the neighborhood, and rendering the lands' 
 more valuable. 
 
 Whenever out-buildings are situated on a hill-side, 
 and have a basement stable, one can generally locate 
 the cistern in the ground, on the upper side of the 
 building, so as to draw the water in the basement by 
 natural flow, the convenience and economy of which 
 will be highly appreciated. In supplying the dwelling 
 with water from the roof, a reservoir is usually placed 
 in the lower portion of the building so that it will re- 
 ceive the water from the roof of the higher portion, 
 and yet be so elevated that water will flow from it to 
 the chambers of the main building, bath-room, water- 
 closet, kitchen and laundry, and will also cause the hot 
 water to flow where it may be required. The overflow 
 of the elevated reservoir, and usually the water that 
 falls on the back roof of the building will be conducted 
 to a cistern in the ground. In some instances, the over- 
 flow water from a reservoir in the dwelling, may be 
 made to supply a number of fountains and cascades in 
 the ornamental grounds, by taking advantage of the faU 
 of the ground, and by using the same water successively. 
 Hundreds of little rills, the water of which was turned 
 to little account hitherto, are now dammed at frequent 
 
218 
 
 TODDS COUNTEY HOMES. 
 
 intervals, forming ice-jDonds, and providing power for 
 supplying dwellings on the summits of the hills with 
 flowing water, the luxury of which the denizen of the 
 country had never before dreamed of 
 
 SUGGESTIONS ABOUT DIGGING WELLS. 
 
 It is sometimes necessary to sink wells in the spring 
 of the year, when the ground is so full of water that it 
 is impracticable to dig sufficiently deep to secure the 
 advantage of never-failing water in dry weather. By 
 employing a curb of sufficient size to enable a digger 
 to use a shovel and pick while at work on the inside, 
 the well can be sunk at pleasure, to any desired depth, 
 as fast as the water fails, without incurring the labor 
 and expense of building a wall of stones, or of bricks, 
 to prevent the earth from caving in, w^hen the digger 
 stops his work, and removing the wall when the well is 
 to be sunk deeper. 
 
 The best season of the year to reach veins of never- 
 failing water is, usually, in September or October. If 
 water fails, and there is a curb in the well, a digger can 
 sink the well deeper at any time, until the water will 
 allow him to go no deeper. Consequently, there is no 
 danger to be apprehended from the caving in of the 
 soft earth. 
 
 The curb can be made at 
 a small expense by any one 
 who can use a saw, planes 
 and a drawing-knife, with 
 ordinary skill. In the first 
 place make two wooden 
 rings, out of plank, about 
 
 CUT OF A WELL CURB. 
 
 one and one-half inches thick, and double the segments. 
 
SUGGESTIONS ABOUT DIGGING WELLS. 219 
 
 The rings should be like the rim of a wagon-wheel, 
 without spokes. When finished, they should be not 
 less than four feet in diameter across the inside. Each 
 rim should be four inches wide by three inches in thick- 
 ness, having the segments nailed or bolted together. 
 Now, nail staves to the outside of the rims, so as to 
 make a rude drum. The staves may be three or four 
 feet long, and each stave one and one-quarter inches 
 thick by four inches wide. Sink a hole four or more 
 feet deep and put the curb into it. It will be under- 
 stood that one wooden ring is near the bottom, and the 
 other at the top of the curb, on the inside of the staves. 
 The preceding illustration represents a curb ready to 
 be placed in the well. Now lay a wall of bricks four 
 inches thick on the inside of the curb, letting the bricks 
 rest on the lower wooden rim. As fast as the well is 
 sunk, the curb, with the wall of brick on the inside, 
 settles ; and workmen continue to lay on more bricks 
 at the surface of the ground, as fast as the curb settles. 
 The bricks are not laid in mortar, except the last few 
 courses near the surface of the ground, when the dig- 
 ging is finished. 
 
 Let it be perfectly understood, that such a curb is 
 designed particularly to facilitate digging wells where 
 the earth is of such a character as to cave. Where 
 the ground is so firm that there is no danger of caving, 
 the better way is to continue to sink the well as deep 
 as is desirable, without a curb. Then stone it, or brick 
 it, or plaster the sides, from the bottom. As the dig- 
 ging progresses, the earth is excavated beneath the 
 curb, so that the wall, curb and all continues to settle 
 down, inch by inch. In case the earth is so compact 
 
220 todd's countey homes. 
 
 that a pick must be employed inside of the curb, it 
 should be made five feet in diameter. 
 
 How TO Excavate. — How to get the earth 4)ut of 
 a well is a question involving some skillful engineering, 
 in order to perform the work in the most economical 
 manner. The first twelve or fourteen feet of earth 
 may best be thrown out with shovels, by making a 
 platform five or six feet below the surface, from which 
 a man shovels the earth to the surface, as fast as it is 
 thrown up to him. When a well is to be sunk only 
 twenty feet, a common windlass, which one man can 
 work, will constitute an economical apparatus. But, 
 when it is necessary to dig thirty to sixty feet, a horse 
 should be employed to draw up the earth. One man 
 with a horse can haul up the dirt with great ease, by 
 erecting three poles, as represented by the illustration 
 herewith given, which hardly requires a written de- 
 scription. The snatch-pulley is secured to a post set 
 firmly in the ground, as shown, having a large two-inch 
 pin through the bottom of it horizontally, so that a 
 horse can not pull it up. Then the horse will need no 
 one to lead him. This stake or post must not be placed 
 beyond the foot of one of the poles, as the tendency 
 would then be to draw the tripod over. The rope to 
 which the horse is hitched, passes under the snatch- 
 pulley and over a pulley near the top of the poles, 
 thence around another at the bail of the bucket. The 
 end of the rope should be tied near the upper end 
 of the poles. The upper pulley should be susj)ended 
 at such a hight, that the dirt-bucket may rise just 
 enough to be emptied into a wheelbarrow, when the 
 blocks come together. Thus the horse may continue 
 
SUGGESTIONS ABOUT DIGGING WELLS. 
 
 221 
 
 to pull with all his might, without beiug able to get 
 away, or to hinder the workman who manages the 
 bucket. By having a wheelbarrow near, the earth 
 may be turned quickly into it, before the horse can 
 back up. When a bucket is drawn uj) in this manner, 
 it rises only half as fast as the horse travels; and he 
 can with ease, elevate three or four hundred pounds at 
 a time. 
 
 WELL-DIGGING APPARATUS. 
 
 A "Well-digger's Bucket. — The most economical 
 and satisfactory way to make a digger's bucket is, to 
 saw off about one- third the length of a strong barrel; 
 nail a board across the bottom on the outside, so that 
 stones dropping in, will not break the head through; 
 put on a strong iron hoop, six inches above the middle 
 of the bucket; and attach an iron bail at this point, 
 with half-inch bolts, passing through the bail, hoop and 
 
222 todd's country homes. 
 
 staves, or with hooks and eyes. A small lad will be 
 able to empty a large bucket hung in this manner. 
 
 A still cheaper wny is to take a strong salt barrel, 
 hoop it well, put a three-quarter rope around it, under 
 the bottom, lashed to the sides, in the same place where 
 the iron bail is fastened. When only one well is to be 
 •sunk, such a dirt-bucket will subserve as good a pur- 
 pose as one that will cost several dollars. A strong 
 wash-tub, with a rope passing around it, may be em- 
 ployed, when nothing more convenient is at hand. It 
 should be remembered that a barrel or tub should be 
 so hung, with the ears near the middle of the staves, 
 that when full of earth, it may be turned upside dowii, 
 with but little effort. Veins of water may be found 
 running through the earth, just as the blood veins ap- 
 pear in the bodies of animals. In some places, perma- 
 nent water may be found near the surface ; while only 
 a few feet distant, a w^ell may be sunk fifty feet, with- 
 out striking a vein. 
 
 The Size of Wells. — If only a small quantity of 
 Avater is required, a well may be made as small as a 
 workman can dig it. On the contrary, if a large num- 
 ber of animals are to be supplied with water from a 
 certain well, it should be made from six to ten feet in 
 diameter, for the purpose of forming a large reservoir, 
 in which the water can accumulate. When a well is 
 very small, a large herd of cattle would exhaust the 
 water before they all could be supplied ; whereas, there 
 would be an abundant supply were there sufficient 
 space for it to accumulate. 
 
 Many people overlook entirely, the necessity of hav- 
 ing a spacious reservoir. When the main water vein 
 
HOW TO STONE A WELL. 223 
 
 that supplies the well is small, if the well be large, the 
 supply of water may be sufficient for all purposes. 
 But, if the well were small, it would be necessary to 
 sink another well, or increase the size of the reservoir. 
 How TO STONE A Well. — When stoning a well, it is 
 not necessary to employ a professional well-digger, as 
 there are only two important considerations to be kept 
 in mind, one of which is, to place the large end of every 
 stone outward, instead of inward ; and to lay the stones 
 level, skotch them well, and fill all the interstices with 
 small stones. There is a right way and a wrong way 
 to stone a well. The object is to build a strong wall, 
 that will not fall inward, instead of a wall having a 
 smooth face, which is of little account. In laying up 
 a common wall, the large ends and face sides of stones 
 are laid in front. But, when stoning a well, the large 
 ends are placed in the opposite direction, so that every 
 course of stone on the face or inside, will form an arch. 
 The back side is leveled up with small stone, and much 
 care should be exercised to place many small ones 
 against the earth, instead of packing in large ones, to 
 keep the dirt from washing down to the bottom of the 
 well. If gravel can be obtained conveniently, it is a 
 good practice to fill all the interstices between the 
 stones with it. The thickness of a wall should be not 
 less than fifteen to twenty inches even when a well is 
 not more than ten feet deep, as a narrow wall made of 
 bowlders of irregular form, is liable to fall or cave in- 
 wards. When suitable stones cannot be obtained, bricks 
 may be employed instead of stones. If the ground be 
 firm, one course four inches wide, will be sufficient for 
 a deep well. Yet^, stones will be cheaper, even if they 
 
224 todd's country homes. 
 
 must be carted two or three miles. If stones and bricks 
 are scarce, coat the well with water-lime. 
 
 How TO DIG Wells in Slate. — When the work- 
 men reach the solid rock, work a reservoir in the rock 
 by blasting or chiseling. The smaller the diameter, 
 the less labor will be required to sink a well in the 
 water-tight rock. The water- veins that will supply 
 the well with water, may be found between the solid 
 rock and shale. In such a case, the reservoir may be 
 made four, or ten feet in the solid stratum. To obviate 
 the necessity of nearly filling this reservoir with stones, 
 as in the usual mode, a close scaffold or platform is laid 
 across the well, resting on the upper surface of the 
 rock, and covering entirely the space across the well. 
 This is shown by the dotted lines. On this the work- 
 man stands, and commences ston- 
 ing the well, by laying the foun- 
 dation on the rim of rock, which 
 is for this purpose laid bare of the 
 earth about one foot around. As 
 he rises in building the wall, he 
 gradually contracts its diameter, 
 until it is contracted to the usual 
 size, or to about two and one-quarter 
 feet in diameter. Every layer of 
 stones forming a circular arch, it is 
 perfectly impossible for the wall to 
 fall, if the stones are properly laid. 
 
 The illustration herewith given, represents the form 
 of the well, the strata of earth and rock that must be 
 perforated, and the reservoir filled with water. 
 
 Practical Advantages of a Syphon. — Springs of 
 
 A WELL IN THE ROCK. 
 
MEANS OF CONDUCTING WATEK. 225 
 
 never-failing water are frequently found on the hill- 
 slope, or the mountain-side, from ten to one hundred 
 feet higher than the dwelling-house, or barn. It is 
 sometimes desirable to bring the water from such a 
 mountain spring to the homestead. This can be done 
 in two or more wa^^s. One is to sink a hole only three 
 or four feet deep at the spring, and conduct the water 
 in a lead pipe down the slope. If it were necessary to 
 sink a well twenty feet, and if the bottom of the well 
 were only one foot higher than the end of the tube 
 where the Avater is to discharge, a lead tube may ex- 
 tend from near the bottom of the well to the top, and 
 along the surface of the earth, say two feet under 
 ground, to the dwelling-house, or barn. A pipe half 
 an inch in diameter would furnish a bountiful supply 
 of water. The end of the tube where the water issues 
 out should be constructed so that the water may not 
 be drawn out faster than it comes into the well. 
 The usual way to start the water in such a syphon, 
 is to attach a suction pump of some kind to the lower 
 end of the lead pipe, and draw out all the air. If the 
 tube is air-tight, water will continue to jflow until the 
 sujDply in the well is exhausted. 
 
 Making Cement Water-pipe. — Perhaps the most 
 satisfactory way of making or constructing this kind 
 of water-pipe, irs to cut a ditch, not less than two 
 feet deep ; and if the ground in the bottom of the ex- 
 cavation can be spaded, cut a channel in the bottom 
 of the ditch four inches deep and not more than four 
 inches wide. Dress off the sides and bottom smoothly. 
 But if the ground is stony, so that such a channel can 
 not be made without breaking up the earth on the 
 
 15 
 
226 todd's country homes. 
 
 sides, lay down a four-inch scantling, in the middle of 
 the ditch, pack lieav}^ earth with a rammer, on both 
 sides of it, flush with the upper side of the scantling. 
 Then remove the scantling, and fill the channel half 
 full of cement, for about four feet in length. If the 
 corners on the lower side of the scantling be dressed 
 off so as to giye an octagonal form, the mould will re- 
 quire less mortar, and at the same time, will be just as 
 strong as if the corners were left on. 
 
 The Core-Rod. — This is usually made of hard wood, 
 turned true and smooth. But the best thing is a bar of 
 round iron, four feet in diameter, straight and smooth, 
 with one end drawn out a little, and a hole made 
 through the end, for receiving a strong, small cord, 
 which is attached to a short piece of wooden rod, three 
 or four feet within the orifice. The rear piece of rod 
 may be a trifle smaller than the iron rod. The object 
 of it is, to remove any fragment of mortar that might 
 fall down in the orifice, after the iron rod has been 
 drawn forward. 
 
 After the channel in the bottom of the drain has 
 been half filled with cement through a space nearly as 
 long as the rod, lay the core-rod on the cement, and 
 bury it half its thickness in this bed of plastic ma- 
 terial, by standing on it. The operator will perceive, 
 at this point, the superiority of an iron rod, over one 
 of wood, which will spring more than he desires. Now, 
 then, fill the remainder of the channel with cement 
 mortar, press it down thoroughly around the rod, and 
 smooth off the surface. When the cement is laid in 
 the channel, it should be as stiff as it can be worked 
 conveniently with the trowel. If the cement be too 
 
WOODEN CISTEKNS. 227 
 
 soft, a longer time will be required to set, and the mor- 
 tar will be more liable to fall down behind the core-rod 
 and thus obstruct the water-course. The workman 
 will understand that one end of the iron rod must ex- 
 tend beyond the cement, sufficiently far to be grasped 
 with one hand. Now, before drawing the rod forward, 
 turn it a little, back and forth to loosen it ; then draw 
 it carefully along, until the rear end extends in the 
 orifice only two or three inches. Keep a block be- 
 neath the forwa,rd end, to prevent the rod's dropping 
 to the ground and thus rupturing the tube. While 
 the rod remains in its place, put more cement into the 
 channel, and press it close around the rod beneath ; 
 then fill the channel, and draw the rod forward to 
 form another section. 
 
 How TO BUILD Wooden Cisteens. — A man who 
 can saw off* a board to a mark, and joint two boards, 
 can make a good cistern. In order to make a wood 
 cistern, make a bottom of sound, seasoned boards, like 
 the bottom of a pail. Joint the pieces neatly, and 
 fasten them together with cleats on the under side. 
 Get the staves sawed out true with a circular saw, with 
 the edges bevelling at the correct angle. Every stave 
 should be about one-fourth of an inch narrower at the 
 upper end, than at the lower end. This form of staves 
 will give sufficient taper to the cistern for driving the 
 hoops downwards. Two inches from the lower end, 
 cut a croze, half an inch deep, in each stave, and nail 
 each stave to the circular bottom. Cut the croze to fit 
 water-tight to the edge of the bottom, and the cistern 
 will not leak. Unite the tops of the staves with small 
 nails, to steady them, until a hoop is put on. Procure 
 
228 
 
 todd's country homes. 
 
 some hoop-iron, enough for three hoops, one in the 
 middle and one at either end. Get a few rivets at the 
 hardware store ; rivet the ends of the hoops ; drive them 
 down firmly ; give the outside of the cistern a heavy 
 coat of coal-tar, or pitch ; set the top two feet below 
 the surface of the ground ; puddle the circumference 
 with clay in a plastic state, thin or soft enough to fill 
 the space of four inches wide between the staves and 
 bank of earth. Then cover the top with sound planks, 
 neatly jointed ; smear the surface with coal-tar or pitch ; 
 cover with hydraulic cement ; and you will have a cis- 
 tern that will last for ages. 
 
 When jointing the staves, be particular to leave the 
 outside of the joints open a trifle — say about one-twen- 
 tieth of an inch. A man who is half a mechanic can 
 make such a cistern in a few hours ; and the whole ex- 
 pense will be but a few dollars. 
 
 Brick or Stone Cisterns. — The most satisfactory 
 
 w^ay to make a large cis- 
 tern of bricks, is to make 
 a circular excavation, say 
 ^twelve feet deep, and 
 seven or eight feet in di- 
 ameter. Carry up the 
 ^3^ wall perpendicularly, the 
 width of one brick — or 
 four inches — thick. Lay 
 the bricks wdth care in 
 BRICK CISTERN. watcr-Ume ccmcnt. When 
 
 within five feet of the surface of the groimd, commence 
 drawing the wall in, as represented by the illustration 
 of the section of a brick cistern. The wall may be 
 
DIFFERENT KINDS OF CISTERNS. 229 
 
 drawn in to such an extent that a stone, or plank, a 
 yard square will cover the top. Cement the bottom 
 and sides thoroughly with excellent cement mortar, 
 and you will have a cistern that will never fail. 
 
 Cisterns should always be provided with a discharge 
 pipe, as represented by the illustration, with the upper 
 end laid in the wall, and the lower end extending di- 
 agonally to the bottom of the cistern. It would be 
 better to rest the lower end of the tube in the sink shown 
 at the bottom of the cistern, than where the engraver 
 has placed it. The object of this tube, it will be perceived, 
 is to let the surplus water flow out of the bottom of the 
 cistern, rather than to let the fresh rain water pass off, as 
 is usually the case. By the arrangement, as shown by 
 the discharge tube, the old water remaining in the bot- 
 tom of the reservoir will be forced out of the cistern as 
 it is filled with new water. This will tend also to keep 
 the water more pure. 
 
 Water-Lime Cisterns. — Wherever the earth has a 
 fair degree of solidity, excavate a round hole, and put 
 the cement on the smooth earth. In order to get the 
 cement of the desired thickness, two or three coats 
 must be applied. When one heavy coat is laid on, the 
 mortar is liable to drop off. The water-lime or cement, 
 should be tested, on a small scale, before the cistern is 
 plastered, for the purpose of determining whether the 
 material is good. Water-lime cisterns, when made of 
 excellent materials, will be as durable as a stone jug, 
 and the lime will not affect the water, after the cement 
 has become hard. 
 
 In order to make the surface smooth, after the exca- 
 vation is made, beat it, with a heavy mallet, until the 
 
230 todd's countky homes. 
 
 rough points are all battered down even. This process 
 will save several bushels of cement. 
 
 Covering Cisterists. — There should always be not 
 less than two feet in depth of earth, over the top of 
 every cistern. The covering is usually made of stiff 
 and durable plank, supported, if necessary, by strong 
 scantling, and over this is placed about one foot of 
 earth, to exclude completely the frost. A hole with a 
 curb, about eighteen inches by two feet, must be left 
 in this covering, for the admission of the water-pipe or 
 pump, and to allow a man to enter for cleaning out the 
 cistern when necessary. In cold or freezing weather, 
 it is indispensably requisite to have this hole well 
 stopped to exclude frost, which would otherwise enter 
 the wet cement or walls, and produce cracking and 
 leakage — a frequent cause of the failure of water-lime 
 cisterns. 
 
 Strong posts of durable wood, or pillars of brick, 
 may be placed near the middle of large • cisterns, for 
 supporting the heavy weight of earth. The lower ends 
 of such pillars should rest on broad flat stones, laid in 
 cement. 
 
 The Capacity of Cisterns. — Beginners usually in- 
 quire, "How small may we build a cistern ?" and not "How 
 large can it be made?" The great fault with most cis- 
 terns is, they are too small. They seldom contain half 
 the water that falls on the roof of the dwelling. As 
 the usual depth and capacity of cisterns are not half 
 what they should be, their general insufficiency as a 
 source of supply, is a matter of serious complaint. 
 The capacity of a cistern should be sufficient for the 
 use of the family for ninety days without rain, and the 
 
DRAIN-TILES FOR WATER-PIPE. 231 
 
 depth of covering over it should be sufficient to effectu- 
 ally protect it from solar heat. 
 
 The annual average fall of ^yater in this latitude is 
 about thirty-six inches in depth, or twenty-one gallons 
 for each superficial foot of surface of a roof measured 
 horizontally. By the aid of this data, the inexperi- 
 enced builder may readily calculate about how much 
 water his roofs will collect, and also, how much he will 
 be likely to want for any purpose. The rain that falls 
 on the roof of a small dwelling, if carefully preserved 
 in properly constructed, spacious cisterns, will be found 
 ample to meet the necessary wants of the family. 
 
 By referring to the fundamental rules in almost any 
 arithmetic, a beginner can determine in a few minutes, 
 how many hogsheads of water a cistern of a given size 
 will contain. 
 
 Drain-tiles for Water-pipe. — When water is to 
 flow downward, from the source to the place of dis- 
 charge, drain-tiles with the ends simply placed together, 
 as they are laid in a ditch, will subserve a satisfactory 
 purpose. In case, however, it is necessary to form a 
 water-tight tube, the joints of the tiles must be covered 
 with a coat of good cement mortar not less than half 
 an inch thick, entirely around the tiles. For such a 
 purpose, the tiles should be made two feet or more, 
 long, so as to reduce the number of joints. Before a 
 tile is laid, a small quantity of cement mortar should 
 be spread for the ends to rest on. 
 
 Raising Water with a Wind-mill. — In sections 
 of country where there are no springs, running brooks, 
 or rivers, the supply of water must often be obtained 
 from deep wells. In such cases, a small wind-mill will 
 
232 todd's country homes. 
 
 subserve an excellent purpose. At Mineola, Long 
 Island, where every barrel of water must come from a 
 well over sixty feet deep, a wind-mill is employed to 
 work a force-pump, which elevates the water into a 
 very large reservoir on the surface of the earth, from 
 which water troughs, in distant pasture fields, receive 
 a constant supply through small lead pipes. The reser- 
 voir is sufficiently capacious to contain more than a 
 thousand hogsheads of water. It is made of a circular 
 form, with the side walls of bricks or stones, laid water- 
 tig-ht in cement mortar. The bottom is also covered 
 with a thick coat of cement. Then a strong plank 
 covering is supported by posts in the reservoir, and the 
 whole is covered with earth to exclude the frost. The 
 surface is covered with a turf, so that the reservoir 
 appears like a huge mound. These facts, I trust, will 
 be sufficient to enable any one to carry out the neces- 
 sary details in constructing such water-works. In case 
 it were desirable to obtain a supply of water from a 
 river thirty feet lower than the place of delivery, a 
 wind-mill could be employed to elevate the water about 
 thirty feet by suction. Or, in case the w^ind-mill could 
 be stationed in the valley, the water could be forced 
 up to almost any desired point of elevation. Wind- 
 mills have been brought to such perfection, that one 
 can be erected above a large barn of sufficient capacity 
 to drive thrashing-machine, fodder-cutters, pump the 
 water for stock, drive the churn in summer, turn the 
 grind-stone, drive a circular saw for cutting fire-wood, 
 and be employed for any other purpose where a power 
 equal to two or ten horses is desirable. When one is 
 at a distance from a grist-mill, if a few hundred bushels 
 
HOW TO MAKE WOODEN WATER-PIPE. 233 
 
 of grain are to be ground in a year, it would be eco- 
 nomical management to construct a wind-mill to pump 
 water and drive a portable farm mill. (See Farm Mills 
 in another chapter.) 
 
 How TO MAKE Wooden Water-pipe. — A great many 
 people would be glad to convey water in some kind 
 of pipe, were it not for the great expense. In many 
 parts of the country, wooden tubing, or water pipe is 
 an article of commerce, and is usually sold for about 
 twice the value of the timber, when reduced to board 
 measure. For conveying w^ater from springs or wells, 
 for the use of stock, culinary purposes, irrigation, or 
 for any and every purpose when a small supply is re- 
 quired, wooden pipe or tubing is cheaper than either 
 lead, tin or iron. One of the advantages of wood is, it 
 does not corrode by use ; and the water is not impreg- 
 nated with a deadly poison, as in the case of some 
 kinds of metallic pipe. If water continues passing 
 through wooden tubing it will last a generation. As 
 almost any kind of timber will continue sound, so long 
 as it is kept saturated with water, many farmers may 
 make a large quantity of wooden, two-inch tubing at a 
 small expense, by having one end of a straight, iron 
 rod welded to the end of the shank of a two-inch aug-er, 
 and a crank made on the other end. The auger should 
 have a good, sharp screw, and rather coarse, so that it 
 will bore lengthways of the grain of the wood, with- 
 out being pressed in. A shank six feet long, will an- 
 swer for boring lengths of pipe twelve feet in length, 
 by changing ends, after boring half way through, which 
 may be done if the timber is straight-grained. If the 
 timber is somewhat knotty, it will be better to have the 
 
234 todd's countey homes. 
 
 shank and auger about ten feet in length, so as to reach 
 from end to end of ten-feet cuts, without changing ends 
 of the sticks. 
 
 For holding the cuts, while they are being bored, a 
 rude bench may be made about twice as long as the 
 auger, if the cuts are to be bored without changing 
 ends. The end of the shank of the auger near the 
 crank, should be supported by a slide, that will move 
 along as the auger enters the wood. The only im- 
 portant considerations in boring straight from end to 
 end is, the center of each end of the stick, and the 
 center of the end of the auger-shank .must be in a 
 direct line. Then the auger must be withdrawn fre- 
 quently, to prevent the chips from clogging so firmly 
 that the auger cannot be turned out without breaking 
 the pod. Where wooden pipe is bored by machinery, 
 the pod of the auger is eight to ten feet in length ; and 
 is turned off so true, that it revolves in an iron socket, 
 or case, through which- all the chips are conveyed, as 
 fast as the auger enters the wood. It is impracticable 
 for such an auger to clog. Of course, the ends of the 
 cuts should be sawed off squarely. The auger should 
 enter the small end of each stick first, when the ends 
 are not to be changed in boring. 
 
 The most economical and satisfactory way to unite 
 the ends of pieces of wooden pipe, is to procure cast- 
 iron couplings, about four inches long, made very thin, 
 like a barrel without heads, having a little bilge at the 
 middle, like Fig. 5, at A, in the following illustration. 
 These couplings should be just large enough to fill a 
 two-inch hole, water-tight, when driven in half their 
 length. A small ridge, bead or flange is made around 
 
LEAD WATEK-PIPE. 235 
 
 the middle of each coupling, like a large hoop around 
 the bilge of a barrel, to facilitate getting each end just 
 so far into the pieces to be connected. 
 
 Lead Water-pipe. — When persons in the rural dis- 
 tricts contemplate the use of lead pipe for conducting 
 water from springs located above the place of delivery, 
 pipe weighing half the usual number of pounds per 
 lineal rod, will subserve a satisfactory purpose. I once 
 purchased a quantity of lead pipe, under the direction 
 of one who professed to know more than I, and the re- 
 sult was, that a length of pipe which cost me one hun- 
 dred and twelve dollars, might have been procured for 
 forty-five dollars, if I had been guided by my own judg- 
 ment. When lead pipe is employed for plumbing a 
 dwelling-house, it frequently occurs that pipe one- 
 third heavier than is really necessary, is employed. 
 The true and economical way to get lead pipe in New 
 York is, not to deal with jobbers, who will ask a much 
 larger price than the same quality of pipe could be 
 obtained for, at the factory ; but to communicate with 
 the manufacturers, telling them what is required. The 
 same may be done in other large cities. If a farmer 
 wants a piece of light pipe, five hundred feet long, he 
 can get it in one entire piece at the factory, rolled in a 
 neat coil. Whereas, were he to purchase of some re- 
 tailer, the same kind of pipe would be forwarded in 
 several pieces. 
 
 Manner of Joining Tin-lined Pipe. — The accom- 
 panying illustrations will convey a fair idea of the dif- 
 ferent kinds of connections employed to join pieces of 
 tin-lined pipe, by soldering. The letters of reference 
 will apply to the game part of the connection in each 
 
236 
 
 todd's countky homes. 
 
 illustration. This joint is an improvement on the wiped 
 joint, which requires much practical skill, besides, re- 
 quiring nearly a pound of solder, which will usually 
 cost the consumer fifty cents, besides fifty cents more 
 
 Fiy ^ 
 
 for the manipulation in making a single joint. Fig. 1, 
 represents a T connection, for uniting a branch to the 
 supply pipe. Fig. 2, represents a sectional view of 
 same, showing the jjerfect union this method secures. 
 Fig. 3, is a single joint with pipe attached. Fig. 4, is 
 a sectional view of same. Fig. 5, represents a single 
 joint, as furnished to the trade ready for use. These 
 
JOINING TIN-LINED PIPE. 237 
 
 connections are made of brass and heavily tinned, both 
 inside and out; a, a, are the conical ends to which the 
 pipe is fitted. A, the outer flange to which the heat 
 is applied, when the joint is effected. Any mechanic, 
 who cannot make a wii:>ed joint, will be able to unite 
 a lead pipe with such a connection, with very little 
 difficulty. 
 
 These joints answer admirably for lead pipe; but 
 they are particularly adapted to lead encased block-tin 
 pipe, as there is no danger of melting the tin lining 
 by making the joint. For pure block-tin pipe it will 
 be found almost essential, owing to the danger of melt- 
 ing the pipe by any other process. Each size joint is 
 suitable for the different thicknesses of pipe. The 
 manner of uniting two ends of pipe is as follows : 
 
 First clean the ends of the pipe, by scraping or other- 
 wise, as solder will not unite to a dirty substance. Saw 
 the ends of the pipe square; then, drive in the ex- 
 pander, which is a round and smooth piece of steel of 
 the same taper as the connection, to the point required, 
 it being distinctly marked for all sizes of pipe. When 
 the pipe is fitted to the joint, apply a hot tongs to the 
 flange A, until the tin on the surface softens, which can 
 be known by passing the finger, quickly over the sur- 
 face. This is a sure indication that the union inside is 
 complete. The tongs are then removed; and the ends 
 of the pipe quickly pressed to the flange, for a moment, 
 for the melted tin to set. These tongs are made with 
 copper jaws to retain heat. But ordinary smith's tongs 
 will answer. So also will a blow-pipe, or anything that 
 will make sufficient heat to melt the tin. By applying 
 heat to the outer flange, it causes the tin on the outer 
 
238 todd's country homes. 
 
 surface of the joint to flow; this uniting with the inner 
 surface of the pipe, makes a union that no force can 
 separate, or water penetrate. This style of joint is 
 known to the trade as " a sweated union,'' instead of a 
 "wiped joint." 
 
 Joining Lead Pipe Without Soldering. — Heavy 
 lead pipe may sometimes be united water-tight, by pro- 
 curing an iron coupling, or connection, at an iron-pipe 
 manufactory, which has a left-handed thread cut in one 
 end, and a right-handed thread in the other end. As 
 such couplings are made of numerous sizes, they can 
 be obtained to fit lead pipe of almost any given size. 
 Let the two ends of a lead pipe be cut oflf square, and 
 if the pipe is not round it must be made so. Then 
 screw one end of the iron coupling on one end of the 
 pipe, say half an inch. Remove it, and screw the other 
 end on the other piece of pipe. Unscrew the coupling, 
 fill the thread on both ends of both coupling and pipe 
 with red or white lead mingled with boiled oil, so as to 
 be of the consistence of thick paint. Now screw the 
 coupling on both ends of the pipe at once. If the 
 coupling is just large enough to screw on the pipe, 
 the joint will be water-tight, even under pressure. The 
 writer joined a cold-water supply-pipe in the cellar with 
 an inch iron coupling, in Brooklyn, where the water is 
 under a heavy pressure, and the joint does not leak. 
 
CHAPTER YI. 
 
 BARNS AND OUT-BUILDINGS. 
 
 Erecting Out-buildings — Framing Large Barns — Scarfing Large Timlaer 
 — Selecting Durable and Perishable Timber — Nails — ^How to use 
 tbem — Scribe Rule and Square Rule — A Cheap Barn, 
 
 MANNER OF FRAMING A LARGE BARN. 
 
 The method herewith given I have never seen laid 
 
 down in any treatise on 
 architecture. As pur- 
 line beams are many 
 times much in the way, 
 they may be dispensed 
 with entirely. The girts 
 which connect the tops 
 of the middle posts to 
 the purline posts, should 
 be of strong timber ; 
 the tenons should ex- 
 tend through each post ; 
 und one edge of the 
 tenons should be fitted 
 to a dove-taU mortise, 
 and keyed tight instead of being pinned. The braces 
 a a, at the foot of the purline posts should be nearly 
 as large as the purline posts ; and should face on the 
 opposite sides from the girts shown above a a. Should 
 
 ^ NK \ 
 
 X ^ 
 
 k A 
 
 FRAMING THE MIDDLE BENTS OP A LARGE 
 
240 todd's country homes. 
 
 the purline posts be not less than twelve feet long, a 
 beam might be framed in ; and there would be suffi- 
 cient room to pitch with a horse pitchfork, both under 
 and over the purline beam. If the doors are so ar- 
 ranged that teams may be driven lengthways of the 
 barn or across it, the framing will be nearly the same 
 in both cases. Very large buildings may be framed in 
 this manner; and if the work is well performed the 
 sides will not spread one-fourth of an inch. When a 
 barn is framed in this manner with purline beams, the 
 boss must remember not to pin one of the outside posts 
 when raising the building, until after the purline posts 
 have been put up ; because, the girts which connect 
 the purline posts with the main posts, cannot be put 
 in after both of the main posts have been pinned, un- 
 less one end of the girts is framed luithoiit a shoulder, 
 so that it may be run through one post, and then 
 brought back to its place and pinned. If the barn is 
 very wide, there should be two middle posts instead of 
 one, placed far enough apart for the width of the floor. 
 Many farmers seem to prefer a lot of small detached 
 barns to one large one. But those who have ever had 
 a cluster of small barns, and afterwards have come 
 in possession of a larger one, greatly prefer the latter 
 to the former. On the score of economy, one large 
 barn that will contain as much as three or four small 
 ones, will cost nearly one-half less to erect it; and a 
 number of small ones are never as convenient as one 
 large one. The young farmer, as a general rule, need 
 have no apprehensions that he will erect a barn larger 
 than is necessary, for the complaint almost always is a 
 want of barn room. Barn room usually is all occupied ; 
 
FRAMING LARGE BARNS. 241 
 
 and in most instances it pays a good interest; but so 
 much redundant house room as is too frequently met 
 with, is a decided disadvantage to a farmer. A few 
 years ago, bams were built with posts only twelve and 
 fourteen feet in length ; because it was so laborious and 
 expensive pitching hay or grain to the top of them. 
 But now that we have very efficient horse elevators, 
 out-buildings should be made much higher than they 
 formerly were. It costs but a trifle more to frame a 
 post twenty-four feet long, than one fourteen feet long ; 
 and it requires no more rafters, and roof boards, and 
 shingles, to cover a high building, than a low one. The 
 posts of a large barn may just as well be, twenty-four 
 feet long, as to be shorter. If such posts are eight 
 inches square, no one need have any fears, that they 
 would ever prove too small ; provided every one is well 
 ])raced. 
 
 Reference should be had, in erecting a large barn, to 
 the most proper and economical disposition of the room. 
 The joists, which extend from one large beam to 
 another, should be loose, so that, they can be removed 
 until the mow is filled up to them, when they should 
 be put in their places and a few loose boards laid on 
 them. Then the lower part of the mow may be 
 threshed out, after which the upper part can be 
 threshed, and the straw deposited in the lower part of 
 the mow. Should more room be needed, the horse 
 fork may be used to pitch a lot of straw into the upper 
 part of the mow. 
 
 Every good barn should have a basement story ; and 
 a water channel of tile should be laid around the entire 
 foundation, as recommended for a cellar, in order to 
 
 16 
 
242 
 
 TODD S COUNTRY HOMES. 
 
 render it as dry as possible; and the barn-j^ard should 
 be SO constructed that no manure will be wasted. (See 
 Cellar.) 
 
 Eave-troughs should conduct all surplus water into 
 the tile, for the purpose of keeping the water passage 
 open. Basement and cellar walls are often ruined by 
 allowing the water to fall from the e^ves and to soak 
 into the ground along the walls. 
 
 When a carriage-house, hay-barn and stable are 
 erected under one roof, the posts may be eighteen or 
 twenty feet high, just as well as ten or twelve feet to 
 the roof When the posts are short, there will be but 
 little room for hay. It will cost but a few dollars more 
 to erect a carriage-house with twenty-feet posts than 
 with twelve-feet posts. 
 
 As tie beams are always very much in the way in a 
 hay-barn, in my carriage-house loft, braces, made of 
 iron-wood poles six inches in diameter and seven feet 
 long, were neatly fitted, tv'Uhout tenons, and bolted to 
 the middle posts below the plats, and to the upper side 
 of the middle beam with iron bolts three-fourths of an 
 
 inch in diameter, as repre- 
 sented by the accompanying 
 figure. Such braces keep the 
 beam from sagging, and the 
 plates from spreading apart. 
 
 By fitting a brace, without 
 mortises, and bolting one end 
 of it to the middle post just 
 ^^ below the plate, and the other 
 end to the upper side of the 
 beam which supports the floor, 
 
 A TIE BRACE. 
 
FRAMING LARGE BARNS. 243 
 
 the building cannot spread. Braces in such places, when 
 put in with tenon and mortise, almost always give 
 way, and it is not safe to rely upon them. 
 
 Every additional brace gives additional stiffness to 
 a building ; and the young farmer should insist on hav- 
 ing the foot of every post braced, where they will not 
 be in the way, with as long braces as there is room for 
 receiving ; and each end should he well pinned. One brace 
 at the foot of a post, is more effectual in rendering a 
 high building stiff, than two braces at the top of it. 
 The braces in a barn frame may face with the inside 
 of the posts ; and then, they can cross the girts. And 
 braces as long as can be received between the posts, 
 can be used without interfering with the girts or studs. 
 
 Jobbers will usually mutter and grumble, when re- 
 quested to put in long braces on the inside of posts, 
 and will deny the importance of having long braces, 
 and of having the ends of them well pinned. But 
 these ideas have not been penned without knowing 
 from experience, how a building should be braced, in 
 order to render it as stiff as possible, with a given 
 quality and form of materials. It is by no means the 
 largest timbers that are worked into a building, which 
 impart the greatest strength and stiffness to the frame, 
 but, it is the manner in which the framing is per- 
 formed. Every tenon, where it is possible, should pass 
 entirely through a sill or post, and be well pinned with 
 very tough pins. The girts — or girders — should never 
 be placed more than four feet apart. If they are much 
 farther apart, the outside 'boards, which are nailed to 
 them, will not be as firm as they should be. The main 
 beams should be not less than fourteen feet from the 
 
244 todd's country homes. 
 
 floor, so as to allow sufficient room for a load of hay 
 or grain to pass under them. If such beams are eight 
 by ten inches square, and supported at proper distances 
 with middle posts, they will be large enough for any 
 barn. The beginner should, at the commencement of 
 a job, give the foreman directions to let the ends of 
 every beam iiito the posts not less than half an inch, so 
 that the pressure will not all rest on the tenons. 
 
 The sleepers or joists of the principal floor should be 
 stiff" enough to sustain any team and load without bend- 
 ing ; and they never should be placed more than three 
 feet apart, from center to center, even when two-inch 
 plank is used for the floor. 
 
 When there are a number of different kinds of tim- 
 ber in the frame, such as soft and hard wood, the pro- 
 prietor should see that the workmen have three or four 
 different sizes of nails in their boxes. Every good 
 joiner knows that it is not always practicable to drive 
 ten or twelve-penny nails into seasoned hard wood. In 
 nailing on siding or inch boards, if the timber is hard 
 wood, nails of a smaller size should be used. Let a 
 workman attempt to nail on a half-inch board with 
 ten-penny nails driven into a stud of sugar-maple, 
 thoroughly seasoned; and after the nail has entered 
 about one inch it will bend or break, and the siding 
 will most assuredly be split. Let six-penny nails be 
 used for nailing into hard wood, and eights and tens — 
 according to the thickness of the boards — when the 
 studs, posts, or girders are of soft wood. 
 
 In order to keep the large beams from springing out- 
 wards or in either direction, two or three of the middle 
 joists should be let in with a dovetail. 
 
THICKNESS OF SHINGLING. 245 
 
 Rafters should be firmly spiked — not pinned with 
 wooden pins — to the plates, because wooden pins are 
 very liable to shrink and become loose. Then if the 
 roof should project, as far as it ought to, in order to 
 appear well, a violent gale of wind would lift the roof 
 from the plates. But forty-penny nails will hold the 
 rafters in place, far better than wooden pins. 
 
 When a roof is covered with wooden shingles, a little 
 care should be exercised in having the shingles three 
 courses thick. The distance w^hich one course of shin- 
 gles is laid above the other, is called laying to the loeather. 
 If shingles are laid six inches to the weather, and the 
 greater part of them are a little less than eighteen 
 inches in length, the shingles will not be of three thick- 
 nesses over the entire roof, but, there will be many 
 places at the butts of each course, where the top end 
 of the under course does not extend far enough up the 
 roof to receive the water as it falls from the butts of 
 the outside course. A new roof often will leak, be- 
 cause the shingles are laid more than one-third of their 
 length to the weather; whereas, the courses should be 
 laid a little less than one-third the length of the short- 
 est shingles. A half dozen poor shingles in a roof will 
 make a very poor roof, even when almost every shingle 
 is of the choicest quality of timber. 
 
 How TO Scarf a Beam. — It is often very difficult 
 to procure timber of a given length. Sills and beams 
 
 that are well sustained 
 
 m 
 
 ^^mim^&Mmmk^M with middle posts or studs, 
 ' subserve about as good 
 
 a purpose if they are neatly scarfed together, and 
 bolted, as shown by the accompanying illustration. 
 
246 todd's country homes. 
 
 There are several different modes of scarfing, or 
 "splicing" timbers. But some are very inefficient; 
 while others will render a stick almost as strong as a 
 whole piece of timber. 
 
 Selecting Durable or Perishable Timber. — 
 Many persons could save a vast deal of labor and 
 money, when making preparations to build, if they 
 were familiar with the durability of all kinds of mate- 
 rials. Many a farmer has incurred the expense of 
 hauHng pine and hemlock lumber twenty or thirty 
 miles, when his own wood lot would have furnished all 
 the timber required. I have known farmers to pay an 
 extortionate price for pine plank for a barn floor, when 
 he could have procured "clear-stuff" bass-wood on his 
 own land, at less than half the expense of pine. Besides 
 this, good bass-wood will make beautiful floors for any 
 out-building or dwelling, where the floor is not exposed 
 to the influences of wet and heat. 
 
 In many localities durable timber for fence-posts or 
 for sills to a building is exceedingly scarce. And yet 
 there are so many varieties of durable timber that, if 
 oak of any kind can not be obtained, some other kind 
 of timber may be had which will be found quite as 
 durable as oak. Red elm, if seasoned before the timber 
 is employed for fence-posts, will last quite as long as 
 oak. When red elm is employed as sills for a build- 
 ing, as the newly hewed sticks are liable to warp and 
 spring, the timber should be hewed, framed, put in its 
 place, and protected from the sun all in one day, if 
 practicable. In case red elm timber can not be secured 
 in a frame soon after it is sawed or hewed out, every 
 stick should be placed on a level foundation, so that 
 
SELECTING TIMBER. 247 
 
 stones or heavy timber may be laid above it to hold it 
 straight. Red beech is another kind of durable tim- 
 ber, which will serve satisfactorily for sills of buildings, 
 or for posts or beams, where the timber is liable to be 
 exposed to dampness or the influences of wet and heat. 
 Red beech will be found an excellent substitute for 
 oak. As this kind of timber rarely grows where we 
 find oak forests, it may be sawed into all kinds of tim- 
 ber for dwelling-houses or out-buildings. It will make 
 joists, studs, and excellent floor-boards, provided they 
 are "stuck up" straightly soon after the logs are 
 sawed, so that the pieces may have an opportunity to 
 season straight without being warped by the sun. 
 Butternut is another kind of timber that is often more 
 durable than any oak, even when employed for fence- 
 posts. Butternut is usually a soft wood, often softer 
 than white pine. Therefore this kind of timber may 
 be employed for roof-boards, flooring, for casing and 
 window-sills, or for making doors. Yet, as butternut 
 timber is so liable to warp and spring when the pieces 
 are seasoning, it is always important that this kind of 
 lumber should be stuck up while the timber is green, 
 that it may be straight after the pieces are well sea- 
 soned. The grain is so beautiful that Hr parlor finished 
 with butternut lumber often looks richer than if wain- 
 scoted with the best of black walnut. Many a man 
 has purchased black walnut at an exorbitant price for 
 making a hand-rail and balusters for his stairs, or for 
 other work in his house, when there were large butter- 
 nut trees on his own land which would have furnished 
 ten times more lumber than he required, and that, too, 
 of a superior beauty. 
 
248 todd's country homes. 
 
 A common error is frequently committed in selecting 
 durable building timber for dwelling-houses and out- 
 buildings, and then, chooshig perishable timber for 
 sleepers or cross-sills, though the main-sills may have 
 heen procured of the best quality, at a large expense. 
 We frequently see white oak, or red elm sills, and sleepers 
 of sugar-maple, which will decay as soon as bass-wood 
 or button-wood. When the ends of sleepers are re- 
 ceived in gains cut in the sills, the very ends are more 
 liable to decay than any other part, especially if water 
 is allowed to find its way down in the joints. For this 
 reason, it is always quite as important to select durable 
 timber for joists and sleepers, as for sills. But, when 
 the sills of a building are resting on a high wall, where 
 the timber will not be exposed to the alternate influ- 
 ences of moisture and dryness, almost any kind of 
 wood may be employed ; and so long as water can be 
 kept from the surfice, from cracks, and from mortises, 
 even perishable timber will remain quite sound. Bass- 
 wood, white beech, maple, and other kinds of timber 
 that are known as perishable, will satisfactorily serve 
 these purposes and continue sound, so long as the 
 sticks can be kept dry. 
 
 In numerous instances, persons who have many acres 
 of oak, chestnut, and other durable timber, near by, 
 have gone thirty miles to purchase hemlock scantling 
 and boards for building a barn, when either of the 
 kinds mentioned, would have subserved a more satisfac- 
 tory purpose, and would not have cost one-half so 
 much. Oak and chestnut will make excellent roof 
 boards, or vertical boards for any out-building. I have 
 in mind a barn that was covered with bass-wood boards^ 
 
CUT-NAILS HOW TO USE THEM. 249 
 
 put on vertically, in 1832 ; and they are good for an- 
 other thirty years. Had the boards been seasoned, 
 planed and painted, as they should have been before 
 they were used, they would have been quite sound at 
 the present writing. I have met with many large barns 
 at the West, which were built wholly of oak. 
 
 Cut-Nails; and how to use them. — Cut-nails are 
 frequently made of such poor iron, that there is but 
 little more strength in them than there would be in 
 cast-iron nails. For this reason, a few of them should 
 be broken, when one is about to make a purchase of 
 any considerable quantity, for the purpose of testing 
 their brittleness or tenacity. If a cut-nail will break 
 into several pieces, when it is set on one end, and struck 
 with a hammer, the iron is exceedingly poor, and such 
 nails will not be at all suitable for building fences or 
 dwelling-houses. When one is about to make board 
 fence, the nails should be tested, as poor nails will be 
 constantly breaking, when they are exposed to only a 
 light strain. We have cut-nails of almost every inter- 
 mediate size, from three-j)enny to sixty-penny. And 
 many of the sizes for ordinary use in house-building 
 are known as finishing nails, which are made with 
 smooth heads; while the ordinary nails have ragged 
 heads, which are liable to crush and break the wood 
 near the head, when the nails are- driven well in. A 
 vast deal of judgment is requisite in using nails, when 
 erecting buildings, or even when building a common 
 board fence. Workmen should have a neat and light 
 nail-box, with six or eight apartments for nails of differ- 
 ent sizes. These apartments should be large enough to 
 admit one's hand, when taking a nail from the bottom. 
 
250 todd's country homes. 
 
 A neat nail-box made of half-inch boards, with ten 
 apartments, each of sufficient capacity to hold one or 
 two pounds of nails, will always be found a convenient 
 appliance to a workman's outfit. A small dish contain- 
 ing nails, is easily turned over. 
 
 Now, then, when nailing on fence-boards or clap- 
 boards, if the nail is to enter a very hard piece of tim- 
 ber, the workman should be careful to use a nail that 
 will pass through the board, and a short distance into 
 the hard wood without bending up. When a workman 
 attempts to drive a ten-penny nail, for example, through 
 a board into a hard oak post, or a maple beam, after 
 the point has entered about one inch, the middle of the 
 nail will often bend and split the board, especially if it 
 be driven near one end of the board. When siding or 
 thin clapboards are nailed to hard wood studs of a 
 house, six-penny nails will be more satisfactory than, 
 those of a larger size. In finishing many other kinds 
 of work, it is often desirable to have nails adapted to 
 the work, and especially to the kind of timber into 
 which the nails are to be driven. If ten-penny nails, 
 or twelve-penny nails are employed where six-penny 
 nails will subserve a more satisfactory purpose, there 
 will be a loss in the cost of the nails, besides the con- 
 sideration alkided to — the want of proper adaptation 
 of the size of nails to the work. Twelve-penny nails 
 are frequently used to nail down floor boards, when, by 
 employing eight-penny nails, several pounds might be 
 saved. The ordinary eight-penny building-nails are 
 often employed in building board fence ; but, " fence- 
 eighths," if the posts be hard wood, or "fence tens," if 
 the timber were soft, would be far preferable. 
 
PURCHASING BUILDING MATERIAL. 251 
 
 Cut-nails may be rendered very tough, by the simple 
 process of annealing, which, for many kinds of work, 
 will render them quite as valuable as if they were 
 wrought-iinih. When cut-nails are employed for mak- 
 ing gates, fodder racks and boxes, and for many other 
 purposes, they should be annealed. It is always better 
 to anneal fence nails, as they will not be so liable to 
 break as if they had not been annealed. Annealed 
 cut-nails, are always better than wrought-nails, for any 
 kind of work. 
 
 The better way to anneal cut-nails, is to make a 
 small fire out of doors, with brush and chips, and when 
 the wood is burning lively, pour on a keg of nails, al- 
 low them to become red-hot, and then to cool in the 
 embers, as the fire goes out. Nails should never be 
 put into water, when they are hot. Neither should 
 they be put into a fire that will burn them, by heating 
 the iron too hot. By allowing the nails to cool gradu- 
 ally, in the embers, tliey will be very tough. If, in- 
 stead of allowing them to cool in the air, they are 
 throwm, when red-hot, into linseed oil, it will prevent 
 their rusting almost as long as though they were gal- 
 vanized. Those who have occasion to use cut-nails in 
 place of wrought, should not forget this simple method 
 of preventing rust. 
 
 The Way to Purchase Building Materials. — A 
 great many people, when purchasing lumber for build- 
 ings, disregard the importance of length and width of 
 boards and planks, simply because they do not exercise 
 sufficient forethought, as to the fact, whether the 
 length and width do or do not make any difference. 
 The size of framing timber should also be carefullj^ con- 
 
252 todd's country homes. 
 
 sidered, as a great many dollars may be saved by deter- 
 mining before the purchase, how small beams, sills, girts 
 and posts may be, and yet be of consistent strength. 
 When lumber is to be purchased at a distance, after a 
 bill of the necessary amount of lumber has been pre- 
 pared, it will be found an economical practice to com- 
 municate with lumber dealers, in various parts of the 
 country, for the purpose of determining the price for 
 the kinds of lumber required. In this way, a shrewd 
 and judicious builder, or buyer may often save from 
 twenty to fifty per cent, in the price of his lumber. 
 For example : If an elegant suburban villa were to be 
 erected in the vicinity of New York City, and it were 
 desirable to procure first-rate lumber, at the lowest 
 cash price, it would be well to communicate with dealers 
 of lumber in Maine, Georgia, Virginia, or other locali- 
 ties, from which the market is supplied, with cheap 
 and choice lumber. By addressing postmasters, editors 
 of certain papers, or some other persons in these locali- 
 ties, where large quantities of lumber are sawed, or by 
 inquiring of lumber dealers in New York, from whom 
 they receive lumber, it will not be difficult to come 
 into communication with reliable dealers, who would 
 respond to a bill of lumber with satisfactory prompt- 
 ness. Manufacturers of doors, window-sash, and win- 
 dow-blinds, in all the lumber districts, turn out im- 
 mense quantities of these articles, often at a cheap rate. 
 An economical way would be to determine, nearly one 
 year beforehand, how many doors, window-sashes and 
 blinds would be required, and purchase £hem, so that 
 they might be thoroughly seasoned before they were 
 worked into the house. 
 
PURCHASINa BUILDING MATERIAL. 253 
 
 Another way in which money might be saved, is to 
 communicate with a dealer in lumber, away back in the 
 woods, where lumber is cheap, and give him a bill of 
 the number of pieces of jamb-casings and face-casings 
 required for all the doors and windows of a house, all 
 to be planed on one side, tied up in packages of about 
 one hundred pounds each, and forwarded by railroad 
 or canal. A prudent manager could save more money 
 in this manner than one would at first suppose. 
 
 In case the style of finishing the rooms should re- 
 quire much heavy moulding, it will be more economical 
 to purchase the lumber, and have it taken to a ma- 
 chine, where moulding can be made at a cheap rate, 
 than to have the pieces worked out by hand. Lumber 
 can be planed and the edges matched so cheaply by 
 machinery, that it is far more economical to have all 
 such work done at the planing-mill than to have boards 
 planed and matched by hand. This is especially true 
 of hard wood boards. In purchasing floor boards, it is 
 best to select narrow ones, six or eight inches in width, 
 as narrow boards will always make better flooring than 
 wide ones. The foregoing suggestions will doubtless 
 be sufficient to enable an intelligent beginner to pur- 
 chase his bill of materials in the most economical 
 manner. 
 
 As a great many enthusiastic beginners trust to 
 others who know little and care less for the interest of 
 an employer, the usual way of beginning to build is to 
 order so many thousand feet of joists, so many feet of 
 studding, and so many thousand feet of other lumber, 
 without any regard to length or breadth of the boards 
 and planks. The true and economical way would be 
 
254 todd's countey homes. 
 
 to determine, with great care, how many studs of a 
 given length, how many joists of various lengths and 
 breadths, and about how much thick stuff will be neces- 
 sary, and to provide the boards and planks of such a 
 length and breadth that they may be cut into casings 
 and base-boards with a minimum amount of waste. As 
 a general rule, the longer the lumber and the wider the 
 boards, the less will be the waste when they are worked 
 up for any purpose. Therefore, in ordering a thousand 
 feet of thick stuff of any kind, to be worked up in con- 
 structing a dwelling-house, it will be found an eco- 
 nomical practice to select lumber not less than sixteen 
 feet in length, and not narrower than twelve inches. 
 Calculations should be made as to the width of the 
 base-boards in most of the rooms. Then such pieces 
 should be ordered as may be fitted up with the smallest 
 amount of waste. If, for example, the base-boards are 
 to be about seven and one-half inches wide, it will be 
 easy to determine about how many feet in length will 
 be required for all the rooms. By ordering so many 
 pieces of thick stuff, sixteen feet long, and of a given 
 breadth — say eight inches wide — all waste will be 
 avoided, and a large amount of expensive labor may 
 be saved. These suggestions may be put in practice 
 in regard to many other items connected with both the 
 purchase of materials and the execution of the w^ork. 
 Hundreds of dollars may often be saved in the erection 
 of a single building by taking proper advantage of cir- 
 cumstances which tend either directly or indirectly to 
 diminish the expense of materials alone, or which affect 
 both the cost of materials and the expense of manual 
 labor. 
 
FKAMING BUILDINGS BY RULE. 255 
 
 When one is purchasing framing timber for a large 
 barn, which is to rest on a heavy foundation wall, there 
 is no necessity whatever in providing sills of such enor- 
 mous size as are employed when the structure rests on 
 corner and middle posts, or stones. A sill three inches 
 thick, by eight wide, is sufficiently large and strong for 
 any barn, which rests on a permanent wall. And the 
 beams, instead of being 10 x 12 inches square — and 
 often larger than this — need not be more than 7x9 
 inches. It will be far better to put in a larger number 
 of long braces, than to employ larger and heavier tim- 
 ber with only a few short braces. If a beam must 
 necessarily sustain a heavy weight, let it be strength- 
 ened by iron rods from the roof 
 
 Framing Buildings by the Scribe or Square 
 Rule. — Only a few decades of years ago, every framed 
 building was put together according to the "scribe 
 rule." If the framed timber of many of the old barns 
 and dwelling-houses is examined, it will be seen that, 
 wherever two sticks of timber of any size were united 
 by tenon and mortise there are corresponding marks 
 cut with a chisel near the joints on the face side of the 
 timber, to indicate that those two sticks were to come 
 together in the frame. When a building was framed 
 according to the "scribe rule," every tenon — even the 
 tenon of a brace — was put into the mortise for which 
 it had been prepared; and posts, beams, braces, and 
 girts were all put together for the purpose of ascertain- 
 ing whether every part would fit in a neat and work- 
 manlike manner. The pin-holes were previously bored 
 in the beams and posts, so that the exact place might 
 be indicated with a pencil on the tenon, by marking on 
 
256 todd's countky homes. 
 
 the side of the tenon around the edge of each hole. 
 Then, more or less allowance could be made for '^ draw- 
 boring" the tenons. When rafters were to be framed, 
 the lower ends of a single pair were fitted to their re- 
 spective plates, while the other ends were crossed, and 
 the joint marked on the side of one rafter by means of 
 a plumb-line. Then, after the end was sawed off, the 
 other rafter was marked by the first, as the upper ends 
 were placed together. By this means neat joints were 
 made, sufficiently accurate for a pattern for the remain- 
 ing rafters. Whenever timbers were to be framed to- 
 gether at any other than right angles, as in framing 
 trusses, for example, the top chord and the bottom 
 chord were spread out on their sides, in the desired 
 position, so that the joints for the shoulders could be 
 marked off with satisfactory accuracy. Then, after 
 every part was framed, the timbers were put together 
 to ascertain whether the joints would fit as they should. 
 (See the word truss in Webster's Unabridged Diction- 
 ary.) These remarks will convey briefly a fair idea of 
 the modus operandi when framing a building according 
 to the "scribe rule." 
 
 The difference between framing a structure accord- 
 ing to the " scribe rule " and according to the " square 
 rule" is simply this: When a building is framed accord- 
 ing to the "square rule," none of the parts are put 
 together to be fitted before the structure is raised. 
 The timber is all squared, the mortises and tenons laid 
 out, and the framing done in the same manner when 
 working by the " scribe rule " as when timber is framed 
 \^j the "square rule," except that in the latter case, 
 the work is laid out by drafts on a small scale ; and the 
 
SCRIBE RULE AND SQUARE RULE. 257 
 
 length of braces, rafters, and other diagonal timbers is 
 determined by figures, which is a more easy way than 
 to spread out a number of large sticks of heavy timber, 
 and move them little by little — measuring and moving 
 alternately — until the various pieces cross each other 
 at the desired angles. In order to convey a fair idea 
 of the manner of framing a barn, for example, after 
 the plan has been adopted, make a draft of one end of 
 the frame, on a smooth board, using a correct steel 
 square, so that the lines which represent the posts 
 Jind sills may be exactly at right angles. Make the 
 draft on such a scale that every inch, of line on the 
 board may represent one foot in length of the sill or 
 post. Draw a fine pencil-mark across the diagram, 
 from the top of one plate to the other, in order to get 
 the correct pitch of the roof We will suppose, for 
 example, that the building is to be thirty feet wide, 
 and that the ridge of the roof is to rise ten feet above 
 the plates, which will give a roof of one-third j^itch. 
 Now, place the corner of the steel square at the mid- 
 dle of the line extending from the top of one plate to 
 the other, and strike a perpendicular line upward ten 
 inches, to indicate the ridge of the roof. By measur- 
 ing from this point to the outer and upper corner of 
 the plates, we find the distance to be about eighteen 
 feet and one inch, which will be sufficiently accurate 
 for cutting the length of rafters, provided there are no 
 purlin plates. But as figures are always more correct, 
 the length of rafters and braces should be worked out 
 to the fraction of an inch, by the rules for calculating 
 the hypothenuse of a right-angled triangle. In order 
 to get the correct bevel for laying out the shoulders of 
 
 17 
 
258 todd's countkt homes. 
 
 tenons, adjust a bevel square to correspond exactly with 
 the lines of the diagram. It is thus possible to make 
 a mark at the required angle, and to cut and frame the 
 pieces of the desired length, with the assurance that 
 every joint will fit neatly, without "cutting and try- 
 ing," before putting the entire frame together. The 
 builder, while laying out a frame, needs to set up a 
 regular "air castle" before his imagination, so that he 
 can perceive how every piece of timber, when he is 
 laying it out, or framing it, will appear after the struc- 
 ture is raised and every part is in its proper place. A 
 master mechanic must be so familiar with marking for 
 tenons and mortises that, when a tenon has been made 
 for a given mortise, he will feel assured, without a trial, 
 that every part will fit together like clock-work. 
 
 Were there to be a conference between carpenters, 
 one from each of the States to forward each a stick of 
 timber to New York City, for a large structure, I would 
 have no hesitancy in superintending the labor of putting 
 such a frame together, with the confident assurance that 
 every joint would fit neatly, provided each man had 
 laid out his respective stick accurately, as directed, and 
 had cut every joint to the marks. 
 
 A CHEAP BAEN AND OUT-BUILDING. 
 
 Fig. 1 is the front elevation, showing vertically board- 
 ed and battened sides, shingle roofs, and ventilators. 
 Yet a stone or concrete barn, may be erected on the 
 same plan. There are many excellent points, for some 
 people, in the arrangement of this clump of out-build- 
 ings. Yet, they will satisfy the requirements of only 
 a few. The whole plan and arrangement can be varied 
 at pleasure. The accompanying plan is not offered as 
 
A CHEAP BAKN. 
 
 259 
 
 a model, although it is a very good one for a grain and 
 stock farm of small size. A glance at the plan will 
 
 Fig. 1. A BARN FOR A SMALL FARM. 
 
 show in the main building, the old-fashioned bay and 
 threshing-floor, borrowed from our German and English 
 neighbors, and retained by many farmers as an essen- 
 tial feature of the Yankee system of barn-building. 
 
 Fig. 2. GROUND PLAN OF BAKN. 
 
 Fig. 2 represents the first or ground-floor plan. T R 
 shows the threshing-floor, 16 by 32 feet. B is the bay, 
 24 by 32 feet. S represents the shop and tool room, 
 13 by 13 feet. G is the granary with bins, 13 by 16 
 
260 todd's country homes. 
 
 feet. W H represents the carriage house, 16 by 20 
 feet. H S are stalls, 5 feet wide. H R is the harness 
 room, 10 by 16 feet, with stairs to the loft. F B shows 
 the feed-room, with boiler, 12 by 16 feet, and a range 
 of cattle stalls adjoining, 4 feet wide each. C C, corn- 
 house and grain-room, 10 by 15 feet. P is the piggery, 
 12 by 12 feet. H is a hennery, 10 by 15 feet. All the 
 buildings are well ventilated and lighted. A large 
 water-tank is placed in the barn-yard, into which the 
 rain-water is conducted from the roofs, one-half of the 
 tank being arranged as a filter, the other as a pure 
 water compartment, from which the water to be used 
 is drawn. The main building is 34 by 44 feet, with 
 wing extensions on each side, 18 by 66 feet, in which 
 provision is made for stock, feed, and grain. One side 
 forms an L, 40 feet long. These extensions are one- 
 and one-half stories high, with cellars for roots, and ma- 
 nure pits, below the first floor. Posts of extensions 
 are 16 feet high, and posts of main building 24 feet 
 high, giving abundant loft room. 
 
 The cost of such buildings will be the chief consid- 
 eration, as plans can be varied, to conform to circum- 
 stances. Almost every person desires to understand 
 about how much his out-buildings will cost. This may 
 be determined by a little figuring. If you do not feel 
 competent yourself, to make a bill of the framing tim- 
 ber, and the foundation walls, sit down some evening 
 with a builder, who will aid you in indicating, on paper, 
 exactly what will be required. Offer to pay a compe- 
 tent person liberally for one hour's service. Then, get 
 a bill of the framing timber, with the cost per hundred 
 feet; the number of square feet of boards, with the 
 
HEIGHT OF BARNS. 
 
 261 
 
 cost ; and so on with every item from the bottom to 
 the top. Lumber, in some localities, will cost less than 
 half the price of the same materials in other places. 
 Any person who understands the fundamental rules of 
 arithmetic, can determine in a short time how many 
 feet of boards and flooring will be required for any 
 building. Let me urge one consideration, which is to 
 spread out the boards that are to be employed for cov- 
 ering the building, and sun them thoroughly, for two 
 months, or longer. Turn them over occasionally and 
 keep the convex side up. If lumber is not thoroughly 
 seasoned in this manner, the boards will shrink almost 
 out of the matching. 
 
 Let me suggest to beginners the importance of build- 
 ing barns much higher than out-buildings have hereto- 
 fore been erected. The 
 sides of such a barn as is 
 represented above, might 
 be twenty feet, as well as 
 twelve. The same roof 
 would cover a high barn, 
 or a low one. If it is 
 practicable, there should 
 always be stables, or high 
 sheds, or a lower story, 
 beneath the main super- 
 structure of every barn. 
 Even when the barn is 
 erected on a level site, 
 the expense of building a cheap cornice. 
 
 an abutment on which to ascend to the floor above the 
 basement, will cost only a limited sum of money, as 
 
262 todd's country homes. 
 
 earth can be carted when laborers have no other em- 
 ployment. 
 
 The figure on page 261 illustrates several important 
 points in the construction of a balloon frame. The end 
 of the joist is represented as nailed to the stud. Also, 
 the manner of fitting the rafters to the plate P, is shown, 
 with one end of a collar beam nailed to the rafter R. 
 The roof should project not less than eighteen or twenty 
 inches. If it were preferred, the ends of the rafters 
 may be planed, and the under side of the roof boards 
 painted. 
 
 When cottages of this style are built only one and 
 one-half stories, the sides are apt to spread, unless 
 some means can be employed to prevent such dam- 
 age. In case a partition were to be built across the 
 upper part of the house, such a brace may be secured, 
 with bolts in the place where the partition is to be put 
 up. Then, pieces of studs may extend from the upper 
 side of the brace to the collar beams, or to the rafters. 
 
CHAPTER YII. 
 
 VENTILATION. 
 
 Thorough Ventilation — Natural Means of Ventilation — Necessity of Pure 
 Air in Sleeping Apartments — No Fear of Catching Cold — Aerophobia 
 — Cold Air Better than Warm — Damp Air not Necessarily Hurtful — 
 Night Air — How to Ventilate. 
 
 Thorough Ventilation of Living-rooms. — Re- 
 spected reader, did you ever imagine your abode — your 
 house, grounds, and everything else — to be at the bot- 
 tom of a deep ocean, and yourself provided with a 
 breathing apparatus, sufficiently powerful to inhale and 
 exhale water, as we now breathe air ? And yet we do 
 dwell at the bottom of a boundless ocean of air, about 
 forty-five miles deep; and the superincumbent pres- 
 sure of such a vast body of air forces it into everj^ pore 
 of our flesh; and every knot-hole, crevice, and cranny 
 of earth, rock and wood is pervaded with air. We 
 cannot live without having a bountiful supply of air to 
 breathe both when we are awake and while we sleep. 
 An abundance of pure air is eminently essential to 
 healthful animal and vegetable life. When air con- 
 taining offensive and poisonous effluvia is inhaled, much 
 of the poison will be lodged in our bodies, thus pro- 
 ducing disease in various forms, sickness and death. 
 Most people, some of whom pass for intelligent citizens, 
 
264 todd's countky homes. 
 
 are superlatively stupid in regard to the purity of the 
 air they breathe. And yet food that happens to be 
 the least atom tainted they will cast away at once, 
 because it would be exceedingly detrimental to their 
 health to eat it. But how is it about the air they 
 breathe ? When the air should be as pure as the 
 spring breezes of Ceylon and Java; when every part 
 of the room is as full as it can well be of most foul, 
 fetid, and offensive, loathsome, unhealthful particles of 
 impure and poisonous matter, they contrive to live and 
 breathe, without a murmur, as if they were inhaling 
 the refreshing zephyrs directly from the green and fra- 
 grant fields of the country. Fastidious persons, who 
 would recoil at the thought of merely tasting any food 
 that has been in contact with the mouth of another, 
 even if he were neat and clean, inhale the fetid air 
 that has been not only in the mouths of repulsive and 
 filthy people, but that has been again and again in the 
 diseased lungs of those whose breath is as corrupt as a 
 filthy stream of water, when compared with the crystal 
 rill that flows from the mountain spring. Language 
 fails to convey a proper idea of the superlative filthi- 
 ness of a great many people touching the impurity of 
 the air they breathe. All the victims of war, pesti- 
 lence and famine would not equal the untold number 
 of people who have gone down to an untimely grave, 
 simply from breathing unwholesome air from day to 
 day and through the livelong night. 
 
 Could our vision be improved, so that we could only 
 see the pestilential and pernicious effluvia that floats in 
 the air we breathe, over and over again, it does seem 
 as if the appalling sight would prompt us to make more 
 
NATURAL MEANS OF VENTILATION. 265 
 
 satisfactory provision for the introduction of pure air 
 into our sleeping and living-rooms. Illustrious blind 
 guides that we are ! So long as we cannot see the evil 
 with our natural eyes, just so long we are contented to 
 go on and breathe poison, destruction and death. We 
 are feelingly alive to every consideration relative to 
 eating, but no tongue can tell the rottenness of our 
 convictions and practices in regard to breathing! 
 
 Natural Means of Ventilation. — Motion is es- 
 sential to ventilation. The winds blow and whirl about 
 continually, almost solely for the purpose of purifying 
 the atmosphere by sweeping away the impure odors 
 that float in the air, rendering it detrimental to animal 
 life. The tides ebb and flow without cessation, mainly 
 for the purpose of keeping the water pure, where it 
 would soon stagnate and fill the earth with pestilence 
 and destruction. The driving winds carry away and 
 purify the foul air of unheal thful places in a few min- 
 utes ; and the place is supplied with an atmosphere 
 that invigorates the bodies of men and animals ; and 
 the vital fluid sends a glow of health to the cheeks of 
 the pale and sickly invalid. Therefore, the entire air 
 of a living-room should be changed repeatedly; and 
 fresh air should be forced in, while a current of foul 
 air is escaping. A person cannot have refreshing sleep, 
 unless he can breathe pure air, during the entire night. 
 In very cold weather, people complain that they can 
 not keep warm under half-a-dozen quilts. The true 
 reason is, they do not get pure air to inhale while they 
 sleep. If they could inhale the cold and pure air, as 
 they lie in bed, much less covering would be required 
 to maintain a comfortable degree of animal heat. Cold 
 
266 todd's country homes. 
 
 and damp air, for the purposes of sustaining animal 
 heat by respiration, is infinitely more healthful than 
 a dry atmosphere, because the amount of oxygen is 
 much greater than in ihe same volume of dry air. 
 
 If you cannot open the upper sash of your sleeping- 
 room window, remove the stops beneath the stiles, saw 
 off a few inches, so as to allow the top sash to be 
 shoved down. Then, raise the lower sash and shove 
 down the uj^per one, so as to produce a current of air 
 in your room to carry away the foul matter in the air. 
 There is no danger of taking cold by breathing cold 
 air, when you are asleep. But shut yourself up in a 
 close bedroom, where you will be obliged to breathe 
 the same air over and over again, and 3^our breathing 
 apparatus will soon become so inflamed that you will 
 think you have contracted a violent cold, when the 
 truth is, you have poisoned the delicate organs of your 
 throat and lungs, by breathing over foul air, until it 
 was actually poisonous. During the coldest weather 
 in winter, I ahvays open my window, and let the pure 
 breezes of heaven blow in my face while I sleep. And 
 I never took cold from such a course. Instead of look- 
 ing as pale and cadaverous as a ghost, my countenance 
 is as ruby as the face of a whiskey toper, simply be- 
 cause I get pure air to breathe. 
 
 Cold Air better tiian Warm Air. — Gentle reader, 
 did you never go into a room where there was a fire, 
 and feel colder than while you were out of doors ? I 
 dare say you have often done so. The philosophical 
 reason of such a sensation is, that pure and cold air 
 produce more bodily or animal heat, than the warm 
 dry air in the house. Many people are frightened half 
 
COLD AIR BETTER THAN WARM. 267 
 
 out of their wits, at the thoughts of inhaUng damp, 
 night air. There never was a more egregious error 
 promulgated about air ! Damp air, if it is not stag- 
 nant, is the most healthful air one can breathe. Nu- 
 merous experiments on the air in Paris gave less car- 
 bonic acid in the night than in the day-time. The au- 
 thor adds his testimony. He says : "1 have practiced 
 for many years sleeping with my windows open every 
 night, summer and winter, allowing the unobstructed 
 breeze to flow across my bed, to the great improvement 
 of my health and strength." Benjamin Franklin is 
 also quoted in his letter to Dr. Ingenhaus, physician of 
 the Emperor of Austria. He writes : " Some are as 
 much afraid of fresh air as persons in the hydrophobia 
 are of fresh water. I myself had formerly this preju- 
 dice — this aeroj^hohia, as I now account it. I consid- 
 ered it an enemy, and closed with extreme care every 
 crevice in the rooms I inhabited. Experience has con- 
 vinced me of my error. I now look upon fresh air as 
 a friend. I even sleep with an open window. I am 
 persuaded that no common air from without is so un- 
 wholesome as the air within a close room that has been 
 often breathed and not changed. Most air, too, which 
 I formerly thought pernicious, gives me now no appre- 
 hensions ; for, considering that no dampness of air ap- 
 plied to the outside of my skin can be equal to what is 
 applied to and touches it within, my whole body being 
 full of moisture, and finding I can lie two hours in a 
 bath twice a week, covered with water, which certainly 
 is much damper than any air can be, and this for years 
 together without catching cold, or being in any other 
 manner disordered by it, I no longer dread moisture, 
 
268 todd's country homes. 
 
 either in air, or in sheets or shirts ; and I find it of im- 
 portance to the happiness of life. 
 
 Do you know why a farmer's kitchen is usually the 
 most healthful room in the whole house? Because 
 there is usually steam escaping from some vessel on 
 the stove. Aqueous vapor is a great purifier of air. 
 Pour water on the stove in your sleeping-rooms, and 
 fill the air with vapor. Such air will be far more 
 healthful than dry, stagnant air. Stables and apart- 
 ments of all kinds for domestic animals, should be 
 thoroughly ventilated. More horses are rendered blind, 
 and are troubled with a violent cough and broken wind, 
 in consequence of close stables, than from any other 
 cause except hard driving. Every stable should be 
 provided with capacious ventilators, passing up through 
 the building to the roof. The immense quantities of 
 ammonia arising from the manure, operate like poison 
 to eyes and lungs of horses. The entire air in an 
 apartment where people dwell or animals live, ought 
 to be changed often. Large ventilators should carry 
 out a stream of air, just as a large chimney of a dwell- 
 ing-house, where there is a spacious fire-place, will 
 change the air of a large room, every hour, so long as 
 the fire is kept up. This suggestion explains why a 
 room where there is a fire-place, is always the most 
 pleasant, cheerful and healthful apartment of the dwell- 
 ing — the air is changed often, and is consequently kept 
 fresh and pure. 
 
 Suggestions about Night Air. — Judging from what 
 many persons express about night air, one would sup- 
 pose it to be loaded with pestilential breath and baleful 
 miasma. But how utterly absurd and stupid to talk 
 
SUGGESTIONS ABOUT NIGHT AIR. 2G9 
 
 about inhaling the hurtful night air. " Florence Night- 
 ingale," in some of her lucubrations, alludes to this 
 subject as an extraordinary dread of breathing night 
 air. If people would think, for only a moment, they 
 would perceive how utterly absurd and stupid it is, to 
 talk about breathing or not breathing the night air. 
 What air can we breathe at night but the night air? 
 The choice is between pure night air from without and 
 foul day air within. And yet, most people prefer the 
 latter. An unaccountably stupid choice ! What will 
 they say, if it is proved to be true that fully one-half 
 of all the diseases that we suffer from are occasioned 
 by people sleeping with their windows shut ? An open 
 window, most nights in the year, can never hurt any 
 one. In the great cities, night air is often the best, 
 and purest to be had in the twenty-four hours. Good 
 ventilation can not be obtained without letting; the 
 night air in, from the outside. You have got to breathe 
 night air during the flight whether you wish to or not, 
 for there is no other. The choice lies between that 
 which is pure and that which is impure, between that 
 which has during the day been wafted about by the 
 breezes of heaven, purified of its carbonic acid and 
 other gases and impurities by the rains and by the 
 growing vegetation which seek them out, and take 
 them unto themselves for their own sustenance, and 
 vitalized and still further purified by the life and health- 
 giving rays of the sun, and that which has been kept 
 stagnant and confined within the walls of the house 
 and which is and must be filled with all kinds of dust 
 and poisonous gases and emanations from the skins and 
 lungs of the inmates, with no chance for jDurification. 
 
270 todd's countkt homes. 
 
 Which will you choose? If the former, open your 
 windows and doors, and freely let in the piire air from 
 without, and as freely allow the inipure air within, to 
 escape to the garden, the field and the forest, where it 
 may become purified, and in becoming so, impart 
 strength and vigor to vegetable life. If you choose 
 the latter, keep the doors, windows and blinds closed, 
 breathe the impure and poisonous air over and over 
 again, and prepare to grow pale, weak and scrofulous, 
 and to lead a short, useless invalid life. But, sensible 
 people understand, that animal life, in health, can not 
 be sustained without fresh air. Damp night air is 
 more healthful than the dry air of the day. Every 
 person needs about twenty cubic feet per minute, to 
 keep him in good health. One cannot sleep quietly, 
 and feel refreshed, unless he has an abundance of fresh 
 air to breathe. One chief reason why many people 
 feel so crotchety and ill-natured in the morning is, they 
 do not have fresh air to breathe, while they sleep. 
 
 How TO Ventilate. — Shove the upper sash down 
 a few inches, and make an aperture in the chimney, or 
 leave the fire-place open. Then a current will be 
 formed. When a room is full of poisonous air, we 
 cannot introduce fresh air until a portion of the impure 
 air has been forced out. In many instances, a per- 
 forated base-board is made around every room, so that 
 the foul air, which is always heavier than pure air, may 
 escape through them into some out of door passage. 
 
 Carbonic acid gas, which is destructive to animal 
 life, is generated in every apartment where men or 
 animals live and breathe. Of course this gas is not 
 free, but mingled with the atmosphere. As it is heavier 
 
HOW TO VENTILATE. 271 
 
 than atmospheric air, the apertures through which this 
 foul air is to escape should be made near the floor. 
 
 One of the cheapest and most effectual ways to ven- 
 tilate a school-room would be to have perforated base- 
 boards, so that the foul air could enter the large spaces 
 between the joists, and thence pass away through a 
 large chimney flue. Then a ciuTcnt of fresh air could 
 be conducted in a pipe to the stove, or heater, so as to 
 produce a current. By this simple and cheap arrange- 
 ment every pupil in a large room could always be sup- 
 plied with pure air of an agreeable temperature. In 
 case there is no flue or ventilating shaft, a wooden flue, 
 about eighteen inches square, could be erected at one 
 end of the building, having an aperture in the side for 
 the foul air to escape. But it is always more satisfac- 
 tory to open a passage into a large chimney, as the 
 heat and smoke will promote a draught from the room 
 to be ventilated. If fresh air can be forced into a room 
 by any means, when there is no flue, the lower sash of 
 every window may be lifted an inch or more, to provide 
 passages for the impure air to escape. By this means 
 any living room can always be supplied with pure air 
 at small expense.' As has already been stated, in order 
 to secure perfect ventilation, heat or fans must be em- 
 ployed to produce motion. If there is a heater or 
 stove in a room, it will be a very easy thing to keep 
 the air pure. All the air in a room must be removed 
 every few hours, and an equal quantity of fresh air 
 introduced. So lonoj as there is no draught to draw 
 out the foul air, and to introduce fresh air, a room may 
 remain filled with an atmosphere that is poisonous to 
 animal life. 
 
272 todd's countey homes. 
 
 The large room in Cooper Institute, where the Poly- 
 technic Society and the Farmers' Club are accustomed 
 to hold their weekly sessions, was formerly so badly 
 ventilated that people who always want pure air, re- 
 coiled from attending the meetings of these societies. 
 But that room may now be filled with an audience to 
 its utmost capacity for a day, and no one will be able 
 to perceive any impurity in the atmosphere ; neither 
 will a person sitting in any part of the room perceive 
 a draught of either cold or warm air. The ventilation 
 is as complete as could be desired. About every hour 
 the entire volume of air in the room is changed by the 
 following arrangement : The rostrum, or platform, was 
 raised bodily about three inches above the main floor, 
 and a large aperture was made in the chimney, through 
 which the foul air could pass out. Then one outside 
 window w^as raised a few inches, and a box tube, about 
 one foot square, made of boards, w^as extended froui 
 the window to the "-nest" of steam heating-pipes em- 
 ployed to warm the room. The tube allowed a stream 
 of pure air to flow directly to the nest of steam-pipes, 
 where every particle was warmed. Of course the warm 
 air would rise to the wall overhead,* and flow to the 
 further side of the room. By this means a movement 
 in the air is obtained, the equilibrium of the atmos- 
 phere disturbed, and a current of foul air started imme- 
 diately out of the flue beneath the rostrum. 
 
 In the office of the well known New York Times, a 
 lighted lamp or two are kept burning, at the bottom of 
 the ventilating flue, the heat of which is sufficient to 
 cause a draft up the flue. By this means, the air of the 
 room is renewed several times, daily. 
 
CHAPTEE YIII. 
 
 DOMESTIC ECONOMY. 
 
 Personal Reminiscences — Commencing Life — The "Old Maid's" Money 
 — Beginning to Live — Making Choice Pork — Management of Hams 
 — Building My own House — Our Bridal Harness — Bridal Buggy — 
 Bridal Cutter — How I paid for Wife's Muflf — Saving Money in New 
 Inventions — How to get a Patent — Care of Boots and Shoes — 
 Remedy for Cold Feet. 
 
 " A man may spare and yet be bare, 
 If his wife be naught — if his wife be naught! 
 But a man may spend, and have cash to lend, 
 If his wife be aught — if his wife be aught !" 
 
 " Good husband without,it is needful there be : 
 Good liousewife witlun,is as needful as he." — Tusser. 
 
 My father was educated according to the old Con- 
 necticut standard;, that " if a young man could read his 
 Bible in an intelligible manner, Avrite a legible hand, 
 keep his ordinary accounts correctly, and be able to 
 cast interest on an ordinary note, his education was 
 complete." I have often listened to the rehearsal of his 
 experiences, when pursuing his juvenile course of study 
 in the old mountain home, near New Haven, Connecti- 
 cut. As candles would sell for money, he was per- 
 mitted to collect pitch-pine knots, full of very com- 
 bustible material, which were burned in the chimney- 
 corner, to make a light for him to study arithmetic. • 
 
 When I was fourteen, he thought I knew about as 
 
 18 
 
274 todd's countey homes. 
 
 much as he, since I could write about as well and ex- 
 cel him in mathematics. He went to a grammar 
 school eight evenings, where he received instruction 
 from a clergyman. The winter that I was fourteen 
 years of age, he allowed me to go to a district school 
 four weeks, during which time I worked out every ex- 
 ample in Adams' Arithmetic, besides a great many sim- 
 ilar examples in practical affairs, attended to reading, 
 writing and spelling, and learned enough of Brown's 
 Grammar to enable me to parse easy sentences. Then 
 I graduated, and was not allowed to go to school any 
 more until I was nineteen years of age. Manual labor, 
 making and saving money, constituted the chief end of 
 my existence, summer and winter. But as I had de- 
 voured all the school books — Peter Parley's Juvenile 
 Geography, Arithmetic, Grammar, and Cobb's Spelling 
 Book — I hungered and thirsted for something to read. 
 Such a book as Natural Philosophy, Astronomy, Chem- 
 istry and Botany had never- been heard of My father 
 took the Missionary Herald and a county paper, which 
 latter was filled chiefly with advertisements. 
 
 At the age of nineteen, my health failed from over 
 work, over eating and under eating. I hardly knew 
 that I had a stomach and nerves. Now, I can look 
 back and see how recklessly I violated every law of my 
 physical system, simply because I did not know any 
 better. During three years of illness, I received one 
 year's schooling, during which I became so well versed 
 in Latin that I read the Latin Reader, Virgil, and Caesar, 
 the Greek Reader and Greek Testament, and could 
 conjugate any verb with satisfactory correctness. I 
 cannot express the desire I had for knowledge. I was 
 
A FIDDLING FARMEE. 275 
 
 about prepared for college. I told my father that if he 
 had any of this world's goods to bestow on me, I wanted 
 him to aid me in getting an education. But all the 
 advice of friends and my own importunities failed to 
 induce him to even 2^Tomise to aid me in the least. He 
 felt satisfied that if I did not give up the idea of study- 
 ing and writing so much, I would " most assuredly be 
 crazy." My mother talked very tenderly on the sub- 
 ject, with choked utterance, and advised me not to 
 study any more, but to accept father's proposal to give 
 me a small farm. As I had always found my mother 
 a reliable counselor, I concluded to heed her sugges- 
 tions. 
 
 A Fiddling Farmee. — To give an idea of the regard 
 I had for mother's — shall I call it a wMtyi f — it may not 
 be improper for me to state that when in the academy, 
 during my leisure hours, I made a nice violin, and 
 could play some pieces of sacred music on it. Dancing- 
 tunes and marches I nevet attempted to play. Well, 
 my mother was so grieved at what I had done that she 
 wrote me a brief letter — the only letter I ever received 
 from her — in which she stated that her sorrow was so 
 poignant at tlie thought of my having a fiddle that she 
 could not sleep. The next morning I kindled a fire 
 with the fragments of my nice fiddle. My mother's 
 reasoning was like this : " A fiddle tends to dancing ; 
 dancing tends to a long category of hurtful and dis- 
 reputable amusements, such as late hours, midnight 
 revelry and dissipation, immorality, licentiousness, rum, 
 wretchedness and ruin." I have found her judgment 
 sound on this point. 
 
 Well, with extreme reluctance, I abandoned the idea 
 
276 todd's coijntry homes. 
 
 of going to college. When I was fifteen years old, my 
 father said a boy ought to know how to handle a rifle. 
 So he allowed me to purchase a nice one for $11.00, 
 which was to be paid for in apples. When I went to 
 the market with a load of apples, the gunsmith was 
 supplied with a bushel or two, until the rifle was paid 
 for. As I had such an insatiable thirst for knowledge, 
 I now disposed of my rifle for useful books. 
 
 CoMMENCiNa Life. — My father settled me on a small 
 farm of twenty-five acres the soil of which had been 
 run to death and every product removed, until it would 
 not pay to plow and sow. He had farmed it on the 
 skinning system, until crops were exceedingly light. 
 The land was then let out to Tom, Dick and Harry, all 
 of whom had teased the impoverished soil, until it had 
 yielded up almost the last atom of fertility. The build- 
 ings on the place consisted of an old log house, which, 
 I dare say, scores of people, were they now living, 
 might point to, as the place 'that gave them birth ; be- 
 sides a little old barn, 16 by 20 feet, a remembrancer of 
 a whisky distillery. There was not a rod of under- 
 drain on the farm; and the Canada thistles and wild 
 mustard vied with each other for the ascendency, in 
 every cultivable field. No house, no barn, no land that 
 would produce half the yield of a fbi-* soil, no wife, and 
 no money! And more than all else besides, I hadn't 
 decent clothes to wear in which to press my claims, af- 
 ter I had made up my mind that a wife was the grand 
 motive power in man's existence. Surely some kind 
 angel must have guided my doubtful steps, for every- 
 thing seemed to smile propitiously on my pathway, 
 wherever I went. Well, I had credit, and found some 
 
'"' k 
 
COMMENCING LIFE. 277 
 
 favor among the ladies also. I knew what needed to 
 be done to renovate my land, so as to render the soil 
 productive, and I knew how to do it. But that task 
 would require a long time, and more money than I 
 could command for several years. I knew w^hat was 
 requisite for erecting a house, and how to execute the 
 plans ; and I knew also that a young man must have 
 decent clothes, especially, when he purposes to make 
 proposals. 
 
 The Old Maid's Monet. — Well, a wife was the first 
 item in my programme. I got a friend to introduce 
 me to an old maid, in an adjoining town, who loaned 
 me $70. I expended most of this sum in purchasing 
 necessaries for erecting a workshop, and cloth for a suit 
 of clothes, which I employed a young maid to make, 
 and she made them just as well as a tailor would have 
 done the job, and for only one-half his price. Here I 
 exercised myself in saving money. I needed a saddle, 
 and so on ; and the last ten dollars, I, like a twin brother 
 of the animal with long ears, that the prophet Baalam 
 rode on, gave to my dear minister, who for the love I 
 bore to him read me, prayed me, preached me, and 
 made an effort to have the choir sing me to Pande- 
 monium, because 1 wouldn't marry his sister, instead 
 of the sister of another minister, who could preach a 
 little better than he. I had a span of good horses and 
 an old plow harness, and my land was so miserably 
 poor, that I could not gather hay enough to keejD my 
 horses through the foddering season. The land was 
 not rich enough to produce much grain j therefore, I 
 was obliged to borrow money to buy hay and oats to 
 feed my team. After a shop was completed, I could 
 
278 todd's country homes. 
 
 not manage a farm without a barn. Therefore, I was 
 obliged to borrow money to purchase shingles, nails, 
 and weather boards for a barn. I expended $20 for 
 help to do the heaviest work ; $50 for lumber and nails; 
 and the rest I performed with my own hands. The 
 first season at farming, I raised grain enough to keep 
 my horses, to sow a few acres the next year, and sold 
 fifty bushels of oats at eighteen cents per bushel. The 
 carpenter work of my barn, 30 by 40 feet square, was 
 all done when I could not labor on the farm. 
 
 Beginning to Live. — A helpmeet had been secured 
 who had a good cow, and necessary furniture for our 
 shop-house, but no money to build a house. The first 
 summer, my wife made three firkins of butter from the 
 milk of that cow, besides having all the cream, milk 
 and butter that we needed on our table. And we never 
 used skimmed milk. Besides, I liked good rich cream 
 more than the money it would bring. I am satisfied 
 that the milk of that cow would have made five hun- 
 dred pounds of butter, as we sold over three hundred 
 and twenty pounds at ten cents per pound, of as beau- 
 tiful, golden butter as one can find in the Philadelphia 
 markets. For a while, until I could get another shop, 
 my work-bench stood on one side, and the kitchen, 
 dining-room and parlor were on the other. Well, I 
 was obliged to draw on the bank of my old-maid friend 
 again, to purchase some young cattle and pay for gro- 
 ceries, etc. Meanwhile, the house was planned, a bill 
 of materials prepared, and when my labors were not 
 required in the field, I was doing something towards 
 the new house. I exchanged work to get help to cut 
 the saw logs, most of which were hauled four miles to 
 
BEGINNING TO LIVE. 279 
 
 the saw-mill by myself, and as I had no money, I was 
 obliged to give half the lumber for sawing. In this 
 way, I obtained the joists, studs, rafters, roof boards, 
 siding, and casing, all without one dollar. 
 
 An effort was then being made to erect a parsonage 
 for our dear minister, who loved me with such an ever- 
 lasting vengeance. Appeals from selfish men to my 
 ambition prompted my wife and me, as we had not a 
 dollar to give, to turn out all our clapboards to build a 
 house for our dear minister. With hearts swelling with 
 beneficence, we turned out 2,600 feet of choice siding, 
 that I had labored very hard to procure, because we 
 had no money. Consequently, the erection of our new 
 house must be deferred until another year. The next 
 winter, I cut saw-logs on a neighbor's land, agreed to 
 haul them to the mill, and give him one-quarter of the 
 lumber. Half of it was required to pay for sawing, 
 and I had one-fourth of it for my services. In this 
 tedious way, I obtained another lot of siding for our 
 house, without a dollar. Here let me throw in a par- 
 enthetic phrase to show how I spent my mornings 
 and evenings, when manual employments did not de- 
 mand my attention. Every available hour was appro- 
 priated to reading and writing. When I left the farm, 
 I had manuscript sufficient to make a book of more 
 than one thousand pages, which had been written 
 during such hours as many men spend in smoking 
 cigars and playing the loafer. Another draft must be 
 made on the bank of my old-maid friend. Money was 
 necessary to pay small expenses. I would not open 
 small accounts. My blacksmith's bills must be paid; 
 and I considered it better policy to borrow money to 
 
280 todd's countey homes. 
 
 pay for things when they were purchased, than to con- 
 tract small debts, as a blacksmith would perform a job 
 for a dollar in cash, which would cost a dollar and a 
 quarter, or more, if he were required to charge it and 
 wait a few months for his pay. 
 
 Making Choice Pork. — A few weeks before our 
 '' Old Brindle Cow " came in, near the first of May, I 
 engaged two nice pigs, for which I was to pay, in lieu 
 of money, four bushels of Indian corn, when they were 
 four weeks old. I could put one in each pocket of my 
 overcoat. A spacious pen was made for them, and the 
 little fellows were allowed to sleep in a barrel turned 
 on the side and filled with clean straw. Ten such pigs 
 could have found a nice bed in that cozy enclosure. 
 Some distinguished philosopher has said, that if a boy 
 would carry a small calf one hundred rods, every day, 
 he would be able to carry the same animal after it had 
 grown to be an ox. Furthermore, it was said, that if 
 a pig were to creep through a hole of a given size, 
 every day, he could go through the same hole until he 
 had grown to be a large hog.. But, I found that after 
 a few weeks, one pig had to stay out of the barrel. So 
 that rule failed. But, another spacious and dry sleep- 
 ing apartment was prepared, where they Were always 
 comfortably warm. Three times a day, as regularly as 
 I took my own meals, those pigs received a feeding of 
 milk, a few kernels of corn, and apple-parings. But, 
 extreme caution was exercised to feed no more, at one 
 time, than the pigs would eat with avidity and then 
 lick the trough. They grew like asparagus. After a 
 few weeks, the refuse milk of one cow was not suffi- 
 cient for two growing pigs. It was necessary to in- 
 
MAKING CHOICE PORK' 281 
 
 crease their feed. But, as raw meal is liable to make 
 young pigs scour, about a pint of equal parts of oats 
 and wheat ground fine, was scalded at every feeding, 
 for a few days, mingled with the milk and fed warm. 
 As the object was to make the pigs grow, rather than 
 to become fat, meal made of oats and wheat was supe- 
 rior to Indian corn. The quantity was gradually in- 
 creased, as their appetites seemed to call for more feed. 
 When we were eating our meals, wife always had a 
 tea-kettle of hot water ready, as soon as we were done 
 eating, to scald the meal for the pigs, which was always 
 measured in a pint basin. The hot water was poured 
 on the meal, as it was stirred, until the mass became of 
 the consistence of thin mush. In case I was absent, 
 the pigs always received their proper allowance at the 
 proper time. One feeding of raw meal would have 
 played the mischief with their digestive apparatus. As 
 soon as their frames were fairly developed, meal of In- 
 dian corn in small quantities, was worked in their feed. 
 Every day a handful of green grass, or red clover was 
 put in the trough, which was eaten with avidity, and 
 which aided materially in distending the stomach. 
 When the porkers were about seven months old, they 
 were slaughtered. One weighed two hundred and sev- 
 enty-three pounds, and the other two hundred and fifty- 
 seven pounds, dressed weight. I could easily have made 
 them weigh over three hundred pounds each, by feeding 
 more corn meal and less oats. But, the idea w^as to 
 make hams and shoulders in which there would be a 
 large proportion of lean meat, rather than too much 
 fat. Such pork was suitable for human food. There 
 were no trichinse in the meat. And the lard, after it 
 
282 todd's countky homes. 
 
 had been rendered, looked as white as the unsullied 
 snow. We calculated that the refuse milk of one cow 
 was equivalent to the fattening of one pig, and the 
 meal consumed, equal to the other. One hog was sold 
 for about eleven dollars. The other we kept for our 
 own eating; and more delicious meat is seldom met 
 with. 
 
 Management of Hams. — The side pork was thor- 
 oughly pickled in brine, and all the trimmings and flank 
 pieces were wrought into sausage meat, packed in pans, 
 and covered with a layer of lard. Such sausage meat 
 was so excellent, that those persons who generally re- 
 coil at the thought of sausages, after eating the first 
 dish, would hold up their plate for another supply. The 
 hams and shoulders were rubbed with salt and molasses, 
 and laid on a clean board in the cellar. After a week 
 had passed, they were rubbed again. After they had 
 been salted nearly one month, the meat was hung in 
 an old sugar hogshead, where it was smoked for about 
 two weeks, or until the outside was of a dark copper 
 color. The smoke was made with dry maple or hickory 
 sawdust, or with dry corn cobs. Great care was exer- 
 cised in making only a little fire, not enough to heat 
 the meat. After the smoking process was completed, 
 the hams, shoulders, joles and tongues were all wrapped 
 in paper, and packed in wheat bran in a barrel. Such 
 meat was always excellent. When packed in such ma- 
 terial, the surface did not mould, and flies could not 
 reach the meat. • 
 
 Planning and Building my own House. — That 
 beautiful perspective, my reader, on page 283, repre- 
 sents a house that I erected with my own hands, for 
 
BUILDING MY OWN HOUSE. 
 
 283 
 
 the occupancy of my own family, and you will, doubt- 
 less, be interested to learn that every stick of timber 
 
 was scored, hewed and framed by myself, and nearly 
 every nail driven with my own hammer. This house 
 was built in 1849, and with such care as the building 
 
284 todd's country homes. 
 
 received, while it was in my possession, it would be in 
 prime order two hundred years hence. For a small 
 family, I have never met with any plan that excels it 
 for convenience. My wife planned the arrangement of 
 rooms, with a view to convenience for a housewife who 
 does all her own work; and I have discovered but one 
 fault in the arrangement, which is, the kitchen was too 
 small. (Read suggestions about kitchens, page 55.) 
 But my wife contended that the kitchen was no place 
 for '*^ setters." Therefore, by making that room quite 
 small, she would not be annoyed by loungers or other 
 company, when cooking or washing. That was correct. 
 Men should never be hanging around women in the 
 kitchen. 
 
 This house stands on an eminence, about one hundred 
 feet from the highway, and there are many more trees 
 than are represented in the perspective, nearly all of 
 which were planted by myself. The finish consists of 
 brackets similar to the illustration of a bracket, on 
 page 37. The roof is what is denominated a ""hipped- 
 roof," with one-third pitch. The horizontal projection 
 at the eaves, is about two feet. The ridge of roof, be- 
 tween the chimneys, is about seven feet. The chimneys 
 rest on the collar-beams ; and each one is carried up 
 square, a few inches above the ridge of the roof. Then, 
 a small brick chimney, about two bricks by two and , 
 one-half bricks square, is built about five feet above 
 the shoulders, on which rest false chimneys, of an 
 octagonal form, made of plank, two false chimneys to 
 each main chimney. The wooden forms were painted 
 red and penciled with white, to represent brick-work. 
 The forms, or false chimneys, were secured in their 
 
BUILDING MY OWN HOUSE. 285 
 
 places bj means of a small iron rod fastened securely 
 in the shoulder of the brick-work, and passing up 
 through the hollow forms. A nut on the top of each 
 one held them firmly. The roof was made of some 
 bass-wood and some sugar-maple boards, covered with 
 the first quality of pine shingles. The sills and posts 
 were about eight by ten inches square. The joists are 
 sugar-maple and elm, two by eight inches square, and 
 one foot apart, from center to center. The studs of the 
 lower story of the upright part are two by six inches, 
 nine feet long, and one foot apart, from center to center. 
 The clapboards were part pine and some white-wood. 
 Doors were made of white-wood stiles and bars, with 
 bass-wood panels. I used a great deal of bass-wood 
 and butternut in finishing the inside work. Had the 
 frame been a balloon-frame, the house would have been 
 stronger, and would have cost me much less timber and 
 hard work. The roof was originally painted black, 
 and the body of the house was a light peach-blow color. 
 The cellar extended beneath the entire building, except 
 the wood-house. A cistern was made beneath the 
 kitchen, by simply making an excavation in the hard 
 earth — which was exceedingly compact — and spreading 
 water-lime cement directlj^ on the earth. The cistern 
 was like a large bin at one side of the cellar. A hole 
 was made through the wall of earth, and a lead tube 
 inserted, even with the cellar bottom, so that by re- 
 moving a plug, the water in the cistern would all run 
 out in a few minutes, flow to the center of the cellar, 
 run through a hole in a flat stone that was laid over a 
 drain, and pass off to the lake. When we desired to 
 clean the cellar bottom, the hole in the stone was 
 
286 
 
 todd's countky homes. 
 
 stopped, water let out of the cistern, till the cellar 
 bottom was covered; then, with a broom, the cement 
 floor was cleaned in a few minutes and all the dirty 
 water passed into the drain. This was a convenient 
 arrangement, and others, under like circumstances, may 
 adopt the practice with satisfactory results. The cellar 
 was six and one-half feet in the clear, rat and mouse 
 proof. We occupied the house for ten years, and I 
 never perceived any traces of a rat in the cellar. 
 
 Ground Plan of my House. — The upright part was divided into a 
 parlor, P, 16 by 16 ft. square; dining-room, D, 16 by 16 ft.; library, 
 L, 8 by 8 ft. ; lobby or vestibule, V, 8 by 8 ft. ; and bed-room, B, 8 by 
 16 ft. A decided improvement would have 
 been to make the bed-room two feet wider, and 
 the parlor two feet narrower; also, to have 
 made the library, L, and lobby, V, two feet 
 wider, and the dining-room two feet narrower. 
 Then the library would have been sufSciently 
 large for a small bed-room. A parlor and 
 dining-room, for a small family, will be suf- 
 ficiently large if 14 by 16 ft. ; or even 12 by 
 14 ft. would be of respectable dimensions for 
 the occupancy of a few persons. The upper 
 part was divided similar to the lower portion. 
 Over the dining-room, D, the room was entered 
 from the wing, through a narrow entry; and 
 the sleeping-room over the lower bed-room, B, was entered from the 
 wing, through this hall. The front veranda was about six feet shorter 
 than the front of the house. A bracket finish, of proportionate size, 
 adorned the eaves of the veranda ; and the front part of the veranda roof 
 was supported by shores, 2 by 3 inches square, set in pairs, with lattice 
 work between each pair. 
 
 The wing is 16 by 26 ft. The kitchen, including the pantry, P, kni 
 stairway, is 16 by 14 ft. The pantry, 4 by 9 ft. Between the pantry 
 and bedroom, B, is a clothes-room, opening into the bed room. A china 
 closet, opening into the kitchen, is made in one end of the clothes-room. 
 From the kitchen a person could go up stairs, down cellar, into the 
 
 
 "W 
 
 
 P 
 
 IL 3 
 
 . 
 
 D 
 
 T> 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 
 jll 
 
 ti 
 
 GROUND PLAN. 
 
BUILDING MY OWiN" HOUSE. 287 
 
 pantry, out of doors, and into the dining-room. A veranda extended 
 only a part of the length of the wing. A door opened from the dining- 
 room, D, on the veranda. The cellar door can be at either end of the 
 place designated as the stairway in the kitchen. The upper part was all 
 in one room. It can be arranged to suit the fancy. In the L part of the 
 kitchen is a sink and pump. Instead of a window, there might be a door 
 and a veranda. 
 
 Finding that a tight wood-house was not the thing for seasoning fire- 
 wood, an addition, not represented in the plan, 12 ft. long, was built for 
 a wood-house. On each side of the wood-house, just above the sills, 
 were flaps which could be opened in fair weather to admit the air, and 
 closed in stormy weather. In the perspective, the flap is represented as 
 open. By this contrivance, wet and green wood, after having been kept 
 in that wood-house for a few months, would be as dry as tinder. 
 
 How I Built our House without Money. — My 
 readers, just look back to page 283, and say if you 
 think such an attractive edifice can be erected by a 
 young man, who is just beginning his career, without 
 any capital ? Well, I did it. But the task required 
 more ambition and perseverance than would be requi- 
 site to build a city, with the necessary pecuniary aid. 
 Yes, strange as it may appear, that edifice was all con- 
 ceived, planned, and the labor commenced and urged 
 forward, from year to year, without the aid of a single 
 dollar. I look back to-day with profound astonishment 
 at the poverty which enveloped my path on every side. 
 How extremely poor, as to money, I was ! And yet, 
 the world was full of beauty, pleasure and comfort. 
 Life was like a perpetual stream of joy. True, we had 
 no money. But we (wife and I) never knew what 
 want was, at the table. We raised our own eatables, 
 our vegetables, pork, lard, butter, cream, milk, a little 
 wheat, corn, mutton, and beef; but not a dollar could 
 we seem to collect to invest in materials for a house. 
 
288 todd's country homes. 
 
 How THE Nails and Shingles were Procured. — 
 Here was a clincher for me. Nails, door and window 
 trimmings could not be obtained without money. The 
 improvement of my land, and very limited bills for gro- 
 ceries and plain clothes, took every dollar that we could 
 earn and that we dare borrow. We both dreaded bor- 
 rowing money, worse than an approaching pestilence. 
 But the prospect was fair that, after a few years, the 
 land would be renovated so as to yield bountiful crops, 
 which it did. Yet, a long time elapsed, before we could 
 say, " There is grain enough to pay my old-maid friend, 
 for borrowed money." 
 
 Well, I tried to contract some lumber with a view to 
 procuring shingles, nails and paint. Then, I thought 
 I could commence the erection of our villa. After a 
 long time, a carriage-maker agreed to take lumber, 
 provided I would take pay for it out of a friend's store. 
 That merchant friend had taken shingles to pay for 
 goods. Therefore, by hook and crook, turning and shift- 
 ing, I disposed of my lumber, which had been sawed 
 on shares, and paid for shingles, nails, door trimmings, 
 oil and paint. I then commenced the erection of the 
 long-sought edifice. The framing timber was cut on 
 my own land, so that the superstructure was jjut up 
 and painted, without one dollar in money. A few 
 bushels of lime for making mortar for the cellar wall, 
 were purchased on time, and paid for in corn the next 
 autumn, after the ears were fit to be husked. 
 
 How the Laths were obtained. — Bass-wood logs 
 were sawed into one and one-quarter inch plank, the 
 sawyer taking half for his pay. My part of the plank 
 was then sawed with my horse-slitting saw, into lath, 
 
BUILDING MY OWN" HOUSE. 289 
 
 sixteen feet long; and neater lath were never Avorked 
 into a house than those. A small circular saw was put 
 on the mandrel of my wood saw, with which all the 
 casings, lath and every kind of slitting was performed 
 in the most satisfactory manner. All this work I per- 
 formed with my own hands, without the aid of a single 
 dollar. During the growing season, the labors of the 
 field demanded my attention. But, during the winter 
 and leisure days, my energies were appropriated to 
 the house. Every stone for the wall was drawn over 
 two miles, and every bushel of sand for plastering was 
 carried out of a deep and dangerous sand pit, to the 
 wagon, and carted, a part of it, three, and some five 
 miles. In this way, I built our own domicile. And if 
 my readers do not coincide with my judgment, that it 
 was up-hill business, I will kindly ask them to point 
 out a way that is beset with more embarrassments. 
 Well, to cut a long story short, my land was brought 
 up to an excellent state of fertility, by thorough drain- 
 ing, raising red clover, making beef and mutton, and 
 applying manure, so that my old-maid friend, after a 
 long time, received her principal with interest, and we 
 were even with the world, and could say, that we owed 
 no man anything, but a debt which we can never ex- 
 pect fully to discharge — love. 
 
 You say : " That is the way young men should be 
 required to help themselves." Perhaps it is the bet- 
 ter way. But if I had a Hagar for a concubine, and 
 her son were an Ishmaelite, he should never be placed 
 in such straitened circumstances as I was. It is the 
 most beastly way that parents can manage with their 
 children, to plant them on a piece of land, where they 
 
 19 
 
290 todd's country homes. 
 
 must resort to such disadvantageous arrangements to 
 get along at all decently, for want of a little capital. 
 
 The windows were all in, but we had no money for 
 purchasing the weights. But after much persuasion, 
 the iron-founder agreed to take a choice quality of 
 hard-maple wood toward them, at f 1.50 per cord, de- 
 livered at his shop five miles distant. Such wood was 
 worth one dollar per cord, as soon as it was chopped. 
 Therefore I was obliged to haul a cord of hard wood 
 five miles, for fifty, cents, and take my pay in window- 
 weights. When the sleighing was fine, I could haul 
 two cords per day, thus earning one dollar with my 
 team. The hay and grain for my team and my own 
 board were surely worth seventy-five cents, for we all 
 lived well. But money seemed to be lacking. 
 
 The Circular Stairs. — Putting up circular stairs 
 was a degree, or more, beyond my skill in house- 
 joinery, and I could not find a joiner in the town who 
 dared trust himself to attempt to build those stairs. I 
 procured all the works extant on architecture, but not 
 one ray of light did they give me about erecting stairs 
 of that style. Throwing aside all books in disgust, I 
 swept off the floor where the stairs were to be made, 
 found the center of the room, made a sweep for de- 
 scribing a circle as large as the curvature of the base 
 for supporting the outer ends of the risers and treads, 
 and marked out on the floor as many treads as there 
 would be risers in ascending nine feet. For example : 
 The hight to rise was 112 inches. The risers of the 
 stairs were to be about eight inches each. This would 
 give fourteen treads, all of which were marked out on 
 the floor, and the treads were dressed out of bass-wood 
 
BUILDING MY OWN HOUSE. 291 
 
 plank, according to the pattern. A thin bass-wood 
 board was bent around, in a spiral direction, for the 
 base, and nailed to the studs. The studs were all set 
 just far enough apart to receive tenons on the ends of 
 the risers, which were passed through mortises in the 
 base, and the tenons of the risers were nailed to the 
 studs. The narrow end of the treads, at the well-hole 
 (see glossary) were supported by staves, about four 
 inches wide. The first stave was about eight inches 
 long, the next sixteen inches, the third twenty-four 
 inches, and so on. The wide ends of the treads were 
 supported by driving nails through the base, into the 
 ends of the treads. The treads and risers were bass- 
 wood, and all the people that could stand on them, at 
 one time, would not cause a single joint to snap. 
 
 For a balustrade, I turned balusters, out of stuff about 
 two inches square, having a round knob on the upper 
 end of each, and the lower ends were screwed into the 
 treads, so that all were exceedingly firm. To make 
 each baluster more firm, a polished iron rod, three- 
 eighths of an inch in diameter, was driven through the 
 knob of each baluster, into the next one above it, at a 
 point about eight inches below the middle of the knob. 
 The balusters were made of several kinds of wood. If 
 I remember correctly, I made one of white pine, one 
 of black walnut, butternut, slippery elm, white ash, 
 oak, and several other kinds of timber, all of which 
 were oiled and varnished to show a variety of wood. 
 No hand-rail proper was put on the balusters. A row 
 of knobs constituted the hand-rail. They made a novel 
 balustrade, it is true. Yet it was neat, subserved an 
 excellent purpose, and cost only the labor of a few cold 
 
292 todd's country homes. 
 
 days in dreary winter, when I could do no work out of 
 doors. 
 
 Cementing the bottom of the Cellae. — When 
 the ground is so compact that it cannot be spaded, the 
 cement may be spread directly on the earth. I placed 
 a thick board, when cementing the bottom of my cel- 
 lar, about one foot from the outside wall, flat on the 
 ground, shoveled in the cement, and spread it down 
 smooth with a trowel, so that the surface was even 
 Avith the top of the board. Then moved the board 
 along one foot, and spread cement even with the top of 
 the board, and with the surface of the first course of 
 mortar. Any common laborer, of ordinary skill, can 
 lay a cement floor about as neatly as a mason. If the 
 ground is soft, the surface should be paved, bricked, or 
 flacro-ed. The cement should never be less than one 
 inch thick. If the cellar bottom will ever be allowed 
 to freeze, the frost will probably injure the cement, 
 .should the earth beneath the cement freeze so hard as 
 to heave. Where the ground can be spaded, the better 
 way is to mnke use of quite large stones, that can be 
 easily handled, and" lay a bottom tier, with the small 
 ends up, then chink and level off with smaller stones 
 and gravel to a straight edge. Next, thoroughly wet 
 this foundation with a cement of lime wash, wdien the 
 pavement Avill be ready to grout with a thin mortar of 
 cement and coarse sand. To finish, spread on evenly 
 a coat of good cement mortar, sift on sand, pack the 
 surface well by pounding with a paver, or anything 
 that will give a smooth surface, and remove the loose 
 stones and gravel. A cellar bottom constructed in this 
 manner, wall cost much less than flag-stones, and it will 
 
BUILDING MY OWN HOUSE. 293 
 
 subserve a satisfactory purpose, for a life-time. (Read 
 about cellars, page 93.) 
 
 How THE Window-Blinds were obtained. — The 
 first cost of these was about twenty-six dollars. That 
 sum could not be raised, on my poor land this year or 
 next, as there were other debts that must take the first 
 money. I could calculate about how many dollars' 
 worth we could sell at the end of the year, and it was 
 clear that no money could be appropriated for window- 
 blinds. Wife insisted that we must have some blinds, 
 in some way or other. Our old-maid friend would 
 cheerfully loan us all the money we wanted ; but, if 
 we borrowed money we both wanted to see how that 
 debt was going to be cancelled before the amount would 
 double. The all-absorbing topic was, how shall we get 
 those blinds ? We had already put our credit to the 
 utmost test, necessarily, to improve the productiveness 
 of the cultivable fields. We could do without blinds. 
 Yet, if we had no blinds, curtains must come. 
 
 My father had a timber lot of twenty-five acres, 
 which had always lain open -" to the commons." Yet 
 it was fenced on three sides. There was much pasture 
 around the borders, which anight be economized. He 
 allowed me to enclose it, by making a fence on the 
 fourth side, and I could then pasture it, if I saw fit. 
 Now the way seemed clear to get some blinds. To 
 make a long story short, I purchased a lot of sheep, 
 called on my old-maid friend, and told her I wanted a 
 loan of one hundred dollars, laid before her my arrange- 
 ments, and assured her that I would probably be able 
 to pay her note in autumn. I drove the sheep to the 
 wood-lot, sheared them soon, sold the wool for a fair 
 
294 todd's countey homes. 
 
 price, purchased the blinds for our house, and in July, 
 as the sheep were in good flesh, sold them. Then I 
 called on my old-maid friend, cancelled the note, and 
 had enough money left to pay for a bill of goods of 
 forty dollars, at the store. 
 
 You say, "That was a hard way to get a house." In- 
 deed it was. Yet, it was an honorable and an honest 
 way. For several years, all my energies were concen- 
 trated on the house, when field labor did not require 
 immediate attention. But when, at length, the finishing 
 strokes were given, we had the satisfaction of knowing 
 that we had a neat, comfortable and convenient cottage, 
 and that every part of it was paid for. 
 
 The manner of making the Doors. — The white- 
 wood stiles and bars were all sawed out of the proper 
 width, with the horse-saw. The bass-wood panels were 
 also sawed out, and jacked off with a plane, so that the 
 timber would season more advantageously. Then, all 
 this stuff was " stuck up " overhead, in the kitchen, 
 where it remained for several months, until every piece 
 was thoroughly kiln-dried. The stiles and panels all 
 being dressed out, I must have a joiners' plow, which 
 would cost $5. As I had only ten cents of money, 
 which we kept for seed, I extemporized, out of an old 
 jack-plane, a plow that worked as accurately and re- 
 quired less strength to shove it, than an adjustable five- 
 dollar plow. As one want seemed to follow a neces- 
 sity, the next thing was a mortising-machine. There 
 was no use in thinking to obtain a mortising-machine, 
 as that would cost not less than $25. With the aid of 
 my new plow, in a few hours I extemporized a machine 
 for mortising the stiles. Every part was wood, except 
 
MAKING THE BRACKETS. 
 
 295 
 
 the chisel, which a blacksmith forged out of an old file 
 for ten cents. Away went our seed-money, which 
 made it necessary to call again on our old-maid friend. 
 I fitted up my rough looking ten-cent chisel, with lips on 
 both sides, thrust it in the stove, brought it to a cherry- 
 red heat, gave the edges a sky-blue temper, ground 
 and polished it, and secured it with two wood 'screws 
 to the gate of the mortising-machine. Nothing could 
 work more neatly. The cutting edge would enter the 
 wood like a warm knife-blade when cutting cold but- 
 ter, and would bring out the chips at every thrust. In 
 one minute, by the watch, I could put a neat mortise 
 through a five-inch stile. The tenons, to make which was 
 the most difficult and laborious job, were all cut with 
 the horse-saw. Thus the panel doors cost ten cents. 
 
 Making the Brackets. — The illustration herewith 
 given, represents the form of the plank brackets that 
 were made for the cornice. The 
 roof was steeper than it is here 
 represented. Representations of 
 nails are shown as driven through 
 the frieze boards into the edge of 
 the bracket. The underside of the 
 roof boards was planed and painted. 
 The brackets were worked out with 
 a hand-billet saw, drawing-knife 
 and spoke shave. When planks 
 of the desired width could not be 
 obtained, two pieces were doweled 
 together. A turned drop in the 
 form of an acorn, was secured to each bracket, as repre- 
 sented in the illustration. The frieze was about four 
 
 A FANCT BRACKET. 
 
296 todd's country homes. 
 
 feet wide, up and down, and the roof projected about 
 two feet from the frame of the building. 
 
 Our Bridal Harness. — A respectable harness 
 seemed indispensable. I had nothing but an old plow 
 harness, and no money, or grain, fruit, or lumber, with 
 which to purchase either leather or harness. My old- 
 maid friend would, doubtless, have been glad to lend 
 me more mone}' to buy a harness. But the thought 
 of borrowing money to buy a harness, and continuing 
 to pay interest on it, for five years, which I knew I 
 must do before I could get my land into a condition to 
 raise paying crops, made me recoil. My father had a 
 silver-tipped harness, that had been badly used — torn 
 to tatters by some one — and thrown aside as worthless. 
 And yet only one trace was broken. The buckle- 
 tongues were bent badly, and some were unlocked. I 
 begged that old — yet almost new — harness of my 
 father, who was glad to have it taken away; strait- 
 ened the buckles myself, paid a harness-maker a cord 
 of good wood for repairing it, washed it clean, oiled 
 and varnished it; and the first Sunday that we went to 
 meeting, with our new outfit, our good friends thought 
 that silver-tipped harness, which was taken for a bran- 
 new one, was a sure indication that I was transcending 
 my pecuniary means, in a wrong direction, and some 
 of the good brethren who were worth more dollars than 
 our cents would number, thought, that if I could afford 
 to have such a costly harness, surely I ought to pay 
 more toward the salary of the minister. And even at 
 that very time, I was paying interest on borrowed 
 money for my annual subscription, which others, far 
 better than myself, made me believe was my duty to 
 
HOW TO OIL A HARNESS. 297 
 
 do ; and I was obliged to borrow money for our sub- 
 scription to the minister's salary for six successive 
 years, and pay interest on it, because others thought 
 we rode in such style that we could aiford to pay more, 
 and not feel it. 
 
 A word about oiling and varnishing harnesses. Do 
 not soak the leather in water, for a day or more. Wash 
 it clean with warm soap-suds. Before the leather be- 
 comes as dry as tinder, apply a bountiful coat of neats- 
 foot oil. After the oil has dried in, varnish it. Make 
 some shellac varnish, as directed, page 203, put about 
 two large spoonfuls of fine lamp-black into a pint of 
 varnish, and add also a piece of gum camphor, as large 
 as a small hen's egg. Shake the contents thoroughly, 
 and apply it with a small paint-brush. This varnish 
 will dry quick, will shine like a glass bottle, and will 
 not blacken your hands when handling the harness. 
 
 How I GOT OUR Bridal Buggy. — The illustration 
 of a light wagon, given in this connection, is a fair 
 representation of our bridal buggy, and the economy 
 
 BRIDAL BUGGY OF 1S44. 
 
 exercised in obtaining it may aid other young men in 
 such an enterprise. Heretofore, I had been accustomed 
 to ride on horseback, or in the two-horse lumber wagon. 
 But, now that I had found a wife, I wanted a buggy. 
 But not one single dollar could either of us appropriate 
 
298 todd's country homes. 
 
 for such a purpose. A decent one-horse wagon would 
 cost, then, not less than $80. Now such an one would 
 be worth $150. I had nothing to sell, for the crops of 
 the previous season belonged to some one else. Well, 
 I had purchased an old mare, at the suggestion of my 
 father, for $5, as she was said to be a valuable brood 
 mare. But, as we afterwards learned, she was too old 
 to breed. Besides this, she was so incorrigibly balky 
 that Rarey himself could not cure her of the vice. A 
 neighbor, who had an old buggy that was worn out 
 and thrown aside in the hen-roost, wanted that mare. 
 He knew how balky she was better than I did. I had 
 never put a harness on her, and he never proposed to 
 harness her. But, as he afterwards told me, he thought 
 he could make her raise colts. I looked at his old 
 wagon, which was worth less to him than the mare 
 was to me, and he examined ray old mare, which was 
 a nuisance and an expense to me. The wheels were 
 tolerably good, and I considered the springs to be 
 worth 1 15. But the axle-trees and skeins were worn 
 out. The body was all stove up, and daubed with 
 domestic guano from one end to the other. Yet all 
 the irons, besides the skeins, were as good as new. He 
 happened to know that I paid only $5 for the beast. 
 He valued the old buggy at $10. I proposed to give 
 him the old mare for the wagon. He wanted ten 
 bushels of Indian corn to boot. I agreed to give him 
 five bushels, if he would wait till next autumn until I 
 could raise it. So I took the old buggy home, and he 
 took the old mare. But she never produced a colt. 
 Well, I then went to work with unabated ambition to 
 rejuvenate that old buggy, which had cost me $7.50, 
 
OUR BRIDAL BUGGY. 299 
 
 with the determination to have a respectable vehicle 
 that my proud wife would not be ashamed to ride in. 
 I tore the old box to fragments, made two axle-trees, 
 put on new skeins, made a new body, a new seat 
 which was long enough for wife to hold a boy in her 
 lap without being crowded, and I could hold a little 
 urchin in my lap, also, and not be cramped for room, 
 and yet there was space enough between us for a 
 charming little girl. I procured a few yards of trim- 
 ming cloth and a supply of carriage lace, trimmed the 
 seat, made a nice cushion, painted the wagon with two 
 heavy coats of paint, and applied two coats of varnish. 
 To the crowd, the vehicle appeared like a first-class 
 buggy. Everything was plain, but neat. One could 
 see the color of his eyes in the varnish. The work was 
 all (Jone on rainy days, when I could not work in the 
 field. To complete the job, painting and all, required 
 about five days, which other men would have squan- 
 dered away at the post-office or public house. The 
 blacksmith's bill was about $3.50. Paint and varnish 
 cost about $4. Trimming materials, $3. These items 
 swelled the cost of my bridal buggy to about $18, 
 besides my five days' labor. The materials for axle- 
 trees, thills and body were of little cash value, as I 
 worked timber that had one wany edge, which was 
 excellent, but which was not marketable. 
 
 That is the way I obtained my bridal buggy. It was 
 nice enough for a millionaire to ride in. Besides this, 
 it was strong and convenient. If I wanted to carry a 
 few bushels of wheat to mill, that biiggy was equal to 
 the requirements of a strong, light wagon. When we 
 went to the store to trade, we could put all our grocer- 
 
300 todd's country homes. 
 
 ies behind, and before the seat, or beneath it, and still 
 have a place for our feet. That wagon wore as satis- 
 factorily, for twelve years, as a new buggy, that would 
 have cost $80. I was obliged to borrow the money to 
 pay my blacksmith's bill. But I paid it, after my first 
 corn crop was marketed. The years rolled pleasantly 
 on, and as each growing season came to an end, I could 
 perceive that the fertility of my cultivable land was 
 gradually improving. Every day, whether stormy or 
 fair, was occupied in the most industrious manner. Not 
 an hour was frittered away in idleness. Every leisure 
 moment in the morning and at evening, was improved 
 in reading some useful book, or in writing or drawing. 
 Our Sleigh and Bridal Cutter. — It was not prac- 
 ticable to get along without a lumber sleigh. But, a 
 good set of traverse sleighs, such as I wanted, would 
 cost thirty dollars. My father gave me his old worn- 
 out sleigh, that he had used as long as I could remem- 
 ber, which would scarcely sustain its own weight. So, 
 I devised a plan for a new sleigh. I got permission to 
 dig up a white oak tree for runners. I let the sawyer 
 have half the runner-planks to pay for sawing. The 
 owner of the tree must then have one-fourth of them 
 for his tree. Then, I paid the blacksmith for the iron 
 work in plank, and had enough left for my sleigh, which 
 was made in a few days, ironed off, and painted. By 
 this industrious system of management, I got a good 
 strong sleigh, without money. But nothing looked so 
 woe-begone and forlorn as a young married couple 
 going to meeting in a huge lumber sleigh, and with an 
 old plow harness. We were not ashamed of our vehi- 
 cle, for it was neatly painted. Yet, pride or some other 
 
OUR SLEIGH AND BRIDAL CUTTER. 301 
 
 spirit, prompted us to think that such a vehicle was not 
 exactly the thing for a rich man's son to appear in, with 
 a gay daughter of another well-to-do farmer. There- 
 fore, we concluded that the next winter, we must have 
 a cutter, by some means or other. My father had 
 
 OUR BRIDAL CUTTER. 
 
 money in the bank, and if he had given me ten acres 
 of land, or no land at all and one thousand dollars, in- 
 stead of simply giving me a half-deed as he did, so that 
 I could have had something to begin with, how tran- 
 scendently better it would have been for me, and no 
 more disadvantageous for him. Well, we really needed 
 a cutter. How to get one was the question. 
 
 One of my neighbors, Jo Smith, who is dead and 
 gone now, and whom I always accommodated in every 
 way, by lending him any of my tools, had a cutter that 
 was once a nice one. My friend Jo would sometimes 
 pour out a blue streak of profanity, would spend much 
 time at the hotel, and when he could not get snow, ice, 
 or pure water to quench thirst, would taste of Old 
 Bourbon. I always lent him my tools, because he was 
 a good neighbor and accommodating. He always as- 
 sured me, that it was bad enough to be obliged to bor- 
 
302 todd's country homes. 
 
 row tools, without being required to take them home. 
 And he always told me, that if I could not find my 
 tools in the path leading from his house to his barn, 
 when I came for them, he " couldn't tell me where to 
 look for 'em." Well, Jo, in one of his jollifications, 
 drove his fine cutter against the sign-post of the tav- 
 ern, smashed the box into fragments, broke one run- 
 ner, and every knee and beam. But the irons were all 
 good as new. The fowls had roosted on it for several 
 years until no one could determine the color of the 
 paint. I proposed to purchase it. Said Mr. Smith 
 (for he was not Jo at all times), "That cutter cost me 
 $40 in cash. You see it is of no use to me now, only 
 to aid the hens in getting on the roost. If you will 
 come and sow my wheat, which you can do in one day, 
 you may have that $40 cutter." I accepted his propo- 
 sition ; took the demolished vehicle home (in Septem- 
 ber), on a rainy day, dressed out such timber as was 
 requisite for making the necessary repairs; put the 
 dressed timber overhead in the kitchen to season for a 
 month ; paid a blacksmith fifty cents for mending the 
 broken runner, by riveting a plate of band iron on each 
 side ; took oJQf the irons carefully, and put them on my 
 new wood -work ; made a neat box ; painted and var- 
 nished it ; and had it in running order before the sleigh- 
 ing appeared. The paint, oil and varnish cost me about 
 $1.50, and blacksmith's bill fifty cents. This is all the 
 money that was employed in fitting up the bridal cut- 
 ter, which was a respectable vehicle, that wealthy peo- 
 ple would not be ashamed to ride in. There was one 
 consideration about the matter, which is, I obtained it 
 by my own frugality and persevering industry. I did 
 
HOW I PAID FOR MY WIFe's MUFF. 303 
 
 not get it by hook and crook of dishonorable trade. 
 ,And over and above this, the vehicle was all paid for, 
 before we took the first ride in it. It was np hill busi- 
 ness/with us, from one year's end to another. But, 
 by working hard and exercising all sorts of rigid econ- 
 omy in every enterprise, we could perceive a small 
 progress. 
 
 How I PAID FOR MY "VVife's Muff. — It was a beau- 
 tiful luxury. Our honest merchant purchased it at 
 auction, at a very low figure, and to assure us that 
 every word he uttered was reliable truth, he produced 
 his bill of purchase, by which it appeared to our satis- 
 faction that he had actually paid $11 for the forty- 
 dollar muff! Then, he had paid the transportation on 
 it, over three hundred miles, received nothing for his 
 services in purchasing and selling, no interest on the 
 money invested, but he would let us have it for %1\. 
 Surely, we thought, there is a bargain for us, that we 
 must not suffer to slip. Well, we had not a single dol- 
 lar to appropriate to that purpose, without borrowing 
 it. My old-maid friend would have cheerfully loaned 
 the amount. But, we did not like the idea of paying 
 interest on an article that my wife had always done 
 without, and which could be dispensed with for a year 
 or two longer. Well, we looked at the gewgaw, and 
 thought how warm my wife's hands would be, when we 
 took our three-mile ride to church, and how every one 
 would admire such a beautiful "winter comfort." But, 
 after all, we were forced to tell our obliging and gener- 
 ous merchant, that we wanted it, but we had not the 
 money to appropriate for such a purpose. He saw and 
 appreciated the dilemma, and suggested that I might 
 
304 todd's countey homes. 
 
 pay him in wood, at ^1.50 per cord, delivered at his 
 store, which was over five miles from my woods. Here 
 our prospects brightened. Seven and one-third cords 
 of wood would pay the $11. But there was another, dif- 
 ficulty. The chopper must have twenty-eight cents per 
 cord for chopping the wood, if I corded it, and thirty- 
 one cents, if he corded it. After a long consultation he 
 suggested that he would pay my chopper out of his 
 store, for cutting the wood, and that I could deliver 
 him more wood, at $1.50 per cord, to cancel the chop- 
 per s bill. 
 
 Now, light broke in upon us. And we went home 
 with buoyant feelings and cheerful hearts, at the con- 
 templation of the economical purchase. Everybody 
 seemed to be looking out of their windows to catch a 
 peep at the beautiful muff. Then, when we went to 
 church, didn't the people lift up their sleepy eyelids to 
 get a more perfect view of that attractive feline skin ? 
 ''Ah," whispered our good deacon, " I think by another 
 year, they can well afford to double their subscription 
 for the minister's salary ! " On our way home, " Old 
 Boreas" drew up his fiddle-strings to concert pitch and 
 the cold snow creaked beneath our bridal cutter, but, 
 with such a comfort as that beautiful muff before us, 
 we bade defiance to the rigors of a northern winter, as we 
 were g-lidino; homeward, breathino; the inanities of love. 
 The first little household duplicate arrayed in a flowing 
 robe of spotless Avhite, rarely receives more cheerful 
 glances from soft eyes, than did that attractive muff. 
 Well, on Monday morning, the great enterprise was 
 commenced. The chopper engaged in his task, with a 
 strong hand and a cheerful countenance. By working 
 
now I PAID FOR MY WIFE's MUFF. 305 
 
 early and late he cut and split two cords per day, thus 
 earning fifty-six cents, and boarded himself. That price 
 was three cents more per cord than many of my neigh- 
 bors would pay for chopping cord wood. I had agreed 
 to deliver all hard wood, chiefly sugar maple and iron 
 wood. I measured the wood on the sleigh, and thus 
 saved three cents per cord. Such wood would sell 
 readily, on the ground where it was chopped, for $1. 
 per cord. Therefore, by hauling it over five miles, I 
 earned fifty cents per cord. By rising at five o'clock 
 in the morning, so as to do my chores early, and by 
 getting an early breakfast, I could haul two loads per 
 day of three-fourths of a cord each, thus earning — or 
 rather saving with two horses and myself — seventy-five 
 cents per day ! My own board and the feed of my team 
 was an item that did not seem to enter into the ac- 
 count. When the sleighing was not good, I could haul 
 only half a cord per load. In that case I could earn 
 only fifty cents per day, with myself and team. But, 
 everything moved on so harmoniously, and I found so 
 much pleasure in life, that the muff debt, and the chop- 
 per's bill were liquidated, and I stood square with the 
 merchant. The muff was paid for, without one dollar 
 of money ! And many other articles were paid for in 
 the same slow — but honest manner. While taking so 
 many long sleigh rides, all alone in my glory, of course 
 I had much time for reflection. And one mystery that 
 I could never unravel was, how merchants could go to 
 New York, at a great exj)ense, purchase goods, pay 
 transportation on them, several hundred miles, sell them 
 to their customers for the same they paid, and yet grow 
 rich. But, after I came to the great metropolis, and 
 
 20 
 
306 todd's country homes. 
 
 began to peep into the honest tricks of honest traders, 
 I soon perceived that it was easy for a seller to make 
 his bills of sale, at a high price, deliver them to the 
 purchaser, who according to previous stipulations, would 
 pay the bills, less thirty to ffty per cent! But, unsus- 
 pecting country squashes, as we were, never even 
 dreamed that a purchaser would be allowed to pay any- 
 thing less than the amount called for by the bill. This 
 muff enterprise shows that beginners may have a very 
 limited capital, and still live within their means. We 
 paid for every article purchased, without mortgaging 
 land or anything else. If my wife had not been thor- 
 oughly versed in domestic economy, we might have 
 been homeless in a few years. 
 
 Saving Money in New Inventions. — Out of the 
 thousands of new and patent devices, only a few — a 
 vtery few — of the inventors have ever realized enough 
 from the sales of territory, or shop rights, to cancel the 
 expenses incurred in securing letters-patent and paying 
 for advertisements. A few inventors have realized in- 
 dependent fortunes for some minor device, which never 
 cost much thought or money, while thousands of hard- 
 working, thinking and industrious persons have worn 
 themselves out, in vain efforts to bring out some new 
 invention that would yield them some return for their 
 toil ; and they have gone down into a poor man's grave, 
 leaving scarcely enough behind to defray the expenses 
 of a decent burial. 
 
 The popular impression used to be, and it prevails 
 more than it ought to now, that if a person is so for- 
 tunate as to secure a patent on any device, he is elected 
 to a fortune at once. Scores and hundreds of new in- 
 
SAVING MONEY IN NEW INVENTIONS. 307 
 
 ventions which possessed no particular merit, have been 
 brought out, patented and advertised for several succes- 
 sive years, and then abandoned, because sensible peo- 
 ple would not pay their money for an invention that 
 did not promise them a full equivalent for their money. 
 And a great many excellent things have been invented, 
 which are useful, and always will be of great value to 
 the world; but which have made no one rich. Young 
 men in numerous instances have conceived something 
 new, have been cajoled, wheedled, and bamboozled by 
 shrewd patent agents, who have encouraged them to 
 secure letters-patent through their agency, when the 
 agents knew the inventors would never realize enough 
 from sales of the device, to pay for the paper on which 
 the application was written. Others have thought of 
 some invention that has been common property among 
 mechanics, for ages, and have secured letters-patent on 
 it. But after dreaming of fortunes, they have opened 
 their eyes to the startling consideration, that other 
 inventors have thought of the same things, and have 
 made models of the very same invention, tried to se- 
 cure patents on them and failed, years ago. I desire 
 to teach to every young man, that when people see a 
 patent device advertised, they are not going to run after 
 the inventor, and offer him money for his invention. 
 Young men, old men, boys, girls and all! let me hold 
 you by the button long enough to impress one idea on 
 your minds, that men who have money, are not going to 
 hand you a fortune in gold dollars, for some new device 
 that will never he of any practical value to any one, for 
 any purpose. 
 
 Now, then, having blown off the superfluous gas, let 
 
308 todd's country homes. 
 
 us come down to facts, figures and tangible objects, and 
 learn how to save money by new inventions. In the 
 first place, don't let your thoughts run off with your 
 sleep, with your digestion, with your Sunday medita- 
 tion, and with everything else, except the one idea, 
 that, some how or other, the spirits, or some fallacious 
 notion has told you that you are to bring out some 
 great invention that is to revolutionize the world ! It 
 is well to exercise your mechanical and inventive facul- 
 ties. But, whenever you have been able to bring out 
 any new device, communicate with some person who 
 will be likely to understand — unless yon know your- 
 self — exactly how such and such a thing would be likely 
 to operate. Scores of young men have approached me 
 in confidence — boiling over with enthusiasm at the 
 conception of some idea that every skillful engineer un- 
 derstands — and a few words of explanation have shown 
 them in the most satisfactory manner, that such a de- 
 vice never would be of any practical utility or value. 
 These few words, w^hich I always gave cheerfully, 
 gratuitously and honestly, have often saved thousands 
 of dollars. On the contrary, I have in mind several 
 knowing and enthusiastic young men who, not satisfied 
 when I assured them they never could succeed, have 
 persevered, till they have secured letters-patent, have 
 advertised, spent a fortune in manufacturing articles 
 of no practical value whatever, until they were obliged 
 to abandon the enterprise as a failure. There can be 
 nothing lost — but sometimes much advantage secured, 
 by conferring with experienced mechanics and en- 
 gineers. 
 
 The first inquiry should be, after conceiving a new 
 
HOW TO GET A PATENT. 309 
 
 device, to determine whether it will subserve the pur- 
 pose for which it is intended, any more satisfactorily, 
 than something similar, that may be in use. Do not 
 pay out your money for a model, letters-patent, and 
 drawings of a device, that has no merit but novelty to 
 recommend it. Thousands of patents have been issued 
 on articles that were not worth the value of one sheet of 
 paper, and yet they possessed patentable features. The 
 inventors thought, because the feature was patentable, 
 it would pay well to secure letters-patent. Nothing is 
 more absurd and erroneous. I have frequently con- 
 ceived devices that were new and patentable. But, 
 the practical question — will it pay to secure letters- 
 patent — saved money, anxiety and perplexity, and se- 
 cured enjoyment and sleep. 
 
 How TO GET A Patent. — Of course "patent attor- 
 neys" will hurl all sorts of javelins, hail-stones and coals 
 of fire at me for penning this paragraph. Let 'em rage. 
 Truth cuts keenest, when it cuts closest. Don't pay 
 out your money to patent attorneys, unless you have 
 lots of it. They will, no doubt, tell you that it is one 
 of the most difficult things in the world to get an arti- 
 cle patented! They will in most instances, represent 
 that everything must be in just such language, and a 
 slight deviation from that or this form in an application, 
 would end in a rejection of your application. What 
 superlative moonshine ! It is not so. And I can prove 
 it to the satisfaction of every candid reader. The 
 Commissioner of Patents is- assisted by the most skill- 
 ful and competent men that can be obtained. Their 
 business is to issue as many patents as they possibly 
 can. They are not ambitious to find some feature in a 
 
310 todd's countet homes. 
 
 device which will enable the department to reject the 
 application. By no means. Nevertheless, this sugges- 
 tion is held up to inventors, like a glaring bugbear, to 
 induce them (the inventors) to employ patent agents 
 to undertake to get the thing patented. The Commis- 
 sioner and all his assistants are ambitious to grant a 
 patent on every device that possesses a patentable fea- 
 ture, from a wooden nutmeg to a locomotive. They 
 know it is for their interest and for the interest of the 
 public treasury to grant a patent on every device that 
 can be patented with any shadow of consistency. A 
 thousand things are patented, which they know will 
 never be worth one red cent to any one. But the de- 
 vice possesses novel and patentable features, and their 
 duty to the Government, is to accept the fee, and grant 
 the letters-patent. Here is where the trouble has 
 always lain with applications that were rejected. Ap- 
 plications have been made for patents which possessed 
 no patentable feature, and which were a palpable in- 
 fringement on the claim of some other inventor. It is 
 hard to secure a patent, under such circumstances. All 
 the strategy, and "wire-pulling" that experienced attor- 
 neys possess, are requisite to secure a patent, when it 
 is plain to the examiners that the device should not be 
 patented. 
 
 Get out the patent yourself, and save your money. 
 You can do it just as well as a young man can write to 
 his lady-love, and ask if, on some bright and starry 
 night, he may sit in her shadow and look at the silver 
 moon in the sky. The Commissioner is nothing but a 
 plain, respectful engineer. You have only to make a 
 model and write out, a clear and specific explanation 
 
HOW TO GET A PATENT. 311 
 
 and description of your invention. Now, instead of. 
 writing out all the specifications and explanations for 
 an attorney to copy, and to charge you fifty or a hun- 
 dred dollars for it, send your model and description 
 directly to the Commissioner of Patents. (You should 
 write to the Patent Office Department first, and request 
 the Commissioner to forward a pamphlet containing 
 rules to aid inventors in making their applications, 
 which he will do cheerfully and free of charge. Such a 
 pamphlet will tell you exactly what to do, and what 
 not to do.) 
 
 If you were to send your model to an attorney, you 
 would forward also, a written description of your de- 
 vice. That is exactly what the Commissioner wants ; 
 no more and no less. If you, or any one else, can ex- 
 plain in a clear and intelligible manner the nature of 
 your invention, the Commissioner will grant you let- 
 ters-patent just as quickly, and just as correctly, as he 
 would do it, were the application made by the most 
 notable attorney in the land. Instead of paying an 
 attorney five times as much for a draft of the device as 
 it is really worth, look around and find some skillful 
 draftsman who will make a satisfactory draft of the de- 
 vice, unless the parts are numerous and the combina- 
 tion intricate. In such a case, have a photograph 
 taken, from which any ordinary draftsman, or drafts- 
 woman, would be able to make a drawing sufficiently 
 accurate for all practical purposes, at a great saving of 
 money. But, before attempting to take out letters- 
 patent, make a full-sized model, and put the device 
 to a practical test. A little brass model may operate 
 like a charm, and all who see it, will be likely to de- 
 
312 todd's country homes. 
 
 clare at once, that a working model cannot foil to oper- 
 ate satisflxc to rily. And yet, when a full-sized machine 
 comes to be made, some part of it cannot be made to 
 work at all. 
 
 If you are at all inclined to cherish the idea, that 
 somehow or other, you are going to be made rich by 
 some new invention — if you dream of a fortune from 
 the sale of territory — the best thing you can do, will 
 be to go to the patent office, and examine the thou- 
 sand and ten models that have been rejected, some of 
 which may be similar to your device for gaining a for- 
 tune. If you are as poor as inventors usually are, bor- 
 row money enough to take you to Washington and 
 back. I think such money will be satisfactorily expen- 
 ded. The journey may open your eyes, so that you 
 can see, if you ever get a fortune, it must be gained 
 in some other way. Then, you would come home con- 
 tented, and begin to live to some accoiint. Save your 
 money. Don't pay it out for advertising a device that 
 people know nothing about. 
 
 Care and Management of Shoes. — It is a sweep- 
 ing assertion, but I do not hesitate to make it, that 
 more shoes are destroyed by bad management than are 
 actually worn out by fair usage. When leather is 
 wetted and dried repeatedly, it shrinks and becomes 
 hard and unpliable. For this reason, the soles of boots 
 and shoes, after having been exposed to the influences 
 of "wet and dry," become shorter and narrower, and 
 the upper leather becomes smaller, and so hard that it 
 frequently cracks, or becomes painful to the feet. 
 _ The first thing to be done to a pair of new boots or 
 shoes, is to apply a bountiful coat of coal tar or pine 
 
CARE OF SHOES. 313 
 
 tar, to the soles, and dry it in. Tar will effectually 
 exclude the water and prevent the pegs from shrinking 
 and working out ; and it will also make the soles wear 
 like iron. After the tar has been well dried into the 
 leather, there is no danger that it will ever work out. 
 The aim should always be to keep the upper leather 
 soft and pliable, and the soles hard, tough, and imper- 
 vious to w^ater. The better way to treat light sewed 
 shoes and boots is, to set each one on a platter or an 
 old dinner-plate, and pour on boiled linseed oil, suf- 
 ficient to fill the vessel to the upper edge of the soles. 
 Allow the leather to absorb as much oil as it will for 
 eight hours. Linseed oil should not be applied to the 
 upper leather, as it will soon become dry, rendering 
 the leather hard and tough. If the shoes be sewed, 
 the linseed oil will preserve the thread from rotting. 
 Now wet the upper leather thoroughly when the boots 
 or shoes are to be put on the feet, so that those parts 
 which are tight may stretch a trifle, and thus adapt the 
 form of the shoe to the foot far more satisfactorily than 
 when the upper leather is not wet. Keep them on the 
 feet until the leather is nearly dry. Then give the 
 upper leather a thorough greasing with equal parts of 
 lard and tallow, or with tallow and neats-foot oil. If 
 shoes be treated in this manner, and a row of round- 
 headed shoe nails be driven around the edge of the 
 soles, they will w^ear like copper, and always set easy 
 to the feet. Boots and shoes should be treated as sug- 
 gested, and worn a little, several months, before they 
 are to be put to daily service. This is the true way to 
 save your shoe money. 
 
 The injury to shoes by allowing them to stand and 
 
314 todd's country homes. 
 
 dry, after they have been worn, when the leather has 
 become wet and muddy, is often so great as to render 
 them unfit for service. Let the mud be washed off, at 
 once. Then, the shoes should always be dried while 
 on the feet. As soon as the surface is dry, apply a lit- 
 tle grease, which will prevent shrinkage and always 
 keep the leather soft. 
 
 People in the rural districts usually keep their boots 
 and shoes on the floor in a cold corner of the room. 
 Of course, they are always complaining of cold feet. 
 My own practice was, when on the farm, to have a 
 shelf in the kitchen, as high as a person could reach, 
 for boots and shoes, where they would always be kept 
 warm. When boots could not be placed on the shelf, 
 they were hung on a hook, at the upper part of the 
 room, where the air is warm ; while near the floor, it 
 is cold. 
 
 Black your own Boots. — If you are in the pos- 
 session of a comfortable home, with satisfactory sur- 
 roundings, and have so much money that you like to 
 cultivate a feeling of benevolence by handing out youv 
 dimes to poor boot-blacks, I have no particular objec- 
 tions to it, except that the example may induce others 
 who ought to wait on themselves, to fritter away their 
 money, when they need it for their own personal com- 
 fort. A man can black his own boots, quite as soon as 
 a boot-black. He must, therefore, be idle while the 
 job is being done. Consequently, there is the loss of 
 time incurred, besides the dime for doing the job. It 
 is all proper and right, that boots and shoes should be 
 neatly blacked. But, let a man who desires to save 
 money, do it himself Two boxes of blacking will last 
 
CARE OF BOOTS AND SHOES. 315 
 
 one person a year, or more, when he blacks his shoes 
 daily. The price of those may be computed at one 
 dime each. Boot-blacks usually require ten cents for 
 "giving a good shine," which will amount to the nice 
 little sum of $36.50, in a single year! All of which 
 may be saved, excejDt twenty cents for blacking, and 
 thirty cents for a shoe-brush. By making an estimate 
 it will be perceived how easily a young man may save 
 hundreds of dollars, in ten years, by simply waiting on 
 himself The country needs the labor of boot-blacks. 
 Our cities do not need such croaking parasites. 
 
 Shoes to Fit the Feet. — There is a vast deal of 
 stupidity among people with regard to the adaptation of 
 shoes and boots, to one's feet. The assumption is, that 
 the lasts on which shoes are made, must of necessity, 
 be of the correct form. Therefore, if the shoes do not 
 fit the feet, the difficulty is not in the lasts, but in the 
 form of the/ee^. There is quite as much difference in 
 the form of feet, as in the different forms of bodies, 
 and human faces. Some persons tread the heels over, 
 either outward or inward, and they are sharjoly re- 
 proached for not treading squarely on their feet. The 
 difficulty is, not in the manner of stepping, but in the 
 form of the shoes. The lasts were not like the feet. 
 When shoes or boots are made on lasts no more crooked 
 or straight than the feet, they will set very satisfac- 
 torily, and the soles will not wear off on one side. When 
 shoes are either more straight or more crooked than 
 one's feet, they cannot be expected to set easy, as the 
 feet must be turned and pressed from their natural po- 
 sition. When shoes or boots will run over, outward, 
 at the heel, a piece of thick sole leather should be 
 
316 todd's country homes. 
 
 nailed -to the outside of the last, to make it more of 
 the form of the foot. Then, if the toe of the sole 
 wears off on the inside, more than on the outside, let 
 a thick piece of sole leather be pegged to the inside of 
 the last, near the toe, so as to make the last about as 
 crooked as the foot. If a person has tender feet, a 
 very wide sole will not make an easy fitting shoe, un- 
 less the last was thick up and down, near the toes. It 
 is far better to have a shoe made over a thick last, but 
 rather narrow, than over a broad and thin last. When 
 one has tender feet, he should have a pair of lasts 
 made as nearly of the form of his feet as they can be. 
 Then, boots, or shoes will always set comfortably to the 
 feet; and more than this, the soles will wear evenly. 
 If shoes were made over a last of the same form of the 
 feet, they would never run over either way. 
 
 Remedy for Cold Feet. — When a person has not 
 sufficient vitality to keep his feet warm, he should em- 
 ploy some artificial heat. In many instances, leather 
 shoes fit the feet so tightly, as to obstruct circulation 
 of the blood. Then, the feet will often become very 
 cold. Whereas, if shoes had been of fair size, the feet 
 would have kept warm. In many instances, when I 
 have been riding in cold weather, for several hours, I 
 have slipped off my boots, and wrapped my feet in a 
 horse blanket. In this way, I never failed to keep 
 them comfortable. If shoes fit closely, it will be very 
 difficult to keep the feet warm, even when the weather 
 is not very cold. When one's vitality and animal heat 
 are at a low ebb, he must warm his feet. It is stupid 
 folly to endure pain and suffering, from the cold, when 
 there is not life enough in one's system to keep every 
 
REMEDY FOR COLD FEET. 317 
 
 part warm. On the contrary, if a person is indolent, 
 and does not exercise enough to wake up his system, 
 the better way will be to go out in the oj^en air, and 
 run, or walk, or work, until every part of the body 
 glows with health. I have often run barefooted in 
 the soft snow, for a few minutes, until every vein in 
 my feet would be filled with blood. When there was 
 no snow, I have held them under a spout of cold water, 
 until they would look as red as the feet of a- goose. 
 Then, they would keep warm all night. I never took 
 cold in the operation. When a person is annoyed with 
 cold feet out of doors, take off the stockings, hold the 
 feet to the fire, nntil they are thoroughly dry and 
 warm. Then, put on the stockings, dry out all the 
 moisture before the boots or shoes are put on, and the 
 feet will continue warm, for a long time. In some in- 
 stances, if I have been writing for several hours, during 
 very cold weather, I find it necessary to have a piece 
 of soap-stone, or marble beneath my feet, for an hour 
 or more. And rather than lie in bed with cold feet, I 
 have a "Major" at the foot of the bed. No one can 
 sleep well with cold feet. And when the vitality has 
 been used up in writing, it is better to warm the feet, 
 than to wait and suffer with cold, a long time, before 
 nature can get up enough heat to warm every part of 
 the system. When digestion is sharp, if one will eat a 
 liberal supply of nourishing food, he will not suffer 
 with cold feet. On the contrary, if digestion be lan- 
 guid, a large quantity of the richest food will fail to 
 maintain a proper degree of warmth at all the extrem- 
 ities. After one has washed his feet in warm water, 
 he should always bathe them in cold water. Then, 
 
318 todd's countky homes. 
 
 wipe them dry, and warm them before a glowing fire, 
 until they feel quite comfortable. Woolen stockings 
 are indispensable if one desires to keep the feet com- 
 fortably warm. A person who has a vast deal of vital- 
 ity may prefer cotton. But, cotton will not keep the 
 feet of most people comfortable, even in cool weather. 
 There is no use in stating that cotton is preferable to 
 wool. He who is troubled with cold feet, when he 
 wears cotton, may put on woolen stockings, and be 
 cheered with warm feet. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 ICE AND ICE-HOUSES. 
 
 Construction of Ice-houses — Plan of Ice-house — How to Build — How 
 to Fill with Ice — Saving Ice without a House — Home-made Ice — Un- 
 der-ground Ice-houses — How to Fill with Water. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF ICE-HOUSES. 
 
 When I lived in the country, I knew of only one 
 person within five miles of my residence, who had an 
 ice-house ; not that an ice-house and ice were so ex- 
 pensive, but the farmers lacked sufficient skill to con- 
 struct an ice-house, in such a manner, as to save it 
 through the hot weather. When a person is about to 
 erect an ice-house, he should first obtain a correct un- 
 derstanding of what to do, and how to do it. As has 
 already been hinted there are several important points 
 to be observed in building an ice-house, which are com- 
 plete drainage, perfect ventilation of the building above 
 the ice, and walls that will conduct little or no heat 
 through to the ice. If an ice-house were so constructed 
 that the walls were complete non-conductors, with 
 perfect ventilation between the surface of the ice and 
 the roof of the building, and the floor were resting on 
 the ground, the heat from the earth would soon melt 
 the last cake, long before the sultry days of July had 
 passed. If every part of the house were constructed 
 
320 todd's country homes. 
 
 properly, and the roof were so leaky as to permit rain 
 to fall on the ice, a large mass would soon be melted. 
 
 Balloon Frame of an Ice-house. — The accom- 
 panying sketch will convey a fair idea of the proper 
 construction of the frame of the superstructure, accord- 
 
 BALLOON SKELETON OF ICE-HOUSE. 
 
 ing to the balloon style of architecture. It will be seen 
 that a portion of the outside range of studs is shown, 
 nailed to the sill, and also a portion of the inside lining 
 boards. Also, one plate is represented as resting on the 
 upper ends of the studs. Two collar beams are also 
 shown nailed to the rafters. Other portions will require 
 no written explanation. It will be perceived that there 
 will be a space between the outside weather boards and 
 the lining on the inside of the outer studs, which should 
 be filled with some kind of non-conducting material, 
 that may be put in and pressed down tightly as fast as 
 the outside boards are nailed on. 
 
 A Bill of Materials. — A superstructure 16 by 12 
 feet square w-ill be sufficiently large to contain a supply 
 of ice for several families during the entire year. The 
 
BALLOON FRAME OF AN ICE-HOUSE. 321 
 
 sides should be about twelve feet high, and the roof 
 should project not less than two feet on every side. A 
 good shingle roof, painted white, will be found cheaper 
 and more satisfactory than a roof made of any other 
 material. A white roof will reflect the heat of the sun 
 much more than if the same roof were of a darker 
 color. Then, if there is economy in painting any part 
 of a building, the roof surely should be painted. It is 
 proposed to erect a "balloon" frame, as such a frame 
 will be less expensive, than one made of large timber 
 with tenons and mortises ; and the superstructure will 
 also be much stiflfer. Such a frame will require : 
 
 Sq.ft. 
 
 2 side sills, 2 by 8, 16 feet long, 43 
 
 2 end sills, 2 by 8, 12 feet long, 32 
 
 2 plates, 2 by 4, 16 feet long, 22 
 
 11 joists, 16 inches apart, 2 by 8, 12 feet long, for floor, 176 
 
 72 studs, 2 by 4, 12 feet long, 576 
 11 collar-beams, 1|^ by 4, 12 feet long, to be nailed from the foot 
 
 of one rafter to another, 65 
 
 22 rafters, 2 by 4, 10 feet long, 147 
 
 Roof boards, floor and lining, or sheeting boards, 1,700 
 
 Amount of common lumber, 
 
 Computed at $2.50 per one hundred feet, the amount will be, 
 
 4,000 shingles, at $4 per 1,000, 
 
 20 lbs. shingle-nails, at 5 cents, 
 
 50 lbs. of ten-penny nails, 
 
 15 lbs. eight-penny nails, 
 
 1,000, feet of one-inch siding, planed on one side, at 3 cents per foot, 30 00 
 
 150 feet for doors, casings, verge-boards, corner-boards, facia, and 
 
 ridge-boards, 
 2 pairs of door-hinges, and two handles, latches and screws, 
 5 gallons of linseed oil, 
 50 lbs. of white lead, at 12^ cents per lb., 
 
 Amount carried forward, $135 97 
 
 21 
 
 2,751 
 
 $68 87 
 
 16 
 
 00 
 
 1 
 
 00 
 
 2 
 
 50 
 
 
 85 
 
 1,30 
 
 00 
 
 1 
 4 
 
 50 
 
 
 50 
 
 5 
 
 50 
 
 6 
 
 25 
 
$135 97 
 
 7 
 
 50 
 
 18 
 
 00 
 
 9 
 
 00 
 
 5 
 
 00 
 
 3 
 
 00 
 
 322 todd's countky homes. 
 
 Amount brought forward, 
 2^ days' painting, at $3 per day, 
 Joiners' work, 6 days, at $3 per day, 
 Helper, at $1.50 per day, 6 days, 
 2 barrels of cement, at $2.50 per barrel, 
 Mason work and tender, half a day. 
 
 Cash cost, $178 47 
 
 Erecting the Superstructure. — After the founda- 
 tion is completed, let the sills be halved together at the 
 corners, and thoroughly smeared on every side, and in 
 every joint, with a heavy coat of coal tar. Fasten the 
 corners with eight-penny nails. Now put the floor 
 joists in their places, with the ends resting entirely 
 across the top of the sills. The ends of the joists 
 should be sawed off square, just twelve feet long, and 
 secured to the sills by "toeing in" the nails, with the 
 ends flush with the outer edge of the sills. Every 
 part should be daubed with coal tar, a thick coat of 
 which should be applied to the lower ends of the studs, 
 and every piece of timber near the foundation. The 
 very ends and every joint should be so heavily smeared 
 as to exclude the water, which will often drip down on 
 the timbers, and hasten their decay, in a few years. 
 But fifty cents' worth of tar, properly applied, will 
 keep every stick sound for an age. The spaces be- 
 tween the joists at the ends, between the sills and the 
 floor, should now be filled with bricks, or pieces of 
 stone and mortar, even with the upper edge of the 
 joists. It would be -well, also, to support each joist at 
 the middle, with a pier of brick, or stone, as the super- 
 incumbent pressure, when the building is full of ice, 
 will be too great for the strength of such a system of 
 joists as I have indicated. 
 
ERECTING THE SJJPEESTRUCTURE. 323 
 
 Now let the floor be laid, and sawed off even with 
 the outer edge of the sills. Rough, unplaned and 
 knotty boards will answer for a floor, as it is not neces- 
 sary to have the edges well matched. Next, saw oflf 
 the ends of twenty-two studs, two by four, making them 
 exactly eleven feet and six inches long, for the outside 
 course. Plumb one at each corner, and fasten each one 
 wdth two stale afts. Let the intermediate studs be set 
 up, on the surface of the floor, directly over the joists 
 or sleepers and the lower ends secured by toeing in the 
 nails. Now nail on the lining or sheeting boards to 
 the inside of the studs, and set up the end studs of the 
 building, and cover the inside of these also with sheet- 
 ing, making a doorway at the middle of one end of the 
 building. The inside sheeting may consist of "cull 
 boards," of variable widths. A space should be left 
 below the plate, on both sides of the building, six 
 inches wide, for the purpose of complete ventilation. 
 The studs at the two ends of the building should ex- 
 tend to the rafters. Let the plates now be nailed to 
 the upper ends of the side studs, and let the rafters be 
 set up. The foot of each rafter should rest on the 
 plate directly over the stud beneath it. The collar 
 beams should next be nailed firmly to the foot of the 
 rafters, to keep the sides of the building from being 
 thrust outward, and also for holding the upper ends of 
 the inside course of studs, which are to be set up about 
 one foot from the outside course, nailed firmly at the 
 lower ends to the floor, and to the collar beams at the 
 upper ends. The inside course of studs should be 
 twelve feet long, in order to reach the collar beams. 
 The space between the two ranges of studs, after both 
 
324 todd's coui^trt homes. 
 
 are lined, is to be filled with sawdust, turners' chips, 
 tan-bark, fine charcoal, or wheat chaff, well trod down. 
 The filling should be put in as the lining on the inside 
 studs is nailed on. There should be two doors fitted to 
 the lower doorway, hung on hinges, and both open- 
 ing outward. The inner door, of course, must swing 
 against the jamb casing. 
 
 • Saying Ice without a House. ^Several Western 
 correspondents have described a very cheap mode of 
 keeping ice without any house, except a roof that will 
 not leak. Four posts are set in the ground, about 
 twelve feet apart, for supporting a roof, like the roof 
 of a hay barrack, twelve feet square. The roof may 
 be made of shingles, plastic-slate, or thatch. The roof 
 will constitute the principal expense. Then, a founda- 
 tion is made of rails, or poles laid crossways, which 
 are then covered with straw, two feet thick. Then 
 layer after layer of ice is piled up, kept in place by 
 stakes and boards. When the pile is completed straw 
 is stamped down around it, and a wall built probably 
 six or eight feet thick. The ice, it is stated, will keep 
 well through the summer. All the conditions of a good 
 ice-house are met — drainage, non-conducting walls, 
 and a slight degree of ventilation, or rather a change 
 of air through diffusion. In whatever way we meet 
 these conditions we shall succeed in keeping ice. The 
 most successful packers put a very thick mass of straw 
 at the bottom of their ice. The only apprehension I 
 entertain in regard to such a mode of keeping ice is, 
 the drainage will not be attended to, or the roof will 
 leak, or the sides will not be properly protected. Then, 
 how is one to get at the ice, from day to day? As 
 
HOW TO CONSTRUCT A LOG ICE-HOUSE. 325 
 
 soon as an opening is made oii one side, the ice will 
 waste away rapidly, as it will be difficult to close the 
 passage so as to exclude fresh air and heat. 
 
 Home-made Ice. — In many localities, there is not 
 even a small stream of water that may be dammed for 
 the purpose of making an ice-pond in cold weather, 
 within a distance of several miles. And even then, 
 those persons who might desire to have a supj)ly of 
 ice, might not be allowed the privilege of damming 
 the water. When water can be obtained from no 
 other source than from a well, set some boards on edge, 
 on a grass-plot, before snow has fallen, and before the 
 ground has frozen, enclosing a level plot, say sixteen 
 feet by thirty -two. Then, as soon as the ground has 
 become frozen, and there is a sprinkling of snow, let 
 water be pumped into the enclosure sufficient to cover 
 the surface of the ground, and let it freeze. Collect 
 a bushel or two of wet snow to pack along the lower 
 edge of the boards, and at the corners. Wet it, and 
 allow it to freeze, to render the reservoir water-tight. 
 In cold weather, ice could be made almost as fast as 
 the water could be drawn from a well. As soon as a 
 layer has been formed, cut a strip out of the middle, 
 so as not to disturb the side boards, remove the ice, 
 and proceed to make another batch. In case the level 
 plot were several yards from the well, the water could 
 be conducted in open board leaders, to the distance of 
 a hundred feet. After the grass has all been removed 
 with the ice, let a thin layer of clean hay, or straw be 
 spread over the ground, to prevent the ice from adher- 
 ing to the surface of the ground. 
 
 How TO Construct a I^og Ice-house. — Wherever 
 
326 todd's countey homes. 
 
 one can have access to the north side of a hill — the 
 steeper the better — an ice-house may be made very 
 much cheaper than to construct it of sawed timber and 
 boards above ground, by excavating a square hole of 
 the desired dimensions, and walling up the sides with 
 logs, or large and strong slabs. In some sections of 
 the country, where the earth is so porous that cellars 
 do not require draining, an ice-house is made in the 
 same manner, where the ground is level. The logs 
 may by fitted at the corners like the corners of a log- 
 house. It will be just as well, however, to miter the 
 ends, to prevent their falling inwards. A steep roof 
 may be made with round poles for rafters, having nar- 
 row strips running across the rafters, about one foot 
 apart, which may be covered with long straw, making 
 a thatched roof The sides should extend about two 
 feet above the surface of the ground ; and suitable eave- 
 troughs should be provided to carry all the water sev- 
 eral yards from the ice-house. To prevent mice from 
 working in the thatch, every corner of the straw should 
 be smeared with warm and thin tar, so that it will run 
 down among the straw, and render it so repulsive, that 
 mice and vermin of any kind will seek a refuge some- 
 where else. A liberal supply of straw is placed on the 
 inside between the logs and the ice, and also on the 
 bottom and top. This is a common practice of build- 
 ing ice-houses at the "West. And it is stated by those 
 who secure ice in them, that ice will keep satisfactorily 
 during the entire season. Such a house ten feet square 
 in the clear, would be sufficiently capacious for a large 
 family. Such a structure can be built with a very small 
 amount of labor and money. 
 
AN UNDER-GROUND ICE-HOUSE. 327 
 
 An Under-ground Ice-house. — The neatest and best 
 ice-house that I ever have met with, was built by a 
 friend of mine, in New Castle, N. Y., in the abutment 
 of his barn. (See abutment in glossary, and how to 
 make the arch for an ice-house, in such a place.) He 
 assures me that it is a satisfactory success. It is entirely 
 beneath the surface of the ground. Its dimensions are 
 fourteen feet square, from wall to wall, and twelve 
 feet high. The walls are stone. There is a partition 
 of chestnut boards, six inches from the walls, and the 
 space between, is filled with sawdust. The ice is not 
 packed close to this partition, but a space of six inches 
 is left all around, which is filled with sawTlust, as each 
 layer of ice is put in. The bottom of the ice-house is 
 grouted and cemented. The surface slopes to the cen- 
 ter, about six inches, where a lead tube is sunk in. the 
 cement, from whence a lead pipe, bent in the form of a 
 syphon, drains the water off. About nine inches above 
 the center of the cement floor, is another floor of rough 
 boards, on which is a covering of straw of four inches, 
 and on the straw is a layer of sawdust four inches 
 deep. The ice is placed directly on this sawdust. The 
 ventilation is through the door, about one foot below 
 the highest point of the arch. The size of the venti- 
 lator is nine by fifteen. There is no double door to the 
 vault proper, but the entrance is through a "cool-room," 
 which is doubly enclosed and filled in. The door of 
 this cool-room has a ventilator like that in the vault. 
 
CHAPTEE X. 
 
 GENEKAL FARMING OPERATIONS. 
 
 Large vs. Small Farms — Outfit of a Small Farm — Learning to be a 
 Farmer — A Renovating System — Under-draining — Thorough Tillage — 
 How to Plow Deep — Rotation — Beef, Pork and Mutton — Manure — 
 Culture of Wheat — Barley — Oats — Rye — Clover — How to Cultivate 
 them Successfully — Making Malt. 
 
 " The sire of gods and men, with hard decrees, 
 
 Forbids our plenty to be bought with ease ; 
 
 And wjf's, that mortal man, inured to toil. 
 
 Should exercise with pains, the grudging soil." — Drtden's Virgil. 
 
 Large versus Small Farms. — We read that five 
 acres are enough ; ten acres enough ; fifty acres enough ; 
 and one hundred acres enough, or too much, just as the 
 case may be. In one sense, such suggestions are stupid 
 nonsense. In another, they are sound sense. One 
 acre is enough for some men ; because they will not 
 half cultivate that small amount. And, for many 
 farmers, one hundred acres are not enough. If a man 
 has a capacity for a thorough-going and progressive 
 farmer, one hundred acres is scarcely sufficient for him. 
 There is no danger of having farms too large, provided 
 the land is thoroughly cultivated. When a man has" 
 five acres of land, and there are nooks here and strips 
 there which are not properly cultivated, five acres are 
 too much for him. A mere potato patch will not sub- 
 serve the purposes of a progressive farmer. He must 
 
LARGE VERSUS SMALL FARMS. 329 
 
 have breadth of land, according to his operations. 
 There must be grass land, grain land, and several acres 
 appropriated to fruit. I would not like to undertake 
 farming again on less than one hundred acres. And 
 if I were going to farm for profit, I would sooner have 
 more than one hundred acres than less. The great 
 trouble with American farmers is, they purchase more 
 land than they have means and capacity to cultivate in 
 a farmer-like and thorough manner. The first ques- 
 tion to be settled satisfactorily, when one is about to 
 engage in agricultural operations, is, how much land 
 can I manage with the means in my possession, culti- 
 vating every acre in the best manner ? A farmer can- 
 not manage a farm without capital. It will be the 
 hight of folly for him to invest most of his cash in land, 
 leaving half enough for working capital. If a man has 
 not money, he will find all his operations cramped ; his 
 improvements half completed, or not commenced ; his 
 soil not half renovated ; and everything will move 
 slowly and v^ry dissatisfactorily. The true way for a 
 beginner to do is, to first count the cost, and make an 
 estimate of his available means. A good team and a 
 full set of farm implements will be required on twenty 
 acres. The same appliances will be needed on a farm 
 of fifty, or of one hundred acres. Consequently, if a 
 man has the capacity to manage a farm of one hundred 
 acres, the expenses on a large farm will be proportion- 
 ally less than on a small one. If a man has means to 
 purchase one hundred acres, I would say, pay for fifty 
 acres, run in debt for the remainder, and employ an 
 abundance of capital to work with. Such a debt will 
 be an advantage to most men, as it will stimulate them 
 
330 todd's countky homes. 
 
 to carry out improvements and to practice economy. 
 But avoid small debts. They are the bane of a man's 
 happiness. A man should not attempt to engage in 
 aoricultural operations until he is in possession of suf- 
 ficient means to perform whatever needs to be done, in 
 a proper manner and at the most desirable period in 
 the growing season. 
 The Outfit of a Small Farm. — 
 
 " a pitchfork, a dungfork, a sieve, skep and bin ; 
 A broom and a pail to put water therein ; 
 A hand-barrow, wheel-barrow, shovel and spade, 
 A curry-comb, mane-comb, and whip for a jade." — Tom Tusser. 
 
 In order to give beginners a rough estimate touching 
 the necessary appliances of even a small farm, I here- 
 with indicate about what will be required. In many 
 sections of the country, some of the following articles 
 may be obtained for less than I have indicated. 
 A span of horses and harness, $300 
 Lumber wagon, 1^" 
 One plow, ^^ 
 One harrow, .^^ 
 Land roller, ^ ^^ 
 Grain drill and seed sower, 80 
 Mower and reaper, 130 
 Two shovels, a spade and fork, 5 
 Crowbar, pick and ax, ' 
 Hay-forks, rake, cradles and scythes, 20 
 Horse-rake (revolving,) ^ 
 Hand-hoes and potato digger, 12 
 Horse-hoe, . 
 Light wagon, $150, buggy, $100, 250 
 Light harness, horse blankets, etc., 50 
 Saws, brace and bits, and other edge tools, 20 
 Fodder cutter, 25 
 Fanning-mill, 30 
 
 Amount carried forward, $1,166 
 
LEAENING TO BE A FARMER. 331 
 
 Amount brought forward, 
 
 $1,166 
 
 Scoop shovel, grain measures, bags and sieve, 
 
 20 
 
 Lumber sleigh, 
 
 30 
 
 Appliances not enumerated, 
 
 20 
 
 Aggregate amount, 
 
 $1,236 
 
 There will be many other articles required which 
 will cost money. I have not enumerated a cow, 
 pigs, poultry, water-pails, grindstone and many kinds 
 of machinery which a farmer really needs. But, an 
 intelligent beginner will be able, with these sugges- 
 tions, to make a more complete list. Over and above 
 the money required for the foregoing articles, a great 
 many dollars will be required to defray the small daily 
 expenses. 
 
 Learning to be a Farmer. — Many young men 
 commence farming operations with no more of a cor- 
 rect understanding of the requirements of the farm 
 and the farmer than a young backwoods gardener pos- 
 sesses of business tact, skill and experience requisite to 
 manage a large dry-goods store in a populous city. 
 The never-ending drudgery, the endless details and 
 ever-changing operations connected with the cultiva- 
 tion of the soil, even on a small farm, have never made 
 the first impressions on many beginners, until they 
 have really commenced exercising themselves in plan- 
 ning and trying to execute. The details of agriculture 
 are so numerous and varied that a young man needs 
 the advantage of several years' practice, with an in- 
 telligent tiller of the soil, who understands how to man- 
 age every department with satisfactory skill. Many 
 young men make a serious mistake in attempting to 
 supervise the operations of a farm before they have 
 
332 todd's countky homes. 
 
 any correct conceptions of the business. There is 
 science in everything connected with the farm. When 
 a young man is about to commence any enterprise on 
 the farm, whether it be raising stock or growing grain, 
 it i| highly important that he should have such an un- 
 derstanding of his business that, so far as human agency 
 is concerned, his arrangements will not prove to be 
 failures. 
 
 The question then arises, what can be done to enable 
 the enthusiastic beginner to commence right? We 
 answer : He must first serve a faithful apprenticeship 
 with some thorough-going, practical man, who will im- 
 part the desired instruction to a beginner, and thus en- 
 able him to obtain a fair idea of the details of the 
 business in which he is about to engage. If a young 
 man does not understand how to handle farm imple- 
 ments and tools, the very best course he can pursue 
 will be to serve an entire season with a farmer who can 
 and will teach him how to handle a plow, horse, hoe, 
 mower, scythe, fork and cradle as skillfully as a good 
 chopper can swing his ax. One year served in this 
 manner will be of incalculable value to a beginner, as 
 a farmer must be familiar with the use of tools, or he 
 can never succeed in his employment. Young men 
 who are engaged in other professions, are required to 
 learn the trade, before they can expect to ^ supervise 
 any employment. No other occupation needs a more 
 thorough preparation, than the profession of farming. 
 Boys and young men, are required to labor for several 
 years, receiving a compensation by no means sufficient 
 to pay their board. If farmers were trained in this 
 manner, our country would be the glory of the earth. 
 
EENOVATING THE SOIL. 333 
 
 in horticultural and agricultural beauty. But, owing 
 to the perfunctory manner of not training young farm- 
 ers, our agriculture and horticulture seem like dis- 
 figuring blotches — a reproach to such a nation and 
 government as ours. 
 
 A Renovating System. — When a person commences 
 agricultural or horticultural operations, his highest aim 
 should be to maintain the fertility of his land, whether 
 he produces fair crops or not. The operation will 
 necessarily involve rearing and feeding of mutton sheep 
 or beef cattle, or both, thus consuming the larger pro- 
 portion of the products of the farm, and returning to 
 the hungry soil, in the form of excellent manure, a fair 
 equivalent for the crops removed. It is a noble em- 
 ployment to inaugurate and to carry out such a system 
 of farm management as will make two kernels of grain 
 grow where now we see but one, and two spires of grass, 
 or two tons of superior hay, where only one has ap- 
 peared from year to year. The task is eminently prac- 
 ticable. No more teams for labor will be required to 
 accomplish a result so transcendently desirable. The 
 Great Creator requires restitution to the impoverished 
 soil, in the form of fertilizers, which shall be a fair 
 equivalent for the bountiful crops which have been 
 removed from year to year. Our young farmers should 
 aim to shun this unwise and ruinous system of man- 
 agement, by commencing at once a renovating system 
 of agriculture in the cultivation of the soil. Retro- 
 gressive agriculture was an illustrious error of many of 
 our fathers. But, for want of a progressive system of 
 agriculture, the fertility of the virgin soil soon became 
 almost barren. This is the great fault of American 
 
334 todd's countey homes. 
 
 agriculture, more particularly in Western and Southern 
 States. The fertile prairies of Illinois and other local- 
 ities seldom yield as bountiful crops, after having been 
 cultivated a few seasons, as were grown during the 
 first few seasons after the soil was broken up. And the 
 same is true of the land in the best wheat-growing re- 
 gions of New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and other 
 wheat districts. In some instances, the failure is at- 
 tributable to local causes, such as an excess of water in 
 the soil. Yet, as a general rule, the prime and funda- 
 mental cause is to be found in the system of manage- 
 ment, which is retrogressive, instead of progressive. 
 Our most productive soils, by an injudicious system of 
 management, may be depleted in a few seasons to such 
 an extent that they will not yield crops of sufficient 
 value to cancel the expense of cultivation. But, by 
 proper cultivation, crops may be produced, every sea- 
 son, a little more abundant, until the highest maxi- 
 mum product has been reached. 
 Undee-deaining wet land. — 
 
 " Each bog and marsh industriously drain, 
 I Nor let vile bogs deface the beauteous plain." 
 
 When to drain land, and when not to drain it can be 
 determined only by the careful observation of a person 
 who possesses extensive experience in this matter. In 
 numerous instances, nature has made all necessary pro- 
 visions for conveying away the surplus water at all sea- 
 sons of the year. On the contrary, where the subsoil is 
 so compact that the pores of the surface soil will continue 
 filled with water for several days after a heavy rain, the 
 evidence will be conclusive that a regular system of 
 under- draining would be a valuable improvement in the 
 management of that land. When cultivable fields seem 
 
UNDER-DRAINING WET LAND. 335 
 
 to be a long time in becoming sufficiently dry to plow, 
 or to be worked, it is a certain evidence that the soil 
 can never be cultivated with satisfactory profit until all 
 the surplus water can be readily collected and conveyed 
 away in under-drains. There need be no apprehen- 
 sions that any injury will ever arise in consequence of 
 making a drain where one was not needed, as no drain 
 can draw away any water from the surface soil that is 
 really required to promote the growth of plants. The 
 soil will retain, by capillary attraction, all the moisture 
 that the roots of plants require, were under-drains made 
 ten feet apart, over the entire field. When water will 
 stand in depressions so long, that it drowns the soil by 
 saturating every particle so thoroughly that the parts 
 flow together like mortar, under-drains will be found 
 of great advantage. The philosophy of introducing 
 a system of thorough under-draining — having drains 
 about thirty or forty feet apart, like the bars of a grid- 
 iron, over the entire field — is to cut off the water-veins 
 that extend through the entire subsoil. 
 
 Water passes through the soil and flows through the 
 earth very much as the blood finds its way through the 
 body of a living animal. There are water-veins, of 
 numerous sizes, passing through and through the entire 
 substratum of the earth, where it is at all compact, which 
 convey and retain the water as blood is conveyed from 
 one part of the body to another. In many instances, 
 these water-veins seem like a water-tight tube passing 
 through the earth, supplied with water from a source 
 much higher than the outlet, or the place where the 
 vein is tapped. When water- veins crop out at the sur- 
 face of the ground, the water continues to percolate 
 
336 todd's country homes. 
 
 through the surface soil, until every pore is completely 
 filled, thus causing a wet soil — quite too wet for agri- 
 cultural purposes. The philosophy of under-draining 
 is, therefore, to check this excess of water, so as to 
 allow the pores of the soil to be filled with air instead 
 of water. The object, in practice, is to cut off the 
 water- veins by a ditch, thus allowing the water to flow 
 into an under-drain and be conveyed away, instead of 
 working its way along until it reaches the surface of 
 the ground. In many instances, numerous water-veins 
 run nearly parallel with the surface of the soil, and 
 they are filled only by water that percolates slowly 
 through the surface soil into them. This is the case 
 where the substratum is very heavy and compact. 
 Small veins empty their contents into large ones, and 
 the supply of the very small veins is derived from the 
 pores of the surface soil, and also of the substratum. 
 Of course, if the veins are not full of water, when there 
 is an excess in the pores, it will readily find its way 
 into them. 
 
 The proper depth of Deahsts. — In many locali- 
 ties, where under-drains are required, a drain may be 
 made four feet in depth, and be no more effectual in 
 conveying away the excess of water, than if the depth 
 had been only thirty inches. For example, if most of 
 the water-veins were about two feet beneath the sur- 
 face, a drain thirty inches deep would collect all the 
 surplus water quite as effectually as if the same drain 
 had been sunk to the expensive depth of four feet. On 
 the contrary, if the water-veins were over thirty inches 
 below the surface of the ground, the bottom of the drain 
 should be made a few inches below the point where 
 
THOROUGH TILLAGE. 337 
 
 the veins are cut oif. Therefore we have this rule for 
 determining the correct depth for making under- 
 drains in any locality, namely, a depth of thirty inches, 
 always, if it is practicable to sink drains to such a 
 depth and have the advantage of sujfficient fall to carry 
 off the water ; and deei^er than thirty inches, if the wa- 
 ter-veins are not reached. In many instances, the first 
 system of water- veins lies fully three feet from the sur- 
 face of the land. When such is the case, the ditches 
 should be made fully three feet and one-half in depth. 
 The digger can determine in many instances, whether 
 there is really a necessity for sinking a ditch deeper, 
 by observing from whence most of the water comes. 
 If the water continues to bubble up in the bottom of 
 the ditch, while only a limited amount issues from the 
 sides, the depth should be increased, unless the ditch 
 has already been sunk over three feet. After a water- 
 vein has once been cut off, the water issuing from it 
 will, ever afterward, find a ready j^assage, and keep it 
 open to the bottom of the drain, so long as the channel 
 remains open, for the water to flow away. For a 
 more complete chapter on draining, see Todd's Young 
 Farmers' Manual. 
 
 Thorough Tillage. — This term embraces thorough 
 under-draining, complete pulverization, either by plow- 
 ing, harrowing, cultivating, hoeing, rolling, manuring, 
 and exterminating noxious weeds. Thorough tillage 
 lies at the foundation of successful and progressive agri- 
 culture. American farmers are beginning to wake uj) 
 to the eminent importance of saving, with greater care, 
 and applying a larger quantity of manure to their culti- 
 vable fields. Indeed, our most thrifty and successful 
 
 22 
 
338 TODD S COUNTRY HOMES. 
 
 tillers of the soil are not at all satisfied with their man- 
 agement, unless they can give every field and plot of 
 tilled land, a dressing of some kind of fertilizing mate- 
 rial, as often as once in three or four years, at the 
 longest interval, between the periods of manuring. 
 Many are not satisfied unless they can apply a light 
 dressing eyer?/ season, as they find it a paying system 
 of management. This principle of compensation — of 
 rendering an equivalent in manurial material for a 
 bountiful crop removed — cannot be ignored, except at 
 the peril of the fertility of the soil, inferior crops, and 
 a consequent loss in profits. We have deep tillage and 
 shalloiD tillage. The beginner should understand the 
 character of his soil so well, that he will not make the 
 egregious mistake that many enthusiastic farmers fall 
 into, of plowing all kinds of land as deep as the soil 
 can be worked. Where there is a fertile subsoil, and one 
 can thrust a spade down into it, with ease, at almost 
 any season of the year, there will be no advantage in 
 subsoiling such ground. But, where the substratum is 
 compact, it should be broken up. Sometimes it will be 
 best to turn the subsoil to the surface. But, in most 
 instances, it will be found far better to keep the thin 
 layer of mould at the surface, and pulverize the sub- 
 soil, keeping it in its proper place — beneath the surface 
 soil. Sometimes the substratum is more fertile than 
 the surface soil. When such is the case, put in the 
 plow-beam deep. Beginners must study the character 
 of their soil, and determine for themselves when to plow 
 deep, and when not to plow deep. There is one point 
 that will always be found entirely reliable, under all 
 circumstances, and beginners need never be in doubt 
 
now TO PLOW DEEP. 339 
 
 about it. If the entire stratum that is worked bv the 
 plow be properly fertilized with manurial material, the 
 deeper the plow is driven, the better. If manure can 
 be applied in sufficient abundance to fertilize a depth 
 of two feet, let the ground be worked at that depth, 
 whatever the character of the soil may be, provided 
 expense is no object. It might pay to till a soil two 
 feet deep, and it might not. 
 
 How TO Plow Deep. — When a tiller of the soil 
 has only a single team, he is often j^nzzled to devise 
 some practicable Avay of working his land deeper than 
 usual with one team. As a great many ploM^s are cal- 
 culated to run only four or five inches deep, they can- 
 not be made to work at all satisfactorily, when they 
 are adjusted to run ten inches in depth. Therefore, 
 the first important consideration is to obtain a plow 
 that has been formed with a direct reference to deep til- 
 lage. When a plow is correctly adjusted, and the team 
 hitched to it, with the proper length of traces or chain, 
 if the various parts have been constructed in accord- 
 ance with correct mechanical principles, the implement 
 will run alone, where there are no obstructions, and 
 maintain its correct position. In a trial at New Haven, 
 made with one of the conical plows, after having adjusted 
 the traces, clevis and gauge wheel, I let the plow run 
 without holding, and those present will testify that we 
 plowed eight times around the land, without my touch- 
 ing the handles except at the ends, when turning 
 around. This fact will show to beginners that if their 
 plows do not glide along easily, like a canoe over the 
 water, they are not properly adjusted, or the parts are 
 not all correctly constructed. When adjusting a com- 
 
340 todd's country homes. 
 
 mon plow for deep work, with a single team, the better 
 way is to cut narrow furrow slices, letting the imple- 
 ment run at the desired doptli, rather than attempt to 
 plow two or three times in the same place to pulverize 
 a foot deep. When a "■deep-tiller" plow is adjusted to 
 run a foot in depth, a single team may draw it, even 
 in compact land, provided the whiffletrees or the ox- 
 yoke be so short that the plow will run naturally, with- 
 out any laborious effort of the plowman to keep it 
 erect, and cut a slice four or five inches in breadth. In 
 order to do this, the ox-yoke must be as short as it can 
 be, and allow the oxen to stand straight, side by side; 
 and the whiffletrees should not be more than- twenty- 
 two inches in length. When plowing deep in this man- 
 ner, I have been accustomed to use a double whilUetree, 
 only twenty-one inches in length from the middle of 
 one single-tree to the other. By this means, it was 
 easy to adjust the plow to cut only a very narrow fur- 
 row slice. By adjusting a plow to cut only a few 
 inches in width, the pulverizing will be as complete as 
 by a thorough spading. Of course, it will be under- 
 stood, that sod ground cannot be plowed with such nar- 
 row furrow slices, when it is desirable to turn the sod 
 under. Another important consideration is a sharp 
 plow point with a fin-cutter. Or a sharp coulter may 
 be employed to cut the furrow slice loose. A sharp 
 coulter, correctly adjusted, or a sharp fm-cutter on the 
 plowshare, will often reduce the draught of the plow 
 from twenty to forty per cent. 
 
 My own practice, when flirming, has been, to pur- 
 chase a yoke of good oxen, when there was deep 
 plowing to be performed, and hitch a yoke of oxen, 
 
now TO PLOW DEEP. 341 
 
 and span of horses before a " deep tiller " plow, ad- 
 just it to run about twelve or fourteen inches deep, 
 and to cut a furrow slice eight to ten inches wide. T 
 did all my own deep plowing in this manner, with- 
 out a driver. Indeed, I did not need a driver, as I 
 could always manage my own team, while holding the 
 plow, far more satisfactorily than any driver. Be- 
 sides this, those were my fat oxen, and a driver would 
 fret and worry off more fat than the animals would 
 secrete, and plow no more than I did. But, as I man- 
 aged them, every member of the team would press 
 gently and powerfully into the work, without any 
 worrying or fretting. And the heavy oxen would 
 waddle along, chewing their cuds, as they went. About 
 half the time, the oxen seemed to be as stupid as when 
 they were lying in the shade, enjoying rumination and 
 quiet rest. And yet, my rule was to plow half an 
 acre in half a day. Then, let the team rest. This was 
 far better for them than to plow a large day's work, 
 in one day, and lie idle for three days. After that 
 team and plow had finished a field, the ground teas 
 l)lowed. No part of it was "hogged over." If a 
 stone lifted the ^^^ivf out of the ground, the team 
 was backed up, and the plow w^as set in again. I 
 usually did most of my deep plowing in late autumn. 
 On one occasion, when snow was over four inches deep, 
 my daily task was to speed the plow, in a heavy soil, 
 twelve inches deep, through a strip of clover-sod, then 
 a plot of stiff Kentucky blue grass-sod, and at last 
 another plot of oats-stubble. Almost every farmer that 
 passed along the street, would leave his team and travel 
 once or twice abound with me, to see how smoothly 
 
342 todd's country homes. 
 
 everything moved, and how thoroughly — like the finest 
 spading — every square yard was broken up and pul- 
 verized. It was just as easy to plow in that thorough 
 manner, as to do it carelessly. 
 
 Rigging a Double Team.— The illustration of an 
 ox-yoke shown in this connection, with a strip of board 
 
 about one foot long, 
 having two holes near 
 the upper end, through 
 which the lines of the 
 horses played, repre- 
 sents the convenient 
 arrangement I employed when plowing alone, with a 
 double team, to keep the lines above the horns of the 
 oxen. And even when a driver travels by the side of 
 his oxen, he will find such an appliance a desirable aid 
 for keeping the lines above the horns of the oxen. 
 
 Maintaining the Fertility of the Soil. — When 
 crops are carried off a field, and nothing returned to it, 
 the soil will be impoverished. But, if the refuse prod- 
 ucts of that field are carefully husbanded, and judi- 
 ciously applied- to some other field on the farm, the 
 farm will not be impoverished, as it would be, if every- 
 thing were carried off, and nothing returned to the soil. 
 That system of husbandry, which does not tend to ren- 
 der a farm more valuable and productive, from year to 
 year, until it produces as large crops as any soil is ca- 
 pable of producing, is decidedly objectionable. When 
 a soil is well cultivated by thorough pulverization, and 
 everything that grows on it is returned to it, or allowed 
 to decay, the soil will become more and more fertile. 
 It cannot be expected that a field will produce, from 
 
FEKTILITY OF THE SOIL. 343 
 
 year to year, an increased number of bushels of grain, 
 when nothing but the bare straw is returned to it, after 
 it has been fed to stock, and a most valuable jDortion of 
 it is lost by evaporation or by leaching. Large quan- 
 tities of the very heart of the soil are carried off in the 
 grain, in the butter and cheese, beef, pork, mutton and 
 poultry which are produced on the farm, an equivalent 
 for which substances is never returned again to the soil. 
 Now then, the idea is, how shall the young farmer 
 be able to keep his farm in a high state of fertility, 
 so as to produce a little better crops, each year, when 
 he is constantly carrying off the very best qualities of 
 the soil ? In order to keep a soil good, and to increase 
 its fertility, and have it produce a crop every season, 
 the greatest care must be exercised in saving all that 
 grows on a field, and returning to the soil, in the shape 
 of manure, an equivalent for what has been carried off. 
 How much will a large stack of straw enrich a field, 
 when it is allowed to remain in one place, undisturbed, 
 until it has decayed. Thousands of farmers dispose of 
 their straw in this manner, and then complain that 
 "farming does not pay," and that their "crops are not 
 as good as they were years ago." The motto of every 
 successful farmer must be, " Let nothing be wasted that 
 will make manure, and let no manure be wasted," and 
 he must make it a rule to manure every field, for every 
 crop of Indian corn and for every crop of wheat, where 
 such grain is grown, either with barn-j^ard manure, clo- 
 ver, maize, guano poudrette, or some other fertilizer 
 that will be an equivalent for what has been removed 
 from the soil, in previous crops. If a crop of hay is 
 sold from the farm,- a farmer should calculate to pur- 
 
344 todd's country homes. 
 
 chase a lot of ashes, gypsum, bone dust, or coarse ma- 
 nure, or to collect sods, muck, marl, peat, or something 
 that will return to the soil, from which the hay had 
 been taken, an equivalent for it. As much coarse grain 
 should be ground and fed to stock on the farm as pos- 
 sible, in order to make a rich manure, for keeping the 
 soil in a good state of fertility. The flesh, blood and 
 bones of fat swine and bullocks have been produced 
 from the very cream of the soil. Now, in order to re- 
 turn an equivalent to the soil, the bones from the 
 kitchen shoidd not be carelessly thrown away, but care- 
 fully saved and ground or dissolved, to be returned to 
 the soil. On many farms, some of the fields are very 
 liable to be flooded, and large quantities of the soil 
 washed away. In such instances, places should be ex- 
 cavated, into .which the soil may be carried by the 
 water, where it will be retained, when it may be hauled 
 back on the less fertile portions of the field. The aim 
 should be to keep the soil good, rather than to test its 
 greatest productiveness. My aim always was, when 
 engaged in farming, to render my soil more fertile, 
 rather than to produce large crops, and I am confident 
 that I could perceive, every year, that my crops of all 
 kinds, were a little better than those of the previous 
 year. If I did not raise a crop of grain on a certain 
 field every season, clover or maize was plowed under. 
 There was no loss ultimately. 
 
 Farmers who are accustomed to keep droves of sheep 
 or neat cattle, should manage to have each animal leave 
 manure enough on the field during the night, to pro- 
 duce as much hay or grass as it consumed. This may 
 be done by imitating the example of a thrifty farmer, 
 
EOTATION OF CROPS. 345 
 
 who would never keep a drove over night unless the 
 owner would make every anmial, if it was " lying 
 down/' get up and move about an hour before the 
 drove was taken from the field. Every observing 
 farmer knows that when animals rise in the morning;, 
 after having lain all night, they pour out a huge quan- 
 tity of fecal matter. Tillers of the soil who are accus- 
 tomed to make much beef and mutton, if they do not 
 allow their animals to run in " the long enclosure," 
 which extends from Maine to Florida, if they save the 
 manure, and apply it judiciously, drain their fields as 
 they should be, and cultivate them well, never fail to 
 raise bountiful crops. 
 
 EoTATioN^ Of Crops. — All cultivable land, even to 
 the vegetable garden, should be tilled in accordance 
 with some good rotation system. There are so many 
 kinds of crops, that one can select a few, which will 
 be well adapted to the quality of the land. In case 
 manure is scarce, a crop of clover, or Indian corn 
 should be plowed in, at least once in four years. Fields 
 should be laid out in equal plots, to facilitate a rotation 
 system. Systems of rotation must vary according to 
 the nature of the soil in different regions of country, 
 the amount and kind of manure at command, the clean- 
 ness of the land, the nature of the market, and the 
 proper distribution of labor. A very common rotation 
 consists of a crop of Indian corn, with a liberal dress- 
 ing of barn-yard manure, with clean cultivation. -The 
 second year, a crop of barley. After the barley has 
 been removed, plow twice, and drill in winter wheat, 
 with a top dressing of good compost ; seed with timothy 
 in September, or with red clover in the next spring ; 
 
346 todd's country homes. 
 
 and then, mow the grass the first year, plow the clover in 
 or pasture it. The next year commence with Indian 
 corn again. Wherever this system is adopted, the soil 
 will be kept good, and, fair crops will always be pro- 
 duced. Another rotation is, first year, wheat after clo- 
 ver. Second year, corn, potatoes and ruta bagas, with 
 all the manure made that year. Third year, barley. 
 Fourth year, wheat, seeded with clover. Fifth year, clo- 
 ver, pastured. On many farms, beans, peas, broom- 
 corn, or flax may be cultivated with good satisfaction. 
 Rye is also an excellent crop to raise in rotation. 
 Every farmer should choose a system of rotation to 
 suit his locality and soil. In case one, or two, or three 
 kinds of cereal grain have been raised for many years 
 in succession, so that the soil has been badly impover- 
 ished, it will be well to raise grass and clover for three 
 or four seasons, either for hay, or pasture. By this 
 means, land will have time to improve by resting. 
 
 Making Beef, Mutton and Pork. — One of the 
 most effectual ways of maintaining the fertility of any 
 soil is, by feeding beef cattle, sheep and swine, making 
 large quantities of rich manure, and applying it to the 
 land before the manure has lost a large proportion of 
 its fertilizing properties. This system of management 
 will involve, to a certain extent, a system of mixed 
 husbandry. There is no better and no more economi- 
 cal way of keeping land rich and producing bountiful 
 crops, than by feeding stock in sufficient numbers, to 
 consume a large proportion of the coarse grain that is 
 produced on the farm. If a farmer is a judicious man- 
 ager, he will find it more profitable to feed out his 
 coarse grain, then to sell it. One great source of jDrofit 
 
CONSTRUCTION OF OUTHOUSES. 347 
 
 will be found in the rich manure made by fattening 
 animals. Stock that subsist largely on grain or meal, 
 will make manure far richer in grain-producing mate- 
 rial, than if they were kept on straw, or hay, without 
 grain. But, a man must understand the art of feeding 
 animals, or he may as well cast his meal into the ma- 
 nure yard. If, by feeding one hundred bushels of 
 coarse grain to fattening stock, one can realize barely 
 the market price for the feed, if he will take proper 
 care of the manure, and apply it, judiciously, his main 
 profits in feeding stock, will appear in the increased 
 yield of the succeeding crops. 
 
 My practice, for several years was, to feed out all my 
 coarse grain to sheep or steers. And, in some instances, 
 I purchased oil meal and Indian corn, after my own 
 grain was consumed. The manure was housed with 
 care, and applied to the soil. After a crop of clover 
 had been plowed in, and a dressing of rich manure ap- 
 plied, the following season, I was surprised to see how 
 rapidly an impoverished soil could be renovated. By 
 this system of management, I more than doubled the 
 product of my fields in six years. 
 
 Construction of Outhouses. — The illustration on 
 page 348, represents a poudrette manufactory. The 
 object of such a building, is to show how to collect and 
 save valuable fertilizing material. Four posts of du- 
 rable timber, set in the ground three feet, will subserve 
 the purpose of brick pillars. The superstructure should 
 be of convenient size, with two apartments, with a 
 trelHs fence between the doors, covered with grape- 
 vines, for the purpose of obstructing the view and 
 forming a secluded entrance to the doorways. 
 
348 
 
 todd's country homes. 
 
 There are two ways of building such a superstruct- 
 ure, one of which is to set up studs between the plates 
 and sills, cover the outside with clapboards and lath, 
 and plaster the interior ; and the other way is, to nail 
 matched boards to the sills and plates, paint the outside. 
 
 PERSPECTIVE OF A POUDRETTE MANUFACTORY. 
 
 and paper the inside. The sink beneath should be 
 made w^ater-tight, the corners iron-bound, and a few 
 rollers, like pieces of broom-handles, placed beneath 
 the sink, to facilitate drawing it out, when the contents 
 are to be removed. 
 
 A vault below the surface of the ground should 
 never be made for a privy. The accumulations, if 
 properly saved and applied to the soil, will be worth, 
 for increasing the product of wheat, or any other grain, 
 as much as the flour of which bread is made for every 
 individual. Indeed, were the daily accumulations of a 
 privy carefully compos.ted, and applied to the land, for 
 growing wheat, it would be seen that we are accus- 
 tomed to waste enougli of the best quality of fertiliz- 
 ing material to produce our bread from year to year. 
 
THE CULTURE OF WHEAT. 349 
 
 THE CULTIVATION OF WHEAT. 
 
 " In the rich soil, dear wheat we sow ; 
 Out of the soil, fine wheat we grow ; 
 In measureless store, we garner the sheaves, 
 When the kernels are ripe and dry the leaves ; 
 Out of the sheaves, pure wheat we beat ; 
 Out of the chaff, we winnow the wheat." — Edwards. 
 
 Botanically speaking, wheat is properly one of the 
 grasses. Winter-wheat is denominated Tinticiun liy- 
 hernum. And spring-wheat JVi^ict^m^s^irw??!. As the 
 subject of wheat culture in all its phases would be 
 sufficient for a large book, my notes on wheat in this 
 volume must be comparatively brief. 
 
 The j)i'oduction of a crop of fine wheat on most 
 kinds of land, will depend almost entirely on the skill 
 and management of the tiller of the soil. With bad 
 management, such as most of our wheat-fields receive, 
 the culture of this cereal will scarcely return the ex- 
 pense incurred in putting in the seed and harvesting 
 the crop. There is no sufficient reason why the culti- 
 vable land of America, which once yielded bountiful 
 crops of fine wheat, should not now produce as heavy 
 yields of grain as is grown in the Old World. Our 
 climate is well adapted to the production of wheat ; 
 the seasons are eminently favorable ; and the soil, 
 wherever it has not been impoverished by a ruinous sys- 
 tem of management, will not fail to produce good pay- 
 ing crops of grain. Wheat has been allowed to degen- 
 erate by bad management. Excellent varieties of 
 wheat have not been kept pure. Growing wheat will 
 mix about as readily as Indian corn. As proper care 
 has not been exercised to maintain the purity of a good 
 
350 
 
 TODD S COUNTEY HOMES. 
 
 variety, the seed has soon degenerated to such an ex- 
 tent, that the identity of the large and 
 plump kernels could not be recognized 
 after a few seasons. The best sorts have 
 been allowed to degenerate by injudicious 
 management, until the belief has become 
 prevalent, that wheat must necessarily 
 degenerate ; because every known vari- 
 ety, which was originated at large ex- 
 pense, and which was cultivated with 
 much care for several seasons, has failed. 
 This fact cannot be denied. The excel- 
 lent Treadwell wheat, the far-famed 
 Soules wheat, the prolific Weeks variety, 
 the old Red-chaJBf bald wheat, and many 
 other varieties that were once highly 
 esteemed as the most desirable kinds of 
 grain that could be cultivated, have wo- 
 fully deteriorated. 
 
 This mischief can be removed by a 
 careful system in gathering seed-grain. 
 The well marked and most valuable 
 varieties must be kept apart, and the 
 best of each field gathered for seed the 
 following year. The choice varieties 
 were originated in this way, and the 
 purity of the seed must be maintained 
 by a similar system. 
 
 Another consideration has dissuaded 
 
 many farmers from attempting to pro- 
 it HEAD OF IM- p 1 i il 1 J. 
 
 PROVED WHEAT, ducc a crop 01 wheat — the character 
 of the soil. The frequent plea is, "My soil is not 
 
THE CULTUKE OF WHEAT. 351 
 
 adapted to the production of this kind of grain, whether 
 the seed be sown in autumn or in the sjDring." One 
 farmer contends that it will be of no avail to attempt 
 to raise wheat without a calcareous clay soil. Another 
 must have an argillaceous soil. And still another, who 
 has a soil that will yield, with proper management, fifty 
 bushels of prime wheat per acre, has no confidence in 
 any efforts to produce a crop of wheat, simply because, 
 as he thinks, the soil is not as it should be. There are 
 other considerations affecting the cultivation of wheat 
 unfavorably, one of which I may mention, namely, the 
 prevalence of weeds where the wheat-plants are to 
 grow. Growing wheat-plants cannot cope with hardy 
 and noxious weeds of any kind. Grass, when growing 
 among wheat, is one of the most pernicious weeds of a 
 cultivated field. Wheat will not flourish unless the 
 growing plants can bear undisputed sway as far as their 
 leaves and roots extend. Every other plant that sends 
 out its roots and spreads its leaves and branches near 
 the wheat-plant is a formidable enemy. Some plants 
 are gross feeders; they will flourish wherever the roots 
 can obtain a foot-hold. The thousand mouths that the 
 roots send out will subsist on any coarse and raw ma- 
 terial that may be found in the soil. On the contrary, 
 the wheat-plant is a delicate feeder. Its fastidious 
 roots search for the dainty bits of j)hosphoric acid, 
 nitrogenous matter, aluminous particles, and silicate of 
 potash that exist, in very limited quantities, in most 
 kinds of land. If these are not to be found, the root- 
 lets will not prepare their pabulum from the coarse 
 material. Red clover or the Kentucky blue grass are 
 both such gross feeders that their roots will plow, 
 
352 todd's countet homes. 
 
 subsoilj scarify, and work over rough and coarse earth, 
 changing it into a fine garden-mould, which is excellent 
 food for other plants. But the wheat-plant must have 
 its nourishment provided in proper abundance, and in 
 the exact condition required bj its roots. There is not 
 so much depending on the quality of the soil as upon 
 the management of the faiTiier. A good clay loam 
 holds the first position as a soil for wheat. Then excel- 
 lent crops of this grain can be produced where silicious 
 sand predominates in the soil. A heavy clay soil is 
 better for wheat than a light sandy loam, or a mucky 
 soil. Wheat requires a liberal proportion of aluminous 
 matter. Then, in order to meet the requirements of 
 the growing plants, they must be supplied with silicious 
 material. Still another ingredient is potash, found 
 in wood-ashes. Wheat-plants must have a bountiful 
 supply of silicate of potash to give stiffness to the 
 straw. Otherwise, driving storms will prostrate the 
 heavy stems, and prevent the ears from filling with 
 grain. When there is a bountiful supply of silicate of 
 potash in the soil, the stems of growing wheat will be 
 covered with a bright, glassy film, which will not only 
 stiffen the straw, but will fortify the grain against the 
 pernicious effects of rust and mildew. 
 
 The question then recurs, how may a tiller of the 
 soil succeed in raising a good crop of this grain? The 
 first important step will be to relieve the soil of exces- 
 sive moisture, where the land is at all inclined to be 
 wet. Nature has made ample provision for the drain- 
 age of some sections of the country ; while in other 
 localities, even where the land is cultivated from year 
 to year, the soil is quite too wet for wheat. Another 
 
THE CULTURE OF WHEAT. 353 
 
 requisite of prime importance is, the improvement of 
 the seed. The farmers of our country can never raise 
 good crops of this or any other cereal, until the seed 
 has been saved with great care, from year to year, for 
 many successive seasons, just as we save the seed of 
 Indian corn. With the imperfect cultivation that our 
 wheat now "beceives, if the seed were improved as seed- 
 wheat may be, by careful selection, for a few successive 
 seasons, the wheat crop would be increased fully one- 
 third. Wheat requires a system of thorough and pro- 
 gressive agriculture. The wheat-plant is a delicate and 
 dainty feeder; the roots will not feed on coarse ma- 
 nure; they need the fine and delicate pabulum that has 
 been prepared by the growth and decay of the roots 
 and stems of red clover. The wheat-plant must be 
 supplied with such fertilizing material as will form 
 large heads and plump kernels of grain. Strawy ma- 
 nure will not make grain. The wheat-plant requires 
 such pabulum as is left in the soil after a heavy crop 
 of red clover has been plowed under ; and also after 
 a heavy dressing of rich barn-yard manure has been 
 applied, and a crop of Indian corn removed. The 
 barn-yard manure must be such as is made by fatten- 
 ing sheep or beef-cattle on grain. Such manure will 
 yield a large supply of grain-producing material such as 
 growing wheat-plants demand before large, plump heads 
 of grain will develop. By adopting a system of mixed 
 husbandry — feeding out much coarse grain and oil meal, 
 so as to make rich manure — by proper cultivation of the 
 soil, and improvement of seed, farmers in New England 
 can raise large crops of fine wheat, wherever the soil 
 will produce red clover, Indian corn, and turnips. 
 
 23 
 
354 todd's countet homes. 
 
 CuLTUKE OF Spking- Wheat. — As our nortlierh win- 
 ters are so severe on winter-wheat, it is a consideration 
 of eminent importance to improve some of tke varie- 
 ties of spring-wheat, so that our wheat may be grown 
 by sowing the seed in the spring, rather than in the au- 
 tunm. There are several excellent varieties of spring- 
 wheat which would yield as many bushels ot fine grain 
 per acre, and produce as choice flour as winter grain, 
 were the seed improved for a few successive seasons, as 
 it might be, by a careful selection of the best heads, 
 and by a rejection of the half-ripened and imperfectly 
 developed kernels. In some localities the seed has 
 been allowed to degenerate to such an extent, and the 
 cultivation has been so inferior, that farmers cannot get 
 a paying crop. Consequently, the wheat is denounced, 
 when the entire fault exists in the management of the 
 tillers of the soil. There is no plausible reason why 
 seed-wheat should degenerate, and a good variety never 
 would deteriorate were it raised on one farm for a long 
 succession of years, if proper care were exercised in sav- 
 ing the best seed from year to year. In producing an im- 
 proved variety of spring-wheat, it is desirable to estab- 
 lish its characteristics with the same permanency that 
 exists in an improved breed of horses, neat cattle, or 
 sheep. We want a thorough-hred variety of white spring- 
 wheat that can always be relied on for a satisfactory 
 crop. One great trouble with our wheat-growing farm- 
 ers has been for a long period, and even now is attrib- 
 utable to poor seed and to injudicious management 
 with seed-grain from year to year. Instead of improv- 
 ing the seed, the entire management has been most ef- 
 fectual in causing the variety sown to deteriorate, so 
 
HOW TO IMPKOVE THE SEED. 355 
 
 that, after a few years, its identity has disappeared. 
 For this reason, the grain that is known in our State as 
 a certain variety will be very unlike the product of 
 another State that bears the same name. 
 
 How TO Improve the Seed. — One way to secure a 
 good variety will be to procure a few pounds of the best 
 seed, pick it over by hand with great care, rejecting 
 all inferior kernels, and then, plant none but those that 
 are large and plump. Prepare a plot of rich ground 
 in the garden, where manure was applied last season, 
 and dibble in the kernels, one in a place, about six 
 inches apart each way. It will be an excellent plan 
 to stick a few brush all over the plot, to aid in keeping 
 the growing wheat erect. As soon as the grain has 
 riiDcned, select a few of the best ears, those that appear 
 to be nearly alike, and from this selection, commence 
 again to develop an improved variety. Continue to 
 select and cultivate thoroughly for five or six years. 
 A bushel of wood-ashes scattered broadcast over every 
 square rod of land will prove beneficial. The potash 
 furnished from this source will render material aid in 
 stiffening the straw, thus keeping the growing grain 
 erect, until the kernels have ripened. If the inferior 
 ears are rejected with care every season, and the well- 
 chosen seed be put into a fertile soil, after a few years 
 have passed, a variety will be obtained which will be 
 thoroughly acclimated, and which will yield good crops 
 with as much certainty, as improved animals may be 
 propagated from the best specimens of thorough-bred 
 stock. The wheat fields of our country might yield 
 forty bushels of excellent wheat per acre just as well 
 as ten or fifteen. And the time is fast approaching 
 
356 todd's country homes. 
 
 when the yield of fine wheat will be as boimtiful in our 
 own coimtiy as it is in Europe. A bountiful crop of 
 wheat depends mainly on two things — a rich soil and 
 improved seed. Seed plays quite as important part in 
 the production of a heavy crop of wheat as a thorough- 
 bred male in rearing domestic animals of a superior 
 quality. Let one or two square rods of rich ground in 
 the garden be planted with selected seed of a choice 
 variety of spring- wheat. Dibble in the kernels about 
 two inches deep, one in a place, and about nine inches 
 apart in the drills. The California white, which may 
 be obtained at most seed-stores, may thus be acclimated 
 in a few years, so that every farmer who has rich land 
 may raise a fair crop of beautiful white spring-wheat, 
 provided he maintain the fertility of the soil by the 
 application of grain-producing fertilizers and red clover. 
 It is a rare thing to find the seed of any variety kept 
 separate from inferior kinds of grain, the entire crop 
 being usually thrashed together as if the grain were all 
 of one kind. When seed-time arrives, the seed must 
 be taken from such grain as can be obtained. And, in 
 most instances, the poor kernels that are utterly unfit 
 for seed are sown with the expectation of raising a fixir 
 crop from grain that has thus so seriously degenerated. 
 It would be just as sensible to slaughter all the beautiful 
 Devons, Durhams, and Herefords, on which our farmers 
 depend for the desired improvements in their herds of 
 neat cattle, and attempt to propagate beautiful cows 
 and bullocks from the most inferior scrubs. Like will 
 produce like, as well in the vegetable as in the animal 
 kingdom. In Oregon, California and in some of the 
 Atlantic States, white spring-wheat, of a beautiful qual- 
 
BEST SOIL FOR WHEAT. 357 
 
 ity Is now raised. Let a few quarts be obtained, sowed 
 on rich ground, for a few seasons, and the seed sowed 
 with care, the inferior kinds culled out, the soil thor- 
 oughly cultivated and enriched, and there will be no dif- 
 ficulty in raising bountiful crops of plump whe.at. If 
 noxious insects are the only trouble, the fertility of the 
 soil must be so improved, that the wheat will grow 
 faster than they can eat. Pile on wood-ashes, coal- 
 ashes and lime as soon as the seed is put in. There is 
 no danger of applying too large a quantity of either. 
 
 Best Soil for Wheat. — The best soil for wheat is 
 one in which the predominating characteristics are clay 
 and loam, having neither too much of the one nor too 
 much of the other. The lighter loam soils and such 
 alluvions as have been brought from clayey localities, 
 will often produce bountiful crops of excellent wheat, 
 and sometimes a mucky soil will yield a fair crop of 
 this kind of grain. But their fertility for wheat will 
 soon be exhausted. Calcareous clays, gravelly clays, 
 aluminous clays, as well as many soils that are a mix- 
 ture of all these just named, with good management — 
 cultivating, manuring and draining — will always yield 
 fair crops of wheat. Our aluminous, heavy, slippery, 
 clay soils are by no means the best for the production 
 of either winter or spring-wheat ; although they will 
 yield good crops when well drained and thoroughly 
 pulverized and manured. Our country abounds in soils 
 of a mixed character, which will produce a remunera- 
 ting crop of wheat once in five or six years, while they 
 cannot be set down as good wheat soils. A sandy soil 
 will furnish silica enough to form a stiff straw, while a 
 mucky soil will produce a slender and soft straw, which 
 
358 todd's country homes. 
 
 will fall down before the grain is matured. I have of- 
 ten seen heavy crops of wheat on a sandy soil, when 
 the land was properly manured. If a soil is destitute 
 of wheat-producing material, it cannot produce a boun- 
 tiful crop of that kind of grain. There are many that 
 will produce fair crops of Indian corn, barley and oats, 
 which will not yield a remunerating crop of wheat. 
 And why ? Simply because the crop of wheat plants 
 cannot find in that soil the right kind of materials 
 to form the kernels. In one soil the minute roots 
 find abundance of material, which they may take up 
 for the formation and perfect development of kernels, 
 while in another soil, the roots may send out their 
 numerous little, hungry mouths into every cubic inch 
 of soil in search of material to produce the grain, and 
 not find it. This is the great difficulty wdth soil that 
 will not produce wheat ; and until proper materials are 
 added, the land may be cultivated and sowed in vain. 
 Peeparation of the Soil for Wheat. — 
 
 " If vain and fruitless be the tiller's toil, 
 
 He ought to blame the culture — not the soil." 
 
 Growing wheat needs manure, and the soil must be 
 manured for this kind of grain, or a fair crop can not 
 be produced. But when barn-yard manure is applied 
 to the soil to increase the w^heat crop, the kind of ma- 
 nure and the quality of the soil must be well consid- 
 ered. The straw will usually grow large enough on 
 almost any soil, and quite too large and heavy on soils 
 that abound in large quantities of vegetable matter. 
 Therefore, it is much better to have the manure for the 
 wheat crop, in a very concentrated form, by which the 
 amount of grain will be increased, and not the amount 
 of straw. This object may be attained in two ways. 
 
PKEPAEING THE SOIL FOR WHEAT. 359 
 
 One is, by applying the manure in a liquid state ; and, 
 the other is, by composting the coarse material, or by 
 having the fertilizing substances in it, very much con- 
 centrated, so that the growth of the straw will not be 
 promoted as much as the growth of the grain. If 
 the soil should be very porous, friable and full of vege- 
 table matter, if the manure could be applied in a 
 liquid state, the luxuriant growth of straw would not 
 be so much promoted as would be the growth and 
 more perfect development of the grain. On light soils, 
 the great growth of straw should be guarded against, 
 and the aim should be to fill the soil with those fertili- 
 zers tbat will produce grain and not straw. If the soil 
 be manured with strawy manure, as there is but a 
 small quantity of grain-forming material in straw, the 
 product will be a heavy burden of straw and a light 
 crop of grain. If wheat, Indian corn and barley be 
 raised in a course of rotation with oats, it will always 
 be the most advisable, and will be attended with the 
 best results, both on the productiveness of the soil and 
 in the increased amount of grain, to apply the manure 
 to some other crop, besides wheat. By applying the 
 manure to Indian corn, for example, if it should be as 
 thoroughly incorporated with the soil as it will be if 
 spread evenly, the coarse manure will be in a condi- 
 tion, by the time the growing wheat-plants are ready 
 to be benefited by it, to promote the growth of the 
 grain, instead of the growth of the straw. If a crop 
 of Indian corn be raised after the coarse manure has 
 been applied, and the next season a crop of winter or 
 spring-wheat were raised, then, if the cultivation has 
 been thorough, the manure will exert a great influence 
 
360 todd's country homes. 
 
 in producing a more bountiful yield of grain than of 
 straw. There is but little difficulty in raising 'a fair 
 crop of wheat, if weeds are thoroughly exterminated, 
 rich manure be applied to the soil, and the surplus 
 water be removed by under-draining. These three sug- 
 gestions embrace the entire science of wheat culture. 
 The growing wheat-plants require just such a prepara- 
 tion of soil as is considered essential for a good vege- 
 table garden. A fat soil w^ill not fail to yield a boun- 
 tiful crop of plump wheat. The wheat-plant may be 
 produced on almost any soil. But, where there is a 
 deficiency of the proper material out of which the grow- 
 ing plants may form the grain, the crop must necessa- 
 rily fail. Strawy manure will not make wheat, as 
 there is only a small quantity of grain-producing ma- 
 terial in a ton of straw. If land be manured for a 
 year or two, with the accumulations of stables where 
 domestic animals consume large quantities of meal or 
 grain, the soil will be furnished with just such material 
 as the growing plants must be supplied with, in order 
 to swell out the ears with large and plump kernels. 
 
 Prevention of Smut in Wheat. — A few days pre- 
 vious to the time of putting in the seed, let a few gal- 
 lons of chamber-lye be saved, in which to steep the 
 seed, after it has been diluted by the addition of water 
 equal to the amount of lye. After the seed has soaked 
 three or four hours, for every ten bushels add two 
 ounces of arsenic dissolved in' rain water, sj)read the 
 wheat on a level floor, take a broom and dip it in the 
 mixture, and shake it over the wheat until there is 
 sufficient to wet the whole. Shovel the grain over 
 once or twice, until you are satisfied that it is all soaked 
 
DRILLING IN WHEAT. 
 
 361 
 
 alike. Then, sift over it a thin coat of fine slaked 
 lime, shovel over until the lime adheres to all the 
 wheat alike. When it is ready for sowing, should 
 there be occasion to wash the wheat in salt brine for 
 the purpose of cleaning it, the dissolved arsenic may 
 be added to a small quantity of chamber-lye and applied 
 as above, after the salt brine has been thoroughly 
 drained. Roll the seed in gypsum, and it may be put 
 in with a drill. 
 
 Drilling in Wheat. — The illustration herewith 
 given, furnishes a fair idea of the uniformity of the 
 
 WHEAT DRILLED IN. 
 
 size of wheat, when the seed was drilled in. If the 
 seed be all deposited at a uniform depth, the stems will 
 always attain a more equal hight and uniform develop- 
 ment. 
 
 In order to illustrate more particularly the impor- 
 tance of putting in the seed of winter--wheat, with a 
 drill, an exact representation of a young wheat-plant 
 is shown, with all the seminal, or primary roots, as 
 drawn from a young plant. At A, just above the ker- 
 nel, a bulb is always formed, a short distance below the 
 surface of the soil. From this point, the coronal roots 
 
362 
 
 TODD S COUNTRY HOMES. 
 
 always spring. Now then, .when putting in winter- 
 wheat, rye, or barley, the aim should be to plant the 
 seed shallow, so that both the seminal and the coronal 
 
 A YOUNG WHEAT-PLANT. 
 
 roots may spread out near each other ; and thus pre- 
 vent the young plants being lifted out by the frost. 
 
 CULTIVATION OF OATS. 
 " When grass comes creeping and the mellow notes 
 Of joyous birds are heard, then sow your oats ; 
 And, ere the music of the peepers floats 
 On vernal breezes, plow and sow the oats." 
 
 The botanical signification of oats is Avena Sativa. 
 The origin of this kind of grain is unknown. There 
 
CULTIVATION OF OATS. 
 
 363 
 
 A PANICLE OF WHITE OATS. 
 
 are numerous varieties, each of which may be distin- 
 guished by the color and form 
 of the grain, or by the shape of 
 the panicles. In the panicles of 
 the ^^Horse-mane'" oats, the 
 branches are all on one side of 
 the main stem. The forms of the 
 panicles in other varieties are 
 quite different, one from the other. 
 The varieties of the cultivated 
 oats, are classified into the white, 
 hlack and gy^ay oats. The weight, 
 23er bushel, of different varieties, 
 is indicated by all intermediate 
 pounds, between twenty-five and 
 fifty. The light oats are far more 
 profitable to cultivate, when one desires oats to sell, 
 than the heavy grain, as the heavy grain exhausts the 
 soil far more than the light. But, the heavy oats are 
 preferable for feed, as they will afford a much larger 
 proportion of nutriment, than the light oats. Oats are 
 susceptible of a wonderful improvement both in quality 
 and quantity, per acre, by selecting the seed with great 
 care, every season, and by giving the crop deep, clean, 
 and rich cultivation. One hundred bushels of clean 
 grain might be produced per acre, by judicious man- 
 agement, just as easily as forty, by the present perfunc- 
 tory system of cultivation. Although oats will yield a 
 fair crop, where wheat and barley will scarcely fructify, 
 the crop will be correspondingly larger, when the fer- 
 tility of the soil is improved by thorough pulveriza- 
 tion, manuring and improved seed. 
 
364 todd's couktry homes. 
 
 Oats have been, and now are, one of the most profit- 
 able, as well as one of the most certain crops that a 
 farmer can raise. Perhaps there is no other kind of 
 cereal grain that possesses such great hardiness as oats. 
 In our best grain -growing regions, where wheat, barley 
 and Indian corn would not half pay the expense of 
 cultivation, the soil would yield a profitable crop of 
 oats. And in very many localities, not only in the 
 Empire State, but in the New England and some of the 
 Western States, where wheat and barley could not be 
 grown with an}^ profit, the oat crop has been cultivated, 
 on the same soil, during many successive years -, and 
 we are familiar with instances where nothing but oats, 
 oats, OATS, have been the only crop on certain fields for 
 ten and twenty years. And nothing has been returned 
 to the soil in the shape of grain-producing material. 
 The soil had become so much impoverished that no 
 other grain would mature. Therefore nothing but 
 oats were cultivated. When the wheat midge first 
 commenced its ravages in our wheat-fields, many 
 farmers would not attempt to raise even enough wheat 
 for their own bread, because one acre of oats would 
 purchase more wheat than would grow on three acres. 
 
 Oats have no rival as an article of food for both man 
 and beast, while the straw is an excellent staple for fod- 
 der, enabling the careful farmer to rear and maintain a 
 much larger stock of both horses and cattle than if he 
 depended only on his hay. While chemists assure us 
 that oats contain eighteen parts of gluten and six parts 
 of fat, while wheat has but ten parts of gluten and two 
 parts of fat, it seems strange that oat-meal is not more 
 generally used as an article of food in place of wheat. 
 
QUANTITY OF SEED PER ACRE. 365 
 
 Quantity of Seed per Acre. — There is a variety 
 of opinions as to the most profitable quantity of seed 
 to be sown per acre. But numerous well-conducted ex- 
 periments have proved that on good soil three and one- 
 half bushels of oats will be found to be the maximum 
 quantity that should be sown per acre. The quantity 
 to be sown will depend, to a considerable extent, on 
 the character and condition of the soil. If rich, well- 
 pulverized, and in the best condition, a smaller quan- 
 tity of seed will be required than if the soil were less 
 fertile. My own practice usually was, to drill in about 
 three bushels of plump, clean seed per acre, one-half 
 of which was distributed by going over the ground 
 once, and the remainder was put in as the drill was 
 driven, about at a right angle to the direction of the 
 first drilling. Oats are so light that it is difficult to 
 sow them by hand. I have always found it to pay 
 satisfactorily to employ a drill to put in the seed, as it 
 will be distributed more evenly, and the seed is cov- 
 ered of a more nniform depth than when harrowed in. 
 Besides this, the feet of teams will bury much of the 
 seed quite too deep, especially in mellow ground. 
 
 Bad Management in Cultivating Oats. — The 
 system of management which is adopted very exten- 
 sively in many parts of the United States, is decidedly 
 bad, not only for the immediate pecuniary interest of 
 farmers, but for the productiveness of their farms, and 
 for the country. It is bad for farmers, because they 
 receive only a light crop, when their soil is capable of 
 yielding, in many instances, twice as much as it has 
 fonnerly produced, with the same amount of cultiva- 
 tion. It is bad for the soil, because it is kept in a very 
 
366 todd's country homes. 
 
 foul condition, which, of course, renders it less produc- 
 tive. And it is bad for the coimiry, because field agri- 
 culture is the great motive power of the nation, and 
 anytliing that tends to diminish the quantity of grain 
 will tend to cripple the resources of government. I re- 
 fer, particularly, to the practice of growing oats for 
 many years in succession on the same soil, by plowing 
 it only once, and seldom returning anything in the form 
 of fertilizers, to compensate for the crops that have 
 been removed. Thousands of acres of excellent land 
 for agricultural purposes are cultivated in this way un- 
 til Canada thistles, wild mustard, horse dock, and many 
 other noxious weeds have taken almost entire posses- 
 sion of the soil; and one of the worst features in this 
 system of management with the oat crop is, all the 
 weeds mature their seeds before the oats are ripe 
 enough to cut, and enough is shelled out, when the oats 
 are harvested, to seed the soil for seven years to come, 
 and the Canada thistle seed is blown over the country. 
 In all such localities, if farmers will discontinue oats, 
 and raise a crop of Indian corn one year, and a crop of 
 buckwheat the next season, and apply all the manure 
 they are able to- make, they will soon find that it will 
 be far better, and more profitable, to adopt some rota- 
 tion system, even where oats have been considered the 
 most profitable crop to raise, for several years in succes- 
 sion. It is quite impracticable for a farmer to avail 
 himself of the great benefits arising from clean culti- 
 vation of the soil, when it is plowed only once each 
 year, and then in the spring. As a general rule, little 
 or no care at all is exercised in selecting seed oats, but 
 the entire crop of the farm — good and poor, plump and 
 
BAD MANAGEMENT IN CULTIVATING OATS. 3G7 
 
 shrunken, ripe and half-ripe, early and late, as well as 
 those kinds that ripen at different periods — are all stored 
 together, and, the seed oats are taken from this mix- 
 ture and sowed without any preparation, farther than 
 to have the grain clean from chaff and straw. The 
 consequence is, the best seed will ripen, and fall to the 
 ground before those panicles that spring from the half- 
 ripe seed will be out of the milk. And, if the half-ripe 
 and shrunken kernels produce grain, it will be light. 
 If late oats be sowed, we cannot expect that the grain 
 will ripen as early by eight to fourteen days, as it would 
 have done, if the best quality of seed had been sown. 
 Late-ripened, half-ripened seed, has a greater tendency 
 to degenerate the grain, than any practice connected 
 with the cultivation of the crop, whatever that crop 
 may be. Thousands of acres are plowed every year 
 for oats, in the most rough, cut-and-cover manner of 
 which we can conceive ; and, the seed is sown, on this 
 uneven land, and collected by the harrow teeth into 
 depressions sometimes four times as thick as the grain 
 should be sowed, in order to obtain the greatest yield 
 per acre. If the ground be plowed deep, the grain 
 that is deposited in such large depressions will be cov- 
 ered so deep that even the grain that springs from 
 good seed, will not mature uniformly, which, of 
 course, is no small loss in the quantity of grain per 
 acre. Another great error is sowing the seed broad- 
 cast when the wind blows. In many instances, a good 
 portion of the ground will be seeded much thicker 
 than it ought to be, to yield well, while other portions 
 will not be half seeded. If the grain be light, the wind 
 will blow it so that it will be impossible to scatter it 
 
368 todd's country homes. 
 
 evenly. If a part of the seed be heavy and j^lump, 
 the light kernels will not fall among the heavy ones. 
 Of course, the plants springing from the poor, or from 
 the best kinds, will be quite as different as the grain, 
 and at the same time unevenly distributed over the 
 land. All these things exert an important influence 
 on the yield of grain. 
 
 The remedy is to procure the best of seed, put the 
 soil in a better condition for receiving the grain, and 
 sow it with a broadcast seed sow^er, or put it in with a 
 drill, or sow the grain by hand when there is but little 
 or no wind. 
 
 Manuring the Soil for Oats. — Although oats ab- 
 sorb coarser materials from the soil than wheat, or bar- 
 ley, there is no other kind of grain that will return a 
 better compensation in an increased amount of grain, 
 per acre, in consequence of the soil being manured, 
 than oats. Indeed, oats flourish the very best, when 
 the soil is under the highest state of cultivation. A 
 farmer may raise as many bushels of oats per acre, as 
 he can reasonably desire, providing he will manure and 
 cultivate his soil as well as it ought to be cultivated. 
 If he desires to raise thirty, fifty, seventy, or even one 
 hundred, or more bushels, per acre, he may have the 
 pleasure, after a few years, of seeing his soil yield that 
 amount of grain, provided he wilt only apply his ma- 
 nure judiciously, and cultivate the soil thoroughly. In 
 case, for example, a soil were a very compact, stubborn, 
 calcareous clay, or gravelly clay, or a heavy soil of any 
 kind of earth, which is accustomed to bake under the 
 influence of drenching rains and scorching sunshine, if 
 barn-yard manure be spread thin, the bunches picked 
 
THE MOST PKOPER TIME TO CUT OATS. 369 
 
 to small pieces before being plowed under, the manure 
 will exert a two-fold influence on the crop — a 7nechani- 
 cal effect by rendering the heavy ground more porous, 
 and a chemical influence, by supplying an abundance 
 of such nourishment as is essential to promote the lux- 
 uriant growth and abundant fructification of the pan- 
 icles. The most satisfactory way of applying barn-yard 
 manure to any soil, for the purpose of increasing its 
 productiveness, when oats are the principal grain to be 
 raised, is to spread and plow it under in late autumn, 
 rather than in the spring of the year. 
 
 The most Proper Time to Cut Oats. — For the 
 most part, oats are allowed to stand quite too long be- 
 fore they are cut. And in most instances, they are al- 
 lowed to remain in the swaths or in gavels, entirely 
 too long. But farmers are improving in their manage- 
 ment with oats. A few years ago the practice was to 
 allow them to lay in the swath nearly two weeks, be- 
 fore they were raked and bound. By this system of 
 management, all the straw was spoiled for fodder, and 
 large quantities of the grain were wasted by being shelled 
 out. Most formers allow their oats to stand until there 
 is not a green panicle to be seen in the field. But as 
 soon as the chaif on about one-half of the panicles has 
 assumed a yellowish hue, then the oats should be cut 
 without delay. There may be a few panicles that will 
 not be out of the milk at that stage of their growth, 
 but if they are allowed to stand longer, more loss will 
 be sustained in the shelling of the early and dead-ripe 
 oats, than there will be in the shrinkage of those pani- 
 cles, that are not out of the milk when the straw is 
 cut. There is but little danger of cutting oats too 
 
 24 
 
370 todd's countey homes. 
 
 early, while on the contrary, there is great danger of 
 letting them stand too long before they are cut. Early 
 cut oats are heavier per bushel, fairer to the eye, and 
 will sell for more money in the market. 
 
 The most expeditious way to harvest oats is to 
 gather them without binding. They will occupy a 
 little more space in a barn, than they will if they be 
 bound in bundles. But two men will harvest more 
 than twice as many oats, by gathering them loose as 
 we do hay, and by using a horse-fork to pitch them off 
 the wagon with, than they will be able to gather if 
 they bind them in bundles. In case a man has but 
 little barn-room in j^roportion to the quantity of straw, 
 the best way is to build a stack on each side of the 
 barn-doors, and run the straw into the barn, when the 
 grain is thrashed. Then, the straw will be well pre- 
 served for fodder in the winter. A great many of 
 our best farmers, in our grain-growing regions, have 
 adopted this practice, instead of throwing the straw all 
 out of doors, and allowing their barns to remain empty 
 during most of the season, when they would be very 
 useful in protecting straw for fodder. 
 
 How TO Save Seed Oats. — Few farmers, compara- 
 tively, ever think of saving seed oats, until about the 
 time when they are ready for putting in the seed in 
 the spring. I have no hesitation in affirming that 
 many farmers might increase the amount of their oats 
 per acre, full one-half, by exercising that care in saving 
 the seed that they bestow on their Indian corn seed. 
 Can we expect that these little, half-grown, half-ripe, 
 shrunken kernels of oats, will produce large, early, and 
 heavy panicles of grain next season ? Such a thing 
 
OBTAINING GOOD SEED. 371 
 
 cannot be expected, any more than one could expect 
 to raise a beautiful and noble horse from a stallion that 
 was an ill-begotten, ill-shapen and degenerate progeny 
 of a worthless breed. 
 
 Now, in order to have good seed, select about an 
 acre or so of the very best oats in the field, and cut 
 them as soon as the largest kernels in the earliest 
 panicles are well matured. At this time most of the 
 small panicles will be just in the milk. But such grain 
 will not be lost, as they will make excellent feed for 
 any kind of stock next winter. As soon as the straw 
 is well cured, let the oats be secured in the barn and 
 kept by themselves, and thrashed with flails. If 
 thrashed with a machine, all the half-ripe kernels will 
 also be shelled. But flails will only beat off the ma- 
 tured and early kernels. Let this grain be kept by 
 itself, and a very marked difference will be seen in the 
 yield of the first crop. Let this system of improving 
 seed be followed up for a few seasons, and the yield 
 will soon be nearly doubled, 
 
 Oats an Exhausting Crop. — It cannot be main- 
 tained that the crop of oats does not exhaust and im- 
 poverish the soil, for common sense as well as science 
 teaches us that every crop that is removed divests that 
 soil of as much grain-forming material as was consumed 
 in the production of the crop. Therefore, if a soil be 
 wet or badly cultivated, and it yield only a small crop 
 of oats, of course the land will be impoverished but lit- 
 tle. But if the crop be a bountiful one, it is clear that 
 more of the grain-forming material will be abstracted 
 from the soil than was taken up in the production of 
 only a small crop. The oat crop will not absorb much 
 
372 todd's country homes. 
 
 of the material that would render it productive for a 
 crop of barley, or wheat, or Indian corn. For this 
 reason, some soils, that have been well-nigh ruined for 
 raising oats, have produced excellent crops of barley 
 and wheat, after having been summer-fallowed. Such 
 instances occurred, however, on good wheat land, and 
 not on such ground as was well adapted to oats. In 
 some sections of the country oats are sowed for many 
 successive seasons, under the imjDression that a crop of 
 this kind of grain will exhaust the fertility of the land 
 less, and at the same time yield more profit than any 
 other cereal, all of which is nearly correct. Neverthe- 
 less, oats or any other crop will exhaust the fertility of 
 the land. And as the oat-j)lants are such gross feeders, 
 land can be impoverished more in ten years by raising 
 oats than wheat, as wheat will not grow on poor ground, 
 while oats will. All good farmers, who have brought 
 the fertility of their land up to the capacity of a good 
 wheat soil, feel assured that oats are always a severe 
 crop, and an excellent farmer, of my acquaintance, 
 never permits oats to grow on good wheat land, but 
 confines the crop to the more moist portions of his 
 farm, adapted only to oats to meadow and to pasture. 
 
 How TO Rake and Bind. — Rakers and binders 
 make such distressed work, that I herewith illustrate 
 how a binder should hold his rake and take hold of his 
 band. Many binders make so many unnecessary mo- 
 tions, that even when laboring very hard, they make 
 but little progress. But, by taking hold of the band 
 7'ight, without letting it loose, to change the hold, one 
 can bind much faster than to adopt all the awkward 
 manipulations that can be thought of When I was 
 
HOW TO RAKE AND BIND. 
 
 373 
 
 fourteen years old, I could, and often did do it, when 
 my father did not forbid it, rake and bind alone after 
 a good cradler in wheat, and bind every sheaf neatly. 
 But now, two large men will grunt terribly, when 
 doing the same work. After the band is made, throw 
 
 it over the gavel with the right hand, and receive it 
 with the left hand, as shown. Then, when the ends 
 are brought together, the hands need not be changed. 
 Always keep the rake-handle leaning against the shoul- 
 ders, when binding. If a man throws his rake down, 
 and must stoop to pick it up every time he binds a sheaf. 
 
374 todd's country homes. 
 
 if he binds a thousand sheaves in a day — which is a 
 fair day's work — he must endure the unnecessary 
 fatigue of stooping down, and rising a thousand times, 
 when all that fatigue can be avoided, as well as not, 
 by simply training one's self to lean the rake-handle 
 against the shoulder, when binding a sheaf 
 
 When raking gavels, a raker should exercise skill in 
 keeping the butts as even as practicable, so that the 
 sheaves, when bound, may not look 
 like a long six-foot Irish woman, 
 with all her skirts, except the chemi- 
 sette, turned lower ends up over 
 her head. The illustration herewith 
 given, shows a representation of 
 a sheaf of oats, raked neatly, and 
 ^ bound tightly near the middle. 
 Let all other grain be bound in the 
 A SHEAF OF OATS. g^me ucat manner. 
 
 NEATLY BOUND. 
 
 THE CULTIVATION OF RYE. 
 " When the coohng breezes fan us, 'neath the summer's sky, 
 O, the merriment of harvesters, while cradling the rye. 
 How the reapers and the binders, 'mid the tall grain bending sigh, 
 Shout the joyful song of harvest, as they gather in the rye." 
 
 Edwards. 
 
 Rye is one of the grasses. The botanical name is 
 Secale cereale. Rye is one of the cereals. The lutbit 
 of the rye-plant is exactly like that of the wheat-plant. 
 The growings plants tiller quite as much as wheat, and 
 the manner of growth is identical with wheat. We 
 have, like wheat, both winter rye, and spring rye, and 
 white rye and brown rye. Herewith is given a repre- 
 sentation of a head of rye, badly affected with the 
 disease known as ergot. Rye is much hardier than 
 
THE CULTURE OF RYE. 
 
 375 
 
 wheat, and land that is so impoverished that it will not 
 produce any wheat worth harvesting, will grow a fair 
 crop of rye. I have seen many fields 
 of light-colored sand in New Jersey, 
 where rye had been raised for nine 
 successive years. No other croj) 
 could be grown on such fields, as 
 the ground was so poor. The facil- 
 ity with which rye can be raised, 
 has been exceedingly detrimental to 
 much good land. When wheat could 
 no longer be grown with profit, rye 
 took its place ; and as it would 
 yield remunerative crops without 
 manure, land has been sowed to this 
 grain with no other rotation than 
 grass, until it would not pay for plow- 
 ing. It is still a common practice, 
 notwithstanding the inroad new ideas 
 have made, to turn up old pastures 
 and exhausted meadows, and sow 
 with rye without manure. A crop 
 of ten or fifteen bushels will about 
 pay expenses ; and many farmers 
 are satisfied with this scanty yield. 
 Rye will endure abuse and gross 
 mismanagement, with far less injury, 
 than any other kind of cereal graiii. 
 There can be no more satisfactory 
 test of the hardiness of rye, than the 
 manner in which it has been abused head of diseased rte. 
 on poor farms, where no other crop of grain could be 
 
376 TODD S COUNTEY HOMES. 
 
 produced. Spring rye is not cultivated so extensively 
 as winter rye, simply because old farmers have got 
 in the habit of sowing winter grain. Rye is as suscep- 
 tible of improvement as wheat or barley, and a few 
 years of careful cultivation from select seed would 
 give us improved varieties unquestionably much bet- 
 ter than anything we now have. All the suggestions 
 touching wheat are quite as applicable to rye. This 
 grain is little cultivated in regions well adapted to 
 those more valuable and of more general use. It 
 belongs more properly to cold, heavy highlands, where 
 Indian corn is in yearly danger from frosts at both 
 ends of the season, and grass is the main crop. If 
 grown exclusively for the grain it is an unpleasant and 
 some^^Jlat expensive crop to handle, on account of 
 the bulkiness of straw, and the grain itself does not 
 bring a comparatively high price in the market. But 
 the straw is far more valuable than that of any of the 
 cereals. The farmer has many uses for it. For thatch- 
 ino- purposes it excels, and a roof of this* material well 
 put on, wiiriast twenty-five or thirty years. Rye straw 
 is excellent for cutting and mixing with more nutritious 
 food, and for many purposes around the farm it is con- 
 venient, particularly for binding short oats, flax or corn- 
 stalks. 
 
 Rye is subject to fewer casualties than any other 
 crop, though it is sometmies affected by rust. The 
 straw is bright and strong, which renders it better than 
 wheat straw, both for feeding out in winter, and as a 
 litter for horses and cattle. Rye is usually ready to cut 
 before winter-wheat — hence out of the way before the 
 hurrying season of harvest. Any soil that is not wet, 
 
SEEDING ERGOT IN RYE. 377 
 
 if it will produce any other grain, will yield a fair crop 
 of rye. But it will not flourish satisfactorily on wet 
 ground. 
 
 Preparation for Seeding. — The same preparation 
 of soil required for a crojD of wheat, will produce ex- 
 cellent rye. Therefore, the reader may peruse what is 
 said under wheat, for any further information touch- 
 ing the cultivation of rye. On rich ground, I have 
 seen large fields of heavy rye, much of which would 
 measure over six feet. I have often measured rye 
 straws over seven feet in length. A farmer in New 
 Jersey assured me that from one kernel of white rye, 
 a stool of over seventy spears and perfect heads were 
 produced. This fact affords a fair idea of the habit of 
 tillering. Another farmer in Massachusetts raised from 
 one kernel, sixty-one heads of rye, and the average 
 length of the straws was five feet and two inches. The 
 average number of kernels per head was sixty, mak- 
 ing about three thousand six hundred and sixty fold. 
 About one bushel, or one and one-half bushels of seed 
 will be sufficient for seeding one acre, if the seed is 
 drilled in evenly. 
 
 Ergot in Rye. — The illustration on page 375, fur- 
 nishes a fair representation of the chief disease to which 
 growing rye is subject. The presence of ergot is not 
 traced to any peculiarity of soil or season. Sometimes 
 ergot is very abundant, and at others the grain is en- 
 tirely free from it. Nor is it confined to rye, for several 
 grasses are similarly affected, and it is said to have been 
 found in wheat, though the latter rarely occurs. Only 
 one or two grains in the head may be affected in this 
 way, or it may be the case with every one. Though 
 
378 todd's countet homes. 
 
 it bears no resemblance to the grain of rye, it is really 
 a kernel, much changed by the attack of a minute mi- 
 croscopic fungus or mold. This attacks the grain when 
 very young, and causes it to finally present the appear- 
 ance shown in the engraving, which represents the ergot 
 as it appears on the head, and also two separate grains. 
 The ergot is often nearly an inch long, and having 
 somewhat the shape of a cock's spur, the name ^^ spurred 
 rye"" has been given to it. The ergot has a blackish 
 purple color, and although no odor is noticeable in a 
 single grain, when a quantity is together, this poison- 
 ous fungus has a very unpleasant smell. When the 
 grain is thus diseased, it not only takes on an unnatu- 
 ral shape and appearance, but its chemical character is 
 also altered. The grain no longer contains starch, but 
 in its place is found a large quantity (over 30 per cent.] 
 of a peculiar oil, and instead of being a nutritious food, 
 it is a powerful poison. In some parts of Europe, 
 where rye is much more extensively used for food than 
 with us, fearful epidemics have been caused by ergot 
 being mixed with the food. Serious convulsions, loss 
 of sight, gangrene, or mortification of the limbs, and 
 death, have resulted from its use. For this reason, ex- 
 treme care should be used in separating the ergot from 
 the seed, previous to seeding. And, when rye is ground 
 into meal, all the ergot should he removed from the 
 grain, as only a small quantity ground into meal will 
 cause a brood mare to slink, or a cow or sheep to abort. 
 Let wood ashes, coal ashes, and lime be piled on in 
 liberal abundance, after the seed has been drilled in, 
 and very little ergot will appear. If rye is disposed to 
 be afflicted very much with ergot, it will be well to 
 
CULTIVATION OF CLOVER. 379 
 
 procure seed of some excellent farmer who cultivates 
 bountiful crops of rye on sandy loam soils, as the seed 
 produced where sand predominates, will be less liable 
 to be affected by this disease. 
 
 CULTIVATION OF CLOVER— TRIFOLIUM. 
 
 " Of these have nameless poets sung, 
 The meadow, lawn, and garden over, 
 The rich perfumes that always blow. 
 From waving fields of ripening clover." 
 
 Clover — botanically speaking — is not one of the 
 grasses, although it is called a grass, and is cultivated 
 for grazing as well as for hay. Clover is denominated 
 by botanists a leguminous plant, and is arranged by 
 them among what are termed amelio7Xithig crops, under 
 the head of peas, beans, and other leguminous plants. 
 There are various kinds of clover, all arranged under 
 the head of Trifolium. As every variety produces, as 
 a rule, three leaves, they receive the name Trifolium. 
 To distinguish one from another, we have the Trifolium 
 repens, the white clover, sometimes known as the white 
 Dutch clover, the seed of which fs usually imported. 
 The Trifolium hyhridimi is know^n as the Alsike clover, 
 which is said to be a cross between Trifolium repens 
 and Trifolium pratense. Trifolium pratense is what is 
 commonly known as the red clover, wdiether it is the 
 large or the small variety. In some sections of country, 
 the Scotch clover. Crimson clover and French clover 
 are cultivated, some of which — perhaps all — are the 
 Trifolium incarnatwn. 
 
 Red Clover, ( Trifolium pratense.) — The " pea- vine" 
 clover, the large, late, red clover, and the small variety 
 of early clover, all belong to the Trifolium. Many 
 intelligent farmers will insist that there is a medium, 
 
380 todd's countky homes. 
 
 kind — neither large nor small, early nor late. But it 
 has never been my good fortune to meet with this kind. 
 I have met with w^hat has been denominated the 
 medium kind ; but I was satisfied that it was nothing 
 but either the early or the late, changed in its habit by 
 different management and different cultivation and 
 locality. Red clover — both the large and the small 
 kinds — have been called biennial, triennial, and per- 
 ennial. Red clover is quite peculiar in this respect. 
 Sometimes it will appear to be a true biennial, so that 
 scarcely a stem will appear after the second year; and 
 in some localities it will hold out during three years ; 
 and sometimes clover will continue in the soil for 
 several successive years. But all these diflerences can 
 be accounted for on principles strictly philosophical. 
 If red clover be pastured rather closely from year to 
 year, and is not permitted to form seed ; or if it be 
 mowed early, before the seed has matured, if the soil 
 be in a good state of cultivation and not too wet, clover 
 will grow there for 'many years. But after clover has 
 been allowed to mature one crop of good seed, it may 
 produce another crop, and it may not. I have known 
 clover to produce two crops of seed in two successive 
 seasons; and I have also known clover to produce 
 one crop of seed, and the next season there would not 
 be a growth sufficient to shade one-fourth part of the 
 ground. Red clover will flourish well on almost any 
 kind of soil where there is not an excess of moisture. 
 Of course, it will grow much more luxuriantly on rich 
 and well-drained soils than on poor soils. But a wet 
 soil is a very uncongenial place for red clover. Indeed, 
 it is folly to attempt to raise it on soils that are too wet 
 
ALSIKE CLOVER. 381 
 
 for winter-wheat, as the clover-roots will nearly all be 
 lifted out by the freezing and thawing of the soil. 
 Therefore, the young farmer should bear in mind that, 
 unless his soil is ^naturally dry enough, it must be well 
 under-drained before it can be expected to produce a 
 tolerably fair crop of red clover. 
 
 The large and late variety, called in some sections 
 of the country the northern clover, or j^ea-vine clover, 
 will give but a small after-growth. Therefore if seed 
 is wanted, it must be obtained from the first growth, 
 or first blossoming. 
 
 The early, or small kind, or as it is sometimes called, 
 the " Southern clover," is short and fine, being a capital 
 winter fodder for sheep, milch cows and young cattle. 
 The best variety for plowing under, for the purpose 
 of renovating impoverished lands, is the large and late 
 kind. For early forage, the eai'ly, or small variety is 
 preferable. 
 
 Alsike Clover. {Trifolium Hyhridum.) — The Al- 
 sike clover, is a variety which appears, to a certain ex- 
 tent, to combine the properties of the red and white 
 clovers. It was considered by Linna3us to be a cross, 
 and is cultivated to a considerable extent in the district 
 of Alsike, in Sweden, from whence it derives its name. 
 The stems are small, yielding a large amount of branch- 
 es, leaves and blossoms, wdiich afford a large amount 
 of honey for bees. For winter feed for sheep, I think 
 no better forage plant can be grown, when cultivated 
 with orchard grass, than the Alsike clover. A striking 
 peculiarity of this clover is, there are, in some of the 
 glumes, two, three and four seeds each. I have seen 
 some glumes with four seeds. All kinds of clover seed 
 
382 todd's country homes. 
 
 may be obtained at seed stores in our large cities. In 
 many localities, farmers state that the Alsike is not 
 lifted out of the ground by frost, so readily as the red 
 clover, and that it flourishes much more satisfactorily 
 on wet land than red clover. A good farmer who has 
 cultivated the Alsike, writes me as follows : 
 
 The weight of seed required to be sown is, according to circumstances, 
 from three to four pounds per acre, the seed being much smaller, and 
 branches more, a less quantity is required than of the red clover. Three 
 pounds of Alsike seed will seed as much land as ten pounds of red clo- 
 ver. I sowed last spring three and one-half pounds per acre, and it is 
 thicker than necessary. The seed is sown at the usual time of sowing 
 common or red clover on wheat, oats or barley. It generally yields from 
 three to eight bushels of seed per acre. The heads are formed with pods 
 like the common white clover, with several seeds in each pod. I have 
 tried the Alsike by the side of red clover, the seed sown at the same time 
 and in the same field, and find that horses, cattle and sheep, will not 
 graze on the red clover so long as they can get a good bite on the Alsike. 
 My opinion is no other clover is equal to it for the purpose of feeding 
 cattle, sheep, and horses, and even as a fertilizer. Alsike clover-seed is 
 more easily threshed than red clover-seed. When cultivated and threshed 
 together, the Alsike clover-seed always comes out of the pods before the 
 red clover-seed. The ripened seed-heads of Alsike clover, however, fall 
 off easier than that of red clover, and therefore in mowing Alsike clover 
 that has been allowed to ripen, still greater care must be taken than with 
 the seed of red clover. 
 
 Crimson Clover. — This variety is cultivated, at the 
 present writing, only in certain localities. It possesses 
 all the excellent characteristics of the early red clover. 
 Indeed, I have sometimes thought that this is earlier. 
 The stalks are fine, the heads long and cylindrical, yield- 
 ing more seed per acre, than the red clover. The 
 beautiful crimson color of the blossoms imparts a de- 
 lightful appearance to a large field, when the plants 
 are in full bloom. I am familiar with fields in New 
 
WHITE CLOVEK. 383 
 
 Jersey, on which this kind of clover was mowed three 
 times, in one season, and the green clover fed to cat- 
 tle in the yard. And after the third mowing, a young 
 crop appeared sufficiently large for good grazing. 
 Judging from what I have seen of it, I am inclined 
 to esteem" this variety as superior to the early red, for 
 making early grass, either for grazing, or for soiling. 
 The roots of this clover seem to spread out more like 
 grass, and do not strike so deep into the soil as the red 
 clover. The cultivation is in all respects similar to the 
 culture of red clover. 
 
 White Clover, (Trifolium repens.J — There are 
 several varieties of white clover, or of clover which 
 bears white blossoms. But the common white or 
 Dutch variety which is indigenous in this country, 
 and is partial to those soils containing a liberal admix- 
 ture of argillaceous or clayey matter, and which from 
 their constitutional conformation, are naturally moist 
 and cool. On lands of this description, it rarely fails 
 to show itself after the application of lime or ashes, 
 or, indeed, after a dressing of sheep manure, or any 
 other substance congenial to its nature. As white 
 clover grows late in the season, the seed is never 
 sowed separately by itself, but in conjunction with 
 aspiring grasses. As excellent herbage for pastures, 
 it is superior to all other kinds of clover, as it forms a 
 thick luxuriant sod. In shady situations, as in orchards, 
 or in the shadows of ornamental trees and shrubbery, 
 white clover flourishes with great luxuriance. In such 
 situations, the application of gypsum, lime, ashes, oys- 
 ter-shell manure, or bone-dust, will induce a luxuriant 
 development. Mixed with early red clover, or with 
 
384 todd's countkt homes. 
 
 red-top, white clover makes a most desirable food for 
 all descriptions of stock. 
 
 Management of Red Clovek for Seed. — When 
 the chief object is to raise a crop of seed, whether the 
 clover is grazed or mowed off, it ought always to be 
 done in the month of June, in our latitude, and previ- 
 ous to the full bloom. It is not practicable to raise a 
 good burden of hay and a crop of seed on the same 
 ground in one season from the large and late kind ; 
 nor can one expect a full yield of seed, if the first 
 growth be grazed too long. If the large, or late kind 
 of red clover be allowed to stand until it is in full 
 bloom, before it is cut, there will be only a small crop 
 of seed. The most successful way of managing this 
 kind of red clover is, to pasture it until about the 15th 
 or 20th of June; in New England, or New York, never 
 later than the 20th of the month. It has been my own 
 practice to feed it down close just before shutting the 
 animals off altogether ; and if there was more clover 
 than they could graze off, close to the ground, in a few 
 days, the remainder was mowed, and usually left where 
 it grew. And our most successful seed growers adoj)t 
 this practice. The object in mowing off all the stalks 
 that the stock leave, is to have all the clover start the 
 second time as evenly as possible, grow uniformly, and 
 all plants come to maturity at the same time, which is 
 very essential. The seed on the portions of the field 
 where the first growth has not been cut off, will come 
 to maturity several weeks before the greater part of 
 the crop is fit to cut. Consequently, most of it will 
 shell off and be lost, before the remainder can be se- 
 cured. Many farmers, in their first attempts to raise 
 
MANAGEMENT OF RED CLOVER. 385 
 
 the seed of the large kind of red clover, obtain only a 
 small crop, simply because the first growth was allowed 
 to advance too far. In growing a crop of seed of the 
 early, or small kind of red clover, the usual practice is 
 to make hay of the first growth, though it is sometimes 
 grazed off. Those who raise the largest crops of seed, 
 cut the first time before the crop is in full bloom. 
 They find this essential and aim to cut when about 
 two-thirds of the heads are in blossom. The stalks 
 and leaves will be very green at this stage, but every 
 day it is allowed to stand after this, tends to diminish 
 the quantity of seed. Consequently, when a farmer 
 thinks best to allow the first crop of clover to come 
 nearer maturity, for the purpose of having a greater 
 burden of hay, he must remember that he will lose 
 more in the yield of seed, than he will gain in the 
 quality and quantity of hay aftbrded by the first 
 growth of the clover. If there be any weeds among 
 clover, they should all be cut close to the ground, so 
 that the clover will get the start of them and effect- 
 ually suppress their growth. 
 
 I once had two. pieces of clover as nearly equal in 
 every respect, as we could perceive, one of which was 
 cut for hay, before all the heads were in blossom, and 
 before any of them began to turn brown, and the 
 other was allowed to stand five days longer. In the 
 fall, the crop appeared about as good in one piece as 
 in the other, so far as large heads and stalks were con- 
 cerned. But, after examining the heads for seed, we 
 found, that the heads of the first piece were well filled, 
 while those of the clover which was mowed after some 
 of the first crop of heads began to turn brown, had not 
 
 25 
 
386 todd's countey homes. 
 
 seed enough in them to pay the expense of getting it 
 out. 
 
 This lesson taught me the importance of cutting the 
 first growth of clover before the crop has fully blos- 
 somed, when the object is a crop of seed in the second 
 growth. Such clover will be green as grass, and suc- 
 culent as green buckwheat straw ; but the yield of 
 seed by cutting it thus green, will be much larger than 
 if it be allowed to stand longer. 
 
 Quantity of Clover Seed per Acre. — The least 
 possible quantity of red clover seed that will seed an 
 acre well, will depend entirely on the condition of the 
 soil, both as to its fertility and its mellowness. If half 
 a bushel, one bushel, or tw^o bushels of good seed be 
 sow^ed per acre, although it may all germinate, there 
 will only about so many stems come to maturity. Con- 
 sequently, the amount that is sown, over and above 
 what can vegetate, will be but little better than thrown 
 away. 
 
 A bushel of clover seed weighs, in the Empire State, 
 sixty pounds. One quart will weigh nearly two pounds. 
 Now, if the soil be in a good, or ev^ia in an ordinary, 
 state of fertility, and is not lumpy, but mellow and 
 smooth on the surface, four quarts, or about eight 
 pounds of good seed will seed an acre well. Indeed, I 
 have known only two quarts of red clover seed to be 
 sowed on an acre, which seeded the entire ground thor- 
 oughly. 
 
 It is a very erroneous idea, that clover, or grass seed 
 of any kind, must be sowed very thick. There can be 
 nothing gained by it. If the soil be uneven and lumjDy, 
 a large projDortion of the seed will be buried so deep, 
 
EED CLOVER OJS" A BARREN SOIL. _ 387 
 
 by the dissolving of lumps of earth, and by falling into 
 depressions and cracks, that the seed will never grow, 
 although it may germinate. And, if it does germinate, 
 and there is not space for it to grow, where is the ad- 
 vantage of sowing a large quantity of seed, of any 
 kind, that cannot grow, after it has vegetated ? The 
 surface of the soil should be very fine and mellow. 
 Then, half the usual quantity of seed will cover the 
 surface with a satisfactory sod. 
 
 The yield of seed, per acre, will depend wholly on 
 the cultivation and management. I have known pretty 
 good farmers to get only one bushel per acre. Then, 
 again, I have known others to harvest over seven bush- 
 els . of beautiful seed per acre, from several acres. 
 Seven bushels of plump seed, is a large yield. Thre6 
 or four bushels per acre are considered a fair crop. 
 
 How TO Grow Red Clover on a Barren Soil. 
 — There are thousands of acres of land, that are not 
 wet, where much good management will be indis- 
 pensably necessary in order to make clover seed vege- 
 tate and mature even a very stinted growth. I have 
 met with many fields on our lake slopes, and river 
 slopes, where the soil was too poor — naturally — before 
 it had ever been plowed, to produce anything but 
 small mulleins, and a few other noxious plants. And, 
 if grass seed were sowed there, it would not grow ; 
 because there is not vegetable matter enough in the 
 soil to feed even a small crop of grass. 
 
 There are two ways — both of which are reliable — for 
 producing a crop of red clover on such soils. Let the 
 soil be well plowed in autumn, with fine, narrow furrow 
 slices ; and the next spring, as soon as the ground is 
 
388 todd's country homes. 
 
 warm and dry, sow about one bushel of rye per acre, 
 and harrow it well. Then sow four pounds of red clo- 
 ver seed, of the large kind, and four or more pounds 
 of timothy seed. 
 
 The object in not plowing it, is to keep the fine soil 
 which the rains and frosts of winter have rendered more 
 mellow, on the surface, where it will form a nice seed- 
 bed for the young and tender grass-seed. Let the rains 
 cover the seed instead of the harrow. In case there 
 is no manure, or no muck, or vegetable matter to aid 
 and j^romote the growth af the young plants, this sys- 
 tem of management will prove successful. Let a few 
 bushels of ashes, gypsum and lime be sowed, per acre. 
 
 After the rye has headed out, let all the heads be cut 
 off with a grass * scythe, and let them decay on the 
 ground. Let the stubble remain as high as possible, to 
 protect the young clover from the scorching sunshine. 
 
 The object of clipping off the heads of rye, is, to 
 prevent the formation of grain, which will exhaust the 
 soil. Now, let the clover grow, and keep every animal 
 off it, even should it be large, the next autumn. The 
 next summer, the clover may be plowed under. 
 
 The next process, with the improvements on the first 
 mentioned, is, to plow in autumn, as directed, and, dur- 
 ing the winter, give the land a light dressing of com- 
 post, or fine barn-yard manure, spread thin and even 
 over the entire surface. Then, sow rye in the spring, 
 as directed ; harrow it in, and, sow clover and timothy 
 in quantities as stated. By applying a top dressing of 
 manure, in the winter, and harrowing it thoroughly, in 
 the spring, without plowing it, the surface will be 
 smooth, mellow and fertile, and, the seed will catch well 
 
BARLEY HORDEUM DISTICHUM. 389 
 
 and make a luxuriant growth during the season. Three 
 or four bushels of gypsum per acre, in addition, and six 
 or eight of lime, will pay well. In absence of manure, 
 pile up a quantity of sods, from the highway side, until 
 they are well decayed, and spread the mellow earth 
 very thin over the soil. Or, haul on muck, or alluvium, 
 or any soil, or substance, in which there is an abund- 
 ance of vegetable matter ; spread it thin, and keep it 
 near the surface, by simply harrowing it in. In au- 
 tumn, you will, doubtless, be prompted to turn in sheep, 
 or cattle to graze. But, it would be far better to pur- 
 chase grain and hay for such animals than to allow them 
 to crop off the young clover in autumn. The roots will 
 need all the benefit that will come from the leaves and 
 stems to protect them during winter, and to furnish 
 nourishment for them, the next summer. The next 
 season, there will be a good crop to plow under. These 
 directions will apply equally well to the management 
 of Alsike, or crimson clover. In many instances, how- 
 ever, the seed of the Alsike will be much smaller than 
 other seed. Consequently, a smaller quantity will suf- 
 fice for seeding an acre. 
 
 BARLEY— HORDEUM DISTICHUM. 
 "'Tis joy to walk in harvest days, near fields of bearded barley ; 
 To pluck the fruit, and an ear of wheat, and an ear of bearded barley. 
 As they move along, with nestling sounds, with loads of bearded barley." 
 
 Maky Howitt. 
 
 The first mention of barley in sacred history we find 
 in Exodus 9 : 31, by which we are assured, that barley 
 was raised by the Egyptians, at the time when the 
 Lord sent a plague of hail on that nation. Commenta- 
 tors tell us, that barley derives its name from the long 
 beard that grows upon the ears of that grain. Pliny, 
 
390 todd's country homes. 
 
 an ancient historian, informs us, on the authority of 
 Leander, that barley was the most ancient aUment of 
 the human family. His supposition cannot be refuted. 
 There is no doubt, that barley was created at the same 
 time with wheat, and, that it has been grown, in some 
 countries, ever since, where the soil is adapted to the 
 production of wheat. Barley-meal will make most 
 excellent bread and cakes, and much better food for 
 fattening animals, than most people have supposed. 
 But, it should always be mingled with other grain, 
 and ground into fine meal, for any kind of domestic 
 animals. 
 
 The great use to which barley is appropriated in 
 many of the oriental countries, and esjoecially in 
 America, is, to make malt, for brewing purposes. Both 
 Americans and Europeans contract such habits for 
 drink, drink, drink, that but little barley is used for 
 any other purpose, besides making beer, or some other 
 beverage. When the grain is properly burned, as 
 coffee is prepared, barley makes an excellent drink. 
 
 The immense increase in the consumption of malt 
 liquors of the last few years, and the prospect of a still 
 further increase, makes the barley crop one of con- 
 stantly growing importance. Our home production 
 has not been sufficient to supply the demand, and large 
 quantities have been imported during the past year 
 from England. Most of the barley raised in Canada 
 every year finds its market within the United States, 
 and will probably continue to be sold to us for a long 
 time to come. In the present state of society, the 
 beer-drinkers will, and do, find the barley necessary to 
 supply their demands that is raised here or elsewhere. 
 
VARIETIES OF BARLEY. 391 
 
 and they send gold and silver out of the country to 
 purchase whatever quantity our farmers fail to raise 
 for them. While the sum total of the beer consumed 
 remains as it is now, it is certainly for the best interests 
 of the national finances that the money paid for barley 
 or malt should be kept within our own boundaries. Bar- 
 ley raised in any district that is not well supplied with 
 barns to secure it against rain, must always sell to the 
 brewers for a low price. Hon. George Geddies, states 
 the relative cost of barley and wheat is about as three 
 to two ; • that is, three busheis of barley delivered in 
 market costs about as much as two bushels of wheat, 
 to the grower; with this advantage in favor of the 
 barley: In about four months (if threshed immediately 
 after harvest,) from the time of sowing the seed, the 
 money may be had for the crop, while about eleven 
 months will be required to raise and market a crop of 
 winter-wheat. 
 
 I am an out-and-out temperance advocate, both in 
 eating and drinking. And I will not even write on 
 the subject of tobacco, except to denounce its use. 
 Intoxicating liquors are made out of Indian corn, rye, 
 and oats, as well as barley. But, because tillers of the 
 soil raise grain for the food of men and useful animals, 
 must moral and religious people give up the cultivation 
 of all these products of the soil, because a portion of 
 mankind pervert and abuse the proper use of food 
 supplies? Tobacco is 7iot food in any shape. There- 
 fore, moral and Christian people are decidedly culpable 
 for appropriating the use of their best land to the pro- 
 duction of a vile, poisonous, hurtful crop — terribly ex- 
 hausting to a gooji soil — simply because bad men will 
 
392 todd's countkt homes. 
 
 pay money for it. If barley would not make excellent 
 bread and meal, for all kinds of domestic animals, I 
 would not record a paragraph touching its cultivation. 
 
 Varieties of Baeley. — We have winter-barley, 
 and three or four kinds of spring-barley. But two of 
 these may well be considered the same, so that we 
 have left only winter-barley and two varieties of spring, 
 that call for any description — the two-rowed and the 
 six-rowed. The two-rowed is longer in ripening, giving 
 us time to get wheat harvested and out of the way, 
 while the six-rowed ripens in the midst of wheat har- 
 vest. The six-rowed brings the highest price, usually 
 about ten per cent, more than the two-rowed. As a 
 general rule, the two-rowed barley is more free from 
 smut than the six-rowed; and those who have culti- 
 vated both feel assured that the two-rowed is invari- 
 ably more productive than the six-rowed. Others 
 affirm that the two-rowed stands erect better than the 
 six-rowed. 
 
 The great objection to sowing winter-barley is its 
 liability to be frozen out, unless the soil has been well 
 under-drained and is in a good state of fertility. And 
 even then, I have found upon inquiry, that those who 
 have practiced raising it, for a few years past, are satis- 
 fied that they are almost always surer of a better and 
 more abundant crop when spring-barley is cultivated. 
 Consequently, most farmers have abandoned raising 
 winter-barley. They plow the soil well in autumn, 
 and give it a light dressing of manure, and then plow 
 the ground again in the spring, and put in spring bar- 
 ley. When all circumstances and contingencies are 
 taken into consideration, I think that in our latitude it 
 
IMPOETANCE OF CLEAN SEED. 393 
 
 will be found the safest to sow barley only in the spring 
 of the year. There is something to be gained in the 
 quality of grain in raising winter-wheat. But we can 
 not plead any such advantage or profit in a crop of 
 barley, as the spring-barley is quite equal to the winter- 
 barley. Winter-barley requires about as good soil, and 
 nearly as thorough preparation, as is requisite for a 
 crop of winter-wheat. It may do well with less manure 
 than wheat. Still, winter-barley will be benefited by 
 a light sprinkling of good manure, almost as much as 
 wheat. Winter-barley does not give general, satisfac- 
 tion, as the young plants must be subjected to all the 
 perils of our cold and severe winters. 
 
 I have frequently met with a variety of barley 
 denominated the " Skinless-barley," which resembles 
 Egyptian wheat. The yield has always seemed to be 
 satisfactory. But as buyers are usually afraid of it, 
 there seems to be only a home market for it. In cer- 
 tain sections of the country, I have met with what is 
 called the " Nepaul-barley," which is held in high esti- 
 mation. But the seed of this variety is scarce. In 
 certain sections of country there is still another variety 
 known as the " Emir-barley." 
 
 Importance of Clean Seed. — When barley is 
 ground and fed out on the farm, if other grain be min- 
 gled with it, the value will not be diminished. But, 
 when barley is produced for making malt, if there is 
 not one ounce of oats, or buckwheat in a bushel of bar- 
 ley, maltsters will not pay as much, per bushel, by five 
 to fifteen cents, as if the seed were pure. Oats injure 
 the sale of barley, as they are a dead loss when the 
 barley is made into malt. Oats and other grain will 
 
394 todd's country homes. 
 
 not make malt. For this reason, maltsters often dock a 
 producer fifteen cents, per bushel, when the oats in the 
 barley, if they were all collected and weighed, would 
 not be worth half a cent. The correct way to raise 
 barley is, to have the entire crop so perfectly free from 
 other grain, that it will be difficult to find a kernel of 
 any other grain, in a hundred bushels. Farmers who 
 produce barley for market, should aim to raise such a 
 crop as will be an honor to the tiller of the soil, and to 
 produce such grain as is received in the New York 
 market from Canada. It will be seen, by the market 
 reports, that barley from Canada is usually sold for ten 
 to thirty cents per bushel, more than State barley. This 
 fact is a disreputable commentary on the management 
 of our farmers. In Canada, particular attention is paid 
 to the purity and plumpness of the seed. Here, many 
 farmers sow anything that passes under the name of 
 barley. In Canada, farmers are so careful to keep 
 every kernel of oats out of their barley, that they will 
 not even feed tlieir teams with oats, when plowing 
 and seeding for a crop of this kind of grain. In a few 
 localities in this country, the same care is exercised. 
 If a farmer has no choice seed, entirely free from oats 
 and all other grain, let him send to Canada and pro- 
 cure a supply. Then, should there be any small and 
 imperfect kernels among the seed, let the whole be 
 passed through a fanning-mill, while a heavy blast is 
 applied, to blow out every kernel except the largest 
 and heaviest. After the seed has been put in, on a 
 clean piece of ground, if noxious weeds spring up, 
 pull them out of the growing grain. Resolve to do 
 one job, if no more, as nearly right as the details can 
 
PKEPAKATION OF SOIL AND SEEDING. 395 
 
 be performed. Just before the crop has matured, make 
 preparations for raising a supply of clean and plump 
 seed. If barley must be stored in the same barn with 
 oats or wheat, let the barley always be put above other 
 grain. Barley will not injure the sale of oats. When 
 seed barley is run through a fanning-mill, give a heavy 
 blast, to separate all light and small kernels, which will 
 be just as good to feed domestic animals, as large and 
 plump kernels. Those who raise barley cannot be too 
 careful in keeping different varieties separate, as malt- 
 sters assure us, that mixed lots will not malt alike. 
 Old barley and new will not malt alike. Consequently, 
 there must be more or less loss, in the kind that is a lon- 
 ger time malting, than most of the kernels. Slovenly 
 farmers always experience much difficulty in keeping 
 oats from growing with barley. In some way, a few 
 oats will get into barley, unless very great care is 
 used. By making a brine strong enough to float the 
 oats, they may be taken out of the seed ; then by using 
 freshly slaked lime, the salt may be decomposed and 
 the seed sown without danger of destroying its vitality. 
 Pkepakation of Soil and Seeding. — Barley, like 
 wheat, must have the advantage of a clean, rich and 
 thoroughly prepared soil, whether the ground be heavy 
 or light. Wherever a fair crop of wheat can be raised, 
 there will be no difficulty in growing a bountiful crop 
 of barley, although the most congenial soil for barley is 
 a strong loam. When strong clays are used for the 
 production of barley, the previous crop should have 
 been a hoed one, as corn or roots; and the first plowing 
 should take place late in the fall, the land being left 
 rough during the winter season, so that the frosts may 
 
396 todd's countky homes. 
 
 render it friable before spring. If plowed again in the 
 spring and well harrowed, cross-harrowed and rolled, 
 excellent crops may be obtained even on the heavier 
 kinds of soils. In many sections of our country, large 
 crops of barley are raised on clover sod. If the land 
 is in an excellent state of fertility, and free from foul 
 weeds, there will be a heavy yield of grain. When a 
 crop of barley is to be raised on old sod ground, it will 
 be best to plow it late in the fall, before the barley is to 
 be sown, leaving the furrows unharrowed, just as the 
 plow left them, for the action of the winter's frosts. 
 Early in the spring — as soon as the ground will allow 
 the tramping of the teams and the use of tools — har- 
 row, and sow the seed. Barley must he sown early, or 
 a light crop may be expected. The high price which 
 this grain has commanded for the last two or three 
 years, and its excellent qualities as a milk-producing 
 food for dairy stock, seems to demand for it more gen- 
 eral attention than it has yet received. The grain, 
 when ground and fed to animals producing milk, is 
 considered by many farmers, more valuable than corn. 
 It is as good a grain as wheat to seed with for the suc- 
 ceeding crop of grass. The number of bushels per 
 acre, varies from thirty to sixty, according to circum- 
 stances, though from forty to forty-five may be con- 
 sidered a bountiful crop. On some farms, sixty bushels 
 are produced ; while in many localities, where farmers 
 do not maintain the fertility of their land, the product 
 is not over twenty bushels per acre. Barley is a good 
 crop to follow corn. If the ground has been well 
 enriched with manure, it will be just right for the 
 barley. Otherwise the ground should have a special 
 
DRILLING IN" THE SEED. 397 
 
 application of fine manure, well broken and harrowed 
 in. Wheat may follow the barley, if the ground re- 
 ceives a top-dressing of fine manure in autumn before 
 or after the wheat is sown. Or, if the barley is sown 
 rather thinly, it is a good crop to seed down with clover 
 in the spring of the year. It will be useless to attempt 
 to raise a fair crop of barley on a poor thin soil. The 
 unsatisfactory success of many cultivators of late years, 
 or, as it is commonly termed, the deterioration of the 
 crop, is owing to a deficiency in the proper preparation 
 of the soil and the seed. Exhausted or poor land will 
 not answer; and the soil must be in a state of fine pul- 
 verization. The seed should be sown very early in the 
 spring, provided the ground can be well prepared. 
 Sometimes late autumn plowing, with the use of the 
 horse-cultivator in the spring, has been found to suc- 
 ceed well on dry soils. But my own experience is 
 decidedly in favor of plowing the barley ground again 
 in the spring, after it was broken up in late autumn. 
 A crop of barley should constitute one of the principal 
 crops in a four or five years' rotation. 
 
 The usual quantity of seed sown per acre is from 
 one and one-half to two bushels. I have known some 
 farmers to put in three bushels per acre. But if the 
 seed is clean, and the soil rich and properly prepared, 
 two bushels will be a sufficient quantity per acre. 
 
 Drilling in the Seed. — I am aware that not a few 
 fancy farmers who know more than men of extensive 
 experience in raising all kinds of grain, state, that they 
 would not have barley drilled in, if a person would do 
 it gratuitously. I know, from long experience that, it 
 is far better to drill in the seed. George Geddes one 
 
398 todd's country homes. 
 
 of the best farmers of the Empire State, writes : " Two 
 bushels of seed are enough for an acre. I would 
 rather sow less than more. We sow with the drill, 
 because we thus plant the seeds at the uniform depth of 
 about two inches; and we finish the work as we go 
 along;. It is no more work to drill an acre than it is 
 to harrow it; and the drill leaves the ground lighter 
 than does a harrow." I have always found that barley 
 when drilled in, will yield a much larger number of 
 bushels per acre than when the seed is sown broadcast 
 and harrowed in. 
 
 The reason for the difference in the yield may be 
 thus explained : When the seed is harrowed in, a large 
 proportion of it will be buried too deep by the feet of 
 heavy teams. Consequently, the growth of those 
 stems which spring from the seed buried too deep, will 
 be too feeble to maintain an equal position with the 
 barley on each side. Of course the product will be 
 less than if every stem had an equal chance to develop. 
 When the seed is drilled in, nearly every kernel is 
 buried at a uniform depth. And more than this, the 
 seed is distributed over the field more evenly, than 
 any man can scatter it by hand. 
 
 The proper depth for burying the seed is an im- 
 portant consideration, when drilling it in. The seed 
 of winter-barley should not be covered over one inch 
 deep, so that a large proportion of the roots may spread 
 out near the surface of the ground, and thus form a 
 kind of fibrous matting, which will rise and settle back 
 as the surface of the ground freezes and thaws. This 
 will prevent the young plants being lifted out by the 
 frost. Spring-barley, if the soil be heavy, should be 
 
WHEN TO HARVEST BAELET. 399 
 
 put in not over two inches deep. One inch will be 
 better. But if the ground be light, mellow and porous, 
 four inches deep will be better than two, as the young 
 plants will get a firmer hold in the soil, which will 
 enable them to withstand the injurious influences of 
 dry weather better than if the plants were rooted near 
 the surface. To kill the smut, steep the seed one day 
 in a moderately strong brine containing some blue 
 vitriol; then roll it in lime or plaster, just before the 
 grain is put in. 
 
 When to Harvest Barley. — 
 
 They take the sickle from the barn, when morning dews shine pearly ; 
 And the mower whets the ringing scythe, to cut the bearded barley. 
 
 Mart Howitt. 
 
 Most farmers allow their barley to stand too long 
 before cutting it. The cutting should not be deferred 
 until every ear appears fully ripe. Barley is ripe when 
 the red roan, as the farmers term it, meaning a reddish 
 color on the ear, is gone off; or when the ears droop 
 and fall, as it were, double against the straw, and the 
 stalks have lost their verdure. But in the latter case 
 it is too ripe. When barley is cut in the striped state, 
 the skin is thinner, the grain is said to sprout quicker 
 and more vigorously, is preferred by maltsters, and will 
 bring a higher price in the market than if it had been 
 allowed to become dead ripe. If cut even two or three 
 days too early, the berry shrinks very badly. If 
 allowed to stand a few days after it is in condition to 
 cut, the stalk bends over, and the head points toward 
 the ground, and the straw being short and limber, in a 
 little time the head will be so low that the reaping 
 machine will cut the straw twice in two, dropping 
 many of the ears on the earth, where no rake can 
 
400 todd's country homes. 
 
 gather them. Thus the grain will be lost, unless har- 
 vested almost the day it is in proper condition. In 
 this country, there is no necessity for seeking early 
 ripening barley, as our convenience is promoted by 
 having our barley harvest as late as our seasons will 
 allow. This is the principal reason why our farmers 
 prefer to raise the two-rowed, to the six-rowed. The 
 two-rowed does not ripen so early as the six-rowed, 
 and the barley harvest will not come in the time of 
 wheat harvest. Though the six-rowed is worth the 
 most per bushel, and sometimes produces more bushels 
 to the acre than does the two-rowed, it must be har- 
 vested at the same time as the wheat; and if it is not 
 cut just at the right time, great loss in the value of the 
 grain must be sustained. Barley is almost always fit 
 to cut, while there is a greenish lustre on the straw. 
 As soon as the grain has passed the " dough state," let 
 the crop be cut. Barley should be cut when ripe 
 enough to prevent shrinking. 
 How TO Harvest Barley. — 
 
 " Some mow it, and rake it and put it in cocks, 
 Or cradle and bind it, and set it in shocks." 
 
 Tom Tusser. 
 
 If barley stands up satisflictorily and the straw is of 
 sufficient length to make bands, the neatest way to 
 harvest the crop is, to cradle it, or cut it with a reaper 
 and bind it in sheaves. Then, set the sheaves in shocks, 
 and cover them with hay caps, in lowery and wet weather. 
 There is no better way to harvest barley than this, and 
 yet it is the most laborious way. When gathered in 
 this manner, the grain will be as bright as the kernels 
 can be. The crop should be bound up at once, and put 
 into shocks to protect it from the weather until it is 
 
HOW TO HARVEST BAELEY. 401 
 
 ready to be carted to the barn. The grain is almost 
 invariably threshed out by machinery, and in some in- 
 stances, barley is threshed in the field. But, as the 
 straw, when harvested without being exjDOsed to much 
 rain, makes such excellent fodder, my own practice 
 always has. been, to gather the crop under shelter, or 
 thresh out the grain and secure the straw as soon as 
 practicable. It will pay to employ hay caps for cover- 
 ing the stooks, or barley-cocks, in stormy weather. It 
 is of eminent importance that all possible precautions 
 be taken to prevent the grain from being stained, by 
 exposure to storms and dews. When barley is not 
 bound, it should not be allowed to remain longer than 
 a few hours, in the swath, especially if the grain is not 
 fully matured. When barley is to be cut with a ma- 
 chine, and dropped in gavels, a self-raking reaper is by 
 far the best implement to cut barley. Allow the rakes 
 to run so as to cast the grain into small gavels. There 
 let them remain until fit for the barn in all ordinary 
 seasons. If showers come, the grain will dry off in 
 such gavels as well as anywhere, and the water will 
 run so quickly through them, that the grain will be 
 less stained than it would be in cocks. As soon as the 
 grain is fit to cart to the barn, gather it in winrows 
 with a wheel-rake having long sweeping steel teeth. 
 An active boy can rake in this way more than eight 
 men with hand-rakes. Drive the wagons between two 
 winrows, and with proper forks pitch on the barley, 
 draw it to the barn and with a horse-fork remove it to 
 the mow. Let the crop remain in the mow till all sweat 
 has passed from it. This process of harvesting involves 
 the minimum of labor, and most of what is required is 
 
 26 
 
402 todd's country homes. 
 
 performed by horses and improved machinery. This 
 is decidedly the cheapest and most expeditious manner 
 of harvesting a crop of barley. In case frequent show- 
 ers fall before the crop can be stored, the gavels must 
 be turned over and shaken uj), once a day, to prevent 
 injury of the grain. In many instances, there will be 
 a thick growth of green herbage in the butt ends of 
 the gavels. Let them be shaken up and turned over, 
 two or three times daily, if the sun shines, and breezes 
 blow. Then, as soon as the green stems and leaves are 
 cured, the crop may be carted to the barn. 
 
 When barn room is scarce, let the barley be stacked 
 near the barn. Then, let the straw drop on the barn 
 floor, as the grain is thrashed, and pitch it with a horse- 
 fork to any part of the building. Every farmer wdio 
 raises barley ought to exercise as much care in curing 
 and housing the straw, as if it were grass. Barley 
 straw that has been bleached to death, will make very 
 poor fodder for any animals. 
 
 Cocking Barley so as to carry off Rain. — 
 "Water, when left free to flow, will always run down 
 hill. Now, if we extend a number of long straws over 
 anything, giving them an inclination of forty-five de- 
 grees or more, they will carry ofl" all the water. When 
 they cross each other, the drops of water will pass from 
 one straw to another. The water will run the way the 
 straws slant. This consideration is of great practical 
 importance in building stacks of every kind, and in 
 cocking hay, barley and every other kind of grain, 
 when it is an object of any importance to carry the 
 rain off the cocks, instead of conducting it inwards 
 toward the middle. If barley be properly cocked, it 
 
COCKING BARLEY. 403 
 
 will stand a very hard rain, without being wet but very 
 little ; whereas, if it be thrown together in a hap-hazard 
 manner, almost every straw will be wet through the 
 entire cock, during an ordinary shower. If the cocks 
 are to be covered with hay-caps during a shower, it 
 matters little how the bunches of barley are placed. 
 But in case barley must remain in the cock during a 
 storm, unprotected by caps, it should be so cocked that 
 it will shed rain. If the straw is long, the cocks should 
 be about one-third larger in diameter than the length 
 of the straw. Then we should always endeavor to 
 keep the middle the highest, by placing the heads near 
 the middle of the cock, with the straw slanting in a 
 direction to carry the rain from the middle. Let the 
 cocks be "trimmed up," as we usually say, by raking 
 them oif smooth, and forming a very conical top. Now, 
 take a gavel of short barley and spread it over the top 
 of a cock, by walking entirely round it, placing the 
 straws in such a position that they will conduct the 
 rain away from the middle of the cock. The rain will 
 be conducted along the straws, if they have a little in- 
 clination, so that the greater proportion of the water 
 that falls — unless it should rain very hard — will all be 
 conducted off, and the barley will be wet but little. 
 But when a good portion of the straw slants inwards 
 towards the middle of the cock, the water will be con- 
 ducted inwards, and the cocks will be well saturated 
 with water, through and through. As a consequence, 
 the grain will be stained ; and a farther result will be, 
 the producer will be obliged to accept five, ten, or 
 fifteen cents per bushel less, than if the same grain had 
 been bright. 
 
404 todd's countey homes. 
 
 Thrashing Barlet. — If one has a machine of his 
 own, there is no better way to manage the crop than 
 to thrash the grain as it is drawn from the field. Bar- 
 ley can be run through a two-horse railway thrashing- 
 machine almost as fast as one man can pitch it from 
 the wagon. Besides this, if barley is stored in a barn 
 with oats or wheat, it will be almost impossible to keep 
 it from the barley, which will always injure the sale. 
 Buyers and maltsters want to see nothing but the clean 
 grain. A few oats or a little buckwheat will often 
 damage the producer, in price, ten to fifteen cents per 
 bushel. Great care should be exercised in adjusting 
 the spikes of the machine, so that they will not crack 
 the kernels, as every broken kernel is worse than de- 
 stroyed for the maltster. All such grain will not sprout; 
 but the kernels will mould, rot, and injure the beer. 
 Clean the grain well, and if no weeds were grown w^ith 
 the crop, and carried into the mow to stain the barley, 
 and it was not severely wet in harvest, clean seed 
 having been used, the best price will be received for 
 the grain. If the grain be thrashed in a few days 
 after the crop was cut, let it be spread on a floor, not 
 more than one foot deep, to cure. When thrashing 
 barley, in order to clear the grains of the short beard, 
 it was formerly the common practice to give it a second 
 pounding with a flail. But now, the same end is ac- 
 complished by passing H a second time through the 
 thrashing-machine . 
 
 Making Malt. — Malt is made by sprouting and 
 drying the barley. The grain is first steeped in large 
 reservoirs, forty-eight to sixty hours. It is then re- 
 moved to a floor, where every kernel sends out a sys- 
 
BAKLET AND FLAX. 405 
 
 tern of roots, several inches long. But, before the germs 
 have protruded, the germinating process is arrested. 
 This is called couching. The object is to develop a sac- 
 charine principle. As soon as the grain is sufficiently 
 germinated, and the saccharine principle is developed 
 properly, the barley is spread out thin, on a metallic 
 floor, and kiln dried by the application of artificial 
 heat, during which time, the grain is frequently turned 
 with shovels. In drying, the roots break off the ker- 
 nels, and furnish malt dust. About eighty bushels of 
 barley will make one hundred of malt. It will be per- 
 ceived by this brief description of the process of mak- 
 ing malt, that it is important to have grain that will all 
 germinate alike. Otherwise there must be a loss. 
 
 Barley and Flax. — Many farmers practice raising 
 a crop of barley and flax at the same time, on the same 
 ground. But, I have no sympathy with that system 
 of management. The flax is a weed — an enemy — 
 among the barley. Besides this, one crop is sufficient 
 for the fertihty of the soil. When the two are culti- 
 vated together, the barley is first put in, then the flax- 
 seed is sown, and covered with the brush. The crops 
 ripen nearly together. They are harvested, and then 
 thrashed with a common thrashing-machine, and by the 
 use of suitable screens in the fanning-mill, the barley 
 comes out clean in the front part of the mill, and the 
 flax-seed is received in a box at one side of the mill. 
 If there i^ any foul seed in the flax-seed, it must be run 
 through the fan again, so as to separate it from the 
 flax-seed. The quantity of seed is about two bushels 
 of barley, and one peck of flax-seed. If the mainte- 
 nance of the fertility of the soil were no object, and it 
 
406 todd's countky homes. 
 
 were desirable to remove the largest possible yield from 
 a given field, in one season, I would put in seed barley 
 as early as practicable, harvest the crop as soon as the 
 grain could be gathered, and raise a crop of buckwheat, 
 rather than cultivate flax and barley together. But 
 true economy demands that proper attention should 
 always be paid to the maintenance of the fertility of 
 the soil. It is but poor policy for a merchant to invest 
 his money in such a way as to diminish his capital year 
 by year, until at last, nothing is left. The same policy 
 is adopted by those who aim to produce as large a crop 
 as they can this year, and perhaps next, without pay- 
 ing any attention or giving any thought to the condi- 
 tion in which the soil will be left. 
 
CHAPTEE XI 
 
 HOKTICULTURE AND POMOLOGY. 
 
 The Kitchen Garden — Draining — Preparation of Soil — How to Spade — 
 General Principles of Horticulture — When to Plant — Utility of Weeds 
 — Ripening Fruit and Vegetables — How to Transplant — Good Seed — 
 Carrots — Corn — Potatoes — Turnips — Melons — Squashes — Apples — 
 
 Pears — Small Fruits. 
 
 " Now begins 
 The housewife's happiest season of the year, 
 The ground already broken by the spade, 
 The beds made level with the passing rake, 
 She plants the early peas and then the beans, 
 But, chief of all, with careful hands she sets 
 The slips, and bulbs, and plants which round each bed 
 Shall make a bright embroidery of flowers." 
 
 The Kitchen Garden. — Every family should appro- 
 priate a small plot of ground to the cultivation of such 
 vegetables as all virtuous people esteem among the lux- 
 uries of the table. A person who takes pride in his 
 garden can hardly be a bad man ; certainty, if he de- 
 votes only his leisure time to it, he could not be placed 
 under better influences. It is really surprising to see 
 what a large amount of excellent food may be pro- 
 duced on even a small plot of ground. More luxuries, 
 in the form of healthful food for the family, can be ob- 
 tained from a well cultivated garden, than from the 
 same amount of labor and care expended in any other 
 way. Besides this a well cultivated garden increases 
 the beauty and comfort of the home, and tends to fos- 
 
408 todd's countey homes. 
 
 ter and cherish the domestic virtues. It throws an air 
 of refinement and beauty around the home, expands 
 the mind, and arouses the intellect from the torpidity 
 into which that of the farmer is so apt to fall. Not 
 only the farmer himself, but his whole family will feel 
 the beneficial influence of a neat, well cultivated gar- 
 den. If the social influence of the garden is not suf- 
 ficient inducement to our fiirmers to prompt them to 
 spare a corner of their great fields, let them consider 
 its profits in the light of dollars and cents. The civiliz- 
 ing and enlightening influences of gardening cannot be 
 overestimated, to say nothing of the superior quality 
 of the products of one's own grounds, when compared 
 with the miserable trash that one must accept if he 
 purchases at our city markets. 
 
 Under-dkaining Gardens. — The first consideration 
 in preparing a garden, whatever the soil may be, is 
 thorough under-draining. In many places selected for 
 a garden, nature has made ample provision for convey- 
 ing away all surplus water. Where the subsoil is so 
 compact that water will stand on the surface after a 
 heavy shower, or in the spring of the year, the land 
 must be drained. It will be folly to attempt to make 
 a good garden when there is an excess of moisture in 
 the soil. When a garden is located on a slope of land, 
 by cutting a deep ditch across the upper side, to cut 
 off the water-veins, the entire garden may be made 
 quite dry, by a short drain. (See Draining, page 344.) 
 
 Preparation of the Soil. — For a good garden, one 
 wants a deep, fertile and mellow soil, in which he can pro- 
 duce anything that he may desire to cultivate, which 
 will mature in his latitude. If the soil is a deep, light and 
 
HOW TO SPADE A GARDEN^. 409 
 
 sandy, mingle with it fifty loads of clay and twenty or 
 more of muck, or street dirt, or leaf mould. If clay 
 preponderates, apply sand, fine gravel, loam, muck, 
 or chip-dirt, sawdust, tan-bark, turners' -shavings, and 
 anything else that will render the soil more light and 
 porous. Should there be more black muck than any 
 other kind of soil, apply clay and sand. In case the 
 light soil rests on a calcareous subsoil, the better way 
 will be to trench the entire ground with a plow, or 
 spading fork, by turning up the subsoil and mingling 
 the light surface soil with the heavier subsoil. But 
 this should be done in late autumn, or winter. Then, 
 pile on the manure, and mingle it with the soil. 
 How TO Spade a Garden. — 
 
 " Hurrah for the spade and the man who can use it." 
 
 The best soil should always be kept on the surface so 
 far as may be practicable, as the seeds need a mellow 
 and rich bed not only to hasten germination, but to 
 promote a luxuriant growth. The soil must be thor- 
 oughly pulverized to a good depth — the deeper the 
 better. In order to spade or to fork a garden proj)erly, 
 throw back the soil from a strip about five feet wide 
 and one foot deep. This mellow surface soil must be 
 wheeled to the opposite side of the garden, when the 
 spading is finished. After removing the surface soil as 
 directed, spade the subsoil with a spading fork, pulver- 
 izing it thoroughly, and return it, as nearly as practica- 
 ble, to the place where it was taken up. Then, spade 
 another strip of the surface soil, throwing it as the 
 work is done, on the pulverized subsoil, until another 
 strip of the subsoil has been laid bare, which may then 
 be spaded. This is called trench or double spading. 
 
410 todd's country homes. 
 
 The blade of the spade enters the soil, in both instan- 
 ces, not less than one foot, and as the ground will be 
 much more porous after it is spaded, the seed-bed will 
 be nearly thirty inches deep. If the soil be broken 
 deep, the roots of plants will strike much farther down- 
 ward than they otherwise would, and will thus avail 
 themselves of the moisture farthest from the surface, 
 which is not accessible when ground has not been 
 spaded, nor plowed more than a few inches in depth. 
 See that the indolent shirk forks up every square inch 
 clear down to the desired depth. If there is room for 
 a team and plow, let one narrow furrow be plowed 
 deep, and then put the spade down the length of the 
 blade, in the bottom of the farrow. In case the sub- 
 soil is so porous, that roots will readily strike down two 
 feet, such trenching may be dispensed with. After- 
 wards, pile on the manure in autumn. Employ a spad- 
 ing fork, instead of a spade, as a man will be able to 
 spade ground with a fork, with much less fatigue, than 
 with a spade. Read how to plow deep, page 339. The 
 soil must be thoroughly comminuted to a good depth, 
 say sixteen to twenty inches — or one need not expect 
 a bountiful crop. 
 
 If gardeners will use the garden fork, and turn the 
 soil up full fork deep, allowing it to remain in lumps 
 all winter exposed to the frost, it will put the soil in 
 excellent condition and tend greatly to add to the pro- 
 duction of next year's crop. But, never allow water 
 to stand on the garden, nor on any tillable land, as it 
 will fill all the pores which should be occupied with air, 
 will droivn the soil, and will cause the particles to flow 
 together like mortar, which ruins the fertility. When 
 
PEINCIPLES OF HOKTICULTURE. 411 
 
 there is much clay in the soil, keep all kinds of animals 
 off the garden in wet weather, as even the incessant 
 tread of poultry will pack down the surface, and thus 
 cause the soil to be lumpy. Pile on the manure. 
 Clear out the hennery, duckery, goosery, piggery, 
 dovery, and scatter the accumulations over the garden, 
 and fork everything into the soil. Scatter all the 
 ashes, both coal and wood, in the garden, instead of 
 collecting them in barrels. Then fork them in. 
 
 General Principles of Horticulture. — The prep- 
 aration of the soil for all kinds of vegetables will 
 require about the same forking and manuring. Then, 
 all kinds of seeds will require the advantage of a rich 
 and mellow seed-bed. Small seeds need only one- 
 fourth of an inch in depth of covering in a heavy soil. 
 But large seeds, like Indian corn and potatoes, must be 
 planted from two to four inches deep. In a light soil, 
 four inches in depth is none too deep for large seeds. 
 But such seeds as beans and squash seeds, the kernels 
 of which are taken on the ends of their respective 
 stems, and thrust up to the surface of the soil, should 
 always be planted rather shallow. In light sandy loam 
 soil, peas are sometimes planted eight to twelve inches 
 deep. Were they to be planted thus in a heavy soil, 
 not one of them could ever come up. As all plants 
 send out roots through the soil, it is of eminent im- 
 portance that the seed-bed be fine and mellow, so that 
 the numerous minute rootlets may spread without 
 difficulty, far and wide, to gather food and drink. If 
 one proposes to cultivate flowers, ' or raise fruit and 
 vegetables, the soil will require about the same 
 thorough preparation, by forking and manuring. 
 
412 todd's country homes. 
 
 When to Plant Seeds. — Some kinds of seeds can 
 be planted too early in the growing season. Certain 
 kinds, like Indian corn, must not be planted until 
 the ground is sufficiently warm to promote germina- 
 tion and rapid growth. If seeds be planted as soon as 
 the soil is sufficiently warm to promote speedy germina- 
 tion, the plants will be more productive, than if the 
 same seed had lain in the cold ground, for one or two 
 weeks, before there was sufficient warmth to keep the 
 plants growing. There is nothing gained by planting 
 any kind of seed before the ground is sufficiently warm 
 for it to germinate. Indeed, in many instances, plants 
 are seriously injured by putting the seed in the ground 
 too early. If seeds can be deposited in the soil, soon 
 after a warm and gentle shower of rain, they will ger- 
 minate much sooner than if planted previous to a heavy 
 rain. The reason for this is obvious. When seeds are 
 planted just before a heavy rain, the soil is washed 
 down closely around them, thus excluding the air, which 
 is essential to germination. But. if seeds are covered 
 with light soil, as soon after a shower as the. ground is 
 sufficiently dry to work, all the interstices of the soil 
 will be filled wdth warm aqueous vapor, which is more 
 conducive to rapid germination than the close contact 
 of cold and wet soil. 
 
 Do Not Work Ground too Early in the Grow- 
 ing Season. — If a garden be plowed, forked, or spaded 
 before the soil has settled and become warmed up, it 
 will need another plowing or spading when the seed is 
 about to be put into the seed-bed. There is nothing 
 gained by working ground of any kind before the soil 
 is sufficiently warm for plants to grow. 
 
WHAT SEEDS TO PLANT EARLY. 413 
 
 What Seeds to Plant Eaely. — Although potatoes 
 contain much starch, the sets, if properly managed, 
 may be forwarded in their growth, several days, by 
 putting them in a pail, or basket made dark with 
 paper, and hanging it in the kitchen. By this means 
 sets may have sprouts two or more inches in length, 
 when the ground is sufficiently warm to put them out. 
 As peas germinate at a lower temperature than Indian 
 corn, a row may be planted, and a wide board or two 
 set on the edge to shield them from the cold north 
 wind. In chilly weather the rows should be covered 
 with a wide board. Tomatoes, cucumbers, squashes, 
 melons, may be planted two weeks before the ground 
 in the garden is sufficiently warm to promote their 
 rapid growth, by planting the seeds on pieces of rich 
 sods turned grass-side down, on a shelf in a stove- 
 room, and furnished with fine garden mould, and 
 watered twice a day. The roots will spread through 
 the sods; and each piece may be removed to the gar- 
 den with the hill of growing plants, without checking 
 their growth in the least. Hills of choice squashes 
 may be started in this manner, and kept in the kitchen 
 until all danger of frost has passed, before the plants 
 and sods are put in the open ground. Tomato plants 
 may be kept growing on a piece of rich sod until the 
 stems are one foot high. Then, if planted in rich soil, 
 they will continue to grow rapidly, and fructify early 
 in the season. After hills of plants have been put out, 
 barrels, boxes and tubs should always be turned over 
 them during cold nights. Many other vegetables, as 
 well as flowers, may be started early in the same way, 
 with most satisfactory results. But if the seeds of 
 
414 todd's countky homes. 
 
 tender plants be put in the seed-bed before the ground 
 is sufficiently warm to promote rapid germination, the 
 germs will die and the seed decay. A great many 
 people often thwart their own purposes by putting in 
 their seeds too early. Always provide good seed and 
 a rich, well-prepared soil. Then, as soon as the ground 
 is warm, plow or fork it over, and plant the seed. 
 The great Utility of Weeds. — 
 
 " If seeds we plant not, weeds will fill the land ; 
 And thistles take the place for flowers designed." 
 
 We often wonder w^hat weeds were created for. And 
 then, the thoughts revert to the time, when the great 
 Creator said : " Thorns also and thistles shall the earth 
 bring forth." Most people feel that noxious weeds are 
 a curse to the soil ; when, in reality they are a great 
 blessing in disguise. Weeds — like clover — are w^onder- 
 ful renovators of the soil. If a farmer tills and reno- 
 vates his land more thoroughly than weeds are capable 
 of doing it, weeds will retire. But, just as soon as 
 the land seems to be tilled in such a perfunctory man- 
 ner as to allow the weeds a chance for rivalry, they will 
 put the agricultural ability of a pretty thorough farmer 
 to a severe test, to obtain the mastery. Still, it is no 
 difficult task to exterminate weeds and thistles of any 
 kind, if one will only till his land for the greatest profit. 
 Weeds were created for the purpose of compelling till- 
 ers of the soil to cultivate thoroughly. People would 
 not work their land half so well as they now do, were 
 it not for weeds. Canada thistles, daisies, wild mustard 
 and quack will not show their heads, if tillers of the 
 soil will cultivate their land to its greatest capacity of 
 productiveness. 
 
 Garden Tools. — When rows are so short, that a 
 
HOW TO TRANSPLANT. 415 
 
 horse hoe cannot be employed between them I have 
 found such a hand cultivator as is represented by the 
 illustration, to be a valuable labor-saving implement, for 
 scarifying the surface, and cutting up young weeds. 
 
 A HAND CULTIVATOE. 
 
 The cultivator is represented as prepared for digging 
 up the surface, with the tooth, Fig. 1. Fig. 2 is a 
 larger digger. Fig. 3 represents a small plow. Fig. 4 
 is a scuffle tooth for cutting up weeds. Fig. 5 repre- 
 sents a sharp wheel for cutting off strawberry runners. 
 Fig. 6 represents a rake for gathering weeds into 
 bunches. Two boys, one to draw, will do twenty times 
 as much with such a cultivator, as with other hand 
 tools. 
 
 How TO Transplant. — When plants are taken up, 
 and transplanted, the object should be to return them 
 again to the seed-bed, as nearly as may be practicable, 
 having every little rootlet spread out, separate from 
 others, just as the roots were before the tree or plant was 
 
416 
 
 TODD S COUNTRY HOMES. 
 
 taken up. But, as such a thing cannot be done, on ac- 
 count of the small rootlets, the better way is to use a 
 trowel for removing very small plants, or a transplanter, 
 for taking up a quart of soil with each plant — as repre- 
 sented by the accompanying figures. At the right, the 
 
 instrument is represented 
 as forced into the ground 
 around a plant. At the 
 left the parts are ready to 
 be thrust down by the foot. 
 An ingenious blacksmith 
 will make one in an hour. 
 The blades should be made 
 of thick sheet-iron, nine 
 inches long, and six inches 
 wide, at the top. It would 
 be a great improvement to 
 have the shanks cross each 
 TRANSPLANTER. otlier, Hkc a pair of nippers. 
 
 Such a device is one of the best tools for transplanting 
 almost anything that is to be removed. Sometimes one 
 can remove a large . bush, or hill of vegetables, by 
 thoroughly saturating the soil with water, where the 
 plant stands ; and then, by thrusting down the shovel 
 on four sides, and taking up a square of earth with the 
 shovel, and dropping it carefully in a depression, with- 
 out disturbing the roots. I have often removed large 
 plants, and some young trees, without apparent injury 
 to their growth, by lifting them with a shovel. 
 
 Transplanting tomatoes, cabbages, turnips and other 
 annuals, should never be done when the ground is so 
 wet that the soil will bake after it has dried. It is also 
 
CULTIVATION OF CAKROTS. 417 
 
 a bad practice to puddle the roots, that is, to wet and 
 so mud the roots by dipping them in a pail of mud, as 
 to cause them to adhere together. The most successful 
 practice in transplanting, is to plant in the moist ground, 
 when the earth pulverizes fine, work the fine soil among 
 the roots, until the hole is half filled, then fill the 
 hole with water, and as soon as it has soaked away, 
 draw in dry soil to finish and level the surface. When 
 the earth is pressed and tramped with one's feet, around 
 the roots, the new rootlets can scarcely w^ork through 
 the dense mass. I have transplanted a great many 
 young turnips and cabbage plants, and I have always 
 been most successful, when fine sand, or mellow soil 
 was filled into the hole or drill. If the day is not 
 cloudy, always transplant everything after sundown, so 
 that the young plants may begin to live, before the 
 burning sun can wilt the leaves. 
 Cultivation of Carrots. -^ — 
 
 " Now the spring time has come on ; and the snow and ice are gone, 
 Come, my little carrot root, will you not begin to shoot ? " 
 
 Few farmers, comparatively, can raise a bountiful 
 crop of carrots on account of the low state of fertility 
 of the soil, miserably poor seed, planting too early, 
 and the immense crop of noxious weeds whcli get the 
 start of the slow-growing plants. Carrots will not grow 
 where the soil has been run and impoverished by a long 
 succession of exhausting crops. Carrots require a deep, 
 clean and rich soil. They are dainty feeders, like the 
 wheat plant. Young carrot plants cannot cope with 
 weeds and grass. Every tiller of the soil should set 
 out a few of the largest and finest carrots for seed, 
 every spring. Then, gather none but the earliest and 
 largest panicles. Let these be saved to plant next 
 
 27 
 
418 todd's countey homes. 
 
 spring. Those panicles of seed that mature ^rs^ are 
 much the best, and will produce fairer and earlier car- 
 rots, while that seed which matures late in the season, 
 is not as good as the other, and the carrots produced 
 from it, will often be small and late. As soon as the 
 seed begins to turn from a green color to a brown, cut 
 off all those branches that are ripe, carry them beneath 
 a shelter, and spread them on a shelf Two pounds of 
 clean seed per acre is usually sufficient when drilled. 
 
 Prepakation of Soil for Carrots. — The first step 
 will be to render the land mellow and rich, and to ex- 
 terminate the weeds, before the seed is put in. If the 
 soil is at all heavy, plow and harrow it in late autumn. 
 The next spring, as soon as the soil is a little dry on 
 the surface, let it be harrowed. This will facilitate the 
 early vegetation of weeds, which will all be killed when 
 the ground is harrowed again, or 23lowed. Let the car- 
 rot ground be harrowed every two weeks, from the 
 commencement of the growing season, until the fruit 
 trees are in full bloom. Then plow and sow the car- 
 rot seed. By this system of management, the soil will 
 be so mellow and moist, that the young plants will get 
 the start of the weeds, and, with only a little timely 
 cultivation, will maintain the ascendency. If seed be 
 planted before the ground is warm, weeds will cover the 
 surface before a single carrot has appeared. To facili-^ 
 tate speedy germination of the seed, put it in a small 
 sack, and soak it for twenty hours, in tepid water. 
 Then, remove the seed from the water, drain it, roll it 
 in gypsum, and plant it before the germs dry. Do not 
 plant the seed more than half an inch deep. Make the 
 rows about thirty inches apart, and as straight as a line. 
 
CULTIVATION OF PAESNIPS. 419 
 
 When planting in the garden, stretch a line, make a 
 shallow drill beneath it, put in the seed, and cover it 
 with mellow soil. When one has no seed planter, carry 
 a long tin horn in one hand, the small end down, and 
 drop the seed by hand in the large end. By this means, 
 one can walk erect, and drop the seed where it should 
 fall. Thin the plants to about eight inches apart. Be- 
 gin to cultivate with a horse hoe, as soon as the rows 
 can be followed. If weeds are allowed to get the start 
 of the young carrots, a tiller of the soil will be very 
 apt to resolve never to cultivate any more carrots. 
 On the contrary, if he will follow the foregoing direc- 
 tions, to the letter, he can easily raise one thousand 
 bushels per acre, at an expense of only a few days' 
 work, besides manure. 
 
 Cultivation of Parsnips. — Parsnips are one of 
 the most profitable crops that a farmer or gardener can 
 raise, either as a vegetable for his own table, or for 
 milch cows. On certain kinds of soil it is utterly im- 
 practicable to raise a profitable crop, even when the 
 soil is thoroughly cultivated and enriched; while on 
 other soils the proprietor has only to put in the seed 
 and eradicate the weeds when a bountiful crop can be 
 obtained at a small amount of labor. As parsnips grow 
 far more rapidly than carrots, on those farms where it 
 has been found to be expensive raising the latter kind 
 of roots, a crop of parsnips may be raised with little 
 labor, provided the soil is not too heavy, and has been 
 brought to a good state of fertility by suitable fertilizing 
 materials. One of the greatest points of superiority 
 of the parsnip over the carrot is its rapidity of ger- 
 mination and growth while very small. The young 
 
420 todd's country homes. 
 
 plants come up in a much shorter time than carrot seed 
 planted in the same place. This enables laborers to 
 dress out the young plants when the weeds are exceed- 
 ingly small, and before the young carrots have ap- 
 peared. Then, after the first weeding is performed, the 
 greater part of the labor required to raise the crop is 
 finished. Another consideration in favor of raising 
 parsnips is, if cold weather should come on unexpect- 
 edly, as it sometimes does, before a large crop of carrots 
 can be pulled and secured from the frost, parsnips are 
 not injured by remaining in the ground during the 
 winter. Indeed, there is no place where 'they will 
 keep so fresh and good, as where they grew. All kinds 
 of animals eat parsnips with great avidity; and for 
 fattening mutton or any kind of beef cattle, parsnips 
 have been proved by well-conducted experiments to 
 accomplish the process in less time than when other 
 food was employed, and also to make meat of exquisite 
 flavor. Parsnips are eminently superior to any other 
 roots for ewes that yean early in the spring, the lambs 
 of which are to be prepared for slaughter in the early 
 part of summer. Farmers should procure a supply 
 of good seed and prepare for raising a few hundred 
 bushels of these most excellent roots. One great 
 advantage in the parsnip is, it never suifers from the 
 attacks of frost, and the roots may be left in the field 
 a whole winter without sustaining the slightest injury. 
 It can be cultivated in any situation where beet-roots 
 and carrots have given satisfactory products. Read 
 the article under the head of carrots, and substitute 
 parsnips for carrots, and you will have all the neces- 
 sary details for producing a bountiful crop. 
 
CULTUEE OF ASPARAGUS AND BEANS. 421 
 
 CuLTUEE OF Asparagus. — Asparagus is a perennial. 
 Many peojDle are able to gather only a few bunches of 
 asparagus in a season, simply because they cut it 
 too late. The cutting must cease in time for a heavy 
 crop of stalks to grow and mature seed. Otherwise 
 the product will be extremely light. What asparagus 
 seems most to require is a soil easily penetrated by the 
 roots to a great depth. The better way to cultivate as- 
 paragus is to plant the seeds, or plants in beds not over 
 four feet wide, so that one can reach from either side 
 to the middle. Let the ground be trenched not less 
 than twenty inches deep, and a rich compost thor- 
 oughly mingled with the soil, as deep as the ground is 
 worked. There is no danger of making it too rich. If 
 young plants cannot be obtained, scatter the seed, in a 
 well prepared bed, early in the growing season, in 
 drills eighteen inches apart running across the bed. 
 Cover the seeds with one inch of sand, or fine mould. 
 Now, sprinkle the bed with brine, as often as weeds 
 appear. I never used a fork, nor hoe in asparagus, as 
 the roots run near the surface, and should not be mu- 
 tilated. Pile on salt and lime to keep down all grass 
 and weeds. Top dress with rich compost in late au- 
 tumn. Stop cutting the shoots by the middle of sum- 
 mer, or before, and cut down and spread all the tops 
 in the fall, over the bed. In a few years, asparagus 
 will be produced as large as a hoe handle. 
 
 Cultivation of Beans. — The culture of field beans 
 is the most simple of all farm operations. They should 
 be planted upon dry soil, to insure fair, clean grain, as 
 steamy land will mould the pods and cause blight. 
 The soil should Ije warm and light, and not too highly 
 
MAKROW BEANS. PEA BEANS. 
 
 422 todd's country homes. 
 
 manured. Almost any bnt a heavy clay soil will pro- 
 duce a fliir cro23. The planting is best done as soon as 
 danger from frost is over ; but if put in any time before 
 the last week in Jnne, beans are pretty sure to make a 
 crop. The seed should be planted in rows about two 
 and one-half feet apart, or sufficiently wide to allow of 
 working with the cultivator. They may be planted 
 with the hoe, putting three or four beans in the hill at 
 a foot or fifteen inches apart. There are bean drills 
 
 which do the work ex- 
 peditiously, some of 
 which drop the seed 
 in a continuous line, 
 and others are so con- 
 trived as to plant in hills. From a bushel to six pecks 
 are used for an acre. Beans make a very profitable 
 market crop, besides being an excellent article for 
 family use, and especially valuable to the sheep hus- 
 bandman, as sheep will eat them readily without grind- 
 ing, and thrive well upon them, while for other stock 
 it is necessary to grind and mix them with other 
 grain. The vines are also valuable to feed to sheep. 
 
 Beans may be planted after other crops are all in. 
 Plant early productive varieties, not later than June 
 15th, if practicable on sandj^ loam, or where corn Avas 
 raised the previous year, using no additional manure, 
 lest the luxuriance of the foliage prevent an abundant 
 crop ; or, the beans may be planted alternately with 
 corn where the corn is manured only in the hill. In 
 many places beans are raised successfully as a field 
 crop. Weeds are fatal to this crop and must be 
 thoroughly subdued. Plant five or six beans to the 
 
CULTURE OF LIMA BEANS. 423 
 
 hill, under two inches of clean, mellow soil, and make 
 the hills sixteen by thirty inches. 
 
 The most satisfactory manner of cultivating a crop 
 of field beans is, to plow the ground in autumn, then 
 plow it twice the next season, harrow it as often as the 
 weeds appear, and put in the beans with a grain drill, 
 stopping every other tube. By this management, the 
 soil will be deep, mellow and moist ; the weeds will be 
 so exterminated that the plants will require no hoeing ; 
 and the crop will cost no more than a crop of oats. 
 The drill should be set to drop the seed about two 
 inches apart. Field beans should be planted so early 
 in the season, th^t the crop may mature and be har- 
 vested before fall rains. Forty to fifty bushels per acre 
 is a satisfactory yield. When ripe, let the crop be 
 pulled, and cured like hay. Then, the beans may be 
 thrashed at once, or be stored till winter. 
 
 Culture of Lima Beans. — This variety is excel- 
 lent for the kitchen garden, as they are as rich as but- 
 ter. After preparing the ground thoroughly, by mak- 
 ing it as mellow as practicable, set the bean-poles, one 
 in the middle of each hill, before the beans are planted. 
 Then take one bean at a time, between the thumb and 
 fingers, and press it into the ground, about four inches 
 from the pole, always with the eyes downward. If the 
 ground is sufficiently moist to promote germination, let 
 them be pressed into the ground not more than one 
 inch, and covered with mellow soil. On the contrary, 
 if the soil lacks moisture, it is better to put every bean 
 at least two inches deep, in order to insure sufficient 
 moisture to cause germination. If the seed is good, 
 four beans around each pole will be enough for one hill. 
 
424 todd's country homes. 
 
 and the hills should be at least three feet distant in one 
 direction, and two feet apart the other way. The run- 
 ners should be watched every two days, at least, and 
 tied to the poles if necessary, as the luxuriant growth 
 will be checked in a few days if the runners are allowed 
 to spread around on the ground, having no support. 
 Any kind of pole-beans must have a stake to sustain 
 the vines, or they will not fructify abundantly. As 
 Lima beans are so large, and yield so bountiiiilly when 
 well cultivated, it is a matter of economy to plant 
 every bean with great care. The great thing with the 
 Lima bean, is the right time, for the least cold or damp- 
 ness, while they are germinating, will rot them. But 
 the "right time" may be much accelerated by a large 
 hill of sand on which to sow your Lima beans — ri(5h 
 sand — a soil that will not only keep your bean warm 
 and dry, but give it something to eat, worth eating, 
 besides. There is no use trying for early beans, with- 
 out large hills of light soil. With them you are all 
 right. The j)oles are often much too long. A bean 
 will bear earlier on a short pole than a long one. The 
 sooner you can train a shoot from one plant away across 
 to the pole of the other, the sooner the vines will bear. 
 
 Culture of Beets. — A crop of beets will require 
 about the same management as turnips. Beets need a 
 rich soil and clean culture. Read the article on tur- 
 nips, or carrots; and cultivate beets in every respect as 
 if the seed and plants were carrots. 
 
 Culture of Egg Plants. — The first requisite in 
 raising egg-plants is to get good seed. After this 
 comes the proper management of the hot-bed in start- 
 ing the plants. In this latitude we never put them 
 
CULTURE OF EGG PLANTS. 425 
 
 into the hot-bed later than the 10th of March. Great 
 caution must be used in regulating the temperature of 
 the beds, and the plants must be transplanted about 
 three times before being put out. The object in trans- 
 planting them so many times is to get a stocky and 
 thrifty plant to put out about the middle of May. On 
 account of the extreme tenderness of the young egg- 
 plants, it is sometimes difficult to secure even a limited 
 supply of prime plants. If the seed be planted very 
 early in the growing season, the young plants are 
 liable to be chilled, so that they never recover from the 
 injury. The young plants are quite as delicate and 
 tender as spears of Indian corn; and unless the seed 
 and growing plants are properly managed at the out- 
 set, every effort to raise a large crop will fail. If the 
 seed has been saved with proper care, and is really 
 good, one ounce will produce from three to four thou- 
 sand plants. Like all other tender plants, the egg- 
 plant requires the advantages of steady and permanent 
 heat, from the time of planting the seed, until the 
 period of cold and chilling weather has passed. The 
 chief difficulty in growing egg-plants is planting the 
 seed too early in the growing season. Seeds of the 
 egg-plant are often sown in March; but in many in- 
 stances, if the tender plants can be protected and kept 
 alive until May or June, when they can be put out into 
 the open ground, plants that have sprung from seed 
 sown in April will be quite as forward in June, and will 
 yield more fruit than those which were planted in 
 March. Very much will depend on the variety. 
 Twenty days before the weather will be sufficiently 
 warm to put the plants out in open ground, let a 
 
426 todd's countky homes. 
 
 hot-becl be prepared for the seed. Let much care be 
 exercised in the management of the hot-bed during 
 cold nights, that the very young plants may not be- 
 come chilled. When only a few plants are desired, 
 the better way is to plant the seed in pots, which 
 should be kept in a warm room until it is time to 
 transplant them. Egg-plants require a rich soil, warm 
 weather and clean cultivation. If the plants do not 
 produce large fruit, it is a certain indication that the 
 soil is not sufficiently rich. 
 
 Culture of Celery. — This delicious vegetable is 
 produced from seed. It is highly important to select 
 seed from the largest and most perfect stems. One 
 ounce of seed will yield 10,000 plants. The plants of 
 early celery are propagated in the same manner as 
 cabbages, by sowing the seed in a cold bed. Celery 
 must have rich ground. In preparing the soil for the 
 plants, make a deep trench, throwing the soil out on 
 each side to the depth of nine inches or more, and fill 
 up the trench nearly to its surface with thoroughly 
 decomposed manure. Now, thoroughly incorporate 
 soil and manure together. Then put out the plants 
 say nine by twelve on this surface, and thoroughly 
 soak the whole with water in the trench. If the 
 weather is very hot shade the plants for a few days. 
 After forming an embankment twelve inches high, 
 keep it constantly saturated with water. If manure 
 water be used so much the better. Let guano be dis- 
 solved in water, and the young plants watered with a 
 weak liquid. As the plants grow, keep them loosely 
 tied up with bass matting, and rub off all the young 
 suckers that grow out at the base of the leaves. The 
 
BLANCHING CELERY MELONS AND SQUASHES. 427 
 
 very small leaves or stems at the bottom of the plant 
 should be taken oiF also. This will facilitate the re- 
 moval and will enable you to watch the growth of 
 suckers, which, if left on, will waste the substance and 
 deteriorate the growth. The trench must not be al- 
 lowed to become dry. It should always be what the 
 boys call a puddle. If proper attention is paid to this 
 point, and also to putting the plants out early, celery 
 can be grown to a very large size before November. 
 
 Blanching Celery. — The growing plants are 
 blanched to render the stems more crisp, white and 
 delicious. Blanching is performed by gathering the 
 leaves and stems up together and hauling earth up 
 against them. Celery should not be earthed up at all, 
 until about three weeks before it is required for use. 
 Four weeks' time at the utmost will bleach it as white 
 as a lily. In order to bleach it, the soil from the sides is 
 thrown between the plants, and nearly up to the top 
 of the leaves. As soon as the leaves fall from the trees, 
 cover these beds entirely over, about twelve or eighteen 
 inches thick, placing over them a few corn stalks to 
 prevent the leaves from blowing away. From these 
 beds you can dig sweet, crisp celery all winter. This 
 is the practice round about New York City. Farther 
 north, if left in the ground, the celery may require 
 more protection. 
 
 melons and squashes. 
 
 Select the seed from those melons and squashes that 
 mature first. Half the seed sold at seed stores, is of 
 little value. Melons require a mellow, rich, and well- 
 prepared soil. A large shovel-full of well-rotted barn- 
 yard manure, or other good compost, is well incor- 
 
428 todd's country homes. 
 
 porated with the soil where the seed is deposited. 
 Instead of planting the seeds by covering them with a 
 hoe, every one is stuck, germ downward, in its place, 
 which is the only true way to plant all such seeds, as 
 each seed is thrust on the end of the stem uj) through 
 the soil, to the surface. In case any of the plants fail 
 to grow luxuriantly, as they frequently do, more seed 
 should be put in at once. The ground should be kept 
 clean by cultivating and hoeing, and great care exer- 
 cised not to root-prune the plants and tear the vines to 
 pieces. Many tillers of the soil ruin their crop by 
 mutilating the roots and tearing the vines, especially 
 in wet weather. A liberal supply of bog-ashes, or 
 wood-ashes, should be sprinkled around each hill. 
 Those farmers who have an abundance of coarse barn- 
 yard manure, a large proportion of which is corn-stalks, 
 may place a liberal quantity beneath each hill, and 
 mingle some sand and fine chip-manure with the soil, 
 where the ground is composed largely of clay. Four 
 plants in each hill will yield more melons than twice 
 that number. Two handfuls of finely-pulverized hen- 
 manure sprinkled around each hill, over an area of two 
 feet in diameter, will have an excellent effect in pro- 
 moting a luxuriant growth of the plants and in de- 
 veloping the fruit. When the runners have spread 
 about two or three feet each way, and some of the 
 melons have set, the vines of each hill should be folded 
 all up in a small compass, while the ground is culti- 
 vated with care, hoeing carefully near the hills, thus 
 exterminating every weed and grass. The vines are 
 then spread out in their original positions, without 
 separating any of the best melons from the plants. 
 
MELONS AND SQUASHES. 429 
 
 When there is a large number of blossoms, or melons, 
 most of them are pinched off, in order to throw the 
 nourishment all into the stems of a few of the largest 
 and best. Different varieties should be planted far 
 apart, as they mix very easily. Two or three plants 
 are enough for a hill. The best protection from bugs 
 is the box, covered with gauze or glass. Squashes 
 occupy a great deal of ground when suffered to run 
 and have their own way. But there is nothing gained 
 by allowing vines to run themselves to death. Either 
 pinch off the ends, or turn them around, which will 
 check the propensity to run, and thus promote fructifi- 
 cation. When a person has but little room, and wishes 
 to economize, a trellis for them to run upon is rec- 
 ommended, and is said to operate very successfully. 
 Stakes or small posts are set up two feet apart each 
 way and the seed planted in the center. When the 
 vines begin to run they are trained upon slats nailed 
 to the posts, and by throwing boards across the slats 
 the fruit is supported, and will ripen much earlier than 
 when allowed to lie on the ground half covered with 
 leaves. Squashes trained in this way can be made to 
 occupy but little space, and are said to bear as pro- 
 fusely as when the vines run over the ground. Melons 
 and squashes must be manured bountifully. When the 
 soil is thin and not very fertile, after plowing deep, dig 
 pits three feet square, about twenty inches deep, and 
 seven feet distant from each other, measuring from 
 center to center. Fill in about ten inches with green 
 stable manure and litter, and tramp down compactly. 
 Over this fill in, say four inches of good, rich sandy 
 loam, and over that a three-inch course of compost, 
 
430 todd's countet homes. 
 
 made of either hog-pen or hen-house manure about 
 three parts, two parts of wood-ashes, one of some good 
 phosphate, and an equal quantity to all of sandy loam. 
 Over this course make the planting surface of rich, 
 warm soil, and put in the seeds a few inches apart, 
 suffering about ten of the strongest vines to grow. 
 When a vine has made a run of three feet, snip off his 
 head, and shorten all laterals to the same length. Cul- 
 tivate well ; top-dress about three times with ashes and 
 bone-dust, a handful or two to each hill. 
 
 For the late varieties of squashes, the best are the 
 Hubbard, Boston Marrow, Acorn, and Vegetable Mar- 
 row. The Valparaiso is a tolerably fair variety when 
 the season is just right. Immense squashes, sometimes 
 grown, are rather for the sight than the table. They 
 are coarse meated, and watery, compared with the little 
 gnarly Hubbard, which is mealy, and as delicately fla- 
 vored as the sweet potato. Do not plant the seed until 
 apple trees are in full bloom. A dead animal, or a 
 large fish buried beneath the seed of every hill, will 
 produce a large crop. 
 
 Exterminating Borers. — Borers will often enter 
 squash-vines near the root, and eat off the vines from 
 the inside. My own practice has always been to thrust 
 a sharp and thin knife blade through the vine, near 
 the entrance of the borer, split the vine in two, re- 
 move the borers, and tie the vine together again, for 
 a few days, until the wound heals. I have often taken 
 four borers an inch long, from the heart of one vine, 
 without injuring the vine. 
 
 Squash Bugs. — These must be destroyed, or they 
 will devour the young plants. There will always be a 
 
HOW TO KEEP SQUASHES AND MELONS. 431 
 
 host ready for every vine. As soon as the plants are 
 up, watch for the black squash bug and destroj^ them. 
 If you destroy all the early bugs, your task is done ; 
 but if not, you will be troubled with them until pretty 
 late in the season. If the bugs become very numerous, 
 trap them, by making a small flat hole in the ground, 
 near the root of the vine, and place a chip or some such 
 thing over it. The bugs will cluster on the under side 
 of the chip for shelter at night, and in the morning, 
 you can pick up the chip, and jar them into hot water, 
 or crush them. It is essential that the bugs should 
 be killed while the vines are young, for if they are so 
 numerous as to stunt the vines, you must fight them 
 longer. We cannot use any nostrums that will repel 
 bugs. They must be killed by hand, usually in the 
 morning, when they are not so lively, as they are in 
 the middle of the day. 
 
 How TO KEEP Squashes and Melons. — Put them 
 in a dry, warm place, and they will not rot. It is a 
 warm damp atmosphere, like that in most cellars, that 
 causes decay. A dry stove-room, or furnace-heated 
 room, which never gets cold, or a closet near the fire- 
 place, which never gets cool enough to freeze, are good 
 places in which to keep winter squashes and pumpkins. 
 They keep well, hung up in baskets or bags overhead 
 in the kitchen, or a hanging shelf Squashes and mel- 
 ons should be always stored away singly — never in 
 piles — when you wish to preserve them a long time. 
 Squashes should be gathered before frost, as a very 
 slight frost will injure their keeping qualities. Squashes 
 should be thoroughly ripened before being harvested, 
 and that before any severe frosts occur, as a very slight 
 
432 todd's countky homes. 
 
 touch of frost will defeat their good keeping. They 
 should be carefully gathered, retaining the stems on 
 the fruit, in the middle of a dry day. Handle care- 
 fully, so as not to bruise or break the skin. 
 
 Culture of Field Peas. — Peas are one of the 
 most profitable field crops a farmer can raise, if he 
 manages judiciously. A crop of peas -will leave the 
 ground cleaner than most other crops. If the land be 
 heavy, let it be plowed in autumn. Then let it be 
 plowed as early in the following spring as it can be, 
 after the surface has become sufficiently dry. Light 
 land will need plowing but once. After the seeds of 
 all the noxious weeds that lay near the surface, have 
 germinated, and the young plants have appeared in 
 the seed leaf, let the surface be worked with a wheel 
 cultivator, which will pulverize the soil to the depth 
 of three or four inches, and thus exterminate all the 
 young plants. Let this working of the surface be con- 
 tinued every two weeks until the last of May, then let 
 the peas be put in with a tube drill. A crop of peas, 
 if the soil be prepared in the foregoing manner, will 
 exert an excellent influence in restoring and maintain- 
 ing the fertility of poor land. Field peas are usually 
 harvested with a sliding horse rake, before the vines 
 are cut. The windrows are then turned over, and as 
 soon as the vines are cured, the crop is stacked. Peas 
 are often fed to sheep and swine, vines and all. Such 
 a crop will be found excellent for making pork, or 
 mutton. 
 
 Deep Planting. — I have known gardeners on Long 
 Island to bury their peas one foot deep, very early in 
 the spring ; and the crops were much larger than if the 
 
GARDEN PEAS. 433 
 
 seed had been planted shallow. But, when the soil is 
 heavy, the seed should not be planted too deep. Peas 
 covered six or eight inches deep, will produce twice as 
 much as those covered but an inch. The vines will 
 continue Jflowering longer, will grow more vigorous, 
 and will not lie down, as is often the case when shal- 
 low plantings are made. I have tested this matter, 
 and know from experience, that if it is desired to get 
 a large crop, the seed must be buried deep in the soil. 
 Gardei^ Peas. — In order to have green peas for a 
 long time, plant a row, say a rod long, very early in 
 the growing season. Then, plant another row every 
 two weeks, until the middle of summer. After the 
 ground has been prepared as directed, (p. 409) open a 
 channel as wide as the spade, oue foot deep. Stick in 
 the pea-brush to support the vines, and scatter the seed 
 in the bottom of the trench. If the seed is good, there 
 should be peas enough to make two roAvs, three or four 
 inches apart, in the bottom of the trench, and the peas 
 should be about three inches apart in the rows. A 
 quart of seed will plant from one hundred and fifty 
 to two hundred feet of rows, as per the size of the seed. 
 If the soil is at all heavy, cover the seed with mellow 
 earth, or sand brought from a distance. Let the trench 
 be filled within two inches of the surface of the ground. 
 After the peas have come up, let them be hoed, and 
 mellow soil worked in by degrees, to cover the young 
 weeds. By this management, weeds can be extermi- 
 nated much more easily than if the trench were full 
 when the peas come up. If there is any expectation, 
 of dry weather, let the growing peas be mulched be- 
 tween the rows. 
 
 28 
 
434 todd's country homes. 
 
 Cultivation of Tomatoes. — Tomatoes are suscepti- 
 ble of great imjDrovement, though thej have generally 
 received less attention than most garden vegetables. 
 While under careful culture, they have been long in 
 reaching their present state. The tomato has been a 
 comparatively short time under culture, and yet, nature 
 has done so much for it, that it already holds high rank 
 among our finest fruits of the garden. The seed from 
 the fruit which ripens earliest any season, will produce 
 the earliest and best the next year. Plants should be 
 grown in warm, light, rich soil, from the seeds of the 
 earliest ripened fruit having valuable qualities. They 
 should be grown early. During no time of their growth 
 should they suffer from want of warmth, sunshine, fresh 
 air, and a soil in proper mechanical and chemical con- 
 dition for their health. For family use the plants may 
 be started in a little box in a warm room ; and for field 
 culture, in a hot-bed or greenhouse. In quite a small 
 box, all the plants any family need, may be grown. A 
 few plants well cared for, will be worth a great deal 
 more than a large number ill-growm, such as we so 
 often see crowded to suffocation and death in dealers' 
 hot-beds. Such long, w^eakly things can have no value. 
 The little box need be no more than two feet long, a 
 foot wide, and a few inches deep, covered with glass to 
 counteract the dryness of the atmosphere of the room. 
 Put the box in the sunshine, keep the room warm and 
 carefully ventilated. Do not be in too great haste to 
 germinate the seeds. When once started, see that the 
 plants get no check from want of care. In the latitude 
 of New York, the seed may be sown about the begin- 
 ning of March. When the plants are two or three 
 
CULTIVATION OF TOMATOES. 435 
 
 inches high they may be put into small pots to be af- 
 terwards transplanted into larger ones, or into a hot-bed. 
 The transplanting of them at least twice, or even three 
 or four times before putting them in the open ground, 
 (which should not be done till all appearance of frost has 
 gone, unless they are protected when necessary), will 
 hasten early ripening. Each time, before transplanting, 
 the soil should be well watered, so that a ball of earth 
 may be removed with each plant, and this is particularly 
 desirable when they are being put in the open ground 
 and thus their growth will not be checked. The plants 
 should not be set less than four feet apart. Keep the 
 soil friable. Let no weeds grow. Hoe early and often, 
 and weeds cannot take possession of the soil. 
 
 The fruit may be kept clean and prevented from 
 premature decay by spreading brush, salt hay, or other 
 such material under the vines, or by 
 training them. But if the soil be light 
 and dry, this will not be necessary es- 
 pecially for a general crop. In garden 
 culture, if it be thought best to train 
 the vines, a simple way is to set poles 
 twelve feet apart, the tops five feet tomato frame. 
 high. Attach wires horizontally to them, which will 
 form a cheap trellis for the vines, thus exposing them 
 to the free action of the sun and air. An excellent 
 plan is to make a few such frames as rej)resented by 
 the illustration, and let a hill grow in the middle. It 
 does not pay to let the tomato vines trail on the ground. 
 The fruit will soon decay and it will not ripen satisfac- 
 torily. 
 
 Cultivation of Field Tomatoes. — One of the most 
 
436 todd's countey homes. 
 
 satisfactory ways to jDrepare the ground for a crop of 
 early toniatoes in the field, is to defer plowing until the 
 ground has become sufficiently warm for tomatoes to 
 grow. Then have the plants started in a cold frame 
 and ready to transplant, as soon as the ground is ready. 
 By deferring the operation of plowing the ground until 
 the weather has become warm, the plants will avoid 
 that set-back which they often suffer when taken from 
 a hot-bed and set in the open air. Besides this, the 
 land will require far less cultivating and hand hoeing 
 to keep weeds and grass down than if the plowing had 
 been done early in the season, so that weeds and grass 
 could get a good start before the plants are put out. 
 Then, as soon as the plants are set, if comj)ost or com- 
 mercial manure is to be employed, let a careful laborer 
 haul back the earth for about one inch in depth around 
 each plant, and spread the fertilizing material evenly 
 over an area of not less than two feet in diameter, with 
 the tomato in the center. As soon as this is done, let 
 the soil that was removed be returned, so as to cover 
 the compost or manure, and thus prevent the valuable 
 portions from escaping by evaporation. 
 
 CULTIYATION" OF TuRNIPS. 
 
 In summer sow tm-nips for cattle to eat. 
 
 No turnips, no cattle. No cattle, no meat. 
 
 No turnips, nor cattle, nor manure in the yard. 
 
 Make bills for the doctors, and farming go hard. — Edwards. 
 
 Every farmer, if he keeps no more than on6 cow, 
 should raise a supply of turnips ever}?- season. When 
 a farmer can raise a satisfactory crop of turnips, his 
 land is in a fair state of fertility. But if turnips will 
 not grow, he may conclude that the soil needs a 
 thorough renovation. 
 
CULTIVATION OF TURNIPS. 437 
 
 There are several difficulties in the way of raising a 
 satisfactory crop of turnips, some of which are poor 
 soil, poor seed, injudicious management in many re- 
 spects, and noxious weeds. All these things taken 
 together effectually prevent a great many tillers of the 
 soil from raising a fair crop. With skillful manage- 
 ment, from five to eight hundred bushels of good tur- 
 nips may be raised per acre at an expense of a few 
 dollars. But wrong management, which has encour- 
 aged a luxuriant growth of noxious weeds rather than 
 turnips, has exerted such a disheartening influence that 
 the experiment of raising field-turnips has often been 
 abandoned before a fair trial has been given. Although 
 mellow and clean ground is desirable, still, a farmer is 
 often required to cultivate a heavy and cloddy soil, 
 which is full of seeds of noxious weeds. Now, unless 
 the management is judicious, the expense of raising 
 only a light crop of turnips, on such land, will exceed 
 the value of all the products, as weeding, weeding, 
 WEEDING will be required for two or three months. 
 And even then, half the turnips will not be larger than 
 a man's wrist. Whereas, had the management during 
 the former part of the growing season been in accord- 
 ance with the requirements of a crop of turnips, the 
 product would have been twice as large, with half the 
 manual labor. I have known many young farmers 
 reserve a plot of mellow ground, near the middle of 
 some field, for turnips, or carrots, as the soil was so 
 fine and mellow. But, to their surprise, turnips would 
 not grow larger than a man's thumb ! And why ? 
 Simply because the land was too poor for turnips. 
 Land for turnips must be rich and mellow. 
 
438 todd's countky homes. 
 
 Let us notice the principal details in raising a fair 
 crop of turnips on heavy land, with as little manual 
 labor as practicable. In the first place, we must watch 
 the state of the soil as to dryness, and plow it when 
 it is neither too wet nor too dry to pulverize as 
 thoroughly as if every foot of it had been spaded. If 
 the plowing can be done just at the right time, an ex- 
 cellent point will have been gained. Where the soil is 
 light, this precaution will not be essential. But plow 
 a heavy soil when it is either too wet or to dry, and 
 hard ground, covered with lumps and clods, will form 
 the seed-bed, instead of a friable and mellow soil, easy 
 to be worked. A liberal dressing of rich manure 
 should be plowed in, early in the growing season, say 
 about the time the ground is plowed for Indian corn 
 and potatoes. In about two weeks, a crop of noxious 
 weeds will have appeared. Now, on some clear day, 
 when the sun shines brightly, let the turnip-ground be 
 harrowed twice, to root up every weed. Continue to 
 harrow or to scarify with a cultivator every two weeks, 
 until the first of July. Where the soil is disposed to 
 bake, special care should be exercised to do the har- 
 rowing, when all the lumps are just moist enough to 
 fall to atoms, at a slight touch. In case there are 
 many lumps, let the ground be rolled. If these direc- 
 tions be observed, a moist and mellow seed-bed will be 
 prepared, which will be as free from grass and noxious 
 weeds as can be desired. 
 
 How TO Plant the Seed. — In the first place, a 
 choice quality of seed should have been saved from the 
 largest and earliest pods on the central stalks of a large 
 and smooth turnip. The white French sweet turnip 
 
CULTIVATION OF TURNIPS. 439 
 
 and yellow globe varieties gave better satisfaction, 
 when I was on the farm, than any other turnips that I 
 attempted to raise. 
 
 I feel prompted to be extremely cautious in recom- 
 mending even these that I have named, as the market 
 is glutted with inferior seed, that is no better for the 
 purposes required than the most shabby and worthless 
 animals would be for producing neat cattle, sheep, and 
 horses possessing beautiful form and symmetry. 
 
 Let the ground be marked out in straight drills, three 
 or four inches deep, and thirty inches apart, in the 
 bottom of which scatter about one pound of finely- 
 ground bone per every lineal rod. If the soil is fertile 
 enough to produce twenty bushels of wheat, or sixty 
 of corn, per acre, half a pound of bone per rod in each 
 row will be suflBicient. Cover this fertilizing material, 
 and plant the seed directly over the bone. A little 
 care should be exercised, when the drills are filled, so 
 that the marks may not be entirely obliterated. Run 
 the seed-planter as nearly over the bone-dust as it can 
 be conveniently, and cover the seed half an inch in 
 depth. In a few days, if the weather be warm, the 
 rows of young turnips will appear in the seed-leaf, 
 when thousands of "turnip-flies" will be ready to 
 devour the tender plants, imless a light dressing of 
 wood-ashes is sifted over the leaves with a fine sieve. 
 As soon as the plants are sufficiently large to trans- 
 plant, let the rows be thinned to about ten to twelve 
 inches apart. If the rows be straight, nearly all the 
 -cultivation may be done with a good horse-hoe. In 
 lowery weather, call out all hands to weed, thin out, 
 and transplant turnips. If managed as suggested, an 
 
440 todd's country homes. 
 
 acre may be cultivated at an expense of only a few 
 cents per bushel. 
 
 How TO Sprinkle on Ashes. — Let the ashes be 
 sifted before they are scattered over the turnips, as the 
 bits of coal and other hard substances will be liable to 
 drop on the young plants. It is desirable to scatter 
 only a liberal dusting on the leaves to prevent flies 
 from eating them. As wood ashes cannot always be 
 obtained, sift coal ashes, which will subserve a satisfac- 
 tory purpose. Sweep large chimneys, and sift the soot. 
 Mingle lime, coal dust, soot, coal ashes and wood ashes, 
 in equal quantities. > Now, make a sieve-box, of thin 
 pieces of boards, say twenty inches long, by three 
 inches wide, at the bottom, with flaring sides. Then, 
 nail a piece of perforated tin, or fine sieve cloth over 
 the bottom, secure the end of the box to a broom- 
 handle, so that one can hold the sieve down close to the 
 turnips, as he sifts the ashes on the rows of grow- 
 ing plants. With such a sieve, one can dust a row, 
 almost as flist as he can travel at a slow pace. In some 
 instances, I have drilled in four times as much seed as 
 was necessary, so that the flies could not destroy the 
 crop. 
 
 INDIAN CORN— ZEA MAYS. 
 " Now, let the good old crop adorn the fields our fathers trod ; 
 And let us for this golden corn send up our thanks to God." — Barlow. 
 
 All reliable writers on the history of Indian corn 
 agree that it originated in America, and Avas used, to a 
 greater or less extent, by the aborigines of this country 
 as an article of food long before the discovery of 
 America by Christopher Columbus. Travelers have, 
 informed us that Indian corn is still found in an indig- 
 enous state, from the Rocky Mountains to Paraguay ; 
 

 
PREPARATION OF THE SOIL FOR CORN. 
 
 441 
 
 and that the kernels, instead of bemg naked as we 
 now see them, are covered with a kind of husk, or 
 glume, which must be torn off before the grain is 
 ground into meal. In the Old World, wheat, oats and 
 barley are called corn. In order, therefore, to distin- 
 
 i^iiiiiiii^ 
 
 AN EAR OF RHODE ISLAND CORN. 
 
 guish this kind of grain from either of those kinds, we 
 denominate it " Indian Corn," because it was first cul- 
 tivated by Indians of our continent; but it has been 
 brought to its present excellence by the exercise of 
 good care, by selecting the seed, and superior culti- 
 vation. 
 
 Selecting Seed. — A few hours spent in selecting 
 seed for a crop of corn will reward the farmer more 
 abundantly than for almost any other job connected 
 with raising the crop. In the garden, tie a strip of 
 red flannel on the ears that mature first, instead of eat- 
 ing them. As soon as the field crop begins to ripen, 
 pass through the standing grain, and put some marks 
 on the earliest ears. Then, when the grain is fully 
 ripe, braid the seed ears into a chain, and hang them 
 up where mice and birds cannot devour the grain. 
 
 Preparation of the Soil. — Indian corn likes a 
 rich and mellow seed-bed. The soil, where a crop of 
 corn is to be raised, should not be plowed in the spring 
 until vegetation has advanced so far that if corn were 
 put in the ground it would come up immediately. 
 When the plowing is performed for corn, some two or 
 
442 todd's countey homes. 
 
 three weeks before the corn is planted, the soil fre- 
 quently becomes so beaten down by heavy rains that 
 it needs to be plowed again ; and, if the land is not 
 plowed again, there will be hard planting and hoeing ; 
 and the crop cannot possibly be as large as it w^ould' 
 have been had the soil been plowed only a few days 
 previous to planting the seed. And, more than this, 
 when the plowing is deferred until it is about time to 
 plant, the soil becomes warm and the corn comes up 
 immediately, and continues to grow rapidly, and keeps 
 far in advance of weeds and grass ; whereas, when the 
 plowing is done a long time before planting, the weeds 
 get the start of the corn, and it becomes necessary to 
 cultivate it before the young 23lants are sufficiently 
 large to enable one to follow the rows with a horse 
 and cultivator. An amount of labor equal to one hoe- 
 ing may be saved, where noxious weeds and grass 
 abound, by deferring to plow in the spring for corn 
 until it is time to plant the seed. The seed for a crop 
 of corn must be good, or it cannot be expected to 
 grow. Seed may, many times, have the appearance 
 of being good, when perhaps not one-half of it will 
 germinate. And if poor seed be planted, we may not 
 be able to compute the loss sustained in the succeeding 
 crop. Every one who has ever raised a crop of corn 
 will acknowledge the importance of having good seed ; 
 because it occupies no more time to plant it, or to cul- 
 tivate a field where there are no missinsr hills, than it 
 does to cultivate where there are not half as many 
 hills as there should be. 
 
 Taering Seed Corn. — The object of tarring seed is 
 to repel animals and insects, which are accustomed to 
 
TARRING SEED CORN. 443 
 
 destroy the seed. Crows, blackbirds, doves, hens and 
 squirrels, will often destroy corn, if it is not well tarred. 
 Sometimes tar will repel wire-worms, and other insects, 
 which live in the soil. When dry kernels are tarred, 
 and planted, if the circumstances necessary to eifect a 
 speedy germination are ever so ftivorable, the seed will 
 not germinate under several weeks, because the tar 
 excludes the moisture. But, if the kernels are allowed 
 to absorb moisture before planting, the tar, even if 
 there is a thick coat on the kernels, will not retard 
 germination ; for, as the kernels expand, the coating 
 of tar will crack, in places, and allow the germ and 
 roots to protrude through it. When seed, that has 
 been steeped and tarred, is planted in soil, where there 
 is but little moisture, the tar protects the kernels, and 
 retains the moisture, and the seed germinates sooner 
 than it would were it planted without steeping. After 
 the seed has been steeping for ten hours, let it be put 
 in a tub and covered with warm water. The object is 
 to warm the kernels so that the tar will spread over 
 them more evenly. If they are cold, the tar will not 
 spread, unless it is applied much thicker than is neces- 
 sary. After it has stood in warm water for half an 
 hour, turn it into a basket, and have ready about half 
 a pint of tar for a bushel, very warm — not hot — and 
 pour it on, and stir the grain with a smooth stick until 
 every kernel is well coated. 
 
 Marking out the Ground. — The illustration here- 
 with given represents an adjustable gauge marker, 
 capable of marking roAVS of any desired distance apart. 
 The runners R, are about four feet long and eight or 
 ten inches high. The cross-pieces a are pinned rigidly 
 
COUN GKOUND JIAKKER. 
 
 444 todd's country homes. 
 
 to the middle runner, and the two outside runners are 
 pinned loosely. At G, a small chain drags in the mark 
 made last, to gauge the distance. The handles aid. in 
 
 turning around. I 
 have made several 
 kinds of markers. 
 But, one of this style, 
 has always given bet- 
 ter satisfaction than 
 all others. The seat 
 S may be omitted, if the driver prefers to foot it. The 
 tongue and whiffletrees can be taken from some light 
 wagon, or sleigh. Such- a marker will make plain 
 marks, where many other kinds would fail. 
 
 Sweet Corn. — Plant good seed in a rich soil in the 
 garden, putting the kernels about eight inches apart in 
 the drills, with rows thirty inches apart. Give the 
 plants level cultivation. Do not permit the hoe to be 
 thrust so deep into the soil, near the hills, as to cut off 
 most of the roots. Plant a few hills quite early, and 
 cover them during cold days and nights with two wide 
 boards placed over a drill, like the roof of a building. 
 Corn should not be planted in the field, until the leaves 
 of trees have begun to appear, as wet and cold weather 
 is very destructive to the young plants. Level culti- 
 vation is better than hills. Avoid root pruning by 
 running the plow close to the growing plants. 
 
 IRISH POTATOES— SOLANUM TUBEROSUM. 
 " O, potatoes, they grow small, over there ! 
 You niList eat them tops and all ; — coarse the fare." 
 
 Potatoes require a deep, rich soil, free from an excess 
 of water, and clean culture. This vegetable is suscep- 
 tible of a wonderful improvement by selecting the best 
 
OBTAINING NEW VARIETIES. 445 
 
 and earliest seed-tubers for planting, and by the appli- 
 cation of the right kind of fertilizers. But by inju- 
 dieious management a good variety may be run out in 
 a few years. Let the small and inferior tubers be 
 planted for a few successive seasons, "and the crop will 
 scarcely be worth digging. Growing potatoes need a 
 bountiful application of wood-ashes scattered around 
 the hills. If a quart or more were scattered in each 
 hill when the seed is planted, and the seed were selected 
 with care every season, potatoes would soon become so 
 hardy that no rot would be seen. 
 
 Peopagating New Varieties. — If the seed which 
 is found in the balls of potatoes be removed from the 
 pulp, and dried, with care — in the same manner as 
 tomato seed is saved — and planted in a good soil the 
 following spring, the young plants will produce small 
 tubers, which should be kept during the winter in a 
 box containing dry sand or loam, and be planted the 
 second year ; and the product of the third year will be 
 as perfect as one can ever expect to obtain from those 
 tubers. Sometimes the tubers will all be very much 
 like the original tubers from which the balls grew; 
 and sometimes the product of the same seed will appear 
 in a variety of colors and forms. Therefore, by select- 
 ing those specimens of different colors and of different 
 forms, and by continuing to j)laiit them for a few 
 seasons, a variety of potatoes entirely different from 
 those from which they sprang may be obtained. 
 
 Potato Planters. — Where large quantities of po- 
 tatoes are cultivated, if the ground is in a fine condi- 
 tion, potatoes may be planted with a horse planter. 
 The accompanying illustration represents a machine 
 
446 
 
 TODD S COUNTRY HOMES. 
 
 which was invented by a gentleman in Maine, for 
 planting potatoes. The soil is thoroughly pulverized, 
 and made level and smooth with a harrow. Then, po- 
 tatoes are put into the hopper ; and, as the machine is 
 drawn by a horse, a quantity of potatoes, sufficient for 
 a hill, drops into a recess, in the bottom of the hopper, 
 
 when a slide forces 
 them against a 
 knife, which cuts 
 off all that extends 
 below it, and cuts 
 and drops, and 
 marks out, and 
 covers and rolls the 
 
 POTATO PLANTER. 
 
 hills, sixteen or eighteen inches apart, at one ojDcration. 
 The row thus rolled, serves as a guide, in regulating 
 the distance apart for the rows, when the planter re- 
 turns. 
 
 How TO Eaise Early Potatoes. — Potatoes require 
 several successive days and nights of a temperature 
 uniformly warm in order to start the eyes. If a por- 
 tion of the time during the day is warm, and the nights 
 be cold, potatoes will not grow much. There are two 
 ways of starting potatoes early in the spring, which 
 may be practiced with good success where a few hills 
 are desired for the table of a small family. One con- 
 venient way is to select the best specimens for seed ; 
 and having put them in a cag, hang them up over head 
 in the kitchen, or some other room where a fire is 
 kept. As soon as the sprouts have got a good start, if 
 the soil is warm, let them be planted. If the soil has 
 become warmed up by the influences of the weather. 
 
CULTIVATIOjq" OF CAULIFLOWERS. 447 
 
 potatoes that have been started in this way will grow 
 very fast, and produce mature tubers in a short time. 
 Great care must be exercised, when they are planted, 
 that the long sprouts be not broken off. If the long 
 sprouts be broken off, a loss in their growth must be 
 sustained. 
 
 Another and still better way to start a few hills early 
 in the season is, to make a trough of boards about one 
 foot wide and four or five inches deep. Let this be 
 hung up in the kitchen, where the temperature will be 
 uniform from day to day. Now procure a quantity of 
 sods, where the soil is in a good state of fertility, and 
 cut them into pieces four inches square. Cut a lot of 
 small pieces from the seed end of potatoes, as they are 
 prepared for the table, and put a piece between two 
 pieces of sod, with the grass sides together, and place 
 them in the trough. In two or three weeks the pota- 
 toes wdll have started well, and each set of sods may 
 be taken from the trough and transplanted, without 
 retarding their growth. The sods must be watered 
 every few days while they are in the trough. If they 
 are allowed to become too dry, the tender roots will be 
 injured. 
 
 Cultivation of Cauliflowers. — This kind of veg- 
 etable cannot be produced without excellent seed, and 
 rich ground. If the seed be inferior, and the soil in a 
 poor state of fertility, the plants will not head. Large 
 heads of cabbage can be produced, where nothing but 
 cauliflower leaves will grow. If it be desirable to pro- 
 duce early cauliflowers, the seed may be sown in rows, 
 from the 10th to the 20th of September, according to 
 latitude. On the approach of cold weather, the young 
 
448 todd's countet homes. 
 
 plants must be pricked out in cold frames, and carefully 
 carried through the winter by airing in fine days. 
 Early in the spring they must be moved to other 
 frames, and transplanted at a greater space between 
 them so as to bring them well forward. About the 
 latter part of April, or beginning of May, they can be 
 removed to the open ground, after it has been made 
 rich with well-rotted manure. After setting, top-dress 
 the soil around the plants with wood-ashes or guano. 
 It is better to plant them between the rows of early 
 peas, or in some place where they are partially screened 
 from the sun. Some think it less labor to sow seed in 
 a cold frame, well protected, in February, and trans- 
 plant, from time to time, in newly prepared frames, so 
 as to bring them well forward in time to plant in the 
 open air. This latter plan is being now adopted by 
 some of our most experienced gardeners. Cauliflower 
 seed may also be sown about the 20th of May, in drills 
 a foot or more apart, on ground well prepared and 
 top-dressed with wood-ashes. Keep plants free from 
 weeds, hoeing carefully or digging between the rows 
 with a " spading " fork. The plants will be ready to 
 transplant from the first to the end of July, and may 
 be transplanted, no matter how large, if carefully lifted 
 (not pulled) up with a fork, taking any favorable time 
 in moist weather to transplant. To ensure success, 
 select the planting ground early in spring, dig holes 
 two and one-half or three feet apart, taking out from 
 one-half to a bushel of earth ; put in from a peck to one- 
 half bushel of well-rotted manure, mixing it well with 
 the earth dug out as it is thrown back into the hole, 
 thus forming a nice hill. Let this lay till time to set 
 
HOW TO RAISE GOOD CABBAGES. 449 
 
 plants, then fork it up and set one plant to each hill, 
 top-dressing each plant with a handful of wood-ashes. 
 How TO Raise good Cabbages. — In order to get 
 superior seed, set out a large cabbage — head and all — 
 early in the spring. With a large knife cut the head 
 open on the top down almost to the stem. Let two 
 central stalks produce seed. Prune off all other stems. 
 Such seed will be far superior to that which is pur- 
 chased at seed stores. Sow the seed about the 15th 
 of September in the open ground. The last part of 
 October, transplant in cold frames, one inch by two 
 inches. Sashes are placed over the cold frames to pro- 
 tect them from the cold, but great care should be taken 
 not to allow the plants to grow after the weather be- 
 comes cold, and the sashes should be lifted every mild 
 day that the thermometer goes above the freezing-point. 
 The main thing is to keep the plants dormant during 
 winter, for if they grow during the winter, they will 
 not be able to withstand the extreme cold weather, since 
 the ground is frequently frozen under the sash from 
 two to three inches. If the sash is covered with snow, 
 it is not necessary to uncover the frame if the snow 
 does not remain longer than ten days. But they want 
 watching, as the ground-mice are most destructive to 
 young plants. In March, if the temperature be moder- 
 ate, the sash should be taken entirely off, but if very 
 cold, the plants had better be covered at night. The 
 first of April they may be set out in the field. Where 
 the soil is light and porous, the soil around the plants 
 should be " well firmed " around the roots. The soil 
 for cabbages should be well manured, and the surface 
 kept clean by frequent hoeings. 
 
 29 
 
450 todd's countky homes, 
 
 apples and other fruit. 
 
 "The apple trees, whose trunks are strong to bear 
 Their spreading boughs, sustain themselves in air, 
 Want no supply, but stand secure alone. 
 Till, with the ruddy fruit the bending branches groan." 
 
 As my space appropriated to fruit is so limited, I 
 must necessarily omit matter that would fill a large 
 number of pages. If a beginner will make himself 
 familiar with the details given under this head, he 
 will understand how to propagate and rear peach trees, 
 cherry trees, plum trees, and all other kinds of fruit 
 trees. Pear trees and apple trees require management 
 so nearly alike that I do not deem it necessary to pen 
 directions for the management of pears. When read- 
 ing my suggestions on apples, let the word pears be 
 substituted for apples, and the reader will have all the 
 instructions desirable for cultivating pears. 
 
 Planting an Orchard. — There is so much unre- 
 liable reading about apples and pears now afloat, that 
 a beginner, in any section of the country, will always 
 succeed far more satisfactorily to adhere to a few plain 
 and practical details than to attempt to follow the 
 directions of half a dozen authors, no two of which will 
 agree as touching certain varieties, and in regard to 
 some other points which are dependent entirely on 
 local causes for either success or failure. Only a little 
 common sense, judiciously exercised, is requisite to 
 enable a beginner to plant either an apple or a pear 
 orchard, with the confident assurance that his labor 
 will be rewarded, after a few years, with bountiful 
 crops of choice fruit. There are serious causes of fail- 
 ure in the production of apples, which a beginner must 
 understand, before he can calculate on success. With 
 
PEEPARING THE SOIL FOR FRUIT TREES. 451 
 
 nurserymen who have trees to sell, and who have no 
 further anxiety than simply to produce trees which 
 will command a high price, a tree that will never pro- 
 duce a satisfactory crop of fruit is just as good as one 
 that will yield annually a bountiful crop. There are 
 untold numbers of worthless apple trees sold every 
 season which will never yield one-fourth the amount 
 of a fair crop, and yet, to all external appearances, 
 they were, when transplanted, smooth, thrifty and 
 superior trees. If a tree has not been produced prop- 
 erly, it can never be expected to yield a satisfactory 
 crop of fruit, and when apple trees that have been pro- 
 duced as such trees should be grown are not managed 
 correctly, they will not yield a supply of fruit. The 
 nursery business has been engaged in by such a large 
 number of persons who are utterly ignorant of the 
 fundamental requirements in order to produce bearing 
 trees, that our country is overstocked with worthless 
 fruit trees, which appear all right, but which, with 
 superior management, will never yield a satisfactory 
 crop of fruit. 
 
 Preparation of the Soil for Fruit Trees. — 
 
 " High as the topmost boughs to heaven ascend, 
 So low the roots to hell's dominion tend." — Drtden's Virgil. 
 
 In many sections of the country, the subsoil, and the 
 entire earth beneath the surface soil, is so porous, that 
 roots of fruit trees will strike downward, quite as 
 rapidly, and as far, as the stems grow upwards. In 
 other places, the earth is so compact and impenetrable, 
 by the roots of growing trees, that they find it almost 
 impossible to enter the hard substratum. It is of emi- 
 nent importance that the soil, where a fruit tree is to 
 grow, should be so porous, that roots can readily strike 
 
452 todd's countky homes. 
 
 down several feet. In the sandy and loamy regions, I 
 have often seen the stumps of young trees lifted having 
 a tap-root nine feet in length. Roots would never strike 
 so far into the earth, if they were not in quest of plant- 
 food and moisture. When the surface of the earth, in 
 hot weather, is parched with heat, these roots that ex- 
 tend to moist ground, absorb, and bring up necessary 
 supplies for the growing trees. Therefore, if the ground 
 is so compact, that roots cannot enter readily, let the 
 entire surface of a field be subsoiled thoroughly, and 
 deep, by running the subsoil plow in two or three di- 
 rections with a strong double team. 
 
 The writer once prepared heavy land for an orchard, 
 by throwing the ground in high ridges with a three- 
 horse plow. As there was no sod on the surface, a ridge 
 was formed midway between the places for the rows, 
 and the ground was plowed several times, until a broad 
 and deep middle furrow was produced, where the trees 
 were to grow. The ground was then staked out, when 
 holes six feet in diameter, were dug twenty inches 
 deeper, in the hard earth, than the plow had been 
 drawn. Mellow soil was then carted from another 
 field, and shoveled into the holes. About half a wagon 
 load was deposited in each hole. As one man shoveled 
 from the wagon, another returned the hard earth that 
 had been removed from the holes. Rich turf was also 
 plowed up along the highway, and carted into the 
 holes. After they were filled, the ridges were all 
 plowed down level, after which the trees were set in 
 their places. A small proportion of the trees, even 
 with such an excellent preparation of soil, would not 
 thrive satisfactorily; and they never will produce a 
 
THE TRUE WAY TO PRODUCE FRUIT TREES. 453 
 
 satisfactory crop, for the reason hinted at, in a preced- 
 ing paragraph, which is, those trees had not been bred 
 according to the requirement of vegetable physiology. 
 Such trees can never be relied upon, any more than a 
 herdsman can depend on the veriest scrubs of neat 
 cattle for superior animals. 
 
 The True Way to Produce Fruit Trees. — A 
 beginner may listen to the talk of those who have fruit 
 trees to sell ; and yet, if he desires to obtain trees that 
 will supply him with fruit, and be a choice heritage to 
 his successors, let him begin right, by selecting the seed 
 from apples or pears with his own hands, plant them 
 where the trees are to grow, bud the young trees, 
 and train and cultivate them for a few years, until 
 they have obtained sufficient size to require but little 
 more care. Not one-fourth part of the seeds, from 
 which the thousands of fruit trees in nurseries have 
 sprung, were any more fit for producing valuable trees 
 than the half-ripe and shrunken kernels of wheat and 
 other grain are suitable for producing a bountiful crop. 
 
 Now, then, what does a beginner desire to accom- 
 plish ? What end has he in view, near or remote, in 
 the future? Why, simply, the object to be attained 
 is hardy, thrifty, j^roductive trees, which will not fail 
 to yield fair crops of excellent fruit every season. 
 There is but little difficulty in accomplishing all that 
 may be desired, if one can find a hardy, fruit-bearing 
 tree in his vicinity. It is assumed that the stock of a 
 fruit tree will exert a marked influence on the produc- 
 tion of the fruit with which it may be grafted. The 
 Rhode Island Greening is a fair bearer, in all sections 
 of the country where the tree has not been starved. 
 
454 todd's country homes. 
 
 The English Streaks and the Romanites are also hardy 
 and naturally prolific. Select a few of the fairest 
 apples of these varieties, and plant only the largest 
 and most perfect seeds. In some of the specimens 
 there may not be a single seed fit to plant. In others, 
 one seed only can be found. The same principle will 
 hold good with pears, or any other fruit. None but 
 the test seeds must be selected. The fruit of any pear 
 tree that is hardy, and has produced a crop every 
 season for several successive years, may be selected, 
 from which to obtain a supply of seed for raising young 
 pear trees. As soon as they are removed from the 
 fruit, before the kernels have been allowed to dry, 
 mingle them with sand a little moist, and keep them 
 in a cool cellar until cold weather. Then plunge the 
 box in the ground, so that the seeds will not freeze. 
 
 Early in the growing season, stake out the ground, 
 which is supposed to be as mellow as a carrot-bed, run 
 a crowbar down four feet into the earth, where each 
 tree is to stand, make a large hole, fill it with rich soil, 
 and plant two or three seeds, about one inch deep. 
 Stick the seeds point downwards, so that they will 
 come up without difficulty. Cover them with fine 
 loam. The seeds should not be planted more than one 
 inch apart. If they all grow, the best stem only should 
 be allowed to stand. A strong stake should be driven 
 into the ground, before the seeds are planted ; and the 
 seeds should be stuck in about six inches from the 
 stake, on the south side. The object of the stakes is 
 to protect the young trees. If the soil is sufficiently 
 fertile to yield fair crops of grain or potatoes, the tap- 
 root of every young tree will strike four feet into the 
 
HABIT OF TREES AND PLANTS. 455 
 
 -earth the first season; and the tops "will grow like 
 sparagrass and spread like applesass." As soon as the 
 young trees are large enough, they should be inocu- 
 lated with buds taken from the topmost branches of 
 trees that always bear a bountiful crop. If the land be 
 kept clean, and if the surface or coronal roots are not 
 mutilated and torn from the stump, every tree, at the 
 end of ten years, will have attained a higlit of over 
 twenty feet, and will be loaded with fruit, while many 
 ordinary nursery trees, planted in the usual manner, 
 will never yield a fair crop. Never allow a plow to 
 come within six feet of a young tree. But keep the 
 surface mulched, to keep down all vegetation. Culti- 
 vate hoed crops between the rows, and pile on the 
 manure. Purchase all the ashes you can get in the 
 neighborhood, to scatter around fruit trees and bushes. 
 After the trees have come into full bearing, stock down 
 the land with some kind of clover. Never allow a 
 careless booby to plow in an orchard, nor to prune the 
 trees. Adopt this brief system, and you will be sur- 
 prised to see how soon a bearing orchard can be pro- 
 duced. Treat all kinds of trees in the foregoing 
 manner. 
 
 The Habit of Trees and Plants. — By the habit 
 of plants is understood the peculiar manner of growth. 
 For example : Hop-vines turn around the pole, always 
 in one direction, and the climbers of beans ascend in 
 the opposite direction. When a boy, I frequently 
 wound some vines around the poles in the opposite di- 
 rection, and tied the ends. But, in every instance, as 
 the vines grew longer, they would turn short around, 
 and climb the poles in the natural way. This is called 
 
456 todd's countkt homes. 
 
 the hahit of a growing plant. Some horticultural 
 writers have alluded to ^^ the habits'' of plants, as one 
 refers to the habits of a moral, or immoral person. 
 Growing plants have only a hahit — not habits. All 
 trees and plants have a habit of throwing out coronal 
 roots, just below the surface of the soil. The stalks of 
 Indian corn send out brace roots near the surface. This 
 is one habit of the corn. All fruit trees throw out a 
 system of roots near the surface of the ground. If a 
 mound a foot high and several feet broad be raised 
 around a young tree, a system of coronal roots will be 
 formed near the surface of the mound. This is called 
 the habit of the tree. Turnips and carrots send a long 
 tap-root down deep into the soil. That is the habit of 
 the plant. Wliere the subsoil is so porous, that grow- 
 ing plants can send a tap-root, or a number of roots 
 down deep into the earth, we often find them extend- 
 ing down to a surprising depth. They go down after 
 nourishment and water, and they find what they seek. 
 In order to cultivate trees, shrubs, flowers and vege- 
 tables, the cultivator needs to have a thorough knowl- 
 edge of the peculiar habit of such plants as he culti- 
 vates. 
 
 Forking vs. Spading around Trees and Plants. — 
 The soil beneath and round about young trees^ and 
 especially annual plants, should be thoroughly com- 
 minuted before the seed is put in, or the growing plant 
 transplanted, so that the roots need not be disturbed. 
 Annual plants and young trees have no roots to part 
 with. For this reason, the fork should be employed, 
 instead of the spade, for pulverizing the ground, where 
 there are roots, as the spade will cut off all the small 
 
FORKING YS. SPADING. 457 
 
 rootlets, to the injury of the tree. The tines of a fork 
 will crowd the roots aside, seldom breaking even the 
 small ones. Then, as the hard soil is broken up with 
 fork-tines, and removed from the roots and returned to 
 them thoroughly pulverized, all the little fibres are 
 brought in contact with different portions of soil, that 
 has not been exhausted of its fertility. Thus compara- 
 tively new earth settles around the roots, so that in a 
 short time the spongioles begin to absorb plant-food. 
 Now, if a spade be used, such a large proportion of the 
 roots will be severed that much of the source of plant- 
 food will be cut off. Great care should be exercised, 
 whether the soil is pulverized with fork or spade, to mu- 
 tilate the roots as little as possible, especially around an- 
 nuals. When the soil is only a few inches deep, and the 
 subsoil so compact that but few roots can enter it, a care- 
 less man with a spade will cut off more than half of all 
 the roots which are the main sources of nourishment, 
 and the growth of the tree or plant will be retarded 
 quite as much as if it had just been transplanted. 
 When a spadeful of soil is filled with small rootlets and 
 fibres, the spader had better be spending his time in 
 idleness, than mutilating the roots of either ornamental 
 or fruit trees. Growing corn, potatoes and vegetables 
 are often set back in growth, many days by injurious 
 root pruning. Strawberry plants are frequently injured 
 by hoeing up the soil near the plants, and cutting off 
 most of the roots. If weeds abound, let them be 
 pulled up, rather than dug up, if they grow near the 
 tender plants. 
 
 Why, When, and How to Prune. — Pruning trees 
 of any kind, shrubs, vines or bushes, as they should be 
 
458 todd's countky homes. 
 
 pruned, is a science requiring the exercise of more skill 
 and mature judgment than is requisite to do anything 
 else connected with the growing of plants and fruit, 
 from the time the tiny seed is laid in the fertile soil 
 until the branches are bending beneath an abundant 
 yield of luscious fruit. The cultivator should have a 
 perfect understanding of what he desires to accomplish 
 by pruning. Before he severs a single bud, he should 
 understand the laws of vegetable physiology so far as 
 they affect the flow of sap. There is no chance for 
 correcting bad mistakes in pruning. If one pinches 
 off a bud that should remain, it will be ruinous to the 
 form of the tree or bush. There was never a more 
 egregious error promulgated than to allow a bush or 
 tree to grow at pleasure for a few years, and then give 
 it a thorough and severe pruning with saws and axes. 
 Yet this is, and has been, the practice all over the 
 country ever since trees were planted out; and the 
 ruinous consequences of such pruning are manifest 
 wherever large apple trees are found, in the decaying 
 trunks where large branches were cut ofl^ and because 
 the wounds were so large nature could not heal them. 
 This is one of the prominent causes of the failure of the 
 apple crop in New England and in other localities. 
 When a surgeon is about to amputate a man's limb, he 
 can assign a satisfactory reason for the operation. So 
 when a pomologist is about to prune off certain 
 branches, he should first ask, what do I propose to ac- 
 complish by removing this part of the tree ? Some- 
 times when he thinks that the removal of a branch will 
 improve the general shape of the tree, let him bend the 
 branch a little out of its natural place, so as to show 
 
WHERE TO CUT OFF BRANCHES. 459 
 
 how the tree would look if this limb were cut off; and 
 if the result is not satisfactory, don't cut it. There is a 
 tendency to trim too much. Beware of this overdoing 
 the matter. There was a time when excessive pruning 
 was very fashionable, even among professional orchard- 
 ists, but they have learned better. The current of 
 opinion is setting so strongly the other way now, that 
 some are advocating no pruning at all. Probably this 
 will be found as much the other extreme, and in due 
 time we may expect the true mode to be settled upon. 
 The correct way to prune is to set up before the mind 
 a heau ideal of the form of tree or bush desired. Then, 
 all through the growing season, the buds should be 
 watched closely. If a bud appears where a branch is 
 not desired, pinch it off; and leave buds on the main 
 stem wherever a branch is desired. Grafts from scions 
 that were set last season should be examined fre- 
 quently, to see if the main stems and lateral branches 
 are all growing uniformly. 
 
 Where to cut off Branches. — Nature has indi- 
 cated, even in the smallest twigs, the proper place to 
 cut off a branch. By examining a branch close to the 
 body of a tree, it will be seen that there are creases, 
 beads, or rings running around the branch. The place 
 to sever a branch, therefore, is close to the first ring. 
 Then the wound will heal much sooner than if the ring 
 were removed, making the cut smooth with the body 
 of the tree. Many tree murderers cut off limbs several 
 inches from the main stem. This is the true way to 
 make trees decay at the heart of the main stems. 
 
 Treatment of Wounds. — My own practice always 
 has been, when pruning trees, to apply a plaster of 
 
460 todd's country homes. 
 
 grafting wax to every wound, even to such as were no 
 larger than my little finger. When large trees were 
 pruned, as soon as the last limb was cut off a kettle of 
 liquid wax was taken into the tree, and every wound 
 was smeared with a heavy coat of wax, applied with a 
 brush. Then, a patch of thick paper was pressed 
 directly on the wax. It will always pay satisfactorily 
 to adopt this practice, in pruning any kind of trees. 
 It is eminently important that the wounds should be 
 covered with wax. If it is desirable to form a low 
 tree having a wide-spreading top, branches must be 
 allowed to start from the main stem near the ground. 
 Then, let calculations be made to train a stem perpen- 
 dicularly in the center of the tree, having lateral 
 branches about two feet apart clear to the top. To 
 prevent the central stem from shooting upward too 
 rapidly, and too far, pinch off the very end of the ter- 
 minal bud. We can give the tops of growing trees any 
 desired form by simply pinching off the terminal buds 
 of the outside branches. By pinching the buds of the 
 lateral branches, the sap will be directed to the upright 
 stem, and the tree will increase in height. On the 
 contrary, let the toiwiost buds be pinched, and the 
 sap will push out the lateral branches. When two 
 branches near each other do not grow alike, pinch the 
 terminal bud of the one that grows more rapidly, and 
 the other will soon be even with it. Do not pinch off 
 too much at one time. Sometimes it is necessary to 
 pinch off only half the length of the terminal leaves. 
 
 Pruning Tools. — When trees and bushes are young, 
 they should always be pruned and trained while they 
 are growing; and the best instrument that ever was 
 
MULCHING TREES AND PLANTS. 461 
 
 employed for the purposes of pruning is the thumb- 
 nail. No saw, axe, hatchet or pruning-knife, will bear 
 any comparison to the efficienc}^ of a strong thumb- 
 nail, employed at just the right time, and in the right 
 place. In the training of young trees and vines, the 
 pruning should begin with the swelling buds. The 
 true period to prune anything — tree, bush, vine or 
 shrub — is, when such things are }*oung and small, and 
 always when the branches are growing. But, when a 
 branch is to be taken off, a sharp pruning-knife, or fine- 
 toothed saw will be found the most convenient tools. 
 If a bush, vine or tree, increase in length faster than 
 the stem attains proportional strength and size, apply 
 the thumb-nail to the very extremity to check the 
 rampant growth. A man should always carry a sharp 
 pocket-knife, so that he can remove any branch of a 
 young tree, when he happens to be near it. There is 
 great danger of pinching off too many buds from the 
 stems of young trees. The lower buds should be per- 
 mitted to grow the first season to give the young tree 
 strength. If all the buds and leaves be pinched off, 
 except a little bush at the top of the main stem, the 
 trees will grow slowly, and be tali and slender. 
 
 Mulching Trees and Plants. — Almost any material 
 that will keep down vegetation around plants and trees, 
 may be employed as a mulch. Sawdust, shavings, tan- 
 bark, leaves, straw, salt hay, sedge and. coarse barn-yard 
 manure may be employed as a mulch. Let it be spread 
 over the surface barely thick enough to prevent grass 
 and weeds from coming up through. Mulching will be 
 far better for fruit trees, shrubs, rose bushes, flowers 
 and vegetables than numerous hoeings, during which a 
 
462 todd's country homes. 
 
 large proportion of the roots will be mutilated. A thin 
 mulch will keej) the soil moist, when otherwise, the 
 surface would be as dry as dust. Five dollars' worth 
 of mulch will often save ten dollars' worth of labor in 
 hoeing and watering plants. Many people remove all 
 the weeds, and grass to the street, when such things 
 should be spread around growing vegetables, as a mulch. 
 It is far better for flowers, and garden vegetables, and 
 all fruit-producing plants to be mulched, than to be 
 watered. Let the mulch be applied when the ground 
 is wet, so as to retain the moisture, when ground that 
 is not mulched is very dry. 
 
 Wateeing Growing Plants. — Let tillers of the soil 
 imitate nature. The earth is never watered by 
 showers except in cloudy weather. When the surface 
 of the earth is dry as dust, a gentle shower only de- 
 scends to moisten the surface, thus preparing it to 
 absorb a copious shower. The rain does not fall when 
 the sun shines. It will do plants more injury than ben- 
 efit to water them when the sun shines. Earth must 
 first be rendered damp before it will absorb water rap- 
 idly. Many gardeners have such vague and indefinite 
 notions of applying water to growing plants, that they 
 are frequently watered when the roots do not need 
 moisture, and at other times, they suffer for want of 
 water. The great secret of success in watering, con- 
 sists in furnishing just such an amount of artificial 
 supply as the plant needs, without flooding on the one 
 hand, or stinting on the other. This must be judged 
 of by the actual condition of the plant at the time. In 
 some instances, I have known cases where young trees 
 have been actually destroyed by injudicious watering. 
 
HOW TO WATER PLANTS. 463 
 
 Again, we have seen trees perish for want of watering. 
 In the latter instances, growth had already commenced, 
 and the young leaves were rapidly pumping the water 
 from the soil up through the roots and stem, and a 
 larger supply was needed than could be obtained. A 
 plant in a state of rapid vegetation will consume or 
 throw off into the air more than ten times as much 
 water as a dormant plant. It is by no means an un- 
 common error to pour water on a hard and baked sur- 
 face, without descending even a single inch below, nor 
 within half a foot of the roots of the plant. Such 
 waterings will of course do mare harm than good. It 
 would afford instruction to such superficial operators, 
 to throw up a little of the soil, and witness the dry, 
 ashy earth beneath the thin moistened crust. Water 
 will penetrate freely into a mellow and well cultivated 
 surface, but the removal of a few inches, to be again 
 replaced after watering, will be advisable in most cases 
 where the roots lie deep in the soil. 
 
 The Correct way to Water Plants. — When the 
 entire earth where a tree or plant is standing, is so dry 
 that no moisture can be felt in the fine particles, when 
 reduced to powder, a pailful or two of water applied 
 to the surface, will not subserve any good purpose, 
 toward promoting the growth of the living plant. But, 
 if the surface be dug up, and rendered mellow, before 
 it is saturated with water, and afterwards covered with 
 a mulch that will prevent speedy evaporation of the 
 moisture, the roots will not be liable to suffer from 
 drouth. It has frequently been recommended when 
 watering trees, to haul back about two inches in depth 
 of the soil, before the water is applied. Then, return 
 
464 todd's country homes. 
 
 the dry earth, over the watered surface. This is the 
 correct way to water trees and bushes, when no mulch- 
 ing material is employed. The only objection to the 
 process is the great labor of laying back and returning 
 the earth, and the mutilation of roots. As a prevent- 
 ive is always preferable to a remedy, it will be found 
 far more satisfactory to provide against injury from 
 drouth, while the earth is quite moist, by employing 
 some material as a mulch. Where the soil is porous, 
 and liable to dry out in a short time, a coat of mulching 
 material should be spread around every tree and bush, 
 in the spring.- Then, there will be little necessity for 
 applying water. Before I had learned how to water 
 trees and plants, in hot and dry weather, I injured sev- 
 eral valuable evergreens, so that they died. I am sat- 
 isfied that such a liberal supply of water poured around 
 the trees, without digging over the surface, or mulch- 
 ing it, was the immediate cause of their dying. 
 
 Spreading the Tops of Fruit Trees. — The branches 
 of some kinds of fruit trees are disposed to grow more 
 erect than perpendicularly. This is true of Northern 
 Spy apple trees, and the White Doyenne or Virgalieu 
 pear tree, and some others. Indeed, the tops of some 
 kinds of pear trees spread only a few feet, even when 
 they have attained a liight of twenty feet. It is de- 
 cidedly objectionable to have all the limbs shoot up- 
 ward, forming a top so close that a person cannot 
 ascend between the limbs to pluck the fruit. More- 
 over, the fruit will be fairer, larger, and better, if the 
 branches grow at a greater distance from each other, 
 so as to let in the light of the sun and admit of a more 
 free circulation of air through the dense foliage and 
 
EXTERMINATION OF INSECTS. 465 
 
 tliickly-set fruit When there is ample space between 
 the trees, fasten horizontal spars of wood to the main 
 stem of the tree-top, and push the limbs outward each 
 way from the middle of the top, and tie them in the 
 desired position, with soft strings, to the ends of the 
 horizontal spars. A more convenient way will be to 
 pass a narrow strip of leather around a branch and nail 
 it to the wood. The limbs may be fastened in the de- 
 sired position by such means, and kept there for one 
 season, when they will remain spread out, thus render- 
 ing it more convenient to move around in the tree-top 
 when pruning, thinning the fruit, or plucking it. In 
 some instances, only a few of the boughs grow erect 
 on one side of the tree, which may be thrust outward 
 and secured by short spars of wood on one side of the 
 middle of the tree-top. 
 
 ExTEEMiNATiNG Insects. — Nostrums and quack 
 medicines will not repel insects and caterpillars. They 
 must be destroyed by hand. The best method of ex- 
 terminating caterpillars, is to look diligently through 
 every tree, and cut off every twig which has an embryo 
 nest upon it. After a little practice they can be quickly 
 detected, and a small pair of pruning-shears, worked by 
 a cord on the end of a pole, or a very sharp-hooked 
 blade on a pole, will enable the operator to cut them 
 off for burning. In the spring and summer, put on a 
 pair of leather mittens, climb into fruit trees and crush 
 the worms: If people will have fruit, they must kill 
 the worms and noxious insects. Then, when cater- 
 pillars begin to crawl, let every one be crushed. 
 
 Management of Leaning Trees. — Fruit trees, some- 
 times, as well as ornamental trees, will not grow erect 
 
 30 
 
466 todd's country homes. 
 
 without some aid. When the trees are laden with 
 fruit and dense foliage, driving winds will sometimes 
 sway the tops so far from an erect position, starting 
 thQ roots on one side, so that they never straighten 
 up without some artificial means to hold them in the 
 desired place until the roots have taken hold of the 
 earth so firmly as to keep the top in a perpendicular 
 position. Young trees, having most of the roots on 
 one side, are liable to lean, and unless they are set 
 erect, and held there for one season, or longer, new 
 branches will start from the upper side of the lateral 
 boughs, and grow perpendicularly. Nature makes an 
 effort to keep trees in an erect position, as well as to 
 send out limbs on every side to balance the tree. 
 When a tree is too large to be kept erect by sods 
 pressed firmly against one side of the body, at the sur- 
 face of the ground, or by a stake set in the ground 
 about two feet from the tree, to which it may be tied 
 with a strap, or rope of hay, drive a short stake in the 
 ground, ten or more feet distant from the body, and, 
 after elevating the top, secure it by a wire extending 
 from the stake to the upper part of the body of the 
 tree. To shield the bark from injury, attach the end 
 of the wire to a leather strap, or piece of hoop-iron, 
 and place a few folds of cloth or thick paper under the 
 strap. The best time to set such trees erect is at any 
 period in the winter or spring when the ground is soft. 
 When a tree has grown for several years in an inclined 
 direction, it may be necessary to set a post firmly in 
 the ground for holding one end of a chain for drawing 
 up the tree with a tackle, or with a rope or chain at- 
 tached to a lever. A branch, which should extend 
 
RENOVATING OLD FRUIT TREES. 467 
 
 nearly in a horizontal direction, on one side of a tree, 
 will sometimes take almost a perpendicular direction, 
 which will destroy the beauty and symmetry of the top. 
 By holding such branches for one year in any desired 
 position, they will continue to grow as the guy-wires 
 held them. 
 
 Cats injuring Fruit Trees. — Some excellent cats, 
 that are a terror to rats and mice, are frequently dis- 
 posed to try the claws of their fore-paws in the bark 
 of young fruit trees. Young male cats always seek a 
 small tree, if one be near the house, on the body of 
 which they will try their claws in tearing the tender 
 bark into shreds. Many valuable fruit trees have been 
 so lacerated by the scratching of some dear pussy that 
 it has been found impossible to save them. Some cats 
 need a place to scratch with their fore-claws, quite as 
 much as swine and neat cattle need a rubbing-pole or 
 a rough post, against which they may allay the con- 
 stant irritation of the skin. There are two ways of 
 preventing injury to young trees by the scratching of 
 cats, one of which is to nail narrow strips of boards or 
 pieces of lath to the body of the tree. If the boards 
 be of soft timber they will subserve the purpose re- 
 quired as a scratching-post. Another preventive is to 
 place a soft-wood pole or limb of another tree by the 
 side of the scratching-tree. 
 
 Renovating Old Fruit Trees. — Old pear trees fre- 
 quently become " hide-bound." In other language, the 
 bark becomes so hard and dry that the diameter of the 
 body of the tree cannot enlarge. This hard and firm 
 bark will not yield, or give way to the expansive force 
 of the sap and new wood, but little more than if it 
 
468 todd's country homes. 
 
 were tin or sheet-iron. As a natural and certain result, 
 the health of the tree is impaired, and the fruit can 
 not grow fair, large, and delicious, as it would be, were 
 the bark kept in a healthy condition. The bark of a 
 healthy growing tree is more or less elastic, and as a 
 new circle of wood is formed, the bark- enlarges by 
 expanding, and in some places cracking apart. After 
 a few years, scales of dead bark cover the body of the 
 tree, which should be scraped off, clear to the live bark. 
 Sometimes it may be necessary to shave it off with a 
 drawing-knife. If the tree is very old and grows but 
 little, I have frequently removed the outside half-way 
 through the live bark, afterward smearing the body 
 with a thin coat of liquid grafting-wax, applied warm 
 with a brush. This is essential to the health of old 
 apple as well as pear trees. The bark of peach and 
 plum trees should not be cut beyond the dead bark. 
 Another thing is, the soil needs renewing. Perhaps 
 for more than forty years a crop of fruit has been pro- 
 duced from that ground where old trees stand, without 
 having received any fertilizing material to compensate 
 for the long succession of crops of fruit. When this 
 is the case, remove six or eight inches in depth of the 
 old soil, with horses and scraper, and haul rich alluvial, 
 or sods from the highway side, in place of what has 
 been removed. Mingle with this earth, sawdust, and 
 chip-manure, and wood-ashes, the more the better. 
 Let the whole be spaded in deep and thoroughly, with 
 a few bushels of lime, and some barn-yard manure. In 
 a year or two, if the trees are not too old, and if they 
 have not been neglected too long, they will again bear 
 like young trees. Another economical and effective 
 
CULTIVATION OF GOOSEBERRIES. 469 
 
 manner of making old trees bear well, is to enclose each 
 tree in the middle of a small yard, say sixteen or twenty 
 feet square, and keep a few swine in it while fattening. 
 Make holes eight inches deep, with a crow-bar, in scores 
 of places beneath the tree, dropping into each one a 
 few kernels of grain. The swine will shortly root up 
 every inch of ground, destroying all the roots of weeds 
 and grass, and renovating the soil with the fecal matr 
 ter which they deposit, so that the next season, the 
 trees will bear abundantly. I have tried this, with the 
 best of results, on old pear and old cherry trees. Au- 
 tumn is the best time to attend to it. But swine 
 should not be kept in an enclosure around fruit trees 
 longer than thirty or forty days. Coarse and ferment- 
 able manures are not proper for fruit trees. Those of 
 the stable and barn-yard should never come in contact 
 with the trees of a fruit garden. They are less dan- 
 gerous in open apple orchards, but even these should 
 not be used around young trees, as they cause rapid, 
 soft and irregularly formed trees. The inorganic ma- 
 nures may be used with much greater safety and with 
 better results. Moderate doses of lime, more generous 
 ones of wood ashes, are always profitable. PhosjDhates 
 of all kinds are useful, if free from putrescent matter. 
 Even Peruvian guano, if applied at all, should be slightly 
 dug in late in the fall, so as to become thoroughly divi- 
 ded by winter rains. 
 
 Cultivation" of Gooseberries. — 
 
 " The gooseberry green, first fruit of the year, 
 In pudding or pie, affords exquisite cheer." 
 
 Very few people can succeed in raising this fruit, 
 simply because they do not understand the require- 
 ments of growing bushes. In the best gooseberry 
 
470 todd's country homes. 
 
 plantations of Philadelphia, it is no unusual sight to 
 see rows of them which have been in one place per- 
 haps twenty years, so mounded up with rubbish that 
 they look as if they were planted on ridges two or 
 three feet above the level of the earth, every year 
 bearing abundantly. The gooseberry is a mountain 
 fruit, and the bush does not like a hot soil. If we plant 
 it so that the hot sun will pour down on the cleanly 
 cultivated earth, we cannot get gooseberries. But set 
 them in a pretty thick row, and pile up about the 
 bushes five or six inches deep of old brush-wood, old 
 corn-roots, old leather shavings, pots or kettles even, 
 if you cannot get anything else, so that the roots will 
 always be near the surface, and yet cool; and I will 
 guarantee a bountiful yield of fruit. 
 
 Enemies of Gooseberries. — We have perfect do- 
 minion of these. One is mildew, and the other, the 
 little white currant worm. Scatter wood-ashes abund- 
 antly around the growing bushes, and no mildew will 
 appear. Put a few cents worth of white hellebore 
 powder into a pepper-box, and sprinkle a little all over 
 the bushes, on the worms. The least atom will poison 
 the worms, so that they will die with all sorts of fits, 
 in a few minutes. Propagate the bushes as currants 
 are grown. (See Currants.) 
 
 Cultivation of Currants. — All the different vari- 
 eties may be propagated, and the bushes trained and 
 cultivated alike. The currant is a plant that possesses 
 great vitality, and will grow in almost any kind of soil 
 or situation, but to bring it to perfection, and make its 
 culture profitable, it requires good culture, and a deep 
 rich soil. It succeeds better in a heavy loam, approach- 
 
CULTIVATION OF CURRANTS. 471 
 
 ing a clay, than in a light sandy soil. Quinces, currants, 
 gooseberries, grapes and some other kinds of fruit and 
 flowering shrubs, may be propagated by cuttings in a 
 shorter period of time, than by planting the seed and 
 grafting, or budding the stocks. The best way to do it 
 .on a small scale is, to select the cutting a short time 
 before the growing season commences, or at any period 
 in the winter when the branches are not frozen. The 
 ends of the branches that grew the previous season 
 should be selected, as the wood is not so firm, and roots 
 will start sooner than from branches a year or more 
 old. The cuttings should be from four to six inches 
 long. One bud above the surface of the ground is suf- 
 ficient, and the cuttings should extend at least four 
 inches into the damp earth, in order to insure perpet- 
 ual moisture, after the ends of the twigs have become 
 calloused and the roots begin to form. When the 
 cuttings are planted shallow, with the lower ends not 
 more than one or two inches below the surface of the 
 soil, they are not so liable to live as if planted deeper, 
 unless special care be exercised in applying water. 
 Cuttings planted early in fall will usually become rooted 
 by the time winter sets in, and this too, without their 
 buds pushing into leaf. The next season they will 
 make a far better growth than if their planting is de- 
 ferred until spring. Single bud cuttings will sometimes 
 grow quite readily if planted in the open ground, pro- 
 vided the surface of the soil above them is covered with 
 a mulch. Sawdust or tan-bark is better for mulching 
 the cutting bed than straw or leaves. 
 
 Currant bushes may be pruned in the winter ; and 
 the bushes should be manured in autumn, every alter- 
 
472 todd's countet homes. 
 
 nate year ; and the soil should be kept clean and mel- 
 low till after bearing. Then if all old wood is kept cut 
 away, and young shoots appear, something like the re- 
 newal system of 23runing grapes, good cultivation will 
 give heavy crops of fine, large currants from the same 
 bushes for a life-time. When bushes are trained to a 
 single stem, borers are more liable to injure the stems, 
 than when they grow in bushes. Currant worms may 
 be destroyed by dusting the powder of white hellebore 
 over them, in small quantities. (See Gooseberries.) 
 The currant readily adapts itself to all kinds of soils and 
 latitudes. It seems proof against almost any amount 
 of freezing and thawing. When preparing the soil to 
 receive the plants, whether in the form of a cutting or 
 rooted plants, the ground should be trenched from six- 
 teen inches to two feet deep. If the subsoil is a stiff 
 clay calculated to hold water, two feet of depth will be 
 required. When of a character not to hold water a 
 less depth will answer. . Lime and ashes answer an ex- 
 cellent purpose around currant bushes. Where it can 
 be had a good mixture of hog-stable or horse-stable 
 manure is excellent. Until the bushes are established, 
 keep down all weeds and stir the soil about the roots 
 frequently. After coming into bearing, always keep 
 the plant well mulched in bearing season, during which 
 the soil should be undisturbed. 
 
 Management of Old Cureant Bushes. — When old 
 bushes are standing where grass and weeds have taken 
 possession of the ground, it will be useless to attempt 
 to exterminate the noxious plants by digging them up, 
 as the currant roots lie mostly, near the surface of the 
 ground. The better v/ay will be to smother all vegeta- 
 
CULTUKE OF STKAWBERRIES. 473 
 
 tion, by covering the ground around them to the depth 
 of two or three inches with tan bark, putting some 
 half a dozen shovelfuls into the center of each bush. 
 This will operate to a charm. The grass will be ex- 
 terminated, and the next season the bushes will yield 
 bountifully. I am satisfied that vegetable dressino- is 
 equally as good, if not better, for trees and shrubbery 
 than barn-yard manure, unless it is very coarse. Let 
 all the old dead branches be removed, cut into small 
 pieces, laid on the ground near the bushes, and covered 
 with mulch. Sawdust, chip-dirt, leather shavings, lit- 
 ter from iron founderies and blacksmith's shops and all 
 such materials will make superior mulch for currant and 
 gooseberry bushes. Currant bushes need also a liberal 
 supply of lime, or wood- ashes, or both, scattered around 
 them. Old lime mortar is excellent for such a purpose. 
 Gooseberry bushes require the same treatment as cur- 
 rant bushes. 
 
 Culture of Strawberries. — Strawberry vines re- 
 quire a rich dry and mellow soil, and thorough mulch- 
 ing. This is all that good bearing vines need to pro- 
 duce an abundance of fruit. Keep poultry away from 
 the vines in the former part of the growing season, as 
 they will " pick out all the buds out," and destroy the 
 crop of fruit. Do not allow a hoe nor any other tool 
 that will mutilate the roots, to be used near the hills 
 until after the crop has been gathered. Many people 
 have all their strawberries destroyed by poultry, and 
 by hoes, and then lay the failure to the variety. Let 
 the ground be mulched early in the spring, with straw 
 or coarse manure, or anything that will keep the 
 ground moist and prevent grass and weeds from grow- 
 
474 todd's country homes. 
 
 ing. Get plants from a bed that bears, and the vines 
 will be sure to yield fruit. For many seasons, I could 
 never raise any strawberries, simply because the hens 
 devoured all the fruit-producing buds. Strawberry 
 plants set properly in the spring will grow and flourish 
 as easily as a potato patch, while those set in the latter 
 part of summer require the utmost care to keep them 
 alive, by supjjlying moisture and shade to protect them 
 from the scorching sun. Next spring the few plants 
 that may have stood the unnatural treatment will be 
 smothered in a rank growth of grass, that will require 
 more labor and expense to keep down, than would 
 pay for all the strawberries that would grow on the 
 weakly plants thus treated. Strawberries planted in 
 the fall require so much more labor and attention to 
 make them succeed than when planted in the spring 
 that it can only be recommended when the object is to 
 obtain some new and choice variety, the value of which 
 will compensate for the extra care required to grow a 
 few plants out of season. 
 
 Blackberries and Raspberries. — The first and 
 most important consideration in the cultivation of these 
 kinds of fruit, is good sets for planting, which should 
 be grown on clean and mellow soil, so as to secure 
 plants with strong, fibrous roots ; for the better the 
 plants the larger will be the yield. Sets should never 
 be taken up in the spring, particularly blackberries. 
 One reason is, they start so very early that many of 
 the shoots are broken, which delays the much-needed 
 early growth. Raspberry plants, the first year, have 
 an immense amount of small fibrous roots, which start 
 the canes to growing as soon as the frost is out of the 
 
BLACKBERRIES AND RASPBERRIES. 475 
 
 ground. The second year they throw out long tap- 
 roots, to which are attached the fine, thread-like fibres, 
 from which the plants derive their nourishment. 
 
 The blackberry is very different in its growth. It 
 has not those fine, fibrous roots to take up its food like 
 the raspberry. The sets spring up from the long tap- 
 roots, which run in all directions, giving it the advan- 
 tage of the raspberry set, by drawing on the parent 
 stalk for its support, thus causing it to start very early. 
 The sets should be dug in the fall and heeled in on a 
 dry sj)ot where they can be shaded, if need be, from the 
 warm sun, so as to kee-p them from starting before the 
 soil can be prepared for planting them out, which should 
 be done as soon as possible in the spring. Plant the 
 young bushes seven or eight feet apart in rows, and 
 four feet distant in the rows, and mulch the ground 
 around the bushes to keep down all vegetation. As 
 soon as the crop is gathered all the old wood should be 
 removed, and from that time till near the end of the 
 season the growth of the new shoots should be encour- 
 aged, as it is on these that the fruit grows next year. 
 It will be better to permit to grow to each hill only 
 five or six of the most vigorous canes, removing all 
 others. When these have attained the hight of five 
 feet or so, the ends should be pinched off so as to in- 
 duce the canes to put out lateral branches. Towards 
 the close of the season the growth should be checked 
 rather than encouraged, so that when winter comes the 
 canes will present nothing but thoroughly ripened 
 wood. If they are now bent down to the ground, and 
 leaves from the forest strewed plentifully over them, 
 the culturist may feel an almost absolute assurance of 
 
476 todd's oountky homes. 
 
 having a splendid crop the ensuing season — let the 
 weather during the winter be never so severe. It may 
 be well to take this precaution for a portion of the 
 vines every autumn, although after ordinary winters 
 good crops can be obtained without it. In the spring 
 the surface soil should be nicely cleaned, and the canes 
 shortened in, and the five or six to each hill tied to a 
 stake or to trellises. 
 
 Cultivation of Grapes. — 
 
 Beautiful grapes ! such food for the blood, 
 For the brain, the nerves, the ethereal spirit ! 
 But clianged to wine, now fire and not food, 
 All-consuming fire, that ardent spirit ! 
 
 Volumes have been written on grapes by men who as- 
 sume to be familiar with all the requirements of the 
 vine. And yet in some instances, writers who are ac- 
 cepted authorities, are found to entertain notions dia- 
 metrically opposed to each other. One reposes all 
 confidence in a certain style of pruning. According 
 to his notions, no grapes of any account, can be pro- 
 duced, if the vines are not pruned and trained accord- 
 ing to his ^^pet theory.'" Another accepted authority 
 on grapes, will denounce such a writer, as a "stupid 
 ass," knowing nothing at all about the requirements 
 of the vine, and the correct mode of pruning and train- 
 ing. The consequence is that beginners are bewil- 
 dered, and confused with doubts, to such an extent, that 
 they really do not know how to train their vines, how 
 to prune, when to cut, where to apply the knife, or 
 whether to allow the vines to grow unmolested, and pro- 
 duce fruit or not, just as the case may be. I am per- 
 sonally acquainted with a writer on grapes, near New 
 York City, who has acquired a world-wide reputation 
 
CULTIVATION OF GRASS. 477 
 
 as reliable authority on this kind of fruit, with whom 
 the manner of pruning is everything. And yet, he 
 complains, that many kinds of grapes will not succeed 
 round about New York, because he has not been able 
 to get fruit on his vines that are growing in a light 
 and unproductive soil, where the grape roots could not 
 possibly find a sufficient quantity of available grape- 
 producing material to develop one single bunch of 
 fruit. Those very vines that have failed to produce 
 fruit, for several seasons past, were the roots supplied 
 with grape-producing material, such as the flesh and 
 bones of dead animals, and a few bushels of wood-ashes 
 and lime, would be literally loaded with large bunches 
 of plump berries. There is not a shadow of a doubt 
 on this point. But grape-vines cannot develop fruit, 
 out of nothing, any more than a good cow can yield a 
 liberal flow of rich milk, while her feed is nothing but 
 straw and water. Let no one feel disheartened, if he 
 experiences any desire to propagate vines and raise 
 grapes, because experienced grape-growers have not 
 always met with success. Almost every family in the 
 country and in hamlets and villages allow noxious 
 weeds to cover the ground, where several hundreds 
 of pounds, and in many instances, two or three tons of 
 excellent fruit might be produced, every season, with 
 the expenditure of only a few hours' labor. The main 
 consideration which lies at the foundation of success in 
 producing grapes, is a correct understanding of the re- 
 quirements of the growing vines. Then, if a cultiva- 
 tor is careful to select such varieties as will mature 
 their fruit, before cold and frosty weather, his vines 
 will rarely fail to yield a bountiful crop, every season. 
 
478 todd's country homes. 
 
 Almost every failure in the production of grapes, may 
 be traced directly to some cause over which the tiller 
 of the soil can exercise complete control. 
 
 Geape-vines must be Fed. — The entire system of 
 successful grape culture, is involved in the exercise of 
 a little common sense. Grape-vines require much 
 aluminous matter, in the form of clay; a liberal supply 
 of silicious material, in the form of sand ; a moderate 
 sprinkling of carbonaceous elements, in the form of 
 humus, or leaf-mold ; a bountiful supply of potash, and 
 an abundance of nitrogenous elements, and phosphatic 
 material. Where these elements of fertility abound, 
 there will be but little difficulty in producing bountiful 
 crops of fine fruit. On the contrary, where they are 
 lacking, grapes will be an uncertain and unsatisfactory 
 crop. Grape-vines must be fed, or we cannot reason- 
 ably expect a crop of fine fruit. Grapes are composed 
 of choice tid-bits, so to speak, which have been gathered 
 in exceedingly minute particles by the ten thousand 
 little rootlets which occupy almost every inch of the 
 soil, round about the growing vine. But if the nitro- 
 genous matter, the aluminous, the silicious and the cal- 
 careous material be wanting, and if there be a defi- 
 ciency of phosphates and carbonates and a meagre 
 supply of j)otash — which is one of the most essential 
 fertilizers in grape culture — a vine dresser may give 
 the most timely training, pruning, pinching, mulching 
 or stirring of the surface of the soil, and receive no re- 
 ward in fruit for all his labor. In all the localities on 
 the slopes of our Northern lakes and rivers, where 
 there are extensive vineyards, and in any other States 
 where the soil ranges from a loam, in which there is 
 
PKUNING AND TRAINING. 479 
 
 only a sprinkling of clay to a heavy clay, the chief 
 fertilizing matter to be applied for the purpose of se- 
 curing a crop of grapes is good bone-dust, the flesh of 
 animals, or the offal of slaughter-houses and potash, 
 or wood-ashes. In numerous localities in New Jersey, 
 large and beautiful vines can be raised, which will not 
 produce one single bunch of fruit, simply because the 
 vines are starved to death. The soil in those places 
 that we have particular reference to, consists of a 
 light sandy loam, with scarcely enough aluminous mat- 
 ter in it to entitle it to the name of a loam. Grape- 
 vines must be fed in such places. There is no use in 
 attempting to dodge this fact. Vines cannot produce 
 grapes out of nothing. If grape-producing material is 
 not available by the roots, the pabulum must be sup- 
 plied, or there will certainly be no grapes. The more 
 wood-ashes that can be spread around the vines and 
 hoed into the soil, the more the fruit and leaves will 
 be fortified against the attacks of disease. • 
 
 Pruning and Training. — There is such a thing as 
 pruning a vine too much. Indeed, I have met with 
 numerous instances, on Long Island, where vines have 
 been pruned according to the notions of professional 
 grape culturists, for several seasons, without producing 
 half a crop of fruit. Then, the vines were neglected, 
 for two or three reasons, and the yield was a bountiful 
 crop. Common sense teaches us that when a large 
 proportion of a vine is removed, if it be well rooted, 
 the growth of new wood will not be firm and healthy 
 as it should be. All grape culturists agree that the 
 first requisite for the production of perfect vines, is 
 sound, well-ripened wood rather than that which has 
 
480 todd's country homes. 
 
 been injured by producing a full crop of grapes. Fruit 
 is always produced upon the young growing branches 
 that spring from buds formed on the wood of the pre- 
 ceding year. This fact furnishes grape culturists with 
 a reliable guide for pruning the vine, no matter what 
 system is adopted in training. If we cut off a large 
 proportion of the vine, the sap in the roots may stag- 
 nate, to the injury of both the roots and stem. The 
 aim should be, therefore, to prune, and in such a man- 
 ner, that the branches will cease to grow before cold 
 w^eather. There is nothing gained by having a long 
 and bare vine, yielding a few bunches of grapes twenty 
 feet from the roots. I have often seen over thirty 
 bunches of grapes joroduced, on a young vine, within a 
 space of six feet high by two feet wide. I have a 
 young lona vine that yielded, last season, when it was 
 three years old, over fifty fine bunches, within a space 
 eight feet long by four feet high. And more than half 
 of the bunches that had set on that vine, were clipped 
 off, so that the vine should not be injured by maturing 
 too much fruit. And, I may state also, that my vines, 
 all of which are very productive, are growing where 
 there was nothing but unfertile earth. But we fed t\\e 
 roots wdth the garbage from the kitchen, consisting of 
 rotten eggs, pieces of bone, fish-scales and heads, the 
 offal of dressed poultry, lime and soap-suds. Before the 
 middle of September, our grapes had all matured. I 
 simply allude to this fact to show that bountiful crops 
 have been produced in barren earth by my system of 
 management. Fish, dead cats, dead dogs, rats, mice, 
 and dead fowls, will make superior pabulum for the 
 roots of grape-vines, or fruit trees. 
 
TRAINING OLD AND YOUNG VINES. 481 
 
 Training Young Vines. — The first step will be to 
 induce two canes to grow like a two-tined fork, six feet 
 or more long, perpendicularly. Shoots will not grow 
 so readily in a horizontal direction. Here we have 07ie 
 tangible starting-point. The next spring, secure these 
 two canes to a trellis, in a horizontal position, about 
 one and one-half feet from the ground. Now, encour- 
 age perpendicular canes to grow from these horizontal 
 arms to the top of the trellis. On these perpendicular 
 canes, the fruit will appear. Make all the canes grow 
 uniformly, by pinching a little of the growing end of 
 such canes as seem disposed to grow faster than those 
 on each side; but do not pinch too much. Now, keep 
 the vines within bounds by pinching off the extremi- 
 ties, a little at a time. Let the soil be kept clean by 
 mulching or with the scuffle-hoe. Do not work the 
 soil so deep as to cut off the surface roots. It is a rare 
 thing that grape-vines need root pruning. If vines be 
 trained thus to a trellis, or fence, one can have them 
 and the fruit exactly where he can reach them, and he 
 can train every branch to his mind. Then, when it is 
 desirable to lay the vines down for winter, the canes 
 can be released, and the entire vine laid flat on the 
 ground and covered with earth. I know of no system 
 of pruning and training superior to this. The next 
 season, the vine will be in an excellent condition to 
 permit the pruner to commence pruning according to 
 the renewal system. 
 
 Management of Old Vines. — Let us suppose, for 
 example, that we have an old tangled vine, that has 
 produced only a light crop of fruit yearly. What shall 
 •be done with it ? The first question will be, has the 
 
 31 
 
482 todd's country homes. 
 
 vine any well ripened wood, one year old ? If so, ex- 
 amine the buds on these young branches, and consider 
 each complete bud as a promise of one to three bunches 
 of fruit. Now, if we can get a young cane six or eight 
 feet long, it may be trained horizontally, as indicated, 
 under the preceding heading. Or, if an old vine has 
 a number of healthy one-year-old canes each may be 
 pruned back to about five or six buds from its base. It 
 is seldom a safe plan to leave more than this number 
 of buds on each cane, even when the ground is unusu- 
 ally rich. In some instances, if the vine is old, very 
 much tangled and unproductive, it will be better to 
 cut off every thing clean and smooth, just above the 
 collar of the stem, at the surface of the ground, and 
 cover the wounds with grafting-wax held down tight 
 by a piece of stiff cloth, or old leather secured with 
 tacks. Several long canes will grow from the stub, 
 which can be trained at pleasure. My space is too 
 limited to offer many details on this subject. The be- 
 ginner must study the vine, and its requirements. If 
 branches are too thick, apply the knife. Count the 
 bunches of young fruit; and if they appear too numer- 
 ous, clip off a portion. Never allow young vines to 
 produce a bountiful yield of fruit. 
 
 One of the best ways to treat an old vine is, to insert 
 several cions below the collar, at the surface of the 
 ground. Then choose two of these for arms, by train- 
 ing them, the first season, as directed on page 480. 
 Grind the end of a small chisel like the point of a 
 spear ; drive it an inch or more into the side of the 
 stock, withdraw it, and crowd in the cion before the 
 gash closes. 
 
CHAPTEE XII 
 
 BREEDING AND REARING OF HORSES. 
 
 The DenominatioDS of Horses — Breeding Horses for Agricultural Purposes 
 
 — Stallions and Mares — Management of Mares — Working Breeding 
 
 Mares — Management and Rearing of Colts — Feeding and Watering 
 
 Horses — Overdriving — How to Drive — Bad effects of Overdriving — 
 
 Stables, &c. 
 
 " The toil-worn horse set free, 
 Unheeclful of the pasture, roams at large ; 
 And, as his stiff unwieldly bulk he rolls. 
 His iron-bound hoofs gleam in the morning ray." — Graiiame. 
 
 The Denominations of Horses. — Some of .the 
 technicalities employed when speaking of them, are : 
 1. A stallion or stud-horse, meaning an entire male, 
 which has not been castrated. 2. A gelding, a male 
 horse castrated before he has been kept as a stallion. 
 3. Stag, a castrated stallion, which has been employed 
 for service, during several seasons. 4. Mare signifies 
 the female horse. 5. Filly, a young female horse. 
 Young mares are often spoken of as fillies, until the}^ 
 are three years old. 6. Foal, either a male or female 
 colt while very young. In many instances, young 
 horses are spoken of as foals, until they have been 
 weaned. 7. Colt, has no limited signification, with- 
 out some qualifying word or phrase ; as Americans say, 
 a sucking colt, a last spring's colt, a yearling colt, a 
 two years old colt, or a four years old colt. After 
 the age of four years, the word colt is not employed^ 
 
484 todd's country homes. 
 
 as either a male or female is then considered to be a 
 full grown horse. 7. After a mare has produced one 
 foal, she is spoken of as a brood mare, or breeding 
 mare. 8. When a mare receives the male, the stal- 
 lion is said to cover the mare, or to be put to her, or 
 the mare was covered by such a stallion. 9. During 
 the period of gestation, a mare is said to be in foal, or 
 with foal. Either is correct English. 10. The young 
 animal, until it is brought forth is a foetus. When the 
 foetus is brought forth prematurely, we say the mare 
 has slunk her foal. 11. In many instances, people 
 say; "Such a horse was sired by Prince." A more 
 correct expression would be to say; such a colt was 
 got by Prince. John Randolph says : " They might as 
 well say, that such a colt was damm'd by such a mare." 
 Properly speaking, we say, such a foal was brought 
 forth by such a dam; or the dam of such a colt or 
 horse, was, or is "Nellie." 12. When a mare manifests 
 no displeasure at the near approach of the stallion, 
 and does not bite, kick, nor strike, when he touches 
 her with his nose, she is said to be in heat, or in season. 
 13. When he is moving faster than a walk, and lifts 
 both the fore foot and hind foot on one side together, 
 a horse is said to rack, or to j^cice, or to amble. 
 
 Choice of Stallions. — Fine animals may be pro- 
 duced without ^serving the following rules, but this 
 must be regarded as an accidental matter, unless the 
 coupling of the same sire and dam will produce an- 
 other. The purer the blood of breeding animals the 
 more sure they will be to produce their like, and to 
 transmit their qualities to offspring. Defective qual- 
 ities are transmitted with just as much certainty as 
 
CHOICE OF STALLIONS. 485 
 
 desirable ones, because the defects owe their origin to 
 the same causes that good and desirable qualities do, 
 and are just as deeply implanted in the constitution 
 and transmissive power as the others are. These facts 
 should be constantly borne in mind by the breeders 
 of all animals, who would make their business remun- 
 erative. The careless breeder too, often so badly pairs 
 the animals, that the good points of each are almost 
 lost, the defects of both are increased, and the colts 
 are inferior to either sire or dam. 
 
 A cross between large, upright shouldered, over- 
 grown horses and small mares, generally produces a 
 race of long-legged, small-chested, spongy-boned ani- 
 mals. It is also a well established fact, that to obtain 
 speed, courage, spirit and bottom, with hardness of 
 bone, we must have what breeders call a strong dash 
 of blood, and we should aim to get as much blood as 
 we can into the horse of all-work, consistently with 
 the necessary weight. However, in doing this, we 
 should avoid the long-legged, narrow-loined, pot-gutted, 
 degenerate class of race horses, and endeavor to select 
 such as are well formed, with sufficient bone, body and 
 muscle, with proper shortness of leg, to enable them to 
 bear up under long continued and severe exertion. 
 In short, the correct way to choose a stallion is to em- 
 ploy the service of one that has proved himself to be 
 an excellent animal for getting superior stock. Farm- 
 ers as a class, have made a serious mistake in breeding 
 from "fast horses " rather than from strong and power- 
 ful roadsters and draught animals. Breeders can not 
 expect to raise large horses from undersized stallions. 
 Every other good point may be developed in the most 
 
486 TODD S COUIsTllY HOMES. 
 
 desirable manner, but if size be wanting, he should not 
 be used for raising horses for heavy work. The body 
 of the stallion should be of as symmetrical proportions 
 as the mare's. His back should be short, and his chest 
 round as a barrel, well ribbed back, filled out in the 
 Hank, rather than like the body of a greyhound. His 
 head should be small and bony, his neck strong and of 
 good length, his breast very broad from one shoulder 
 point to the other, the withers high, the legs short and 
 strong, having the hocks and knees low, and the legs 
 below hard and smooth. Such a horse will not be 
 liable to strain himself at a heavy draught. 
 HoESEs FOR Agricultural Purposes. — 
 
 " The colt by nature and by genius made 
 To turn the glebe, breed to the rural trade." — Drtden's Virgil. 
 
 Farmers and most men in cities who want horses at 
 all, need large, heavy horses for agricultural purposes ; 
 but their form should be symmetrical. A horse sixteen 
 hands high is far preferable to one fourteen hands high. 
 Good length is an important consideration in an agri- 
 cultural horse. If a horse has good hight and good 
 length, and a symmetrical form — with few exceptions 
 — he can be made a powerful and efficient animal for 
 heavy labor. One kind of labor requires one kind of 
 horses, a different kind of labor requires a kind of 
 horses diametrically different. We can not ex^Dect to 
 find in one horse the excellent qualities of a good agri- 
 cultural horse, an excellent roadster, and a fleet car- 
 riage horse, nor, on the contrary, can we expect that a 
 horse that is noted for his fleetness — either for trotting 
 or running — will make a good agricultural horse. 
 What is the character of the labor to be performed by 
 agricultural horses ? It is plowing, harrowing, hauling 
 
SELECTING BREEDING MARES. 487 
 
 heavy drafts, etc., which reqmres a strong and steady 
 movement. For the performance of such operations a 
 .kind of horses is needed which will j^ress into the har- 
 ness, just as a strong man lifts a heavy weight with his 
 shoulders. Many farmers seem to prefer horses of the 
 very largest, and even overgrown size, but such horses 
 are not the most useful and convenient, and seldom as 
 durable. They who raise horses instead of trying to 
 breed trotters, should endeavor to raise good serviceable 
 horses, fitted for any and all work, no matter how heavy 
 or how light, the plow, the coach or truck. A heavy 
 horse, for plowing, and especially for drawing heavy 
 loads over rough ways, is infinitely the best. Why ? 
 Because a heavy horse performs a large proportion of 
 his labor, not by muscular force, but by the momentum 
 of his body. When a horse weighing eight hundred 
 pounds is put to heavy labor, such as hauling heavy 
 loads over rough and uneven ways, a horse that will 
 weigh one thousand six hundred pounds will show but 
 little fatigue, when the other animal is well nigh ex- 
 hausted. Heavy oxen and heavy muscular horses are 
 the best kind of animals for agricultural purposes ; but 
 the best carriage-horses are found among those of a 
 medium size. 
 
 Selecting Breeding Mares. — The first and most 
 important step towards improvement, is to select the 
 right kind of mare, full of health and vigor. Youatt 
 says it is more difiicult to select a good mare to breed 
 from, than a horse, because she should possess some- 
 what opposite qualities. In order to improve the form 
 of the offspring, she should be proportionally larger 
 than the stallion ; her carcass should be rather long, to 
 
488 todd's country homes. 
 
 give room for the expansion of the foetus — yet with 
 compactness of form, and shortness of leg, chest roomy, 
 shoulders oblique and deep, withers well raised, girth- 
 large, loins broad, and quarters wide, shanks flat and 
 clean. The muscles and their appendages (the tendons) 
 cannot be too prominently developed in the brood mare; 
 however desirable, or even perfect may have been the 
 conformation of the sire, every good point may be 
 neutralized or lost by the defective structure of the 
 mare. The essential points should be good in both 
 parents, or any minor defect in either must be got rid 
 of by excellence in that particular point in the other. 
 Both animals ought to be perfect as near as we can 
 judge and get them, or else our breed of horses will 
 never be generally good, but a spurious race will con- 
 tinue, and degeneration progress. If breeders do not 
 pay more attention to the hereditary transmission of 
 disease, if they do not exercise proper judgment with 
 regard to form, constitution, and freedom from heredi- 
 tary taint, how can they expect a sound or healthy off- 
 spring from either sire or dam ? 
 
 Never attempt to breed valuable colts from old, worn- 
 out mares, which have been injured and their vitality 
 weakened by injudicious treatment, or by too severe 
 labor. The common practice for many years past, has 
 been to keep the old mare for breeding when she is 
 unfitted for service on the road or on the farm. This 
 is where the evil commences. She is a favorite animal, 
 was handsome, spirited and with a power of endurance 
 almost beyond belief - But now she is seventeen years 
 of age, has a spavin, a slight touch of the heaves, and 
 one or two other trifling matters which are a little in- 
 
TO MAKE BAKKEN MAKES BREED. 489 
 
 convenient for a working animal, but she will make a 
 good breeder and about pay for keeping besides. 
 Blemishes, spavins, and other imperfections are all im- 
 pressed upon the living organism, and can no more be 
 separated from it than breath can from the body, so 
 long as life is still preserved. Let beginners beware of 
 breeding from either male or female, having blemishes. 
 To MAKE Bareen Mares Breed. — 
 
 " Their bodies harass ; sink them when they run : 
 And fry their melting marrow in the sun. 
 With scanty measure, then supply their food ; 
 And when athirst, restrain them from the flood." 
 
 Deyden's Virgil. 
 
 When mares are kept too fat to breed, it will be a 
 difficult task to manage them so as to produce a foal. 
 A layer of fat over the Fallopian tubes, is almost al- 
 ways the true cause of barrenness in mares. The rem- 
 edy usually is an easy and simple one. Provide an 
 open shed to shield the beast from pelting storms, in 
 cold weather, and feed her but little hay and no grain. 
 Let her have access to straw and corn-stalks, at all times. 
 Keep a tub of salt near her shed. Occasionally, feed 
 her a few quarts of bran, and a turnip or two. Allow 
 her to become very much reduced in flesh, so as to use 
 up those thick folds of fat alluded to. Then, in the 
 spring commence improving her condition slowly, as 
 she is worked moderately. The object should be to 
 make muscle rather than fat. Feed oat-meal and straw, 
 turnips, or carrots, as these kinds of feed will produce 
 more muscle than fat. Keep her thin in flesh. Be 
 careful not to over-work, nor over-feed. About the 
 first of June, she will be healthful, improving in condi- 
 tion, so that one covering will scarcely fail to be effec- 
 tual. Should suijh management fail, it will be safe to 
 
490 todd's country homes. 
 
 assume that the mare can not be mduced to breed. In 
 some instances, after a mare has shmk, she will never 
 again breed. 
 
 Prepaeations for Foaling. — If a mare when about 
 to foal, can get near a pond of water, a slough hole, 
 ditch, or open well, the young colt will be sure to get 
 into such a place, and be lost. For this reason, a brood 
 mare, after she has passed the eighth month of gestation, 
 should have the benefit of a small and smooth field, 
 where there are no hollows, into which she might roll 
 and get cast. I once owned a mare that would often 
 get cast, in a slight depression ; and in two instances, 
 she had remained so long with her feet upwards, that 
 she could not rise, when relieved from her position. 
 As the period of parturition draws nigh, they must be 
 watched, many times during the day and night. My 
 own practice always was, to put a brood mare loose in 
 a spacious box-stall, where she could lie down at pleas- 
 ure. During the growing season, such animals were 
 kept in a small, smooth lot. And, many times during 
 a day, and the last thing at night, before retiring, and 
 the very first duty in the morning was, to go and see 
 if the brood mares were all right. And I never lost a 
 mare, foal, cow or calf at the season of parturition. 
 
 Working Brood Mares. — Moderate labor never 
 injured a brood mare, while a want of it, and harsh 
 treatment, hard driving, feeding poorly, and violent 
 abuse by ill-natured and bawling drivers, will tend more 
 effectually to depopulate our country of elegant and 
 valuable horses, than all other causes that may be enu- 
 merated, which exert any jDcrceptible influence on the 
 success or failure in the management of brood mares 
 
WORKING BROOD MARES. 491 
 
 when rearing colts. But, give the lines to some ill- 
 natured, rough renegade, who is more destitute of the 
 tender feelings of huYnanity than the animals he drives, 
 who will kick, jerk with the reins, and worry his team 
 the livelong day, and our country will shortly be as des- 
 titute of colts as the forests within the bounds of civil- 
 ization are of ferocious beasts of prey. It is a very 
 mistaken notion cherished by some persons, that brood 
 mares must not be worked during the last month of 
 their gestation. Indeed, moderate labor is of such 
 transcendent importance in rearing colts, that the 
 maxim to " work the dam and save the foal, or work 
 her not and lose the whole" — both dam and foal — has 
 become almost a truism with the largest proportion of 
 our most successful horsemen, who rear one or more 
 colts every year. I have in mind a large number of 
 instances in which farmers owned valuable mares that 
 were kept expressly for rearing fine colts, all of which 
 resulted in grievous failures, simply because the mares 
 were kept too tenderly, fed too highly, and worked 
 little or none at all during the latter months of the 
 usual period of equine gestation. My thoughts, revert- 
 ing to the days of boyhood, bring to mind in a most vivid 
 and instructive manner, the scores of beautiful colts 
 that were reared by those farmers who had no other 
 team than brood mares, which were worked on the 
 farm and driven on the highway, almost every day in 
 the year, none of which ever failed to bring forth their 
 foals most successfully, and to rear valuable colts, while, 
 on the contrary, I can remember of seeing a greater 
 number of dead foals than living colts, and many times 
 the grievous loss of both dam and foal was sustained, 
 
492 todd's country homes. 
 
 simply because the mare did not receive the benefit of 
 moderate labor. I can not recall a single instance in 
 which a foal was lost when the mare had been required 
 to labor moderately, almost every day, even up to the 
 time of foaling. 
 
 My father once owned a valuable and beautiful mare, 
 which he kept for the especial purpose of raising colts. 
 She was always fed well, and managed very tenderly, 
 by no one but his own careful hand. When there was 
 a great deal of labor to be done on the farm, it must 
 go undone, until some other horses could do it, as Nel- 
 lie must not be permitted to work. The result was, 
 that in most instances, Nellie would drop her foal pre- 
 maturely, or it would be lifeless when brought forth, 
 or would cease to breathe in a few hours after it began 
 to live. Discouraged at such failures, he proposed to 
 sell Nellie, when I purchased her, and she constituted 
 one of my only span of mares for performing the larg- 
 est proportion of farm-labor, which were kept, at the 
 same time, as brood mares. Few were the days that 
 this mare, and her mate, both with foal, did not perform 
 some kind of moderate, and sometimes severe, labor, 
 and the number of days when they remained idle, even 
 during the last month of the period of gestation, were 
 less than the Sundays of those months. Those mares, 
 with foal, were worked on an endless-chain horse-power, 
 hauled rails, stone, wood, plowed, and harrowed, up to 
 the last day of gestation, and, notwithstanding all this 
 apparently rough usage, neither of them ever slunk, 
 nor failed to raise good colts. Moderate labor, in this 
 instance, appeared to be an essential requisite to suc- 
 cess. Had I forty brood mares, from which it were de- 
 
MANAGEMENT OF FOALS. 493 
 
 sirable to raise good colts every season, each one should 
 be required to perform some kind of work every day 
 that would furnish them with suitable exercise. It 
 will be attended with detrimental consequences, to de- 
 prive brood mares of the eminent advantages that will 
 accrue from performance of moderate labor every day. 
 Management of Foals. — The first thing to be done 
 for a young foal to enable it to stand and use its limbs 
 is to hold it up on its feet for a few minutes. If it be 
 able to maintain its position, everything will be all 
 correct and successful in a few hours. But, if it has 
 not sufficient strength to stand, let it be held on its 
 •feet, while all the limbs are bathed in warm water with 
 a woolen cloth. At the same time, let the young ani- 
 mal be held where it can reach the teats of the dam, 
 as the very next thing, after rising, will be to obtain 
 some nourishment. After bathing every limb, for a 
 few minutes, with a large piece of dry cloth in each 
 hand, rub the legs as fast as practicable, passing the 
 cloth the entire length of the limbs. Continue the 
 gentle friction with warm and dry cloths until the hair 
 is dry. Half an hour spent in the foregoing manner 
 immediately after a foal is dropped will usually place 
 it beyond the necessity of further manual assistance. 
 The warm water will impart necessary heat to the 
 limbs, and the gentle friction will promote a healthful 
 circulation of the vital fluid. Unlike a submissive calf 
 or tender lamb, which will lie down quietly when un- 
 able to rise, a foal will flounder and flounce, will rise 
 partially and tumble over, and beat its head against 
 the wall or ground, until the little thing is half dead, 
 on account of bruises and violent struggles to maintain 
 
494 todd's countey homes. 
 
 its position on its feet. This is a most critical period 
 for a young foal, and if manual aid is not administered 
 in time, the animal will survive only a short time. 
 There is but little vitality about many young colts. 
 For this reason, some person should watch every brood 
 mare with incessant care, long before the usual period 
 of gestation has elapsed. 
 
 My own practice with foals has been when the mares 
 were working, to secure them in a yard, allowing them 
 to suckle at morning, noon and night. This practice 
 will be found flxr more satisfactory than to allow them 
 to be racing all day after the team. A colt can be 
 weaned, when managed in this manner, with far less 
 difficulty, than if it had never been separated from the 
 dam. Let a foal be weaned gradually, by allowing it 
 to suckle twice a day, then once a day, for a few days, 
 and then once in two days, and lastly once a week. 
 Before a foal is weaned, it should have access to clean 
 water, grass, and oat-meal, and should become so ac- 
 customed to feeding, that it will never decline in flesh 
 after the supply of milk has been cut off. The aim 
 should be, not to render a colt fat, but to develop 
 muscle and a symmetrical carcass. Oats, or oat-meal, 
 rye-meal, cut straw, hay and roots, or apples are the 
 best feed, except grass, that a foal can receive. After 
 the foal is weaned, he should have a companion. No 
 animal appears so miserable as the isolated foal. The 
 best companion is another foal. If a person has but 
 one colt to wean, it is always advisable to procure 
 another as any animal will thrive more satisfactorily, 
 when he has a congenial companion. Starving will 
 inevitably ruin the best colt, and over-feeding will 
 
THE WAY TO BREAK COLTS. 495 
 
 cramp the future development of the horse, and dimin- 
 ish the vital energy of the system. There is a medium 
 in food as in exercise and work. 
 The way to break Colts. — 
 
 " Before his tender joints with nerves are knit, 
 Untried in arms and trembling at the bit, 
 This, from liis weaning, let him well be taught ; 
 And then, betimes, in a soft snaffle wrought." — Drtden's Virgil. 
 
 The education of a colt — the training or breaking — 
 should commence before the young animal is a week 
 old. My practice always has been to make a soft hal- 
 ter for the colt, put it on his head, lead the mare away 
 from her colt, a few rods, and then let it learn the re- 
 straints of a halter by allowing it to travel towards the 
 dam. After a few lessons, during which the colt is 
 taught to stand quietly when tied to a post, or is led 
 towards its dam, it may be tied to the side of the mare, 
 and taught to keep pace with her. By this manage- 
 ment, a colt may be taught to lead without any dif- 
 ficulty. It will be almost impossible to teach a colt to 
 lead by pulling it along. My colts, when they were 
 allowed to go with their respective dams, were always 
 tied to their sides.. In a few days, they learned the 
 use of the halter, so that any one could lead them at 
 pleasure. The training of a horse should always pro- 
 ceed upon the principle " that he is a rational animal. 
 The horse is -naturally timid, and his fears, if aroused, 
 not only make him less manageable, but impair his 
 judgment, making him see harm in almost everything. 
 If a man is never spiteful and angry with the colt, the 
 horse will rarely or never show any real viciousness. 
 No person who is the least afraid of him^ or who would 
 jump or start when an attempt to kick, bite or strike 
 
496 todd's country homes. 
 
 might be made, should be- allowed to have any inter- 
 course with a horse in training. Accustomed to the 
 harness, standing and being exercised in it during one 
 or two lessons each day for two days or a week, accord- 
 ing to the disposition of the animal, he may be put 
 into the thills, but neither the traces nor holdbacks 
 should be hitched. 
 
 My own practice with colts was to teach them to be 
 driven by the side of another horse, before the traces 
 were hitched, allowing the old horse to draw the car- 
 riage. The whiffletree of the old horse should always 
 be chained back, so that when the word "go" is given, 
 the colt will be obliged to move along. No calculations 
 should be made for the colt to draw one pound. As 
 soon as he has learned to stop and start, at the word, 
 he will have learned to draw, more or less. But, ex- 
 treme care should be exercised when starting a load, 
 that the colt does not fly back. Never whip a colt. 
 They don't understand what a whip means. You may 
 whip out one devil, but at the same time, seven more 
 will be whipped in. There will be no difficulty in 
 teaching a colt almost any lesson, that a horse is capa- 
 ble of learning, provided, patience, kind treatment and 
 gentleness are always manifested. So long as a person 
 will possess himself in patience, while teaching a colt 
 what may be required of him, the animal will learn 
 almost as soon as a human being. Indeed, it often 
 seems a hopeless task to get some stupid bipeds to un- 
 derstand what we desire them to do. A long time is 
 required to teach a colt the meaning of your words 
 and actions. 
 
 Manner of Bitting Colts. — The usual practice 
 
MANNER OF BITTING COLTS. 497 
 
 of. bitting colts ought to be discarded by every lover 
 of a horse as a veritable relic of barbarism, infinitely 
 more befitting the dark ages than this glorious nine- 
 teenth century, so replete with intelligence and the 
 exercise of common sense. Let men put a gag-bit in 
 their own mouth, and have their heads drawn back 
 and their chins down as far as practicable, for one or 
 two hours; and if they are not cured most effectually, 
 of their notions about bitting colts, I will bear the re- 
 proach of a false prophet. If colts do not carry their 
 heads sufficiently high, the check-rein shoruld be short- 
 ened gradually, when the colt is driven, and his head 
 should be reined up for only a short period at once. 
 Some colts will always carry their heads high, while 
 others carry them low, and the form of the neck is 
 such that they can never be made to carry a high 
 head. It is as unphilosoj^hical, also, as it is abusive, 
 as it does no good, but endangers the animal's life. 
 For in this condition colts become enraged, and rave 
 and paw, then run about and jam themselves against 
 the fence or trees to rid themselves of this painful con- 
 dition, all to no purpose ; and, as their madness in- 
 creases, in their ravings to rid themselves of this most 
 unmerciful situation, they throw themselves upon the 
 ground in various ways by rearing and plunging, till 
 at last they rear and fall straight over backward; and 
 if the ground is hard, or a stone happens to be where 
 they fall, so that the back of the head hits it, the neck 
 is broken, and that is the result of this wicked practice 
 of bitting colts. Within the last twenty years I have 
 l;cnown of three very fine colts being killed by bitting 
 them in the old way, by drawing their heads back 
 
 32 
 
498 todd's countky homes. 
 
 within a few inches of their breasts, in a most inhuman 
 and unmerciful manner. The illustrious "Rarey" said 
 that bitting colts is one of the worst punishments we 
 can inflict on a colt ; and it is very injurious to a young 
 horse that has been running in pasture with his head 
 down. A horse should be well accustomed to the bit 
 before the bitting harness is put on, and when he is 
 first bitted, he should only be reined up to where he 
 holds his head, let it be high or low. He will then 
 learn that he cannot lower his head, and that raising 
 it a little, will loosen the bit in his mouth. This will 
 give him the idea of raising his head to loosen his bit, 
 and then, you can draw the bit a little tighter every 
 time you put the bridle on, and he will raise his head 
 to loosen it. By this means you can gradually get his 
 head and neck in the position you wish him to carry 
 it; and give him a graceful carriage without hurting 
 him, making him angry, or causing his mouth to be 
 sore. 
 
 Riding Colts. — The world is full of stupid notions 
 about riding colts, and many valuable young horses are 
 nearly ruined by the stupid management of more stupid 
 men. My own practice was, when on the farm, to put 
 a small boy on a young colt, and teach the colt to 
 stand, with his rider on his back. The next lesson 
 would be to lead the colt, holding him firmly by the 
 head with one hand, and the boy with the other. 
 
 My father had a three years old mare, that would 
 throw any rider to the ground, almost before he knew 
 it. An expert that was never thrown by a horse, came 
 twenty miles to show his power and skill in riding un- 
 trained colts. He was to receive so much money, if he 
 
FEEDING HOESES. 499 
 
 would ride that mare from the house to the barn. He 
 carressed and fussed around her for a long time, until 
 she seemed as docile as an old horse. He hung on her, 
 with one arm, and laid his weight on her. After a 
 long time, he ventured to stride her. As soon as he 
 had straightened up, and bid her go, with two hops and 
 a plunge she flopped her rider on the hard ground, and 
 ran to the barn without him. The terrible fall jarred 
 all the horse-conceit out of him, and he returned home 
 with drooping plumes. 
 
 One day, w^hen all hands were away, my little brother 
 and I stuffed a man's clothes with straw, tied the straw 
 rider to her back, and let her loose. But, such plunges, 
 rearing, kicking, boltings and other violent manoeuvres 
 to throw her rider are seldom witnessed. But, her 
 rider stuck in his place, until she was entirely subdued, 
 so that I had no difficulty in riding her when and where 
 I pleased. 
 
 Feeding Horses. — 
 
 " When Autumn 
 From her copious bosom pours 
 A golden stream of richest stores, 
 
 Forget me not." — Edwards. 
 
 No one can expect to have good horses, unless they 
 are well fed. It is not necessary, in order to feed well, 
 that a horse should always have the rack filled with 
 feed. Indeed, I can not approve of the practice of 
 putting more hay in the rack than a horse will eat at 
 one meal, and eat it up clean. Many farmers seem to 
 think, that unless the rack is half full, in the morning, 
 a horse has not had enough to eat, during the night. 
 But if hay is good, no more should be put into the 
 rack than will be eaten up clean. Three meals in 
 
500 todd's country homes. 
 
 twenty-four hours, are better than two, because, when 
 threa meals are given, the stomach is not overloaded, 
 and digestion will be more perfect, and the stomach 
 will have sufficient time to rest. If only two are given, 
 horses become too hungry between meals, and will eat 
 more than will digest readily. 
 
 Many farmers act upon the principle, that, if a horse 
 does not work, he does not need much to eat, and when 
 he has a hard day's work to perform, he must receive 
 feed in proportion. It is true that horses do not need 
 as much when idle, as when they work. Indeed, they 
 will not eat as much. But, nothing is more detrimen- 
 tal to a horse than to feed him an abundance of grain 
 when he has not been accustomed to eat it, merely be- 
 cause he 1ms performed a little extra labor. The labor 
 of farm horses is so variable, and often so uncertain, 
 that the tyro must exercise no little judgment in feed- 
 ing, lest he do incalculable injury to his horses. When 
 horses are fed on grass, alone, it is often hazardous, in 
 the extreme, to give them a few quarts of grain, and 
 especially, if they are hungry and tired. 
 
 In many instances plowing in the spring is inter- 
 rupted by heavy rains, for eight or ten days after 
 horses have been fed high, and worked hard, for a 
 week or more. Under such circumstances, it would 
 be folly, and the worst kind of policy, to continue the 
 accustomed high feeding, while horses are not at work, 
 as well as to feed them but little while they remain 
 idle. Under such circumstances horses must be fed 
 toell, but not as bountifully as when they work every day. 
 Allowing horses to eat from a nose bag, or basket, at 
 aui/ time and every time, when they may have an op- 
 
FEEDING HOESES. 501 
 
 portunity, is an unwise practice, and injurious to their 
 health. Horses are often taken from the pasture -when 
 they have done nothing, nor have eaten any grain, for 
 several weeks perhaps, and after being driven on. the 
 road a part, or all of the day, are ferd with dry oats or 
 barley ; the consequence too often is, violent attacks of 
 colic and scours. A few quarts of oats at such times 
 will not affect some horses; but others again cannat 
 endure without injury, so sudden a change in their feed. 
 It w^ould be far better to suffer them to have nothing 
 but grass, or hay, if no meal and cut straw can be had 
 than to feed them a full mess of dry grain. It is fre- 
 quently the case, that farmers, when they feed cut 
 straw and meal, think it useless to feed any hay. But 
 it is always better to feed a little hay, if not more than 
 a pound or so, every meal. When horses are put to 
 severe labor, from day to day, if fed nothing but grass, 
 or hay, their strength and flesh will soon fail. During 
 the winter, horses should be fed enough to keep them 
 in a good, healthy condition, and when spring arrivies, 
 and work increases, the feed must be increased. No 
 one should ever allow feelings of penuriousness to in- 
 duce him to withhold, from his faithful horses, their 
 due allowance, because they have done nothing to-day, 
 and will have nothing to do to-morrow. Another 
 thing of no trifling importance is, to be on hand in per- 
 son, when the horses are fed, and see that every ani- 
 mal receives his allowance. I have known many 
 horses, when at hard work, to have their feed prepared 
 before their owners came into the stable, and many 
 times it would be nothing but wheat bran and cut 
 straw, instead of meal. I have often seen horses fed 
 
602 todd's country homes. 
 
 with coarse and unpalatable tailings of dirty grain, 
 consisting of thistle heads, daisy, and Akley's clover 
 heads, and such like, or with the screenings, full of 
 pigeon-weed seed, mustard, and a variety of such des- 
 picable trash, which any one ought to disdain to throw 
 to the fowls. Whenever I call at a public house I 
 never will trust the mendacious hostler to feed my 
 team unless I am present, to see if the manger is clear, 
 and that they have the feed which is called for, and 
 that the hay, which other horses have breathed on, 
 and rejected, is taken from the rack, and a little fresh 
 hay given them. 
 
 Peeparing Feed for Horses. — Every kind of food 
 that is taken into the stomach of a horse, before it can 
 nourish, must be reduced to a liquid state. The teeth 
 of a horse are designed for crushing and comminuting, 
 partially, their food ; and the gastric juice is designed 
 to complete the liquefaction of coarse substances, after 
 they have entered the stomach. But, if the teeth have 
 failed to perform their office, digestion will often be 
 imperfect. These facts teach us the importance of aid- 
 ing the teeth, in the comminution of all coarse and 
 hard substances, for the more complete action of the 
 gastric juice. After all is done that can be, by me- 
 chanical action, to reduce food to a liquid state, the 
 juice of the stomach will perform its office in the most 
 complete manner. The finer the food is reduced, the 
 more surface will be presented for the gastric juice to 
 act upon ; and the greater the surface, the more com- 
 plete will be digestion. Grain, and seeds of all kinds, 
 fruit and vegetables are furnished with a tough skin, 
 which if not broken before it enters the stomach, will 
 
PREPARING FEED FOR HORSES. 503 
 
 pass the horse undigested, affording no more nourish- 
 ment than so many gravel-stones. This is proved by 
 the fact, that kernels of grain, and seed of fruit will 
 readily vegetate after passing through the stomach of 
 a horse, when the external skin had not been broken. 
 It is therefore very unwise poUcy to feed horses whole 
 grain, of any kind, except it is unthrashed oats, cut up 
 with the straw. But few horses will masticate whole 
 grain, as thoroughly as it should be, before entering 
 the stomach. Barley should never be fed whole. It 
 is sometimes well enough to feed corn in the ear, if it 
 is not very dry and hard, provided the horses have 
 good teeth, and little labor to perform. But, it is al- 
 ways much better, and more economical, to grind into 
 meal, every kind of grain and seed, before it is given 
 them. It will always be found far more economical to 
 mingle several kinds of grain, grind it fine, and mingle 
 a few quarts with about one peck of good cut straw 
 and hay. Horses should also, receive a few quarts of 
 roots, or apples, daily, when they do not get a supply 
 of green food. Equal quantities of oats, rye and peas, 
 ground fine, will make superior feed. From three 
 to four quarts of such meal will be sufficient for one 
 feeding. Such feed will give a horse muscle, rather 
 than fat. When large horses are worked hard, each 
 one may be fed six to eight quarts, mingled with wet, 
 cut fodder. 
 
 Those who desire to render fully effective the motive 
 power of the horse, must pay attention to the mechan- 
 ical state as well as to the quality and quantity of his 
 food. The force expended by the horse in comminut- 
 ino" his food — when it is composed of hay, straw and 
 
504 todd's countey homes. 
 
 oats — may be set down as at least equal to the" power 
 he expends in one hour and a half of work, such, for 
 example, as plowing. The preparation of his food, by 
 means of steam or water power, or even by animal 
 motive powder, would economize, by at least one-half, 
 the labor expended in its mastication ; this would be 
 equivalent to half a day's work in every week — a clear 
 g-ain to the animal's owner. When a horse is fed on 
 whole oats and uncut hay, he expends a large propor- 
 tion of his energies in the process of mastication. Af- 
 ter a hard day's work, he has before him the task of 
 reducing to pulp fifteen or twenty pounds weight of 
 hard food, and the operation is carried on during the 
 hours which ought to be devoted to repose. Not un- 
 frequently is the animal so tired that he is unable to 
 properly chew his food. He, therefore, bolts the oats, 
 a large proportion of which passes unchanged through 
 his body. A horse will be able to reduce a peck of 
 oats and a feeding of hay to a fine condition, by the 
 force of his muscles, and machinery, much sooner than 
 with his teeth. 
 
 Rejuvenating Old Horses. — 
 
 ♦ " I'm clumsy, stupid, crooked, slow ; 
 
 Yet, the poorest horse is a horse, you know. 
 As well as the glossiest nags that go." 
 
 The Song of the Horse. 
 
 I have seen many excellent horses reduced almost 
 to skeletons, by hard driving and unmerciful treatment. 
 Such animals require only good feeding and kind treat- 
 ment to restore their impaired appearance and energies. 
 But, wdien a horse has been " stove up" badly, is lame, 
 stiffened, has poor teeth, and is on the decline of life, 
 is hide-bound, having been kept on dry grain and hay, 
 
REJUVENATING OLD HORSES. 505 
 
 until his ills have become chronic, it will be difficult to 
 fatten him. Still, he may be restored to a good con- 
 dition by adopting a judicious course of feeding. In 
 the first place, provide a spacious box-stall, in which he 
 can turn around without doubling his neck and body 
 together. If he can have the advantage of a yard 
 during the day, all the better. He may be required to 
 labor every day, if he be handled carefully. Gentle 
 driving and the right kind of feeding will be one of 
 the best means employed to develop muscle, and put 
 on the flesh. Every day the horse should have, at 
 least, four quarts of carrots or turnips, or roots of some 
 kind, in addition to three liberal feedings of cut-feed 
 and meal. Meal composed of one part oats, one of 
 rye or wheat, and a third part of Indian corn, will 
 make excellent feed for such a purpose. A quart of 
 oil-meal, mingled with the grain, will be an improve- 
 ment in the feed. Compelling a horse to eat too much 
 straw with the meal will be very detrimental. The bet- 
 ter way will be to employ only a few quarts of cut straw 
 with the meal. Then, if the stomach is not sufficiently 
 distended, let the animal have access to a few pounds 
 of good hay. Feed him only as much as he will eat 
 up clean in about one hour. If the teeth are poor, 
 such animals should never be fed whole grain, as they 
 will not crush half the kernels. But give them soft 
 cut feed. Never permit a^ horse to have access to hay, 
 at all times. Feed only what will suffice for one meal. 
 A horse will often eat hay for hours, and still be poor. 
 In order to have a horse improve, he must not be over- 
 fed, and he should eat his allowance with avidity, and 
 lick his manger. 
 
506 todd's country homes. 
 
 "Wateeing Horses. — 
 
 " You can lead a horse to water, but you cannot make him drink." 
 
 If horses could only talk, how often would they, like 
 the dumb ass of Balaam, the prophet, sharply rebuke 
 the laziness, the ignorance, and the consummate nasti- 
 ness of those persons whose duty it is to give dumb 
 brutes clean water to drink ! Horses often suffer, ex- 
 tremely, from drinking too much, as well as from not 
 drinking enough. Sometimes, they are led to water 
 with the harness and bridle on, which often are a great 
 hindrance to their drinking. Many horses cannot drink 
 freely, with bits in the mouth. And if they are obliged 
 to drink, with their mouth as low as their feet, the 
 collar often chokes them. Horses are led frequently to 
 a filthy pond, or to a foul trough, where ducks and 
 geese wash and play, and children dabble, and where 
 dirty hands, or anything else has been washed; or, 
 water is offered to them from a slop-pail. Many peo- 
 ple seem to think, that horses can drink from a swill- 
 pail as well as swine. But, their sense of taste, and 
 smell, are so acute, that unless horses have been accus- 
 tomed to drink anywhere, they will not drink from 
 vessels that do not smell sweet and clean. No good 
 teamster will offer water to his horses, in a vessel, from 
 which he himself would hesitate to drink. A pail or 
 tub, from which horses are accustomed to drink, should 
 be used for no other purpose, and they, who wash hands 
 and anything, in the watering trough, should be sharply 
 reprehended for such a filthy practice. My father 
 trained his employes — and his sons adhere to his ad- 
 vice — to permit nothing to be washed where horses 
 drink, any sooner than in the water-pail of the kitchen. 
 
HOW TO DRIVE HORSES. 507 
 
 The True way to Drive Horses. — The way to 
 drive horses wrongly, is perfectly understood, and thor- 
 oughly practiced. Most horses are driven as children 
 are brought up — in a rough, overbearing and iftikind 
 manner. If a horse is told to gee, and he has never 
 been taught how to gee, he is jerked, or whipped. 
 Therefore, he gees, and keeps on geeing, until he has 
 geed too far. Then, he is thrashed, because he geed 
 when he was told to. I need not write out the re- 
 mainder. Horses were made for our servants, and most 
 faithful servants they would be, if they were taught, 
 and trained to understand what is required of them. 
 Horses will perform all they know, if man will only let 
 them. All they need is a slight hint to help their silly, 
 willing brains, and they will dash with ardor at their 
 business of galloping a mile a minute, or twenty miles 
 an hour, or of leaping a gulley, or pulling tonnage. 
 They put so much reckless, break-neck frenzy in their 
 attempts to please and obey the royal personage on 
 their back, that he needs to be brave indeed to go fear- 
 lessly with them. The driver wills whither; the horse, 
 at the will of his better half, does his best to go thither. 
 If he fails, the fault is in the driver. If a horse runs 
 away, or balks, or kicks, the person who trained the 
 beast wrongly, is alone culpable for any damage, or 
 disaster. 
 
 The language employed and the handling of the 
 lines should always have a certain signification. When 
 the word wlioa is pronounced, horses must be taught, 
 for a long time, to understand the sound as an order 
 for them to stop. When a team is moving along, the 
 driver should not hang on the lines. The reins should 
 
608 todd's countky homes. 
 
 always lie loose. Horses should be taught to travel 
 with loose reins. Then, if they deviate from the de- 
 sired path, let a line be pulled gently. When horses 
 are plowing, or harrowing, driven by stupid drivers, 
 who scarcely know as much as the animals they are 
 managing, the lazy, and heedless stupidities will hang 
 on the lines, and unconsciously and stupidly keep the 
 heads of the horses swaying to the right and left. 
 Such stupid driving will use up more energies by worry- 
 ing, than by all the labor performed. Horses will never 
 fatten when they are worried, fretted and cat-hauled in 
 such a stupid manner. 
 
 At the State Fair, a gentleman drove a spirited horse 
 before his wagon, through the city, among the crowds 
 of people and vehicles, directing his well trained steed 
 with only the gentle motions of his whip, without even 
 a bridle on his head, or a line to guide him. I have 
 often seen one man driving five, and sometimes seven, 
 large, spirited horses, with one before the other, with- 
 out lines; and I have ridden several times on a vehicle, 
 drawn by seven large and fine horses, without lines, as 
 they were driven across the city of Philadelphia, on 
 various streets. The horses were trained. They were 
 governed by " the higher law of love." 
 
 The Abuse of the Check-kein. — The check-rein 
 is often useful. But, as its use is so frequently abused, 
 that part of the harness becomes a curse to horses. It 
 is barbarous to draw up the head of a horse, to a pain- 
 ful position, especially when at work. A horse needs 
 the free use of his head and neck, to aid in keeping 
 his balance, just as much as we need the free use of 
 our arms, when running or walking. I have often 
 
THE ABUSE OF THE CHECK-REIN. 509 
 
 seen teamsters, when their horses were to move a heavy 
 draft, let down their check-reins, so that the team 
 could throw themselves, more easily, into their harness. 
 Whenever a horse trips or stumbles, nature prompts 
 him to try to save himself, and he instantly extends 
 his head and neck for that purpose, as a man would his 
 arms. This natural effort increases the animal's dang-er, 
 if his head be at all confined by the check-rein, be- 
 cause, the tug which he gives with his mouth is com- 
 municated to the harness on his back, to which the 
 rein is hooked, and the effect is the same as if a man 
 were to lay hold of the collar of his coat with both 
 his hands, to save himself The more he is crippled, 
 the more he needs his head. The check-rein may be 
 of some use in " breaking a colt," and may, perhaps, 
 help to "get up his head," until he has been "taught 
 his paces," but afterwards, unless the animal is un- 
 tractable, it can answer no end, except souring his 
 temper, making him jib, fretting the corners of his 
 mouth, wasting his strength, hurting his wind, injuring 
 his sight, lessening his speed, abridging his services, 
 shortening his days, throwing him down, and breaking 
 his knees. All these, it is fearlessly asserted, often 
 proceed from the use of this cruel appendage. 
 
 The dorsal muscles or sinews of the back, in all 
 quadrupeds, run longitudinally or horizontally from the 
 head to the tail, and those extremities are main work- 
 ing power, the use of which may be seen when a horse 
 is walking with his head free. What the arms are to 
 a walker or laborer, the head and tail are to the ani- 
 mal. Tie a man's arms to his side, and even a gentle 
 push or trip will throw him down. This is the effect 
 
510 todd's countey homes. 
 
 produced by the check-rein. The horse's head being 
 fixed, he is unable to use it as nature intended; there- 
 fore, if he trips or slides, his head is of no use. When 
 horses stumble they often break their check-rein, and 
 thus getting the head free are enabled to save them- 
 selves. We all know that, when a horse is down, the 
 first thing done is to "give him his head," that he 
 may get up. The effect of restraining a horse by the 
 check-rein, is to prevent him from getting up to the 
 collar. If the bit is in the least degree affected by the 
 check-rein — in other words, if it is not entirely loose 
 in the mouth — the horse is checked, and besides being 
 kept from the free exercise of his strength, he is pre- 
 vented from leaning the weight of his body upon the 
 collar. 
 
 Fatal Effects of Ovekdkiving. — We may talk 
 and write about this thing, or that, being injurious to 
 a horse, or as the procuring cause of certain ills and 
 diseases to which that noble animal is subject; but 
 when we have traced the deplorable effects back to 
 their primary cause, in more than ninety-nine instances 
 in one hundred, we behold, as plain as the noonday 
 sun, that such an ill, or disease, or disability, was the 
 natural and certain result of overdriving. Founder 
 may be traced directly to overdriving. There is not 
 a foundered horse in the country, whether the founder 
 produced by grain or water, that was not driven be- 
 yond a reasonable speed, and fed or watered im- 
 properly, while too warm. Inflammation of the lungs, 
 heaves, broken wind, and a long catalogue of diseases 
 which have brought tens of thousands of beautiful 
 and valuable horses to an untimely end, were caused 
 
FATAL EFFECTS OF OVEEDKIVING. 511 
 
 by overdriving. Could the ghosts of departed horses 
 that have been hurried out of life, be permitted to 
 speak, like Balaam's ass, (Numbers, xxii. 30,) they 
 would shake their dry bones at us, and declare that 
 overdriving, and improper treatment afterward, were 
 the procuring causes of the disease which ended their 
 days, when they might have been well and strong for 
 many years, had they received proper treatment and 
 care. The truth is, that horses are composed of flesh 
 and blood; and, although their powers of endurance 
 are very great, the fatal effects of overdriving will, 
 sooner or later, appear in such an unmistakable mani- 
 festation that we need no skillful veterinarian to tell us 
 why an animal that we almost love should lie down 
 and die in an unexpected moment. 
 
 Are we left in doubt as to the real cause of the pre- 
 mature death of that fast trotter, " George M. Patchin," 
 which died very unexpectedly, when in apparent good 
 health ? There was a mystery about an illness so brief 
 and a death so sudden, until a post-mortem examina- 
 tion disclosed the astounding fact that one lung was 
 entirely consumed, and the other nearly half gone. 
 This was the certain result of overdriving at races. 
 Young men, who like to ride as rapidly as the steam- 
 cars whirl along, spare your horses ! When the flanks 
 play like the sides of a greyhound when the chase is 
 over; when the pulse beats so that you can hear it 
 thump like the rapid ticking of a clock, and the nos- 
 trils dilate and contract like those of an animal in the 
 last stages of hydrophobia, stop at once, blanket your 
 horse, shield him from a current of cold air, give him 
 no water or grain, neither bathe his limbs nor breast 
 
512 todd's countet homes. 
 
 with cold water, until his system has assumed its natu- 
 ral condition. Then resolve never to overdrive him 
 again. If horses were driven with proper carefulness, 
 they would perform all the service that they now ren- 
 der, and yet be as healthy and almost as serviceable 
 for twenty or more years as they are in the prime of 
 life. Overdriving destroys more horses in our popu- 
 lous cities than all other causes combined. 
 
 How TO Blanket Horses. — Many horses after hav- 
 ing been driven until they are barely warmed up, if 
 not covered as soon as they stop, will contract a violent 
 cold almost as soon as a man. So long as a horse is 
 kept in motion, there is little danger of his suffering 
 any inconveniences from cold winds. But allow him 
 to stand still for a few minutes, without a heavy blan- 
 ket to protect his shoulders and lungs, and he will take 
 cold sooner than some men. When a horse is wet with 
 sweat, the better way is not to cover the body with a 
 heavy blanket, until the perspiration has partially 
 evaporated. Then, before he begins to feel chilly, put 
 on the blanket; and the beauty of the hair will be re- 
 tained, the blanket w^ill not be filled with vajoor which 
 will afterward prove uncomfortable to the animal, and 
 he will "cool off" with less danger of contracting cold, 
 than when a heavy blanket is laid on his body, before 
 any of the perspiration has evaporated. Yet great 
 care must be exercised, that a horse does not become 
 too cool, before the blanket is applied. 
 
 Many of our best teamsters protect the breasts of 
 their horses with a piece of heavy cloth about two feet 
 square, hanging down from the lower end of the collar. 
 This is an excellent practice in cold weather, as the 
 
PROTECTING A HORSE IN COLD WEATHER. 513 
 
 most important part of the animal is constantly shielded 
 from the cold wind, especially when traveling toward 
 a strong current. The forward end of horse blankets 
 should be made to fit as closely around the breast of a 
 horse as our garments fit our bodies. Those parts of 
 the body of a horse which surround the lungs, require 
 the benefit of a blanket in preference to his flanks and 
 rump. When we are exposed to a current of cold air, 
 to guard against any injury from contracting cold, we 
 shield our shoulders, neck, chest, and back. If these 
 parts be kept protected, the lower part of the body 
 will endure a degree of cold far more intense, without 
 any injury, than if the lungs were not protected with 
 suitable covering. The same thing holds true in the 
 protection of horses. The blanket should cover the 
 neck, withers, and shoulders, and be brought around 
 the breast, and buttoned or buckled together as closely 
 as a man buttons his overcoat, when bearing his bosom 
 to the driving storm. Let the lungs of a horse be 
 kept well protected with a heavy blanket, and he will 
 seldom contract cold, even if the hindmost part of his 
 body is not covered. When a horse has been put in a 
 comfortable stable with his hair wet, his body and limbs 
 should be curried and rubbed, for a few minutes; then 
 a blanket should cover him until the hair is quite dry. 
 The Hight of Horse Stables. — Every stable 
 should be so high between joints, that no horse will be 
 able to reach the timbers above him when he throws 
 up his head. Many an excellent stable has been 
 spoiled simply because it would cost ten dollars more 
 to carry up the side walls one foot higher. On ac- 
 count of these low doors, high horses instinctively learn 
 
 33 
 
514 TODD's COUNTKl HOMES. 
 
 to fear them, and they shy, rear or prance whenever 
 we attempt to lead them in the door. Low stables are 
 also among the most frequent causes of poll-evil. 
 
 When a horse is frightened, he throws up his head 
 as high as he can get it. Even the echo of the groom's 
 voice in a dark stable, will induce a horse to elevate 
 his head. A spirited horse will always elevate his 
 head if he can get it up, when he is entering a 
 strange stable. This is why many horses refuse to be 
 led into a low stable. They are afraid. Then, if they 
 have entered, something will startle them, when up 
 will go the head, and bump goes the poll against the 
 beams above, causing a severe bruise; and a deep- 
 seated abscess ensues. This is the way the incurable 
 poll-evil is produced. When a horse is kept in a lov/ 
 stable, speak kindly and deal gently with the brute, 
 lest the poll be injured by a severe bump. 
 
 Light for Horse Stables. — Light is a condition of 
 vital activity; and in view of preserving the sight of a 
 horse, it is necessary that he have free access t(? the 
 sun's rays, while he is the habitant of the stable. Re- 
 peated experiments show that disease is much more 
 frequent in dark,tlian in well lighted apartments. Most 
 of the stables in the country, are not provided with 
 suitable windows, while a large proportion have none 
 at all, the stables being almost as dark as midnight. 
 Farmers often saw round holes through the boards of 
 frame stables, before each horse, which are closed by 
 slides, and these allow pure air to enter as well as light. 
 This is a poor plan, but better than nothing. There 
 should be windows at the ends or rear, enough to make 
 the whole stable as light as a family sitting-room. 
 
NECESSITY OF LIGHT IN STABLES. 515 
 
 They should be capable of being open for free air in 
 summer, and situated so that draughts of air will not 
 fall upon the bodies, or legs of the animals. When 
 window glass has been broken out, wooden panes are 
 often inserted, and cobwebs and dust too frequently 
 intercept the light. For the benefit of the eyes of all 
 animals, stable windows should be well glazed and fre- 
 quently washed. Light is as essential to the healthi- 
 ness of the eyes as good food is for the stomach. 
 Light strengthens the eye. Darkness, and especially 
 sudden changes from darkness to light, tends to weaken 
 the vision of both men and animals. When a horse is 
 taken from a dark stable, he walks as if he was blind, 
 and the light that meets his eyes appears to cause pain. 
 When stock stand in their stalls facing a barn floor or 
 large feeding-room, if their mangers are not boarded 
 up tight, light may be admitted through windows 
 above, or in the barn door. But if they stand with 
 their heads to the wall, light may enter at any part of 
 the stable, except in front of them. But, let horses 
 have the advantage of a light stable, whatever may be 
 the cost. 
 
 Hobbling' Horses when Difficult to Catch. — 
 A great many excellent horses, when turned loose, do 
 not like to be approached. And if it is possible for 
 them to get away by running, they will not allow one 
 to put a halter on their heads. It is an excellent prac- 
 tice to tie the fore legs about one foot apart, with a 
 small rope, as represented in the illustration, when a 
 horse is to be turned loose for a short time. A much 
 better way would be to provide a pair of iron hobbles 
 to hold the fore feet not more than one foot apart. 
 
516 
 
 TODD S COUNTKY HOMES. 
 
 There should be a swivel in the chain, to prevent the 
 chain from being twisted into kinks. Such a hobble is 
 the best device that I have ever met with, to put on a 
 
 horse that is " ugly to 
 catch." If a horse has 
 learned to jump low 
 fences, this style of 
 hobbles will prevent all 
 efforts to get over al- 
 most any fence. A 
 strong strap with a 
 buckle near each end, 
 will be found a con- 
 venient hobble. There 
 is never any danger 
 that a horse will get 
 fast with such hobbles 
 on. And, horses can 
 rise with less difficulty, when both fore legs are hobbled, 
 than when the hobbles are attached to one forward leg, 
 and one hind leg. 
 
 Not Lying Down. — All horses that are able to rise, 
 will lie down, more or less, when in the field, and it is 
 always desirable that work horses in particular, should 
 get some rest, by lying down while in the stable ; and 
 they always will lie down, unless there is a hindering 
 cause, which, if possible, should be removed. I will 
 mention a few hindrances to horses lying down in the 
 stable. Very narrow stalls constitute a serious objec- 
 tion, because a horse is likely to strike against the 
 partition, or wall, or to lie too much on his feet. Some 
 horses never will lie against anything, and if they 
 
 TEMPORARY HOBBLES. 
 
NOT LYING DOWN. 517 
 
 touch anything, when letting their bodies down, it 
 frightens them, so that they will rise in great haste. 
 Being tied a little too short hy the halter, will prevent 
 their lying down, because, then, they cannot get down. 
 As some horses are very neat in their habits, they will 
 never lie down in a wet or foul place. Many times, 
 the manure is allowed to accumulate in the stalls, so 
 that the hindmost part of a horse must necessarily be 
 much the highest. Then, if he lies down, his shoulders 
 will be in a hollow; and if the manure be frozen, it will 
 be Uke a bed of cobble-stones. Sometimes, the floor is 
 too slanting, and the surface is hard and slippery, so 
 that in his effort to rise, a horse often slips and falls. 
 When this is the case, a horse of any spirit dreads to 
 lie down. I have known horses not to lie down during 
 the night, when the harness, or even the collar, or 
 saddle was left on them. Sometimes, in consequence 
 of lameness, or being heavy with foal, the animal dreads 
 to lie down, because he or she cannot rise without help. 
 The remedy in such a case is, in the stable to furnish 
 a spacious stall, with a soft wood floor, well cleaned and 
 well littered with fine straw, in which the animal may 
 be turned loose. I once had a mare, which would not 
 lie down in the stall for weeks in succession, when she 
 was heavy with foal, unless turned loose into the foal- 
 ing stall. But as soon as turned into that, would lie 
 down a great deal of the time. I once had a horse 
 that would not lie down on an inclined floor, but as soon 
 as put on a level floor, would lie down every night. 
 These suggestions may seem trivial. But, they are 
 eminently important to every one who keeps a horse. 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 BREEDING AND REARING NEAT CATTLE. 
 
 Denominations of Neat Cattle — Choice of Cows — Details in the Manage- 
 ment of Milch Cows — Apples and Roots for Cows — How to Milk — 
 Management of Heifers — Management of Calves — How to Make Butter 
 — How to Work and Pack it — Bulls and their Management — Fodder 
 Cutter — How to Cut Fodder — Feeding Stock — Fattening Old Animals 
 — When to Stop Feeding Fat Animals — General Management of Stock 
 — Variety of Food. 
 " Cattle court the zephyr's bland, where the streamlet wanders cool, 
 Or, with languid silence, stand midway in the marshy pool." 
 
 Cunningham. 
 
 Common Denominations. — The usual denominations 
 of neat cattle are as follows : In the United States, the 
 word cattle usually, embraces only beasts of the bovine 
 genus. 1. Bulls signify entire males. 2. Cows are 
 females which have brought forth one, or more calves. 
 3. A dry cow may be 2^, farrow cow, or a breeder, with 
 calf. 4. A farrow cow is one that failed, from" some 
 cause, to bring forth a calf at the usual period, or an- 
 nually. 5. A springer is a heifer, or cow which shows 
 by her udder, that she is with calf. 6. A heifer is a 
 female that has never produced a calf. In order to 
 distinguish the difference between old and young heif- 
 ers, people in America say a heifer calf, until the ani- 
 mal is one year old, after which it is called a yearling 
 heifer. After a heifer is one year old, we say a two 
 year old, a three, four or five year old heifer. 7. After 
 
POINTS OF AN EXCELLENT MILCH COW. ' 519 
 
 a bull over two years old has been castrated, he is de- 
 nominated a stag. 8. A steer is a male castrated be- 
 fore any of the prominent characteristics of a bull have 
 been developed. He may be a steer calf, a yearling 
 steer, a two, three or four year old steer. 9. Bullocks 
 are usually fat steers, over three or more years old, 
 which have not been trained to the use of the yoke. 
 10. After steers which have learned the use of the 
 yoke, are four years old, they are called oxen. 11. At 
 the great markets, drovers speak o£ fat oxen and fat 
 hidlocks, the latter of which have never been trained 
 to the yoke. 12. Oxen are taurine males, over four 
 years old, which have been accustomed to the yoke, or 
 harness. 13. Free martin is the taurine female of 
 twins, one of which is a male. Such females are said 
 to be barren. I have met with quite a number of such 
 heifers, every one of which had brought forth young, 
 or was with calf. 14. Calf, a young taurine male, or 
 female, less than one year old. 
 
 Points of an excellent Milch Cow. — 
 
 The sole of lier udder should form a plane, 
 And all the four teats equal thickness attain, 
 Their length not exceeding two inches or three 
 They should hang to the earth perpendicularly. 
 
 Whatever excellent points a cow may possess, the 
 first reliable indication of a superior milker is an udder 
 and teats of medium size and of fair proportions. Let 
 me see no part of a cow but these, and I will select the 
 hest milkers and reject the infe^^ior ones with almost 
 unerring certainty. A poor milker may be detected 
 at a glance, not by a homely form, but by a small 
 udder, and teats too short and diminutive to be grasped 
 by a hand of ordinary size. If a cow be deficient in 
 
520 todd's country homes. 
 
 these points, set it down at once against her, that she 
 never will be a superior animal for either butter or 
 milk, except in a small quantity. A cow having a long 
 disproportioned udder, with teats as large as a man's 
 wrist, and longer than the width of his hand, may pos- 
 sess the qualities of a medium milker, but will never be 
 found to vield as much rich milk as a cow havins; a 
 square udder, about as large as a ten-quart milk-pail, 
 four teats only, a proper distance apart, and nearly as 
 long as the width of a man's hand. 
 
 In addition to these signs of a milker, the color of 
 the skin is one of the most important indications of a 
 superior cow for rich milk. A cow having a hlack, or 
 a white skin may give a large quantity of milk, but it 
 will be thin and white, often requiring one-third to 
 one-half more to make a pound of butter, or cheese, 
 than the milk of a cow having a yelloia skin. If a 
 cow have a 'yellow skin, whether she be of a red, 
 white, brindle, roan, brown, or any other color, and her 
 hair feels like velvet, and she have an udder and teats 
 of the size and form just alluded to, if she be as homely 
 as the old cow with a "crumpled horn," that we read 
 of in the " story of the house that Jack built," we may 
 feel assured that if w^ell fed and watered, she will 
 yield a satisfactory quantity of milk. A superior 
 milker must possess a capacious paunch, or she can 
 never be expected to consume and digest large quan- 
 tities of feed, without which, no cow will be able to 
 yield a large quantity of milk. 
 
 Exercising Milch Cows. — Milch cows do not need 
 violent exercise, at any time. But every cow should 
 have liberty in the open yard, at least four hours, out 
 
EXERCISING MILCH COWS. 521 
 
 of the twenty-four, so that she may move around, bask 
 in the sunshine, and scratch against a rubbing-post. 
 All such things add greatly to the health, strength and 
 thrift of milch cows. Cows need their liberty, that 
 they may lick each other as well as themselves. When 
 their heads are confined in stanchions, day after day, 
 and night after night, and feed and water are brought 
 to them, it is impossible for them to continue in good 
 health. It is far better for a cow to have the benefit 
 of a comfortable shed, into which she may go at pleas- 
 ure, than to be confined by any means in a stall j and 
 a chain, rope or strap around her neck is far preferable 
 to stanchions. Cows may secrete more flesh and fat, 
 for a short time, if confined closely, but their health 
 Avill soon fail. Some disease will soon appear in their 
 systems. Their appetite will soon fail. The lacteal 
 glands will not perform their functions, and the milk 
 will not seem so rich and delicious, as the milk of a cow 
 that is in perfect health. Weakness, imbecility, and 
 efieminacy are always induced by inactivity and close 
 confinement of either man or beast. Every anirqal 
 must have suitable exercise in order to be healthy and 
 strong. If milch cows be tied in their stalls day and 
 night, they can not continue in sound health. And if not 
 healthy, they can not give good milk. While too much 
 warmth will weaken animals, and render them subject 
 to disease, the opposite extreme of cold will draw upon 
 the food for additional heat for the body, and conse- 
 quently less will remain to yield cream. It is, then, 
 economical to shelter a milking animal from the cold, 
 but at the same time, we must not economize heat to 
 the prejudice of the health and comfort of the animal. 
 
622 todd's country homes. 
 
 Maintaining a full Flow of Milk. — 
 
 " Cows, to give milk, should largely share, in kind attention, watchful care : 
 Let them be housed from winter's blast, and kept in flesh till April's past. 
 Let all their feed be rich and sweet, made up of things they like to eat." 
 
 Many excellent cows, soon after gestation com- 
 mences, will shrink in the usual quantity of milk. 
 Therefore as soon as it is known that a cow shrinks in 
 her milk, after getting with calf, she should be kept 
 from the bull the next season, until the last of July. 
 Then she will drop her calf late in the spring, and will 
 give a full flow of milk through the entire summer. 
 The aim should be to have such cows come in just in 
 time to recover from the debilitating effects of partu- 
 rition by the time grass is large enough for grazing. 
 Then her milk will be had at a season of the year, 
 when cows are usually most profitable. But, if they 
 are allowed to breed early in the season, they are fre- 
 quently very unprofitable cows, and improper manage- 
 ment will render them still more so. During the graz- 
 ing season, if a cow can be supplied with fresh and 
 sweet grass, and clean water, as much as she will eat,, 
 a full flow of rich milk will continue until late in 
 autumn. 
 
 But, in order to maintain an abundant flow of milk 
 in cold weather, a cow must have a comfortable shed or 
 stable. If kept in a stable, it should be well ventila- 
 ted, as a foul stable, in which the air is not fresh and 
 pure, will shortly affect the appetite of a cow, or any 
 other animal, and prevent her eating a sufficient 
 amount of good feed to produce a full flow of milk. 
 An open shed, well littered with dry straw, and suffi- 
 ciently close to exclude driving storms and cold winds, 
 will be found far preferable to a close stable, poorly 
 
MAINTAINING THE FLOW OF MILK. 523 
 
 ventilated. Milch cows require a large quantity of 
 feed in which there is a liberal supply of succulent ma- 
 terial for increasing the flow of milk. If rich milk and 
 cream are desirable, a cow must be provided with feed 
 containing cream-producing substances. For this pur- 
 pose, there is no other feed equal to Indian corn and 
 field peas ground together in equal parts, and made 
 thin with warm water. Three or four quarts fed twice 
 daily, besides good hay and corn-stalks, will enable a 
 cow to give as rich milk as when the feed is white clo- 
 ver and timothy grass. And if the hay and stalks 
 be cut, the meal mingled with the mixture, and the 
 mass steamed, a given quantity will yield a much larger 
 supply of milk, than if fed uncut and not steamed. If 
 a man have but one cow he can put a bushel of cut 
 stalks into a tub or half barrel, pour over this a gallon 
 of boiling water, mingle four quarts of meal with the 
 stalks as soon as the water has been applied, put a 
 cover on the feed and a stone on the cover to press it 
 down, and let the mass cook for a few hours. A small 
 quantity of corn-stalks, hay and meal, when each mess 
 is prepared in the foregoing manner, will last a cow foj; 
 a long time. Every time a cow is fed, another mess 
 should be prepared as already directed. By covering 
 the feed close with a weight on the cover, everything 
 will be cooked through and through in a few hours. 
 Some kinds of feed will maintain animal heat, some 
 kinds will form muscle, and other kinds will yield milk. 
 Ground peas will afford more milk than oat meal or 
 Indian meal. If a cow is fed with buckwheat bran, 
 still-slops, or dish-water, and poor swill, she may yield 
 a large quantity of milk, but it will be as white as the 
 
524 todd's country homes. 
 
 unsullied snow, thin as alcohol, and as insipid as chalk 
 and water. A milch cow must be well supplied in cold 
 weather with three things — good feed, drink, and a 
 comfortable shed — or she will grow poor. Carrots will 
 make much richer milk than the common white field 
 turnips. Rutabaga turnips are almost as good as car- 
 rots for making milk. Poor corn-stalks and mouldy 
 hay will never produce milk equal to prime clover and 
 timothy hay. Beets will yield more milk than carrots, 
 but it will not be so rich as if the cow were supplied 
 with good carrots. When cows are well fed and properly 
 milked, they can not be expected to yield a large sup- 
 ply of milk, unless they have an abundance of good 
 water several times a day. Once or twice is not suffi- 
 cient. In hot weather, they need it three times daily. 
 They relish a pailful of good water, as we do a cooling 
 draught from the "old oaken bucket." And they 
 must have it, or they will not and can not yield an 
 abundant supply of milk. Large cows that have ac- 
 cess to pure water, often drink twenty gallons daily, 
 during the hot weather, and this water assists greatly 
 in keeping up the flow of milk. Withhold a part of 
 it, and the supply diminishes. As soon as cows have 
 filled themselves with grass they often desire to drink 
 They seldom take much water into an empty stomach. 
 Consequently if they are required to drink at a pool 
 of standing, dirty water, perhaps defiled by dung, they 
 will drink no more than is absolutely necessary to sus- 
 tain life. Such water is not refreshing to cows, or any 
 other animals, and no one need expect that milch cows 
 will keep up the quantity of milk, so long as they are 
 required to use such an unwholesome drink. 
 
APPLES AND ROOTS FOR CATTLE. 525 
 
 Apples for Milch Cows. — If fed in small quan- 
 tities, sweet apples, and those that are only of a sub- 
 acid taste, will be found excellent for cows, or for any 
 kind of stock. An unfavorable opinion of apples, as 
 food for cows, has sometimes arisen from the furious 
 over-feeding of half-starved animals, which have ac- 
 cidently broken into orchards, and brought on disease, 
 fever, and consequent drying of milk by immoderate 
 gorging. A reason for renouncing such food, would 
 as well apply to the exclusion of oats from horses and 
 cold water from men, because they are sometimes in- 
 jured by an excess. Late in autumn most cows shrink 
 very much in the quantity of milk they afford, more 
 especially as soon as the sharp night frosts destroy the 
 succulence of the pastures. It is at this period that 
 moderate feedings of sweet apples, say six quarts given 
 morning and evening, have restored the quantity, of 
 milk and increased its richness ; and a great advantage 
 has resulted, where a supply could be had for feeding 
 through winter. The better way to feed apples to 
 stock of any kind is to run them through a turnip cut- 
 ter, or crush them with a large wooden mallet. Then 
 sprinkle meal or bran on them. 
 
 Roots for Cattle. — Every cow, calf, steer and ox 
 should receive, during the foddering season, a liberal 
 supply of some kind of roots, in connection with their 
 other feed. My own practice, when on the farm, was 
 to feed each cow and steer half a bushel of turnips, 
 daily, at noon. Of course, calves and yearlings did 
 not receive so large a quantity of the finely-cut roots, 
 as a full-grown animal. In addition to the roots and 
 other feed, there must be tact in. feeding and manage- 
 
526 todd's country homes. 
 
 ment. It is this which often tells on domestic animals, 
 quite as much as food. Every farmer who keeps no 
 more than one cow, or fifty sheep, should no more 
 think of wintering his stock without roots, than with- 
 out hay. Read about turnips in the chapter on horti- 
 culture. 
 
 Peevious Maistagement. — As I dip my pen to record 
 a few comuion sense directions, under this head, for the 
 management of cows, for a few weeks previous to calv- 
 ing, what a large drove of superior cows the mind 
 reverts to, which were lost — not ray cows — by mis- 
 management — by killing with kindness! The great 
 danger at calving time, arises from the j)uer2)eral fever, 
 which is superinduced by numerous causes, but chiefly 
 by over-feeding. A cow must not be fed high, even 
 with grass, until after she has passed this critical period. 
 If her udder is full, confine her for a month in poor 
 pasture, or allow her to have a limited supply of grass 
 once a day. Then, let her eat straw. She will not 
 starve. I have often kept a cow for ten days previous 
 to calving, on a small allowance of grass, a little hay, 
 and all the straw she would eat. This was when there 
 was a tendency to inflammation in the udder, and to 
 garget. But, every day, when the cow did not re- 
 ceive a feeding of green feed, a few quarts of roots 
 were fed with three or four quarts of wheat bran. 
 This food kept the bowels open, and facilitated parturi- 
 tion. I never milked a cow previous to calving, as the 
 hiestings — the first milk — should be swallowed by the 
 young calf If a cow, and particularly a heifer, is fat, 
 permit her to have access to water, before calving, but 
 feed very low. If cows are fed highly, the nourish- 
 
THE EIGHT WAT TO MILK. 527 
 
 ment of the blood renders the growth of the foetus 
 more rapid than is desirable, and the result will be a 
 largely grown calf, which is especially dangerous for 
 heifers. It is the food which the heifer receives during 
 this period which determines the calf's size, rather than 
 the sire, as is often supposed. Whilst, therefore, we 
 guard against this dangerous error, we must not keep 
 a cow short of food, or we sliall have weakly calves 
 produced. A moderate allowance of food will be far 
 better than either extreme. An animal which is in 
 high condition is far more liable to disease after calving. 
 Prevention, however, being better than cure, it should 
 be our object to follow the happy medium of giving 
 them keep of sufficient quality to support them in good 
 condition. 
 
 The Right Wat to Milk. — 
 
 " The cows with swelling udders ready stand, 
 And lowing for the pail, invite the milker's hand." 
 
 Cows have such complete control of the lacteal or- 
 gans, that it is difficult to get all the milk they will 
 yield, at one time, without careful and gentle manage- 
 ment. A cow must be entirely quiet, so that she can 
 feed, or chew the cud without fear, or a milker can not 
 get her milk. Cows must not be afraid of a milker. 
 If he is a rough, harsh, bawling and abusive milker, 
 a cow will not give down her milk. 
 
 I was once my own cow-boy and milker, for nearly 
 a score of years, and my practice always was, when 
 cows were in their stalls, to feed them first. Then re- 
 move all litter, and spread a clean supply of bedding 
 beneath each animal. Every udder was then washed 
 as clean as water would make it. By this time, the 
 teats would be full of milk. A long milking stool was 
 
528 todd's country homes. 
 
 then placed so that I could sit on one end, and the 
 pail on the other, beneath the udder. After the milk 
 began to flow, both hands were applied, with all their 
 strength, until the last drop had been drawn. As soon 
 as one cow was finished, the milk was emptied in an- 
 other pail, so that, in case of any casualty, less milk 
 would be lost. After the last cow was milked, the ud- 
 ders and my hands would be as clean as could be de- 
 sired. Cows should be milked by one person, regularly. 
 A stranger friend desired to milk my best cow, which 
 yielded regularly, twelve quarts at a milking. But, 
 the fastidious brute would not give down over eight 
 quarts. And even my own hands, to which she was 
 accustomed, could not withdraw the usual quantity, 
 until the next day. Extreme neatness when milking, 
 is of transcendent importance. 
 
 Feeding cows while they are being milked is always 
 an excellent practice, if they are not already filled, as 
 a good pailful of warm slop consisting of equal parts 
 of ground peas, Indian corn, and wheat bran scalded 
 and allowed to soak over night, will so divert the 
 cow's attention that she will not think of kicking. It 
 is the habit of many persons who keep but one or two 
 cows, to take, morning and night, into the barn a pail- 
 ful of moist feed at the same time they do the empty 
 milk-pail. Others bring a basket of ears of corn from 
 the crib, while a still greater number pitch down and 
 lay before the cow a fork full of hay preparatory to 
 milking. The object in all these cases is the same, 
 to give the cow something that will keep her in good 
 humor while she is being milked. This foddering is 
 the basis of a compromise, in which it is agreed that 
 
MANAGEMENT OF HEIFERS. 529 
 
 the COW shall keep her legs and tail still while she is 
 being milked, but shall be at entire liberty to exercise 
 with her nose as much as she pleases. 
 
 Remedy for Kicking. — It is natural for cows to 
 yield their milk. They rather like it. If they kick, 
 we may depend that there is something wrong, as a 
 cow will not kick, if she has been properly trained, 
 when every appliance is all right. Long finger nails 
 are a fruitful source of kicking cows. The udder and 
 teats of some cows are extremely sensitive, and great 
 care should be taken to handle them so as to cause no 
 pain or uneasiness. Some milkers go to work as if they 
 were operating on a piece of leather, wringing the teat 
 and pressing their sharp finger-nails into it. Then, if 
 the cow attempts to relieve herself of the pain inflicted, 
 she is straightway pounded and otherwise abused until 
 she becomes a confirmed kicker. Teats are sometimes 
 tender and sore. When handled, unless the sore teats 
 are first bathed in tepid -water, the cow will kick. 
 Careless milkers will often pull the long hairs while 
 they are milking. Then, of course, a cow Avill kick. 
 Cows will not kick, if the milker does not hurt their 
 teats. 
 
 Management of Heifers. — The training of heifers 
 should commence when they are calves. They should 
 be handled, and petted, and stroked, and thus be di- 
 vested of all timidity. A wild cow will never yield 
 as much milk as if she were perfectly docile. In case 
 a heifer has been permitted to run wild, until she has 
 come in, when driving, or handling her in any way, 
 one must be patient, and never exhibit temper. Never 
 strike or kick a heifer. She must first of all get ac- 
 
 34 
 
530 todd's country homes. 
 
 quainted with you, and learn that you will not hurt 
 her. She must- learn not to fear you. If, in winter, it 
 is best to milk in the stable, make as few alarming mo- 
 tions as possible. Handle very gently. Be careful 
 and not pinch the teats. This is a great source of 
 trouble. A heifer will often stand quietly until some 
 careless milker has given a squeeze that hurts, when 
 she will kick and run. By allowing such a course a 
 few times, the habit will be confirmed. The best way 
 to manage, if you have no stable, is to have a small, 
 well-fenced yard, and teach your heifers to stand for 
 milking in that ; or, next best, to tie them, using them 
 very quietly. No person should be allowed to handle 
 a heifer, who will not treat her with extreme gentle- 
 ness. A heifer cannot be taught to be docile, gentle 
 and familiar with persons, in a day or a month. Habits 
 are slowly formed, and, if we would secure the highest 
 results, the animal should be petted while young, and 
 should have a constant familiarity with persons. Fond- 
 ling and petting young heifers help to create a quiet 
 disposition, so important to a dairy cow. But this edu- 
 cation must begin when they are young. Calves and 
 heifers should be freely handled, but never irritated or 
 plagued, as this will teach them bad habits, which they 
 will not forget as they grow older. For a superior 
 milker, I prefer a heifer to come in, when three years 
 old, and if she has been well kept so as to have attained 
 good size, she will then be old enough to become a cow. 
 The habit of giving milk is in part a matter of educa- 
 tion, and it is better to form that habit young. The 
 impression prevails with many, that good blood is the 
 only important requisite in rearing dairy stock. To 
 
HOW LONG SHOULD COWS BE MILKED. 531 
 
 reach the highest success somethmg more is necessary 
 — the stock must have good keep and kind care. Good 
 blood is requisite, but the best milking strain may be 
 rendered inferior by poor keep and a bad education. 
 
 How Lojf G SHOULD Cows BE MiLKED ? — Every cow 
 that rears a calf annually should go dry, for the pur- 
 pose of rest and recuperation, not less than four weeks, 
 and in some instances, the time should be extended to 
 eight or even to twelve weeks. If a cow be in full 
 flesh when she is about to come in, during the growing 
 season, she may be milked eleven months in a 3^ear. 
 On the contrary, when the same cow is expected to 
 come in during the foddering season she ought to go 
 dry at least two months. If a cow be in thin flesh she 
 should have three months for recuperation and rest, 
 especially if it is desirable to rear a good calf The 
 discreet husbandman should exercise much prudence 
 and discretion in deciding how long a cow may be 
 milked, as no rule can be given that is applicable to 
 even a majority of cows. We do know this much, that 
 milch cows require rest or cessation from being milked 
 as much as oxen that labor need rest. In many in- 
 stances, a cow thin in flesh is milked during most of 
 the winter months, and the result is — as it always will 
 be — that more will be lost in the production of butter 
 and cheese the following summer than was gained by 
 milking through the winter. When heifers are dried 
 up too early after calving, they will always run dry 
 about the same time in after years. For this reason, 
 it is advisable to milk a heifer, not less than ten months 
 after she has dropped her first calf If a cow is rather 
 thin in flesh, and it is desirable to rear a good calf, 
 
532 todd's country homes. 
 
 when a cow is far advanced in calf, it is necessary to 
 stop milking her, in order that the entire nourishment 
 of the system be shared between the growth of the calf 
 and in giving fresh vigor and strength to the dam. It 
 is usual to give two months' rest. But with high bred 
 stock, which do not nourish their calves very well, three 
 months is decidedly better. We thus divert the nour- 
 ishment which would be drawn away as milk, and the 
 result is a great improvement in the calf, the cow is 
 prepared for the delivery of her calf, and the subse- 
 quent flow of milk will be increased. 
 
 Pure Water for Milch Cows. — Milk is composed 
 of about eighty-seven parts in every one hundred, of 
 pure water. Consequently, any cow that yields a large 
 supply of milk, must drink more water than another 
 animal will require, which does not secrete an equal 
 quantity of the lacteal fluid. Milch cows should rather 
 be induced to take all the water they will, and at no 
 time should they be allowed to suffer from thirst. Every 
 observing person must have noticed how rapidly cows 
 shrink of their milk in hot, dry weather, when they do 
 not get their usual supply. Cows, of course, will live 
 where the daily supply of water is limited, and by 
 yielding a less quantity of milk, they adapt themselves 
 to the circumstances under which they are placed. 
 When water is not abundant, or is not of easy access, 
 cows will soon educate themselves to get along with a 
 much smaller quantity than they would, were it placed 
 before them in abundance. I have frequently known 
 great milkers to drink seven or eight wooden water 
 pailfuls, every day. I once owned a great milker, that 
 would drink half a barrel of water, every day. Milch 
 
CUTTING OFF COW's TAILS AND TEATS. 533 
 
 COWS do not like to drink often. When they do drink, 
 they want two or three pailfals. And, if they do not 
 have all they require, the supply of milk will not be 
 so great as if they had access to clean water. 
 
 Cutting off Cows' Tails. — The caudal appendage 
 of a cow is an important weapon of defense in fly-time, 
 which milch cows should not be deprived of If we do 
 not know how to manage it, when milking, a tail is 
 often a despicable annoyance. I have known many 
 milkers to be so enraged by the unceremonious switch- 
 ings of a cow's tail, when they were milking, that they 
 would cut them off in a fit of passion ! Such cruelty 
 is inexcusable. A cow needs a long switch-tail to pro- 
 tect her body from the torments of flies. She will 
 yield more milk, than if her tail were removed, as flies 
 will annoy and fret an animal almost to distraction. 
 And cows cannot yield a full supply of milk, if they 
 are not permitted to pass most of their time in quiet 
 rumination. I have never experienced any difficulty 
 from a cow's tail, when milking, as the end was held 
 in the fold of the milker's leg, as he bends the knee, 
 while sitting on a stool. By such management, a 
 milker has complete control of such an annoyance. In 
 case the flies bite, so that a cow is about to kick, the 
 switch can be released for a moment. 
 
 Cutting off Teats. — Some cows have one or two 
 teats in rear of the larger ones, which are a serious 
 inconvenience when milking. Sometimes, too, these 
 small teats will be so very close to the large ones, that 
 it is quite inconvenient to milk these, because small 
 teats are in the way. One of my best cows had a teat, 
 as large as a man's thumb, close to one of the hinder- 
 
534 todd's country homes. 
 
 most teats. The calf would suck it, but we could not 
 milk it, because it was so small and so close to the large 
 one. As such an arrangement was very unpleasant 
 when milking, I ventured to try an experiment, at re- 
 moving the small one. The cow was tied securely in 
 the stall by her head, and her two hind legs tied to- 
 gether, so that she could not kick. With the pliers, I 
 twisted the ends of a piece of very small wire together, 
 after it had been put around the teat close to the large 
 end. The wire was twisted up so tightly, that all cir- 
 culation was cut off, and in about three or four weeks 
 the teat dropped off, and the base of it healed up 
 neatly, leaving no issue. It never produced soreness 
 in the udder, as I feared it might, while the wire was 
 on it. Since that experiment, I have taken off several 
 teats by means of a wire — always when the cow was 
 dry — and the skin always healed over the issue. 
 
 Abortion in Cows. — It is quite as natural for cows 
 to bring forth calves, and rear them, as it is for them 
 to eat grass. And, it is exceedingly imnatural for them 
 to abort. Consequently, there must be some local cause 
 or causes, which, if removed, would prevent abortion. 
 The all-absorbing question, therefore is. What is the 
 cause, and what is the remedy ? The answer is phil- 
 osophical, scientific and practical, although quite differ- 
 ent from anything that has heretofore been assigned as 
 a cause of and a remedy for this disease. It can all be 
 expressed in one word — management — the management 
 of dairy-men. For scores of years, cows and young 
 cattle have been gathering, picking and carrying away 
 the particles of phosphate in the grass, which are 
 essential to the formation of the bones of domestic ani- 
 
CAUSE OF GAEGET IN MILCH COWS. 535 
 
 mals, until the grass and hay is deficient, in the neces- 
 sary supply of these substances. This is a part of the 
 cause of this disease. The injudicious practice of 
 "deaconing" the young calves completes the cause. 
 The latter alone would be sufficient to produce such a 
 result. But when taken in connection with the former, 
 the true cause appears quite obvious. It may seem a 
 frivolous thing to destroy all the calves as soon as they 
 begin to live, and the suggestion that it does make a 
 vast difference in the thrift of a cow, whether she rears 
 a calf or not, may be sneered at, yet our dairy-men will 
 find, sooner or later, that before they can rid their 
 herds of this fearful scourge, they will be required to 
 supply phosphatic material to their pastures and 
 meadows, as an equivalent, for the vast quantities of 
 phosphate that have been removed, in years past, and 
 to allow their cows to rear their calves. It is always 
 better for a cow, or any other feminine animal, to rear 
 her offspring. The rearing of a calf by the dam exerts 
 an influence on the health and disposition of the cow 
 which nothing else in the world can do. Cows are 
 composed of flesh and blood. A maternal instinct has 
 been implanted in the animal for her young. She loves 
 her calf. To nourish her little one, to protect and 
 fondle it, supplies a want of her maternal nature which 
 the best of food and care of the kindest herdsman can 
 never satisfy. Many cows "also are supplied with hay, 
 in which there is a sufficient quantity of fungus, like 
 the ergot in rye, to produce abortion. (See Rye, page 
 377.) All these things operating together, constitute 
 the cause of abortion. 
 
 Cause of Garget in Milch Cows. — Garget in milch 
 
536 todd's country homes. 
 
 cows is produced by several causes operating at the 
 same time. It cannot be attributed to either one sep- 
 arately. When cows have the garget just before and 
 immediately after calving, it is caused by too high feed- 
 ing in part, by the sympathetical influence of the puer- 
 peral fever in part, and by taking a little cold. The 
 spongy material of the internal portion of the udder 
 becomes inflamed and swells, the milk coagulates, and 
 sometimes the udder breaks, to form an egress for the 
 foul matter that has collected. When cows come in 
 during hot weather, if they have access to an abun- 
 dance of grass, and are "great milkers," and go un- 
 milked for a long time previous to parturition, if the 
 udder is distended to its greatest capacity, they are 
 liable to have the garget. When some cows are milked 
 irregularly, and not clean, they will often have the 
 garget. If a heifer have the garget the first time she 
 comes in, unless extra care can be exercised, she will 
 have it worse and worse every year when she comes in. 
 It is always better to exercise care to prevent garget than 
 to employ remedies to cure it. If a cow is disposed to 
 have it every time she comes in, the best and sure pre- 
 ventive is to milk her regularly, once or twice every 
 day, or once in two days, as her udder may seem to 
 require, before she drops her calf. It is a rare occur- 
 rence, however, that it will be necessary to milk a cow 
 previous to parturition, if milked entirely clean, as 
 soon as the calf has sucked the biestings. (Read Pre- 
 vious Management of Cows.) 
 
 The best remedy for garget usually is to draw out 
 every drop of milk and give the cow a piece of 23oke 
 root, sliced fine, every day, about as large as a man's 
 
MAKING EXCELLENT BUTTER. 537 
 
 forefinger, and bathe twice a day with water for half 
 an hour, then apply a solution of arnica and whiskey, 
 well rubbed in. Besides this, draw as much milk from 
 the affected teat as possible. If this does not effect a 
 cure, the injury is probably so serious that she will lose 
 the use of one or more teats. Should the teat or that 
 part of the udder be so tender that the cow will not 
 suffer the milk to be drawn out entirely clean, let other 
 teats be milked clean, and then permit a calf to suck 
 the tender teat as long as any milk can be obtained. 
 The best thing that can be done for an affected udder 
 and teats is to draw out all the milk often, and bathe 
 it with cold water for half an hour, several times daily. 
 Making Excellent Butter. — Every time I pass 
 through the butter market in New York, I reflect how 
 many thousands of dollars our farmers' wives lose by 
 making poor butter; and how many thousands they 
 might save, by simply making the same butter so neat 
 and clean, that it could be sold for just twice as much 
 as they now receive for it. Females who make only a 
 little butter annually, cannot save so much money in 
 any other way, as by exercising themselves in habits 
 of superlative neatness. There is no danger of being 
 too neat. But there is a wonderful liability to disre- 
 gard neatness, and spoil the butter. Dirt and milk, 
 filth and cream, offensive odors and butter, are perfect 
 antagonisms. Dairy-men may better turn their milk 
 and cream into the pig's trough, than to undertake to 
 make a fair quality of butter, where everything that 
 comes in contact with the milk or cream, is not as per- 
 fectly clean as the unsullied snow. If people who 
 always make butter that will not bring more than half 
 
538 todd's countky homes. 
 
 the price of a choice article in market, could see the 
 peculiar management of neat dairy-men and dairy- 
 women, they would at once perceive how much money 
 they lose by not being neat, and how much they 
 might save by doing everything in the neatest possible 
 manner. Thousands of firkins of butter are sold in 
 market for fifteen cents per pound, that might have 
 brought the owner thirty cents quicker than fifteen, if 
 the persons who did the milking, churning, etc., had 
 been as neat in their habits as the birds of the air. A 
 farmer's wife who makes forty-two firkins of butter in 
 the season, for sale, can well afford to be as neat as a 
 milliner's bandbox, when she can save fifty dollars on 
 two firkins, by simply having everything sweet and 
 clean. If you make a firkin of butter weighing one 
 hundred pounds, having everything clean and neat, 
 you can get forty dollars for it. By being a Utile neat, 
 the butter will sell for twenty or thirty dollars. But 
 let the milking and all else be done in a " good- 
 enough" way, and you will get only fifteen dollars for 
 the firkin of one hundred pounds. 
 
 A Recipe for Making Butter would read about 
 thus : Let the milk-pail be clean and sweet. See that 
 the udder of every cow and the hands of the milker 
 are perfectly clean. Let the milk be strained before 
 it has become cool. If milk is allowed to become cold 
 in winter, you cannot always make choice butter of 
 the cream. Let the milk be set in a clean and airy 
 place, where the temperature will favor the rising of 
 the cream. Cream will not rise satisfactorily where 
 the temperature approaches freezing point or summer 
 heat. As soon as the cream has risen it should be 
 
MAKING BUTTER. 539 
 
 skimmed off, and be kept where the temperature is 
 about sixty degrees. The churn should be neat, clean, 
 and as sweet as a China sugar-bowl. Cream should not 
 be kept over three days, at the longest. Keep it a week 
 before churning and get fifteen cents per pound for 
 your butter. Churn every day, and get forty cents. 
 There is a chance to save money. Keep a neat white 
 napkin over the cream-pot, which should always be as 
 clean as a piece of satin ribbon. Let the churning be 
 done early in the morning, and see that the person 
 who churns has clean hands and clean clothes on. See 
 that the dairy-maid who works the butter has clean 
 and sweet hands, rosy cheeks, and is dressed in a neat 
 calico frock and clean white apron. Work the butter 
 as soon as it is churned, salt it in part, and keep it in 
 a cool, neat and sweet place. The next day work it 
 again, salt it to your taste, and pack it neatly in sweet- 
 smelling butter-tubs, and spread a clean and damp 
 cloth over the surface. Procure the best quality of 
 salt, and mingle about one ounce of salt per pound. 
 
 Chuening. — It is a fact which can be established by 
 the untold quantities of poor butter, that everybody 
 does not know how to churn, or rather how to produce 
 butter from cream, or we should have less growling, 
 because the butter will not "come." All who have 
 had any experience in the matter know the apparently 
 perverse nature of butter. At times it will come in a 
 few minutes, and sometimes will not come at all. If 
 the cream, or milk is always alike, in every respect, 
 the butter will come alike. The difficulty, then, is in 
 the managemeyit of the cream. There are several con- 
 ditions which influence the time required for separating 
 
640 todd's countey homes. 
 
 the butter by churning, and if these are thoroughly 
 understood and compUed with, there will be little or 
 no trouble in getting butter to come. The main and 
 most important condition is the temperature of the 
 cream when it enters the churn. There seems to be a 
 certain medium established, and it seems to make but 
 little difference whether the temperature of the cream 
 is above or below it, there will still be the same trouble 
 in breaking the casein which envelopes the globules of 
 butter. The cream when poured into the churn, should 
 not have a higher temperature than sixty degrees nor 
 a lower one than five degrees. When put in at this 
 temperature, it will rise from five to ten degrees during 
 the operation of churning. 
 
 The time occupied in churning has a great effect upon 
 butter, and also upon the temperature of the cream in 
 the churn. If the cream is at fifty-five degrees when put 
 into the churn, very fast churning will raise it too high, 
 and soft, light-colored butter will be the result, espe- 
 cially in warm weather. In cold weather the motion 
 should be faster, in order to keep up the j)roper tem- 
 perature. I have known entire churnings to be thrown 
 into the hog-tub because one or two of these necessary 
 conditions were not complied with. Even when the 
 churn fails to separate the butter, there is one unfail- 
 ing agent left in the form of heat, which never fails to 
 burst the film of casein, although it will not produce 
 an article fit to be called butter. There is no earthly 
 use in penning another word, as a person must learn 
 by practical experience, certain things which can not 
 be taught by pen and paper. 
 
 How TO WoEK BuTTEE. — The true way to separate 
 
HOW TO WORK BUTTER. 541 
 
 the buttermilk from the butter, is to gash the butter 
 with a sharp-edged ladle, or with a large wooden knife, 
 so that the milk will flow readily into the gashes. 
 Then, as the gashes are closed, by pressure, every drop 
 of milk will flow out, as it cannot be forced again into 
 the butter. Working butter with the bare hands, which 
 is practiced by people, is a mode of working butter, far 
 more in keeping with the intelligence of the Dark 
 Ages, than the present time. Kneading and crushing 
 butter should never be allowed, as it injures its excel- 
 lence. But, gash it and press it together, gently, until 
 all the milk is removed. After the milk is separated, 
 gash it, and sprinkle salt in the gashes. Then close 
 them, gash it in the opposite direction, and add salt as 
 at the first. When butter is worked by means of a 
 roller, by squeezing or kneading it with the bare hands, 
 or by crushing and smoothing the surface by pressure, 
 the best of butter will appear waxy and sticky when 
 tasted, and will exhibit very little or none of that pe- 
 culiar appearance which is called grain. Butter should 
 never be smoothed and crushed while it is being 
 worked, as such manipulation tends to destroy the grain, 
 by rendering it "salvey" or adhesive. A pure article 
 of salt should be obtained in the first place. Then keep 
 the butter where it will not absorb foul gases, and bad 
 odors. Salt that is allowed to get damp and is exposed 
 in this condition to the effluvia of rotten vegetables the 
 odors from carrion, the sink, or cess-pools, is not fit to 
 be put into butter. 
 
 There are vast quantities of butter to be found in 
 the markets, of good color, properly salted, the butter- 
 milk expelled, and yet it has a mussy look and lardy 
 
642 todd's countky homes. 
 
 t 
 
 taste. Consumers are often at a loss to account for it. 
 The butter is not rancid nor has it any disagreeable 
 odor, but it is poor nevertheless. Such butter may 
 have been made from the nicest cream, with the utmost 
 attention to cleanliness in every branch of its manufac- 
 ture, from the milking to its packing in the firkin. The 
 maker, perhaps, has expended all her knowledge and 
 every resource within her reach to get a prime article, 
 hoping for a name in the market and an advanced price 
 for a really " tip-top " article. And when the expert 
 tells her the butter is inferior and must be classed as 
 second or third rate, it is very disheartening, and some 
 give up in despair of ever learning "the knack" of 
 manufacturing a strictly nice article. They cannot im- 
 agine why butter, upon which so much care and atten- 
 tion has been given, should be condemned as having a 
 greasy look and taste. 
 
 Packing Butter.- — In order to have good butter 
 continue to keep sweet, one must have a clean, sweet, 
 well-ventilated cellar for butter, and it must be used 
 for nothing else. Then he must get oak firkins, heavy 
 hooped, air-tight, and made just as handsome as the 
 best cooper can turn them out. Or a stone jar will 
 be better still. There are only a few kinds of wood 
 that are fit to pack butter in. Wood of the ash is ex- 
 tensively used in some sections. It contains an acid 
 very objectionable to butter, and should be rejected. 
 Spruce, pine and gummy woods are often used. They 
 impart a disagreeable flavor to the butter. White oak 
 makes an excellent package, but the wood should be 
 thoroughly seasoned before using. Many dairy-men 
 invariably select poor packages because they are cheap. 
 
MAKING YELLOW BUTTEK IN WINTER. 543 
 
 To save a few cents on a package, they are willing to 
 run the risk of losing a considerable sum on the butter 
 which is to fill it. If sold immediately, however, the 
 loss will fall on somebody else. In preparing firkins 
 and tubs for use, boiling water should be poured into 
 them to soak for twenty-four hours. Then fill with 
 strong brine for two or three days, turn out and rinse 
 with pure cold water, and rub the sides with pure fine 
 salt. Tubs after being filled should be headed, and brine 
 poured in at a hole in the top so as to fill all interven- 
 ing spaces. Firkins when filled may be covered with 
 a thin piece of muslin, upon which is spread a layer of 
 fine salt. It requires a person of neat habits to make 
 superior butter. I never have known a slack and slut- 
 tish housekeeper to make good butter. ' 
 
 Making Yellow Butter in Winter. — Cows that 
 are required to subsist on straw, in which no green 
 thing can be discovered, can not furnish milk that will 
 make yellow butter. Hay, whether it were made of 
 clover, timothy, or any other grass, that was allowed 
 to stand until dead ripe before cutting, will not be suit- 
 able feed for .producing yellow butter. White turnips, 
 buckwheat bran or even wheat bran and shorts will not 
 furnish material for yellow butter. Many persons, 
 aware of this fact, have mingled otter, or other color- 
 ing matter in the butter to give it a golden color. But 
 this is not the correct way to make yellow butter. Bet- 
 ter by far feed carrots to the cows than to mingle them 
 with the cream. 
 
 No difficulty is ever experienced in making yellow 
 butter when the cows have access to grass. If the grass 
 were cut and cured properly, little if any of the but- 
 
544 todd's country homes. 
 
 ter-producing material would be lost during the process 
 of curing. Therefore, if the grass be cut at the most 
 proper time of making the best quality of hay, it will 
 produce yellow butter quite as well as if consumed be- 
 fore it was made into hay. It is the quality of feed 
 that makes butter yellow or white, more than the cow, 
 though it is not denied that the milk of some cows will 
 make much whiter butter than others, when they all 
 subsist on the same kind of feed. The management 
 of the milk and cream, also, will exert nearly as much 
 influence in producing yellow butter as the quality and 
 kind of feed. If a good cow, having a yellowish skin, 
 be fed with first quality of red clover hay, that appears 
 as green and fragrant as when it came from the meadow, 
 and on corn-stalks that have not been bleached to a 
 light brown color, and with a few quarts of yellow In- 
 dian corn meal daily, with some carrots or turnips, and 
 potatoes or cabbage-leaves, and if proper cleanliness be 
 observed in milking, and in the management of the 
 cream, yellow butter can be produced in winter almost 
 as well as during the grazing season. Still-slops, dish- 
 water, and swill, which will increase the. quantity of 
 milk, will not make yellow^ butter. The cream requires 
 excellent care in cold weather, and should be churned 
 at least twice every week. When cream is exposed to 
 changes of heat and cold for several days, the butter is 
 apt to be white as lard. 
 
 Bulls — their care and management. — 
 
 "The youthful bull must wander in the wood, 
 Behind the mountain or beyond the flood; 
 Or, in the yard, at home, his fodder find, 
 Far from the cliarms of his alluring kind. 
 Would'st thou their courage and their strength improve ? 
 Too soon, they must not feel the stings of love." — Dryden's ViKGlL. 
 
DAILY CARE OF BULLS. 545 
 
 The practice of forcing the growth of a calf that is 
 to be kept for a bull, by allowing him to have the milk 
 of two cows, and meal besides, is not a good one. The 
 most satisfactory way that I have ever tried, is to put 
 the calf with a young cow that does not give milk, and 
 let the two graze together. But, other cows must not 
 be allowed to go in the same field, as the young bull, 
 after he is a few months old, will learn to suck them. 
 The aim should be, when rearing a " stock bull," to keep 
 the young animal growing, slowly, until his frame is 
 properly developed. During the first winter, a young 
 bull should receive not less than one quart of oat-meal 
 daily, in addition to hay and other feed. Oat-meal 
 will produce muscle, rather than fat. The practice of 
 allowing yearling bulls to perform all the service re- 
 quired among a large number of cows, is to be de- 
 nounced as tending to pernicious consequences and 
 fatal results, such as general abortion. 
 
 Daily Care of Bulls. — Bulls can not get good stock 
 unless they are in good health and well kept, and they 
 can not have good health, when confined in a stall from 
 week to week, and taken out only to drink, or for ser- 
 vice. They need exercise every day. If they are not 
 lead about, at least two hours daily, they should have 
 the benefit of a large box-stall, or a small yard, en- 
 closed with a strong fence. Exercise will give them 
 strength, and render them much quicker in service, 
 and far more sure. Every bull should be provided 
 with a strong post, against which he can rub, at pleas- 
 ure, and try his strength. Close confinement will 
 render bulls imbecile, slow, and uncertain getters of 
 superior calves. A bull is a huge bundle of nervous, 
 
 35 
 
540 todd's countey homes. 
 
 and restless vitality. If such animals be kept tied up 
 in close confinement, day and night, they are compara- 
 tively feeble. There will always be a great lack of 
 vigor in their movements, and if they possess all the 
 good points of a most perfect animal, they can not 
 transmit those excellencies to their ofispring with any 
 degree of certainty. 
 
 The best way to manage a bull is to enclose a small 
 yard with a high fence that he can not look over, nor 
 through. Then, erect an open shed in one corner, and 
 make a broad stall so that he can have a clean and dry 
 place to stand and lie on. At one end, make a strong 
 manger, so that he can be fed without entering his en- 
 closure. A strong rubbing pole should be provided, so 
 that a bull can rub any part of his body. Beside-s 
 this, bulls should be allowed to ''slam bang" around 
 in contact with somethino; that will be the means of 
 keeping them healthful and strong. 
 
 A Bull's Rubbing Pole. — 
 
 " With two fair eyes, his mistress burns his breast ; 
 He looks, and languishes and leaves his rest ; 
 And, therefore, to repair his strength he tries, 
 Hardening liis limbs, with painful exercise, 
 Upon the rough and flinty rock he lies." — Drtden's Virgil. 
 
 The most economical way of making a rubbing pole 
 for a bull, or for horned cattle of any kind, is to set two 
 strong posts in the ground, three feet in depth. Let 
 one extend four and one-half feet above the surface of 
 the ground, and the other about two feet. These posts 
 should be about twelve feet apart. Then bolt a strong 
 pole from the top of one post to the other. By this 
 arrangement, a bull of any size, can pass beneath the 
 pole, and rub his back, and at the lower end, can rub 
 
HOW TO "KAKEy" an OX OR BULL. 547 
 
 his brisket, neck, head, or buttock. Such a rubbing- 
 pole will prove a wonderful source of amusement to a 
 bull, as well as to other animals, when the j have access 
 to it. 
 
 How TO "Rarey" an Ox or Bull. — It is, usually, 
 a very difficult operation to do anything with the feet 
 of an ox or bull, unless they are first put in a sling, or 
 some similar place. They do not like to have their 
 feet handled, and sometimes, they will not allow one 
 even to feel of their feet. I once owned a large and 
 strong Durham bull, that became very lame in one of 
 his forward feet, and although he was very docile and 
 tractable, he would allow no one to examine his feet. 
 He continued to grow more lame from day to day, and 
 it seemed necessary that we should make an effort to 
 remove the cause, if we could ascertain what it was. 
 We tied his head firmly to a solid post, allowing him 
 about one foot play. Then we tied a small rope 
 around the forward leg that was not lame, close to his 
 body, and carried it over his back, making a loop in 
 the end of it that would not slip. This loop was up 
 almost to the top of his shoulders. Now we took an- 
 other small rope and tied a slip-knot around the fet- 
 lock of the lame foot, and passed the upper end of this 
 rope through the loop of the one that was tied to the 
 other leg. Then we took hold of his leg to raise the 
 foot, and as the foot came up, with the other hand the 
 rope was jerked through the loop and tied in a hurry. 
 This held his foot up, with his knee bent, while he 
 stood on three feet. After making a few unsuccessful 
 attempts to get away, and to put down his foot, he suc- 
 cumbed, and was gentle as a lamb, and allowed me to 
 
548 todd's country homes. 
 
 liandle his foot, examine it, and pare it, and to remove 
 the little stone between his hoofs. When it is desira- 
 ble to handle a hind foot, the most convenient way is 
 to secure the head in a stall, set up a post firmly, 
 about two feet back of the animal, bore a hole through 
 it, about one foot from the floor, then, with a small 
 rope around 'the fetlock, and put through the hole, 
 draw the foot up and tie the rope. The hind feet of 
 oxen may be handled in this manner, especially when 
 it is desirable to take off their shoes. 
 
 Management of Calves. — The first thing to be at- 
 tended to, as soon as the calf is dropped, is to aid the 
 dam in removing the sack in which the young animal 
 has been enveloped, to rub the limbs with dry cloths, 
 and to aid it in its first efforts to get nourishment. 
 The change in the condition of the young animal at 
 birth is like the change, were we to be heated in a 
 Thomsonian steam box, for hours, and then, go out 
 into the cold air, in almost a state of nudity, and re- 
 main exposed to the cold. The young calf should be 
 allowed to suck the hiestings — the first thick and yel- 
 low milk that a cow yields, after calving, — as there are 
 certain medicinal properties in that food, which has 
 been especially prepared by natural means, for the 
 peculiar requirements of the young animal. Whether 
 a calf is to be reared by hand, or at the udder, it should 
 always have an opportunity to suck the biestings. If 
 a person desires to have a superior cow, she must be 
 permitted to suckle her calf, for a few weeks, as she 
 will be far more valuable, than if the young animal 
 were not permitted to suck. (Read Abortion in Cows.) 
 
 Some farmers will insist, that they can make better 
 
- ■ MANAGEMENT OF CALVES. 549 
 
 cattle by bringing up their calves on hay tea, skimmed 
 milk, or buttermilk pop, than to allow them to suck. 
 Others affirm that if you have a cow that gives partic- 
 ularly rich milk, and one that gives a quality poorer in 
 butter, it is better, in every way, to feed the calf on the 
 milk of the latter. If buttermilk and whey, or skimmed 
 milk, were better to promote the growth of young 
 calves, the Creator would have so ordered, that cows 
 should give poor milk at first, and afterwards rich milk 
 for butter and cheese. A person may raise good calves 
 on skimmed milk and slops. But I never practiced 
 that system' of management, as I could always produce 
 far superior animals on rich milk. And if those per- 
 sons who have reared fine animals by hand, had allowed 
 the young calves to suck, they would have been far 
 superior to what they were. During the first few 
 weeks, a calf should be allowed to suck a liberal supply 
 of milk. There is nothing gained by choking the 
 young animal off, before it has taken a sufficient amount 
 to meet the requirements of its nature. The growth 
 of these early months is the substratum on which the 
 whole edifice will be framed, and its future appearance 
 and usefulness will, in a great measure, depend upon 
 the care then taken of the animal. If a calf be hin- 
 dered from obtaining its full allowance of proper nour- 
 ishing food in its early growth, it will never develop 
 into the size and form that it would on a full diet. 
 
 If calves are reared altogether on hay tea, and skim 
 milk, or other starvation diet, a person may be able 
 to rear more calves on the same quantity of food. But 
 when grown up, they will be like the Irishman's horse, 
 that was hard to catch, and after he was caught, would 
 
550 todd's countky homes. 
 
 be of small value. If a calf is to be fed, let it be 
 taught to suck one's finger, as soon as it has been al- 
 lowed to draw a partial supply from the dam, and 
 gradually draw the hand and nose into a pail of new 
 milk. If milk is presented cold, the calf will be apt to 
 refuse it, as if led by instinct — as if knowing that na- 
 ture always feeds her milk warm. Milk is the natural 
 food, and if fed sweet — either fresh from the cow or 
 skimmed — and warm, the young animal will thrive 
 upon it — that alone. I have practised, with great sat- 
 isfaction, rearing two calves on one cow. Sometimes, 
 I found it necessary to tie the hind legs of the cow to- 
 gether, for a few days, until she would allow another 
 calf to suckle. It is an excellent practice to train a 
 heifer to permit two calves to suckle. 
 
 Comfortable Quaeters for Calves. — Young calves 
 are frequently treated in the most inhuman manner, 
 by tying them in some cold or wet corner, where they 
 must lie down in their filth. My own practice has al- 
 ways been to give every calf a dry and comfortable 
 place to protect it from cold and storms. If the apart- 
 ment were no larger than a small horse-stall, a door 
 was made at the entrance, and the floor kept well- 
 littered with clean bedding. I would never tie up a 
 calf. It is a barbarous practice. If there be no stall, 
 make a small shed in one corner of the yard, with 
 boards, into which a calf may go at pleasure, and be 
 shielded from cold and storms. Calves will not thrive 
 in a wet, cold, and filthy place. They require also a 
 little liberty. They should never be tied up. They 
 will appreciate a dry and warm place, and improve the 
 better for it. Let us remember that calves are flesh 
 
FODDER CUTTER. 
 
 551 
 
 and blood. It will be found a far more economical 
 way to save money, by providing a shed and clean 
 straw, than to maintain animal heat on milk. 
 
 Weaning Calves. — The practice of separating a 
 calf at once from the cow, is not only barbarous, but 
 decidedly injurious to the young animal. My own 
 practice always has been, to wean calves gradually, so 
 that they will not fall away, in flesh. They were al- 
 
 A HAND FODDER CUTTER. 
 
 lowed to suck less and less, daily, after they were two 
 months old, until we thought it safe to permit them to 
 suck only once a day, for a week. Then, the next 
 week, they were permitted to take not over two quarts 
 once in two days. By this management, they did not 
 receive such a deplorable " set-back," as calves usually 
 do, when they are not weaned gradually. Calves 
 should always have access to clean water, even before 
 they are weaned. When fed milk, if meal be mingled 
 with it, the meal should always be scalded and made 
 
552 
 
 TODD S COUNTRY HOMES. 
 
 into gruel, and fed warm with milk. Raw meal will 
 usually give calves the scours, unless they eat it dry. 
 
 Fodder Cutters. — Every person who keeps only 
 one cow and a horse, or a few sheep, should have a 
 hand fodder cutter, (see preceding page,) which will 
 not require a master mechanic to put the knives in 
 order. When one has a flock of sheep, or several other 
 animals to feed, he should have a cutter, which may 
 be driven by a two-horse-power, and be of sufiicient 
 capacity to cut one ton per hour. 
 
 Chopping Fodder by Horse-Power. — When I was 
 feeding stock, my practice was to chop all my corn- 
 stalks, a large quantity of straw, and much hay; and 
 to mingle several kinds of feed before the meal was 
 added. For the purpose of economizing the labor, all 
 my machinery -was driven by a two-horse railway 
 power, similar to the illustration herewith given. My 
 horse-power was placed in the barn, so that without 
 moving it, the self-cleaning thrashing-machine, as rep- 
 resented in the illustration, the fodder-cutter and the 
 portable grist-mill could each be worked by simply 
 
STOCK FROM HAY TO GRASS. 553 
 
 changing the belt, without moving the power. By 
 employing such a power, no driver was required, which 
 was a great money-saving item. The fodder-cutter 
 stood over a hole in the floor, so that two tons, after 
 being cut, would drop into the feeding-room, without 
 requiring an extra helper, while the machine was in 
 motion. Besides this, the fodder-cutter was a self- 
 feeder, similar to the one illustrated on a preceding 
 page; and every appliance was arranged so conven- 
 iently, that, without even the aid of a boy, I could 
 chop one ton of fodder per hour. Indeed, I have often 
 put a ton of dry corn-stalks through the cutter in 
 thirty minutes. By having everything connected with 
 the preparation of feed, as convenient as possible, the 
 expense was greatly reduced, and money was saved in 
 several ways. I always found it quite as economical 
 to chop fodder — particularly corn-stalks and straw — 
 for sheep, as for other stock. When a feeder desires 
 to make feeding stock jKiy, he must not employ a gang 
 of men, at high wages, to perform what I always did 
 with perfect ease, without any helpers. An economical 
 manager can seldom fail to save money when feeding 
 any kind of stock. One important consideration must 
 always be observed — to 
 
 " Be systematic with your stock ; and do your chores by bell, or clock ; 
 For cattle know the time of day, and are impatient of delay." 
 
 rice's barn-yard lyrics. 
 
 Stock from Hay to Grass. — That period which is 
 termed "between hay and grass," is the most severe 
 and trying time of all the year, for all kinds of stock. 
 Indeed most animals experience much more incon- 
 venience during this period, than they do in passing 
 from grass to hay. The change from dry feed to green, 
 
554 todd's countet homes. 
 
 when it is not very gradual, will exert an injurious in- 
 fluence on all kinds of animals, and will often reduce 
 them in flesh to a low condition. When animals sub- 
 sist on any kind of feed, their bowels are required to 
 accommodate their condition and energies to that kind 
 of nourishment. Now, if feed of another kind, or in 
 a very different condition be eaten, a change must 
 occur in the system, and if the change in feed from 
 dry to green be quite abrupt, an unusual looseness of 
 the bowels will follow, and many times, a severe attack 
 of scours will ensue. When animals have been kept 
 entirely on dry feed, without any roots, they will al- 
 ways experience more injury, in passing from hay to 
 grass, than if they had been supplied with a few 
 pounds of , roots daily. Those animals that are thin 
 in flesh, are more liable to suffer injury from the change 
 to green feed, than those in a good condition, or that 
 are designed for early beef When animals of any 
 kind are fed on roots, potatoes, or apples, during the 
 foddering season, as they all should be, it will be com- 
 paratively easy to change their feed from hay to grass, 
 because, roots have supplied in part the place of grass. 
 As soon as grass is large enough to pasture, or mow, no 
 animal should be allowed to fill itself on grass, when it 
 has been accustomed to subsist on dry feed. In order 
 to avoid any injurious effects, let animals feed on 
 grass only half an hour after they have consumed 
 their regular allowance of meal and hay. By follow- 
 ing this practice for a few days, their bowels will be- 
 come accustomed to the change of feed, without caus- 
 ing the scours. Working oxen, as well as horses, are 
 very fond of grass in the spring. For this reason, 
 
FATTENING OLD COWS AND OXEN. 555 
 
 they are sometimes allowed to make a meal on grass 
 only, instead of meal. But, the effect is almost al- 
 ways injmions. When taken into an empty stomach, 
 grass will operate like a cathartic, thus unfitting a 
 team for hard service. But, by allowing them to feed 
 on grass after they have eaten their accustomed al- 
 lowance of dry feed, grass will increase their flesh and 
 strength. 
 
 Fattening Old Cows and Oxen. — 
 
 " Stock should be fed three times a day, but once with straw and twice with hay, 
 And he who has more stock than hay, should sell a cow without delay." 
 
 Eice's Barn-yard Lyrics. 
 
 When old animals of any kind are to be fattened, a 
 great deal of money may be saved by having the feed 
 in the best possible condition, as old cows, old oxen, or 
 old sheep can not concoct rough feed as when they 
 were in the prime of life, and had better teeth an^ 
 sharper digestive powers. Feeders frequently lose 
 half their feed, when making beef and mutton of old 
 animals, by feeding whole grain, and by not commenc- 
 ing at the most advantageous period. The most flxvor- 
 able period to begin to fatten old animals, is in the latter 
 part of spring, or during the former part of summer. 
 At that season of the year, everything is springing into 
 new life. The nutritious grass, the warm and pleasant 
 weather, the cheerful sunshine, and the cooling shade, 
 all lend their influence in one harmonious combination, 
 to revivify and promote the growth, not only of young 
 and healthy animals, but those that have endured the 
 pelting storms and pinching cold of many winters. At 
 tha^ season of the year, they begin to improve in flesh, 
 even if their allowance of food is not as abundant as 
 it ought to be. The tender and nutritious grass im- 
 
556 todd's country homes. 
 
 parts health and vigor to the animal system, and they 
 commence secreting fat and flesh for future use. At 
 such a time, farmers should be active in aiding the 
 work of building up the animal system, which has been 
 commenced with renewed energy, by keeping such ani- 
 mals improving in flesh every day, until they are ready 
 for the shambles. If they be allowed to stop improv- 
 ing, the proprietor must sustain a loss, to a greater or 
 less extent. In case an animal does not receive a full 
 allowance of grass, it should be fed a few pounds of 
 meal or oil-cake daily. A few pounds of meal fed at 
 such a time, will increase the amount of fat and flesh, far 
 beyond our highest expectations. Two to four quarts 
 of oil-meal, mingled with a peck of wheat bran, will 
 be a sufficient quantity for feeding a cow or ox, at one 
 time. Although summer is a more favorable period to 
 begin to fatten an old cow, old ox, or sheep, September 
 is not a bad time. Old cows should be dried off" at 
 once, as they will not fatten much while giving milk. 
 Then while warm weather continues, a cow or a bul- 
 lock should be fed twice daily with meal, in addition to 
 grass and good hay. Sheep should receive not less 
 than one pound each, daily, of Indian corn and oats, or 
 barley. If ground into meal, it will be much better 
 than to feed it whole. 
 
 Young farmers — and sometimes old ones also, appear 
 to be in doubt whether a farrow cow will or will not 
 fatten as well, while she gives milk ; and many very 
 intelligent men have continued to milk a farrow cow, 
 until she was almost ready for the butcher, flattering 
 themselves that the cow was just as fat as she would 
 have been had she not been milked. But no theory 
 
FATTENING FAEEOW COWS. 557 
 
 can be more absurd. No cow, or female of any kind 
 of animal, can grow fat or jfleshy, while giving milk, 
 one-half as fast as if she were not milked. When there 
 is a good flow of milk, little or no fat will be secreted. 
 And why ? Simply because all the nutrimept, in the 
 food consumed which would form fat or flesh, goes into 
 the milk-pail. Therefore, the sooner we discontinue to 
 milk a farrow cow, the sooner she will be ready for the 
 shambles, and the greater will be the amount of tallow 
 and flesh in her carcass. If a farrow cow is in toler- 
 ably good condition, in the winter, and the calculation 
 is to make beef of her the next summer, or the next 
 autumn, she may be milked all winter, provided she 
 be well fed. But she should be " dried off"' before she 
 is turned to grass. Then, by allowing such cows to feed 
 on good grass during the summer, they will make fair 
 beef early in autumn, b}^ feeding them only a few 
 bushels of meal. But, if they be milked all summer 
 we may expect less and tough beef, and but little tal- 
 low. An old, raw-boned cow should not be milked at 
 all, during the summer, if no feed other than that 
 which the pasture affords is to be . given. Let farmers 
 remember that if they gain ten dollars in butter and 
 cheese, by milking a farrow cow during the summer, 
 they will have ten dollars' worth less of beef and tal- 
 low, than they would have had, if the cow had been 
 " dried off"," a few months sooner. 
 
 "When to Stop Feeding Fat Animals. — 
 
 " To fodder stock is careful work ; so don't for this employ a clerk; 
 He'll waste enough, before grass grows, to keep one cow through all the snows." 
 
 Eice's Barn-yakd Lyuics. 
 
 In conversation with men who have fattened mam- 
 moth bullocks and swine, I have invariably heard them 
 
558 todd's countky homes. 
 
 remark, that their feeding during the last year, was 
 nearly a dead loss, as the animals did not increase in 
 weight. After such animals had become well fattened 
 there seemed to be a serious difficulty in maintaining a 
 keen appetite. Of course, as soon as the system re- 
 fuses to secrete any more fat, the energies are concen- 
 trated to expel unnecessary and hurtful food. A farmer 
 in Central New York, fed a large Durham bullock until 
 the animal was five years old, and he ate with avidity 
 and concocted what was eaten, in a satisfactory man- 
 ner, up to that period, after which, the appetite became 
 indifferent; "he would not feed well." The utmost 
 boundary of limitation had been reached. Yet, as the 
 proprietor persisted in feeding the bullock another 
 year, he learned that all his anxiety, labor and feed, 
 during that year were lost, as the animal was not so 
 heavy at the end of the sixth year as at the close of 
 the fifth. Besides this, nature made such a desperate 
 effort to throw off the pernicious influence incident to 
 a state of plethora, that the bullock manifested unmis- 
 takable symptoms of gout, apoplexy and other com- 
 plaints, which are sure to follow overfeeding, when the 
 system does not require nourishment. Therefore, to 
 save the valuable animal from farther depreciation, the 
 proprietor hurried him off to the slaughter-house. 
 
 These facts assure us that there is a period, during 
 the fattening of domestic animals, beyond which it is 
 not profitable to feed. That point does not appear in 
 all animals, even of the same species, at any given age. 
 When animals are well fattened, and they manifest 
 little desire for food, the sooner they are slaughtered 
 the less will be the loss in continuing the fattening proc- 
 
WHEN TO STOP FEEDING FAT CATTLE. 559 
 
 ess. But, so long as the animal appears healthful and 
 full of life, and will take his regular allowances of feed 
 with a keen relish, the indications are reliable that the 
 feeding may be continued longer with satisfactory 
 profit. But in many instances the appetite is cloyed 
 by an occasional overfeeding. As soon as a fattening 
 animal has been overfed, a long period must elapse be- 
 fore the appetite will again be sharp. This often oc- 
 curs before an animal is half fattened. 
 
 Throughout the vegetable kingdom, from the small- 
 est flower to the mammoth denizens of the forest, and 
 all through the animal kingdom, from the animalculae 
 to the largest elephant, philosophers have ever discov- 
 ered a beautiful law of limitation which maintains the 
 perfect harmony that is apparent in every part of the 
 universe of natural things. "Were it not for the opera- 
 tion of this beautiful law, our horses would continue to 
 grow until they would be of such huge proportions 
 that they would be utterly worthless and a nuisance. 
 And human beings would continue to expand, until the 
 largest giant of the present day would appear like a 
 pigmy by the side of the full-grown man. We can 
 not have failed to witness the benevolent and advanta- 
 geous operation of this law in rearing and fattening 
 domestic animals. If a calf be fed for example, with reg- 
 ularity and uniformity of food, until the animal has at- 
 tained the Bize of a large bullock, he will take his feed 
 with avidity, and secrete flesh and fat satisfactorily, 
 until the utmost boundary of this law has been reached. 
 Then, feeders must look wild for deterioration. After 
 the system has become so full of fat within and with- 
 out that the law of limitation forbids any further de- 
 
560 todd's countky homes. 
 
 velopment, nature will begin to make an effort to re- 
 lieve the animal system of injurious plethora. That is 
 the practical point in breeding domestic animals, to 
 stop feeding and hurry them away to the slaughter- 
 house, as all feed and all effort beyond this point will 
 be worse than lost, because it will be utterly impracti- 
 cable to develop one single point of a beast, beyond the 
 prescribed limit of this unalterable law. 
 
 Removing Chaff from the Eyes of Animals. — 
 When I was on the farm, it used to be a common oc- 
 currence for a barley beard, or the chaff of oats to get 
 into the eyes of cows and steers. And, before I learned 
 how to remove such irritating substances, some animals 
 would suffer extremely, as the chaff of oats would ad- 
 here to the eyeball, like a piece of wet paper to a 
 smooth floor. Moreover, such chaff could scarcely be 
 seen, even when in full view, on the external part of 
 an animal's eye. I well recollect, that a f^ivorite cow 
 had an oaten chaff spread out nearly over the pupil of 
 the eye ; and it was so transparent that the chaff could 
 not be seen, until after the irritating substance had 
 produced a little inflammation at its edges. Then it 
 was discovered. By drawing one corner of a piece of 
 thin silk over the end of one finger, thrusting it care- 
 fully between the eyelids, against the ball of the eye, 
 the chaff was readily brought out. The most absurd 
 practice is, to blow grit and dirt into an eye, to remove 
 other irritating svibstances, when the finger covered with 
 silk, will cause no pain. The former expedient simply 
 adds to the pain and inflammation, which already ex- 
 ist, while the latter removes the prime cause of the 
 difficulty, and insures a speedy recovery. 
 
general management of stock. 561 
 
 General Management of Stock. — 
 
 " Fix every time to feed all stock, at six and twelve and five o'clock ; 
 Then, let desserts come in between, of roots and apples, neat and clean." 
 
 Barn-yard Lyrics. 
 
 The aim of every feeder should always be, not to 
 see how many animals he can rear on a given amount 
 of feed, but to change his feed into flesh and fat, in the 
 most economical manner. Almost from the first stages 
 of the animal's life many seem to consider more the sav- 
 ing of food or of trouble, than the importance of having 
 a first rate animal. Utterly forgetful are many of our 
 farmers, that the great object to be aimed at is the pi^o- 
 gressive improvement of the animal. The growth is a 
 constant process, and every means should be taken to 
 aid it in the healthiest way. That this cannot be done, 
 is obvious enough, by lessening either the quality or 
 quantity of its food, or by being careless as to the shel- 
 ter provided for it and the healthy exercise which it is 
 necessary it should have. Beginners should understand, 
 that if an animal once "gets a stunt," or is let down in 
 condition — as let down it assuredly will be, if food is 
 sparingly given to it in its young days — ^^that such a con- 
 dition will never be made up again ; of the certain paces 
 in the race, so to speak, which are lost, a few may be 
 regained, the whole never. Let it be taken as an 
 axiom, in the art or science of feeding, that to gain 
 the desired end, — the best animal that can possibly be 
 developed from the one with which the feeder begins, — 
 it is necessary to keep up a progressive improvement. 
 The advantages of to-day retained are to be added to 
 those of yesterday. All kinds of stock must be well 
 fed, and properly protected from cold and storms. The 
 old system of hardening and toughening young animals 
 
 36 
 
562 todd's country homes. 
 
 of all kinds is not the way to save money, but it is a 
 sure way to lose it, as such management has the per- 
 nicious effect of checking the natural development of 
 young animals, and of weakening their constitutions. 
 Let a farmer pursue this system towards young stock, 
 for two or three generations, and it will ruin the best 
 breed of animals in the country. The offspring after 
 this time, will have lost all the quality, early maturity, 
 and propensity to fatten which their ancestors pos- 
 sessed, and it will require years of the greatest care to 
 recover what is thus lost. We build the walls of a 
 brick house, by adding more bricks and mortar, at any 
 time. The frame and carcass of an animal must be 
 developed in a similar manner. And yet, if the feed- 
 ing is not regular, and the feed of a uniform character, 
 the growing and fattening process will always be very 
 unsatisfactory, whatever may be the kind of stock. 
 
 " If one allows his stock to shrink, from want of shelter, food and drink, 
 He pays a tax by loss of thrift, he can't evade by any shift." 
 
 Rice's Barn-yard Lyrics. 
 
 The Best kind of Food for Fattening Stock. — 
 There is a vast difference in feed for producing flesh 
 and fat. When animals are fed on food that contains 
 a large percentage of water, it is necessary for them to 
 consume large quantities, in order to avail themselves 
 of a small amount of nourishment. When they are fed, 
 solely on potatoes, turnips, or pumpkins, with a view 
 to fati:en them, they must have all they will consume, 
 at least three times a day, and even then, it will require 
 a much longer time to fatten, than if they were supplied 
 in part with meal of some kind, in connection with 
 such bulky food. When fed on very nutritious food, 
 with but little to distend their stomachs, they will de- 
 
THE BEST FOOD FOR FATTENING STOCK. 5G3 
 
 voiir charcoal, bark, brush, rotten wood, and even ma- 
 nure, in order that their stomachs may be properly 
 distended. The proper distention of the stomach, is 
 essential to perfect digestion. 
 
 Now, in the common globe turnips, according to 
 analysis, there are 1.35 pounds of flesh-forming matter, 
 and 91.41 pounds of water in one hundred pouTlds. In 
 rape-cake, the percentage of water is 10.68, and flesh- 
 forming matter 29.53 in one hundred pounds. The 
 flesh-forming matter in oil-cake is 27.28 pounds in one 
 hundred, and but 12.44 pounds of water in one hun- 
 dred. Therefore, it will be understood, that there is 
 a greater amount of flesh-forming material in one hun- 
 dred pounds of oil-cake than in almost any other food. 
 But, if animals are fed on oil-meal without having; it 
 mingled with a certain amount of bulk, the greatest 
 effect will not be produced. Food that is too bulky is 
 as objectionable as that which does not possess sufficient 
 bulk. Pumpkins and turnips being more bulky than 
 any other food that is used for fattening animals, and 
 oil-cake possessing more flesh-forming matter, by judi- 
 ciously mingUng the two substances, the process of fat- 
 tening an animal will be accomplished in a much 
 shorter period of time, than if the substances were fed 
 separately. So with meal of Indian corn, and pump- 
 kins, which are made use of extensively for fattening 
 beef. If the pumpkins were mingled with corn-meal, 
 or shorts, or both, instead of being fed separately, a given 
 amount of each would produce more flesh than could 
 possibly be made, were each kind fed separately. All 
 kinds of feed would furnish a greater percentage of 
 fat-forming and muscle-producing material, if it were 
 
564 todd's countky homes. 
 
 steamed. But, farmers must first learn to till their land 
 better, to cultivate larger crops, to produce better stock, 
 to feed raw materials of all kinds in the most judicious 
 and economical manner, aiid to perform every operation 
 that is of a lower order, than cooking feed for stock, 
 before they will know how to make it pay to soil their 
 stock. A man must begin at the foundation of every 
 business, before h^e can succeed in the higher branches 
 of the same employment. Soiling stock, and steaming 
 cattle feed, belong to a higher order of agriculture than 
 can be found in this country, except on a few well cul- 
 tivated farms, where the proprietor has commenced at 
 the bottom of his profession, and has advanced up to 
 that point, where he can make it pay to steam fodder, 
 and thus save his money. 
 
CHAPTER XIY. 
 
 REARING AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 
 
 Common Denominations of Sheep — Selecting Rams — Choose the Best — 
 Management of Ewes — Management of Lambs — How to Handle Sheep 
 — Remedy for Dogs — How to Determine the Age of Sheep — Making 
 Mutton — Washing and Shearing Sheep — Mutton the Best Meat — Win- 
 ter Management — How to Tag Sheep. 
 
 " Through all the brute creation, none as sheep, 
 To lordly man, such ample tribute pay. 
 For hira their downy vestures they resign ; 
 For him and his, they spread the sumptuous feast." 
 
 Dyer's Fleece. 
 
 Common Denominations of Sheep. — 1. A ram, a 
 tup (or buck) is an entire male, either old or young. 
 2. A ewe is a female sheep over one year old. 3. A 
 stag is a castrated ram. 4. A wether is a male sheep 
 which was castrated when only a few months old. 5. 
 A larrib is the young of sheep until weaned or one year 
 old. In England, it is said that lambs cease to be 
 lambs when they are eight months old ; and are then 
 denominated tegs, or teggs, ewe tegs, and wether tegs. 
 In this country, lambs are usually called tegs after they 
 are weaned until the first fleece is taken off. But the 
 correct acceptation of the term applies only to the 
 young sheep in their second year. 6. When a ewe has 
 ceased to yield milk, she is spoken of as a dry ewe. 
 7. Ewes are designated also, as yearling ewes, two, three, 
 or four year old ewes. 8. In the Old World, the ap- 
 
566 todd's country homes. 
 
 pellation hog, or liogg is given to young sheep, during 
 the period between the time of weaning, and the first 
 shearing. Other authorities state that a hogg, or hog 
 is a castrated sheep about one year old. 9. Shearlings 
 are either male or female tegs after they have been 
 sheared the first time, whether they are less, or more 
 than a year old. 10. Yearlings are either rams, ewes, 
 or wethers over one year, and less than two years old. 
 After which they are spoken of as sheep, or as two year 
 old wethers, or ewes. 11. A cosset is a lamb, or sheep 
 reared by hand. Such animals are usually denominated 
 2Mts until they are about one year old, when they are 
 called cossets. 12. A flock is an indefinite number of 
 sheep in one collection. We say a. flock of sheep; and 
 a herd, not flock, of horses, neat cattle, and swine. In 
 the Old World, there are several other denominations 
 of sheep, which I shall not allude to. 
 Selecting Stock Rams. — 
 
 " Now, search his mouth ; and if a swarthy tongue 
 Is underneath his humid palate hung, 
 Eeject him, lest he darken all thy flock ; 
 And, substitute another from thy stock." — Drtden's Virgil. 
 
 It is always far more difficult to rear a ram possessing 
 satisfactory excellence, than ewes. The first consider- 
 ation in selecting a ram for either wool or mutton, 
 should be constitution, which is generally indicated by 
 the form. Low, round, deep, compact Merino sheep, 
 full in the bosom, with short and thick necks and heads, 
 and good sized bones, possess the best constitutions. 
 The next point is fleece. It should have that combina- 
 tion of length and thickness which indicates, or rather 
 produces, the greatest weight. This last is never at- 
 tained with the maximum of either these characteris- 
 
SELECTING STOCK RAMS. 567 
 
 tics — excessively long wool always lacking thickness, 
 and excessively thick wool always lacking length. As 
 a general thing the ram should represent relatively the 
 size of carcass which the breeder is seeking to attain, 
 for, usually, the ram has much more to do in influencing 
 the size of the posterity than has the ewe. But when 
 the ram is either smaller or larger than his own ances- 
 tors, he may frequently be trusted to give their size to 
 his offspring, instead of his own. Of course, a man 
 must first understand what kind of sheep he desires to 
 rear. Then let him select a ram accordingly. If the 
 object be the production of mutton sheep, or early 
 lambs for the market, let a full blooded South Down, 
 or Cotswold buck be crossed with thrifty ewes of a fair 
 size. One can not expect satisfactory success, if he 
 employs the services of a grade ram, as such rams will 
 not transmit the desirable points of the breed, with 
 satisfactory certainty. The correct way to secure the 
 most satisfactory improvement in any kind of sheep is 
 to save all the ram lambs, and allow them to come to 
 maturity in one flock. Then, it will be seen distinctly, 
 which one should be selected as the best breeder. As 
 a general rule, nature aids the efforts of a judicious 
 manager, by concentrating in an occasional individual, 
 of every species, a larger proportion of those desira- 
 ble points which it is the aim to develop in the progeny. 
 Not more than one ram in fifty is really fit for getting 
 such stock as it is desirable to rear. A lamb may ap- 
 pear to be all that can be desired, and yet he may not 
 develop satisfactorily. When a score or more of rams 
 have been reared together, at the age of fifteen months, 
 one will be able to determine which one nature has 
 
568 todd's country homes. 
 
 designed as the progenitor of an improved flock. (Read 
 the remarks under the head of Selecting the Best for 
 Breeders.) The introduction of good rams not only 
 gives good wool and plenty of it, but in a short time 
 they will double or treble the value of the flocks, if 
 proper attention be paid to selecting good ewes. 
 Selecting the Best for Breeders. — 
 
 " Who sell the best, and keep the worst, 
 Their practice should be just reversed." 
 
 Rice's Barn-tard Lyrics. 
 
 No j)roducer of domestic animals can expect to see 
 any satisfactory improvement in his stock, when he 
 allows a butcher to take his best lambs for slaughter, 
 or to select the best calves for veal. If there be any 
 choice among lambs, the most promising should be 
 kept for breeders. I am aware, that when a farmer is 
 cramped for money, and a fair price is offered for a 
 heifer that would make a superior milker, or for a fat 
 lamb that would soon be an excellent breeder, the 
 inducement is almost irresistible to sell the best. But 
 such a practice is ruinous to a good flock. Let a mark 
 be prut on the best ewe lambs for breeders, and let 
 every purchaser understand that such lambs as are 
 marked can not be bought for gold. Let this practice 
 be adhered to, in an inflexible manner, for only a few 
 years, and a judicious manager will perceive a satis- 
 factory improvement in his stock. On the contrary, 
 let the best be taken, and the poorest left for breeders, 
 and a good manager will be induced to abandon stock 
 raising in a few years. No sheep should be sold from 
 the farm till they have come to full maturity. The 
 selling of lambs to the butchers is ruinous to the flock 
 — or letting butchers go in and take the best of the flock. 
 
keaking lambs by hand. 569 
 
 Management of Yeaning Ewes. — 
 
 " Thy care must now proceed, 
 To teeming females and the promised seed." 
 
 When the weather is pleasant, ewes will require but 
 little care. But when cold storms prevail, such ewes 
 as are liable to drop their lambs must be provided 
 with dry and comfortable quarters, or they will loose 
 their young. Every lamb lost may be computed at 
 one to three dollars, or more, according to locality. 
 If a person do not rear one hundred lambs from the 
 same number of ewes, he can not be considered a 
 judicious manager. When ewes are to drop their 
 lambs in the winter, see that they have a dry shed, 
 where a lamb can be dropped on dry straw. Ewes do 
 not require a dose shed. They want to run out in 
 the open air. More than this, ewes that are to yean 
 in a few weeks, should not be compelled to take their 
 chances among strong wethers. Up to the time of 
 yeaning, ewes should be provided with a liberal supply 
 of good feed. But, they should not be fed high with 
 grain or meal. After they have dropped their young, 
 let them have all the good hay, cut corn-stalks and 
 bright straw they will eat, besides, a quart or more 
 each, of turnips, carrots, or potatos, cut or crushed, so 
 that they can readily manage the largest pieces in 
 their mouths. Let each one have also, from a pint to 
 a quart of some kind of meal, daily, sprinkled on wet 
 fodder, after it has been cut. Ewes require water 
 twice daily, as much as milch cows. 
 
 Rearing Lambs by Hand. — 
 
 " Little lambs lie quiet,' all the summer night. 
 With their dear ewe mothers, warm and clean and white." 
 
 When young ewes, which have been running with 
 
670 todd's country homes. 
 
 the flock, have yeaned, they will frequently leave 
 their young to perish, as they are frightened when 
 alone, out of all maternal instinct for a young lamb, 
 and will desert it without a thought for its safety. In 
 all such instances, before the ewe can be secured in a 
 stall, the young lamb will often be too far gone to be 
 saved. Let such a lamb be taken at once into a warm 
 room, where it can be fed a little warm milk. If it 
 can stand, the better way is to hold its mouth near a 
 cow's teat while a small stream is milked as the lamb 
 swallows. As soon as a lamb is dropped, it wants a 
 warm place and a little good milk. Young lambs at 
 such a time are almost always overfed with cows' milk. 
 A lamb has a very small stomach, which, of course, 
 will contain not more than a tea-cup of milk. Watch 
 a young lamb with its dam. vSee how frequently it 
 sucks a little. When a lamb is to be reared by hand, 
 the milk of a cow that has recently come in is better 
 than the milk of a farrow cow. The milk should 
 always be fed when blood warm, but not hot. Feed 
 with a tea-spoon until the lamb will drink. Then, 
 never allow it to drink more than a small tea-cupful 
 at one time. It is always a good practice to sweeten 
 the milk. I have frequently seen playful lambs, not 
 over a week old, kick up and die in less than one short 
 hour, simply because they were allowed to drink too 
 much milk at one time. As soon as a lamb has learned 
 to drink, the true way is, to feed it with the utmost 
 regularity, only as much milk as it will drink with 
 avidity. Let the allowance always be measured, and 
 be fed warm — and never when cold. Permit a cosset 
 to run out of doors when the weather is pleasant, and 
 
REVIVING A CHILLED LAMB. 571 
 
 provide a clean and comfortable shed for it at night. 
 After it is two weeks old, a little soft bread, well 
 soaked, may be fed occasionally with the milk. 
 
 Owning a Strange Lamb. — It frequently occurs 
 that a large ewe loses her lamb, while another e-we 
 suckles twins. My own practice in such instances has 
 been to take one of the twins and the dam that had 
 lost her lamb, put them in a close apartment, beyond 
 the hearing of other sheep, tie the ewe by the head, 
 allowing her as much liberty as a horse has, when tied 
 in the stall, so that she can not butt the lamb. If she 
 kicks, when the lamb attempts to suck, tie the two 
 hind feet, with a strong cord, about five inches apart. 
 Feed her well, treat her gently, give her water daily, 
 and in a few days the lamb will forget its own mother, 
 and will be fully adopted by the foster-dam. I have 
 never known this to fail, even if a strange lamb were 
 two or more weeks old. This is a more satisfactory 
 way, than to fasten the skin of the dead lamb on the 
 living one, to deceive the dam. 
 
 Reviving a Chilled Lamb. — Many people wrap a 
 chilled lamb in a cold cloth, and put the half dead ani- 
 mal in a cold corner of the room, and wait for exhausted 
 nature to revivify the tender thing. There was never 
 a more stupid practice. A lamb in such a condition 
 requires animal heat. The vital powers are too much 
 exhausted to get up the desired temperature. My own 
 practice with chilled lambs — although it has been my 
 good fortune to have only a small number — was to put 
 the lamb into a tub of very warm water, holding his 
 head above the surface, while his limbs and body were 
 rubbed with a cloth, until it could stand. Then, it was 
 
572 todd's countey homes. 
 
 rubbed dry, wrapped in a warm cloth, taken to the 
 ewe, allowed to suck the biestings, or first milk, then 
 brought back and kept in a warm box near the fire, 
 until it had gained sufficient strength to be returned to 
 the dam in a comfortable stall. Every hour such a 
 Iamb should be taken to the dam to suck. I have of- 
 ten seen lambs revived in this manner, after they were 
 so far gone that they could not peep. It requires a 
 long time to warm a chilled lamb by wrapping it in a 
 cloth and placing it on the floor near a stove, which is 
 often the coldest place in a room. 
 Weaning Laimbs. — 
 
 " The lamb thy riot dooms to bleed to-day, 
 Had he thy reason, would he skip and play ? " 
 
 If lambs are to be slaughtered, of course they should 
 not be weaned. Lambs should be weaned at about 
 four months old — but this should depend somewhat 
 upon the time of year, condition of the feed, etc. If 
 weaned very early they can, if necessary, run longer 
 with the ewes. Good feed should be in readiness for 
 them when weaned. A lamb allowed to suck after the 
 supply of milk becomes scanty, continues to depend 
 upon it, and does not eat grass as well or grow as well. 
 Let it be borne in mind that if sheep are allowed to 
 fall away in flesh in autumn and winter, sheep hus- 
 bandry will not be as profitable as it otherwise would. 
 Ewes that rear lambs will almost always become thin 
 in flesh, but not necessarily poor, while the young ones 
 are at their side. But, in our cold climate, the lambs 
 must be separated from their dam, that they may have 
 ample time to recuperate on grass before cold weather. 
 If ewes are brought into winter quarters poor, and 
 kept poor, the profits arising from their wool and lambs 
 
WEANING LAMBS. 573 
 
 next season, will be much curtailed by such manage- 
 ment. That fiirmer who keeps his sheep, both young 
 and old, improving m condition from year to year, and 
 never suffers them to lose flesh, except when rearing 
 their young, and who saves with care all the manure 
 they make during the foddering season, and applies it 
 to his soil, cannot fail to make raising sheep a profita- 
 ble employment. The grand secret of success in rais- 
 ing sheep — if there is any secret about it — consists in 
 keeping the lambs improving in condition from year to 
 year. Want of success in raising sheep is almost al- 
 ways attributable to bad management, which usually 
 begins with lambs in the months of autumn. 
 
 After lambs are weaned, in September or October in 
 our latitude, they are often allowed to grow poor. This 
 is bad management, as it is always difficult to improve 
 their condition until after the foddering season is over. 
 Bran and shorts are admirable fall feed for tegs. If the 
 bran is light, a few oats should be mingled with the 
 bran. Although tegs should be fed well in the fell, 
 they should not be pampered, especially with grain 
 feed. If kept high in the fall, the feed can not be 
 safely diminished in winter — indeed, it often becomes 
 necessary to increase it to preserve their condition. 
 Highly pampered tegs may go safely through the win- 
 ter, especially in small numbers and with good accom- 
 modations and management, and look finely, yield ex- . 
 traordinar}^ fleeces, and gain a year in growth. Merino 
 tegs highly pampered in winter are alwa3^s in danger 
 of disease. Besides, where they go through safely, 
 they will not always do as well after being turned out 
 to grass. A sheep highly pampered through the first 
 
574 todd's country homes. 
 
 year of its life, requires subsequent pampering, or else 
 it is deficient in vigor and condition. The opposite 
 extreme, starvation and neglect of young sheep, is 
 more immediately fatal. If tegs are not properly fed 
 in fall, and go into winter small in size or in low con- 
 dition, it is exceedingly difficult, with the best care, to 
 winter them without a heavy percentage of loss. 
 Without proper care, especially if the winter is an un- 
 favorable one for sheep, the loss will be so great, that 
 sheep raising w411 be discouraging. But, no farmer 
 should attempt to keep any kind of sheep^ without a 
 supply of turnips and comfortable sheds. 
 
 Both ewes and lambs will do better through the sum- 
 mer and autumn, and come to the barn in better con- 
 dition for winter, if they are separated early. This 
 gives the ewes an opportunity to put on flesh and vigor 
 while there is yet plenty of feed in the pastures. They 
 get a start which helps them through any dry time 
 later in the season, when feed is short. This is of 
 very great importance, and its effect will be observed 
 through the whole year in the improved condition of 
 the ewe. She will feed better in the winter, be in 
 better condition to breed and nurse a lamb next season, 
 will have a heavier fleece, and will possess greater vigor 
 to resist grubs, catarrh and other diseases, to which 
 sheep are subject. It is a very severe tax on the consti- 
 tution of the ewe to nurse a lamb in a hot, dry time, 
 when feed is short. Many sheep that live through the 
 trial, break down in the fall or early winter, or drag 
 through a year or two of unprofitable life before they 
 die in the pasture, are slaughtered for their pelts, or 
 turned off for culls. Ewes that are large and strong and 
 
TEACHING LAMBS TO EAT OATS. 575 
 
 in very good condition, having abundance of sweet feed 
 throughout the whole season, will sometimes suckle their 
 lambs all summer without apparent injury. If the ewes 
 are turned off to pasture at once they w^ill be uneasy, and 
 try to get out, and when in hearing of the lambs, will 
 come to the barn if possible. Very peaceable sheep 
 will frequently jump a good fence to respond to the 
 calls of their lambs. Both ewes and lambs should be 
 fed and watered while confined. This is the time to 
 teach lambs to eat oats. Scatter a handful at a time in 
 a trough. Give them a little bright hay in a rack they 
 can not get into. At the end of two days all may be 
 turned out. The lambs should be put in a pasture by 
 themselves, where the feed is short, fine and sweet, or 
 in a mowing. Place some troughs in the lot and give 
 four quarts of oats a day, to fifty. After they have 
 learned to eat wheat bran, tw^o quarts may be added to 
 the oats. If not convenient to feed oats, four quarts 
 of bran and one of corn-meal may be fed to them, or 
 the bran alone if the feed is good. Buckwheat is very 
 good. Oats are the best, however. As the grass fails 
 and the weather becomes colder, the quantity of grain 
 should be doubled. Always have one or more old, gen- 
 tle sheep with a flock of tegs to aid in suppressing 
 their timidity, and to teach them to eat grain and to 
 follow the shepherd. When ewes are first taken off", 
 they should be kept on bare pasturage, in order to dry 
 up their milk ; but as soon as all danger from milk 
 fevers or bad udders has passed away, the better they 
 are kept, the more lambs will be the return the next 
 season. • 
 
 Docking Lambs. — The ordinary manner of docking 
 
576 todd's country homes. 
 
 young lambs is a very unfarmer-like and rude way of 
 performing such a common surgical operation. I 
 allude to the practice of stretching out the tail while 
 the lamb is standing on his feet, and cutting it off at 
 one stroke of the knife, and throwing salt on the 
 wound. The objections to this practice are : by stretch- 
 ing out the tail, it is frequently cut so short that the 
 hind end of the sheep will appear as if the tail had 
 been cut off and the stump driven up. As soon as the 
 tail is severed, the skin and flesh recoil, leaving the 
 bone to extend beyond the skin, thus making it far 
 more difficult to heal. There should always be left a 
 sufficient length of the lamb's tail to protect the small 
 portion of the body that is not covered with wool. 
 The mode of docking lambs, which is superior to any 
 other that I have ever seen practiced, is to saw off a 
 log about one foot in diameter and two feet long, and 
 place the lamb on its rump on one end of the log, one 
 person holding the hind legs back close to its body 
 while he holds the lamb. Now, with a sharp two-inch 
 chisel, cut off the tail at one blow by using a mallet, or 
 one hand for a driver instead of a mallet. If the chisel 
 is sharp, the operation will be neatly done, and the 
 skin and flesh will not recoil, leaving the end of the 
 bone bare. As the wounds will sometimes bleed pro- 
 fusely, sear . the end of the stump of the tail with a 
 red-hot iron. This will not hurt a lamb half so much 
 as it will be injured by excessive bleeding. Searing 
 will stop the blood at once, and the wounds will heal 
 much sooner than if not seared. A small fire can be 
 made with a few chips near the sheep-pen, and the bar 
 of iron kept in the fire when it is not in use. 
 
GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF YOUNG SHEEP. 577 
 
 A piece of tin or sheet-iron, about a foot square, 
 should be held between the lamb and the hot iron, so 
 that other parts of its body may not be burned when 
 the animal struggles. Much care should be exercised 
 in using the hot iron, not to burn the end of the tail 
 but a little. An instantaneous touch of the hot iron 
 will cauterize the blood-vessels sufficiently to stop the 
 bleeding. After this, apply a small quantity of gas-tar 
 to the cauterized part, to repel the flies, which would 
 otherwise deposit their eggs in the wounds. 
 
 General Management of Young Sheep. — Most of 
 the sheep of our country which have been well bred, 
 never arrive at their natural and profitable size for want 
 of a sufficiency of proper care and food, when young 
 and growing. A young animal should be kept steadily 
 growing, until it shall arrive at its full size, or be fitted 
 for market. This system of management will prove 
 the most profitable course, and the sheep thus fed 
 and reared, will give the best returns for their care 
 and keep. A great many of our farmers stop just so 
 far short of this profitable liberal feeding in the winter, 
 that their sheep only live, but do not grow during a 
 large part of the year, and thus, the food is nearly lost. 
 Certainly the time is lost, and the young animal is 
 turned to pasture in the spring, with no increase in 
 size, and so much lighter, as the loss of its flesh daily, 
 since the previous autumn, taken to sustain its life 
 would indicate, and which should have been saved by 
 a little more liberal and careful feeding. A large part 
 of the sheep wintered have very little increase of wool 
 from the fall until spring, and not. a few actually have 
 more pounds of wool the first of December, than at 
 
 37 
 
578 todd's country homes. 
 
 shearing time. Sheep husbandry is peculiarly suited 
 to careful, painstaking men, whose physical constitu- 
 tions are ill-adapted to the rough-and-tumble life at- 
 tendant upon teaming through our boisterous winters. 
 It is also peculiarly suited to our rough, rocky, moun- 
 tainous land in New England. But men who feel above 
 little things, who can not condescend to constant watch- 
 fulness, will do better to rear horned cattle. Sheep 
 need to be carefully tended at the barn, during the 
 winter. It is not every boy, or man either, who is fit 
 to tend a flock of sheep. The practice of keeping 
 sheep in a yard and throwing them a few forkfuls of 
 hay, is not a profitable manner of feeding. 
 
 A variety of feed, and a small amount of grain be- 
 sides hay or straw, will be found a great assistance in 
 enabling all kinds of stock to keep up a healthy growth 
 or condition during winter, and it is poor economy to 
 withhold it. A small allowance of roots, or ground 
 feed, daily, will promote the appetite of all animals to 
 consume more coarse fodder or hay, and receive the 
 full benefit therefrom. Aside from the smaller profit 
 returned by animals poorly fed, such feeding is a great 
 drawback on the improvement of a farm. The manure 
 from animals poorly fed contains much less fertilizing 
 power, than that from those liberally fed. By such a 
 penurious system of feeding, sheep husbandry will tend 
 to still further impoverish the owner by lessening the 
 producing capacity of the farm. On the best culti- 
 vated farms, so high a value is placed on the manure 
 from high fed stock, that fattening animals are kept at 
 an apparent loss in the feeding often with the expecta- 
 tion that the improvement of the farm, from using the 
 
GENEKAL MANAGEMENT OF YOUNG SHEEP. 579 
 
 manure thus obtained, will more than compensate for 
 what loss ensued from the feeding of the stock. 
 
 Most farmers make calculations for a liberal per- 
 centage of losses in the foddering season. This argues 
 injudicious management. I never kept a flock of sheep 
 over winter, which were not in a better condition in the 
 spring than in late autumn. And I never lost a sheep 
 in the winter or spring, except a thrifty one that was 
 hooked to death by an ill-natured cow. It is a com- 
 mon occurrence with farmers who trust their sheep 
 with careless men or boys, to get only three pounds of 
 wool per head, when with only a little more care and 
 feed, every sheep would have yielded four pounds of 
 wool. All sheep must have a dry and comfortable 
 shed, and a liberal supply of food and water. Sheep 
 will not thrive on air alone. And old sheep, as well 
 as lambs, should have some grain and roots every day. 
 Sheep will pay much better for the grain they eat, than 
 the man who purchases it. No animal kept on the 
 farm pays better than the sheep. Their rapid in- 
 crease, with their fleece and meat will give a better 
 return for what they consume, than any stock kept on 
 a grain farm, when they are njanaged in a judicious 
 manner. One ^reat cause of failure in sheep hus- 
 bandry, is in letting sheep run on the pastures, long 
 after herbage has done growing, and in the spring be- 
 fore grass has started, when there is no tallow in the 
 clover, and it is gnawed into the ground, so that the 
 pasture will be poor during the greater part of the 
 grazing season. 
 
 It is sometimes an object to fatten sheep rapidly in 
 summer, and also to fatten oiF old sheep which can not 
 
580 todd's countky homes. 
 
 be readily fattened on pasture alone. In either case, 
 good pasture, and the feeding of a moderate quantity 
 of grain daily, will generally effect it very advanta- 
 geously. One bushel of grain fed to sheep in summer, 
 will make as much fat as three or four fed in ^'inter; 
 hence they may be fattened off most rapidly, and with 
 least expense, in summer and fall. 
 
 The true way to Handle Sheep. — When sheep 
 are seized by the wool, if they be soon slaughtered and 
 flayed, the parts beneath the skin, where the wool 
 pulled, will be all blood-shot. Every employee should 
 be taught, when catching sheep, never to seize them by 
 the wool on the back, as it hurts them exceedingly, and 
 has, in some cases, been known to kill them, particu- 
 larly in hot weather, if they are large and fat. Indeed, 
 the best way is to avoid the wool altogether, and to 
 accustom yourself to take them by the hind leg, or 
 what is better, by the neck, placing one hand under 
 the jaws, and the other at the back of the ears. Then, 
 throw one arm around the animal down around the 
 girth, and grasp the brisket, lift the sheep from the 
 floor, and take hold of one hind leg. This manner of 
 handling will not hurt a sheep. He who does not know 
 that it injures a sheep to lift it by the wool, let some 
 one seize him by the hair of the head, and jerk him 
 around as sheep are frequently treated. By kind treat- 
 ment and occasional salting, a man may have his sheep 
 so tame that lie may play with them, as every man 
 that has a heart will sometimes do with his dog. At any 
 rate the feeling and thoughtful farmer, will never suffer 
 his sheep, or anything else under his guardianship, to 
 be unnecessarily terrified or otherwise ill-treated. 
 
DETERMINING THE AGE OF SHEEP. 581 
 
 Remedy for Sheep-killing Dogs. — If there is any 
 thing in the world that will tend to kindle a good man's 
 wrath, and rouse his indignation to furious rage, it is 
 the horrid spectacle of a score or more of choice and 
 valuable sheep bleeding, dying, some dead, and others 
 lacerated, bitten, mangled, and weltering in their own 
 blood, destroyed by some worthless cur. Such a loss 
 can not easily be retrieved. Dollars and cents are in- 
 adequate to the true value of certain beautiful flocks, 
 that have been bred and reared with exquisite skill 
 and care. After a person has appropriated years of 
 time, in which his best thoughts and skill have been 
 exercised in developing a style of sheep that are really 
 worth securing, to have the innocent and harmless 
 animals, that we almost love, barbarously torn to pieces 
 by some mean and idle dog that is a sublime nuisance 
 in the neighborhood, is a misfortune which few men 
 are able to meet with unruffled temper. 
 
 A large cow-bell attached to the neck of a large dog, 
 which would hang in silence when he trots, but which 
 would rattle frightfully as soon as he runs, will effect- 
 ually deter the most incorrigible sheep-killer from chas- 
 ing sheep. Then, if bells were put on the necks of a 
 goodly number of the flock, so as to give the alarm, a 
 (5og would be frightened by the rattling of so many 
 bells, and leave the innocent sheep unharmed. Dogs 
 that are addicted to the vice of sheep-killing are des- 
 picable cowards. Still, they are no ninnies. They 
 know better then to kill sheep. They know that the 
 sound of one or a number of bells would give the 
 alarm, which might arrest their bloody design. 
 
 Determining the age of Sheep. — The age must be 
 
582 todd's countky homes. 
 
 determined by the appearance of the incisors or front 
 teeth of the lower jaw. The only correct and reliable 
 way of determining the age of young sheep is by their 
 teeth. After the last teeth have appeared, so that " the 
 mouth is full," it will be impossible to determine the 
 age with reliable certainty. Like neat cattle, sheep 
 have no incisor-teeth in the upper jaw. At two months 
 old, all the incisors of the lower jaw have in most 
 lambs appeared. These incisors are retained until the 
 animal is twelve to sixteen months old, when they be- 
 gin to be displaced, just as children shed their teeth, 
 but not all at once. The two central incisors are dis- 
 placed and renewed first by permanent ones, which 
 will have attained their growth when the animal is two 
 years old. If we look at the teeth of a sheep two 
 years old, it will be seen that the two central incisors 
 have usually attained their full size. The next year, 
 one incisor on each side of the central pair will dis- 
 place the first teeth, and will be pushed out even with 
 the central ones. When the animal is between two 
 and three years old, the next pair of incisors will be re- 
 newed. After three years have elapsed, another set of 
 incisors will have appeared. Between the ages of four 
 and five, the mouth will be full of incisors. After a 
 sheep is five years old, it will be found impracticable 
 to determine whether the age is five, six, or seven, 
 unless some of the incisors have begun to disappear. 
 After the seventh or eighth year, some of the side in- 
 cisors begin to show signs of decay, or to disappear 
 entirely. If the teeth appear okl and decayed, and 
 some are entirely gone, we can safely conclude that the 
 animal is over eight years old. Judging of the age 
 
HOW TO MAKE MUTTON PROFITABLY. 583 
 
 beyond this period will be found no more reliable than 
 shrewd guessing. 
 
 Feeding Sheep and Making Mutton. — 
 
 " First, with assiduous care, from winter keep 
 Well foddered in their stalls, thy tender sheep ; 
 Then spread with straw, the bedding of thy fold, 
 With fern beneath, to 'fend the bitter cold ; 
 That free from gouts thou mayest preserve thy care, 
 And clear from scabs produced by freezing air." 
 
 Drtden's Virgil. 
 
 In many parts of the Old World, and particularly 
 in England, good mutton is the principal meat at the 
 meat shops, just as beef is considered the better meat 
 in our country. True, we, in America, produce no 
 small amount of good mutton every season, but there 
 are very few instances, indeed, comparatively, where a 
 farmer has adopted anything like a regular system of 
 producing mutton, which is followed up from year to 
 year, as is the case with feeding neat cattle for the 
 shambles. There are but few farmers who prefer to 
 keep sheep and make mutton, to keeping neat cattle 
 and producing beef While there is a satisfactory 
 profit in feeding either kind of stock, when the busi- 
 ness is conducted economically, and judiciously, there 
 is more real profit in Consuming the j^roducts of the 
 farm in producing mutton, than there is in making 
 beef Some farmers contend that they could never 
 have even tolerable success in feeding sheep, while 
 they have found it profitable to make beef 
 
 Why Making Mutton is not More Profitable. — 
 There are the same difficulties attending the profitable- 
 ness and WTiprofitableness of making mutton by feeding 
 coarse grain and other products of the farm, that are 
 met with in making beef. In either, or in both sys- 
 
584 todd's countey homes. 
 
 terns, in order to render even a tolerable profit, an im- 
 proved system of husbandry is indispensably necessary. 
 Where the system of farm management is, and has 
 been decidedly bad, or not by any means good — not 
 progressive — where little attention has been paid to 
 saving, most economically, all the manure that a farm 
 affords, and applying it, at a proper time, and in a 
 proper manner to the soil, it can not be expected that 
 feeding either sheep or neat cattle will be attended 
 with good profit; and so far as I have made observa- 
 tions on this subject, on such farms, it has not been a 
 paying business. A disregard for the manure which is 
 or might be made while making mutton, is one of the 
 first reasons why making mutton is not more profitable 
 in America, than it is usually acknowledged to be. 
 The manure that may be made while making mutton, 
 beef or pork, is one of the great sources of profit, and 
 as this is neglected, just in the same proportion w^ill 
 there be a leakage in the ultimate profits of consuming 
 the products of the farm, whether those products be 
 consumed by sheep, neat cattle or swine. 
 
 In England, where making mutton has been reduced 
 to a more complete system than in America, those who 
 have been most successful in this branch of farming, 
 assure us of large appreciable profits from the manure 
 alone. Were they, in England, to waste their manure, 
 while feeding their stock, as it is wasted in this country, 
 we should hear far more discouraging accounts of the 
 unprofitableness of making mutton in Euroj^e, than we 
 have ever heard of here. We may, with safety, record, 
 that wasting the manure of those animals that are be- 
 ing fed, is one of the chief sources of unprofitableness 
 
FEEDING SHEEP IN THE DAT-TIME. 585 
 
 in feeding. Another very cogent reason why making 
 mutton has not been attended with more profitable re- 
 sults, is, the best breeds of sheep for making mutton, 
 have not been secured. Still another reason is, those 
 who have attempted to feed sheep, were inexperienced 
 in that branch of agriculture — they lacked the requisite 
 tact and shrewd management, so essential to success. The 
 profit on the products of the farm, arising from making 
 mutton, must be obtained largely from the increased 
 crops, as a legitimate result of saving and applying the 
 rich manure made by fattening sheep. That person 
 who does not save the manure and apply it judiciously 
 to his land, can not expect to make feeding sheep pay 
 a satisfactory profit. 
 
 Feeding Sheep in the Day-time. — 
 
 " To fodder stock is careful work ; so don't for this employ a clerk. 
 Let thine own hands supply the feed, that all may get just what they need." 
 
 Barn -YARD Lyrics. 
 
 Many a flock of sheep has gone to the shed supper- 
 less and cold, where they have remained till morning, 
 while their racks were filled with hay, simply because 
 sheep don't like to be poking around in darkness, after 
 their fodder. For this reason, every flock should re- 
 ceive their last fodder, at least one hour before dark. 
 My own practice always was to feed three times, with 
 fodder daily; and with roots, or grain at noon. What- 
 ever the feed was, the allowances were always given 
 with as much regularity as my own meals were taken. 
 And those periods of meal-time were as regular as the 
 clock. Sheep like their feed regularly. 
 
 There is one precaution to be observed in connection 
 with regular feeding, where some judgment is needed. 
 Animals eat more in sharp or frosty, than in damp and 
 
586 todd's country homes. 
 
 warm weather. Hence, if the same amount by weight 
 is given at every feeding, they will not have enough 
 when the weather is cold, and will be surfeited when it 
 is warm and. damp. Both of these evils must be 
 avoided, while a little attention and observation will 
 enable the farmer to do it. When any animal has been 
 accustomed to be fed with acQuracy at the appointed 
 period, it will not fret till that period arrives, after 
 which it becomes very restless and uneasy till its food 
 comes. If it has been fed irregularly, it will begin to 
 fret when the earliest period arrives, after which it be- 
 comes restless and uneasy till its food comes. Hence, 
 this fretting may be entirely avoided, by strict punct- 
 uality. The moment the animal begins to worry, it 
 begins to lose its flesh. Consequently, when an animal 
 must derive its sustenance from its own secretions, de- 
 terioration will commence at once. 
 
 Making Fancy Mutton. — I have frequently met 
 with men from Canada, with small flocks of "fancy 
 sheep," weighing from three to four hundred pounds 
 each. The animals were so fat, that life really seemed 
 to be a burden. Their shoulders and hind quarters 
 swelled out with fat, as if some fatal disease had pro- 
 duced a high inflammation throughout their entire 
 bodies. They were said to be full-blooded Cotswolds, 
 and were four years old. I asked the proprietor who 
 seemed to be an intelligent farmer, "What has been 
 your system of management with those sheep for devel- 
 oping such large frames, covered with such thick fat?" 
 His answer contained a volume in one small page. 
 " There is no difficulty in making such mutton-sheep. 
 I have more like them at home. I take a few like these 
 
PEAS AND BEANS FOR SHEEP. 587 
 
 to market every year. In the first place, I secure a 
 good breed. That is the most important point. The 
 next thing is to keep them growing from the time they 
 are weaned till they are taken to the slaughter-house, 
 never allowing them to grow poor at any season of the 
 year. I have fed them all the hay, peas, and oats they 
 will eat. Peas are better than Indian corn, for making 
 mutton. Oats furnish nitrogenous matter for the for- 
 mation of necessary muscle. Peas produce more fat 
 than the same number of pounds of cereal grain." 
 "Do you feed any roots and straw ?" "Yes, each sheep 
 gets not less than one or two pounds of turnips daily, 
 with all the straw to eat and lie on that he wants, and 
 a good shed is provided, with a supply of pure water, 
 and salt to lick at pleasure." "How much do you ex- 
 pect to get for the largest of your flock?" "Two 
 hundred dollars per head, or I ship them from this 
 market!" The next day I was told they were taken 
 at that price for Christmas mutton. But I have seen 
 so many bogus and tricky sales, that I did not believe 
 he ever received such a price. Still, they were excel- 
 lent sheep. 
 
 Peas and Beans for Sheep. — There is no better 
 food than beans and peas for sheep of any kind, and 
 particularly for mutton sheep ; and this kind of feed 
 will fatten sheep more rapidly than some other kinds ; 
 and if fed to ewes, will yield a more bountiful flow of 
 milk than feed consisting of whole or ground grain, 
 and the choicest quality of hay, and cornstalks. 
 
 Beans and peas are much better when ground into 
 meal and mingled with other meal, or ground with the 
 grain, than to feed them separately. If a person have 
 
588 todd's country homes. 
 
 a portable farm mill, or is not obliged to haul his grain 
 more than three or four miles to mill, for the purpose 
 of having it ground, it will always pay well to have 
 everything of the kind ground into meal before feed- 
 ing. If most of the sheep be old, having poor teeth, 
 it is more important that grain, peas and beans be 
 ground, than if the sheep were all young and had good 
 teeth. On the contrary, if sheep have good teeth, 
 their feed may be distributed whole, although it is far 
 better to soak grain in tepid water, at least twenty-four 
 hours previous to feeding. Some of our best farmers 
 feed equal quantities of Indian corn and peas or beans, 
 when they are located at a distance from a mill, and 
 they save the toll and expense of hauling back and 
 forth, by steeping the feed, which is usually given 
 about the middle of the day. Then, as soon as the tub 
 containing the feed is emptied, a quantity sufficient for 
 another day's feeding is put into the water. This proc- 
 ess softens the grain, peas and beans, so that the sheep 
 masticates the kernels more perfectly, thus rendering 
 digestion more complete. 
 
 Most sheep eat all such feed so rapidly that, unless 
 the kernels have been rendered soft by soaking, a large 
 proportion of it will be swallowed in a very coarse con- 
 dition. Peas and beans being so smooth and slippery, 
 when taken into the mouth, many are liable to be 
 swallowed whole. And when grain or peas, or beans 
 are taken into the stomach unbroken, they frequently 
 pass off undigested, although the teeth of sheep grind 
 so closely that but a limited quantity of whole grain 
 or seed of any kind of plants, can be found in their 
 droppings, while unbroken kernels are often discovered 
 
MUTTON THE BEST MEAT. 589 
 
 in the fecal matter of horses and neat cattle. The best 
 way to feed meal of peas and beans is, to mingle it with 
 some kind of bran, and mix the meal with cut fodder. 
 Large sheep that are being fattened, should receive 
 about half a pound, to a pound, each at a feeding. 
 Some large sheep will eat two pounds, daily, besides 
 hay and straw. 
 
 Mutton the Best Meat. — There is no better meat 
 for farmers, or for any other class of citizens, than good 
 mutton, unless we except poultry. Mutton costs but 
 little, as the wool annually sheared from every sheep, 
 richly pays for its keeping. Then there is the increase 
 — an item of great importance. The increase is so 
 much clear profit. From this increase, the farmer can 
 get all his meat for the year, if he likes. Or he may 
 save the lambs and take some of the older sheep in 
 their places. The pelt of the sheep, if killed for mut- 
 ton, is also saved and sold, which is worth in many 
 instances, half as much as the sheep would sell for. 
 Good mutton is also the most convenient meat to have 
 on hand. In the warmest weather, a farmer can take 
 care of one sheep after it is killed, without letting it 
 spoil. With beef, this is not so easy. One hand can 
 kill and dress a sheep in an hour. It takes but little 
 time or trouble to kill a sheep, not near so much as to 
 kill and dress a hog or beef For convenience and econ- 
 omy, I say keep sheep and live largely upon mutton. 
 
 I have said nothing about mutton as the healthiest 
 food. This is admitted. It needs no arguments or 
 facts to prove it. Let every farmer keep sheep. They 
 are the most profitable stock on a farm. The hog's 
 back only yields bristles, while the sheep's yields 
 
590 todd's country homes. 
 
 downy wool. All that you feed to the hog is gone, 
 unless you kill it; while the sheep will pay you for its 
 keep with its fleece, yearly. Good lean mutton will 
 supply far more material for the wasted muscles of a 
 laborer, than twice as much fat pork. Mutton miist 
 have age in order to be good. In this respect it is dif- 
 ferent from beef Five years is the time held in 
 Europe to be the best — an age which our wethers sel- 
 dom attain. It is all lamb with us, and young mutton. 
 We can taste of nothing better than well-matured sheep, 
 in which case the muscle is tender and solid, and the 
 succulent juices all in perfection. i 
 
 . Washing Sheep. — 
 
 "Wash sheep (for the better) where water doth run; 
 And let them go cleanly, and dry in the sun; 
 Then, shear them and spare not, at two days an end; 
 The sooner, the bettei', his corps will amend." — Tussee. 
 
 Why do we wash sheep ? Simply to have clean wool 
 for market. In those sheep, the wool of which abounds 
 in yolk, as the Merino, the shearing is much facilitated 
 by washing, and in all kinds, the wool will be whiter, 
 cleaner, and present a better appearance. But, when 
 wool is not washed, the labor of shearing will be much 
 more difficult, than if the wool had been washed. 
 When wool is not washed, buyers will insist on de- 
 ducting nearly one-third the price paid for washed 
 wool. Therefore it will be more profitable to wash the 
 sheep, and save money in the price of wool. 
 
 One of the best ways to wash sheep, is to make a 
 large vat of planks, and convey water from a dam in a 
 board leader, so that a stream will fall two or three feet 
 on the wool, as the sheep float in the vat brimful of 
 water. A stream of water will knock out the dirt with 
 
SHEARING SHEEP. 591^ 
 
 surprising rapidity. One person should catch the 
 sheep and put them in the vat, while three or four are 
 constantly soaking, before they are taken to the falling 
 stream. If they have not been well tagged already, it 
 should be done before washing, for the water will not 
 remove the hard lumps of dung. The sheep must not 
 be held by the wool, except about the head, for it pulls 
 out very readily at this time. The washers hold the 
 sheep under the falling water, squeezing the wool until 
 the water runs away clear. During the time of wash- 
 ing and the usual excitement of the rude scene, the 
 flock are liable to abuse. From crowding in the pen, 
 from injury by overdriving, or rude handling, serious 
 losses occur, and sheep are not unfrequently found 
 in the pen dead, or in a dying condition. They must 
 be driven slowly from the washing to a clean pasture. 
 The whole operation is exceedingly disagreeable to the 
 sheep, increased almost uniformly by the roughness of 
 the men, the best of whom seem to think it fine sport, 
 and show no tenderness or humanity in their handling 
 of the poor frightened beasts. Ewes are often handled 
 so roughly, that they drop their lambs prematurely. 
 When sheep are washed, the proprietor should be pres- 
 ent to prevent all roughness on the part of those who 
 handle them. Doubtless the sheep feel that dear life is 
 in jeopardy. Hence they struggle desperately to get 
 away from those who are liable to inflict injury. 
 Shear^g Sheep. — 
 
 " Reward not thy sheep, when ye take off his coat, 
 With twitches and patches as broad as a groat; 
 Let not such ungentleness happen to thine. 
 Lest fly, with lier gentils, doth make it to pine." — Tusser. 
 
 In order to be a good shearer, a man needs as much 
 
592 todd's countey homes. 
 
 skill and practice, as are essential to make an expert 
 barber. It is a great art to shear a sheep well, and 
 can only be acquired by long experience. In order 
 to shear a sheep well, one must first learn how to put 
 his shears in order; then how to hold the sheep. It is 
 of eminent importance to cut smoothly, and not to cut 
 the wool two or three times in twain. After a sheep 
 has been fleeced, the clippings may weigh quite as 
 much as if they were attached to the fleece. But such 
 portions will be a loss to manufacturers. When the 
 fleeces are torn to pieces by unskillful handling or the 
 floundering of the sheep, it is impossible to do them 
 up neatly and show the wool to advantage. The chief 
 difficulty in shearing sheep arises from their struggling. 
 To prevent this, some tie their legs ; but this practice 
 is quite objectionable, and no good shearer will adopt 
 it. Sheep will kick and flounder but little, if they be 
 managed gently and carefully. Every shearer should 
 have a mattress of straw, at least five feet square, and 
 so thick that his knees will not feel the floor while 
 shearing a sheep. The object of the mattress is also 
 to make it easier for the sheep. Laid on a hard floor, 
 sheep will make desperate efforts to gain their natural 
 position; and if jammed down violently on the floor, 
 or boxed, or held uncomfortably beneath the knees, as 
 they often are, by unskillful shearers, instead of keeping 
 quiet, they Avill flounder and kick worse and worse. 
 Placed on a mattress, their position is comparatively 
 easy; and if handled gently, the fleeces will be torn 
 but little. The sheep pen should be well littered with 
 straw to prevent carrying much dirt on the shearing 
 floor; and sheep always shear better if they are full 
 
HOW TO HOLD A SHEEP WHEN SHEARING. 593 
 
 and round, than when empty. Even expert shearers 
 are very liable to cut the skin of poor thin sheep. No 
 man can shear a sheep well, unless he have good shears 
 and keep them in good cutting order. 
 
 The way to Hold a Sheep when Shearing. — 
 Pass one arm around the animal, grasp the brisket, 
 raise it from the floor, remove all litter from the feet, 
 then with one hand, take hold of one hind leg above 
 the gambrel joint, and place the sheep carefully on the 
 mattress, in a sitting posture, resting against the shearer. 
 Raise the forelegs putting them under the left arm, and 
 shear the brisket and belly, dividing the wool in the 
 middle, as it is sheared. Then elevate the head, and 
 shear the under jaw, and a narrow strip along the un- 
 der side of the neck to the brisket. Now, stand in front 
 of the sheep, and begin at the foretop,and continue to 
 shear from right to left, until the neck is sheared. 
 Then, step behind the sheep, letting it lean against 
 your knees, and shear the forelegs. Now, drop on one 
 knee before the sheep, and let its body rest against 
 your other leg, until you have sheared one side, and 
 one hind leg. Then, change your position by resting 
 on the other knee, while the position of the sheep is 
 reversed, and shear the other side. Some shearers pre- 
 fer to shear directly around the bodj- of the sheep, and 
 finish at the tail. Both ways have their advocates 
 among good shearers, and beginners may adopt the one 
 that suits them best. Every shearer should have two 
 pair of shears, one to cut the hard, gritty locks, and 
 another for shearing the clean avooI. Some shearers 
 can shear more advantageously and easily by having a 
 a table about eighteen inches high covered with a mat- 
 
 38 
 
594 todd's country homes. 
 
 tress. Beginners should imitate the manipulations 
 of expert shearers, and observe closely how they hold 
 their sheep, and their shears. Never push the wool back, 
 or take hold of it with the other hand while shearing, 
 as you can not shear so evenly, and will be more lia- 
 ble to cut the sheep. The shearer may often use one 
 hand to advantage in crowding or drawing the skin in 
 such a manner as to make a smooth surface where the 
 shears are about to cut. Never allow an ill-natured 
 shearer to jamb a sheep down on the floor, nor to strike 
 it, nor to place his knees heavily on any part of the 
 sheep's body, as such roughness only causes a greater 
 uneasiness of the sheep. 
 
 The Way to Hold Sheep-shears. — The best man- 
 ner of holding sheep-shears, is with the thumb on 
 the back of one blade. The shears should always be 
 placed flat against the side of the sheep, so that the 
 points and heels of the blades will cut equally close to 
 the skin. It requires much more skill to put sheep- 
 shears in order, than to use them, and without sharp 
 shears, no man can shear a sheep in a workman-like 
 manner. Another important consideration in sharpen- 
 ing sheep-shears, is to grind the points of the blades 
 pointed, but a little rounded and smooth, so that they 
 will enter the w^ool readily, but will not prick the 
 sheep, or scratch the skin as they are thrust forward. 
 The grindstone should run very true, in order to grind 
 shears well, and the cutting edge should be afterward 
 whetted on an oil-stone of very fine grit. Shears 
 should never be ground on the face. Always hold the 
 blade to be ground firmly, so as tO grind the edges 
 true. When the blades are ground on a stone of 
 
WINTER MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 595 
 
 coarse grit, and are not held firmly, but allowed to rock 
 back and forth, it will be impossible to grind them so 
 that they will cut well. I have seen two dij0ferent 
 kinds of machines for shearing sheep, which did oper- 
 ate quite satisfactorily. One is worked by several 
 small gear-wheels, and the other by compressed air. 
 The cutting apparatus is guarded so perfectly, that it 
 is hardly possible to cut the skin of any sheep. The 
 cutters operate like the knives of a mowing-machine. 
 Winter Management of Sheep. — 
 
 " If one allows his sheep to shrink, from want of shelter, food or drink, 
 He pays a tax by loss of thrift, he can't evade by any sliift." 
 
 Rice's Bakn-tard Lyrics. 
 
 In order to keep sheep in a thriving condition dur- 
 ing the entire winter, there are a few general considera- 
 tions which must be observed, else a portion of the 
 flock will grow fat, while some of the sheep will run 
 down, and before spring, die for want of proper atten- 
 tion on the part of the shepherd. If a flock of one 
 hundred sheep, or more, be composed of those of dif- 
 ferent ages, and of unequal strength, the young and 
 strong ones will grow fat, while the timid and weak, 
 which will never rush, or crowd their way to the grain 
 trough, or fodder rack, will not be in so good condition 
 next spring, as when they came from the field, unless 
 the flock were divided. If one have only six or twelve 
 inferior sheep, the correct way is to separate the lambs 
 and a few of the feeble sheep, and provide a separate 
 inclosure, where they can receive extra attention. A 
 great many farmers have old ewes that are on the de- 
 cline of life, which would feed satisfactorily, for several 
 years to come, raise a good lamb every season, and 
 yield a fair fleece, provided they could have only a 
 
596 todd's countey homes. 
 
 little extra care. Let such thin and feeble members 
 of the flock be folded with the lambs, where they can 
 get a few mouthfuls of grain daily, besides a liberal 
 supply of prime hay, roots and straw, and they will 
 grow fat all winter. Of course it is understood that 
 such animals shall be provided with a comfortable shed 
 to protect them from cold and driving storms of snow 
 and rain, and clean litter of some kind to stand and 
 lie on. Sheep will endure extreme cold weather with- 
 out injury, provided they are kept dry above and be- 
 neath. One of the most pernicious features in sheep 
 husbandry is a leaky shed and a foul yard. Sheep 
 are naturally clean and neat animals. They hate 
 wet backs more than a cat is annoyed with wet feet. 
 Besides this, wet fleeces in cold weather, will often 
 operate as the prime cause of some unwelcome disease 
 in the flock. Sheep like a variety of food. L. A. 
 Morrell, in his American Shephe^'d, states that in an 
 extensive experiment with domestic animals, to ascer- 
 tain which were most fond of variety, sheep ate with 
 avidity, a great many more plants than any other 
 animal. 
 
 When a farmer has straw, cornstalks and hay, the 
 better system of management is to allow sheep, or any 
 other stock, to have a portion of each kind of fodder, 
 not only every day, but at every foddering. There is 
 great economy in mingling various kinds of fodder, 
 especially if the mass is to be cut into chaff and steamed 
 before it is distributed to stock. It is an erroneous 
 conclusion, cherished by many farmers, that animals 
 may be maintained more satisfactorily on straw and 
 grain, for a given time, and then on hay alone, or on 
 
TAGGING SHEEP. 597 
 
 cornstalks only, for another certain length of time. 
 A long experience in feeding sheep warrants the con- 
 clusion, that it will always be better for the flock to 
 feed them a variety of food daily. If they need grain, 
 let it be fed so that every sheep may get a small quan- 
 tity. Sheep should have roots also, of some kind, or 
 apples, and water regularly, which they need quite as 
 much as horses or horned cattle. When sheep are kept 
 on dry feed, without roots and water, they can not 
 thrive. Fattening sheej) should receive half a pound 
 of oil-meal mingled with half a pound of corn, or peas, 
 or bean meal, daily, besides roots. If a man has good 
 straw, some cornstalks and roots, if the sheep have a 
 clean and comfortable shed, they can be made fat be- 
 fore spring without hay, although they should always 
 have a small allowance of good hay. 
 
 Sheep should be handled, upon every farm, in con- 
 nection with the raising of grain crops. They occupy 
 a place in the economy of the farm that no other ani- 
 mal can fill so well, in consuming straw and cornstalks, 
 and other refuse fodder. The facility with which the 
 product of the flock is transported is a strong argu- 
 ment in their favor. There is an old Spanish proverb 
 to the eflect that " gold springs up where the foot of 
 the sheep has trod." 
 
 Tagging Sheep. — The practice of most men is to 
 allow their sheep to go without tagging, until a certain 
 time, usually just before the flock is turned out to 
 grass. But my own practice, when sheep were kept 
 on my farm was to tag them when they needed it 
 most, whether it was in the middle of winter or sum- 
 mer. At any period when it was apparent that a 
 
598 todd's country homes. 
 
 sheep did not keep its wool clean, the animal was taken 
 at once to the tagging bench. A pair of shears was 
 always kept on hand, so that I could catch a sheep, 
 when they were feeding, and in five minutes trim off 
 the redundant portions. Ewes just before the tupping 
 season, were always trimmed a little about the tail, and 
 teeming breeders, a few weeks previous to yeaning, 
 were relieved of the tags and rolls of wool round about 
 the udders so that young lambs in their first efforts to 
 suck, could readily find the teats. But such sheep 
 should always be handled with extreme care, lest they 
 cast their young, prematurely. The most convenient 
 way to tag sheep, is to set the one to be tagged on a 
 bench about two feet high covered with a straw mat. 
 (See remarks under Shearing.) When a sheep is set on 
 its buttock, imless the bones are covered with plenty 
 of fat, a hard bench will be more uncomfortable to the 
 animal than a granite pillow beneath the weary head 
 of a shearer. When placed on a soft seat, they will 
 not kick and struggle for dear life, as they will when 
 their seat consists of the hard side of a hard plank. 
 
CHAPTER XY. 
 
 REARING AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE. 
 
 Denominations of Swine — Value of Swine — Rules for Breeding — Cross- 
 ing Large Breeds — Management of Brood Sows — The Piggery — Man- 
 agement of Pigs — Portable Grain Mills — Grinding Grain for Swine — 
 Advantage of Cooking Feed for Swine — Neat Habits of Swine — How 
 
 to Fatten. 
 
 Denominations of Swine. — 
 
 " O, mucli abused and much despised beast ! 
 Men slight thee most who know thy merits least ; 
 Who would make light of thee, should try thee, first; 
 Then with thy praise they'll iniev-lard their verse." — Milne. 
 
 The different names which are apjjHed to swine in 
 America, are the following, namely : hogs, which in- 
 clude the whole species, both male and female, both 
 old and young. The entire male is called a hoar, a 
 brawn or seed hog ; and the female, a sow. After the 
 young males have been castrated, they are called har- 
 rows. Females that are to be kept for breeders, are 
 called open sows, or young hreeders, until they have 
 brought forth one litter of pigs, after which they are 
 denominated brood, or breeding sows. The progeny 
 of hogs is called />?^s, until they are weaned. The 
 number brought forth at one parturition, is called a 
 litter, or brood. After pigs are weaned, whether male 
 or female, until they weigh from fifty to one hundred 
 and fifty pounds, they are called shoies. Pigs are often, 
 after being weaned, closely confined, and fed high with 
 
600 todd's country homes. 
 
 milk and meal, until they are from two to six or eight 
 months old, when they are slaughtered, and roasted 
 whole, or disposed of as fresh pork. Such swine are 
 caiiled porkei^s, or ^iorklings. But, in a restricted sense, 
 a porker signifies a small and young shote. A spayed 
 sow is called a cut sow. A castrated boar, two or three 
 years old, is called a hrawner. Shotes and hogs of one 
 or more years old, which are not being fatted, are called 
 store hogs. Young sows and boars designed partic- 
 ularly for raising pigs, are called stock hogs. The 
 flesh of swine is usually called dressed pork, or pork. 
 The hams, shoulders and joles, after being salted and 
 smoked, are designated hacon^ although in a restricted 
 sense, bacon consists of the remainder of the side of a 
 dressed hog, after the ham and spare-rib have been 
 removed. Swine receive the appellation of hogs from 
 the flict that they go pushing, rooti7ig, and thrusting 
 about Avith their snouts, all of which, in the language 
 from which our word hog is derived, signifies, to hog. 
 Hence, as swine in most of their movements, may be 
 said to hog, they naturally receive the name of hogs. 
 Sheep do 7iot play the hog. Hence, if swine were de- 
 nominated sheep), and sheep were called swine, the ap- 
 pellation of hog would have to be left out. Hence, 
 also, the propriety of calling swine, hogs. 
 The Great Value of Swine. — 
 
 "On beef and mutton, Englislimen expand ; 
 But, pork's the crowning glory of our land. 
 You'll certainly allow — please don't forget — 
 That swine went in with Noah, from the wet." — Edwards. 
 
 What would our excellent cooks do for doughnut ma- 
 terial, were the genus sus to step out ? What would 
 supply the place of the sno\y-white lard for pie-crust ? 
 
THE GREAT VALUE OF SWINE. 601 
 
 Would not the good old tune of pork and beans soon 
 die away into a doleful requiem, if his majesty's swine- 
 ship were annihilated? Let them answer, who have 
 been accustomed to eat such meat as we make in the 
 country, out of milk, corn meal, and the refuse of the 
 kitchen. 
 
 " I go with Paul — as every one supposes — 
 As for the Jew — why, he may go to— Moses ! " 
 
 The hog, in point of usefulness to mankind, can not 
 be excelled by any other domesticated animal. Its 
 great usefulness consists in its powers of sharp digestion. 
 Unlike most other stock, the stomach of a hog can di- 
 gest many kinds of food which other animals would 
 eat at the hazard of their lives. Hogs will subsist on 
 almost any kind of food, whether animal or vegetable. 
 They will eat grass like the ox, flesh like a lion, mast 
 like a squirrel, grain like poultry, fruit and vegetables 
 like mankind, and will convert more of a given quan- 
 tity of different kinds of food, into flesh and fat, than 
 any other domestic animal. The offal of the slaugh- 
 ter-house, the refuse of the brewery, the slops from the 
 kitchen, are all readily converted into the most deli- 
 cious food for mankind, by this useful animal. Still, 
 when swine are improperly reared, and badly managed, 
 as they often are at distilleries and slaughter-houses, I 
 would as soon eat a cut out of the evil spirit himself, 
 as such flesh — the awful abode of the triclmice. The 
 flesh of such swine as I was accustomed to produce 
 when in the country, is no more like the miserable pork 
 that the market is supplied with, than the flesh of a 
 thrifty steer is like the dry and insipid meat of an 
 American buffalo. By proper breeding, and the right 
 kind of feeding, the flesh of swine will be one of the 
 
602 todd's countky homes. 
 
 most delicious kinds of animal food. When swine are 
 reared on mast and roots, and the fattening process is 
 finished at a slaughter-house, genuine Gentiles desire 
 to become Jews, unless they can be supplied with bet- 
 ter pork than such animals will make. 
 Rules for Ceossing Swine. — 
 
 "But, if the boar be faint and out of case, 
 He will be copied, in his famished race." 
 
 There are rules to be shunned, as well as rules to be 
 adopted, in crossing different breeds of swine, in order 
 to secure pigs of the most desirable form and symmetry. 
 No man can expect, that a boar will be able to get pigs, 
 that will possess excellencies superior to himself We 
 do not propose to discuss this subject farther, than to 
 lay down a few brief and practical rules, which every 
 farmer may comprehend, without the exercise of very 
 much thought, and which he may adopt, with the as- 
 surance of good success. One very important, and 
 fundamental rule will be, to always secure the services 
 of di full-blooded hoar, if it is at all practicable. If the 
 most prominent characteristics of a sow do not indicate 
 a liberal infusion of the blood of any particular breed, 
 if she be ordinarily good, and if she be coupled with a 
 full-blooded boar, of some superior breed, the proprie- 
 tor will need no better guaranty, that the pigs wdll be 
 good. If the boar is not as he should be, a man can 
 make no reliable calculations, as to certainty of suc- 
 ceeding, except to a certain extent, any more than a 
 man, who is blindfolded, could determine where he 
 would come out, in crossing a large field, without a 
 guide. In order to obtain pigs of a uniform quality, 
 both the boar and the sow must be first-rate. If, for 
 example, a full-blooded red Russian boar be coupled 
 
RULES FOR CROSSING SWINE. 603 
 
 with a Berkshire sow, the product will be not inferior 
 to any cross, or to the product of full-blooded swine, 
 for fattening purposes. I have met with instances, in 
 which, the cross between a red Russian boar, and a 
 Berkshire sow, made more desirable hogs, than either 
 the Berkshire or the Russian, alone. 
 
 Young farmers must bear in mind, that a male, or 
 female swine may be a superior animal, for breeding 
 purposes, and at the same time, be inferior to some of 
 his, or her progeny, for making pork, and, vice versa. 
 Now, if an excellent sow receive a boar of no particu- 
 lar breed, sometimes, his pigs may appear to be, what 
 are often called, first-rate pigs. And, sometimes, sipart 
 of them will be good, and, the remainder will be quite 
 inferior to the rest of the litter, and, sometimes, there 
 will be only one or two, that may be called good, while 
 all the others will be of quite an inferior character. 
 All of these considerations will depend, almost entirely, 
 on the amount of pure blood, that the boar may pos- 
 sess. I believe, that all good breeders agree, on this 
 one point, that, in order to make any very desirable 
 improvements, in any breed, we must not breed from 
 grade animals. 
 
 Again, we will suppose, for examjDle, that the dam 
 of a sow was a grade animal, of good form and sym- 
 metry, and, the boar a full-blooded Russian, or Berk- 
 shire. The sow would bring forth a litter of pigs, that 
 would have very few successful rivals, for fattening 
 purposes. We can always count upon such a cross as 
 this, with great certainty. Indeed, we could calculate, 
 beforehand, with as much safety, on the result of such 
 a cross, as if the desired product was already before us. 
 
604 todd's countky homes. 
 
 Ceossing large Breeds with small oxes. — It is 
 frequently desirable to produce swine of rather an in- 
 termediate size, between a large breed and a small 
 breed. Therefore, in order to be successful, it will be 
 important to employ the services of a male of pure 
 breed, that approximates the nearest to what may be 
 desired. For example: some farmers think that the 
 Berkshire breed, and the Suffolk are rather too small. 
 In order, therefore, to produce a class of swine, having 
 larger frames, and good flittening qualities, it will be 
 necessary to couple a full-blooded Berkshire boar, with a 
 sow of some larger breed, and, if the boar is right, his 
 pigs will possess excellent fattening qualities. 
 
 I have in my mind an instance, in point, at the present 
 writing, which came under my own observation, in one 
 of the counties of the State of New York, where the 
 Red Russian breed was considered, by many farmers, to 
 be superior to any other breed. Some did not like 
 them, because they were too large, and, they did not 
 like the Berkshire breed, because it was too small. 
 But, the product of a full-blooded Berkshire boar, and 
 a Red Russian sow would produce a breed, almost in- 
 variably, that would suit almost every one, who desired 
 to raise excellent swine for making pork. In case a 
 farmer desires to produce large hogs, by procuring a 
 full-blooded, Red Russian boar, and a large sow, which 
 is the product of some good cross, he may produce a 
 class of swine as large as would be desirable to fitten. 
 For example : a sow that was got by a full-blooded Red 
 Russian boar, coupled with a sow of the Chester White 
 breed, would be an excellent brood sow, for producing 
 larger hogs than herself. If a very large breed of 
 
HOW TO SELECT BREEDING SWINE. 605 
 
 hogs were the great desideratum, then, let such a 
 sow be coupled with a Red Russian boar. On the 
 contrary, should it be desirable to produce a breed, 
 having excellent fattening qualities, with a little more 
 capacious carcasses than the full-blooded SufTolks, or 
 Berkshires possess, employ the services of a Berkshire 
 or Suffolk boar, and a small sow will bring forth the 
 very style of pigs desired. 
 
 How TO SELECT BREEDING SwiNE. 
 
 " Ungelt of the best, save a couple, or more — 
 A sow-pig, and boar-pig, that sucketh before." — Tom Tusser. 
 
 It is a rare occurrence, that a sow produces a 
 larger number of pigs than she has teats. Still, I have 
 known very prolific sows to bring forth one or two 
 more pigs, than there were teats for them to suckle. 
 In one instance, the proprietor was curious to learn, 
 what would be the residt in such an extraordinary case, 
 and he reported that one of the pigs actually starved 
 to death, after a few days. As soon as the pigs are a 
 few days old, every one will suckle at the same teat, 
 and at no other. And, if there is any superiority to be 
 discovered between pigs of the same litter, it will be 
 seen, that the best will always suckle at the forward teats. 
 If there should be one or two inferior pigs, their appro- 
 priate teats will be the farthest behind. There is, in 
 almost every litter of pigs, one little pig, that will 
 always be inferior to the rest of the litter. Such pigs 
 should never be saved as breeders, whether male or fe- 
 male. On the contrary, those that suck the forward 
 teats, and only those, should be saved to breed from. 
 Those that suck the middle teats may aj^pear quite 
 equal to those that suck before. And, for fattening 
 purposes, they may be fully equal to any other. But, 
 
606 todd's country homes. 
 
 as breeders, they will not prove to be as prolific, 
 neither will they transmit their excellent points to 
 their progeny, with as much certainty, as will those 
 that suck before. 
 
 My own rule, in selecting a good breeding sow, al- 
 ways was, to choose a sow-pig that sucked one of the 
 forward teats, and whose dam has shown herself to be 
 a good and gentle nurse, and was very prolific. A sow- 
 pig thus selected would never fail to be a very profita- 
 ble breeder, provided she was coupled with a boar of 
 the right stamp. A sow-pig may possess all the exter- 
 nal marks of a very choice breeder; but, if she were de- 
 ficient in this one respect — in prolificacy — she would 
 be an unprofitable animal to keep as a breeder. I have 
 owned sows, that w^ould bring forth only two, and three 
 pigs at one litter. But, such sows were always fat- 
 tened without delay. And, I have had those that 
 would drop twelve or thirteen nice pigs, at one litter, 
 and raise them all. Such sows are the kind to keep 
 for breeders, in preference to those, that bring forth 
 only from four to eight pigs at one litter. 
 
 My father, when I was a boy, owned a noble sow, 
 that brought forth twelve pigs in the month of January, 
 thirteen more in the following June, and twelve more in 
 the succeeding December, making in the aggregate, 
 thirty-seven nice pigs produced by one sow in one year. 
 Breeding high, feeding high, breeding in and in, and 
 aiming always to produce swine of a beautiful form 
 and symmetry, as is the practice of many men, who rear 
 choice animals for sale only, and who neglect to pay 
 proper attention to prolificacy, has produced swine of 
 beautiful forms, but by no means the most profitable, 
 
SELECTING PROFITABLE BREEDS. ' 607 
 
 because they were deficient in one important requisite 
 — prolificacy. A sow may just as well raise ten or 
 twelve pigs, as to raise three or fi)ur. Her first cost 
 will be no greater, and all the care of feeding and pro- 
 tection, will be no more, except that a little more feed 
 will be required, when there is a larger number of pigs, 
 after they have become a few weeks old. Considering 
 the aptitude of some kinds of swine to fatten on a 
 small quantity of food, while other kinds continue ema- 
 ciated and lean, it is important that a breed be selected 
 from which the greatest profit will accrue. And as the 
 best of hogs, at the present day, can be obtained about 
 as readily as an inferior breed, if a man fats but one 
 pig annually, he will find his pecuniary interest much 
 enhanced, by selecting the best, especially for breed- 
 ers. But do not breed from a grade boar, lest deterio- 
 ration follow. 
 
 Cross Breeds better than Pure Breeds. — So far 
 as my observations have extended, those hogs that 
 have been produced by a cross between some good 
 breeds, have always made the best and most profitable 
 swine for fattening.. And I think it will be found true, 
 that all the unusually heavy hogs of our country were 
 not animals of any particular breed — but a cross. 
 Whenever I have met with heavy hogs, or have read 
 accounts of swine that have attained an unusually 
 great weight, I have always learned that they belonged 
 to such a breed of swine, but that they possessed a 
 liberal infusion of soyne other breed. I think, if any 
 one will take the trouble to refer to the back volumes 
 of the agricultural papers of our country, he will find, 
 in connection with the weight of heavy swine, that 
 
608 TODD's COUJiTEY HOMES. 
 
 the breed will be stated to have been, for the most 
 part, Berkshire, Red Russian, Chester White, or some 
 other breed crossed with a grade sow. But the great 
 excellence of a cross breed will depend entirely on the 
 character and quality of the two animals, through 
 which the cross is to be produced. The same rules 
 will hold good in the breeding of swine, that must be 
 observed in crossing, successfully, any other domestic 
 animals. For example : if one should cross a sow that 
 possessed a limited infusion of the Berkshire blood, 
 with a boar whose sire and grandsire had descended 
 from a boar of some breed, coupled with a sow that 
 did not belong to any particular breed, no one could 
 expect to obtain excellent stock. Indeed, the prod- 
 uct of such animals — such a dam and such a sire — 
 would be swine of a very inferior quality. Still, they 
 would be called good, or "fust rate," by many farmers. 
 The largest proportion of the swine of our country 
 possess no more of the distinguishing characteristics of 
 a given breed than those just alluded to, simply because 
 they were got by a grade boar. The product of the 
 first cross is usually better than the second. A second 
 or third crossing may be conducted so as to secure a 
 better product than the first cross. But, as farmers 
 usually manage, the^rs^ cross, almost always produces 
 much better swine than they obtain by any other cross. 
 And the»reason for it is very obvious. The product of 
 the first cross is very good. Therefore, they select a 
 male from the litter that was produced by a first rate 
 animal, and expect that he Avill get about as good pigs 
 as his full-blooded sire got. Consequently, here they 
 meet with deterioration instead of improvement. 
 
BREEDING FROM YOUNG SOWS. 609 
 
 Any good breed of swine, may be perpetuated indefi- 
 nitely by annually selecting a boar as far removed in re- 
 lationship from the female as practicable, yet of the 
 same breed, and of pure blood. That farmer who goes a 
 long distance yearly for his boar, will find himself richly 
 remunerated, and will have the pleasure of taking to 
 market an even uniform lot of heavy porkers annually ; 
 while the man who uses a boar from his own, or a near 
 related herd, will see the effect in light weights, en- 
 feebled constitutions and in very unsatisfactory swine, 
 in almost every im23ortant requisite. Judicious selec- 
 tion is the only means of improvement which farmers 
 can safely rely upon, while a failure to select, and 
 breeding indiscriminately, will surely deteriorate any 
 breed in a short time. If in the sow selected there 
 are many good points, and one defect, see that the 
 boar has not that one defect, but that he has a good 
 development of that particular point. When both 
 parents have the same defect, it will be sure to exist 
 in the offspring, as all of these qualities are transmissi- 
 ble by hereditary descent. 
 
 Breeding from Young Sows. — No sow should be 
 allowed to breed, until she has attained nearly her 
 full growth, as animals that are full grown, will pro- 
 duce the largest, strongest and best pigs. Successively 
 breeding from young sows for several generations, tends 
 to lessen the size and to weaken the vitality of the 
 pigs. Sows that are good breeders can be profitably 
 kept for four or five years. And if such sows are kept 
 exclusively for breeding, it will not be necessary to 
 change the boar, as would be necessary, if different 
 sows were kept for breeders. No sow should be allowed 
 
 39 
 
610 todd's country homes. 
 
 to farrow, before she is one year old. And, even at 
 that age, if she has not attained to a desirable growth, 
 she should not be allowed to breed. To allow any fe- 
 male to breed while her own frame is developing, tends 
 to injurious results. It is like burning a candle at both 
 ends at once. An old sow, like an old cow, will give 
 more milk than a young one. Hence, an old sow will 
 have larger and better pigs than a young one, because 
 they get a bounteous supply of that which is most nat- 
 ural to them, to w^it : the milk of their dam. 
 Peepaeation foe Faeeowing. — 
 
 " Sows ready to farrow, this time of the year, 
 Are for to be made of, and counted full dear ; 
 For now, is the loss of the brood of a sow, 
 More great than the loss of two calves of a cow." — Tom Tcsser 
 
 The period of gestation is about sixteen weeks. At 
 least four weeks previous to the expected time of far- 
 rowing, a sow should be provided with a separate en- 
 closure, where she will not be liable to be disturbed, or 
 worried by any other animals ; and where she can have 
 a neat, dry, and comfortable apartment for her brood. A 
 brood sow should always have daily access to the ground. 
 If she can be allowed no more than the advantage of 
 an enclosure a rod square, let her have the benefit of 
 it. It will be hazardous to keep a sow in a close pen. 
 A sow should be permitted to get a little grass daily, 
 or to receive a little green hay cut fine. A brood sow, 
 as she approaches the farrowing period, will provide a 
 bed for her young brood, when her proprietor has neg- 
 lected to do so for her. She will be seen carrying grass, 
 and locks of straw to her bed, so as to have the mate- 
 rial fine and soft for the young pigs. A judicious man- 
 ager will anticipate her requirements, by providing a 
 
MANAGEMENT AFTER FARROWING. 611 
 
 secluded nook, littered with a few bushels of cut straw 
 spread on the floor, near the middle of her sleeping 
 apartment. If long straw be provided, the dam will 
 frequently gather it up into <a heap, make a large hol- 
 low in the bed, in which young pigs are liable to be 
 crushed. But, if the floor is littered with cut straw, 
 pigs will not be caught beneath her, when the sow 
 throws herself down. Cut straw scattered over the 
 floor will be a more satisfactory security against crush- 
 ing young pigs, than shelving around the apartment, 
 ten inches from the floor, beneath which young pigs 
 can be protected. If a sow has a large apartment, one 
 corner, say about seven feet square, should be boarded 
 up, leaving only a narrow door-way for her to enter, at 
 the back side. The boarding will prevent the cold 
 wind from whirling around in the corner. I once knew 
 a sow to remove her bedding from what was supposed 
 to be the most comfortable corner of a large pen, to the 
 middle of the apartment, simply because the cold wind 
 whirled around near that corner, rendering the place 
 more uncomfortable than any other part of the en- 
 closure. 
 
 Management After Farrowing. — 
 
 " The trudging sow leads forth her numerous young, 
 Playful and clean and white, the trees among." — Bloomfield. 
 
 During the first six or eight days after a sow has 
 littered, she should be fed with great regularity, both 
 as to time, and quantity, and quality of feed. Indian 
 corn in the ear, is very improper feed for a sow that 
 has just come in, because, it will be hard to digest, 
 will be a long time digesting, and much of it will not 
 digest at all ; because her digestive energies, at such 
 times, are not strong. All such rough and hard feed 
 
612 todd's countky homes. 
 
 will tend to produce fever in 'the stomach, and thus 
 diminish the flow of milk. The best food for a sow at 
 such a time, will be cooked meal, bran and vegetables, 
 all fed in a liquid condition. I would never feed a 
 sow, that had young pigs, an ear of corn, raw apples, 
 raw potatoes, or uncooked meal, for more than a month 
 after parturition. Every kind of food was cooked. 
 And, I always found that it paid well to cook the meal 
 and swill and feed it warm. For the morning meal, a 
 pint of wheat bran, a pint of meal, consisting of equal 
 quantities of oats and Indian corn, ground fine, were 
 put into a swill-pail, with about two quarts of boiling 
 water turned on it, and well stirred up, to which a tea- 
 spoonful of salt, a couple of boiled apples, or potatoes, 
 were added, and mashed up fine. As soon as the feed 
 had cooled to about blood-heat, about a quart of dish- 
 water, and a quart of skimmed milk were added. This 
 quantity makes a little more than one gallon of ex- 
 cellent light food, which would be rather too much for 
 a small sow, and not enough for a large, healthy, and 
 hungry sow. Such light food will keep the bowels in 
 a healthy condition • will digest easily and quickly ; 
 and will increase the flow of milk. The same kind of 
 food was prepared at noon, and at evening also. It 
 was always necessary to exercise judgment, as to the 
 propriety of increasing the amount of food. It should 
 be kept in mind, that a sow can not yield a liberal 
 supply of milk for a large litter of pigs, out of a pail- 
 ful of dish-water. She must have food that will digest 
 readily and make milk. A sow's food should be very 
 bulky, and always in a liquid state, in order to produce 
 more milk, as well as to keep her bowels in a healthy 
 
FOOD FOR SOWS. 613 
 
 state, and prevent fever. Wheat flour or bran, min- 
 gled with the other food, is excellent to keep sows in a 
 healthy condition, as it is very bulky, and will be 
 easily digested. Pea-meal is superior to any other 
 meal for making milk. When a sow can subsist on 
 such food, her brood will grow "like pigs in the clover." 
 If the weather is not freezing cold, a wet sow should 
 always have access to a yard, where she can come to the 
 ground. And, if she can get no grass, she should be 
 fed daily, a little bright clover-hay cut fine. And an- 
 other thing of importance is, a sow needs a spacious 
 yard to roam and to recreate in, as it is better for her 
 to leave her pigs, for an hour, or so, than to be with 
 them continually. During cold weather, let them have 
 an abundance of dry and clean straw in their sleeping 
 apartment, as the little pigs like to have enough to 
 cover themselves with, as well as to lie on. And, if 
 young pigs do not have enough to eat in cold weather, 
 and straw enough to keep them warm, they will, most 
 assuredly, become stunted. And, I would sooner pay 
 five dollars for a shote, that had never been stunted, 
 than to attempt to fatten one that had been stunted, 
 which would cost nothing. 
 
 Sows Devouring their Pigs. — It is a common oc- 
 currence for sows to devour a part of their young, as 
 soon as they are dropped. But in all my experience 
 in rearing pigs, not a pig was ever devoured by one of 
 my sows. It is unnatural for a sow to do so. And 
 sows will never eat their pigs, unless they have been 
 managed very improperly. If supplied with light and 
 bulky feed, and managed as I have indicated, a sow will 
 not be feverish, at the time of farrowing. Injudicious 
 
614 todd's countky homes. 
 
 management, and improper feed, such as dry and hard 
 corn, raw potatoes, frozen swill and close confinement, 
 will superinduce more or less fever. Then, look out for 
 devoured pigs. It is not because a sow wants flesh that 
 she eats her own pigs. -But, it is because her system 
 has not been supplied with the right kind of feed. 
 Brood sows are frequently managed so badly, that they 
 suffer seriously from indigestion. When one must feed 
 w^hole grain, boiled oats will be found the very best 
 kind of unground grain for sows. We often read of 
 soap-suds, whiskey, sulphur and a variety of other hurt- 
 ful nostrums for brood sows. Let them be supplied 
 with the right kind of food, and they will not touch 
 such miserable stuff, even when they have access to it. 
 Slack farmers, who are ever complaining of the losses 
 of animals, are often too careless and indifferent to the 
 wants of their teeming females at this critical period. 
 In want of proper food and water, of comfortable 
 shelter and places of rest, worried by dogs and more 
 cruel men and boys, it is no wonder that disease, abor- 
 tions and weakened vitality of the race are among the 
 resulting consequences of such treatment. 
 
 Management of Pigs. — If sucking pigs look thin 
 and poor, it is a certain evidence that they do not get 
 a liberal supply of milk. The remedy is to feed the 
 dam a larger quantity of light, milk-producing, warm 
 swill. If young pigs get all the milk they need, they 
 will grow like asparagus, and their bodies will be as 
 plump and round as a woodchuck. If the weather be 
 cold and stormy, see that the brood do not suffer for 
 w^ant of a clean and dry bed. A few cents' worth of hay 
 or straw will often save as many dollars in the value of 
 
MAN^AGEMENT OF PIGS. 615 
 
 a litter of pigs. But, in warm weather, as soon as the 
 pigs are old enough to follow the mother, the sow 
 should be turned in a pasture of fresh grass, and the 
 feeding-trough should be so made that the pigs may 
 eat with the sow, which they soon learn to do. This 
 relieves the sow, and the pigs will improve about as 
 .satisfactorily as if the sow were fed very high. There 
 is no food equal to milk for pigs. And, if a farmer has 
 not the refuse milk of several cows, he should not at- 
 tempt to rear many pigs. Boiled oats will be found 
 one of the most excellent kinds of feed for young pigs, 
 both before they are weaned and after they have been 
 entirely separated from the sow. As soon as young- 
 pigs have learned to eat milk, a low trough should be 
 provided, so that they can enter an apartment where 
 the sow can not come, when they are eating their milk. 
 J^y making such provision for young pigs, they will 
 grow faster than if suckled. The sow can be fed less 
 feed daily, to facilitate drying up her milk ; the pigs 
 ■\s'ill be weaned gradually ; the energies of a good sow 
 will be protected ; and the entire system of management 
 will be so judicious that neither sow nor pigs will suffer 
 any inconvenience, while the pigs are being Aveaned, 
 and while the dam's milk is drying up. When pigs 
 are managed as I have indicated, they should be weaned 
 from the sow at from seven to ten weeks — eiorht weeks 
 
 o 
 
 i.s the usual time. The condition of the sow and num- 
 ber of pigs should have consideration in determining 
 the time. But, when young pigs are removed at once 
 from a bountiful supply of rich milk, they often suffer 
 extremely from the change. When weaned, they should 
 ]je separated from the larger hogs, have free access to 
 
616 todb's countky homes. 
 
 clover or other fresh grass, and have milk, dairy slop, 
 and bran or coarse meal, and some vegetables. Shotes 
 should not be allowed to get too fat, as it will injure 
 their growth and form. Shotes should be supplied 
 with such feed as will develop and build up symmet- 
 rical frames and muscles; after which, the fattening 
 process should commence. One -pig is often separated 
 from the sow, when about four weeks' old, which is quite 
 too soon, unless the pigs have learned to eat boiled oats, 
 and to drink milk. When one has several sows, it is 
 unwise policy to allow several litters to run together, 
 especially if they are of different ages, as they will 
 soon make common stock of the sustenance from the 
 sows, and the larger pigs will drive the smaller ones 
 away, which will be compelled to stand, like defeated 
 politicians, and see the coveted pabulum absorbed by 
 their successful rivals, while there is no available re- 
 dress. 
 
 The Piggery. — 
 
 " A sty for a boar, a cote for thy hog, 
 A roost for the fowls, and a kennel for dog." — Tusser. 
 
 Every person, who is able to keep only one or two 
 hogs, should have a well constructed piggery. Hogs 
 like a w^arm, dry place to sleep in, as well as the hu- 
 man species, and they dislike a w^et, dirty bed, more 
 than a cat hates a wet floor. Confining hogs, where 
 they are obliged to lie on the cold, damp floor or ground, 
 under a leaky roof, or no roof at all, save "heaven's 
 broad canopy," is the worst kind of porcine economy. 
 If hogs will thrive and fatten when treated thus, surely 
 with a good sty, and warm, dry bed, they will thrive 
 much faster. The piggery should be constructed with 
 reference to convenience, and the wants of the hogs. 
 
HOW TO MAKE BOOKS FOR A PIGGERY. 617 
 
 There should be a feed-room for storing and cookins" 
 food, etc., and the hogs should have an apartment for 
 eating, another for sleeping, and a yard out of doors, 
 with an appropriate corner for a jakes. The whole 
 should be made tight and warm, with windows open- 
 ing at the top, for ventilating. The sleeping apart- 
 ment should have a woode^i floor, but where the hog-s 
 feed, it may be either stone or wood. A partition, not 
 less than two feet high, should be made between the 
 feeding apartment, and the place where they sleep. 
 The object of a low partition between these two apart- 
 ments, is, to keep their bed in the desired place, to se- 
 cure good ventilation, and to have it convenient, so 
 that a man can step over the partition, into the feed- 
 ing apartment. In case the pen is spacious, and a 
 breeding sow were to farrow in cold weather, the sleep- 
 ing apartment should be boarded up so closely, that 
 currents of cold air will not whirl around in the cor- 
 ner, more than in some other part of the pen. 
 
 How TO MAKE Doors for a Piggery. — The out- 
 side door, through which swine enter, should be hung 
 so as to close after them, of itself, both when they go 
 in and when they come out. This will prevent cold 
 winds, and snow, from blowing into the apartment. 
 There are two ways to make a self-closing door for a 
 piggery, one of which, is to hang it at the top, with 
 hinges that will allow it to play both ways. The swine 
 will soon learn to run under a door hung in this man- 
 ner. Another way to hang such doors, is to lean the 
 side-post, or stud, to which the door is hung, about one 
 inch toward the door-way. Then, hang it with hook- 
 and-eye hinges, so that it will open, right and left, each 
 
618 todd's country homes. 
 
 way. This little inclination of the side-post, from a 
 perpendicular line, will cause the door to close, slowly, 
 whether it is opened inwards, or outwards. If the side 
 post, on which the door is hung, should lean a little 
 away from the door-way, the door will always swing 
 open, instead of shut, of its own accord. Such a door 
 should be made of heavy plank, so that the wind will 
 not blow it open. It will be better to hang the door 
 with hinges on the side, rather than at the top, because 
 were a large sow to run under a door, and a pig should 
 be close behind her, the weight of the door would in- 
 jure the pig. A piece of hard wood scantling should 
 be pinned under the door for a threshold, the top of 
 which should be beveled each way, from the middle, so 
 that no substance will get under the door to hinder its 
 closing. When it is desirable to fasten the outside door, 
 let a pin be put in a hole, on each side of it. By this 
 arrangement, a door can be adjusted, so as to allow 
 swine to go into their pen, and not out of it, or to go 
 out of it, and not be able to go in again. Then, when 
 small pigs are to be let through the door-way, without 
 the sow, a shorter door can be hung in the same door- 
 way, which would allow pigs to pass under it, both in 
 and out of the pen. 
 
 How TO MAKE Hog-troughs. — Many farmers have 
 made such inconvenient hog-troughs, and have become 
 so accustomed to see their swine put their feet into the 
 trough, that they have almost come to the conclusion, 
 that a hog can eat better with one or both feet in the 
 trough. No conclusion was ever more stupid. Swine 
 can not eat from a trough that is eight, or ten inches 
 deep. They are coynpelled to mount into such a deep 
 
THE NEAT HABITS OF SWINE. 619 
 
 trough "mth all fours." My sliotes and swine never 
 put their feet in the feeding-trough, any sooner than a 
 cow would plant her feet in the manger, as the trough 
 was made of such a form that small shoats could eat 
 their allowance, without any necessity for lifting a foot 
 into the trough. The front side of the trough was not 
 over three inches high, at the lowest part of the scol- 
 lop. At a distance of twelve inches, the side of the 
 trough was scolloped out smoothly, so that the shotes, 
 or hogs could stand one foot apart, from center to cen- 
 ter. Then, the only partition between the swine and 
 the feed room, consisted of a flap-door hung with the 
 lower edge in the trough. When the feed was to be 
 put in, the flap was thrust to the side of the trough 
 nearest the hogs, and there bolted. Then the feed 
 could be distributed the entire length of the trough. 
 All the animals would then stand up straight, in the 
 desired place, ready to eat. As soon as the swill was 
 put in, the flap was drawn to the back side of the 
 trough, and fastened. Then every one could advance 
 just enough to put his snout, without either foot, into 
 the trough. A trough three inches deep, by ten wide, 
 will contain all the feed that will be distributed at one 
 feeding. If such a trough were twenty feet long, 
 twenty swine of medium size, would have sufficient 
 room when eating, side by side. 
 The Neat Habits of Swine. — 
 
 " In bake, without the hog, or even in a stew, 
 Pray, what could we, or our good housewives do ■? 
 Sore grief would seize on many a bosom stout, 
 If by perchance, the hog should once step out." 
 
 Instead of being the dirtiest, swine are the neatest 
 and cleanest in their habits of all domesticated animals. 
 
620 todd's country homes. 
 
 Their proprietors are the filthy ones — not the swine. 
 When an animal will stand or lie in its own filth, while 
 it has its liberty, is it filthy, or not? All say, filthy. 
 Now, confine a horse, bullock, cow, sheep, or any other 
 domesticated animal except swine, in a small apart- 
 ment, and will it void in one corner, as much as prac- 
 ticable, and keep a clean place to lie down ? None but 
 a hog has ever been known to do it. Horses, oxen, 
 cows and sheep, void anywhere and everywhere, but 
 swine appropriate one corner, and thus keep their bed 
 clean, provided their proprietor has arranged their sty, 
 in the best manner, furnished it with clean materials 
 for a bed, and clean water to wash in. Swine need 
 to wash, frequently, in order to keep in good health. 
 Therefore, when pure water is not accessible, they 
 plunge into the mire, and wallow in the mud, to do 
 their bathing. Let a man wash his hands in thin mud, 
 and, as soon as it is dry, it will peel off, taking with it 
 all the impurities of the skin, thus leaving the flesh as 
 clean and healthy as that of a child. Let it be re- 
 membered that it is the habit of cleanliness that in- 
 duces swine to wallow in the mire. This consideration 
 teaches that fattening swine should always be provided 
 with a pool of clean water, where they may go and 
 wash when they feel like it. By this means, they 
 would keep as clean and sweet as lambs, and their flesh 
 would be more healthy than it usually is, as an article 
 of food. It is sacerdotal nonsense for people to repeat 
 the old inappropriate saw: "As dirty as a swine." 
 Let a sow with a dozen pigs have a clean bed of straw, 
 and she will teach every youngster, before it is half as 
 old as a boy that is old enough to be spanked, to leave 
 
GRINDING GRAIN FOR DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 621 
 
 their droppings in a far away corner, and to keep their 
 sleeping apartment as neat as a bandbox. 
 •Grinding Grain for Domestic Animals. — 
 
 " Ground feed or shorts, if fed besides, 
 Will surely make two noble strides." 
 
 When well-cured grain is taken into the stomach of 
 man, or an animal, before it is crushed, almost every 
 kernel will be cast out among the fecal matter, without 
 having imparted any nourishment. Kernels of oats 
 have a very thick and tough envelop, which the juices 
 of the stomach will very seldom dissolve. Other cereal 
 grain is enveloped by a similar hull, although not quite 
 so tough. Still, if wheat, barley or Indian corn be 
 swallowed, the kernels will usually pass through most 
 animals without losing their vitality. Of course, such 
 grain will nourish an animal but little if any more 
 than an equal number of small stones. Domestic 
 fowls and birds swallow grain whole, and after it has 
 lain in their crops till it has become softened, it passes 
 into the gizzard, where the kernels are imperfectly 
 ground among gravel-stones. The gizzard of a fowl, 
 having a few gravel-stones in it, subserves the impor- 
 tant purpose of poor teeth. Animals having poor 
 teeth, do not always crush every kernel of grain ; con- 
 sequently, a loss must be sustained in the grain, as. it 
 will not be digested. 
 
 Analytical chemists inform us that grain, as well as 
 the meal or flour which it makes, is composed of glob- 
 ules so very small that they cannot be discovered with 
 the naked eye. The globules of wheat flour are said 
 to be not more than a two-thousandth part of an inch 
 in diameter. After the tough skin which envelops the 
 kernel of grain is broken, and the portion that fur- 
 
622 todd's country homes. 
 
 nishes nourishment is reduced to a fine powder, these 
 globules afford nourishment to the animal system. 
 These suggestions will enable farmers to understand 
 the importance of grinding all their grain, previous to 
 feeding it to either store or fattening animals. The 
 older grain is, until it has been kept over one winter, 
 the harder the kernels are, and the more difficult they 
 will be to digest. Even after old grain has been ground 
 into coarse meal, much of the coarser part will pass 
 them undigested, unless it has been cooked. These 
 fragments of kernels of grain, or masses of globules, if 
 scalded, will be reduced to the finest possible condition, 
 and the nourishment afforded by them will be in the 
 most available form to produce fat or flesh. Fragments 
 of vegetables and fruit, such as apples and pears, need 
 to be reduced to a fine condition by some mechanical 
 means, before an animal will always be able to extract 
 all the nourishment which those substances are capable 
 of affording. Every particle of food must be reduced 
 to a liquid state, before it can be absorbed by the organs 
 of the stomach, and nourish the animal system. When 
 apples, potatoes, or turnips are not crushed fine, large 
 fragments are forced out of the stomach before they 
 have had time to be digested, and all the nourishment 
 contained in such pieces will be lost, except for manu- 
 rial purposes. But, if the food be cooked, the masses 
 of globules which are secreted as fat, flesh, and other 
 parts of an animal, will be readily and thoroughly di- 
 gested. 
 
 I once procured a quantity of horse manure for top- 
 dressing strawberry plants, and in a few days after the 
 mulch was spread around the plants, the broken ker- 
 
GRINDING GRAIN FOR DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 623 
 
 nels of oats vegetated, so that the entire surface of the 
 ground appeared as green as a lawn. This fact showed 
 conclusively that much of the grain had never afforded 
 the animals that swallowed it, any nourishment at all. 
 Young horses having sound and sharp teeth, will some- 
 times crush every kernel. But old horses with poor 
 teeth, will frequently swallow half their mess of oats, 
 without breaking the skin of the kernels. Most swine 
 bolt down their food so voraciously, that if the kernels 
 are not ground fine, much of the grain will not be di- 
 gested. 
 
 I was once fattening a herd of swine, chiefly on 
 meal. Three tubs were placed near the trough, into 
 each of which a quantity of meal for one feeding, was 
 put, every time the animals were fed; three times daily. 
 Water was also added sufficient to keep the meal soak- 
 ing twenty-four hours. To my great surprise, by 
 washing the droppings of the swine, I found that the 
 fecal matter was full of small fragments of undigested 
 meal. But, when the meal was cooked, as suggested 
 in the chapter on Domestic Economy, under the head 
 of Making Choice Pork, the fattening animals appeared 
 to digest every particle of the meal in a most thorough 
 manner. Suppose, for example, a teamster is accus- 
 tomed to feed a team eight quarts of Indian corn alid 
 oats, at each feeding, say three times a day. Let the 
 grain be put in a pail and covered with warm water 
 every time the team is fed. This plan would require 
 three pails, when a team is fed three times dailj^ 
 Warm water is far better than cold water, as cold water, 
 in cold weather, will soften the grain but little. Team- 
 sters may rest assured that it will pay well for all 
 
624 
 
 TODDS COUNTRY HOMES. 
 
 trouble to soak all grain before feeding it. And yet, 
 it will be still more profitable to grind the grain into 
 fine meal, and cook it, before it is fed to animals of 
 any kind. 
 
 Portable Farm-Mills. — 
 
 "Woe to the wicked millers who take too much toll!" 
 
 Most farmers know the great advantage of grinding 
 their own grain for domestic animals. But the enor- 
 mous expense incurred in getting their grain ground at 
 
 grist-mills, has tended to 
 discourage them in the 
 practice of grinding their 
 grain before it is fed. With 
 a good farm-mill, which 
 can be driven by two 
 horses, a farmer can grind 
 his owm grist, save the toll, 
 and do it usually in less 
 time than would be re- 
 quired to cart his grain to 
 the custom mill. The il- 
 lustration herewith given 
 represents a cast-iron mill, such as can be obtained at 
 most agricultural warehouses, suitable for grinding all 
 kinds of grain and Graham flour, either by hand or 
 horse. The grinding surfaces are made of cast-iron, 
 consisting of rows of teeth on each grinding plate, 
 which match into, and run between each other. One 
 man can operate it by hand to grind a small quantity 
 of grain ; or the power of one horse, two horses, or six 
 horses may be applied to the same machine and grind 
 a large quantity. Such a mill is durable, and efficient 
 
 A PORTABLE GRAIN-MILL. 
 
PORTABLE FARM-MILLS. G25 
 
 for the purpose intended, and is a labor-saving machine 
 much needed by farmers. In these days of wholesale 
 robbery, when vandalism prompts honest millers to 
 steal farmers' grists, and return to them the toll, farm- 
 ers will hail with delight such a farm-mill, with which 
 they can grind their grain, at their most convenient 
 seasons. When I lived on the farm, I had a cast-iron 
 mill, similar to this one, with which all my coarse grain 
 was ground for domestic animals, and it would make as 
 beautiful wheat flour, Indian corn meal and buckwheat 
 flour, as we could get at the custom mills. I have now 
 a small hand-mill with which we can grind wheat flour 
 enough for a batch of bread, in a few minutes. Poor 
 men and farmers cannot save money faster, than to 
 procure such a mill for grinding their own grain, 
 
 In my family, we eat a great deal of cracked wheat, 
 cooked and prepared like rice. Everybody likes it; 
 and the meal of wheat is one of the cheapest, and yet 
 one of the most healthful articles of food that can be 
 eaten. Cracked wheat is a luxury that few families 
 will procure, unless they first obtain a mill to grind 
 the grain. Such food makes excellent living, and it is 
 more economical than the best of white bread. Very 
 few kinds of human food will make more good blood 
 than cracked wheat, boiled like rice, and eaten with 
 milk, cream, or butter and sugar. I purchase the 
 cleanest wheat that can be found, and the hoys can 
 grind a few quarts in a short time. They grind the 
 Indian meal also. In this way, the meal is fresher and 
 more palatable, than if it had been ground several 
 weeks. All our chicken feed, consisting of Indian 
 corn, wheat and other grain, is ground in this hand- 
 
 40 
 
626 todd's country homes. 
 
 mill, and soaked over night, before fowls are allowed 
 to eat it. By this preparation of the grain, a bushel 
 is made to yield a much larger amount of nourishment, 
 than if it were fed whole. 
 
 What a convenient, money-saving machine such a 
 mill would be for a poor man. After his day's work 
 is done, he can grind enough flour, or meal, coarse 
 or fine, in half an hour, to supply his family several 
 days, thus saving his toll and the expense of going to 
 mill. AVith my two-horse railway power, such as is 
 illustrated on page 552, I was accustomed to grind 
 from five to six bushels of hard grain per hour. 
 
 The Advantage of Cooking Feed. — 
 
 " Don't be afraid of steaming feed ; 'tis good for stock — it is, indeed : 
 It helps the organs of digestion, of which there can't be any question." 
 
 Rice's Barn yard Lyrics. 
 
 It has already been suggested, in a preceding para- 
 graph, that grain can not nourish animals, until the ker- 
 nels are crushed. And even then, the fragments are 
 so compact, that before the juices of the stomach can 
 dissolve them, in many instances, large particles will be 
 hurried through the bowels undigested. For this rea- 
 son, steaming, or boiling hard feed, will soften the com- 
 pact fragments, thus rendering the nourishment avail- 
 able. The globules constituting meal, flour and starch, 
 whether contained in grain or roots, are incapable of 
 affording any nourishment as animal food, until they 
 are thoroughly softened and macerated. These glob- 
 ules vary in different roots, tubers and seeds. Those of 
 potato starch for instance, are usually from fifteen ten- 
 thousandths to the four-thousandth part of an inch. 
 Those of wheat rarely exceed the two-thousandth part 
 of an inch, and so on. No mechanical method of 
 
THE ADVANTAGE OF COOKING FEED. 627 
 
 breaking or grinding, is more than partially efficient. 
 The most efficient means of breaking the globules is 
 by heat, by fermentation, or by the chemical agency 
 of acids or alkalies. Although the fragments of these 
 shells are not nutritive, they are indispensable to com- 
 plete digestion, either from their distending the stom- 
 ach, or from some other cause not understood, it hav- 
 ing been found by experiment that concentrated nour- 
 ishment, such as sugar or essence of beef, can not long 
 sustain life, without some mixture of coarser or less 
 nutritive food. There is always an agreeable stimu- 
 lus in the proper distention of one's stomach with light 
 and bulky food. The economical preparation therefore 
 of all food containing globules or fecula, consists in 
 perfectly breaking the shells, and rendering the dex- 
 trine contained in them soluble and digestible, while 
 the fragments of the shells are at the same time ren- 
 dered more bulky, so as the more readily to fill the 
 stomach. It will always pay a satisfactory profit, to 
 steam most kinds of meal, especially when it is to be 
 fed to fattening animals. 
 
 There is a great gain in having it ground and 
 cooked or scalded. No grain should be fed without 
 one or both of these being done, as animals are more 
 quiet and contented, and therefore gain flesh much 
 faster. I am confident that food is as much better for 
 swine and cattle, for being cooked, as it is for man. 
 When animals are first put up for fattening, care 
 should be taken that grain of great nutritive proper- 
 ties should be fed with caution, as the appetite is gen- 
 erally great, and overfeeding them with such grain will 
 hurt them. The best plan that I know of, is to mix 
 
628 todd's countet homes. 
 
 lighter grains and have them all ground together. 
 Corn-meal possesses great nutritive properties, and 
 animals will fatten faster on it than almost any other 
 grain ; but it will not answer to feed them wholly on 
 this for a great length of time. In connection with 
 every piggery there should be an apparatus for steam- 
 ing or boiling, where the several articles of food can be 
 prepared and tempered with economy and ease. Ap- 
 ples are excellent for feeding swine, and if boiled or 
 steamed and mixed with corn and cob-meal, will be 
 found to contribute essentially to the economy of fat- 
 tening not only of swine,, but of other animals. Many 
 farmers feed only their best and most valuable grains 
 and vegetables, and feed them raw. In this way a 
 much larger quantity of food is required than would 
 be necessary, were the food prepared by boiling or 
 steaming. Indian corn fed whole is always an expen- 
 sive article in fattening any animal, and those who rely 
 upon it exclusively for making pork, must not be sur- 
 prised if their meat costs them more per pound thar^ 
 the same is worth in the market. Many farmers are 
 aware that the corn consumed by an animal, will, if 
 sold in the market at the common price, purchase more 
 pork than it will make. But by selecting poor corn, 
 grinding it into meal, and cooking it either by boiling 
 or steaming, and wdien convenient, mixing it with 
 boiled potatoes, turnips, beets, carrots or pumpkins, all 
 of which are highly nutritious and salutary in their 
 effects upon the general health, a very considerable 
 and important saving may be made, and the pork, in- 
 stead of being an expensive article of food, will be 
 rendered an economical one. I have experimented so 
 
FATTENING SWINE. 629 
 
 extensively with raw versus steamed feed, that I have 
 no doubts at all when I affirm that swine and poultry 
 will thrive more satisfactorily on sixteen bushels of 
 cooked meal, than on twenty-four of uncooked. 
 Fattening Swine. — 
 
 " The well-fed, lazy swine, recumbent in the sty, 
 Tui'ns in his lair and nestles warm and dry." — ^Edwards. 
 
 When hogs begin to take on flesh rapidly, and it 
 is desirable, as it always should be, to hasten their fat- 
 tening, as much as possible, it is necessary to exercise 
 no little caution in giving them their food, lest they be- 
 come cloyed. When the appetite once becomes really 
 satiated, we may at once abandon the idea of making 
 pork very rapidly. The appetite should be watched 
 with great vigilance, and should always be kept keen. 
 No more food should be given at one time, than will 
 be immediately consumed. When a hog will come 
 readily to his trough, and eat his allowance greedily, 
 and lick his trough, the quantity of food may be in- 
 creased a little. But be careful ! One or two handfuls 
 of meal too much, will do mischief Better hear them 
 squeal a little, than to see them come to their trough 
 with indifference, and root over their food a little, and 
 return to their nest without eating. When hogs are 
 fed at one meal, about as much as their stomachs can 
 digest, let the quantity be increased a little, at one 
 feeding. If that quantity is devoured readily, feed 
 that quantity for a number of days, then as soon as 
 they exhibit signs of quitting the trough before it is 
 all licked up clean, let the quantity be diminished a lit- 
 tle, from the last feeding. The greatest regularity 
 should be observed in giving swine their meals. When 
 the hour arrives for their accustomed meal, and they 
 
630 todd's country homes. 
 
 are compelled to fret and squeal an hour or two, or 
 more, for their dinner, the digestive powers will be 
 more or less deranged. Then if the appetite is some- 
 what delicate, which is often the case, it will be a long 
 time before they can be made to eat well again. What- 
 ever may be the food, the quantity, to a half pint, 
 should be observed. Throwing to them an ear of corn, 
 a few apples, or a little swill, to induce them to come 
 to the trough between meals, should never be done. 
 Feeding them an extra quantity, when one is expected 
 to be absent at their next meal time, should be stren- 
 uously avoided, as a practice attended with hazardous 
 consequences. If one micst he absent, it is far better 
 to omit one meal, than to feed them in advance. It 
 not unfrequently happens, that fat hogs lose their ap- 
 petite, without any apparent cause, and all efforts to 
 make them eat are vain. At such times, a handful of 
 charcoal dust mingled with their food, or a spoonful of 
 sulphur, or a handful of salt, for one hog will operate 
 like magic. Sometimes a change of diet has the de- 
 sired effect. If unspayed sows refuse to eat, when in 
 heat, if none of the above remedies prove effectual, in 
 restoring their appetite, about two months before they 
 are butchered, they should be allowed to receive the 
 boar. Some sows seldom exhibit any signs of heat, and 
 as a general thing, if sows are kept in a close pen, 
 from the time they are weaned, they will fatten about 
 as well as barrows. If it be possible to make them 
 fatten well without receiving the male, it is best to keep 
 sows from him. When hogs are uneasy and restless, it 
 is a sure sign that they are not thriving as rapidly as 
 they should. But, on the contrary, when they are dis- 
 
sows vs. BAEROWS. 631 
 
 posed to spend most of their time sleeping quietly in 
 their bed, and when they utter the contented grunt, we 
 may rest assured that they are in a very thrifty con- 
 dition. Let the appetite always be kept keen. It is 
 far better to feed somewhat sparingly, so that hogs will 
 become a little hungry, than to be obliged to drive them 
 to the trough. Three times a day is better than four 
 or five times, to give them their allowance. Then, the 
 stomach will have time to rest ; whereas, if they be fed 
 oftener, digestion will not be so complete, as it should 
 be. I am confident that it is far better to require fat- 
 tening swine to eat up every allowance clean, than to 
 allow feed to remain in the trough, so that they may 
 eat a little at any time. It will be found that the ob- 
 servance of these suggestions will more than repay 
 any care or trouble which may be required to put them 
 in practice. 
 
 Sows VERSUS Barrows. — For several years after I 
 commenced farming operations, by myself, my practice 
 was to purchase two pigs in the spring, and keep them 
 in a small, clean pen, until they were ready to be 
 slaughtered. I usually purchased a male and a female 
 pig, as sellers did not like to sell two males, and keep 
 the females. By keeping the sows in a close pen, feed- 
 ing them liberally, with great regularity, I never dis- 
 covered that one of them exhibited any signs of heat. 
 In every instance, the females were heavier, when the 
 two were butchered. If they had been permitted to 
 run at large, no doubt there would have been difficulty 
 in fattening young sows. If kept in a small pen, I 
 would as soon have a young sow to fatten as a barrow. 
 (Read about Making Choice Pork, page 280.) 
 
G32 todd's country homes. 
 
 Swine HroiENE. — 
 
 " 'Tis best for him who is the boss, 
 To shield himself from waste and loss, 
 With his own hands his swine to feed, 
 That all may get just what they need." — Barn-yakd Lyrics. 
 
 A hog is an animal which cannot be " doctored " with 
 any more satisfactory results, than one can doctor a 
 goose when it is ill. It is a rare occurrence for a hog 
 to be sick, when the animal has been properly fed and 
 protected from cold. In all my experience with 
 swine, *I never had a sick hog, except as I fed young 
 pigs cold and uncooked food, soon after they were 
 weaned, which caused them to scour terribly, so that 
 half of one fine brood were lost. In one instance a 
 shote lost the use of one fore-leg, which is a common 
 occurrence, especially for sliotes to become stift' in the 
 limbs, without any apparent cause, commencing in 
 their fore parts generally, and gradually extending over 
 the whole system, until the animal becomes incapable 
 of walking, or even of rising to its feet; and, when 
 disturbed, manifests symptoms of pain, and great re- 
 luctance to make any effort to rise. In order to under- 
 stand the cause of this complaint it is necessary to 
 know that inside of the fore-legs of every hog, there 
 are from five to seven small apertures or openings, 
 from which, when all is right with his pig-ship, exudes 
 an oleaginous fluid, keeping the skin moist and supple, 
 which appears to be an important adjunct to the health 
 of the animal. From some cause (generally local,) 
 these apertures become clogged, the skin dry and 
 chaffy, hard and rigid, wdien stiffiiess of the limbs super- 
 venes, which stiffness gradually extends to the whole 
 body. The remedy is to cleanse the inside of the fore- 
 
TREATMENT FOR SCOURS. C33 
 
 legs of the invalid, scrubbing well with soap-suds and 
 a corn-cob to remove the scales, yet not so hard as to 
 rub off the skin, gently opening the orifices with the 
 end of a smooth knitting-needle, and when dried 
 anointing with a little clean lard. After this, give the 
 animal the benefit of a clean and warm sty, well ven- 
 tilated, with a change of light feed, such as cooked 
 meal, boiled potatoes and warm dish-water, all mingled 
 together, and fed warm. The very best kind of doc- 
 toring is such management as has been indicated on 
 the preceding pages. 
 
 Treatment for Scours. — This complamt is a com- 
 mon one, and it can always be traced to some local 
 cause. The scours is a complaint much to be dreaded. 
 If it is not soon checked, the more robust and vivacious 
 pigs will waste away to an unsightly skeleton, and 
 ultimately die. With pigs of sufficient age to feed at 
 the trough, this is often produced by overfeeding with 
 cold, uncooked meal and swill, or with something of 
 too loosening a nature. But young pigs, that derive 
 their nourishment only from the sow, are also liable to 
 the disease. In such instances, the difficulty must be 
 looked for in the management of the dam. A cold 
 and uncomfortable piggery will often cause the scours. 
 The remedy is, a comfortable bed. Cold and frozen 
 apples and potatoes fed to a sow will often cause every 
 pig to scour terribly. The remedy is to feed cooked 
 food and cow's milk. In case a supply of milk can not 
 be obtained, when pigs exhibit symptoms of this com- 
 plaint, confine them in a clean, roomy pen, and feed 
 them upon a strong decoction of- clover hay, made by 
 boiling, or pouring boiling water upon the heads and 
 
634 todd's country homes. 
 
 leaves of clover hay, into which stir as much oat-meal 
 or wheat flour, unbolted, as will make a thick gruel. 
 But in no case use corn-meal, as it will only aggravate 
 the complaint. By way of variety you may give oc- 
 casionally a little boiled oats with a very good effect. 
 Where the pigs are too young to be treated thus, the 
 sow and her brood must be similarly confined, and sub- 
 jected to the same regimen of living, as the pigs will 
 draw from her udder, the curative properties of the 
 food she eats. But, after all, the very best remedy is 
 a timely preventive by feeding the right quality and 
 kind of food, and providing with a clean and warm sty. 
 When swine are allowed to have the range of an en- 
 closure extending from Chicago to Boston, ever run- 
 ning the gatintlet between barking, biting and worrying 
 curs on one side, and a long line of ill-natured humans 
 on the other side, the proprietor may expect scours, 
 weak hack, and a score of other complaints, which good 
 management, only, will prevent. 
 
CHAPTER XYI. 
 
 REARING AND MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY. 
 
 Denominations of Poultry — A Ton of Poultry — How to Improve Poultry 
 — Management of Sitting Hens— Eggs and their Correct Management 
 — Young Chickens and their Management — Protection from Pirates — 
 Turkeys and their Management — How to make their Nests — The Way 
 to Build a Cheap Poultry House — Remedy for Lice. 
 
 Denominations of Poultky. — 
 
 "See the poultry round the gate, for their morning portion wait: 
 Fill the basket from the store, let us open wide the door. 
 Tlu-ow out crumbs and scatter seed ; let the hungry poultry feed. 
 Call them. See how fast they run — gladly, quickly — every one." 
 
 The word poultry embraces all kinds of domestic 
 fowls. At the markets, poultry is distinguished as live 
 and dressed. Roosters or cocks are the entire males 
 of gallinaceous or " barn-door fowls," and hens are the 
 full grown females, although the word hen properly 
 signifies a female of several other species of fowls. A 
 cock is denominated a rooster to distinguish him as the 
 master of the flock, or " the cock of the walk," from 
 his cotemporaries. The master cock, that often drives 
 every other male from the premises, and prevents 
 their going into the hennery — when he can do so— is 
 called a rooster, because he rules the roost. A capon 
 is a male fowl that was caponized before he had fully 
 matured. A pullet is a young hen, less than a year 
 old. Chick, or chicken, is properly applied to the 
 
636 todd's country homes. 
 
 young of gallinaceous fowls; although young turkeys 
 are often denominated chicks, turkey chicks, or young 
 turkeys. The male of turkeys is called a turkey cock, 
 or gobbler, from the fact that he is such a greedy gor- 
 mandizer when he has access to the soft and delicate 
 feed of the tender chicks. The female turkey is spoken 
 of as a hen, or hen turkey. Two hens and a cock are 
 usually denominated a trio. 
 
 How TO Improve the Breeds of Poultry. — 
 
 " From fairest creatures, we desire increase, 
 That thereby, Beauty's rose may never die ; 
 And, as the riper should by time decrease, j 
 His tender heir might bear his memory." 
 
 Sonnets by Shakespeare. 
 
 A person needs and must have a correct understand- 
 ing of the general principles of breeding domestic ani- 
 mals, before he can expect to have his efforts to im- 
 prove poultry, crowned with satisfactory success. He 
 must understand the principles of breeding sufficiently 
 well to know when like will produce like, and also 
 when like will not produce like. Read the suggestions 
 touching the breeding of domestic animals, in the 
 chapters on horses, cattle, sheep, and swine. The gen- 
 eral principles alluded to in those places, will be found 
 quite as apjDlicable and reliable in instructing the be- 
 ginner, in the breeding and rearing of all kinds of 
 poultry, as in the breeding of quadrupeds. Success 
 will depend on a correct beginning. 
 
 The first inquiry usually is, when one is about to 
 commence rearing poultry : " Which, among the many 
 improved breeds, will be found the more profitable?" 
 Several breeders of gallinaceous fowls have attempted 
 to answer this question, so that beginners could see 
 
HOW TO IMPEOVE THE BREEDS OF POULTRY. 637 
 
 their way to success, as it appeared to themselves. 
 But, in most instances, it has turned out that the test 
 of merit with every writer, has been the particular 
 breed of fowls which he has made preparations for sell- 
 ing. For this reason, when a beginner inquires of a 
 poultry fancier as to which breed will be found the 
 most profitable, the interested counselors will advise, 
 by all means, to purchase the Crevecoeurs, the Polands, 
 the Black Spanish, the Brahmas, or some other breed, 
 or variety in which he may possess some pecuniary in- 
 terest. Unfortunately for beginners, no one has ever 
 given the world the results of a long and well con- 
 ducted experiment in rearing the various breeds side 
 by side, from which one could perceive, at a glance, 
 w^hich breed will give the most satisfactory returns, the 
 management being the same. Therefore, beginners will 
 be under the necessity of starting off according to the 
 dictates of their own judgment, or the counsel of some 
 one who has met with satisfactory success in the rear- 
 ing and management of a certain breed, or cross be- 
 tween breeds. If one has a clear conception of the 
 object to be attained in the management of poultry, it 
 will not be difficult to decide as to the breed, or the 
 variety to be reared. 
 
 One may make a beginning with the assurance of 
 satisfactory success, in the following manner. Select a 
 few thrifty and beautiful hens, not more than one year 
 old, as hens when three years old have lost their ac- 
 customed prolificacy. It will not pay to expend large 
 sums of money for hens of some improved breed, or for 
 eggs that have been laid by mongrels. Next, get a 
 thorough-bred rooster, if one can be found, without 
 
638 todd's country homes. 
 
 paying more than the entire flock will be worth at the 
 end of the year. With such a beginning, a judicious 
 manager will be able to produce as many eggs, and as 
 many pounds of poultry, as if he had paid $50 per 
 head for a quarto or octavo of some breed of unrivaled 
 celebrity. 
 
 The next consideration will be the management. 
 Success will depend on the man, or the person, who 
 takes care of the flock. If poultry are provided with 
 comfortable quarters in cold weather, with a liberal 
 supply of nutritious food and an ample range of yard, 
 all the requirements of success will be met, and there 
 will be no such thing as a failure in poultry raising. 
 But the details must be attended to with the accuracy 
 of a reliable clock, or one may look, labor, and wait in 
 vain for the rewards of his industry. Fowls will not 
 breed satisfactorily, and they cannot lay early and late 
 in the season, when they must sit shivering all the live- 
 long night. This will be found a reliable test, if an 
 animal of any kind is in such uncomfortable quarters 
 that he shivers most of the time with cold, the feed 
 may as well be cast into the manure yard. After the 
 first flock of chickens has matured, select the fairest 
 and most beautiful pullets, exchange roosters with some 
 neighbor who exercises great care iir the management 
 of his poultry, and thus prevent any deterioration in 
 the fowls. Well-bred mongrels will always produce 
 more eggs, and yield a larger quantity of meat, than 
 fowls of any pure breed, on the same principle that the 
 finest and heaviest fat bullocks that were ever received 
 in the New York market, were grades rather than full- 
 blooded animals. Nature will concentrate in one or 
 
MANAGEMENT OF TURKEYS. 639 
 
 two roosters a larger proportion of the desirable points 
 to be developed, than in other members of the brood. 
 In many instances, a portion of the roosters do not 
 seem to know enough to go to roost at sundown, unless 
 the motherly hen will cluck the lead. Such roosters 
 are not fit for breeders. On the contrary, there is a 
 forward and wide-awake chap. He gets off a proud 
 " cuck-adoo-do " almost before he has torn away from 
 his mother's apron strings. And before he is half 
 grown he refuses to run for the old rooster. That is 
 the rooster to select for a breeder, as he will transmit 
 more good points to his posterity than any other 
 chicken in the flock. (Read Denominations of Poultry, 
 p. 635.) 
 
 Management of Turkeys. — 
 
 "Pe, pe, PE ! O, pray, wait for me, 
 Says the turkey brood, as plain as can be. 
 Gobble, gobble, gobble ! away let us hobble, 
 Says the strutting cock, with a haughty wabble. 
 So they cackle and crow, hiss, gobble and blow, 
 All shrieking at once, both high and low." 
 
 If a person does not understand the management of 
 turkeys, he will wish he had never made an effort to 
 rear a flock, long before the first bird is large enough 
 for a Christmas dinner. It requires nice tact, and in- 
 timate knowledge of the habits and requirements of 
 fowls, to succeed satisfactorily, in rearing turkeys. If 
 one starts wrongly, every thing will continue to (jo 
 wrong and unsatisfactory. 
 
 If turkeys are half fed, and are compelled to roost on 
 trees during the winter, when the spring opens they 
 will be like a cow or an ox that has been compelled to 
 subsist on little else besides straw all winter; and they 
 will be prepared to lay only a very limited number of 
 
640 todd's country homes. 
 
 eggs; whereas, had they been protected from the 
 intense cold, as hens usually are, and kept in good con- 
 dition until spring, they would roll out the eggs nearly 
 equal to the good old hen of Mother Grimes. 
 
 Another cause of failure, in raising turkeys with 
 profit and good success, is in-and-in hreeding, in a very 
 injudicious manner. Many people pay no attention 
 whatever to changing their gobblers, hens, or their 
 eggs, but breed from the same, year after year, and the 
 consequence often is, the turkeys become diminutive in 
 size and less prolific, every season. In most instances, 
 the hest gobblers are sold, and the i^oorest retained as 
 breeders. Another cause of failure in attempting to 
 raise turkeys, is, commencing too early in the season. 
 Young turkeys are as feeble and tender as a feeble 
 eoslins:, and cannot endure cold or wet: and even 
 when allowed to run about in the wet grass, they 
 hardly recover from the injury received by it during 
 the warm day. They like a warm place, a clean place, 
 and a dry and airy place, where they can bask in the 
 warm rays of the sun, and run about sufficiently to 
 give them healthful exercise, and where they will not 
 be compelled to chase their mother all day, instead of 
 being hovered by her. Another cause is the kind and 
 quality of food which is fed to them, while they are 
 very young. Thousands upon thousands of young 
 turkeys have been killed almost right out, simply by 
 improper food. By keeping turkeys well, giving them 
 a variety of good food and water every day ; by keep- 
 ing them in a warm place during the cold weather of 
 fall, winter and spring, we render them far more prolific 
 than they would be if they were half-frozen and half- 
 
MANAGEMENT OF SITTING HENS. 641 
 
 starved in cold weather. This is a very important 
 consideration in raising turkeys. When they are only 
 half-fed, and not protected, they will not lay as early 
 in the season as desirable; and when they do begin 
 to lay, they will produce only a few eggs before they 
 want to sit. 
 
 Management of Sitting Hens. — 
 
 " Cluck, cluck, cluck ; I wish you much luck, 
 Said a motherly hen, to a sitting duck." 
 
 There is any amount of stupid management of valu- 
 able hens, during the period of incubation. Instead of 
 being permitted to sit where hens are liable to be 
 molested frequently, by those that are laying, each one 
 should be provided with a good nest, in an apartment, 
 where none but sitting hens are allowed to enter. As 
 soon as a hen seems really in earnest about incubation, 
 make a fresh nest for her in one half of a nail-keg, 
 sawed in two equal parts. Put a couple of quarts of 
 ashes in the bottom, then make a neat nest, with Jflax- 
 haum, or swingling-tow, filling the tub about half way 
 to the brim. Do not make a deep nest, like a large 
 punch-bowl, so deep that eggs will often rest one above 
 the other, at the middle of the nest. Bat, make a 
 hroad nest with only sufficient concavity to cause the 
 eggs to roll towards the center. Put in as many eggs 
 as the hen will cover well, place her at night on the 
 nest, and carry the tub to .some quiet apartment, 
 where she will not be molested by day, and where she 
 will be secure from nocturnal marauders. Such an 
 apartment should be light and comfortable, as sitting 
 hens should not be exposed in a cold and airy place. 
 If a granary is as light as it should be, carry all the 
 sitting hens into the alley of the granary. Then, let 
 
 41 
 
642 todd's country homes. 
 
 them have access to a dish of water, and another vessel 
 containmg boiled oats, and some other soft feed. 
 Management^ of Young Chickens. — 
 
 " Chick, chick, chick, pray, come along quick ! 
 I hold in my hands a nice crumb you may pick." 
 
 . After a hen has begun to hatch, so long as she will 
 remain on her nest, it will be better to allow the chicks 
 to stay in her warm feathers. But if she is uneasy, 
 let the young birds be taken away, and put in a basket 
 of wool or feathers, and hung up over the stove, where 
 they will be comfortable until she has finished hatch- 
 ing. Very few young chickens, or young turkeys, are 
 alloAved to die for want of food ; while immense num- 
 bers are seriously injured by cramming their little 
 crops with food that they did not need, and also with 
 unsuitable nourishment, even if the birds were hungry. 
 Most people seem to think that because the young of 
 mammiferous animals desire nourishment as soon as 
 they are born, chickens and all kinds of birds should 
 have something to eat so soon as they burst the shell. 
 But such a conclusion is an egregious error. Young 
 birds of the air, and the young of gallinaceous fowls, 
 do not require food until they are more than twenty- 
 four hours old. Strange as it may appear, a wise pro- 
 vision has been made for the nourishment of the young 
 birds. Just before the little chick bursts its shell, the 
 yolk of the egg, out of which the bird is hatched, is 
 drawn through an opening in the breast into the crop. 
 This is a wonderful provision of Dame Nature, for 
 maintaining the life of a young bird, until the animal 
 instinct is so perfectly developed as to enable it to 
 choose proper food and to reject that which is hurtful. 
 Then, after the yolk in the crops of the young chicks 
 
HOW TO MAKE TUKKEYS' NESTS. 643 
 
 is digested, another yolk should be provided for them. 
 They need soft, tender, delicate food. Think, for a 
 moment, how wonderfully successful our domestic pig- 
 eons or doves are, in rearing their young ones — a pair 
 every month. Were they to feed their young with 
 rough, hard food, they would never rear a single bird. 
 For this reason, they prepare "dove's milk" for their 
 tender offspring, by taking the choicest food they can 
 find into their own crops, mingling water with it, trit- 
 urating, macerating, soaking, and stirring it up, thus 
 producing a rich, delicate fluid, which they disgorge 
 into the throats of the young doves. Taking the hint 
 from this fact, we are taught the eminent importance 
 of preparing soft, delicate, and nourishing food for 
 young chickens. Graham flour, cooked and made thin 
 with milk, is one of the best kinds of feed for all kinds 
 of young chickens or turkeys. Some Indian meal may 
 be cooked with the Graham. But avoid all coarse and 
 raw feed for young chickens. Curd is still better. 
 Everything that has been salted, should be kept away 
 from young chickens and young turkeys. But the first 
 food that young birds of any kind should receive, is 
 boiled eggs. After an egg is boiled, cut the shell in 
 two equal parts, and place the pieces where the young 
 chickens can have access to the soft and rich food. 
 
 How TO Make Turkeys' Nests. — If turkeys be 
 kept as directed, during cold weather, they will begin 
 to lay, in ordinary seasons, the last of March. Their 
 natural disposition leads them to seek nests in wood- 
 lands, away from the farm-house. This should be pre- 
 vented. Their natural enemies are crows and hawks, 
 foxes and skunks, minks and rats, and other nocturnal 
 
644 todd's country homes. 
 
 marauders. The fox steals the turkey, the latter the 
 eggs. And where these annuals abound, the chance of 
 escape from the one or the other is about one in five, 
 or one in two, according to locality. Crows will often 
 watch laying turkeys for a long time ; and as soon as 
 the new egg is left, the sable robber will seize his booty 
 and bear it away in triumph. Before the hens begin 
 to show a disposition to wander away to find nests, 
 suitable nests should be provided. After a turkey has 
 once made a nest, it will be almost impossible to induce 
 her to lay elsewhere. 
 
 The best way of making nests for turkeys is to 
 knock half of one head out of a barrel ; drive four 
 stakes into the ground, two feet apart one way, and one 
 foot apart the other way ; lay the barrel down on the 
 top, and then drive a nail down through the staves 
 into the top of each stake. If foxes dwell in the 
 region, the stakes should be three feet high. Let the 
 stakes, be driven in some secluded nook, to gratify the 
 secretiveness of the turkey. Then drive down four 
 small stakes before the entrance, and nail a bit of brush 
 across the top, in the form of the letter T, so that a 
 turkey can walk slyly up to the barrel-head without 
 flying, and leave her nest also without flying or making 
 any noise. Now, put a lot of hay and straw in the 
 barrel; set up old pieces of rails, limbs of trees, and 
 brush, all around, and over the barrel, except a narrow 
 entrance, which should be on the rear side. If ever- 
 green branches can be hung all over the barrel, except 
 a small part of the entrance, so as to leave nothing that 
 will create suspicion that a barrel or a box is within, a 
 turkey will march straight to the secret nook and take 
 
A RUSTIC POULTRY-HOUSE. 
 
 645 
 
 possession. Let several nests be prepared in the same 
 manner, in clumps of bushes, or in corners of fields. 
 
 A Cheap Rustic Hennery. — The accompanying per- 
 spective represents a cheap, comfortable, and spacious 
 poultry-house, which any farmer, or mechanic can 
 make, who has round poles and straw, without any 
 sawed lumber, except for the window-frames, doors, 
 and door-frames. And, even the doors may be made 
 
 A RUSTIC POULTRY-HOUSE. 
 
 in a neat manner, without a piece of board, or a nail, 
 by employing wooden hinges, for the arms, to which 
 straight pieces of split, or round timber may be pinned 
 with wooden pins ; and the surface of the wooden 
 frames, on both the inside and outside, may-be covered 
 with long straw lashed to the strips. 
 
 Eggs and their Management. — An egg that is 
 properly impregnated, is a living and breathing ex- 
 istence. Let the shell be covered with a coating of 
 oil, or varnish, so as to render the pores air-tight, thus 
 preventing respiration, and the hen may pass her en- 
 tire life in a state of incubation, without being able 
 to hatch a single chick. Let nits on the hair of 
 
646 todd's countey homes. 
 
 domestic animals be smeared with oleaginous material, 
 such as soft grease, or oil, and they will never hatch, 
 simply because there is vitality within the shell, which 
 cannot be developed for want of the infinitesimally 
 small quantity of air requisite to the maintenance 
 of the embryotic existence. If we break the shell 
 of a pullet's egg, and turn the contents carefully out, 
 the germ will appear in the form of a small, light- 
 colored speck floating in the glair, or white portion of 
 the egg. If an egg has not been impregnated, this 
 germ will not be seen. 
 
 Eggs foe Sitting. — Turkeys' eggs, geese eggs, and 
 the eggs of other fowls, should be removed from the 
 nest soon after they are laid, the date marked on the 
 shell with red chalk or a lead pencil, and be placed in 
 a receptacle, on the small end. Oats, or bran, are good 
 to stand the eggs in. Then let the eggs be kept in a 
 cool and dry place. Let the older ones be used first. 
 Every week, the eggs should be turned the other end 
 up. In some instances, however, where it is known 
 that only one hen is laying in an excellent place for 
 her to sit, it will be just as well to allow the eggs to 
 remain in the nest. 
 
 How TO Keep Eggs Fkesh. — As I have already 
 shown, an egg-shell is so porous that air will pass 
 through it, and aqueous vapor will escape from the 
 egg. Eggs are composed of more than half a dozen 
 chemical ingredients, some of which are very volatile. 
 Hence, the atmosphere with its powerful agencies, 
 works quickly upon the contents of the porous shell. 
 Now, then, in order to render the shell perfectly air- 
 tight, if eggs be put in solution, no matter what it is, 
 
HOW TO KEEP EGGS FEESH. 647 
 
 they will absorb it. If put in dry measures, the albu- 
 men will escape by transpiration through the shell. 
 The egg has been coated with every conceivable com- 
 position, even in solid stone, and galvanized ; and yet 
 the watery material would escape. The philosophy of 
 this is, that there is air in the egg before it is treated, 
 and this uniting its oxygen and carbon, produces de- 
 composition by carbonic acid gas. The yolk of the egg 
 first yields; then follows the destruction. Eggs are 
 naturally designed to last as long as the hen requires 
 to get her brood, and the life germ can be preserved 
 only a few weeks. The egg itself may be kept in a 
 preserved state for two years, by greasing with tallow 
 and lard. But from the time it is thus put up, to the 
 end of two years, it will lose its albumen by transpira- 
 tion; and while its carbonic acid escapes to a certain 
 extent, the egg meat will be reduced so that it will 
 shake. For culinary purposes, such eggs will do very 
 well. But we want a whole egg, not a half one, and 
 we want it fresh. The theory always has been, and 
 still is, that to keep an egg fresh the air must be 
 excluded. This is the only philosophical treatment of 
 it, that can be made. Many old eggs will rattle, when 
 shaken, even when they are still good. If held near a 
 lighted lamp, in a dark room, the contents of the shell 
 will appear as good as if the egg had just been laid. 
 But such eggs are stale, '^o fresh egg will rattle when 
 shaken. The best way to keep eggs fresh that I have 
 ever tried is to melt equal quantities of lard and tallow ; 
 keep it as warm as the liquid can be, without scalding 
 one's finger; dip the eggs in the liquid as they are 
 held in a wire spoon ; put them in a tight keg, and 
 
G48 todd's country homes. 
 
 keep it in a cool and dry cellar. Every egg will be 
 smeared neatly, with an impervious coating of such 
 material as will do no harm should a little get into the 
 food with which eggs are mingled after the shells 
 are broken. 
 
 Constant Access to Food. — Every observing per- 
 son knows that fowls want to be eating, at brief inter- 
 vals, during the entire day. The philosophy of their 
 eating so frequentlj^, and but a little at a time, is, the 
 food must have a sufficient time to become softened in 
 the crop before it passes into the gizzard, where it is to 
 be thoroughly ground and digested ; whereas, when 
 fowls are not allowed to have access to their food, but 
 are fed once or twice a day, they become very hungry, 
 and swallow as much as their crops will hold at one feed- 
 ing. Now, for several hours, no food will be sufficiently 
 softened to pass into the gizzard. Consequently, their 
 grist-mill must stand idle. Soon the moistened grain 
 will swell, and distend the crop, so that the bird will feel 
 by no means comfortable. Shortly, all the food in the 
 crop will be in the proper condition to be ground, and 
 the result is, that it is forced through the gizzard, with 
 so much rapidity, that it is not half ground, and, there- 
 fore, can not be half digested. Then, if it is not half 
 digested,, of course, not half the nutriment, or egg-pro- 
 ducing material, can be extracted from it. Nor is this 
 the greatest drawback attending feeding fowls only 
 once or twice a day. When a fowl fills its crop at 
 one feeding, before the food can possibly be passed 
 through the gizzard, it begins to heat up, and ferment. 
 Then derangement and indigestion follow, very much 
 as is the case when we fill our stomachs as full as they 
 
REMEDY FOR LICE. 649 
 
 can be crammed. When fowls have access to grain 
 all the time, we see them eat in the morning only 
 a few kernels at a time, and after an hour or so, they 
 will take a few kernels more, and thus they pass the 
 entire day by eating a little at a time, and very often. 
 
 Remedy for Lice. — Let fowls have access to a sand- 
 bank, and they will not be troubled with lice. If the 
 sand is only dry, they will fill their- feathers full of 
 sand, then run a few yards from the sand-box, shake 
 themselves violently, when the lice will all be flirted 
 out of the feathers with the sand. Lice find very un- 
 comfortable quarters, when they are envelojDed in sand. 
 But it must be dry, and be kept where rain and snow 
 cannot moisten it. After a few days a flock of lousy 
 jDoultry will remove several bushels of sand from a box. 
 Ashes wall subserve a tolerably fair purpose. But, 
 sand is far superior to anything else. Sand does the 
 work mechanically. Hens get lousy in wet weather, 
 because they have no dry place to dust in. When little 
 chickens get lousy, apply lard, or sweet oil beneath 
 their wings, and about the head. 
 
 When fowls cannot have the advantage of a sand- 
 bed, they should be examined frequently beneath their 
 wings and around the neck and head. In many in- 
 stances, lice will stick around the head and ears of fowls 
 by the score, and the birds cannot remove them. A 
 certain and effectual remedy is an application of fresh 
 lard, or fresh butter, or sweet-oil round about the head 
 and neck, and beneath the wings. Kerosene is also an 
 effectual remedy, as it is sure to kill both poultry and 
 parasites. One teaspoon-ful of fresh lard is sufficient 
 for one fowl. It is better to apply a small quantity 
 
650 todd's country homes. 
 
 every few days, than a large quantity at one time. 
 Lice cannot survive long, where there is only a small 
 quantity of oleaginous matter. 
 
 A TON OF Poultry, at only fifteen cents per pound, 
 will bring the handsome little sum of $300. Almost 
 every farmer in the country might raise from half a ton 
 to a ton every season, about as well as not. The chil- 
 dren, in some instances, with a little encouragement 
 from their parents and guardians, could manage the 
 hens and chickens, until they are all large enough to 
 take care of themselves. It will not cost near as much 
 time, grain, and expense in every other respect, to 
 produce a ton of poultry as to make a ton of beef or 
 mutton, when such meat is produced by feeding much 
 grain. It is usually more economical to raise gallina- 
 ceous fowls than ducks, turkeys, or geese, as duck- 
 lings and turkeys are sometimes exceedingly tender. 
 Chickens can usually be produced with little care and 
 at a trifling expense. But, whatever may be the kind 
 of poultry raised, in order to meet with satisfactory 
 success, it is better to commence improvements in 
 autumn, or the fore part of winter, by selecting young 
 and thrifty fowls; providing a comfortable place for 
 them during the cold weather; keeping them in good 
 condition — not too fat — during the winter; and by 
 managing judiciously in the spring and summer. Then 
 it will be an easy task to raise a ton of poultry, before 
 the succeeding winter. Hundreds of famihes, having 
 several acres of uncultivated ground near their dwell- 
 ings, could rear more than a ton of poultry on the 
 refuse of the kitchen, that is devoured by worthless 
 dogs, and only a few bushels of ground grain. 
 
IISTDEX. 
 
 A. PAOE. 
 
 Abutment "Walls, 84 
 
 Apples, and the Culture of Trees, 450-453 
 
 Asparagus, How to Cultivate, . . . 421 
 
 Aspect, Suggestions about, 72-75 
 
 B 
 
 Balloon Frames, 69, 320 
 
 Barley, Description of and Cultivation, 389-395 
 
 Importance of Clean Seed, 393 
 
 Manner of Harvesting, S99-404 
 
 Making Barley Malt 404, 405 
 
 Barns, Manner of Framing, 239, 240 
 
 Beans, Field and Garden Culture, 421-424 
 
 Culture of Lima, 423 
 
 Beef, Mutton and Pork, How to make, 346, 347 
 
 Beets, How to Cultivate, 424 
 
 Benzole and its Uses, 204 
 
 Blackberries and their Culture, 474, 475 
 
 Braces, Illustrated Tie-brace, 242 
 
 Brackets, How to make Fancy, 296 
 
 Brushes for Painting, Care of, ........ . 202 
 
 Buildings, Location of, 34-36 
 
 The Height of, 103 
 
 The Way to Purchase Materials for, .... 251-255 
 
 Framing by Scribe vs. Square Kule, 255-258 
 
 Buggy, The Illustrated Bridal 297 
 
 Bulls and their Management, 544-546 
 
 Butter, How to make Superb, 537-539 
 
 How to Churn and "Work, 539-642 
 
 Making Yellow in Winter, 543 
 
 c 
 
 Construction of Out-houBes, 347, 348 
 
 Cabbages, How to Cultivate, 449 
 
 Calcimine, How to Make and Apply, 211 
 
 Cattle, Breeding and Rearing, 518 
 
 Common Denominations of, 518 
 
652 INDEX. 
 
 PAOB. 
 
 Cattle, Milch Cows and their Management, 519-52'J 
 
 Pure Water for Cows, 532 
 
 Bulls and their Management, ...... 544-6DG 
 
 How to "Rarey " a Bull, 547 
 
 Calves and their Management, 548-551 
 
 Stock from Hay to Grass, 553, 554 
 
 Fattening old Cows and Oxen 555-5G0 
 
 Carrots, Cultivation of, 417-419 
 
 Cauliflowers, How to Cultivate, 447,448 
 
 Cellars, and how to Make, 77-89 
 
 Cementing the Floor of, 292 
 
 Regulating the Temperature of, 94 
 
 Celery, How to Cultivate, 426 
 
 Cisterns, How to Build, . . . 227-231 
 
 Clover, Description and Cultivation of, 379-389 
 
 Concrete Walls, How to Build, 154-158 
 
 Contracts of Builders, 97 
 
 Corn, Indian, and its Cultivation, 440-443 
 
 Gauge Marker, 444 
 
 Cornice for a Cheap Building, 2C 1 
 
 Cottage, The Pioneer's, 108 
 
 At " Sea-side Park," 158 
 
 Perspective of Morning Glory, 161 
 
 Poor Man's, 114 
 
 Tlie Hazel-Dell, 120 
 
 Persjjective of Clerk's, 165 
 
 For a Mechanic, 172 
 
 Cultivator for Garden, illustrated, 416 
 
 Currants, their Cultivation, etc., 47(M172 
 
 Management of Old Bushes, 472, 473 
 
 D 
 
 Dirt-Catcher, Automatic, 141 
 
 Doors, How to make Panel, 294, 295 
 
 How to make Batten, 147, 148 
 
 How to make Air-tight, 149 
 
 Draining of Wet Land, 334-336 
 
 Economy, Domestic, etc., 273 
 
 Egg Plants and their Management, 424-426 
 
 Eggs and their Management, 645-648 
 
 F 
 
 Farm, Plotting and Laying out the, 46-49 
 
 Outfit of a Small 380,331 
 
 Farms, Large versus Small, 328, 329 
 
 Farmer, a Fiddling, 275 
 
 Learning to be a • • • • 331-832 
 
INDEX. 653 
 
 PAOB. 
 
 Farming, Commencing Operations, . . 276 
 
 Farm -mill, Hand, illustrated, 624 
 
 Feet, Remedy for Cold, 316-318 
 
 Fodder, Steaming for Stock, 626 
 
 Cutters, illustrated, 551 
 
 Cutting by Horse-power, 552 
 
 Flooring, Management of, 160-162 
 
 Gr 
 
 Garden, The Kitchen, and Management of, 407, 414 
 
 Glossary, The Builders' 17 
 
 Grain, Grinding for Domestic Animals, 621-623 
 
 Grapes, Their Cultivation, etc., 476-481 
 
 Management of Old Vines, 481, 482 
 
 Gooseberries, How to Cultivate, 469, 470 
 
 Gutters, Eave-troughs and Spouting, 145 
 
 H 
 
 Hams, How to Manage, 282 
 
 Harness, Our Bridal, 296 
 
 Oiling and Varnishing, 297 
 
 Home, How to Choose a, 30 
 
 Salutary Influences of 32, 33 
 
 Horses, Denominations of, 483 
 
 Choice of Stallions, 484-486 
 
 Choosing for Agricultural Purposes, 486, 487 
 
 Selecting Breeding Mares, 487, 488 
 
 Management of Brood Mares, 490-492 
 
 Foal, Colts and their Management, 493-499 
 
 Feeding and Stable Management, 499-504 
 
 Rejuvenating Old Horses, 504 
 
 Overdriving and Watering, 506-511 
 
 Stables and Blankets, 512-514 
 
 Hobbling of, illustrated 516 
 
 Horse-power, Railway, illustrated, 552 
 
 Horticulture, and Pomology, 407 
 
 General Principles of, 411, 412 
 
 House, Beginning to Build a, 50 
 
 Preliminaries for Building, 52-54 
 
 Where to Locate, 40-45 
 
 Horace Greeley's, 35 
 
 Site for Summer Residence, 36-39 
 
 How to Build a Cheap, 106 
 
 Planning and Building My Own, 282 
 
 How to Build a Cobble Stone, 168-170 
 
 How I Built without Money, 287-294 
 
 How to Compute the Cost of, . . . . < . . 75, 76 
 How to Paint an Old, 199, 200 
 
654 INDEX. 
 
 X TACK. 
 
 Ice and Ice-Houses, 319-327 
 
 Insects, How to Exterminate, 465 
 
 Inventions, Saving Money in New, 306-309 
 
 J 
 
 Joists, The Best Form of, 100 
 
 K 
 
 Kitchen, The Laborer's, 55 
 
 M 
 
 Maid's Money, The Old, . . . , 277 
 
 Melons and Squashes and their Culture, 427-481 
 
 Milk, Maintaining a full Flow of, 522-524 
 
 How to Milk Correctly, 527-528 
 
 Mortar, Machine for Mixing, 183 
 
 Hydraulic, how made, . , 189-191 
 
 Handling in Freezing Weather, 191, 192 
 
 Muff, How I paid for my Wife's, 303-305 
 
 N 
 Nails, How to Use and Anneal, 249-261 
 
 o 
 
 Oats, Description and Cultivation, 362-369 
 
 When to Cut and Manner of Harvesting, 369-373 
 
 Orchard, How to Plant Trees, 450, 451 
 
 When and How to Prune, 457-462 
 
 P 
 
 Painting, The Philosophy of, . 193 
 
 Buildings and Implements, 194 
 
 Paint, Materials for making, . 196, 197 
 
 Various Colors, 201, 202 
 
 Paper, How to Hang on Walls, 212-214 
 
 Parsnips, How to Cultivate, . 419, 420 
 
 Patents, How to Obtain Letters, 309-312 
 
 Peas, Culture of Field and Garden, ....... 432,433 
 
 Pipe, Making Cement Water, 225-227 
 
 How to make Wooden, 233, 234 
 
 Lead of various size, 235-238 
 
 Plowing, How to Plow Deep, 339-341 
 
 Pork, How to make Choice, 280, 281 
 
 Potatoes, Irish, Culture of, 444-447 
 
 Horse-planter, etc., 446 
 
 Poultry, Rearing and Management of, 635 
 
 Common Denominations of, 635 
 
 Management of Sitting Hens, 641 
 
 Rustic Hennery, illustrated, 645 
 
 Management of Young Chickens, 642, 643 
 
 Putty, How to make, 206, 207 
 
INDEX. 655 
 
 J{, PACK. 
 
 Raspberries and their Culture, 474 
 
 notation of Crops, 346, 346 
 
 Roofs, Reshingling Old, 143, 144 
 
 How to Raise Higher, 145 
 
 Portable Staging for, 205, 206 
 
 Rje, Description and Culture, 374-379 
 
 s 
 
 Sheep, Rearing and Management, 565 
 
 Common Denominations of, 565 
 
 Selecting Stock Rams, 566, 567 
 
 Choosing the Best for Breeders, 568 
 
 Management of Ewes and Lambs, 569-575 
 
 General Management of, 577-579 
 
 How to Handle, and Remedy for Dogs, .... 580, 581 
 
 Feeding Sheep Profitably, 583-586 
 
 Making Fancy Mutton, 586-589 
 
 Washing and Shearing, 590, 591 
 
 Winter Management, and Tagging, 595-597 
 
 Shoes, Care and Management of, 312-314 
 
 How to make to Fit the Feet, 315, 316 
 
 Sleigh and Bridal Cutter, 300-302 
 
 Soil, Maintaining the Fertility of, 342-345 
 
 Squashes and Melons, How to Cultivate, 427-431 
 
 Stairs, How to Build Circular, 290, 291 
 
 Stock, General Management of, 561 
 
 Best kind of Food for Fattening, 562 
 
 Strawberries, Management of, 473^ 474 
 
 Swine, Rearing and Management, 699 
 
 Common Denominations of, 599 
 
 Great Value of, 600-601 
 
 Rules for Crossing different Breeds, 602-604 
 
 How to Select the Best Pigs, 605-607 
 
 Sows and their Management, 609-613 
 
 Sows and Pigs, Management of, 613-616 
 
 The Piggery, Doors and Trough, 617, 618 
 
 Neat Habits of Swine, 619, 620 
 
 Manner of Fattening, 629-631 
 
 Sows vs. Barrows, Swine Hygiene, 631, 632 
 
 Syphon, Practical Advantages of, 224 
 
 System, a Renovating, 333, 334 
 
 T 
 
 Tar, Coal Tar and Tar Paint, 204 
 
 Teams, Arranging Double, . . . . ' 342 
 
 Timber, Preservation of, . . 153, 154 
 
 Working Seasoned, . . 100-103 
 
656 INDEX. 
 
 PAOB. 
 
 Timber, How to Scarf, . . 245 
 
 Selecting Durable or Perishable, 246-249 
 
 Tomatoes, and their Cultivation, 434-436 
 
 Trees, Economy in Growing, 48-50 
 
 Tricks of Joiners, 95-97 
 
 Transplanter, How to Transplant, 416, 416 
 
 Turkeys, Rearing and Management, 639-641 
 
 How to make tlieir Nests, 643, 644 
 
 Turnips and their Cultivation, 436-440 
 
 V 
 
 Varnish, How to Apply it, 203 
 
 Ventilation, Thorough of Living-rooms, 263, 264 
 
 Natural Means of, 265, 266 
 
 Cold Air Better than Hot, 266, 267 
 
 Suggestions About Night Air, 268-270 
 
 How to Ventilate, 272 
 
 Villa, Perspective of the Author's, 283 
 
 Cheap Italian, 122 
 
 An Oyster-sliell, 127 
 
 w 
 
 Watering Plants Correctly, 463, 46^ 
 
 Weeds, Great Utihty of, . . . . ' 414 
 
 Wells, How to Dig and Stone, 215-224 
 
 Windows, Sash and Glass, . . 150, 151 
 
 How to Paint and Glaze, 206 
 
 Wind-mills for Raising Water 231,232 
 
 Wheat, Description and Cultivation of, 349, 362 
 
 Culture of Spring, 364 
 
 The Best Soil for, 357, 358 
 
 Whitewash, How to make, etc., 210, 211 
 
N'