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 LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, 
 
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 Cliap.. -, Copyright No... 
 
 Shelf.J£>-5... 
 
 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 
 
THE NEW 
 
 MANUAL AND GUIDE 
 FOR TEACHERS 
 
 Containing 
 
 A Complete System of Grading the Public Schools 
 
 IN ALL Departments; 
 
 A Full and Suggestive Course of Study for Elementary Schools; 
 
 Brief Courses of Study for 
 
 Borough, Township, and City High Schools ; 
 
 Practical Hints on the Management of Country Schools ; 
 
 Suggestive Outlines on Methods of Teaching ; 
 
 Matter and Method in Teaching Literature ; 
 
 Books for Pupils at School and at Home, Etc., Etc. 
 
 > /PREPARED BY 
 
 ]f mi BERKEY, A. M., 
 ■J 1 \ 
 
 CITY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, JOHNSTOWN, PA., AND LATE SUPERINTENDENT 
 
 OF SOMERSET COUNTY, PA. 
 
 HARRISBURG, PA. 
 
 R. L. MYERS & CO, 
 1899 
 
 ^1 
 
 I 
 
O O ♦-> O «!/ 
 
 Copyright, 1899 
 By J. M. BERKEY 
 
 
 
 J. Horace McFarland Company 
 Harrisburg', Pa. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 The constantly increasing demand for the former edition 
 of the Manual and Guide has entirely exhausted the sup- 
 ply and made its further publication necessary. In the 
 preparation of the new edition, the author has taken the 
 opportunity to thoroughly revise the work and to add to it 
 a number of new and valuable features. It is no longer a 
 manual for the teacher of the elementary district school 
 only, but in its enlarged scope and application it will be 
 found equally helpful in all grades and departments of the 
 city and town schools. As now arranged, its aim is to 
 unify elementary school work and to harmonize along es- 
 sential lines the advanced or high -school courses of study. 
 The principle of uniformity, however, applies only to funda- 
 mental requirements common to all school work, while giv- 
 ing the widest possible latitude in the choice of text -books, 
 methods of teaching, and adaptation to local conditions. 
 
 This Manual is not intended to be an exhaustive 
 treatise upon school work and management. It is designed 
 rather to be a practical school -room guide for teachers. In 
 plan and purpose, it has grown out of an extended and 
 varied experience in teaching and school supervision, and 
 is, therefore, adapted to the actual conditions, needs, and 
 possibilities of our public school system. In the ideas ad- 
 vanced, the author does not lay claim to much that is new 
 or original in pedagogy. No untried theories are advo- 
 cated and no impractical work is presented. The hints and 
 
 (3) 
 
4 PREFACE 
 
 suggestions as to classification, matter, and method in 
 school work are based upon established principles, and 
 will, we believe, be recognized as fundamental in the suc- 
 cessful management of public schools. 
 
 The system of grading the rural schools is simple, com- 
 plete and practicable. Its successful application in more 
 than twenty counties in Pennsylvania has already proved 
 its worth, and secured for it unqualified endorsement. The 
 one -room school is made the basis of grading and outline 
 work. Three divisions — Primary, Intermediate, and Ad- 
 vanced — mark the distinctive periods or steps in the Ele- 
 mentary Course of Study. The first period is devoted 
 largely to objective and illustrative teaching, with a very 
 limited use of text -books. The second period introduces 
 the pupils to a proper use of elementary text -books, and 
 contemplates a thorough drill in fundamental forms and 
 facts. The third period is given mainly to thought 
 development, scientific classification, and correct habits in 
 reading and study, the advanced text -books being used 
 and completed. The further division into grades is indi- 
 cated, but separate grade work is required only in reading 
 and arithmetic. In other branches, such combinations or 
 divisions of grades may be made as the nature of the 
 work will permit or the necessities of the school may re- 
 quire. 
 
 While the outlines are specially arranged for one -room 
 schools, it will require but slight modifications to adapt the 
 course of study to any school of two or more apartments. 
 With the suggestions given for special grading, the plan 
 as a whole will be applicable to all schools in which the 
 elementary branches are taught. The high school courses 
 are briefly outlined, and are so arranged as to harmonize 
 
PREFACE 5 
 
 with each other in successive work as well as with the 
 course below the high school. 
 
 The author places special emphasis upon the develop- 
 ment of proper reading habits in children, and suggests a 
 series of stepping-stones to literature which will lead to 
 the reading of good books from choice. No attempt is 
 made to give an exhaustive list of selections for study, or 
 of books for school libraries. The purpose is rather to 
 point out to the thoughtful teacher the lines of literary 
 and scholarly development, leaving the choice of books 
 and material to those who are in position to know defi- 
 nitely the local conditions and needs. 
 
 The Course of Instruction for Rural Schools, as outlined 
 by the Committee of Twelve, is appended, not only for the 
 valuable suggestions it contains, but also to show that the 
 outlines in this Manual are in harmony with its require- 
 ments along all essential lines. 
 
 The author gratefully acknowledges the valuable sug- 
 gestions received from teachers and school officials, and 
 the very favorable reception accorded the former Manual. 
 Without any expectation that this little book will rise 
 above criticism, but in the hope that it will prove a 
 friendly assistant and guide in many a school -room, and 
 thus contribute to the substantial improvement of the 
 public schools, it is submitted to a generous educational 
 public. 
 
 J. M. B. 
 
 Johnstown, Pa., May, 1899. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Synopses of Courses of Study — 
 
 Elementary Course for One -room Schools 9 
 
 Elementary Course for Closely Graded Schools 12 
 
 High School Courses for Villages and Small Towns .... 17 
 
 Township High School Course 18 
 
 General High School Course 19 
 
 Management of One -room Schools — 
 
 Eesponsibility of the Teacher 20 
 
 Term Eeports of Grading 21 
 
 Classes and Eecitations 21 
 
 Daily Program 22 
 
 Preparation of Lessons 23 
 
 Study and Recitation Program 24 
 
 Monthly Reports to Parents 26 
 
 Graduation and Diplomas 26 
 
 Grading of Apartment Schools — 
 
 Two-room Schools , 28 
 
 Three-room Schools 29 
 
 Four-room Schools 29 
 
 Schools of Five or More Rooms 30 
 
 The Township High School 30 
 
 Grading of City Schools 31 
 
 Outlines and Methods — 
 
 Primary Division — 
 
 Reading — First Grade 35 
 
 Reading — Second Grade 36 
 
 Spelling 38 
 
 Writing 39 
 
 Language 43 
 
 Arithmetic — First Grade 44 
 
 Arithmetic — Second Grade 47 
 
 Geography 48 
 
 Physiology and Hygiene 50 
 
 History and Literature 53 
 
 (7) 
 
8 CONTENTS 
 
 Intermediate Division — page 
 
 Reading — Third Grade 55 
 
 Eeading — Fourth Grade 57 
 
 Spelling — Third and Fourth Grades 60 
 
 Writing — General Writing Class 63 
 
 Language — Third Grade 66 
 
 Language — Fourth Grade 69 
 
 Arithmetic— Third Grade 70 
 
 Arithmetic — Fourth Grade 72 
 
 Geography — Third Grade 74 
 
 Geography — Fourth Grade 76 
 
 Physiology and Hygiene 79 
 
 History — Third Grade 80 
 
 History — Fourth Grade 81 
 
 Advanced Division — 
 
 Eeading 83 
 
 Spelling 85 
 
 Writing 86 
 
 Grammar 88 
 
 Arithmetic 91 
 
 Geography 94 
 
 Physiology and Hygiene 97 
 
 History and Civil Government 99 
 
 Literature for Children — 
 
 I. Study of Selections — 
 
 Primary Grades 108 
 
 Intermediate Grades 108 
 
 Grammar Grades 109 
 
 High School Grades . 109 
 
 H. Home Beading — 
 
 Books for Primary Grades 110 
 
 Books for Intermediate Grades Ill 
 
 Books for Grammar and High School Grades Ill, 112 
 
 III. Supplementary Beading — 
 
 In Primary Grades 113 
 
 In Intermediate Grades 114 
 
 In Grammar and High School Grades 115, 116 
 
 Appendix — 
 
 Course of Instructions for Rural Schools, from Report of 
 
 National Committee of Twelve 117 
 
Synopses of Courses of Study 
 
 Elementary Course of Study — One-Room Schools 
 PRIMARY DIVISION -Three Years 
 
 Branches 
 OF Study 
 
 FIRST GRADE 
 
 SECOND GRADE 
 
 Reading 
 
 Chart and First Reader. 
 Reading from blackboard, 
 slates and tablets. Spelling, 
 Writing and Language in con- 
 nection •with Reading. 
 
 Second Reader, supple- 
 mented with books and papers 
 of corresponding grade. Short 
 selections memorized. Spell- 
 ing, Writing and Language, 
 with Reading. 
 
 Spelling 
 
 Words from the reading lesson, by sound and letter. Selected 
 words from other lessons. Words in common use. Special lists for 
 review tests in spelling and pronounciation. Phonic drills and use of 
 diacritical marks. 
 
 Writing 
 
 Writing with pencils on ruled slates or paper. Correct forms of 
 letters from blackboard copy. Progressive exercises in connection 
 with all lessons. Graded seat work. Study and draw simple forms 
 and figures. 
 
 Language 
 
 Conversation lessons in class. Require complete statements. 
 Use of capital letters, period, and interrogation point. Sentence 
 building. Stories read by teacher and reproduced by pupils, first 
 orally, later in writing. Composition from objects, pictures and 
 stories. Train in correct expression. 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 Numbers from 1 to 10, with 
 combinations and comparisons. 
 Reading and writing to 100. 
 Objects for class and seat 
 work. Meaning and use of 
 principal signs. 
 
 Numbers to 20, with combi- 
 nations and comparisons. 
 Reading and writing to 1,000. 
 Drill in simple operations. 
 Objective work continued. 
 Easy problems. 
 
 Geography 
 
 Observation lessons on home surroundings. Names and uses of 
 common trees and plants. Soils, and how plants grow. Descriptions 
 from specimens gathered by pupils and teacher. Observation of 
 weather. Common occupations and products. Direction, distance, 
 cardinal points. Use material in connection with Language. 
 
 Physiology 
 
 Oral lessons about our bodies. How they grow. How injured. 
 Principal parts. Uses of food, clothing and shelter. Value of health. 
 General effects of stimulants and narcotics. Forming of correct 
 habits . 
 
 History 
 
 Historical stories and references, incidentally, or in connection 
 with other lessons. Origin and purpose of holidays. Meaning of 
 flag. Myths, heroic tales and fables, to cultivate imagination and 
 teach moral truths. Use material for language culture. 
 
 o; 
 
10 SYNOPSES OF COUBSES OF STUDY 
 
 INTERMEDIATE DIVISION — Three Years 
 
 Branches 
 OF Study 
 
 THIRD GRADE 
 
 FOURTH GRADE 
 
 Reading 
 
 Third Reader, completed and 
 supplemented. Sight reading 
 of interesting stories. Selected 
 extracts from best authors 
 memorized and recited. Spe- 
 cial attention to voice culture 
 and natural, distinct expression. 
 
 Fourth Reader, supple- 
 mented with history stories, 
 easy biography, school papers, 
 etc. Study a few prominent 
 authors. Choice selections for 
 recitation and vocal drill. 
 Continue sight reading. 
 
 Spelling 
 
 First half of the spelling 
 book, or primary speller, com- 
 pleted. Meaning and use of 
 words. Selected words from 
 other lessons. 
 
 Second half of the spelling 
 book, or second book begun. 
 Phonic exercises. Diacritical 
 marks mastered. New_words 
 in all lessons. "" 
 
 Writing 
 
 Copy-book, or practice paper, with pen and ink. Drill in free, 
 easy movement. Study and analysis of letters, according to adopted 
 system. Neat written work in all branches. Some pen and ink 
 manuscripts. Drawing and form study continued. Use of models. 
 Study and draw nature forms. 
 
 Language 
 
 Oral and written exercises 
 to develop thought and expres- 
 sion. Stories reproduced. 
 Letter writing. Compositions 
 from outlines and descriptions. 
 Parts of a sentence. Parts 
 of speech. Correct common 
 errors. 
 
 Elementary language book 
 used and completed. Sentence 
 building and analysis. Parts 
 of speech modified and sub- 
 divided. Special attention to 
 verb and pronoun forms, punc- 
 tuation and letter forms. Con- 
 tinue composition from stories, 
 descriptions and outlines. 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 Fundamental operations 
 thoroughly mastered. Many 
 practical problems analyzed. 
 Introduction to fractions and 
 -denominate numbers. Elemen- 
 tary text-book used, with sup- 
 plemental work. Problems of 
 farm, store, mill, etc. 
 
 Elementary arithmetic, com- 
 pleted and supplemented. 
 Drill in factoring, common and 
 decimal fractions, denominate 
 numbers, vnth applications. 
 Analysis of problems. Home 
 arithmetic. 
 
 Geography 
 
 Local geography. Study of 
 animals and plants. Elemen- 
 tary facts and definitions. 
 Leading features of county and 
 state geography. Drill on out- 
 line maps and globes. Prepare 
 to use text-book. 
 
 Elementary geography used 
 and completed. Special atten- 
 tion to physical features and 
 productions. Map drawing and 
 sketching. Continue drill with 
 maps and globe. Compare 
 home and foreign products. 
 
 Physiology 
 
 Elementary text-book used and completed. Special attention to hy- 
 gienic rules and habits. Nature and effects of disease. Yalue of exer- 
 cise, pure air, sleep, sunlight, and wholesome food. Harmful tenden- 
 cies of the moderate use of stimulants and narcotics. Use charts, parts 
 of animals and blackboard illustrations ; make simple experiments. 
 
 History 
 
 History stories read by 
 teacher and reproduced by 
 pupils. Interesting facts in 
 history. Associate prominent 
 men with noted events. Patri- 
 otic songs and poems. Prepare 
 to use text-book. 
 
 Primary history used and 
 completed. Special attention 
 to biography of prominent 
 men. Patriotic selections 
 memorized and recited. Con- 
 tinue use of stories and 
 national songs. 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE— ONE-BOOM SCHOOLS 
 
 ADVANCED DIVISION -Three Years 
 
 11 
 
 Bbanches 
 OF Study 
 
 FIFTH GRADE 
 
 Reading 
 
 Fifth Reader for regular class drill. Special attention to articu- 
 lation and expression. Frequent exercises in sight reading of cur- 
 rent literature. A few classics read and studied in class. Some 
 good books read by each pupil. Outlines of English and American 
 literature. Short selections in prose and poetry memorized. Home 
 reading directed and encouraged. Habitual and methodical use of 
 dictionary. 
 
 Spelling 
 
 Review and complete spelling book. Special tests in spelling and 
 pronunciation. Thorough drill on words commonly mispronounced 
 or misspelled. Difficult words in all lessons. Correct spelling re- 
 quired in all manuscript work. Use dictionary. 
 
 Writing 
 
 Continue drill in free and rapid muscular movement with general 
 writing class. Written reviews and examinations with pen and ink. 
 Practice in letter and business forms. Continue free-hand drawing. 
 Elements of perspective. Neat and exact work in all branches. 
 
 Language 
 
 Common school grammar completed. Attention to technical 
 forms, analysis, diagrams, parsing, rules of syntax, and punctua- 
 tion. Continue sentence building and composition work. Essen- 
 tials in correspondence. Principal figures of speech. Develop 
 original thought and expression. Frequent reference to elegant 
 English. Study and analysis of choice extracts. Paraphrasing. 
 Reproduction of descriptions and stories. Develop thought and 
 language by free and interesting discussion. 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 Practical arithmetic completed. Special study of mental arith- 
 metic. Supplementary problems for class practice. Special atten- 
 tion to accuracy in calculation, clear and independent reasoning, and 
 correct arithmetical language. Business forms and problems. Omit 
 Circulating Decimals, Circular Exchange, Alligation, Annuities, and 
 other impractical subjects. Require full and exact forms and state- 
 ments. 
 
 Geography 
 
 Common school geography used and completed. Special attention 
 to physical and commercial geography. Study of state and county. 
 Use outlines in study and recitation. Continue map drawing and 
 sketching. In the study of countries, give prominence to climate, 
 vegetation, animal life, minerals, adaptation to man's wants, manu- 
 facture, commerce, and social conditions. 
 
 Physiology- 
 
 Complete physiology in two years. Attention to details and scien- 
 tific authority. Special study of stimulants and narcotics as to 
 sources, forms, uses and effects. Drawings and outlines by pupils. 
 Continue lessons in practical hygiene. Teach value of health and 
 the importance of preserving it. 
 
 History 
 
 Common school history completed in two years. Civil govern- 
 ment — national, state, and local — the third year. Use outlines, 
 maps and drawings. Supplement with historical selections, includ- 
 ing biography, orations, poems, sketches and stories. Encourage 
 pupils to gather historical data from cyclopedias, home histories 
 and magazines. Teach the meaning, worth and dignity of true 
 citizenship. 
 
Elementary Course of Study — Closely Graded Schooh 
 PRIMARY DEPARTMENT 
 
 Branches 
 OF Study 
 
 FIRST GRADE 
 
 SECOND GRADE 
 
 THIRD GRADE 
 
 Reading 
 
 Chart or Primer 
 completed, and 
 First Reader begun. 
 Reading from black- 
 board, slates and 
 tablets. Natural 
 expression devel- 
 oped. Memory 
 gems. 
 
 First Reader 
 completed and sup- 
 plemented with 
 other first readers. 
 Second Reader be- 
 gun. Books and 
 papers of corre- 
 s p n d i n g grade. 
 Memory selections. 
 
 Second Reader 
 completed and sup- 
 plemented with other 
 grade readers. Oc- 
 casional use of gen- 
 eral literature of 
 proper grade. Short 
 selections memo- 
 rized. 
 
 Spelling 
 
 Words from the reading lesson, by sound and letter. Selected 
 words from other lessons. Words in common use. Special lists for 
 review tests in spelling and pronunciation. Phonic drills, and use 
 of diacritical marks. 
 
 Writing 
 
 Writing with pencils on ruled slates or paper. Correct forms of 
 letters from blackboard copy. Progressive exercises in connection 
 with all lessons. Some pen and ink work in Third Grade. 
 
 Language 
 
 Conversation 
 lessons. Oral re- 
 production of 
 stories. Use of 
 capital letters, 
 period and interro- 
 gation point. Copy- 
 ing of short sen- 
 tences. 
 
 Oral and written exercises to develop 
 ready and correct expression. Stories and 
 fables read or told by the teacher and repro- 
 duced by the pupils, first orally, afterwards 
 in writing. Sentence building. Composi- 
 tions from descriptions, journeys, pictures, 
 etc. 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 Numbers from 
 1 to 10, with com- 
 binations and com- 
 parisons. Use of 
 objects to illus- 
 trate processes. 
 Use of principal 
 signs. Busy work. 
 
 Numbers from 
 1 to 20. Continue 
 concrete number 
 work. Drill to 
 secure accuracy 
 and rapidity in 
 simple combina- 
 tions. 
 
 Numbers to 100. 
 Analysis of easy 
 problems. Frequent 
 drills in simple com- 
 binations and opera- 
 tions to secure 
 rapidity with accu- 
 racy. 
 
 Geography 
 
 >3 
 
 X d 
 M ® 
 
 Study of animal and plant life common to the child's 
 environments. Phenomena of nature. Local occupations and 
 products. Direction, distances, cardinal points. City and 
 county geography. 
 
 Physiology 
 
 Conversation lessons about the human body and how 
 to take care of it. Lessons on cleanliness, neatness, need 
 of exercise, food, etc. Lessons on proper position, move- 
 ment, morals and manners. Evils of stimulants and narcotics. 
 
 History 
 
 Memory gems from leading poets. Myths, heroic tales, 
 and fables, to cultivate imagination and teach moral lessons. 
 Origin and purpose of holidays. Meaning of flag. History 
 stories. 
 
 Vocal 
 Music 
 
 Scale practice, chart exercises and rote songs. Simplest rudi- 
 ments of music, with use of musical terms. Drill in correct tone pro- 
 duction and recognition. Use of songs adapted to childhood. 
 Motion and marching songs and exercises. 
 
 Drawing 
 
 Clay modeling, paper cutting and folding. Study of primary and 
 intermediate colors. Free-hand drawings from nature and still life. 
 Stories illustrated. Study of simple forms and figures. 
 
 (12) 
 
ELEMENTARY COUBSE— CLOSELY GRADED SCHOOLS 13 
 
 INTERMEDIATE DEPARTMENT 
 
 Branches 
 OF Stuby 
 
 FOURTH GRADE 
 
 FIFTH GRADE 
 
 SIXTH GRADE 
 
 Reading 
 
 Third Reader 
 completed and sup- 
 plemented with 
 books and papers 
 o f corresponding 
 grade. Special at- 
 tention to distinct 
 utterance and nat- 
 u r a 1 expression. 
 Sight reading ex- 
 ercises. Short 
 poems memorized 
 and recited. 
 
 Fourth Reader 
 completed and sup- 
 plemented with his- 
 tory stories, easy 
 biography, and 
 children's papers. 
 Notice a few prom- 
 inent authors, and 
 memoiize selec- 
 tions and extracts. 
 
 Supplementary 
 Fourth Reader for 
 class use. Study and 
 recite choice selec- 
 tions in prose and 
 poetry. Continue bi- 
 ography and current 
 news. Exercises in 
 sight reading and 
 articulation. 
 
 Spelling 
 
 Spelling book be- 
 gun. Lessons se- 
 lected and adapted. 
 Use and meaning 
 of common words. 
 Selected words 
 from other lessons. 
 Oral and written 
 exercises. 
 
 The Spelling book continued through the 
 two grades. Lessons graded and adapted. 
 Selected words from all lessons. Use and 
 meaning of words. Frequent drills in phonic 
 spelling and diacritical marking. Frequent 
 review of difficult words. Make and use 
 lists of words frequently misspelled. 
 
 Writing 
 
 Copy-book and practice paper with pen and ink. Drill in free, easy 
 movement, and in correct position. Study of correct forms of letters 
 according to adopted system. Neat, careful, and exact work required 
 in all written exercises. All reviews, examinations and compositions 
 with pen and ink. Frequent specimens of best writing. 
 
 Language 
 
 Lessons in Eng- 
 lish, with occa- 
 sional use of text- 
 b o o k. Oral and 
 written exercises 
 to develop thought 
 and expression. 
 Reproduction o f 
 stories. Composi- 
 tions from pictures, 
 etc. 
 
 Lessons in Eng- 
 lish, with regular 
 use of text-book. 
 Compositions from 
 outlines and de- 
 scriptions. Simple 
 forms of letter 
 writing. Kinds of 
 sentences. Parts 
 of speech, etc. 
 
 Lessons in English, 
 with use of second 
 text-book. The sen- 
 tence and its parts. 
 Parts of speech. 
 Composition, punc- 
 tuation. Study of 
 selections for thought 
 and language. 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 Primary text- 
 book for class prac- 
 tice. Fundamental 
 operations. Inte- 
 gers to one million. 
 Fractional parts of 
 numbers . U S. 
 money. Weights 
 and measures. 
 
 Elementary arith- 
 metic, through frac- 
 tions and decimals, 
 omitting difficult 
 problems. Drill in 
 rapid and accurate 
 calculation. Oral 
 analysis. 
 
 Elementary arith- 
 metic completed. Re- 
 view fractions and 
 decimals. Denomi- 
 nate numbers, with 
 applications. Supple- 
 mentary problems. 
 Oral analysis. Drills 
 in rapid and accurate 
 calculation. 
 
14 
 
 STJS'OPSUiS OF COUBSES OF STUDF 
 
 INTERMEDIATE DEPARTMENT- Continued 
 
 Branches 
 OF Study 
 
 Geography 
 
 Physiology 
 
 History 
 
 Vocal 
 Music 
 
 Drawing 
 
 FOURTH GRADE 
 
 Local geography. 
 Occupations of peo- 
 ple. Home pro- 
 ducts. The factory, 
 store, garden, for- 
 est, farm. Local 
 streams, railroads, 
 etc. Facts and 
 terms in geography. 
 Drill on maps and 
 globe. Prepare to 
 use text-book. 
 
 FIFTH GRADE 
 
 Elementary geog- 
 raphy to South 
 America. Supple- 
 mentary reading in 
 geography. Obser- 
 vation of local con- 
 ditions. Use of 
 maps and globe. 
 Map sketching. 
 
 SIXTH GRADE 
 
 Elementary geogra- 
 phy completed. Spe- 
 cial attention to phys- 
 ical features, pro- 
 ductions, and state 
 geography. Map 
 drawing and sketch- 
 ing. 
 
 Oral lessons, with occasional use of text- 
 book. Special attention to hygienic rules 
 and habits. Nature and effects of disease. 
 Value of exercise, pure air, sleep, sunlight, 
 and wholesome food. Harmful tendencies 
 of the moderate use of stimulants and nar- 
 cotics. Use charts, parts of animals, black- 
 board illustrations, and simple experi- 
 ments. 
 
 Oral instruction, with supplementary 
 reading in history. History stories read 
 by teacher and reproduced by pupils. In- 
 teresting facts in history. Associate prom- 
 inent men with noted events. Patriotic 
 songs and poems. Prepare to use text- 
 book. 
 
 Elementary physi- 
 ology used regularly. 
 Special emphasis 
 upon healthful con- 
 ditions of living. 
 Correct use of physi- 
 ological terms. 
 
 Primary history 
 used and completed. 
 Special attention to 
 biography of promi- 
 nent men. Patriotic 
 selections memorized 
 and recited. National 
 colors, songs and hol- 
 idays. 
 
 Musical drills and exercises to cultivate 
 the voice and to train the ear in the recog- 
 nition of correct tones. Use book for ex- 
 tended exercises and songs. Popular songs 
 and melodies. One-part music only. 
 
 Music book with 
 two-part music. Ex- 
 ercises for drill. 
 Selected songs, for 
 beauty of sentiment 
 as well as melody. 
 Popular patriotic 
 songs. Familiar 
 hymns. 
 
 Free-hand drawing and sketching. Occasional use of drawing 
 books. Drawing from observation, from memory, from imagination. 
 Use of carefully drawn illustrations in connection with other 
 branches. Study and history of a few great artists and their best 
 productions. Study of color. Paper cutting, folding and pasting. 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE— CLOSELY GRADED SCHOOLS 15 
 
 GRAMMAR DEPARTMENT 
 
 Branches 
 OF Study 
 
 SEVENTH GRADE 
 
 EIGHTH GRADE 
 
 NINTH GRADE 
 
 Reading 
 
 Grammar school 
 reader for regular 
 class drill. Use of 
 dictionary. Voice 
 culture. Sight read- 
 ing of children's 
 classics. Study of 
 easy selections 
 from best authors. 
 Memory exercises. 
 
 Selections from 
 American authors 
 for class reading. 
 Drill in expression. 
 Study prominent 
 authors, and recite 
 short selections. 
 Special attention 
 to home reading. 
 
 Selections from 
 English authors read 
 and studied in class. 
 Gems in prose and 
 poetry memorized. 
 Sight reading of cur- 
 rent literature. Home 
 reading directed and 
 encouraged. 
 
 Spelling 
 
 Spelling book 
 completed. Dia- 
 critics mastered. 
 Pupils use diction- 
 aries. Oral and 
 written exercises. 
 Correct manuscript 
 spelling. 
 
 Tests in spelling 
 and pronuncia- 
 tion. Drill on 
 words frequently 
 misspelled. Diffi- 
 cult words in all 
 lessons. Abbrevia- 
 tions and contrac- 
 tions. 
 
 Correct spelling re- 
 quired in all manu- 
 script work. Occa- 
 sional tests. Notice 
 the spelling of diffi- 
 cult words in all les- 
 sons. 
 
 1 
 Writing 
 
 Writing taught in 
 all manuscript 
 work. Copy-book 
 for occasional use. 
 Development of in- 
 dividual handwrit- 
 ing. Pencil tablets 
 for regular work. 
 
 Letter and busi- 
 ness forms. Fre- 
 quent specimens of 
 best writing re- 
 quired. General 
 use of pen and ink. 
 Pencil tablets. 
 
 Elements of book- 
 keeping. Special 
 business forms. Es- 
 sentials of corre- 
 spondence. Use of 
 blank-book for spe- 
 cial forms. Pencil 
 tablets. 
 
 Language 
 
 Lessons in Eng- 
 lish, with elemen- 
 tary grammar. 
 Parts of speech 
 subdivided and 
 modified. Letter 
 writing. Composi- 
 tion. Study of se- 
 lections. 
 
 English gram- 
 mar. Forms and 
 construction o f 
 sentences. Inflec- 
 tion. Composi- 
 tions. Study of 
 selections. 
 
 English grammar 
 completed. Syntax. 
 Analysis and parsing. 
 Compositions. Study 
 of selections. Ele- 
 ments of rhetoric. 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 Grammar school 
 arithmetic to per- 
 centage, omitting 
 difficult examples 
 in book. Many 
 supplementary 
 problems for drill. 
 Selected lessons 
 and problems in 
 mental arithmetic. 
 
 Grammar school 
 arithmetic to evo- 
 lution. Review 
 preceding sections 
 by using difficult 
 problems. Corre- 
 sponding sections in 
 mental arithmetic. 
 
 Grammar school 
 arithmetic completed 
 and reviewed. Men- 
 tal arithmetic com- 
 pleted. Use of sup- 
 plementary problems 
 for review and drill. 
 Elements of geome- 
 try. 
 
16 
 
 srifopsus OF coursj:s of study 
 
 GRAMMAR DEPARTMENT — Continued 
 
 Branches 
 OF Study 
 
 SEVENTH GRADE 
 
 EIGHTH GRADE 
 
 NINTH GRADE 
 
 Geography 
 
 Grammar school 
 geography through 
 United States. Spe- 
 cial attention to 
 physical and com- 
 mercial geography. 
 Continue map 
 drawing. 
 
 Grammar school 
 geography com- 
 pleted. Frequent 
 use of maps and 
 globe. Use of 
 outlines in study 
 and recitation. 
 Composition work 
 in connection with 
 geography lessons. 
 
 Review essential 
 features of mathe- 
 matical and political 
 geography. Special 
 study of physical and 
 commercial features. 
 State and county 
 geography. 
 
 Physiology 
 
 Grammar school 
 physiology begun. 
 Essentials of 
 health. Thorough 
 study of text-book. 
 Application of 
 physiological prin- 
 ciples in all hygi- 
 enic rules and 
 habits. 
 
 Grammar school 
 physiology c o m - 
 pleted. Attention 
 to details and scien- 
 tific authorities. 
 Special study of 
 stimulants and nar- 
 cotics. Experi- 
 ments and illustra- 
 tions. 
 
 t-i 
 Xi 
 V 
 byO 
 
 < 
 
 First steps in 
 algebra. Ele- 
 mentary work 
 in funda- 
 mental opera- 
 tions, factoring, 
 fractions, and 
 simple equa- 
 tions. 
 
 History 
 
 United States 
 history to constitu- 
 tional period. Spe- 
 cial attention to 
 biography, histor- 
 ical maps, and 
 outlines. 
 
 United States 
 history completed. 
 Attention to histor- 
 ical orations, 
 poems, songs, 
 monuments, etc. 
 Use topical out- 
 lines in study and 
 recitation. 
 
 General review of 
 United States history, 
 with special reference 
 to the evolution of 
 government. E 1 e - 
 ments of civil gov- 
 ernment. State his- 
 tory and government. 
 
 Music 
 
 Regular instruc- 
 tion and drill. Two- 
 part music. Fre- 
 quent use of popu- 
 lar songs and 
 hymns. 
 
 Regular instruc- 
 tion and drill. Two- 
 and three - part 
 music. Special 
 chorus drills. Use 
 of songs. 
 
 Regular instruction 
 and drill. Two- and 
 three - part music. 
 Special chorus drills. 
 Instrumental accom- 
 paniment. 
 
 Drawing 
 
 Regular instruc- 
 tion. Use of draw- 
 ing books. Exer- 
 cises in construc- 
 tion and represen- 
 tation. Optional 
 work. 
 
 Regular instruc- 
 tion, with use of 
 drawing books. 
 Use of instruments 
 in working draw- 
 ings. Study of his- 
 toric art. 
 
 Work of previous 
 year continued. 
 Study of art. Study 
 of a few masterpieces 
 of art. Special or 
 optional work. 
 
High School Courses of Study — For Villages 
 and Small Towns 
 
 
 PREPARATORY YEAR 
 
 COMPLETING YEAR 
 
 One-year 
 Course 
 
 Reading and Spelling com- 
 pleted. Outline study of litera- 
 ture. Grammar. Arithmetic. 
 Geography completed. TJ. S. 
 History completed. Physiology 
 completed. First steps in 
 Algebra. 
 
 Literature : Reading of clas- 
 sics. Grammar: Elements of 
 Rhetoric. Arithmetic supple- 
 mented. Civil Government. 
 Algebra to quadratics. Busi- 
 ness Forms. 
 
 
 PREPARATORY 
 YEAR 
 
 FIRST YEAR 
 
 SECOND YEAR 
 
 Two-year 
 Course 
 
 (Same as in one- 
 year course.) 
 
 American litera- 
 ture. Grammar 
 completed. Arith- 
 metic completed. 
 Civil Government 
 completed. A 1 g e- 
 bra to quadratics. 
 Physical Geography 
 completed. 
 
 English litera- 
 ture : Readings. 
 Rhetoric completed. 
 Elementary Algebra 
 completed. Brief 
 course in general his- 
 tory. Bookkeeping. 
 Elementary Physics. 
 
 
 PREPARATORY 
 AND FIRST YEARS 
 
 SECOND YEAR 
 
 THIRD YEAR 
 
 Three-year 
 Course 
 
 (Same as in two- 
 year course.) 
 
 English litera- 
 ture. Rhetoric 
 completed. Gen- 
 eral history be- 
 gun. Algebra com- 
 pleted. Bookkeep- 
 ing. First lessons 
 in Latin. 
 
 Study of selections 
 in literature. Gen- 
 eral history com- 
 pleted. Plane Geom- 
 etry. Natural Phi- 
 losophy. Latin — 
 Caesar. Elements of 
 Botany. 
 
 Practical lessons in Drawing, Vocal Music, and Physical Culture 
 should be given with each course. 
 
 The Preparatory Year should take the place of the last year of 
 the Elementary Course. 
 
 Under proper conditions, the One-year Course may be used and 
 completed in schools of three or four rooms, having a seven- or eight- 
 months' term. The Two-year Course may be used and completed in 
 schools having from five to eight rooms and a school term of seven or 
 eight months. The Three-year Course may be completed in schools 
 having ten or more rooms and a school term of eight or nine months. 
 
 Pupils of average ability ought to complete the One -year Course 
 at 16 years of age; the Two-year Course at 16 or 17; the Three-year 
 Course at 17 or 18. 
 
 (17) 
 
Township High School Course of Study 
 
 
 FIRST YEAR 
 
 SECOND YEAR 
 
 Two-year 
 Course 
 
 Reading of selections from 
 American literature. Grammar, 
 with Elements of Rhetoric. 
 Advanced arithmetic and Busi- 
 ness Forms. Algebra to Quad- 
 ratics. Physical Geography. State 
 history and civil government. 
 
 Reading of selections from 
 English literature. Rhetoric 
 and composition. Elementary 
 Algebra Completed. Brief 
 Course in general history. 
 Bookkeeping and business cor- 
 respondence. Botany, with spe- 
 cial study of local flora. 
 
 
 FIRST YEAR 
 
 SECOND YEAR 
 
 THIRD YEAR 
 
 Three-year 
 Course 
 
 Same as in the 
 two-year course. 
 
 Same as in the 
 two - year course, 
 with Latin added. 
 
 Reading and study 
 of selected classics. 
 Composition, Plane 
 Geometry and Men- 
 suration. English 
 History. Elemen- 
 ary Physics. Latin, 
 four books of Caesar, 
 Elementary Chemis- 
 try, with Chemistry 
 of Soils. 
 
 
 FIRST AND 
 SECOND YEARS 
 
 THIRD YEAR 
 
 FOURTH YEAR 
 
 Four-year 
 Course 
 
 Same as in the 
 three-year course. 
 
 Reading and 
 study of selections. 
 Composition. Plane 
 Geometry. English 
 History. Ele- 
 mentary Physics. 
 Chemistry. Latin, 
 four books of 
 Csesar. 
 
 Reading and study 
 of classics, with re- 
 view of advanced 
 Grammar. Trigonom- 
 etry and Plane Sur- 
 veying. Latin, Cicero 
 or Virgil. American 
 History and Civics. 
 Chemistry of Soils. 
 Zoology, including 
 Entomology. 
 
 Practical lessons in Drawing, Vocal Music and Reading should 
 be given with each course. 
 
 In districts where the central high school is drawn from a limited 
 number of elementary schools, the two- or three -year courses may 
 have a preparatory year's work in the high school. This preparatory 
 work should be essentially the last year of the Elementary Course. 
 
 In large township high schools, optional courses may be arranged, 
 as in the larger towns and cities. 
 
 (18) 
 
General High School Course of Study 
 
 Departments 
 
 FIRST YEAR 
 
 SECOND YEAR 
 
 THIRD YEAR 
 
 FOURTH YEAR 
 
 Higher 
 Knglish 
 
 Advanced 
 grammar. Study 
 and analysis of 
 selections. Study 
 and practice in 
 oral expression. 
 
 Rhetoric, with 
 applications. 
 Reading and 
 study of classic 
 selections. Exer- 
 cises in expres- 
 sion. 
 
 American Lit- 
 erature. History 
 and study of se- 
 lections. Compo- 
 sition and oral 
 exercises. 
 
 English Litera- 
 t u r e . Critical 
 study of selec- 
 tions. Composi- 
 tion. Exercises 
 to cultivate oral 
 expression. 
 
 Mathe- 
 matics 
 
 Elementary Al- 
 g e b r a (having 
 been previously 
 studied one year) 
 completed. 
 
 Plane Geometry 
 with practical 
 applications. 
 
 Solid Geometry 
 and Trigonom- 
 etry. 
 
 Commercial 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 Higher Arith- 
 metic 
 Higher Algebra. 
 Trigonometry. 
 
 Sciences 
 
 Elementary 
 Geology. Special 
 study of local 
 formations. 
 
 Physical Geog- 
 raphy, with re- 
 lated commercial 
 geography. 
 
 Natural Phi- 
 losophy, with 
 laboratory ex- 
 periments. 
 
 Chemistry, 
 Psychology. 
 
 Botany, Physi- 
 ology. 
 
 Pedagogy; Re- 
 view of geog- 
 raphy. 
 
 History 
 
 English H i s - 
 tory. 
 Reading of 
 
 Norse mythology. 
 
 Ancient His- 
 tory. 
 
 Reading of 
 Greek and Roman 
 mythology. 
 
 Mediaeval and 
 Modern History. 
 
 Commer cial 
 Law. 
 
 Civil Govern- 
 ment with review 
 of American His- 
 tory. 
 
 Greek and Bo- 
 man History. 
 
 History of Edu- 
 cation. 
 
 Lfanguages 
 
 Latin lessons. 
 Latin reader 
 and grammar. 
 
 Latin. — Four 
 books of Caesar's 
 Commentaries. 
 
 Latin.— Select 
 orations of 
 Cicero. 
 
 Greek, Ger- 
 man, French. 
 
 Latin.— Virgil's 
 uEneid. 
 
 Greek, German, 
 French. 
 
 Arts 
 
 Drawing.— Two 
 lessons a week by 
 special instruc- 
 tor. 
 
 Vocal Music— 
 Daily exercises. 
 
 Drawing.— Two 
 lessons a week by 
 special instruc- 
 tor. 
 
 Vocal Music— 
 Daily exercises. 
 
 Special lines in 
 Advanced Draio- 
 ing and Music. 
 
 Bookkeeping 
 and Business 
 Forms. 
 
 Special lines in 
 Advanced Draw- 
 ing and Music. 
 
 B\o okke eping, 
 with Business 
 Practice. Ste- 
 nography and 
 Typeioriting. 
 
 In the above outline the Regular or Standard Course is printed in 
 Eoman; elective studies in Italic. After the first two years, students 
 may choose a Commercial, a College Preparatory, or a Normal Course. 
 
 In the arrangement of a daily program, no student should have less 
 than three, nor more than five recitations, exclusive of Music and 
 Drawing. 
 
 (19) 
 
Management of One -Room Schools 
 
 THE common school branches as outlined in this Manual 
 constitute the complete Course of Study for the ordi- 
 nary one-room schools. 
 
 Responsibility of the Teacher. — Under the present 
 system of school supervision in Pennsylvania, the work of 
 grading these schools is left almost entirely in the hands 
 of the individual teachers. They may receive some assist- 
 ance from directors and superintendent, yet they themselves 
 must determine and maintain the standard of scholarship 
 for each grade. Their success in this direction will be 
 measured by the impartial and thorough grading of the 
 entire school, rather than by the number of pupils promoted 
 to succeeding grades during any one term. So far as pos 
 sible, the Course of Study should be closely followed, and, 
 if need be, supplemented, rather than made lighter. Care- 
 ful and thorough work should be required of each grade; 
 and while too much should not be expected or required of 
 children, yet great care should be taken that they do not 
 advance more rapidly in the Course than their attainments 
 will justify. 
 
 The grades should be kept separate and distinct, so far as 
 possible. This requirement, however, does not conflict with 
 the combination of different grades in class work in cer- 
 tain branches. Such combinations are necessary in country 
 schools. Reading and Arithmetic are the grade branches, 
 and the pupil's ability to read and to comprehend, with 
 his power to think and to reason, should determine the 
 grade to which he belongs. His work in other branches 
 should be kept parallel with these, so far as practicable. 
 
 Such examinations should be held from time to time in 
 
 (20) 
 
CLASSUS AND BECITATI0N8 21 
 
 each grade as will serve not only for general review, but 
 also as tests of progress and class standing. 
 
 Term Reports of Grading".— Upon beginning a term 
 of school, every teacher needs a comprehensive and accurate 
 record of the work accomplished by the school under his 
 predecessor, so that due credit may be given for what has 
 already been done and the proper connection made with 
 what shall follow. 
 
 A suitable term -report blank, therefore, adapted to the 
 Course of Study, should be sent to each teacher near the 
 close of the school term. This report, when properly made, 
 would show a complete record of the work and the grade 
 standing of each pupil in attendance, and recommend such 
 promotions as are deemed advisable. The report should 
 also contain such general information concerning the man- 
 agement of the school as will be of practical benefit to the 
 succeeding teacher. Immediately after the close of the 
 school, this completed report should be sent to the County 
 Superintendent, who, after examining it, should provide 
 for its return to the proper board of directors, by whom it 
 should be placed in the hands of the newly elected teacher. 
 
 CLASSES AND RECITATIONS 
 
 The following is an approximate outline of the classifi- 
 cation and daily work of one -room schools, as indicated by 
 the Course of Study: 
 
 Reading". — Five classes; seven recitations. The First 
 Grade and the Second Grade each two recitations, combin- 
 ing Spelling, Writing, and Language. The Third, Fourth, 
 and Fifth Grades each one recitation. 
 
 Spelling".— Two classes ; two recitations. 
 
 Writing". — One general writing class and one period. 
 
 Lang'uag'e.— Three classes (two with text-books) ; three 
 recitations. 
 
22 MANAGEMENT OF ONE -BOOM SCHOOLS 
 
 Arithmetic. — Four classes (three with text-books); four 
 recitations. 
 
 Geography. — Two classes ; two recitations. 
 History. — Two classes ; two recitations. 
 Physiolog"y. — Two classes ; two recitations. 
 
 Beading and Arithmetic are the distinctive grade branches. All 
 grades should have daily and separate recitations in both. Mental 
 Arithmetic may alternate or be combined with Written Arithmetic in the 
 Fifth Grade. As far as possible, the same subject should be studied 
 from both books coordinately. 
 
 The Fourth and Fifth Grades may be combined in Spelling with 
 separate exercises in advanced work once or twice a week for the Fifth 
 Grade. 
 
 The oral Language indicated for the Third Grade may be combined 
 with the Reading and Spelling recitations. 
 
 Oral Geography, History, and Physiology for the Primary Division 
 may be combined in one daily recitation, giving each branch due 
 prominence in successive recitations. 
 
 In the Third Grade, oral Geography and History lessons may be 
 
 combined or may alternate in daily recitations. Well -advanced pupils 
 
 in this grade may join with the Fourth Grade, and use text-books. 
 
 Drawing lessons may be given once or twice a week in place of 
 Writing. 
 
 In large schools, Physiology and History classes in the Fourth and 
 Fifth Grades may recite upon alternate days. It is better, however, to 
 have all classes recite daily, if the program can be so arranged with- 
 out crowding. 
 
 A DAILY PROGRAM 
 
 OPENING EXERCISES AT 9 O'CLOCK 
 
 Geography Fifth Grade 
 
 Reading and Language First and Second Grades 
 
 Arithmetic Tlvird, Fourth and Fifth Grades 
 
 RECESS, 10 MINUTES — 10:30 
 
 Numbers First and Second Grades 
 
 Reading and Language Third Grade 
 
 Geography Fourth Grade 
 
 Reading and Literature Fifth Grade 
 
 Writing or Drawing All Grades 
 
TEE PBUPABATION OF LESSONS 23 
 
 NOON RECESS, 12 O'CLOCK — ONE HOUR 
 
 Singing. 
 
 Language Fourth Ch-ade 
 
 Spelling Third Grade 
 
 Reading and Spelling First and Second Grades 
 
 Grammar Fifth G^-ade 
 
 History Fourth and Fifth Grades 
 
 RECESS, 10 MINUTES — 2:30 
 
 Geography or History Tliird Grade 
 
 Reading Fourth Grade 
 
 General Lessons First and Second Grades 
 
 Physiology Tliird and Fourth Gh-ades 
 
 Physiology Fifth Gh-ade 
 
 Spelling Fourth and Fifth Grades 
 
 GENERAL INSTRUCTION 
 
 This program is arranged to meet the full requirements 
 of the Course of Study, and provides for all the classes 
 and recitations suggested for one -room schools. It is in- 
 tended, however, to be suggestive merely. Each teacher 
 will make such changes as will adapt it to the needs and 
 conditions of his school. 
 
 THE PREPARATION OF LESSONS 
 
 The proper regulation and direction of seat work in the 
 preparation of lessons is of equal importance to the recita- 
 tion program. Every school should have a study program, 
 which should indicate, in a general way, the work to be 
 done by each division or grade during each recitation period 
 throughout the day. This will secure well-prepared lessons, 
 and prove a most potent aid in the discipline of the school. 
 
 It is not assumed that the Study and Recitation Program 
 here given can be used as a whole in any school ; but from 
 the plan submitted the teacher will be able to see the essential 
 principles involved, and from them construct his own program. 
 
STUDY AND RECITATION PROGRAM 
 
 (The Recitations are indicated by Boldface Type) 
 
 a o 
 
 s ^ 
 
 o 
 
 PRIMARY DIVISION 
 
 INTERM. DIV. 
 
 ADVANCED DIV. 
 
 OPENING EXERCISES 
 
 20 m, 
 
 9:20 
 
 Slate work from blackboard. 
 
 Referred work in 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 Geography. 
 
 20 m. 
 
 9:40 
 
 Readin£r> Spelling, and 
 Language. 
 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 25 m. 
 
 10:05 
 
 Writing, Sentence building 
 on slate or tablet. 
 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 25 m. 
 
 10:30 
 
 Number work with objects. 
 Slate work. 
 
 Referred Language 
 work. 
 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 10 m. 
 
 10:40 
 
 FORENOON RECESS 
 
 20 m. 
 
 11:00 
 
 Number Lesson. 
 
 Reading. 
 
 Geography. 
 
 History. 
 
 25 m. 
 
 11:25 
 
 Busy work; grouping objects. 
 Problems. 
 
 Reading and Lan- 
 guage. 
 
 Geography. 
 
 Spelling. 
 
 Language. 
 
 Reading and Litera- 
 ture. 
 
 20 m. 
 
 11:45 
 
 Drawing ; paper cutting or 
 folding. Slate work. 
 
 Reading and Lit- 
 erature. 
 
 15 m 
 
 12:00 
 
 Writing or Drawing. 
 
 Writing or Draw- 
 ing. 
 
 Writing or Draw- 
 ing. 
 
 60m. 
 
 1:00 
 
 NOON RECESS 
 
 
 
 SINGING 
 
 20 m. 
 
 1:20 
 
 Slate work from blackboard 
 copy. Write reading lesson. 
 
 Language. 
 
 Spelling. 
 
 Grammar. 
 
 20 m. 
 
 1:40 
 
 Reading, Spelling, and 
 Language. 
 
 Spelling. 
 
 Grammar. 
 
 20 m. 
 
 2:00 
 
 Language work on slate or 
 tablet. 
 
 Reading— History, 
 
 Grammar. 
 
 30 m. 
 
 2:30 
 
 Busy work, with forms and 
 colors. Slate exercises. 
 
 History. 
 
 Referred work. 
 
 Reading. 
 
 History. 
 
 10 m. 
 
 2:40 
 
 AFTERNOON RECESS 
 
 20 m. 
 
 3:00 
 
 Silent reading. Composition 
 work outlined on black- 
 board. 
 
 Geography or His- 
 tory. 
 
 Reading. 
 
 Spelling. 
 
 15 m. 
 
 3:15 
 
 Geography, Physiology, 
 or History. 
 
 Physiology. 
 
 Physiology. 
 
 30 m. 
 
 3:45 
 
 Busy work. Referred work. 
 Copy reading lesson. 
 
 Physiology. 
 
 Spelling. 
 
 Physiology. 
 
 15 m. 
 
 4:00 
 
 Excused from school. 
 
 Spelling-. 
 
 Spelling. 
 
 
 
 GENERAL INSTRUCTION 
 
 (24) 
 
THE PBEPABATION OF LESSONS 25 
 
 It will be observed that in this schedule of work the 
 Primary Division has four regular class exercises, the Inter- 
 mediate Division has five and six, and the Advanced Di- 
 vision seven, exclusive of the general writing class. This 
 does not give any one division too much class work ; but 
 sub -divisions for distinctive grade work may result in too 
 mauy class recitations for the teacher. Grades should have 
 separate work in the grade branches — Reading and Arith- 
 metic — and the divisions should be separate in all other 
 branches in which elementary and advanced text -books are 
 used. While home study is to be encouraged and required, 
 the study program should allow a definite period for the 
 final preparation of each lesson. Pupils should be required 
 to prepare the lessons at the time indicated unless other- 
 wise directed. After this has been done, other work may 
 be taken up. 
 
 The Primary Division may include a chart class and 
 two reading classes, or all may be combined in two grades. 
 In either case, the period should be divided among the 
 several classes. The recitations should be short and spir- 
 ited. The two -grade work for the Intermediate Division is 
 indicated by the relative position of the branches of study. 
 Those to the left of the column are for the Third Grade 
 and those to the right for the Fourth Grade. 
 
 No time is indicated for Opening Exercises, Singing, and 
 General Instruction. These, however important, do not re- 
 quire any great length of time, and every program should 
 be sufiiciently flexible to allow a short period for all such 
 general exercises without hurrying through them and with- 
 out interfering with any class recitation. Any period on 
 the program may occasionally be used for special exercises 
 or a general drill. No one branch, however, should be 
 slighted through such temporary changes. It is well, also, 
 for the teacher to use a few minutes after each recitation 
 
26 MANAGEMENT OF ONE -BOOM SCHOOLS 
 
 period to regulate and direct the seat work, provide writing 
 material, give needed individual help, and hear and answer 
 special requests, which should be permitted only at such 
 intervals. The care and thoroughness with which these 
 things are done will determine very largely the effective- 
 ness of class instruction, and save valuable time and energy 
 otherwise spent in maintaining proper discipline. 
 
 On Friday afternoon, the last two periods may be used 
 for general exercises previously announced and prepared. 
 
 MONTHLY REPORTS TO PARENTS 
 
 Every teacher should seek and encourage home coope- 
 ration and support. This may be secured, in a measure at 
 least, by the use of monthly reports from the teacher to 
 parents, showing the progress of the pupils. These reports 
 should be simple, accurate, and impartial. They should 
 show the pupil's grade, attendance, punctuality, deport- 
 ment, application to study, and his class work in the 
 several branches upon some convenient scale, as 100. The 
 parents or guardians should be asked to examine and sign 
 the reports each month, and see that they are promptly 
 returned to the teacher. At the close of the term they 
 should be left with the pupils. In case of removal to a 
 new district, they will serve as a convenient means in 
 determining the pupil's grade and assignment of work. 
 
 GRADUATION AND DIPLOMAS 
 
 When pupils complete a regularly adopted course of 
 study, they should be granted diplomas as certificates of 
 scholarship. This should apply to the elementary as well 
 as to the high schools, and will be quite as effective in 
 
GRADUATION AND DIPLOMAS 27 
 
 the rural districts as in the towns and cities. A diploma 
 or certificate of scholarship of any kind, however, should 
 simply be a recognition of work done to the extent of the 
 completed course of study. Under proper restrictions and 
 regulations, it will serve not only as a reward of merit, 
 but at the same time prove a helpful stimulus to all pupils 
 in securing regular and continued attendance, earnest work, 
 and higher attainments. 
 
Grading of Apartment Schools 
 
 BOROUGH and country schools of two or more apart- 
 ments have practically the same work to do in the 
 elementary branches as is outlined in this Manual 
 for one -room schools. The grading differs only in the 
 closer classification of pupils and the subdivisions of 
 grade work. The amount of work required of each grade 
 must be determined by the number of rooms, the length of 
 term, the relative number of pupils in the several apart- 
 ments, and the amount of special or high school work to 
 be done. 
 
 The following suggestions will apply to most schools of 
 the number of rooms indicated : 
 
 Two-Room Schools.— The First Boom should have the 
 First, Second and Third Grades. The First Grade may 
 be subdivided in Reading and Arithmetic, and the Third 
 Grade in Arithmetic, Language, and Geography. Elemen- 
 tary text -books in Geography and Language may be intro- 
 duced during the last year of the Third Grade by those 
 who are to be promoted at the close of the term. Such 
 text -books are to be used as supplementary only to the 
 work in hand, and are to be used regularly in the next 
 room. The Third Grade may use pen and ink. 
 
 The Second Boom should^ have the Fourth and Fifth 
 Grades, with two classes in Arithmetic and Grammar for 
 the Fifth Grade. The Elementary Course should be fully 
 completed and supplemented during the last year by ad- 
 vanced work in Arithmetic and Grammar, and the ele- 
 ments of Rhetoric, Civil Government, Literature, and Physical 
 Geography. The high school text -books, however, should 
 be used for reference only — seldom as regular text-books. 
 
 (28) 
 
GRADING OF APARTMENT SCHOOLS 29 
 
 Three-Room Schools.— The First Boom should have 
 the Primary Division, with two regular classes in the First 
 Grade, and two classes in Language, Reading, and Arith- 
 metic in the Second Grade. No text -books but the readers 
 should be used, but two or more series should be provided. 
 No pen and ink work should be required. 
 
 The Second Boom should have the Intermediate Division. 
 The Third and Fourth Grades should be separate in all 
 class exercises except writing. The Fourth Grade may be 
 subdivided in Language, Arithmetic, and Geography. Ele- 
 mentary text -books only should be used in this room. 
 
 The Third Boom should have all of the Fifth Grade, 
 using and completing the one -year High School Course, 
 special text -books to be used in Literature, Civil Govern- 
 ment, and Algebra. Two regular classes should be formed 
 in all branches except Writing and Spelling, and the higher 
 class subdivided in Arithmetic, Algebra, and Grammar. 
 
 Four-Room Schools.— The First Boom should have 
 the First Grade in two regular classes and one class of 
 the Second Grade. 
 
 The Second Boom should have the advanced class of the 
 Second Grade and all of the Third Grade. The Third 
 Grade may be divided in Arithmetic and Language. 
 
 The Third Boom should have all of the Fourth Grade 
 and two regular classes in all grade work. Under favora- 
 ble conditions some Fifth Grade work may be done in this 
 room, using the larger text -books in Geography, Arithme- 
 tic, and Physiology. 
 
 The Fourth Boom should complete the Fifth Grade work, 
 and supplement, if possible, the one- year High School Course. 
 Separate text -books may be used in Algebra, Rhetoric, Civil 
 Government, and Literature. Physical Geography may be 
 added to the Course. Essentially the same classification should 
 be made as in the third room of the three -apartment schools. 
 
30 GRADING OF APABTMJSNT SCHOOLS 
 
 Schools of Five or More Rooms. — Each room should 
 have two distinct grades, with possibly three classes in the 
 lowest primary room. The rooms should be designated by 
 the grade of work done, as Primary, Intermediate, and 
 Grammar. The grammar grades should do the work of 
 the Advanced Department of the Elementary Course of Study. 
 Schools of eight or more rooms should have a supervising 
 principal or superintendent, and one or more assistants in 
 high school work. The course of study for the High 
 School Department must be determined by the length of 
 the school term, the number of rooms, the facilities for 
 work, and the ability and needs of pupils. 
 
 The several courses of study for high schools, outlined 
 elsewhere in this Manual, have passed the test of success- 
 ful application, and are believed to meet the practical 
 needs of public high schools. But as schools, like indi- 
 viduals, may have special aims and peculiar environ- 
 ments, so these courses of study may be modified to meet 
 local conditions and special requirements. 
 
 THE TOWNSHIP HIGH SCHOOL 
 
 The Township High School is yet in the formative 
 period, and the course of study for such a school has, in 
 but few instances, been definitely formulated. The work 
 in these rural high schools, however, is practically the 
 same as in the larger apartment or town schools, except 
 in so far as the work in them is specially adapted to rural 
 or agricultural demands. In grading, management and super- 
 vision, it is essentially the same as the borough or town 
 high school, and is the legitimate outgrowth of the properly 
 graded country school. The course of study outlined for 
 these schools will be found in harmony with the law which 
 provides for them, and in general accord with a number of 
 such schools already established throughout the state. 
 
6BADIN0 OF CITY SCHOOLS 31 
 
 GRADING OF CITY SCHOOLS 
 
 In outlining a course of study for city schools, nine 
 distinct steps or grades are provided for. This does not 
 necessarily mean nine years of successive grade work for 
 all pupils. The work assigned to each grade is about as 
 much as can be well done by the pupils of average ability 
 during a term of nine or ten months. But as each grade 
 may be subdivided into groups or classes, bright and 
 industrious pupils may readily pass from the advanced 
 division of any grade to the weaker division of a higher 
 grade, and, again pushing to the front in the new grade, 
 may thus gain a year, or even two years, on the regular 
 classes. None need thus be kept marMng time, while all 
 must do the work well to secure advancement. 
 
 The regular promotions should be made at the close of 
 the school term, and based upon the teacher's estimate of 
 the daily class work of pupils, together with their record 
 in the monthly reviews given at different times by teacher, 
 principal, and superintendent. Regular attendance, faithful 
 study, and good work are thus given full credit in each 
 individual case ; while those who are irregular, or indif- 
 ferent to their studies will necessarily fall behind their 
 classes, and probably fail of promotion. 
 
 Pupils who fail in the regular promotions should be 
 permitted to apply for a special examination, with a view 
 to immediate promotion, at any time during the first month 
 of the succeeding term. Proper recognition will thus be 
 given to special study and instruction during the va- 
 cation. 
 
 Special promotions, however, should be possible at any 
 time. Whenever a pupil does exceptionally good work in 
 any grade, and at the same time shows a capacity for 
 doing with ease more work than the grade requires, the 
 
32 GBADING OF CITT SCHOOLS 
 
 teacher should recommend, and the superintendent or 
 principal examine, for promotion to a higher grade. 
 
 The General High School Course, as outlined in this 
 Manual, constitutes the essential basis of all advanced 
 culture and instruction. This course, however, may be 
 modified and supplemented by special courses, in order to 
 meet as fully as possible the varied and practical needs 
 of advanced students. All who enter the high school may 
 be classed as regular students ; but during the last two 
 years each pupil may determine either to continue the 
 General Course, or to follow special lines as a full 
 equivalent. 
 
 As a matter of course, these special departments in 
 high school work can be organized only as the number 
 of students for each shall justify the formation of classes 
 without requiring too large a teaching force. 
 
Outlines and Methods 
 
 SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER 
 
 IN THE APPLICATION of the Course of Study found in the follow- 
 ing pages, let discretion be your guide. The outlines indicate 
 the work to be done, and the suggestions are offered as aids to 
 its performance. They are hints to good methods, but are not 
 in any sense mandatory. You will be held responsible for,results only; 
 and with the rightful privilege of independent thought and method and 
 work, you are at liberty to use any or all methods at your command. 
 The only requirement is that you do the loorTc itwll. 
 
 The aim in the following outline is that of adaptation and gradual 
 development, requiring in every department the constant and intelli- 
 gent use of knowledge as the necessary condition of true progress. It 
 is the daily drill and work of the school room rather than the hearing 
 of lessons which mark good teaching. "We learn to do by doing," is 
 a fundamental principle in all educational work. If you would have 
 your pupils attain correct habits, practical skill, and thought power, 
 you must require an intelligent use of pen, pencil, and crayon, and 
 supplement all written work by the necessary oral instruction and 
 drill. The progress of pupils can be measured, not by pages and 
 paragraphs, but by their ability for independent thought and work, 
 and their growing interest in the acquisition and use of knowledge. 
 Although they may be able to read a text-book, it does not follow that 
 they should use it. Text-book study in every grade, and especially in 
 all elementary work, should be studiously limited to the general require- 
 ments of the course, and every effort put forth to make thorough and 
 practical what has been learned. This point needs especial emphasis, 
 because of the constant tendency on the part of pupils to go beyond 
 their ability and needs in text-book work, and also because of the 
 necessity on the part of the teacher to use supplemental material for 
 illustration and practice, for thought and drill, by which alone this 
 tendency may be counteracted, the school kept true to its purposes, and 
 its legitimate results attained. 
 
 While the use of text-books by your pupils is limited in every 
 grade, you will need many helps to supply material for daily work. 
 
 C (33) 
 
34 OUTLINES AND METHODS 
 
 No teacher in the common schools can be expected to develop any 
 subject to any great degree without the assistance of some comprehen- 
 sive outline from which to draw the material for each day's work. 
 And this material, elaborated by the teacher's thought and skill, will 
 make every lesson new, interesting, and practical. So many helpful 
 books in this line are now published that every teacher who feels the 
 need of such helps can readily secure them. The Primary Grades 
 require especial attention, since the pupils cannot use text-books, and 
 yet need carefully graded lessons to lead up to the proper use of books. 
 If possible, have at your command a variety of text-books and manuals 
 for all grades and classes, from which to get the necessary assistance. 
 The Course of Study may be at variance with the present condition 
 of your school. It is not expected, however, that you will make any 
 sudden or radical changes, and least of all such as would invite discord 
 or call forth opposition. But with prudent compromise, bring your 
 school work gradually yet speedily into harmony with the general 
 requirements of the Course. Then, following it, your work will be 
 greatly simplified and made more effective and satisfactory. Of course, 
 you will be yourself in this work, and every suggestion in the following 
 pages must pass your careful criticism and meet your personal approval 
 before it is carried into effect. It is to be hoped, moreover, that all 
 who use this Manual will have the professional zeal to find out what is 
 good a7id the moral courage to use the best they hnow. 
 
PRIMARY DIVISION 
 
 AVERAGE TIME — Three Years. 
 TEXT-BOOKS — First and Second Readers. 
 
 APPARATUS — Blackboard, Slate, Tablet, Pencils, Rule, Sponge, 
 Charts, Material for Object Teaching. 
 
 READING — First Grade 
 
 Begin with simple words in the children's spoken 
 vocabulary. Teach them to recognize at sight the written 
 and printed forms of these words, and to pronounce them 
 readily as wholes. Introduce words already learned into 
 short and interesting sentences. As a rule, select words to 
 be taught from the chart and reader to be used later. Give 
 frequent drill in finding words qtiicMy on chart and black- 
 board, and in pronouncing them readily. The words a and 
 the should usually be pronounced as parts of the succeeding 
 words. Do not teach pupils to pronounce them separately. 
 Phrases should be pronounced almost as single words. Let 
 good spoken language be the guide in reading. Do not 
 allow pupils to drawl. From the start, try to have them 
 get a mental picture of what they read. Aim to develop 
 a ready, natural expression. Do not allow the "word by 
 word pointing" in reading a sentence. Let the words in 
 the sentence first be mastered, and then the thought, with 
 its proper expression, taught as a unit. 
 
 Do not hurry. Let each step be thoroughly mastered 
 and frequently reviewed. 
 
 In these first lessons in reading, a good blackboard is 
 essential. A modern reading chart is helpful, but should 
 be used as supplemental only to the blackboard work. 
 ALfter two or three months' preparatory work, the reader 
 
 (35) 
 
36 OUTLINES AND METHODS 
 
 may be brought into regular use. If the pupils have been 
 properly taught, they will now be able to read a number 
 of pages of the First Reader at sight. Do not, however, 
 allow them to read a lesson from the book until they have 
 mastered every word in that lesson by means of blackboard 
 drill. Give frequent exercises in reading sentences and 
 short stories from the blackboard. As they advance, these 
 may afterwards be reproduced by the pupils and read from 
 slate or tablet. It is well to use the first parts of several 
 First Readers before completing any one book. 
 
 When pupils have fairly well mastered the words, the 
 thought expression, the spelling, and the phonic elements 
 of words, as found in the First Reader or Readers, they 
 will be prepared to take up the next number of the series. 
 
 Where a so-called special method of teaching reading 
 has been adopted, it should, of course, be followed by the 
 teacher ; but in its application, the foregoing suggestions 
 will be found applicable, because they constitute the essen- 
 tial factors in learning to read, whatever name may be 
 applied to the method used. 
 
 The synthetic element in the process of teaching reading 
 is necessarily a part of these first lessons. Word -building, 
 however, whether by sound or by letter, is treated under 
 the head of spelling. But in school -room practice, word 
 and letter forms and values must be taught together, and 
 in such a way as to make them mutual helps in the mastery 
 of thought getting and thought expression. 
 
 READING — Second Grade 
 
 In introducing the Second Reader, malie haste slowly. 
 Many new words must be learned. These are usually found 
 at the head of the lesson, and may often afford enough 
 material for a complete recitation. Teach these new words 
 
PBIMABT DIVISION 37 
 
 SO that pupils will know them at sight, pronounce them 
 correctly, and know what they mean. 
 
 In order to bring all new words before the whole class, 
 write them upon the board. To teach pupils to know them 
 at sight, point rapidly from one word to another. To teach 
 the meaning of the words, require pupils to use them in 
 good sentences. These sentences should be both oral and 
 written. To secure correct and distinct pronunciation, the 
 teacher must give the correct utterance, and .then drill until 
 all faulty enunciation is overcome. 
 
 The chief object of the reading exercise is to get 
 thought from the printed page and to give to it proper 
 expression. - 
 
 To be sure that pupils get the thought, question them 
 thoroughly on what they read. The skillful teacher will 
 not read very much for imitation, but will aim to make 
 the thought clear in the minds of the pupils and then 
 have them tell it. The force and meaning of grammatical 
 pauses may be taught, but it is not necessary to teach 
 that the voice should be sustained at a comma and fall 
 at a period. Aim simply at naturalness and spontaneous 
 expression. Show pupils how to prepare a lesson, and, if 
 necessary, help in its preparation. 
 
 Pupils of this grade need supplementary reading. This, 
 as a rule, should be somewhat more simple than their 
 regular lessons. School papers, leaflets, story books, read- 
 ing cards, and readers of other series can generally be 
 secured by the thoughtful, active teacher. Provide for 
 occasional practice in sight reading of interesting stories, 
 allowing the book to pass from one pupil to another, each 
 reading to entertain and interest the class as a whole. Let 
 pupils tell the story read. Let the teacher frequently read 
 fables and short stories to the class, to be reproduced 
 orally and in writing. 
 
38 OUTLINES AND METHODS 
 
 Let pupils memorize short selections to be recited 
 before the class, occasionally before the school. These 
 selections may be taken from the reader, or from any 
 source not more difficult than the reader. Encourage the 
 children to find suitable selections. The teacher, however, 
 should determine, finally, the material to be used. 
 
 Two or more Second Readers of different series are 
 very desirable for regular class use by this grade. 
 
 SPELLING 
 
 In the Primary Division, spelling should be taught in 
 connection with the reading lessons. After the pupils have 
 learned a limited number of words as wholes, they must 
 learn the parts of the words. Letters have /orm- names 
 and sound -ndimQ^, both of which the pupils must know 
 to enable them to read, write and spell. Spelling in both 
 First and Second Grades should be by sound and by 
 letter, both oral and written. 
 
 Begin by taking some short word, pronounce it slowly 
 and distinctly, and prolong each sound until the word is 
 separated into its elements. Let the pupil pronounce the 
 word while the teacher sounds the letters. Practice upon 
 one word until the pupil can make the sounds in that 
 word, before taking up another. Do not hurry. After 
 one word has been mastered, take up words of similar 
 sounds, as man, can, ran ; cat, rat, sat. 
 
 The sounds of certain letters may be more effectively 
 taught by associating such sounds with objects or animals 
 familiar to the pupil. Thus, the buzzing bee suggests the 
 sound of z; the puff of a locomotive, the sound of cli ; 
 the dog's growl, the sound of r; etc. 
 
 Certain letters are so frequently found combined in words 
 that they form families ; such as at, acJc, ing, le, ng, etc. 
 
PBIMABY DIVISION 39 
 
 Each diacriticar mark should be taught as it occurs in 
 the reader, and within six months the pupils should be able 
 to give the long and short sounds of the vowels, with their 
 diacritical marks, and to indicate silent letters by a slant- 
 ing line drawn through them. 
 
 Phonic drill is more important than spelling by letter, 
 for it is the essential means in learning new words and 
 the basis of distinct utterance. 
 
 No separate spelling book should be used in the Pri- 
 mary Division, for the readers will furnish sufficient book 
 material for both oral and written spelling. Have pupils 
 spell the new words at the head of the reading lessons ; 
 also the important words in the text. Make frequent lists 
 of words for review tests. Spell many words in common 
 use. 
 
 When pupils do not Icnow the spelling of a word, do 
 not allow them to guess at it. Have them study the correct 
 form until the word picture is impressed upon their minds, 
 and then have them reproduce it orally and in writing. 
 Review frequently all difficult words, or such as have once 
 been misspelled. Avoid calling attention to wrong forms. 
 
 WRITING 
 
 Children should be supplied with slates and pencils from 
 their first day at school. Slates should be ruled or 
 scratched permanently on one side. Pencils should be 
 kept long and well sharpened. 
 
 The first lessons should consist of familiar words and 
 short sentences written on the blackboard for the pupils to 
 copy on slates. Rule slates with full scale at the top, 
 spaces about three - sixteenths of an inch wide ; below this, 
 alternate spaces of three-eighths and three -sixteenths of an 
 inch wide. Let the teacher use similar lines on the black- 
 
40 OUTLINES AND METHODS 
 
 board, the spaces being alternately four inches and two 
 inches wide. 
 
 Vertical writing, now coming into general use, requires, 
 as a rule, very few guide lines. With most systems, the 
 single base line will be found sufficient, even for the 
 youngest pupils. Vertical writing, however, should be most 
 carefully and exactly taught according to some standard 
 system, or else it should not be attempted at all. Standard 
 forms only should be taught, and optional forms should not 
 be permitted until the pupil has mastered thoroughly the 
 uniform standard letters. 
 
 In common school -work, Writing is quite as impor- 
 tant as any other branch of study, and should be as 
 carefully developed. 
 
 Paper work is preferable to the use of the slate ; but 
 because of the greater expense of the exclusive use of 
 paper and pencil in the primary schools, slates are used in 
 nearly all cases. Good results, however, may be obtained 
 by using both paper and slates. Teachers will do well to 
 ask for noiseless slates, properly ruled. The best slates 
 for primary work are such as are permanently ruled, and 
 yet have a perfectly smooth surface. Such are now manu- 
 factured, and can readily be secured. Where the scoring 
 of slates is objected to, let pupils be taught how to draw 
 straight and parallel lines with the ruler. Teach holding 
 of the pencil and position of the body with care. Do not 
 require much writing the first year, but always expect and 
 recognize neat, careful work. Require each pupil to do 
 his best every day. Commend wherever you can, but allow 
 no slovenly work. 
 
 As pupils advance they should learn to make the capital 
 letters, and to use them in writing proper names and in 
 beginning a sentence. The letters, both small and capital, 
 should be placed upon the blackboard for constant refer- 
 
PBIMABY DIVISION 41 
 
 ence and copy. Teach proper spacing between letters and 
 words. See that letters are placed evenly upon the base 
 line, and are of the proper relative height. Let the teacher 
 use and require the script form of writing only. 
 
 The tablet, now made in so many convenient forms, 
 should be brought into frequent use. Let pupils write 
 words from the reading lesson, copy paragraphs, w^ite sen- 
 tences and short compositions, arithmetical tables, etc., 
 using the detached leaf for class use, or for the teacher's 
 careful inspection. Preserve exercises for samples of good 
 work and as evidences of improvement. 
 
 A copy-book for pencil practice may be used by the 
 Second Grade, but is not essential. 
 
 Let there be a definite purpose in every written exercise. 
 Do not assign work simply to keep pupils busy. Require 
 such work as will have a bearing upon the lessons of the 
 day, and which will develop skill and power with each suc- 
 ceeding effort. 
 
 Do not allow pupils to write in a careless manner. 
 Bad habits, once formed, are hard to correct. 
 
 Drawing". — Children will learn to write in less time if 
 they are taught drawing and writing at the same time than 
 when taught writing alone. Pestalozzi said: "Without 
 drawing there can be no writing." Drawing is not an 
 accomplishment merely, but a means of culture which 
 should find a place in every school-room. 
 
 The practice of drawing on slates, paper, and black- 
 board should be given with the exercises of the Primary 
 Grades, not only as a means of supplying a pleasant and 
 interesting variety to the school employment of pupils, but 
 as a most valuable mode of training the eye in accuracy 
 of comparing and the hand in skill of representing objects. 
 It develops habits of observation, attention, accuracy, and 
 neatness, and trains in general intelligence by bringing the 
 
42 OUTLINES AND METHODS 
 
 child in contact with the type forms of nature and art. The 
 work in drawing, like all other exercises for this grade, should 
 begin with the simplest forms. The teacher should place the 
 forms upon the blackboard for the pupils to copy, and should, 
 therefore, herself be skillful in the use of crayon and pencil. 
 
 First lessons may be given by having pupils make dots 
 on slate or blackboard and then connect these points by 
 straight lines. These may be so placed as to form triangles, 
 squares, oblongs, etc. Divide lines into two, three, or four 
 parts. Draw lines in different positions, as horizontal, ver- 
 tical, oblique, parallel, etc. Draw different figures with 
 three, four, or five straight lines. 
 
 Encourage children to draw something original. The 
 teacher, however, should be careful to direct the work to 
 be done, otherwise pupils will soon fall into an idle, aim- 
 less, and, perhaps, noisy use of the pencil and slate. 
 
 Form-Study and Color. — Lessons in form -study and 
 color may be given in connection with drawing. Use such 
 models as the sphere, cube, cylinder, circle, oblong, and 
 square ; teach names, and study surface, corners, edges, etc. 
 Teach the primary and secondary colors. Use colored paper, 
 clay, sticks, blocks, colored splints, etc. 
 
 Care should be taken that these exercises are always 
 made short and interesting, so that they do not come to 
 be regarded as tasks. 
 
 The suggestions relative to Drawing are intended only 
 for the teacher whose course of study does not call specially 
 for the teaching of this subject. In schools where Draw- 
 ing is a regular part of the curriculum, a special system is 
 adopted, and usually a special supervisor is employed to 
 give specific instructions and directions. In recognition, 
 however, of the practical value of the simple elements of 
 the subject, it is given recognition in all common school 
 work, and a place in this Manual. 
 
PBIMABY DIVISION 43 
 
 LANGUAGE 
 
 Language and thought grow side by side throughout 
 school life. Expression in some form is necessarily a part 
 of all school work, but is especially developed by oral and 
 written language exercises. The chief object is to cultivate 
 the power of ready and correct expression in talking and in 
 writing. 
 
 Much of the language work for the Primary Division 
 may be done in connection with the reading lessons. First 
 lessons should be largely oral, but as pupils advance con- 
 siderable written work should be required. 
 
 Encourage children to talk, and lead them to make full 
 statements in answering questions. Do not have them to 
 repeat your language, but seek to develop original expres- 
 sion. Have the pupils make grammatical sentences about 
 familiar objects, to use given words in sentences, to supply 
 words in given sentences. As soon as pupils begin to read 
 from a book, let them talk about what they have read. 
 Tell short, easy stories, and have them reproduced. Teach 
 in conversational style the forms and uses of is and are, 
 was and were, has and have, go and went, see and saw, huy 
 and bought, etc. Teach objectively, and by pictures made 
 by pupils, the meaning of over, under, behind, before, top, 
 bottom, etc. Correct common errors in speech by calling 
 attention to correct forms of expression and having pupils 
 repeat them many times. 
 
 Train until correct expression becomes habitual. 
 
 As soon as pupils can write, let them copy daily the 
 blackboard exercises in reading. These should be neatly 
 and carefully written, that the pupils may have a correct 
 copy. Do not allow them to print; it is a waste of time. 
 When further advanced in writing, let them copy the read- 
 ing lessons and write short original sentences. Read or 
 
44 OdTLINUS AND METHODS 
 
 tell short stories to be reproduced in writing. Build sen- 
 tences from given words, and complete given sentences, as 
 in the oral work. 
 
 Teach the use of capital letters in beginning a sentence, 
 in proper names, the pronoun J, and the exclamation 0. 
 Teach the use of the period and the interrogation point. 
 Have pupils copy paragraphs or stanzas from the reader, 
 for the purpose of formal accuracy in the use of capital 
 letters, punctuation, spelling and language. 
 
 Teach correct use of I and you, Mr. and Mrs.; to, too, 
 and two, their and there, know and no, buy and hy, write 
 and right, hear and here, etc. 
 
 Give picture lessons, and have pupils write what they 
 see in these pictures. Let them write brief descriptions of 
 pets, games, occupations, etc. 
 
 In this Division no technical or grammatical terms need 
 be introduced. In the Second Grade, nouns may be taught 
 as "name -words" and verbs as "action -words." 
 
 The language exercises should be carefully graded as 
 the pupils advance. 
 
 ARITHMETIC -First Grade 
 
 Teach combinations and comparisons of numbers from 
 1 to 10 ; notation and numeration to 100 ; fundamental 
 operations, in which sums, minuends, products, and divi- 
 dends do not exceed 20. Roman notation to X. 
 
 In teaching numbers to 10, develop : 
 
 (a) The recognition of groups of objects to 10. 
 
 (h) Counting to 10 without objects. 
 
 (c) Making figures to 10. 
 
 {d) Combinations to 10 with objects. 
 
 (e) Combinations to 10 without objects. 
 
 Count by twos, threes, fours and fives, and train pupils 
 
PBIMABT DIVISION 45 
 
 to recognize promptly groups consisting of two, three or 
 four things. 
 
 Teach the signs, -f, — , X, -^, =, and their language — 
 plus, minus, multiplied by, divided by, and equals. Make 
 simple problems involving fundamental operations. 
 
 Develop number tables, and have pupils copy and after- 
 ward reproduce them ; thus : 
 
 5+2=7 5—2=3 5X2=10 10^2=5 
 3+2=5 4—2=2 . 2X2= 4 4^2=2 
 
 etc. etc. etc. etc. 
 
 Make tables, leaving blanks for pupils to fill ; thus : 
 5X3=? 4—2=? 5X( )=15. ( )-^3=2. Construct con- 
 crete problems involving similar conditions. 
 
 Develop the idea of one -half. If 2 times 4 are 8, then 
 4 is one -half of 8, or i of 8=4. Make tables and problems. 
 
 Teach, objectively, the linear inch, the linear foot, the 
 pint, the quart, the cent, the nickel, the dime ; the number 
 of inches in a foot, pints in a quart, cents in a nickel, 
 nickels in a dime. 
 
 Teach multiplication and division tables of the twos 
 and threes. 
 
 In the first lessons in number work, find out first what 
 pupils know, and then build upon that knowledge. Pupils 
 in this grade necessarily develop very slowly in their grasp 
 of number ; therefore, do not hurry them. Do a little 
 every day, but let that little be simple, definite, thoroughly 
 mastered, and carefully graded for steady progress. 
 
 Use Objects. — Numeral frame, corn, pebbles, beans, 
 shoe pegs, toothpicks, acorns, etc. Use pictures, and count 
 objects represented. Use slates for drawing lines, making 
 dots, triangles, squares, flags, and circles to represent 
 number, combinations and comparisons of number. Teach 
 the children many ways of picturing number, and train 
 them to tell number stories (little problems) about their 
 
46 OUTLINES AND METHODS 
 
 pictures. Break or cut the objects, to give pupils clear 
 ideas of simple fractions. Many fine and interesting exer- 
 cises can be made by using splints or sticks of different 
 colors and lengths to make diagrams, which may after- 
 ward be drawn on the slates. Do not begin the use of 
 figures until the idea of the number and its oral sign 
 are thoroughly learned. 
 
 Group Numbers. — In teaching each number, give special 
 attention to grouping of objects. Arrange groups of twos, 
 threes, fours, fives, etc. Count by groups, using objects 
 — without using objects. Show how easily numbers may 
 be grouped into tens, thus facilitating their addition, thus : 
 3 + 7+5 + 5+4 + 6 = 3 times 10. Much work along this 
 line may be done in the Second Grade. 
 
 Secure first accuracy, then rapidity. 
 
 Memory Work. — It is all -important that pupils shall 
 learn, as a matter of memory, all possible combinations and 
 separations of number from 1 to 10, so that the sum, pro- 
 duct, difference, and quotient will be given as accurately 
 and as readily as the key of the piano gives back the 
 proper tone to the skilled touch. This work should begin 
 with this grade and be completed by the Second Grade. 
 Each teacher will use her own devices, doubtless ; but the 
 end in view is to give pupils such a ready grasp of these 
 simple operations as to bring them into conscious memory 
 as soon as the numbers are named. Under any method 
 this will require skillful teaching and much drill. 
 
 At every step, oral and written work should go hand in 
 hand. Let the oral and the concrete lead to the written 
 and the abstract. 
 
PBIMABT DIVISION 
 
 47 
 
 ARITHMETIC — Second Grade 
 
 Continue exercises as indicated for the First Grade. 
 
 Read and write numbers to 1,000 ; Roman notation to L. 
 
 Have pupils thoroughly master and memorize all pos- 
 sible operations in numbers from 1 to 10. Omitting the 
 ones, there are thirty -six of these in each of the four fun- 
 damental rules. The following table presents a complete 
 list of the combinations in addition and multiplication. From 
 the resulting sums and products the operations in subtraction 
 and division, respectively, may readily be deduced : 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 Make many concrete problems growing out of these 
 operations ; thus : 
 
 If there are 7 clays in one week, how many days are 
 there in 6 weeks f 
 
 Let pupils give short solutions to these questions, using 
 correct arithmetical language. Frequently let them simply 
 give results. 
 
 From statements like the following let the pupils pre- 
 pare on slates or paper practical problems ; thus : 
 
 $8 + $7 = ? 
 
 I paid $8 for a larrel of flour and $7 for a barrel of 
 oil ; how much did I pay for both f 
 
48 OUTLINES AND METHODS 
 
 As pupils advance, make the work more difficult, and 
 combine operations. Do not, however, ask pupils to work 
 with numbers which they cannot readily read, write, and 
 comprehend. Develop first steps in reasoning by problems 
 such as these : 
 
 If a boy Ms 6 cents in one pocket and 3 times as many 
 in another pocket, how many cents has he in both pockets f 
 
 Rotv much will 12 apples cost, if 3 apples cost 9 cents f 
 
 Count forward and backward to 100 by twos, threes, 
 fours, etc., beginning with each number from 1 to 9. 
 
 Let pupils make and repeat tables in the fundamental 
 rules. Let the entire class drill upon the same exercise at 
 one time. Make and use "number -clocks" for recreation 
 in rapid memory work. Occasionally let pupils enjoy the 
 old-time "cross -questions" at the close of a class exercise. 
 
 Teach simple fractions objectively. Teach i of an apple; 
 then i of a number. Develop i, i, |, f, I, i, f, etc.; in 
 the same way make problems involving small fractions. 
 
 Let mental grasp, accuracy, and rapidity be the aim 
 of every lesson. 
 
 Teach coins of United States money, and how to make 
 change below one dollar. If possible, use actual money. 
 Teach time-table, and how to tell time by^he clock. All 
 of dry measure ; table of linear measure to yard ; number 
 of ounces in a pound. Make easy problems. 
 
 Pupils in the Second Grade do not need any text -books 
 in Arithmetic. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Lessons in Geography for the Primary Division should 
 be largely in the form of conversational exercises, in which 
 the pupils are permitted and encouraged to talk freely. 
 Much of the work should become the basis of the language 
 
PBIMABY DIVISION 49 
 
 exercises, and may be done in connection with reading. 
 Whenever it is practicable, however, let separate lessons 
 be given frequently. Let the home surroundings be made 
 the basis for this work. 
 
 Teach names and uses of common trees and plants. 
 Let pupils gather autumn leaves, fruits, bark, buds, seeds, 
 flowers, for class study. Tell about the planted seed, the 
 growing plant, the ripe fruit. What the rain and the 
 sunshine do for plants. 
 
 During the spring months, let seeds be planted in small 
 boxes, or placed in bottles partly filled with water. As the 
 seeds develop into plants, the children will be interested 
 in the process of germination. Small twigs from fruit 
 trees may also be used in this way, and the premature , 
 
 development of fruit blossoms may be made a most inter- rA 
 
 esting study. Study forms of leaves, and teach recognition *'"| 
 
 of common trees by the leaves, bark, wood, etc. 
 
 Find nature myths and stories to tell to children in ^} 
 
 connection with these lessons. ^ 
 
 Talk about domestic animals, common wild animals, 
 kindness to animals. The caterpillar, cocoon, and butter- 
 fly may be used as material for object lessons. Uses of 
 domestic animals ; uses of wild animals ; names and habits 
 of birds ; when birds come ; where they go in winter ; 
 home pets ; stories of animals. ^-Jp 
 
 Talk about soil and how plants grow, uses of roots in 
 plants, uses of rocks, where rocks and stones are found, 
 how soil is formed, how the three kingdoms depend on 
 one another. 
 
 Give descriptions from specimens, to interest and to 
 promote accurate observation. 
 
 Teach observations of the weather, rain and snow, frost 
 and dew, clouds, the blue sky, winds and storms, sunset 
 and sunrise, the sun and the moon. 
 
 D 
 
50 OUTLINES AND METHODS 
 
 Teach pupils actual direction, as east, west, north, and 
 south. Let these directions be determined from the center 
 of the school-room. Teach direction of public roads leading 
 from the school -house. Draw map of the school-room ; of 
 the school -ground. Give them some idea of distance, and 
 estimate distances within the pupil's knowledge. Teach 
 name of township or town, county, and state. Talk about 
 products of farms, mines, factories, etc. Teach shape of the 
 earth by use of globe. Tell pupils facts in natural history. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 
 
 Hyg'ienic Conditions.— Children may be taught the 
 laws of health by example and by practice better than by 
 precept. School -houses should be made as healthful and 
 as attractive as a well-ordered home. Each school-room 
 should be kept clean, comfortably warm, and well ventilated. 
 It should be furnished with a wash-stand, bowl and pitcher, 
 soap and towel, comb, and looking-glass. The supply of 
 water for all purposes should be abundant and pure. 
 
 Children should be early impressed with the fact that 
 cleanliness, both of person and clothing, is essential to 
 lasting health and beauty. They should be taught that 
 certain habits injure the health, and that the use of alcohol 
 and tobacco injures both body and mind. The teacher 
 should endeavor to have her pupils conform their habits to 
 the instruction she gives. 
 
 Look after the ventilation of the school-room, and, if 
 possible, provide other means than open windows. Venti- 
 late thoroughly during recess or exercise time. 
 
 Do not permit pupils to sit in wet clothing or with 
 damp feet. 
 
 Do not keep small children too closely confined to a 
 sitting position. 
 
PBIMABT DIVISION 51 
 
 Do not permit drafts of air to strike the pupil, especially 
 about the head and chest. 
 
 Do not permit the light to fall too brightly on the eyes 
 of the pupil, nor cross lights to fall on the page which he 
 is studying. 
 
 See that proper temperature is uniformly maintained. 
 
 See that all impure air is promptly removed by frequent, 
 thorough ventilation ; for pure air, let it be ever remem- 
 bered, is essential to good health. 
 
 What to Teach. — Only common terms should be used, 
 the instruction should be simple, and the lessons short and 
 interesting. 
 
 The following outline will suggest many lessons adapted 
 to young pupils : 
 
 OUR BODIES 
 
 1. What they do — 
 
 Move, rest, sleep, eat, drink, breathe, think, talk, 
 sing. 
 
 2. Of what they are composed — 
 
 Skin, flesh, blood, bones, etc. 
 
 3. How they are made to grow — , 
 
 By what we eat and drink. 
 By exercise, play, and work. 
 
 4. How they may serve us best — 
 
 By keeping them strong and well. 
 By eating pure and wholesome food. 
 By taking proper exercise. 
 By forming correct habits. 
 
 5. How they may be injured — 
 
 By using alcohol and tobacco. 
 By eating unwholesome food. 
 By lack of exercise and pure air. 
 By irregular habits. 
 By any bad habits. 
 
52 OUTLINES AND METHODS 
 
 FACTS TO BE LEARNED BY PUPILS 
 
 The muscles grow strong by use. 
 
 The skin and the clothing should be kept clean. 
 
 It is best to exercise in the sunlight and pure air. 
 
 It is best to eat and drink only that which gives health 
 and strength. 
 
 Tobacco is not a food ; men live without it, and other 
 animals do not use it. 
 
 Tobacco, if eaten, makes us sick, and is, therefore, a 
 poison. 
 
 Alcohol is not a safe drink. It does not make us 
 strong. Other animals do not drink alcohol. It is a 
 poison. 
 
 Alcohol and tobacco cause disease and shorten life. 
 
 THINGS TO BE AVOIDED BY PUPILS 
 
 1. Children, as a rule, should not drink tea or coffee. 
 Pure water is best for them. 
 
 2. Avoid eating green fruit. 
 
 3. Do not sit or lie on damp ground. 
 
 4. Do not exercise too long or too violently by jump- 
 ing rope, running, etc. 
 
 5. After severe play, avoid sitting down in the open 
 air or in a draft to rest. 
 
 6. Avoid cracking nuts with the teeth. Do not use 
 metallic toothpicks. 
 
 Let the teacher add to these such facts, suggestions, 
 and lessons as the progress and needs of the class may 
 seem to require. 
 
 Much of the instruction in this subject may be given 
 in connection with the Reading and Language exercises. 
 It is thought best, however, to have a separate recitation 
 
PBIMABY DIVISION 53 
 
 for the Division at least three times a week. No text- 
 books need be used by pupils. 
 
 HISTORY AND LITERATURE 
 
 Pupils in the Primary Division may learn many of the 
 important facts of history, especially when they are asso- 
 ciated with anecdotes and simple stories. True stories of 
 celebrated persons, especially of their child life, are always 
 interesting and instructive to children. No attempt, how- 
 ever, should be made to teach history in any connected 
 form. The lessons may be given incidentally, or in con- 
 nection with regular recitations in other subjects. 
 
 By means of descriptions, pictures and stories, teach 
 something of Columbus, Franklin, Washington, Penn, the 
 Indians, Lincoln, etc. Tell about Thanksgiving Day, 
 Christmas, Washington's Birthday, Good Friday, Memo- 
 rial Day, Fourth of July. Have special exercises on or for 
 these days. Have children learn short, easy poems ; read 
 or tell them interesting stories about these days. Notice 
 in some way the children's birthdays. 
 
 Teach something about the flag of our country ; its 
 colors ; pattern ; meaning of the stars, the stripes. Let 
 the flag be kept in the school -room, or a picture of the 
 same on the blackboard. 
 
 Read or tell some of ^ sop's shorter fables, and have 
 pupils reproduce them, first orally, afterwards in writing. 
 Do not make the moral too prominent. Read or tell, occa- 
 sionally, some fairy tale or myth to cultivate the imagi- 
 nation of children. Let the pupils find the moral in the 
 story and help to apply it. 
 
 As soon as the children are able to read quite well, let 
 them have books of history, stories and fables suited to 
 their grade, for supplementary reading. 
 
54 OUTLINES AND METBODS 
 
 Tell children about the Indians, and of their wild life 
 in the American forests. Tell them some of the Indian 
 legends and stories. Read parts of "Hiawatha." 
 
 Tell the pupils about Longfellow as the children's 
 friend. Have them commit to memory a few choice ex- 
 tracts from his poems. 
 
INTERMEDIATE DIVISION 
 
 AVERAGE TIME — Three Years. 
 
 TEXT-BOOKS— Third Grade— Third Reader, Spelling Book, 
 Elementary Arithmetic. Fourth Grade — Fourth Reader, Spelling 
 Book, Elementary Arithmetic, Language Lessons, Primary Geography, 
 Elementary Physiology, Primary History. 
 
 APPARATUS — Globe, Maps, Copy-book, Practice Paper, Pens, Ink, 
 and Material for Primary Division. 
 
 READING — Third Grade 
 
 The directions given for the Second Reader will be 
 needed in teaching the Third. Its language is more diffi- 
 cult, and many words will need to be defined for some 
 pupils. The lists of words usually placed at the beginning 
 of the lesson will contain most of these difficult words. 
 Let them be pronounced, spelled and defined. Let the 
 pupil study the reading where the word is used, in order 
 to be able to define it. After the lesson has been carefully 
 studied, then have it read as a whole. The lesson as ar- 
 ranged in the book is a unit, and should be studied and 
 read as such, even though several periods may be spent 
 upon the same lesson. Follow the order of lessons as ar- 
 ranged in the Reader. Review frequently difficult words 
 and lessons. Let special attention be given to the 
 following : 
 
 Natural Expression. — In reading, as in talking, the 
 thought must precede the expression. If, therefore, the 
 thought be clear in the mind of the reader and the words 
 quickly recognized, there will be as little trouble in reading 
 naturally as there is in talking naturally. Lead the pupil 
 to tMnh and feel what he reads by constant questioning. 
 Question him before beginning a lesson, as well as after 
 
 (55) 
 
56 OUTLINES AND METHODS 
 
 reading a paragraph. Some of these questions may be 
 such as will require answers in his own words ; some in 
 the language of the book. Make use of the pictures of the 
 lesson. 
 
 Silent Reading". — Nearly all reading outside of the 
 school-room is done silently. Pupils should learn early 
 how to get the thought from the printed or written page 
 quickly and silently. Have them prepare lessons at their 
 seats without whispering. In the recitation, let the class 
 look over a paragraph and then give the thought it contains 
 with the books closed. Frequently put into the hands of 
 the pupils a selection which they have not seen before, 
 and give them time to read it over carefully once. Then 
 have them lay it aside and talk or write about what they 
 have read. 
 
 Correct and Distinct Pronunciation.— Give special 
 attention to distinct articulation as well as to correct 
 pronunciation of words. This may be done by frequent 
 drill in the elementary sounds and their combinations, by 
 correction of errors, and by using the dictionary. Teach 
 the diacritical marks as they occur in the Reader and 
 Speller, with their oral interpretation. Make lists of words 
 in common use frequently mispronounced, and drill the 
 whole class upon their correct pronunciation. Use the 
 vocal exercises found in the first part of the Reader and 
 the words at the head of the lesson for class practice. 
 
 Purity of tone and distinctness of utterance are the 
 two objects to be accomplished in these vocal exercises. 
 
 In many schools may be heard dialects, both foreign 
 and native, the influence of which greatly hinders effective 
 teaching. It is all -important that the vocal organs be 
 trained to accurate English while in process of physical 
 development. For the purposes of this training, vocal ex- 
 ercises should be given daily. 
 
INTERMEDIATE DIVISION 57 
 
 Supplementary Reading-.— Use other readers, school 
 papers, books, and journals of similar grade for supple- 
 mentary reading. Give frequent practice in sight read- 
 ing of interesting stories and descriptions. Occasionally 
 read to the class from such books as " Black Beauty," 
 "Each and All," "King of the Golden River," etc. 
 
 Recitations from Memory.— Tell pupils about a few 
 authors, and let them memorize such poems as Longfellow's 
 "Village Blacksmith" or "The Arrow and the Song." 
 Give them simple quotations and maxims from promi- 
 nent authors to recite in class. Gather short recitations 
 and stories from journals and books, to be recited or read 
 before the whole school. Such exercises should include all 
 grades, and may furnish a most interesting and profitable 
 program for the closing hour of a week's school work. 
 
 READING — Fourth Grade 
 
 When pupils enter the Fourth Grade they should be 
 able to read readily the elementary text -books in the 
 several branches, as well as the lessons in the Fourth 
 Reader. The principal object now before them is to 
 understand the language, to present the thought clearly 
 and distinctly, and to acquire a taste for good reading. 
 Thus far the chief aim in this branch has been "learning 
 to read ; " now the important end in view is " reading to 
 learn." 
 
 The suggestions offered for the preceding grade with 
 reference to the use and meaning of words, thought- 
 getting, silent reading, naturalness of expression, proper 
 enunciation, supplementary' reading, and memory work, 
 apply with equal force to the reading class in this grade. 
 Special attention, however, should be given to the fol- 
 lowing" : 
 
58 OUTLINES AND METHODS 
 
 Use of Dictionary and Cyclopaedia. — Pupils in this 
 grade may make frequent use of the dictionary in finding 
 the meaning of words. In looking up a word, let all 
 the points be noted — meaning, pronunciation, spelling, syno- 
 nyms, etc. Every school -room should have a large or 
 unabridged dictionary, and a number of smaller ones for 
 seat use. A cyclopaedia may also be used to some extent 
 in looking up historical references. Let the teacher first 
 show pupils how to use reference books, before requiring 
 any work from the class based upon their use. All allu- 
 sions in the reading lesson — biographical, historical, and 
 scientific — should be briefly explained. The meaning and 
 rendering of a phrase or a sentence should be considered, 
 as well as the meaning of words. Care should be taken, 
 however, that the connected thought is not lost by side 
 issues or irrelevant information. 
 
 Voice Culture. — Continue drill in articulation until 
 the mumbling, stumbling voices of the reading class shall 
 have been trained to correct and distinct utterance. 
 Teach the essential principles of inflection, emphasis, 
 pitch, force, rate, quality of voice, etc., not so much by 
 rules and definitions as by a natural interpretation of 
 thought. Elocution, in its true sense, consists in the 
 simple expression of thought as the reader thinks and feels 
 that thought. Extraordinary elocutionary efforts, which 
 add nothing to the presentation of thought, are to be 
 shunned. 
 
 Cultivate a Taste for Good Reading*.— When pupils 
 once find a real pleasure in reading thoughtful and helpful 
 books, their future in moral worth and general intelligence 
 is very largely determined. Let the teacher seek to culti- 
 vate this desire by pointing out passages of literary beauty, 
 by helping them to find choice extracts from the reading 
 lessons, by having them memorize best quotations, by 
 
INTERMEDIATE DIVISION 59 
 
 directing supplementary reading, and by suggesting right 
 lines of home reading. 
 
 The teacher must himself appreciate the beautiful 
 and the good in literature, if he would lead his pupils 
 to love good books. 
 
 The Preparation of Lessons.— When a lesson is as- 
 signed, let the pupils understand just what is to be done 
 by way of preparation. Words to be defined, references to 
 be explained, exercises to be written out, author to be 
 known, history and purpose of the selection determined, 
 etc. If the recitation affords an opportunity to pupils to 
 show the preparation made, it will not only maintain the 
 interest in the reading exercise, but at the same time 
 determine largely its worth to the class. 
 
 What to Read. — All text -books now become helps in 
 reading at sight and in ready interpretation of thought. 
 
 If practicable, use easy biographies, history stories, 
 papers, selected poems, and simple classics in class exer- 
 cises. Some of these may be read by pupils at home, and 
 afterwards made the subject of class conversation and 
 criticism. Where a library is available, tell pupils what 
 books to read. Encourage and direct in a general way 
 the home reading. 
 
 Have pupils copy short biographies of a few prominent 
 authors, with brief extracts from the writings of each. Let 
 these be memorized and afterwards recited in class. Tell 
 them interesting incidents in the lives of these authors 
 and the history or origin of favorite productions. Occa- 
 sionally have a complete poem memorized. 
 
 Interest pupils in prominent persons now living, and 
 in current events, so that they will get into the habit of 
 reading papers and periodicals. 
 
 Continue literary exercises as suggested for the pre- 
 ceding grade. 
 
60 OUTLINES AND METHODS 
 
 SPELLING 
 
 Pupils in the Intermediate Division should use a text- 
 book in spelling, and have separate daily recitations. The 
 correct spelling of words in common use is the chief object 
 to be kept steadily in view. In addition to this, due atten- 
 tion should be given to phonic analysis, diacritical marks, 
 capital letters, contractions, abbreviations, possessive forms, 
 synonyms, homonyms, and definitions. 
 
 Preparation o! Lessons. — Pupils should early learn 
 how to prepare a spelling lesson. Much valuable time 
 and energy are lost in useless and meaningless repetition. 
 As a rule, the lesson assigned should be a short one, 
 seldom more than the number of words arranged for one 
 class exercise in the ordinary spelling book. Have them 
 copy the words on slate or tablet, first as a whole, then 
 rewrite the difficult words. Only a few words in each 
 lesson may seem difficult to the class. Let these be 
 written and rewritten until pupils linow that they Imow 
 their correct spelling. If words are to be used in 
 sentences, defined, or marked diacritically, let the class 
 understand just what is to be done, and then let the 
 teacher see to it that it is done as directed. 
 
 Correct spelling can be learned only by close obser- 
 vation and careful practice. 
 
 Oral and Written Spelling*.— For obvious reasons, the 
 writing of words is much more helpful in fixing in the 
 mind their correct forms than the spelling of them by 
 naming the letters. Both oral and written spelling, how- 
 ever, should be practiced in all classes, the latter predomi- 
 nating with advanced grades. 
 
 In oral spelling, have pupils pronounce words distinct- 
 ly, first as wholes and then by syllables, thus : B-e re, 
 m-e-m mem, remem, d-e-r, her, remember. It is well to 
 
INTERMEDIATE DIVISION 61 
 
 have the words of a lesson pronounced from the open 
 books and afterwards to have the words spelled with 
 books closed. With younger pupils the words of the fol- 
 lowing lesson should be pronounced at the close of a 
 recitation. Many of them fail in the oral recitation be- 
 cause they do not know the correct pronunciation of words 
 when preparing the lesson. The spelling of long columns 
 of words by a class from the open book is usually a waste 
 of time. If the lesson has been properly prepared, this 
 will not be necessary. 
 
 Give frequent drills in spelling by sound, to cultivate 
 distinct and accurate pronunciation. Faulty enunciation 
 can be overcome only by patient practice. The meaning 
 and use of words may be taught in the oral recitation. 
 
 In the written recitation, have pupils write the words 
 neatly and plainly from dictation. Let the teacher dictate 
 the words or sentences but once, and thus cultivate the 
 power of attention. Have pupils use synonyms, homo- 
 nyms, and possessive forms in original sentences. 
 
 Correcting" Errors.— In oral spelling, let each pupil 
 spell correctly the words he misspelled. Do not allow 
 guessing at a word. If the class does not know the word, 
 let it be written upon the board, and have the pupils look 
 at it and then reproduce it. Avoid calling attention to 
 wrong forms. At the close of each recitation gather up 
 and review all words that had been misspelled. Have 
 pupils make lists of misspelled words for class review 
 once or twice a week. 
 
 For written spelling, each pupil should be supplied 
 with a suitable spelling blank, with space for writing cor- 
 rected words. Let the words be written with pen and ink 
 and the errors marked with a lead pencil. Pupils may cor- 
 rect their own work, or exchange with other members of 
 the class. Let the teacher guard against dishonest prac- 
 
62 OUTLINES AND METHODS 
 
 tices in reporting errors. Occasionally the teacher should 
 correct the exercises, and see that neat, careful, and ac- 
 curate work is done at all times. . To encourage study, 
 let the teacher record the number of errors made by 
 each pupil. 
 
 General Spelling*. — Correct spelling should be taught 
 in all written exercises. Lists of words may frequently 
 be selected from the lesson for the day in reading, lan- 
 guage, geography, physiology, or history, to supplement 
 the regular spelling lesson, or even to take its place. Let 
 pupils understand that no manuscript is perfect in which 
 any misspelled words appear. 
 
 Use of Dictionary. — Let the teacher aim constantly to 
 teach the meaning and use of words. This may be done by 
 having them used in sentences, by definitions, and by con- 
 nected composition. It is not necessary that every word be 
 fully understood, especially in the lower grades, but it is 
 essential that all pupils shall have such a knowledge of com- 
 mon English words as will enable them to use and interpret 
 language readily and accurately. To this end the dictionary 
 is very helpful. A sufficient number of small dictionaries 
 should be placed in every school-room to accommodate all 
 pupils in the Fourth and Fifth Grades, and a large diction- 
 ary should be supplied for more exhaustive reference. Teach 
 pupils how to use a dictionary. 
 
 Occasional Exercises. — (1) Topical spelling, as the 
 names of things in the school-room, on the farm, in the 
 woods. (2) Choosing sides and "spelling down." (3) 
 Choosing sides for a month, with daily contest for the best 
 record in written spelling. (4) Pronouncing match : The 
 teacher spells orally or writes the words, and calls upon 
 each pupil in turn to pronounce one of them. If the word 
 is mispronounced the pupil "goes out." (5) The "word 
 game": The teacher writes a word on the board like com- 
 
INTERMEDIATE DIVISION 63 
 
 fortahle, and gives three or five minutes^ time for writing 
 words that can be formed of the letters in the word. Or, 
 let the pupils write all words that can be formed beginning 
 with/, or 0, or r, using any of the other letters in the word. 
 (6) "Silent trapping": In oral review, the misspelled words 
 are passed unnoticed until some member of the class spells 
 one of them correctly, and "traps" above the one in class 
 that first misspelled the word. 
 
 Classes and Recitations. — The Third and Fourth 
 Grades should each have one recitation daily from the spell- 
 ing book. In some one-room schools it may be well to 
 combine the Fourth Grade with the Fifth. Oral and writ- 
 ten recitations may alternate. It may be better, however, 
 to combine both forms in the same exercise, placing more 
 stress upon the written spelling. 
 
 WRITING 
 
 Pupils have had, in the Primary Division, much prac- 
 tice with pencils ; and, from force of habit, should write 
 a neat, exact and careful hand. It is now desirable that 
 they learn to use pen and ink, and receive instruction and 
 drill calculated to develop a rapid and legible penmanship. 
 This will require a regular writing period, a standard system 
 of penmanship, a well-laid plan of instruction, and much 
 careful practice. The following suggestions apply to the 
 
 GENERAL WRITING CLASS, 
 
 Which should include all pupils that are prepared to use pen 
 and inJc. 
 
 Appliances. — Well-tempered steel pens, good black ink, 
 and ruled practice paper are essentials for the writing exer- 
 cise. A good blackboard for the teacher's use is also indis- 
 
54 OUTLINES AND METHODS 
 
 pensable. Copy-books of a suitable kind may be used, in 
 which to write the copies that have been studied and care- 
 fully practiced on other paper. Two numbers of the adopted 
 series will supply the needs of the average school. In schools 
 of two or more rooms, one number will be sufficient for each 
 room. 
 
 Care of Pens and Copy-books.— Each pupil should 
 have a small woolen cloth or pen-wiper, and carefully clean 
 the pen after each writing exercise ; otherwise the pens will 
 corrode and become worthless. Copy-books should be dis- 
 tributed at the beginning of each writing period and 
 gathered again at the close. Practice paper should be dis- 
 tributed as needed. Ink-wells should be frequently cleaned 
 and filled. The ink in them should never be more than 
 pen deep. A little care and direction on the part of the 
 teacher under this head will save much annoyance and loss 
 of time. 
 
 Aims in Teaching". — Legibility, rapidity and beauty 
 are the ends to be reached in writing, and they may be 
 reached only by following rules which have been taught, 
 imitating good models, and by constant practice. Pupils 
 need first to have a clear idea of the correct forms of let- 
 ters, their spacing, relative height, shading, etc. Then, with 
 proper models before them, to endeavor through faithful 
 practice to approach the ideal forms with each succeeding 
 effort. To do this, both teacher and pupils must be 
 thoroughly in earnest, and the writing period must be 
 equal in interest and importance to any other in the daily 
 program. 
 
 Blackboard Copies.— Letters for study and analysis 
 and copies for practice should generally be placed upon 
 the blackboard in the presence of the class. Begin with 
 simplest forms of letters, as i, ii, m, n, etc., and teach in 
 groups. Have pupils analyze letters according to adopted 
 
INTEBMEDIATE DIVISION 65 
 
 system. Show incorrect forms, and point out common 
 faults in making letters. Take only one or two letters at 
 a time. Take up whole copy for the day, and call attention 
 to spacing and shading and common errors to be avoided. 
 The blackboard copy should be as nearly perfect as 
 possible. 
 
 Drill in Movement. — Movement practice should begin 
 with the use of the pen, and continue until there is a free 
 and easy movement of the fingers and forearm. Let the 
 teacher first explain and illustrate correct position, pen- 
 holding, and movement, and then have pupils follow him 
 in some movement exercises. These should be simple at 
 first, and be made more difficult as pupils acquire facility 
 in handling the pen. To secure uniformity in movement, 
 count for each stroke of the pen. The teacher may write 
 upon the blackboard and count while the pupils write on 
 paper. Let him insist upon correct position and easy 
 movement, regardless of the irregular forms resulting from 
 first efforts. Half of the writing period may be spent in 
 instruction and drill, the other half in individual practice. 
 Guard against indiscriminate practice during the movement 
 drill. 
 
 Glass Practice. — After the general drill and instruc- 
 tion, the class should take up the careful practice of the 
 copy for the day. This practice should first be on sepa- 
 rate sheets of paper. Afterwards a limited number of lines 
 may be filled in the copy-book. It is an excellent plan 
 to have the pupils hand their best practice sheets to the 
 teacher, who will so mark them as to indicate either more 
 practice or permission to write the copy in the book. 
 During the writing period, the teacher should move about 
 the room to criticise, help, and encourage individual pupils. 
 Let him give special attention to the poor writers and those 
 inclined to be indifferent or careless. 
 
 E 
 
QQ OUTLINES AND METHODS 
 
 General Writing^.— All that pupils learn in the writing 
 class in the way of position, pen -holding, movement, neat 
 and careful writing, should be faithfully applied in what- 
 ever written work they may have in connection with other 
 lessons, whether done with pen, pencil, or crayon. No 
 careless or slovenly work should be permitted or accepted 
 in any school, and it need not be if the teacher will insist 
 upon careful work at all times, give the proper forms as 
 models, and judicious praise for worthy effort. Occasion- 
 ally, pen and ink manuscripts may be required. 
 
 Form-Study and Drawing*.— Teach modifications and 
 names of cube -forms, sphere -forms, angles, etc., and show 
 how to represent these forms on paper or blackboard. 
 Teach a few ornamental designs of straight and curved 
 lines. Encourage pupils to make original designs to repre- 
 sent forms in nature, such as leaves, simple flowers, twigs, 
 plants, etc. Require them to illustrate problems, diagram 
 sentences, draw maps, battlefields, and physiological forms. 
 
 Continue lessons in color. Teach tertiary colors ; proper 
 use of shade, tint, Jiue^ and tinge. Give practice in naming 
 and classifying colors. 
 
 These lessons may be given incidentally, or combined 
 with the writing exercise. It is an excellent plan, however, 
 to have one or two periods a week for practice in drawing, 
 form -study, and colors. In one -room schools this may 
 take the place of the regular writing period. 
 
 LANGUAGE-Third Grade 
 
 The chief ends to be sought in elementary language 
 work are correctness of expression and fluency in the use 
 of words. This will require material for thought, clear 
 thinking, a good vocabulary of words, and abundant prac- 
 tice in expression that is direct, simple, free and natural. 
 
INTERMEDIATE DIVISION 67 
 
 In this language development, a manual or elementary 
 text-book may be helpful to the teacher, but will be of 
 little value in the hands of pupils in this grade. The 
 teacher must be their text -hook. 
 
 Information Lessons. — In securing fluency of expres- 
 sion, it is essential that pupils shall first have something 
 to talk or write about. Observation or object lessons upon 
 common plants, animals, and minerals ; short stories, bear- 
 ing upon history ; descriptions of places, journeys, and 
 plays ; imaginative stories from pictures, etc. These will 
 form the basis for oral and written language exercises. 
 There should be sufficient oral discussion and conversation 
 to produce clear and accurate thinking. The reading les- 
 sons will furnish much material for language culture. 
 
 Models of Good English.— Among the most effective 
 means to acquire correct expression is by imitation of 
 selected models of elegant English. Let the teacher him- 
 self be careful in the use of good language, and encourage 
 his pupils to use the best at their command at all times. 
 Have them copy from the reader and other books interest- 
 ing descriptions and stories, first from the book, afterward 
 from memory. Require them to memorize short quotations 
 once or twice a week. Have them write short sentences 
 from dictation. 
 
 Orig-inal Languag-e Work.— Let pupils continue to 
 use given words and phrases in original sentences, as in 
 the Primary Division. Encourage variety of forms in 
 sentence building. Read or tell short stories or descrip- 
 tions, and after a time have pupils reproduce them in their 
 own language. Outline and discuss with them subjects 
 for composition, and after the pupils have been fully in- 
 formed, let them write out their thoughts in connected 
 form. Use only simple subjects, and encourage all worthy 
 effort by pupils. 
 
68 OUT LIKE 8 AND METHODS 
 
 Ready and elegant expression is secured only by well- 
 directed and long-continued practice. 
 
 Teaeh Mechanical Forms. — Require constant and 
 proper use of terminal marks, abbreviations, the comma, 
 the apostrophe in possessive forms and in contractions, 
 quotation marks, capital letters, use of the hyphen in 
 compound words and the division of words at the end of 
 a line, forms of letter heading and close, and forms of 
 address. Require correct spelling at all times. Teach 
 these forms in connection with all written exercises, so 
 that their correct use shall become habitual. 
 
 Letter Writing". — The writing of letters in some form 
 or other is always attractive to children, and should fre- 
 quently engage their attention. A good letter -writer, like 
 a good talker, has something to say, and says it in a direct 
 and natural way. Show pupils how to date, head, introduce, 
 close, and fold a letter, and how to address the envelope. 
 Give special attention to the body of the letter as to lan- 
 guage, sentiment, and expression. Have pupils write letters 
 to the teacher, to friends, or relatives in another state or 
 county. Have them describe an imaginary visit or journey. 
 These letters should always be written on good paper with 
 pen and ink. 
 
 Simple Grammatical Forms.— Along with the compo- 
 sition work, teach the parts of a sentence — subject and 
 predicate ; use of nouns — proper and common ; plural 
 and possessive forms of nouns, uses and definitions of 
 adjectives, verbs, adverbs, pronouns, and prepositions ; 
 possessive and objective forms of pronouns ; use of J, he, 
 she, we, and tJieij after is and tvas. Have pupils analyze 
 short sentences and name parts of speech. In teaching 
 forms, classes, and definitions, the teacher should keep in 
 view the text -book to be used in the next grade, so that 
 the work done may prepare pupils to use the text -book 
 intelligently. 
 
INTERMEDIATE DIVISION 59 
 
 Correction of Errors. — In oral work, errors in expres- 
 sion or in the proper use of words should be promptly 
 corrected. The correct, rather than the incorrect, forms 
 should be impressed upon the minds of pupils. It is 
 well for the teacher to make a note of the faulty expres- 
 sions of pupils, and then to arrange exercises for drill with 
 a view to secure habitual accuracy. Encourage pupils to 
 criticise each other in the misuse of language. 
 
 In written work, the careful correction of errors largely 
 determines the value of the exercises. Incorrect forms, 
 unnoticed, are impressed upon the mind, and their use 
 will soon become habitual. Let no language work be 
 done, therefore, without correction. In all exercises of 
 de:Qnite and uniform expression, pupils may correct the 
 work. In original or varying exercises, the teacher should 
 examine and mark the manuscripts. In either case the 
 exercise should be rewritten and all errors corrected. It 
 is a good plan to provide pupils with tablets or blank- 
 books in which to preserve all final or finished written 
 work. 
 
 LANGUAGE — Fourth Grade 
 
 Continue exercises in composition work as indicated for 
 the Third Grade, adapting it to the text -book in language 
 now to be made the basis of the daily recitations. Many 
 elementary language books suggest and provide for much 
 of the composition work in the regular course of lessons. 
 Such lessons and suggestions should never be hurriedly 
 passed over, but fully developed and liberally supplemented 
 by outside material. As a rule, exercises to illustrate the 
 principles of grammar should be written out by pupils as 
 the best means to prepare the lesson, and thus fix the 
 principle or rule to be illustrated. Do not ask pupils to 
 
70 OUTLINES AND METHODS 
 
 diagram sentences until they have learned to analyze them 
 orally. The mere diagram without its oral interpretation 
 is both useless and meaningless. 
 
 Pupils in this grade should be taught the classes and 
 forms of nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and 
 conjunctions. Special study of prepositions commonly mis- 
 used. Special attention should be given to mode and tense 
 forms of the verb, principal parts of the verb, and much 
 practice in using the past tense and past participle of 
 irregular verbs in sentences. Teach classification of sen- 
 tences, use and position of modifiers, uses of the marks 
 of punctuation, and false syntax. 
 
 Only the general forms and classes of grammar should 
 be taught in this grade, leaving the sub -classes and tech- 
 nical distinctions for the Advanced Division. Bo not mys- 
 tify pupils with too many rules, forms, and definitions. 
 Use only such parts of the text -book as may be compre- 
 hended and applied by them. 
 
 ARITHMETIC -Third Grade 
 
 The work of this grade presents an important step in 
 advance, since now, for the first time, the pupil is to 
 have the book for a guide, and must learn how to use 
 it. When he has learned this, he will be able to work 
 for himself, and to obtain knowledge from the book in 
 addition to that obtained from the teacher. At every 
 step, however, the text -book lessons must be supplemented 
 by related drill exercises and practical application. 
 
 Drill thoroughly in accurate and rapid calculation. 
 
 The fundamental operations should be reviewed and 
 mastered. Sums, minuends, products, and dividends should 
 not exceed eight places. The applied oral work should be 
 
INTERMEDIATE DIVISION 71 
 
 limited to numbers below 100. Teach Roman notation to 
 1,000. Factoring and composition of simple numbers. 
 Reduction of fractions, taught objectively. Teach how 
 to add, subtract, multiply and divide fractions, using 
 simple forms and making concrete applications. United 
 States money, with applications in business problems. Mak- 
 ing change. Small bills written out by pupils. 
 
 Give many little problems relating to the farm, the 
 store, the mill, the home, or the factory. Require pupils 
 to analyze concrete problems and to use arithmetical 
 language. Help pupils over language difficulties. 
 
 Teach tables of weight, length, capacity and time. 
 Build up table of square measure from table of length. 
 Teach the cubic inch, foot, and yard, and how each 
 is obtained. Reduction of compound numbers, simple 
 forms. 
 
 The leading purpose of the work in this grade is to 
 make the pupil skillful in the mechanical operations and 
 to enable him to apply constantly his knowledge of num- 
 bers in the affairs of every -day life. 
 
 Rules. — In this grade the rules of Arithmetic should be 
 learned through their intelligent application, rather than 
 by the memorizing of the set language of the book. Pu- 
 pils must learn to solve a problem from the conditions 
 apparent in its statement, and not because it stands under 
 a certain rule in the text -book. It is well, therefore, to 
 give lists of simple problems involving various rules 
 passed over. This will lead to independent thought and 
 work. When the application of a rule or principle is once 
 fairly learned, it may then be formulated in proper arith- 
 metical language. 
 
 Answers. — Text-books for the Intermediate Division 
 should have no printed answers. The getting of the 
 answer in the book by some calculation is often made 
 
72 OUTLINES AND METHODS 
 
 the end of arithmetical stud3^ This is wrong. The an- 
 swer is a convenience for the teacher and may be a proof 
 of the pupiFs knowledge ; but it cannot help to solve the 
 problem, nor furnish the only evidence that the pupil 
 understands the process by which it is obtained. Let the 
 preparation of the lesson, as well as the class exercises, be 
 so directed as to establish the pupil's confidence in his own 
 ability to get correct results. Let him frequently be re- 
 quired to give the reasons for the successive steps in the 
 solution of a problem, so that habitual accuracy and in- 
 dependent and intelligent reasoning shall leave little room 
 for incorrect results. 
 
 Seat Work. — Let the pupils work out the problems 
 assigned, and indicate the work in neat statements on 
 paper, to be brought to the class recitation. This is both 
 a means and a proof of careful preparation. The teacher 
 must see, however, that this work is not done " by proxy." 
 Have the pupils frequently make original problems along 
 the lines indicated by the teacher. Some of these should 
 be solved in class. Always require neatly -made figures 
 and lines. Have occasional written reviews as a test of 
 mental grasp, using problems similar to those used in 
 class practice. 
 
 ARITHMETIC — Fourth Grade 
 
 This grade should complete an Elementary Arithmetic, 
 including fractions, simple decimals, denominate numbers, 
 practical measurements, and the elements of percentage. 
 
 Review fundamental operations, giving attention to 
 special and short processes. Continue occasional class drills. 
 Give thorough drill in factoring, greatest common divisors, 
 and least common multiples. Teach principles of fractions 
 by concrete illustration, and complete operations in fractions. 
 
INTERMEDIATE DIVISION 73 
 
 Give and require many applied problems in fractions. 
 Simple decimals thoroughly mastered by means of class 
 and blackboard drill. Remember that the decimal 'point 
 is the nucleus of all class work in decimals. Practice on 
 the cost of things bought by the hundred, the thousand, 
 or the ton. Bills and accounts. Give and require neat 
 and correct forms. Let some of these be written with 
 pen and ink. Have pupils make simple bills and accounts 
 for class use. 
 
 Denominate numbers. Tables thoroughly studied. Have 
 pupils make concrete applications. Reduction of compound 
 numbers. 
 
 Longitude and time, with simple problems, illustrated 
 with globe and maps. Teach Standard Time. 
 
 Practical measurements. Practice in measuring surfaces 
 for papering, plastering, painting, and carpeting. Drill on 
 board measure, contents of bins, cisterns, fields, etc. Fix 
 number of inches in a gallon ; in a bushel. Let pupils 
 make problems in various measurements for class use. 
 
 Percentage may be introduced in this grade, giving 
 only its simpler forms, such as finding the percentage, 
 having the base and rate given. Trade discount. Simple 
 interest, when the time is expressed in years or years and 
 months. Use the decimal notation. 
 
 Too many pupils go over this part of the Arithmetic 
 mechanically, and do not learn to think and reason. 
 Hence the necessity for many practical problems outside 
 of the text-book and much oral and mental work. 
 Require reasons for solutions to be stated understandingly. 
 Teach pupils to prove their work. 
 
 Class Praetiee. — It is well to have pupils write out 
 the solutions of problems as suggested for the preceding 
 grade. If this is well done, and the teacher is satisfied 
 that pupils understand the text-book matter of the lesson, 
 
74 OUTLINES AND METHODS 
 
 then the recitation may be given largely to general drill, 
 direct instruction , and the solution and oral analysis of 
 supplementary problems. It is a woful waste of time to 
 send a class to the blackboard with books in hand to 
 solve a lot of problems every one of which is well under- 
 stood beforehand. Let the teacher have on her desk several 
 elementary arithmetics or number manuals, upon which to 
 draw for supplementary problems. Many original problems, 
 growing out of home environments and business practice, 
 may be constructed by teacher and pupils. Have frequent 
 oral and written reviews. As a rule, let the blackboard 
 work be done without text-books. 
 
 Oral or Mental Arithmetic. — Pupils in this grade 
 should have careful training and much practice in the oral 
 solution of problems. A separate text -book in mental 
 arithmetic, however, is not necessary, and in one -room 
 schools is not expedient. If the elementary arithmetic in 
 use does not require or suggest sufficient drill in oral analysis, 
 let the teacher dictate or write upon the blackboard a num- 
 ber of problems for the following recitation. It is im- 
 practical in any school to have separate books and different 
 subjects in arithmetic upon the same day. Mental and 
 written arithmetic constitute a single subject in the school 
 curriculum, and should be so treated in the daily program. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY— Third Grade 
 
 The lessons for this grade should be such as will enlarge 
 the pupil's scope of knowledge in nature -forms, home 
 surroundings, geographical language and terms, and thus 
 lead up to the study of geography proper in the next 
 grade. No text -book should be used by pupils, except 
 possibly for occasional reference. Let the teacher endeavor 
 to arouse the curiosity of pupils, cultivate their imagi- 
 
1 INTEBMEDIATE DIVISION 75 
 
 nation, and impart useful knowledge by means of pictures, 
 oral descriptions, selected readings, blackboard illustrations, 
 maps, and globe. 
 
 Local Geography. — Let the teacher make a plan of the 
 school -room, observing points of the compass. Pupils 
 make the same. Meaning of a map. Draw map or plan 
 of the school -ground. Enlarge and locate surroundings. 
 Note slopes, hills, streams, bridges. Compare with moun- 
 tains, rivers, cities, or large towns pupils may have seen. 
 Develop the idea of a township or a borough, a state, a 
 county. Draw map of county; locate and describe towns, 
 railroads, places of interest. Tell some facts of early set- 
 tlement. Compare condition of early settlers with the 
 present development in surroundings, occupations, products, 
 conveniences, etc. Teach the state, its capital, metropolis, 
 large cities. Take imaginary journeys to ^various parts of 
 the state, describing large rivers, mountains, cities and 
 manufactories, occupations and productions, and places of 
 interest. 
 
 Give pupils opportunity to tell what they may have 
 learned for themselves from observation and from books. 
 
 Use of Globe and Maps.— By means of globe, teach 
 size, shape, and motions of the earth. Elementary facts 
 about the seasons, length of day and night, relation to sun 
 and moon. Teach equator, poles, and hemisphere ; pro- 
 portion of land and water, names of continents. Drill on 
 outline maps. Have pupils learn names and location of 
 states, capitals, large cities, mountains, rivers, lakes, and 
 countries. These drills may be both interesting and help- 
 ful if properly conducted. Do not attempt too much. 
 Review frequently. 
 
 Physical Geography. — Continue study of animals and 
 plants. Have pupils tell or read about wild animals. 
 Habits of animals in cold and warm countries. Names, 
 
76 OUTLINES AND METHODS 
 
 habits and characteristics of birds. Vegetation in winter. 
 Conditions of vegetable growth. Let pupils plant beans, 
 grains of corn or wheat, to notice the development of the 
 young plant. Uses of plants — for food, clothing, shelter. 
 Weeds. Flowers. Let the children bring flowers and tell 
 about them. How to distinguish trees by the leaves, by 
 the bark, by the wood fiber. 
 
 Talks about the weather continued. Snow ; cause of 
 snow; forms and size of flakes; sleet; hail; frost. Illustrate 
 nature and cause of dew by glass of cold water in a warm 
 room. Illustrate evaporation by placing water on the hot 
 stove. How clouds are formed. Source of springs, rivu- 
 lets and streams. How the flowing spring and the running 
 brook are constantly supplied. Uses of wells, springs, 
 lakes and rivers. The thunder shower ; lightning ; the 
 lightning rod. Effects of drought. 
 
 Teach forms of land and water by using near-by illus- 
 trations as much as possible. Develop fully the idea of 
 hill, plain, valley, mountain, table-land, cape, isthmus, island, 
 peninsula, coast, brook, river, lake, ocean, strait, gulf or bay, 
 watershed, and related terms. Teach, finally, good defini- 
 tions of all geographical forms and terms introduced. 
 
 Whenever it is practicable, this grade should have daily 
 and separate recitations in geography. If this is not con- 
 venient, then let the lines indicated above be carefully and 
 regularly developed in connection with other lessons, giving, 
 however, one or two separate lessons each week. Much 
 preparatory work should be done before pupils are able to 
 take up a text -book in geography. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY-Fourth Grade 
 
 An elementary text -book, if not too difficult, should be 
 completed by this grade. As a rule, the order of lessons 
 in the book used should be followed in the class recitations, 
 
INTERMEDIATE DIVISION 77 
 
 supplementing with outside drill, map -drawing, and con- 
 tinued descriptions in nature studies. 
 
 Preparation of Lessons. — Pupils must be taught 
 how to use a book in geography properly, and how to pre- 
 pare the lessons assigned. It is well for the teacher to 
 study the lesson with the pupils, giving such additional 
 information to the text as will make plain what the book 
 contains and add interest and value to the recitation. Let 
 the pupils read the questions and find the answers to them. 
 This will bring out all hard words and train in correct 
 pronunciation. Have pupils find on maps all places asked 
 for, and then tell about them in complete statements. 
 After a lesson has been carefully studied in class, let it 
 be reviewed by pupils individually and then recited with 
 books closed. Assign short lessons and have pupils master 
 them, giving them, at the same time, such additional infor- 
 mation and drill as will make every lesson complete in 
 itself, clearly understood, and practical. 
 
 Map-drawing" and Sketching",— Reproduction by pen- 
 cil or crayon is one of the most effective means to fix in 
 the mind what has been learned. As soon as map -study 
 begins, have pupils draw outlines, first in simple or general 
 form, afterwards filling in as facts and features are learned. 
 When the states are taken up, let each state be represented 
 on paper, first singly, then in groups. Show pupils how 
 to represent mountains, coast lines, etc. Do not have 
 names written on maps, but let pupils know what every 
 line or mark on the map drawn by them means. En- 
 courage neatness and taste in execution. Preserve best 
 maps drawn. Rapid map -sketching is an excellent practice 
 in regular class work. While one pupil is describing or 
 bounding a state, let another produce the outline on the 
 blackboard, continuing to indicate each feature as the oral 
 description may require. Have frequent written exercises 
 
78 OUTLINES AND METHODS 
 
 on blackboard. These should be made the basis of class 
 criticism. Insist upon correct spelling and pronunciation. 
 Modeling in clay, pulp or putty may be introduced as an 
 occasional exercise. All relief maps should be carefully 
 studied. 
 
 Prominent Features. — Give special attention to the 
 physical features of each country or section as studied. 
 Let the facts be linked together so as to suggest a series 
 of causes and effects. Show that climatic conditions deter- 
 mine largely the productions, occupations, and social con- 
 dition. 
 
 Teach the sources, characteristics, methods of produc- 
 tion, and uses of commodities, such as coffee, tea, pepper, 
 spices, sugar, salt, rice, cotton, opium, coal, iron, gold, 
 silver, tin, petroleum, oranges, bananas, etc., etc. Have 
 pupils find out all they can for themselves about these 
 common products. Supplement their knowledge with oral 
 descriptions, illustrations and readings. Have pupils bring 
 specimens for class study. 
 
 In this grade teach fully the geography of the state 
 as given in the elementary text-book, and have maps of 
 the state drawn. Compare it with other states as to area, 
 population, climate, productions, etc. Locate the principal 
 railroads and chief business centers. Give number of 
 counties, and compare the home county with surrounding 
 counties. Locate and describe briefly some of the leading 
 educational institutions, and tell of its school system. Note 
 places of historic interest in the state, and associate with 
 them prominent historical characters. Outline the state 
 government and name state officials. Have pupils take 
 imaginary journeys to different sections of the state, 
 describing what they would probably see. 
 
 Have occasional written reviews, requiring manuscripts 
 to be written with pen and ink. 
 
INTERMEDIATE DIVISION 79 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 
 
 All pupils in this and higher grades should have text- 
 books and regular recitations at least three times a week. 
 A good elementary physiology should be used, and supple- 
 mented by continued oral instruction and drill. A good 
 physiological chart is almost indispensable in the teaching 
 of this subject. Make frequent use of the blackboard. 
 Whenever it is practicable, let the teacher secure small parts 
 of animals from the butcher for class study in anatomy. 
 
 Do not allow pupils to memorize or repeat -what is 
 not clearly understood. 
 
 Along with the work outlined in the text -book used, put 
 special stress upon the following points: 
 
 The value of regular hygienic rules and habits, and the 
 effect of proper habits upon long life and happiness. 
 
 The value of wholesome exercise, pure air, undisturbed 
 sleep, sunlight, and proper food in the development of 
 sound, healthy bodies. 
 
 The nature of disease — the derangement of organic 
 functions. The effect of disease — impaired vitality, broken 
 health, or death. The prevention of disease — proper ob- 
 servance of hygienic laws. Diseases that are contagious, 
 infectious, epidemic, or hereditary. 
 
 Names and sources of common narcotic poisons. 
 
 Effects of alcoholic stimulants and narcotics upon the 
 mental and moral faculties. 
 
 The tendency of indulgence to increase appetite for 
 strong drink. 
 
 The tendency of indulgence to foster disease and to 
 weaken vital forces, so as to prevent recovery from disease. 
 
 Prevailing errors corrected, as that alcoholic drinks give 
 strength and increase power to endure heat and cold. 
 
 Teachers have responsibility, of which they ought not 
 
80 OUTLINES AND METHODS 
 
 to be ignorant, in disseminating a knowledge of the laws 
 of health. They ought to be in sympathy with the law 
 of the state which requires that in the study of this 
 subject, special stress shall be placed upon the effects of 
 alcoholic stimulants and narcotics upon the human body. 
 In this, as in all other instructions, the teacher's example 
 and precept ought to be in harmony. But the teacher's 
 duty does not end here. Children should be trained to a 
 conscientious regard for and obedience to all hygienic laws. 
 They should feel that the laws of health are sacred, and 
 that it is wrong to violate them by doing anything that 
 impairs or threatens the health of the body. They should 
 cultivate a high ideal of health — its beauty, its grace, its 
 power, and its usefulness. How beautiful and how true 
 are the lines : 
 
 Better than grandeur, better than gold, 
 Than rank or titles, a hundred fold, 
 Is a healthy body, a mind at ease, 
 And gentle manners, that always please. 
 
 " Better bodies for our boys and girls," was the motto of 
 Dio Lewis, and it ought to be the motto of every teacher. 
 If all our teachers perform their duties faithfully in this 
 behalf, they will diminish disease and increase the public 
 health. They will increase human happiness and prolong 
 human life. 
 
 UNITED STATES HISTORY — Third Grade 
 
 The work in history for this grade, while still general 
 and without text-books, should take more definite form, 
 and should prepare pupils for the proper use of a text- 
 book in the next grade. History stories may be con- 
 tinued, but should be largely about persons, to the end 
 that pupils may become interested in the prominent char- 
 acters in history, and will then want to know more about 
 
INTERMEDIATE DIVISION 81 
 
 the share each may have had in the development of the 
 country. These stories may be read or told by the teacher 
 after a few of the leading facts have been stated. More 
 frequently, however, let the pupils read in turn at sight, 
 or allow one pupil to read the story to the class. All such 
 exercises should be followed by talking and writing upon 
 the subjects given, in order to encourage attention, fix in 
 the mind what has been learned, and cultivate the power of 
 ready and correct expression. Isolated facts in history may 
 be given in brief statements and frequently reviewed. 
 
 The study of history is the study of its prominent 
 characters. 
 
 Seek, therefore, to interest pupils in the individual charac- 
 ters, and then associate with them important events and dates. 
 
 Have pupils memorize " Independence Bell," '^ Paul Re- 
 vere 's Ride," ^^ Sheridan's Ride," etc. Let them sing 
 "America," "Marching through Georgia," "The Red, 
 White, and Blue," " The Star -Spangled Banner," etc. The 
 entire school should join in these songs and listen to the 
 recitation of patriotic poems. 
 
 UNITED STATES HISTORY — Fourth Grade 
 
 A primary or local state history should be used by this 
 grade, supplementing with history stories, recitations, read- 
 ings, recreations, and review drills. During the first year 
 the history should be used as a supplementary reader. Let 
 the pupils read the story of the lesson, while the teacher 
 explains and enlarges its scope, and by proper questions 
 brings out its full meaning and interest. After a lesson 
 has been studied in this way, let the pupils prepare to re- 
 cite it with the books closed. Encourage them to tell the 
 story of the lesson in their own way. As a rule, let them 
 take up topics and discuss them. After the first pupil has 
 
 F 
 
82 OUTLINES AND METHODS 
 
 told all he knows about an assigned topic, let the other 
 members of the class add what they can. 
 
 Let the whole class be held responsible for any 
 omissions or errors in individual recitations. 
 
 Give special prominence to the biographies of prominent 
 persons in history. Review frequently the leading incidents 
 and events in the lives of each. Have pupils write brief 
 biographical sketches to be read in class. 
 
 Use of Maps and Blackboard.— History and Geog- 
 raphy are closely related, and many facts in each may be 
 linked together in the recitation. Draw upon the pupil's 
 knowledge of Geography to locate places of historic interest. 
 Point out on the map noted battlefields, settlements, and 
 discoveries. Let pupils sketch upon the board routes of 
 marching armies, war campaigns, boundaries of settlements 
 and accessions. This will help to fix the facts of history 
 more definitely. The teacher should be skillful in the use 
 of crayon in illustrating many points in the lesson. 
 
 Patriotic Selections and Song's,— In connection with 
 the related topics, read "The American Flag," "Liberty 
 Bell," "The Landing of the Pilgrims," "The Brave at 
 Home," "Paul Revere's Ride," " Patrick Henry's Appeal," 
 " Barbara Frietchie," and similar selections. Let the pu- 
 pils memorize some of them. Teach patriotic songs, as 
 in the preceding grade. National holidays should be fully 
 explained, and, whenever practicable, appropriate general 
 exercises should be arranged for their observance. 
 
 Boys and girls should early catch the spirit of true and 
 loyal citizenship, and be led to feel a personal pride in their 
 common heritage. With this sentiment developed and fostered, 
 the study of history will be to them attractive and beneficial. 
 
 The use of logical outlines and the study of Civil 
 Government should be deferred until pupils reach the 
 Advanced Division. 
 
ADVANCED DIVISION 
 
 AVERAGE TIME — Three Years. 
 
 TEXT-BOOKS — Fifth Reader, Dictionary, Spelling Book, Arith- 
 metic, Mental Arithmetic, Grammar, Geography, Physiology, and United 
 States History. 
 
 APPARATUS — Wall Charts or Maps in Geography, History, and 
 Physiology; Arithmetical Forms, Large Dictionary, Cyclopaedia, and 
 Apparatus for Intermediate Division. 
 
 READING 
 
 The objects to be kept steadily in view in this grade 
 are : (1) Thought getting, (2) voice culture, (3) creating 
 a desire to read good literature, (4) directing the pupil in 
 the selection of proper lines of reading. 
 
 The essentials of good reading should be vigorously 
 exacted; viz., A free, pure, forcible, and pleasing voice, 
 an intelligent use of modulations appropriate to the sense 
 and sentiment, incisive but fluent utterance, correct pro- 
 nunciation, clear comprehension of the drift and scope of 
 the paragraph or selection. 
 
 The most important and difficult part of the instructor 
 lies in questioning, or, better, in making practical use of 
 his best insight as to what the pupil does understand and 
 what he does not understand, what he should be taught 
 and what may be left for the present untaught. 
 
 Every pupil in this grade should have a good diction- 
 ary, or at least have ready access to one, and should be 
 required to prepare each lesson as carefully and as thor- 
 oughly as in any other branch. 
 
 The teacher needs to study each lesson. He will need 
 a general knowledge of good literature and a fund of 
 information to make each recitation interesting and helpful. 
 
 (83) 
 
84 OUTLINES AND METHODS 
 
 Vocal Exercises. — Continue drills in voice culture, as 
 in the preceding grades, using more difficult exercises. 
 The first pages of the reader usually furnish excellent 
 material for voice training. Much of this training may 
 be given in concert exercises, but care should be taken 
 to observe and correct individual faults. Encourage pupils 
 to practice difficult exercises for themselves. Seek to estab- 
 lish a high appreciation of clear, full, and well-modulated 
 utterance. 
 
 Outlines of Literature. — In connection with the read- 
 ing exercises, pupils in this grade should learn something 
 about the leading authors in English and American litera- 
 ture. As a rule, it will be found best to study biogra- 
 phies in connection with the reading of selections from 
 the authors to be studied. All the selections of one author 
 contained in the reader may thus be read successively, 
 while the pupils are asked to find out all they can about 
 the author from literatures and other books of reference. 
 During the last year of the course, a few short classics, 
 such as "Evangeline," "The Deserted Village," "The Legend 
 of Sleepy Hollow," "Autobiography of Franklin," maj^ be 
 read and studied in class. Let pupils memorize passages 
 from the classics thej^ read. Let the teacher help to find 
 these extracts and bring out their beauty and worth. 
 Certain selections from the reader may be learned by the 
 whole class. The advantage and benefit of such acqui- 
 sitions will not be questioned. 
 
 If the school has a library, tell pupils what you expect 
 them to read. Do not encourage pupils to read many 
 books during the school term. Choose a few good books, 
 and have these read well. If no library is available, try 
 to secure a few books for the class. Let these be read 
 in turn at home and afterwards discussed in class. 
 
 Look into the readins: habits of the children out of 
 
ADVANCED DIVISION 85 
 
 school. Inculcate a proper contempt for bad literature. 
 Lead them to see the good in literature, and tell them 
 where it may be found. 
 
 Current Literature. — There are now a number of school 
 papers published weekly or bi-weekly which aim to give 
 a summary of important current events, especially written 
 for school -room use. Every school can and should have 
 a number of these papers. Once or twice a week they 
 may be used in class reading, and made the basis of class 
 discussion. General reading is the source of a broad intel- 
 ligence, and the school -room should help pupils, not only 
 in choosing proper reading, but also in forming the Jiahit 
 of reading much and well. 
 
 SPELLING 
 
 Review of the more important parts of the spelling 
 book. Make special lists of difficult words. 
 
 Spell difficult words in all lessons. Make a specialty 
 of geographical and historical names. Notice names of 
 noted authors and their works. 
 
 Teach proper and continual use of dictionary. In look- 
 ing up a word, learn, all about it — spelling, pronunciation, 
 meaning, special use, derivation, and synonyms. 
 
 Teach simple rules of spelling, such as dropping or re- 
 taining final e, doubling final consonant, etc. 
 
 Teach and illustrate fully definitions for prefix, suffix, 
 root, primitive word, derivative word, compound word, 
 diphthong, triphthong, etc. 
 
 Teach lists of abbreviations as found in the spelling 
 book and dictionary. Continue pronouncing exercises 
 from the open book. Drill in phonic spelling. 
 
 Make correct spelling a part of every manuscript exer- 
 cise. Teach the proper use of capital letters, apostrophe, 
 
86 OUTLINES AND METHODS 
 
 hyphen, etc., as a matter of orthography. No manuscript 
 should be marked perfect in which any misspelled words 
 are found. 
 
 Occasional pronouncing and spelling matches for review 
 of difficult words will be found interesting and beneficial 
 in any school. 
 
 In one -room schools, the Fifth Grade may be combined 
 with the Fourth Grade in regular spelling exercises, with 
 an occasional separate lesson or drill. 
 
 WRITING 
 
 Continue drill in free and rapid muscular movement 
 with the General Writing Class. For suggestions, see 
 Intermediate Division. 
 
 The three essentials of good -writing are legibility, 
 rapidity, and beauty. The first should never be sacri- 
 ficed for either of the other two. 
 
 In this grade give special attention to letter and busi- 
 ness forms. 
 
 Require pupils to write letters and address them; to 
 write receipts, orders, promissory notes, bills, etc., giving 
 them proper models. 
 
 In all the written exercises exact care and neatness, 
 and require pen and ink work frequently. There is no 
 good reason why all written reviews and examinations 
 should not be done with pen and ink. It will develop 
 accuracy of thought and habits of neatness and dis- 
 patch. 
 
 Careful practice in writing should be required every 
 day. Many boys attend school but a few weeks in a win- 
 ter. This time should be utilized in the best way. No 
 one should be allowed to spend three months in school 
 without acquiring a fair hand. But this can be done 
 
ADVANCED DIVISION 87 
 
 only by intelligent practice by the pupil under the faith- 
 ful direction and careful criticism of the teacher. 
 
 Drawing*. — The time has not yet come when we can 
 hope to have a complete course in drawing in all elemen- 
 tary schools ; yet no school should fail to have some ex- 
 ercise daily in the practice of this most useful art. The 
 ability to use the pencil or the pen, so that with a few 
 strokes of either one can represent to the eye that which 
 he cannot so well describe, is an acquisition the value of 
 which cannot be overestimated. That children can be 
 trained to acquire much of this ability at school is not so 
 generally recognized. As a matter of course, the teacher 
 in this, as in all other lines of work, must be schooled in 
 the theory and skilled in the practice of drawing in order 
 to make the work of his pupils practical and interesting. 
 
 Pupils in this grade should learn to represent common 
 objects by means of lines and shading. While theoretical 
 perspective need not be taught, its elementary principles 
 may be brought into practical use. Use such models 
 as leaves, fruits, boxes, baskets, bowls, goblets, simple 
 flowers, etc. 
 
 Arrange borders, rosettes, and other artificial forms, 
 observing proportion, symmetry, and pleasing repetition. 
 
 Cutting, arranging, and mounting units of colored paper 
 may be an occasional exercise. Require some original 
 work. Preserve best drawings for exhibition. 
 
 The pupils of this grade should be taught something 
 of the most noted works of art in painting and sculpture. 
 Copies of the world's great pictures and representations of 
 noted statuary are now so readily obtained that every teacher 
 may secure and use such material as will enable him to 
 link the crude efforts of children with the highest types 
 of beauty of form and expression, and thus increase their 
 interest and their love for all that is beautiful in the 
 
88 OUTLINES AND METHODS 
 
 world about them. Interest the pupils in the lives of 
 great artists, as well as in their great works. 
 
 Map -sketching should be taught in connection with 
 Geography and History. This consists in drawing rapidly 
 the boundaries of a country, state, or county, representing 
 the approximate location of lakes, mountains, and cities ; 
 tracing rivers, routes of marching armies, locating battle- 
 fields, etc. This should be a frequent practice, as it is a 
 most valuable aid to memory, and develops accuracy and 
 skill. Whenever arithmetical problems involve geometrical 
 forms, let the proper forms be drawn. 
 
 Map -drawing should be done more carefully and by 
 some sj^stem. Each pupil using a text -book in Geography 
 should be required to draw one or two maps each month, 
 finishing them so as to give artistic effect as well as cor- 
 rect representation. The teacher should give proper models 
 and instructions. 
 
 GRAMMAR 
 
 In the Primary and Intermediate Divisions, thought ex- 
 pression has been made most prominent in all language 
 exercises. This has developed facility and accuracy in the 
 use of language, and prepared the way for the study of 
 the principles of Grammar. While constructive exercises 
 should be continued through the Advanced Division, 
 special attention should now be given to grammatical 
 forms, analysis, diagrams, parsing, rules of syntax, and 
 the elements of Ehetoric. Some good text -book in Gram- 
 mar should be taken up and completed. Important fea- 
 tures in this study are: 
 
 (a) The Yerh — Classes, forms, and uses; mode, mode 
 signs or forms, with tenses and tense forms ; voice, laws 
 and tests of voice ; irregular verbs, practice in the use of 
 
ADVANCED DIVISION 89 
 
 verb forms; infinitives and participles, forms, modes of dis- 
 tinguishing, construction. 
 
 (&) The Pronoun — Classes and sub - classes ; forms and 
 uses of the relative, the interrogative, the compound per- 
 sonal; choice of pronouns. 
 
 (c) Case Forms — Of the noun, of the pronoun; the 
 possessive case; uses of the apostrophe. 
 
 {d) Analysis — Classification of sentences, phrases, clauses, 
 connectives ; forms of analysis ; use of models and dia- 
 grams ; use and value of diagrams as aids in analysis. 
 
 (e) Syntax — Rules of sj-ntax ; application in original 
 sentences ; false syntax corrected ; language idioms. 
 
 (/) Parsing — Parsing of sentences — naming parts of 
 speech; parsing of words — class, inflections, properties, 
 uses, syntax. 
 
 Constructive Exercises.— In connection with the study 
 of grammatical forms, pupils should have much practice 
 in illustrating by original examples every point presented. 
 In addition to this there may be practice in combining, 
 contracting, and expanding the elements of a sentence, such 
 as combining two or more simple sentences into a complex 
 or compound sentence ; contracting clauses into phrases ; 
 expanding words or phrases into clauses. The rules of 
 punctuation should be taught in connection with these 
 exercises, as well as in all composition work. 
 
 Letter-writing". — Pupils have already learned many of 
 the forms of letter- writing. These should be carefully 
 reviewed and supplemented with special forms. Special 
 attention should now be given to the body of the letter, 
 and the essentials of correspondence. Let the pupils write 
 letters of friendship, introduction, business, etc. This is a 
 form of composition not only of a practical nature, but 
 usually interesting and attractive to boys and girls. As a 
 rule, the letters should be corrected and re- written with pen 
 
90 OUTLINES AND METHODS 
 
 and ink. Have pupils also write telegraphic dispatches, 
 news items, business notices, etc. 
 
 Compositions. — Occasionally, complete essays or ex- 
 tended compositions upon selected subjects should be re- 
 quired of each member of the grammar class. If pupils 
 have had the necessary practice in composition work up to 
 this grade, they will readily write upon any subject within 
 their grasp and knowledge. Let familiar subjects be assigned, 
 and in many cases outlined, for the pupils. Provide for 
 them the necessary helps and references, and give them time 
 to do the work well. Do not allow them to copy language 
 from others without giving the proper credit. In correct- 
 ing manuscripts, the following key may be used : 
 
 S. — Error in spelling. G. — Error in grammar. 
 
 P. — Error in punctuation. PaP. — To begin paragraph. 
 C. — Error in capital letter. X. — Obvious error. 
 
 Wd. — Wrong word. ? — To inquire about. 
 
 From 3 to 10 per cent may be deducted from a 
 manuscript for careless work and poor writing. 
 
 Elements of RhetOPic. — Grammar and rhetoric are so 
 closely related that neither subject can be taught com- 
 pletely without touching the groundwork of the other. 
 Well -advanced grammar classes, therefore, may learn to 
 distinguish and use properly the principal figures of 
 speech, a few of the essential laws of diction, and the 
 leading forms of prose and poetry. In one -room schools 
 no separate text -book need be used. 
 
 Study of Select Passag-es.— During the last year of 
 the course choice passages from standard authors may be 
 taken up for class study, analysis and parsing. Para- 
 phrasing is also a practical and profitable exercise. After 
 some classic has been read in the reading class, let the 
 pupils write a brief review or summary of it. Such exer- 
 
ADVANCED DIVISION 91 
 
 cises will make them familiar with the style of authors and 
 establish in their minds a standard of elegant English. 
 
 ARITHMETIC 
 
 A good Grammar School Arithmetic should be com- 
 pleted in this grade, supplemented by many practical 
 problems from other sources. 
 
 Review common and decimal fractions, denominate num- 
 bers, longitude and time, and practical measurements, 
 laying special stress upon the principles involved and their 
 application in the more difficult problems. 
 
 Many short problems and simple exercises for class drill 
 are worth much more for the purpose of thoroughly 
 grounding pupils in the essentials of practical arithmetic 
 than the involved and extended problems frequently found 
 in the text -books. 
 
 Advance work should begin with percentage proper, 
 and include its various applications, simple and compound 
 proportion, square and cube root, partnership, and men- 
 suration. 
 
 Teach percentage by the formulae; viz., 
 
 f BaseXrate=percentage. 
 I Base+percentage=amount. 
 Formula \ Base — percentage=difference. 
 Percentage-^-rate=base . 
 ^ Percentage-j-base=rate. 
 
 Use the decimal system in calculations, and impress 
 upon pupils the importance of placing it correctly. After 
 a problem has been solved on the board, let the formula for 
 it be stated. This is always a brief statement of the rule 
 used in solving it. Teach all applications of percentage 
 as simple variations of the general formulae, as shown in 
 the following table : 
 
92 
 
 OUTLINES AND METHODS 
 
 Percentage 
 
 APPLICATIONS OF PERCENTAGE 
 
 Proper 
 
 Without Time 
 
 With Time 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Profit 
 
 
 
 Discount 
 
 
 
 Com- 
 
 Insur- 
 
 Taxes 
 
 and 
 
 Stock 
 
 Interest 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 mission 
 
 ance 
 
 
 Loss 
 
 
 
 True 
 
 Bank 
 
 
 
 Am't 
 
 Sum 
 
 Asses- 
 
 Cost 
 
 Par or 
 
 Sum on 
 
 Present 
 
 Face of 
 
 
 
 of 
 
 for 
 
 sed 
 
 Price. 
 
 Face 
 
 which 
 
 worth. 
 
 Note. 
 
 
 
 Sales 
 
 which 
 
 value 
 
 
 Value 
 
 Interest 
 
 
 
 
 Base 
 
 or 
 
 Prop- 
 
 of 
 
 
 of 
 
 is Paid. 
 
 
 
 
 Am't 
 
 erty is 
 
 Prop- 
 
 
 Stock. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 of 
 
 In- 
 
 erty. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pur- 
 
 sured. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 chases. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rates 
 
 Rate 
 
 Rate 
 
 Rate 
 
 Rate of 
 
 Rate of 
 
 Rate of 
 
 Rate of 
 
 
 
 of 
 
 of 
 
 of 
 
 of 
 
 Premi- 
 
 Interest 
 
 Discount 
 
 Discount 
 
 
 
 Com- 
 
 Insur- 
 
 Taxa- 
 
 gam or 
 
 um or 
 
 multi- 
 
 multiplied 
 
 multiplied 
 
 
 Rate 
 
 mis- 
 
 ance. 
 
 tion. 
 
 loss. 
 
 of Dis- 
 
 plied by 
 
 by Time 
 
 by Time 
 
 02 
 
 
 sions. 
 
 
 
 
 count. 
 
 Time in 
 
 in Years. 
 
 in Years 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Years. 
 
 
 plus three 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 days. 
 
 K] 
 
 
 Com- 
 
 Pre- 
 
 Tax 
 
 Gain 
 
 Premi- 
 
 Interest. 
 
 Int. on P. 
 
 Int. on face 
 
 'A 
 
 
 mis- 
 
 mium. 
 
 on 
 
 or loss. 
 
 um or 
 
 
 W. for 
 
 at computed 
 
 w 
 
 Per- 
 
 sions. 
 
 
 Prop- 
 
 
 Dis- 
 
 
 given time 
 
 rate, or 
 
 1-1 
 
 centage 
 
 
 
 erty. 
 
 
 count. 
 
 
 and rate : 
 
 Bank Dis- 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i. e., True 
 Discount. 
 
 count. 
 
 
 
 Value 
 
 
 
 Cost 
 
 Selling 
 
 Princi- 
 
 Face of 
 
 
 
 
 of 
 
 
 
 plus 
 
 Price 
 
 pal plus 
 
 Note or 
 
 
 
 
 Goods 
 
 
 
 gam or 
 
 at Pre- 
 
 Interest. 
 
 Face of 
 
 
 
 Amnt 
 
 bought 
 
 plus 
 Com'n. 
 
 
 
 Selling 
 Price. 
 
 mium. 
 
 
 Debt. 
 
 
 
 
 Value 
 
 
 
 Cost 
 
 Selling 
 
 
 
 Face less 
 
 
 
 of 
 
 
 
 less 
 
 Price 
 
 
 
 Bank Dis- 
 
 
 
 Sales 
 
 
 
 loss, or 
 
 at Dis- 
 
 
 
 count, or 
 
 
 Differ- 
 
 less 
 
 
 
 Selling 
 
 count. 
 
 
 
 the 
 
 
 ence 
 
 Com'n, 
 or the 
 Pro- 
 ceeds. 
 
 
 
 Price. 
 
 
 
 
 proceeds. 
 
 Teach proportion by direct and indirect ratio. Cause 
 and Effect method is a short, practical way of solving 
 proportion problems, and may be used. 
 
 Teach square and cube root by objects, blocks, or 
 drawings. 
 
 The problems in mensuration should be accompanied 
 with diagrams or geometrical forms, the pupils illustrat- 
 ing each problem solved. 
 
ADVANCED DIVISION 93 
 
 The most satisfactory evidence of a pupil's knowledge 
 of a problem is his ability to prove it. 
 
 Show how the rule is derived, and insist upon the 
 pupil's thoroughly understanding the reason for it before 
 he uses it and quotes it as an explanation. 
 
 All work must be neatly and accurately placed upon the 
 board, slate, or paper, each necessary step being indicated. 
 
 Have pupils work independently of the text -book and 
 of each other. The practice of working merely for the 
 answer in the text -book is a waste of time. Pupils must 
 learn to think and reason for themselves. Use the prob- 
 lems in the text -book, but also many more outside of it. 
 Draw upon other arithmetics and your own originality for 
 supplementary problems. Require pupils to make prob- 
 lems for class use. 
 
 Business Papers. — Notes, bills, receipts, bonds, and 
 other business papers should be brought into class, and 
 so used that the pupils will have a practical knowledge 
 of the principles involved. Let them be written by pupils 
 so as to represent actual transactions between members of 
 the class. 
 
 Optional or Advanced Work. — Circulating decimals, 
 foreign or circular exchange, arithmetical and geometrical 
 progression, alligation, annuities, and kindred subjects 
 should be passed by in the elementary schools, or at least 
 set aside until pupils have mastered the more practical 
 parts of arithmetic. 
 
 Mental Arithmetic. — Unless the arithmetic in use pre- 
 sents abundant and varied exercises for oral or mental 
 work, a separate text -book should be used by this grade. 
 The pupils will need the drill the study of mental arithme- 
 tic affords in the use of correct mathematical language, 
 close and continued reasoning, undivided attention, clear 
 and comprehensive thought. Require correct and full so 
 
,94 OlTTLIJSrES AlfJD METHODS 
 
 lutions. These may frequently be written out. Do not 
 allow pupils to write answers in the text -book. This 
 always detracts from the value and benefit of the reci- 
 tation. Have frequent review tests, using problems not 
 found in the text -books, but involving similar conditions. 
 In one -room schools, recitations in mental and written 
 arithmetic may alternate or may be combined. Few pro- 
 grams will afford time for recitations in both the same 
 day. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY 
 
 The second or larger book in Geography should be 
 taken up and completed in the Fifth Grade. Many of the 
 suggestions given under the Fourth Grade will apply here. 
 With the advanced book, however, more attention should 
 be given to topical outlines, causes and effects as related 
 to mathematical and physical geography, commercial re- 
 lations, climatic and social conditions. 
 
 In the study of each country, province, or state, let 
 an outline something like the following be used in pre- 
 paring the lesson and in reciting it : 
 
 Position.— Relative and absolute, latitude and longitude. 
 
 Form and Size. — Natural and political boundaries. 
 
 Natural Features. — Surface, mountains, lakes, rivers. 
 
 Climate. — Temperature and moisture, continental and 
 oceanic modifications, amount of rainfall. 
 
 Political. — Divisions, capitals, metropolis, other promi- 
 nent cities, form of government, rulers. 
 
 Occupations. — As determined by climate and mineral 
 deposits. 
 
 Productions. — Vegetable, animal, mineral, manufac- 
 tured. 
 
 Miscellaneous. — Religion, civilization, school system, 
 history, noted persons and places, etc. 
 
ADVANCED DIVISION 95 
 
 Essential and Practical Features. — Make the study 
 of geography interesting and practical by making promi- 
 nent the following lines : 
 
 Animals. — Study the animals of each continent, taking 
 first those which feed upon the vegetation of the continent, 
 and afterwards the carnivorous animals. Show that the 
 nature of the vegetation determines the kind of animals 
 that can live in a country. 
 
 Vegetation. — From a knowledge of previous topics, 
 locate on maps the regions where the most favorable con- 
 ditions for vegetation exist. Study the vegetation of the 
 different continents, with especial reference to those kinds 
 which are useful to man for food, clothing or shelter. 
 Make maps of the continents, showing where different 
 kinds of vegetables may be found. One method of doing 
 this is by gumming some part of the plant upon the map 
 of the country where it is grown. Make a special study 
 of the vegetable products of the United States in this 
 way. 
 
 Minerals. — Locate in each continent the regions where 
 the useful minerals are found, and tell how and in what 
 form each one is obtained. Maps may be made showing 
 mineral regions in the same way that the plant maps 
 are made. 
 
 Adaptation to Man's Want. — Study each continent 
 with reference to its advantages for the abode of man — 
 {a) with reference to food materials; (&) to materials for 
 clothing ; (c) to shelter ; (d) advantages for transpor- 
 tation and exchange of products. 
 
 The Races of Mankind. — Classify the human races, 
 giving the abode, the distinguishing characteristics and 
 the prevailing religion of each race. Which races are 
 the most highly civilized? Which are the barbarous 
 races ? The savage races ? 
 
96 OUTLINES AND METHODS 
 
 s 
 
 Growth of Nations. — Where were the earliest civili- 
 zations ? Why were these places best adapted to the 
 growth of early civilizations ? Why did primitive men 
 live in a warm climate! What was the earliest form of 
 government ? How and why were tribes formed ? Nations ? 
 Name and define the different kinds of governments found 
 in civilized nations. Name and locate the capitals of the 
 principal countries of the world and of the states of the 
 Union. 
 
 Commerce and Manufactures. — Locate principal water 
 routes of travel and commerce, in-eluding oceanic routes, 
 navigable rivers and canals. 
 
 Locate the principal shipping ports of each country, 
 and tell what products are sent out from and what are 
 received at each port. Learn, from a gazetteer or some 
 other source, the most important facts connected with each 
 of these places. 
 
 Locate the principal lines of railroads in the United 
 States, and a few of the most important lines in other 
 countries, and locate on them the principal manufacturing 
 and commercial cities. This should be done by drawing 
 maps and filling in the railroads and cities as they are 
 studied. Tell, if you can, the reason for the manufac- 
 turing and commercial importance of the cities named. 
 
 Local Geography. — A month or six weeks may be very 
 profitably spent upon the thorough and exhaustive study 
 of state and county, using and supplementing the usual 
 book edition of state geography, with items of local interest 
 and value. It is less important that pupils should have a 
 comprehensive knowledge of Asia and Africa, than that 
 they should know well their own state and county. 
 
 Map Drawing" and Sketching".— Continue rapid map 
 sketching and illustrative work in class. Teach some sys- 
 tem of map drawing, and have pupils draw a number of 
 
ADVANCED DIVISION 97 
 
 maps carefully, using their best artistic skill. Make fre- 
 quent use of the blackboard in writing outlines, descrip- 
 tions, etc. Require written reviews with pen and ink once 
 or twice a month. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 
 
 Use and complete a common school physiology. Two 
 years will ordinarily be found sufficient for this study, 
 allowing a month or six weeks for review before grad- 
 uation. 
 
 In view of the work done in the preceding grades, 
 the pupils should now take up the study of this subject 
 by logically arranged outlines. These outlines should be 
 frequently reproduced upon the blackboard or tablete and 
 made the basis of class work. Attention should be given 
 to details, scientific authority, and physiological terms. 
 The lessons, however, should be of a practical nature, 
 aiming to teach and shape hygienic habits and right 
 living. 
 
 From a scientific standpoint teach the sources, forms, 
 uses and effects of stimulants and narcotics. The follow- 
 ing outline will be suggestive of the scope of such teaching: 
 I. Origin of Alcohol— 
 
 (a) Fermentation in cider, wine, ale, beer. Process 
 
 of fermentation. 
 (6) Distillation, process; products — brandy, gin, 
 whiskey, rum. 
 II. Properties of Alcohol — 
 (a) A transparent fluid. 
 (&) Odorous. 
 
 (c) Has a biting taste. 
 
 (d) Volatile. 
 
 (e) Inflammable. 
 
 G 
 
98 OUTLINES AND METHODS 
 
 (/) Mixes with most oils. 
 
 (g) Coagulates albumen. 
 
 (Ji) Affinity for oxygen and water. 
 
 (0 Dissolves many resinous substances. 
 
 III. Uses of Alcohol — 
 
 (a) For heating — alcohol lamp. 
 (&) For preserving museum specimens, 
 (c) In preparing medicines, varnishes, etc. 
 {d) Allays inflammation. 
 
 IV. Effects of Alcohol on the Human Body— 
 
 {a) Impairs digestion, 
 
 (&) Absorbs the water of the body. 
 
 (c) Destroys the blood -corpuscles. 
 
 {d) Ruins the blood-vessels. 
 
 (e) Causes fatty degeneration of muscular tissue. 
 
 (/) Paralyzes nerve matter. (A narcotic.) 
 
 {g) Creates and stimulates growing appetite for 
 alcohol. 
 
 {h) Causes general physical debility, mental weak- 
 ness, and moral degeneracy. 
 
 Prepare similar outline for narcotics. Dwell upon the 
 harm which smoking and chewing tobacco have upon 
 young people, not only in their physical effects on account 
 of the delicacy of the tissues, but also in their mental and 
 moral effects. Teach the deceptive tendencies of all opiates. 
 Teach that 
 
 Total abstinence is the only safe rule in regard to the 
 use of stimulants and narcotics. 
 
 As far as practicable, use experiments to show properties 
 and uses of alcohol and opiates. The harmful effects may 
 be most forcibly impressed by citing examples of sufferers 
 and by means of proper stories. 
 
 Continue the use of blackboard, charts, parts of ani- 
 
ADVANCED DIVISION 99 
 
 mals, etc. Have pupils make drawings for illustration. 
 Drill in tlie use of proper terms. Teach practical hints 
 for the sick room, what to do till the doctor comes, nature 
 and purpose of medicines, and the probable effects of 
 disease in any form. 
 
 Practical Hygiene.— While thus teaching physiology 
 as a scientific study, let practical hygiene continue to 
 have a prominent place in every lesson and in all the 
 pupil's environments. Lay special stress upon the impor- 
 tance of correct habits in youth and in preserving youth- 
 ful health and vigor. All the equipments of the school- 
 room, its lessons, and its very life should invite — nay 
 require— the essential conditions of physical well-being. 
 A sound body is essential to the highest use, power, and 
 destiny of a sound mind. If we would preserve the jewel, 
 we must take care of the casket. 
 
 UNITED STATES HISTORY 
 
 Complete Common School History in two years. 
 During the last year of the course make a special study 
 of Civil Government, national, state and local, and review 
 the important parts of History. 
 
 Topical Outlines.— In this division, history should be 
 studied by means of well- arranged outlines. These should 
 be prepared by the teacher and placed upon the black- 
 board for pupils to copy in blank topic -books provided 
 for the purpose. Lessons should be prepared and recited 
 with the use of these outlines. It may require some time 
 and a little direct assistance before the pupils can recite 
 topically, and give long and connected statements in their 
 own words. The following will indicate the form and 
 purpose of such topical arrangement : 
 
100 OUTLINES AND METHODS 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF PENNSYLVANIA 
 
 1. William Penn and his grant of land. 
 
 2. Reasons for coming to America. 
 
 3. Founding of the colony. 
 
 4. Relations with the Indians. 
 
 5. Form of government. 
 
 6. The " Great Law." 
 
 7. Development of the colony. 
 
 8. Characteristics of settlers. 
 
 Topical Reviews. — Certain subjects may be traced 
 through the history, and all the related topics brought 
 under one general head, thus : 
 
 HISTORY OF SLAVERY 
 
 1. Introduction at Jamestown — 1619. 
 
 2. Slave labor in the South — Cotton gin. 
 
 3. Ordinance of 1787. 
 
 4. In the Constitution — 1808. 
 
 5. Missouri Compromise — 1820. 
 
 6. Wilmot Proviso — 1846. 
 
 7. Omnibus Bill — 1850. 
 
 8. Fugitive Slave Law — 1850. 
 
 9. Personal Liberty Bills. 
 
 10. Kansas and Nebraska Bill — 1854. 
 
 11. Dred Scott Decision— 1857. 
 
 12. John Brown's Raid— 1859. 
 
 13. Emancipation Proclamation — 1863. 
 
 14. Constitutional Amendment — 1865. 
 
 Accession of Territory, Inventions and Inventors, Indian 
 Wars, Treaties, etc., may be similarly outlined and reviewed. 
 
 Continue to make biographical study and reading promi- 
 ment in the daily recitation. Pupils must first become 
 
ADVANCED DIVISION 101 
 
 interested in the lives of historical characters before they 
 care to know what was done by them. Around such names 
 as Columbus, John Smith, Roger Williams, Franklin, 
 Washington, Hamilton, Clay, Webster, Lincoln, Grant, 
 Blaine, and Dewey, cluster many of the essential facts 
 of American history. 
 
 Reviews. — A short time may be spent at each recitation 
 in reviewing the principal points of the preceding lesson 
 in such a way as to connect it with the lesson for the day. 
 After a section or epoch has been gone over a full reci- 
 tation period may be taken for an oral review, to be fol- 
 lowed by a written review. 
 
 Historical Readings and Recreations. — History should 
 be so taught that pupils will want to read historical books 
 for themselves. Make use of any books of reference, biog- 
 raphy, or history found in the school -room. Find and 
 read historical poems, addresses, and orations in the reader. 
 Encourage pupils to use home libraries, magazines, and 
 papers, to supplement the text -book recitations. 
 
 Continue the use of patriotic songs, and have selections 
 memorized to be recited at stated times. 
 
 Impress upon the pupils the worth and dignity of true 
 American citizenship. 
 
 Civil Government. — The essential value of a knowledge 
 of the forms and requisites of good government is so ap- 
 parent that special prominence should be given to the 
 subject in every school in which the pupils are sufficiently 
 advanced to appreciate the benefits and the privileges of 
 a republican form of government. History properly taught 
 is but an evolution of our form of national government. 
 To teach only the facts and figures of discoveries and set- 
 tlements, struggles and conquests, wars and treaties, is to 
 make this study of little genuine value. Its higher pur- 
 pose is to teach through these the origin, the develop- 
 
102 
 
 OUTLINES AND METHODS 
 
 merit and the stability of this government by the peo- 
 ple. 
 
 The free public school is the chief source of an en- 
 lightened citizenship. It is founded upon the broad prin- 
 ciples of a future commonwealth. It is essential, therefore, 
 that the boys and girls shall not only develop a spirit 
 of loyalty to their country, but that they shall have an in- 
 telligent and comprehensive acquaintance with the funda- 
 mental principles of a representative government. They 
 should be made familiar with the constitution of the United 
 States and the constitution of their own state. They need 
 to learn the mutual and reciprocal relations in national, 
 state and local government. They should, above all, be 
 taught to recognize the supremacy of law, and to respect 
 the rightful authority in the home, the school, and the 
 state. 
 
 In the limited time that may be devoted to the teaching 
 of civil government in the elementary school, the follow- 
 ing outline may be of value. It should be explained and 
 supplemented until the pupils will understand its full scope 
 and meaning : 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 Branches of Oovernrnent. 
 
 Legislative . 
 
 House of Representatives. 
 
 Senate , 
 
 r Legislative, 
 j Executive. 
 L Judicial. 
 
 Number, 357. 
 By whom Elected? 
 Term? 
 
 Qualifications? 
 Salary, $5,000. 
 . Exclusive Powers? 
 
 Number, 90. 
 
 By whom Elected? 
 
 Term? 
 
 Salary, $5,000. 
 
 Qualifications? 
 
 Exclusive Powers? 
 
 Joint Powers of House and Senate? 
 
ADVANCED DIVISION 
 
 103 
 
 Executive 
 
 Judicial. 
 
 President and Viee-Pres. 
 
 Cabinet - 
 
 One Supreme Court... 
 
 Nine Circuit Courts 
 
 Sixty District Courts.. 
 Five Courts of Claims 
 
 r Term? 
 
 By whom Elected? 
 
 Qualifications? 
 
 Salary, $50,000 and $8,000, respectively. 
 . Duties? 
 ' Secretary of State. 
 
 Secretary of Treasury. 
 
 Secretary of War. 
 
 Secretary of Navy. 
 
 Secretary of Interior. 
 
 Secretary of Agriculture. 
 
 Attorney-General. 
 
 Post m aster-General . 
 
 (Appointed by the President and con- 
 firmed by the Senate). Salary, $8,000. 
 Duties? 
 r Term? 
 
 One Chief Justice. Salary, $10, ,000. 
 
 Eight Associate Justices. Salary, $10,000. 
 ' Term? 
 
 Two or three Judges in each Circuit. 
 Salary, $6,000. 
 
 Term? 
 
 One Judge in each District. Salary, 
 $3, .500 to $5,000. 
 r Term? 
 
 Five Judges. 
 L Salary, $4,500 to $5,000. 
 
 Legislative. 
 
 Executive 
 
 Jtidicial, 
 
 STATE OF PENNSYLVANIA 
 
 r Number, 50. 
 
 Senate \ J.'^^'^'J ^^'^''^ 
 
 Qualifications? 
 
 House. 
 
 Salary, $I,.500 for each regular session. 
 
 Number, 204. 
 
 Term, 2 years. 
 
 Qualifications? 
 
 Salary, $1,500. 
 
 Powers and Duties? 
 Governor, Salary, $10,000. 
 Lieutenant-Governor, $5,000, 
 Secretary of the Commonwealth, $4,000. 
 Attorney-General, $.3,500. 
 Auditor-General, $4,000. 
 State-Treasurer, $5,000. 
 Secretary of Internal Affairs, $3,000. 
 Adjutant-General, $4,000. 
 Superintendent of Public Tngtruction, $4,000. 
 L Terms? Qualifications? Duties? 
 
 ' A Chief Justice, .$8,500, 
 
 Supreme Court 
 
 Superior Court 
 
 District Courts 
 
 Six Associates, $8,000, 
 
 Term, 21 years. 
 
 Qualifications? 
 
 Sitting at Philadelphia, Harrisburg, and 
 Pittsburg. 
 
 Powers? 
 
 Chief Judge, $7,500. 
 
 Six Associates, $7,500. 
 
 Term, 10 years. 
 
 Qualifications? 
 
 Sitting at Philadelphia, Pittsburg, Har- 
 risburg, Scranton, Williamsport, 
 
 Powers? 
 
 Number of Districts, 40. 
 
 Term, 10 years. 
 
 Qualifications? 
 
 Salary from $4,000 to $7,000. 
 . Powers? 
 
104 
 
 OUTLINES AND METHODS 
 
 THE COUNTY IN PENNSYLVANIA 
 
 Number in the State, 67. 
 Relation to State Government ? 
 Exclusive rights and privileges ? 
 
 I Common Pleas. 
 County or District Courts, combined or J Oyer and Terminer, 
 separate 1 Quarter Sessions. 
 
 L Orphans'. 
 
 Judges of the Courts. 
 
 (See District Courts.) 
 Clerk of the Courts, 
 Prothonotary. 
 County Officers \ Recorder of Deeds. 
 Register of Wills. 
 District Attorney. 
 County Solicitor. 
 County Commissioners. 
 
 Terms? Duties? Compensation? 
 
 All elected by the people except Mercantile Appraisers, who are appointed by 
 
 County Commissioners, and the Superintendent of Schools, who is elected 
 
 by School Directors. 
 
 Sheriff. 
 
 County Treasurer. 
 
 County Auditors. 
 
 County Surveyor. 
 
 County Cox'oner. 
 
 Directors of the Poor. 
 
 Jury Commissioners. 
 
 Mercantile Appraisers. 
 
 County Superintendent of Schools. 
 
 THE TOWNSHIP GOVERNMENT 
 
 Relation to the County and State. 
 Powers and privileges in local government. 
 Justice of the Peace. 
 Constable. 
 
 Six School Directors. 
 Supervisors of Roads. 
 . Assessors of Taxes. 
 Duties of officers, terms of service, 
 All elected by the people. 
 
 Township 
 Officers 
 
 Tax Collector. 
 Auditors. 
 Township Clerk. 
 Election Officers. 
 
 and compensation? 
 
 THE BOROUGH GOVERNMENT 
 
 Relation to the Township, County and State 
 Powers and privileges in local government. 
 Chief Burgess or Mayor. 
 Six or more Councilmen. 
 Tax Collector. 
 Assessors of Taxes. 
 Six School Directors. 
 Street Commissioner. 
 . Constable. 
 Duties of officers, terms of service, and compensation? 
 All elected by the people. 
 
 Borough 
 
 Officers 
 
 Justice of the Peace. 
 Treasurer. 
 Auditors. 
 Town Clerk. 
 Election Officers. 
 
 THE CITY GOVERNMENT 
 
 Regulated by special charter. 
 
 Relation to County and State. 
 
 Special prerogatives in local government. 
 
 Classification of Cities. 
 
 Division into wards and precincts. 
 
 Mayor. 
 
 Common Council. 
 Select Council. 
 City Solicitor. 
 Receiver of Taxes. 
 City Treasurer. 
 City Controller. 
 Aldermen. 
 
 City Officers 
 
 School Controllers. 
 Superintendent of Schools. 
 City Engineer. 
 Street Commissioners. 
 Police Magistrates. 
 Police Officers. 
 Health Officers. 
 
 Duties of officers? By whom elected or appointed? Emoluments? 
 
ADVANCED DIVISION 105 
 
 In the teaching of Civil Government, present to the 
 class important items of information in definite form, 
 such as the following : 
 
 The revenue of the United States is derived : 
 
 1. From customs, — tariff or duty on imports. 
 
 2. Internal revenue sale of stamps, — taxes on tobacco, distilled 
 spirits, beer, etc. 
 
 3. Direct tax. 
 
 4. From public lands. 
 
 5. From receipts of patent -rights, fines, etc. 
 
 The expenses of the Federal Government are : 
 
 1. The principal and interest of the public debt. 
 
 2. Salaries of government officials, employes and representatives. 
 
 3. Construction and maintenance of public buildings and other 
 property. 
 
 4. The equipment and maintenance of the army and navy. 
 
 5. The pensions and claims resulting from the wars of the United 
 States. 
 
 6. The establishment and support of government institutions, 
 museums, scientific investigations, and internal improvements. 
 
 7. Expenses in maintaining the postal service. 
 
 The cities of Pennsylvania are classified as follows : 
 
 First class, having a population of 300,000 or over. 
 Second class, having less than 300,000 and more than 100,000. 
 Third class, having less than 100,000 and more than 30,000. 
 Fourth class, having less than 30,000 and more than 12,000. 
 Fifth class, having less than 12,000. 
 
 Frequently present interesting queries and questions for 
 class discussion, such as these : 
 
 1. What difference in the meanings of the words "electors," "in- 
 habitants," "residents," and "citizens?" 
 
 2. A certain town wishes to construct water works but has no 
 money for the purpose. In what two ways may it legally proceed 
 to obtain the required funds ? 
 
106 OUTLINES AND METHODS 
 
 3. How soon and in what way may a foreign immigrant become 
 a citizen of the United States ? An elector ? 
 
 4. Why should not a foreign born citizen be elected President of 
 the United States ? 
 
 5. Of what practical value to the country is the Signal Service ? 
 
 6. Why should a small state have as many United States Sena- 
 tors, but not as many Representatives, as a large state ? 
 
 7. Would the Federal Constitution permit government ownership 
 of railroads and telegraph lines ? Would it be a good thing to have 
 such ownership ? 
 
 8. How is "Civil Service Reform" opposed to "Rotation in Office ?" 
 
 9. If a man owns land in several townships, can he vote in all of 
 them ? If not, where must his vote be east ? 
 
 10. Should the President be elected by popular vote ? 
 
 11. Which affords the more privileges for its citizens — a republic 
 like the United States, or a monarchy like England ? 
 
 12. Would it be a wise movement on the part of the general 
 government to require every elector to be able to read and write ? 
 
Literature for Children 
 
 ONE of the fundamental aims in all school work and 
 management should be the systematic development 
 of a proper taste for pure and good literature. It 
 is not so much what pupils learn to know as what they 
 live to te that determines the worth of their training and 
 shapes their destiny. They need the constant and con- 
 scious stimulus of the higher ideals which appeal to them 
 through the beautiful and the good in literature. It is the 
 teacher's highest, holiest mission to so guide the young 
 mind to the realization of its higher self that life may 
 be a constant advancement to a higher and a purer and 
 a better plane of living. Properly selected material, care- 
 fully adapted exercises, and, withal, a loving, sympathetic 
 nature, will enable the teacher to open to each boy and 
 girl the intellectual pleasures of helpful reading, the 
 invigorating fountain of sparkling thought, and the en- 
 nobling influence of moral truth and beauty. In the 
 development of this line of the teacher's work, three dis- 
 tinct yet related features should receive attention in every 
 school. 
 
 I— THE STUDY OF SELECTIONS 
 
 In every grade choice extracts and selections from the 
 best authors, both in prose and poetry, should be studied, 
 memorized, and recited. These should be selected by the 
 teacher, and must be adapted to the grade and capacity 
 of pupils. Each pupil should commit to memory at least 
 one extract or one complete selection each month of the 
 
 (107) 
 
108 LITEBATUBE FOB CHILBBEN 
 
 term. When thouglitfully and earnestly directed, this line 
 of work is most valuable in giving pupils a choice vocabu- 
 lary of words and phrases, a high standard of pure Eng- 
 lish, an accurate and retentive memory, and a cultivated 
 taste for the pure and the good in literature. It is the 
 proper basis for general reading and the necessary intro- 
 duetion to the special and extended study of literature 
 in the higher grades. 
 
 To the few selections here named the teacher may 
 readily add such as will be specially adapted to the age 
 and grade of the children. Some of the selections should 
 be read to the children, and afterwards by them. The 
 shorter poems should be memorized. Fables and short 
 stories may be reproduced by the children, first orally 
 and afterwards in writing. 
 
 Primary Grades 
 
 1. Seven Times One. — Ingelotv. 
 
 2. Little Birdie. — Tennyson. 
 
 3. The Three Bugs. — Carey. 
 
 4. Little Boy Blue. — Field. 
 
 5. The Arrow and the Song. — Longfellow. 
 
 6. Jack -in -the -Pulpit. — WJiittier^s Child Life. 
 
 7. The Wise Fairy. — Carey. 
 
 8. The Village Blacksmith. — Longfellow. 
 
 9. The Child's Dream of a Star. — Dickens. 
 10. Hiawatha's Childhood. — Longfellow. 
 
 Intermediate Grades 
 
 1. America. — Smith. 
 
 2. The Barefoot Boy. — Whittier. 
 
 3. The Children's Hour. — Longfellow. 
 
THE STUDY OF SELECTION'S 109 
 
 4. The Wounded T>di\^j .— Anonymous . 
 
 5. The BviildiQv^.— Longfellow. 
 
 6. Don't You Be Afraid, Boj^\— Carey. 
 
 7. The Planting of the Apple tree.— Br^ati^. 
 
 8. New Year's ^yq.— Tennyson. 
 
 9. The Boys. — Holmes. 
 
 10. The First Snow Yoll.— WhiUier. 
 
 Grammar Grades 
 
 1. Gettysburg AMvq^^.— Lincoln. 
 
 2 . Thanatopsis . — Bryant . 
 
 3. Apostrophe to Water.— >SeZecM. 
 
 4. The Seminole's Defiance.— Po^^m. 
 
 5. The Landing of the Pilgrims.— -ffemaws. 
 
 6. Longing. — Loivell. 
 
 7. One by One. — Proctor. 
 
 8. The American Flag. — Drake. 
 
 9. The Burial of Sir John Moore.— Wb//e 
 10. The Building of the ^hii^ .— Longfellow . 
 
 High School Grades 
 
 1. Evangeline. — Longfellow. 
 
 2. The Deserted Village.— 6^oZ^smi^^. 
 
 3. Vision of Sir hsiuntsil.— Lowell. 
 
 4. Maabeth..— Shakespeare. 
 
 5. Essay on Burns.— Carlyle. 
 
 6. Speech on Conciliation With America.— 5«^r^e. 
 
 7. Paradise Lost, Books I and II.— Milton. 
 
 8. Rime of the Ancient Mdir^inQw— Coleridge. 
 
 9. Lady of the Lake.— ^co^^. 
 10. Snowbound. — Wliittier. 
 
II— HOME READING 
 
 Good books constitute one of tlie chief sources of 
 knowledge, as well as a most potent force in the build- 
 ing of character. Pupils should not only learn to read 
 well, but should also acquire a taste for good reading, 
 that will lead them, of their own volition, into the rich 
 fields of choice literature. To this end, the reading should 
 be carefully directed in the school -room and wisely sup- 
 plemented in the home. 
 
 In answer to the oft -repeated question. What shall 
 children read? we name here a carefully selected list of 
 fifty books adapted to the several grades below the high 
 school. The books named are all of standard authority, 
 recognized merit, and may be readily secured from a public 
 library, or at small cost, through any book -dealer. The 
 books for the Primary Grades should first be read to, 
 and afterwards hy the pupils. 
 
 This list is suggestive, merely, of the class of liter- 
 ature to be supplied for home reading. When these 
 books have been carefully and thoughtfully read, there 
 will be no trouble to select any additional number de- 
 sired. 
 
 Primary Grades — illustrated Books. 
 
 1. ^sop's Fables; A Child's Version. — Stickney. 
 
 2. Grandpa's Darlings. — Pansy. 
 
 3. Hans Andersen's Fairy Tales. — SticJcney. 
 
 4. Alice in Wonderland. — Carroll. 
 
 5. Black Beauty. — Sewell. 
 
 6. Adventures of a Brownie. — Craik. 
 
 7. Seven Little Sisters. — Andrews. 
 
 8. Wonder Book for Girls and Boys. — Hawthorne. 
 
 (110) 
 
HOME BEADINGS 111 
 
 Intermediate Grades 
 
 9. Tanglewood Tales. — Hawthorne. 
 
 10. Robinson Crusoe. — Be Foe. 
 
 11. Washington and His Country. — FisUe. 
 
 12. The Jungle Book. — Kipling. 
 
 13. Autobiography of FranUlin. 
 
 14. In the Boyhood of Lincoln. — Butterworth. 
 
 15. Stories of Old Rome. — Pratt. 
 
 16. Tales from Shakespeare. — Lamb. 
 
 17. Swiss Family Robinson. — Kingston. 
 
 18. Boys of Other Countries. — Taylor. 
 
 19. Hans Brinker. — Bodge. 
 
 20. A Queer little Princess. — Eaton. 
 
 21. Water Babies. — Kingsley. 
 
 22. A Child's History of England. — BicJcens. 
 
 23. King of the Golden River. — RusUn. 
 
 24. Little Men or Little Women.— Alcott. 
 
 25. Little Lord Fauntleroy. — Burnett. 
 
 26. Five Little Peppers. — Sidney. 
 
 Grammar Grades 
 
 27. Christmas Stories. — Bichens. 
 
 28. The Sketch ^ook.— Irving . 
 
 29. Tales of a Grandfather.— >Sfco^f. 
 
 30. Building the Nation. — Coffin. 
 
 31. Vicar oiW^kef^eldi.— Goldsmith. 
 
 32. The House of Seven Gables. — Hawthorne. 
 
 33. Ten Great Events in History. — Johonnot. 
 
 34. The Spy. — Cooper. 
 
 35. Alexander the Great. — Abbott. 
 
 36. Stories from Shakespeare. — Pratt. 
 
112 LITERATURE FOB CHILDBEN 
 
 37. Views Afoot. — Taylor. 
 
 38. Ramona. — JacJcson. 
 
 39. Pilgrim's Progress. — Bunyan. 
 
 40. Arthur Bonnicastle. — Holland. 
 
 41. The Story of the Iliad. — Brooks. 
 
 42. Winners in Life's Race. — Buckley. 
 
 43. The Man Without a Country.— JTaZe. 
 
 44. Autocrat at the Breakfast Table. — Holmes. 
 
 45. Our Young Folks' Plutarch. — Kaufman. 
 
 46. Tom Brown at Rugby. — Hughes. 
 
 47. Old Curiosity Shop. — Dickens. 
 
 48. Stories of Invention. — Hale. 
 
 49. Among My Books. — Lowell. 
 
 50. The Rhinegold. — Chapin. 
 
 High -School Grade 
 
 A definite course of home reading should be outlined 
 for each class with a view to supplementing the regular 
 study of Literature. 
 
Ill — SUPPLEMENTARY READING 
 
 All supplementary reading, properly so called, is under 
 the teacher's special direction. School text -books are 
 intended for the presentation of fundamental forms and 
 facts, truths and principles. A thorough and comprehen- 
 sive drill is the essential requisite in every grade. But 
 so far as any other books or papers may be helpful in 
 the regular text -book study and drill, their use should 
 be most earnestly encouraged. Under the teacher's direc- 
 tion, pupils should use the public library, books of 
 reference, magazines and papers, and thus not only add 
 interest, knowledge and value to the study of subjects, 
 but at the same time acquire the habit of finding out 
 knowledge and a proper method of investigating lines of 
 study. As a special aid to teachers in supplementary 
 work, many books in literature, history, geography and 
 science have been published, and their use in the class- 
 room will add very greatly to the interest and value of 
 the regular lessons. The following list is suggestive of 
 the class of books referred to : 
 
 Primary Grades 
 
 1. Animals Wild and Tame. — Davis. 
 
 2. Some of Our Friends. — Welsh. 
 
 3. Leaves from Nature's Story Book, I and II. — Kelly, 
 
 4. Nature's By -Ways. — Scudder. 
 
 5. The World and Its People, I and 11. — Dunton. 
 
 6. Seaside and Wayside, I and II. — Wright. 
 
 7. Hiawatha Primer. — HolhrooJc. 
 
 8. The Plant Baby and its Friends. — Brown. 
 
 9. Stories of Colonial Children. — Pratt. 
 
 H (113) 
 
114 LITEBATUBE FOB CHILDBEN 
 
 10. Heart of Oak Books, I and II. — Norton. 
 
 11. Little Lucy's Wonderful Globe. — Yonge. 
 
 12. Playtime and Seedtime. — Parker. 
 
 13. Friends in Feathers and Fur. — Jolionnot. 
 
 14. Fairy Stories and Fables. — Baldwin. 
 
 15. Seed Babies. — Morley. 
 
 16. Nature Stories for Youngest Readers. — Bass. 
 
 17. The First Year Nature Reader. — Kingsley. 
 
 18. School Reading by Grades, I, II and III. — Baldwin. 
 
 19. Stepping -Stones to Literature, I, II and III. — Arnold. 
 
 20. Little Nature Studies. — Burt. 
 
 21. Stories of Child Life. — Badlam. 
 
 22. Stories of Insect Life. — Weed. 
 
 23. Legends of the Red Children. — Pratt. 
 
 24. History Stories for Youngest Readers. — Davis. 
 
 25. In Mythland. — Bechwith, 
 
 Intermediate Grades 
 
 1. Ten Boys. — Andrews. 
 
 2. Leaves from Nature's Story Book, III. — Kelly. 
 
 3. American History Stories. — Pratt. 
 
 4. Stories of Industry. — Chase. 
 
 5. Brooks and Brook Basins. — Frye. 
 
 6. Our World Reader, I, II.— Hall. 
 
 7. Stepping -Stones to Literature, IV, V.^ — Arnold. 
 
 8. Stories of American Life and Adventure. — JEJggleston. 
 
 9. Storyland of Stars. — Pratt. 
 
 10. Stories of Columbus, Franklin, and Washington.— 
 
 Pratt. 
 
 11. The World and Its People, III and IV. — Dunton. 
 
 12. Seaside and Wayside, III and IV. — Wright. 
 
 13. Reading by Grades, IV and V. — Baldtvin. 
 
SUPPLEMENTABY BEADING 115 
 
 14. Stories of Pennsylvania. — Brumbaugh and Walton. 
 
 15. Heart of Oak Books, III and lY.— Norton. 
 
 16. Harold's Rambles. — Trceger. 
 
 17. First Book in American History. — Eggleston. 
 
 18. Old Greek Stories. — Baldwin. 
 
 19. From September to June with Nature. — Warren. 
 
 20. Flowers and Their Friends. — Morley. 
 
 21. Stories of Great Men.—JoJionnot. 
 
 22. Stories from Flowerland. — Pratt. 
 
 23. The Geographical Reader and Primer. — Ouyot. 
 
 24. Stories of Invention. — Chase. 
 
 25. Readings from Nature's Book. — Swinton. 
 
 Grammar Grades 
 
 1. Geographical Readers. — Carpenter. 
 
 2. Ten Great Events in History. — Jolionnot. 
 
 3. Old Stories of the East. — Baldwin. 
 
 4. Seven American Classics. — Swinton. 
 
 5. School Reading by Grades, VI, VII and VIII.- 
 
 Baldwin. 
 
 6. Heart of Oak Books, V and VI. — Norton. 
 
 7. Seaside and Wayside, V and VI. — Wright. 
 
 8. The World and Its People, V and VI .— Dunton. 
 
 9. Geographical Reader. — Buppert. 
 
 10. A Year Among the Trees. — Flagg. 
 
 11. Stories of Europe. — Pratt. 
 
 12. Words of Abraham Lincoln. — Thomas. 
 
 13. Myths of Old Greece, I and II.— Pratt. 
 
 14. Stepping-stones to Literature, VI, VII and VIII.- 
 
 Arnold. 
 
 15. Tales of a Traveler. — Irving. 
 
 16. Washington and His Generals. — Watson. 
 
116 LITERATURE FOB CHILDBEN 
 
 17. The Story of Pizarro. — Pratt. 
 
 18. Our American Neighbors. — Coe, 
 
 19. Fifteen Decisive Battles. — Creasy. 
 
 20. Legends of Norseland. — Pratt. 
 
 21. Truants of An Old Orchard. — McCool. 
 
 22. Boys of '1^.— Coffin. 
 
 23. Zigzag Journeys. — Buttertvorth . 
 
 24. Flash Lights in American History. — Murphy. 
 
 25. Good Literature, Nos. 1 and 2 for Grammar Grades. 
 
 — Williams. 
 
 High-School Grades 
 
 Standard works for reference in a convenient library 
 are quite essential. Supplementary reading should be 
 indicated and directed by the department teachers, and 
 should be closely related to the class work. 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 Course of Instruction for Rural Schools 
 
 From the Report of the Committee of Twelve, Submitted to the National Educational 
 Association, Minneapolis, Minn., July, 1897 
 
 Course of Instruction for Rural Schools 
 
 Prepared in accordance with the directions of the Committee of 
 Twelve, at its meeting in Chicago, November 18, 1896. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS 
 
 [This course of study is arranged in four groups, partly with the 
 thought that whenever the schools of a township are gathered at one 
 or more central points, the first two may constitute the basis of work 
 for the lower, and the last two for the higher room. Whether the 
 three-group system explained by Dr. White be used, or the four-group, 
 as indicated in this course, must depend very largely upon the size and 
 advancement of the school. The principles are the same in either 
 case. Henry Sabin.] 
 
 " The course of study is the measuring rod or scale which is used to 
 determine at what point in the eight years' ivorJc in the elementary course 
 a pupil's worJc has arrived. It should not he used as the Procrustean bed 
 on which to stretch the ivorJc of the school in order to give uniformity." 
 — (Report of Subcommittee on Instruction and Discipline.) 
 
 It is the aim in this course of instruction to present the most es- 
 sential topics in orderly sequence, without any prescription of methods 
 of teaching. It can be begun at any age from five to seven ; it can 
 be continued, often with profit, to a later age than is here stated. It 
 is believed that this course offers every facility for combinations of 
 classes, for transfers of pupils, and for any system of alteration. 
 
 This course recognizes the essential elements entering into ac- 
 cepted courses of instruction. Each of the four groups comprises 
 about two years' work. In these groups there will be divisions into 
 sections — as (a), {d) — only when absolutely necessary. Experience 
 has shown that, within the age limits of the several groups, the work 
 
 (117) . 
 
118 APPENDIX 
 
 as laid down can be done. Whenever a pupil is able to do the work 
 of the succeeding group he should pass to it. In small schools there 
 will be much individual instruction, and in these will seldom be found 
 pupils representing all these grades of work. In large schools, with 
 one teacher, a skillful teacher can, to a considerable extent, secure 
 assistance from the more advanced pupils in certain work with the 
 younger, to the mutual advantage of teacher and taught, as well as to 
 the school as a whole. This has been done in this country, and is 
 done throughout England to-day under the pupil-teacher system. 
 
 Whenever several schools working on such a course are consolidated 
 so as to employ two teachers, if one teacher take Groups I and II, 
 and the other Groups III and IV, the school is at once graded into 
 a primary and a grammar school, and the next step in gradation will 
 give one group to each teacher. In this gradation the work of each 
 group will be expanded as circumstances allow. If, in the course as 
 here laid down, a line of work — as elements of science — must be 
 omitted, the time can be added to other subjects ; if in some subjects — 
 as elements of science and morals — but few lessons can be given, even 
 these lessons, carefully prepared and well taught, will tend to make the 
 teacher a better teacher, the pupil a more thoughtful pupil, and to raise 
 the standard of the school. 
 
 To carry out such a plan of work as is here outlined, the pupil, as 
 he advances, must do more and more for himself under the guidance of 
 the teacher, very much to the advantage of the pupil. Thus, in arith- 
 metic, there is provision for but two formal recitations per week in 
 Group III ; for but one in Group IV. For the rest, the pupil learns to 
 do by doing. 
 
 The studies are grouped, each group comprising about two years' 
 work : 
 
 READING 
 
 Group I (5-7 years). — {a) First exercises in reading ; from black 
 board and chart ; Primer and First Eeader ; and appropriate litera- 
 ture. 
 
 (&) First and Second Eeaders, and other reading of similar grade. 
 
 Children should be taught carefully such selections as will awaken 
 interest and lead to a desire to read for themselves. In all grades 
 children should memorize choice selections appropriate to their age. 
 
 Group II (7-9 years). — {a) Second Reader, and literature of 
 similar grade. Fables and folk stories, etc. 
 
COUBSE OF INSTRUCTION FOB BUBAL SCHOOLS 119 
 
 (&) Third Reader, or books of similar grade. Literature as sup- 
 plementary readings. 
 
 (See general directions in Group I.) 
 
 Group III (9-11 years). — Fourth Reader at discretion of teacher 
 for drill ; the reading should be largely of literature, as supplemen- 
 tary reading. 
 
 The drill should be mainly in the reader, and the choice of litera- 
 ture as supplementary reading should be such as the pupil can read 
 with such ease as to give pleasure, and thus develop a desire to read 
 good literature. 
 
 Take great care to cultivate a taste for good reading. Train 
 pupils in proper use of the library. 
 
 Group IV (11-13 years). — The reading of good literature, as 
 much as can be carefully read. Memorizing of choice selections 
 should receive careful attention. Encourage home reading. Ill and 
 IV should constitute one class each, and the reading lesson drill 
 need not be a daily exercise. From the first give careful attention 
 to the cultivation of the speaking voice. 
 
 SPELLING 
 
 Group I (5-7 years). — Taught chiefly in connection with read- 
 ing. Oral and written. 
 
 Group II (7-9 years), — Taught chiefly in connection with read- 
 ing and other studies of group. Chiefly written. 
 
 Group III (9-11 years). — Words to be selected chiefly from read- 
 ing and other studies of group. Chiefly written. 
 
 Group IV (11-13 years). — Words to be selected from studies of 
 group, or spelling-book. To be taught chiefly in connection with 
 written work. 
 
 WRITING 
 
 Group I (5-7 years).— In this section the child should learn to 
 write legibly and neatly, and should form the habit of writing with 
 correct position of paper, body, and hand. Use the pen early. 
 
 Group II (7-9 years). — Use simplest forms of letters; train to 
 uniformity in spacing between letters and words, and in size and 
 height of letters ; in short, in all the qualities which constitute a 
 neat and legible written page. Insist upon careful penmanship in 
 all written work. 
 
120 APPENDIX 
 
 Group III (9-11 years). — See Group II. Much practice, to give 
 ease and rapidity, never sacrificing legibility and neatness. Much 
 writing, to form the habit of easily expressing thought with the 
 pen. 
 
 Group IV (11-13 years). — See Group III. Writing in this group 
 should be chiefly in composition, in written lessons, and reviews, in 
 practice in business forms, and in correspondence. 
 
 LANGUAGE 
 
 Group I (5-7 years). — (a) Conversational lessons on familiar 
 experiences and familiar things. Reproduction of stories told by the 
 teacher ; invention of stories suggested by pictures, etc. All this will 
 be training in observation and thinking as well as in expression. 
 Great care is necessary as to choice of words and tones of voice. 
 
 (&) Similar to (a), adding written to oral expression ; instruction 
 in correctness of the written forms, as the form of the sentences, the 
 use of capitals and punctuation. Memorizing of choice selections. 
 
 Group II (7-9 years). — [a) See (&), Group I. Combination of 
 oral and written work. Seek variety in subjects. Base lessons on 
 nature lessons, readings, etc. Careful attention to form and use of 
 complete sentences in recitation and conversation, to purity of tone, 
 clearness of enunciation, correctness of pronunciation in speaking, to 
 legibility and neatness in writing. 
 
 {!)) Work of previous years continued and expanded ; oral narra- 
 tion, invention (from pictures, etc.), description, with written sen- 
 tences from the same ; letter writing, with special attention to the 
 general form of the letter ; careful attention to the vocabulary of the 
 child. Memorizing of choice selections. 
 
 In much of this work all the group can he taught as oyie class, but 
 pupils of very unequal advancement should not he classed together. 
 
 Group III (9-11 years). — See Group 11. Much written work in 
 connection with and based upon the school work in its various depart- 
 ments. The sentence and its parts ; general classification of words 
 into parts of speech according to their use in the sentence, not teach- 
 ing definitions nor treating of subdivisions. Careful teaching of the 
 construction of the paragraph. Letter writing, with special reference 
 to correct forms of social and business letters. Eeadings in literature 
 by teacher and by pupil in school and home. Memorizing of choice 
 selections long enough to have unity in themselves. 
 
COURSE OF INSTRUCTION FOR RURAL SCHOOLS 121 
 
 Some text-book of language lessons must be used in the rural 
 schools, in order that a course of teaching may be carried out 
 effectually. 
 
 Group IV (11-13 years). — (a) Letter writing, with special ref- 
 erence to subject-matter, to form and expression. 
 
 Much writing in connection with school work, and from outlines 
 wrought out by teacher and pupils. Throughout the course careful 
 attention should be paid to the correction and enlargement of the 
 pupil's vocabulary. 
 
 (&) A course in grammar by rational use of a text-book. Prep- 
 aration of plans for themes by the pupil, and writing from them. 
 
 (c) Readings in literature by pupils in school and home. Mem- 
 orizing of choice selections long enough to have unity in themselves. 
 
 All written lessons and examinations should be so planned that 
 they will be lessons in composition as well. 
 
 By this course of instruction the pupil should now be able to 
 express his own thoughts clearly, in correct form, and in well-chosen 
 words. 
 
 HISTORY 
 
 Group I (5-7 years). — Short stories, such as will interest the 
 child, drawn from biography, history, and travel. Explanation of 
 historical pictures. 
 
 The teacher must have at hand appropriate books for the readings 
 by herself or by the pupils, hence the necessity for a school library. 
 
 Group II (7-9 years). — See Group I. Conversations on current 
 events within the knowledge or easy comprehension of the child. 
 Conversations, stories, and readings on the lives of eminent historical 
 characters, and on the memorable in historical events, such as can be 
 easily imagined and comprehended by the child. National manners 
 and customs and modes of life, such as can be fully illustrated. All 
 this instruction must be made clear and interesting by stories, de- 
 scriptions, and illustrations. 
 
 Group III (9-11 years). — See Group II. Extension of course of 
 Group II, with wider range, and with more and more readings by the 
 pupil. 
 
 Special attention to biography, with oral and written reproduction. 
 
 Readings in United States history. See Group IV. 
 
 In III and IV the course is by readings or text-book study by the 
 pupil. 
 
122 APPENDIX 
 
 Group IV (11-13 years). — {a) Selected epochs of general history, 
 with study of leading historical characters ; a course of readings and 
 of conversations. Main object to develop a love for historical reading. 
 
 (&) A course of study in United States history. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY 
 
 GrO'Up I (5-7 years). — Familiar conversations and simple pre- 
 paratory exercises, serving to excite a spirit of observation in the 
 child by leading him to observe the most common phenomena of earth 
 and sky. Lessons on relative positions of objects, and distances. 
 
 Points of compass learned from position of the sun, and applied. 
 Oral lessons to teach terms of geographical description from the 
 child's own observation. Modeling in sand. Stories of travel. Ob- 
 ject lessons on products, domestic and foreign. 
 
 These lessons in I and II are of necessity mainly oral until the 
 pupil can read fairly well ; then geographical readers and primary 
 geographies will give much assistance. 
 
 Group II (7-9 years;.— See Group I. 
 
 Home geography : Observations of phenomena of earth and sky ; 
 of the seasons ; of contour, surface, mountain, valley, plain, brook, 
 river, pond, soils, vegetation ; in short, of whatever elements of geo- 
 graphical study can be brought under the observation of the child, 
 that his knowledge of his environment may serve as a basis for his 
 future studies of the world. 
 
 Modeling in sand. Notion of map. Extension of study to im- 
 mediately related regions. Notion of form of the earth ; the globe. 
 Illustrated lessons on races of men, and on the picturesque and 
 curious in their customs and manner of life. 
 
 Group III (9-11 years).— See Group II. Continents and great 
 land and water masses. North America and the United States, with 
 incidental treatment of other parts of the world, in connection with 
 history and with current events. 
 
 In all the study of geography, note its correlations with other sub- 
 jects, especially with history, literature, language. 
 
 Group IV (11-13 years).— (a) See Group III. Study of foreign 
 countries, apportioning the time devoted to them according to their 
 relative interest and importance. 
 
 (5) Work of this group to be divided if necessary. 
 
COURSE OF INSTRUCTION FOB BUBAL SCHOOLS 123 
 
 The use of modeling, map -drawing, and the various means of illus- 
 tration is presupposed throughout the course in geography, and also 
 the treatment of physical, mathematical industrial and commercial 
 geography, in due order and degree. As the subject will usually be 
 taught in the rural school with the aid of test -books in which these 
 topics are developed, it is deemed unnecessary to enter into details in 
 this statement. 
 
 ARITHMETIC 
 
 Group I (5-7 years). — {a) Instruction at first entirely objective; 
 objects gradually discarded as the facts are learned. Numbers, and 
 the combinations which form them, up to 9. Throughout the course 
 the child must learn through his own perceptions and self-activity. 
 
 (&) Combinations represented by the digits in pairs up to 9 and 9. 
 The fundamental operations or computations taught, so far as possible, 
 while teaching the combinations ; thus 3-1-1^4, 2-|-2 = 4; 3 and 1 are 
 how many? (addition); 3 and how many are 4? (subtraction); two 2's 
 are how many? (multiplication); how many 2's in 4 ? (division); etc. 
 Fractions %, /^, %. Grouping by tens, to give the fundamental idea 
 of the decimal system. (The course in combinations {a) and (&) fol- 
 lows the grouping of the decimal system.) Reading and writing of 
 numbers to 100. Constant application to concrete problems. 
 
 Number lessons in Group I are mainly oral. 
 
 Simple problems involving addition, subtraction, multiplication and 
 division, using numbers of not more than three places. 
 
 Group II (7-9 years). — See Group I. {a) Reading and writing 
 three and four place numbers. All the fundamental operations with 
 numbers to 1,000. Values and relations of coins in United States 
 money. Exercises with fractions /^, 3^, %, /^, Ye. Many concrete 
 problems, with much objective illustration. Establish connection be- 
 tween arithmetic and the experiences and businesses of farm life by 
 simple, interesting, varied problems. Treat one difficulty at a time. 
 
 (&) Writing decimals to one, two, three places ; addition and sub- 
 traction of the same. Common fractions with one digit for denom- 
 inator. The units of measures and weights objectively taught ; simple 
 exercises involving compound numbers. Rapid calculations with small 
 numbers and easy problems. Objects for counting and combinations 
 in the first steps, and weights and measures illustrating all the tables 
 taught, are necessary. The child should weigh and measure for him- 
 self before he is questioned in relative values. 
 
124 APPENDIX 
 
 Group III (9-11 years).— (a) See Group II. CompoTind numbers 
 and common fractions, simply treated. 
 
 (&) Decimal fractions and percentage, with common business ap- 
 plications in easy problems. 
 
 Group IV (11-13 years). — (a) See Group III. Percenta,ge, witli 
 applications to business. 
 
 (6) Eatio and proportion ; simple treatment of square and cube 
 root. 
 
 Simple geometrical facts and constructions, with mensuration of 
 plane figures. Business forms and simple bookkeeping. 
 
 Throughout the course mental arithmetic should receive careful 
 attention. 
 
 DRAWING 
 
 Group I (5-7 years). — Drawing very simple familiar and nature- 
 forms of beauty and interest. It is well, also, for the child to represent 
 simple colored objects, as apple, lemon, orange, and natural objects 
 at hand, according to the season, in solid color, as he sees them. 
 
 Illustrative drawing, by the children, may be frequently intro- 
 duced as a means of interest ; in all these exercises great freedom 
 should be allowed. 
 
 Free paper cutting, as exercise in memory of proportions, may 
 be an occasional exercise. 
 
 Practice on lines of various kinds, as combined in symmetrical 
 and pleasing figures, so conducted as constantly to exercise the inven- 
 tion and taste of the child. 
 
 Symmetrical arrangement of forms (tablets, seeds, etc.), by 
 repetition in a line (borders) and around a center (rosettes) ; by 
 selecting objects of different colors this may be made an exercise 
 in color as well as form ; occasional use of ruler in drawing lines 
 and figures. 
 
 Color. — The spectrum colors, from the prism, should be taught, 
 and colors in flowers and other objects should be carefully observed. 
 
 Group II (7-9 years). — During this period of two years, from large 
 models, mainly by the visual appearance and not as form studies in 
 the usual sense of that term, study the sphere, cube, cylinder ; spheroid, 
 prolate and oblate ; square and triangular prism ; pyramid, cone, 
 ovoid ; comparing with each other and with objects related to them, 
 noting resemblances and differences. 
 
 (Some exercise in drawing these, using soft pencil — black, brown, 
 
COURSE OF INSTRUCTION FOB BUBAL SCHOOLS 125 
 
 or blue — and shading a little, avoiding pure outline in picturing 
 solids. This work can be postponed to the next group.) 
 
 Paper cutting, to the line of drawings and construction, may be 
 used as elementary manual training. 
 
 Draw circle, ellipse, oval, and other good forms with curved out- 
 line ; draw leaves, fruits, nuts, and familiar objects of beauty and 
 interest ; drill on division of lines, bisection, trisection, quadrisection ; 
 judgment of length of lines ; proportions of lines one to another ; 
 proportions of figures ; accurate measurement of lines and distances ; 
 drawing and estimation of angles of various kinds ; cultivate neatness 
 and accuracy in work ; symmetrical arrangements of tablets and 
 other forms, as borders, rosettes, and other ornaments, and drawing 
 the same ; a part of each lesson should be given to free -arm move- 
 ments and to exercises in drawing adapted to give freedom and accu- 
 racy in drawing outlines, right-lined or curved. 
 
 Exercise in picturing in color, with water color or colored crayon, 
 the various natural objects studied in this group. 
 
 Illustrative drawing. 
 
 Color. — Spectrum colors, hues, tiuts and shades. 
 
 Group III (9-11 years). — Free-hand drawing of plane figures, 
 right-lined or curved in outline ; pictures of geometric solids and 
 of natural and artificial objects, choosing objects good in proportion 
 and outline ; interest will be increased by drawing groups of objects. 
 Once a week draw from geometric solids and simple objects in light 
 and shade, drawing the shadows very simply. In autumn and spring, 
 especially, study plant growth, and draw sprays of leaves and flowers ; 
 draw vegetables and fruits ; construction of forms of regular solids 
 by drawing, with instruments, cutting, folding, and pasting paper 
 and cardboard ; studies in design from natural plant forms, using 
 colored crayon or water color if possible. Neatness and accuracy re- 
 quired in all work. 
 
 Drill, as in Group II, in free-arm movements and in exercises in 
 drawing, practicing especially on circles, spirals, ellipses, ovals, reversed 
 curves ; judgment of proportions of lines and figures. 
 
 Commence collection and study of pictures. 
 
 Color. — Mixing colors ; harmony of colors. 
 
 Group IV (11-13 years).— (a) Draw pictures of geometric solids 
 and of natural and artificial objects in groups, choosing objects good 
 in proportion and outline, giving special attention to arrangement 
 of groups. 
 
 (&) Study foreshortening of horizontal and vertical surfaces ; draw 
 
126 APPENDIX 
 
 pictures of rectangular solids in different positions relative to the 
 eye, singly and in groups ; draw books, foliage, vases, etc. ; draw in 
 light and shade with simple background, using charcoal, pencil, or 
 brush, and paper of size suited to the object ; large paper, nine by 
 twelve inches, is desirable for much of this work. 
 
 (a, &) Exercises in drawing shapes of faces of objects — top and 
 front — and working drawings with figured dimension lines, with draw- 
 ing instruments, using pencil, or pen and ink. (Some of this work 
 may be done in Group III.) 
 
 Free-hand drill on curves, shade (or tint) lines, and judgment of 
 proportions ; drawing of original designs, using color ; practice in 
 use of drawing instruments ; graphic solution of simple problems 
 in geometry. 
 
 Color. — See Group III. Add complementary colors. Study color 
 in vegetables, flowers, leaves, etc. 
 
 Note. — In drawing, as in the other subjects of this course, the aim 
 has been to construct a course which will be helpful to teachers in the 
 average rural school under fairly favorable conditions. The order of 
 treatment of subjects in each group, and the amount of work done, 
 must depend upon the conditions ; in some eases more can be done 
 than is here laid down, in many cases not so much. So far as the 
 child learns to see clearly and to draw truthfully and well what he 
 sees, and as he sees it, good work has been done. He should be 
 encouraged to draw much, aside from his lessons and school exercises, 
 from whatever is of interest to him. 
 
 (See Remarks on Drawing, on page 130.) 
 
 ELEMENTS OF SCIENCE, OR NATURE STUDY 
 
 GPOUp I (5-7 years). — In the work in nature study, only so much 
 should be attempted as can be well done. 
 
 The course in science furnishes an excellent basis for written 
 work. 
 
 Simple object lessons, if possible with the object under the eye 
 and in the hand of the pupil ; conversational lessons on familiar 
 things and on the phenomena of nature, designed to lead him to 
 give attention, to observe, to compare, to question, to remember. 
 Familiar talks on the human body and the care of it ; on common 
 animals known to the child, their distinguishing characteristics and 
 habits ; on common flowers and plants, especially food plants and 
 
COURSE OF INSTRUCTION FOR RURAL SCHOOLS 127 
 
 plants of use in the arts, as corn, cotton, etc. ; on stones and metals 
 in common use, which the child can learn to recognize. As early as 
 possible he should have some care of plants in the schoolhouse or 
 the school garden. 
 
 Correlations, especially with language and drawing, with geogra- 
 phy and literature, should be kept in mind. 
 
 In nature study, the development of appreciation of and love for 
 the beautiful should be made prominent. 
 
 Group II (7-9 years). — See Group I. A graduated course of 
 nature study following a systematic order of development, but observ- 
 ing the child's standpoint as determined by his experience and inter- 
 est, studying things, phenomena, processes, properties, and classi- 
 fication of things, as animal, vegetable, mineral. Conversational 
 lessons on the human body, its principal parts, their movements 
 and their uses ; on common animals, so conducted as to arouse 
 interest in animal and bird life, especially treating of the uses of 
 birds to the farmer, and the necessity for their protection, to stimu- 
 late observation regarding their habits, and to cultivate a sentiment 
 of kindness in the treatment of them ; on plants and the care of 
 them, their parts, as roots, stems, flowers, fruits, seeds, and their 
 growth ; on some common minerals and their uses. Lessons on trans- 
 formations of material in manufactured articles of common use. 
 
 Group III (9-11 years). — Preceding course so expanded and 
 taught as to give clearly some of the more important notions of nat- 
 ural science : the human body and the principal functions of life ; 
 distinguishing characteristics of animals taught from the study of 
 types ; useful and noxious animals, especially birds and insects ; the 
 study, in typical specimens, of the principal organs of the plant ; 
 plant growth, its order and conditions ; some typical trees and their 
 characteristics, value and uses of their wood ; fruit trees best adapted 
 to the region ; lessons on soils. 
 
 Every rural school should have a plot of ground prepared as a school 
 garden^ in which every pupil may cultivate and study plants. In this 
 case the instruction in Groups III and IV would be extended to 
 include the preparation of soils for cultivation, the action of fertil- 
 izers, the simpler agricultural operations, and the use of garden 
 tools. 
 
 Group IV (11-13 years).— Revision and extension of the course 
 in Group III, giving more of completeness and of scientific arrange- 
 ment and form to the instruction. Cabinets should be collected for 
 the school. 
 
128 APPENDIX 
 
 Physiology. — General review by use of a text-book, giving special 
 attention to hygiene and to the effects of stimulants and narcotics. 
 Sanitation of school and home. 
 
 Zoology. — Observation of the habits of animals throughout the 
 year ; study of available types ; general classifications ; geograph- 
 ical distribution. 
 
 Botany. — Essential parts of the plant ; order and conditions of 
 growth ; principal groups ; geographical distribution of plants ; uses 
 of plants ; study of trees. 
 
 Mineralogy. — General treatment of the structure of the crust of 
 the earth ; soils, rocks, fossils, with illustrations from the neigh- 
 borhood. 
 
 Excursions and collections by the pupil. 
 
 Physics and Chemistry. — The elementary facts and principles of 
 these sciences should be taught by simple experiments. The course 
 will vary according to the qualifications of the teacher and the means 
 of instruction. Various courses for this instruction have been pre- 
 pared, giving methods in detail. 
 
 Only such selections from the above as can be well done. 
 
 MORALS AND CIVICS 
 
 Group I (5-7 years). — Conversations with the children in all the 
 school exercises, in which the teacher shall aim to secure the confi- 
 dence and familiar participation of the children, and thus to learn 
 their characters, so as to guide their tendencies of thought and action. 
 Special care regarding children in whom the teacher notices any moral 
 defect or vicious tendency. Careful attention to propriety of conduct 
 and good manners. 
 
 Group II (7-9 years). — Familiar conversations, and kind indi- 
 vidual counsel when needed. Simple stories, parables, fables, treated 
 with reference to ideas of right and wrong. (Never make a class 
 lesson from cases involving the conduct of the pupil ; these should be 
 treated by private admonition.) Practical exercises tending to arouse 
 the moral sense of the class, by methods of school discipline, by often 
 making the pupil the judge of his own conduct, by training the pupil 
 to draw the appropriate lessons from facts observed by himself. 
 
 Group III (9-11 years).— Continue course of Group II, with 
 somewhat more of method. Conversations so conducted as to interest 
 the pupil and induce the freest participation. Passages from history 
 
COURSE OF INSTRUCTION FOR RURAL SCHOOLS 129 
 
 and literature treated from the point of view of right and wrong. All 
 lessons and readings so arranged as to omit no important point of the 
 following course : duties to parents, duties to brothers and sisters, 
 duties toward employers, duties toward servants and employes, duties 
 of the child in school, duties toward the native land and society, 
 duties toward one's self, as cleanliness, temperance, economy, self- 
 respect, modesty, the Golden Rule ; duties toward God, not a course of 
 religious instruction, but emphasizing especially two points : culti- 
 vating the feeling and habit of reverence, and a disposition of obedi- 
 ence to the laws of God. 
 
 Throughout the whole course kindness to animals should be most 
 carefully taught. 
 
 Some work in civics should be taken up in III as well as in IV. 
 
 Group IV (11-13 years). — Instruction along the lines of the pre- 
 ceding course, expanding the instruction especially in regard to social 
 morality and duties to the native land, treating under this last title 
 the organization and principles of our form of government (civics). 
 
 As a preparation, the teacher should carefully read some systematic 
 treatises on ethics and civics, and the immediate test of success will 
 be the fact that the pupils are heartily interested in the subject. 
 
 Morals and civics furnish an excellent basis for training in speak- 
 ing and writing. 
 
 There is here given a scheme for distribution of time, the numbers 
 representing the lessons per week : 
 
 I II III IV 
 
 Reading 8 8= 16 3 2 = 5 
 
 Language 4 4=8 4 4 = 8 
 
 Arithmetic 8 8 = 16 2 1 = 3 
 
 Writing 4 4=8 2 = 2 
 
 Drawing 3 3=6 2 2 = 4 
 
 History and Geography 4 4=:8 4 4 = 8 
 
 Morals 1 1=2 1 1 = 2 
 
 Elements of Science ..1. 1=2 2 3 = 5 
 
 Totals in I and II 66 Totals in III and IV, 37 
 
 Giving to lessons in I and II an average of ten minutes each, and 
 to those in III and IV an average of twenty minutes each, the total 
 
130 APPENDIX 
 
 time will be 1,400 minutes for the week. If the daily session be six 
 hours, and one hour per day be given to recesses and general school 
 business, there remains a surplus of 100 minutes per week at the 
 disposal of the teacher, which can be devoted to more instruction 
 wherever needed. 
 
 This table is given merely as suggestive of possibilities, and not 
 by any means as an ideal adjustment of ratios. In many schools 
 much more time can justly be given to subjects here left with but 
 little. 
 
 In all the work of this course, it must be borne in mind that in 
 the average rural school the complete course will never be in working 
 at one time ; that there must be much individual instruction ; that in 
 every good rural school there must be very much encouragement of the 
 pupil to work by himself under the general guidance and direction of 
 the teacher. 
 
 REMARKS ON DRAWING 
 
 Object . of the Course. — To develop correct notions of form as it 
 appears, and to represent these notions truthfully by drawing, and to 
 cultivate appreciation of beauty of form. 
 
 Materials. — Geometrical solids large enough to be seen from any 
 part of the room. These can be found in common objects or made 
 from stiff paper or cardboard and tablets showing geometrical figures. 
 A prism for teaching color ; sticks one to five inches long for laying 
 forms ; paper for cutting and folding ; good drawing pencils, soft and 
 medium in hardness ; drawing paper with surface to take pencil well ; 
 a good blackboard, and clear, soft crayons, with a few colored crayons ; 
 some colored pencils for pupils' use ; water colors ; some charcoal for 
 more advanced work ; an ample supply of common objects, leaves, 
 flowers, fruits, etc., renewed from day to day from the neighborhood. 
 
 The statements of this course are necessarily brief and general ; it 
 is supposed that teachers will be aided in matters of detail by some of 
 the published courses in drawing. 
 
 In teaching drawing as a truthful representation of the visual ap- 
 pearance of form, there is not necessarily the strict sequence in the use 
 of geometric models which there would be in a course of form lessons. 
 For lessons in representation of the facts of forms as a basis for con- 
 struction in connection with working drawings, see Group IV. 
 
 Some prefer in the early stages to drill only on planes and lines, 
 postponing solids to a later period. In the French course in drawing, 
 
COURSE OF INSTRUCTION FOB BUBAL SCHOOLS 131 
 
 the solid does not appear before our Group III, and then at first the 
 drawinc? is a carefully graded course from low relief. 
 
 Those who prefer to work at first entirely from nature can select 
 in order such exercises as are in accordance with this theory, and mass 
 the technique in the later stages of the course. 
 
 Historic ornament is left to the discretion of the teacher, as in 
 most cases limitations of time would exclude it from the rural school. 
 Teachers should themselves gain such knowledge of historic ornament 
 and of the history of art as is possible. Excellent books treating of 
 these subjects can be easily obtained, and the knowledge thus gained 
 will enable them to add much of interest and value to their instruc- 
 tion. 
 
 For the complete treatment of this course it is desirable that the 
 teacher should have had some special preparation for teaching draw- 
 ing. In the rural school, selections will often have to be made accord- 
 ing to circumstances and the ability of the teacher. There should be 
 at least three lessons a week, of twenty minutes each, in Groups I and 
 II, and longer lessons in Groups III and IV. Exercises included in 
 parentheses are left to the discretion of the teacher. 
 
 In all parts of the coiirse in drawing, care should be taken to culti- 
 vate an appreciation of the simple elements of beauty, and to develop 
 a love for the beauties of nature and art ; and the school -room should 
 be furnished with some classic examples of art for study as well as for 
 ornament. In this regard, note the analogy between the study of art 
 and the study of literature,. 
 
•4 
 
 IDEAL EDOCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS. 
 
 Algebra, 
 
 By Fletcher Durell, A.M., Ph.D., and Edward R. Robbins, A.M., Mathematical 
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 By mail, $1.25. For introduction, $1.00. 
 
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 By Martin G. Benedict, A.M., Ph.D., Professor in Pedagogy in the Pennsylvania 
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 II. Advanced Ideal Music Book, containing a superb collection of songs. By 
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 Ideal Music Chart, 
 
 Especially adapted to the Ideal Music Course. Adopted for exclusive use in the 
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 History and Civics, 
 
 Outlines of General History, in the form of questions. By J. R. Flickinger, 
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 Rash Lights on American History, by D. C. Murphy, Ph.D., Superintendent 
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 The Pennsylvania Citizen, by L. S. Shimmell, Editor of The School Gazette. 
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 A History of Pennsylvania (in press). By L. S. Shimmell, author of The Penn- 
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 A Mental Arithmetic, by Edward Weidenhamer, Ph.B. The most sensible 
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