11 Class _Li.lli. Book . 'B 5 6 Copyright 1^^ COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. Science of Education BY RICHARD CAUSE BOONE, A.M., Ph.D, author of "education in the united states" and "education in Indiana" NEW YORK CHARLES SCEIBNER'S SONS 1904 LIBI«»RV "f CONGRESS TWo CoDtes Recirtved JUL 80 1904 HiTleht Entry ^ ^ - /^ /? f IL XXo. No. t I I f ^ COPY B COPTKIGDT, 1904, BY CHARLES SCRIBNBR'8 SONS P<;& Co THE STUDENTS AND TEACHERS WHO HAVE FOLLOWED THESE DISCUSSIONS IN THE PAST IN COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY CLASS-ROOMS, AND TO THE LARGER PUBLIC WHOSE ENCOUR- AGEMENT HAS HELPED THE AUTHOR TO CONFI- DENCE IN THEM, THIS VOLUME IS DEDICATED PREFACE This volume, both in matter and method, has grown out of many years' use of the discussions of these and similar topics in the Pedagogical Department of the University of Indiana, in the Michigan Normal College, before bodies of city teachers, and in Institutes gener- ally. It will be obvious to the reader that it is not a treatise upon methods of teaching. It concerns itself chiefly with the educational process, and the materials for the derived science. The point of view is historical, and the purpose has been consistently maintained to find in the general evolution of function and faculty a consistent background for the current conditions and the presupi^ositions of the science. A brief but some- what comprehensive bibliography of modern works is appended for the guidance of teachers in further read- ing. It would be impossible to give credit to all authors quoted, though the foot-notes or the text will gener- ally indicate the source of most materials borrowed. And recent literature is rich in suggestion bearing upon the Science of Education. To all such I freely acknowl- edge my obligations, and here express my appreciation. CONTENTS PAGE Intkoduction xi PABT I THE NATURE OF EDUCATION CHAPTER I. Arts and Their Sciences 3 II. Professions and Trades 12 III. Education and the Allied Arts 25 IV. Tentative Cliaracteristics of Education ... 44 V. Tentative Characteristics of Education — Con- tinued ()0 VI. The Subject of Education 74 VII. The Instrument of Education 94 VIII. The Instrument of Education — Continued . 108 IX. The Motive in Education 124 X. The Motive in Education — Continued . . . 137 XI. The Motive in Education — Concluded . . .150 XII. The Condition in Education 164 PART II EDUCATION AS A SCIENCE XIII. The Nature of Science 173 XIV. The Scientific Method 186 Contents PART III THE DATA OF EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE CHAPTER XV. Their General Character XVI. General Character of Data — Coucluded 307 218 PART IV CONTRIBUTING SCIENCES XVII. The Physiological Relations of Mind . . 239 XVIII. The Special Senses 254 XIX. Psychology 2GG XX. Mental Processes 283 XXI. Mental Processes — Concluded 295 XXII. The Growth of Emotions 307 XXIII. The Growth of Intelligence 317 XXIV. Ethical Relations 329 XXV. Ethical Relations — Continued 341 XXVI. Industrial Relations 357 XXVII. Anthropology 371 BiBLIOGKAPHY 397 INTRODUCTION HiSTOKiCAL record furnishes material for a most in- teresting study, and one particularly attractive and profitable to growing teachers. Every nation having emerged into a state of civilization, and imdertaken the jDromotion of national growth in civic graces and effi- ciency, has made its contribution to a store of educa- tional doctrine. In each case the national type, though often held unconsciously, yet operated to fix the char- acter of the formal training. Speaking generally, whatever has been accomplished among any people of any age in education and the formal culture — as in art, religion, invention, and the social order — has been colored and shaped in terms of this national spirit. Educational theory and practice furnish no exception. For no people can these get far away from the national traditions that hold ascendency. " A nation, like an individual, has its own instinct and genius." As in the individual, so in the nation, this is the determining factor in fixing both the quality of its culture and the direction which its forces may take. It is one function of any people's systematic education to utilize, not necessarily to conform to^ this particular bias; to re- gard it as a vantage ground from which to work in the xii Introduction effort to place the particular nation or individual in possession of the net results of other nations' and other individuals' culture, to the end that each may be lifted from an exclusive or particular plane to a participation in the true world culture — made to partake of the great, the universal spirit. This is humanism as set over against a narrow specialism. Briefly, then, education should reveal these three phases: (1) individual, and diverse in its means and conditions as are individuals; (2) national, recog- nizing and measurably conserving, adapting itself to the national spirit; and (3) humane or racial, taking up into the individual and the nation such of the cultures as the antecedents or contemporaries of either have worked out. " If," says M. Fouillee,* blind at- tachment to tradition involves immobility, the no less blind contempt for national tradition no less involves it: for each suppresses living forces from which move- ment may be derived." Each nation may well set it- self to learn from every other, but it must not forget that the primary inspiration is to be found in its own life, its conditions and standards and ideals. Each has its own inheritances in the race's achievements; is charged mth its share in the world's stream of culture and attainment, and must, therefore, find in these its chief ground of progress. This is the fulcrum on which the lever of its elevation is to work. All edu- cation partakes of the general character of the evolu- tionary process. In both its method and material it * M. Fouillee. "Education from a National Standpoint," p. 110. Introduction xiii finds important meanings in the race's development. This race inheritance is one factor in fixing the char- acter of the educational doctrine herein set forth. It has bearings on the method of procedure; influences in a minor degree only the subject-matter of the school curriculum; and, in a large way, the selection of ma- terial for the science of education as worked out. THE NATURE OF EDUCATION CHAPTER I ARTS AND THEIR SCIENCES There is, presumptively, a Science of Education. Both processes and guidance in education have been enriched by experience. Knowledge has gradually taken the form of principles or rules, and the art of teaching has so far been rational. It was naturally reserved to recent generations to give these pedagogi- cal materials form in an organized system. The philo- sophical, art, and ethical literatures of the race, from the earliest records, make reference to certain funda- mentals. They are infrequent, however, and often incidental. Of all the ancients perhaps, Plato has left us both the clearest and fullest statement. For a thousand years thereafter not much was attempted in educational theory, and less accomplished. The great Reformation, in finding a place for individ- ual protest and privilege, opened the way for an empha- sis of growth and maturing in his manifold relations, as one of man's native characteristics. Luther and Mil- ton and their contemporaries laid the foundations of the later systematic ordering of reflective thought on directed education. Pousseau and Pestalozzi and Proebel, often in partial and broken ways, re-enforced the current philosophies. The German philosophers, 3 4 Science of Education headed by Kant, gave logical form to certain under- lying truths. Spencer modernized and vitalized the race's human interest in its environment. The growth and service of the Church have dignified schools and all the means of education, in the bestowal of concep- tions of the far-reaching and abiding cravings of the soul. The secularizing of education has followed a recognition of the possibility of an essentially divine life here and now. And, conceding the equal rights of all to a 'share in the privileges of education, the extension of schools to reach all gives an added impor- tance to the movement, and to all reflective interests in it. Community regard for education and the public support of it make all the more necessary the right ordering of its methods upon sound conceptions of its nature. There is presumptively, if not constructively, a Sci- ence of Education. We may dispute about particular terms, and about a body of consistent nomenclature and even about the contributing materials; but there is abundant evidence that, even in the lay mind, there is knowledge of a kind that implies more general notions that give this knowledge validity. Attention is called to the following observations: ( 1 ) An admitted art of teaching implies some stand- ard by which to measure the efficiency of the art. Successful farming observes certain principles, such as, e.g., involve the right rotation of crops; selected fertilizers suited to the grains sown; fitting the crops to the particular soil; times and seasons in planting; 'Arts and Their Sciences 5 careful subsoiling; the times and conditions of harvest- ing; the self -seeding of meadows, etc. — conditions from whose operation are in time derived well-established laws concerning seeding, cultivating, and harvesting. Carpentry becomes skilful through intelligently regard- ing the nature and fibres of woods, the strength of materials, the relations of joints and braces, cleavage, grains, splicing, cuts, glues, tools, and such like con- ditions and handling; out of a knowledge of which grows a body of accepted directions for making the working with wood, in manufacture, effective. The art of healing implies a body of knowledge about health and disease, curative drugs and their physiological re- actions, diet and exercise; in the light of whose con- clusions the art is practised. The art of music rests upon a knowledge of musical sounds, the voice, the scale, melody and harmony of musical tones, movement and grouping of tones, chorus and accompaniments, typical musical instruments, etc., which, organized, becomes the science of music. So out of the experience of thoughtful teachers in the past have been derived certain guiding principles, as to the nature of the educational process, the act of learning, the steps and conditions in maturing, the life functions of knowledge, the instruments of education. The principles are sometimes unrelated, or again fairly organized into a system: but in either case, forming a standard by which to measure the practice. The teach- ing is thought to be good or bad as it conforms to or opposes these guiding principles. The fact that it may 6 Science of Education be thought good or poor presupposes some standard of efficiency for determining its quality. The standard may be a very simple one, or more elaborate; but if the teaching act be purposeful and orderly, the rules of procedure constitute a potential science having the school practice as its art. (2) So also, a growing body of pedagogical writings suggests a prevalent recognition of the trustworthiness of directions for pursuing or improving the art. From the days of Christopher Dock's "' Schul Ordnung " (1Y50), down through the years to the present, in this country, and from a time some centuries earlier, among all of the older nations, books have been multiplied on the nature of education, and the functions and condi- tions of effective teaching, l^o great system of philos- ophy has been propounded that has not had its direct or implied dictum on education. Socrates was primarily a teacher as well as philosopher, and formulated a method of induction and logical definition ; Plato's memory and reputation are connected with the teach- ing of the Academy, and with the two works, " The Republic " and " The Laws," both having distinct pedagogical meanings ; Aristotle, the teacher of Alex- ander, philosopher and scientist, promoter if not orig- inator of the inductive method, held that the prime object of the state is " to make its citizens good men " ; among the schoolmen of the Middle Ages, Duns Scotus substituted for the "' believe that yoii may know," the larger freedom of " know that you may believe " ; Bacon's writings are an unbroken exposition of scien- Arts and Their Sciences 7 tific empiricism, and include an admirable essay en- titled " On the Advancement of Learning " ; Locke's two essays, "On the Conduct of the Understanding," and " Thoughts concerning Education," accompany much other philosophical writing; Leibnitz, who has been characterized as, next to Aristotle, " the most com- prehensive genius that ever lived," foreshadowed, if he did not announce, the modern notions of " the Conser- vation of Energy," and " Heat as a Mode of Motion," applied his philosophy to a discussion of the nature of education, and through his reasonable optimism, doubt- less inspired the " Essay on Man " ; Kant included his Pedagogics as a part of the treatment of " The Practical Reason " ; along with his philosophy, Fichte is remem- bered for his educational " Addresses to the German Nation " ; Herbart, successor to Kant in the University of Berlin, founder and director of a Pedagogical Semi- nary, is the author of a " System of Ethics," and " General Principles of Education," that have had a wide influence in this generation ; Schelling, as a teacher of Agassiz, projected his philosophy into peda- gogical lines ; and Hegel, schoolmaster and philosopher, inspirer of Rosenkranz and a large school of writers and thinkers in not only philosophy, but in pedagogy and history, is the author of the " Phenomenology of Spirit," the " Philosophy of History," and other trea- tises that have had a direct influence on educational thought and practice in a number of ways. Eminent commentators and philosophical essayists have found education a fruitful theme, as witness, Luther (" Ad- 8 Science of Education dress to German Cities"), Milton (" Tractate on Edu- cation"), Goethe ("Wilhelm Meister"), Carlyle ("Sartor Resartus "), Emerson ("Essays"). It has been a recurring and cherished thought of poets, great and small. Of the more distinctively professional literature, a standard catalogue of pedagogical works enumerates in America hut 10 books before 1800 and nearly 2,000 during the nineteenth century. During the last generation such books have multiplied amaz- ingly. Their writing and publication show the con- fidence of thoughtful and scholarly people in the validity of certain postulates as fundamental in the explanation of the art. That many of these utterances are discredited by some, and that, among teachers, there is much disagreement as to the statement of prin- ciples and organization of materials, does not impair the argument. Good teaching may be justified, and poor teaching improved, by regarding certain dicta derived from reflective experience. It is confidently believed that thoughtful members of the profession are already in accord on certain principles underlying the processes of learning, and that a more general agree- ment prevails than formerly with reference to the con- ditions of effective and wholesome teaching. The peda- gogical literature of the day is not only an index of a current belief in the movement to explain and improve teaching, and to account for the steps and conditions in the process of maturing, but this body of literature is itself a factor in furthering the reorganization of thought upon educational questions. This growing 'Arts and Their Sciences 9 body of pedagogical writings suggests a prevalent recog- nition of the trustworthiness of directions for pursuing or improving the art. (3) To these more formal statements should be added, as illustrating the wide-spread professional inter- est in education, a consideration of the numerous, more or less pretentious, and suggestive lay criticisms and constructive theories upon the subject to be found in the high-class literary and scientific periodicals of the day. Common intelligence apprehends the problems and con- ditions involved and has set itself to assist in the solu- tion. These discussions also represent a growing con- fidence in the existence of more or less helpful guiding principles and in their trustworthiness as professional dicta. They represent interest and inquiry, some of it careful; occasionally a real testing of conclusions; and the bringing to bear upon them of a wealth of culture and critical estimate, tending to clarify current conceptions of what is important and what is not, and why. That men are disposed to think there is a " why " means much to a growing science ; to be able to answer the why in a rational and helpful way for any one of the serious questions is a step forward. That questions continue to be asked and serious answers attempted about not the surface conditions only, but the basic ones as well, means confidence, not only that there are such questions, but that they may be answered. (4) Further, the existence of normal schools, train- ing classes, and pedagogical departments in the higher institutions of learning, and their general patronage, 10 Science of Education reveal a conviction that certain conditioning principles underlying the educative process may be conveyed to others, that the " born " teacher may learn the grounds of good teaching, and that there are such grounds. In the establishment of nonnal schools or other institu- tions for the training of teachers, from the beginning of this movement, never has this been doubted. In the minds of school people this has been argued as the suf- ficient reason for their establishment. And this train- ing has been planned to include, not alone practice in the art of teaching — lesson-giving, school management, discipline, etc. — but consideration of the rationale of lesson-giving, school management, discipline, etc. In- deed, even among normal-school men, there is a large minority of them who hold that intelligent practice can only be had in real schools, where one is responsible for the instruction ; but that the theory of teaching, and the nature of the educational process, and the implications of the race's experience, may be imparted to candidates otherwise fitted for the profession. These schools are a standing evidence of faith in the existence and validity and usefulness of organizable material, out of which is being constructed a science of education. Though many government weather predictions fail, more than eighty per cent, of them are confirmed ; much so-called scientific farming is fruitless, and precedent lawyers swarm, and medical quacks scourge the public, and most philanthropy is wasteful, and speech and writing are both often creatures of whim; but no one doubts that weather-forecasting, and farming, and law, and Arts and Their Sciences 11 medicine, and philanthropy, and speech, and writing may all be practised upon scientific principles. Though professional schools for teachers differ in their statements and organization of the fundamental principles underlying the art ; and though the product of the best of these schools is sometimes indifferent; and though trained teachers occasionally fail in the attempt to teach — to apply this theory, it may not reasonably be doubted that the purjx)se of these schools is, in large measure, realized, and that they justify the faith of their founders in the existence and practicability of such principles and their ultimate organization into some feasible system. The establishment of profes- sional schools to train teachers, and their general pat- ronage, reveal a conviction that certain conditioning postulates underlying the educational process may be conveyed to others and made effective in the art. An encouraging sign of the times, in this particular, is that these schools and pedagogical departments in some of the colleges and universities, and various voluntary organizations under the guise of education societies and pedagogical clubs, have set themselves seriously and sys- tematically to study the problem, and, if possible, re- solve the teaching process into its elements and find their value in some common philosophic or scientific scheme. All of which again gives assurance of a grow- ing and intelligent popular and technical faith in the processes of maturing and nurture as explicable in terms that shall be found intelligible. This is at least a science of education in the making, if no more. CHAPTER n PROFESSIONS AND TRADES The conditioning characteristics of a " profession " distinguish it from a " trade " or mere " business." It is freely conceded that these characteristics them- selves are not always clearly marked. Generally they are ; in details they are often obscure. In modern life certain trades have taken on qualities that were once thought to belong peculiarly to the learned professions. In other respects, not unimportant either, the pro- fession seems to have lost something of its original character. Frankly and with entire accuracy it may be said that the difference is less marked to-day between the two grades of occupation than formerly, though there still exist " the sorry trade " and " the learned profession." Primarily, a profession implies a body of technical (applied) knowledge underlying the art, whether that art be preaching, or pleading, or therapeutics. Support- ing the trade, as such, is a possession of skill. Perhaps it were truer to fact to say that in the one knowledge predominates, in tlie other efficiency. The former is reflective, the latter operative; that academic, this dex- terous; the one rests upon principles, the other upon ingenuity. The distinction is not inapt, because some 12 Professions and Trades 13 of the highly developed trades have evolved a body of technical knowledge, are reflective, and rest upon well- established principles ; or that, in the pulpit, there may be found very effective preaching accompanied with a meagre theology ; or a successful practice of law \vith little acquaintance in equity. It only means that in our highly industrial age the occupations of man are in flux, and, with increasing knowledge and the aggres- sions of science, there goes on, on the one hand, a pro- fessionalizing of trades, and on the other, an adjust- ment of the profession to life. Once the distinction would have held with little exception ; it is still ap- proximately true, and is here so used. Further, to be distinctly professional, this knowledge must have been logically related in a system. Speaking narrowly, the past has given us systems of theology, of medicine, and of law, with their respective arts — preaching, therapy, and pleading. The first and second have developed several systems, each with its organized body of technical knowledge, its adherents forming a school, and the practice conforming to its accepted theory. The exclusiveness of its art was proportioned to its special and peculiar teachings. Its teachings were organically related, and were prohibitive of many forms of practice entirely legitimate by other schools. The technical knowledge had an integral meaning, and stood for a certain order of procedure. In theology, with its conclusions as to the nature of the soul, the future life, sin, right living, repentance, redemption, etc. ; in medicine, involving particular theories held as 14 Science of Education to disease and health, the functioning of organs, the nature and action of medicines, and conditions of heal- ing ; and in law, standing for a fairly uniform meaning given to social rights and obligations, the rights of per- son and proj:>erty, the civic functions of the state, and the body of statutory and constitutional enactments; the profession has justified its claim as resting upon a body of organically related technical knowledge pe- culiar to its art. Further, and as a consequence of the two charac- teristics named, a profession can be reached and effec- tively practised through a course of special training only. It is exclusive and difficult of mastery. In the trade some sort of skill is the constructive centre of interest and efficiency; in the profession, a body of ideas. The former are acquired largely through prac- tice ; the latter by reflection. The ideas underlying the one are few and of more or less common possession ; of the latter both more numerous and unfamiliar, and therefore less easily acquired. Mediocrity may be found as frequently perhaps among tlie professions, in proportion to their membership, as among the trades. But superior skill among the common trades may be attained with more ease, in less time, and with less preparation than in the professions. The trade readily takes its rise from the common and average life and attainments ; the profession implies a training in both ideas and terms that are unfamiliar to the common mind. The latter, therefore, is more or less exclusive as to available membership and difficult of mastery. Professions and Trades 15 As compared with the millions of people who are en- gaged in trade there are a few hundred thousand only who are even nominally connected with the several so-called professions. That among the members of all the professions there are incompetent ones, and that among tradesmen there are many of great ability and success; that among the former some have slipped in with little training and less reflection, or that in certain trades members have spent years in acquiring distinguished expertness of knowledge and skill, does not invalidate the argument that, as a class, the trades are taken up both more easily and generally and with greater assurance upon less preparation than are the professions. Again, for the success in the professions there is required a large and liberal general culture or dis- cipline as its foundation. General confidence in the soundness of this contention has led, from early times, to the use of the term " learned professions." There is the prevalent belief in the popular mind, also, which has seemed well founded, that these professions rest, as the trades do not, upon a body of general culture; breadth of view upon the world's doing and thinking; the habit of studying conditions, and weighing evi- dence, and interpreting motives; an acquaintance with the race's development along their respective lines, that has been thought available only through years of academic and critical study. It is conceded that this breadth of view, and critical habit, and historical back- ground may be, and have sometimes been, attained 16 Science of Education outside the schools; but it is done with difficulty, at a great expense of time, and by the few only. If acquired by the tradesman in the line of or as a foun- dation for his own business, it all connects him more closely with the professional. Speaking broadly, those members of the professions also — any profession — who do not have this scholarly and disciplined foundation, of necessity make their practice more or less of a trade. Medicine has its quacks ; law, its pettifoggers ; preach- ing, its sensational pretenders ; business, those who traffic in deceit ; there are artists who are only daubers ; journalists who are sensational scribblers, and teachers who " keep school " ; but these neither make nor un- make either the professions or trade. The reference here is to both at their best. Once more, a vocation, to belong to the class whose practice is professional, must have recognition as of great public utility and of common concern. The three so-called learned professions have been supposed to compass the race's abiding interests of gravest im- port; interests that might not safely be left to undis- ciplined ambition and chance attainments. It is con- ceivable, indeed, that public comfort and the promotion of the common welfare might be endangered by one or another of life's great occupations in the class of trades also, to the degree that, either by law or public opinion and custom, its members would be compelled to reduce its practice to a scientific or principled standard, and regulate its art in accordance therewith ; to enforce a technical and scholastic preparation as a condition of Professions and Trades 17 admission to its order, and to become correspondingly exclusive. Indeed, this change is now going on in a number of callings that have not heretofore taken rank among the professions. This is noticeably true of engineering. It is not at all obvious that any of the three so-called " learned professions " should to-day be thought to outrank engineering on either of the five conditions named. Its underlying system of technical knowledge is fairly complete. Its principles and skill are difficult of acquisition; the current usage exacts, as a foundation, a superior general culture, both in amount and quality ; and in this day of traffic and invention and public responsibility for the common weal, in the material sense at least, architectural, sani- tary, and commercial engineering have come to high regard in society's estimate, and rightly so. In cities, at least, unlicensed engineers are forbidden to practise their skill; the construction of great buildings, the building, equipment, and running of locomotives and dynamos and power plants, the installing of elevators, the construction of sewers and water-supply systems, plumbing and sanitary arrangements upon any large scale are left to expert specialists only. What was once a trade only has been greatly professionalized. Along with the practice of this and the traditional professions goes much hack-work and drudgery; but as a vocation it has come to repute as having an established character of providence and accuracy. As to academic prepara- tion for taking up the technical studies among pro- fessional students in the United States there is shown 18 Science of Education to be a larger per cent, of engineering students who are college-bred than in either of the three professions. Journalism and diplomacy appear to be undergoing somewhat similar changes. In the same way, and for like reasons also, with the increasing complexity of modern life and its manifold inventions and the con- clusions of science, a closer supervision is, of necessity, exercised over its industries. Differences are recog- nized and regarded between skilled and unskilled labor ; the traditional apprenticeship has fallen into disuse; several trades maintain their own separate schools for training, and by some of the more highly developed of them entrance is restricted to the well-educated. AVhat- ever is of great public moment becomes thereby a public responsibility, and must be prepared for accordingly — whether it be running an automobile, building high- ways, nursing the sick, irrigating arid lands, or nego- tiating national treaties. The professionalizing of trades is under way. Finally, the practice of an art to be professional must afford such opportunities for a career of civic and personal service as will attract a capable following and command public respect. It must offer a field of labor that shall challenge man's power and hold him up to his best — be for him, as an individual, a stimulus to high endeavor, taxing the best effort because of the goal to be reached, not less than from satisfaction in the doing. The reward may be a public's generous pay for a generous public service; it may satisfy a legitimate craving for a broader sphere of labor; it Professions and Trades 19 may open a door to enlarged civic and humane life. It takes on the form of a true profession as it meets the aspirations of an eager, disciplined mind, confident of its powers and devoted to their exercise. It should attract ability and serious purpose, and they should find adequate returns in both personal reward and beneficent effort. Each of a half-dozen or more great vocations might be studied profitably as to the bearing upon them of this fact. None of tlie three traditional professions should suffer by the comparison, and cer- tain of the employments, popularly called trades, would be justly exalted. In the light of the previous discussion, speaking generally and with approximate accuracy, teaching also may be regarded as a profession, i.e., as an art, of great public significance and honor, resting upon a science. Fairly to estimate teaching in the light of the six characteristic distinctions of professions and trades named in the preceding paragraph would require a more elaborate discussion than belongs properly to these preliminary statements. In part, the argument will find place in chapters iv-xii inclusive. That it meets some of the requirements fully, and others partially, will j>erhaps be admitted by all. To the degree that it falls short on one or another count, in so far, if the characterization be true, it fails of being a profession. If it conforms in minor qualities, and is found wanting in the more important and distinguishing characters, the deficiency is all the greater. If it be found to fail in the minor attributes only, and to conform to the 20 Science of Education important requirements, it becomes in so far profes- sional. What is the situation of teaching among specialized callings ? Primarily, it is in place to note the recent rapid growth of an appropriate body of technical (peda- gogical) knoAvledge as an attempt to explain or guide the practice. Books, monographs, essays, magazine articles, newspaper contributions and criticism, plat- form lectures, convention addresses, and class journals, severally and in the aggregate, promulgate and promote a vast and varied discussion, sometimes descriptive, often critical, occasionally carping, at times mischiev- ous, even from high sources, more often aggressively constructive, frequently biassed and partial ; but all looking toward and reinforced by a wide-spread assur- ance that there are legitimate standards in terms of which teaching may be valued and the principles of which may be reduced to a system. That the several systems and their creeds do not agree, even in matters held as fundamental, should not seem more strange than are the contradictions and oppositions and cross- purposes among tJieological systems and their issuant creeds ; or the divergent interpretations of constitu- tional and statutory laws ; or the teachings of estab- lished schools of medicine. The free-lance in the pulpit, the shyster on the bench, and the quack at the bedside, do not fix the status of their respective callings ; no more do the novice and device-monger in teaching. Under the protecting shelter of what is really meritori- ous the charlatan, the pietist, and the pedant will most Professions and Trades 21 surely flourish. The mummery of a busy indifferent- ism, vain ceremony, dissimulation, and imposture find a strange acceptance. Faith, in the sheep wdth his natural covering blinds the eye and the mind to the wolf under the fleece. From Horace Mann and Henry Barnard, in this country, to the latest writer, American pedagogical literature has accomplished many and important agree- ments. The same system may be variously stated and organized, and still be one system. The ultimate pos- tulates may issue in manifold creeds and schools and sects, but no one doubts that beneath the differences — and seemingly irreconcilable differences — there are ideals that abide. These writings include every phase of schooling and instruction, as well as the broader process of education ; infant and adult training, the organization of schools and systems, the programme of teaching, historic schools and theories, the development of educational ideals, the means and materials of in- struction and their wise use. There is a considerable and rapidly growing body of pedagogical (teclmical) knowledge, as the raw material out of which to con- struct, or to begin the construction of, a science of education, and upon which to erect a profession of teaching. There is, too, a growing conception in the public mind of the indispensableness of professional training among teachers. It is yet true that the majority of teachers are alto- gether untrained for teaching, except as the fitting has 22 Science of Education come through experience; but the extension of pro- fessional preparation as a condition precedent to teach- ing has, in the cities and towns at least, more than kept pace with the increase in the number of teachers. Many systems now will employ no inexperienced or un- trained teacher. Normal schools and smnmer classes, and extension courses, and university departments, are taxed to their full capacity to supply the demand for such teachers and to enrich the furnishing of teachers already in tlie work. Educational periodicals of the better sort and hundreds of professional study circles and clubs are patronized as never before. The concep- tion of the urgent need of such special equipment of the teacher is both intense and extensive. The lay influence reinforces the aspirations of teachers. Ofii- cial zeal in a like way is not unknown. Parents, once familiar with expert education, are not slow in reject- ing merely empirical school-keeping. The rural com- munities, even, are coming to recognize that if men need a special training to breed and manage profitably the stock of the farm, much more must it be true of those who are to manage and bring to profitable matu- rity the boys and girls of their homes. Education in the full meaning of the term is the one interest of supreme importance and universal concern. It touches all families and every individual in a vital way. The school is the institutional expression for this solicitude. The teachers of these schools (of every sort and grade) constitute in the concrete the professional membership. With increasing clearness the services of this institu- Professions and Trades 23 tion are receiving public recognition as of the greatest importance to the state and society in general. There should be noted also the current growing de- mand for teachers who, occupying whatever position, have also larger academic qualifications. The meagre scholastic discipline of the great body of teachers prom- ises little for their professional recognition. Both to make the teaching effective and to justify his claim to a place among the professions the teacher must have a considerable margin of scholarship and scholarly cult- ure and the student habit away beyond the immediate academic requirements of instruction. Theoretically, this holds for the traditional professions; practically, for a discouragingly large per cent, of certain of them, the requirement is a dead letter. The proportion of teachers, also, in elementary schools who have included a college training in their equipment for the work is embarrassingly small, but has appreciably increased within a generation. High-school instructors in all of the cities, even those of the third and fourth grade, are college-bred, perhaps by a small majority. In this respect the influence of the colleges upon all the lower schools has been felt in a very practical and effective way. Altogether unsatisfactory as the situation is in cer- tain respects, there is much encouragement in the out- look. An element of permanence has been introduced in the better tenure of office of the teachers and the longer school terms. In all of the larger cities the salaries have been considerably advanced in a decade. 24 Science of Education Both influences will, in time, be felt in the larger town and municipal systems. In a few places there has been an increase in the relative number of male teachers, which again adds to the permanence of the member- ship. About 250 colleges and universities out of 480 such institutions in the United States report courses for the training of teachers, more than forty-two per cent, of whose students were men. There is still much to be desired in the way of making teaching an attractive career for a body of membership that will give it a permanent following, and so a recognized professional status. The transiency of service and the very meagre learning of a large body of teachers, added to the alto- gether inadequate living returns, complicate the prob- lem. The first and second of these lie with teachers themselves to correct ; the last, with the lay officials and the general public. CHAPTER ni EDUCATION AND THE ALLIED ARTS To understand a science of education there must first be determined the essential nature and conditions of the educational process. Hence the present chapter. To this end it is needed first to discriminate roughly certain of the terms freely used by teachers and the ideas underlying those terms, that they may be used intelligently. Among the more important of these are : (1) Teaching, (2) Pedagogy, (3) Pedagogics, (4) Education. Kindred terms also that are often mis- used are schooling, learning, scholarship, knowledge, information, character, discipline, etc. It is not easy to be understood when speaking critically of the process underlying these and similar very familiar terms. One, of necessity, gives to each the content which his life experience suggests. The sceptic or free-thinker with the bias of his training gives to traditional and current theological phrases a meaning which a relig- ionist is far from accepting. Each thinks of them, and no doubt honestly, too, in accordance with his mental furnishing. IsTeither is likely to be understood until he can think the other's meaning into the other's lan- guage. In like manner the well-disposed layman sees 35 26 Science of Education in the preacher's words a different meaning from that used in the pulpit. The farmer variously construes the speech of the professional, and is himself misunder- stood in turn. Employer and employee, because of a divergence of interests or life training, or both, use the phraseology of industrialism with often contradictory, and generally unlike, meanings. Similarly with the teacher; the simple words of a common vocabulary even are used by him bearing a content but vaguely apprehended, and maybe differently used by the pupil. As a consequence the pupil is as often misinterpreted by the teacher — the word which the child employs be- ing construed by him with his meaning, not the child's. After the child has acquired a vocabulary fairly ade- quate to his life wants, education — even school educa- tion — consists largely in giving a fuller, or new, or corrected content to these familiar words, as well as giving him altogether new ideas through new exjieri- ences, for which he acquires new terms. The teacher may fairly be held responsible for putting the child's meaning into the child's words as a common ground upon which to build his corrected notion; the child, on the other hand, must be educated up to putting into his own words the teacher's meaning or learning's content. Between two persons who engage in any mutual com- munication there must, of course, be a common lan- guage; but the common ground of intercourse is the meaning underlying the language, not the symbols alone, of speech or manner. So, in a somewhat similar sense, if the author is to Education and the Allied Arts 27 be understood, his meaning must be used in interpret- ing his words. Let it be said here, therefore, as it will be said many times in the following pages, that what is being here considered is education, and not schooling; the process of maturing and acquiring effi- ciency; of knowing how, and being able, and disposed, to live, and live more abundantly; not merely or nar- rowly the learning of books. This latter has its place as one of the instruments of furthering and directing education to wise and wholesome ends. But it is not education, it is a tool only; sometimes the best tool, upon occasion an inferior one. Education, then, may be characterized broadly as the generic process which in the individual is called " development " ; in the race, civilization. Without the former the latter would not be. The improvement of some, of a considerable number, and, in a general way, of all of the individuals of the race is necessary if the race is to advance. The imequal development of the constituent members, and their often antagonistic and obstructive gro^vths, make the civilizing process slow, inconstant, and wayward. It is one of the great prob- lems of schooling how to bring all the youth, and the adults too, under the wholesome influences of a far- seeing and provident training. This is the problem that faced Charlemagne and King Alfred, and the great rulers of all times and nations, as their purposes looked toward the manhood of their subjects. But this development goes on whether it be consciously directed or not. Boys grow to men, girls come to womanhood. 28 Science of Education Individual experiences accumulate, life becomes more complex. Responsibilities increase. They must be met. An adult future must be provided for. Toil, in some sort, is the portion of each. In the effort to adjust himself to the changing conditions adjustment becomes easier. Resourcefulness increases, and the more re- sourceful survive, and, in perpetuating themselves, per- petuate this quality. The art of living with others is acquired, and, in time, living upon a little higher plane. Life becomes safer, because living is more considerate. Tools of learning are acquired, and they multiply. By the term " Education," as here used, is meant this process of maturing, coming to adulthood, in all that makes for efficiency and happiness. Knowledge of the sciences and language and history and mathematics helps to assure these results. But education is growth, not accumulation, or, at best, growth through accumu- lation and the using of experience. It means the developing of power and interest from step to step — not a static condition of the mind at any stage. Being a correlate of civilization, an insight into the nature of education may be had from the study of the history — culture and conduct history — of a people in their rise from primitive conditions to successively higher grades of efficiency and comfort. Teachers may, with profit, study the development of art in the race, and conduct, and ethics, and industry, and conventional forms for an understanding of the educational process in the individual. Literature, which, being a form of fine art, is the effort of the race to express its ideals Education and tJie Allied Arts 29 of life and conduct and faith, is particularly helpful. Here may be found the refined essence of educational doctrine. Taken historically, the evolution of man's ideals is apparent. His conception of these ideals, the conditions for their attainment, and the developing use of the means at hand in the several periods — all reveal a gradual becoming that is the essence of the educa- tional process. What is known as the culture-epoch theory of schooling will come up for its own considera- tion elsewhere.* It is sufficient here to say that this theory is valuable, not so much for guidance in teach- ing, as useful in directing one's studies in the nature of education. Their results lie well behind the prac- tise of the art of instruction, and give color to it indirectly only and through the underlying doc- ine. Pedagogics as here used is the science that explains and accounts for this educational process in the indi- vidual or the philosophy of his development. It is generic and comprehensive. In a sense it is, as con- cerns the individual, the science which corresponds with the science of history, if history is made to include all of mankind's congregate acts of conduct that have saved themselves in human institutions. In this sense the science of history is an accounting for great institu- tional changes through a knowledge of the social and personal forces that have made for social development and an organization of these into a system. So the science of education — Pedagogics — is that body of doc- * See Chapter xxtI, 30 Science of Education trine that seeks to explain tlie nature of man as a developing creature, the motives and conditions in- volved in his maturing, and the social and personal factors that enter into the problem. The materials of this science, and the end to which they are used, are different from the materials and purposes comprised in a science of teaching. The former might exist inde- pendently of the schools ; the latter, not. That implies an environing world of happenings and certain aggres- sive instincts; this, both these and a teacher. That is generic and has a philosophical interest even to the layman ; this is technical, and concerns only, or chiefly, one profession. This has to do with one institution, that with life in several institutions, under the conduct codes which man has evolved through successive gen- erations. The one is specific and professional, the other cultural. Pedagogy may be regarded as this narrower science of teaching, or the science of " directed " education. This refers to the principles that underlie the art — man's art of giving direction to this educational proc- ess, or reinforcing nature's efforts at educating man. The science of teaching takes for granted much which the science of education has worked out. It adds its own dicta concerning the machinery of the school, the means to be employed, the sequence of exercises, selec- tion of material, the mode of procedure, the conditions of training, habit-forming, etc. It involves all matters in which purposeful exercises are used to fix the amount and character and shape the order of this indi- Education and the Allied Arts 31 vidiial growth. The science of teaching will make con- sideration of the nature of the child, as to instincts, capacity, and habits, as these react upon the work of the school; and of his home surroundings and social connections, for the same reason. Pedagogy is of primary concern to the teacher as a teacher. The attempt to follow its dictates is an effort to make teach- ing something more than an empirical art — to make its aims and steps scientific. It leaves the " rule of thumb " procedure and seeks to rest the art upon valid and sufiicient reasons. Nothing is longer done by chance or just because it has been done so. Teaching is made thoughtful, and the reflection is upon the prin- ciples that justify, or explain, or condemn the art. It is not less but more an art, often a fine art, as it be- comes rational ; all the more effective, as it has in it more thought, and this thought accords with the real nature of the educational process and the nature of learning. Teaching is the practice of principles set forth in Pedagogy. It is much more difficult to do things well than merely to know how. An intelligent practice of a well-founded art, any art, is a great achievement. All persons respect efficiency, the ability and the habit of doing things well ; and all the more if the things done are difficult of achievement. Incidental factors enter into the doing that do not, of right, appear in the theory. Moods of the child and the teacher, physi- cal conditions of the weather and the material sur- roundings and equipment, incidents of the home and 32 Science of Education social life, biases of race and domestic and conventional training, the requirements of the particular system in which one is engaged — all modify the teaching art. Because any one, or several, or all of these are ignored or badly interpreted, the teaching may be otherwise good in theory and unavailing in practice. Other things being equal, whether it be in the achievement artistic or clumsy will depend in large measure upon whether these accidental conditions have been taken into wise consideration or not. They have little place in a science of teaching, but have a large significance in its art. An urgent need in the school-room to-day is not merely teachers who know more of educational theor)^, but those who make daily and studied effort to have this accustomed practice conform to the highest insight they have — whether much or little — into the working meanings of the doctrine of their profession; not teaching, however good, in traditional ways only, but thoughtful teaching, personally critical of one's requirements and directions ; that one shall be able to give a reason for, or a reasonable justification of one's practice. In every department of art the practice is subject to the weakening encroachments of habit ; and the teacher, dealing as he does with the manifoldness of spirit, has constant need of a frequent revision of her doing. The accidental and individual conditions must receive their share of the teacher's attention in the school life. Any training of teachers that stops short of testing the theory of intending applicants by much and thought- Education and the Allied Arts 33 ful practice is partial, if not worse. The immediate concern of tlie teaclier, once in the school, is this teach- ing act, this practice. His primary interest should be in the soundness of the principles underlying the act. The latter must dominate the practice without being themselves consciously held. ISTo teaching should be called good in which the theory is obtrusive, even to the teacher's mind ; neither may it be regarded as good if it be merely empirical or traditional. It will be apparent from the preceding discussion that none of these terms characterize the educational process, though they all bear upon it. So of schooling, learning, and scholarship; often even knowledge and information ; sometimes character and discipline ; — they are terms that name mental or spiritual products or qualities, that connote the school, and more or less of directed training, and so become tools or signs of edu- cation, but nothing more. " Education," says Presi- dent Eliot, "is neither knowledge nor learning; it means a love of knowledge and a capacity for learn- ing." The impulse to know whereof we speak, and to fix the province of education, has resulted in various characterizations of education, its aim and conditions, some of which are brought together here in the follow- ing list. In general, these are the studied statements of men whose opinions are worthy of respect. As an aid in understanding the nature of education as a process, these accepted historic and often-quoted defini- tions may be helpfully examined and compared in the light of the preceding pages. Many others might be 34 Science of Education added to these, and all of them critically valued by the thoughtful teachers. Education Characterized by the Masters 1. What sculpture is to the block of marble, educa- tion is to the human soul. — Addison. 2. The true aim of education is the attainment of happiness through perfect virtue. — Aristotle. 3. Education includes the efforts made of set pur- pose to train men in a particular way ; more especially, the labor of professional educators, or school-masters. — Bain. 4. Education is the sum of the reflective efforts, by which we aid nature in the development of the physi- cal, intellectual, and moral faculties of man; in view of his perfection, his happiness, and his social distinc- tion. — Compayre. 5. Education is a development of the whole man. — Comenius. 6. Education is not a preparation for life; it is life. — Dewey. 7. The end of education is to train away all im- pediment, and leave only pure power. — Emerson. 8. Education, in instruction and training, originally, and in its first principles, is necessarily passive, watch- fully and protectively following, not dictatorial, not forcibly interfering. — Froebel. 9. The object of an education is the realization of a faithful, pure, inviolate, and hence holy life. — Froebel. Education and the Allied Arts 35 10. The primary principle of education is the deter- mination of the pupil to self-activity. — Hamilton. 11. The end of education is to produce a well-bal- anced many-sidedness of interest. — Herhart. 12. Whatever influence man's environment (ethical relations and natural surroundings) has upon his native capacities and faculties, to occasion them to grow into powers or habits, is called education. — Hoose. 13. Education is the instruction of intellect in the laws of nature; under which name I include, not merely things and their forces, but men and their ways ; and the fashioning of the affections and the will into an earnest and loving desire to move in harmony with their laws. — Huxley. 14. Education is the organization of acquired habits of conduct and tendencies of behavior. — James. 15. It is the purpose of education so to exercise the faculties of the mind that the infinitely varied experi- ences of after-life may be observed and reasoned upon with the best effect. — Jevons. 16. The purpose of education is to train children, not with reference to their success in the present (life) state of society, but to a better possible state, in accordance with an ideal conception of humanity. — Kant. 17. Education gives more quickly and easily that which one might have developed from within himself. — Lessing. 18. The object of education is preparation for more effective service in church and state. — Luther. 36 Science of Education 19. The attainment of a sound mind in a sound body is the end of education. — Locke. 20. Education is the art of forming men, not spe- cialists, — Montaigne. 21. Education includes the culture which each gen- eration purposely gives to those who are to be its suc- cessors in order to qualify them for at least keeping up, and, if possible, raising, the improvement that has been attained. — Mill. 22. I call a complete and generous education that which fits a man to perform justly, skilfully, and mag- nanimously all the offices, both public and private, of peace and war. — Milton. 23. Education is not the storing of knowledge, but the development of power. — Orcutt. 24. The function of education is to assist and direct the processes of physical and mental growth during the formative periods of childhood and youth. — Painter. 25. Education consists in giving to the body and the soul all the perfection of which they are susceptible. —Plato. 26. The end of education and the instruction of youth is to make men better; not simply more intelli- gent, but more moral. — Plato. 27. Education means a natural, progressive, and systematic development of all the powers. — Pesta- lozzi. 28. The main purpose of education is to permit the individual to participate in the conscious knowledge (life) of the race. — Payne. Education and the Allied Arts 37 29. Education aims at the realization of the typical man. — Payne. 30. The realization of all the possibilities of human growth and development is education. — ParJcer. 31. True education is the presentation of the con- ditions necessary for the evolution of personality into freedom . — Parker. 32. The change through which the mind passes is an evolution; and the process by which this change is brought about, and which we call education, is develop- ment. — Palmer. 33. The aim of education is the forming of a com- plete man, skilled in art and industry. — Rabelais. 34. It is the business of education to develop the ideal prize man. — Richter. 35. Education is the shaping of the individual life by the process of nature, the rhythmical movement of national customs, and the might of destiny, in which each one finds limits set to his arbitrary will. — Rosen- hranz. 36. It is the nature of education to assist in pro- ducing that only which the subject would strive most earnestly to develop for himself if he had a clear idea of himself. — Rosenkranz. 37. Education is the process by which the indi- vidual man elevates himself to the species. — Rosen- kranz. 38. Education is the influencing of man by man, and has for its end to lead him to actualize himself through his own efforts. — Rosenkranz. 38 Science of Education 39. Education is nothing but the formation of hab- its. — Rousseau. 40. The aim of education is to dispel error and to discover truth. — Socrates. 41. How to live completely; this is the one great thing which education has to teach. — Spencer. 42. In education success is to be achieved only by rendering our measures subservient to that spontaneous unfolding which all minds go through in their progress toward maturity. — Spencer. 43. Education is the designed influence of society upon the individual, concentrated and reduced to a systematic fonn. — Sully. 44. A child is educated by what he does for himself and by himself. — Swift. 45. I do not know what remains to be desired in the ordinary purpose of life, if the body be sound and in high health, and the mind be alert, — Isaac Taylor. 46. The end of education is triple: (1) to develop the mental faculties, (2) to communicate knowledge, and (3) to mould character. — Thiry. 47. A pupil comes to us a bundle of inherited capaci- ties and tendencies, labelled from the indefinite past to the indefinite future, and he makes his transit from the one to the other through the education of the pres- ent time. The object of that education is, or ought to be, to provide wise exercise for his capacities, wise direction for his tendencies, and through this exercise and this direction to furnish his mind with such knowl- Education and the Allied Arts 39 edge as may contribute to the usefulness, the beauty, and the nobleness of his life. — Tyndall. 48. Education means the universal distribution of extant knowledge. — Ward. 49. Education is any process or act which results in knowledge or power or skill. — White. It will be apparent at once to the thoughtful that a considerable number of these definitions, perhaps most of them, are definitions of school education, gen- erally idealized. Distinctly such are numbers 17, 24, and 43. They all refer, as do some of the others, to directed education. Many of them are given in terms of the object or aim of education, as numbers 7, 11, 16, 28, 49. Others characterize education in terms of the instrumentalities used, as shown in numbers 12, 21, and 35. Less than half of them come from school- men ; most of them from philosophers and theorists, or literary men. The business men of to-day, of any day perhaps, would characterize education in terms of one or another of its products ; generally as some form of practical skill, occasionally as right habits. Speak- ing broadly, however, most of those given agree in the conviction that the end of education is in the use made of knowledge, rather than any amount or kind of knowledge itself ; that it is abundant life, not abundant scholarship; in growth, not in any particular skill; that it consists in an evolution, not in acquisition, or life through scholarship; skill accompanied by growth, or acquisition in terms of evolution. 40 Science of Education In the inteT]3retatioii of education thinkers and writers may be classified into schools, representing dif- ferent views, just as theologians may be so grouped, or physicians, or philosophers, or scientists, or histo- rians. This will usually depend upon the emphasis placed upon individual initiative, the inner native urgency that demands recognition. For example, one school of writers and teachers holds that school educa- tion must be prescri j)tive ; the opposition that it is passive and following. Froebel, in another wording of the definition given in 8 above, says : ''Education in instruction and training, originally and in its first prin- ciples, is necessarily passive, following (only guarding and protecting), not prescriptive, categorical, and in- terfering." Bain, on the other hand, says (ISTo. 3) : " Education includes the efforts made of set purpose to train men in a particular way." And Addison : " What sculpture is to the block of marble, education is to the human soul." Of the first class is Hamilton (No. 10), who would have education to mean " the determination of the pupil to self-activity " ; or Spencer, who would have " our measures subservient to the spontaneous un- folding which all minds go through in their progress toward maturity." Of the second class is Sully, whose definition, " Education is the designed influence of society upon the individual, concentrated and reduced to a systematic form," reduces the child's initiative to a minimum ; and Ward, who makes education to mean " the universal distribution of extant knowledge." Of the two schools the one represents this education as Education and the Allied Arts 41 being creative, the other concessive; the doctrine of the one is positive, the other tentative. The one emphasizes courses and prescriptive exercises; the other, electives and options. The idea in the one is more or less archi- tectural; the other concedes much to freedom and diversity. With the former the teacher is the deter- mining factor in a directed education ; with the latter, the pupil. These exalt the disposition to do, and know, and enjoy; those, some particular doing or knowing or enjoyment. In general, the trend of current thought is away from an unyielding prescription, the dictations of authority, uniform courses, and the traditional formal disciplines ; toward a dominating respect for the child's initiative, elastic programmes, credit for voluntary work, a freer play of the child's instincts and constitutional biases of growth. The system counts for less, perhaps, the learner for more. Reliance upon class rank, and fig- ures of advancement, and measured and recorded prog- ress is depreciating. Growth is seen to be individual, and education is an individual process. Guidance must be of the one, not the group. Service here can have little wholesale market. But, as appears from the great definitions by great minds in all ages, there is a clear recognition of the fact that education, whether of school or of life, looks toward socializing the individual. " The main pur- pose of education," says W. H. Payne, " is to permit the individual to participate in the conscious knowl- edge (life) of the race." It is a familiar thought of 42 Science of Education Dr. Han-is that " all education is an attempt to over- come the isolation of the undeveloped individual; or to emancipate the individual child from his isolation." Elsewhere his phrase is " to give each person in the social whole the net results of the experience of all his fellows." From a very different point of view, but with equal emphasis and cogency, Dr. Dewey has been wont to say: ''The primary fimction of education is sociaL" By all of which is meant simply that an educated man is able and disposed to perform well his function as an organic part of the society to which he belongs; a patriotic citizen of his coimtry; an efficient member of his own state ; a good neighbor ; a wise father, ready and equipped to bear his share of civic responsibility in his social group; an interested, active, helpful mem- ber of the several great institutions, under the social codes worked out by the race. Once more, in most of the definitions it appears that education is regarded as a process of unfolding ; an evo- lution, not an involution, reinforced by exercises care- fully graded to suit the child's development. Stein's definition (" Education is the harmonious and equable evolution of hmnan powers"), Pestalozzi's (27), and Palmer's (32), are only representative of a group of definitions of this class that for a generation have been very popular. They stand for a real distinction in school doctrine, and are worthy of recognition. Summarizing freely what has been given in the pre- ceding pages, it appears that education may be viewed Education and the Allied Arts 43 as a process; it may be viewed from the side of its products; it may be thought of as native or spontane- ous ; or as prescribed and directed ; as an art, having its corresponding science; and finally, in terms of its instrumentalities — i.e., the school or other environment. It is essentially a process, native and life-long. Pre- scriptive exercises may further or hasten the process, and a clear view of legitimate passing results may make the guidance more rational and wholesome. CHAPTER IV TENTATIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF EDUCATION Little attempt has been, or will be, made to for- mulate exclusive definitions of education, though this and the following chapter are given to a description of the process, through stating and discussing its more or less obvious characters. The more important of these are here enumerated and considered. As statCf- ments of the distinguishing features of education they are approximate and tentative. They rather point out the striking qualities of the process than fix its limits with any exclusiveness. Indeed, the entire list is de- scriptive rather than definitive, tentative rather than dogmatic, basic rather than final, and submitted as approximate. Primarily, be it observed that education is a mental fact. Modem thought has moved far from the once ruling dictum : " There is nothing great in the world but man, and nothing great in man but mind." In the world other creations are equally great in their way; and in man, the body, as the habitation of the soul, has its own divine appointments. Without here discussing the priority of either, or their intricate 44 Tentative Characteristics of Education 45 mutual dependencies, and resting upon the conclusions of modem science as to the physiological accompani- ments of all mental action, it still remains true that the processes called mental are, in thought, distinct from those called physical, and that education is con- cerned with the former; i.e., it is a maturing of the spiritual powers. Through training the finger may be given a particu- lar skill, the body a fine grace, the muscular frame great strength, the eye sharp discriminations of light and shade, and, in general, the organism made a choice accompaniment of the mind. The fingers have their memory in the executions of facile and delicate touch; the body its traditions of elegance and dignity; the strong, athletic frame its indomitable purpose and ag- gressive will; the special senses an easy adjustment of precision and alertness and fine perspective; but whether it be bodily grace, or acute senses, or an ath- letic frame, or a vigorous habit, it will be granted, doubtless, that the essential fact in each instance is not a physical, but a mental one. The value of the exer- cise is practically commensurate with the intelligent purpose put into it. So much thought, so much profit Purposeful doing which results in time through repe- tition in automatic doing, was educative in the process to the degree that thought was put into it. All calis- thenics and gymnastics, Delsarte training, and indi- vidual and class evolutions are worth so much as, in their translation into habits, intelligence and personal effort have entered into them. But all of them are 46 Science of Education illustrations of trainingj rather than of education; a change that results in fixed states of skill, rather than active biases of the mind that are themselves forces looking to further change. Notwithstanding there are these physiological impli- cations in most if not all of the functioning of the mind, the progress of the mind toward maturity, rather than that of the body and bodily organs, is the pre- eminently great fact. The increasingly fuller func- tioning of the powers of the mind, the more certain control of the mental processes, the bringing of more and more of -one's experiences into use for living, the better integration of these mental furnishings, the tak- ing on of more and more definite interests, the greater openness of mind as the view becomes wider — these are of the nature of education. They are mental as discriminated from the narrowly physiological changes. The body also matures, but chiefly through taking on more or less fixed states of efficiency. The mind, too, reveals in various ways this quality, and so shows its fitness for training. But, in a marked way, its equi- librium is a moving one, and the possibilities of im- provement continuous through life. Every vantage ground gained by the mind is a ground to be surren- dered. Every effect worked becomes a cause of further effects. The " stream of consciousness " is a force making for change, and itself subject to change, throughout its course. Education is this advance toward and through successively higher stages of men- tal enrichment, of eSiciency and happiness. It is not Tentative Characteristics of Education 47 only a process, and not alone a process of maturing, but the process tkrough which the mind goes in its approach toward maturity. The emphasis is upon the spiritual life, and the change is a spiritual change. Education is thus to be regarded as a process rather than in terms of its products. Speaking popularly, however, and in the phrase of a majority of the defi- nitions given, education may be thought of also in terms of its products or in terms of its instrumentali- ties. It is a sort of metonymy in thought, whereby, for the thing meant, an accompaniment is substituted. Conceding for the moment that this something called education " is life rather than a preparation for life," i.e., that it is primarily a process, there are, neverthe- less, certain products that are of so great moment that, in one degree or another, they may be considered as signs of the culture change. Such are scholarship, in varying degrees; skill as usually understood, or the power to turn learning to account; character, in the sense of good character; discipline, the formal dis- cipline of the schools, etc. Most of these are con- comitants of any real education, whether received un- der formal instruction or not. Some degree of scholar- ship follows as a matter of course. Through contact with scholarly people one would come to share some- thing of the common possessions and the common spirit of culture. 'No one, however bookishly trained, is entirely devoid of the power to utilize his knowledge. Life itself compels certain adaptations that make a degree of efficiency. Along with the improvement in 48 Science of Education learning, the race has appreciably raised its standards of personal and social behavior. With all enlargement of the human power to create and enjoy, has gone a convergence of one's powers, a grip upon his experi- ence that is the essence of mental discipline. But these are not education — only passing and more or less shift- ing products of education. Indeed, one may have attained one or another of them, and still be little deserving of the title, " an educated man." One may be well educated and be almost totally wanting in cer- tain of these generally trustworthy signs. In popular phrase, an educated person is one of large scholarshi]3 ; and, conversely, a scholarly man is there- fore supposed to be educated. In general, perhaps, both statements are fairly true. Of course, by scholar- ship is meant much more than abundant information. Not every mind well stored, even, is scholarly. Infor- mation is good; knowledge is better; but with both there must go along the student habit. Scholarship of any degree is accompanied by a more or less fine taste for learning, a love for the culture that has lived. It is a much to be coveted and legitimate object, rather product, of education. It stands for abundant life, and habitual touch with large issues; in thinking, a famil- iar use of the abiding interests of the race, and an ability to take the race's point of view in dealing with these interests. From the plain of the schools, large scholarship implies a familiar acquaintance with the world's achievements in thought and affairs; in art and literature and philosophy; in government and in- Tentative Characteristics of Education 49 vention; in the conditions and stages and meanings of social progress. One wonld scarcely be regarded as scholarly, in any high degree, who knows no language but his own, or whose acquaintance with social and institutional and ethical movements and forces are limited to his time and people. But there are instances of men highly educated who had not this acquaintance with books in so large a way, who were not versed in the world's philosophies, or its art, its historic religions, the stages in its material progress, or in other than the vernacular language. High scholarship greatly re-enforces an education other- wise attained, but it is not an exclusive essential. One need not doubt that Abraham Lincoln was highly edu- cated, while conceding great inequalities and inade- quacy of scholarship. Certain of the " Captains of Industry," while wanting the formal learning of the schools, are yet quite equal to the emergencies of an orderly and highly developed social and industrial and political and even cultural life by which they are sur- rounded and of which they are organic parts. They are men of public spirit; they have faith in schools and learning. Historically, not much of the race's culture, speaking generally, has converged upon them individually, but they see its results in society, and take account of these results in their lives, and formu- late and administer their policies regardful of this body of culture as a world-force. Their own lives may be rich in all that makes life worth living — in heart-cult- ure, faith in manliness and moral heroism and human 50 Science of Education achievement and the sanities of right living, and joy in noble deeds, and the touch of the beautiful in conduct and art. However it may have come about, tbey are efficiently educated, though in possession of little or nothing of the formal culture of the schools. Many a man, also, occupying a subordinate and relatively un- important industrial or social position, has yet acquired, and exhibited in his daily life, like habits of thought- fulness, soundness of judgment, a keen foresight, in- terest in public affairs, a personal following, the heart and manners of the " gentleman born," and a rich intellectual and spiritual life, with so little schooling as not to be counted. There may be a rich and effective individual and social life to which the more abundant scholarship would be only a doubtful supplement. Wliat is kno^vn in both current thought and tradition as the " discipline of the mind " that comes from an active contact with the centres of learning, from years of study in libraries and lecture-rooms and laboratories, may be found also, and not infrequently, among those who have kno^\Ti less ; who have not had or used the privileges of these established agencies of culture. The disciplined mind, the student habit, the ability to bring to bear upon new problems the powers and experiences which one has, to attack and resolve the conditions one meets, is doubtless, and often, acquired through these formal means ; but that the like effective resourceful- ness, trained grip upon one's experience, and the habit of using the net conclusions of science in the prosecu- tion of one's plans may be, frequently are, accom- Tentative Characteristics of Education 51 plished through effort outside the schools, can scarcely be doubted. These qualities, in some degree, are essen- tial to all true education, but in no exclusive or peculiar sense belong to the results of formal learning. This admission in no way detracts from the credit and dig- nity of the schools, but implies a sound recognition of the true nature of education as generic — a native and constitutional process, for whose furthering an active contact with life outside the school may contribute, not less than the learning of the study. The essential fact would seem, therefore, to be this achieving and matur- ing process, rather than any static condition of scholar- ship or discipline or skill or maturity. Education is to be conceived as dynamic, as an aggressive becoming, not as any kind or amount of trained product. A similar interpretation attaches to what is known as good character as an end or result of education. It is certainly one of the by-products of all wholesome education. However, it is not the being good, but rather the growth in goodness, that constitutes an edu- cation ; not honesty, but increasing honesty ; not truth- fulness, but growing truthfulness ; continued growth in grace, and good will, and serious purpose, and clean intention, and unselfish interests. Good character is a very relative term. ISTowhere along the upward way may one be said to have attained the " good character " which is supposed to be the end of education, and which absolves one from an obligation to come to yet higher levels. Here, as in the intellectual life, any stage or degree of attainment is only a step in the series from 52 Science of Education point to point of which the movement is an educative process. The conception of the German philosopher seems to be valid. In a pedagogical, not less than a moral sense, das ewige besser is the watchword of the teacher for the child ; not the good, but the ever- lasting better; not a trained and fixed, but an improv- ing, sense of personal responsibility and initiative ; not life on high planes, but on successively higher planes, and more abundantly. Dr. Holmes, in his Breakfast- table series, affirms that the really " important thing is not where we stand, but which way we face," and it might have been added, the rate at which we are moving. Speaking in terms of education, all points in this upward and forward journey are equally hon- orable as such. But to be facing up, and moving for- ward, on the lower levels, is both more honorable and more promising than any high attainment that merely holds its own or retrogrades. The only really essential factor is the growth that from any lower level carries one to a higher. A conception of personal responsi- bility, where before was indifference, in honesty or truthfulness or selfishness or civic relations, or the home or business life, or personal improvement, is a step forward and means growth, and is, in morals also, of the essential nature of education. The carriage- maker who protested that he was not merely making pretty good wagons, and insisted that every day he was making the best vehicle he knew how, was on the way to better ones for the future. " The good," as the eastern proverb phrases it, is, if one be content with Tentative Characteristics of Education 53 it, " an enemy of the best," which should follow. Pedagogicallj, then, the one important thing is the process of growth, not the having achieved and hold- ing any attainment of goodness or honorable character or chastened life. Once more, education is not only a process, and a mental process, but is a rational process; i.e., one that implies intelligent foresight, the power to imagine dis- tant ends to be attained, and the use of suitable means to accomplish these ends ; the forming and holding of ideals in science and art and conduct; the power of purposeful, consecutive thinking. Along with these functions, man shares, with the lower animals, others also that lend themselves to the taking on of fixed ways of acting, repeating unthinkingly the original act, crys- tallizing in set ways the tendency of the mind to act as it has acted. In appealing to the mind's initiative, on the other hand, there is a recognition of its power, its tendency, to think the experience in a new way, as sustaining manifold relations other than those in the original act, and so using it in a new form, perhaps with new meanings. The former is training; the lat- ter, education. This gives resourcefulness and leads t« multiform experience and growth ; that, to uniform- ity of action and a fixed order. Both are subject to fairly well understood laws, and, under the appropriate stimulus, the resulting actions of each may, in a meas- ure, be predicted ; the specific acts, likely to result from a process of training, with great certainty. But the one equips the individual for following a familiar, 54 Science of Education conventional, and prescribed order; the other for in- telligently meeting unfamiliar conditions. In the for- mer the mind reacts upon the stimulus as it has acted ; in the latter, there is, indirectly, only a reference to its previous procedure. Much of the work of the school is of the character of training; acquiring a knowledge of the symbols of experience, acquaintance with conventional forms of social and business intercourse, language, and the bodily movements, etc. There is no occasion to belittle the value of these acquirements; there would be little education without this function of the mind. But this is not education. It is a tool, a means ; but not a force for progress. Its primary function is to mechanize,, to enslave; not to liberate. Freedom comes through education; all advance in civilization and achievement. That gives skill in manufacture and administration, facility and grace in conduct and intercourse, perfec- tion of form and finish; this stimulates reflection, ingenuity, the free play of ideals and the creative fac- ulties. Training looks to specific ends; education to versatility. Education makes men; training, work- men. The steps in training are generally simple and easily acquired ; those of education, intricate and elu- sive. By training, men become experts in doing; by education, they are fitted to improve the doing. Each is the complement of the other. A high state of either stimulates to a development of the other. The highest education in the race is of little value unless there be the skill to apply it to the arts and purposes of life; Tentative Characteristics of Education 55 the most perfect skill is lame that has not intelligent direction. Education is the rational process that makes the masterful possession of all needful knowledge and skill certain. Again, besides being a rational process, education is here characterized as natural. It is the native process of maturing, and is characteristic of the mind, as ripening is of the melon. The conditions of light, heat, moisture, a fruitful soil and good seed, are not more necessary to the vegetable than are right environ- ments and a sound mind to education. But education is not something which a teacher has and which is turned over to the child; it is not somewhat trans- ferred from one to another; it cannot be bought, or given, or bartered for, any more than ripeness is fur- nished by soil and climate. Given these conditions, the melon takes on the successive steps in its ripening; so, in using its environment, the individual matures. In the lapse of years, and through this spiritual touch with a stimulating environment, the boy becomes a man, the girl a woman, taking on adult interests, and new standards of conduct, and foresight, and self- appointed tasks, and a sense of responsibility, and a readier adjustment of personal behavior to the insti- tutional and conventional life. So inevitable is this change in the individual, espe- cially in the midst of a congregate life, that one would in a measure pass through most of these forms of maturing even if there were no schools. The process, surely, would be one of slow evolution ; the individuals 56 Science of Education fittest for this group-life surviving, while others perish. It is obvious that this must have been the character of the race's development for many centuries before the times of directed education. Under this unconscious tuition some learned more, and some less, as is true to-daj; some became more self-helpful than others, more provident, more self-controlled, better informed, less selfish, more skilful and ingenious, more spiritually minded — just the qualities that the schools to-day seek to encourage. They may be encouraged because they are natural products of a maturing race, or a race com- posed of maturing members. The process by which they come is a natural process. It belongs to a man because he is a man. The tendency, whatever its origin, is now a human inheritance. Three things the schools may do: (1) shorten the period of acquiring the need- ful experience and maturity to the degree of reasonable self-helpf ulness ; (2) through the foresight of experi- enced persons fix the growth and the trend of experi- ence in right, wholesome directions; and (3) forestall the inequalities of training likely to come to one in the undirected process of evolution. But the most sys- tematic guidance can only follow the constitutional tendency, re-enforcing, guiding, emphasizing it; en- riching the years of youth by converging upon them manifold opportunities; and substituting the tried and abiding ideals of the race for the transient purposes and interests of the day. Definitions (8), (36), and (42), on preceding pages, emphasize this aspect of the problem. Tentative Characteristics of Education 57 In another, and very important sense, the process here called education mnst be viewed as generic rather than as the development of any specific function or any number of functions. It does not mean, e.g., the enlarging and enriching of the memory only, or sepa- rately, but rather the maturing of the system of which the memory is an organic part ; not the judgment merely, but the life which the judgment serves. It does not mean to endow with a particular skill, but, through the effort to master some foi'm of doing, to become intelligent in undertaking other forms. It does mean much experience, and the habit of using it ; the refining of the senses; the habit of being inter- ested; much practice in discriminating the important from the unimportant; an increase in personal initia- tive. But this enriching of the memory, the knitting of the judgment, the bias towards painstaking doing, the habit of being interested, and of using the experi- ence one has, the training of the senses, the power to perceive and value the really vital factors in an expe- rience, and growth in personal initiative, may all, severally and in the aggregate, be accomplished through any one of several lines of training. It is probably no exaggeration to say that discipline in no one field of learning or group of subjects is necessary to maturing along any one of these lines. Without doubt some sub- jects are better fitted for the accomplishing of certain of these purposes than are others, just as certain tools of the mechanic are selected for one task, and others for a different one. And each, teacher or mechanic, 58 Science of Education will, if wise, use the best tools at hand for the purpose. But, if wise again, neither will forget that not the tool, but the result, is the important element. A China- man or other foreigner may know nothing of the things ' which our people generally know, and be unable to do the things which our people do, and yet be highly edu- cated. In the ancient days there were men and women effectively educated and equipped to handle the intri- cate problems of their times, of government and relig- ion and industry and war and diplomacy, even before the times of the so-called classic languages of the schools, before the advent of western civilization, before the beginnings of most that we now think important in literature, and government, and science, and industry. It is a matter of history that, in comparatively modem times, there have been, high in the counsels of the State, and of the Church, and of the school, and in the fields of industry, those who have had little of what is called scholarship, but who have been abundantly educated — educated to a high degree of eflficiency and personal accomplishments. Abraham Lincoln is only a more notable example of a considerable class. All of which means only, and is intended to mean, not that the learn- ing of the schools is not valid, or that it fails to justify itself, but that it is of the nature of education as such to compass originative thinking, alertness of mind, provident habits, the co-operative temper, and devotion to ideals. Wliatever the manner of acquisition, he who has these qualities and their kin is fairly educated, whatever he knows or doesn't know. In the nature of Tentative Characteristics of Education 59 the mind, its acts are specific and limited ; but in pur- poses and effects, the results that are valuable as edu- cation are generic and comprehensive. It is thus set off, on tlie one side, from training, as has been men- tioned, which looks to some particular skill; and from mere scholarship, on the other, which exalts accumula- tion and possession. Both the skill and the scholarship are immensely valuable as products ; but they are, taken separately, but partial and unsatisfactory. Together, and reinforced by an unspoiled disposition to improve both, that tlie skill may be something more than dex- terity or adroitness, and the scholarship more than possession, they become unfailing accompaniments of the best or the least that deserves the name of ednca- tion. The artificer becomes more than a mechanic ; the thinker, more than a copyist; the teacher, more than a routine follower. The attainment of the higher levels implies resourcefulness beyond what has been learned ; the capacity for original vision and initiative, and the courage to believe in them. CHAPTER V TENTATIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF EDUCA- TION (continued) As a corollary of much of what has been set down in preceding pages it follows that, far from being con- fined to the periods of childhood and youth, education is a lifelong process. Obviously, there are in each one's life times of more and of less active development. This is true of the years before twenty in most indi- viduals. But growth at no period entirely ceases, and the mind is ever curious and interested. There are instances, not a few, of marked and effective increase of most mental and spiritual powers, increase of re- sourcefulness, and business and cultural and moral adaptations, into and through middle life. The mani- fold agencies which society has devised for its improve- ment, not less than its pleasure, are evidence of a public recognition of this native tendency toward a continu- ance of certain kinds of growth through life. Without attempting to make the list complete, there may be named these non-school agencies of adult educa- tion : the various forms of school extension ; vacation and evening schools ; organized home readings ; the more than one hundred Chautauquas with their schools and 60 Tentative Characteristics of Education 61 assemblies and circles and clubs; the lyceum under various names; correspondence schools, enrolling half a million students; university, college, and school ex- tension lecture courses ; the institutional church, with its academic and professional classes, gymnasia, and societies; the hundreds of public lectures and lecture courses in cities and villages, and even rural sections; the free public lectures maintained by certain city boards of education ; the different public reference and circulating libraries, with their numerous branch col- lections, reading-rooms, study-clubs, and reference- lists ; the thousands of private reading groups ; socie- ties, scientific, historical, philosophical, art, and liter- ary, national. State, and local, of men and women ; the millions of newspaper and magazine issues, with their volume and variety of matter ; the tons of Government publications upon matters of great historical, scientific, civic, and industrial interest; the numerous fraternal, professional, and social organizations, many of which furnish both entertainment and instruction in impor- tant ways; international, national. State, and local expositions, exhibitions, and fairs, for the showing and comparison of the products of human handiwork and achievement; the wealth of literature bearing upon hygiene and sanitation; the several guilds, industrial societies, and labor organizations, of recent rapid de- velopment and distinct and far-reaching influence; the systematic and incidental encouragement given to travel; the Young Men's and Young Women's Chris- tian Associations ; and, finally, the numerous municipal 62 Science of Education and civic organizations, including commercial and busi- ness clubs, civic leagues in the cities, neighborhood improvement societies, national and local tree-planting and irrigation and public-park movements, art and landscape decoration societies, pioneer historical and patriotic societies, and the public and permanent com- memoration of historical places and personages, general and local public education societies, and the official reports and manuals of the respective State and local governments. The number of adult individuals in any common- wealth not reached by one or another or several of these forms of social effort is very small. In the aggregate the influence is large and rapidly extending. No man can come into frequent contact with his fel- lows in these organized ways, hear their words, and read their voluminous literature, and share their opin- ions and interests, and fail to be vitally influenced in his thinking, his belief, his conduct, and his efficiency. In our own country, of more than ordinarily free speech and the ready interchange of ideas among all classes, the universal reading habit and the opportunity afforded for class and group organization, these agencies become important factors in the aggregate training of citizenship. From birth to death no one is long free from their touch. The qualities that make for man- hood, and civic efficiency, and the refinements of cult- ure, and the attainment of industrial and professional skill, and ready and intelligent social co-operation, are stimulated and encouraged at every turn. Of all the Tentative Characteristics of Education 63 millions of our adult population almost no one escapes altogether the aggressive moulding influence of these agencies. They are ever present. The touch of the schools is for a small part only of one's life. Through the manifold organizations which society has worked out, learning and the student habit and the maturing of powers, and the refinement of tastes and the multi- plication of interests, and growth in co-operation and the sharing of attainments, go on through most adult years of both manhood and womanhood. Much of all this is mere training, a fixing of habits, and sobering of life, and tempering of the passions, and checking of enthusiasms ; but much of it, also, is of the nature of real education — the enlarging of powers, adding to one's fruitful experience, the accumulation of interests, an increasing sense of personal and social responsibil- ity, devotion to the common welfare, contributions to the general intelligence, and an appreciation of per- sonal skill and effectiveness. All this implies not alone the possibility of education being furthered during the manhood period, but a positive and aggressive natural tendency to growth and increasing maturity during these years. Education is a life-long process. In a very pronounced and intelligible way, educa- tion is, further, a process that looks toward the inte- gration of experience; i.e., tlie organizing of one's experiences into a body of experience. Child interests are more or less scrappy; often intense, but usually disconnected. Few kinships are recognized among them as strong enough regularly to endow them with 64 Science of Education common meaning. Thought and purpose easily pass from one to another. Each follows in its order as part of an occasioned sequence, rather than as a purposed association. The mind is filled with experiences that seem to have no established coalescence or subordina- tion. Their grouping upon occasion is by chance, and transient. Their inherent connections are not appar- ent. From one to another of them the child passes, not at will, but spontaneously. There is much remem- brance, but little recollection. Likes and dislikes, smiles and tears, interest and indifference, good and ill tem- per, follow each other and are intermingled, without let or hindrance, and with no consciousness of incon- gruity. This is the period of curiosity, and manifold interests, and the storing of the mind; information accumulates, growth is extensive. The horizon is being pushed out, and new fields attract, while yet the old has had only surface cultivation. Experiences are in flux; the mind is unstable, but groping, aggressive, in- quiring, versatile. In its turn, everji;hing pleases or displeases. Interests multiply, and sometimes coin- cide; again they conflict. They begin, in a rude way, to order themselves according to their common mean- ings. Certain simple biases have taken root in groups of these kindred experiences. The child's likings are strengthened, held together, and, in a measure, justified by a series of kindred experiences, which in time he comes to recognize as a series and as kindred. The same changes may be affirmed of his dislikes. The child begins more definitely also to think in lines, with Tentative Characteristics of Education 65 steps having reasonable sequence. His reflection may not be conscious, or be so in a small degree only ; but the parts are ordered after a law of some unity. Many experiences are reflected in this one. His separate thoughts, and purposes, and interests, and his personal touch with his fellows, and his acquaintance with things, and his insight into their meanings, come to stand each as the representative of a class, and to sug- gest the class in his thinking, and to suggest and call up other co-ordinate experiences of the same class ; they are taking on the characteristics of a mass or organized body of experience, having an inner unity, and are be- ginning to be significant in the aggregate not less than in the individual parts. This movement is incident to a native tendency of the mind toward integration of its interests. Edu- cation as a natural process of maturing implies this knitting together of thought, feeling, and purpose, and of distinct but kindred thoughts, feelings, and pur- poses. It need not be argued that this tendency furnishes the ground for such systematic effort as the schools may make, to co-ordinate or further the co-ordination of the mind's functioning. Far-seeing instruction multiplies occasions for the easy asso- ciation of its experiences ; by suggestion and environ- ment puts the mind in the way of establishing legitimate relations, and re-enforces the native ten- dency toward integration. This is the solidarity of mind that is the essence of character. One in whom this quality is wanting, or is possessed in a small de- 66 Science of Education gree only, is described fitly as a charaoterless person, vapid and sterile, invertebrate. He lacks constancy of purpose, consistency of judgment, the courage that gives persistence to his enterprises, the fibre that con- firms either loyalty or devotion. In the normal mind there seems to be a constitutional tendency among the experiences held in solution to organize tliem into an effective body of experience, having its own unity and standing for singleness of mind. The mind as a whole, the life as a whole, comes to have a significance of its own. Its several functions act as one, each supporting and reinforcing every other. The tendency of the nor- mal mind is toward such integration. ]^o teaching can be bad that is really guided by this principle, and none can have much virtue that ignores it. The mind is able to do great things for itself if it be given a suffi- ciency of opportunities for its exercise. This providing of right occasions and the guiding of activities are in the interest of a well-defined native tendency toward integral functions, as described. In its narrow and literal meaning education is, of course, an individual process — a process of growth in the individual mind. One person may be stimulated, inspired, strengthened, discouraged, hindered, or other- wise influenced by others; but the changes — physical and spiritual — called maturing, are his alone. The exercises, as a result or accompaniment of which this maturing comes, are his. The effects are personal. The increasing capacity is personal. The finer mental acumen is a personal possession; so of the chastening Tentative Characteristics of Education 67 moral sense, the sustained effort, the safer judgment, the surer hold on experience, the growth in tenderness, the increasing respect for the right — all are private in their development, while having public or social rela- tions. The changed standards of conduct, and one's ideals of manhood and culture and efficiency, however inspired, are individual acquirements. The possessions of the enlarging mind may be shared with others, but not the growth. The act of remembering, or recollect- ing, or forming conclusions, or fearing, or loving, or worshipping, or striving after ideals, or increasing ex- perience, is an inner and private accomplishment. No one can forego this responsibility, this privilege, how- ever much he may wish to do so. These movements are the essence of education. They stand for individual reactions and represent individual effort. The pedagogical implications are not far to seek. Teaching becomes a stimulus to the pupil's self -activity. 'No one can live another's mental life in such way as to free him from any obligation of his own being. That strength only is his which he achieves. Telling is not teaching, though it is one of its incidents. The one determining condition of all learning, of all education, is the exercise of self-effort. Education is an indi- vidual process in both the act and the motive. It is individual also in its primary results. The secondary consequences may, and often do, compass the group and institutional life about one, but the immediate changes are personal. It has been noticed elsewhere that this process of 68 Science of Education maturing in the individual, which is called education, has its counterpart in civilization — the approach to adult life in the race. But in other ways, also, educa- tion has its group meanings — it is a well-defined proc- ess of socializing the individual. In most human acts, from the simple patriarchal and tribal relations of primitive man to the complex life of to-day, reference is had to the fact that each is one of many, and, in his living, of necessity takes the many into account. Few of his exj>eriences concern himself alone ; from morn- ing till night most of them have to do with his relations to his fellows — the social conventions, business inter- ests in which others are involved, current news and public affairs, more or less detailed asjDects of his mem- bership in one or another of the great social institutions (the church, the state, the school, the family, conven- tional society, and the industrial body) and the mani- fold personal relations which he sustains toward his fellows. As a particular being each has by birth a certain individuality, the more important characteris- tics of which he holds in common with others ; but he becomes a person only through association with them and by many mutual adjustments. By virtue of his individual nature he claims and covets certain privi- leges and rights as his due. He resents interference and obstruction to his will. He soon learns that such personal interference implies other individuals claim- ing like rights and privileges upon exactly the same grounds. Each is a check upon every other whom he meets, and concessions are made — mutual concessions. Tentative Characteristics of Education 69 In time the sense of responsibility is stimiilated, and it is discovered that for every privilege there is a cor- responding obligation. Each is no longer an individ- ual, but a member of a group. In his daily behavior he begins to take others into account. When, in the daily round of his life, he does this habitually he has become a growing personality. Along with more or less of protest and mental reserve, and sometimes re- bellion, there goes an increasing degree of co-operation. There are frequent concessions and sacrifices, and re- sulting conventions that come, in time, to regulate behavior, and become the codes of social and business and professional intercourse. This socializing process, the achieving of personality, is a spiritual movement in the individual that is distinctively educational. To one looking back upon the process, then, educa- tion is seen to mean more than development and the acquiring of personal possessions and traits; it means also social adjustments, and the acceptance of com- munity standards of personal behavior, and the subor- dination of private whims and caprices, and a fitting for the concerted action of many, whereby each profits. The efficiency of the individual is reflected in the effi- ciency of the group. Each finds its limitations not less than its stimulations in the other. This effort of the individual to fit both its doing and its thinking to an objective but kindred existence constitutes a large and important factor in each one's education. It involves a form of concerted action in which there must be constant reference to a power not itself, by conformity 70 Science of Education to which or reaction against which it is itself modified. What one can or cannot achieve, what one may or may not do, will be largely determined by this social environ- ment, this aggregate of similar but often interfering forces and interests. It has been said that " no one is quite so bad when he is alone as with others, and no one is quite so good when alone as with others." So alertness and mental acumen are often stimulated or repressed, according to the force and enthusiasm of one's companions. The movement toward maturity, which is the primary educational process, is not only, upon the whole, forward and upward in the fonn of the development of native capacities, but outward in breadth to compass these manifold personal and group reactions. Converging in the individual are these social tendencies that demand cultivation. No system or method of schooling is complete that omits a recog- nition of them or their training. In another and important sense education reveals the group bias, in that it tends, when not interfered with, to conserve the species; this, in general recogni- tion of the principle of the survival of the fittest. The training that, for any reason, is inapt or querulous, that violates the natural law of development, or ob- structs the co-operation of individuals through profit- able adjustments, defeats its own purposes. The edu- cation that is unserviceable to the race bears the seed of its o^vn destruction. The highest good of the indi- vidual must conform to the highest good of the race. What tends to destroy the one tends to destroy the Tentative Characteristics of Education 71 other. In each one converge various and often antago- nistic race tendencies. Looked at through long periods and in the aggregate their development is favorable to the preservation of the species. In the process many individuals go down. But in general education is race progress, not less than growth in social stability and amelioration, and in individual maturity, and fulness of life. It looks to furthering wholesome race condi- tions. Education, in this asjject, is coextensive with the race in its struggles toward and progress in civili- zation. It is broader than history and older than his- toric records. It compasses manifold movements that have not taken organic form in any of the great social institutions, and hence are not historical; and, being coextensive with the race, must be many thousands of years older than the oldest records of history. In anthropology and ethnology and the contributing sci- ences, and the studies of antiquities generally, much assistance may be had in the study of primitive stages of the race development. And it is not difficult to discover that certain important and abiding forms of these race groupings are represented in the more highly developed individuals and the forces of social activity of the present day. In the conservation and evolution of the species the essential fact would seem to be the effort to use its experiences and in reacting upon its environment. This again becomes identical with the factors that make for education in the individual and for adjustments in society. It has this objective refer- ence, but is an inner process of growth. 72 Science of Education Again, education is a process of emancipation; a freeing of the spirit from tlie dominance of the body. In the child, life is predominantly sensuous. The spe- cial senses and the general bodily functions control experience. The environment is obtrusive and insist- ent. Having little experience, the control of his actions is chiefly from without, or stimulated from without. His activity is unremitting, not because he chooses, but because he must. His inheritance is facile and in- sinuating. He cannot do but obey. The world is strange and, to his untaught judgment, often defiant. His adjustments in conduct and achievements are often occasioned, or, at least, happy coincidences. It is a process in the main, perhaps, of being conformed, rather than confonning. But in time, as a result of many constrained imitations, and provoked interests, and impeded and only partially successful efforts at control, the child acquires a simple initiative, both in motive and behavior. Creative energy is yet weak, but it is incipient. He is learning mastery, and is able to choose his reactions. Experience is no less sensuous, but is less arbitrary. He finds his o^vn spirit reproduced in the world of thing and person about him, and identifies and interprets the marks of kinship. In many and gratifying ways he finds himself able to use his senses, and is no longer imperiously used by them. The field of choice is enlarging, and the jx)wer and disposition to exercise it. He is earning his emancii3a- tion. On this side of the process education is an emancipation of the mind from fear of or dependence Tentative Characteristics of Education 73 upon the environment and a growing sense of original reaction and voluntary effort. In the preceding statement the purpose has been consistently kept in mind to avoid definition and crit- ical analysis, and to present descriptively and tenta- tively the more obvious characteristics only of educa- tion as they appear from different points of view : that it is, primarily, a fact of the mind ; that it is a process rather than a product ; that it is a natural and life-long process, not something imposed upon the individual from without; that it is a rational process, and is so distinguished from training; that it tends toward the integration of experiences into a body of experience ; tliat it is an individual process, with numerous group and race reactions; and that it is a growth toward spiritual freedom and an emancipation from the domi- nance of the merely sensuous and external. Education as an individual maturing includes psy- chology in its various forms, and, under the guise of schooling, implies teaching; as concerned with group life, it comprises social relations, ethics, and refonns; as a product, it suggests knowledge, skill, discipline, character, and alertness ; from the point of view of its instruments, tliere are implied schools, teachers, and equipments ; as a process, it appears in all human func- tioning — as development, adjustment, maturing, civil- ization. Throughout the following text it is considered primarily in this last sense; i.e., as a process. CHAPTER VI THE SUBJECT OF EDUCATION In the preceding chapters a descriptive view only has been taken of the educational process. It is believed that the more important characteristics have been pre- sented. These chapters have meant to show, simply, how education appears from different points of view, and, by rough and approximate comparisons, how it stands related to kindred processes and certain legiti- mate results and instruments: to training; to teaching and the teacher; to the learner and to learning; to the child and the adult ; to scholarship, skill, discipline, cult- ure, character; to school and the formal instruments of instruction, and to the non-school agencies; in the indi- vidual and in the race; in its social or group forms and meanings; to physical and sense culture; and to the processes of civilization. The discussion follows the order of all human experience. First views are general, more or less partial, descriptive, sometimes scrappy; analytic, becoming more critical with added experience; cumulative, each larger view revising former judg- ments; and so fixing acquaintance with the material that is to be studied, and given an organic setting, by subsequent scientific statements. The closing paragraphs of the last chapter give a 74 The Subject of Education 75 summary of these descriptive characterizations of the educational process. It is believed that no one of the features there suminarized may properly be left out of the final count. Looking to the formulation of a body of educational doctrine, there remains their right order- ing in a series of consistent statements, that shall have their own organic unity, each fairly exclusive of the others, and all taken together, being inclusive of every essential characteristic in the general notion. These constitute the fundamental categories in the notion of education. Among teachers generally, whether of the element- ary or the higher schools, and by many thoughtful laymen, there are held more or less scattering convic- tions as to aims and methods and working principles, many of which are full of helpful meaning, and some of which are vital; but which have not, by most teachers, certainly not by the body of teachers, taken on any consistent organic form so as to constitute a body of doctrine. To say, e.g., that, in its learning, the mind passes from some familiar experience to a nearly related unfamiliar or unknown, means little, unless its relation to certain other principles is understood and their meaning has been taken, in terms of the generic process called growth. The best teacher's following of a detached principle of procedure may degenerate into a rule-of-thumb method, and become viciously me- chanical. " The concrete before the abstract," " things before words," " never tell a child what he can find out for himself," " interest is the basis of all learning," 76 Science of Education " the head, the heart and the hand must work together," " a few things at a time and those well learned," " the simple before the complex," " the near before the dis- tant," " description before definition," an emphasis of the child's initiative as against following authority, the educational value of a sense of personal responsibility, and " childhood is the time for acquisition " ; may all, if taken out of their right perspective, deteriorate into mere devices for more effectually foisting a wrong habit or fixing a narrowing bias. What constitutes " personal initiative " and a sense of responsibility and child resourcefulness; and what experiences are simple or concrete; and how the head, the heart and the hand are to work together, may, and often do receive, but wooden interpretation. And they are all the more likely to receive such interpretation, if there be want- ing a sound notion of what education is in its nature and conditions. The present chapter, then, is given to a statement of what are here considered the four fundamentals in the notion of education as characterized in preceding pages, and to a discussion of the first one. That is, from these studies, it may fairly be inferred that : 1. Education presupposes a free, rational, intelligent, self-conscious, self-determining being as its only sub- ject. 2. Education presupposes an equally rational (ra- tionally made) external world of happening as its only instrument. The Subject of Education 77 3. Education presupposes an internal free impulse toward development through using this intelligent world, as its only motive. 4. Education presupposes time and the accompanying opportunities for this development as its only condition. These statements have been given as fairly express- ing the four fundamentals in the notion of education: (1) the subject, (2) the means, (3) the motives, and (4) the conditions. They are all presuppositions, and are submitted as inclusive of all necessary factors. A con- sideration of them separately may make their several meanings and implications clearer. 1. Education presupposes a free, rational, intelli- gent, self-conscious, self-determining being as its only subject. As the term is here used, the subject of education is the being in whom the process takes place. It is affirmed that the process called and elsewhere described as education cannot take place in any other subject; that any being is educable to the degree only that it possesses these and kindred characteristics; while carry- ing somewhat different shades of meaning, the terms used all name qualities of mind that are popularly as well as critically affirmed of normal man. Though surrounded by an aggressive world of forces and hap- penings, man, within the limits of his conditions, is free in thought and purpose and personal choice. How- ever he may share the quality, he also possesses intelli- gence, the power to know, and to reflect upon and inter- pret what he knows, making his own thinking the con- 78 Science of Education scious object of his attention. He possesses, further, the power of initiative in mind, using the happenings of the world and of other minds as the raw material of his experience, and for the accomplishment of his self- initiated purpose. To the degree that his doing depends upon reason rather than upon instinct; that he has fore- sight and the power and habit of selecting and adjust- ing suitable means for the accomplishment of his pur- pose; that he is, through a regulative imagination, able to conceive and construct for himself ideals of achieve- ment and conduct and beauty and truth; and that he is able to clothe his foresight and reasoning and ideals in an intelligible symbolism of language, man is called a rational being. Without essaying a critical consideration of these qualities, and not attempting an inventory of other im- portant spiritual characteristics, or distinguishing be- tween brute and human intelligence, let it be sufficient to say that any creature that reveals these traits may be educated, as education has been here characterized. Man may be educated because he has these qualities. But in a statement of the first fundamental it is asserted that only such creature may be educated. It need not be argued that the author is not ignorant of the claims made for animal intelligence, animal reasoning, the emotions and sentiments and sense of right and beauty in the animal world. All that may safely and fairly be admitted, affirmed, indeed; and the statement still holds in all essentials. There is, however, a twofold difficulty met in the attempt to interpret animal actions: (1) in The Subject of Education 79 explaining their actions in terms of human experience; and (2) in denying to them anything in common with men. While the former mistake is likely to be made by one who works much with animals and has frequent occasion to note their marks of intelligence, the latter is even more likely to follow an exclusive acquaintance with children. Rarey, the famous horse trainer of a generation ago, was accustomed to say that he got his insight into horse nature through studying human nature. Equally, perhaps, with much reason at least, it may be said, the teacher's understanding of child nature and character will be clarified when he is made familiar with what the manager of the " Animal Para- dox " is able to tell him. This may be made clearer, perhaps, by putting it differently. A similar difficulty appears in the attempt to interpret human actions. This also is twofold, shown in the disposition, (1) to explain human actions (many of them) in terms of automatism and instinct, and (2) to deny to the higher forms of life the instincts of the animal. Some points of likeness and difference between men and the lower animals may fairly be taken as by com- mon consent: most animals reason, and, within the limits of their experience, often, as well as do men. All brute reasoning, however, even the most highly devel- oped, seems to be: (1) concrete, (2) individual, and (3) associative, resting chiefly upon contiguity. Certain animals, also, may be taught to use symbols, in a way. But this, obviously, is similar to the first child knowl- edge and use of symbols — every name is a proper name; 80 Science of Education i.e., it bears an individual, not general significance. With the dog under training, a new movement requires a new symbol; in the human individual, the new move- ment allies itself with, not another individual move- ment, which it duplicates, but with one or another of several classes of movements, already more or less fa- miliar, in the light of which the new one is interpreted. Both the lower and the higher forms may be trained; the latter only are here characterized as subjects of education. In the two products there are decided and far-reaching differences. The process, in dog or pony, results in giving him facility through routine — a par- ticular skill limited to what has been taught; in the case of a child there is added to this, generic power, making possible from the one lesson the acquirement of a more or less different skill in untaught lines. A dog, e.g., having been so taught, may unknot a thou- sand ropes, without coming nearer to the point of turn- ing a new one, or the same straight rope, into a different twist. A dog, also, familiar with turning somersaults, and understanding the meaning of " back " or "back- ward " must yet be taught, as a new trick, how to turn a " backward somersault." Now, it is just this power to do things which have never been taught, or even sug- gested by the teacher, but which has come from his per- sonal reaction upon what has been taught, that dis- tinguishes the education of the child from the kindred process in the dog, or the flea or the elephant. The former is called properly " education," the latter train- ing. Training results in specific skill; education, in The Subject of Education 81 resourceful power. Training, wlietlier in animal or child, looks to facility in doing, rather than initiative in thinking. It suggests dexterity, but in fixed and narrow fields. If it reaches expertness, there is implied a cul- tivated ability that connects itself with education. Knack, skill, mechanical readiness, aptness, handiness, adroitness, belong to the one; resourcefulness, versa- tility, adjustment of means, adaptability, abundant con- trivance, to the other. Training goes with repetition of movement or mental action; education, with venture, experiment and judgment. Training results in tradi- tion and habit; education, in manifoldness of interest and invention. The one is stable and safe and uniform; the other, progressive. In training, the lesson taught is returned in kind — a more or less exact copy of the original. It is imitative, and often unthinking. It looks to perfect reproduction, careless of implied les- sons. Training fits the subject to give back what it has received. Education, on the other hand, stimulates the imagination, and offers a field for the exercise of the creative faculties. Retentiveness and faithfulness of imitation underlie the former; the latter, with equal respect for an unfailing memory, is endowed with a creative reaction which combines into new forms the simple experiences on the basis of their inner meanings. Among the nations, an emphasis of the former gives stability and an appointed cast to their institutions; a cultivation of the latter encourages change, and, in gen- eral, progress. Any being, whose functions compass both sets of capacities, may be educated. 82 Science of Education Once more, education emphasizes, in its process, the universal element in man — personality; training, the individual. This regards information; so much acqui- sition held as mere possession; more or less foreign to the mind, but usable; that, wisdom, knowledge assimi- lated, transformed or transformable into generic energy. The often disconsolate Cowper had an insight into some such distinction when he wrote: " Knowledge and wisdom far from being one Have oft-times no connection. Knowledge dwells In heads replete with thoughts of other men; Wisdom in minds attentive to their own." By long training and an exigent process of teach- ing, one may have converged upon him, as in a stream, theoretically, all the learning of the ages, but neither enriching this store of knowledge by resolving it into, for him, new meanings, nor being himself improved by its possession ; being a reservoir of information, but neither an interpreter of it nor a creator of new forms. By education the mind becomes an organ for working over its accumulations, as the raw material of its experi- ences, and the occasion of its own maturing. One puts a coin into his purse. In the purse it remains a coin; and, taken out betimes, it is the same coin, changed neither an interpreter of it nor a creator of new forms, nothing. It is the original one talent returned to the master at his coming, without increment or waste. This admirably symbolizes mere training. Knowledge so learned, or skill so acquired, is stored against examina- The Subject of Education 83 tlon day, or the call of the taskmaster. The mind is neither enriched by it nor the skill or knowledge im- proved. Hid in the napkin of an unthinking mind, it loses its rightful usury. If, on the contrary, the coin destined for the purse were such a coin that, once in the purse, it bred other coins, of manifold values and make, and, by virtue of its presence in the purse and with other coins, shared with them all, in increasing the actual and usable value of the contents, how anxious every lover of riches would covet its possession! But this is a partial symbol only of what real knowledge does in the mind. Properly used it breeds and multi- plies. It was a favorite dictum of Froebel that " the primary function of the teacher is to sow mother thoughts "; thoughts that easily lend themselves to gen- eration and reproduction. Every genuine experience becomes recreative. This is the nature of education. It eschews mere storage and pigeon-holing. Experi- ences are given free commerce. Each reacts upon every other. The value of each is multiplied into all. But once more, in the illustration, if the coins be conceived as not only multiplying themselves and increasing their own values, by virtue of there being carried on this free commerce among them; but as so reacting upon the purse, that the purse itself becomes more of a purse, with larger capacity, of better quality, and of such changed nature that it comes to have the power to re- inforce this multiplication of values, and to make coins of its own designing, and bearing its own stamp; the meaning of the illustration will be more apparent. This, 84 Science of Education distinctively, is of the nature of education. The mind itself is made over by the knowledge it has and uses to its own ends. It creates its own ideals, and formulates its own purposes, and shapes its own experiences; it con- structs and solves its own problems; and utters its own interpretations. This is education — this coming to wisdom, that shall primarily be " attentive to its own," not alone others' thoughts. This it is to grow in per- sonality, to be more than individual; to stand for the universal in culture and possession; to bring the one mind to be a sharer in the divine quality of all mind — creativeness. Mere training stifles this instinct, and tends to limit mind by emphasizing chiefly imitation and the nursing of a store of individual ideas. Humanism, originally committed to spiritual disci- pline, came in time to depreciate discipline into a train- ing. Technological training, on the contrary, intro- duced as an utility, has, in its best estate, and not unfre- quently, exalted practice into a discipline. It is a com- monplace among thoughtful men that any experience or learning or skill that has legitimate uses in thinking or doing, may be accompanied by this incident of thought creation and great achievement. For the effecting of highest returns of good to the soul, the mind is pe- culiarly indifferent to the material or instrument it uses, provided only that this material have constructive adap- tation. Language in general, or a particular language, or the classics of the traditional school; philosophy and the philosophical courses; mathematics as a pure sci- ence, or the mathematical sciences; history, literature, The Subject of Education 85 art and ethics; the experimental and laboratory sci- ences; industry, trade and technology — mind has them all for its own. Breadth of interest, manly self-reliance, public enterprise and a sense of personal responsibility; resourcefulness in emergency or in difficulty, a chas- tened mind and the scholarly habit, may accompany the serious pursuit of any of them. Virtue lies, not in the branch studied, but in the way; the motive with which it is pursued, and the uses made of its lessons. Whether the field be the humanities or technology, education discovers the man in the thinking and doing; training, the artisan or the machine. The former looks to stimu- lating and reinforcing personal initiative; the latter to the following of alien authority and suggestion. " The end of education," it has been said, " is to actualize in each individual his potential freedom, his implicit self- determinateness." As in manufacture, so here, some tools, will be found, in particular cases, to be more effective than others. But, speaking broadly, the tool is unimportant. It is an incident, and, in general, its significance passes with its using. Its virtue consists not in the holding of it, but in its being translated into effect for the heart, or the mind, or the body; for pleas- ure or profit for self or others. Finally, that a creature possessing the attributes named in the preceding paragraphs is the only subject of education, is not more true than that these attri- butes, not those which man shares with the lower ani- mals, are the ones to which appeal is made, and which respond in education. The child yields readily to train- 86 Science of Education ing also, not less than to education. In any system of directed education, certain of the exercises must be of the character of training. Much of what the child must know, in order to get along with his fellows, he learns outside of school, but for some of it he must depend upon the more formal lessons. There are many things he must know. In part, these are acquired through much drill and iteration; in part, through use and his own personal attempts. These so-called training exer- cises include chiefly: (1) all symbols as such; (2) conven- tional codes of the purely social nature; (3) business forms; (4) civic requirements, and (5) church cere- monies. Indeed, all of them might, without doing vio- lence to the thought, be included under the first class. Conventional codes and business forms, and civic orders and ecclesiastical ceremonies are all so many symbols. Tinder the first head, however, may be considered letters, sounds, words, spelling, syllables, pronuncia- tion; writing; sentence order, rules and conditions of compositions; the naming of objects with their attri- butes, and persons and places with their individual char- acteristics; art and industrial forms, geometric forms; figures and current modes of calculation; all of which are more or less arbitrary, but having an established order that must be mastered by him who would use them. The mastering of them is more or less a matter of training. Added to these are the formal conven- tional codes; of salutation, characteristic of the cultured people of one's time and region; of courtesy, both among friends or kin, and strangers — acceptable forms, The Subject of Education 87 but springing from an ingrained babit; of obedience, whether to established customs, to invested authority, to persons in office, or to a public opinion, and looking to the common welfare; of social respect, to the aged, to one's superiors, to W9men, to the needy or the suf- fering, to one's inferiors in the industrial or social order, etc. All of which codes, again, are arbitrary, but bind- ing upon all who would add to their personal efficiency this strength that conies from membership in an or- ganized social group, of whose intelligent intercourse the codes are symbols. Their acquisition by the indi- vidual is through a process of training rather than edu- cation. Among the most important of the social forms, and, because they rest upon a complex and suggestive social life, more educative, perhaps, are the so-called business forms. In general, too, they seem to be quite as arbitrary, though often resting upon reasonable grounds. And, because reasonable, and not altogether arbitrary, they may be made the occasion of profitable educational activity. The distinctively business forms may be included chiefly under the following heads: the market, including business calculations, established measures and units, simple legal forms, orders, receipts, checks, notes, letters, money and exchange values, banks, banking, supply and demand, the store, bills, debts, loans, interest, etc.; transportation, including knowledge of highways with their rights and privileges, steam and other roads and their rights, codes of travel, railway and commercial geography, shipping markets, trunk lines, terminals, and connecting industrial and 88 Science of Education political centres, and tlie laws of such intercourse; and, finally, the office, including notions of official authority, professional forms and formulae, office customs, medi- cal and legal nomenclature and technical matters as they become part of the common lay experience. Another field of abundant training exercises of far- reaching consequences is that which comprises the rela- tions of the civic and municipal life: the duties and privileges of citizenship, one's relations to his fellows, as members of a common political body, the forms of procedure in civil and public affairs, how to act as a neighbor, as a habitant of a city, as a citizen of the commonwealth, at the post-office, touching revenues and customs, the census and assessments, elections, etc. While, in a general way, these may be made a means of more or less education, they are primarily, and for the great majority of individuals, objects of training. Concerning these matters, each must be given a habit of right civic behavior. This is training: of the better sort, certainly; but training, rather than education. So, of all church ceremonies a similar statement may be made. They are acquired with a minimum of educa- tional result, but wholesome as training. They must be learned, as all symbols are learned, through much repe- tition. For the purposes of the school these several symbols and codes may be considered in two groups: (1) those that are needed and employed in further learning; and (2) those involved in social intercourse. The former include language as reading, something of a nomencla- The Subject of Education 89 ture of science, and the signs and symbols in mathe- matics; the latter, the codes that obtain among one's people touching the social, business, ethical and civic relations. To the degree that schooling is an effort to equip the individual for intelligent participation in the world's social order; for effective living in growing in- stitutions under established codes; the programme of the school must look to training each indivdual in the habits that make for social integrity and an organized community life. The tools of this common efficiency must be mastered by each. They constitute the alpha- bet of learning and of group intercourse. This is largely a matter of training. The rudiments of this acquisition are more or less fixed, and are not subject to personal judgment and preference. The use of social and business codes may not safely be made a matter of one's whim, or their general practice be ignored. Both in school and in life, how best to grow finds its worthy complement in how best to behave. And, in the achievement of the latter, the requirements of the school, as of life, are exacting. Through all the earlier years of the growing child, therefore, an emphasis is very properly placed upon ex- ercises that are designed to put the child into possession of the necessary tools of learning, and the primary con- ventions that lie at the foundation of a safe and helpful congregate life. Whatever else is done or omitted, these must not be disregarded. They belong to the class of experiences which all have need to share. It is easy to discover, therefore, the reason for the primi- 90 Science of Education tive emphasis which schools and popular thought placed upon the three R's as being, in the simple life of an earlier day, the obvious essentials in one's training, for adult, social and business responsibilities. That they are no longer exclusively essential should not detract from a recognition of their far-reaching meaning in all formal education, even to-day. These, particularly the language arts, are fundamental. The effective, facile use of one's vernacular, adequate to the expression of one's experience, should be coveted by the school for every child; such mastery of it as makes an acquaintance with the records of the race's thought and achievement an inviting task. Language, in this sense, must come early to be used as a tool, not an unfamiliar product to be thought upon or investigated. The book habit must be acquired: not an exclusive temper, but an easy in- strument. But, even here, among the acquirements of symbol and conventionality, the process may be made to a greater or less degree educative, and not mere training. Any exercise that stimulates the child's initiative and occasions a growth of his sense of responsibility, in ever so small a measure, the power and disposition to do work of his own purposing, the application of personal effort, is so far educative, and is, by the same tokens, distinguished from training. It is believed that upon most forms of technical and conventional training, so called, this educational bias may be conferred. What- ever the tendency of the life outside the school, the un- wavering purpose of the school should be to reduce the The Subject of Education 91 exclusively and narrowly training exercises to a mini- mum; and to make each an instrument of self-helpful- ness and personal initiative. That this may be done, touching many kinds of technical, and formal learning, appears from actual achievement. Children best learn to read by much (directed) reading. Various grades of hand work, with and without tools, while developing skill, also cultivate resourcefulness and thoughtful in- genuity. The nomenclature and organization of science are mastered through scientific experiment and investi- gation. In the higher technical courses, an invariable accompaniment and product of all doing is the added power and disposition to do. That the simple, formal and symbol-freighted lessons of elementary classes should be so treated as to leave the pupil increasingly self-helpful, follows as an obvious corollary of these statements. It would seem reasonable^ therefore, that every lesson of the school, as far as may be, should be made a means of self-directive effort in the pupil; that the emphasis be put, not upon how much he learns, but upon self -guidance and personal reactions; that the true function of the teacher is to be stimulating and sug- gestive, not controlling; that the child be encouraged in voluntary effort; initiating and carrying on experi- ences of his own choosing, in series of his own planning, looking to the accomplishing of results of his own pur- posing, and in his own w^ay; in the earliest years even, to read something, ever so simple, for his own pleasure; to spell words of his own selection, thus fixing a habit 92 Science of Education of noting the letter composition of words; to use his knowledge of number in measurement and calculation to meet the needs of his own passing experiences; to engage his interest in observing and using and enjoying the happenings of nature about him; as often as may be, free from the detailed prescriptions of the school, that his own alert, spontaneous acquaintance with the outer world may furnish abundant material for the teacher's more systematic lessons; that he be encouraged in the somewhat free and simple, childish regard for people and their doings, their employments and amuse- ments, their homes and tools and exploits — to the end that his sympathy with human life and social move- ments be conserved. All this is simply by way of appeal to the rational, human quality in the child, as distinct from the imita- tive following of prescriptive exercises. If he is to be made self-helpful, his self-helpfulness must be ex- ercised; even in the first years he must be stimulated to attempt some things unaided, without even the hint of the teacher ; and many more upon suggestion, but free from any limiting control. This is in accordance with the law of self-activity, which is one of the pri- mary instincts of the child. To preserve this free im- pulse to know and enjoy, and to save it fresh for youth and adult years, is the high achievement of great teach- ing. " For either the book or the teacher to do the whole work is to rob the child of power." The benefit of most subjects of study is not in the having, but in the getting. Lessons should aim at cultivating power to get knowl- The Subject of Education 93 edge, to originate experience, to follow the implications of experience, to interpret conditions, and to recognize and use means. And this applies not to youth and adults only in their culturing, but to comparatively young children. Education, then, as here employed, as distinct from formal training, signifies an appeal to the rational, idealizing, creative powers of the child, and a gradual working away from dictation, pattern- following and counterfeit doing. Education presupposes a free, rational, intelligent, self-conscious, self -determining being as its only subject. CHAPTER VII THE INSTRUMENT OF EDUCATION 2. Education presupposes an equally rational (ra- tionally made) world of happening and doing as its only instrument. The word rational has two legitimate meanings: the one use signifying, " having the faculty of reasoning," or " endowed with reason or understanding " ; the other, " being agreeable to reason, reasonable, constituted or governed by reason." Mr. Huxley says : " Law means a rule which we have always found to hold good, and which we expect always will hold good." In this latter use, there is in the world, apparently, intention or pur- pose or design. The objects and their phenomena are recognized as significant, as having meaning, and being interpretable, capable of explanation. We think of the Divine mind as rational, and speak of the human mind as rational, i.e., constructive, creative, intelligent; but in either case, that which it creates, or produces, or does, is also rational, in that it has meaning in it. In its parts and their relations, there is discoverable an order as if following a plan or purpose; and not existing or changing by chance or haphazard. As Prof. James phrases it: "the whole world is rationally intelligible 94 The Instrument of Education 95 throughout, after the pattern of some ideal system." Elsewhere in even more striking words he affirms that it " contains consciousness as well as atoms," Again, he describes it as " a world in which general laws obtain, in which universal propositions are true, and in which, therefore, reasoning is possible." Because " nature is simple and invariable," and because the w'orld is in- telligible, its phenomena appeal to human intelligence. If objects in daily use had not constant properties; if happenings were not traceable to uniform antecedents; if a name were sometimes applicable, and sometimes not, to a given object; if forms of otherwise familiar things were transient and irregular; if the world of thing and change were orderless and inconstant; it would, as a consequence, be unusable, because unthink- able. Says Dr. DeWitt Hyde in his Social Theology: "... the world of human science, and art, and his- tory and politics is throughout an ordered world. All things are firmly bound together by indissoluble laws: so that a change at one point involves a compensating change in everything even remotely connected with it. . . . The world of our thought is one. All things in it stand to each other in reciprocal relations. Each thing must take its definite place by the side of other things in space; each event must take its precise position before and after events in time; each quality must be bound up with, and dependent upon, other qual- ities, under the conception of substance which we put upon groups of qualities to hold them together in our minds; each change must be the correlate of other 96 Science of Education clianges according to the law of cause and effect, whereby we maintain for our thought the identity of the world in the midst of its increasing transforma- tion. . . . The world is the great mirror in which our reason sees itself reflected." And the late Her- bert Spencer says : " The power manifested throughout the universe distinguished as material, is the same power which, in ourselves, wells up under the form of consciousness." But as the previous author quoted says:* " The fixed relations in which all objects of our thought stand to each other are not of our own making. This coherence . . . is no device of the subjective mind of the beholder. The unity of all the forces and facts of the world in an organic whole of reason we discover, but do not create." The wheelbarrow has thought in its constitution, as must appear, because of which, it is a wheelbarrow, and not an aggregation of wood and metal. The like statement may be made of the farm, the tree, the human form, a work of fine art, a building, an act of heroism. Each is what it is by virtue of the " immanent purposefulness " of it. There is meaning in all nature, human and material. The world is intelligent in the sense that a thread of in- telligence or meaningfulness runs through both its more permanent states and changes. " In the universe," it has been said, there is "no chance and no anarchy." Emerson speaks of " stubborn matter that will not swerve from its chemical routine " ; and " a planted globe, pierced and belted with natural laws." Phenom- * W. DeWitt Hyde. " Social Theology," p. 16. The Instrument of Education 97 ena show exacting kinships, and the mind readily dis- covers lines of cleavage and grouping and the threads of meaning running through the whole. " Genius detects through the flv, the caterpillar, the grub, the egg, the constant individual; through countless individuals, the fixed species ; through many species, the genus ; through all genera, the steadfast type; through all kingdoms of organized life, the eternal unity." AVe believe the very existence, the organization of the universe, to depend upon the unchangeable verity of these laws; a connect- ing thread of interdependence and re-enforcement, through it all, from the primal elements and forces of matter, up to and through the highest forms of animal life. " In this confidence in the intelligibility of nature," said Lange, " lies the foundation of all science." Though she sometimes feigns to contravene her own laws, nature, we conclude, is always consistent; each part responds to every other. Cloud and clod and sun; brute and man; heat and moisture; matter and spirit; flower and feeling; share in common relations. "A change at one point involves a compensating change in everything even remotely connected with it." This life and its conditions react upon that. In all internal re- lations, the manifold is a unity. One of the most con- servative of scientists* has said: "There is nothing as yet observed in the order of events to make us doubt that the universe is bound together, in space and time, as a single entity." Not only is it true that if phenomena were not gov- * Galton. " Inquiry into Human Faculty." 98 Science of Education erned by invariable laws, the existence of science would be impossible; but there could, for the same reason, be no body of individual or group experience, and no use, by man, of the world of either thing or thought. Quoting Prof. James * again, " this world might be a world in which all things differed, and in which what properties there were were ultimate and had no farther predicates. In such a world there would be as many kinds as there were separate things. We could never subsume a new thing under an old kind; or if we could, no consequences would follow. Or, again, this might be a world in which innumerable things were of a kind, but in which no concrete thing remained of the same kind long, but all objects were in a flux. Here, again, though we could subsume and infer, our logic would be of no practical use to us, for the subjects of our propo- sitions would have changed whilst we were talking. In such worlds, logical relations would obtain, and be known, doubtless, as they are now, but they would form a merely theoretic scheme and be of no use for the conduct of life. But our world is no such world. It is a very peculiar world, and plays right into logic's hands. Some of the things, at least, which it contains, are of the same kind as the other things ; some of them remain always of the kind of which they once were; and some of the properties of them cohere indissolubly and are always found together. Which things these latter things are we learn by experience in the strict sense of the word, and the results of the experience are embodied in ' empirical propositions.' Whenever such *Prof. James. "Psychology," vol. ii, p. 651. The Instrument of Education 99 a thing is met witli by us now, our sagacity notes it to be of a certain kind; our learning immediately recalls that kind's kind, and then that kind's kind, and so on; so that a moment's thinking may make us aware that the thing is of a kind so remote that we could never have directly perceived the connection." We no more depend upon the regulated rising and setting of the sun, the accustomed recurrence of the seasons, and our personal identity, than we count on the reappearance, in future experience, of the qualities we have found in matter — that water will wet, and fire burn; that the cut artery will bleed, acorns produce oaks, and the soil germinate seeds; that " there " is farther than " here," and that " age " follows " youth " ; that pestilence accompanies filth, not cleanliness; and that a wrong done to another reacts on the doer. Things are not thro^vn hodge-podge together. And the fact that they are found to have a reasonable order and an articulated sequence, is the fact that makes them ser- viceable, not less than intelligible to man — perhaps ser- viceable because also intelligible. Indeed, it is every- where apparent that the world of phenomena to be known and the mind to know are each adapted to the other. They fit into each other perfectly. Between nature and human needs, and between the existence and happenings of nature and the laws of thought, there exists a discoverable and usable parallelism. As the poet,* also, says of " . . . the power called nature — animate, inanimate, •Browning. "Prince Hohenstiel-Schwangau." L.ofC 100 Science of Education In parts, or in the whole; there's spmething there Man-like, that somehow meets the man in me." In constitution, if not in purpose, it stands sponsor to man's education, this world of matter and force: "The stuff that's made, to furnish man with thought and feeling. ' ' In this meaning of things — both material things and the things of the spirit, man and the products of his doing — art, rationality appears. Man also becomes part of man's environment, part of this rationally con- stituted world. Sympathy, service, hate, imitation, mother care, personal respect, love of country, faith, credulity, art, worship, business, amusement, habit, passion even, are meaningful and challenge understand- ing. What the race has thought, and done, and aspired to; and feared, and loved, and honored; its inventions, and comforts, and luxuries, and leisures; its abiding concerns and responsibilities; its faiths and ideals; be- long also to this articulate universe, manifold with mutual reactions, and big with thought responding to thought. Here is excuse for history, and art, and re- ligion, and poetry; philosophy, government, economics, politics, industry, war, language — the round of the humanities and the arts. Here is common ground for intercourse and appreciation; for humane and competi- tive service; for companionship; for social co-operation and an institutional life. Man also sets limits to man, and regulates his freedom. The human world, also, is The Instrument of Education 101 a rational world, and conforms to the law of thinking. " Most objects of daily use — paper, ink, butter, horse car — have properties of such constant, unwavering im- portance, and have such stereotyped names, that we end by believing that to conceive them in those ways is to conceive them in the only true way." His own experi- ence interprets to man the experience of others. Find- ing his mind reflected in others, his own becomes the measure of all mind. The power of spiritual realities, also, he feels and respects; the meaning of the spiritual elements that constitute authority, approval and disap- proval, rewards and punishments. " Conceptions of intuitive truth," even, says the Duke of Argyll,* " have come to man because he is a being in harmony with surrounding nature. The human mind has opened to them as the bud opens to sun and air. Experience is a building up or putting together of con- ceptions which the access of external nature finds ready to be awakened in the mind. The mind has no ' mould,' no forms which it did not receive as a part and conse- quence of its unity with the rest of nature. Its concep- tions are not manufactured; they are developed. They are not made; they grow. The order of thought under which the human mind renders intelligible to itself all the phenomena of the universe, is not an order which it invents, but an order which it simply feels and sees." It must be obvious that in the world, then, that which makes the world to be knowable is its rationality. That is, in all essential relations, they are so much alike * Duke of Argyll. "Unity of Nature," pp. 86, 89. 102 Science of Education that man can know nature bj what is in himself; but he could not know nature except in terms of nature, because it is of like nature with himself; and it grows more orderly and rational as the mind perceives its simple constitution and orderly arrangement. " The world," writes Mr, Hyde,* " is a great mirror in which our reason sees itself reflected." It is this quality of kinship with reason, this adaptation to uses, this being saturated with the element of consciousness, by which the universes of both phenomena and action make their appeal to the mind, become interesting and knowable. In mountain and bird and plant; in shadow and storm; in the recurring seasons; in the familiar round of daily life — companionships, industries, pleasures, and disap- pointments; in the phenomena of things and the doings of men; mind finds conformity to its own nature, and the laws of its own behavior. Looking at this material world with the eyes of the poet, Emerson saw that it ministers to the wants of the senses ; answers to the love of beauty; teaches the intellect, reforming itself in mind; becomes an instrument of language; and is em-' blematical of the spiritual facts on which it rests. Of man, he says : " His faculties refer to natures out of him, and predict the world he is to inhabit; as the fins of the fish foreshow that water exists, or the wings of an eagle in the egg presuppose air. He cannot live without a world." It is the complement of his mind, the sine qua non of his thinking, playfellow for his leisure, part- ner in all labor. So much insight as he is able to *W. DeWitt Hyde. " Outlines of Social Theology," p. 11. The Instrument of Education 103 master, lie finds parcelled out for liim in the field, and the shop, at his desk, and in the crowd. " An object to be known is as essential as the mind to know." Time, place, cause and effect, means and ends, whole and part, outer and inner, real and ideal, motive and result : these name relations that are the essence of meaning and human use. " Modern science," whites Ferguson, " in its sane moods, proceeds upon an immense assumption of faith, to wit: that nature is unitary" that it is one vast whole and organic body; that is humanly reason- able, clear through, and viable to the intellect. . . . The soul sets out to impose itself upon the universe, with confidence that, in spite of appearances, it is pos- sible to do so, that the constitution of the universe is not alien to the soul." Here is the excuse for and the explanation of the mind's articulated experience; co- herent processes; the grouping of experiences; recog- nizing and using facts in relation, in classes; the tracing of logical sequences to their conclusions; the rounding out of thinking and feeling in doing; the perception of aesthetic possibilities as grounded in natural appear- ances; an easy discrimination of the type form of both use and beauty as original in nature also; a serviceable estimate of relative values put upon things and thoughts, as important and unimportant. " The mate- rials and order of thought," says Johonnot, " are fur- nished by the outer world. In our daily experience we observe the sequences of nature. Night follows day; the sun unfailingly appears to pursue his course through the heavens; vernal flowers succeed ^vinter snows; all 104 Science of Education vegetable life has an orderly course from germ to ma- turity, from maturity to decay; animals have their birth, their growth, and their decrepitude; and every- where is orderly sequence. This observation leads the mind to ascribe order to every kind of phenomena, and develops in it the logical faculty." In the words of sage, essayist, scientist, poet, philosopher, repeatedly appears this faith in a satisfying world, whose movements and achievements are adequate to man's awakening, and a guide to his experience. The poet. Browning,* in strikingly suggestive, almost pedagogical j^hrase, says: " I who trace The purpose written on the face of things For my behoof and guidance; . . . Count life just a stuff To try the soul's strength on, educe the man." This emphasis of nature as distinctly useful in a high and w^orthy sense as stimulating man's best en- deavor follows close upon his recognition of it as being purposeful, as having significance among parts, and between part and whole; as a spirit-endowed aggregate of responsible parts. In " The Ship that Found Her- self," Mr. Kipling, in the words of the skipper, de- scribes the vessel as " a highly complex structure o' various and conflictin' strains, m' tissues that must give an' tak' accordin' to her personal modulus of elas- teecity." But adds that, " in the nature o' things, she's just irons and rivets and plates put in the form of a ship," until, the parts having learned to work together, * Browning. Poems : " In a Balcony." The Instrument of Education 105 she has " found herself." The stringers must learn to keep the ribs together ; the cylinder needs a regular supply of steam ; the garboard-streak must bear the pushings of the sea and the weight of tlie cargo; the sea-valve must be tight against the driving waves; the bulwark plates must swing promptly and surely; the rivets must know both how to hold and give, sharing the strains among them ; the thiiist-block must take the push of the screw, etc. The cylinders had learned the lesson of give and take ; " the beams and frames and floors and stringers and things had learned how to lock down and lock up one another " ; and as " the ship found herself," all the talking of the separate pieces ceased, melting into one voice, which is the soul of the ship. This is an admirable example of co" operating parts of a working whole. In the sense here used, nature has " found herself." Thing and element and force and thought mutually react and re-enforce each other. It is a whole whose meaning is present in all of its parts, and each of whose parts reflects the purpose of the whole. Borrowing the idiom of the skipper: "It's a highly complex structure o' various conflictin' strains, wi' tissues that must give an' tak' according to its personal modulus o' elasteecity." This all seems very human and familiar. The personal ele- ment seems to be magnified. But the more the cosmos is studied, whether as macrocosm or microcosm, the more " we come to understand that the unity which we see in nature is that kind of unity which the mind recognizes as the result of operations similar to its own ; 106 Science of Education SL unity which consists in the subordination of material, composition, and structure, to similar aims and similar principles of action — not something outside of us, some- thing on which we can look down, or to which we can look up; a unity of organic life — the same from the lowest animal inhabiting a stagnant pool up to the glori- ous mechanism of the human form, a common unity of adaptation and adjustment up to life's highest accomplishment and result — the adjustments known as sensation, perception, consciousness, and thinking — an efficient correspondence between the impressions of sense and certain corresponding realities of external nature. This direct perception of the necessity of doing one thing in order to attain another thing is one of the highest among the preadjusted harmonies of nature." * The conception is not only philosophically important and essential to reflection, therefore, but has the most practical bearings upon living. There is not needed the mind disciplined in the schools to recognize its import. It lies on the surface of things, and belongs to the primary lessons of the race. It was a familiar thought of Emerson that " this perception of matter is made the common sense : and for cause." f " This," he says, " was the cradle, this the go-cart of the human child. We must learn the homely laws of fire and water ; we must feed, wash, plant, build. These are the ends of necessity, and first in the order of nature. Poverty, frost, disease, debt, are the beadles and guardsmen that ♦ Duke of Argyll. " Unity of Nature." f Emerson. " Social Aims." The Instrument of Education 107 hold us to common sense. The common sense that does not meddle with the absolute, but takes things at their word — things as they are — believes in the existence of matter, not because we can touch it or conceive of it, but because it agrees with ourselves, and the universe does not jest with us, but is in earnest — this is the house of health and life. . . . Xature is an enor- mous system, but in mass and in particle curiously available to the humblest need of the little creature that walks the earth." That in the world which makes it to be knowable and serviceable is its rationality, its reasonableness, the kinship it reveals to the human, adaptable, resource- ful mind of man. CHAPTER VIII THE INSTRUMENT OF EDUCATION (Continued) Thkoughout the last paragraph has gone the im- plication that in the mind also which makes the world to be knowable is its rationality. Here man and beast are poles apart. " The world," said Sir Thomas Browne, " was made to be inhabited by beasts ; but to be studied and contemplated by man: this is the hom- age we pay for not being beasts." The human mind classifies and values its experiences ; it consei"ves and idealizes them; it compares them and resolves their implications ; it holds them valid for prediction, and plans a future in terms of tlieir promises. If mind were not, knowledge would cease to be. As the eye exists for light and the light for an eye, as ear and sound are correlative, lung and air, food and the body, so thing and thought creations exist for the mind. " Here stretches out of sight, out of conception even, this vast nature, daunting, bewildering, but all-pene- trable, all self-similar — an unbroken unity — and tlie mind of man is the key to the whole." Contact between the two is the point of beginning or continued mental activity, and so of growth. Nature is to be understood, 108 The Instrument of Education 109 not merely perceived. Its phenomena are subject to explanation, and calculation, and prediction. To the resourceful mind its forces have derived uses and meanings hidden from rude seeing. Here science but reinforces the poet who " Finds progress, man's distinctive mark alone, Not God's, and not the beast's: God is; they are; Man partly is, and wholly hopes to be," and from both distinguishes man as " Getting increase of knowledge, since he learns Because he lives, which is to be a man. ' ' To the unthinking the world exists as crass material only. It becomes obstruction, or serves the ends of barter, of provender, and woof. The unyielding ele- ments are met with repining or indifference or stoical ignorance. Comfort comes from an environment that metes out coveted favors. To the unthinking, discom- fort justifies murmur if not revolt; to the reflecting man, both comforts and discomforts are conditions to be studied, understood, and explained. In the pres- ence of intelligence every phenomenon of nature is a question — it suggests the possibility of an answer, and challenges the mind for interpretation. It is the busi- ness of the mind to know, and, knowing, come to com- prehend that "There's nothing of so singular nor mean Condition in the universe, but what It doth include, and, in a sort, continue 110 Science of Education The fact of something greater than itself. Nothing is, But by the having been of something else, Which something else, the cause of this thing here, Is, in its turn, the effect of something elsewhere. Thus we the higher in the lower perceive; From each obtain intelligence of all; And find in all the consciousness of each." This is the primary vocation of the mind, to trace the thread of connection and dependence among things ; to find the way, and why, and aim of each in the whole as universe ; its use for beauty or defence ; its value in the inventory of things ; what man means, and cloud ; heat and the ways of earth ; the ocean, the mountains, human society, industry, and leisure; and the measure of each in the common life of thing and soul. This is more than perception, and appeals to human reason and imagination. It involves powers of inference and deduction ; thinking things as they may be, but other than they are; forming notions of the possible, because reasonable. That in the mind which makes the world to be knowable is the mind's rationality; its power of apprehending unity in multiform appearances ; a recog- nition of the individual or particular as representing a type ; an intelligent appreciation of what is more and what less important in maintaining the integrity of the whole. This is the "common sense" referred to; this ability to know things, and man, their meanings, and how to use them; how to adapt them to human needs, each and all, and find them fit to enrich the life. It is the human, not the philosopher's point of view, The Instrument of Education 111 the man's, not the beast's. It fixes the sphere of know- ing, and hints at the order of growth. In the large, it means civilization; in the individual, education. It includes not doing only, but intelligent doing; the see- ing, and hearing, and reading that have solvent mind behind them. " From the beginning," says Colonel Parker,* " man's growth and development have utterly depended, without variation or shadow of turning, upon his search for God's laws, and his application of them when found," and that " the leaf and flower, the mists and clouds that tell their stories of the far-off ocean, the pebble on the beach, and the coal that bums in the grate, are, in themselves and their causes, revelations that human souls are capable of understanding. . . . The divine energy surrounds man, forms his environ- ment, and acts upon him with unspeakable power." But it comes in this way to man because of his under- standing mind. And the primary purpose of the school is to direct this human solvency upon the diverse par- ticulars endowing them with new meaning. The ani- mal sees not so. Like the animals, " man's first need is merely to live; his next, to make mere life divine.'* " Blessed art thou, O, man, at thy lowest, O, thou lord of the hand and the thought I All things are thine; All things combine In a strenuous design To make thee divine." * Parker. " Talks on Pedagogics," pp. 150-151. 112 Science of Education Now, from the point of view of tiie mind, education is the result of self -initiated effort to apprehend and employ this nature to its own uses. From the point of view of the world of phenomena and action, educa- tion is occasioned by the adaptation and ready adjust- ment of this cosmic thought to the mind's need. " It is the pupil's own free, intelligent, personal effort to learn," said Dr. Hinsdale, " that is the constant factor in education." It is the ever present, aggressive, and multiform nature impinging upon the nerves that arouse tlie mind to action, asserts another. In tlieir respective spheres both are true. Neither universe is efficient for either knowledge or growth without the other. Upon the surface and to the casual observer mind seems to be the active factor, and the environing complex of deed and occurrence as j^assive. Not upon the surface alone, however, but in the thought of the philosopher also, of whatever school, the initia- tive of the learner is vital and ever-present. " Man differs from animals in many respects, but in none so much as in his faculty to advance or hinder the forces that work for or against his own development." * In both the individual and the race tlie mind is more than a receiving agent; through both experience and instinct it is an active and often conscious factor in not only selecting but excluding the raw material for its fur- nishing. Very early in its history the mind comes to see what it wants to see, and hear what it purposes to use and enjoy, and group its experiences in a more or * Edmond Kelly. " Evolution and Effort," p. 37. The Instrument of Education 113 less independent way. It is not enough that the eyes be open before a beautiful landscape in order to enjoy it or understand it; there is needed attention — a posi- tive and more or less purposeful bias of the mind toward it, an effort of the will, and a measure of con- scious holding to of the interest; a forceful, aggi'essive gathering to one's self of nature's spread-out attraction. The processes that are really educative imply this selec- tive exercise of mind, rather than any mere drifting among importunate happenings, or taking in gross, the dicta of the printed page, or following without question the words of authority. There is involved a sense of free initiative in dealing with these external phenom- ena, a consciousness of the mind as going upon a mission, vitalized with some original intention, as op- posed to the apathy or mental indifference of a colorless laissez faire. Such effort is accompanied by the con- fidence that comes with all success or personal mastery, a belief in one's self, a conscious assurance of insights that are one's own, a conviction that negatives mere sufferance or the dependent trailing after another's testimony or bidding. All best education is competi- tive, a struggle waged by the mind against unworthy, or false, or ugly experiences, aggressively contending for those it conceives to be worth while, and defending itself against the solicitous encroachments of ready- made judgments, the wealth of interest in one's environ- ments, the discouragements of ignorance. It means, very early in the child's life, a beginning of the privi- lege and the habit of self-direction ; making excursions 114 Science of Education in the field of truth and right and beauty from an inner motive ; frequent and, in time, long-continued research, as against the unthinking acceptance of an insistent belief or theory or platform. This conception of education makes provision for personal aspiration, the preference of the individual for one good rather tlian another, for one interpretation over others, and its realization. It means, in a measure, the conform- ing of the life, rather than the being conformed. In- terests are thought of, not as chance and inert, but positive and self-directed ; in the main, control is from "witliin, not from without. An emphasis is placed upon purpose and alertness as against aimlessness and slug- gishness. In the same way, deliberate acts are preferred to those directed by impulse; and a right disposition — a conscious active attitude of the mind — to mere capa- bility, however great, if it lack the jDush of a strong intent. Finally, in this conception of education, recog- nition is accorded to the substitution of abiding aims for present and transient ones. The author of an ad- mirable little volume, " Evolution and Effort," * quoted above, says : " The essential difference between man and beast seems to consist in a faculty possessed by man to abstain from present pleasure in order to escape a future pain, or to suffer a present pain in order to enjoy a future pleasure." This is the principle of providence in a large sense, and stands for a whole- some initiative and self-direction. In a religious sense it means the substitution of a higher good for a lower, * Bdmond Kelly. " Evolution and Effort," p. 29. The Instrument of Education 115 or a good for an evil, even at the expense of real or supposed present comfort; in the economic world it is opposed to prodigal consumption and thriftless ways; in the intellectual life, to dawdling and dissipation and pretense. In short, not only from the point of view of the mind, but in the terms of a rational pedagogy, the mind's initiative is an essential factor in all learn- ing and growth ; a condition, dynamic, not static ; effort, — serious, intelligent, honest, unremitting, and ex- tended effort, not apathy, nor yet indifference. Growth is not to be measured in terms of a rich and attractive environment, nor the learning and many words of one's preceptor, nor the conveniences and comforts of one's family life, but rather by his reactions upon these. In his " Mechanism and Personality," Dr. Shoup groups man's acquisitions in two classes: (1) those which come to be his, subjectively and organically, and (2) those which come to be his objectively and arti- ficially. To the former belong strength of muscle, sagacity of mind, decision and honesty of character; to the latter may be assigned wealth, station, honor, friends. " The difference between the two classes," he continues, " is like that between fruit actually grow- ing upon a tree and the tied-on fruit one sees at Christ- mas-tide for children. ISTow this real and true fruit of mind and heart and will can be had in no way but by and through self-effort." But there is more than a modicum of truth in the counter proposition also that from the plane of the phenomenal world education is occasioned from without. The eye is fitted to receive 116 Science of Education and transmit to the brain the waves of light, and the ear those of sound, the olfactory nerves are sensitive to the inward moving odoriferous particles, the taste papillae in the mouth are aroused to action by the presence over their surfaces of flavor-bearing solubles. Added to these there is the fruitful sense of touch and its accompanying minor modifications. The senses are so many open avenues between an infinitely fluid uni- verse driving in upon them and the sensitive nervous system where, or by which, or in terms of which, im- pressions are translated into forms of meaning. The phenomena beset the mind on every hand. Like waves of the ocean beating upon the shore, they make assault upon the mind, often unnoticed, sometimes compelling recognition, always leaving marks of their presence. Every sense is subject to this invasion. Through all waking hours the attack is incessant. Matter, motion, and force constitute a universe that impinges upon the body on every side like a closely fitting atmosphere of impressions and suggestions. Often their phenomena coerce attention. " That the sensibilities are com- pelled," says Dr. Shoup, " to receive whatever is im- pressed upon them by stimuli, without the possibility of the sensibilities themselves varying their reaction in response to such stimuli, is easily seen. In a given state of my visual organs, and with my eyes fixed upon a page, can they create or drive away the characters which I see ? If a sharp instrument be thrust into my flesh, is the pain of my making? can I bid it begin or cease ? . . . By the understanding, too, I am made The Instrument of Education 117 to know the meaning of the words on the printed page ; that the instrument is sharp and has pierced my flesh ; that the rose has an agreeable perfume — can it do less or more ? " Add to this the human environment of association and books and art and human ideals and one's o^vn inherited biases, that, with the material en- vironment, contends for place among the mind's inter- ests, and one easily comes to think that what the mind really does attend to, and the forms of one's growth, are the chance effect of occasion and circumstance. Life in a mountain region, having little contact with the outside world, simple interests and provincial cus- toms, not only reflects different social and personal conditions, but reveals widely different results of cult- ure and efficiency from those attendant upon life in a populous centre of manifold conventional codes and abundant means and leisure. The " thrust " of a busy life, having an intense and varied intellectual and industrial commerce, is both more direct and urgent than that of the shut-in valley, or of a people behind closed doors. That the influence is often with unper- ceived effect does not imply that there is no effect. Rural quiet and city clamor, picturesque landscapes and mountainous wastes, world-wide interests and shut- in customs, a cultivated environment and coarse ways, diversity of industries and primitive occupations, a home with interesting household comradeships and the home that offers only a place to stay — each stimulates in its own way, and the opportunities for a rich intel- lectual and moral and economic life differ greatly. A 118 Science of Education meagre environment is less alluring. The strongest mind even waits on suggestion, and a mendicant nature easily pauperizes thought. A fertile and varied life of occurrence and achievement stimulates reaction. That there may be too much does not prove that there may not here and there be too little, or an environment of the wrong sort, or badly distributed. It is sufficient to say that, looked at from without the mind, it easily appears that, whatever may be the personal initiative, education is occasioned by the incessant bearing down upon the senses of an almost infinitely varied and exigent nature. Through a sometimes distressing ex- perience tlie mind is driven to defend itself against the encroachment. In time one learns to be selective, ad- mitting some, excluding others; but to the young, for most of the school period, the enthusiasms of the mind to know are quite equalled by the enthusiasms of nature to be known. " Nature," writes Emerson, " is the incarnation of thought, and turns to thought again. . . . every moment instructs, and every object; for wisdom is infused into every form. It has been poured into us as blood ; it convulsed us as pain ; it slid into us as pleasure; it enveloped us in dull, melancholy days, or in days of cheerful labor; and we did not guess its essence until after a long time." In a more than merely figurative sense this nature is a busybody, and looks to it that man's mind is not left unattended. The same author continues : " We eat the head which grows in the field, we live by the air that blows around us, and we are poisoned by the air which The Instrument of Education 119 is too cold or too hot, too dry or too wet. Time, which shows so vacant, indivisible, and divine in its coming, is slit and peddled into trifles and tatters. A door is to be painted, a lock to be repaired. I want wood or oil or meat or salt; the house smokes or I have a headache; then the tax, and an affair to be transacted with a man without heart or brains, and the stinging recollection of an injurious or awkward word — these eat up the hours. . . . We are instructed by these petty ex- periences which usurp the hours and the years." And, on a later page of the same essay,* the author adds: " The child with his sweet pranks, the fool of his senses, commanded by eveiy sight and sound, without any power to compare or rank his sensations, aban- doned to a whistle or a painted chip, to lead a dragoon or a ginger-bread dog, individualizing everything, gen- eralizing nothing, delighted with every new thing — lies down at night overpowered with the fatigue which the day of continual petty madness has incurred. But nature has answered her purpose with the curly dim- pled lunatic. She has tasked every faculty, and has secured the symmetrical growth of his bodily frame — an end not to be entrusted to any care less perfect than her own." Does anyone suppose that any assignment of tasks in an unyielding routine, or any doing from a sense of duty, could have inspired from the outside more fruitful effort? Is the effect less wholesome be- cause the child is led on instead of being coerced, or led by his own joy in the chase rather than for an * Emerson. " Essay on Nature." 120 Science of Education external and artificial advantage? ISTatiire's beckoning and comradeship are not less in evidence than her exacting lessons and her penalties. From the objective world every step in the education of the child is occa- sioned from without. It need scarcely be pointed out that while there is this opposition of the inner and outer, there is no an- tagonism. In all of its uses each is what it is because of the other. They are two terms of one series, either of which may be considered first, according to the critic's point of view. They are mutually adaptable in a marvellous way. Once more, touching tliis second of the four funda- mentals in the idea of education : the change is an ever- recurring process of self-estrangement and the return, a process by which the mind identifies the thought without and that within the individual experience. In his editorial comments upon Rosenkranz's treatment of the " form of education," Dr. Harris * says : " Self- estrangement as here used [by Rosenkranz] is perhaps the most important idea in the philosophy of educa- tion." Dr. Harris explains the idea by recounting the three stages in education : ( 1 ) the undeveloped mind — that of the infant — wherein nearly all is potential, and but little is actualized; (2) self -estrangement, wherein it is absorbed in the observation of objects around it; (3) the discovery of laws and principles (universality) in external nature, which it finally identifies with reason, the spirit becoming at home in nature. This * Rosenkranz's "Philosophy of Education," p. 27. The Instrument of Education 121 last is said to constitute tlie removal of the estrange- ment The author himself says : " All culture, what- ever may be its special purport, must pass through these two stages — of estrangement and its removal. Culture must intensify the distinction between subject and object, or that of immediateness, though it has again to absorb this distinction into itself." In the beginning of the mental life, and indeed for some years, the objects and movements of nature, and the motives and behavior of men, the significance of art, and the industries, and ideals, seem merely external and something strange. Their nature is alien ; con- tact seems only an accident. The mental life at this stage is a voyage of discovery. Things must be expe- rienced, tested, and used ; other persons, their achieve- ments and ideals, as Avell. All happenings are worked over in terms of the knowing and enjoying mind. The spirit within is met by a kindred spirit without. As he daily grows in an understanding of himself, so he comes to understand them. They are capable of being understood. The outer and inner are found to be of kin. Things are no longer foreign. Thoughts are things under another form. Things are saturated with thought. A thing would cease to be a thing if it had not thought to give it meaning. It becomes interesting as it is found to be explainable. The horizon of the mind's understanding is extended. There arises a growing consciousness that all happenings and doings have meaning; that trees and trade and self and other selves and art and hope and belief, society and history, 122 Science of Education species and types, all stand for something, and are significant of facts, or a fact, larger than their crude exhibitions, and of a nature with our own, because of this underlying common reasonableness. This bald statement of fact is given poetic setting by Colonel Realf in the following stanzas, well worth knowing : INDIRECTION Fair are the flowers and the children, but their subtle suggestion is fairer; Rare is the rose-burst of dawn, but the secret that clasps it is rarer ; Sweet the exultance of song, but the strain that precedes it is sweeter ; And never was poem yet writ, but the meaning outmastered the meter. Never a daisy that grows, but a mystery guideth the growing ; Never a river that flows, but a majesty sceptres the flowing ; Never a Shakespeare that soared, but a stronger than he did enfold him ; Nor ever a prophet fortells, but a mightier seer hath foretold him. Great are the symbols of being, but that which is symboled is greater ; Vast the creation beheld, but vaster the inward Creator; Back of the sound broods the silence ; back of the gift stands the giving ; Back of the hand that receives thrill the sensitive nerves of receiving. The Instrument of Education 123 Space is as nothing to spirit ; the deed is outdone by the doing ; The heart of the wooer is warm, but warmer the heart of the wooing. And up from the pits where these shiver, and up from the heights where those shine, Twin voices and shadows float starward ; and the essence of life is divine. One does not come to this conception directly or easily. The idea is of slow growth, but tlie growth is of the nature of all real education, and compasses the process called " Self-estrangement and its removal." Herein is to be found, it would seem, tlie programme for all directed education ; that things knowable shall be known not objectively and on the surface, as something barnacled onto the life, but subjectively and through identifying their inner reasons with those of the mind. The measure of his attainment, for anyone, is not what he has been told, not what he holds of the forms into which knowledge has been stereotyped, not his assur- ance even of the authority of one who does know; but his own direct or indirect insights into this soul of things and ideas ; this first-hand contact of the intelli- gence within and that without; in consciousness and appropriation, to have resolved appearances into their meanings. CHAPTER IX THE MOTIVE IN EDUCATION 3. Education, in the conception here offered, pre- supposes, further, an internal free impulse to know and grow. Both are tendencies, and appear in what may, in a pedagogical, not psychological, sense, be called instinct. They assume very unlike forms, and are constitutional impulses which, in varying degrees, are universal to childhood, and most of which, in one form or another, persist into and through adult years. By writers on teaching and directed education such active biases are very properly known as instincts, and are variously inventoried. In general, instinct is defined as the faculty of act- ing in such way as to produce fairly uniform results without foresight of the results. Because of this latter condition the action is called " blind." Bascom limits instinct exclusively to physical action; and most psy- chologists, to the brute animals. James, however, asserts that " man has a far greater variety of impulses than any lower animal ; and any one of these impulses, taken in itself, is as ^ blind ' as the lowest instinct can be " ; and again he says : " Man possesses all the im- pulses animals have, and a great many more." Some 124 The Motive in Education 125 of these impulses have definite educational bearings, and are rich in meaning for the teacher. They have become promising fields for investigation by child- study enthusiasts. It is not the present purpose to make instincts a subject of inquiry, nor to specify their direct relations to teaching, but to discuss the signifi- cance of typical instincts in the science of education. The following may be given as comprising most of those that are generic in form and important in account- ing for the child's development. Categorically, they include : the love of activity, the imitative impulse, the tendency to investigation, the gregarious instinct, love of the soil, a sense of rhytlim, and the faith instinct. While including most of these, Preyer names at least three others that do not readily fall into either of the seven classes given — pugnacity, the hunting instinct, and the dramatic sense. Sociability and shyness, also mentioned by Preyer, seem to be only modifications of the gregarious instinct, or love of, regard for, society, noted above. So of fear. Constructiveness takes its rise probably in the imitative propensity. The seven named seem fairly comprehensive and reasonably dis- tinct. They are recorded here as the chief pedagogical impulses that must be regarded in any serious consid- eration of the stages of which, and the forces in terms of which, the individual or the race comes to its ma- turity. Each is deserving of some consideration. Activity. — This impulse is both physical and mental, and, on its active side, finds expression in a craving for and tendency toward the exercise of function — 126 Science of Education mere exercise of function, as " blind " as any instinct to the result to be accomplished in the organism, but affording pleasure in the mere doing and in the accom- panying achievements. Naturally in the earlier years this headlong and incessant being-busy-at-any-and- everything is chiefly physical. The muscles crave ex- ercise, the bones and other tissues are expanding, and discover an uneasiness that demands use, and use to weariness. It is a period of growth, and every cell and every organ are so many points of energy of horse- power pressure seeking an outlet, work to do. But the constitutional joy in doing is mental also. To be on the alert, attentive to passing interests, intellectually foraging in regions promisingly fruitful, quick to scent a clue or meaning, and tireless in following it to a finish — this is of the nature of the pervasive and catholic instinct of activity. All sound teaching practice must take this impulse into account. Once aroused and properly directed the work of the teacher is practically done. It is an important factor in all " self-teaching." In the long centuries of the race's existence before formal instruction this deep-seated, organic sense of crav- ing real and frequent contact with nature was man's security — both motive and guide. It remains the teacher's most effective ally in formal education. All effort at guidance that fails to regard it is either fruit- less or mischievous. In all growth or acquisition or achievement this blind impulse to activity is vital, and a comprehension of its meanings of far-reaching con- The Motive in Education 127 sequence to the teacher. It re-enforces every suggestion of the class-room and is the measure of profit in every exercise. It is as if every unit of steam-force intro- duced into the steam-chest were re-enforced by an inner predisposition of the piston and cylinder to do just the work which the two accomplished ; as if the machine met the energy more than half way in some common impulse. This the mind does; its feelers are out and the mind is on the hunt for any interesting appearance or inviting situation. It meets nature more than half way. The aggressive, vaguely discriminating impulse to do, to make, to know, and to enjoy in the presence of a near-by, many-sided, and stimulating nature mul- tiplies its opportunities amazingly. To the degree that he possesses it, the impulse makes every child an orig- inal explorer, a naturalist keeping in close touch with a promising environment, if perchance some of its secrets may be discovered ; each day on a new expedi- tion, ever alert, eager to see, and use, and make over, and try experiments, and test his powers ; play at being somebody or something else than he is ; now comrade to the beast, and now his master ; doing, thinking, feel- ing, wondering, for sheer joy in the act. This living in the present, a ceaseless, shapeful activity, accounts for much self-knowledge and self-mastery, binds up a fund of experience, is provident of both the understand- ing and the heart, and furnishes an open door for all teaching. Imitation, — This is not, certainly, a simple instinct, 128 Science of Education but, nevertlieless, a well-defined constitutional impulse to take on actions in consequence of seeing them per- formed; borrowing postures of body and states of mind; an inspection of outside conditions. "It de- velops," says Dr. Harris, " on the one hand, into habits or customs or morals — and this is the will-side of human mind; and on the other hand it develops into perception, memory, ideas, and insights — this being the intellectual side of mind." Preyer thinks that there is present always a voluntary element. Wundt and Baldwin and some others regard the tendency as being, in the beginning, at least, impulsive. Certainly voli- tion appears very soon in child experience, and the imitation with which the teacher is concerned is more or less voluntary, and measurably purposed. It means some command of one's organs and a beginning in the control of their functions. N'o more important contribution has been made to genetic psychology than this reference of the develop- ment of willed actions to the early and persistently repeated efforts of the child to imitate something. It is fruitful of suggestion for all educational movements, not during childhood alone, but throughout life. Aristotle taught that " man is the most imitative of animals, and makes his first steps in learning by aid of imitation." The function of imitation has been charac- terized as " the key to educational psychology." This " evolution of the higher faculties out of the lower," a development begun in imitative acts. Dr. Harris regards as the main pedagogic interest in psychology. The Motive in Education 120 It stands for interest at first hand, personal effort, a sufficient plasticity to take up into one's own mind the external manifold, suggestibility. Sj>eaking of the child, Professor James says : " His whole educability, and in fact the whole history of civilization, depend on this trait, which his strong tendencies to rivalry, jealousy, and inquisitiveness re-enforce." In much the same meaning, Mr. Thomdyke says : " Progress would be inconceivably slow if we had to wait for each indi- vidual to invent every reform, or new idea, or new method for himself." But this is not necessar)^ Theo- retically, and in varying degrees, by imitation, what- ever is done or practised by the few or many in one's surroundings may become the possession of each ; he may " repeat for himself the tliinking and doing and feeling of his fellows, and so enrich his own life by adding to it the lives of others." The process is one of assimilation ; and, as an apprentice, the child gradu- ally absorbs the master's point of view, his handling of affairs, his knowledge, his personal attitude. But as true imitation is the act of rational, self-active beings only, the reaction makes the act copied his own. It is not of itself a self -surrender, but may be, generally is, a self-centred assimilation in which the self finds expression, and the experience becomes such as to lend itself to original initiative. This appears to be the case in the imitation that is the basis of contrivance or adjustment, in what is called practical construction, an elementary form of the practical imagination. It is evident that this 130 Science of Education learning how to do things, to write, or sing, or eat, or speak in public, or farm, or calculate, or observe, is made through imitation a means of discovering new movements, new vocabularies, new arts, new processes, new habits, etc. To have reproduced well what has been well done by another, and many times to have accomplished this feat, not because one must, but because one chose to do so, makes easier the following of the suggestions of one's OAvn mind. And this is the initiative that makes for self-reliance. All personal improvement implies the presence of personal effort in the act; and to the degree that the imitation is spontaneous or interested, and not forced, the im- pulse is sane and wholesome. It has a large field for its exercise and bears far-reaching consequences. Pro- fessor Royce sees in imitation " the one source of our whole series of conscious distinctions between subject and object, thought and truth, deed and ideal, impulse and conscience, inner world and external world " ; and through it Gabriel Tarde conceives " the entire social order to develop from individual initiative." The idea has come into rich inheritance. In the mind of the pedagogue, not less than the psychologist, the movement stands for large things. Mr. Thorndyke, previously quoted, mentions three ways of learning: (1) by trial and occasional success; (2) by imitation, the model being either directly in- fluential or working to direct our trials; and (3) by getting ideas, i.e., from explanations. The first and second are often combined, and the process chiefly char- The Motive in Education 131 acterized as imitation. The third way is a distinctly rational process, and belongs to man as man. He says : '' The chief difference between human nature and dog and cat nature is that man has the idea method of learning." But, in the main, one's education is, in a large way, a process belonging to one or the other of the first two classes; and, probably, in both of them, the factor of imitation is more or less present. The mind is suggestible. And imitation has been described as one side of a tendency of which the other is sugges- tion. " When one sets an example to others, and it is followed, what does he do but inoculate them with the idea of doing or being that thing ? " For there is in mind a very evident tendency to carry out any move- ment vividly suggested at the moment. So sympathy, also, is an auxiliary of imitation ; and while there is more or less pronounced tendency to imitate for the sake of imitating, or in mere delight at testing one's powers, there is a strengthened " tendency to imitate most what one attends to most — probably tlie acts of one he most admires," or loves or honors. This somewhat indiscriminate tendency to reproduce in one's experience what one sees or hears or feels in one's environments, Mr. Baldwin calls " plastic imita- tion," and takes " to represent the general fact of that normal suggestibility, which is the very soul of our social relationships with one another." It is the pri- mary means of social development, the faculty by which education is made possible, because mind is sensitive to its environment and responsive to its moods and mean- 132 Science of Education ings ; in no sense nor degree passively helpless and inert, but aggressively assimilative and centripetal, interested, and acquisitive. The imitator thus becomes an interpreter of what he sees and reproduces; he is at once dramatist and actor, personating in his own life the behavior or purposes or achievements of another. In interested imitations are the beginnings of effort and preference and self-direction. Herein, also, is one form of the only motive in the learner to which valid appeal may be made by the teacher. As re-enforcing the general instinct of activity, imitation is a powerful factor in all education. Investigation. — In popular phrase, the child is curi- ous and questioning. Things and their happenings, and people, their doings and institutions, and his own experiences, are interesting. His questioning is as impelling and not-to-be-escaped as his imitativeness. " I count nothing human alien to me," says Professor James, " is the motto of each individual of the species." All things lend themselves to his pleased scrutiny. But investigation carries an added meaning. It stands for a more or less critical analysis of his world of per- ception. In its formal definition, to investigate means " to follow up, step by step, by patient inquiry or ob- servation; to trace or track mentally; to inquire (in the more advanced stages) and examine into with care and accuracy; to find out by careful inquisition." In the higher forms investigation is known as study and research ; sometimes as experiment. In all essentials of the process, however, tlie child is quite as investiga- The Motive in Education 133 tive as is the adult. The term employed is generic and names a constitutional impulse. It is more than mere observation, which is often rambling and unthinking. Indeed, the questioning, interested investigation of the normal growing mind may deteriorate into mere look- ing and gazing, or bewilderment, through the discour- aging prohibitions or chidings of parents and teachers. The impulse represents a very real craving of the mind to understand, as far as it may be able, how things come to be, how changes are brought about, why per- sons behave as they do, the names of things, the uses of things observed; where things are made, and grow, and why, and how; their own relation to these things and persons and comforts and pleasures. This is the true " impulse to know." Here is the intellectual point of contact between mind and happening. To the un- spoiled child all knowledge is attractive. ISTothing that is is alien to his interest. It all exists for his use and enjoyment. What can he do with it ? What is it good for ? What is it made of ? Where does it grow ? Whose is it? May I have it? are questions which he is continually asking of himself and others. They plead for free commerce with a world whose markets are always full. He is like a conscious magnet, search- ing about among things if perchance there be filings that may be attracted and attached to itself. His clothes and food and person; his o^vn thoughts; the people about him and the motives of their behavior; earth, water, fire, and air; landscape and sky; occupa- tions and play; books and art; his lessons and exacting 134 Science of Education codes — all invite explanation, his explanations, and a valuation in tenns of his understanding. The etymol- ogy of the term, not less than the nature of the impulse, precludes scrappiness and mere seeing; there is imj)lied a track, and the successive steps in following it to an issue ; progress along a line ; a sequence of meanings ; an interpretation of something in terms of a larger something. It is the mind's process of inventorying the world, his little world, the world that reaches him, and of the effort to pigeon-hole his ideas about it. In the beginning it is all very elementary ; the views are naturally all partial views, and most of them dis- torted in one way or another, and some of the expla- nations wrong ones ; but the chase is exciting, some true game is taken, and the hunter nourished and en- couraged for future more successful ventures. The impulse is the basis for the later, true, scientific habit; it initiates all real experiences, and accounts for and fixes the quality, not less than the sum, of one's usable knowledge. It is the one motive to which appeal can always be made by teacher or parent. It may not be apparent that the particular child cares to know the things, just those things the teacher knows, or wants to do the things the teacher assigns. But there are things, both to be known and to be done, which do attract him. What is really necessary to be kno^vn may be reached through reference to or starting from what he really does wish to know. This is the true incentive in schooling to both knowledge and conduct. For disorder or neglect of studies the pupil may be The Motive in Education 135 V beaten or scolded or reproved ; restraints may be im- posed, or privileges withdrawn, and, maybe, with rea- son ; but they are not incentives to either learning or goodness. They are artificial, absurdly foreign to purpose, and are generally mischievous. To stimulate and guide his love of real knowledge, to furnish abun- dant opportunities for tlrinking in interesting lines, to accept the pupil's point of view as the one from which to take any broader or truer or different view, to see all, even the most desirable interests, as hinging upon his interests, is to reinforce one's teaching by one of the most effective agents for learning in the reach of the school. As this impulse underlies the analytic, discriminat- ing process, so imitation begins the constructive habit. That finds parts and their relation to the wholes of which they are parts ; this constructs new wholes by the combination of minor units already knoA\Ti. That is analytic, this synthetic; that is elementary, this, derived. But both are constitutional impulses, and are generative of important developments. The one is ac- quisitive, the other formative. The one regards learning as such; the other, doing. The one emphasizes knowl- edge; the other its organization. Deprived of either, the order of either individual or social groui:.h goes lame. The one factor which appears common to the two is the personal effort implied. There are salutary and convenient services which the teacher may render, but officious interference and dictation are not among them. Guidance may come from without, but the mo- 186 Science of Education tive must come from within the child. The one really constant factor in whose virtue imitation escapes being a manifestation of servile dependence, and which lends to investigation its only merit, is this element of inter- nal endeavor, begotten of one's own desire; patient, confident, unyielding effort to realize a purpose. The imitation must be his copy of another's doing or hold- ing; the investigation his scrutiny, not a seeing or thinking through borrowed faculty. Achievement en- sues from the one, insight from the other; but they must both be held as a personal possession, not some- thing barnacled onto the life. CHAPTER X THE MOTIVE IN EDUCATION (Continued) The Gregarious Instinct. — It is not easy to charac- terize in a word the impulse meant to be described under this heading. Ward, in two volumes, undertakes to show that man is not naturally a social animal, though he admits that " before there were any arts he may have been gregarious." And Galton,* from a somewhat extended study of tlie trait among animals (especially cattle), undeveloped races, and contempo- rary western civilizations, concludes that gregarious- ness is almost universal, but that it is a slavish instinct and is a quality the opposite of sociality. Sully holds that, '' from the first, children are social beings." James, and most of the psychologists, concur in this opinion. Probably most thinkers agree that, in gen- eral, the members of all species of both animals and men tend to live in herds or communities — in groups — either from fear, a sense of helpless dependence, or for mutual intercourse. The term gregarious has been chosen to head this paragraph as least likely to be misunderstood by the reader. It is meant to cover in its meaning both * Galton. " Inquiries into Human Faculty," p. 68. 137 138 Science of Education helpful and dependent relations. In their several and very diverse manifestations these are far more numerous than may be even named here. They comprise the qualities called sociality, sociability, sociableness, companionableness, neighborliness, friend- liness, good fellowship, comradeship, brotherhood, phil- anthropy, benevolence, love, affection, sympathy, mutual regard, etc., as representing the mutually agreeable relations of concord and co-operation; i.e., social, as distinguished from the non-social and anti-social feel- ings, which are also social, as having reference to group connections. The word gregarious is meant to include also, as having reference to human associations and as taking their meaning from this fact — shyness, coyness, reserve, diffidence, timidity, bashfulness, fear, anger, hatred, antipathy, malevolence, rivalry, etc. ; and, fur- ther, those self-regarding traits, as love of approbation, love of admiration, self-complacency, pride, vanity, emulation, etc., which would have no meaning if others were not taken into account. All have reference to other and kindred beings, and belong to persons having community kinships. As Professor James puts it, " as a gregarious animal, man is excited both by the absence and by the presence of his kind : to be alone is one of the greatest evils." He covets companionship, even if it be not the most agree- able. Whatever may be true of the child at his birth, it is safe to say of him, when a few months have given him an individuality, a conscious sense of existence, that he craves personal relationships with his fellows. The Motive in Education 139 There grows up a mutual influence of all and sundry members of his human surroundings. " All are parts of one whole ; each is unavoidably aifected by every other; we are bound up in one bundle of life with all men, and cannot live an isolated life if we would; we influence one another, whether we will or not; and tend unconsciously to draw others to our level, and are ourselves drawn toward theirs. We joy and suffer together whether we will or not, and grow or deterio- rate together." * In this very real sense man is a social being, and finds not unimportant limitations to his functions in this social environment. There is apparent in his nature a constitutional bias toward knowing, enjoying, and using this human environment that, as he enters into its experiences, becomes his larger self. It is intimately a part of his own being. In this love of society there are two well-defined phases, according as the impulse is self-regard ing or other-regarding. The practise or exercise of both of these by not only the child but the adult may be uncon- scious, and the end to be attained is generally so. The self-regarding companionships rest upon a liking for others to the end that the claims of personal satisfac- tion may be realized — maternal satisfactions, Mr. Sully gives as an example; sex gratifications, attachment, fondness, etc. The other-regarding impulses include sympathy, as a generic form, fellow-feeling, benevo- lence, humanity, etc. It is obvious that both impulses are factors in individual development and in efficiency. * King. "The Social Consciousness," p. 13. 140 Science of Education In home and civic life, not less than in the school and in formal tuition, the presence or absence of these traits, or the degree to which they are present, will determine what can and what cannot be accomplished in one of personal efficiency, individual growth, the endowments of culture, and civic influence. The teacher has need to know these traits and their symp- toms " as a book." For the further present purpose the social relations, speaking analytically, may be classed as follows : (1) There is the influence which one individual exerts upon another or other individuals taken sepa- rately. This may be stimulating or the reverse. It may be wholesome or baneful. It may be self-regard- ing or other-regarding. It may be intended, as in the relations between teacher and pupil, or incidental and unconscious, as among children in play, or, generally, among adults. (2) There is the influence which each member of the group receives from another member. Of course the quality of this influence would be subject to varia- tions as is that under ( 1 ) . These two constitute the true personal relations, as distinct from the group and institutional relations to be named later. This influence of one upon one is basic and antecedent It initiates creeds and plat- forms and policies and methods and philosophies. " An institution " has been characterized as " the lengthened shadow of one man." History takes its rise in the strong man whose influence has perpetuated The Motive in Education 141 itself among many. Inventions, comforts, codes, and customs bear the imprint, from the beginning, of this personal insight and personal service. Speaking of imitation as a factor in social life, Tarde says :* " It is not enough to recognize the imitative character of every social phenomenon. I go further and maintain that this imitative relation was not, in the beginning, as it often is later, a connection binding one individual to a confused mass of men, but merely a relation be- tween two individuals, one of whom, the child, is in process of being introduced into the social life, while the other, an adult, long since socialized, serv^es as the child's social model. As we advance in life, it is true, we are often governed by collective and impersonal models, which are usually not consciously chosen. But before we speak, think, or act as ' they ' speak, think, or act in our world, we begin by speaking, thinking, and acting as ' he ' or ' she ' does." Even in the complex life of the present day the child is subject to this personal limitation. In all learning, whether purposed or incidental, whatever other factors are discernible, this touch of one mind with one other mind, and not many minds, is of prime importance. This is not more true of the relations of pupil and teacher than of student and professor, child and parent, pew and pulpit, and the more varied com- panionships. The effective influence is the personal one. (3) But added to these more distinctly personal re- * Gabriel Tarde. " Social Laws " (trans, by H. C. Warren), p. 44. 142 Science of Education lations there are tlie group conditions of the individual life, as shoAvn, first, in the influence which the indi- vidual has upon tlie group or local community of which he is a member. (4) The complement of this influence is that which the group has upon the individual. " Social group " is a very general term. As used in this discussion it is meant to exclude those perma- nent human associations that are known as institutions, and to include all other social bodies except the chance throng. There may be much or little organization, and more or less permanence. Their purpose may be to reinforce the service of one or another of the institu- tional organizations, or merely to satisfy some tempo- rary or local desire of the constituent units. Among such groups may be mentioned the neighborhood (as distinct from the town or village as a political unit) ; private associations, as political and civil organizations, law and order leagues ; public improvement societies ; trade and industrial societies, including the unions of laborers and employers, investment and promoting part- nerships, commercial and engineering ventures, corpo- rations, great and small ; cultural societies, including the familiar church adjuncts — young people's societies, missionary circles, charity orders, teaching bodies, etc. ; secular and civic philanthropic organizations ; scientific, historical, literary, art, and other cultural societies, and various less serious clubs and circles for pastime and pleasure. Besides these there are, in every consider- able neighborhood, the several social sets, coteries, and The Motive in Education 143 familiar circles — friends who are brought together be- cause of kindred tastes and common experiences. Now between these group aggregates and the indi- vidual members of each there exist such relations as are competent to modify both. In both ^vays the reac- tions are sometimes very marked. It was a familiar thought with Emerson that these collateral and indirect relations are often most decisive. He said : " You send your boy to the school-master; but it is the children who give him his lessons." Not infrequently the neigh- borhood is more powerful, for good or evil, than the law or the church ; political societies make and unmake both governments and men ; improvement leagues fix the community's reputation and attitude toward affairs ; the opinions of every laborer and every employer are more or less determined by the teaching of his indus- trial organizations; the voluntary cultural societies constitute an important element in the lives of most men. In addition to being the product of personal effort and intelligence, every such organization in its ad- ministration and growth reflects the influence of its members severally. It affords an exercise-ground for leadership, stimulates to social reactions, and invites thought. By an alliance with his fellows the individual is made over in various ways. The relation is significant for the teacher. A clique of children, a neighborhood set, a room class, or a school population taken as a whole, may constitute a group as here described, exercising (apart from 144 Science of Education formal lessons) an influence upon each unit of the group and receiving the impress of every one. Even the weak and negative characters share in fixing the aggregate and average standing of the group. One or a few positive tempers in a class-room may fix the disposition of the entire group. On the other hand, a concerted sentiment of loyalty and good sense among the majority of a class can set at naught the machinations of the most turbulent dis- turber. The same statement is equally applicable to group relations on the playground, in the home, and elsewhere. The individual is, in manifold ways, influ- enced by, and in turn influences, the group to which he belongs. Of course this condition of mutual dependence is confined to no age or class. The possible com- plexity of it is admirably set forth by Henderson* in the following words : ^' The citizen belongs to a family and occupies there a place as son, husband, or father. He attends the annual meeting of the family stock — the Browns or Smiths, the descendants of some Norman chief or pioneer of the Mayflower. He gives receptions to his neighbors, although the companies are composed of persons of many different families, churches, and parties, just because they are neighbors and friends. He may be a banker and belong to a bankers' club in the city, and yet as director or stock- holder be associated with twenty corporations, unions, and mutual benefit organizations. One may belong to * C. R. Henderson. " Social Elements," p. 58. The Motive in Education 145 the upper four hundred,' and Lave his name in the Blue Book to mark his social rank. He may also have his circle of congenial friends and meet regularly with them for amusement and recreation. If you touch his philosophy you may find he holds with Kantians or Hegelians, or is a disciple of Spencer. He has a name in politics — Republican, Democrat, or Mugwump. When he goes to church he finds that a democratic Hegelian is at his right, a single-tax admirer of Words- worth is on his left, and a high-church reader of Walter Scott is behind him. By race he is connected with Irish and German peoples ; his mother-tongue is Eng- lish, and he has acquired French and Italian. Thus a single citizen may be so variously related that the threads of society are woven into his inmost soul, and he himself serves to weave a thousand others into the tapestry of the community life." But certain of man's social relations have become so fixed in the social organization as to have become per- manently established under the name and form of in- stitutions. These are the family, the state, the church, the school, and by some are added conventional society and industrial orders. They possess a form of im- mortality as transcending the life of the individ- ual, and give place to another set of social relations that are vastly important, both personally and his- torically. (5) To the four social relations already named there must be added the influence which the individual exercises upon the institution and 146 Science of Education (6) The influence whicli tlie institution has upon the individual. As the first and second orders named are the primary personal relations, and the third and fourth the true social relations, so five and six constitute the distinctly historical relations. In the first pair are the roots of biography; in the second, sociology and ethics; in the tliird, history. History has to do with human conduct. In a bor- rowed sense only is the term applied to the lives of animals or the changing existence of things. Its ma- terial is rational doing, not mere action, and so takes hold upon conscious living. It implies purposive effort and its achievements. It means spirit at work, and at provident work. It regards human living, struggling, and achieving, and its records are man's deeds. But not all conduct is historical. In all history there is understood conduct in associated relations. It is not alone what man has done, but what he has done in conjunction with his fellows. The record of narrowly personal or individual doing would be biography in an elementary way, but not history. That regards the individual as an individual ; this, as one of many, sus- taining active relations with the many. In this conduct in associated relations man finds and expresses one of his larger selves. It transcends individual experience and interests, and concerns chiefly ideas that have become forces in the life of groups and nascent organizations. But history means yet more than human conduct in as- sociated relations ; it has regard to such human conduct The Motive in Education 147 as has worked down into the life of the body of the people, and become organic as institutions. These institutions have been called above, the family, the state, the church, the school, and, possibly, conventional society and industrial organization. And the third group of human relations which the social instinct has worked out comprises (5) the influence which the individual directs upon the institution, and that (6) which the institution imposes upon the indi- vidual. The power of each institution over the indi- vidual and the privileges it confers, and the reactions of each individual upon the institution are comprehen- sive and vital. Consideration must be had of both youth and adults as not only conforming to existing ideals, but as originating or stimulating others ; respect- ful of tradition, but honest with one's self; assuming each his full share of responsibility for the integrity of this institutional life; loyal as a citizen in civic affairs; productive and provident in the industrial body; devout and tolerant touching the high ideals of the spirit; an effective member of the household; con- siderate of others' rights in the conventional order; and, by one's own refinement and scholarship, con- tributing to the general culture. The two additional phases of this social life are of less significance in the present discussion, and need only to be noted here to complete the classification; these are: (7) The influence which one group (see paragraph 4) has upon the institution, and 148 Science of Education (8) The influence which the institution has upon the group. As examples of the former may be named the reactions of political parties, law and order leagues, etc., upon the local and general government; the wide- spread influence of voluntary societies for learning and research upon the constitution and functions of the school ; the aggressive attitude of industrial organiza- tions toward legislation and civic affairs ; and the re- inforcement of the teachings of the church by associated lay societies. Under the latter may be noted the foster- ing care of most of the institutions expended upon vol- untary bodies organized for service under their respec- tive codes. ^' The freer a nation, the more developed we find it in larger and smaller spheres ; and the more despotic a government is, the more actively it suppresses all association." * Throughout this discussion it must have become apparent that with the development of these human relations there has gone along in the individual an in- teresting and a fuller recognition of others' rights and functions as set over against his OAvn. These, in their several ways, the numerous individuals about him whom, as individuals, he meets and with whom he has intercourse in the daily routine — these same individ- uals, associated in groups and aggregates, and all of them organized into institutions, become his larger selves, to whom also he owes allegiance. The " doing unto others as he would have others do to him " comes • Dr. Francis Lieber. " On Civil Liberty," Chap. xii. The Motive in Education 149 to be a matter not of his heart only, but of the common good, in whose beneficence he also shares. The child is born as an individual ; he must grow to be a person. In this ever-present, complex, and stren- uous social environment he encounters other wills simi- lar to his owa, contentions equal to his most intelligent effort, and rights that, if they were his, would be valid for contest. He learns to practise concession, and be- comes considerate. The conception is often forced upon him that yielding is gain. In this social world (which is the moral world) profit comes through sharing, not holding. It becomes a habit first, then a principle, of his life to have regard for others. Having come thus, in his daily behavior, habitually to take others into account, he has relinquished his exclusive individuality, and becomes a person. The former is constitutional, the latter must be achieved. But it is one of the accepted functions of directed education to equip the individual by both knowledge and habit to participate in the life of the several institutions in terms of the codes which each has worked out. CHAPTER XI THE MOTIVE IN EDUCATION (Continued) Love of the Soil. — This seems to have all of the characteristics of a true constitutional impulse. Under the heading is to be considered, not so much the child's love of soil as soil, as the affinity and respect for stable and localized matter, the attachment to place and thing. But soil in its nature and uses is typical of both these ideas. It stands for material possession and kin- ships. Byron's phrase, " half dust, half deity," as cliaracterizing man, is not less true in terms of modem science than in the words of Moses and Solomon. In any event, there is between human beings and the earth home a sense of common nature that claims compan- ionship. It is believed that joy in the out-door life is native to childhood in a sense in which that in the artificial is not. Speaking generally, interest, an attrac- tive interest, in the arts must be acquired. Trees, and forest, and stretches of landscape; bodies and streams of water ; plants ; the native animals ; the storm, rain, snow, ice; the hillside, rocks, sand, plastic clay, even mud ; swimming in nature's pool ; coasting on the hill- side ; loitering along the streams ; fishing in the brooks ; 150 The Motive in Education 151 hunting game; gathering berries, nuts, and fruits — nature's store of them; and following nature through the seasons, breasting the weather's inclemencies, and courting exposure ; rich in blood, abundant in energy, happy in this unrestrained, many-sided, continued-story sort of comradeship — what artificial regimen can equal it as a feast of fun and friendship? It means inter- course, and not appropriation. It means learning, with gift and leisure accompaniments. It means healthy effort shaped by gladness, not protest. To the natural mind, unspoiled by an excess of pre- scription, the things of nature easily take on the genius of personality that meets one more than half-way. The joys of this converse do not have to be manufactured. Nature is herself faculty, and can do things. Without the help of any clumsy hand, the soil grows an abund- ant larder; trees blossom and fruit, and cover them- selves; animals have their defences and mutual com- merce; the landscape, lavish decorations; the soil and water of a thousand slopes, a common understanding; and mountain and plain and sea bear in their capacious pockets the raw materials for incessant human wants. This untaught joy in a provident and prosperous nature is the beginning in man of wholesome uses and satisfactions. It offers one of the safest guarantees of a sound and serviceable body, and, in the beginning, the only real stimulus to thinking and artless doing. In the early days of the chase, and of flocks and herds, the race acquired notions of property as attached to the person — personal property. With the settled life of 152 Science of Education agricultural society man became first attached to the soil as rooted in it. He began to have a local habitation. One comer of the earth at least was his, as the tree has a spot for its own. With the passing of the nomadic habit there came in time release from the inconstant mind also, and the wayward heart. The places of his abiding became man's abode, where were gathered not the members of tlie household only, but the appur- tenances of the family life, tools of the household eco- nomics, the beginnings of the morrow's prudence, and a sense of rights in the soil. And there grew up the conception and the claim of real property. In time, memories of struggle and achievement clustered about this spot of ground. It had personal associations and suggested comfort and leisure. Stores of providence gave contentment, and years of household co-operation gave pleasure. The place early became worthy of de- fence. It was his home, his fireside. Out of some such conception must have grown the sentiment of patriotism. He was ready to defend his life and, if need be, to die to secure his people and his property against danger. A commonwealth of such householders must command respect; a nation of such would be invincible. Love of home and love of country are two sides of the same spiritual fact. The soil in which this idea roots itself is the foundation of both impulses. In the child the instinct appears in a persistent interest in and a companionship with things, the things of earth, the soil — nature's great manufacturing plant, The Motive m Education 153 the universal stock-ranch and life-garden — where things are made and grow and are exliibited. It appears also in his desire to have a place, and things of the place, for his very own — a comer of the yard, a strip of gar- den, an animal; something that shall satisfy his desire for possession. It corresponds with his love of out-door life, and his barbarian protest against confinement, and the interference with his physical freedom, and his joy in nature's great spaces and limitless achievements. The Sense of Rhythm. — Inasmuch as this character- istic has its roots in the material atom or molecule, and may be traced, without break, through all material forms and existences and beings, up to and including the pulsations of the human spirit, it seems very prob- able that almost no other instinct is more universal. Besides, it is basic in the highest activities. The most common use of the term, perhaps, is when applied to music, either by the voice or the instrument ; and, next, the rhythm of movement in the human body, as in dancing, gesture, walking, etc. Etymologically the word means " flow " or " cur- rent," and in time came to imply " uniform move- ment," hence " measured movement," involving pulses of recurrent stress ; in both speech and music, what is kno^\Ti as cadence; in vision, pleasing, restful propor- tions of light and shade, harmony of colors ; or in form, beauty of symmetry and gradation, as in the curve of the oval or circle ; in music and poetry, successions of times and accents ; in the plastic and graj)hic arts, a balance and proportion of parts with reference to each 154 Science of Education other and to an artistic whole; in physiological organs, an alternation of functioning and physics, a succession of alternate and opposite or correlative states. The term may be taken, then, to connote not metre and cadence only, but the multitudinous periodicities of motion ; the alternations of function ; the flow and ebb of the mental life; and the pulses of progress and relative inactivity in the social organism. Evolution philosophy is saturated with the concep- tions of matter, force, and motion; the probably ulti- mate character of motion, and that all motion is rhyth- mical. And as illustrations of this last fact, the pages of modem sciem^e cite the undulatory movements in light, heat, and sound ; the oscillating or spiral path of falling bodies and projectiles ; the rise and fall of tides ; the billowing of the ocean ; magnetic variations, mi- nutely calculable; periodicities in the earth's changes; the swing of the pendulum; alternating currents in electricity; the laws and interferences of circular mo- tion, as in the steam-engine; the merging and trans- formation of currents of force as shown in periodic curves in graphics ; the bumping motion of a rolling ball; the oscillations of a moving railway train; the tremble of striking bodies, as the swaying of a building shaken by a storm ; the seismic earth motion accom- panying an earthquake; the regulated recurrence of light and darkness and of the seasons; sleep and wak- ing; the daily growth and repose of many flowers; periods of incubation, gestation, and animal breeding; the conditioned habits of hibernation and migration;^ The Motive in Education 155 the well-established facts of periodicities in insanity, suicide, and crime; periods of rapid and slow growth and maturing in children ; and the probably rhythmical nature of nerve actions and states of consciousness. These are selected examples only of many that might be given to illustrate the applications and manifesta- tions of the rhythmical principle. Herbert Spencer,* in a concise summary — a single sentence — characterizes it as " a law manifested throughout all things from the inconceivably rapid oscillations of a unit of ether to the secular perturbations of the solar system ; in social phenomena, from the hourly rises and falls of the Stock Exchange prices to the actions and reactions of political parties." In the individual, as might be expected, this sense of rhythm and proportion is, in varying degrees and in different forms, clearly manifest. The response is sometimes conscious, sometimes not. But everyone is more or less subject to its influence. Along with the rhythmic motions of the molecules in the body, perhaps as a consequence of those motions, " the scale of time for each individual, each creature, is derived from a consciousness of the rhythm of its vital and locomotive functions." " All one's life is music," said Ruskin, " if one touches the notes rightly and in time." There is a daily rise and fall in strengtli, consequent on daily periodicities of repair and waste. Passions of all kinds appear in gushes or bursts. Attention is discontinuous and intermittent. Any one organ aroused to move- * "Principles of Sociology," ii, 606. 156 Science of Education ment out of its wont gives zest to other movements. In walking there is what has been called locomotive rhythm, that requires and accompanies the co-ordinat- ing of many organs and the alternating of the lower limbs in movement. In music there are few exceptions to the recogni- tion and appreciation of the various and pleasing sounds, " sweet sounds, volmninous sounds, and combi- nations of sounds in harmony and melody " ; all of which appeals to this sense of rhythm and is inter- preted in terms of it. For a like reason in the rhyth- mic poem, the picturesque landscape, the kaleido- scopic sunset, the beautiful form, there is a pleased recognition of the inner proportion and the resulting harmony. To the same category Bain refers the beau- ties of order. " In a well-kept house or shop every- thing is in its place; there are fit tools and facilities for whatever is to be done; all the appearances are suggestive of such fitness and facility ; although it may happen that the reality and the appearance are opposed. The arts of cleanliness, in the first instance, are aimed at the removal of things injurious and loathsome; going a step farther, they impart whiteness of surface, lustre, brilliancy, which are aesthetic qualities.* There is in it all a sense of satisfying adjustment of things and their uses, not less than their appearance, to a higher law of fitness. Everyone can, does, express rhythm in some form. The sphere of one's appreciation of it is perhaps wider. ♦Bain. "Mental Science," p. 299. The Motive in Education 157 In both senses, however, tlie power seems to be uni-^ versal. There is a " unifying activity of feeling," and a similar tendency among ideas. More than this, human spirit reveals an impulse to utter itself, and so proportion expression to experience, which is only an- other form of rhythmic life. Michael Angelo, when asked the secret of his power to express so clearly and marvellously his ideas in marble, replied that " he thought and kept thinking on a thing until his hand kept time to his thought." The outer takes its mean- ing from the inner, not the inner from the outer; but the two are kept in tune. Each takes its rhythm from the other, and so has meaning in tenns of the other. The idea finds its reason for being in its fruition — the deed, the living, the service. " In the large and true sense in which we speak of the rhythm of the spheres or the rhythm in a picture, or a flower, even, says Miss H. Lindgren, " rhythm defines itself as the proportionate reinforcement of an idea." And in the cultivation of the native sense of proportion, or fitness, or order, or symmetry, one is helping on the impulse toward not the coarser only, but countless finer adjust- ments of expression and thought, conduct and ideal, art and reflection, feeling and understanding, self and society, right and expediency, good and the better. Every^vhere there is this dual relation, and both life and achievement oscillate between the two poles. Con- ception and behavior, not less than molecule and star, are rhythmic. The entire essay, " Compensation," by Emerson, is a commentary upon the meaning of the 158 Science of Education principle. In the words of Emerson, " Every act re- wards itself, or, in other words, integrates itself in a twofold manner; first, in the thing or real nature; and, secondly, in the circumstances, or in apparent nature." Now every child, in one degree or another, is sus- ceptible of this generic impulse. And, except in music, and in a minor and technical way there, no account practically is taken of it in the schools. Yet in the most elementary tasks, and throughout the years, there are involved questions of economy of attention, the in- tegration and waste of experiences, periodicities of physical growth, the reactions of the physical and men- tal stages in the mental life, the ebb and flow of motive, the mutual reinforcements of idea and expression, rest and exercise, responsibility and easy self-regarding and law-abiding actions. This constitutional impulse, and the aptitude for following it up, are factors of an inner motive to which the teacher may safely resort in both example and pre- scription. Forms that are beautiful enough to be sim- ple and attractive, melodies that touch the springs of interest and s^anpathy, poetry that grows out of in- telligible, beautiful human exjDcriences, pictures that humanize and soften the motives to action, conduct that exalts duty to a joy — should, as far as may be, surround the child, that his instinctive sense of rhyth- mic doing and thinking may be satisfied and his daily living be keyed to his finer, not coarser, conceptions, to bis ideals, not his crude efforts only. Along The Motive in Education 159 with number and the marvellous compensations of nat- ure, the teacher is justified in making much of song and story — songs that soothe and strengthen, and poetry that refines the understanding; stories that leave hope and interest, according to one's estimate of what is good and worth while; and a daily touch with speci- mens of what is really superior in graphics, and paint- ing, and sculpture, in song or speech or conduct; in heroism, or patience — in some unselfish endeavor. Underlying the interest in tliese is a form of the only true motive to which appeal may be made in teach- ing — the effort that has a real want behind it. The Faith Instinct. — The term is not meant to in- clude any theological meaning, and, incidentally only, has reference to the feeling of moral obligation, or sen- timent of duty, or love of virtue. These have for their object actions, conduct, one's own or another's, and have to do with actions that are held to be right or wrong. These are sentiments. The faith referred to is a native bias of the mind that marks a habit of credence. This is generic; that, specific. This has to do with not only conduct, but with things and their relations, with ideas and ideals, with institutions and abiding forces. It represents the mind's trust in its own experiences and in the environment out of which they originate. It names the mind's attitude of trust, an assured resting of the mind upon the integrity and valid fact and principle of what comes to it. It ex- plains intellectual risk and venture and the mind's hypothesis in explanation. Among the more important 160 Science of Education manifestations of this faith instinct may be noted the following : Primarily there is faith in the functioning of the senses. Whatever the idealist may teach, there is a prevailing confidence that what one seems to see one does see;' that the eye does not deceive ns, that the nor- mal ear reports truly; that sensations of temperature and weight and distance, the sweet and the bitter, of beauty and pain and comfort, may be relied upon as valid for us who have the sensations. Upon these and like experiences we found our daily goings and com- ings. Things and our experience of them are com- mensurate elements in this confidence. The same char- acteristic of mind is shown in our relation to persons, " a sense of the mental and moral resemblance of all men." There is confidence in their like-mindedness with ourselves ; that co-operation and mutual influence are not only possible, but inevitable ; that though some men may sometimes deceive about some things, their words and their behavior may, upon the whole, be de- pended upon — that what they say they mean, and what they promise will be performed. Often, it is true, this confidence is betrayed, but that it was betrayed implies that there was confidence that was subject to betrayal. This would seem to be a primary fact in all social relations. All economic intercourse rests upon it ; the trustworthiness of all conventional life; the confidence in tradition and the accumulations of knowledge ; faith in authority and personal teachings. There is faith in the promises of science. The arts of comfort and The Motive in Education 161 manufacture rest upon its dicta. Modes of lighting, heating, communication, transportation, mechanical execution, and the crude or artistic manipulation of materials, exhibit reliance upon the unfailing qualities of texture and fibre and chemical order. Indeed, it has come to be true that, whereas an ancient supersti- tion was the almost infallible wisdom of the priest, a corresponding modem superstition is an almost equally unquestioning faith in science and the scientist. All this implies a working confidence in the efficiency of knowledge; that abundant experience, and a store of ready-made explanations, and an understanding mind, are regenerative of the life. This is particularly true of childhood, and follows the years well along into adult life. It accompanies curiosity and every inquisi- tive and acquisitive tendency. It colors both relief and practice with reference to matters of learning, and in an extreme development tends to idealize scholar- ship. In its best estate it means a wholesome apprecia- tion of the knowing sense, an even and satisfying belief in the verities of what is known. In this same category, also, is implied faith in one's ideals. These are the mind's creations, for its oa\ti beholding and use, of more perfect conditions of knowl- edge and character and achievement than yet exist; " ideals that lie midway between the attainment of an end and the mere struggle toward it " ; ideals which are expressed in art and poetry, and which receive their highest embodiments in religious faith ; ideals of hu- man character, coveted human character, beyond even 162 Science of Education human achievement — but ideals, nevertheless, for per- sonal measurement and personal effort at living and achieving. Unless above himself he can Erect himself, how poor a thing is man! His nature has two sides, which are in a state of in- ternecine war. On the one hand, there is the immedi- ate experience of what is present in sense, the false emphasis of particular facts, the besieging of Eje-gate and Ear-gate hj the phenomena of the outer world, together with the ever-pressing requirements of the animal life. On the other hand, there is the " still small voice " of the ideal which bids us have regard for the universal ; which tells of the True, the Beauti- ful, and the Good ; which urges the mind to " reject the eyes," and view things, rather, " under the fonn of eternity." Even in the hypotheses of science, there is a sense and a consciousness of something more abiding than what appears on the surface. It will be obvious, also, to the reader that in the course of experience this instinct will reveal a faith in the supremacy of spir- itual interests — " in the laws and customs which a community establishes, in the institutions of any sort which society frames, but most of all in the great litera- tures of the world," which, with man's acts and codes and creeds, are manl\:ind's attempt to give expression to his ideals of life and being. This confidence of the individual in his companion- ships with thing and personal fellow is the basis of his The Motive in Education 163 teachableness. He learns in a measure, through his belief, that things may be learned, and coimsel may be trusted, and joy may be shared ; that what the race has known and believed may content him also; that the universe whose nature he shares is dealing fairly with him. This, therefore, along with the other instincts named, constitutes a motive to which legitimate appeal may be made by the teacher. Indeed, in the words heading this section, the constitutional impulse to know and to grow is the only motive in education. Punish- ment — physical or mental — privation, prohibitions, ex- ternally imposed rules of behavior, artificial incentives and rewards, a prescribed fixed order — may all be necessary upon occasions and for the accomplishment of certain results; but they can be considered, at best, an accidental and contingent stimulus only, not a true motive. The wise teacher will seek to arouse the child's own initiative through an approach to one or another of his constitutional biases. CHAPTER XII THE CONDITION IN EDUCATION 4. Finally, among the fundamentals in the concep- tion of education here presented, there are presupposed time and the accompanying opportunities for develop- ment, as the only condition of education. " Mind dawns, grows, mellows, and decays," says Drummond. " This growing is gradual; an infinitely gentle, never abrupt, unfolding — the kind of growing which, in every other department of nature, we are taught to associate with evolution." Its maturing, under whatever tutelage, is a process, now slow, now more rapid, a progressive de- velopment, whose steps severally, by stages, and in the aggregate, require time. It repudiates hot-house methods — over-feeding and over-stunulation, not less than starving and neglect. The best education is a com- paratively slow process. The poem, " Gradatim," by tlie late J. G. Holland, gives an excellent rendering of the thought: Heaven is not reached at a single bound, But we build the ladder by which we rise From the lowly earth to the vaulted skies, And we mount to its summit round by round. 164 The Condition in Education 165 We rise by the things that are under our feet, By what we have mastered of good or gain; By the pride deposed and tlie passion slain, And the vanquished ills that we hourly meet. We hope, we aspire, we resolve, we trust When the morning calls us to life and light; But our hearts grow weary and, ere the night, Our lives are trailing the sordid dust. Only in dreams is a ladder thrown From the weary earth to the sapphire walls; But the dreams depart and the vision falls, And the sleeper awakes on his pillow of stone. Heaven is not reached by a single bound. But we build the ladder by which we rise From the lowly earth to the vaulted skies, And we mount to its summit round by round. " Growth involves conflict, for our natural develop- ment brings out all sorts of impulses that need shaping to fit them to their place in the world." * It means the taking on of the suitable food habit, knowing one's body and how to treat it; it means the learning of the things of one's environment, there as well as here, and adjust- ing one's self to their possibilities for us; it means con- forming to rules of behavior and a conventional order that are largely arbitrary, and, to the child mind, vastly complicated; it means the development and trim- ming and training of a group of more or less trouble- some, but necessary, and often joy-giving feelings and emotions — particularly the forms of the sympathetic ♦Oppenheim. "Mental Growth and Control," p. 3. 166 Science of Education feelings, joy, grief, anger, fear, s;yanpathy, pity, con- sistency, and jileasure in the beautiful, etc. And this is true, whether the consideration be of the undirected education that comes of the free intercourse with things or persons, or from the purposed activities of the school and the home. In such life-unfolding, time is an es- sential element. Speaking technically, the sjiontaneous and uncer- tain perception of the child must be transformed into the intelligent and trained and critical perceptions of the man; the spontaneous and more or less mechani- cal memory of youth into the rational memory of adult and philosophic years; knowledge of content enriched by knowledge of extent; the long road gone over from percept, image, and reproduction, to con- cept and constructive imagination; from simple isolated experiences, to cumulative assimilation and appercep- tion; from one's individual insular self, to his larger institutional and ideal self; from the narrow interest in what pleases, to the broader interest in the indifferent, but world important. The " mother thoughts " once planted, require time for their maturing. Mind has its seasons, not less than the years. Little is gained by urging a child beyond its normal " gait." Much is lost by delay in beginning, or neglect in stimulation. In recitation, the teacher should remember that it is more important that pupils should be aroused to mental effort, and a wish to do, and to do at their best, than that they should be brought to conform to any sort of prompt and frictionless and picturesque school machinery. The The Condition in Education 167 recitation should serve the child's need; not the child, the whim of any martinet procedure of a hearer of recitations. This conception repudiates also all artificial pre- scriptions and impositions, whether of courses or methods; and emphasizes the importance of regarding the mind's spontaneous and self-approved and original interests; and the necessity of converging within the field of its sense-approaches a stock of appropriate sense materials and incitements. Given a meaningful world, and, in it and a part of it, a rational creature having affinities with it, and education follows, if time only be granted; this is the one condition. If education meant the accumulation of knowledge, merely, or chiefly, the importance of time as a factor might be reduced to an unimportant minimum by im- proved methods. But the mental eifect of right edu- cational processes is in the nature less of acquisition than of ripening, maturing and mellowing; or, not in- frequently, even tempering and seasoning; and, more often, habituation and accustoming; or assimilating and adapting; all of which connote qualitative rather than quantitative changes. For such effects, time is requi- site. Indeed, from the side of the child's need, the policy should be " to (wisely) lose time " ; to pro\ade for a healthy, abundant growth, accompanied by all needed information and the tools of learning, rather than a store of information, indifferent to the maturing prog- ress. In most businesses, it will be conceded, maturity and good judgment, and the ability and disposition to 168 Science of Education assume and honor the incident responsibilities, count for more, both in the estimation of the firm, or of one's patrons, and for one's general promotion, than do much knowledge and a store of skill. The craze for shorten- ing courses takes its rise, primarily, in a supposed ex- pediency; the assumed needs of business, and the claims of society upon the individual, hurrying him through his school preparations. Often it is no better than temporizing with life's promises, and taking a minor good for a larger, because that offers immediate returns. For this reason, all too often, a brief course of train- ing is substituted for an education that would require some years ; and it is hoped that success may be won with skill divorced from intelligence. Information is wanted, and information of just the kind that soonest opens the way to some business. All hurry in education, most " short cuts " to an occupation, and much secondary training that is narrowly technical, are a concession to the information idea. On the contrary, if interest centre in the man behind the workman; in successful- ness rather than knack; in civic efficiency as an indis- pensable supplement to any degree of industrial effi- ciency; then years, and the conditions for a cultivated maturing, will be granted a larger recognition than now too often happens. Time is an essential factor in all growth ; and all the more important as the process is conceived to be one of real education, and not mere expertness of particular achievement. In terms of scholarship, education becomes such process as makes the acquisition and masterful possession of all needful The Condition in Education 169 learning sure ; from the point of view of society, it seeks to adjust the individual to an intelligent participation in the established codes; as concerns the trades, it ac- companies the best available culture with needed skill — gives efficiency of culture; in terms of morality, it is such process as makes for worthy ends; in terms of the state, it implies civic equipments and growth in per- sonality. From such views, descriptive and critical, of the nature and bearing of this process, may be derived the following (provisional) definitions of education. 1. Education is the life process by which the indi- vidual is matured. It has a legitimate correlative in civilization, which names the process by which society at large, or the race, has been matured. This connotes " growth based upon exercise with appropriate material ; the exercise being given for the purpose of the growth, and only secondarily for the sake of the material." 2. Education as a science is the body of organized laws or principles, in accordance with which this process takes place. Both the processes as characterized in (1) and the science as defined in (2) are comprehensive of both school and non-school movements. The view is generic and compasses all maturing, whether directed or contingent; purposed and controlled, or evolutional. 3. Education as an art is the intelligent direction of this process. This, again, it will be apparent, is wider than the school, and includes all purposed guidance that is symmetrically and intelligently conducted. Practi- 170 Science of Education call J the use of the art in this exact sense is confined to the school as an institution. 4, The science of teaching is the body of laws or principles in accordance with which the intelligent di- rection of the process is carried on. The logical order of these professional knowledges obviously would be: (1) the nature of the educational process; (2) the science of education; (3) the science of teaching ; and, finally (4), the art of teaching. It is not supposed that the lines of demarcation between any two of these, as to sequence, would be sharply fixed ; but, in general, the meaning of any one of them must be found in what precedes. Theoretically, certain of the Normal Schools follow this order. The empirical order would be practically the reverse of this, and for an elementary view is preferable, perhaps. But it must be considered that no teaching is rational that is not explainable in terms of some more general assumption or established principles. The teacher-student may profitably follow the chronological or empirical order ; the teacher at his work should approach his task with more or less of the logical insight. The former is likely to be narrow, but, in ways, efficient; the latter, liberal, but critical. The former is likely to emphasize devices and temporary re- sults; the latter, something of a fixed order and pre- scription. JSTevertheless, other conditions being equal, the enrichment of the daily practice by a clear insight into the essential conditions of the general process, dig- nifies the service of the school, and by virtue of this very emphasis of the abidingly good and the universal. EDUCATION AS A SCIENCE CHAPTER Xin THE NATURE OF SCIENCE One's conception of education as a science is condi- tioned hj bis conception of the nature of science. It is frequently asserted that common knowledge made more precise, more extensive and more systematic is what is meant by science, Mr. Huxley, than whom no modern teacher has been more facile in the use of the scientific method, wrote * many years ago : " Sci- ence is trained and organized common-sense — differing from the latter only as the veteran may differ from the raw recruit; and its methods differ from those of common-sense only so far as the guardsman's cut and thrust differ from the manner in which a savage wields his club. . . . The sword exercise is only the hew- ing and poking of the clubman, developed and per- fected." With much the same meaning, Mr. Lewes says : f " Science is the systematization of our experi- ences; it is common-sense methodized and generalized." It is interesting to note how uniformly all authori- ties agree in identifying the beginnings of science with the common, thoughtful experience. The raw material * T. H. Huxley. "Laj^ Sermons and Addresses," p. 77. f George H. Lewes. '^ The Study of Psychology," p. 49. 173 174 Science of Education of the one is tlie product of the common-sense of man- kind. Many of the conclusions of the untrained ob- server went astray, and still go astray; but many of them, also, came to honor and general confidence. The knowledge, the sure, often predictive knowledge, which the farmer, or the ranchman, or the sailor has of the weather; or the merchant, of times and seasons and popular whims; or the housewife, of the quality of stuffs and their values; or the forester, of lumber prod- ucts in the tree; or the miner, of hidden ores; is just the knowledge that has made possible the sciences of meteorology, trade economics, wood mechanics and min- ing. Similar relations may be affirmed of lay and pro- fessional insights into law, and medical treatment, and government, and public policies, and ethical conduct, and the fine arts. The judgments of the artisan and the citizen are often fairly reliable. The same obser- vation would apply equally to the lay estimate concern- ing schools and schooling and the educational product. The scientific dictum in each case is the more reliable, chiefly because it rests upon observations that are more accurate and more comprehensive; in part, more accu- rate because more comprehensive. Primarily, scientific knowledge assumes to have cov- ered every important detail of the set of phenomena to be observed. In this respect, common knowledge is vague and partial; vague often for the reason that it is partial: sometimes neglecting, or ignorantly reject- ing phenomena which the more careful observer has found to be important. In part, the carefulness of the The Nature of Science 175 observation consists in the fact that no details are per- mitted to be disregarded, lest some or all of them may be important. Real causes, or the determining factors of phenomena may not, generally do not, lie upon the surface. They may escape notice. The resulting knowledge is not only unreliable; it is vague. Action based upon it is uncertain. It leads to more or less random supposition and mere guessing, the groping of fancy — not the intelligent working upon deliberate hypothesis. Such knowledge is vague, in the sense of being obscure, its meaning ambiguous, and its authority wavering. Scientific knowledge, comprising facts that have really been verified in experience, speaks with no uncertain sound. Conclusions may be wrong, but they are clear. In addition to being general and dim, common knowledge is also indefinite, as compared with scien- tific knowledge, which is accurate and exact. The conclusions of the latter may be acted upon with as- surance. Forces and changes are measured and valued. Conditions are counted and compared. Uni- form scales are employed, and instruments and stand- ards. Science thus becomes accurate and predictive. Common observation discovers variations in tempera- ture, and in the quality of soils, and forms of water, and movements of the air ; and that food for beast and man differ in nutritive qualities ; and that trees have a flow of their juices in the spring, etc. ; but science is able to answer for each one, the how or the why, or both, and with such precision as to give assur- 176 Science of Education ances of practical as well as theoretical trustworthiness. Thermometers, and soil laboratories, and hygrometers, and dietetic analysis, and microscopes, make exact con- clusions and tests among these changes possible. To be scientific, knowledge must be exact as well as compre- hensive. As an accompaniment, and an absolutely necessary accompaniment of a science there is a corre- sponding body of technical terms. Each important fact is named, together with its implications and relations. Says Everett,* " It [science] must have a name for everything — some fixed, hard word, that shall stand for this one thing and for nothing else. . . . This terminology is an essential element of science. It is the record of its analyses and its discoveries." The no- menclature is a monumental sign of its painstaking accu- racy. So much discrimination, so much naming; with- out this, the discrimination would vanish; without that, the terminology would be meaningless. Science is in- dividual and direct, eschewing mere description and indiscriminate sketches. It looks to precision of facts, and an adequate characterization. The unsatisfactory character of much current educational theory is fore- shadowed in the conflicting and shadowy meanings of many of the terms used. Once more, science concerns itself with the truth about matters, not with one's impression about them. It is impersonal. As far as it is a true science it rep- resents what and how and why things are as they are, indifferent to whether the what and the how and the * C. C. Everett. " The Science of Thought," p. 304. The Nature of Science 177 why are as tliey were supposed to be or not. It con- templates the elimination of human prejudice and per- sonal preferences, and hindering convictions, and inapt hypotheses, as endangering either the faithful observa- tion or the reasonable interpretation, or both. In its acquisitions and its organization, science is indifferent to sentiment and personal wishes. Its material is truth, and only truth, however it may afterward be vised or distorted. In no other field is the observer so likely to in- ject into his studies his prejudgments as among liv- ing forms ; and most of all on the higher levels. Else- where in this volume it has been shown that man's study and interpretation of animal traits are in danger of perversion, both from conceding to them now too much and again too little of the human faculty. Knowledge to be scientific must hold itself above human (personal) prejudices. This applies, as will be elab- orated elsewhere, to the adult's estimate of the child; to civilization's estimate of primitive races; to the mutual misjudgments of culture and skill; to church and pew; to capital and labor; to the artisan and artist; to urban and rustic; to Occident and Orient; to Cau- casian and negro, as to man and monkey, or man and cabbage, or clod, or cloud. He who has learned how to see, and to report with fidelity what he sees, neither more nor less, has taken a long step toward an easy in- terpretation of the product of his seeing. Expectation, and hypothesis, and tradition, and previous teaching will furnish wholesome incentive, and give direction to one's inquiries; but must not control them. Science 178 Science of Education must be held superior to personal bias, and honor truth for its own sake. Science has been represented as employing two methods of grouping and labelling phenomena, or the facts of knowledge: first, definition; and, second, clas- sification. By the first we have mutually exclusive classes; by the second, groups inclusive of essential qual- ities. In the physical sciences, including mathematical, molecular, structural and etheral physics, because of the less complex phenomena, the former is particularly applicable. In the so-called Natural History sciences the latter prevails. Of this type-grouping. Dr. Whewell affirms:* "The class is steadily fixed, though not pre- cisely limited; it is given, though not circumscribed; it is determined, not by a boundary line without, but by a central point within; not by what it strictly excludes, but by what it eminently includes; by an example, and not by a precept ; in short, instead of Definition, we have a Type for our director. A type is an example of any class, a species of a genus, which is considered as emi- nently possessing the characters of the class." Now, Professor Huxley f protests that no such dis- tinction exists ; that the method of all the sciences is the same ; and that perfected results are equally exact. He asserts that as compared with the mathematical and phys- ical sciences, the biological sciences are no less compara- tive ; that they, also, use experiment as well as observa- tion; and that they, too, employ definition. Neverthe- * Whewell. " History of the Inductive Sciences," i, p. 476. f Huxley. "Science and Education," pp. 47-53. The Nature of Science 179 less, Professor Huxley admits that " the biologist deals with a vast number of properties of objects, and his in- ductions will not be completed, I fear, for ages to come ; but when they are, his science will be as deductive and as exact as the mathematics themselves." Elsewhere, also, in the same essay, he says: " So long as our information concerning them is imperfect, we class all objects to- gether, according to resemblances which we feel, but cannot define; we group them around types, in short." Of course, this is saying, in substance, for the present state of biology, what Dr. Whewell claims, that classi- fication of its material is, and must be " for ages to come," by type, in many cases; by definition, in the few instances, where knowledge is complete. In general, to define means to fix the boundary of that which is defined, its margin of contact with, and distinction from, something else. In this sense the term implies traceable limits, and precision of discrimination. But it also carries the meaning of " to explain " or " to describe." Locke speaks of the act of " defining," so used, as " being nothing but making another under- stand by words what the term defined stands for." The difference between " inclusive type " and '' limited class " is then primarily one of exactness of determina- tion and statement. Perfection of knowledge and faith- fulness of record are aimed at in both cases. The phe- nomena of heat, light, motion, electricity, magnetism, chemism, gravitation, air, water, etc., may be, many of them have been, measured, and their important rela- tions tabulated, They readily lend themselves to defi- 180 Science of Education nition, and exact limiting* statements. On the other hand, many of the phenomena of organic matter — plant and animal life; of anthropology, including race divis- ions, organic functions, language, etc.; of psychology, and the forms of logic and art; and of sociology, com- prising what is currently classed as history, economics, politics, ethics, and conventional codes — may be organ- ized under representative types only, almost not at all by definition and mutually exclusive classes. Plants and animals share many traits in common; race charac- teristics are not always distinctly marked; languages are perplexingly blended; neither mental functions nor activities are anywhere sharply defined; and the forms and criteria of the beautiful, the standards of conduct and social intercourse, the forces that make for civiliza- tion; and the genesis and functions of the various in- stitutions; yield, along with manifold other phenom- ena, to classification by inclusive types only. It is not contended that the resulting systems are less trustworthy in these than in those or that the methods are any less fruitful; but, dealing with mate- rial so unlike, they are different. This distinction will be seen to be significant as the discussion proceeds. Pro- fessor Huxley,* once more, attempting to fix the rela- tion of biology to other sciences, takes satisfaction in thinking that " as the student, in reaching biology, looks back upon sciences of a less complex, and, there- fore, more perfect nature, so, on the other hand, does he look forward to other more complex and less per- * Huxley. " Science and Education," p. 58. The Nature of Science 181 feet branches of knowledge. Biology deals only with living beings as isolated things; treats only of the life of the individual: but there is a higher division of sci- ence still, which considers living beings as aggregates — which deals with the relations of living beings to one another, the science which observes men — whose ex- periments are made by nations upon one another, in battle fields; whose general propositions are embodied in history, morality, and religion; whose deductions lead to our happiness or our misery, and whose verifica- tions so often come too late." Because of its subject-matter, this group of sciences, the sociological, is of particular interest to the teacher, though the method of approach to their phenomena must be much the same as for others. The aim in all of them is to reach accurate knowledge — comparative, verified, usable knowledge ; knowledge that shall, at once, serve as guidance and as power; knowledge that shall be pre- dictive of wise personal and social treatment, in educa- tion, punishment, reform, industry, government, legis- lation, and social codes. Science uses, also, logical division, not mere cata- loguing. The ordering of the facts is important. Of course they must be gathered and enumerated. It is important that every fact be known. In a very real sense any one is as much a legitimate object of inquiry to the scientist as any other. In their implications and uses, however, some will be found more significant than others. For this reason a bare inventory, however com- plete, cannot satisfy. Science is a body of organized 182 Science of Education knowledge. The parts must be logically related. Given the facts, this is what makes the aggregate to be sci- ence, and not information. The order of the arrange- ment is determined by the relations of the phenomena themselves, and cannot be imposed by the mind. The relations are there; they are simply observed; not cre- ated by the thinking, or manufactured. In the nature of things, they fix their own order, which man, more or less successfully, seeks to discover and interpret. This reflection, also, is full of meaning to the teacher who would know the material with which she works, and know how to respect its inner moments of progress. Facts, however carefully collected, are worth little until they have been resolved into their ordered con- nections, groups and classes; parts and factors, more or less important; local and general meanings. Science implies logical arrangement, not cataloguing. Once more, fixed and general laws are fundamental assumptions in science. There is present to the mind a consciousness that there are uniformities in phenom- ena, and accompanying conditions, in terms of which their happenings may be explained; whether the phe- nomena be of things or thought, of objects or people, of institutions or ideas. The existence and character of science imply a conviction that what is observed or discovered may be accounted for. The coloring and falling of the leaves in the autumn, the covering of animals, race distinctions in the human species, the ex- istence of religious sects, diversities of customs, the char- acter of industries, the reading habit, child character — The Nature of Science 183 to tlie degree that tbej interest man in their fitness, their changes, or their behavior, rest upon an assurance that they have a reason for their being. The field of ex- istence and occurrence, about the teacher, the preacher, the physician, the lawyer, the law-maker, the mother as a mother, the dealer, or the manufacturer, is neither less fruitful nor less interesting than that which surrounds the botanist, the zoologist, the physicist, the electrician, the astronomer, or the geologist. Each offers abundant opportunity for scientific inquiry. Each makes its ap- peal in the same way to faith in the thoroughly expli- cable character of things, because of faith in the exist- ence of fixed and general laws underlying the things. Einally, in the consideration of the character of sci- ence, it may, with reasonable accuracy, be said that its test is its prevision of results. Very naturally this is more generally true of some sciences than of others, and of certain sets of phenomena within each science — most of all in the mathematics, and the mathematical sciences. There is practical certainty in mechanics and engineering, in chemical reactions, meteorology, soil and soil culture, animal breeding and habits, and many matters concerning human individual and social behav- ior, also. It is not meant that in any considerable number of the non-mathematical sciences one shall be able to tell exactly wdiat will result ; but that certain con- ditions and factors will have such and such influence ; and, given, with these conditions, certain influences, the kind of effect may be kno^vn. As the phenomena be- 184 Science of Education come such as to make the introduction of unexpected influences likely, the result becomes so much the more problematical; as unforeseen weather conditions jeop- ardize the crops, or a panic of fright may disorganize an otherwise dignified assembly, or an unfamiliar in- dividual will may set prejudgment at naught. It may be said, however, that the more perfectly organized the knowledge, the more accurate and reliable are the pos- sible predictions. In the region of human action, this prevision becomes relatively less frequent, and less trustworthy, in detail; but, in the aggregate, surprisingly reliable. We act upon our knowledge, in the handling of great crowds, legislat- ing for the slums, educating the young, encouraging in- vention, building highways of commerce, the investment of wealth, and going to war. We are sometimes mis- taken ; but it is fair to supix)se that if our knowledge were complete as to all of the really or practically uniform happenings, the occasional or frequent presence of an ar- bitrary or unexpected factor would be found far less dis- turbing than it now seems. Human faculty, also, is quite uniform in its behavior; and particularly child faculty, as it appears in the school and at home, at task and at play. As concerns prevision, science is no less instructive for the teacher than for its other qualities. It is conceded at once that as the phenomena of life are more complex than most of the phenomena of the physical sciences, so the facts of human life are even more complex. Account must be taken of the individ- ual will and individual organic biases; of shifting social standards and conventions; of congregate relations as The Nature of Science 185 something different from the personal relations; of man- ifold and seemingly inextricably tangled and mutually interacting social groups; of institutions whose begin- nings and reasons are lost in history; conflicting and struggling economic, and industrial, and civic and ethi- cal policies; and the presence in the midst of them all of the leader with his following — the priest with his flock, the politician with his party, the philosopher with his school, the reformer with his adherents, the master with his disciples. And of all these the pedagogical phenomena are not the least complex. They concern mind, not matter ; ideas and ideals, not material products only; phenomena that are strikingly dynamic, not static. Because these phenomena are more or less abstract and intricately interdependent, the effort to resolve them into a system properly co-ordinating and sub- ordinating the several notions will be correspondingly difficult. Already there is held by both the lay and the professional mind, and imbedded in extant philosophies, a considerable fund of pedagogical knowledge; it awaits organization. The science is in its descriptive stage. Much of what is known lacks definiteness. There is more or less confusion over terms, because there is confusion over the ideas for which the terms are supposed to stand. To become scientific the facts must receive more accurate definition, and verified defi- nition. Pedagogy obviously belongs to that " higher division of science which considers living beings as ag- gregates," and the " verification of whose deductions so often come too late." CHAPTER XIV THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD In addition to an acquaintance with the nature of science, its methods, also, must not only be under- stood, but employed in the interpretation or construc- tion of a Science of Education, not less than to ration- alize the teaching. And this method is both simple and easily stated. Practically all agree as to the essen- tial requirements. Professor Huxley has been quoted as saying that " science is only trained common-sense." It differs, as we all know, quite enough from common thought — but not in its matter. " Scientific thought," affirms Kingdon Clifford, " does not mean thought about scientific subjects. There are no scientific sub- jects." It is the method of the mind's movement that determines the thinking to be scientific, merely tech- nical, or irrational. It is not confined to the material world ; though this is a common distortion of the mean- ing of the term. The subject-matter of science com- prises whatever " is, or has been, or may be related to man." Scientific thought is no more the province of the physicist than of the philanthropist ; it no more be- longs to botany than to ethics; to diatoms, than to the Decalogue. 186 The Scientific Method 187 Primarily, the scientific method requires careful, ac- curate, painstaking observation. All first steps in learn- ing are descriptive, and give one acquaintance with individuals and large particulars. Because of omitting many details, knowledge is vague and disconnected often. The movement is toward the gathering of in- formation. Experiences of this sort accumulate. Many of them will, in time, be discarded; some few will re- main. This is a crude prophecy of the beginnings of the later, regulated, provident, scientific method. All scien- tific thought, about whatever phenomena, implies a deep rooting in a rich soil of particulars. This means purposeful observation, using all the senses; reinforc- ing their exercise by bringing to bear upon it all of the observer's related experience; noting the conditions that accompany, and seeing and thinking the parts and happenings in their relations. The act involves an ele- ment of honesty — honesty to one's self — that one shall not claim to find what is not there to be found, or what has not been found ; and that one shall direct his efforts to finding all that is to be found, not content to accept partial knowledge, and claim completeness. In one's inquiry it may be necessary to prolong the observation until it takes on the character of an investigation, in which the observation is carried on under varying con- ditions, and through important changes, and the lapse of time. The act is still essentially one of observation, and the object is the gathering of reliable facts of ex- perience about the thing studied. These are, in time, to be used as the raw material for induction; for the 188 Science of Education moment they are gatliered as if the value were in them- selves. Occasionally the investigation takes on the form of experiment. It has been said that when the purpose is to discover what is the cause of a given effect, the inquiry takes on the character of observation or inves- tigation; but that when one asks, from a given cause, what are likely to be the effects, the search becomes an experiment. In direct or simple observation, one ac- quires the static or descriptive view; in the more pro- longed investigation, in Avhich there is a tracing of movements and a following of causes to their effects, and chains of sequences, there is given the generic, dynamic or historical view. In the experiment, which involves a combination of thing and circumstance, and these varied at will, there is obtained the critical view. Rarely, in any set of phenomena, does any one of these occur independently. Every experiment includes both of the others; as every, even the simplest, observation involves something of investigation. The most com- plete and elaborate experiment is only refined investi- gation; as investigation is crude experiment. The end sought is accurate knowledge of facts and conditions; and, in all the earlier stages, the condition imposed is that the facts shall be of one's own getting. There must be direct personal relations with the fact. In the begin- ning, at least, scientific knowledge cannot be had at second-hand ; and, for anyone, the method is scientific only when one employs himself in the gathering of facts. And, while a record of the fact may be found The Scientific Method 189 upon the shelf of another, it loses much of its effective- ness as a fact, and almost all of its effect upon the learner, by being taken from authority. It remains to be noted of this first step in the scientific method, that the reliability of the observations is gi'eatly enhanced by much repetition. By such means, the chances of error either in the seeing or the recording, or both, will be much reduced. But as, in many successive observations of one set of phenomena, the conditions are likely to vary in a greater or less degree, there is sug- gested the next stage in the method, that of comparison of phenomena and registry of observations. This only means prolonged and multiplied investigations under all possible imjx)rtant conditions ; tracing movements ; following up causes to effects ; tracing back effects to causes ; and all this, whether the phenomena be the cur- culio, hereditary traits among animals or men, the growth of institutions, or the maturing, and habits, and instincts of a child. Along with this obsei'vation of like phenomena under varying conditions, and unlike phe- nomena under the same conditions, there goes this com- parison of accompanying classifications and inductions. Indeed, for so little does the individual fact count in the final analysis, that these two, " comparison and the clas- sification, which is the result of comparison, are the es- sence of every science." Out of these, groups and classes are derived, for the mind's use, typical indi- viduals which constitute the real working material of most sciences and especially of the biological and social. That is, for example, science has to do, not with the 190 Science of Education individual mammal, but with the group mammalia ; not with this or that man, but with the species, or with the community, the class, the party, the organization; and with individuals as they stand related to these; not with a given text, or branch, or solution, but with rep- resentative ones. A knowledge of the type and ability to recognize and interpret the type, is a primary requi- site in all such investigations. The classification that accompanies or follows the studied comparisons noted is already of such character as to imply a tentative in- ference. Conditions being given, the phenomena are noted; direction being given to the observation by the accompanying hypothesis or supposition. This assigns a probable cause, or a reasonable connection between the conditions noted and the phenomena. If it be found to explain many or most of the phenomena in the group studied, and to contradict none, the hypothesis fur- nishes a working basis at least for the induction. In- deed, the existence of such interpreting supposition im- plies that evidence has been accumulating — possibly from the beginning of the observation, and that the meanings of the facts are taking shape in the mind. What has been described here as successive steps are not always, or, perhaps, generally, taken in this serial order. Each more or less overlaps the adjacent steps; and the tendency of the mind is to hasten on to tentative comparisons, and provisional hypothesis, and nascent inferences, even before the investigations are adequate to make the induction valid. This tendency of the mind in such reasoning to leap over intermediate steps is the The Scientific Method 191 source of incalculable error. Careful, painstaking ob- servations, and all-round critical investigations and comparisons will conduce to make the consequent in- duction not only easy, but ready. If well prepared for, the act of inference is a form of insight only. The meaning of the facts is borne in upon one, and does not have to be derived; it is given. The difficult part of the entire process lies in the gathering of facts, find- ing their value, working them into a solution, and trac- ing the common elements, upon the heels of which the induction appears. The formation of a meaning for the group, from the findings among the individuals of the group, is an act of induction whose statement in words is our expression of the law, or general proposi- tion. The error of most science, and of common, un- trained thinking, is hasty, ill-considered induction. And this is not more true of earth phenomena than of man; of matter than of mind; of the naturalization of the English sparrow than of the English immigrant. Inferences themselves, once more, are valid only as they are verified. As our English scientist puts it: " Justification is by verification — not by faith." Fol- lowing the more or less careful observations and the re- peated questioning of phenomena as to their meanings, and accompanied by the inevitable suppositions of the observer as to what is true, the experiment or investi- gation itself becomes the test, or means of verification. " Induction," says Bascom, " is nothing without a theory, or conception of some kind, running side by side with its classifications, guiding and interpreting 192 Science of Education them, and ready deductively to furnish shining strokes of exposition." In practice, verification means using inferences in subsequent experience — bringing them to the test of application. So that, except in the most formal and technical investigation and experiment, for the sake of the conclusions, the verification goes on alongside of all the earlier steps of the process. One's former experience will contribute something of insight and an ability and disposition of mind to give meaning to the observed facts; observation, also, is interpre- tative to a degree, i.e., selective of probable meanings; while experiment is, in its very nature, an act of the mind, throwing the facts into chosen, convenient ar- rangement for one's observation. This bias of mind to accept certain meanings for the facts rather than others, becomes, if reinforced by the understanding, the work- ing hypothesis. The danger from error in all this lies in the fact that one may permit the predisposition of the former experience to override the other factors, observation, investigation, and experiment, even to the rejection of the truth in favor of one's preferences. Nowhere is this peril greater than among phenomena involving human relations. Men are, strangely enough, ready to venture an assurance of knowledge about man- kind, and education, and moral codes, and civic rights, and business ethics, and trade economics, and statutes and constitutions, and creeds, as they do not think of doing about electric currents, or molecules, or building- concrete, or tunneling, or the X-rays, or the resolving of chemical compounds. And this is particularly true The Scientific Method 193 when the human problems involve police administra- tion^ or reforms, or plans for public betterment, the treatment of the wayward, management of the slums, or the care of neglected classes. Yet these will repay a study at close range; and might profitably be studied as one studies the evolution of life, the genesis of cus- toms, or the aggressions of industrialism. These are all social problems, and can be studied to advantage only as other social problems are studied, i.e., historically. In pedagogy, which is one of the social sci- ences, the only trustworthy method is that which has been called above the historical or genetic. Observation takes the form of prolonged investigation, or experi- ment. Its phenomena appear in successive times, in series, representing chains of consequences, and can only be investigated historically. The simplest prob- lems of the school-room, not less than the culture devel- opment of a race, have this characteristic. They are all processes of evolution, and their phenomena appear in periods, and must be observed through successive stages. In large part, the success or effectiveness of the observation lies in knowing what facts to look for, at least what type of facts, and where to look for them. And in a measure, this depends upon the hypothesis one holds. The one necessary warning is that, whatever the hypothesis, one must not allow it to warp the mind or distort the facts that are observed. The scientific method finds interesting and apt exem- plification in the modern study of educational ques- tions from the point of view of the school. The Na- 194 Science of Education tional Society for the Scientific Study of Education; the Society of Educational Research ; the work of Clark University, and the movement it has stimulated; the several university psychological and pedagogical labo- ratories ; the individual, association and club or round- table efforts to promote child-study interests ; the Dewey School and the accompanying experiments there and elsewhere, with the " culture-epoch " theory; the more or less systematic inquiries, instituted in recent years, by the National Educational Association, into the work of different phases of public education — secondary schools, rural schools, normal schools, preparatory schools, college entrance requirements, history, the classics, English, mathematics, physical science, school statistics, etc. ; the current readjustment of city school and college courses; the revision of theories and educa- tional doctrine incident to the encroachment of indus- trial and technical instruction; all are more or less sig- nificant indications of the impulse to examine or re- examine the nature and conditions and progress of directed education. In all fairness to truth, it should be said that much of all this is scientific in appearance only, and promises little direct contribution to 'oiir verifiable knowledge of either educational or teaching processes. Much of it is little else than the recording of experience — often self-satisfied, insular and unverified, untested experi- ence. Even when there is at times a real effort to supplement experience by inquiry, it too often means only surface observation, that is in no sense The Scientific Method 195 critical or selective. The experience dominates, and the observer sees what he wants to see or what he has seen only, and the trnth is colored by a predominant preju- dice. I^otmthstanding which, it must be admitted that all best modern investigations of such problems are being made in a well-disposed and fairly reasonable, if not always a scientific spirit. The chikl, his habits and preferences; his instincts and conduct; his motives and powers and limitations; his physical powers and growth, and their reaction upon the mind; his temper and tendencies are all being subjected, by one or an- other observer, to a strict inquiry, in much the same way as are the nature and habits of birds and bugs and flowers. As this implies, the study is detailed, patient, analytic. The technical and professional literature of the day is becoming filled with the research and its con- clusions. It is evident that the view of the teacher has greatly changed in a generation. To equip one thor- oughly for the work of instruction, his studies must be comparative and many-sided. Among all these, the most thoroughly scientific, be- cause of both the methods employed and the importance of the conclusions reached, are certain studies pursued in the great psychological laboratories. As bearing more or less directly upon the educational process, such are the experiments, having to do with the time ele- ment in mind functioning, rhythm, fatigue, sensation thresholds, pathological conditions, including defec- tives; and abnormal functions in otherwise normal or- ganisms, motor tendencies accompanying intellectual 196 Science of Education action; the limits of effective attention, and genetic studies of the mind, generally. The natural history of habit, as worked out for pedagogy by the psychologists, is fascinatingly interesting, and worthy of study by the teacher ; as also the impulse to imitation. Among contributors to these studies, whose writings are accessible to English readers, may be named Taine (" On the Intelligence "), Bain (" The Senses and the Intellect"), Sully ("The Human Mind"), G. Groom Robertson, formerly editor of " Mind," Francis Galton (" Inquiries into Human Faculty " and other works), Mark Baldwin (Johns Hopkins University), James (Harvard), Ladd (Yale), Gattell (University of Penn- sylvania), Boyce (Harvard), Scripture (Yale), and particularly Dr. G. Stanley Hall, pupil in '79 and '80 of Wundt, Leipsic, and who founded the first psycho- logical laboratory in this country, in 1883, at Johns Hopkins, and who began the publication of the "Amer- ican Journal of Psychology" four years later, and the " Pedagogical Seminary " in 1891. Besides these, there should be noted especially the services of Wundt at Leipsic, Preyer, Binet, Ribot (" On Memory "), Perez (observer of children), etc., most of whom are or may be known to American teachers through translation, also, of their writings. For teachers, particular interest attaches to the many and careful studies of adolescence, habit and imitation carried on by Hall, James, Royce and others, and the manifold investigations of child life, both by individ- uals and institutions, both in this country and abroad. The Scientific Method 197 The amount of material already accumulated on the lat- ter topic is enormous. Much of it, because of inexpert observation and unintelligent record, must prove to be worthless, at least as data for inference, though very valuable as training for the observer. Added to these, also, mention should be made of the questionaire in- vestigations of the play instinct and its relation to growth on the one side, and to studies and assignments as a means of growth on the other. The starting-point of this interest was doubtless the kindergarten move- ment, though its consideration long since passed beyond the limits of that movement. The introduction of manual training, also, has both stimulated an investiga- tion of the motor accompaniments of mental activities and been reinforced by such inquiries. Professor James affirms * that " it is the essence of all conscious- ness (or of the neural process which underlies it) to instigate movement of some sort." And it appears from the most cursory professional studies even of chil- dren, that no experience may be regarded as complete that is not permitted to round itself out in some sort of expression, either in conduct or achievement. Among the more narrowly professional inquiries are included those into the social meanings of education, optional courses and voluntary exercises, the integration of the manifold of lessons into a body of experience and the process of the teaching art. Most of these, as well as several other topics, may be found among the lists of child-study undertakings, though they by no * James. "Psychology," vol. ii, p. 551. 198 Science of Education means complete tlie inventory of investigations at- tempted. One bibliography gives a catalogue of more than 2,000 more or less serious contributions to this child-study interest. Some of them are of great prac- tical as well as theoretical value; some of them, many perhaps, are almost valueless. In the aggregate their great significance lies in the wide-spread interest which they have attracted and the generous and well-meant, if not always intelligent, co-operation among teachers. School people have been brought to thoughtfulness about their daily work. It has been dignified often, in their own estimate. A good many eyes have been opened to productive, simple, fruitful inquiries that before were closed. Among some, who were merely school-keepers or only indifferent, it has raised children to the rank of persons instead of objects. On the other hand, by their devotion to the dictates of child-study enthusiasts, certain teachers have become self-conscious in their teaching, and have fallen into a mechanically wooden routine. This is unfortunate, but is an un- avoidable incident of such reform. In the transition there must be some inefficiency. Whatever the form which this study of educational questions assumes, there are suggested by the above discussion certain obser- vations which should be regarded. First, for reliable results, there are needed trained observers, or, what will be found in the end quite as helpful to the profession, there is needed a body of earnest teachers who are also students, and who are ready to make every day's undertakings an object of The Scientific Method 199 fresh, thoughtful, critical direction. To have a habit of purposely shaping all important exercises of the day in the light of the day's and the pupil's particular and passing conditions, will do much to cultivate just this power of acute and discriminating observation of the child's fixed traits. The ability quickly to recognize the new factors in a situation, to discover among chil- dren centres of energy and inhibition, to fix upon the important details in an observation, is a beginning for any real scientific study of school and educational prob- lems. And that one shall be able and satisfied to do this and to accept the reading of the facts, though it be contrary to one's habitual procedure, is no less im- portant. The self-satisfied and popularly successful teacher will not easily assume this impersonal interest. But it is important that he be brought to do so. He must be more anxious to discover what is the right way or the best way, or at least a better way, than know that either conforms to his way, and be ready to surrender his most cherished habit, long-standing practice, if it be found to contravene clearly discovered pupil conditions. This may mean a succession of tests, or a series of carefully arranged experiments covering days or even months, as in the use of a new set of teaching exercises, or a new order of tasks, or child standards of right behavior, or the length of most ef- fective recitation periods, etc. But any earnest teacher who will really set himself to study patiently, vigor- ously, impersonally, any one or another of these or similar school problems, and be content to persevere 200 Science of Education to the attainment of some perceptible result, will find that the power to do so has been appreciably increased. Only so can the scientific spirit be acquired. By using the method one grows in power to use it. Its fruitfulness for the teacher is increased as he shows himself resourceful in discovering the possible — probable — meanings of the facts observed. Whatever the facts, and however clearly they may be seen and acknowledged, wrong-headed interpretation may wrest them from even an obvious meaning. " Others might have been — may have been — as familiar with the phe- nomena of the electrical agent and lightning as was Franklin and not sensed their identity, or failed to dis- cover oxygen though knowing all the facts Lavoisier knew, or to read into the observed motions of the planets what Copernicus saw, or into terrestrial gravity what Newton saw, or in a thousand minor conditions what their observers discovered." There is needed a mind habitually sensitive to the teachings of nature, and particularly child nature; interested in their mean- ings for their own sake; studious of professional prob- lems in an impersonal way; open-minded, as if work- ing in a laboratory. To this end there is needed also a large academic equipment of teachers to use the conclusions of the experts. Already far more is known of the ways of the mind, and the conditions of growth, and the moral significance of knowledge, and the value of the instincts, and the reinforcement of habit, and the inte- grations of experiences, and the incentives to learn- The Scientific Method 201 ing than most of us are able to appropriate or utilize. It is doubtless some such conviction as this that prompt- ed Lester F. Ward to say : " Education means the uni- versal distribution of extant knowledge." If every cook knew and practised what the experts in culinary science know; if conditions of health and vigor were as well understood by the people as by the practitioner; if men knew their national history as the few know it, or music, or the criteria of art, or conduct; if every teacher knew and were in a position to use what science and philosophy and experience have worked out as worth while, the incident arts would be more effective and personal and social life richer in many ways. Not every teacher may be expected to be a scientist ; but the public has a right to expect that he who sets himself up to be a teacher shall have such mental equipment, in attainment and power, as to be able to appropriate in an effective way such conclusions of science and phi- losophy as will make the right doing of his work as a teacher more sure. The requirements of scientific investigation are neither many nor difficult of attainment ; but to those who are familiar with its methods, pedagogical ques- tions would be simplified ; and that the teachers' insights would be greatly enriched by a thoroughgoing, patient, unbiassed application of them by the teacher to a study of the child on the side of schooling, should call for no argument. In matters that immediately concern his daily work the teacher has unequalled opportunities for verifying conclusions. The school-room is his 202 Science of Education laboratory, but tbe pupils constitute a miniature so- ciety in whose movements and reactions he finds the immediate and spontaneous test of the soundness of his inference. There is opportunity for daily revision and corrected testing and new experiment and repeated deductions. To find the right way of dealing with chil- dren, and to follow it, are his business. Every recita- tion affords a new opportunity of correcting mistakes of judgment or of observation. Doubtless it was in- evitable that the first critical studies of the educational process should be made by scientists in the study; but if the investigation is to be complete and the conclu- sions convincing, both investigations and conclusions must be furthered and tested and verified by regular teachers in the several school-rooms doing the accus- tomed tasks under ordinary conditions. Teachers must themselves become observers and know how wise- ly to apply their own conclusions. Primarily, every pedagogical problem, whether larger or smaller, has its three aspects, all of which, though of unequal importance, are yet necessary, each in its own way, for any complete consideration. There is, primarily, the simple, descriptive view which regards the individual object or fact, as the particular course of study, the specific act of disobedience, some one reci- tation, or text-book, or school programme, or mental process; a given habit, motive or interest. Subsequent to, higher than this and supplementing it, is the com- parative view, which examines together contemporary systems, or administrations, or equipments, or peda- The Scientific Method 203 gogical doctrine, or interpretations of mind growth, or conditions and phenomena in the perspective of their development, i.e., historically. No interpretation of school or mind can be regarded as final that omits from the consideration of any act or experience, from any policy or system, the antecedents from which it grew. Details of management and discipline, the course of study, the act of teaching, the attitude of the public and current professional notions, are all prod- ucts of slow evolution and find their real interpreta- tion in terms of that evolution. rinally, there is the logical view, which exhibits the inherent causal relations ; the necessity of nature that explains the facts, the source and condition of the motive to right behavior, the reasons for individual wrong-doing, the prescriptive exercises as grounded in the needs of the child, discipline as rational and natural, etc. 1^0 one fact of the life is explained by any other co-ordinate fact; both must be explained, if at all, in terms of some larger fact, some whole of wdiicli they are parts or to which they are subordinate. Hence the neces- sity teachers are under to comprehend the principles of pedagogics as derived from the several contributing sci- ences. These constitute the matter for Parts III and IV of the Science of Education now to be considered. THE DATA OF EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE CHAPTER XV THEIR GENERAL CHARACTER The composite character of the science of education is likely to give the impression of a lack of unity in its organization. This accounts for a doubt in certain quarters whether there be any such science possible. And if the aggregate of ideas were really not efficient- ly organized about some central, vitalizing thought, the doubt would be justified. The present section is given to a presentation and to a brief consideration of this unifying principle, as entertained by this work. That there is such principle in education, and poten- tially one for teaching, seems not less true upon reflec- tion than for the facts and practice of the law, or medicine, or engineering. Along with teaching, these and others that Avill occur to the reader are the sci- ences that differ from the sciences of botany, physics, chemistry, meteorology or electricity; inasmuch as these are concerned with the laws of their respective phe- nomena without reference to any other end to be at- tained. Those, on the contrary, are conditioned, both as to the selection of material and its arrangement or organization, by a direct reference to a coveted result to be achieved. Those two relations of educational 207 208 Science of Education science should be kept constantly in mind by the reader — viz., that this science is one which derives its ma- terials from a variety of sources, and that it is what has been called a normative science, i.e., it has refer- ence, both in its construction and in its derivative art, to the accomplishment of specific results. (1) Education has to do primarily with human growth. This is true whether the consideration be of education as such or the education that results from schooling. All else (than growth) is considered ser- viceable only as it (a) contributes to or (&) manifests this growth. Observation, imitation, thinking, play, manual employment, recitation, examination, conduct, all serve as either means or exponents of this growth. The act of studying or of teaching, maintenance of the system, the shifting interests of the child, can have one or the other of these meanings only, or both. There is a great temptation with both parents and teachers to exalt the means — books and lessons, things done and known, equipments, rank in class, prizes won and uniform deportment, and regard these as worthy of attainment for themselves. But whether the child learns much or little, important facts only will be retained. The value of the learning lies in the power and interest developed. Curiosity, observation, responsibility, obe- dience to rule, have no virtue in themselves, and are to be honored only for the manliness they arouse, the self- initiative, tlie growth in purposeful doing and effec- tive interest. Most well-directed, mlling exercise, the interested pursuit of studies, sight-seeing, reading, hand- Their General Character 209 work, play, companionship, etc., are helpful as con- tributing to this growth. But the impulse to growth and the condition of growth fix their rank and value as instruments only. So the recitation and examina- tion, and the uniform respect for rules, and the char- acter of one's home behavior, and abiding or chosen interests, are eminently suggestive as manifestations of this growth, helpful to the teacher or the parent, as they give an insight into what these things are doing for the child. While the child himself considers the lessons and other interests as an all-sufficient end, the teacher must regard his maturing as the important fact, and all else as valuable for one or both of the two reasons named — means or sign of maturing. Whatever is instrumental in effecting this growth, in any degree, is educative and is to be respected. Some means are more effective than others. Based upon this difference in their effectiveness is the discriminative se- lection of means in teaching. Nature is able to do much for the child's maturing unaided by the school. One who sets himself up as his guide and preceptor may fairly be held to know, and to use the best means. He is inexcusable if he does not know; he is culpable if, knowing, he fails to employ that best means. But, while in the science of teaching the best only are per- missible, in the science of education all instruments that really serve to promote his development become parts of the science. As a consequence in considering educa- tion as a generic process, and not schooling merely, the means are found to be many and diverse. John Stuart 210 Science of Education Mill, in defining education, said, " In its largest accepta- tion it comprehends even the indirect effects produced on character and the human faculties bj things of which the direct purposes are different — by laws, by forms of government, by the industrial arts, by modes of social life ; nay, even by physical facts not dependent upon the human will; by climate, soil and local posi- tion." School education is much narrower, though resting upon the same impulses, and employing the same capacities and energy. This distinction is fundamental. It emphasizes the basic fact of the maturing process, and calls attention again to this as the organizing thought of the science. In the daily work of the teacher this must be kept constantly in mind. The limited time at his disposal makes it imperative that he employ the best means only — the most effective and the most economical. Once more, it should be observed that to whatever end this growth is directed, the process is educational. The act of learning and the elements of growth are the same and similarly initiated, in a course of vice as in the pursuit of virtue. One learns to swear, just as one learns to be courteous; to pick pockets, as to fish or swim. One may be educated to do wrong as well as do right. With different motives, the steps are the same in ac- quiring a habit of idleness, as of industry. The pro- cess in each case is toward a mastery of its particular experience and interests, and is distinctively educa- tional. The function of the school and of parents is to direct the activities into lines of right doing, social Their General Character 211 sanities, physical health, industry and self-respect. The generic meaning of education, however, with which the science of education concerns itself, includes both as- pects. Indeed, it has come to be recognized that an insight into normal function is often clarified by an acquaintance with the pathologies of the mind — the wayward, the defective, and the undeveloped. Finally, all growth is consequent upon (1) the native impulse — the subjective, organic propensity to unfold; and (2) systematic direction — purposed educa- tion. The former is the active principle by virtue of which the incidental, impinging influences of one's envi- ronment are seized upon, assimilated, and become edu- cative. It is, hence, the initial factor in all mental cul- ture; it is the object of appeal in all intellectual stimu- lation. The latter belongs to the school chiefly, or to other agents that perform a part or all of the functions of the school, but is wholly conditioned by the former. In neither case can the learner be said to have any fore- sight of the real end of all this activity. The teacher should have such foresight, and should regulate his teach- ing acts in accordance with it. To the child, and well along in years, the passing interest is all there is to his doing. To the teacher, the present doing is but one of many possible doings, all looking to the same end — the pupil's maturing. He is the wise teacher who best knows how to preserve through the years this native propelling interest and effort — as a first factor, to which her own best far-seeing efforts can be only a second — a feeble, but very necessary second. Every year during 212 Science of Education which the enthusiasms and eager, confident optimism and responsiveness of interest can be prolonged beyond mere childhood is so much gained for the pupil. It lengthens the period of acquisition, and so of rapid growth. Real alertness of mind after the age of 25 (as well as before), means rich accumulations of culture and abundance of life. Many of us might quote the words and adopt the thought of the poet,* who speaks of himself as " with whetted knives of worldli- ness, putting his own child-heartedness to death." He says of himself in manhood : " There is no little child within me now, To sing back to the thrushes, to leap up When June winds kiss me, when an apple bough Laughs into blossoms, or a buttercup Plays with the sunshine, or a violet Dances in the glad dew — alas ! alas ! The meaning of the daisies in the grass I have forgotten. For lis there is not any silver sound Of rhythmic wonder springing from the ground. " Woe worth the knowledge and the bookish lore Which makes men mummies ; weighs out every grain Of that which was miraculous before, And sneers the heart down with the scofling brain. Woe worth the peering, analytic days That dry the tender juices in the breast, And put the thunders of the Lord to test So that no marvel must be, and no praise, Nor any God except necessity. * Ricliard Realf. Poems, " My Slain Self." Their General Character 213 What can you give my poor starved life in lieu Of this dead cherub which I slew for you ? Take back your doubtful wisdom, and renew My early foolish freshness of the dunce Whose simple instinct guessed the heavens at oncel " To have conserved for the adult years so much of this curious, interested, believing eagerness of the child- hood of each, that the man, too, may be a student, is one reasonable function of the school; that, along with his coolness of judgment, and responsibilities borne, and chastened temper, there may go, also, something of the spontaneity of the boy that found joy in know- ing, and abounding pleasure in doing. (2) The constitution of the learner fixes the orders or phases of this growth. Whether the creature be a plant, a beast or a man, how it grows, or what may be done with its growth, depends upon what the growth is. The first may be pruned and shaped ; the second inured or accustomed; the third educated or disciplined. The chief difference lies in their unlike reactions upon in- fluence. Education, having to do with human growth, finds the conditions and character of this growth pre- determined in the character of man as man. What- ever the stages, therefore, or characteristics, these will be the same among all classes and with all individuals; whatever the race, or sex, or social condition, or bodily health, or antecedents, or language. There will be found considerable differences in the rate of matur- ing, the physical or other predispositions, responsive- ness to stimuli, nervous energy, personal initiative, etc. 214 Science of Education But the unlikeness is not at all one of kind, but of de- gree. Tins must be recognized of the races — as negro and Caucasian ; of Western and Asiatic nations ; of civ- ilized and primitive peoples. At this beginning of the twentieth century, when millions of the little more than semi-civilized are at the back doors of our Western civilization, or in our midst, attacked from every side by new influences, beset with new standards of living, finding strange motives prevail, and an infinite detail of life about them; when Asiatic, and Islander, and negro are es- saying new institutions, and the white man's foreign path is found, not in the tropics alone, but in the far corners of the earth, teaching undeveloped men the ways of a tame and domestic life ; there is afforded an opportunity for a most promising study of the processes of education among an emerging and growing people. Never before in the world's history has there been such convenience for the study of the steps and conditions of progress of an improving race. The human quality, which gives character to the growth, is present in all. The capacity will be found to vary greatly, not only among individuals, but between the nations; so, of per- sonal energy, and the emphasis or bias of particular faculties. But the generic human quality is common. Once more, the classifications must hold, as funda- mentally true, for all philosophical systems. One or another order of growth may be emphasized as impor- tant by one school of thinkers, and a different order by another school; but the phases of growth are real, and Their General Character 215 can only be differently ranked by the several inter- preters. Two writers, whose points of view are as un- like as those of Herbert Spencer and Friedrich Froebel, differ chiefly as to their pedagogical dicta in the dif- ferent emphasis they place upon the various functions — not at all as to their recognition of these functions. Lastly, the classification must be such as to be valid, equally, for all ages of the individual. Here, again, one or another form of this growth may characterize one period of life; but all are present at each period. Physiologically, there is little change that can be called development after the age of twenty-five. Intellectu- ally, most habits are well fixed before middle life. But both these and the material functions are obvious at all ages as human traits, and give character to both pedagogical systems and school practice. (3) These orders of growth appear as three, and as follows: (1) physiological, (2) mental or intellectual, and (3) moral. Rosenkranz names them as: (1) physi- cal, or orthobiotics; (2) intellectual, or didactics; and (3) practical, or pragmatics. By Alexander Bain they are still differently named, though not essentially unlike in meaning: (1) physical, which, in his system, is ex- cluded from education; (2) intellectual, leading to psy- chology and true education; and (3) emotional, which furnishes the motive in education. Plato implies simi- lar notions, when, highly regarding the physical order, as did all of the Greeks, he insists (see definition 32, J). 34) that the aim of education is, not to make man more knowing, simply, but more moral. Psycholo- 216 Science of Education gists, generally, have made similar groupings, thoiigli they have been variously named. In modern pedagog- ical science, the first appears rather as neural growth, than as general physical or physiological even; some- times, as psycho-physical. But in terms of the most pronounced materialism even, the phenomena called mental, however rooted in the bodily functions, are regarded as distinct. Lewes,* who regards psychol- ogy as a branch of biology, says also : " We say that we are both body and mind, "^^''o know that we exist as objects, perceptible to our senses, and to the senses of others; and as subjects, percipient of objects, and conscious of feelings. We live, feed, and move. We feel, think, and will. The solidity, form, color, weight, and motions of the body constitute the objective, visible self. The sensations, ideas, and volitions constitute the subjective intelligible self. Thus opposed, there is the broadest of all possible distinctions between body and mind." All agree in setting off the knowing functions into a somewhat distinct class, though they receive vari- ous rating at the hands of different schools. Under the third division are included the conative powers, whether called the will, or the desires, or the practical functions. In the context, Rosenkranz explains his three groups in terms of (1) life, (2) cognition, and (3) ethics; and under the second includes aesthetic training; as social, moral, religious and political train- ing are regarded as elements of will education or prag- matics. Dr. Harris translates the three forms of growth * G. H. Lewes. " Problems of Life and Mind," p. 10. Their General Character 217 here named into technical meaning, as (1) correct living, (2) correct thinking, and (3) correct action. As has been seen. Bain would exclude the bodily functioning from educational considerations, though clearly recognizing it as a human characteristic. Pro- fessor James* writes: "Desire, wish, will are states of mind which every one knows, and Avhich no definition can make plainer;" though he insists that "effort of attention is the essential jDhenomenon of the wall" (p. 562), and that "voluntary movements must be sec- ondary, not primary functions of our organism." Most mental acts are explained in terms of neural change, but they are regarded as " mental " and not " neural." Bodily function, discrimination and the control or pur- poseful employment of these represent three orders of growth, all generally accepted, and all intimately con- nected with human education. How they are so con- nected and the relations of each to the other must be considered in the following chapter. •"Psychology," ii, p. 486. CHAPTER XVI GENERAL CPIARACTER OF DATA (Concluded) As has been indicated in previous paragraphs, these several orders of growths are variously related in dif- ferent educational theories, according as one or another receives the emphasis. (a) Education may exalt the body, and material com- fort, and bodily skill, and strength, and efficiency, and magnify the value of athletics, out of all proportion to the claims of the spiritual life. (h) It may exalt the mind, as perceiving, knowing and thinking faculty, and honor the sound body as an instrument only, (c) It may set up for its object a realization of the highest moral character, of personal and social effi- ciency, and seek the generous culture of associated powers, as it contributes to this end. (d) It may seek the harmonious and well balanced, though not necessarily equal development of all three. Naturally, in each of these there may be different degrees of emphasis put upon the central factor; and, along with these four quite distinct schools of educa- tional theory, there are numerous modifications of 218 General Character of Data 219 them. But of the four groups each stands for a fairly distinct interpretation. Of the first it may be claimed that the movement for industrial training (as in the beginning, certainly), that sees in the trade acquired a legitimate end of education, is a phase of this interpretation. Recent purposes in manual training have grown away from this concep- tion appreciably, and most persons immediately inter- ested in such work regard all hand exercises as having distinct intellectual and social bearings. But, in actual practice, in the shop, and using tools, this meaning is often forgotten, or has never been apprehended, and skill rather than resourcefulness is the end sought to be attained. Parents, the children themselves, and the em- ploying public, almost uniformly demand that the school shall show specific results in skill of some sort — immediate efficiency. Hence the growing demand for the merely or nar- rowly " practical " studies in schooling. They take their rise in the same notion. Among such branches are book-keeping, brick-making, broom-making, car- pentry, cooking, dressmaking, laundry, millinery, painting (house or sign), plastering, plumbing, print- ing, sewing, shoemaking, stenography, tailoring, teleg- raphy, typewriting, and weaving; all found in re- cent lists of such assignments for relatively elementary instruction. The introduction and, where tried, the great success of school savings banks are further evi- dence of this emphasis put upon the first order of growth. Physical training, also, both of the more 220 Science of Education coarse and the finer forms, stands for an especial im- portance attached to the development of the bodily functions — strength, health, skill, grace, agility, etc. All such training has its intellectual reference ; but it is evident that, in practice, at least, whatever may be the theory, the ends sought are physical, or physiological, at least narrowly practical, and it looks to material products and comforts — not mental. Of course, there are important and wholesome intellectual and moral by-products of athletics; but they are by-products, rather than purposed aims. In a similar sense, the very general and zealous interest that has been shown in recent years in fur- thering instruction in the physiological effects of nar- cotics and stimulants, and the positive inculcation of temperance principles, and the renewed and ag- gressive interest in all questions of school hygiene, sanitary plumbing, and heating and seating of school buildings, and the professional medical inspection and oversight of schools and the general public, touching conditions of health and bodily comfort, are forms of this same singling out of this first order of growth as basic and worthy of first consideration in a pedagogical system. That the school has for its purjiose to train the young for citizenship, also, depreciates, in the aver- age mind, to the same sentiment. In the pragmatic use of the term by Rosenkranz, civic training, politics and ethics belong to the third order of growth, but the cur- rent conception of civics is something far less noble. That the public schools should be devoted to training General Character of Data 221 the youth for citizenship, hints at specific equipment rather than richer living, and belongs to the first order. The second assumption is that education may exalt the mind, as perceiving, knowing, and thinking faculty, and honor the sound body as instrument only, and the will as its executive. Primarily, this reveals faith in the regenerative in- fluences of the knowing mind; that the possession of truth itself is a moral power. In the history of the race, it appears that as men have grown more knowing they have groAvn better. Life is safer; property is safer. Along with the " struggle for existence," there has gone also, as Mr. Drummond would say, an increasing " struggle for the existence of others." Considerate- ness and sympathy have appreciated in value. Public confidence between man and man has been shown in innumerable ways, and has been justified by the mar- vellous gi'owth of the institutional interests resting upon this confidence. Human treatment of the defective, the wayward and the afllicted has become the rule of civic as well as individual action. The nobler sentiments and standards of conduct are in repute. Along with in- crease of knowledge has gone an increase of moral in- tegrity. The unrelenting severity of early legislation to protect life and property and reputation has been much reduced. Mere knowledge, abundance of knowl- edge, acquaintance with truth and its embodiment in things and human actions, a mind in vital touch with fact and not with opinions and prejudices — such knowl- edge seems to contain within it a positive impulse 222 Science of Education toward correct living, i.e., correct thinking as stimu- lating correct doing. In any event, in educational doctrine, this emphasis of intellectual growth through acquisition reveals a confidence in the moral sanities of the understand- ing. This does not always appear to be confirmed in the individual life, or in a given neighborhood. But when considered broadly it is held to be a valid contention. The proposition also involves a subor- dination, in thought at least, of the body, and the sensuous life, and material comfort and achievement, to the attainments of the intellectual life. For a thou- sand years or more, the schools, both implicitly and in words, have held to their doctrine both in theory and in practice, that mental acumen, abundant insight, great scholarship, mental alertness, intellectual power were the primary aims of education, all else being incidental. The importance of knowledge has been magnified, and education made synonymous with great learning. Courses of study have made an almost exclusive appeal to the understanding. Things and theories, and codes, and creeds, and customs, and constitutions, and achieve- ments have been studied only, and their making or practice has been left to chance. Programs and re- wards, and tests, and honorable recognition, have had to do with attainment, not right living. Whatever the systems of doctrine may have taught, the schools have stood almost solidly for the pre-emi- nence of this growth of the second order — the intellec- tual. Matthew Arnold said : " The ideal of a general General Character of Data 223 liberal education is to carry us to a knowledge of our- selves and the world." Compayre : " Education is the culture of thought and reason." Jevons : " It is the purpose of education so to exercise the faculties of the mind that the infinitely various experience of after life may be observed and reasoned upon to the best effect." Ogden : " The end of education is the power or art of thinking." Ward: "Education means the universal distribution of extant knowledge." All of which defini- tions, quoted on a previous page, like many more that might be given, emphasize the intellectual point of view in education. It is obvious that with such ends in view, the culture of the memory receives attention, frequently, to the neglect, almost, if not the contempt, of other functions. The question at present is not concerning the wisdom, the necessity of cultivating the memory, but of the oc- casional or frequent, and, in places, too exclusive atten- tion to it. The common respect for " book-learning," and the effort to " put the individual in possession of the race's culture," and the accompanying machinery of the schools, have had this tendency, almost without exception. In the elementary schools it leads to the learning of lessons, and, in the higher schools, to indoc- trination, the storing of information, the exalting of authority, and, more or less certainly, to the laxity of personal effort. In this sense, it is set over against in- dividual judgment and afiirmative interest. On the side of race characteristics, the cultivation of the memory contributes to the achievement of a uni- 224 Science of Education form and fixed culture, conservative and traditional; to stable institutions, but unyielding and non-progres- sive. This is exemplified in the Chinese character and social order. On the other hand, an emphasis of the individual judgment and the creative powers of the mind, rather than the slavish following of authority, produces in time a less stable intellectual and social system, certainly, but one correspondingly progressive. Both faculties are important, but each is subject to great excesses of treatment. Most controversial definitions or characterizations of education seem formulated to combat what are thought to be the exaggerations incident to this second view of the 'process. Definitions (23) and (26) are literally of this class. " Education," said David P. Page, " is de- velopment ; not instruction merely, but discipline " ; and Dr. Sheib : " The object of education must remain imperfectly defined, so long as there is not a clearly ex- pressed intention of making the future man or woman a moral power; of conferring true worth upon the in- dividual." A too exclusive regard for intellectual de- velopment tends to obscure the maturing of other functions that are important. Once more, all industrial education that seeks to use the manual arts as occasions for intellectual discrimina- tion and interest is of this class. This is, perhaps, the prevalent attitude of the profession to-day, touching the value of all constructive exercises in the schools; that employment with the manual arts utilizes certain deter- mining instincts of the child, and so arouses the mind General Character of Data 225 to clearer perception and judgment, and stimulates the creative powers, to tlie degree that the employment becomes primarily a mental process, and only incident- ally meclianical. The emphasis is placed upon the intel- lectual effort and alertness, not upon the manual skill. So, a like intelligent and conservative practice of ath- letics, and calisthenic and gymnastic exercises is refer- able to this interpretation. There are intellectual reactions in all systematic ath- letic exercises; often, quick and accurate vision, clear thinking, a ready understanding and right interpreta- tion of play conditions, etc. But the chief value, per- haps, aside from the strength, agility and endurance acquired, lies on the ethical side, which will be discussed elsewhere. The finer mental effects are connected with the general calisthenics, and the regular exercise of the gymnasium; health and soundness and responsiveness of bodily functions being desired immediately for them- selves, but ultimately for the wholesome reactions upon the mind. The third assumption named is, that among the pos- sible forms of human growth, education may have for its object a realization of the highest moral character, and further the generous culture of associated powers, as they contribute to this end. Of the definitions given on pp. 34—39, three include specific mention of the moral faculty as an object of concern in education; and six, in various terms, name its development as the essential fact. By some this appears to be held as a religious issue, by others as ethical or social. Again, 226 Science of Education it is purity of personal life tliat is insisted upon; integ- rity of character, a fine sense of duty and devotion to the right. But among them all, and by many others whose words have not been quoted, the highest impor- tance is attached to personal worthiness as concerns the good, the right, a proper sense of decency, social re- sponsibilities, and devotion to one's highest ideals, as ends to be aimed at in all directed education. The an- cient Hebrew ideal was that men might become faithful servants of Jehovah; Aristotle's, the attainment of hap- piness through perfect virtue; Luther's, more effective service in Church and State ; Comenius's, to attain eter- nal happiness in and with God; Francke's, to prepare for a life of usefulness and piety; Froebel's (as already noted), " the realization of a faithful, pure, inviolate, and hence holy life." ^N'ominally, at least, this is the avowed ground for separate Catholic instruction. In- deed, it is the attitude of the Protestant Church, as a Church, and the essential character of its pulpit teach- ing. " The Church alone," says Brother Azarias, " is competent to pronounce upon the teachers and guaran- tee their accuracy in the matter of faith and morals." An occasional Protestant protest against the present- day tendency toward the secularizing of schooling is in the same spirit. The experiences of mankind are various; some of them regard a moral quality in acts, i.e., have to do with the factor of rightness and wrongness. Some of them are indifferent to this quality. In child-life the latter predominate. As one grows older these become General Character of Data 227 relatively fewer, those more numerous. This is, with- out doubt, the tendency of all right education — so to moralize the life that experiences which should share this meaning are so recognized. Now this conception of acts as right or wrong, good or bad, has a threefold reference: there are, first, the duties to one's self — education, conscientiousness, con- sistency, self-respect, etc. ; second, his obligations to his fellows ; and, finally^ his relations of reverence toward the universal principle of good — the power that makes for righteousness. The last comprises the field of religion ; the second, ethics ; the first, self-duties. Each of these, under the third order of growth, may be taken as the central aim of edu- cation. The generic term for the whole, as here used, is morality — having to do with the conduct of man toward those of his kind. All attention, in edu- cation, directed upon the soul life and the higher spir- itual qualities, as distinct from mere intellectual train- ing, is of the third type; the growth of the mission spirit, social co-operation, considerateness for others, and an increase of personal characteristics in conduct, are aspects of ethical progress; worshipfulness, rever- ence, devoutness, belong to the first. The function of the Church is to exalt the qualities which worshipfulness typifies. The tendency of progressive contemporary schooling is to emphasize the second. The duty of the school to socialize the child is a part, at least, of the present-day school's pedagogical creed. There never was a time, probably, when religion had 228 Science of Education less positive and more effective incidental attention in the schools than to-day. There certainly never was a time when the child's ethical nature received so much or so wise encouragement. This is conceded to the needs of the child, not to the needs of society. So education should be made essentially and purposely religious for the individual, because it is important to him, not to the Church to have it so. Among educational theories education may have for its object a realization of the highest moral character, and foster the gen- erous culture of associated powers as they contribute to this end. Finally, education may seek the harmonious and balanced, though not necessarily equal, development of all orders of growth. This conception is suggested in Herbart's phrase, " a balanced many-sidedness of in- terest." Of the forty-eight definitions quoted, seven specifically name the several organic functions, and three others very plainly imply them. A dozen others evidently, but less definitely, make the same suggestion. Plato certainly had the same thought when he wrote of "giving to the body and the soul all the perfection of which they are susceptible," as being the aim of education. In more than a merely nominal sense this has been the theory of the centuries, to make education comprehensive of all important functions. But, for long periods in the history of the race, now one and now another of those named have not been highly re- garded in practice. In ascetic ages the body has been depreciated; when religious fervor has dominated, the General Character of Data 229 culture of the intellect has been undervalued. Under the influence of scepticism and protest the morals have often suffered. Positive movements for the proj^or- tioned and reasonable recognition of all belong to com- paratively recent times. After the Greeks for nearly twenty centuries the bodily functions were practically ignored in all training; throughout the Middle Ages the instruction of the intellect was little more than a form of mental gymnastics. The modern demand for physical culture comes (ostensibly) as an attempt to proportion the results of education to heretofore neglected functions. The words of Huxley * formulate a creed that must command respect: "That man, I think," he says, "has had a liberal education who has been so trained in youth that his body is the ready servant of his will, and does with ease and pleasure all the work it is capable of; whose intellect is a clear, cold logic engine, %vith all its parts of equal strength and in smooth working order, ready, like a steam-engine, to be turned to any work, and spin the gossamers, as well as forge the anchors, of the mind ; whose mind is stored with the great and funda- mental truths of nature and of the laws of her opera- tions; one who, no stunted ascetic, is full of life and fire, but whose passions are trained to come to heel by a vigorous will, the servant of a tender conscience ; who has learned to love all beauty, whether of nature or of art, to hate all vileness, and to resj^ect others as himself." Rousseau contends that " the great secret * Huxley. " Science and Education," p. 86. 230 Science of Education of education is to manage it so that the training of the mind and the body shall sei've to assist each other." What is referred to in the foregoing paragraph is not athletics, but gymnastics ; such physical training as se- cures to every individual the, for him, maximum health, and freshness of vigor, and joy in effort, to the end that his thinking and reasoning be clear, and his heart and purposes chastened, though having to do with sound organs. The access of interest in physical, and espe- cially gymnastic, training in this country was induced by the experiences of the Civil War, just as a similar revival of such interests came to Germany after the Franco-Prussian war; but the current tendency, in theory, if not in athletic practice, is toward an orderly and proportioned stimulus of bodily, mental, and civic functions, to the end that each shall reinforce the other in the most effective way. The plea for art, and general aesthetic culture also, and attractive environment for home and public life has a like ground in a recognition of the needs of the manifold nature of man. The increase of time given in the schools to art and music and literature, and their earlier commencement in the grades, and especially their more general introduction into the course of study, are signs of a concession, if nothing more, on the part of the public, of art culture as a legitimate need. This movement has been supplemented in many schools, both in urban and comparatively rural sections, by an- other which seeks, by collections of paintings, and General Character of Data 231 reprints, and statuary, and tastefully designed and fin- ished architecture, and by library and fine-art illustra- tions, and attempts at landscape gardening, to give the public, and especially the schools, an environment stimulating to the finer senses, and to a love for the beautiful. Manual training also, which is allied more directly with industrial arts, has its fine-art reference in all grades, and shares in this meaning. In the general effort to make due recognition of each order of growth, or each type of human faculty, all construc- tive exercises have been immensely dignified ; and many forms of intellectual and moral activities find, in this handwork, their complement in expression. The plea for industrial and fine-art training is a part of the prevalent attempt to proportion the achievements of the school to an all-round education. The charge laid at the door of the public schools that they are " godless," and the arguments for and defense of the Bible in them, are a phase of a similar movement — to equalize the claims of culture on an- other side. The discussion as a whole, diverse as it is, and often antagonistic or contradictory, is a serious, sometimes aimless, often ill-tempered, but on the wdiole a well-meant endeavor to effect a development of pow- ers tliat shall be really harmonious and balanced, omit^ ting no important function. This paragraph does not concern the soundness or unsoundness of any factious contention. It is meant only that the contention itself represents a common desire to find the legitimate grounds for an education that shall be complete, and is 232 Science of Education an encouraging sign of a growing public interest in educational doctrine. Sununarizing these conditions on the general char- acter of the data of educational science, then: one's conception of education may exalt the attainment and presei*vation of health and physical vigor and comfort, or a disciplined and furnished intelligence, or the achievement of a high and habitually moral character, or a union of these in a body of mutually reinforcing faculties. Each has had, and yet has, its adherents, sincere, capable, aggressive advocates, because of whose clear vision fundamental educational doctrine has profited. A science of education will be conditioned, there- fore, as to form, by the nature of the philosophy whence come its interpretations of human life. The first, in exalting the present and material comfort, and conceding the claims of expediency, is utilitarian or materialistic. The second, finding the initiative in the knowing mind, is scientific or rational. The third, in the emphasis put upon moral and religious character, is ethical or spiritual. The fourth, aiming at a pro- portioned training of all forms of human faculty, appears as idealistic. Among the authors whose defi- nitions are quoted on pages 34-39, Spencer (as he has formulated his ideas on education) would fairly rep- resent the first; Jevons and Ward the second; Froebel the third; and Emerson and Hegel the fourth. Any system of experience that looks to j^articular equipment and adjustments is so far utilitarian. The General Character of Data 233 Unaided education incident to evolution, as a natural process, is of this sort. It is taken up with adjust- ments, surviving because of " fitness to survive," a process of " natural selection," which environment, re- acting upon inherited tendencies, forces upon one. Living is a constant adaptation to the conditions of life. And education comes to be learning to live well (at least well enough to survive) the life — the best life even that is about one. In the school, directed educa- tion seeks to accomplish tJiis adjustment with foresight of the end and with economy of means. The teaching of trades, desirable conventional codes, caste and civic order, ceremonies, particular knowledge, skill in the guise of unthinking habits, any selected practice of goodness even, or standard of behavior, is an example of this philosophic bias. The second rej}resents the technical or academic bias. Learning is valued for its own sake; not information, but knowledge ; ideas organized into power for culture. In this spirit is has been said, " Learning is the mother of all virtue; all vice proceeds from ig-norance." In the Renaissance, after the long, dark period of the middle centuries, learning came upon Europe like ver- nal showers. It was the tangible expression of a bene- diction. It was not strange that the intellect was exalted. So much had been known that was lost to the people, so much might be regained. He who knew became the teacher. Learning was following. Educa- tion meant scholarship. Knowledge was exalted; it promised to be reformation; it became conservative. 234 Science of Education But down through the generations of the modem age the thought has persisted that, if made liberal enough, and universal enough, its reactions would touch the will also, and the heart, and make men good. Presi- dent Eliot says,* " The three functions of universities are: to teach truth, to accumulate stores of knowl- edge (libraries), and to search for new truth." With- unimportant exceptions, school and university educa- tion is still of this sort. Compulsory schooling, and prescriptive courses, and academic endowments, and lecture halls, and the book habit, are evidences of the contemporary faith in the power of learning to regen- erate the man. Enthusiasts in exact knowledge, pro- fessional philanthropists, the universities generally, and propagandists of every sort, busy themselves upon the principle that there is an efficient margin of saving faith in learning as such, provided only it be real learning. This is tlie rational tlieory and belongs pri- marily to the study and the laboratory. For advanced students the view has much in its favor. The third philosophy places the emphasis upon wholeness and wholesomeness of personal character. In its best import this does not mean ceremonial good- ness, or ecclesiastical connection, or devotion to conven- tional creeds or codes, though the practice easily de^ generates into one or all of these. It does mean the earnest soul and the furnished mind dedicated to good- ness and right. Often, too often, the emphasis is upon the goodness ; forgetting both the moral energy and * "Educational Reform," p. 225. General Character of Data 235 the mental furnishing; forgetting that ignorant piety which has neglected opportunities to take on wisdom is neither creditable nor safe. Moral soundness, unsup- ported by an improving understanding, is already on the road to decay. The wisdom and understanding which Solomon asked, and which were granted him, are, in more than sixty texts of the Hebrew and Chris- tian Bibles, coupled with the rightness of heart that brought commendation. Together they stand for an integrity of character and devotion to high, unselfish ideals that may well command respect. This has been called the spiritual or ethical view, in accordance with which the purposes of the teacher, the spirit of the system, and the method of instruction converge upon the production of the typical man, in a moral sense. The fourth form of philosophy is the abstractly idealistic and regards each order of growth with indif- ference, as compared with the others ; i.e., what is sought as an ideal result in education is a free com- merce of interests in the individual, and each function brought to its highest state of efficiency in temis of the other. Here " the harmonious and equable evolution of human powers " is set up as the ideal; the emotions, the understanding, and the will; thinking, expression, and appreciation ; body, mind, and heart — all to be so recognized and so exercised as to effect an integral character of purpose and achievement, responsive to truth, sensitive to the beautiful, devoted to the good. The recent considerable extension of the school courses of every grade is probably a more or less conscious 236 Science of Education effort to round out the circle of the student's funda- mental activities. So there appears in even the ele- mentary programmes, music, art, industrial training, literature, history, civics, personal and public hygiene, science, the humanities, foreign languages, current events, morals, and collateral studies of manifold sorts, prescribed in addition to the original courses. Dis- ciplinary studies are supplemented by the utilities ; physical training is made to parallel mental training; certain schools of pedagogy are drawing attention to the cardinal significance of moral training; in various ways we are reminded that some form of expression is vital to all experience, that education is fundamentally a social fact, and that among child traits the aesthetic sense is generic and primary. Philosophic criticism is evidently reaching for some central principle that shall unify the seemingly conflicting claims while being all- inclusive of essentials. The system is ideal and crit- ical. As never before the influences of education are being tried upon the wayward and criminal classes, the feeble-minded and the backward races. Ordered industrial training is being taxed for moral and intel- lectual results. The teachings of history are appealed to for guidance to conduct and a liberal interpretation of creeds and codes. The sense of brotherhood grows, and the ascetic temper fades. Whatever the philosophy, these ideas have become forces in most educational theory and in much school practice. The conception is doubtless of ideal ends along with very unideal condi- tions, but the situation is encouraging. ^art four CONTRIBUTING SCIENCES CHAPTER XVn THE PHYSIOLOGICAL RELATIONS OF MIND In his "Manual of Ethics/' Prof. John S. Mac- kenzie makes, and admirably expresses, a serviceable distinction between what are called normative sciences* and others, as follows : " A science, it is said, teaches us to know, and an art to do; but a normative science teaches us to know how to do; . . . it is a kind of science that has a very direct relation to a corre- sponding art. There is scarcely any art that is not indirectly related to a great number of different sci- ences. The art of painting, for instance, may derive useful lessons from the science of optics, anatomy, botany, geology, and a great variety of others. The art of navigation, in like manner, is much aided by the sciences of astronomy, .magnetism, acoustics, hydro- statics, etc. But such relationships are comparatively indirect. The dependence of an art upon its corre- ••^ponding normative science is of a very much closer character." Astronomy is the foundation of the art of ocean navigation, calendar-making and uses, chro- nology, etc. Medicine refers habitually to physiology, ' * "The Sciences that Lay Down Rules or Laws," p. 8. 239 240 Science of Education botany, chemistry; teaching to physiology, psychology, ethics, logic, etc. The more general science of educa- tion is comprehensive of facts and principles derived from these last and certain other scieHces. It is com- plex, and the relations between this and its contributing sciences are not always immediately discernible. That there are sudi connections of dependence will appear in the discussion. The purpose of this division of Part IV is to in- ventory and essay a consideration of the constituent materials of the science of education, regarding at the same time their sources and organizations. The Physiological Relations of Mind Whatever be the jDhilosophy, educational science must gather one class or group of materials from a study of the physiological conditions of life and experience. It has been affirmed in preceding chapters that education has to do primarily with the mind. The thesis here submitted does not weaken that contention. Man recog- nizes himself as both body and mind, so related that each, in its way, is dependent upon the other. Through- out the history of the science of psychology this has been taken for granted. But within the last generation respect for the physiological phenomena has been much increased. Psychology, formerly defined and generally regarded as the science of mind or soul, has, in recent ventures, been characterized rather as the science of mental activities, or, later still, as the science of the The Physiological Relations of Mind 241 phenomena of consciousness. Mr. Sully says " its aim is to give an account of the phenomena of developed consciousness as it manifests itself in man." Professor James speaks of it as " the science of mental life, both of its phenomena and their conditions." Mr, Dewey defines it as " the science of the facts or phenomena of self." Mr. Bascom, in his science of mind, says: " States of brain at all times affect and sometimes con- trol states of mind." Dr. Jastrow affirms that " psy- chology studies the recognized and explicable phases of mental phenomena." In part the change is one of nomenclature ; in part it is a shifting of the point of view. As the subject becomes less speculative and more scientific the emphasis is transferred from a consideration of the nature of the mind, or the self, or the ego, to the conditioned states of consciousness or to their changes. As certain of the physiological functions are found to " affect or control these states or changes," increasing attention is given to a study of the bodily conditions that underlie or accompany, or follow, the activities called mental. The phenomena of the two sets are altogether different, but related, and related in such way that, as even Spencer says,* in psychol- ogy, " the thing contemplated is not the connection be- tween the internal phenomena, nor is it the connection between the external phenomena, but it is the connec- tion between the two connections." This physiological concomitant is found chiefly among the phenomena of *H. Spencer. "Principles of Psychology," i, p. 132. 242 Science of Education the nervous system and contributes certain data for the science of education. (1) Primarily the body must be considered the source of nervous, and so mental, energy. Its condi- tions of soundness and vigor react upon the mind. " Mens Sana habitat in corpore sano,^' as currently employed, is only another form for the expression: " The sounder the body, the sounder the mind." And the plea for physical exercise, gymnasium training, calisthenics, right hygienic school and home conditions, and the movements in the great cities for free lunches to school children in certain sections, and for play- grounds and vacation schools, are all primarily in the interest of clearer thinking and more natural growth; possiblj^ of clearer thinking and better living because of more natural growth. In a condition of abounding energy the mind acts under the push of an aggressive inertia. It works freely, and easily, and effectively. The store of nervous force has a " head " of gravity that reinforces personal effort. A badly nourished or over-mechanized nervous system easily balks at dicta- tion or difficulty. Those interested in schooling are primarily concerned to put pupils into the most respon- sive vigorous physical condition, assured that the mind, in all its varied functions, will share in the richer returns of this fertile life. Along with a recognition of this relation many cir- cumstances otherwise unnoticed become important to the teacher. Conditions of climate and weather, tem- perature, food, and air affect the mind through the The Physiological Relations of Mind 243 body. Discomforts arising from any of these disturb all persons more or less, and children particularly. A school-room too warm or too cold, or supplied with vitiated air, or furnished with seating of unfit size or . arrangement, quickly disturbs the mental life of both pupils and teacher. So too much exercise or too little, or exercise of an unwise character^ or such as brings into use certain parts of the body only, neglect- ing others, has a like evil effect. Notice also should be taken of the depressing influence of the invalid or decrepit body upon the mind, and the subordination of many intellectual interests during peri- ods of rapid physical growth. This latter is particularly true of the child upon the approach to the adolescent period. Many of the organs are undergoing important changes. The framework tissues claim an increase of blood. Along with the restlessness of mind at this period there is a conditioning restlessness of body. There is a passion for athletics, and physical achieve- ment, and venture. Appetite changes. " Both parts and powers," says Dr. Hall, " develop disproportion- ately, so that cohesion is weakened and physical unity impaired." Great physical changes take place in the circulation, and a consequent increase in weight and size. The constructive metabolism, a very natural physical process of the normal body, introduces for the period an element of disturbance into all neural reac- tions. An accompaniment, if not a result of it all, is an arrest of mental efiiciency and persistence, or at least a diversion, of these into unfamiliar channels. 244 Science of Education Precocious development of the physical functions pecul- iar to this age often leads to temporary weakening and always to a disturbance of the mental functions. As set over against all of these bodily puUings and pusli- ings, there must not be ignored the mental effect of an abundant physical energy that, free from inordinate stimulation, extends itself naturally, not precociously, and reinforces the mental reactions by a sound body. Let it be granted, then, that an effective mental life requires the support of a proportioned and wholesome physical energy. That this, " a sound mental life," is the ultimate purpose of all directed physical training. That, with the young especially, no effective mental work can be expected of pupils acting under phys- ical discomfort. That the adolescent period calls for much patient, far-seeing concession on the part of the teacher. (2) In another and important sense the body is de- pendent upon, and is the servant of, the mind. This is most obvious in the general management of the body, in walliing, grasping, talking, and in the use one makes of the physical senses, etc. The most expert automa- tism of the fingers, and the organs of speech, and vision, and touch, has behind it a persistent and more or less purposeful mental effort. Each may be again translated into mental doing. Each has meaning to the degree that it reflects such doing and permits this retranslation upon occasion. This means that one sees what one wills to see or has fitted himself to see. All perception involves thinking; is rich to the extent that The Physiological Relations of Mind 245 it uses thinking; is fiiiitless as it stops short. The presence of the understanding reveals itself in all manipulations that involve skill. Children, with all their activity, their restless, ceaseless movement, are clumsy in delicate fingering or bodily management. Each becomes skilful as it has been thoughtful, and may be made thoughtful again. Hearing and touch, not less than seeing, become discriminating as they involve or have involved thinking as a factor in their training. In walking or sitting the general grace of the body is the measure of the amount of mind in it. l^othing is clearer to the reflective observer than that physical beauty of the face and person is, in the final analysis, a product of the mind's dominance. Othenvise plain features are given a unity of meaning and attractive significance by the intelligent and sincere intent of the mind. " Pretty is as pretty does," is only a common- place statement of a common-sense thought, sound as it is common, that real beauty is more than "skin deep," and is a revelation in form and feature and carriage of the mind's purity and ingenuousness behind. It has already been hinted that all forms of phys- ical training look, on one side, to clearer thinking. In another sense, a very real purpose of all such train- ing is to give the mind the best possible instrument of expression. One characteristic of a liberally edu- cated man, in the phrase of Professor Huxley, quoted, is that he shall have been so " trained in his youth that his body is the ready servant of his will, and does with ease and pleasure all the work that, as a mechanism, it 246 Science of Education is capable of." * That is wise training for the body which holds it responsible for all the mind's accuracy. ^Neatness of school work, of dress and manners, of movement and speech, facility in manipulation and docility of demeanor, are not ends in themselves, but means toward a coveted mental acumen and care, and an aid to the mind's adequate utterance. As corollaries of the foregoing characterization of the mind as actively reacting upon the body the fol- lowing principles are derived : Early mechanize in the body right habits of doing and behavior, that it may become the ready and efficient servant of the mind. Thoughtful, discriminating sense- perception is the only fruitful sense-perception. The coarser muscular movements should be recognized as preceding the finer and more complex ones. The child's bodily movements must be an expression of the child's own discrimination. (3) Another important relation existing between the body and the mind is that which is known as disposition or temperament. This is not easily defined or classified accurately, and yet it betokens a mutual dependence that is generally recognized. Psychologists of all schools and all times have given it place in their sys- tems. It is even more important in a pedagogical than in a scientific sense, perhaps. It is a condition- ing element in almost every act of teaching. As a " natural disposition," it constitutes a differentiating factor among individuals. Ladd describes it as " any * Huxley. " Science and Education," p. 86. The Physiological Relations of Mind 247 marked type of mental constitution and development which seems due to inherited characteristics of the bod- ily organism " ; and he says : * " Such disposition con- stitutes a predominating disposition to feel, think, and act in certain forms, rather than others, among the many that are conceivable. The conviction that the disposition of the individual is innate and inherited, rather than the result of training or environment, is doubtless due to the fact that it appears with consid- erable strength in childhood, and generally maintains itself under great alterations of circumstances, and against effort, to the close of life." Under a study of " the relations of mental action," Bascom f says that, " as the body is at once the medium by which the im- pressions reach the mind, the source whence the strength for their consideration is secured, and the instrument by which its . . . conclusions are expressed, the importance of the physical conditions of mental activity cannot easily be overstated nor be too carefully inquired into " ; and elsewhere adds that, as " the nutritive and nervous systems are most intimately associated with the mind, . . . the different temperaments cause essentially the same faculties to exhibit very different degrees of force." Herbart % also speaks of " this original peculiarity — so-called temperament " — as explainable only " by *Ladd. " Elements of Physiological Psychology," p. 574. f Bascom. "Science of Mind," p. 426. X Herbart. " Text-Book in Psychology," p. 100. Transl. by Marga- ret K. Smith, 248 Science of Education pliysiological predisposition in regard to feelings and emotions." On the whole, modern science, not less than the traditional philosophy, recognizes the existence of such predispositions and their influence in individual development and experience. One writer * co-ordinates the " common characteristics of temperament " with common characteristics of species, race, family, nations, and sex, including all of these among " general physical inheritances " ; affirming that " peculiar arrangements of the structure and functions of the muscular, vascular, digestive, nervous, and other sets of organs, secure permanent traits in human character." Almost uni- versally the doctrine implies the existence of a perma- nent factor or condition which neither age, nor charac- ter, nor culture can greatly change. The primary mental characteristic seems to he the individual varia- tions in emotional susceptibility; i.e., difference as to (a) intensity and (&) duration of the emotion; also differences in the stimulus needed to arouse a feeling. " The greater the mind's wakefulness to impressions," says Professor Ladd,f " the greater, also, its suscepti- bility to the feelings of pleasure and pain incident to the impressions." From the earliest recognition of " temperaments " there has been a remarkable unanimity in the general classification, along with absurd differences as to their origin and physiological meanings. Ladd % quotes * Thompson. "A System of Psychology," i, p. 393. fLadd. " Elements of Physiological Psychology," p. 575. J Ladd. "Elements of Physiological Psychology," p. 576. The Physiological Relations of Mind 249 from Wundt,* approvingly, to the effect that the famil- iar " fourfold division of the temperaments is correct, because, in the case of every individual, there must be a certain combination of the two factors of strength and speed (duration and intensity) in all change Avhich goes on in the mental movements. The various affec- tions of the mind are therefore classifiable as either strong and quick, or strong and slow, or else as weak and quick, or weak and slow." The resulting relations he tabulates as follows : STRONG WEAK Quick Choleric Sanguine Slow Melancholic Phlegmatic The names used are no longer significant in the same sense as given by Galen, to whom science owes the original classification, but they are veiy generally used in lieu of better ones. The choleric is often called the mercurial temperament, as the sanguine is often de- scribed as the jovial. The former is opposed to the phlegmatic, as the latter is to the melancholic. The choleric is mercurial, as being active and full of vigor. It stands for the maximum of both strength and quick- ness. The disposition is energetic, self-reliant, and determined. The attitude is objective and executive. The will being uppenuost, it represents an individual of affairs. The reactions may be slower than in the sanguine, but more enduring. It hence means, nor- mally, more steadiness of character. Sometimes the * Wundt, " Physiologische Psychologie," ii, p. 345. 250 Science of Education receptivity appears one-sided, along with great energy in some particular direction, even into a narrowing bias, with maybe great obstinacy. On the side of readiness of reaction this temperament is allied with the sanguine; on the side of strength, or endurance, with the melancholic. The form known as melancholic is now, perhaps, more generally named sentimental, sometimes poetic. The reactions are slow, but the feel- ings persistent. Here, the feelings are uppermost. There is a marked tendency toward subjectivity. There is little excitability, but great intensity. The imag- ination is likely to be strong. It is accompanied with a love of the artistic, of nature, of poetry and music. There is more or less decided indifference to practical affairs and to mere matters of fact. If possessed in an abnormal degree, the disposition may manifest itself in a form of indolence or of dreamy contentment. The sanguine disposition is jovial, merry, gay. The feelings are ardent, often passionate. Such person, if religious, will be jealous; if an orator, fervid, even fiery; if wronged, fierce; if sympathetic, ardently affectionate. Along with more or less impetuosity, there goes a hopeful, optimistic spirit. Very sensitive to external stimuli, the feelings are not likely to be deeply aroused. The character, while warm and im- pressionable, is often changeable. This temperament is generally characteristic of children and of the un- schooled, and possesses great advantages in the acquisi- tive stages of culture. The mind is alert, irritable (in the psychological sense), responsive, easily aroused. The Physiological Relations of Mind 251 On the side of endurance this temperament is closely related to the phlegmatic, but it is more prompt to respond to stimulus than is the sentimental. In the older classifications the latter was the " full-blooded " character, sometimes called saturnine and lymphatic, or dull and grave. The response to excitants is slow; the feelings are in abeyance. The will is uppermost, but lacking in force or purposed urgency. It is patient, persistent, self-reliant, but generally heavy and some- times torpid, even sluggish. It conduces to quiet, regular habits, self-control, and a general balance of faculties that is often very efficient, but comparatively lagging and out-of-step. It stands for the minimum of both strength and speed. In general, childhood is sanguine; youth, choleric; and maturity, melancholic or phlegmatic. Occasionally youth manifests the melancholic or poetic temperament. During early adolescence an introspective bias is not uncommon. While women are more likely to betray this same temperament or the sanguine, men are more choleric or phlegmatic. Mr. Bascom,* after noting that the nutritive and nervous systems are most inti- mately associated with the mind, adds that " great impressibility and power in the neiwous organization ; a preponderance of the nutritive functions, giving a full animal life ; nervous power well balanced, and well sustained by the nutritive system, constitute the ner- vous, phlegmatic, and sanguine temperaments, which greatly modify the measure, hopefulness, and satisfao- * Bascom. " Science of Mind," p. 426. 252 Science of Education tion of intellectual efforts, even when the natural en- dowments of mind are nearly the same." The racial bearings of this question will be consid- ered elsewhere; it is in place here to say only that the English are a fair type of the choleric temperament (combined often with the phlegmatic) ; the French, of the sanguine ; the Dutch, of the phlegmatic proper, and the Japanese, of the sentimental or poetic. In general it may be added that the Latin races are either san- guine or sentimental; the Teutonic, phlegmatic or chol- eric. In both individuals and races there are numerous admixtures of these various dispositions, and any effort to interpret the character in particular is greatly com- plicated by this fact. Nevertheless, in most cases of individuals a measurable predominance of one or another type form will be found apparent. Certain pedagogical observations follow as reason- able inferences from these paragraphs. Primarily it should be kept in mind that individual temperament is fundamental, and conditions both learning and doing. For acquisition, the choleric and sanguine reveal the most, and most helpful, initiative ; for persistent effort and original achievement, the choleric and lymphatic. Each temperament responds to stimulus differently and calls for its own peculiar consideration. The sanguine makes difficult the fixing of a habit of steady effort; the phlegmatic, once aroused, has its own im- petus; the sentimental responds most readily to sub- jective ideas. Each calls for its own special corrective incentives. Each in its best estate is efficient, and, in The Physiological Relations of Mind 253 its own sphere, to be respected; each, has made its own characteristic contribution to the progress and achieve- ment of the race. One lends itself readily to ideals, one to reflection, others to achievement and a stable life. It is a matter of common recognition that the work of the world has been done bj the steady, persist- ent, sometimes plodding, but vigorous men and women ; though it will not do to ignore the sensuous, the im- pulsive, the idealistic. ]!^aturally, prescriptive instruction appeals to the several classes differently, and, for the best results, should be correspondingly modified. This is the pri- mary ground for adjustments of occupation and train- ing to personal efficiency. Similarly a fixed conven- tional order in society or in the schools is variously interpreted and unequally conformed to by the several temperaments; and, in the growing child, and espe- cially the pupil, calls for reasonable allowance. It has been said that " the sanguine and sentimental temperaments will give few or no difficulties in disci- pline. Treatment that is both firm and kind is required. The choleric and lymphatic temperaments need careful handling and are those most injured by injudicious teachers." * * Dexter and Garlick. "Psychology in the School-room," p. 344. CHAPTER XVm THE SPEQAL SENSES (4) Once more, in a study of the physiological rela- tions of the mind^ consideration must be had of the special senses, as the immediate physical conditions of experience. It is not by any means recent, the recognition that the matter of experience is derived through the senses and rests upon a physical substratum in the bodily or- ganism. Locke only gave striking expression to a com- mon notion in his phrase: " There is nothing in the in- tellect that was not before in the sense." But the em- phasis which both philosophy and psychology currently give to this relation is new. Mr. Sully says:* "Our knowledge of the way in which mental activity is con- nected with the bodily life has been greatly advanced by the recent development of the biological sciences, and more particularly neurology, or the science of the normal functions and functional disturbances, of the nervous system. ... A great deal of new and valuable information has been acquired quite recently respecting the nervous conditions of mental activity, and we are now able to conclude with a high degree of probability that every psychical process or psychosis * Sully. " The Human Mind," i, pp. 4, 6. 254 The Special Senses 255 has its correlative nervous process or neurosis." " Out of the stuff of sensations," says Dr. Dewey,* " and upon them as data are built both the world as known and the self as existing. The existence of sensation is equally necessary on both subjective and objective sides. Without it the self would remain forever unrealized, a mere bundle of capacities, and the world would re- main forever unidealized or unknown, a mere blank." Between thinking that is rooted in clear perception and mere conceptual thinking there is all the difference, says Professor James, between " knowing things and knowing about things." All knowledge, even of the higher forms, as reasoning and imagining, sometimes re- motely, but positively and surely, takes its rise in the senses. No abstract work of the mind can be done until the senses have supplied the necessary materials. The statement must obviously hold good for all " na- ture studies," the physical sciences, and material achieve- ments. Here every sense is brought into requisition. The primary tools of the mind in the laboratory are the senses. Through them, the understanding is acquis- itive and discerning. Upon their deliverances the mind finds its only reactions. But it is equally true of the language studies; hearing, sight, and the motor senses are all involved. As an instrument of expression and the means of interpreting expression, hearing ranks very high. The raw material of experience as to symbols is sense-derived. It will be seen, then, to be equally true of the mathematical sciences as it is obviously true of * Dewey. " Psychology," p. 46. 256 Science of Education historical and social relations. Through hearing and seeing the sense is a primary agent of all social inter- course, both immediate and remote; not in art, music and speech alone, but in industrial, ceremonial and con- ventional orders. " The sum of our perceptions forms the circle of our sense experience, and at the same time, the material which conditions all the higher activities of the soul." * The several senses make their respective and fairly distinct but intermingled contributions to experience; some bringing relatively little, others much; some, that of a high intellectual order, others low; but each ac- cording to its constitution. To the traditional " five senses " modern science has, by pretty general consent, added as a sixth the muscular sense ; sometimes, also, a seventh, the vital sense. Arranged in order, they may be named the vital sense, smell, taste; muscular sense, touch, hearing, sight. The first gives sensations from which come perce23tions of organic life ; such are hunger, thirst, repletion, respiration, etc. The intellectual character of these sensations is unimportant. Taste and smell are known as the chemical senses, and are concerned with nourishing and breathing, through spe- cial organs. The sensations of taste, smell and tem- perature are variable and correspondingly untrust- worthy. They are regarded as " coarse senses " ; sight and hearing giving the finer discriminations. The former are of little importance as knowledge-giving senses; scent, odor, perfume, fragrance, redolence, * Lindner. "Empirical Psychology," p. 64. Trans, by De Garmo. The Special Senses 257 aroma, stench, fetor are representative terms used to describe the sensations concerned with smell. Halleck, however, in his " Education of the Central Nervous System" (pp. 111-116), quotes freely from Shake- speare, Milton, Gray, and Keats, " to show that, no matter what commonplace minds may think to the con- trary, [these authors] thought odor images worthy to be used in their most noble and beautiful passages." From the sense of taste come sensations of flavor — as sweet, sour, bitter, saline, alkahne, astringent. Tactual and muscular sensations are primary and universal. Most modern, as well as earlier, psycholo- gists quote Democritus as holding that all of the more specialized senses are modifications of this one of touch.* The sensations of touch are more definite than those of other senses just described, and give corre- spondingly more and more reliable knowledge. Dr. Porter says : f " The sense of touch is the most positive of all the senses, and, in many respects, is worthy to be called the leading sense." From this sense are derived sensations of one's own body, and its parts and move- ments; other bodies; surfaces, surface characters — as rough and smooth, hard and soft, moist and dry ; solids, their parts and relations. For some of these, and for other related experiences, touch is reinforced by the muscular sense and by sight. In connection with sight, active touch becomes the experimental sense, using tools and apparatus and instruments — microscopes, tel- * See " Spencer's Principles of Psychology," i, pp. 304, 305. t " The Human Intellect," p. 151. 258 Science of Education escopes, balances, measures, etc. Says Dr. Porter:* " It ought not to surprise us to learn that the sense of touch furnishes most of the terms for the intellectual arts and states. Sight itself is indebted to touch for many of its terms. We tahe or apprehend a meaning; we hold an opinion; we comprehend or grasp a train of thought or a course of reasoning; we accept a propo- sition." As a knowledge-giving sense, the chief value of touch is in its alliances with the other senses, es- pecially the muscular sense and vision. But most others must depend upon it, also, for assistance or con- firmation. Accompanying all exercise of active touch are the muscular sensations also. Hence are taken sen- sations of weight and pressure, movement, direction and distance, form, size (in combination with touch and sight), resistance and strain, etc. Sensations in hearing readily classify themselves as of two kinds: tones and noises. In common experi- ence the two are often fused. Even in the most per- fect musical instiniment few tones are " pure " ; and in the so-called " noises " there may often b© dis- tinguished accented or modulated sounds that have the character of tones. This is particularly true of articu- late sounds, the ocean's roar, the massed noise of a great city, the clatter of a train, the vsdnd through a forest, the noise of running water, the rumble of a factory. Unlike vision, which is a qualitatively simple sense, hearing is an " analyzing " sense. This appears in its immediate recognition of the time element, because ♦ " The Human Intellect," p. 152. The Special Senses 259 of which it busies itself with occurrences — motion, change, life, etc. Unlike all of the other senses, also — even sight — hearing reveals a well-developed scale of sensation. The scale of colors for the eye is in no sense either so regular or so well integrated as is the musical scale. This latter is described technically as a " con- tinuum " ; it is unitary, complete, integral. Upon these discriminations musical systems rest ; and from their combinations come tunes, melodies, harmonies, con- cords, choruses, etc. Articulateness in language, mod- ulations, accent, movement, emphasis, inflections and much of the attractiveness of oratory, not less than song, arise from the fine discriminations of this sense. " Of all the senses, hearing is said to be the richest in the variety of sensations it furnishes. The ear can discriminate far more accurately than the human voice can execute." Hearing gives little knowledge of space — either direction or location. But " the delicate and far-reaching discrimination of quality, aided by the fine discrimination of duration, enables the ear to ac- quire a good deal of exact information, as well as to gain a considerable amount of refined pleasure. The delight of music sums up the chief part of the latter." * However, the auditor)' images employed in the great literatures, in story and in common speech, cannot rightly be ignored, as adding to the attractions and pleasures and comforts of language masterpieces among the fine arts. Of the more exact information, hearing * Sully. " The Human Mind," ii, p. 113. 260 Science of Education is responsible for large contributions througli speech, direct instruction, lectures, sermons, home and social intercourse, etc. Among sensory images in the mind, those of the auditory type seem to be far less common than of the visual. Galton, in his " Inquiries into Human Faculty," * discusses images, mental imagery and visionaries, through two chapters, without mention of auditory images, except, perhaps, where he digresses to characterize the " daimon of Socrates as an audible, not a visual appearance." Of the auditory type are those writers who, in their composing, have hearers, not readers, in mind ; musicians who play " by ear " rather than by note; most readers, effective preachers and jury lawyers; teachers, as teachers, who have the recitation in mind. The auditive pupil studying, com- ing to a difficulty in his book lesson, is likely to go through the motions of reading it aloud. But few of these impulses carry images with them. In the born orator and musician they are most likely to do so. Learning by hearing is primitive and generic; rela- tively far more prominent in the early experience of the race than now. " For untold barbaric ages man had ob- tained, through the medium of the ear, almost all the knowledge that came to him second-hand. The news- paper and the book did not exist for him to interpret their meaning by the eye." f And even to-day among visualists the eye-bom images are often given vivid- ness through the influence of hearing. * Pages 83-114 and 155-177. t Halleck. " The Education of the Central Nervoua System," p. 62. The Special Senses 261 Of all the senses, the sensations of sight are given first place in respect to refinement and definiteness. " The eye has always ranked/' says Dr. Porter,* " as the noblest of the senses " : its superiority being due in part to " the unobtrusive delicacy of its sensations." However, at its best even, the eye, for the discrimina- tion of many qualities and especially as concerns the conception of space relations, " needs the tutorship of the touch." No other sense is responsible for so many acquired perceptions. It shares its insights with every other sense and appropriates theirs in return. More or less directly, we depend upon this sense for our appre- hension of light in general, the scale of colors and their innumerable modifications ; of lustre and dulness, light and shade, perspective; visible movement, form, appar- ent size, direction and extension. It sustains particu- larly close relations w^ith the sense of touch, " first learning from the hand what the hand has to teach, then guiding it." In all forms of art, whether fine or industrial art, it is rich in dictation for the hand's exe- cution. It is resourceful and interpretative. " Very early," says Ladd,f " in the development of a normal ex- perience, the eye comes to be the leader and critic of the discriminations connected with the muscular and tactual sensations." It is the sense of breadth and cath- olicity. " The noblest part in the disclosure of the ex- ternal world," says Lindner,:}: " belongs indisputably to the sense of sight, which gives rise to nine-tenths of all ♦Porter. "The Human Intellect," p. 158. f Ladd. " Elements of Physiological Psychology," pp.417. 418 I "Empirical Psychology " (trans.), p. 62. 262 Science of Education sense-perceptions. Its impressions are so distingulslied above the others in clearness and distinctness that lan- guage borrows its figures for the perfection of knowl- edge from this sense (idea, insight, evidence, intuition), and the perceptions arising from other senses must, for the sake of scientific comparison, be reduced to optical perceptions ; as, for example, temperatures, to the length of a tube of quicksilver; difference in weight, to the graduation on the arm of the scales, etc." Better than most of the other senses, also, the eye is able to control its impressions. Not only what we know and what may be known, but what we wish to know has a de- cisive influence often on what we see. The sense is selective and assimilative. The images that most enrich the mind are of the visual type. This has already been implied in the pre- ceding paragraph. Francis Galton, about twenty years ago, undertook in an original way to study mental imagery, chiefly of the visual type, and published his conclusions,* with important inquiries, as has been mentioned on a former page. Among his conclusions are the following: that men of science, as a class, have feeble powers of visual representation; that the highest minds are probably those in which the power is not lost, but subordinated, and is ready for use on suitable occa- sions; that, through other modes of conception, chiefly connected with an incipient motor sense, men who de- clare themselves entirely deficient in the power of seeing mental pictures may, nevertheless, give life-like de- * " Inquiries into Human Faculty," pp. 83-177. The Special Senses 263 scriptions of what they have seen, and otherwise express themselves as if they were gifted with a vivid imagina- tion; that the power of visualizing is higher in women than men, and in boys than in adults ; that language and book learning tend to dull the power ; and that it is prob- ably a natural gift. In practical ways it manifests itself in the dramatic sense ; in the easy mastery of cere- monials and manceuvres; in the skill of the artist, the expert story-teller, the inventive mechanic, and in the pioneer in ideas generally. Without doubt one's vis- ualizing power, for one order of images or another, may be measurably improved, and much to the advantage of the individual and for his enjoyment. From the several characterizations of the senses and their products in experience, certain observations natu- rally follow as bearing, more or less directly, upon edu- cational doctrine or practice, or both. The nature of education requires that each of the special senses, not less than other functions, be culti- vated in proportion to its uses in mental development The want of a single sense, as of one born blind or deaf, means a loss of experience of one whole order of ideas. In the same way and to a corresponding degree, any one of the senses left uncultivated, or comparatively so, imposes a limit, an artificial and unnecessary limit to subsequent knowledge and interests — not of the order of that sense only, but of related senses that are weaker because of its weak support. And if the sense neg- lected be sight or hearing or touch — senses which nat- urally contribute so much to personal experience — the 264 Science of Education injury is all tlie greater. It needs no argument to stow that in most schooling the last of these is practically ignored, and too often the second. Fortunately, the pupil in his play and neighborhood foraging often takes the matter into his own hands and works out a motor and tactile training for himself. So important is ex- perience to the growing person that no avenue to the mind should be even partially obstructed. Every day, and frequently, short, sharp, attentive, discriminative exercise of each sense upon interesting, important matter would accomplish much. The several senses, not less than judgment and thinking, are entitled to share in the discipline of the school. The result would be a fund of sensuous richness and beauty, and the tools of a higher efficiency for subsequent years. This finer sense power is a mark of developed races and individ- uals. It means clearer pictures of the imagination, more resourceful thinking, and cogent reasoning. It must not be forgotten that " while," as Professor James puts it, " part of what we perceive comes through our senses from the object before us, another part always comes out of our own head." The reactions of the mind are measured by the kind and amount of material fur- nished by the senses. Whatever trains them enriches the mind in the higher functions. The real nurture of the several senses is wholesome in all its mental reactions. Herbert Spencer pointed out * very clearly that " the progress of life and in- telligence is, under one of its aspects, an extension of * Spencer. " Principles of Psychology," i, p. 318. The Special Senses 265 tte space through which the correspondence between the organism and its environment reaches, and that successive stages in the development of each sense im- ply successive enlargements of this sj)here of space. Rationality assists in carrying this enlargement still farther." A like meaning may be found in Dr. Har- ris's statement that, viewed in one way, " education looks to making for the individual every there a here, and every then a now." Education of the sort men- tioned means an extension of the horizon of one's avail- able natural and human environment. Then there is the most urgent necessity for more careful and systematic and far-seeing motor training. As it begins in movement, so sensation tends to pass into movement, and " the foundation for motor develop- ment lies in sensory training." Once more, mental activity becomes more difficult as it departs from the activity of the senses. This de- termines instruction to begin with: things before names; the individual before the general; the local be- fore the distant ; the recent before the old ; the common before the strange; and the vernacular before a foreign language. It means, in other words and in a single phrase, that first steps are to be with what lies nearest to the child's experience. This may mean interest in the life of the " Seven Little Sisters," or of the girl across the street. It is only the more available in any case, as it lies nearest the child's accumulated sense experience. CHAPTER XIX PSYCHOLOGY Educational science will find other materials in a study of the mind, i.e., in psychology. It is not the present purpose, nor is there any occasion here, to pre- sent in systematic order or completeness even the es- sentials of psychology as a science. In the present study these are taken for granted. In constructing or inter- preting a science of education there is presupposed an acquaintance with imjDortant phenomena of mind, its states and activities, and the processes of their change, and the organization of them into a science; and, in particular, those phenomena that have to do with the growth of mind and the conditions of its maturing. It is the study of mind so considered to which the science of education is indebted for the group of principles now undertaken. (1) Of primary importance is an acquaintance with mental capacities. Sir William Hamilton * limits the term capacity to the mere passive affections of the mind. He says, " Its primary signification, ... as well as its employment, favors tliis usage." Power he uses as both active and passive; faculty naming the * " Metaphysics," p. 123. 266 Psychology 267 active, and capacity the passive form. Certainly, in both the older and more recent psychologies, it is recog- nized that along with a capacity for receiving and ap- propriating experience, there goes a positive power of reacting — aggressive, forceful, conditioning. As Pro- fessor Ladd * phrases it: " In spite of objections from the physiological point of view, the popular assvmiption [of a real, non-material, permanent being, a unity in some unique sense], when freed from its crudities, and interpreted intelligently, may be shown to be the only one compatible with tlie facts of observation." Even Herbert Spencer,f who defines mind " as known to the possessor of it, as a circumscribed aggregate of activi- ties," says : " The cohesion of these activities, one with another, throughout the aggregate, compels the postu- lation of something of which they are the activities." From whatever point of view, mind must be thought of as a power, fitted to receive and appropriate experiences, and an active, affirmative energy, selective and effort- making. These two characteristics have already been assumed in speaking of the mutual interactions of mind and environment, and need not be further elaborated here. A recognition of both, however, is fundamental in describing or interpreting the process known as edu- cation. In this mind, there are no inborn original possessions. The qualities of mind are inherited; power as capacity and energy; tendencies to feel, to know, and to do; * Ladd. " Elements of Physiological Psychology," p. 597. f Spencer. " Principles of Psychology," i, p. 159. 268 Science of Education tendencies to discriminate, reflect and imagine; tenden- cies to connect events causally ; tendencies to co-ordinate tlie senses; capacity for mental development. But all of these are rather characteristic of the mind of the species than of the individual. " In animals," says Pro- fessor James,* " fixed habit is the essential and charac- teristic law of nervous action. The brain grows to the exact modes in which it has been exercised, and the inheritance of these modes we call instincts. But in man the negation of fixed modes is the essential char- acteristic. He owes his whole pre-eminence as a rea- soner, his whole human quality of intellect, we may say, to the facility with which a given mode of thought in him may suddenly be broken up into elements which recombine anew. Only at the price of inheriting no instinctive tendencies is he able to settle every novel case by the fresh discovery by his reason of novel prin- ciples. He is, pa?^ excellence, the educable animal." Heredity, in other words, is seen in possibilities, not in transmitted biases ; in general, not specific character- istics. Indeed, inherited tendency is, not infrequently, capable of direction into either desirable or undesirable development, according as incidental environment or positive tuition favors the one or the other. " Inheri- tance has a great number of possibilities, and the realiza- tion of any one of them may be caused or blocked by very slight accidental occurrences." " A man's germ inheritance," it has been said, " is his capital, his stock in trade. He may foster or spoil it by good ante-birth * " Psychology," ii, pp! 367, 368. Psychology 269 acquisitions; liis nurture may increase or waste it. But without it he couldn't do business at all, and its nurt- ure must decide what sort of business he will do." In- herited aptitude is for class, not individual effects; in the genius sometimes, for large particular powers. The inheritances that are actively specific are chiefly struct- ural or functional on the organic side. And these, to- gether with the transmitted mental capacity and energj^, are far more fixed and persistent than acquired tenden- cies or the impulse of education. Mr. Galton asserts: * " There is no escape from the conclusion that nature [inheritance] prevails enormously over nurture [edu- cation] when the differences of nurture do not exceed what is commonly found among persons of the same rank of society in the same country." But elsewhere in the same study this author adds that " those teachings that conform to the natural aptitudes of the child leave much more enduring marks than others." Individu- ality lies along the way of developing these predisposi- tions ; and if individuality, then efficiency. Whether acquired characteristics in the parents are transmissible to their offspring is an open scientific ques- tion. The modern discussion dates practically from the reading of a paper by Professor Weismann f in 1881 before a German scientific society. This was followed by seven other addresses or monographs subsequently published in a volume in 1889, and by four more issued as Vol. II, two years afterward, all upon kindred * " Inquiries into Human Faculty," p. 241. f August Weismann. " The Duration of Life." 270 Science of Education phases of the same topic. They have stimulated among scientists and educators discussion of the possibility of inheriting acquired traits. Current opinion is yet con- siderably divided upon the question. The pedagogical implications are important. For so long we have been content to believe that by persistent, far-seeing and, if need be, compulsory schooling, each generation might be assured a beginning well in advance of that of its predecessor, that it seems little short of iconoclastic to say or to think that the reverse of this is probably the truth, and that no acquired traits are transmitted. Mr. Sully holds to the traditional belief; Professor James against it, and with Weismann and Darwin. Herbert Spencer and Mr. Sully and some others are Lamarckian in arguing for the persistence — the possible persistence of acquired characteristics. If the latter view be the correct one, then directed education must seek to adapt tuition to the individual native aptitude in such way as to utilize the projective force of heredity to conserve the new influence : if the Weismann theory be established, that accidental varia- tion and organic adaptation to environment through natural selection are the only means of furthering de- velopment, then it only remains (1) to begin the edu- cation of the children through wholesome nutrition and living, and (2) to surround life by such environment as will make the selection of desirable characteristics by the organism easy or certain. In either case the right early beginning of formal, purposeful education becomes important. Psychology 271 In mind we have to do with the primary fact of con- sciousness, and consciousness in three forms — not so much sensibility, intellect, and will, as of feeling, know- ing or thinking, and willing or choosing; not so much the function as the functioning. As the scientist does not ask what electricity is, but what it does; so the psychologists, and especially the educator and teacher, will ask of such faculties. What do they do ? How does action proceed, and under what conditions? What is knowing or remembering or hating or the act of dis- crimination or judgment or sympathy or artistic appre- ciation? Knowing appears to be the simple act of con- sciousness; feeling, kno"\ving that involves some self- interest; willing, knowing or choosing with a purpose. Knowledge is the universal element; feeling, the indi- vidual element; the act of willing, the relating of the two in an expression of purposed activity.* The mind does not act independently in either of these relations. Indeed, the reactions among them are interminably complex. In the acti\aties of each order, both of the others are present in one degree or another. Seeing is reinforced by thinking; memory, by sound pur- poses ; the understanding, by clear perceptions ; the will, by good judgment. The mind functions as a whole; unequally, but in co-operation of part and part. One phase of this integrity of mental act is character- ized by Professor James when he says : f " Conscious- * See Dewey. " Psychology, "p. 4. f " Psychology," i, p. 239. 272 Science of Education ness does not appear to itself chopped up in bits. Such words as ' chain ' or ' train ' do not describe it fitly, as it presents itself in the first instance. It is nothing joint- ed ; it flows." He calls it throughout one very interest- ing chapter " the stream of thought." Dr. Porter makes the same fact clear from his point of view: " The whole soul, so far as we are conscious of its operations, acts in each of its functions. The identical and undivided ego is present, and wholly present, in every one of its conscious acts and states. In every act all functions conspire to make each in its exercise clear. At least this seems to be the natural order, and it is the real order until the mind has been perverted by being com- pelled to exercise in sections." Thinking, feeling and controlling are three aspects of mental activity; now one is dominant, now an- other. States of mind vary as to the character of the prevailing act. It may be chiefly reflection, with feeling and will, perception and moral considerations in abeyance. It may be markedly emotional, show- ing little of either discrimination or control ; or it may be mainly active and directive, only incidentally self-regarding; unemotional and comparatively un- thinking. " Each state of the soul is more conspicu- ously and eminently a state of knowledge, or of feel- ing, or of will, one of these elements being prevail- ing or predominant." * The distinction holds, not only for states of mind of the same individual, but for the predominant traits of different individuals. One is * Porter. " The Human Intellect," p. 43. Psychology 273 managerial and executive, interested in affairs and achievements; one, in ideas and ideals; one, prevail- ingly responsive to feeling stimuli. States of mind vary also as to their different de- grees of complexity. This is true for one's states of mind for any measurable period, but it also holds true as accounting for the unlikeness of states characteriz- ing different periods in the individual life. Childhood is perceptive and receptive, rather than reflective and thoughtful ; impulsive, not controlled ; sensuous in ex- perience, not ideal. Once more, the facts of psychology as a science are practically limited to the field of consciousness. Pro- fessor Ladd * defines psychology as " the science which has for its primary subject of investigation all the phe- nomena of human consciousness " ; and physiological psychology as having to do with " the phenomena of consciousness from the physiological point of view." •By James and Sully and most recent writers on the subject the science is similarly defined, but by most of them, also, the meaning or content of the term con- sciousness is greatly extended ; extended to include " all psychical phenomena lying beyond the confines of clear consciousness . . . taken as raw material for mind, and . . . susceptible ... of being brought into the texture of our distinctly conscious life." f All of which implies that there are phenomena that may be fairly called mental that are little more than the adum- * " Elements of Physiological Psychology," pp. 3, 4, f SuUy. " The Human Mind," i, p. 76, 274 Science of Education brations of clearly conscious acts, but as clearly belong to the field of psychology. The chief significance of the matter in the present discussion is that whatever the scientists may conclude of the relation of these facts, to the teacher this fringe of consciousness is an imporant factor in the child's education or development. " There is," writes Professor Sully, * " a whole aggregate or complex of mental phenomena, sensations, impressions, thoughts, etc., most of which are obscure, transitory and not distinguished. With this wide obscure region of the subconscious, there stands contrasted the narrow lumi- nous region of the clearly conscious." Here are " physical elements which enter into and color the conscious state of the time, but which are not dis- criminated or distinguished." One author speaks of " organic reverberations " underlying such emotions as grief, love, etc. ; of " signs of direction " in thinking ; of " psychic overtones " and " fringes " of feeling and " tediously haunting " conditions of mind, which have similar meanings. Some of these are organic effects, some are smouldering feelings, others vague wants, anon the undiscerned but insinuating and urgent push of one's former experiences. To divert this mental en- ergy to right ends, and to hold it in wholesome ways of acting and at the ready call of conscious purpose, is a large part of child training. Example is better than precept because the child, without conscious effort and without protest, falls into the way of behaving as the * " Outlines of Psychology," p. 74. Psychology 275 exemplar behaves. All automatic doing and reflex activities are of this class of semiconscious or subcon- scious acts. The groping of the mind in memory for what it only vaguely recalls is an example of the same. In the teaching of the schools, as well as in the learning of life, there are two orders of change, each complementary to the other, each the opposite of the other, and both of interest to the teacher. In the one there is a transforming of conscious processes into un- conscious ones ; the other, the reverse — the resolving of unconscious processes into conscious ones. Walking, reading, talking, singing, seeing, writing and similar forms of skill and behavior that, in the beginning, were intensely conscious acts, must, for the highest personal effectiveness, become automatic or chiefly so. In read- ing, consciousness of the word-sign must be reduced to a minimum ; so of the balance of the body in walking, the co-ordination of the organs of speech in talking and singing, the adjustments of the eye in seeing, etc. It is fortunate that so much of the mind's work may be safely left to the automatism of habit and the sensory motor and other reflexes. On the other hand, directed education has for one of its purposes to bring more and more of the mind's expe- riences within reach of conscious purposeful critical judgment that, upon occasion the mind may be able to converge upon its interest all the fund of its past in- sights and acquisitions. For effective living and acting the grip of the hour must be upon one's accumulation of years. The unconscious must be transformable at need 276 Science of Education into the conscious. But there is need of a store of re- flexes. Of all that has been learned by any one of us, the most is soon forgotten. Of what remains, the largest part, if it be thoroughly known as one knows his name, or his house number, or the qualities of matter, or hu- man nature, is held reflexively and used automatically. This is a great convenience, to say the least, that so much of the store of one's past experience can be disre- garded with the confident assurance, however, that it will keep on at its proper work when needed. As a garrulous person is sometimes said " to set his mouth going and go off and leave it," so in a high and very real sense there are many things which the well-trained mind may be set to doing, and the self go about its busi- ness with newer and possibly more difficult tasks. It is a thrifty providence of the organism for doubling its force. Another characteristic of mind and one that espe- cially concerns the teacher is its tendency toward peri- odicities. The more important of such are incident (1) to one's environment, and (2) the conditions of life de- velopment. Of the former there are those consequent upon personal and social habits, fatigue and relaxation, the succession of day and night, meals, the seasons, and the fixed programme of every kind. The latter repre- sent stages of development. Both are conditioning of activities that may and may not be required or at- tempted. Thought is in constant change, and mental (nervous) energy is a continuum of unequal or incon- stant flow. Each has its periods of rise and fall. M^xi- Psychology 277 ma and minima follow each, other, though not in the na- ture of an exact repetend. One high pressure may be higher than another, as one low pressure may be lower. But the aggregate life is rhythmic, and, while " the stream of thought " flows unceasingly, it flows with a more or less regular recurrent energy. There are times of greater and of less alertness. As these, for any reason, recur with something of regularity and assurance, they constitute mental periods. Moodiness and alternating periods of melancholy and subsequent exaltation have the character of broken periods. The mind, by being called upon at regu- larly recurring times for the same sort of response, quickly adjusts itself to expect it, showing a tend- ency to repetend doing. The alternation of day and night furthers this tendency. The morning hours are for most persons the most fruitful mentally; the mind is fresher, the will is saner, the feelings are less taxed, the thinking is more energetic, the interests are more persistent, obedience to rule is easier. All this is, perhaps, in part — in large part — because the organism is more vigorous from the night's respite. On the other hand, habit or other personal reasons may re- serve the evenings or the afternoon for the several tasks and the mind adjust itself to this routine. It more readily performs its tasks in some fairly regulated, recurring order, whether self-imposed or artificial. In a way, the hours remember their tasks. For this rea- son, broken programmes in elementary schools are gen- erally to be condemned. Sleep, the meals and vigorous 278 /Science of Education physical exercise constitute diversion of the working forces that are important. Before fatigue has been reached the activity should be changed. For every in- dividual this alternation of exercise and rest is more or less constant, varying somewhat also with age — the period lengthening from childhood to youth. It is a determining factor in the making and administering of school programmes. Another periodicity of the life is expressed in what are generally known as stages of development. These are variously distributed through the years, named in sundry ways and each given a more or less arbitrary prominence by different writers, according to the point of view. But the fact that such stages exist is almost universally conceded, in theory at least, however much the teaching or home practice may disregard them. In- fancy, childhood, youth, adolescence and manhood are terms that have the sanction of both common and tech- nical use. Lange distinguishes between early and later childhood, the two periods covering the first ten years of life. With MacVicar, childhood begins at six or seven, all before that time being accorded to infancy. Laurie offers a very similar classification. Of seven classifica- tions known to the writer, all agree in ending one period and beginning another between the fourteenth and six- teenth years. The adjacent periods are differently named, but are both described in reasonably uniform terms. It is noticeable that five of the seven begin their classifications with the child's first years, the other two confine their characterizations to the school period. Psychology 279 Five of the seven, also, find the years between ten and twelve a transition time. But far more important than this effort to fix the limits of the several periods is the approximate una- nimity as to the essential characteristics of life as they appear during the intervening years and at times of transition. This paragraph is given to a summary of the more important of these traits at several stages. For all of the earlier years of childhood before school entrance, and for two or three years thereafter, the in- tellectual life is very directly dependent upon the senses; it is the sense-perception stage; the body is immature, but growing; by the age of eight years the brain has attained approximately to five-sixths its full size; the natural appetites are strong and controlling. The feel- ings are transitory and capricious. The temper is plas- tic. Language and customs are learned chiefly by imi- tation. Habits are easily formed. Nature, environ- ment, is the great teacher. There is little persistence, and no energy for long-continued effort. Following these early years and up to the age of twelve or fourteen — the beginning of adolescence — con- siderable changes take place, both organic and spir- itual. Experience is still chiefly sensuous. Perception is reinforced by a strengthening memory. Seeing be- gins to take on the character of observing. Present in- terests dominate. For this reason the activities that at- tract are of play rather than work. Satisfaction is found in the accompanying feelings rather than in a distant end to be attained. But more complex sports now are de- 280 Science of Education manded to satisfy the growing impulse of tlie mind to control tilings. Later in this same period the rougher games attract. Both boys and girls want to do things. Girls often at this age want to play the milder games of boys; these, in their turn, acquire an interest in the sports of men. The senses are active, the passions strong and but little controlled. Boys engage in per- sonal combats; girls in jealousies and cliques. Both are easily aroused to anger. They are increasingly in- terested in sensational stories, picturesque adventures, incidents of travel and the heroisms of physical courage and danger and exploits. The imagination, so forceful a few years later, is still sensuous but more vivid. It is the period of facile and tenacious memory. Facts are easily learned, but interests are chiefly spontaneous, not selected; attention is neither steady nor controlled. The two sexes associate indifferently; social influences are strong and decisive. At such age children are thoroughly democratic, social distinctions comit for little, companionship becomes a necessity, children crave it. Almost universally it is agreed that danger lies in a too early change to the period of youth which follows. The prolonging of this period, for even a year or two, has a wholesome influence upon the adolescent life, both as furnishing richer material in experience and as passing on a stabler physical condition of organs and their functions. Professor Lancaster, of Colorado College, says : ^ * "Proceedings of the N. E. A.," 1899, p. 1039. Psychology 281 " Adolescence begins when the primary unthinking life of the senses of the child opens np into the broad, sec- ondary mental life of meditation, reflection and con- struction. . . . Objects and events are seen in their intimate relations for the first time. . . . Individu- ality is felt in its fulness. Personality enlarges." Pri- marily, the body is in a state of transition. Great phys- ical, organic changes are taking place. The nervous system is shifting its control, not suddenly, but gradu- ally and surely. Sense products are less regarded; the imagination is active; impulses are strong. Reasoning, however, is growing, though conclusions are likely to be hasty, and doggedly adhered to. The youth is often sceptical and conceited; obstinate at times, even to dis- agreeable stubbornness. He resents direct interference with his conduct. In the beginning, mental resource- fulness is rather on the side of the feelings than of the intelligence. This stage has been called, both physio- logically and psychologically, a period of second birth. It is the beginning of great enthusiasms and ideals, of unselfish love, and strong friendships. What was first a physical growth chiefly, and later intellectual, has come to be an expansion of the soul life. There is an increased and marked susceptibility to culture and de- velopment. While the normal mind is still receptive and re- active, it has in a marvellous way taken on cre- ative powers. It is sensitive to ideals, and aspires to reach them personally, and believes that it can. The days are given to hero-worship, a reverence for those 282 Science of Education who have stood for something great or good or beauti- ful, and achieved distinction and proved themselves capable. The youth now plans great things, is optimis- tic and ambitious. In the presence of possibilities he is credulous and confident. He is vulnerable to every en- thusiastic appeal, and for this reason is open to mani- fold and curious temptations. But, for the same rea- son, he loves athletics and honorable rivalries, and dis- covers himself in his contests. In much the same way, also, he responds to aggressive leadership in sports, or education, or ideals of conduct. Very sensitive to ad- verse criticism and innuendoes, he, nevertheless, submits readily to discipline through his ideals. It has been called " the Elizabethan Age of youth," * and is full of ambitious plans and enthusiasms, self-discoveries, many uncertainties and abounding hopefulness. * Halleck. " Proceedings of the N. E. A.," 1902, p. 731. CHAPTER XX MENTAL PROCESSES (2) Given the capacities of mind and generic quali- ties, psychology contributes to educational science a knowledge of mental processes. It has been already noted that mind is essentially active. All growth is consequent upon this activity, and, soon after early childhood, purposed activity. Throughout life this remains the one instrument of edu- cation. Teachers are primarily interested in the opera- tions of the mind, the way in which and the conditions by which the processes go on — in thinking rather than thought; in feeling rather than emotion; in knowing, and remembering — not in knowledge or things done or remembered. The step by which a child comes to his right or wrong conclusions, to hate, or confidence, or strong purpose, or fine ideals, or to habits of industiy, or respect, is important. As persons we are first of all interested that those for whom we have hopes shall have right thoughts and ideals, sane emotions, accurate mem- ories, and skill in doing ; shall be responsive to sympathy rather than hate and bitterness, shall be industrious and respectful. But as teachers, responsible for this im- provement, as directing and guiding this development, 283 284 Science of Education we mii&t be chiefly and immediately concerned in tlie steps and conditions of tlieir correct feeling and know- ing and choosing in tlieir varied aspects. Hence this paragraph. Among the more general characteristics of the mental processes the following are given: First, they are lim- ited to the three functions named and their several phases. There is no fourth, and no classification that omits either is regarded as complete. The mind appre- hends or thinks; it feels, in the sense of enjoying or suf- fering; it purposes and makes effort. The most unde- veloped human life, after it has once become conscious, does so much ; and the most highly cultivated can do no more. Between the two extremes the difference is one of degree, not of kind. Each is deserving of its share of instruction or guidance. Life is but partial, however knowing, if it be not also moral ; if it be gener- ously furnished with learning, while devoid of a pro- portioned sense of the "ought" involved; or, if it be supersensitive, lacking the common sense to properly value deserts; or, if it be headstrong, with lack of knowl- edge and right disposition. Mental activity is most effective when following lines of least resistance. This requires that there shall be no opposing break between present and past activities. What has been done exists as a force, giving direction to what may be done. Perceiving makes other per- ceiving easier, richer in the same line. The nerve paths already made are grooves for all subsequent doings of like kind. Inference is made more certain by the ac- Mental Processes 285 cumulation of a store of accurate observations from wliicli to draw the inference. One may be really great upon occasion, by virtue of having lived up to one's greatest upon all occasions. A long-continued practice of clearly imaging one's representative experience makes clear imagery easy. To have embraced coarse- ness and sensual interest and animal appetites for a time makes coarse and sensual and brute doing a very natu- ral consequence. The line of past acting or thinking or feeling is a line of least resistance. This fact has definite bearings upon formal education. It requires that, of a given series of experiences for the early years of childhood, that shall be presented first which is easiest, psychologically the most available; and that last which is most difficult. This is not the logical order, but the empirical order. The logical order requires that that shall come first upon which other steps de- pend, and that last which depends upon all the others. This is a secondary sequence, and belongs to the higher stages of critical learning. Kindred to this characteristic is another to the effect that new forms of mental activity are difficult, and difficult in proportion to their strangeness. The two principles lie at the foundation of most efforts to grade the exercises to fit the growing mind. Mr. Palmer has pointed out * that " the line of least resistance tends toward degradation," which means in terms of the present discussion that the highest men- tal work is to be accomplished only by combining the * " The Science of Education," p. 163. 286 Science of Education tv/o principles of activity named above, and holding the child responsible for essaying the more, possibly the most difficult tasks for which his experience and his own purposes have equipped him. The prescribed exercises must be graded, but graded up to his best. He is to be held responsible for the longest steps he is able to take, and still give him sure footing. In personal effort and for educational results, it is the last half inch of stretch that counts, provided the stretch permits of vigorous recovery. A principle of kindred import is to the effect that mental processes are easiest and most immediately ef- fective, if in the lines of closest relations. It must be borne in mind that the " close relations " must be such as appear close, or are made to appear close, to the child himself. At first this connection is the artificial one of the chance personal or adventitious interest, or of happening at the same time, or of objects that appeal to the senses in the same way. In time, the relations of cause and effect, or similarity of structure or func- tion, or of whole and part, or of organism and organ, or of occurrence and accompanying conditions, appear — are recognized as close. Accompanying the recogni- tion that there may be other close relations, and relations that are vital, the search for them is of the nature of the real scientific spirit. The function of directed edu- cation is to bring the pupil to a realization of what relations are fundamentally " close," and why they are such; so that the thought activity shall freely follow that rather than the more accidental and interest- Mental Processes 287 emphasized relations. It must not go unobserved, how- ever, that such activity, as it involves new and higher forms of discrimination and kinship, is relatively more exhausting of energy and requires frequent alteration and remission of activity. It has already been suggested that mind works most easily in regTilarly recurring periods. This needs no elaboration here, and is noted only to make the enumer- ation of typical characteristics of the mental process fairly complete. In all operations where both are involved violent feeling and knowing are antagonistic. Usually moder- ate feeling, if it be pleasurable, is an aid to thinking. But it easily becomes obstructive, interfering with the accuracy of the process, or giving a bias to the conclu- sions. In the form in which it is stated, the principle is probably always true, that feeling and thinking, if either or both be intense, are mutually disturbing, and yet, other conditions being the same, a glow of agree- able feeling must be upon any act of knomng to bring it up to the best. Fear, however, or anger, suspicion, or hatred, is, with almost anyone, a bar to clear under- standing or intelligent effort, and especially is this so of children. Occasionally an adult mind may be stim- ulated to do its best work in the face of fierce opposition, or distrust ; not so of children. " Fear," says Alexander Bain,* " wastes the energy and scatters the thoughts, and is ruinous to the interests of mental progress. Its one certain result is to paralyze and arrest action, or * " Education aa a Science," p. 54, 67. 288 Science of Education else to concentrate force at some central point at the cost of general debility. The tyrant, working by terror, disarms rebelliousness, but fails to procure energetic service." Timidity, anger, hatred, undue rivalry, oversensitiveness* are, in their several ways, equally opposed to effective exercise of thought power, or of reasonable behavior. On the other hand, the pleasurable feeling that stimulates to activity is to be cultivated in all natural ways. The author just quoted says : " With understood exceptions, pleasure is related physically with vitality, health, vigor, harmonious ad- justment of all parts of the system ; it needs sufficiency of nutriment or supjx)rt, excitement within due limits, and the absence of anything that could mar or irritate any organ." The pedagogical meanings of such words are easily derived. ^Next to a keen purpose, tlie feelings are thought's best ally, but a destructive and relentless enemy. Both hope and danger lie that way. Prima- rily, all activity of the mind involves an element of the pleasurable. Even anger and spite and terror have their attractions. One sometimes enjoys nursing his passion ; but just the same, its presence endangers the thinking and the free purpose behind effort, as well. Undue excitement, even though pleasurable, is to be discouraged. Class enthusiasm may be only noise and confusion. The thoughtful and efficient teacher will distinguish between real interest — even abounding in- terest — and the ebullience of mere excitment. Along with the general description of the mental Mental Processes 289 processes just given there are certain classifications of therm that have pedagogical importance. It will be understood that the grouping given is for pedagogical purposes rather than scientific. First, they are to be discriminated as either sensuous or ideal. Bj Spencer and others, the two processes are called presentative and representative. If the mental act be still further re- moved from the activity of the senses, it becomes re- representative. Any process that rests immediately upon the exercise of the senses is sensuous or presenta- tive. Seeing, observing, perceiving, feeling in the pres- ence of the object, are sensuous acts of mind. Even memory, imagination and judgment, that deal directly with the relatively bare images of the sense, are of this class. Emotion in the presence of nature, and having immediate reference to its incitements, has the like character. Of course, it will be seen that there is no sharp line of division between the more complex sense-pro- voked activities and the simple representative forms. In general the former are more lively, seemingly more real, of narrow and specific import, and thing-endowed, as compared with the coi-responding representative acts involving conceptions and thinking, though this be of the simple sort. But in the natural order the former shade into the latter, and " our inward images tend invincibly to attach themselves to something sensi- ble." * A relative independence, however, from the limitations of the sense-perception is essential to real * James. "Psychology," ii, p. 305. 290 Science of Education thinking. The condition of gro^\i;h from one to the other is not to have less to do with the activity and product of the senses, but to save in the higher images the essential marks derived in many perceptions. One indispensable factor in all right thinking (in all safe representative processes) is a habit of accurate sensing. There is no representation worthy of the name that does not rest upon an abundant and discriminating sensuous experience. In all matters of intellectual growth, much else may be safely omitted, if only a sound habit of thinking be grounded upon an adequate store of presentative knowledge. This dependence is one of vital importance in schooling, and yet one that is almost habitually dis- regarded, even in specially devised sense-exercises. From a secondary source, to learn a list of facts about an object is not an act of sense-perceiving. Mental processes, also, are either pleasure-giving or pain-giving; in the activity or in the product, or both. The agreeable movement will be often repeated. Pain and the remembrance of pain lead to the inhibitions of acts, or to caution, or stoical endurance. Constitution- ally, the mind finds pleasure in sensing, and imaging, remembering, thinking, purposing, planning, and do- ing. Each may become painful if associated with dis- agreeable sensations, or frightful images, or distressing memories, or forced thinking, etc. But one, even a very young child, may often be won to a disagreeable task through hope of accomplishing an ultimate cov- eted good or pleasure that lies beyond. A valuable par- Mental Processes 291 agraph in Bain's " Education as a Science " is that wherein he discusses the means of arousing an interest in the indifferent; attention to what is not in itself pleasurable. " The beginnings of knowledge," he says,* " are in activity and in pleasure, but the culminating point is in the power of attending to things in them- selves indifferent." The energies do not lend them- selves to tasteless efforts. The end to be attained must be seen to be worth striving for. The intermediate steps may be disagreeable or at least unattractive, but they will be taken, and may be taken cheerfully, if the object to be reached is felt (by the child) to be worth while — worth the effort and the distress. If it be thought eminently desirable or relatively so to the pupil, the distress may be forgotten — unfelt even, borne with pleasure — the end with its own anticipated joy saturating the means with content. In another paragraph the author last quoted concludes : " To fall in love with and pursue the indifferent and insipid is a contradiction in terms. It is as means to ends that things indifferent in themselves can conmiand atten- tion." -j- But, for the individual, the highest value at- taches to the purposed or habitual substitution of dis- tant ends for immediate ones as stimulus to such action. Again, mental processes are either spontaneous or controlled. These represent, rather, stages in mental development than unlike process-forms at the same stage. The former is characteristic of childhood, es- * Bain. " Education as a Science," p. 178. t Ibid., p. 181. 292 Science of Education pecially tlie earliest years ; the latter of the later youth and adulthood. Nevertheless, even in the experiences of the young, there are few if any activities that are altogether spontaneous, and among older people there are none who do not show more or less of impulsiveness in their behavior, or opinions, or conclusions. This, nevertheless, is a cardinal distinction in the mind's processes. The difference is measured in meaning by such words as " intent," " purpose," " choice," " de- cision," " selection," " rejection," " preference," " scepticism," " consent," etc., etc., tlie mind putting upon each act so valued its seal of decision. The two forms of process are applicable to practically all the functions of the mind. Memory has its voluntary side in recollection ; imagination, as philosophical or constructive ; thinking, in formal judgments ; perception, in investigation ; sympathy, in beneficence ; gregari- ousness, in sociability, etc. The natural tendency, other conditions being equivalent, is away from control and toward impulse. Recollection tends to deteriorate into remembrance, or reminiscence ; imagination, into fancy ; thinking, into playing with the " symbols of thinking"; investigation, into passive seeing; sym- pathy, into mere gush of feeling; sociability, into disr sipation of companionship; attention, to mere aimless interest. The tendency of all directed education is toward a larger possible purposeful activity. This it is, to be educable; to take on the higher, because more fruitful and serviceable forms of intended activity. The two are not always readily distinguishable. But Mental Processes 293 the field is an inviting one for study and for peda- gogical results. Processes, further, are either analytic or synthetic. In character the two are sharply opposed to each other, and mutually exclusive, though intimately associated. By implication, at least, if not positively, each is pres- ent in every act of the other. Chronologically, and therefore psychologically, analysis is primary and fun- damental. The simple way of regarding an object is to see it as a unit. The impression is of the thing as one and undivided. Seeing it as divisible is the first step of the mind in analysis. In thought, dividing the whole into parts, and recognizing these as parts of this whole is the completed act of analysis. In a way, " analysis of a thing means separate attention to each of its parts." Any given act of analysis is furthered by past experience; by knowing what may reasonably be looked for. But thinking a whole into its parts has been accompanied from the beginning of the act by the constant tendency of the mind to cover these back into the whole, which is nascent synthesis. The two have gone along together, as they must always go along together. Each implies the other. If there were no parts recognizable as making up a whole, as belonging together in that way, there would be no whole to be known as resolvable into parts. But the first act of the mind, as a distinct act of consciousness, is in the recog- nition of the individual as such. All words at first are proper names. Each thing or person or idea is a com- plete object of thought. In time the parts of each are 294 Science of Education discriminated, and the relations of these parts or mean- ings ; in time, also, the likeness of the relations among the parts of different objects. But throughout the proc- ess the mind harks hack through the parts and im- plicit relations to the whole for a fresh start, and so by a rudimentary synthesis verifies its analysis. It is this retracing of the steps that lends the act of analysis validity, and satisfies the mind. The unspoiled mind goes through this process nat- urally and with pleasure. It should be no less efficient in the formal exercises of the school, nor less agreeable. Objects of nature, human achievement, the fine arts, language and other expressions, calculation, the facts and conditions of health, personal conduct, and social conventions, as representative of school studies, must each be resolved in the same way, if resolved at all. And it need only be mentioned, not argued, that this recognition of parts and relations of qualities and uses must be the child's own act; neither the analysis nor the synthesis can, with advantage, be manufactured for the child by parent or teacher and handed over to him ready made. The act, to be worth anything, must be his ; the product, if not the result of his own thinking, has for him no meaning at all. CHAPTER XXI MENTAL PROCESSES (Concluded) Finally among the classes of mental processes to be considered are two kindred to those just mentioned — in- terpretative and constructive. These are variously com- bined in individual capacities. Each implies the other, but is less consciously present in the other than was shown of analysis and synthesis. Many persons are able to enjoy music of the better sort who are altogether incapable of combining tones into harmonies, or even into themes, or musical phrases. Appreciation implies a degree of interpretation, discovering the harmony in the piece of music, and a discrimination and enjoyment of the parts, or of particular phrases, or tone series of the theme, regarded as parts of the whole; and by implication, as noted in the last paragi-aph, constitutes formal or rudimentary analysis, but stops short of the form of original creativeness, represented by what has been called the constructive act. The two processes are very distinct. This power to interpret may be applied to understanding a machine, an industrial plant, a commercial system, an army, the artistic features of a picturesque landscape, an argument, an historical es- say, or a poem, without bringing the observer nearer to being able to construct or direct the construction of 295 296 Science of Education such macliine, to administer an industrial plant or a given commercial system, to dictate the movements of an army, to describe the landscape, or to compose the argument, the historical treatise, or the poem. And yet for every individual, in one form or another, in a greater or less degree, both powers are native endow- ments. The former has been the object of most sys- tems of formal training; the latter has been largely dis- regarded. The schools have sought to cultivate the understanding, the power to apprehend, to interpret, to explain ; but rarely to do, to make, to execute ; to imitate, to accept, to follow authority — but not to initiate, to originate, to lead, to direct. This appears to be more difficult; it is a more diffi- cult process. But, all the more for this reason, there is need of efforts at systematic cultivation. In its be- ginning, spithesis is only the other side of a process that on one side is analysis. In its higher forms it is much more complex. Interpretation is related to anal- ysis; constructiveness to synthesis. But when the con- ^structive art takes on the character of invention or com- position it becomes more complicated. In analysis the whole is given whose parts are to be discriminated; in synthesis the whole itself is to be found, and elements gathered to constitute this hypothetic whole. This is not more true^ — to use again the first illustration — of musical composition than of mechanical invention and manufacture, the framing of ordinances, the construc- tion of a philosophical system, the composition of a metrical story, or devising and working out an educa- Mental Processes 297 tional policy. Just as it is easier in physical phenomena to trace effects from a given cause than, given a mani- fold of effects, to find their cause, so is the selection and building up of detached experiences or ideas into (constituted wholes of meaning and influence coiTespond- ingly difficult. Its conserving requires positive effort, except perhaps in the case of special endowments; but the investment yields large returns of power in initia- tive and resourcefulness. Much may be done in the accustomed routine of the school. An increase in the relative amount of doing, as compared with the merely thinking and interpreting exercises ; more originating of designs by pupils, and the working out of their own designs ; more learning that finds its end in doing, or conduct, or execution — or learning through thoughtful doing, or purposed con- duct, or studied execution — would, does, add greatly to the improvement of the creative, constructive faculty. But of all the processes of the mind the two most fundamental, perhaps, in a pedagogical sense, are dis- crimination and attention. Professor James mentions as the fundamental forces — after sensibility — discrimina- tion, association, memory, and choice. Bain speaks of discrimination, agreement, and retentiveness as being " the three great functions of the intellect." Sully accepts this classification. In most other psychologies little is made of discrimination except as an incidental accompaniment of the other functions. And yet Mr. Sully insists * that " the discrimination of difference is * " The Human Mind," i, p. 62. 298 Science of Education the most fundamental and constant element in intel- lection," " Every cognition/' says D. G. Thompson,* " is a cognition of difference. Hence consciousness of difference is a universal element of states of conscious- ness." And Bain again asserts, " The beginning of knowledge is discrimination." So much has been said of discrimination, by way of introduction, in this paragraph because, in general, more emphasis, perhaps a disproportioned emphasis, has been placed, by most writers, upon association than upon the process named. Porter in " The Human In- tellect " devotes a long chapter to the former, and in a book of nearly seven, hundred pages only incidentally mentions the latter. By recent writers the two are gen- erally co-ordinated. Not all agree in ranking retentive- ness with the other two, although Sully does do so. The two processes to which this paragraph is given, however, are discrimination and attention : the former as carrying with it by implication associative and related integrative processes; the latter as being equally essen- tial and having peculiar pedagogical bearings. Both are primary processes. There seems to be, as pointed out by an occasional writer, a prevailing tendency in the mind to inte- grate its experiences, the law being that " all things fuse that can fuse, and nothing separates except what must." Yet this " separating " of experiences, thinking them in terms of their differences, not less than their likenesses, is essential to clear thought or * " A System of Psychology," i, p. 104. Mental Processes 299 reasoning. It is the one representative process by which the imagination gets its elements for recom- bining into new forms. Pleasures and pains begin in discriminated sensations and feelings. As has been already pointed out by Bain, in his " ]\Iental Sci- ence," all mental life is dependent upon change. An unchanging world of matter, without variation of move- ment or color or size or shape or other quality, would be unknowable. As, for the infant, the Avorld of thing and action exists primarily as a confused whole, which yields but slowly to division and particular impressions; so to the older child, as pupil, the store of literature and history and science first appears as a more or less tan- gled and obscurely ordered mass of possible facts, which, .through discrimination and comparison, become real facts of mind, and hence, to him, facts of nature and art. It is a process of inventorying a consignment which, when singled out and labeled, and in time classed, becomes his own. Governments and functions and peoples, and cus- toms and institutions, and cultures and arts, and ideals and phenomena, and forces and material forms, are, by each one for himself, to be experienced, par- celed out, and objectified ; and this is a large part of the child's study of literature and history and science. Naturally, almost from the beginning of any particular activity, there has gone along the corresponding process of classification, assimilation, including comparisons and association in terms of likenesses. But there could be no comparison, or association, or assimilation unless 300 Science of Education there were discriminated parts or elements, to be com- pared, or associated, or assimilated. ISTo impression, whether obtained through the senses or through reflec- tion, is definite or clear unless it is picked out and dis- tinguished from others. Gladstone's epigram, that he " never quite knew a thing till he had run the fingers of his mind around the edges of the thought," illus- trates the point admirably. The power to isolate an object, or an idea, or a theme, or a picture, or an act, and make it the object of one's attention, is a vital achievement in all learning — vital on the plane of sense, vital in judgment and reasoning. Assimilation is im- portant; but this process seems to be assured by the mind itself; besides, its frequent and careful exposition has made it better understood. Discrimination is often difiicult, and there is an observable tendency in most minds, especially those of children, to neglect it. For the highest uses it requires an effort or the incentive of an outer guidance. It tends to deteriorate, leaving the mind content with indistinct impressions and sensations, vague mental images, relatively blurred experiences, and confused judgments. In the history of the race, science, whose classifica- tions rest upon distinct and accurate discriminations, is a very recent achievement. Most people of the pres- ent day do not think in this latter sense. For most of them the mainland of experience is parceled out by the traditional system of metes and bounds, carelessly fixed at first, and the marks soon lost. Right think- ing fixes boundaries and distinctions, and interprets Mental Processes 301 ownership in terms of these not less than in terms of content as such. Pedagogically, this all means that the pupil is to be held responsible for only such dis- criminations as he is able to make, and for all such. The one further act of mind here to be considered is attention. Few will venture to disagree with Rosen- kranz in the often quoted dictum that " To education the conception of attention is the most important one of all those derived from psychology." The topic is not introduced here for scientific treatment, but to advert to such phases of the process as are important educationally, and especially pedagogically. Extracts might be indefinitely multiplied, showing a consensus of opinion in harmony with that of Rosenkranz. A few only need be noted. Guyau says: " The cultiva- tion of attention is the secret of all intellectual train- ing"; and Ladd: "Attention, the selective focusing of psychic energy, is the primary condition of all intelli- gence"; and Sully: "The processes of rational atten- tion constitute a main factor in all that we understand by thinking." Mr. Gordy says: " The purpose of teaching is to develop the power of attending to the right things in the right way"; and James: " An edu- cation which should improve this faculty would be edu- cation 'par excellence." It will be apparent that, both psychologically and pedagogically, the act called attention is an essential for any real mental work by any function. It is recog- nized as present as an active factor in both feeling and knowing; in perception, imagination, comparison, 302 Science of Education discrimination; and, especially, in thinking and reason- ing. What we remember or recollect depends in large measure upon what we attend to. " To attend," it has been said, " means to perform other functions of the mind with care and with energy." It is not to be thought of as a faculty or power, but rather as a process, a way of acting, the mode, a mode of the mind's activ- ity. In this sense it has been defined as the process of cognition itself — " the movement of the mind from feeling-consciousness to thought-consciousness." Inclu- sively, as to product, " my experience," says Professor James, " is what I agree to attend to." From which, and other considerations, it will be ob- vious that there are certain well-defined characteristics of this act called attention. Primarily, it is a selective act; in childhood, less consciously so than in adult years, but selective nevertheless. It employs discrim- ination, and out of several possible objects, or impres- sions, or trains of thought that may be followed, atten- tion is, in a clear and vivid way, taking one and con- verging upon it available mental energy. It is analytic and primary. It means effort, intent; but discriminat- ing intent. With something of prevision, it chooses what the mind shall see, or remember, or think, or do, or enjoy, or use. The act of attention is, so far, an act of detention, holding before the mind the object of its interest, for detailed beholding or inquiry. Within the field of its choice tie act is comprehensive and critical. It is the spirit of all investigation and intelligent " study." It is responsible for the faithfulness to fact Mental Processes 303 of all high art ; and of the intellect to truth ; and of the heart and will to character. It makes possible the mind's discriminations in science and philosophy. In the early years of childhood the " selection " is mainly by means of the child's constitutional prefer- ences, or the passing influence of his teachers. In a sense, his interest is solicited, apparently impelled, and so his attention. The objects or ideas are not always of his own choosing. But as the early semi-purposeless acts of imitation are the beginning of his later purposeful doing, so these solicited acts of attention prepare the mind for the more consciously discriminating processes iater. This is the order of growth: those were chiefly occasioned by environment, including teachers and elders; for the maturer form there must be inner occa- sion, self -intent ; a purposed " focalization, a concentra- tion of consciousness; a withdrawal from some things, in order to deal effectively with others." It is purpose- ful; and when one considers that attention is this deter- mining exercise of will upon the various mental, and especially intellectual, functions, it need not seem strange that one should be drawn to make the somewhat exag- gerated statement that " volition is nothing but atten- tion." * The importance of the will and the part it plays in the act of attention will appear from another consid- eration also. In contrast Avith the sentence just quoted from Professor James is the following from Professor Ladd f to the effect that " attention is identical with * James. "Psychology," i, p. 447. f " Outlines of Descriptive Psychology," p. 42. 304 Science of Educatiori interest, and interest is feeling." It is not necessary to indorse either of tkese probably extreme statements to recognize that both interest and will are important factors, and ever-present ones, in giving character to attention. The degree and kind of interest one has in- fluences his attention, without doubt. " The mind tends to attend to what is pleasurable." " In the pres- ence of the more enjoyable," says Bain,* " the less enjoyable is disregarded." The movement of the mind is, in general, toward the pleasing; as a product of evo- lution it should be so. Attention to the disagreeable, as a rule, is infertile. Only that which has been learned on a rising tide of interest is a productive factor in experience. But this does not mean that attention with an effort, willed attention, excludes interest. All attention worthy of the name is a purposed conver- gence of function, and may be, often is, always at best, in line with some conceived interest. Consciously di- rected attention is not, then, necessarily, or usually, perhaps, an accent of the disagreeable to fix its mean- ings, but more often a reinforcement of mere interest to make both more effective. Sometimes the two are at discord with each other; and interest being diverted, will is left to pull against gravity. But it must be re- membered that inattention is not non-attention, and is often nothing more than the attention of interest over- riding the effort of the will. The most inattentive member of the class may be the most attentive really, and most productively so. * " Education as a Science," p. 179, Mental Processes 305 The confusion that has just been noticed, in part grows out of the failure to distinguish between the more remote interests of the man and the relatively local and transient interests of the child. The one is absorbed by the thing he does — whether it be reading, playing, making a toy, or planning a holi- day: the other, setting himself to the accomplishing of some distant end, finds a quieter, maybe, but a genuine and abiding content in the daily tasks as contributing steps. As a form of growth, along this way lies the cultivation of attention. Voluntary at- tention is thus always " derived," not immediate, as it is in the earlier form. That is, it has a borrowed in- terest that projects itself into the future, and reflects upon each detail of the way the influence of a higher faculty. Dr. Harris, in his notes upon Rosenkranz's " Intellectual Education," * calls the successive stages of development " moments of attention," and names four: (1) as a mere power of isolating one object from others; (2) as analysis, or continued attention; (3) as abstraction; and (4) as synthesis, in which the atten- tion is fixed upon the essential relations discovered by analysis and abstraction. Among the conditions of effective attention may be named a sense of pleasurable activity, the growing of selective interest, regulated intensity of stimulus, health and physical vigor, and a clear and steady pur- pose. These conditions themselves will suggest a num- ber of difficulties, or the obstacles to attention; these * " Philosophy of Education," p. 71. 306 Science of Education and some others follow : weakness of bodily powers ; an unfavorable environment (of sights, or sounds, or tem- perature, or ventilation, or furniture) ; a wandering mental habit; a "waiting" temperament or a vola- tile one; and tlie imposition of unsuitable tasks. In each case the symptoms suggest plainly enough, per- haps, the cure. For purposes of training, the effort should be, not for long-continued attention, but for sharp, effective focusing; the chief defect is a disper- sion and thriftless use of energy. A recitation of five minutes that excludes unrelated matters is more pro- ductive of mental efficiency than a half hour of unwill- ing effort that must be held to its task by the teacher's device. AMiatever task is attempted should be easy enough to hold the attention, and hard enough to claim it. Even the child must see that something is to be undertaken that is deserving of its attention, and, once in the midst of the doing, it must be attractive enough to leave the assurance that sometliing is being accom- plished. Later the difficulty may be transferred to the doing, but not at first. Do not nag or quibble with the pupil; treat his efforts with respect; nagging is dis- tracting. CHAPTER XXII THE GROWTH OF EMOTIONS An important chapter or paragraph in any treatment of education in a critical way is that which regards the growth or development of mind or the successive stages in the mind's unfolding. There is implied in this the gro^vth and maturing of the several functions — as perception, understanding, sympathy, choice. But inasmuch as mind, in all essential respects, acts as a whole, it is in place here to set forth first, as clearly as may be, the conditions and stages of the improving of the generic functions; at present, knowing, feeling. The full consideration of willing, the remaining func- tion, will be postponed to a subsequent chapter. And first of The Feelings It is not a little remarkable that, notwithstanding the increased emphasis placed upon the feelings in con- temporary science, the effect upon school practice, and even upon educational theories, has been so insignifi- cant. We prate of understanding, and reason, and judg- ment, and the divine imagination, and the dignity of the human will; and quote Shakespeare on man — a 307 308 Science of Education "Wonderful being ; " wliat a piece of work is man ; how noble in reason ; Low infinite in faculties ; in form and moving how express and admirable; in action how like an angel ; in apprehension how like a god ; the beauty of the world — the paragon of animals " : and give little thought to the systematic cultivation of the emotions and sentiments. It may be reasonably ques- tioned, however, whether our feelings are not the real human masters — the condition of greatness. " While philosophers are disputing about the government of the world," said Schiller, " hunger and love are perform- ing the task." In the last analysis, feeling is the fun- damental fact. " Our emotions," said Bascom, " pre- sent by far the most numerous, complex and varied features of the mind " ; in all essentials, a truer index of the soul than is the intellect. " When one stops to realize what a large part of our waking life our emo- tions constitute," wrote Oppenlieim, " he must be deeply impressed by their importance. Such things as fear and rage, love and hate, reverence and cynicism, the recognition and the lack of recognition of beauty, pride and humility, are among the biggest facts of life." In all deeper ways these great and universal forces lie much nearer the spring of human action than does the intelligence. JSTevertheless, the tendency of the schools is too often toward a hard, dry, cold in- tellectualism : " the curricula of studies are filled with branches to give activity to the intellect; but what branches are given to a cultivation of the sensibilities ? " The Growth of Emotions 309 Under the caption of " Happy Association," while dis- cussing the culture of the emotions, Alexander Bain was led to an interesting bit of enthusiasm : " The edu- cationist could not but cast a longing eye over the wide region here opened up as a grand opportunity for his art It is the realm of vague possibility, peculiarly suited to sanguine estimates. An education in happi- ness, pure and simple, by well-placed and joyous asso- ciations is a dazzling prospect " ; and he quotes ap- provingly one of Sydney Smith's pithy sayings, that " if you make children happy now you make them happy twenty years hence by the memory of it." Is it inevitable, the teacher must ask himself, is it desirable, that the schools go on grinding out concepts, and ideas, and syllogisms, and logic products — even if it be by the " roller process " ? The incidental influences of life frequently develop one function out of all propor- tion to the others. An established and equipped and ex- pensive system of schools, offering a formal, provident training, should avoid that mistake. It would seem that thought and feeling should be permitted, at least, to grow along together, if, indeed, they be not con- sciously yoked in reinforcing activities. It is not enough that one have the manner and pattern of good- ness ; goodness must be allied to the feelings that help it out. " He alone is virtuous," said Aristotle, more than twenty-two centuries ago, " who finds pleasure in being so." The love of learning is better than any possession, and a sense of self-respect than high place and power. Out of feelings, it has been said, spring 310 Science of Education actions; actions become habit; and habits crystallize into character. The great functions of the mind should work in harmony, and should be educated to work so. Coleridge's often-quoted epigram, " My head is with Spinoza but my heart with Paul and John " ; and St» Paul's, " When I would do good, evil is present with me," will find easy interpretations in the experiences of most persons. " The heart of man, which is capable of exercising the noblest desires, the tenderest affec- tions, the finest sentiments, and the sublimest emo- tions, is likewise capable of being ruled by the most depraved appetites, brutish passions, and fiendish emo- tions." What can a discriminating training do to fore- fend this possible miscarriage? What are the condi- tions of a healthy growth of the feelings into vigorous, liberal, regulated emotions? These are questions in practical pedagogy to which educational doctrine may suggest at least partial answers. The emotional states are complex, and intenninably mixed ; rarely pure, even the simplest ones ; and curi- ously intractable in any attempt at uniform classifica- tion. Indeed, Professor James says that " there is no limit to the number of possible different emotions that may exist, and the emotions of different individuals may vary indefinitely " ; and concludes that any classi- fication of the emotions is seen to be as true and as " natural " as any other, if it serve some purpose. Mr. Bascom presents * a full-page diagram, showing sixty- seven different emotions, under two general heads, in- * " Science of the Mind," p. 363, The Growth of Emotions 311 tellectual feelings and spiritual feelings, but protests that he does not present the classification as exhaustive. Kant's grouping of the emotions into (1) melting emo- tions, like fear or sadness or mental shock, that par- alyze activity, and (2) stirring emotions, that arouse activity, like joy or anger, is suggested for educational criticism, but not directly helpful to teachers. Ladd uses four groups: (1) sensuous; (2) intellectual; (3) aesthetic; and (4) ethical; that explain themselves. Sir William Hamilton's arrangement, slightly modified for comparison, shows (1) sensuous feelings; (2) con- templative feelings (including the intellectual and aesthetic of the previous classification) ; and (3) prac- tical (comprising the self -regarding and race-preserv- ing feelings). Sully has two groups of the lower type, sense feelings and animal emotions ; and one class, the representative emotions to compass all the spirit- ual feelings. One other attempt at this classification must not be omitted, inasmuch as it admirably calls atten- tion to the increasing representativeness of the feel- ing sense in its development. By Herbert Spencer the feelings are arranged* in four classes: (1) presenta- tive feelings, active sense feelings; (2) presentative- representative feelings, actual and revived sense feel- ings; (3) representative feelings, revived sense feel- ings; and (4) re-representative feelings, as justice, patriotism, and the intellectual and ethical feelings generally. * " Principlea of Psychology," ii, p. 514. 312 Science of Education Couched in technical terms as are most of these classifications, and especially Spencer's, there is still a general agreement upon certain points worth not- ing: (1) after the lowest or organic feelings, they all begin with the sense feelings; (2) the difference between these and the next and successively higher forms is a more or less decisive rise above the plane of the senses — the feeling becomes in some degree repre- sentative, not merely presentative ; (3) in each case the last group is the most highly representative of all, how- ever they may be named. Moreover, the three or four or five classes represent a fairly well defined order of development. If Ladd's arrangement be taken as a typical order, one should say that the sensuous feelings are (1) simpler than those that follow; (2) less spir- itual in character ; ( 3 ) of earlier beginning in both the race and the individual; (4) more fugitive; and (5) more dependent on the bodily organism. That, in gen- eral, the intellectual emotions precede the aesthetic or the ethical; and that, in the history of both the indi- vidual and the race, the development of the last is rel- atively late. The earliest forms are rather crude feelings, wholly self -regarding, only rudimentary as emotions, and chiefly instinctive. They are the immediate accompaniment of the sense activities, without imagination, and but lit- tle vitalized by experience. These feelings are, as a rule, intense, and often violent, unreflecting, and will-less. Because they are intense they are surprisingly fugitive, superficial, and easily displaced. In time through The Growth of Emotions 313 memory and imagination these directly sensuous feel- ings become, in a measure, idealized, the intellectual emotions gain in relative importance, and a sense of beauty for other than the superfcially attractive ap- pears. Most fears and forms of anger fade, if once brought to compete with real intelligence. So the pleasures of companionship, and rivalry, and social measurement, and the incident emotions, crowd out the more troublesome self-regarding emotions, and take their place, or infuse them with the new spirit. In general the order of emotional growth may be de- scribed as from sense to excitement ; from chiefly nega- tive to positive feelings ; from excitant to regulative con- ditions; from immediate to associative and derived meanings; from merely impulsive to intelligence-filled feelings. It has been said that the principle of associa- tive transference (referred to above) is " one of the high- est practical importance. It secures the persistence of feeling by extending the range of excitant. We invest indifferent objects with agreeable or disagTeeable asso- ciations; feeling becomes enlarged, spread out, as well as deepened and consolidated by the development of rep- resentation (imagination and thought). The individ- ual grows calmer as he grows older." Steadiness of purpose, too, w^orks out steadiness of feelings. The very democracy of the school is a factor in regu- lating the emotions. Many a boy has been brought to do, as one of many, not what he liked and found his joy in, but what he must, and has come to count it greater joy. Child feelings are spontaneous and artless. In time one 314 Science of Education learns concealmentj a counterfeit manner, and what Kant calls " impenetrability of soul." It may develop into an extreme form of injury, but it represents control and attempt at regulation. The mind having formed many associations (derivative feelings), there is a ten- dency to strengthen associations in certain directions that prevent or exclude other associations. " This expresses," says Thompson, " the law of habit, on its intellectual side." Selfishness and sympathy, meanness and justice, hate and love, do not rule a life together. One or the other is likely to become dominant and permanent. There is a blunting of the emotions also, by age, by study, etc., because of which the right stimulation of desirable ones in the earlier years becomes im- portant. The love of the beautiful, in form, and color, and conduct, is practically denied to one whose heart and motives have not been properly touched in youth. If the love of knowledge, joy in acquisition, be not awakened in childhood, it is not likely to be in man- hood, however much the mind may be filled with learning. A paragraph concerning the laws and conditions of growth of the feelings must close this discussion. For the most part, the laws of development of mind as a whole, or of the intellect, or of any particular mani- festation of the intellect, are equally applicable to the feelings. For growth of faculty exercise is the one pre- vailing requisite. Among the feelings along with the exercise of any one feeling there goes repression of its ppposite — repression, either direct or incidental. Sym- The Growth of Emotions 315 pathy itself may be over-sensitive and call for repres- sion. The essential quality of anger that shows itself in indignation or emphatic self-assertion may need encour- agement or positive culture. Sociability may be exces- eive; truthfulness may accompany a morbid conscien- tiousness. The more intense feelings, as a rule, are transient; permanency is likely to attach to moderation and con- trol. Bursts of temper are best left to run their course. Treatment will be likely to be more effective when the passion has subsided. Similarly, over-zealous affec- tion, and intense hatred, and depth of discouragement (especially in the young) are likely to run but short courses. Permanence of desirable emotions is to come, as a rule, through this control to moderation. In this connection it should be observed that like feelings sus- tain, as those unlike displace each other. In the chance combinations of anger, hatred, malice, and jeal- ousy, or any number of them, each would be stronger because of the others present; as would be truth, cour- age, love, and patience for the same reason. With children especially, new excitants are more likely to produce strong emotions, and old ones weaker, though customary things are often more pleasing than are the unfamiliar. Sympathy, interest, content are the great harmonizers. Repugnance, even in its mildest form, divides and estranges. It may fairly be asked of the teacher that he provide as certainly for the right exercise of the emotions as of the faculty of understanding; that emotions be 316 Science of Education induced to issue in their appropriate action; and that he himself live the emotion he would cultivate in his pupils. Whatever emotion is sought to be cultivated must be reached by positive, though, as a rule, indirect exercise ; they must be stimulated to feel as you would have them feel. The law of repetition holds here, too, as it does with the processes of understanding. Feelings are subject to habit, as are talking and thinking. Purposely to have done kind deeds wdien they w^ere matters of indifference makes it easier to do kind things and say kind words when tempted to withhold. To refrain from anger when the provocation is slight paves the way for con- trol when the provocation is great. A habit of being really and intellectually interested in things and per- sons makes any fictitious feeling about them seem puerile. One is not likely to cherish feelings of revenge or jealousy if the mind have abiding interests to work out. CHAPTER XXm THE GROWTH OF INTELLIGENCE The kind of growth that is most familiar to teachers, in name at least, is that of the intellect. Our acquaint- ance with knowledge and the thinking faculty, and the nature of presentative and representative functions is far more definite and more systematically ordered and answerable to tests than is our knowledge of the will or the feelings. But about the details of intellectual gro^vth even there is not a little hazy thinking, and more hazy practice in the attempt to give it direction. By growth of body is meant primarily a change in size, though there are, especially at certain periods of life, considerable and influential changes of function and character as well ; by growth of mind is meant, even to the lay mind, chiefly changes of quality, though these go along with great accumulations of experience — a quantitive change. In the growth of the emotions the modification is ahnost wholly one of quality, having to do, primarily, with greater or less degrees of intensity, and more or less breadth and refinement of sensibility. The growth of intelligence may be set off more in detail, the lines or stages of growth suggesting the right plac- 317 318 Science of Education ing of accent in its culture. What these stages are and how thej follow each other is an important paragraph in educational doctrine. First, and most obviously, growth of intelligence im- plies an increase in the number of one's experiences. This is the simplest and most commonly observed form. However psychology may explain the so-called " posses- sions " of mind, experience accumulates. Every work- ing hour adds to tlie intellectual acquisitions and reac- tions, most, or many of which, are saved in a revivable way. Very early the child adds to his first sense- impressions a knowledge of his language, the forms of speech and word-symbols ; people and their behavior and occupations; natural phenomena and their simple explanations; tools and implements, and social codes; ideals of conduct and the proprieties, and practical rights; local historical and institutional happenings and order; and an acquaintance with his o^vn capabili- ties and interests. As formal instruction progresses in keeping with his own maturity, he acquires a store of images of literature and the race's achievement, and the conclusions of science, and the results of invention and industry ; of story, and heroism, and adventure ; of travel, and distant peoples, and other times ; most of which, perhaps, will be irretrievably lost to accustomed use, but much of which remains as recoverable experi- ence in the daily life. Altogether apart from the increased power to think, and to do, and to enjoy, there is, with most persons, an increasing stock of knowledge. If this The Growth of Intelligence 319 be real knowledge of type forms and held by the understanding, it represents far more possible in- sights and interests than the actual knowledge stands for itself. Through reflection and the mind's store of general notions, many other facts are interpretable upon occasion. All this represents one very important order of growth of intelligence. It is the scholarship aspect of education, and regards knowledge, abundant knowl- edge, as a legitimate end in training. Most schooling exalts tliis aspect, and the only mistake, if there be one, is in failing to recognize that it is one aspect only ; very important, not to be disregarded, but to be carefully conserved. ]^ot less important than scholarship in characteriz- ing the stages in intellectual education is the implica- tion that there is also an increase in the complexity of experience. While the first cliaracteristic named determines ivhat shall be included in a course of study, this goes far, especially in the elementary schools, to fix the order of exercises. In the somewhat pedantic and over-technical, but accurate, phrase of Herbert Spen- cer, the invariable order of experience, in the individ- ual, as in the race, is " from the simple, the homoge- neous and the indefinite, to the complex, the heteroge- neous and the definite." In the natural order, and therefore, of necessity, in any prescribed order, the simpler, easier, more vague, and less mixed experi- ences come first; what lies nearest tO' the child or to primitive necessities — these seem to him to be most available, perhaps, because most appealing. The more 320 Science of Education difficult, because more intricate, processes follow in their order. Mind reveals its growth by being somewhat regu- larly more able to meet the more difficult tasks. In the nature of mind it is evident that, from day to day, there will be no appreciable increase in this power. But gro^vth of mind means this, not less surely than it means increase of knowledge. This appears in the later development of the complex emotions ; in the slow taking on of higher standards of conduct and motives of life ; and in the complexity of interests in adult years, as compared with childhood. Because of this trait of mind, the history for children is chiefly by story, picturesque and sketchy, descriptive, personal, and practically without the time element. Gradually, the personal element gives place to the insti- tutional ; occurrences are related in time ; causes and ef- fects are observed and traced ; and a stream of human endeavor is discovered. The material of the study at both extremes is much the same. The difference lies in the way the mind is able to use them. The appai'- ently unrelated observations of nature also, and the obvious meanings assigned by the primitive mind, and by the child, become in time, for both of them, the com- plex whole of systematic science with its rational ex- planations, its laws, and its predictions. The same thing is true of language knowledge, of literature, of art and the arts, of conduct and ideals. First knowl- edge is vague, scrappy, of surface phenomena, and indi- vidual. As applied to the understanding, growth of The Growth of Intelligence 321 mind means an increase in power to grasp and unify and use experiences of more complex, and, in time, of highly complex and interdependent phenomena. The programme of directed education finds in this character- istic of mind the justification of its order. Along with this general process of acquisition, and the growth in power over increasing difficulties, and as a result of these, has been developed an increasing fa- cility in the mental operations. \Miat was done with difficulty comes to be done easily; what the mind was unable to do, it now accomplishes. Practice in think- ing has made thinking ready. Much seeing has re- moved obstructions to seeing. To have used any given knowledge many times makes its use automatic. Much memorizing and reproducing reduces the difficulty of remembering. By making many kites, the knowledge of the successive steps in kite-making is promptly at call when needed ; not necessarily or generally going repeatedly over the same routine, but using many times and in various ways the same elements or tlie principal elements involved in the routine. Drill in reading — while learning to read — does not mean reading the same selection often, but the reading of many selec- tions of the same grade of difficultly, using practically the same vocabulary and similar ideas, under different themes. A lesson in geography is not best learned by repeated conning of the one paragraph about a river valley, but rather working up from various points of view the simple story of the river valley. What is needed is a ready acquaintance with words — 322 Science of Education a garment for thought — not a set of words as a garment for a set thought. This characteristic of mind under- lies the exercise called drill. Facility comes through repeated doing. Facility in thinking through much thinking, not the pretence of it; facility in calculation through much use of numbers ; facility in interpreting soil conditions from interpreting soil conditions ; grace in bodily carriage through practising a graceful car- riage ; strength and confidence in initiative through ex- ercising one's initiative, not continued imitation. Mani- fold acquaintance with any well-defined reaction will in time fix a habit ; and habit is facile and comfortable. When one considers the enormous increase of experi- ences with the passing years, and the successively harder tasks imposed upon the mind, it is apparent that this provision, whereby it is able to fund its experi- ences for easy and profitable returns without its con- stant care, is a generous one. The increasing facility is an economy of both time and energy and greatly adds to the product of the mind's conscious effort. Growth of mind implies for all of its functions an increase in the facility with which the accustomed processes go on. In society and in the individual, facility of doing and thinking underlies all convention. Both as an accompaniment and a resultant of the three processes already named, there has been devel- oped an increased accuracy and precision. The change in both life and mind from the indefinite to the defi- nite is one of the characteristic movements of all evo- lution. The change is a noticeable and important one The Growth of Intelligence 323 in tLe culture of the intellect. In all exchange, whether of marketable values or ideas, accuracy is much to be coveted. But in the educational process all function- ing is to be encouraged, though it be far from definite. The value of drawing and pattern work; of observa- tion and description ; of vocal expression ; of discover- ing and interpreting causes among earth phenomena ; of tracing movements in history, is not to be measured by the accuracy of the picture or design, the truthfulness of the description, the perfect rendering of the selec- tion read, the correct proportioning of causes and ef- fects in a geographical exercise, or right influences in historical studies, but in the effort to find the truth and to utter it fairly. Among the qualities of the mind, accuracy is of late birth. And yet no system of procedure is good, is safe, that does not provide for and secure such accuracy as the accumulated experience ^varrants. The accuracy of the adult must not be expected of the child, any more than the accuracy of the child would be accepted as an adult standard. That, at every stage of the child's growth, he shall be held responsible for all the definiteness of discrimination, and clear- ness of imagery, and reliability of judgments, and per- fection of memory, which his attainments and matu- rity justify, and no more, is a fundamental principle in sound pedagogy. Just as it would be obviously unfair to estimate the pupil's accuracy of thinking in terms of the teacher's exactitude, so it is unfair to measure one child 324 Science of Education by the standard of another child's precision. That is, it is more important that each one perform his task as well as he can than that he be rated high or low, ac- cording to some arbitrary or inferior or superior stand- ard. The standard for each one is the best he is able to accept for his ideal. Each day, or month, or year should raise his ideal, and carry him beyond his former ideals in accuracy, not less than in quantity of experi- ence. Growth of mind implies an increasing definite- ness of the mental processes. Much of the improvement noted in the four preced- ing paragraphs, it has doubtless already been inferred, is because of the growing control which has been exer- cised over the mental acts. Indeed, one of the most im- portant and fruitful changes in the intellectual life is this of more constant and efficient regulation of the sev- eral activities. Child life is peculiarly volatile, inarticu- late and transient. It is concerned with the moment, and changes with the moment. Connectedness of think- ing, the purposed persistence of interests, the holding over of plans and following them up for successive days, inhibitions of passion and temper, directed and orderly observation and research, doing self-appointed tasks and holding to the purpose, are all helpful in the cultivation of a habit of controlling one's activities. These all come slowly. The child's judgments are at first spontaneous and unthinking. So is the action of the memory. Children remember surprisingly well. Almost no child recollects. Many pupils of six to eight years of age will, upon a slender suggestion even, re- The Growth of Intelligence 325 member and relate incidents or whole exercises of the day, or of days, before; but few of them will be able voluntarily to recall even the most striking occurrences, though only a few hours away. They remember, but do not recall. They have startlingly clear insights, but few reasoned judgments. Growth implies an increasing control of all the processes of the mind; there must come observation instead of mere seeing ; association by thought relations, not merely of nearness in time and place ; a grip upon experience that makes reproduction to be something more than reminiscence ; reasoned conclusions, not insights only; the mastery of the feelings, not subjec- tion to them. The approach to this regulated life, it need scarcely be said, is a journey of slow stages, a matter of years ; indeed, one accomplished by few, and by many barely undertaken, and too often soon aban- doned. But it is the ideal ; and little growth can occur in any of the other ways, if this fail. Growth of mind implies an increasing power and habit of control of its ways. Finally, in this natural history of mind there is a well-defined tendency toward the integTation of its ex- periences. All revivability is by means of threads, or groups, or clusters of experiences ; not of isolated ideas or impressions. One form of this tendency appears in what is known as association — the binding together of experiences according to certain laws. So surely is this integration regarded as fundamental, that it has been said : " If not thought with each other, things are not 326 Science of Education thought at all." For one reason or another, because of one principle or another, detached experiences, each a strand or series of reactions, are found to be worked into a fabric or body of experience. " The weaving together of the elements of experience," says Mr. Sully * " (which is necessary to the veiy idea of ex- perience as a system of connected parts), begins from the earliest moment, and runs on pari passu with the other processes " (discrimination and assimilation). " Not only all our intellectual pleasures and pains," says Dr. Priestley, " but all the phenomena of memory, imagination, volition, reasoning, and every other mental affection and operation, are but different modes or cases of the association of ideas." It was the conception of Hume that the " laws of association fill a place in the world of mind similar to the universal law of gravitation in the physical world." ]S[ow things are associated in thought through likeness or difference, through contiguity, through coexistence, through relations of whole and part, cause and effect, means and end, signs and things signified, work and worker, force and phenomena, thing and quality, container and content, etc. All of these Professor James would reduce to the one relation of succession ; that " there is no other ele- mentary causal law of association than the law of neural habit All the materials of our thought are due to the way in which one elementary process of the cer- ebral hemispheres tends to excite whatever other ele- * " The Human Mind," i, p. 185. The Growth of Intelligence 327 mentary process it may have excited at some former time," It is not meant here to consider or argue how this integration takes place, but to set forth the fact as marking one form of intellectual gro^vth. In child- hood, and well along into youth, and for some persons always, the cohesion of experiences is weak, and inade^ quate for any except the simplest revivals. Interests are fickle and easily evaporate, connections unstable, and reproduction uncertain. But with real mental growth there comes a certain solidarity of mind that stands for manifold and definite associations. The mind acts as a whole and as a constantly changing whole. Each new day's experiences have somehow combined with all former experiences to constitute a new whole of reaction. " Every thought we have of a given fact is," says Professor James,* " strictly speaking, unique, and only bears a resemblance of kind with our other thoughts of the same fact. When the identi- cal fact recurs, we must think of it in a fresh manner, see it under a somewhat different angle, apprehend it in different relations from those in which it last ap- peared. . . . Often we are ourselves struck at the strange differences in our successive views of the same thing. We wonder how we could have opined as we did last month about a certain matter. We have outgrown the possibility of that state of mind, we know not how. From one year to another we see things in new lights. * " Psychology," i, p. 233. S2S Science of Education What was unreal has grown real ; what was exciting is now insipid. . . . Experience is remoulding us every moment, and our mental reaction on every given thing is really a resultant of our experience of the whole world up to date." This is mental integrity. The re- action of the mind is the reaction of the whole mind. There is implied not only co-operation among the par- ticular experiences, but effective co-operation among the three functions. In all educational progress there is implied an increasing solidarity of mind, or an integrity of the mind's experiences and reactions; an habitual concert of effort, and mutual consistency of effect. There are no " branch " functions and divided in- terests. All experiences are under one management. They begin to work as a unit, not as a house divided against itself; a phalanx of forces operating under a like incentive and having a common purpose. It is an ideal situation, but an ideal which is vitalizing to in- struction. It is a tendency of the mind that is not to be artificially bestowed upon it, but a native one to be encouraged; a disposition — an active disposition — of the several functions to act as one, and of experiences to fuse, and of interests to coalesce. The connecting and grouping of exercises in such way as to strengthen and reinforce this tendency is the part of wisdom. CHAPTER XXIV ETHICAL RELATIONS The Science of Education derives yet other material from Ethics or the Science of Social Rights. It has been noted elsewhere * that one tendency of education, whether directed or incidental, is to moral- ize the life ; the ideal being that one shall come habitu- ally to recognize and apply in one's living the moral factor in experience. For reasons that will be obvious to all, there is not included here a consideration of the religious ^spect of morality. That belongs properly to another inquiry. IvTeither is it the purpose to elabo- rate or suggest a system of ethics. As the science of education assumes a psychology and takes note of its pedagogical bearings, so it accepts the system of ethics as worked out by philosophy, and uses so much of its conclusions as is determinative of educational doc- trine. The present discussion does not set itself to solve " that most difficult of all problems, how the claims of the Individual and of Society can be reconciled." f It seeks only to discover and to incorporate into the science of education the principles that may be useful • See p. 227. f Maurice. " Social Morality," p. 18. 329 330 Science of Education for guidance. Along with the conviction that ethics ought to throw important light on pedagogics, Mr. Mac- kenzie concludes * that " the question as to what qualities it is most desirable to evoke and strengthen must obviously depend on our view of the qualities which good citizens ought to possess, and generally on our view of the ethical end." Considered in a descrip- tive and approximate rather than a critical way, the nature of the ethical principle comprises : The manners and customs of a society giving rise to forms of etiquette, and the conventional orders of intercourse. The term " ethics " is derived from the Greek word meaning, primarily, character; but in its etymology connotes also custom or habit, just as the Latin mores, from which we get our word moral- ity, means customs, habits or manners. And the sci- ence so named is concerned to discover and to set forth the rules and principles on which men habitually act in their congregate relations, and " the rightness or wrongness of these principles." These assume the form of more or less established " codes," such as rules of courtesy; caste and class relations; forms of respect.; the behavior of inferiors, children and other depend- ents ; the etiquette of courts and diplomacy ; codes of honor, etc. About those who have a sense of nicety of behavior, these conventional rules, operating in a mixed society, throw an efficient and delicate protection against boorishness and over-reaching; and '' it is often, perhaps, well that the impulses of a man's own heart * "Manual of Ethics," p. 29. Ethical Relations 331 should be checked by certain generally understood con- ventions." Such prohibitions sometimes afford security to decency and privacy that is most enjoyable. Tech- nically, they mean consideration for others, if not al- ways respect, and not infrequently a respect conse- quent upon consideration, and stand for social adjust- ment and cooperation. Most of them have or have had in their origin a purpose to subserve some common good. Often carried to an excess of formalism, as a body they yet represent an ideal of behavior toward which one phase of ethical culture points. Legislation also gives form and direction to the re- lations called civic, as govermnental administration sets and interprets standards of political relations. Here arise notions of personal rights and property rights, and*tax responsibilities, and debts, and public property, and public service, and corporate functions, and contracts, and property transfers ; of civic justice, and crimes and punishment; and official codes of au- thority and privilege, and official responsibility, and cit- izen sovereignty and privilege, etc. Statutes and or- dinances, in undertaking to say what citizens may and may not do, as members of a civil community, set standards by which many presume to judge what is right and not right. In his own life, touching many matters, the individual easily comes to accept as right what the law prescribes or allows, and condemns what the law prohibits or what he cannot evade. Citizen- ship comes to mean what the practice of the government crystallizes in its doings. 332 Science of Education The laws are an expression of public sentiment in most Western, i.e., European and American, even monarchic societies ; not an expression of the high- est intelligence or most orderly, nor of the lowest, but of an upper large majority of all. And it would seem to be the function of all legislation, as it is its history, so to enact its various codes that to-mor- row they will not be needed. The many would live up to the spirit of most laws, even without prohibitions; the few grow up to enacted standards that were onco beyond their practice. Both the laws made and the laws enforced, as well as the manner of their enforce- ment, become a means of education in a most effective way. Legislatures and courts and executives of every grade are teachers, whose tuition never ceases. The school term is twelve months in the year. It reaches the home and the office, the street and farm, society and the sanctuary, old and young, both sexes and all races, every industry and philosophy and policy. Ad- justment of conduct to their requirements is the main part of civic life. The increasingly better adjustment is civic education. That the adjustment is such as to call for less, and again less, severe laws implies that the civic growth is in the line of education — real gain in self-directiveness, not mere training. So the civic order itself, combining with the school, becomes a means of raising the level of citizenship through its re- actions upon the individual. The ethical principle includes also in its purview the system of organized industry, and the attendant Ethical Relations 333 trade relations, involving the responsibilities and priv- ileges of employer and employed ; the individual and his guild ; wages and the conditions of labor ; contracts and tenure of employment ; industrial habits ; the mu- tual fidelity of the Avorkman and his employer ; all of which, through wide-spread organization, have become very complicated, and their influence upon the individ- ual far-reaching. Upon many points the several in- dustrial bodies undertake to speak for their members. Standards of conduct in trade relations are prescribed. Some of them have elaborate codes of directions and prohibitions. The organization comes to be an active means of education, both to members and employers. The distribution of trade and technical literature, society news publications, and the public discussion of class interests, greatly encourage the influence. Here, again, for the members as a body, and for individuals, in labor relations, right is taken to be, at its best estate, what the law requires, or, perhaps, what it allows ; or even what may be wrested from it and from the employer, in the interest of the members. Conversely, for the employer, and in a measure for the capitalistic class, touching these same trade relations, right too often comes to be what the law permits or does not expressly prohibit, or what may be won by contest. On both sides there has gro^vn up, between the two, and among themselves, a by no means simple code, obedience to which is insisted upon. The requirement is not as be^ tween man and man, but concerns them as artisans, and as factors of an industrial machine. But even with- 334 Science of Education out this voluntary organization of operatives into so- cieties, and employers into leagues, the industrial code fixes similar relations for all who toil, and for all who are interested in its returns. The conventions of labor must be learned and practised, otherwise one becomes outcast. They are quite as exacting as are other codes, and generally have a wholesome influence. Then there are the formal institutions and the sev- eral agencies of learning, with the accompanying pro- fessional relations. Besides the instructional and stu- dent relations, the society of a school or college is unique and more or less stratified. Fraternities, associations, moral, athletic, publishing and other interests ; under- graduate and graduate classes ; the different " schools " or departments; new-comers and upper class-men; the two sexes ; social functions and the common life, mul- tiply conventional restraints and complicate the social order. Both among themselves and with one another, the various academic groups have their codes and com- pacts, their limitations of privilege and enforcement of duties; and the society, as a whole, so democratic, is broken into groups and more or less exclusive organiza- tions, with differing functions and appropriate rules. Next to the formal tuition of the lecture room, this social intercourse, after formal procedure, is the great educational factor in college life. It gives a certain breadth of view as to social responsibilities, tempers the self-assumptions of youth, facilitates knowledge ex- change, and stimulates the feeling of considerateness. What is true of a college community is more or less Ethical Relations 335 true of every conununity that has a distinct life chiefly among its membership — as a secluded village, a fron- tier settlement, a farming community, etc. Partly be- cause of tlieir origin in the schools, and partly because of the technical character of their services, the three traditional professions have developed their respective codes also — as the medical code of ethics, the clerical code of ethics, and the attorney's code — the other occu- pations showing similar conventions, as the ethical code of business, codes of railway and other travel; all of which are simply modes of adjusting otherwise con- flicting claims of the individual and the group. These may be " minor morals," as they have been named, but they are moral both in constitution and effect ; and obe- dience to them is the beginning of a rich ethical life, that increases both happiness and efficiency. Summarizing, then: comprised in the ethical princi- ple there are forms of politeness and gentility, systems of civic and political duties, industrial, sodality, med- ical, clerical, and judicial codes. And these codes are society's covenants of protection among its members. Certain of their requirements may seem artificial, some puerile, some tyrannous, others needless ; but on the whole, they are vastly important, and the influence sal- utary. They furnish a standard of conduct that is an ideal to many, a protection to others, obstructive to few. On the negative side, the codes afford formal justifica- tion for all acts not expressly forbidden by them. Speaking pedagogically, the function of the school is to fit the individual for intelligent service in the several 336 Science of Education institutions named, under these codes; that the life of each may be strengthened and perfected by this cooper- ation with all, through these and similar conventions. The ethical principle means then, in general, to do good, not to do evil ; to do the fit, the suitable thing, according to one's highest sense of the right and suit- able; to treat others as they should be^ treated, if we were those others. Confucius (born 551 b. c.) said: " What you do not like when done to yourself, do not do to others " ; and the liberal, scholarly, wise Hillel (dying 10 a. d.), known as Hillel the Great, had said in early manhood, and fifty years before the Christian era, practically tlie same thing. He maintained that the object of the law is peace and good-will ; therefore, the principal law is, " Whatever would hurt thee, thou shalt do to none," and added thereto the most expressive words, " this is the principal ; the rest (of the law) is its commentary ; go and finish." * But both of these were negative, as most early max- ims for both the race and the individual are negative. The l^azarene's counsel was positive and comprehen- sive of social obligations, not avoidance of selfislmess only : " All things whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to tliem : for this is the law and the prophets." Here was a new spirit; though it ap- pears from the words of Jesus Himself that it was a development of a former teaching of the schools, as the race's later altruism has come by gradual evolution from * See " History of the Hebrews' Second Commonwealth," I. M. Wise, p. 217. Ethical Relations 337 an early eye-for-an-eye conception ; or as the selfishness of youth grows into the considerateness of age. The most common and commonly accepted philosoph- ical statement of this same maxim is the famous " cate- gorical imperative " of Kant : " Act so that the maxim of thy conduct shall be fit to be the universal law " ; or, as it is elsewhere given, " Act only on that maxim (or principle) which thou canst at the same time will to become universal law." * And Herbert Spencer also, about 1850, in an attempt to state fairly " the liberty of each as limited only by the like liberties of all," con- cludes f with much the same meaning, that " every man is free to do that which he wills, provided he in- fringes not the equal freedom of any other man." :}: So fundamental does this conception seem in any mo- bile community life, that one might well have been sur- prised had not the great moralists and the religious and ethical teachers of the world given it formulation. And whether it emanate from China or Jewry or Jesus, what can it matter ? The dictum finds its truth in the human constitution, not in the words uttered. It is valid because it meets a need, up to which, as toward an ideal, the race has been slowly growing. The maxim may be very simply stated, is interpretable by all grades of intel- ligence, and is applicable to the various ethical relations. There is " a growing conception of the mutual influence * " Metaphysics of Morals," Section II. f " Principles of Ethics," ii, p. 46. J For a comparison of his own and Kant's phrasing of this law see Herbert Spencer's " Principles of Ethics," vol. ii, p. 437. 338 Science of Education of all men, and of all classes of men ; that we are all parts of one whole, each part unavoidably affected by every other ; that we are bound up in one bundle of life with all men, and cannot live an isolated life if we would; that we are made on so large a plan that we cannot come to our best alone; that this entering into the life of others is not only a help in my life, it is the help, the one means, the indispensable, the essential con- dition of all largeness of life ; it is the very meaning of life— life itself." * In the Science of Social Rights the relations of social classes also have profound pedagogical significance. After devoting several pages to the nature of the vir- tues and to characterizing them as relative only, to commandments and various states of society, Mr. Mac- kenzie adds : f " Not only, however, are the virtues rel- ative to different times and different social conditions ; they are also relative to the functions that different in- dividuals have to fulfil in society. . . . It is on the whole true that tlie virtues which we respect and ad- mire in a man are not quite the same as those of a woman; that those of the rich are not quite the same as those of the poor; that those of an old man are not quite the same as those of a young man ; those of a par- ent not quite the same as those of a child; those of a man in health not quite the same as those of one who is sick; those of a commercial man not quite the same as those of a man of science." *King. " Theology and the Social Consciousness," pp. 13, 14. f " Manual of Ethics,^' p. 21G. Ethical Relations 339 For most or perhaps all of these groups one may accept the discriminations made. There are, how- ever, other lines of social cleavage which, in this country at least, seem important from the point of view of education, and which are omitted from the list. Some such are the law-abiding and the way- ward (not necessarily criminal) classes, whose inter- ests — differing interests — must enter into every count in a representative society like ours; the normally constituted and the defective classes, the deaf-mutes, the blind, the feeble of mind, the impotents and vagrants, the relatively dependent, and, in some cases, a parasitic, unproductive class; the educated and the wholly or substantially illiterate, which is a very differ- ent grouping for the United States, from the tradesman and scientist noted in the quotation ; the employed and the leisure, which will be recognized as different from the productive and unproductive classes mentioned above; official and privat-e citizen; and the ecclesiastic and layman. To the last might be added, perhaps, the teacher also and the layman. The difference between the two groups of a pair vary greatly in the dozen pairs named. But, in general, the author's distinction holds good, that the common social codes bear differently upon the dif- ferent groups. In the way of social cooperation, and refinement, and intelligence, and public responsi- bility, and civic service and energy, society does ex- pect more from some than from others. This is not a recognition of nor an argument for any artificial 340 Science of Education stratification of society, based upon supposed inequali- ties of merit, but a simple presentation of the fact that, in the massing of population, the different social conditions arising impose unlike responsibilities and grant unlike privileges that show a reasonable corre- spondence. Individuals often blunder in their treatment of other individuals, now disregarding, now exalting, because of some social badge or distinction; but society as a whole does not. And if the religious or secular teacher, or the savant, or the parent, or the law- abiding, or man of learning, finds public expectation of his behavior exacting, there is probably some rea- son in the existing social order to justify it. In most nations of Western civilization the prevailing cleavages are the product of generations of slow evolution. They have as little of the character of the manufactured article as have any social conditions. CHAPTER XXV ETHICAL RELATIONS (Continued) The pedagogical relations of the classes named in the last chapter are fixed in the essential nature of edu- cation. Primarily (keeping in mind tlie distinction between education and schooling), the process of education is the same for all classes. The orders of growth, the se- quence of steps, the kinds of stimuli, the beginnings of experience in sense products, the conditions of right thinking and feeling and knowing, the dependence upon personal effort, must be the same for both sexes and all ages, for the rich and poor, for worker and para- site, for the normal and the defective (excepting in sense conditions), for the law-abiding and the wayward. Both philosophically and as bearing upon school ad- ministration the acceptance of this fact is important. i Because a natural process, all education is equally (of right) the privilege of all, i.e., each is entitled to such encouragement to improvement as he is fitted to receive, to make him the best possible citizen of his generation, stimulating him to his best effort, and hold- ing before him the most available high ideals of right living. Neither the means nor the scope of training 841 342 Science of Education will be the same necessarily for the two groups of any pair — for the two sexes, for the tradesman and the pro- fessional, for the undeveloped races and the highly civilized, for the feeble of mind and the strong, for adults and minors. But the right of each to the best that he can become is, from the nature of the ethical principle, a valid contention. ]^o class that is " down " may safely be kept do\vn if there be the instinct to rise. In a society, furtlier, of free intellectual and indus- trial activity the tendency of this natural process, if it be conceded a share in wise direction, is to obliterate, or at least readjust, class distinctions. Many of the feeble of mind become self -helpful in simple ways; the deaf-mutes and the blind become productive and self -entertaining ; wayward youth that have come under wise treatment have been reclaimed ; tlie laborer, through means of adult instruction, has often risen to influence and breadth of interest; and laymen have be- come critical of religious creeds and legal codes, and sanitary requirements, and sound in conduct, on the level of the priest and the jurist and the medical prac- titioner. 'No conception of modern pedagogy is truer to fact or safer in principle than this, that the vital function of public schooling is to raise the level of so- ciety in conduct and ideals. This is done, primarily, by improving the individual and for his individual need; but for the common good also, the incompetent are to be made competent; the ignorant, intelligent; the plodder, skilful; the spendthrift, prudent; the Ethical Relations 343 wayward, law-abiding; the rude and selfish, consider- ate. A society is not to be considered strong, there- fore, simply because there are in it no social classes, but because all classes are rising. The school, also, should reach every grade of efficiency and intelligence and morals to the end that, the old lines of distinction being broken, there may be attained the mobility that brings hope and content, a moving equilibrium that means life and vigor. In his own interest certainly, each is to be given a chance — the school's chance — to make the most of himself ; but in the interest of society, and with all of its foresight and resources for wise di- rection, ability must be sought in every social class and brought to the surface to have the chance, too, which ability may claim, that society at large may not fail of any exceptional service. Keither birth nor breeding, nor early connections, nor social antecedents should stand in the way of any helpful redistribution of effi- ciency — certainly not the conventional class distinc- tions named. Of all the regenerative means at the call of society, education is the most efficient, inasmuch as it tends to break up the ruts of caste and hopeless in- difference ; to meet the " call of the wild." Among the several social classes also influences are mutual though not equal, hence a state of society that is bad for any considerable class is bad for all classes; and, equally, the education that really benefits one class is a common good. An ignorant, irresponsible serving class obstructs progress and makes labor wasteful; scheming political leaders increase the purchasable 344 Science of Education vote; neglect of public morals undermines common peace and safety; oppression of the farm impoverishes the city; inadequate transportation discourages produc- tion and cheapens comforts : so an education of the pew is a stimulus to the pulpit ; self-respecting labor means civic progress and manifold comforts; the gift of self- help to the needy confers moral worth upon both those who give and those who receive ; the exalting of woman- hood has greatly improved the qualities of manhood ; the reforms of Five Points and the slums make all life safer and health surer ; the city, first to profit from in- vention, soon reflects its sense of comfort and leisure upon the hamlet and the frontier; a wise, impeccable ruling class would do much to allay unrest and dis- courage civic crookedness. Society is a whole, and, however we may try to persuade ourselves, acts as a whole; it is a consti- tutional aggregate, all of whose parts must be taken into account in any attempt to improve or admin- ister its functions. Its best and its worst elements do not act independently, though they may be hos- tile. In the expediencies of public affairs the stand taken by either is fixed for it by that of the other. In a large measure each party is what it is because others are what they are, and not one set of " others " alone, but many groups at times who are otherwise minded. " A vote of all the people," . . . says Judge Biddle,* " reflects all the knowledge, judgment, skill, courage, tastes, interests, wants, passions, hopes and fears of a * " Elements of Knowledge," p. 125. Ethical Relations ■ 345 nation, and this is the only source from which mlers can ascertain what they have to deal with. A vote of all the wisest and best, if they could be ascertained, would be an unsafe guide, for it would leave the most danger- ous element of government concealed. A vote solely of all tlie property holders, or of the moral, or of the religious, or of any other class would be just as defective and an unsafe guide for the ruler. IsTo one class of men can represent another class, much less can they represent a nation." The education that benefits one class must be accorded to individuals of whatever other class capable of receiving and using it. Reform is to be had, not by ignoring a disturbing class, but by im- proving it. Capacity only (not class connections) should bar one from its privileges. Among all social classes children and youth are most directly concerned in the educational movement. Their presence in a community conditions institutional life in various ways. The birth-rate in conjunction with the death-rate is an index to the prosperity of a people. Their presence in a family changes a mere home to a working household. They constitute an element in tlie motive for accumulating property. In all congested populations they are a constant and more or less dis- turbing factor in industry, and, incidentally, in legis- lation upon child labor and factory conditions. They are a chief concern of the church. The modem school, not excluding college, is wholly in their interest. The movement for compulsory school attendance is incident to this need. Reformatories, homes and industrial in- 346 Science of Education stitutions are correctional of their waywardness. The statute-books are filled with enactments that concern them. Laws upon minors, guardianship, the descent of property, parental responsibility, and especially educa- tion, have the same meaning. Out of probably 80,000,000 people in the United States there are about 25,000,000 children between five and eighteen years of age. Approximately, 16,- 000,000 children and youth are in the schools. For their benefit $600,000,000 are permanently invested in school properties. Nearly $250,000,000 are spent annually to maintain these schools. About two-thirds of this sum come from State and local taxes. Di- rectly or indirectly the influence of the system is upon every other institution. Upon its service de- pends in large degree the character of the coming civilization ; whether the existing culture and efficiency shall be maintained or raised. At all times, people who have come to political or industrial greatness have exhibited a public interest in the youth of the genera- tion. Such nation has not always been careful to secure to them the child rights as members of the several social institutions. Often they have been exploited in the interests of adult life, especially among highly indus- trial and dense populations. As a class, being dependent and artless, they are easily submerged, and as their inter- est in productive affairs is projected into the future, they are likely to be overlooked in the presence of seemingly more urgent interests. Theoretically it is true, outside of government which Ethical Relations 347 concerns present good order and equitable relations be- tween citizens, it is conceded that liiiman activity is chiefly that the successive generations shall be well brought to adulthood ; that parents toil in order that the future of the family may be provided for; the church labors to win the young, when alone they may be won in their youth ; the family, that, through them, the in- tegrity of the home may be conserved. But practically in the home, and the church, and the shop, and in society the child is tolerated in various ways or forgotten. The furnishings and conveniences, and customs of going and coming in the home are all collected and enforced with the elders in view. In society the standards of conduct and courtesy and privilege are adult standards. In the church there are few services for the children. Until very recent years there was no litera- ture for them, and for long no adapted texts. Just as the child in the home may be held to be as respectful and courteous to his own parents as to the heads of neighbor families — not allowing his presumption of sympathy to blind him to social obligations — so the mother should maintain the same considerate courtesy toward her own child that she shows and feels toward a strange child, not forgetting the considerateness that is due him as a human being. If unfairness of social treatment is wrong to my neighbor, it is wrong to a member of my household. And the ethical imperative demands fairness of speech and manner and heart toward others, all others, children not excluded, as one would expect it for himself. Such treatment is not to 348 Science of Education be regarded as antagonistic to right training of them for manhood, but as a form of right training. The educational influence of the institutions shows itself primarily upon the people at large, but may be traced also upon individuals. It has already been sug- gested that the individual acquires, and has constant need for, a familiar acquaintance with the conventional forms of language, custom, and etiquette that are in- cident to community and social life. The citizenship relations are other conventionalities that form an essen- tial part of every one's education, as are the ways of the home and the requirements incident to one's place in the household; that one shall become conversant with the formal requirements and apply himself to practise them in daily life. He has need to acquire also habits of self-dependence, thrift and foresight, quickness of perception, substantial judgment. These the race has mainly achieved through its industries as similar traits are attained to-day. Briefly, and mainly by way of illustration, attention is here called to the educational significance of the in- dustries. This does not seem to have been accorded the consideration its importance would justify. It has al- ready been mentioned that the race has been educated rather by what it has done than by what it has known ; or what it has used of what it has known ; by what it has come to know through an effort to do. In any event, either directly or indirectly, it has come to its maturity through its occupation or active interests. It is without doubt equally true to-day that men are so edu- Ethical Relations 349 cated, not less through their doing than by reflection, though the occupations and interest are complex. There could be no more fascinating study in education than an inquiry into the influences of present day eco- nomic and industrial activities upon man himself, the effect upon general intelligence, and susceptibility to the higher emotions and sentiments, and the sense of civic responsibility, and the domestic interests, and estimates of culture of, for example, the railroad service, work in the mines, teaching, preaching, years in the laboratory, government clerical service, machine attendance in a great factory, the mercantile life, the active manage- ment of a well-used library, etc. One cannot do these or other things long without himself being made over. In respect of what qualities has he been made over, and to what extent? Even to-day it is evident that here is the chief source of our education beyond the mere rudi- ments of culture. But for present pur}X)ses illustra- tions will be taken from the race's experience, not from current industry. While nowhere found to have developed in a serial order, the great industrial stages through which man has gone from primitive beginnings may fairly be rep- resented by: (1) the nut- and fruit-gathering stage; (2) the hunting and fishing and predatory life; (3) the pastoral state, including the domestication of wild animals; (4) the agricultural stage; (5) the man- ufacturing stage and the building of cities; (6) the commercial age; and (7) the era of professional and personal service. The intention is not to discuss these 350 Science of Education various stages ; tliat would belong eitlier to sociology or to anthropology; but, assuming more or less detailed acquaintance with them, to ask what have been the qual- ities of mind and heart which each has contributed to man's education, and how these came about ? And first of the primitive, simple, and it may be hy- pothetical period, called here the nut- and fruit-gath- ering stage. From cocoanut and bread-fruit, the grasses, leaves and roots, it was not a difficult step to the cultivation of plants, especially the edible grasses, as wheat, corn, rye and barley, though the step may have been a long one. These grains are Ivno^vvm to be thousands of years old ; their purposed cultivation transcends history. The difference to the man himself between taking the food at first-hand from nature and taking it by a course of production and care is the dif- ference between passive, dependent, aimless living and purposed activities. It means watchfulness and some planning, a bit of providence, and doubtless rude tools. His wants and his da^vning intelligence led to more artificial means of securing his food. The invention of digging-sticks, and flat-bladed tools, and rude hoes and picks was the coordinate of a waxing intelligence. In his inevitable conflict with animal enemies he became a hunter, and incidentally a fisher. In the hunting and fishing and the accompanying warlike and predatory habits there is found a more active, but, on the whole, a comparatively sluggish and irregular life. As the streams and shore waters were man's ^' first avenues for the movements of civilization Ethical Relations 351 and industry," shell-fish and other water products may have been the most frequent early non-vegetable food, even before land game came to be a prominent food factor ; the quest required little skill or hardihood, and is even yet the chief source of subsistence for the Fuegian and a few other wild tribes. But essentially it was a life of the chase ; incidentally of war. ISTow was involved, with but little display of striking intelligence, a good deal of ingenuity and especially cunning. "WHien, in the first period, man's relation to the dangerous life about him was chiefly defensive, it became now offen- sive. The initiative was often, at least, with himself, and represents a considerably higher faculty. Of still lower grade than the savage, his effort was yet sharpened by an incessant want, and wrought an unfold- ing of new faculties or apj^lied an old power in new ways. Weapons had to be made — the spear, the dart, the bow and arrow, the sling, fighting clubs, boats, traps, snares, etc. It was impossible that he should do these things, and not himself be changed in the doing. There was little individuality; the clan or tribe or horde was everything; life was more or less despotic on the one side, and submissive on the other. But the activities developed patience on the hunt; endurance through periods of hunger and exposure and danger; courage and something of foresight in a knowledge of the habits and tempers and uses of the different animals. In the uses of fire and the cooking of food also, and the pro- viding of shelter, if nothing more tlian a hole in the cliff, and simple clothing, and protection against the 352 Science of Education changing seasons, by covering or slielter or migration, practical powers were cultivated that meant betterment of social and personal conditions. Of sympathy, or what Mr. Bain calls the tender emotions, there could have been only a beginning, if even that. Life was exacting. Out of this state, doubtless by imperceptible grada- tions, there grew the j)astoral state. It was still an out-door life, as the earlier stages had been. But it was more reflective and more purposeful, and, in many ways, a " chosen life," not one forced upon man. Out with his flocks and his herds, the nomad had some leisure and became a naturalist. His living, however, was often quite precarious, and his food as uncertain as was the hunter's. But the life was one of health and vigor ; and observation and keen vision, and courage in defense, went along with much monotony, and leisure for reflection and revery. The really great fact, however, in this period is that of the domestication of animals. The entire list at present comprises about twenty distinct ani- mals, not one of which is an addition to the orig- inal number, unless the ostrich be counted. There are the domestic cattle, the Eastern buffalo, llama, goat, sheep, camel, deer, dog, rabbit, elephant, swine, cat, hen, turkey, goose, and pigeon, with perhaps some modifications of these. And these date back to a time beyond which history gives no information. In a prim- itive social state and undeveloped in many of his func- tions, man was yet able to tame and domesticate all of Ethical Relations 353 these, and make them, in many places, parts of his house- hold. The training of the herbivorous animals must have been a long and tedious process. Food and water and protection must be provided ; defence against brute ene- mies, and against hunting bands and disease. They must, many of them at least, have been kept long in captivity before they were fitted to the new conditions ; their peculiar habits and wants and uses must be un- derstood. Time and much patience, and mother-wit, and re- flection on brute ways and their tempers were of incalculable service to the man. Self-mastery came through animal mastery. Man himself was tamed. To a remarkable degree the brute in him was exorcised . through a penetrating comradeship with the brute out of him. Aside from serving as pets, the animals were found to have a variety of uses — to assist in the chase, perhaps, at first; for burden and draft; for food (milk, eggs), clothing (fleece), skins, flesh, weapons, etc. In the preparation of these articles considerable ingenuity was developed ; cooking became more of an art. Breeds were improved and herds grown for exchange; smiths and spinners and weavers were common. Barter added greatly to the variety of foods and utensils and clothing one might have, and exerted a stimulating influence. Life was taking on some settled ways, and personal property rights came to be recognized — property in tents and herds and utensils and food and clothing. There was a beginning of the notion of real property even, when a herdsman or a tribe laid claim to an ex- 354 Science of Education elusive pasturage, as is shown when Abraham and Lot contended for their privileges.* ISTotioiis of property and of exchange implied a knowledge and use of at least simple legal provisions for their safety and for the protection of life. Life was becoming complicated, and faculty adjusted to its uses. With a milk and meat subsistence assured, man's habitat was greatly enlarged, the struggle for existence was less severe, and the con- ditions of life were easing. From the highest form of the life of the hunter and warrior, through the third stage and into the settled life of agriculture, was probably the longest and most important step taken in the natural his- tory of the race. There were still famines at times, but the advance was considerable. It is said f that the early American aborigines had no domesticated animals, and missing the semi-stable conditions of pastoral growth, have never found it easy to enter upon the settled life of the tillers of the soil. In gen- eral, the nomadic life had few wants, and so few incen- tives to progress. They toiled for necessities and not for comforts. With the introduction of agriculture the race enters upon a distinctly civilized career. It assumes the form of a settled life, and accepts the tome, or develops it * " The land was not able to bear them, that they might dwell to- gether : for their substance was great. . . . And there was a strife between the herdmen of Abraham's cattle and the herdmen of Lot's cattle. . . . Then Lot chose hira all the plain of Jordan ; . . . and Abraham dwelt in the land of Canaan." Genesis xiii, 6-12. f Humboldt. " Cosmos," ii, 295. Ethical Relations 355 as the true family type. Very simple at first, the cul- tivation of plants, and incidentally the soil, began when man was still a hnnter and fisher. But the inconven- iences of the herdman's nomadic life hastened his " location." The protection of rights in property, real and personal, as well as life, became important. A home was now to be defended, patriotism developed, and thrift and providence and self-dependence. Slowly the people grew away from war and toward the arts of peace. Roving was not only impossible, but un- profitable. (The nomadic instincts still remain, how- ever, even to the present day, as witness the ready va- grancy in times of discovery — migi'ations or the move- ments to the frontiers.) Along with soil cultivation, shepherding continued. But there was contentment with the increasing comforts of a fixed habitat, and a love of the ease, along with the incident wars; and it was with the settled life of farming, not with herding and nomadism, that the great sei^vitudes of the world have been developed. Slavery is, primarily, an inci- dent of the agricultural life. Planting, sowing and harvest, and the storing of the yield till the next season introduced man to a new problem. From seed to seed was a long time. The sower must learn patience, as he never needed to learn it before. The reactions of the mind are now chiefly indirect. He must have utensils, and implements, and bins, and tools, and vehicles that are of no value in themselves, but in an interme- diate service. For the results of much of his doing 356 Science of Education he must look to a distant good. The provisions for shelter, and wannth, and food, and covering were at first very simple. Thought and want made these, and thought and want made them better. The weaver came early, even in the preceding state; carpentry followed. The mechanical interests have never mixed well with the agricultural. Throughout the period inventiveness has been encouraged. But it was inventiveness of a simple sort. Rural life is somewhat narrow, and pro- vincially disposed. It develops a sturdy, reliable peo- ple, but with few interests, often dull and uninterest- ing, and proverbially averse to change. Nevertheless, as a class they are the mainstay of a nation. With the de- veloping of the manufacturing instinct, and the organ- ization of industrial society about creative, not merely productive activities, the interests of the country took on new meaning. This "^vill be considered as the next stage or type form of activity. CHAPTER XXVI INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS From the beginning of his human career every sort of industiy has made more or less draft upon man's resourcefulness, his inventiveness, his manufacturing sense. But as a distinguishing feature of his activity this faculty was comparatively late in developing. It represents the first great step in the movement of de- cisive interests away from nature toward artificiality; making things, or making them over; transfonning natural objects or materials before using them. It was very simple at first, but potentially it stands not alone for invention and skill, but for art and imagination, for multitudes of new experiences and increased com- forts, and more elaborate clothing, and housing, and furniture, and tools, and weapons. Because of the necessity for much cooperation there arises division of labor, having very definite aims, but involving little personal independence. The labor is more individual than in agriculture, but issues in an ex- acting social dependence, as if one were part only of an organism — not an integer himself. For centuries, how- ever, it was mainly domestic and personal ; the educative value was great. Each one in almost every family was a 357 358 Science of Education maker. The doing was reflective, and invited to in- definite variation. Ingenuity was stimulated, and the fine art sense also, as in no former period. More and more accurate tools could be manufactured with which more and better products were turued out, along with ideals of mechanical efficiency and skill, and new ma- chines, and new tools, and new combinations of materi- als, in a seemingly endless round of improvement. So- ciety was enriched and individual faculty inspirited. For the time, the mind was at its best in conceiving and planning and executing some new thing. Inven- tion and skill were on the " stretch." After many generations, the long period of wandering, wilderness-training of the mechanic, came the marvellous eighteenth century industrial revolution — the spinning- jenny, and frames and power looms, and the introduction of steam. This occasioned the change from the domestic to the factory system. It reduced the importance of the individual ; he became simply one of a class. Society was enriched at much expense to the man. Each was fitted now to a narrow skill. The man was easily lost in the workman. But the machine called for nice sense- adjustments, and increased the product of his labor, and cheapened goods of many sorts, and the families began to live better, and leisure was increased, and in- tellectual interests diversified. The factory system has a profound pedagogical significance. But another effect of highly developed manufactur- ing interests was the impetus given to the cities. The work called for many operatives centrally located. Industrial Relations 359 First there were the numerous farming towns ; then the great centres. Conventionalities multiplied. Life, as compared with that in the country regions, was formal and impersonal. Social impulses were intensified. In the country the social elements are less closely knit to- gether, less organized; the city has manifold interests, stimulating ideas, and speculative business habits. Moral standards are likely to be held with laxity. It has been said that " the country produces the popula- tion, the energy and original ideas — the raw material of the social life, tlie food and raw material of manu- facture ; by the mind of the city these are wrought into forms of service and beauty." Quietude, meditation, clear insight, and the great faiths belong to the land. The reactions of manufacture upon the surburban and frontier life is stimulating and generally wholesome; not less so upon the developing commerce. At the present day, and among Western nations, of the three great occupations — agriculture, manufac- tures and commerce — the last occupies a prominent place in public notice. But statistics taken within the last ten years show that in the United States for the entire population agriculture is the first choice, and commerce and transportation the last. Agriculture stands for stability and conservatism; commerce for expansion. Commerce means cooperation, and elabo- rate systems of conventionality, and cosmopolitan in- terests. It develops shrewdness of a higher kind, for the manipulating and exploiting of values and products. The activity is a sort of nomadism of intellect, of travel 360 Science of Education and economic crusade. It involves and produces great physical and mental plasticity. Tlirongh its generous distributions every section is a modem Rome to which possibilities converge. What others have, each may have. It Romanizes life ; comforts are eclectic ; mind is stimulated ; enterprise prevails ; great undertakings are the rule. As the city is the product of manufac- ture, it is the tool of commerce. The outlying regions are urbanized. Interurban transportation, the tele- graph, the telephone, good roads, free mail delivery distribute intelligence and comfort and efficiency. Each is made potential sharer in all. So much for the educational significance of typical industries, and the steps by which man has come to material efficiency. In the aggregate of his achieve- ments he has achieved himself. The means he used to maintain life have developed a higher life. " We rise bj' the things put under our feet, By what we have mastered of good and gain; By the pride deposed, and the passion slain, And the vanquished ills that we hourly meet." Pedagogically, the important fact in all this discus.- sion is that of growth of this ethical sense, its charac- teristic stages, and the means of formal culture. The growth and the training, both in the individual and the race, follow somewhat uniform lines and established principles. Here, as in the intellectual life, the stages or order of development must fix the distribution of culture. Primarily, right to the child is what he wants to do. Industrial Relations 361 The little one, barely able to sit alone, kicks from some discomfort, and screams furiously till bis demands are satisfied. His want is tlie only standard. If wanted badly enough and strenuously claimed, bo probably gets its satisfaction, and is not only satisfied but justified. The want may be legitimate, and the satisfaction be de- served, but that his need was not foreseen, and was sat- isfied after an expressed, maybe loudly expressed claim, confirms in him the infantile notion that justice is to be had that way — that right is the thing he wants to do or to have ; his will or wish makes it so. Or, refused, capriciously and indifferently and finally listened to, he is again justified. The standard of behavior is his own feeling of want. This, I conceive^ is as it should be. Acts are not moral acts, unless self-initiated, and however far they may depart from this standard in the years of moral growth, they must return to the self for both motive and choice. In time he will substitute " enlightened wants " for these animal claims, and find reason, where now appears only perversity in his sur- roundings ; but it is still a purpose, or a Avill, or a want that is his. But he is weak and, in general, well-dis- posed in the presence of an experience which he has found able to do so much more for him than he is even able to think for himself, and, reasonably refused, or convinced, or appeased, he readily capitulates. The re- fusal has been preceded by so many generous, loving services, and other refusals have been proved so wise, that he yields with readiness and content. 362 Science of Education Right then comes to be what parental or other au- thority prescribes. The child approaches his first crit- ical period. The influence of the mother is great. It is no easy matter to exercise authority, and in such way that the child's will will not only not be submerged, but be strengthened in the power of individual choice. Nevertheless it is the period of authority. Others must determine for him. The rules of the household, the reg- ulations of the school, the teachings of the church, the requirements of civil authority are generally wholesome and should be obeyed. It was one of the ethical maxims of Rosenkranz * to " accustom the pupil to uncondi- tional obedience to the idea of duty, so that he shall perform it for no other reason than that it is duty." He is to be accustomed to it, but not corralled as by force. The treatment must be no invertebrate stand of concession and severity, neither must it lose sight of the fact that, very early, the child must decide many matters for himself. Any reasonable treatment will be equal to convincing most children that the judgment of parents, and teachers, and pastors, and civil author- ities, older persons generally, even older brothers and sisters, is likely to be safer than their own. Right then comes to be that which is prescribed or allowed, or even Avhat is not expressly prohibited in his privilege. This last, of course, easily leads to technical evasions and quibblings, and a thoroughly artificial and non-moral standard of behavior. Some people, many perhaps, concerning much of their conduct remain for life in * " Philosophy of Education," p. 150. Industrial Relations 363 the class with those who conceive that only to be right which they wish to do; and others never outgrow the second stage, but either accept weakly the dictum of those in authority or hold themselves at liberty to ignore such commands as may be evaded, holding that " a theft undiscovered is no theft " ; that dishonest tax returns are legitimate if let pass ; that a drafted patri- otism is honorable; that unrebuked discourtesy is no wrong. Besides, it is not needed that one live long to discover that some people, so-called good people, re- spected and honored, regulate their conduct by very un- conventional and repudiated standards. If they can do so, and retain self-respect, and receive honored mention, and be efficient citizens, why may not others ? Children of one family find themselves under prohi- bitions that do not apply to their young companions. The restraints are brought to trial. Home rules are questioned. The fairness of parents and teachers has come to doubt in the mind of the child. Shall he obey commands or follow customs ? Almost inevitably right for the youth comes now to be what people about him do ; not what formulated rules prescribe, but what conduct they show. It is the be- ginning of respect for public opinion. It is one of the heart-breaking discoveries of parents when they find that a child is growing away from them. He comes to know things they do not know; to have interests which they have not inspired ; to entertain notions of behavior at variance with theirs ; to plan his entertainment with- out consulting them ; to weigh their counsel. But it is S64 Science of Education in the order of things. The growth of the moral sense in him rests upon the exercise of his moral sense. More and more his acts must be purposed from within, not from without. In the meantime he comes to be increasingly in- fluenced by his companions in the home, in the school, and in the neighborhood, by friends of the family and chance acquaintances. He becomes sensitive to public opinion, about matters of speech, and dress, and manners, and his personal appearance. Under certain influences he becomes tidy, as never under the influence of his mother; stimulated by some forceful character, he grows ambitious of achievement, studious and full of plans ; he adopts the ways and manners of a gentleman. Under other influences he swaggers or affects to dissipate, or befouls his language, or revels in exciting literature, or wastes his leisure. He is at the age when it is easy to accept the saying that " one is better witli others than when he is alone, and worse with others than when alone." He is ob- servant of ways of doing rather than of any code or pre- scriptive reasons ; of customs, not ideals ; or sensitive to ideals as they are revealed in custom. That is, he be- gins to select from current behavior what he walls to do. He assumes the position of arbiter. It is apparent to adults that it is really society that decides for him. He thinks that he determines what part of society shall affect his decision. She is a wise mother or teacher whose exercise of authority has been such that instinc- tively he determines wisely. Industrial Relations 365 The transition from the first stage to the second was a gain — a real moral gain — because he passed to the guid- ance of a larger exjDerience, that of his parents. The change from the " must " of the second period to the selected practice of the third was a long step, because it marks the beginning of self-judgment in conduct as against a blind following of a borrowed judgment. In doing as he finds others do, not as is prescribed, he makes many blunders. Fine manners sometimes rest with the incompetent or the vicious. The companionship of those Avhose ideals he adopts does not always bring him either respect or recognition. He sees no personal advantage in such behavior. He begins to pass judgment upon his companions, as once he did, and perhaps continues to do, upon those in authority — his father and mother and teacher. Shrewdly, he concludes that he must keep his own counsel, and do what pays, i.e., what pays accord- ing to his standard of worth. As a result of experience, and chastened by it, he takes right now to be what is useful. The transition again is one of improvement. Personal choice begins in a direct way. Right ideals will assist much in know- ing what is really useful, as will early good example, and habitually gentle behavior, and a character that has been forming in the midst of genial, straightfor- ward and sensible, but tender companionships. What he regards as useful will be largely determined by what people about him have regarded as useful, and mth what face it has been presented. In general, he will accept probably as serviceable to him what successful 366 Science of Education people have done — people whom he regards as success- ful. This is the age of hero-worship and the birth of ambitions, and an assertive self-confidence, sometimes rudeness, and, occasionally, over-sensitiveness ; of real de- votion to purposes, and hopefulness. ISTot unfrequently it leads to or is accompanied by secretiveness, deception, and, if brought to the stand, falsehood. He becomes concerned to justify himself and his gallery of his- torical or contemporary personal characters kept for admiration or example. He has a da^vning respect for ideals ; and tries to find explanation for success and efficiency, and manly behavior, and heroisms ; and be- gins to see in certain social conventions something more than mere forms. He is less insular, and finds reason for respecting high achievement of men and w^omen, in other times and places, and under very different codes; and to have faith, touching conduct, that there is somewhat that abides. Finally, in this natural history of the moral sense there arises the conviction that, in the experience of the race, that which has been found to have enduring significance in human conduct has a validity beyond creeds and codes, and the rules of institutions, and the dogmatisms of teachers, or any external authority. In the schools, the conviction may be strengthened — should be — and the ideals given effective form through chosen biographies ; through the great fictions ; through the world's eminent moral leaders ; through the race's Bibles, the high-water marks of its achievement in liv- ing, and ethical insights, and devotion tO' ideals, and Industrial Relations 367 epocL-making faiths ; and tlirougii liistory, with its wonderful overcomings, its ameliorations and its al- truism. " Ideal literature, the better class of fiction and poetry, which not only reaches the intellect, but touches the feelings and brings the motive powers in harmony with ideal characters, deeds and aspirations, may have the highest value in forming the ethical life of the pupil. Here is presented the very essence of the best ideas and feelings of humanity — thoughts that bum, emotions of divine quality, desires that go be- yond our best realizations, acts that are heroic — all painted in vivid colors. By reading we enter into the life of greater souls, we share their aspirations, we make their treasure our own. A large share of the moralization of the world is done by this process of ap- plying poetry to life." * There comes thus a sense of the permanently good ; a sense of an " ought " that is personal and not to be evaded ; a conviction that that way lie contentment, self-respect, worthiness. It must be understood that the foregoing presenta- tion of the development of the moral sense, as worked out in one's social environment, does not pretend to be a philosophy of morals, but a brief statement of the natural history of the faculty as it comes to the surface in childhood and youth. The conditions and laws of such growth are similar to those of intellectual gi'owth. There is always present the fact of personal responsibility. The act to have any distinctive flavor must be one's own. * Baker. " Education aud Life," p. 97. 368 Science of Education It cannot be imposed from without. The notion, too, of the quality of Tightness or wrongness in conduct has an early beginning, and can only grow — it cannot be manufactured. Moreover, character, just as scholarship, is the product of an individual effort. Each must work out his own salvation. As concerns the cultivation of the moral sense by the school or the home, beyond what has already been said, what may be done with advantage will vary with the disposition and varying points of view of the child. In general, it may be said, the moral responsibility must be estimated in terms of his experience, not that of his teachers or elders. A man or a boy shall be judged, in moral matters also, according to that he hath of in- sight, and maturity and ideals, not according to that he hath not. As the sense of obligation is at first nega- tive, however, there is required an intelligent exercise of authoritj'. But it should be the authority of wisdom, wise sympathy and understanding, not the authority of officialism. It should guide without dominating; in- struct and inspire, not compel. As conduct greatly depends upon habit, right con- duct should be early mechanized in all minor and conventional forms. These habits of behavior con- stitute the carrying machinery for the more distinctly moral actions of later years. A scrupulous observ- ance of the forms of manliness and honesty and so- cial courtesy makes easier, stimulates to, the prac- tice of manliness, honesty and gentle courtesy. At certain stages also, in the growth of the ethical sense, Industrial Relations 369 utilitarian and prudential appeals most readily reach the child. This is the stage of " honesty is the best policy," and should be so recognized. It is not un- worthy because it is not the highest appeal. Just as punishment for mlful wrong-doing is legitimate, so is reward for purposeful right-doing. But the reward must be accorded for a conquest over self, not because a pupil has surpassed some other in the observance of regulations. Appeals to the desire of approbation, to love of decorations or membership in leagues or socie- ties to which all may attain ; or appreciation of coveted privileges or service where the evils of rivalry are avoided, or of objects of material value won by thought- ful conduct or fidelity to child responsibilities, are all valid marks of recognition of the utility stage in the development of this sense. The object of all discipline and punishments and rewards is not to secure or main- tain " good order " or obedience to rules, but looks to the cultivation of the right habits of mind, and a disposition to choose safely. Mere disorder may be often overlooked, if the child be really gaining in self- control and considerateness. It should be noted also that, in the nonnal gro^vth of this ethical character, there is a gradual substitution of distant for present or immediate pleasures and interests as motives to right conduct. The hope or reasonable assurance of " promotion " at the end of a school period is a real and healthy motive to a child at certain stages of his advancement, an assurance that his labors shall not go for nothing, and that no technical and accidental short- 370 Science of Education comings snail be allowed to cheat him of his deserts. He is an utilitarian, and has so fine a sense of fairness that any really fair dealing with him easily tides him over a doubtful i^eriod. CHAPTER XXVII ANTHROPOLOGY In anthropology, also, are to be found yet other con- ditions determinative of educational doctrine. It has been defined as the science of man in his aggregate of functions, and giving one product, of which it presents the natural history. " It investigates man as this com- plex whole, as he is found in temperament, race, sex and age; and as he is affected by climate and employ- ment, or a more or less perfect civilization. It in- quires how he is formed and changed in body and soul by inherited peculiarities and accidental circumstances. It discusses the influence of the soul upon the body and the body upon the soul, in the normal and abnormal states and functions of each. But it notices and records the various phenomena of each, only so far as they are open to general observation, and require no scien- tific anaylsis or explanation." * In his " Man's Place in Nature," delivered as lectures, and published in 1863, Huxley includes six chapters touching the " Nat- ural History of the Man-like Apes," the " Relations of Man to the Lower Animals," and certain ethnological questions. " The object of anthropology," says Quatre- • Porter. " The Human Intellect," p. 7. 371 372 Science of Education fages, " is the study of man as a species." ITotwith- standiiig, he has his special and exclusively human phe- nomena, and is studied as such in human physiology and pathology and philosophy and religion ; he is also an organized being, and is subject to the same laws and environing conditions as bear upon other living beings, conditions of climate, topography, food-supply, other animal groups, sex, etc. Mr. Tyler speaks of the sub- ject as " the science, of man and civilization," which connects into a more manageable whole many of the scattered subjects of an ordinary education; and in his suggestive volume,* which he calls " an introduction to anthropolog_v, rather than a smnmary of all it teaches," he includes, besides the customary considera- tion of man in relation to other animals, ancient and modern man, and the races of mankind, a dozen very valuable chapters on the natural history of language, writing, the arts of life (very full and interesting), the arts of plea sure', science, the spirit world, mythol- ogy, and social developments. What man is to-day in any one of these respects is but the apex of centuries of struggle, of experimenting, sometimes being experi- mented upon ; here failing, there succeeding ; occasion- ally failing to the verge of extinction, again succeeding even to mastery; shifting results and conserving the few that are found worthy. The way up has been tor- tuous, but up. Each generation, each individual, in- deed, is the sum of a lineal series reaching far back into the centuries, and any dealing with either that deals *E. B. Tyler. "Anthropology." Anthropology 373 justly must therefore take that past into account. J. T. Trowbridge, in the poem * of which the follow- ing is an extract, represents the speaker as reading a family history, and reflecting upon the source of his character impulses. It puts the case fairly and in striking phrase. Open lies the book before me ; In a realm obscure as dreams, I can trace the pale blue mazes Of innumerable streams, That from regions lost in distance. Vales of shadow far apart, Meet to blend their mystic forces In the torrents of my heart. Pensively I turn the pages, Pausing, curious and aghast ; What commingled unknown currents, Mighty passions of the past. In this narrow, pulsing moment. Through my fragile being pour. From the mystery behind me To the mystery before ! I put by the book: in vision Rise the gray ancestral ghosts. Reaching back into the ages, Vague, interminable hosts. From the home of modern culture. To the cave uncouth and dim, Where — what's he that gropes? A savage, naked, gibbering, grim! * J. T.Trowbridge. "Ancestors." 874 Science of Education I was moulded in that far-off Time of ignorance and wrong, When the world was to the crafty. To the ravenous and strong ; Tempered in the fires of struggle, Of aggression and resistance, In the prowler and the slayer I have had a pre-existence. Wild forefathers, I salute you ! Though your times were fierce and rude, From their rugged husks of evil Comes the kernel of our good ; Sweet the righteousness that follows, Great the forces that foreran ; 'Tis the marvel still of marvels, That there's such a thing as man I Now I see I have exacted Too much justice of my race. Of my own heart too much wisdom, Of my brothers too much grace ; Craft and greed our primal dower. Wrath and hate our heritage. Scarcely gleams as yet the crescent Of the full-orbed golden age. Man's great passions are coeval With the vital bi'eath he draws, Older than all codes of custom, All religions, and all laws; Before prudence was, or justice, They were proved and justified; We may shame them and deny them, Their dominion will abide. Wrong and insult find me weaponed For a more heroic strife; Anthropology 375 In the sheath of luercy quivers The barbarian's ready knife. But I blame no more the givers For the rudeness of the dower ; 'Twas tlie roughness of the tliistle That insured the future flower. Somehow hidden in the slayer Was the singer yet to be; In the fiercest of my fathers Lived the prophecy of me ; But the turbid rivers flowing To my heart, were filtered through Tranquil veins of honest toilers, To a more cerulean hue. my fathers, in whose bosoms Slowly dawned the later light. In whom grew the thirst for knowledge. In whom burned the love of right : All my heart goes out to know you. With a yearning near to pain, 1 once more take up the volume; But I turn the leaves in vain. Not a voice of all your voices Comes to me from out the vast ; Not a thought of all your thinking Into living form has passed ; As I peer into the darkness, Not a being of my name Stands revealed against the shadows In the beacon glare of flame. Yet your presence, O my parents, In my inmost soul I find, Your persistent spectres haunting The dim chambers of my mind ; *i76 Science of Education Old convulsions of the planet In the new earth leave their trace, And a child's heart is an index To the story of his race. Each with his unuttered secret, Down the common road you went, Winged with hope and exultation, Bowed with toil and discontent: Fear and triumph and bereavement, Birth and death and love and strife, Wove the evanescent vesture Of your many-colored life. Your long-silent generations First in me have found a tongue, And I bear the mystic burden Of a thousand lives unsung : Hence this love for all that's human, The strange sympathies I feel, Subtle memories and emotions Which I stammer to reveal. Here I joy and sing and suffer, In this moment fleeting fast, Then become myself a phantom Of the far- receding past. When our modern shall be ancient. And the narrow times expand, Down through ever-broadening eras, To a future vast and grand. Yours the full-blown flower of freedom, Which in struggle we have sown ; Yours the spiritual science That shall overarch our own : You in turn will look with wonder, From a more enlightened time. Anthropology ^11 Upon us, your rude forefathers In an age of war and crime. Half our virtues will seem vices, By your broader, higher right, And the brightness of the present Will be shadow in that light : For behold, our boasted culture Is a morning cloud unfurled In the dawning of the ages. And the twilight of the world. Looking at the science of antliropology with refer- ence to pedagogical meaning, it may be regarded as the record of the race's dependence upon and gradual eman- cipation from nature. From primitive times to the present, man's attitude toward nature has changed in- calculably, but in most highly cultivated persons there are vestiges of primitive habits and instincts, supersti- tions and fears, longings, forebodings, unintelligible un- certainties and presumptions. Many of these hint of a day when man was mastered by nature, inexorable, and, humanly speaking, cruel. The following extract from Owen Meredith's " Lucile " is a brief but comprehen- sive epitome of the human conflict in the civilizing process. He says : Man is born on a battle field. Round him to rend Or resist, the dread powers he displaces attend. By the cradle which nature, amidst the stern shocks That have shattered creation, and shapened its rocks. He leaps with a wail into being, and lo ! His own mother, fierce Nature herself, is his foe. Her whirlwinds are roused into wrath o'er his head: 'Neath his feet roll her earthquakes ; her solitudes spread 378 Science of Education To daunt him ; her forces dispute his command : Her snows fall to freeze him ; her rocks rise to crush : And lion and leopard, allied, lurk to rush On their startled invader, ... . . . and the first thing he worships is terror. . . . Anon, Still impelled by necessity hungrily on, He conquers the realms of his own self-reliance, And the last cry of fear wakes the first of defiance. And man conquering terror is worshipped by man. A camp has this world been since first it began ! From his tent sweeps the roving Arabian ; at peace, A mere wandering shepherd that follows the fleece ; But warring his way through a world's destinies, Lo, from Delhi, from Bagdad, from Cordova rise Domes of empiry, dowered with science and art. Schools, libraries, forums, the palace, the mart. New realms to man's soul have been conquered. But those Forthwith they see peopled for man by new foes ! The stars keep their secrets, the earth hides her own, And bold must the man be that braves the unknown I Not a truth has to art or to science been given. But brows have ached for it, and souls toiled and striven ! And many have striven and many have failed, And many died slain by the truth they assailed. But when man hath tamed Nature, asserted his place And dominion, behold ! he is brought face to face With a new foe — himself I The principal physical influences hearing upon man are climate, seasons, topography, soil, and animal and plant environment. These are o£ far less hostile char- acter to-day tlian in early experiences of the race. Prim- itive man, for instance, had in the case of any particu- Anthropology 379 lar group a very narrow habitat. Easy acclimatization belongs to the civilized races. Savages are scarcely less susceptible than animals to the physical hindrances of climate, variations of altitude, bodies of water and tree- less plains. Herodotus asserts that there was a time when the great Egyptians had lived upon roots and fruits, making a kind of bread from the middle part of the lotus, dried and baked ; and had risen from this state to one of civilization. And no high civilization has ever been able to maintain itself below the temper- ate zone or beyond tlie fiftieth degree of latitude, ex- cept where some special influence modified the climate. Even yet, twenty-five degrees in width (north and south) across the two Americas, Eurasia and Australia, comprise the areas really serviceable to effective living. If the climate be such as to make the struggle too se- vere, or if it be such as to call for no struggle, there is a corresponding loss of vitality. Mankind inhabits all parts of the earth's land surface, but a small portion only has been conquered to the extent that it is fit for the erection of progressive institutions. Until the most recent periods, indeed, the boundaries be- tween nations were natural barriers. As instances of this may be mentioned the channel separating England from the mainland, the mountains of Asia and South America, the bold topography about little Switzerland, and the early conception of the sea-coast colonies in the United States concerning the Alleghenies as an insepara- ble barrier against any States-settlement of the region west of them. On the other hand, a rugged topography 380 Science of Education as the liome of a people has always favored a sturdy in- dependence ; an indented coast line, commerce and a sea-faring life ; rocky coasts, fishing ; and an invigorat- ing climate, civic energy and progressive institutions. For centuries after civilization began the great oceans were an insurmountable obstacle to distant coloniza- tion or to extended commerce. Wind and storm added to the difficulty. The stubbornness of natural condi- tions in manifold Avays have made the meagre and pre- carious food-supply a constant menace. Whether it be the infertility of the soil, the rigors of the climate, the contracted territory and a dense popula- tion, or the thriftless, improvident character of the peo- ple, millions in every century have had neither leisure nor energy for any high accomplishments in civilization. To all such, nature and nature's demands have made life a hard, unlovely and hopeless or hope-deferred thing. It destroys spontaneity, dulls ambition and belittles effort, whether among Fuegians or the habitants of city slums, of whatever race or antecedent. From whatever cause, badly nourished, insufficiently clothed children are poor material for any formal instruction. It is fundamental that they and their people be taught how to live while acquiring the means of living. Learning of whatever sort, that leaves the mind spiritless and content on low levels, is of doubtful service. Constantly to aspire to something better, to greater efficiency, to more abun- dant life is the one product of education to be coveted. The school must strive to do for all what this all-per- vading friction with a not unfriendly but unyielding Anthropology 381 nature has done for many — arouse them tO' a confident self-help. Throughout the preceding paragraph there has heen implied the thought that the pursuit of this strife with nature was not to be unequal. The divine command to " be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth," * included the further responsibility to " subdue it." The steps in material civilization are an expression of man's progress in this subjugation. The procession has not always been one of progress even to man. Sometimes he has made his way harder. That he has progressed means that he has also often, more often, eased the conditions. Many things had to be discovered, and others invented, and still others better understood, be- fore some of the simplest raw materials could be brought into any effective service. Much more, the so-called forces of nature must be brought into working control. The acquiring of mere comforts needed centuries of struggle. Almost seven centuries ago, but hundreds of genera- tions after fire was known, Roger Bacon, the great Eng- lish philosopher and Middle Age monk, said, two things the race most needed for its further progress : some means of heating, that the year might be leng-thened for man's use, and an efficient means of lighting, that more hours of the day might be employed. But for five hun- dred years after this even there was not so much as one public lamp in the streets of London or Paris, though two centuries earlier in Cordova, Spain, " a man might walk through the streets in a straight line ten miles by * Genesis i, 28. 382 Science of Education the light of public lamps." * So slowly even then did the conveniences of life diffuse themselves among the people. Man has learned, however, to cross natural bar- riers of land and water ; he has converted to his use winds, and rivers, and heat, and even tides. Dikes have been raised to prevent floods and to reclaim ripa- rian lands ; streams have been turned from their courses in mill-races, canals, and for vast systems of irrigation ; swamps have been reclaimed and converted into pro- ductive, arable land ; mountains have been pierced with shafts and tunnels for wealth of minerals ; sea ap- proaches have been turned into harbors; deserts have been brought to cultivation, and millions of acres of tim- ber land cleared for the plough and for homes. Rivers have been bridged, highways built, and bodies of water connected by great canals. Both animal and plant species in considerable numbers have been modified in important respects — in food and habit and habitat and disposition; animals in a measure, and plants in a re- markable degree, have been redistributed geographically and acclimated with success. But the really great example of man's reduction of nature to his point of view appears in his recognition and interpretation and practical use of what have come to be kno^vn as the " forces " of nature. In chemistr;^ there has come an intimate knowledge of the gases, the decomposition of earth substances, elements and com- pounds, and relative weights, and numerous great and * See Draper. "Intellectual Development of Europe," ii, p. 31. Anthropology 383 incident industries ; in physics, a long list of discoveries and inventions, of forces and instruments, for scientific study and research, in both peace and war ; in engineer- ing, no less startling achievements, from the simplest works to the most elaborate foundation and structural concretes, bridge-building, railroading, hydraulic and engine construction, metallurgy and mining, to the modern seemingly incredible feats of industrial en- gineering that have revolutionized all forms of manu- facture. So great has been its service to human com- fort, it has been claimed that " engineering is the art of controlling the great powers of nature for the use and convenience of man." * Similarly in the handling of health and disease, preventive medicine has made great and solid ad- vance; as have the discoveries of bacteriology, vac- cination, anaesthetics, medical surgery, the Roentgen ray, and the introduction and employment of hospitals, trained nurses, etc. Without specifying at length, per- haps the most noticeable and important advance made in recent years is in the field of electricity, with its electro-chemical work, wire conductors and cables for lighting, telegraph and telephone, motors, dynamos, storage batteries, power-transmission, electric welding, etc. It took centuries after the assumption of a rela- tively high civilization to bring the simplest of these near enough to man to claim his critical attention even. " Primitive men," it has been said, " are bewildered in the presence of these natural forces. They lack knowl- * See " Progress of the Century," p. 449. 384 Science of Education edge and skill to use them, or even the raw materials nearest at hand. The field, the plain, the forest, the mountain are rich with treasures, hut they know not how to find them." Nor is this all. The higher and moral interests of man are supreme, and in this overcoming of material nature one is led to ask. What has this nat- ural and human environment done for the spiritual faculties ? Is it true, as Huxley suggests, that " the struggle for existence, which has done much admira- ble work in cosmic nature, must be equally benefi- cent in the ethical sphere " ? * In another paragraph the same author says : " Let us understand, once for all, that the ethical progress of society depends not on imi- tating the cosmic process, still less in running away from it, but in combating it. . . . The history of civiliza- tion details the steps by which men have succeeded in building up an artificial world within the cosmos. Frag- ile reed as he may be, man, as Pascal says, is a think- ing reed ; there lies within him a fund of energy, oper- ating intelligently, and so far akin to that which per- vades the universe that it is competent to influence and modify the cosmic process. In virtue of his intelli- gence, the dwarf bends the Titan to his will. In every family, in every polity that has been established, the cosmic process in man has been restrained and other- wise modified by law and custom; in surrounding nature it has been similarly infiuenced by the art of the shepherd, the agriculturist, the artisan. As civiliza- * Huxley. " Evolution and Ethics," p. 83. Anthropology 385 tion has advanced, so has the extent of this interference increased, until the organized and highly developed sci- ences and arts of the present day have endowed man with a command over the course of non-human nature greater than that once attributed to the magician." " For his successful progress throughout the savage state man has been largely indebted to those qualities which he shares with the ape and the tiger; his excep- tional physical organization, his cunning, his sociabil- ity, his curiosity, and his imitativeness ; his ruthless and ferocious destructiveness when his anger is aroused by opposition. But in proportion as men have passed from anarchy to social organization, and in proportion as civilization has grown in worth, these deeply ingrained serviceable qualities have become defects." * But he asks : " Will not the intelligence which has converted the brother of the wolf into the faithful guardian of the flock be able to do something toward curbing the instincts of savagery in civilized man ? " The problem is pregnant with meaning and suggestion for teachers. A system of educational doctrine must be inadequate that does not allow for a consideration of these basic qualities as conditioning formal guidance. Race characteristics also are anthropological facts having educational significance. Primarily, tempera- mental differences have diverged philosophies, and standards of conduct, and pedagogical theory and prac- tice. No one who is familiar with the professional lit- erature of the modern great nations can fail to recog- * Huxley. "Evolution and Ethics," p. 51. 386 Science of Education nize the effects upon education of English conserva- tism, or the German militant and monarchic institu- tions, or French secularism, or the American optimism, in their respective countries. A striking contrast appears between the Chinese and the Japanese in their temper and their education. The Chinese are the English of the Orient, conservative, stable, self-assured ; the Japanese are the Oriental French. The Chinese con- servatism is of the past; the English of the present. With the Gennans it is rather a conservatism of au- thority. The Americans are restless, looking to the fu- ture, trying for success, because of past success; the Japanese, equally restless, seeking success on the ruins of past failure. Canada and Japan, in education, rep- resent not growth but the eclectic principle. " A nation," says Fouillee,* " like an individual, has its own instinct and genius, and has a more or less vague sense of its mission to humanity. . . . The Jews were not the only people who believed, and rightly believed, that they were chosen to transform the world ; the Greeks considered their mission to be the propagation of the arts and sciences; Rome claimed the dominion of the world — even when invaded by barbarians she still was queen ; the English claim that their destiny is to rule the sea, and to found colonies in distant lands. Ameri- cans are fond of representing their country as a theatre for the trial and development of liberty in every form, and in every direction of speculative and practical life. . . . We know the Germany of to-day believes * Fouillee. " Education from a National Standpoint," pp. 2-6. Anthropology 387 in her scientific and political mission, just as in the time of Luther she believed in her religiovis mission. As for France, her belief in the universal triumph of reason, law and fraternity is a commonplace." It is not at all certain that these differences of race and nationality are anything deeper than social heredity. But, whether received by social or biological inheri- tance, they constitute strong factors in the national ed- ucation. The race and national spirit cannot wisely be ignored. Of Guyau's " Education and Heredity," put- ting together the two essential factors in the national education — the individual and the nation — Fouillee has said that the problem of education is, given the heredi- tary merits and faults of a race, how far may they be modified by means of education for the benefit of a new heredity ? and adds that " it is not merely a matter of the instruction of individuals, but of the preservation and improvement of the race." Inequalities in race development determine the co- existence of unlike systems, and often opposing educa- tional claims. With a negro population of more than 7,000,000 in the United States, 250,000 Indian wards, and an almost unbroken stream of immigrants, of all nations and every possible social class, we have need in this country to understand the ethnic and na- tional points of view in education. If such heteroge- neous people are to be really a nation, their fatherland heredities and their age-long social predispositions must here be brought into accord with our own national spirit. Wo mere information barnacled onto their lives, 388 Science of Education and as such, held at second-hand, can be effective to di- vert any ingrained inheritance. It must be something more than veneering. It must reach the heart and the purposes, and be equal to giving a new trend to the life. The unthinking races are teleological, supersti- tious, and hold all truth with a bias. To such persons each truth has its private meanings, which they sur- render with protest. ]^ot always do honor and hon- esty and labor, and the claims of home, and free speech, and love of country, and civic responsibility, connote universal and impersonal verities. Fitting for higher levels goes on but slowly. Primitive races especially take a limited education well ; often with exceptional ease. But they sooner reach the limit of their capacity. Individual facts, concrete exercises, memory acquisitions, handwork, and an active life attract. Be- sides the Indian and the negro, there are millions in the United States to whom this applies. The state of race or social development which an individual has attained must be recognized as a factor in his education. What has been accomplished by the Japanese in fifty years shows the wonderful possibilities of an education in shifting the attitude of a people on civic and ethical and cultural questions, if undertaken with vigor and intelli- gence. In race development also the love of the orna- mental, as Spencer has shown,* precedes or aggressively elbows the regard for the useful. The demand even to-day among ourselves for a scanty classical or nar- rowly aesthetic or cultural discipline, in place of power- *" Education," p. 21. Anthropology 389 giving studies and effective training, is part of the same tendency. It is primitive habit clinging to the skirts of civilization. The negro is emotional, credulous, touch- ing certain interests morally irresponsible, lives in the present and craves ease and physical comfort, seeks sensuous pleasures, must slowly acquire the practice of thrift, and is very religious. In his interest such qual- ities of character should modify, radically, notions of education and many of the existing systems of school- ing. This lesson our government has been slow to learn in dealing with its wards, its large foreign population with alien interests, and its submerged black tenth. The force of all this is emphasized in the now generally accepted principle, true both biologically and psychologically, that in his development the individual follows essentially the same order as the race pursued. The teachings of modern science concur in this conclu- sion. The most complete statement of the doctrine is found in Herbert Spencer's chapter on " Intellectual Education," * an extract from which follows : " The education of the child must accord both in mode and arrangement with the education of mankind as consid- ered historically; or in other words, the genesis of knowledge in the individual must follow the same course as the genesis of knowledge in the race. To M. Comte, we believe, society owes the enunciation of this doctrine, a doctrine which we may accept without committing ourselves to his theory of the genesis of knowledge, either in its causes or its order. In support of this doc- * Spencer. "Education," pp. 21, 122. 390 Science of Education trine twO' reasons may be assigned, either of them suffi- cient to establish it. One is deducible from the law of hereditary transmission as considered in its wider consequences. For if it be true that men exhibit like- ness to ancestry, both in aspect and character ; if it be true that certain mental manifestations, as insanity, will occur in successive members of the same family at the same age; if, passing from individual cases in which the traits of many dead ancestors mixing with those of a few living ones greatly obscure the law, we turn to national types, and remark how the contrasts between them are persistent from age to age ; if we remember that these respective types came from a common stock, and that hence the present marked differences between them must have arisen from the action of modifying circumstances upon successive generations who sever- ally transmitted the accumulated effects to their de- scendants ; if we find the differences to be now organic, so that the French child grows into a Frenchman, even when brought up among strangers, and if the general fact thus illustrated is true of the whole nature, intel- lect inclusive, then it follows that if there be an order in which the human race has mastered its various kinds of knowledge, there will arise in every child an aptitude to acquire these kinds of knowledge in the same order. So that even were tbe order intrinsically indifferent, it would facilitate education to lead the individual mind through the steps traversed by the general mind. But the order is not intrinsically indifferent, and hence the fundamental reason why education should be a repeti- Anthropology 391 tion of civilization in little. It is alike provable that the historical sequence was, in its main outlines, a neces- sary one, and that the causes which determined it apply to the child as to the race. Kot to specify these causes in detail, it will suffice here to point out that as the mind of humanity placed in the midst of phenomena and striving to comprehend them has, after endless compari- sons, speculations, experiments, and theories, reached its present knowledge of each subject by a specific route; it may rationally be inferred that the relationship be- tween mind and phenomena is such as to prevent this knowledge from being reached by any other route, and that, as each child's mind stands in this same relation- ship to phenomena, they can be accessible to it only through the same route. Hence in deciding upon the right method of education, an inquiry into the method of civilization \vill help to guide us." Kant, Huxley and others have made similar obser- vations. Hence, an emphasis in recent years put upon myths and legends, the Homeric and Old Testament stories for early child periods ; later the touch Avith the world of fact and change and thing, and the achieve- ments of his own time. Among all the class relations noted on a preceding page, the most marked and organic, because an anthro- pological fact, is that of sex with its pedagogical and other social implications. Primarily it is to be observed that this relation is at the basis of the family as an institution. The family is the primary social group, and '^ educates the child. Sd2 Science of Education not for itself but for civil society." It becomes, there- fore, " the organic starting-point of all education." From the earliest days of the race, the household spirit has led to much differentiation of domestic duties, and so has through centuries evolved a wide difference of faculty between the two sexes. It is now pretty evident that in certain primitive population centres, as man was the soldier and hunter, the race is doubtless in- debted to woman for the invention and early develop- ment of agriculture and other related arts. Through- out the period of history of those nations that have come to civilization this difference of domestic duties has more or less taken into account the child-bearing func- tions of the woman, further diverging her services. This difference of duties and the incident privileges has been accompanied or followed by a difference of educa- tion. In general, it may be said that woman has had less education than man; that the little received was less formal, chiefly incidental, and usually of different subject-matter. Along with the general movement also have gone different claims by the two sexes, and con- sequently unlike privileges. Unlike privileges have, in times and places, become unequal j^rivileges. These un- equal privileges and unlike responsibilities have effected a different mental attitude and dissimilar interests and mental powers. It would be strange if it were not so. Generations of variant reactions must have had their unlike effects, not necessarily unequal, but different. The accompanying characterization is suggestive only Anthropology ^93 of such differences as bear upon the pedagogical ques- tions under consideration. Man is more energetic ; woman more persistent, has more endurance, though is less ambitious. Man is more inventive ; woman more intuitive. It is said that of the two sexes, man has the keenest ear, though he is oftenest deaf ; that among men are the brightest intellects, though they furnish a larger per cent, of the stupid; that there are more geniuses among men, but also the most cranks; in short, that woman is more uniform in both interest and activity. Some one has said that man sees farther into truth (in philosophy or science), woman sees more rapidly. The masculine method is passive and deliberate. The woman is quick to perceive, lively to act ; apt to blunder, but quick to correct and recover. Among the estab- lished conclusions of modem science is this that, both biologically and psychologically, and hence socially, woman is the conservative element of society ; man the variant, the radical. " The initiative of every move- ment, in all directions, good or bad, is determined by the male," says Le Conte,* " the conservation of what- ever balance of good there may be seems to be mainly by the female. The male tries all things, the female holds fast that which is good. By the one, society gains a little each generation ; by the other, the gain is con- served and made a new point of departure. The one is ever building hastily a scaffolding and platform ; the other ever consolidating into a permanent structure." In evolution man is the progressive factor, woman the * " Evolution," pp. 262, 263. 394 Science of Education factor of stability and content. This last fact, coupled with, the extreme productiveness of the igno- rant, is a troublesome foe to education. Among the in- telligent it guarantees progress. The woman, not less than the man, if civilization is to b© cumulative, must have converged in her the highest ideals and noblest qualities of the race. For the future, if not for the pres- ent, society is interested that from the lowest levels up, those who may become parents shall be equipped to further any real gains the race may make ; that the ignorant may become intelligent ; the erratic, sane ; the coarse, refined ; the selfish, generous ; the brutal, tender. The schools may not safely disregard the fact that in these conditions lie one of the great problems of edu- cation. Given a perfect (accepted) system of schools, women, for the reason just noted, better administer it. Men are more disposed to revise and recast and redistribute their courses; to try experiments in school government; to mend supposed inconsistencies in the laws ; to com- plicate methods, and multiply the merely clerical work. The teaching of women, however, is, for the same reason, likely to become mechanical and their methods stereotyped. Of course, there are many and notable ex- ceptions to these bald statements on both sides, but, in general, they are believed to hold true. The tendency toward mechanism in teachers would be a far more dan- gerous one but for the compensating fact that woman, looking to results, emphasizes character ; man, schol- arship. In her own life also she is more likely to be Anthropology 395 interested In ideals than in ideas as such. The liberal education of woman has been greatly forwarded by the recent multiplication of coordinate courses, and the introduction of the elective principle. Age also is an anthropological fact that is a deter- mining condition in all education. By age is not here meant the years of tlie individual's life, but rather the meaning of the relation between tlie period of physical and mental growth and maturity. The brevity of a generation limits the amount and rate of progress. An increase, however slight, in the length of the plastic period would have the effect to increase both. In most Western nations the entrance upon one's civic ma- jority is fixed at about the twentieth or twenty-first year; for women somewhat earlier. But it is evident that the actual term of growth of both body and mind continues some years. Every year added to this acquisi- tive stage is a gain to the race not less than to the in- dividual. Early precocity, so likely to be followed by early arrest, is to be deplored. A prolonged childhood is desirable. But the shortness of this jDeriod is accent- uated often by the forced early assumption of the duties of manhood. This is in part because of the brevity of the generation, and in part because of the direct or in- direct action of the greed for money and the prevalence of the industrial spirit. In either event, both the child and the community suffer. Age, once more, being in general commensurate with attainment and maturity, determines indirectly school classifications and the de- velopments upon which they are based. 396 Science of Education The anthropological problems in pedagogics are, maybe, less urgently pressing upon teachers, but they are neither less important nor less directly related to formal education than those that arise out of the dis- tinctly social or psychological functions. BIBLIOGRAPHY The following list of books is suggestive only of the lines along which teachers may find further reading profitable. It is meant to be a working list in English for the busy teacher which will itself be the means of directing to other books. On Education and Educational Theory Bain, Alexander : Education as a Science. Butler, Nicholas M. : The Meaning of Education. DeGarmo, Charles : Interest and Education. Fouillee, Alfred : Education from a National Standpoint. Harris, William T.: The Psychological Foundations of Edu- cation. Oppenheim, Nathan : The Development of the Child. Palmer, F. B. : The Science of Education. Parker, Frances W. : Talks on Pedagogics. Payne, William H. : Contributions to the Science of Educa- tion. Rosenkranz, J. K. F. : The Philosophy of Education. Spencer, Herbert : Education. Tompkins, Arnold : The Philosophy of Teaching. On Physiological Psychology. Bernstein, Julius : The Five Senses of Man. Calderwood, Henry : The Relations of Mind and Brain. Clifford, William K. : Seeing and Thinking. Halleck, R. P. : The Education of the Central Nervous System. 397 398 Science of Education Ladd, George T.: The Elements of Physiological Psychology. Ladd, George T.: Outlines of Descriptive Psychology. Ribot, Th. : Heredity. On Psychology and Mental Growth Bain, Alexander: Mental Science. Bascom, John : Science of Mind. Dewey, John : Psychology. Dexter and Garlick : Psychology in the School-room. Everett, C. C. : The Science of Thought. James, William: Psychology. Oppenheim, Nathan : Mental Growth and Control. Porter, Noah: The Human Intellect. Spencer, Herbert : The Principles of Psychology. Sully, James : The Human Mind. Sully, James : Outlines of Psychology. Taine, H. A. : On Intelligence. Thompson, D. G. : A System of Psychology. On Ethics. Adler, Felix : The Moral Instruction of Children. Huxley, Thomas H. : Evolution and Ethics. Hyde, William DeWitt : Outlines of Social Theology. Mackenzie, John S. : A Manual of Ethics. Maurice, P. D. : Social Morality. Spencer, Herbert : Principles of Ethics. On Antliropology and Heredity. Clodd, Edward: The Childhood of the World. Dopp, Kathrine E . : The Place of the Industries in Element- ary Education. Galton, Francis : Inquiries into Human Faculty. Guyau, .1. M. : Education and Heredity. Herbartson : Man and His Work. Huxley, Thomas H. : Lay Sermons and Addresses. Huxley, Thomas H.: Science and Education. Bibliography 399 Keary, C. F. : The Dawn of History. Kelly, Edmond : Evolution and Eilort, Lubbock, Sir John : Prehistoric Times. Lubbock, Sir John: The Origin of Civilization. Shaler, N. S. : Nature and Man. Tyler, E. B. : Anthropology. Whewell, William : A History of the Inductive Sciences. On Sociology and Evolution. Argyll, The Duke of : The Unity of Nature. Draper, John W. : The Intellectual Development of Europe. Dyer, Henry : The Evolution of Industry. Eliot, Charles W. : Educational Reform. Fairbanks : Introduction to Sociology. Fiske, John : The Destiny of Man. Giddings, F. W. : The Principles of Sociology. Henderson, Charles R.: Social Elements. Le Conte, Joseph: Evolution. Romanes, G. J. : Mental Evolution in Man. Shaler, N. S.: The Individual. Spencer, Herbert : The Principles of Sociology. Tarde, G. : Social Laws. Vincent, George E.: The Social Mind and Education. Ward, Lester F. : Dynamic Sociology. Ward, Lester F. : Psychic Factors in Civilization. INDEX Academic bias in education, 233 Acquired perceptions, 261 Acquired traits, inlieritance of, 270 Activity, instinct of, 125 Adolescent period, 243, 244, 280- 282 Adult education, 61, 62 Agassiz, Louis, 7 Age as a factor in education, 395 Agricultural life, 354 Alfred, King, 27 Aliens in tlie United States, and education, 387-389 Analytic process, 293 " Ancestors," by J. T. Trowbridge, quoted, 373 Angelo, Michael, quoted, 157 Animal and man, 78-81, 131 Animal instinct, 79 Animals, training of, 53 ; domes- tication of, 352 Antliropology, 371 ; defined, 377 Appreciation, 295 Argyll, Duke of, 101 Aristotle, 6, 128 ; ideal of educa- tion, 226 ; on virtue, 309 Arnold, Matthew, quoted, 222 Art In education, 230 Art of teaching, 4 Artists, 16 Arts and sciences, 3 Aspects of education, three, 202 Association, 325-327 Athletics, 220, 225 Attention, 297 ; by Rosenkranz, 31 ; and recollection, 302 ; and volition, 303, 804 ; stages of, 305 Auditory images, 259 Azarlas, Brother, quoted, 226 Bacon, Francis, 6 Bacon, Roger, quoted, 381 Bain, Alexander, quoted, 156, 215, 217 ; " The Senses and the In- tellect," 196 ; on fear, 287 ; on Interest, 291 ; on discrimina- tion, 298 ; on mental change, 299 ; on attention, 304 ; on emotions, 309 Baker, J. II., quoted, 367 Baldwin, Mark, quoted, 131, 196 Barnard, Henry, 21 Bascom, John, quoted, 124, 191 ; definition of psychology, 241 ; on temperament, 247, 251 ; on emotions, 308, 310 Bibliography, 397-399 Binet, A., 196 Body, influence on mind, 242-244 ; influenced by mind, 244 Boys and girls, 280 Browne, Sir Thomas, 108 Browning, Robert, 99, 104 Byron, quoted, 150 Capacities, mental, 266 " Captains of Industry," 49 Carlyle, quoted, 8 Carpentry, art of, 5 Categorical imperative, 337 Catholic ideal of education, 26 Cattell, Professor, 196 Change, law of. Professor Bain, 299 Character in education, 234 ; training of, 65 401 402 Index Characteristics of education, 44 Charlemagne, 27 Child, the, interests, 63, 196-198 ; mind, 273, 303 ; character, 270, 303 ; in society, 345-348 Chinese education, memory in, 224 Choleric temperament, 249 Church, the, and education, 164 Civic training, 220, 331, 332 Civil war, stimulus to physical training, 230 Civilization and education, 28, 68 Classification and definition, 178 Clifford, W. K., quoted, 186 Coin illustration, 83 Coleridge, S. T., quoted, 310 College life, 334 Colors, scale of, 259 Comenius, ideal of education, 30 Commercial interests, 359 Common sense and science, 174 Comparative view of education, 202 Compayre, G., quoted, 223 " Compensation," 157 Compulsory schooling, 234 Comte on culture epoch theory, 389 Content of terms, 25 Condition in education, 77, 164 Conscious processes, 275 Consciousness, 273 Constructive processes, 295 Contributing sciences, 203, 237 Controlled processes, 291 Controversial definitions, 224 Copernicus, 200 Culture Epoch Theory, the, 29, 194, 389 Daimon, the, of Socrates, 260 Darwin on heredity, 270 Data of educational science, 205 Definition in science, 178 Definitions of education, 34-39, 78, 169 ; controversial, 224 ; Huxley's, 229 Democritus mentioned, 257 Descriptive view of education, 202 Designs by pupils, 297 Development as periodicity, 278 Dewey School, the, 194 ; defini- tion of education, 42 ; of psy- chology, 241 ; on consciousness, 271 Discipline, mental, 50 Discrimination, 297 ; and science, 300 Disposition in mind, 246 Dock, Christopher, 6 Domestication of animals, 352 Drummond, Henry, quoted, 164, 221 Duke of Argyll, 101 Duns Scotus, 6 Educable animal, man, 268 Education and allied arts, 25 ; and civilization, 28, 68 ; a ra- tional process, 92 ; as an art, 169 ; definitions of, 27, 28, 34- 39, 78, 85, 169 ; as a process, 46, 51-59 ; as a science, 169, 171 ; by Bain, 287, 291 ; de- scribed, 44-73 ; products of, 47 ; subject of, 74 ; of the individ- ual, 66 ; relations of, 73 ; vs. schooling, 27, 169, 222, 223 ; vs. training, 45, 53, 57-59, 80- 84 " Education of the Central Ner- vous System," 257 " Educational Reform," 234 Educational theory, 218 Educative lessons, 91 Egyptians, early, 379 Eliot, President Charles W., 33, 234 " Elizabethan age of youth," 282 Emerson, R. W., 96, 106, 118, 143, 157, 232 Emotions, growth of, 807-316 Engineering as a profession, 17 Environment, human, 100 Ethical culture, 227, 228 ; rela- tions, 329 ; Mackenzie, 330 hideoo 403 Ethical principle, meaning of, 33U I-thical theory of education, 232 '■ Essay on Man," I'ope, 7 ICverett, C. C, quoted, 176 Experiment in science, 188 Faith instinct, the, 159 Farming, art of, 4, 10 Fatigue and rest, 278 Fear, wasteful, 287 Feeling and knowing, 287 Feeling, knowing, and willing, 271 Feelings, pleasurable, 288 ; growth of, 307-310 Ferguson, Charles, 103 Fichte, 7 Forces of Nature, 381-383 Fouillee, quoted, 386 Francke's ideal of education, 226 Franco-Prussian war, reference, 230 Franklin, Benjamin, 200 Froebel, Friedrich, 83, 222 ; ethi- cal theory, 232 Fundamentals in education, 75- 175 Fuse, experiences tend to, 298 Galen, classifies temperaments, 249 Galton, Francis, 97, 137, 196 ; mental images, 260-262 ; nat- ure and nurture, 269 Genesis, quotation from, 381 Germ inheritance, 268 Girls and boys, 280 Gladstone's epigram, 300 " Godless " schools, 231 Goethe, 8 Golden Rule, 330. 337 Gordy, J. P., on attention, 301 " Gradatim," reference to, 164 Greeks mentioned, 215 Gregarious instinct, the, 137 Group relations, 142 Growth in education, 164-160, 208-213; orders of, 213, 215; of emotions, 307, 314 ; of in- telligence, 317 Guyau, J. M., on attention, 301 ; on national education, 387 Gymnastics vs. athletics, 230 Habit, 196 Hall, G. Stanley, 196, 243 Halleck, R. P., quoted, 257 ; on hearing, 260 ; on adolescence, 282 Hamilton, Sir William, on mental capacity, 266 ; on feelings, 311 Harris, William T., definition of education, 42 ; quoted, 120, 128, 216 ; the mind's horizon, 265 ; on attention, 305 Healing, art of, 5 Hearing, sense of, 258-260 Hebrew ideal of education, 226 Hegel, quoted, 7 ; idealistic the- ory, 232 Henderson, C. R., 144 Herbart, 7, 228 ; on temperament, 247 Heredity, 267-270 ; and educa- tion, 270 Herodotus, quoted, 379 Hero worship in boyhood, 366 Hinsdale. B. A., 112 Historical relations, 146 ; method of study, 193 History. 146 : for children, 320 Holland, J. G., quoted, 164 Holmes, O. W., quoted, 52 " Honesty is the best policy " stage, 369 Human environment, 100 Humanism and training, 84 Hunting and fishing, 350 Huxley, Thomas H., quoted, 94, 174, 178, 180, 191, 229, 245; definition of education. 229 ; on anthropology, 371 ; on moral growth, 384 Hyde, W. De Witt, quoted, 95, 102 Hygiene, school. 220 Hypothesis in science, 191 404 Indeoo Ideal processes, 289 Idealistic theory of education, 232, 235 Ideals, 161 Images, auditory, 259 ; visual, 262 Imitation, 127, 141, 196 " Impenetrability," Kant, 314 Inattention rs. non-attention, 304 " Inclusive type" in science, 171) Indifferent, interest in the, 291 " Indirection," quoted, 122 Individual and person, 149 Individuality in training, 269 Induction in science, 190 Industrial education, 224 Industry, organized, 332 ; educa- tion through, 349 ; stages of, 349 Initiative, personal, 128-130 ; child, 297 Instinct of growth, 211 Instincts, animal, 79 ; human, 124, 125 Institutions, 145, 147 ; of learn- ing, 334 Instrument, the, of education, 76, 94 Integration of experience, 63 ; tendency to, 298 Intellectual education, 221-225 Intelligence, growth of, 317 Interpretation, processes of, 295 Investigation, scientitic, 132, 187 Isolation, power of, 300 James, Professor William, quoted, 94, 98, 124, 129, 132, 187, 138, 196, 217 ; definition of psychol- ogy, 241 ; on perception. 2.")5~ 264 ; man as educable animal. 268 ; on heredity, 270 ; on con- sciousness, 271 : field of psy- chology, 273 ; images, 289 ; law of integration, 298, 327 ; on attention, 301-303 : on feelings, 310 .Japanese, rapid rise of, 388 .Tastrow, Joseph, definition of edu- cation, 241 Jevons, quoted, 223 ; on scientific theory, 232 Johns Hopkins University, 196 Johonnot, James, quoted, 103 Journal of Psychology, 196 Journalism, 18 Kant, Immanuel, quoted, 4, 7 ; classification of feelings, 311 Kelly. Edmond, quoted, 112, 114 Kindergarten movement, the, 197 King, H. C, quoted, 139 Kipling, Rudyard, 104 Knowing and feeling, 287 ; and willing, 271 Knowledge as moral power, 221 Ladd, G. T., 196 ; on tempera- ment, 246, 248 ; on vision, 261 ; on mind, 267 ; on conscious- ness, 273 : on attention, 301- 303 ; classification of feelings, 311, 312 Lancaster, Professor, quoted, 280 Lange. on child development. 278 Laurie, on child development, 278 Lavoisier, 200 Law as an art, 13, 16, 20 Laws, the, of Plato, 6 Laws of Nature, 182 Lay writers on education, 8 Learned professions. 15 Learning, three ways of, 130 ; and education, 208, 233 Legislation, influence of, 331 Leibnitz, 7 Lewes, George H., quoted, 173, 216 Lieber, Francis, 148 " I-imited class " in science, 179 Lincoln. Abraham, 49, 58 Jjindgren. Miss H., quoted, 157 Lindner, quoted. 256 ; on sight, 261 liiterature and moral culture. 307 Locke, John, quoted, 7, 179, 254 Logical order of knowledges, 170; view of education, 203 ; in teaching, 285 Index 405 " Lucile," quotation, 377 Luther, Martin, 3, 7 ; Ideal of education, 2l'G Mackenzie, J. S., quoted, 239 ; on etliieal culture, 330, 338 MacVicar, on child development, 278 ]Male teachers, 24 Man and woman, 392 Mann, Horace, 21 Manners and customs, 330 Manual training, 197, 219 " Manual of Ethics," quoted, 239 Manufacturing life, 356-359 Materialistic theory of education, 232 Means in teaching, 209-212 Mechanizing conduct, 368 Medicine as an art, 10, 16, 20 Melancholic temperament, 250 Memory, emphasis of, 223 " Mens sana," 242 Mental capacities, 266 Mental processes, 283 Meredith, Owen, quoted, 377 Mill, J. S., quoted, 210 Milton, John, 3, 8 Mind influences body, 244 Moodiness, 277 Moral culture, stages in, 360- 366 ; in the school, 368 Moral ends in education, 225 ; and evolution, 384 Moral quality in acts, 226, 227 Motive in education, 77, 124-163 Motor activities, 197, 265 Music, art of, 5 Myths In child training, 391 Narcotics and stimulants. 220 National Educational Association reports. 194 Natural barriers, 379 Natural history sciences, the 178 Nature and nurture, 269 Negro problem in the United States, 387 Nervous energy, 242 Newton, Sir Isaac, 200 Non-school agencies of education, 60 Normal schools, 9, 22 Normative sciences, 208, 239 Observation in science, 187 Ogden, John, quoted, 223 Oppenheim, N., quoted, 165, 308 Orders of growth, 213, 215 ; in educational theory, 218 " Outlines of Psychology," 274 Page, David P., quoted, 224 Palmer, F. B., quoted, 285 Parker, F. W., quoted. 111 Pastoral life, 352 Patriotism. 152 " Pedagogical Seminary," 196 Pedagogical writings. 6, 8, 20, 21 ; departments, 11 Pedagogics, 29 ; and pedagogy, 25, 30 ; and philosophy, 6 Pedagogy, 25, 30 ; as a scienc 185 Perez, 196 Periodicities of mind, 276 Personal relations, 140 Pestalozzi, 3 Philosophy and pedagogics, 6 Phlegmatic temperament, 251 Physical influences on man, 378 Physical training, 45, 219, 228, 229, 245 Physiological relations of mind, 239-265 Plato, 3, 6 ; quoted, 215, 228 Porter, Dr. Noah, quoted, 257 ; on special senses, 258 ; on vis- ion, 261 : on unity of mind, 272 : on discrimination, 298 ; on anthropology, 371 Practical studies, 218 Pragmatics, 215, 220 Preaching as an art, 13, 20 Prediction In science, 183 Presentative processes, 289 Preyer, W.. quoted. 125, 128, 196 Primitive races, study of, 214 406 Index Principles of teaching, 5, 8 Processes, mental, 283 ; in edu- cation, 841 Products of education, 47 Pi'ofession and trade, 12, 14, IG Professional schools, 11 Proper names, words as, 293 Property, notion of, 151, 353, 354 Protestant ideal of education, 226 Psychological laboratories, 195 Psychology defined, 240, 241 ; and educational science, 2GG Questionaires, 197 Race education, 69-71, 126 Race as a factor in education, 214, 223, 252 ; and nationality, 385 Rarey, horse trainer, 79 Rational world, 94 ; theory of education, 232-234 Realf, Richard, quoted, 122, 212 Reformation, 3 Religion and morals, 227 Renaissance, the, 233 Representative processes, 289 Republic, the, of Plato, 6 Rest and fatigue, 278 Rhythm, sense of, 153-159 ; in nature, 154 Rhythmic activities, 277 Ribot, Th., " (In Memory," IflG Right, child sense of. 3G0-3GG Robertson, G. Croom, 196 Rosenkranz, 7, 120, 215, 21G, 220 : on attention, 301, 305 Rousseau, J. J., 3, 229 Royce, Josiah, 130, 196 Ruskin, John, quoted, 155 Saint Paul, quoted, 310 Sanguine temperament. 250 Savings banks in schools, 218 Schiller, quoted, 308 Scholarship in education, 47-50, 318 School, function of, 56 ; cliques, 143 ; courses, 235 " Schul Ordnung," the, 6 Science, nature of. 173, 174-184 ; and discrimination, 300 ; of education, 3, 4, 11, 30, 207, 232 ; of teaching, 30, 170 ; and education, 180 " Science of Thought," the, 176 Scientific knowledge, 174-176 ; method, 186-195, 198 ; theory of education, 232 Scripture, E. W., 196 Self-effort in education, 67 Self-estrangement, 120, 123 Self-teaching. 126 Sense-culture, 72, 263, 264 Sensuous processes, 289 Sex-differences, 280 ; and educa- tion, 391-394 Sheib, E., quoted, 224 " Ship that found herself. The," 104 Shortening courses, 168 Shoup, F. A., " Mechanism and Personality," 115, 116 Sight, sense of, 261 " Slain Self. My." extract, 212 Smith, Sidney, quoted, 309 Social group, 142, 338, 339 Social relations, 140, 143-146, 160 : science of, 329, 338 Socrates, 6 ; daimon of, 260 Soil, love of, 150 Solidarity of mind, 63-66, 325- 328 Solomon referred to, 235 Special senses. 254-265 ; pedagogy of, 263 Spencer. Herbert, 3, 96, 155, 215 utilitarian in education, 232 definition of psychology, 241 on mind. 267 ; on heredity, 270 ; quoted, 257 ; on sense training. 264 ; on feelings, 311, 310; on culture epoch theory, 389 Spiritual theory of education, 232 Spontaneous processes, 291 Index 407 stages of development, 278 States of mind, 273 Stein, quoted, 42 Stream of thouglit, 272 Struggle for the existence of oth- ers, 221 Subconscious activities, 274 Subject of education, 74 Sully, James, quoted, 139, 196 ; nature of psychology, 241, 273 ; on feelings, 311 ; physiological psychology, 254 ; on heredity, 270 ; on consciousness, 274 ; on discrimination of difference, 297 ; on attention, 301 Synthetic processes, 293 Taine, H., " On Intelligence," 196 Tarde, G., 130, 141 Teachers, training of, 32 Teaching, 25, 31, 67 ; as an art, 32, 170 ; as a profession, 19 ; the science of, 170 Technical training, 84 Temperament, 246-253 ; classifica- tion, 249 Thing and thought, 121 Thompson, D. G., quoted, 248 ; discrimination, 298 ; on feel- ings, 314 Thorndyke, Edward, 129, 130 " Three R's," the, 90 Time, a factor in education, 164- 170 Touch, the basic sense, 257 ; re- lation to sight, 261 Trade and profession, 12, 14, 18 Trade relations, 333, 334 Training, 86-92 ; vs. education, 167, 168 Transmission of acquired traits, 269, 270 Trowbridge, J. T., quoted. 373 Tylor, E. B., on anthropology, 372 Unconscious processes, 275 Understanding vs. execution, 296 Universal education, 27 Universe, reaction upon mind, 116 Utilitarian theory of education, 232 " Volition is attention," 303 Voluntary attention, 304 Ward, Lester F., quoted, 201,- 223 ; scientific theory, 232 Weather predictions, 10 Weismann, A., on heredity, 269, 270 Whewell, Dr. William, 178 Willing, feeling, and knowing, 271 Woman and man, 391-394 Women as teachers, 394 Wundt, Professor W., 196 ; on temperament, 249 JUL 30 1904