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m 
 
rs-^ rj ' 
 
 THE 
 
 ELEMENTS 
 
 OF 
 
 GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 BY 
 
 Rey. JOHN PKCARTER, A. M. 
 
 ^y OF co7 
 
 IQ, 
 
 ■t87]b 
 
 r<jv> 
 
 NEW YORK : 
 
 UNIVERSITY PUBLISHIlSra COMPANY, 
 
 4 Bond Stbeet. 
 
 baltimore: 54 lexington street. 
 
 1871. 
 
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Entered according: to Act of Cono;ress, in the year 1871, 
 
 Br JOHN P. CARTER, 
 
 In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 
 
 Stereotjijed by Little, Kennik & Co., Alvord, Printer. 
 
 New York. 
 
 K?'^' 
 
 C.2''^ 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The design of this Manual is to present in a systematic 
 condensed form, the elements of General History. To learn 
 and remember these, properly, during the usual school 
 period of education, is all that should be required of a 
 pupil. To attempt more, is to till the youthful mind with 
 a confused mass of events, persons, places, etc., which the 
 labor of all subsequent life often fails to reduce to order. 
 One of the difficulties which most pupils experience in study- 
 ing history, consists in not being able to remember The 
 Dates. To obviate this difficulty, the compiler has devised 
 the plan of associating the figures of chronology with theii 
 corresponding events, persons, and places. Thus, having 
 divided the history of the world, by The Nativity of our 
 Saviour, into two great periods — Ancient History and Mod- 
 ern History — a few of the more remarkable events in each 
 of the periods, are arranged in connection with the persons, 
 places, and dates with which they are historically associated. 
 Thus: 
 
 fl. The Creation Adam Eden.... b. c. 4004 
 
 ^. 2. " Deluge Noah Mt. Ararat " 2:548 
 
 ^ 3. " Call of Abram Uf of Ciialdees ... " 1921 
 
 g ^ 4. " Exodus of Is ...Moses Red Sea " 1491 
 
 5. Dedication of Temple Solomon Jerusalem " 1004 
 
 6. Conquest of Assyria . . Cyrus Babylon " 538 
 
 7. '• of Persia Alex, the Great ...Alexandria " 330 
 
 fl. Rise of Roman Empire... Augustus Rome " 30 
 
 j- I 2. " of Greek '" . ..Constantine Constantinople A. d. 330 
 
 55 I o. " of Saracen " ...Maliomet Mecca " 622 
 
 ^-14. "of German " ... Charlemagne Palatinate " 800 
 
 O I 5. Crusades .Peter the Hermit.. Holy Sepulchre " lO'm 
 
 ^ G. Discovery of America Columbus St. Salvador "' 149-2 
 
 l_t. Independence U. S Washington Philadelphia " 1776 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The careful study of this synopsis of universal history — 
 associating the events with persons, places, etc., with a 
 daily drill in its details for a month, would so iix the whole 
 system in the memory of any pupil of ordinary capacity, 
 that the mention of any one of the elements would in- 
 stantly suggest the others historically associated with it. 
 
 The best method of using this compendium will readily 
 suggest itself to the competent teacher. It may be well, 
 however, 1 — To commit the whole thoroughly to memory 
 in regular daily tasks. 2 — Let the whole be studied 
 according to the order of the Index. 3 — ^Review, by 
 miscellaneous questions on the various matters presented. 
 In every instance, require with each JEveoit, the Person^ 
 the Place^ and the Time. When the more important 
 facts of history have thus been learned, the teacher may 
 with great advantage select some Invent or Person^ etc., 
 and in a familiar way, amplify the narrative^ requiring the 
 class to make full notes of his lectures. 
 
 It is confidently believed, that the method here pre- 
 sented will tend more effectually than any other to awaken 
 in the youthful mind a spirit of historical research, which 
 will secure in after life a satisfactory and respectable ac- 
 quaintance with this interesting and important branch of 
 learning. 
 
 J. P. C. 
 
 Baltimoke, July, 1870. 
 
GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 INTRODUCTION". 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 HISTORY ITS USES AND DIVISIONS. 
 
 1, History, 
 
 History is the Record of the past. 
 
 2, The chief elements of History are :— 
 
 1. The events, or transactions. 2. The actors in the 
 ^reat drama, such as persons, armies, nations, or providen- 
 tial interpositions. 3. The chronology, or the dates which 
 mark the several events. 4. The geography, or the de- 
 scription of the places where those events transpired. 
 5, The causes of the events. 6. Their results. 
 
 3, In studying History, these questions should he con- 
 
 stantly attended to ;— 
 1. What was done? 2. Who did it? 3. When? 
 
 4, Where ? 5. Its causes ? 6. Its results ? 
 4:, Some of the uses of History, 
 
 1. It serves to stratify that natural and laudable curi- 
 osity to know all that has gone before us, which distin- 
 guishes the inquiring mind. 2. It expands and strength- 
 ens the intellect by displaying the vast affairs of nations 
 and empires. 3. History serves to correct local and na- 
 tional prejudices. 4. It tends to elevate the character 
 by setting forth examples of commendable heroism and 
 
6 II^TRODUCTION". 
 
 true greatness. 5. The lessons of history show both the ^ 
 folly and shame of sin, and the advantages of virtuous con- 
 duct. 6. History illustrates in the clearest manner the 
 ignorance, weakness, and dependence of man, and reveals 
 the infinite wisdom, power, and glory of the great and good [ 
 Being who rules over all. ; 
 
 5, The History of the World— 
 
 extends from the Creation to the present time: a period of ; 
 nearly 6,000 years. 
 
 6*. This great extent of General History— 
 
 is conveniently divided into two periods: one extending 
 from the Creation to the Advent of Christ, comprising 
 forty centuries ; and the other, from the Advent of 
 Christ to the present time, comprising nearly nineteen cen- 
 turies. 
 
 7. These two jyeriods of General History— 
 
 are respectively named and designated. thus: 
 
 The period before the Advent of Christ is named Ancient 
 History, and is designated b. c. (Before Christ); and the 
 period after the Advent of Christ is named Modern History, 
 and is designated a. d. (Anno Domini). 
 
 8. TJiese tivo principal periods of General History— 
 
 may be properly subdivided into less periods, by the more 
 important events occurring in each of the great periods. 
 
 9. The more important events in the great periodhefore 
 
 Christ : — 
 
 EVENTS. PERSONS. PLACES. DATES. 
 
 1. The Creation ...Adam Eden b. c. 4004 
 
 2. '^ Deluge Noah Mount Ararat " 234S 
 
 3. " Call of Abram Ur of Chaldees. ... " 1921 
 
 4. " Exodusofis Moses Red Sea " 1491 
 
 5. Dedication of Temple.... Solomon Jerusalem... " 1004 
 
 6. Conquest of Assyria. ... .Cyrus Babylon "■ 5.33 
 
 7. '* of Persia Alexander the Great ... .Alexandria " 330 
 
INTRODUCTION". 7 
 
 10, The events, etc, that serve to subdivide the great 
 period after Christ : — 
 
 1. Rise of Koman Empire... Augustus ..Rome b. c. 3f. 
 
 2. " of Greek " . ..Coii8<tantine Coiiptantinople A. d. 3:i(» 
 
 6-2 J 
 80i> 
 
 1096 
 1I9J 
 1776 
 
 3. " of Saracen " ...Mahomet Mecca 
 
 4. " of German " ...Charlemagne Palatinate , 
 
 5. Crusade? Peter the Hermit Holy Sepulchre — 
 
 6. Discovery of America Columbus St. Salvador 
 
 7. Independence U. S Washington Philadelphia 
 
 11, The division of General History into periods. 
 
 Some authors divide General History into three periods, 
 viz., first, Ancient History, from the earliest times to the 
 fall of the Western Empire of the Romans, or to about 
 A. D. 500 ; second. Middle History, from a. d. 500 to the 
 discovery of America, or to about a. d. 1500 ; third, Mod- 
 ern History, from a. d. 1500 to the present time. 
 
 12, The division of General History into two great 
 
 periods by the Advent of Christ, preferable to 
 any other : — 
 
 Because it is more simple, and therefore more easily un- 
 derstood and remembered ; and because the Advent of 
 Christ is the most important event in the history of the 
 world. 
 
 13, History^ with respect to the sources from tvhich it 
 
 is derived, — 
 
 is divided into Sacred History and Profane History. The 
 former being that which is recorded in the Inspired Scrip- 
 tures of the Old and New Testaments ; and the latter, that 
 which is compiled from authentic human documents, mon- 
 uments, inscriptions, coins, etc. 
 
 14:, Of these the more ancient is — 
 
 Sacred History : Moses, the Hebrew Lawgiver, who wrote 
 the Inspired History of the world from the Creation to 
 near the close of his own life, flourished about 1500 b. c, 
 while Herodotus, styled the Father of Profane History, 
 
^ IKTRODUCTIOiq'. 
 
 was contemporary with Malachi, the last of the Hebrew^ 
 Prophets, b. c. 415. 
 
 15, JProfane History begins— 
 
 about 750 B. c, or at the foundation of Rome The ac 
 counts by profane authors of the times pi-ior to that event 
 are considered fabulous. They are probably, for the most 
 part, perverted traditions of real transactions, altered and 
 embellished by the ancient poets. 
 
 16. History with respect to the subjects of which it 
 
 treats is divided— 
 
 into six kinds or classes : viz., 
 
 1. General History, which narrates the general course 
 of events m the history of the world, from the earliest times 
 to the present day. 
 
 2. Ethnological, or the history of particular Tribes Na- 
 tions, Empires, etc. ' 
 
 3. Geographical, or the history of particular Regions, 
 Countries, Cities, etc. 
 
 4. Ecclesiastical, or the history of the Church 
 
 5. Biographical, or the history of individual persons 
 usually named Biography. 
 
 6. The history of Philosophy, Literature, Civilization, 
 Laws, Commerce, Arts, Science, etc. 
 
 17, Tliese different kinds of History— 
 
 are rarely treated separately; for any complete history of 
 a nation, country, or person, must necessarily comprehend 
 portions of all other kinds of history. 
 
 18. History differs from Tradition. 
 
 A Tradition is a verbal account of transactions, handed 
 down frona father to son, through successive generations; 
 whereas History, properly so called, is an authentic written 
 narrative of real events. The former, from the natural 
 imperfection of the human mind, is constantly liable to be 
 
introductio:n'. 
 
 perverted into Fable; while history, as a written record, 
 remains the same from asje to asje. 
 
 19, Tlie relation of History to the Holy Scriptures, 
 
 In recording events which were foretold by the Prophets 
 long before they took place, history proves, in the clearest 
 manner, that the Prophets must have been inspired by the 
 Spirit of that divine Being whose holy providence orders 
 all things from the beginning. 
 
 20, Events in History illustrating the fuZjfilnient of 
 
 Prophecy, 
 
 1 . The successive rise, progress, and fall of the Assyrian 
 Empire, the Medo-Persian, the Macedonian, and the Roman, 
 were predicted by the Prophet Daniel 600 years before 
 those events were fully developed. These empires are 
 represented in the second chapter of Daniel by the differ- 
 ent parts of an image which appeared in a vision to king 
 Nebuchadnezzar ; and in the seventh chapter, by four beasts 
 coming up from the sea, presented in vision to the prophet. 
 
 2. The seventy years' captivity of the Jews in Babylon, 
 which occurred b. c. 606 — 536, was foretold by Jeremiah 
 (xxv. 11, 12), almost immediately before its commence- 
 ment; and by Isaiah (xxxix.), one hundred years earlier, 
 i. e., about b. c. 712. 
 
 3. The restoration of the Jews to their own country by 
 the decree of Cyrus, b. c. 536, had been predicted by Isaiah 
 (xliv. 28) calling Cyrus by name (xlv. 1-4, 13) more than 
 one hundred and fifty years before that conqueror was 
 born, 
 
 4. The Advent of our Blessed Saviour, and our duty 
 to obey Him, were foretold by Moses, b. c. 1151, in this 
 remarkable language : " The Lord thy God will raises up 
 unto thee a Prophet from the midst of thee, of thy breth- 
 ren, like unto me; unto Him ye shall hearken; * * * 
 And it shall come to pass, that whosoever will not hearken 
 
 1* 
 
10 INTRODUCTIOX. 
 
 unto my words which He shall speak in my name, I will 
 require it of him." (Deut. xviii. 15-19.) And the same 
 great event was predicted by other prophets in all its 
 minute particulars of time, place, etc., especially by Isaiali, 
 ix. 6, 7 ; Daniel, ix. 20-27 ; Micah, v. 2 ; Malachi, iii. 1. 
 
 5. And the death of Christ on the Cross, His resurrec- 
 tion, and ascension into heaven; together with the miracu- 
 lous success of the Gospel, notwithstanding the fierce and 
 determined opposition of its embittered foes, were all pre- 
 dicted in the clearest manner, long before those wonderful 
 events transpired. (Isaiah, liii. 4, 9; Zechariah, xii. 10; 
 Psalm xvi. 9, 10, Ixviii. 18; John, iii. 14, 15; Matthew, 
 XX. 19, xxvii. 62, 63, xxviii. 9 ; Joel, ii. 28, 29 ; Acts, ii. 1-21.) 
 All evidently proving that the God of Providence is the 
 author of the prophecies. 
 
 sectio:n^ n. 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF THE EARTH, NATIONS, ETC. 
 
 1, The parts of the Earth first settled after the Flood, 
 
 From the foot of Mount Ararat, upon the summit of 
 which the Ark rested, the family of ISToah and those of his 
 sons spread themselves in the beautiful and fertile plains of 
 Armenia, which extended to the south and southeast. 
 Thence, after the dispersion from Babel, some passed west- 
 ward, settling the shores of the Mediterranean sea ; while 
 others, emigrating to the east, peopled China, India, and 
 other resrions of Asia; 
 
 2, Particular designation of some of those regions in 
 
 later times, 
 
 1. The regions south and southeast of Mount Ararat 
 were occupied by the kingdoms of Mesopotamia, Assyria, 
 
INTRODUCTION^, 11 
 
 Chaldea, Media, and Persia. These, with extensive regions 
 east and west, were afterward embraced in the great em- 
 pires of Assyria, Persia, Macedonia, Rome, etc. 
 
 2. Syria, with Canaan, Phoenicia, Philistia (the land 
 promised to the Israelites), occupied the region lying on 
 the eastern coast of the Mediterranean sea. 
 
 3. Egypt occupied its present location on the Mediter- 
 ranean sea, in the northeastern part of Africa. It is cele- 
 brated as the birthplace of the arts and sciences, and as 
 the house of bondage of the Hebrews for four hundred 
 years. (Genesis, xv. 13, 14.) 
 
 4. Asia Minor, or the Lesser Asia, including the king- 
 doms of Troy and Lydia, was situated in the southwest 
 part of Asia, between the Black and Mediterranean seas. 
 It is now, with Syria, included in the Turkish empire. 
 
 5. Greece, in the southeastern part of Europe, is 
 separated from Asia Minor by the JEgean sea (Archipelago). 
 Here flourished the famous republics of Athens, Sparta, 
 and Thebes, that so successfully resisted the invasions of 
 the powerful Persian monarchs, Darius and his son Xerxes, 
 B. c. 490, 480. 
 
 6. Macedonia, a small kingdom north of Greece, was 
 the original dominion of Philip and of his son Alexander 
 the Great, by whose victorious arms the Medo-Persian 
 empire was overthrown and the Macedonian established in 
 its stead, b. c. 330. 
 
 7. Italy, a peninsula in the southern part of Europe," 
 lying west of Macedonia and Greece, from which it is 
 separated by the Adriatic and Ionian seas. Italy was the 
 original seat of the Romans, the mighty conquerors whose 
 victorious arms had, by the beginning of the Christian era, 
 subdued nearly the whole known world. 
 
 3. Iinpoi^fant Natiotis and Einjnres of Ancient His- 
 tory : — 
 
 1. The Chaldean or Assyrian Empire, which em- 
 
12 
 
 II^TRODUCTIO?^. 
 
 braced Babylon, Nineveh, and the surrounding regions, 
 dated from the union of those cities, soon after their "foun- 
 dation, about B. c. 2217, and continued through various 
 revolutions till the death of Belshazzar, b. c. 538 = 1619 
 
 years. 
 
 2. The Mo]VARCHY OF Egypt, founded bv Misraim, the 
 son of Ham, b. c. 2188, subsisted through various revolu- 
 tions, until subjugated by the Romans, b.c. 31 =2157. 
 
 3. The Hebrew Theocracy, commencino- with the 
 Call of Abraham to go from Ur of the Chaldees into 
 Canaan, b. c. 1921, terminated at the capture of Jerusalem 
 by the Romans under Titus, a. d. 70 = 1991 years. 
 
 4. The Republics of Greece, from the foundation of 
 Athens by Cecrops, with a colony from Egypt, b. c. 1556, to 
 the conquest of Greece by Philip, the father of Alexander 
 the Great, in the battle of Cheronea, b. c. 338=1218 years. 
 
 5. The Republic of Carthage, from its foundation by 
 Dido, B. c. 869, to the end of the third Punic War, b. c. 146 
 = 723 years. 
 
 6. The Kingdom and Commonwealth of Rome, con- 
 tinued 722 years from its foundation by Romulus, b. c. 753, 
 to the battle of Actium, b. c. 31, in which Octavius, havinc^ 
 defeated his rival Mark Antony, became sole master of 
 the Roman Empire under the title of Augustas, b. c. 30. 
 
 7. The Empire op the Medes and Persians from 
 the conquest of Babylon by Darius and his nephew Cyrus 
 B. c. 538, to the battle of Arbela, b. c. 330, when Persia was 
 conquered by Alexander the Great = 208 years. 
 
 8. The Macedonian Empire, from the conquest of Per- 
 sia by Alexander the Great, b. c. 330, to the year b. c 301- 
 when from this vast empire, which, besides Macedonia 
 Proper, comprehended Greece, Syria, Judea, Egypt, Asia 
 Minor, and Persia, there arose four distinct Monarchies: 
 1 hrace and Bythinia, under Lysimachus ; Syria, Judea, and 
 the East, under Seleucus; Egypt under Ptolemy ; and Mace- 
 
IKTRODUCTIOI^'. 13 
 
 donia, Greece, etc., under Cassander. These Monarchies all 
 finally fell under the dominion of the Komans, b. c. 212 — 
 30. 
 
 4. Cities of Assyria^ the most noted in Ancient History, 
 
 1. Babylon, built by Nimrod, son of Gush, on the river 
 Euphrates, around the Tower of Babel, b. c. 2217. The 
 walls of this city were 350 feet high, 87 feet thick, and 60 
 miles in circumference, in the form of a square. These 
 walls were surmounted by 250 towers, and the city was 
 entered by 100 gates, 25 on each side, all of solid brass. 
 The river Euphrates flowed through the city, and it was 
 spanned by a bridge half a mile long. At each end of this 
 bridge was a magnificent palace communicating with each 
 other by a^ tunnel or passage constructed under the river. 
 The chief ornaments of the city were the Tower of Babel ; 
 the Temple of Belus or Baal, containing an image of Baal 
 40 feet high ; and the Hanging Gardens. These beautiful 
 gardens occupied a square 1600 feet in circuit, and were 
 built on arches and columns rising in terraces as high as tlie 
 walls of the city. In these gardens were planted beautiful 
 flowers and trees which grew to a great height. 
 
 2. Nineveh, built b. c. 2217, by Ashur, son of Shem, 
 some distance north of Babylon, on th^ river Tigris, oppo- 
 site to the present location of Mosul. Its walls were 100 
 feet high and 60 miles in circuit, being 18 miles long and 
 12 wide, and so broad at the top that three chariots could 
 be driven abreast on them. The city was defended by 
 1500 towers, each 200 feet high. In the days of the Pro- 
 phet Jonah (b. c. 862), Nineveh probably contained six or 
 seven hundred thousand inhabitants. From the time of 
 Nimrod and Ashur, we have little authentic history of 
 either Babylon or Nineveh, for more than 1300 years. It 
 is highly probable they were at an early period united, 
 forming the first Assyrian Empire, which continued until 
 
•'^^ INTEODUOTION. 
 
 E. c. 747. At that time Sardanapalus, having been besie-red 
 for three years, barued himself, his family, and his treas- 
 ures u, his palace in Nineveh. The Empire was then 
 divided by the conquerors into three kingdoms : Media 
 under Arbaces, Babylon under Belesis or Nabonassor, and 
 Mneveh under Tiglath-Pileser. In b. c. 681, Esarhaddon, 
 king of Nineveh, united Babylon to his dominions, formin<^ 
 the _ second Assyrian Empire. Nabopolasar, a usurped, 
 having made Babylon his capital instead of Nineveh, about 
 B. c. 626 his son Nebuchadnezzar, at the head of the united 
 fo,-ces of the Medes, Lydians, and Babylonians, destroyed 
 the city of Nineveh, b. c. 600. Babylon from that time 
 continued to be the unrivalled capital of the Assyrian Em- 
 pire till the capture of that city by Darins and Cyrus at 
 the head of the united forces of the Medes and Persians 
 B.C. 538; when Belshazzar, the last king of the second 
 Assyrian Empire, was slain, and his empire superseded by 
 that of the Medes and Persians. (Daniel, v.) Immense 
 masses of brick, cemented with bitumen, fonnin<r a huo-e 
 mound of ruins, called by the Arabs -^ Birs Nimrol- are 111 
 that now remain of this once magnificent city and, tower. 
 (Isaiah, xui.) 
 
 5. TAe most noted Ancient CUles of Syria and the 
 -tLoiy Land: — 
 
 1. Damascus, the ancient capital of Syria, is situated 
 on the Abana and Pharpar rivers, about 150 miles north- 
 east of Jerusalem. It was an important city in the days 
 of Abraham b. c. 1900 (Genesis, xv. 2). and it is still a place 
 of considerable trade. It is celebrated as being connected 
 with the conversion of the Apostle Paul. (Acts ix ) It 
 was once famous for the manufacture of fine steel weapons 
 and of a rich and costly material called Damask; and it 
 gives name to the species of pl„m called Dammn- 
 Damascus ,s now the rallying point for the caravans of 
 lurkish pilgrims that go annually to Mecca. 
 
. IXTRODUCTION. 15 
 
 2. Jerusalem, signifying Dwelling of Peace, called also 
 The Holy City, is situated in the southwest part of Pales- 
 tine, about 40 miles from the Mediterranean Sea, on the 
 Brook Kedron, and within the lot of the Tribe of Benjamin. 
 The present site of the city occupies four mountains : Acra 
 in the northwest, Bezetha in the northeast, Mount Zion on 
 the south, and in the east. Mount Moriah, supposed to be 
 the mount on which Abraham prepared to offer up liis son 
 Isaac. Formerly the city included another elevation. Mount 
 Ophel, in the southeast. This city, the most celebrated in 
 the history of the world, was once the proud capital of the 
 Hebrew monarchy, adorned with the Holy Temple and other 
 gorgeous palaces. Its streets were traversed by God's 
 prophets and apostles, and its hills echoed with the voice 
 of the Son of God. Here He healed the sick, comforted the 
 mourning, and wrought other mighty miracles; here He 
 pronounced the doom of the guilty city, and wept at her 
 coming desolation ; here He was condemned and crucified 
 by wicked men; and here, after His triumphant and glorious 
 resurrection, He poured out His Holy Spirit on His redeemed 
 church, according to His promise, and in testimony of His 
 divine exaltation. 
 
 Jerusalem was probably built after the time of Abraham 
 (Genesis, xxii. 2, etc.), by the Jebusites, the earliest inhab- 
 itants mentioned (Joshua, x. 1) ; and they occupied it with 
 the Hebrews, for some time after the conquest of Canaan 
 (Joshua, XV. 63). Mount Zion was conquered by king 
 David from the Jebusites, and he consecrated it by carrying 
 up thither the Ark of the Covenant (2 Samuel, v. 6-9, 
 vi. 1, etc.). He also selected Mount Moriah as the site of 
 the Temple, which edifice was afterward built by his son, 
 king Solomon, b. c. 1004. 
 
 In the year b. c. 600, Jerusalem was taken by the Assyr- 
 ians under Nebuchadnezzar ; and in b. c. 536, Cyrus, who 
 had just ascended the throne of the Persian empire, tor- 
 
16 II^TEODUCTIOK. 
 
 minated the seventy years' captivity of the Jews, and per- 
 mitted them to return to their country, and rebuild Jeru- 
 salem and the Temple. In the year b. c. 515 the secondf 
 Temple was dedicated, and many years afterward it was! 
 repaired, enlarged, and beautified by king Herod. * 
 
 In the year 70, a. d., Jerusalem was totally destroyed by 
 the Romans, under Titus, after a terrible siege of six 
 months (Matthew, xxiv.). 
 
 3. Bethlehem-Judah,— 5726 House of Bread, situated 
 six miles south of Jerusalem, in the Tribe of Judah. Its 
 ancient name was Ephratah {Abundance infruitfiilness). 
 It is celebrated as the birthplace of king David, and of 
 our Saviour ; also for the slaughter of the infants by order 
 of king Herod, in the vain and impious attempt to destroy 
 the infant Jesus, the new-born king of Israel. The modern 
 name of this place is Beit-Lahhm, and the inhabitants num- 
 ber about 1200. It is visited by all pilgrims to the Holy 
 Land, on account of the Church of the Nativity, built over 
 the spot whQva our Redeemer was born. 
 
 4. Samaria, situated about a day's journey north of 
 Jerusalem, was the capital of the kingdom of Israel, com- 
 posed of the Ten Tribes which revolted from the house of 
 David, B. c. 975. Samaria was built by Omri, king of Israel, 
 B. c. 926, on a hill which he had bought from Shemer for 
 two talents of silver— about |3,000. On the conquest of 
 Israel by Shalmanezar, king of Nineveh, b. c. 721, Samaria 
 was destroyed, and the people carried into that captivity 
 from which they have never returned. After this, Samaria 
 was rebuilt to some extent, and Herod the Great restored it 
 to its ancient lustre, and changed its name to Sebaste, or 
 Augusta, in honor of the En:iperor Augustus. 
 
 In the time of our Saviour, the name Samaria was not 
 confined to this city, but it extended to one of the four 
 districts into which the Holy Land was then divided : of 
 which Galilee lay on the north of Samaria, Judea on the 
 
INTEODUCTION". 17 
 
 south, and Persea on the east. The people called Samari- 
 tans were not genuine Israelites, but were descended from 
 the heathen colonists placed in Samaria by Esarhaddon, 
 king of Nineveh, b. c. 700, to occupy the country after the 
 deportation of the Israelites. Between the Samaritans and 
 the Jews there ever existed the most bitter hostility (2 
 Kings, xvii. 24 ; John, iv.). 
 
 5. SiDOJsr, situated on the Mediterranean Sea, was built 
 by Sidon, the great grandson of Noah, and was therefore 
 one of the most ancient cities of the world. By reason of 
 its trade and commerce it soon became wealthy and pow- 
 erful, and in the time of Joshua (b. c. 1450) it is mentioned 
 as " very great." 
 
 At an early period the Sidonians had acquired great skill 
 in shipbuilding, in the working of metals and glass, in the 
 manufacture of purple and fine linen, and in architecture. 
 So great was their refinement and wealth, that a life of 
 ease, security, and voluptuousness was indicated by ''^living 
 after the manner of the Sidonians''' (Judges, xviii. 7). The 
 grandeur of this ancient city has long since depai'ted, there 
 remaining only in its stead a small fishing town called 
 Saide. 
 
 6. Tyre, situated on the Mediterranean, about 20 miles 
 south of Sidon, was built by a colony from that city (b. c. 
 1252), and in a short time it rivalled the splendor of the 
 parent State. Her "merchants are styled princes, and her 
 traffickers the honorable of the earth" (Isaiah, xxiii.). The 
 celebrated Tyrian purple dye was discovered here accident- 
 ally ; the lips of a dog having been dyed purple by eating 
 a fish called the conch ills. Little is known of either Tyre 
 or Sidon before the time of David and Solomon (b. c. 1000). 
 Hiram IL, celebrated for his magnificence and generosity, 
 lived on terms of friendship with both David and Solomon 
 for many years. On the accession of David to the throne 
 of Israel, he sent ambassadors and artificers to build his 
 
18 INTRODUCTION". 
 
 palace (1 Chronicles, xiv. 1), and subsequently he supplied 
 Solomon with timber, stones, and laborers for building the | 
 Temple (1 Kings, 5). The cruelty of Pygmalion, kintjj 
 of Tyre, to his sister Dido (b. c. 889) is familiar to all 
 readers of the "JEneid" and " Telemachus." Tyre was cap- 
 tured by Nebuchadnezzar, after a siege of 13 years (u. c. 
 573). After lying desolate 70 years (Isaiah, xxiii. 17), it be- 
 came famous again for its commerce, under the protection 
 of the kings of Persia, In the year b. c. 332 Tyre was 
 taken by Alexander the Great, after an eight months' siege; 
 and on the partition of the Macedonian empire, T^^-e and 
 Sidon, with the adjacent regions, were embraced in the 
 kingdom of Syria, under the Selucidse. These cities next 
 fell under the dominion of the 'Romans (b. c. 65), then of 
 the Saracens (a. d. 639), and finally of the Turks (a, d. 
 1516). The present inhabitants of Tyre are fishermen, few 
 in number, and very poor (Ezekiel, xxvi. 14 ; Matthew, 
 xi. 20-24, XV. 21-28). 
 
 0» The celebrated Ancient Cities of Africa, 
 
 1. Thebes, the ancient capital of Upper Egypt, on 
 the river Nile, was one of the noblest of cities. It was 
 founded by Busiris, about b. c. 2126. It was called JSeea- 
 tompylos^ from its hundred gates. It was sufficiently 
 populous to send forth from each of these gates, in time of 
 war, 200 chariots and 10,000 men. The ruins of this once 
 magnificent city are among the most astonishing that have 
 ever been discovered. They occupy a space of 27 miles in 
 circumference. Among the wonders of Thebes was the 
 famous statue of Memnon, which, it is related, when the 
 beams of the rising sun first shone on it every morning, 
 uttered a melodious sound. Thebes was destroyed by the 
 Persians under Cambyses, b. c. ^1^. 
 
 2. Memphis, or Noph, the capital of Middle Egypt, stood 
 on the bank of the river Nile, near the site of the present 
 
INTRODUCTION. 19 
 
 city of Cairo. It was plundered by Cambyses on bis return 
 from tbe destruction of Thebes. In the vicinity of Mem- 
 phis stood the Sphinx and the Pyramids. The Sphinx is a 
 huge image, having the body of a lion with the head of a 
 woman. It is 125 feet long and 60 feet high. All except 
 the head and neck is now buried in the sand. The Pyra- 
 mids are immense stone structures, having a square base, 
 and terminating at the top in a point or small horizontal 
 area. There are three Pyramids more noted than the rest. 
 The greatest of these is 660 feet on one side of the square 
 base. The perpendicular height is 468 feet, or, as stated by 
 some, 500 feet. It terminates at the summit in an area 16 
 or 18 feet square. One of these three Pyramids, called 
 the Second Pyramid, was built by Shishak, b. c. 911 ; the 
 first was built one hundred years earlier; and the third, by 
 his successor. These vast edifices were probably intended 
 for royal sepulchres. 
 
 3. Alexandria, in Low^er Egypt, on the Mediterranean 
 Sea, was built by Alexander the Great, b. c. 33.2. It very 
 soon became an important place, and so continued for many 
 ages. It was the capital of the empire of the Ptolemies, 
 who collected there the celebrated library of 700,000 
 volumes, which were afterward destroyed by the Saracen, 
 Caliph Omar, on the conquest of Egypt, a. d. 640. These 
 precious volumes were used for six months in heating the 
 public baths of the city. 
 
 4. Carthage, in the northern part of Africa, on the 
 Mediterranean Sea, and southwest from the island of Sicily. 
 It was founded by Queen Dido, b. c. 869, after her flight 
 from the persecution of her brother Pygmalion, king of 
 Tyre. Having bought of the inhabitants of the country as 
 much land as could be enclosed by the hide of an ox cut 
 into thongs. Dido built upon it a citadel, which she named 
 Hyrsa (a hide). As the city advanced in importance, 
 its limits were extended until they enclosed an area 23 
 
20 ti^teoductio:n'. i{ 
 
 miles in circumference. During the first Punic War the 
 population was 700,000 ; but on the capture of the city by 
 Scipio Africanus the Younger (b. c. 116), only 5,000 persons 
 were found within the walls. When the city was set on i^ 
 fire by the Romans, it burned incessantly for seventeen ' 
 days. Under the Roman Empire, Carthage havinf^ been 
 rebuilt, became the seat of an important Christian church, 
 of which Cyprian, one of its most eminent bishops, suffered 
 martyrdom, a. d. 258. 
 
 The ancient Carthaginians were remarkable for their 
 martial spirit, and the succef?s of their commercial enter- 
 prises. Like all tribes of Canaanite origin, they were very 
 superstitious, cruel, and base. Their religion, which con- 
 sisted in the worship of Baal, Ashtoroth, Dagon, and other 
 Phoenician divinities, required the frequent offering of human 
 victims. And their reputation as a faithless people, gave 
 rise to the proverb, ''Ptmica fides:' Their contests with 
 Rome for the sovereignty of Spain and Sicily gave rise to 
 those sanguinary contests, the Panic Wars. 
 
 Among their eminent men were Hamilcar^ who aided 
 Xerxes in the invasion of Greece, b.c. 481; Bomilcar, who 
 attempted to revolutionize his country, 307; ITamilcar, a 
 noted general in the first Punic War, 264; Hannibal, v'ig- 
 torious over the Romans in Italy for sixteen years, during 
 the second Punic War, 218, — but who was drawn back to 
 Africa, and finally defeated by Scipio Africanus the Elder, 
 in the battle of Zama, 202 ; and Asdrtibal^ who unsuccess- 
 fully defended Carthage in the third Punic War against the 
 victorious arms of Scipio Africanus the Younger, b. c. 146. 
 
 7. Renowned Cities of Asia Minor, 
 
 1. Teoy, on the ^gean Sea, at the foot of Mount Ida and 
 opposite to the island of Tenedos, was founded byScamander, 
 with a colony from Crete, b. c. 1546. Paris, son of Priam, 
 king of Troy, visited Greece, and eloped with Helen, the 
 
INTRODUCTION^". 21 
 
 wife of Menelaus, king of Sparta. To avenge this insult 
 arid injury, the Greeks, numbering 100,000 men and 1200 
 ships, besieged the city of Troy for ten years, and finally 
 captured it by the stratagem of the Wooden, ITorse, b. o. 
 1184. 
 
 2. Saudis, the ancient capital of the kingdom of Lydia, 
 whose king, Crcesus, was the richest monar(;h of ancient 
 times. In the great battles at this place and at Thymbra, 
 B. c. 548, Lydia was conquered, and Croesus became the 
 prisoner of Cyrus, afterward king of the Medo-Persian em- 
 pire. The burning of Sardis by the Athenians and lonisms, 
 B. c. 504, in retaliation for the protection aiforded to Hip- 
 pias, the banished tyrant of Athens, by Darius Hystaspes, 
 king of Persia, gave rise to the invasion of Greece by the 
 Persians, b. c. 490. The modern name of Sardis, is Sart. 
 
 3. HALiCAEisrASSus, in Caria, southwest part of Asia-Minor, 
 on the ^gean Sea. celebrated as the birthplace of Herod- 
 otus, the father of Profane History, and for the magnificent 
 sepulchre built by queen Artemesia, b. c. 353, for her hus- 
 band, king Mausolus, from whom this splendid tomb was 
 called the Mausoleum^ a name since given to any costly 
 sepulchre. 
 
 4. Tarsus (in Hebrew, Tarshish, from one of the sons of 
 Javan), was the metropolis of Cilicia, in the southeast part 
 of Asia Minor, and situated near the mouth of the river 
 Cydnus. This city is celebrated as the birthplace of the 
 Apostle Paul, and as a seat of polite learning and philosophy, 
 rivalling in fame the schools of Alexandria and Athens. 
 Tarsus is remarkable also as the place where Cleopatra first 
 met the Triumvir, Mark Antony. Approaching the city by 
 water, her voyage up the river Cydnus was attended with 
 every circumstance of sumptuous pageantry. Pier galley 
 was covered with gold, and bore sails of purple. The oars 
 w^ere silver, and kept time to the music of flutes and cym- 
 bals. The queen, arrayed as the goddess Venus, reclined 
 
22 IITTRODUCTION'. 
 
 on a couch spangled with stars of gold ; while surrounding 
 her were boys dressed as cupids, and beautiful nymphs 
 personating Nereids and Graces. Upon the banks of the 
 river were kept burning the most exquisite perfumes, while 
 multitudes of people gazed upon the exhibition with admi- 
 ration and delight. The guilty intercourse, however, which 
 began so joyously, formed in its speedy and fatal result an 
 impressive illustration of the law : " the wages of sin is 
 deathP 
 
 S, The Ancient Capital of Persia — 
 
 was Persepolis, in the central part of the kingdom, 
 about thirty miles southwest of the present city of 
 Shiraz. The date of the founding of this city is un- 
 known; but it appears to have been enlarged by Cyrus 
 the Great, after his accession to the throne, b. c. 536 ; 
 and adorned by his son Cambyses with the spoils ob- 
 tained in his Egyptian conquests, b. c. 525 ; and who also, 
 it is thought, employed his Egyptian captives in erecting 
 palaces, fortifications, sepulchres, etc, until Perse})olis be- 
 came the most splendid city of the East. The Royal 
 Palace of Forty Pillars^ consisting of a number of edifices, 
 and, forming both a royal residence and a citadel of defence^ 
 was a structure of surpassing magnificence. It was situ- 
 ated on an artificial plane cut on the summit of a mountain, 
 which, on three sides, was very steep, and considerably ele- 
 vated above the plain beneath. The only way of access to 
 this artificial plateau was by a double flight of marble steps 
 so broad and shallow that they could easily be ascended 
 and descended on horseback. The chief edifice was the 
 Palace of Forty Pillars^ the remains of which are truly 
 astonishing. The columns are sixty feet high, with capi- 
 tals and bases of perfect symmetry and beauty, and evi- 
 dently designed to support a roof of massy timber. This 
 palace contained the great banqueting-hall of the kings ; 
 
 I 
 
INTRODLXTIOX. 33 
 
 the audience-chamber, where they received the profound 
 homage of their subjects, or dispensed their beneficent 
 orders ; and the domestic apartments of the royal family. 
 On all the remaining walls, portals, and stairways are nu- 
 merous sculptures in basso-relievo^ recording events in the 
 history of Persia, or illustrating their manners and customs. 
 After Alexander the Great had defeated Darius Codoma- 
 nus in the battle of Arbela, b. c. 330, he celebrated his 
 triumph in the banqueting-hall of this gorgeous palace ; 
 and, at the close of his mad festivity, in the spirit of wanton 
 destruction, set fire to the noble edifice. The city of Per- 
 sepoliswas finally destroyed in the seventh century by the 
 Saracens, in their fanatical persecution of the fire-worship- 
 pers of Persia. 
 
 9, Noted Cities of Ancient Europe, 
 
 1. Athens, in Attica, southeast part of Greece, on the 
 Saronic Gulf. This city, so long the metropolis of Ancient 
 Greece, and still the capital of the modern kingdom, was 
 founded by Cecrops, with a colony from Egypt, b. c. 1556. 
 It was at first called Cecropia, from its founder, but after- 
 ward the name was changed to Athena, or Athense, in 
 honor of the goddess Minerva. The most noted places in 
 A)::hens were — 1. The Acropolis^ or citadel, built on an im- 
 mense rock, which is accessible only on one side. On the 
 summit of the same rock stood, 2. The Parthenon, or 
 Temple of Minerva, which, after being destroyed when the 
 Persians burned Athens, b. c. 480, was rebuilt of the finest 
 marble by Pericles. This chaste and beautiful edifice, 
 although in ruins, still stands a monument to the taste and 
 patriotism of that statesman. 3. The Court of the Areopa- 
 gus, a celebrated judicial tribunal, held on Mars' Hill, a 
 small eminence northwest of the Acropolis (Acts, xvii. 
 16-34). 4. The Forum, or Agora, used for public assemblies 
 and as a market-place. To this place people resorted daily, 
 
24 I2^TR0DUCTI0X. 
 
 to the number of seventy thousand (Acts, xvii. 17). 5. 
 The Stoa Pcecile^ or Portico of Paintings, where the phi- 
 losopher Zeno first opened his school, and from which he is 
 named the Stoic Philosopher. 6. The Academy^ beyond 
 the walls of the city, and lying northwest of it, was a large 
 enclosure adorned with groves, fountains, walks, statues, 
 and altars. Here Plato possessed a small house, and here 
 he established his celebrated school of philosophy, giving 
 to this spot all its historic interest, and to the name its 
 present classical signification. V. The Lyceum^ a sacred 
 grove dedicated to Apollo, also without the city walls on 
 the east. Like the Academy, it was decorated with foun- 
 tains, walks, etc., and it was the resort both of those who 
 devoted themselves to military exercises and of philoso- 
 phers and students generally. It was the favorite prome- 
 nade of Aristotle, who, as he instructed his disciples, walked 
 through these charming grounds, and hence denominated 
 \j\\Q Peripatetic Philosopher. 
 
 Atliens, in the time of Pericles, b. c. 450, with its three 
 seaports, Piraeus, Munychia, and Phalerum, with which it 
 was connected by the celebrated Long Walls, formed one 
 vast enclosed city, twenty-two miles in circuit, containing 
 a population of about 500,000. 
 
 2. Spakta, the capital of Laconia, in the southern part of 
 Greece, was built by Lacedaemon, b. c. 1489. This city 
 was neither so large nor so highly ornamented as Ath- 
 ens ; and for many ages remained without walls. Its 
 chief public places were — 1. The Forum^ containing the 
 Senate House, and the halls of the E2)hori and other 
 magistrates. 2. The Acropolis, an inconsiderable eleva- 
 tion, on the summit of which was situated the Temple of 
 Minerva. This edifice was riclily ornamented, and is cel- 
 ebrated as the sanctuary where Pausanias took refuge 
 from his indignant fellow-citizens when they sought to 
 bring him to justice for treason. They would not violate 
 
 I 
 
 
IN^TRODUCTIOK. 25 
 
 he sanctuary, but they removed the roof, and preventing 
 jiis ei^cape, he perished of exposure and starvation, b. c. 471. 
 ! Sparta was long the rival of Athens for the sovereignty 
 pf Greece, and the disputes occasioned by their mutual 
 jealousies involved all Greece in many desolating wars. 
 j The Spartans were celebrated for the rigor of their mili- 
 |;ary discipline, their personal bravery, and their contempt 
 ^f wealth and luxury. A celebrated instance of their 
 bariotic valor was exhibited in the defence of the pass of 
 rhermopylae by 300 Spartans led by king Leonid as, b. c. 480. 
 
 SECTION III, 
 
 SEAS, EIYERS, MOUNTAINS, AND OTHER LOCALITIES, ETC., 
 I REMARKABLE IN ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 ^ 
 
 , Seas most noted in Ancient History, 
 
 , 1. The Mediterranean Sea, situated between Europe on 
 the north, Asia on the east, and Africa on the south. It re- 
 ceived this name from its occupying so important a position 
 In the midst of the earthy as it was then known. It was 
 also called the Great Sea, being the largest body of w^ater 
 first knowm to the ancients. It is 2,250 miles long and 300 
 Avide. 
 
 2. The Red Sea, lying between Africa and Asia, in a 
 southeasterly direction, in length about 1500 miles. It re- 
 ceived its name from its vicinity to the land of Edom, 
 which signifies red. 
 
 This sea is celebrated for the passage of the Israelites, on 
 their Exodus from Egypt, b. c. 1491, when Moses, at God's 
 command, stretched forth his rod over the sea and divided 
 |it, permitting the Children of Israel to pass through the 
 
 2 
 
26 II^TRODUCTIOIS'. 
 
 midst of the sea on dry ground. But when the Egyptians ' 
 pursued them the sea returned to its place and over- 
 whelmed them. (Exodus, xiv.). 
 
 3. The EuxiNE, or Black Sea, about 700 miles longi 
 from east to west, situated between Europe and Asia, 
 and connected with the Mediterranean Sea by the Bos- 
 phorus^ the Propontis (Sea of Marmora), and the ^gecmi 
 Sea (the Archipelago). At the eastern extremity of the 
 Euxine Sea was situated Colchis, the country whither a 
 Jason conducted the Argonauts in search of the Golden 
 Fleece, b. c. 1263. 
 
 4. The Hellespont (Dardanelles), the strait which con- 
 nects the Sea of Marmora with the Archipelago. This' 
 passage of water is so called from Helle, the daughter ol 
 Athainus, who was drowned here while fleeing from the 
 cru(^lty of her stepmother, Ino. This strait is about (iO 
 miles long, and from a half mile to a mile and a half wide. 
 It is celebrated for the love and misfortunes of Hero, a 
 beautiful priestess of Venus at Sestos ; and Leander, a 
 youth of Abydos, on the opposite side of the strait. In 
 attempting to swim across the strait during a tempestuous 
 nio-ht, Leander was droAvned, and Hero, witnessino^ the fate 
 of her lover, in despair threw herself into the sea and also 
 perished. When Xerxes invaded Greece, u. c. 480, he 
 crossed the Hellespont on an immense bridge of boats. 
 
 5. The Sea of Galilee, called also the Sea or Ziake of 
 Genesareth, or Tiberias, is situated in Palestine, on the 
 eastern borders of Galilee. This interesting and beautiful 
 body of water, so frequently mentioned in the Gospel 
 history, is about sixteen miles from north to south, and 
 from six to nine miles in width. A strong current marks 
 the passage of the river Jordan through the midst of this 
 lake, and when this is opposed by contrary winds, which 
 occasionally blow with great violence from the adjoining 
 mountains, boisterous waves are instantly raised, which the 
 
\ 
 
 imall vessels of the country are ill qualified to resist 
 
 Matthew, viii. 23-27, xiv. 24-26). When not agitated 
 jy tempests the waters of this lake are perfectly clear, 
 sweet, cool, and refreshing to the taste. 
 j 6. The Dead Sea, or Zake of Sodom, which lies east 
 t>f Judea, and which, receiving the waters of the river Jor- 
 flan, has no visible outlet. This body of water, about sev- 
 ^^nty miles long and nineteen wide, covers the plain which 
 [vas occupied by the cities of Sodom, Gomorrah, and two 
 |)thers, until they were, for their great wickedness, con- 
 sumed by fire from heaven, b. c. 1897 (Genesis, xix.). 
 : The water of this sea is remarkable for its extreme salt- 
 less, and great specific gravity ; and its shores, abounding 
 
 11 sulphur and bitumen, produce no vegetation. A pro- 
 found silence, awful as death, hangs over the lake, and its 
 'lesolate, though majestic aspect, is well suited to the tales 
 L-elated of it by the inhabitants of the country, who all 
 speak of it witfi terror. The surface of this remarkable 
 lake is 1300 feet below the level of the Mediterranean. 
 
 ^, Noted Hivers of Antiquity, 
 
 1. The Euphrates, which rises near Mount Arai-at, and 
 flowing in a southeasterly direction for 1400 miles through 
 Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Chaldea, empties into the 
 Persian Gulf 
 
 2. The Tigris, 800 miles long, lies a short distance east 
 Df the Euphrates, and flows through the same general re- 
 gion (Turkey in Asia), and unites with the Euphrates at 
 Apamea. The city of Babylon was situated on the Eu- 
 phrates, and Nineveh, farther north, on the Tigris, oppo- 
 site to the present site of Mosul, 
 
 3. The Jordan, the famed river of the Holy Land, is 
 about 100 miles long and 30 yards wide. This stream rises 
 in the lake Phiala, near Csesarea Philippi, at the foot of 
 Mount Antilibanus, and flowing south through Lake Me- 
 rom and the Sea of Galilee, empties into the Dead Sea. 
 
28 INTEODUCTIOI^'. 
 
 The Jordan is celebrated in the history of the Jews, for 
 their miraculous passage of it, to enter Canaan, under the 
 command of Joshua, b. c. 1451 ; and for the Baj)tism of our 
 Saviour at his entering upon his public ministry, a. d. 26. 
 
 4. The Nile, the great river of Egypt, rises in the inte-i 
 rior of Africa, and flows north through Nubia and Egypt, 
 2,800 miles, emptying into the Mediterranean Sea, by two, 
 principal branches, which form the celebrated Delta of 
 the Nile. ii 
 
 This immense river is remarkable for flowing 1500 miles 
 without receiving any tributary, and for the annual inun- 
 dation of the region through which it passes. This over- 
 flow is occasioned by the periodical rains which fall on the 
 mountain regions where the river has its source ; and it is 
 of the greatest importance to the country, in bearing re- 
 newed fertility to every part of the extensive basin of this 
 majestic river. The chief cities on the Nile were Thebes 
 in Upper Egypt, and Memphis in Lower Egypt, near the 
 present situation of Cairo. 
 
 5. The Granicus, a small stream in Mysia, celebrated for 
 the first battle between the army of Darius and that of 
 Alexander the Great, on his invasion of Persia, b. c. 334. 
 
 6. The Meander, 350 miles long, in the southwest part 
 of Asia Minor, is so remarkable for its numerous windings 
 and turninsis, that it sus^o^ested the words "meander" and 
 " meandering," to denote any devious, winding way. 
 
 7. The Tiber, in the central part of Italy, 150 miles long: 
 flows south and empties into the Mediterranean Sea. This 
 river derived its name from Tiberinus, king of Alba, who 
 was here drowned. The city of Rome is situated on the 
 Tiber, 16 miles from the sea. 
 
 5. Mountains remarhahle in Ancient Scripture His^ 
 tory, 
 
 1. Mount Ararat, in Armenia (Turkey in Asia), 17,000 
 
IKTRODUCTION". 29 
 
 eet high, on which Noah's Ark rested after the Universal 
 peluge, B. c. 2347 (Gen. viii. 4). 
 
 ' 2. Mount Moriah, in the sonthern part of Canaan, 
 ^vhere Abraliarn prepared to offer np his son Isaac, b. c. 
 1812 (Genesis, xxii.) ; and which was afterward selected 
 ^s the site of Solomon's Temple, b. c. 1011 (2 Chronicles, 
 Sii. 1). 
 
 3. Mount Horeb, in the Desert of Arabia, where God 
 appeared to Moses in the Burning Bush (Exodus, iii. 1-6), 
 and the adjacent Mount Sinai, from which were delivered 
 the Ten Commandments, b. c. 1491 (^Exodus, xx.). 
 
 4. Mount Tabok, in Galilee, supposed to be the scene of 
 our Saviour's Transfiguration (Matthew, xvii. 1-8). Mu- 
 lat, narrating the battle of Mount Tabor, between Napo- 
 leon I. and the Turks, a. d. 1799, exclaims : " In the hottest 
 of this terrible fight, I thought of Christ and his trans- 
 figuration upon this very spot, two thousand years ago, 
 and the reflection inspired me with tenfold courage and 
 strength !" Mount Calvary, near Jerusalem, where our 
 Saviour died for our sins on the cross, a. d. 33 (Matthew, 
 xxvii.) ; and the Mount of Olives, whence He ascended 
 into heaven (Acts, i. 1-12), and whither He shall return, 
 when He comes to reign with his saints a thousand years 
 (Zechariah, xiv.). 
 
 4z, Mountains noted in Ancient Profane History. 
 
 1. Mount Ida, near Troy in Asia Minor, famed as being 
 the place where the shepherd Paris adjudged the prize of 
 beauty to the goddess Venus. 
 
 2 Mount Olympus, in Macedonia (Turkey in Europe), 
 about a mile and a half in height : supposed by the an- 
 cients to reach to the heavens ; and from that circumstance 
 they imagined it to be the habitation of the gods, and 
 where Jupiter held his court. 
 
 3. Parnassus, in Phocis, near the centre of Greece. 
 
30 IXTRODUCTIOIs^. 
 
 s 
 
 This mount is celebrated as the place where Apollo slew 
 the serpent Python ; in honor of which the Pythian games 
 were celebrated eveiy fifth year. At the base o^ thisJS 
 mountain was the city of Delphi, the regular place of 
 meeting of the famous Amphictyonic council, or general 
 congress of Greece, established by Amphictyon, king of 
 Athens, B.C. 1497. 
 
 4. The Alps, which separate Italy, on the north, from the' 
 rest of Europe, is a chain of mountains 700 miles long, and 
 from 11,000 to 15,000 feet high. Over this formidable 
 barrier Hannibal, the brave Carthaginian general, passed 
 in triumph from Spain, b. c. 218, and held possession of 
 Italy for 16 years. 
 
 5. Mount Vesuvius, in Campania (Naples), 3,932 feet 
 high. This volcano is celebrated for an eruption which 
 overwhelmed the cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii, a. d. 
 79. In attempting to witness this terrific scene, Pliny the 
 elder lost his life by suffocation. 
 
 6. Mount Atlas, an immense range of mountains in 
 the northwest part of Africa, 11,900 feet high. The an- 
 cients imagined these mountains supported the heavens. 
 According to the fables of the poets, they had once been a 
 great giant, named Atlas, one of the Titans, and kino- of 
 Mauritania; and that he had been changed into this moun- 
 tain to bear the world on his shoulders. From this, we 
 now give the name of Atlas to a collection of maps of the 
 world. 
 
 5. Other localities remarkable in Ancient History. 
 
 1. The Garden of Eden, the delightful abode of our 
 first parents, before they sinned against God. As Moses, the 
 inspired historian of the ancient world, has not recorded the 
 locality of Eden, it is now, sine© the universal Deluge, 
 impossible to ascertain where it was situated. Some, how- 
 ever, suppose the Garden of Erlpn was in Armenia, near the 
 
IJ^TRODUCTIOK. 31 
 
 base of Mount Ararat. Others, that it comprehended the 
 whole of Persia ; and, indeed, its site has been sought for 
 in almost all parts of the world. In opposition to these 
 theories, it is maintained by some respectable wn*iters that 
 at the time of the Deluge the sea and land changed places, 
 and therefore Eden could not have been on either of the 
 present existing continents.* 
 
 2. Uk of the Chaldees, the country of Terah, and 
 birthplace of Abraham. The precise situation of this re- 
 gion is not known, but it is supposed to have been in 
 Chaldea (Turkey in Asia), not far from the Tigris. 
 
 3. The Wilderness, or Desert, through which the 
 Israelites wandered for forty years. This region is situated 
 in the northw^est part of Arabia, between the Mediterranean 
 and Red Seas. Different portions of this region are distin- 
 2;uished by particular names : as The Wilderness of Shu?\ 
 on the borders of Egypt; The Wilderness of Sinai, in the 
 south, between the two arms of the Red Sea ; The Wilder- 
 ness ofZin, in the northeast ; and T/ie Wilderness of Fa- 
 ran, in the north. Through this dreary, desolate region, 
 destitute of water, of forests, of highways, and of the 
 means of subsistence, the Lord Jehovah led his redeemed 
 but rebellious people, by a perpetual miracle, from Egypt 
 to the promised land of Canaan. For shade, direction, and 
 defence, the Lord appointed the Pillar of Cloud by day, and 
 the Pillar of Fire by night. They drank of the stream 
 which flowed from the smitten rockf in Horeb. Quails 
 were sent in abundance, when they murmured for flesh ; 
 and the daily supply of manna ceased not till they came 
 to Jordan, on the borders of Canaan. 
 
 4. The Plain of the Mediterranean Sea reaches from 
 the river of Egypt to Mount Carmel. 
 
 * Malte Brun.. vol. i., p. 300. „ ^ , , 
 
 t This rock still remain!?. It is of red granite, 15 feet long, 10 feet broad, and 
 
 12 foot high. Holes and channels appear in the stone, which could have been 
 
 made only by riuuiing water. 
 
^^ IN^TRODUCTIOJ?". 
 
 5. Marathon, in the eastern part of Greece, 20 miles 
 northeast of Athens, at the base of Mount Pentelicus. This 
 plain is famous for the total defeat of the Persians by the 
 Greeks, under Miltiades, b. c. 490. 
 
 6. Thermoptl^, a very narrow pass in the eastern part 
 of Greece, leading from Thessaly into Locris. On one side 
 is a steep ridge of mountains, and on the other is the sea, 
 with deep and dangerous marshes, leaving a passage-way 
 of only 25 feet in width at the narrowest part. This place 
 receives its name from th^ hot baths which are in the neigh- 
 borhood. It is rendered flxmous by the patriotic valor 'of 
 Leonidas, who, at the head of 300 Spartans, for three days 
 nobly resisted the onset of the army of Xerxes when he 
 invaded Greece, b. c. 480. 
 
 1. Arbela, a small town of Persia (now called Irbil), 
 famous for being near the great battle-field where Alexander 
 defeated Darius, and subverted the Persian Emnire b c 
 330. F > • 
 
 8. Zama, a town in northern Africa, 300 miles from Car- 
 thage, celebrated for the great battle in which Scipio, the 
 brave Roman general, defeated the illustrious Hannibal 
 B. c. 202. 
 
 9. AcTiFM, a town on the coast of Acarnania, western 
 part of Greece, celebrated for the naval victory which Octa- 
 vius gained over Antony and Cleopatra, and by which he 
 became sole master of the Roman Empire, b. c. 31. 
 
 10. ScYLLA and Charibdis, the former a rocky and dan- 
 gerous promontory on the coast of Italy; and the latter an 
 equally dangerous whirlpool on the opposite shore of Sicily, 
 the straits of Messina being between them. 
 
 6. TJie Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. 
 
 1. The Walls of Babylon. (See Babylon.) 
 
 2. The Pyramids of Egypt. (See Memphis.) 
 
 3. The Labyrinth of Psammetichus, on the Nile ; built 
 
INTEODUCTIOX. 
 
 33 
 
 ;y twelve princes, of whom Psammetichus was chief, near 
 .he city of Arsinoe, and at the southern extremity of Lake 
 Moeris. This structure consisted of twelve magnificent 
 Jialls or palaces, embracing fifteen hundred rooms, with 
 Ittrraces and communications so arranged that no one en- 
 [tering the labyrinth could possibly find the way out with- 
 lout a'guide. There were also connected with this edifice 
 .fifteen'' hundred rooms, underground, designed for subter- 
 ^ranean sepuU'-hres and for dwelling-places of the sacred 
 
 j crocodiles. 
 
 I There was another labyrinth in the island of Crete, the 
 abode of the Minotaur slain by Theseus, king of Athens. 
 
 ■ 4. The Temple OF Diana at ErHESUS. This edifice was 
 425 feet long, and 200 feet wide. The roof was supported 
 
 I by 127 columns, each 60 feet high, presented by 127 kings. 
 This temple was designed by the celebrated architect 
 Ctesiphon, and it was 200 years in being built. It was 
 burned on the night Alexander the Great was born, b. c. 
 356, by one Erostratus, who designed in this way to render 
 his 'name famous with posteriy. It was, however, soon 
 after rebuilt with greater magnificence ; but it was burned 
 a second time, a. d. 260. This temple is alluded to in 
 
 Acts, xix. 
 
 5. The Colossus of Rhodes. This was an immense 
 image of a man, 150 feet high, built over the entrance of the 
 harbor of Rhodes, so that vessels in full sail could pass be- 
 tween its legs. It was constructed of brass by the architect 
 Chares, who was 12 years in building it, b. c. 300. It was 
 ascended on the inside by winding stairs, running to the 
 top, from which could easily be discerned the coasts of 
 Syria and the ships sailing to the shores of Africa. 
 
 In the year b. c. 224 it was partly destroyed by an 
 earthquake, and it remained in ruins many years. In a. d. 
 672, Rhodes having been conquered by the Saracens, they 
 sold the remains of the Colossus to a Jewish merchant of 
 
 2* 
 
^^ li^TRODUCTIOX. 
 
 Edessa, who loaded 900 camels with the brass, which wa^ 
 valued at £36,000 sterling. Besides the Colossus, Rhodes 
 produced two other celebrated works of art :— 1. The 
 lalysus, the masterpiece of the exquisite painter Proto- 
 genes. This is an historical painting representing a fabulous 
 hero, whom the Rhodians acknowledged as their founder. 
 The artist occupied seven years in completing it, during 
 which time he obseiwed the utmost abstemiousness, that 
 1 IS imagination might not be affected by his diet. 2. The 
 Laocoon, styled the triumph of Greciin sculpture. It was 
 executed by Polydorus, Athenodoms, and Aoesander, three 
 famous artists of Rhodes. (For the story of the Laocoon 
 see the Classical Dictionaries.) 
 
 6. The Pharos, or Lighthouse of Alexandria. This 
 edifice was built on a small island on the coast of Egypt, 
 near Alexandria, by Ptolemy Soter and his son Philadelphus' 
 kings of Egypt, B. c. 284. It was constructed of white 
 marble, and could be seen at the distance of 100 miles at 
 sea. On the top of this lighthouse fires were kept con- 
 stantly burning to direct vessels into the harbor. At the 
 direction of the king this inscription was placed on the 
 tower: ''King Ptolemy to the gods, the saviours, for the 
 benefit of sailors:' But Sostratus, the architect, wishino- to 
 defraud the king of his just honor, and to perpetuate'his 
 own name, falsely, as the founder of this splendid and 
 useful edifice, first cut the inscription loith his own name in 
 the marble : this he filled up with mortar; and then placed 
 on It another inscription in mortar, with the name of 
 Ptolemy. When in the course of time the mortar inscrip- 
 tion was worn away by the action of the weather, the name 
 of Ptolemy disappeared, and the inscription in the marble 
 with the name of Sostratus remained; not in honor, but 
 ni infamy, for all men knew the falsehood of the permanent 
 mscription. This structure cost 800 talents, which if reck- 
 oned in the currency of Athens, was £165,000; but if 
 
INTRODUCTIOiq". 35 
 
 counted in the money of Alexandria, was double that 
 amount. This splendid edifice has long since disappeared. 
 7. The Aqueducts of Rome. These were costly and 
 magnificent works for the supply of Rome with water. 
 Three of these aqueducts still remain and supply with 
 water the inhabitants of modern Rome. The remains of 
 aqueducts constructed by the ancient Romans are found in 
 various countries, which were formerly embraced within 
 the Roman empire. One of the most splendid of these is 
 at Segovia in Spain. 159 arches, joined without mortar, 
 still remain to attest its ancient mag:nificence. 
 
 SECTION IV. 
 
 DIVISIONS OF TIME ^RAS ^PERIODS. 
 
 I. The Day. 
 
 The ancient Babylonians, Jews, and nearly all eastern 
 nations, began the day at sun-rise. The Athenians, Turks, 
 Austrians, and Italians, at sun-set. The Arabians, and 
 astronomers of all nations, at mid-day. The ancient 
 Egyptians, modern Europeans, Americans, and Chinese, at 
 mid-niglit. 
 
 The Chaldeans, Persians, and Romans divided the day 
 and night each into four parts. The Jews divided the 
 day into twelve hours, beginning at sun-rise ; and the night 
 into four parts, or icatches. This was in the time of our 
 Saviour. Nearly all modern nations divide the day into 
 twenty-four hours, counting twice from 1 to 12, alternately 
 from mid-day and mid-night. But the Italians, Bohemians, 
 and Poles count from 1 to 24, from sun-set to sun-set. 
 
 2. The Names of the Days of tlte Weeli, 
 
 The ancient Chaldeans named the days of the week 
 
36 i:n^teoduction. 
 
 from the Sun, the Moon, and from the planets Mars, 
 Mercury, Jupiter, Venus, and Saturn; to which heavenly- 
 bodies they had previously given the names of their 
 principal divinities. And the old Saxons, with nearly all 
 modern Europe, adopting the same general system, re- 
 tained the names Sun day. Moon day, and for the rest 
 substituted the names of the great Scandinavian divinities, 
 from which the present English names are derived : Tues- 
 day from Tuisco, Wednesday from Wooden or Odin^ Thurs- 
 day from Thor^ Friday from Frea^ and Saturday from 
 Saturne. 
 
 3, The Week, 
 
 The origin of the almost universal division of time into 
 "Weeks," or periods of Seven Days each, was the creation 
 of all things in the space of six days, and the divine ap- 
 pointment of one day in seven as a rest, or Sahhath^ after 
 the example of Jehovah (Genesis, i. 2 ; Exodus, xx. 8-11). 
 The ancient Chaldeans began the week with Saturday ; 
 the Hebrews and Christians begin with Sunday ; and the 
 Mahometans with Friday. 
 
 4:, The History of the Names of the Months, 
 
 1. January, so called by the Romans from Janus^ one 
 of their deities, to whom the first day of the year was 
 sacred. It corresponds to Sebat (Zech. i. T), the fifth 
 c^w^7, and the eleventh sacred month of the Jews. The 
 Anglo Saxons called it Aefter-Geola — After-Christmas. 
 
 2^ February received its name from Fehrualia, a feast 
 of purifications held by the Romans in this month, by 
 which the people were ' supposed to be cleansed from the 
 sins of the whole year. It corresponds to Adar (Ezra, vi. 
 15), the sixth civil, and the twelfth sacred month of the 
 Jews. 
 
 3. March (Latin Martins) was so named by the Romans 
 
INTRODUCTION^. 37 
 
 in honor of Mars, their god of war. It answers the Jewish 
 NisAN or Abib (Xeh. ii. 1), the seventh of their civil, and 
 the first of their sacred year. By the Saxons it was named 
 Uli/d-tnonat/i, the loud or tumultuous month; and also 
 Zienct-monath. 
 
 4. April (Latin A2yrilis) is so called from aperio, to open, 
 in allusion to the opening of the young buds of trees and 
 flowers, and the development of vegetation. It corresponds 
 to the Jewish Ijar, Zif or Ziv (I Kings, vi. 1), the eighth 
 of their civil, and second of their sacred year. Its Saxon 
 name was Eoster, or Oster-monath. 
 
 5. May is so denominated from Maia, the most beautiful 
 of the Pleiades and the fabled mother of Mercury. The 
 corresponding Jewish month was SiVAii (Esther, viii. 9), 
 the ninth of their civil, and third of their sacred year. The 
 Saxons call it the Tri railki-mojiath, or Thre-e-milk month. 
 
 6. June (Latin Junius) was so named from Jano, one of 
 the fabled goddesses of the Romans. It answers to the 
 Jewish Tammuz, the tenth of their civil, and fourth of their 
 
 sacred year. 
 
 7. July (Latin Jidius), called in honor of Julius Caesar, 
 who was born in it. It answers to Ab, the eleventh month 
 of the Jewish civil year, and the fifth of their sacred year. 
 
 8. August, so called by the Romans in honor of the 
 emperor Augustus. It corresponds to the Jewish Elul 
 (Neh. vi. 15), their twelfth civil, and sixth sacred month. 
 
 9. September, now the ninth, was anciently the seventh 
 month, as is indicated by its name, which is derived from 
 septem, si<?nifyin,g seven. It answers to Tisri or Ethanim 
 (1 Kings, viii. 2), the first month of the civil, and the seventh 
 of the sacred year of the Jews. Our Saxon ancestors called 
 it Gerst-monath, or Barley-month. 
 
 10. October, from the Latin word octo, eight, indicating 
 the place it held in the Roman calendar. To the Jews it 
 was known as Bul, signifying decay, as in the fall of the 
 
38 lisTKODUOTIOX. 
 
 leaf (1 Kings, vi. 38), or Maechesvan, as it was called after 
 the captivity. 
 
 11. November is from the Latin novem, nine, it being 
 the ninth month of the Roman calendar. It corresponds to 
 the Jewish Chisleu (Neh. i. 1), which signifies chilled ; 
 the third month of their civil, and ninth of their sacred year. 
 
 12. December, fi-om the Latin decern, ten, as it was the 
 tenth month in the Roman year. It answers to the Jewish 
 Tebeth (Esther, ii. 16), which signifies miry, and is the 
 fourth of their civil, and tenth of their sacred year. By the 
 Saxons it was named Aerra.-Geola, or Befure-Christmas. 
 
 5, The Year and its Divisions, 
 
 1. The Egyptians, Chaldeans, Persians, Syrians, and Jews 
 began the year at the autumnal equinox. But the Jews 
 began their sacred year at the vej'nal equinox. 
 
 2. The Greeks, Romans, and the nations of Modern 
 Europe and America about the winter solstice (first of 
 January). ^ ' 
 
 3. The Chinese, with the first new moon after the sun 
 enters the constellation Aquarius, 
 
 4. The Mahometans, on the 16th of July, in commem- 
 oration of the flight of Mahomet. 
 
 5. The American Indians, with the first new moon after 
 the vernal equinox, which corresponds with the beginning 
 of tlie Jewish sacred year. 
 
 6. Romulus, the founder of Rome, divided the year into 
 ten months, or 304 days; and Numa Pompilius, the second 
 king of Rome, added the months of January and February 
 to the ten in the calendar of Romulus, and made the number 
 of days 355. This being about ten and one-fourth days 
 shorter than the true solar year, as measured by the revolu- 
 tion of the earth around the sun, occasioned, like all preced- 
 ing calendars, gi'eat confusion in the recurrence of the son- 
 sons and in the records of history. In the time of Julius 
 
INTRODUCTION. 39 
 
 Caesar, b. c. 46, the difference between the solar year and 
 the calendar of Nuraa had amounted to ninety days, or 
 three months. 
 
 6*. Jidius Ccesar reforms the Calendar of the Civil Year. 
 
 Assisted by Sosigenes the astronomer, Caesar conformed 
 the civil year to the solar, by making the number of days 
 365 ; and the annual excess of the solar year, which he esti- 
 mated at six hours, amounting to one day in four years, 
 was taken into the account by making every fourth year 
 contain 366 days : the additional day being appended to 
 the month of February, which, therefore, in Leap Year, as 
 it is named, contains twenty-nine days. This arrangement 
 is called the Julian Calendar. And had the difference be- 
 tween the civil and solar years been exactly six hours, as 
 estimated by Cgesar, no further correction would have been 
 necessary ; but as the annual allowance of six hours was 
 about eleven minutes too much, it introduced an error of 
 forty-four raiimtes every four years, or nearly a whole day 
 in 130 years. Of course this difference, in many centuries, 
 became very considerable, forin the year A. D. 1577 the vernal 
 equinox occurred on the 11th of March, instead of on the 
 21st, as it had done in the year a. d. 325. 
 7. This error corrected. 
 
 It was noticed first by the venerable Bede, a. d. 730 ; but 
 nothino- was done to correct it till the latter part of the 
 sixteenth century. At that time Pope Gregory XIII. invited 
 to Rome the most learned mathematicians and astronomers 
 to consider this important subject; and after it had been 
 discussed for ten years, the plan proposed by two brothers, 
 Aloisius and Antoninus Lilius, was adopted. Ten days 
 were taken from the month of October, 1582, by calling the 
 5th of that month the 15th. This restored the 21st of 
 March to the vernal equinox, and corrected the error which 
 had accumulated since the time of Caesar.. And to prevent 
 
40 i:5^TE0DUCTI0l!r. 
 
 the recurrence of the error it was decreed that every fourth 
 year should be leap year, as in the Julian Calendar; but 
 that every hundredth year, for three successive centuries, 
 should be common years, and the fourth hundredth should 
 be a leap year: for example, 1700, 1800, and 1900 are com- 
 mon years, and 2000 will be a leap year. By this plan, 
 which is called the Gregorian Calendar^ the error will not 
 exceed a day in the course of 5,000 years. 
 
 The Julian Calendar is called Old Style, and is still re- 
 tained in Russia, and by the adherents of the Greek Church 
 generally. The Gregorian Calendar^ denominated New 
 Style, was adopted at its publication in 1582 in all Roman 
 Catholic countries, but it was not introduced into England 
 till 1752.* 
 8, Chronological JEras adopted in recording History, 
 
 1. The Creation of the World, which, according to the 
 Hebrew text of the Scriptures, was b. c. 4004 ; according 
 to the Samaritan text, b. c. 4700 ; and according to the 
 Septuagint text, b. c. 5872. 
 
 In dating from the Creation, the letters a. m. mean Anno 
 Mundi, in the year of the world. 
 
 2. The ^ra of the Olympiads, which began b. c. 776. 
 This was used by the Greeks till the time of the emperor 
 Constantine, a. d. 330. 
 
 3. The JEra of Nahoiiassar, which began b. c. 747, was 
 used by ancient astronomers in honor of Nabonassar, a 
 famed astronomer, who, at that date, began to reign as king 
 at Babylon, after the death of Sardanapalus. 
 
 4. The Foundation of Rome, b. c. 753. This sera was 
 used by Roman authors, and is marked a. u. c. Anno Urbis 
 Conditse, from the year of the building of the city. 
 
 * Almanacks were first made in modern times by the Saracens. The name Alma- 
 nacJc is from the Arabic Almanach — " the count," or " account" (of time). Re- 
 giomontanus, the astronomer, was the first European that computed an ahnanack 
 like those used at present. (1475.) 
 
ixtiioductio:n". 41 
 
 5. The JEra of Seleucidoe^ which began b. c. 312, on the 
 accession of Seleucus Nicator, one of the successors of Al- 
 exander the Great, to the government of Babylon. It was 
 adopted generally throughout Syria and the East. It was 
 called by the Jews the ^ra of Contracts, because all their 
 contracts were for ages dated according to it. In the books 
 of the Maccabees this sera is called the JEra of the king- 
 dom of the Greeks ; and it continued to be used by Jews, 
 Christians, and Mahometans in Syria for a thousand years 
 after Christ. 
 
 6. The Hegira, which began a. d. 622, is used by the Ma- 
 hometans, and is so named from the flight (in Arabic 
 Hegira) of Mahomet from the persecution of his enemies 
 in Mecca, on the night of July 15, a. d. 622. 
 
 7. The Christian uEra, or A. D., was introduced by Di- 
 onysius the Monk, a. d. 516 ; but it was not generally 
 adopted till A. D. 748. After it had been some time in 
 use it was discovered that an error had been committed 
 respecting the true time of our Saviour's birth, which actu- 
 ally occurred three years and eight days (commonly reck- 
 oned four years) before the beginning of the aera as intro- 
 duced by Dionysius.* 
 
 9, Tlie Periods of General History— 
 
 Fourteen : seven in Ancient History, and seven in Modern 
 History. (See Introduction, Sec. 1.) 
 
 10, The First PeiHod of Ancient Sistory is— 
 
 That which extends from the Creation, b. c. 4004, to 
 the Universal Deluge, b. c. 2348, a period of 1656 years. 
 Distinguished chiefly by the longevity of the antediluvian 
 patriarchs, and named the Antediluvian Period. 
 
 * On the subject of Chronology, great diversity of opinion prevails, especially 
 respecting the dates in the earlier part of Ancient History. The system adopted 
 
 in this work is that of Usher. 
 
42 IKTRODUCTIOI^. 
 
 11, The Second Period of Ancient History is — 
 
 That which extends from the Universal Deluge, b. c. 
 "2348, to the Call of Abraham, b. c. 1921, 427 years. 
 Remarkable for the repeopling of the earth and the con- 
 fusion of tongues, and named the Period of Dispersio7i. 
 
 12, The Third Period of Ancient History — 
 
 Is named the Patriarchal Period, and it extends from 
 the Call of Abraham, b. c. 1921, to the Exodus of the 
 Israelites from Egypt, b. c. 1491, 430 years. Remarkable 
 for the bondage of the Israelites in Egypt. 
 
 13, The FotirtJi Period of Ancient History — 
 
 Is distinguished by the establishment of the Hebrews in 
 Canaan. It extends from the Exodus, b. c. 1491, to the 
 dedication of Solomon's Temple, b. c. 1004, 487 years. It 
 is named the Period of the Hebrew Commonioealth. 
 
 14, The Fifth Period of Ancient History — 
 
 Extends from the dedication of Solomon's Temple, b. c. 
 1004, to the conquest of Babylon by Cyrus and Darius, 
 B. c. 538, 466 years. Remarkable for the splendid reign 
 of Solomon at Jerusalem, for the secession of the Ten 
 Tribes from the House of David, and for the victories of 
 the kings of Assyria. It is named the Period of the 
 Assyrian Empire. 
 
 15, The Sixth Period of Ancient History — 
 
 Is named the Period of the Persian Empire. It 
 extends from the capture of Babylon by Darius and his 
 nephew Cyrus, b. c. 538, to the battle of Arbela, b. c. 330, 
 when Persia was conquered by Alexander the Great, 208 
 years. Remarkable for the restoration of the Jews from 
 Babylon to their own country, and for the unsuccessful 
 attempts of the Persian monarchs to conquer Greece. 
 
 IG, The Seventh Perio€l of Ancient History is— 
 
 That which extends from the conquest of Persia by 
 
INTRODUCTION^. 43 
 
 Alexander the Great, in the battle of Arbela, b. c. 330, to 
 the advent of our Saviour, a. d., a period of 330 years. It 
 is remarkable for the astonishing conquests of Alexander 
 the Great, and for the division of his vast empire into four 
 monarchies, under Lysimachus, Seleucus, Ptolemy, and 
 Cassander. It is named the Macedonian Period. 
 
 17, The First Period of Modem History is— 
 
 That which extends from the advent of Christ to the 
 emperor Constantine, a. d. 330, 330 years. It is dis- 
 tinguished by the prevalence of the Roman empire, which 
 had been established by Augustus one year after the battle 
 of Actium,B. c. 30; by the introduction of the gospel, and 
 by the persecution of the Christians by tlie pagan Romans. 
 It is named the Period of the Roman Empire. 
 
 18, The Second Period of Modern History is— 
 
 The Period of the Byzantine ^?nJO^Ve— extending 292 
 years from Constantine, a. d. 330, to Mahomet, a. d. 622. 
 Remarkable for the removal of the seat of the Roman 
 empire from Rome to Byzantium, thence named Constanti- 
 nople, A. D. 330 ; for the division of the Roman empire 
 into two parts, under Arcadius, emperor of the Eastern or 
 Greek empire, and Honorius, emperor of the Western or 
 Latin empire, a. d. 395 ; and for the conquest of the 
 Western empire by Odoacer, king of the Heruli, a. d. 478. 
 
 19, The TJiird PeHod of Modern History is— 
 
 The Period of the Saracen ^m^^Ve— extending 178 
 years, from Mahomet, a. d. 622, to Charlemagne, a. d. 800. 
 Distinguished by th-e rise of the Saracen power, and for 
 the establishment of the supremacy and temporal dominion 
 of the popes of Rome, a. d. 6D6-755. 
 
 20, The Fourth Period of Modern History is distin- 
 
 guished — 
 By the revival of the Western empire by Charlemagne, 
 A. D. 800, known afterward, first as the Frank, and then as 
 
44 
 
 INTRODUCTION^". 
 
 the German empire ; by the consolidation of the Saxon 
 Heptarchy into the kingdom of England under Egbert, 
 A. D. 827 ; by the rise of the Turkish power among the 
 Saracens, a. d. 830-881 ; and by the Norman conquest of 
 England, a. d. 1068. This period extends from Charlemagne, 
 A. D. 800, to Peter the Hermit, a. d. 1098 ; and it is named 
 the Period of the Rise of the German Empire. 
 
 21. The Fifth Period of Modern History^ 
 
 Is named the Period of the Crusades ; and it extends 
 from Peter the Hermit, a. d. 1098, to Christopher Columbus, 
 A. D. 1492. It is distinguished by the Crusades or Holy 
 Wai-s waged by the Christian nations of Western Europe 
 for the rescue of Palestine from the Mahometans, a. d. 
 1098 ; by the conquests of the Moguls, Tartars, and Turks, 
 A. D. 1218-1453, and by the civil wars of the Koses in 
 England, a. d. 1453-1485. 
 
 22. The Sixth Period of Modern History— 
 
 Extends from the discovery of America by Columbus, 
 A. D. 1492, to the declaration of American Independence, 
 A. D. 1776. This period is distinguished by the maritime 
 discoveries of Columbus and others ; by the Reformation, 
 A. D. 1517; by the union of the crowns of England and 
 Scotland, a. d. 1603 ; by the rise of the Russian empire, 
 and by the colonization of America. It is named the 
 Colonizing Period. 
 
 23. Tlie Seventh Period of Modern History is— 
 
 That which extends from the declaration of Independ- 
 ence, A. D. 1776, to the present time. It is distinguished 
 as the Period of American Progress and European War. 
 
GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 PART FiEST-AKOIEH^T HISTORY. 
 
 Period I. — Antediluvian. 
 
 The Creation, ( ) Universai. Deluge, 
 
 B. c. 4004. ^ 1656 years. [ b. c. 2348. 
 
 Adam — Garden of Eden. ( ) Noah — Mount Ararat. 
 
 1, The History of this Period of sixteen centuries and 
 a half is found only in the first six chapters of the book of 
 Genesis. 
 
 2, The Chief Subjects of this History are: — 1. The 
 creation of all things in six days.* 2. The fall of our 
 first parents from obedience and innocence. 3. The prom- 
 ise of a Saviour. 4. The story of Cain and Abel. 5. A 
 genealogy of the patriarchs. 6. The great wickedness of 
 mankind. 7. The building of the Ark by Noah, as a refuge 
 from the approaching flood, 
 
 5. "In the beginning God created the heaven and 
 the earth,'' b. c. 4004. At first the earth was without form 
 and void, and darkness was upon the face of the deep, and 
 the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters. On 
 the first day "God said, Let there be light, and there 
 was light." The atmosphere or firmament was formed on 
 the second day, separating (by continual evaporation) " the 
 waters from the waters." On the third day the waters of 
 the earth were gathered into oceans and seas ; and grass, 
 
 * The days of creation are by some understood to have been successive perioda 
 of very great length. 
 
46 GENERAL HISTORY. [B. C. 4004 
 
 herbs, and trees were caused to grow from the ground. On 
 the fourth day the sun, moon, and stars were created to 
 illumine the heavens and the earth. Fishes and birds were 
 called into being on the fifth day. And on the sixth day 
 God, having given life to beasts and creeping things, 
 crowned his glorious work by making man in his own 
 image. "Thus the heavens and the earth were finished, 
 and all the host of them. " 
 
 4, In connection with the curse pronounced upon the 
 tempter, there was given to our first parents a glorious 
 PROMISE OF A Saviour, wliicli was fulfilled 4000 years 
 after in the person Jesus (Gen. iii. 15). 
 
 5, Of the Antediluvian Patriarchs, Enoch and 
 Methuselah were distinguished : the first, by being taken 
 to heaven without dying, b. c. 3017; and the second, as the 
 oldest man of whom we read in all history, his age being 
 969, B. c. 2348. 
 
 6, l*rogress in the Arts is alluded to in Genesis iv. 
 20-22, such as architecture, husbandry, the working of 
 metals, music, and probably astrology. Of other matters 
 relative to the antediluvian world we have little or no 
 information. 
 
 7, The appointed time being come, according to the 
 divine prediction, Noah and his family entered the ark, 
 "the fountains of the great deep were broken up, and the 
 windows of heaven were opened ;" — " and the waters pre- 
 vailed on the earth an hundred and fifty days," b. c. 2348. 
 
 Period II. — Dispersion. 
 
 The Deluge, ( ) Call of Abraham, 
 
 B. c. 2348. ] 427 years. [ b. c. 1921. 
 
 Noah — Mount Ararat. { ) Ur of the CJmldees. 
 
 1, The Dispersion Period is noted chiefly for the re- 
 peopling of the earth by the descendants of Noah. 
 
to 2348.] 
 
 DISPERSIO:^^. 
 
 47 
 
 2, The Chief Matters of the period are the following : 
 the Deluge having continued about a year, the waters 
 subside. Noah and his family leave the ark, which had 
 rested on Mount Ararat. He builds an altar, and God 
 gives him the covenant of the rainbow, b. c. 2317. 
 
 3, The Tower of Babel, one square furlong at the base, 
 and one furlong in height, and designed as a rallying-point, 
 built on the banks of the Euphrates. The Confusion of 
 Tongues and the Dispersion of mankind over the earth, 
 B. c. 2247. 
 
 4, The Sons of Noah, from whom, according to the 
 Bible, are descended the present races of men : * 
 
 I. Japhet, 
 father of 
 
 1. GoMER, the father of the Germans. 
 
 2. Magog, " " *' Turks, Hungarians, ete. 
 
 3. Madai, " " " Medes. 
 
 4. Javan, " " " Greeks, Romans. 
 
 5. Tubal, " " " Tartars. 
 
 6. Meshech, '* " " Muscovites. 
 
 7. Thiras, " " " Thracians. 
 
 II. Shem, 
 father of 
 
 III. Ham, 
 
 father of 
 
 1.. Elam, 
 
 2. AsiiuR, " 
 
 3. Arphaxad, " 
 4 LuD, 
 5. Aram, " 
 
 1. CUSH, 
 
 2. MiSRAIM, 
 
 3. Put, 
 
 4. Canaan, 
 
 the father of the Persians. 
 " " " Assyrians. 
 
 " " Chaldees and Jews. 
 " " " Lydians. 
 " " " Syrians. 
 
 the father of the Babylonians. 
 " " " Egyptians. 
 *' " " Libyans. 
 " " " Phoenicians, Cartha- 
 ginians, etc. 
 
 5, Noah himself, with his younger children, it is sup- 
 posed, emigrated eastward, and, under the name of Fohi, 
 founded the monarchy of China, about b. c. 2207. 
 
 6, Babylon, built by Nimrod, son of Cush, around the 
 Tower of Babel, which he used as an astrological observa- 
 
 *Upon this subject Naturalists mahitaui couflictins theories. 
 

 48 GEJiI"ERAL HISTORY. [B. C. 234S 
 
 tory,* B. c. 2217. Nimkod introduced the Zabian idolatry, 
 or worship of the heavenly bodies. After his decease he 
 was deified by his subjects, and in their superstition, im 
 ao;ined to have been translated to the constellation Orion. 
 
 7, Astrology, or the art of divining by the heavenly 
 bodies, was cultivated by nearly all ancient nations. At a 
 very early period men noticed the distinction between the 
 planets and fixed stars, grouping the latter in constellations 
 and arrano;ino- the twelve sio-ns of the Zodiac. Ynchi. a 
 Chinese astronomer, is supposed to have been the first that 
 noticed the position of the north polar star, about b. c. 2500, 
 according to the Chinese chronology. 
 
 8, Ashur, son of Shem, being driven out of Babylon, went 
 north, and founded Nineveh on the Tigris, b. c. 2217. Soon 
 after this Babylon and Nineveh appear to have been 
 united, forming the First Assyrian Empire, of which very 
 little is known for more than thirteen hundred years. 
 
 9, 3Ien€s<f probably Misraim, son of Ham, founds the 
 monarchy of Egypt, 2188 ; which soon after is divided into 
 four dynasties : Thebes, Thin, Memphis, and Tanais. The 
 Egyptians at a very early period became eminent in civili- 
 zation and the arts, and in process of time emigrating 
 colonists bore their culture to other lands. 
 
 10, Sicyon (earliest town in Greece), founded by the 
 Pelasgi, 2089. 
 
 11, Tlie Shepherd Kings from Arabia conquer Lower 
 Egypt, 2084 ; and hold it 259 years. 
 
 12, Ninus reigns at Babylon — succeeded by his queen, 
 Semiramis, 1988. 
 
 13, Sidon, in Phoenicia, and DamascuSf in Syria, 
 founded about this time. 
 
 14, Terahf father of Abraham, departing with his family 
 
 * When Alexfinder the Great captnved Babylon, e. c. 330, Calisthenes, his 
 astronomer, found here calculations of eclipses for a pt;riod of 1903 yeara pre- 
 ceding, corresponding with the supposed time of Nimrod. about B. c. 2233. 
 
o 1491.] PA.TRIARCHAL. 49 
 
 rom Ur for Canaan, remained a short time in Haran, where 
 le died, aged 205 years. 1922. 
 
 Period III. — Patriarchal.. 
 
 The Call of Abram, \ /The Exodus, 
 
 B. c. 1931. I 430 years. ] b. c. 1491. 
 
 Ur of the Ghaldees. ) i Moses — Bed Sea. 
 
 1, The Patriarchal Period is chiefly distinguished by — • 
 [. The wandering of the Hebrew patriarchs as pilgrims in 
 ,he land of Canaan. 2. By the bondage of their descend- 
 ints in Egypt. 3. By the colonization of Greece by emi- 
 grants from Phoenicia and. Egypt. 
 
 II. — Chronology of the Period. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 L921. Abram, son of Terah, at God's direction, continues his journey 
 from Haran, and at 75 years of a2;e becomes a pilgrim in the 
 land of Canaan, which had been promised as the inheritance 
 of his children. 
 
 L918. Abram and his nephew Lot separate. 
 
 L918. Melcliizedek meets Abram returning from the defeat of the 
 four kings, and blesses him. 
 
 L897. Abram's name changed to Abraham. Circumcision instituted. 
 Sodom and Gomorrah destroyed. 
 
 L892. Ishmael, eldest son of Abraham, sent away with his mother 
 Hagar ; becomes the father of the Arabs. 
 
 1872. Isaac, Abraham's child of promise, rescued from sacrifice. 
 
 1856. Argos founded by Inachus with a colony from Phoenicia. 
 
 1825. The Shepherd kings expelled from Lower Egypt by Thetmosis. 
 
 LI 93. Ogyges begins to reign in Attica, 
 
 1 760. Jacob, by a stratagem of his mother, obtains his father's bless- 
 ing, and flees to his uncle Laban, with whom he remains 
 twenty years. 
 
 1722. Sesostris, or Ramases, king of Egypt. 
 
 1715. Joseph made governor of Egypt. 
 
 1707. The Israelites (70 persons), at the beginning of th£ semn years' 
 famine, remove to Egypt. 
 
 1582. The chronology of the Arundelian Marbles begins. 
 
50 GENERAL HISTORY. [B. €» 1921 
 
 B.C. 1 1 
 
 1577. Ramasea Miamum, king of Egypt, cruelly persecutes the 
 Israelites. 
 
 1556. Athens founded by Cecrops with a colony from Egypt. 
 
 1546. Troy founded by Scamander from Crete, 
 
 1532. The Areopagus decide a contest between Mars and Neptune| 
 two princes of Thessaly. 
 
 1531. Moses, having slain an Egyptian, flees to the land of Midian. 
 
 1529. The deluge of Deucalion in Thessaly. 
 
 1521. The Amphict3^onic Council instituted. (1497 ?) 
 
 1520. Corinth founded by Sisyphus, son of ^olus. 
 
 1493. Thebes, in Bceotia, built by Cadmus, a Phoenician, who intro- 
 duces alphabetic writing into Greece. 
 
 III. — Biography^ etc.^ of the Period. 
 
 1. Abraham^ the son of Terab, of the family of Shem, 
 whom God called to leave his native country, Ur of the 
 Chaldees, at the age of seventy-five years, in order to dwell 
 as a pilgrim in the land of Canaan, 1921. God promised 
 to make of Abraham's children a great nation, to give 
 them the land of Canaan, and that in him, and in his seed, 
 all the families of the earth should be blessed. Abraham 
 believed and obeyed God in all things, and is therefore 
 justly styled " the friend of God, and the father of the 
 faithful" (Genesis, xii. 1-9 ; Galatians, iii. 16). 
 
 2, Melchizedeh, the king of Salem, or Salim, and priest 
 of the Most High God, who came out to meet Abraham 
 and bless him, after the defeat of the four kings who had 
 pillaged Sodom, and to whom Abraham gave tithes of 
 all the recovered property. 1913. (Genesis, xiv. 18-20; 
 Hebrews, v. 6-10.) 
 
 3, Ishmael was the son of Abraham and his wife Hasrar. 
 Being sent away with his mother, at God's direction, he 
 dwelt in the wilderness, and became the father of the Arabs. 
 1892. (Genesis, xxi. 9-21.) 
 
 4. Isaac was the son of Abraham and his wife Sarah, 
 born, according to the promise of God, when his father was 
 
Ijto 1491.] PATEIARCHAL. 51 
 
 lone hundred years old. 1896. As the promises which God 
 jhad made to Abraham respecting his numerous posterity, 
 jthe occupancy of Canaan, etc., were to be fulfilled only 
 ,lthrough Isaac, the Lord, to make full proof of his faith, 
 llcommanded him to offer this son up as a burnt sacrifice, 
 jjisaac being about twenty-five years of age. Abraham 
 believing that, though his son were dead, God was able 
 jto raise him from the dead, and that, therefore, the 
 lidivine promises respecting Isaac would not fail of their 
 taccomplishment, prepared to obey the Lord's command. 
 But when about to slay his son, the angel of the Lord ar- 
 p-ested him, and provided a ram, which Abraham offered 
 |iup instead of Isaac. 1872. (Gen. xxii. l-i9; Heb. xi. 
 |17-19.) 
 
 S 5, Esau, the son of Isaac and Rebecca, who sold his 
 birthright for a mess of pottage ; but when " afterward he 
 Mould have inherited the blessing, he found no place of 
 iVepentance, though he sought it carefully with tears" 
 j(Gen. XXV. 29-34 ; Heb. xii. 16, 17.) 
 
 I 6, Jacob, the brother of Esau, who, having bought his 
 |])rother's birthright, obtained his father's dying blessing by 
 1'^ stratagem of his mother, 1760- To avoid the vengeance 
 of his brother he fled to Padan-Aram, and dwelt twenty 
 jyears with his uncle Laban, whose daughters, Rachel and 
 Leah, he married. 
 
 7. Joseph, the son of Jacob and his wife Rachel, being 
 envied and hated by his elder brothers, was sold by them 
 as a slave into Egypt. 1728. There he was thrown into 
 prison on a false accusation ; but afterward he was released 
 in order to interpret Pharaoh's dreams, and finally became 
 ruler over the whole land of Egypt. God having given 
 Joseph wisdom to make provision against a seven years' 
 famine, he sent for his father and brethren and supplied 
 them with bread, and gave them a home in the land of 
 Egypt 1706. (Gen. xxxix., xl., xli.), etc. 
 
52 GENERAL HISTORY. [B. C. 1921 
 
 8, Inachus^ a native of Phoenicia, the son of Oceanus 
 and Tethys. Emigrating to Greece, he built the city of 
 Argos, on the Gulf of Argolis, in the Peloponnesus, b. c. 
 1856, over which he reigned sixty years. He built a temple 
 to Apollo on Mount Lycaon, and taught the people a 
 knowledge of the gods. 
 
 9, The Shepherd Kings were tattooed barbarians, and so 
 called by the Egyptians from the multitude of their flocks 
 and herds. Headed by their chief, jSalatis, they seized 
 Lower Egypt, b. c. 2084, and held it under seventeen 
 dynasties, until b. c. 1825. 
 
 10, Ogyges, a Phoenician or Egyptian, who, among the 
 first that colonized Greece, reigned in Boeotia or Attica, at a 
 very early period, b. c. 1798. During his reign occurred a 
 deluge in Attica, that so inundated the region that it is 
 said to have laid waste 200 years. 
 
 11, Sesostris, a renowned king of Egypt, remarkable 
 for his conquests, his wealth, and good government. The 
 time of his re'ig-n is uncertain. 
 
 12, The Arundelian Marbles, — Tablets of Grecian chro- 
 nology, composed and carved on Parian marble, b. c. 264. 
 The chronology of Greece, as now commonly received, is for 
 the most part founded on these records, and it extends to the 
 year b. c. 1582. These tablets were obtained a. d. 1625, by the 
 Earl of Arundel, and are now in the University of Oxford, 
 England. 
 
 13, Cecrops, a native of Sais, in Egypt, whence he led a 
 colony into Greece, occupied Attica, and built Athens, b. c. 
 1556. Cecrops died after a reign of fifty years, which he 
 spent in regulating his kingdom and elevating the minds 
 of his subjects. By some he is supposed to have instituted 
 the celebrated Judicial Tribunal, the Areopagus (the Hill 
 of Jfars), so called because Mars, a prince of Thessaly, who 
 had committed murder, was the first criminal condemned 
 by this court, b. c. 1532. 
 
to 1491.] ^^*™^~KEiREW COMMONWEALTH. 53 
 
 14» Scamander, the leader of a colony from the island 
 of Crete, who founded the city of Troy, b. c. 1546. 
 
 15. Deucalion, a prince of Thessaly, in whose reign oc- 
 curred a partial inundation, magnified by the poets into a 
 universal deluge — b. c. 1529. 
 
 16, CadmtcSf the son of Agenor, a king of Phoenicia, emi- 
 grating to Greece settled in Bceotia and built the city of 
 Thebes, b. c. 1493. Cadmus brought with him the Phoeni- 
 cian alphabet, instructed the people in its use and in the 
 worship of many of the Phoenician and Egyptian divinities. 
 The alphabet of Cadmus consisted of only sixteen letters, 
 to which eight others were afterward added. After this the 
 Greeks made rapid advances in civilization. 
 
 Period IY. — Hebrew Commonwealth. 
 
 Exodus of Israel, ) ( Dedication of Temple, 
 
 B. c. 1491. } 487 years. ] b. c. 1004. 
 
 MosKs— The Bed Sea. ) ( Solomon— J^rwsaZm. 
 
 1, This period is distinguished by the deliverance of 
 the Hebrews from Egypt, their wandering in the Desert for 
 forty years, and their establishment in Canaan, the Land of 
 Promise ; and as the Heroic Age of Grecian history. 
 
 II. — The Chronology of the Period. 
 
 B. C. 
 
 1491. Moses institutes the Passover, and conducts the Israelites out 
 
 of Egypt : Pharaoh Amenophis pursuing them, is drowned 
 
 with his host in the Ked Sea. 
 1490. Sparta founded by Lacedsemon. 
 1453. The Olympic Games instituted in Greece. 
 1451. Aaron, the first Jewish Higli-Priest, dies. 
 
 The Pentateuch or Five Books of Moses written. 
 1451. Joshua, succeeding Moses, leads the Israelites into Canaan, 
 
 after wandering in the Desert forty years. 
 1438. Pandion, king of Athens. 
 1406. Minos, the celebrated Cretan lawgiver, and the fabled judge 
 
 of the dead. 
 1405. Othniel, the first Hebrew judge. 
 
♦ 
 
 •J^ GENERAL HISTORY. [B. C. 1491 
 
 B. C, 
 
 1383. Erectlieus restores the worship of Minerva in Attica. 
 
 1325. Shamgar slays 600 Philistines with an ox-goad. 
 
 1285. Deborah and Barak defeat Sisera. 
 
 1283. Pelops, a Lydian, gives his name to southern Greece. (The 
 
 Peloponnesus.) 
 1263. The Argonautic expedition. 
 1257. Theseus, a Grecian hero, and the founder of Democracy at 
 
 Athens. 
 1252. Tyre built, and becomes the capital of Phoenicia. 
 1224. Priam, king of Troy. 
 1209. Death of Hercules. 
 1184. Troy taken by the Greeks after a siege of ten years, in the time 
 
 - of Jephthah, the Hebrew judge. 
 1120. Samuel, thelast Hebrew judge. 
 1104. The Heraclidae return to the Peloponnesus. 
 1095. Saul, the first king of Israel. 
 1069. Death of Codrus, the last king of Athens. 
 1055. David, second king of Israel. 
 1040. Sanconiathon, a Phoenician historian. 
 1015. Solomon, son of David, third king of Israel. 
 
 Ill'— Biography^ etc., of the Period. 
 
 1. The Ejcodus of Israel took place four hundred and 
 thirty years from the time Abraham visited Egypt, b. c. 
 1921 ; and two hundred and fifteen years from the time 
 Jacob and his family went to sojourn there, b. c. 1706. 
 During that period they had increased from 70 persons to 
 603,550, besides the Levites, the women, and all under 
 twenty years of age. 
 
 2. Moses, the son of Amram and Jochebed, of the tribe 
 of Levi, was born during the persecution of the Hebrews 
 by Pharaoh Raraases Miamura, b. c. 1571. After bein^ 
 concealed three months, he was placed by his mother in an 
 ark of bulrushes, and exposed on the brink of the river. 
 There, in a short time, he was discovered by Pharaoh's 
 daughter, who adopted him, and caused him to be educated 
 in all the wisdom of the Egyptians. At 40 years of age 
 
jto 1004.] HEBREW COMMO]^WEALTH. 65 
 
 'I 
 
 (b. c. 1531) he visited his brethren, and in avenging one 
 [that was oppressed, he slew an Egyptian. Fearing the 
 jvvrath of the king for this, Moses fled to the land of Midian, 
 jnear Mount lloreb, where he married the daughter of 
 Jethro, and remained forty years. 
 
 I At 80 years of age, God appeared to him in the burning 
 bush, and commissioned him to return to Egypt and deliver 
 |his brethren, the Hebrews, from their bondage, and to be 
 their lawgiver and judge. 
 
 The Pentateuch, or five books of Moses, written after 
 the giving of the Law fiom Mount Sinai, furnish the only 
 authentic history of the first ages of the world, and have 
 suggested principles of religion, morality, and government 
 to nearly all civilized nations. 
 
 It will be noticed that during the lifetime of Moses five 
 ancient cities were founded : Troy, Athens, Corinth, 
 Thebes, and Sparta. 
 
 3. Aaron, the elder brother of Moses, was the first He- 
 brew High-Priest. When his right to the priesthood was 
 questioned, it was confirmed by the miracle of the Almond 
 Rod. At the death of Aaron, b. c. 1451, he was succeeded 
 in the pontifical ofiice by his son Eleazer. 
 
 4. Joshua, the valiant Hebrew appointed to succeed 
 Moses, led the Hebrews into Canaan, b. c. 1451, and di- 
 vided the land among the Tribes. Of all the men that 
 came out of Egypt above twenty years of age, none re- 
 mained to enter the promised land but Joshua and Caleb. 
 
 5. The Hebrew Judges, — The first judge appointed to 
 deliver the Hebrews after the death of Joshua was Othniel, 
 1405. After Othniel, the most famous judges were Ehud, 
 who slew Eglon, king of Moab, 1325 ; Shamgar, who slew 
 600 Philistines with an ox-goad ; Deborah, a prophetess, 
 that sent Barak to the conquest of Sisera, 1285; Gideon, 
 who, with 300 men, caused a great slaughter of the Midian- 
 ites, 1245; Jephthah, who, in fulfilling a rash vow, devoted 
 
56 GENEEAL HISTORY. [B.C. 1491' 
 
 his only daughter, 1187; Eli^ who failed to restrain the 
 wickedness of his sons, 1156; Samson, the strongest man 
 mentioned in all history, 1137; Samuel, the last and best, 
 who failing to dissuade his people from monarchy, anointed 
 Saul their first king, 1095. 
 
 G, The Olympic Games, so named from Olympia, 
 w4iere they were celebrated, or from Jxipiter Olympus, in 
 whose honor they were instituted. They were first observed 
 by the Idmi Dactyli, priests of Jupiter, b. c. 1453 ; revived 
 by Pelops, 1307, and adopted as an " era" by Coroehus, 776. 
 At first the exercises consisted in boxins:, wrestlincr racins^, 
 and other athletics. In later times there were added the 
 contests of poets, orators, philosophers, and authors and 
 artists of every description. 
 
 7. The Argonauts, so called from their ship Argo, were 
 a company of Grecian heroes who, led by Jason, sailed to 
 Colchis, on the Euxine Sea, to obtain from king ^tes, the 
 Golden Fleece, b. c. 1263. According to the mythologists, 
 Phryxus and IIelle,U\o children of Athamus king of Boeo- 
 tia, fleeing from the cruelty of their stepmother Ino, escaped 
 upon a winged ram which had a fleece of gold. They in- 
 tended to take refuge wdth their uncle ^tes, the king of 
 Colchis, on the Euxine Sea. But as they were passing over 
 the strait which divides Asia from Europe, Helle fell into it 
 and was drowned, w^hence the name, Hellespont. Phryxus 
 arrived safely at the court of his uncle, who immediately 
 murdered him, and killed the ram to secure the fleece. To 
 recover this fleece, Jason, a relative of Phryxus, embarked 
 with fifty renowned warriors, among wKom were Castor, 
 Pollux, Hercules, Theseus, and Laertes. 
 
 8. Lacedcemon, a son of Jupiter, who built Sparta, 
 1490, so naming it after his wife Sparta. He was the first 
 that introduced the worship of the Graces in Latonia, build- 
 ing a temple for that purpose. 
 
I 
 
 j to 1004.] THE HEBEEW COMMONWEALTH. 57 
 
 9, The Trojan War, undertaken by the confederate 
 Greeks, 1194, for the recovery of Helen, wife of Menelaus, 
 a Grecian prince, who had been carried off by Paris, a son 
 of Priam, king of Troy. The Grecian army was com- 
 manded by Agamemnon, Achilles, Ulysses, Nestor, Ajax, 
 and others, and numbered 100,000 men with 1200 ships. 
 
 The Trojans were led by Hector and Paris, sons of Priam, 
 ^neas his son-in-law, Memnon his nephew and king of 
 Thebes in Egypt, Rhesus king of Thrace, and other friendly 
 princes. 
 
 The city, after a siege of ten years, was captured by this 
 stratagem : — A large hollow wooden horse was prepared by 
 the Greeks, and secretly filled with armed men. Leaving 
 this huge image near the walls of Troy, they retired from 
 the ground, as though they had abandoned their enterprise. 
 As soon as the Greeks had disappeared the Trojans sallied 
 forth, and taking possession of the horse^ brought it within 
 the city as an offering to the goddess Minerva. 
 
 During the night the Greeks concealed within the horse 
 came out and opened the gates to their companions, who, 
 having in the meantime returned, entered and destroyed 
 the city, 1184. 
 
 Intelligence of this victory was immediately conveyed 
 to Greece, by means of signal fires kindled on the moun- 
 tains between Troy and Greece, a distance of about 500 or 
 600 miles. Mount Arachnseus, in the southern part of 
 Greece, was the last station of these telegraphic fires. 
 
 10. The Trojans that escaped the destruction of their 
 city were ^neas, his father Anchises, his son Ascanius, and 
 a number of followers. These embarking in a fleet of 
 twenty ships, set sail in search of a new settlement. After 
 a wandering voyage of seven years, in which he lost his 
 father and most of his companions, and thirteen ships, he 
 finally reached Latium in Italy, where he married Lavinia, 
 
58 GENERAL HISTORY. [B. C. 1491 
 
 the dauo;hter of kino- Latinus, whom he succeeded on the 
 throne. (This voyage of ^neas is the subject of the .j^7ieid 
 of Virgil.) 
 
 11, The HeraclidcBf the descendants of Hercules, hav- 
 ing been expelled by the Pelopidse from their inheritance, 
 the kingdom of their father in southern Greece, took refuge 
 abroad for nearly a hundred years. Profiting now by the 
 demoralized condition of the country consequent upon the 
 Trojan war, they returned to the Peloponesus and recovered 
 their former possessions, b. c. 1104. This event is often 
 referred to in the early history of Greece. 
 
 12, Saul, the first king of Israel, 1095, was the son of 
 Kishjthe Benjamite. Promising well at first, he was finally 
 rejected for the sins of disobedience and necromancy. 
 
 13, David, a son of Jesse, of the tribe of Judah, who 
 in his youth slew a lion and a bear, and killed the giant 
 Goliath with a sling and stone. After Saul's death David 
 became the second king of Israel, 1055, having been some 
 time before anointed by the prophet Samuel. David 
 played skilfully upon the harp, and composed many of the 
 Psalms, whence he is called the sweet singer of Israel. 
 
 14, Codrus, the seventeenth and last king of Athens, and 
 a devoted patriot. The HeraclidaB having made war upon 
 Athens, the Oracle declared that the people whose king 
 should be slain in the contest would gain the victory. To 
 deprive the Athenians of victory, the Heraclidae gave strict 
 orders to spare the life of Codrus ; but the patriotic king, 
 having purposely disguised himself, attacked one of the 
 enemy, by whom he was immediately killed. The Athe- 
 nians, then demanding the body of their prince, claimed 
 the victory ; and in honor of the memory of their deliverer 
 they decreed that no man after Godrus should bear the 
 title of king of Athens, 1069. From that time their rulers 
 w^ere named Archons ; and the first chosen to that ofiice 
 were the two sons of Codrus. 
 
to 1004.J ASSYHIAK EMPIRE. 59 
 
 Period Y. — AssYniAisr Empire. 
 
 Dedication op Temple, \ c Conquest op Assyria, 
 
 B. c. 1004. i 466 j^ears. -j b. c. 538. 
 
 B0L.OMON— Jerusalem. ' ' Cyrus — Babylon. 
 
 1, The Period of the Assyrian Etnjnre is distin- 
 guished by— 1. The splendid reign of Solomon. 2. The 
 secession of the Ten Tribes from the House of David. 3. 
 The foundation of Rome. 4. The victories of the Assyrian 
 kings. 5. As the Literary Age of Greece. 
 
 II. — The Chro7iology of the Period. 
 
 B. C. 
 
 1004. The Temple dedicated, after seven years spent in its erection. 
 
 975. Ten Tribes, led by Jeroboam, secede from the house of David 
 and form the kingdom of Israel, 
 
 971. The second Pyramid built by Shishak,- king of Egypt. 
 
 957. The victory of Abijah over Jeroboam — 500,000 fall in battle. 
 
 900. The history of Elijah the prophet, Homer, Hesiod, Jehoshapliat. 
 
 884. Lycurgus, the Spartan lawgiver. 
 
 869. Phidon, king of Argos, coins silver money 
 Carthage founded by Dido. 
 
 800. The history of Jonah the prophet. 
 
 776. The sera of the Olympiads introduced by Coroebus. 
 
 753. Rome founded by Romulus. 
 
 750. The history of Isaiah the prophet. 
 
 747. The death of Sardanapalus — end of the first Assyrian empire. 
 
 721. The capture of Samaria by Shalmanezer, which ends the king- 
 dom of Israel. 
 
 710. The destruction of Sennacherib's army in the reign of 
 Hezekiah. 
 
 672. The combat of the Horatii and Curiatii in the reign of Tullus 
 Hostilius, third king of Rome. 
 
 624. Josiah's reformation at Jerusalem. Draco, the Athenian law- 
 giver. 
 
 616. Tarquin the Elder builds the Roman capitol. 
 
60 GENERAL HISTORY. [B. C. 1629. 
 
 B. C. 
 
 600. Tlie victories of Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon. About the 
 beginning of the Babylonish captivity, flourish the prophets 
 Jeremiah and Ezekiel, the Seven Wise Men of Greece^ and 
 ^sop the Fabulist. 
 
 550. Daniel the prophet, Confucius, Pisistratus. 
 
 548. Croesus defeated by Cyj'us in the battle of Thymbra. 
 
 538. Capture of Babylon and death of Belshazzar. 
 
 III. — Biography^ etc., of the Period. 
 
 1. Solomon's Temple. — This renowned edifice occupied 
 the summit of Mount Moriahy supposed to be the elevation 
 on which Abraham prepared to offer up his son Isaac 
 (Genesis, xxii.). The main building was about 90 feet 
 long, 30 feet wide, and 45 feet high. This structure 
 was surrounded on three sides by a series of chambers 
 three stories high (22|- feet). On the fourth side, or front, 
 was a magnificent porch 30 feet long, 15 feet wide, and 180 
 feet high. The interior of the temple was divided into 
 two apartments, the Holy Place and the Most Holy Place, 
 separated from each other by a costly and beautiful veil or 
 curtain, and each furnished in the same manner as the 
 Tabernacle in the Wilderness had been. 
 
 Surrounding the temple, and chiefly on three sides of the 
 declivity of the mount, were — 1. The Court of the Priests, 
 containing Altar of Burnt Sacrifice, the Brazen Sea, 
 etc. ; 2. The Court of the Israelites ; 3. The Court of 
 the Wb?nen, appropriated to their special use as their place 
 of public worship ; 4. The Court of the Gentiles, into which 
 alone persons of all nations were permitted to enter ; but 
 beyond this none except Israelites were allowed to ap- 
 proach the sacred edifice. These courts were separated 
 from each other by partitions and coUonades, and with the 
 temple, occupied about 20 acres. The materials of which the 
 templewas built were for the most part obtained from Hiram, 
 king of Tyre, and all were prepared for their appropriate use 
 before they were brought to Jerusalem (1 Kings, v. 9). 
 
to 538.] ASSYRIAK EMPIRE. 6] 
 
 The dedication of the temple, b. c. 1004, was an occasion 
 of universal joy, and forms an important sera in the history 
 of the Israelites. 
 
 2, Solomon, the youngest son of David, and his suc- 
 cessor as king of Israel, b. c. 1015. When called to the 
 throne he asked the Lord to grant him wisdom and virtue 
 to govern his people aright ; and God bestowed on him 
 extraordinary wisdom, wealth unlimited, and prosperity 
 unexceeded. Solomon Avrote three of the books of the Old 
 Testament : Proverbs, Ecdesiastes, and Canticles. He died 
 B. c. 975, at the age of 58, having reigned 40 years. 
 
 3, The Kingdom of Israel, — Rehoboam, the son of 
 Solomon, on ascending the throne, refused to lighten the 
 burdens of his father's government, imposed during the 
 latter part of his reign. Provoked by this, ten of the 
 Tribes of Israel, led by Jeroboam the son of Nebat, thereon 
 seceded from the house of David, and established the 
 Kingdom of Israel, b. c. 975. This defection left to the 
 line of David but two Tribes, Judah and Benjamin, which 
 thenceforward were known as the Kingdom of Jadah. 
 
 4, Shishakf king of Egypt, supposed by some to be the 
 same as Sesostris. b. c. 971, he is said to have built the 
 second Pyramid. The first Pyramid is supposed to have 
 been built about a century earlier than Shishak, and the 
 third Pyramid by his successor. In the same year Shishak 
 captured Jerusalem and plundered the Temple. 
 
 5, Ahijahf the son and successor of Rehoboam, in at- 
 tempting to reduce the revolted tribes to their allegiance, 
 invaded the kingdom of Israel, b. c. 957, and in the battle 
 that ensued there fell 500,000 men, the greatest military 
 slaughter, in one battle, on record. 
 
 6, JElijahf the Tishbite, an eminent prophet, sent to re- 
 buke the sins of the kingdom of Israel in the reign of Ahab 
 and his queen Jezebel. In opposition to the idolatrous 
 worship introduced by Ahab, Elijah proved in. the most 
 
62 GENERAL HISTORY. [B. C. 1004 
 
 triumphant manner that Jehovah is the only living and true 
 God, and that Baal and all false gods are nothing (1 Kings, 
 xviii.). At length, b. c. 898, this faithful servant of God 
 was honored in the most remarkable manner, in being 
 translated, as Enoch had been 2121 years before. Contem- 
 poraries : — Jehoshaphat, king of Judah ; Jehoram, king of 
 Israel; Benhadad, king of Syria; Homer, and Hesiod. 
 
 7. Homer, the earliest classical v^^riter and the most 
 eminent Grecian poet. The place of his nativity is un- 
 known, seven illustrious cities contending for the honor. 
 He appears to have been blind and to have led a wandering 
 life, singing his compositions in separate poems. His chief 
 and most celebrated productions are the Z//«^, which narrates 
 the siege and fall of Troy; and the Odyssy. which recounts 
 the adventures of Ulysses, one of the Grecian princes, on 
 his return from Troy to his kingdom of Ithaca, Hesiod, 
 another eminent Greek poet, contemporary with Homer, was 
 born at Ascra in Boeotia. His two chief works are a poem 
 on Agriculture, and his Theogony, or history of the gods. 
 
 8. Dido, the sister of Pygmalion, king of Tyre. To 
 escape the cruelty of her brother, who had murdered 
 Sichaeus, her husband, she embarked with a number of de- 
 voted friends and set sail in quest of a settlement. Being 
 driven by a storm on the coast of Africa, she there founded 
 the city of Carthage, b. c. 869, which in after ages became 
 the defiant rival of the Roman republic. 
 
 9. LyciirguSf the celebrated Spartan lawgiver, who, 
 after spending ten years in travelling for information, re- 
 turned and established that peculiar code of laws and insti- 
 tutions which rendered the Spartans the hardiest and 
 bravest people of Greece, b. c. 884. The Spartan consti- 
 tution, as given by Lycurgus, continued in force 600 years. 
 It was a combination of monarchy, aristocracy, and de- 
 mocracy. There were two kings, a senate of 28 nobles, 
 and leo'islative assemblies of the citizens. There was an 
 
to 538.] ASSYRIA 1^- EMPIRE. 63 
 
 equal division of land ; public tables and education ; luxury- 
 was banished; iron money; no commerce; no walls; no 
 fleet. 
 
 10, JPhidon, the king of Argos, who, it is said, introduced 
 scales and measures, and first coined silver money at .^gina, 
 B. c. 869. 
 
 11, Jonahf the prophet who attempted to flee from the 
 presence of the Lord, when sent to preach to the Ninevites; 
 and who, on being cast into the sea, was swallowed by a 
 great fish, and after three days was cast ashore, b. c. 800. 
 Contemporaries : — Uzziah, king of Judah ; Jeroboam II. of 
 Israel ; the prophets Joel and Amos, and Caranus, the 
 founder of Macedon. 
 
 12, CorcebuSf the wrestler, being victorious in the Olympic 
 Games, appointed them to be permanently observed every 
 four years. This introduces the Epoch of the Olympiads, 
 B. c. 776. 
 
 13, MomuluSf the brother of Kemus, and founder of 
 Rome, according to the poets, was descended from ^neas, 
 who, with his son Ascanius, found an asylum in Italy 
 after their flight from the destruction of Troy. (See " The 
 Trojans,'''' Per. iv. 10.) Romulus instituted a senate and 
 divided the people into tribes and curiae, patricians and 
 plebeians, b. c. 753. After Romulus there were six kings 
 of Rome : — Numa Pompilius, 715 ; Tullus Hostilius, 672 ; 
 Ancus Martins, 640 ; Tarquin the Elder, 616 ; Servius 
 TulUus, 578; Tarquin the Proud, 534. 
 
 14, Isaialif the prophet, who beheld a heavenly vision 
 of Christ's divine glory, and foretold the advent of Christ 
 and the final restoration of the Jews to the land of Canaan 
 (Isaiah, vi. ; John, xii.) b. c. 750. Contemporaries : — 
 Romulus, Hezekiah, Shalmanezar, and ISTuma, second king 
 of Rome. 
 
 15, SardanapaliiSf the last king of the first Assyrian 
 empire, was the son of Pul (2 Kings, xv. 19), but, unlike 
 

 64 GENERAL HISTORY. [B. C 1004 
 
 his father, was noted for effeminacy and cowardice. On 
 being besieged in Nineveh, he burned his palace, with 
 himself, his family, and all his treasures. The empire was ^1 
 then divided into three kingdoms: Media, under Arbaces ; 
 Babylon, under Belesis or Nabonassar; and Nineveh, 
 under Tiirlath-Pileser, b. c. 747. 
 
 16, Shalmanezar was the successor of Tiglath-Pileser 
 in Nineveh. He captured Samaria, and led the Ten Tribes i|i 
 of Israel into a captivity from which they have not yet re- 
 turned, B.C. 721. Thus ended in total extinction the kino- ,, 
 dom of Israel, 254 years from their revolt from the house 
 of David. (See ^^ Kingdom of Israel,'''' 4, supra.) The 
 heathen colonists«pl anted in the desolated cities of Israel 
 by the kings of Assyria became in after-times the Sama- 
 ritans, between whom and the Jews there ever existed 
 great hostility, 
 
 17, Semiacheribf the king of Nineveh, who, in the reign 
 of Hezekiah, besieged Jerusalem, and blasphemed the Lord 
 God of Israel. To punish this great crime, the angel of the 
 Lord slew, in one night, 185,000 of his army; while Sen- 
 nacherib himself, having retreated to his own capital, was 
 slain by two of his sons as he was worshipping in the 
 temple of his god JSTisroc. 
 
 18, The Combat of the Horatii and Curiatii, in the 
 reign of TuUus Hostilius, third king of Rome, b. c. 672. 
 The Romans and Albans being on the eve of battle, it was 
 agreed that three champions should be chosen on each side 
 to determine the contest. In the camp of the Romans 
 there were three brothers, Horatii ; and in the army of the 
 Albans there were three Curiatii, also brothers. These were 
 respectively chosen to decide the victory. After fighting 
 for some time, two of the Horatii were slain, and the other, 
 Horatius, pretending to be afraid to encounter his three 
 opponents together, fled. In this manner, drawling his adver- 
 saries asunder, he slew them separately as they advanced. 
 
to 538.] ASSYRIAN" EMPIRE. 65 
 
 19. DracOf the Athenian, author of a code of laws which 
 punished all crimes with death, hence named the Bloodty 
 Code, B. c. 624. Contemporaries : — Josiah, king of Judah ; 
 Nabopolassar of Assyria, and Tarquin the Elder, of Rome. 
 
 20. Tarquin, the Elder, fifth king of Rome, built the 
 Roman capitol and the walls of the city. Conquered the 
 Latins and Sabines, b. c. 616. 
 
 21, Nebuchadnezzar , oi^Q of the great heroes of antiquity, 
 was the son and successor of Nabopolassar as king of 
 Assyria. He conquered the Jews, 606; Nineveh, 600; 
 Tyre and Egypt, 572. This monarch, although a heathen, 
 had several important prophetic dreams, the interpretation 
 of which introduced to public notice the young Hebrew cap- 
 tives, Daniel and his three companions, Shadrach, Meshech, 
 and Abednego. 
 
 22, The Great Image of Nebuchadnezzar's first pro- 
 phetic dream : — 1. The Head of Gold represented the 
 Assyrian empire, of which Nebuchadnezzar himself was 
 the most famous sovereign, b. c. 600 ; 2. The Breast and 
 Arms of Silver — tlie empire of the Medes and Persians, 
 founded by Cyrus the Great, b. c. 536; 3. The Belly and 
 Thighs of Brass — the Macedonian empire, founded by 
 Alexander the Great, b. c. 330 ; 4. The Legs of Iron, and 
 the Feet, part of iron and part of clay — the Roman em- 
 pire, founded by Augustus, b. c. 30 ; 5. The Stone cut 
 OUT OF the mountain WITHOUT HANDS represented the 
 "Kingdom of God," to be set up in the days of "the ten 
 kingdoms," to break in pieces and consume all the rest, and 
 stand forever (Dan. ii. ). 
 
 23, The Babf/lonish Captivity of the Jews lasted, ac- 
 cording to the prophecies, seventy yearfj, from the taking 
 of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, b. c. 606, to their libera- 
 tion by Cyrus, 536. During this time flourished the proph- 
 ets Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Obadiah ; ^sop the fabulist, the 
 Seven Wise Men of Greece ; Croesus, king of Lydia ; Servius 
 
QQ GE^vTERAL HISTORY. [B. C. 1004 
 
 Tullius, sixth king of Rome, and Pisistratus, tyrant of 
 
 Athens. 
 24, The Seven Wise Men of Greece were Thales of 
 
 Miletus, Solon of Athens, Bias of Prienne, Chilo of Lace- 
 daemon, Pittachus of Mitylene, Cleobulus of Lindos, and 
 Periander of Corinth. Each of these philosophers, it is 
 said, was the author of certain remarkable sayings, of 
 which the following are the most noted : — 
 
 Thales: "Take more pains to correct the blemishes of 
 the mind, than those of the face." 
 
 Solon : " He who has learned to obey, will know how 
 to command." "Know thyself" 
 
 Bias : " Be slow in undertaking, but resolute in execut- 
 ing." 
 
 Chilo : " Honest loss is better than shameful gain ; for 
 by the one, a man suffers only once ; by the other, always." 
 
 Pittachus : " Whatever you do, do it well." " Be 
 watchful for opportunities." 
 
 Cleobulus : " Be kind to your friends, tbat they may 
 continue such ; and to your enemies, that they may become 
 your friends." 
 
 Periander : " Study to be worthy of your parents." 
 " Nothing is impossible to industry." 
 
 Among these eminent men, Solon is distinguished as the 
 legislator of Athens. One of his laws forbade the expor- 
 tation of figs ; and all good citizens were enjoined to report 
 every violation of it coming to their knowledge. From 
 this, the person giving such information was named s(/co- 
 phant ((Toxov, a Jig, and (paiuw, to make hnown). Another 
 institution, designed to promote public spirit and general 
 sociability, required the citizens to appear at proper times 
 at the public entertainments. They who neither absented 
 themselves entirely, nor came too frequently, but observed a 
 becoming propriety in their attendance, were distinguished 
 by the honorable name. Parasite (-Trapa, at, tfj-roj, bread). 
 
to 538.] ASSYEIAN" EMPIRE. 67 
 
 25, Croesus, 2k celebrated king of Lydia in Asia Minor, 
 and one of the richest monarchs of antiquity. Having 
 been defeated by Cyrus in the battle of Thyrabra (548), 
 he was as a captive prince, according to an ancient barbar- 
 ous custom, condemned to be burned alive. This sentence, 
 however, was not executed. Having ascended the pile pre- 
 pared for his destruction, and overwhelmed at his sad fate, 
 he exclaimed in the deepest emotion : " O Solon ! Solon !" 
 Cyrus, surprised at this, and knowing nothing of the cel- 
 ebrated Grecian, demanded to be informed what divinity 
 the unhappy prince would invoke at such a time ? He was 
 then informed by Croesus, that in the season of his prosper- 
 ity as king of Lydia, his court had been the resort of the 
 wise and the learned of all nations. That among other 
 visitors upon a certain occasion was Solon, the philosopher 
 of Athens. To this eminent man he had exhibited his vast 
 wealth and the splendor of his royal estate, in the hope of 
 being pronounced by him the happiest of men. But the 
 declaration of Solon occasioned in Croesus only surprise 
 and disappointment : " The events of future life are uncer- 
 tain ; he who has hitherto been prosperous may be unfor- 
 tunate to-morrow: let no man, therefore, be pronounced 
 happy before death." Cyrus, impressed with the wisdom 
 of Solon's memorable observation, released Croesus from 
 the sentence of death, and ever after treated him with the 
 respect due to his former rank. 
 
 26, The Capture of JBabylon by Darius and his 
 nephew Cyrus. Belshazzar, the last king of Assyria, cel- 
 ebrating a royal feast, brought forth and desecrated the 
 sacred vessels which his grandfather Nebuchadnezzar had 
 taken from the Temple in Jerusalem. Immediately there 
 appeared the handwriting on the wall of his palace, which, 
 expounded by the venerable prophet Daniel, denounced the 
 impending doom of the impious king. In that night was 
 Belshazzar slain. For the Medes and Persians having be- 
 
(38 GENERAL HISTOEY. [B. C. 538 
 
 sieved the city unsuccessfully for two years, had now com- 
 pleted a deep trench or ditch which they had dug around j 
 its walls. Into this they turned the waters of the Eu- 
 phrates, and entering the city by the bed of the river, sur- 
 prised the guards at the palace, slew Belshazzar, and put 
 to the sword all that attended him (It^aiah, xlvii. ; Jere- 
 miah, li.). 
 
 27' Contemporary with the prophet Daniel flourished 
 Confucius, the reformer of the Chinese religion. He 
 was of royal descent, a Mandarin, and an eminent philos- 
 opher. 
 
 Period VI. — Medo-Persian Empire. 
 
 Fall OF Babylon, ^ ( Conquest of Persia, 
 
 B. c. 538. y 208 years. } b. c. 330. 
 
 Cyrus and Darius. ) ( Alex. Gt. — Alexandria. 
 
 1, Medo-T*ersian JPeriod, distinguished by the — 1. 
 Restoration of the Jews to their own country. 2. The 
 establishment of the Republic of Rome. 3. The Persian 
 invasion of Greece. 
 
 II. — Chronology of the Period. 
 
 B. C. 
 
 536. Cyrus ascends the throne and liberates the Jews. 
 
 521. Darius H3^staspes becomes king of Persia. 
 
 515, Tlie second Temple dedicated. 
 
 510. The Pisistratidae expelled from Athens — Pythagoras. 
 
 509. Royalty abolished, and Rome becomes a Republic. 
 
 490. The Battle of Marathon — Persians defeated by Miltiades. 
 
 480. The Battle of Thermopylae — Persians opposed by Leonidas. 
 
 460. Cincinnatus, Dtctt^tor of Rome. 
 
 458. Estiier becomes queen of Artaxerxes Longimanus. 
 
 457. Ezra restores the worship of the Temple. ^^ 
 
 450. Pericles, tyrant of Athens. 
 
 440. Herodotus, the father of Profane History. 
 
to 330.] MEEO-PEESIAX EMPIEE. 69 
 
 B. C. 
 
 441. Artemones inveuts the batteriug-ram. 
 
 409. Neliemiali's last act of reformation. 
 
 400. Socrates, Hippocrates, Xenophon, Dionysius. 
 
 890. Camillus expels the Gauls from Rome. 
 
 371. Epaminondas defeats the Spartans. 
 
 350. Plato— Aristotle — Demosthenes — Diogenes. 
 
 338. The Battle of Cheronoea — Philip conquers Greece. 
 
 III. — Biography.^ etc.^ of the Period. 
 
 1. CyruSf suvnamed TJie Great, was the son of Cam- 
 byses, king of Persia. On the death of his nncle, Darius the 
 Mede, with whom he had been associated in the conquest 
 of Babylon and other wars, he became sole monarch of the 
 Medo-Persian empire, 536. Signalizing his accession to the 
 throne by the noble act of liberating the captive Jews, ac- 
 cording to the prediction of the prophet (Isaiah, xlv. 1-4), 
 Cyrus sustained throughout his whole reign the eminent 
 character which he had formed in early life. 
 
 It is related that, when a youth, being at the court of his 
 maternal grandfather, Astyages, king of Media, Cyrus un- 
 dertook, upon a certain occasion, to discharge the office of 
 cup-bearer at table. It was the duty of that oificer, in 
 ancient times, to taste the wine before presenting it to the 
 king. Cyrus, omitting this part of the ceremony, delivered 
 the cup to his grandfather in a very graceful manner. The 
 king called his attention to the omission, imputing it, how- 
 ever, to forgetfulness. " No," replied Cyrus, " I was afraid 
 to taste the wine lest there might be poison in it ; for not 
 long since, at one of your entertainments, I noticed that the 
 lords of your court, after drinking wine, became noisy, quar- 
 relsome, and frantic ; even you, sir, seemed to forget you 
 were a king." 
 
 Cyrus was accustomed to treat captives taken in war with 
 the utmost generosity and consideration : thus, by a hu- 
 mane and enlightened policy, he transformed enemies into 
 
70 GEJ^EEAL HISTORY. [B. C. 538 
 
 friends and allies. The king of Armenia having refused to 
 pay a tribute due the Medes, Cyrus invaded his country, 
 took the fortress to which he had retreated, and made cap- 
 tives of the whole royal family of Armenia. When all were 
 assembled in the presence of the conqueror to receive sen- 
 tence, according to the custom of the age, Cyrus demanded 
 of the king why he had violated the treaty by which he 
 was bound to pay tribute to the Medes. " For no other 
 reason," replied the king, " than because I thought it glo- 
 rious to shake off a foreign yoke, to live as an independent 
 prince, and to leave my children in the same condition." 
 " It is indeed orlorious," answered Cvrus, "to fio-ht for one's 
 liberty ; but is it honorable to violate the faith of treaties ? 
 Would you not put to death a subject that should attempt 
 to throw off your government ?" " Though I pass sentence 
 upon myself," replied the king of Armenia, "I must declare 
 the truth, I would certainly put him to death." Having 
 brought the captive monarch to this acknowledgment, Cyrus 
 listened with the utmost attention to the pathetic interces- 
 sion of Tigranes, the king's eldest son, in behalf of his 
 father. Then addressing the king, Cyrus demanded, "If I 
 should yield to the entreaties of your son, with what number 
 of men, and with what sum of money will you assist us 
 against the Babylonians?" "My troops and treasures," 
 replied the captive, "are no longer mine ; they are wholly 
 yours, and shall be ever at your service." " Then," con- 
 tinued Cyrus, " what would you give for the ransom of your 
 wives?" '-'All that I have in the world," replied the king. 
 "And for the redemption of your children?' " The same 
 thing." "Then, from this moment, you are indebted to me 
 double of all your possessions." " And you, Tigranes, at 
 what price would you redeem your young and beautiful 
 princess?" "At the price,'' replied the prince, "of a thou- 
 sand lives if I had them." 
 
 Having thus secured the friendship and alliance of these 
 
to 330.] MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE. 71 
 
 princes, the noble conqueror kindly entertained his royal 
 captives, and dismissed them with affection from his pa- 
 vilion. On their way to their homes nothing was heard but 
 the warmest expressions of gratitude at their good fortune, 
 and of admiration of the noble bearing of Cyrus. But the 
 young wife of Tigranes, expressing no opinion of their ben- 
 efactor, was asked by her husband what she thought of 
 him. " I do not know," replied the princess. " What, 
 then, so occupied your attention as to prevent your notice 
 of Cyrus ?" "I thought of nothing but of the devotion of 
 that dear man who was ready to redeem my liberty with a 
 thousand lives." 
 
 2, The Second Temple. — The liberated Jews, number- 
 ing about 50,000, under the patronage and protection of 
 the kings of Persia, returned with the sacred vessels, re- 
 built their city and temple, which was dedicated 515. This 
 edifice, although far inferior to that erected by Solomon, it 
 was declared by the prophet should, in its future glory, 
 vastly excel that gorgeous structure (Haggai, ii. 9 ; John, 
 X. 23.) 
 
 3, Darius Mystaspes became king of Persia under 
 these circumstances. On the death of Cambyses, the son 
 of Cyrus the Great, the throne was seized by Smerdis, one 
 of the chief magi of the court. Upon this seven Persian 
 nobles, among whom was Darius Hystaspes, formed a con- 
 spiracy for the purpose of dethroning the usurper. Seizing 
 a favorable opportunit}'-, they entered the palace, and slew 
 both Smerdis and his brother Patizithes, by whose arts he 
 had been elevated to the kingdom. These noblemen then 
 asjreed amonsc themselves to meet the nextmorninsf at sun- 
 rise, and that he of them whose horse should neigh first, 
 should be acknowledgred kinoj. On their assembling^ at the 
 place appointed, Darius's horse neighed first, w^hereupon 
 the six other nobles dismounted and saluted him sovereign 
 of Persia (b.c. 521). 
 
72 GEKEEAL HISTORY. [B. C. 538 
 
 4, The PisistratidcBf tyrants of Athens, were Pisistra- 
 tus and his two sons, Hippias and Hipparchus. Pisistratus, 
 usurping the government of Athens, 560, enjoyed, with 
 some interruption, a splendid reign of thirty-three years. 
 But the government of his sons, who succeeded him, 
 527, becoming intolerable, Hipparchus was slain in a popu- 
 lar tumult, and Hippias was soon after expelled from 
 Athens, b. c. 510. 
 
 5, PythagoraSf an eminent Grecian philosopher, flour- 
 ished during the reign of the Pisistratidse. To Pythagoras 
 is due the honor of iirst advocating the true theory of the 
 solar system, which being then disregarded, was not revived 
 till the year a. d. 1532, when Copernicus satisfactorily de- 
 monstrated it. Some of the moral sentiments of this phi- 
 losopher are worthy of record : " No man ought to be 
 esteemed free who has not the perfect command of himself." 
 " A wise man will prepare himself for everything that is 
 not in his own power." "It is inconsistent with true cour- 
 age to retire from the station appointed by the supreme 
 Lord without his permission." 
 
 6. Home becomes a Hepiiblic, b. c. 5C9. — Tarquin the 
 Proud, seventh king of Rome, having with his family be- 
 come odious by their tyranny and cruelty, is driven from 
 the city; and the Romans having abolished royalty, de- 
 clare the government a Republic ; which form of government 
 continued nearly five hundred years. 
 
 7. The JPersiau Invasions of Greece, — Hippias, the 
 banished tyrant of Athens, having fled for protection to 
 the court of Darius Hystaspes, was kindly received by that 
 monarch. To resent this the Athenians sent assistance to 
 the lonians, who were at this time attempting to become 
 independent of Persia. In the contest which ensued the 
 city of Sardis was burnt, b. c. 504. In retaliation the king 
 of Persia sent an invading army into Greece, numbering 
 110,000, under the command of his general Datis. This 
 
to 330.] MEDO-PEESIAIs' EMPIRE. 73 
 
 immense host was totally defeated by 10,000 Greeks under 
 Miltiades in the Battle of Marathon^ b. c. 490. Notwith- 
 standing this signal failure, the attempt to conquer Greece 
 was renewed by Xerxes, the son of Darius, who, with the 
 aid of 300,000 Carthaginians under Hamilcar, invaded 
 Greece with the largest army ever brought into the field — 
 numbering probably five millions. The Persians having 
 crossed the Hellespont on abridge of boats, encountered 
 their first opposition at the pass of Thermopylae, where their 
 entrance into Greece was resisted by Leonidas at the head 
 of three hundred Spartans. When commanded by the 
 heralds of Xerxes ^^ To deliver up their arms^'^ the king of 
 Sparta returned the invitation: ^'' Come and take them.'''* 
 And when further admonished, that one discharge of the 
 Persian arrows would darken the sun: — "Then," replied 
 Leonidas, " we will fight in the shaded The laws of Spartan 
 warfare forbidding retreat, Leonidas with his noble band 
 fell in the unequal contest. The expedition, however, was 
 fatal to the Persians. They were successively defeated in 
 the Battle of Salamis by Themistocles, b. c. 480 ; and by 
 Aristides and Pausanius in the Battles of Blatcea and 
 Mycale, both fought the same day, b. c. 479. These victories 
 complete the destruction of the Persian army. 
 
 S, Esra,\.\iQ Jewish reformer, who in the reign of Ar- 
 taxerxes or Ahasuerus, king of Persia, returned from Baby- 
 lon to Jerusalem, restored the worship of the Temple, and 
 collected the books of the Old Testament into one volume, 
 B. c. 457. He was succeeded in his work of reformation by 
 Nehemiah, b. c. 455; and Malachi, the last of the Old 
 Testament prophets, b. c. 420. 
 
 9, Herodotus^ the earliest and most celebrated Grecian 
 historian, commonly called the Father of Profane History. 
 He composed a history of ancient nations, which he pub- 
 licly repeated at the Olympic Games. His performance 
 was received with so great applause that the names of the 
 
 4 
 
\ 
 
 74 GE:N'ERAL HISTORY. [B. C. 538 ] 
 
 nine muses were severally given to the nine books into 
 which his history was divided, b. c. 445. 
 
 10, Pericles, a celebrated Athenian, contemporary with 
 Herodotus, Malachi, and Cincinnatus, b. c. 450. Pericles 
 ruled Athens with absolute authority for forty years, yet 
 such was the mildness of his government that it is said he 
 never caused a citizen of Athens to put on mourning. 
 
 11, Cincinnatus, a noble Roman patriot that flourished 
 about the time of Ahasuerus, king of Persia, Malachi, 
 Pericles, and Herodotus, b. c. 460. Upon a certain 
 occasion, as Cincinnatus was ploughing, he was informed 
 that the Senate had chosen him dictator — an officer who, 
 upon occasions of imminent public danger, was invested 
 with absolute power for the defence of the state. Leaving 
 his plough with regret, he placed himself at the head of the 
 army ; and having defeated the enemies of his country — 
 the Volci and ^qui — he returned to Rome in triumph. 
 Nobly disregarding the honors and rewards of public life, 
 he resigned the dictatorship, and resumed his private 
 occupation as an agriculturist, w^ithin sixteen days from 
 the time of his appointment. Upon a second occasion, 
 when he was eighty years of age, he was, as before, 
 invested by the Senate w^ith supreme power. And again, 
 having bravely defended his country in a successful cam- 
 paign, he retired to his farm, after exercising absolute 
 power only twenty-one days. 
 
 12, ArtemojteSf of Clazomene, at the siege of Samos 
 invented the battering-ram, the testudo, and other war-like 
 engines, b. c. 441. 
 
 13, Socrates, an eminent Grecian philosopher and one 
 of the most enlightened heathen moralists, Being envied 
 and hated by his countrymen on account of his exposure 
 of their vices and superstitions, he was condemned on a 
 false charge of blasphemy, and put to death by being 
 made to drink the juice of hemlock, b. c. 400. Socrates, 
 
1^6 330.] MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE. 7o 
 
 unlike other public teachers among the Greeks, was not 
 the author of a system of philosophy ; but he brought 
 to great perfection the method of reasoning by asking a 
 series of questions; and from him named — The Socratic 
 Method. 
 
 14:, Hippocrates, an eminent Grecian physician, styled 
 the Father of Medicine. It is related that when Artax- 
 erxes Mnemon, king of Persia, attempted to induce him to 
 come to his court to practise physic, he modestly but 
 firmly replied, ^'Tirias born to serve my country., and not a 
 foreigner.'''' Died b. c. 361, aged 99. Contemporary with 
 Thucydides the historian and Euclid the philosopher. 
 
 15, Xenophon, a renowned Grecian warrior and histo- 
 rian. Having with a number of his countrymen joined the 
 standard of Cyrus the Younger, in his attempt to dethrone 
 his brother, Artaxerxes Mnemon, king of Persia, he marched 
 with the army from Sardis to Gunaxa^ near Babylon, where 
 the forces of Cyrus were totally defeated, b. c. 401. The 
 Greeks that survived tliis defeat, teii thousand in number, 
 chose Xenophon as their leader, who conducted their 
 celebrated retreat in the most successful manner. This 
 famous march of 1155 leagues was accomplished in 215 
 days, after an absence of fifteen months. The account of 
 this expedition of Cyrus, including that of the return of the 
 10,000 Greeks, called The Anabasis., is an eloquent com- 
 position written by Xenophon. The other noted works of 
 this author are The GyropedicB., or the Exploits of Cyrus 
 the Great ; and The Memorabilia of Socrates. Xenophon 
 died at the age of 90, b. c. 359. 
 
 16. Dionysius the Elder, tyrant of Syracuse, remark- 
 able for his military exploits against the Carthaginians, 
 his tyranny and cruelty to his subjects, and his suspicious 
 temper toward every one. Yet he was not devoid of gen- 
 erous sentiments. Having condemned Damon to death, 
 Dionysius granted him permission to visit his family, that 
 
70 GENERAL HISTORY. [B. C. 53S 
 
 lived at a great distance, on the condition that he would 
 leave a substitute to die in his stead if he did not return at 
 the appointed time. Pythias, a devoted friend of Damon, 
 cheerfully consented to become security for him on the 
 required condition. As the hour of execution drew near, 
 and Damon not appearing, all began to censure the rash 
 confidence of Pythias. But he, assured of the fidelity of 
 his friend, knew he would return if possible ; but at the 
 same time declared his readiness to die for him, should he 
 be prevented from returning. Damon, however, faithful to 
 his engagement, returned to Syracuse, and reached the 
 place of execution in time to save his beloved Pythias. 
 Dionysius, struck with admiration at this noble example of 
 disinterested friendship, pardoned Damon, and begged per- 
 mission to share with them, as a third friend, the exalted 
 pleasure of that attachment which no calamity could 
 extinguish. (Romans, v. 6-10.) 
 
 Damocles, one of the courtiers of Dionysius, was con- 
 stantly extolling the wealth, grandeur, and royal state of 
 his master, and admiring the abundance of those good 
 things in the king's possession, which, in his opinion, ren- 
 dered Dionysius the happiest of men. *' Since that is your 
 opinion," said the tyrant to him one day, "will "you make 
 proof of my felicity in person?" The offer was gladly 
 accepted. Damocles was ushered into a magnificent apart- 
 ment, and placed upon a golden couch which was covered 
 with carpets of rich embroidery. The sideboards were 
 loaded with vessels of gold and silver. The table was 
 spread with luxurious magnificence, and the most beautiful 
 slaves were in attendance to serve him. Damocles, filled 
 with delight, regarded himself as the happiest of mortals. 
 But in the midst of his joy, as he reclined at the sumptuous 
 repast, he cast his eye to the richly carved and gilded ceil- 
 ing, when, to his utmost dismay, he beheld immediately 
 over his head a glittering sword, suspended by a single 
 
 I 
 
I to 330.] MEDO-PEESIAN^ EMPIRE. 77 
 
 I hair. Instantly he was filled with terror. He saw nothing 
 I but the threatening sword, and thought of nothing but to 
 flee from dano;er. In the heisjht of his alarm he besrsred 
 i permission to retire from a station in which happiness is to 
 ! be enjoyed only in the presence of impending death. 
 j Dionysius the Elder died after a reign of 38 years, and was 
 ! succeeded in Syracuse by his son, Dionysius the Younger, 
 B. c. 368. 
 
 -Z7. Camillus, a noble Roman, who, although unjustly 
 banished, returned and rescued his country from the rav- 
 ages of the Gauls under JBrennus, b. c. 390. 
 
 18, Epaminondas, the illustrious Theban who defeated 
 the Spartans in the battles oi Leiictra^ B.C. 371, and Manti- 
 nea^ 363 b. c. In the former battle he was opposed by 
 Cleombrotas, king of Sparta, and in the latter by Agesilaus. 
 But the victory cost the Thebans dear. They lost their 
 noble leader, and with him departed the glory of Thebes. 
 
 19, About the year b. c. 359 flourished ; — 1. Plato^ the 
 founder of the Academic Philosophy (see Athens, p. 23). 
 Some one informing Plato that his enemies were circulating 
 reports to his disadvantage, he replied: "I will live so that 
 no one shall believe them." One of his friends remarking 
 that he seemed as desirous to learn himself as to teach 
 others, asked him how long he intended to be a scholar. 
 "As long," said the philosopher, " as I am not ashamed to 
 grow wiser and better." 2. Demosthenes, "the prince of 
 orators," and the devoted Grecian patriot who bravely, but 
 unsuccessfully, resisted the aggressions of Philip, king of 
 Macedon. His speeches against Philip, marked by keen 
 satire, were called Philippics — a word still used to denote 
 the same class of orations. 3. Aristotle, a noted philos- 
 opher, and the reputed author of The Art of Beasoning. 
 From Aristotle's habit of instructing his disciples while prom- 
 enading through the Lyceum, he is named the PeripatetiG 
 Philosopher (see Athens, p. 23). 4. Diogenes, the proud 
 
78 aENERAL HISTORY. [B. C. 330 
 
 cynic philosopher who lived in a tub, and dispensed with 
 all superfluous articles of furniture. Seeing a boy drink 
 water out of the hollow of his hand, he took his cup out of 
 his wallet and threw it away. When Alexander the Great 
 w^as about to depart on the expedition to Pert>ia he paid 
 Diogenes a farewell visit, and found the philosopher re- 
 clining in his tub enjoying the sunshine. The king asked 
 him if he could render him any service before his departure. 
 "Yes," replied the cynic, "stand out of my sunshine." 
 This independence of character so pleased the royal visiter 
 that he observed, "If I were not Alexander, I would be 
 Diogenes." 5. Philip the Great, king of Macedonia and 
 father of Alexander the Great. An attempt of the Pho- 
 cians to plunder the temple of Delphos excited a war, in 
 which nearly all the states of Greece were involved. The 
 assistance of Philip being solicited, he readily embraced the 
 opportunity to make himself master of Greece. This he 
 accomplished in the battle of Chmronea^ b. c. 338. Soon 
 after this Philip was appointed by the Grecian states com- 
 mander of their united forces for the invasion of Persia ; 
 but on the eve of their departure he was slain by Pausanias, 
 a captain in his army, from motives of private revenge. 
 
 Period YII. — Macedonian Empire. 
 
 Conquest of Persia, \ r Battle of Actium, 
 
 B. c. 330. [ 300 years. ) b. c. 30. 
 
 Alex. Gt. — Alexandna. ) ( Augustus — Rome. 
 
 1. Period of the Mdcedotiian Empire is distinguished 
 b\^ — 1. The astonishing conquests of Alexander. 2. By 
 the exploits of the Jewish heroes, the Maccabees, in resist- 
 ing the oppressions of the kings of Syria. 3. By the Puuic 
 wars between Rome and Carthage. 
 
to 30.] MACEDOXIAX EMPIRE. 79 
 
 II. — The Chronology of the Period. 
 
 B C. 
 
 Bol. The battle of Arbela and conquest of Persia. 
 801. The battle of Ipsus — Alexander's empire divided into four king- 
 doms. 
 280. Pyrrhus, king- of Epirus, invades Italy. 
 277. Septuao-int translation of the Old Testament. 
 234. First Punic War. Arundelian Marbles composed, extending to 
 
 the year b. c. 1582. 
 251. Achaean League renewed by Aratus. 
 250. Origin of the Sadducees and Pharisees. 
 218. Second Punic War — Archimedes, Hannibal, Scipio. 
 188. Philopsenien captures Sparta and abolishes the laws of Lycurgus. 
 168. Battle of Pydna — Macedonia becomes a Roman province, 
 149. Third Punic War. 
 
 146. Carthage and Corinth captured by the Romans. 
 180. Tlie Maccabees defeat the Syrians. 
 
 66. Pompey conquers Judea, Syria, and Pontus 
 
 63. Cicero detects the conspiracy of Cataline. 
 
 48. The battle of Pharsalia — Pompey defeated by Caesar 
 
 42. The battle of Philippi — Brutus and Cassius defeated. 
 
 31. The battle of Actium — Antony defeated by Octavius. 
 
 III. — The JBiography^ etc., of the Period. 
 
 1, Alexander the Great, son of Philip, king of Mace- 
 don, was born at Pella the same night that the temple of 
 Diana was burned, b. c. 356. Under the tuition of Aristotle, 
 he made considerable progress in study, being particularly 
 devoted to the Iliad of Homer. His disposition, however, 
 was decidedly warlike, and at the age of twenty he enjoyed 
 ample opportunity to indulge his peculiar passion. In 
 establishing the Macedonian empire, Alexander subdued 
 Tyre, Syria, Judea, Egypt, Persia, and India. In the con- 
 quest of Persia he fought the battle of the Granicus, b. c. 
 334 ; the battle of Issus, b. c. 333, in which the family of 
 the king of Persia were taken prisoners ; and the battle of 
 Arbela, b. c. 331, in which the army of Darius Codomanus 
 was totally defeated. The next year Darius was mur- 
 
80 GENEKAL HISTOKY. [B. C. 330 
 
 dered by his own servants. On reaching Babylon, Calis- 
 ihenes, the philosopher who accompanied the army, dis- 
 covered in the Tower of Babel, calculations of eclipses for 
 1903 years preceding, corresponding with the time when 
 it is said to have been built. Alexander did not long enjoy 
 his vast conquests. After defeating Porus, king of India, 
 B. 0. 327, and shedding tears that there were no more king- 
 doms for him to subdue, he returned to Babylon, and there 
 fell a victim to intemperance, in the thirty-second year of 
 bis age, b. c. 3 ^4. 
 
 2* The Division of the 3Iacedonian Empire, — On the 
 death of Alexander, Philip Aridseus, his brother, and his 
 infant son, were appointed to succeed him, under the re- 
 gency of Perdiccas, one of the chief generals of the army. 
 The empire under this regency was then divided into 
 thirty-three governments, which were distribnted among 
 the principal officers of Alexander. Among these soldiers 
 of fortune, now elevated to the condition of kings, there 
 arose fierce jealousies and continual wars. Antigonus, 
 king of Phrygia, becoming, by his superior abilities and 
 prowess, formidable to the rest, war was declared against 
 him, and he fell in the decisive battle of Jpsics, b. c. 301. 
 The whole empire was then divided into four kingdoms, 
 viz. — Thrace and Bithyistta, under Lysimachus; Syria 
 and Persia, under Seleucus ; Egypt, under Ptolemy Soter; 
 
 and Macedonia, under Cassander. 
 
 3, The JEminefit Men that flourished at this time, b. c. 
 
 300, were Euclid, the author of the Elements of Geome- 
 try, in Egypt ; and the philosophers Zexo and Epicurus, in 
 Greece. 
 
 4. JPyrrhus, king of Epirus — remarkable for boundless 
 ambition and unsuccessful warfare. 
 
 When about to invade Italy, in the year b. c. 280, his 
 friend Cineas, the philosopher, embraced an opportunity of 
 addressing him thus: "The Romans, sir, are said to be a 
 
to 30.] MACEDONIAN EMPIRE 81 
 
 warlike people ; but if God permit us to overcome them, 
 what use shall we make of the victory?" "Thou askest," 
 replied Pyrrhus, *' a thing self-evident. The Romans once 
 conquered, no city will be able to resist us; we shall then 
 be masters of all Italy." Cineas added : "And having sub- 
 dued Italy, what shall we do next?" The king, not aware 
 of his intention, replied : " Sicily next stretches out her arms 
 to receive us." " That is very probable," rejoined Cineas ; 
 " but will the possession of Sicily put an end to the war ?" 
 " God grant us success in that," answered Pyrrhus, '* and 
 we shall make these only the forerunners of greater things, 
 for then Lybia and Carthage will soon be ours — and these 
 things being completed, none of our enemies can offer any 
 further resistance." " Very true," added Cineas, " for then 
 we may easily regain Macedon, and make an absolute con- 
 quest of Greece ; and when all these are in our power, what 
 shall we do then ?" Pyrrhus, smiling, answered : " Why 
 then, my dear friend, we will live at our ease, drink all day 
 long, and amuse ourselves with cheerful conversation." 
 " Well, sir," continued Cineas, " and why mav we not do all 
 this now, without the labor and hazard of enterprises 
 so uncertain and dangerous?" Pyrrhus, declining the 
 advice of the philosopher, entered upon his schemes of am- 
 bition, but perished before they were accomplished. He 
 ^vas killed in battle at Argos^ b. c. 272. 
 
 5, The Septuagint Translation of the Old Testament, 
 from the original Hebrew into Greek, so called from the 
 seventy-two translators employed in making it, b. c. 277. 
 These were learned men sent by Eleazer, the high-priest, 
 from Jerusalem to Alexandria, at the request of Ptolemy 
 Philadelphus, king of Egypt. This work was designed for 
 the great library which Ptolemy Soter had founded at Alex- 
 andria, and for the use of the Grecian Jews living in Egypt. 
 
 6, The Sadducees and Pharisees — two Jewish sects, 
 
 which arose about b. c. 250. The Sadducees take their name 
 
 4* 
 
82 GENERAL HISTORY. [B. C. 330 
 
 from Sadoc, a Jewish rabbi, whose doctrines they profess 
 to follow. The Pharisees derived their name from a word 
 which means to separate — because they professed, by their 
 superior holiness, to be separated from the common people. 
 
 7. The Punic Wars — of which there were three — were 
 fierce and sanguinary contests between the Romans and 
 Carthaginians for the sovereignty of Spain and the Island 
 of Sicily; and they were called by the Romans Punic, be- 
 cause their adversaries, the Carthaginians, came originally 
 from Phoenicia. (See Dido and Carthage.^ 
 
 The P^rst Punic TFar began b. c. 261, and lasted twenty- 
 three years. The Carthaginians were led by Hamilcar, 
 who was opposed and defeated by the Roman general 
 Duillius, B. c. 260, and by Regulus, b. c. %^^ ; and he in turn 
 w^as defeated and taken prisoner by the Spartan general 
 Xantippus, who had been sent to assist the Carthaginians. 
 
 The Second Punic War began b. c. 218, and continued 
 seventeen years. The Carthaginians were now led by the 
 famous Hannibal, who passed with his army into Spain, and 
 thence, after a toilsome march of five months and a half, 
 across the Alps into Italy. There he totally defeated four 
 large Roman armies, and remained victorious for sixteen 
 years. The chief battles were those of Ticinus and Trebia^ 
 b. c. 218 ; Thrasymene, b. c. 217 ; and Cannm^ b. c. 216- 
 The Romans, during this war, were led chiefly by the cele- 
 brated dictator Fabius, whose settled policy was to avoid 
 decisive engagements, and to endeavor to wear out the 
 enemy by delays, counter-marches, ambuscades, etc. In 
 the year b. c. 212 Marcellus captured Syracuse, after it had 
 been defended three years by Archimedes, the illustrious 
 mathematician. By one of his mechanical contrivances the 
 Roman ships, when near the wall, were lifted to a considera- 
 ble height, and being suddenly let fall, were immediately 
 sunk. He also constructed large metallic reflectors, by 
 which the enemy's vessels were set on fire. At length the 
 
to 30.] MACEDONIAN EMPIKE. 83 
 
 Roman senate determined to send Scipio to attack Carthage, 
 that, by "carrjnng the war into Africa," they might draw 
 Hannibal out of Italy. The stratagem was successful. Han- 
 nibal was recalled to defend Carthage, and leaving Italy 
 with deep regret, where lie had remained so long ''master 
 of the situation," he met Scipio near Zama^ in Africa, and 
 was totally defeated, with the loss of 40,000 men, b. c. 202. 
 This terminated the second Punic War, and obtained for 
 Scipio the surname o^ Africanus. 
 
 The Third Punic War began b. c. 149, and lasted only 
 three years, terminating in the total destruction of Carthage 
 by Scipio Africanus the Younger, b. c. 140 — the same year 
 that witnessed the fall of Corinth and the reduction of 
 Greece to the condition of a Roman province. 
 
 8, The Achcean League, — After the division of Alexan- 
 der's empire, as stated above (§ 2, sKjyra)^ the Grecian 
 states, endeavored to regain independence of Macedon. 
 Demetrius Poliorcetes [Destroyer of Towns) in b. c. 296 re- 
 established the republic of Athens ; and in 281 twelve of 
 the minor states of Greece formed the Achmaii League^ for 
 mutual defence. But this bond of union proved ineffectual 
 in repressing the mutual jealousies and strifes that prevail 
 in petty states, led by ambitious, incompetent men. The 
 League was, however, successively renew^ed by Aratus in 
 B c. 251, and by Philops3raen in 188, who, on the capture of 
 Sparta, abolished the Ziau^s of Lycurgus. (See Anno 884 
 B. c.) But neither patriotism nor valor could avert the im- 
 pending fate of the League. For the Romans, advancing to 
 the conquest of the world, had entered Greece at the invita- 
 tion of the JEtolians, to aid them against Macedon, b. c. 212. 
 In the attempt to expel this formidable foe, the Achasans unit- 
 ing with Macedon, shared with them a common calamity. 
 The successive battles of Cynocephale^ 197, and Pydna^ 168, 
 accomplished the ruin of Macedon ; and the remnant of 
 Grecian independence expired in the fall of Corinth, b. c. 146. 
 
84 GEi^ERAL HISTORY. [B. €. 330 
 
 9. The Maccabees were a family of Jewish heroes that 
 rescued their country from the tyranny of the Syrians. 
 Situated between Egypt and Syria, Judea during this pe- 
 riod often became the battle-ground in the contests between 
 the Ptolemies and the Seleiicidoe. And the Jews, unable to 
 maintain an independent neutrality, were generally com- 
 pelled to ally themselves to the stronger power. This, of 
 course, exposed them to perpetual hostility from the other 
 belligerent. Ptolemy Philopater, king of Egypt, upon a 
 certain occasion, attempted to penetrate into the most holy 
 place of the Temple at Jerusalem ; and being prevented, he 
 required all the Jews to forsake their religion. On their 
 refusal to comply with this despotic order he caused to be 
 slain about 40,000 of the Jews living at Alexandria. In 
 the year b. c. 170 the JTews, having incurred the displeasure 
 of Antiochus Epiphanes, king of Syria, he captured Jeru- 
 salem, plundered the Temple, slew multitudes of the peo- 
 ple, and attempted to compel all that survived to observe 
 the rights of the heathen religion. To resist these out- 
 rages the family of the Maccabees, collecting a number of 
 determined followers, retired to the wilderness, wliere they 
 were soon joined by others, amounting in all to a force suf- 
 ficient to defeat the armies of Antiochus. Finally, John 
 Hyrcanus, b. c. 130, effected the complete deliverance of 
 Judea from the yoke of Syria. In lers than a century after 
 this, the Asmonean princes in the mean time reigning in 
 Jerusalem, both Syria and Judea w^ere conquered by the 
 Romans under Pompey. 
 
 10, The I>ecline of the JRoman JRepublic was distin- 
 guished by an aggravation of the spirit of civil discord 
 which had for ages prevailed in that State. The success 
 of their arms abroad appears to have rendered them inca- 
 pable of peace at home. The great captains that had sub- 
 dued the world returned in triumph to destroy each other. 
 
 The Marsi, Picentes, Peligni, Samnites, and other States 
 
to 30.] MACEDOKIAl!f EMPIRE. 85 
 
 of Italy, uniting against Kome te obtain the rights of citi- 
 zenship, produced the Social Wccr, b. c. 91. Their appeal 
 to arms was unsuccessful, being defeated by the Romans 
 under Pompey. They nevertheless afterward obtained the 
 object of their desire as the free grant of the Koman 
 senate. 
 
 Marius and Sylla, having jointly subdued Jugurtha, king 
 of Numidia, b. c. 1C6, contended fiercely with each other 
 in the Civil War^ b. c. 88, for the privilege of conquering 
 Mithradates, king of Pontus : an honor finally achieved by 
 Pompey the Great, b. c. 68. 
 
 The Servile JVar, an insurrection of slaves led by 
 Spartacus, a gladiator, b. c. 73, was finally suppressed by 
 Crassus. Ten years later the eloquence and patriotism of 
 Cicero were engaged in crushing the infamous conspiracy 
 of Cataline^ Cethegus, and others, to massacre the consuls 
 and senate and destroy the city by fire, b. c. 63. 
 
 The First Triumvirate^ composed, b c. 60, of Pompey, Cras- 
 sus, and Caesar, was but a temporary arrangement prepar- 
 atory to a final struggle for supreme power. Crassus being 
 slain in battle by the Parthians, b. c. 53, Pompey and Coesar 
 met on the field o^ Pharsalia^'R. c. 48, to decide their respect- 
 ive claims to sovereignty. The result of the battle proving 
 disastrous to Pompey, he fled into Egypt, where he was 
 assassinated. Upon this Julius Caesar, a man renowned 
 both in arms and literature, was proclaimed Perpetual 
 Dictator. The career of Caesar as a soldier had been 
 remarkable. In his conquests of Gaul, Britain, and other 
 wars, he had vanquished 300 nations, captured 800 cities, 
 and had defeated 3,000,000 men, of whom it is computed 
 1,000,000 had fallen in battle. 
 
 The Poman senate, however, were not unanimous in 
 their submission to this illustrious hero. Sixty of their 
 number, led by Brutus and Cassius, believing the ambition 
 of Caesar would prove fatal to the Republic, assassinated 
 
8G ge:n^eral history. [b. c. 330 to 30. 
 
 him in the Senate house, b. c. 44. The conspirators, gather- 
 ing a large force, immediately fled to Thrace, whither they 
 were pursued by Octavius and Anthony, who in the battle 
 of Philippic B. c. 42, totally routed their army. 
 
 A Second Triumvirate, composed, b. c. 4B, of Octavius, 
 Anthony, and 1j \ ^''^vs, resulted as the first. Lepidus, 
 through indolence and incapacity, soon retired into obscu- 
 rity, leaving to his more ambitious associates the contest for 
 empire, which w^as finally decided in the memorable naval 
 battle of Actium, b. c. 31. Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, 
 whom Anthony had married, was present with her fleet. 
 In the midst of the engagement she drew off her forces, 
 and followed by Anthony, both fled to Alexandria, Mdiere, 
 to escape the dishonor of capture, Anthony stabbed him- 
 self with his sword, and Cleopatra died from the bite of an 
 asp, which she had ordered to be brought to her in a basket 
 of fruit. Octavius, thus left the unrivalled master of the 
 empire, assumed, the government as Iinperator^ with the 
 title of Augustus, b. c. 30. 
 
 The eminent authors contemporary with Augustus were 
 Lucretius, Catullus, Sallust, Yarro, Virgil, and Hor- 
 ace. 
 
PART 11 -MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 INTRODUOTIQ]^. 
 
 SECTION I. 
 
 REGIONS AND EMPIRES. 
 
 1. TTie ^Regions of the Earth which have been the chief 
 theatre of the events of modern history are southeastern 
 and southern Asia, sonthein, central, and western Europe, 
 and the continent of America. 
 
 2, These JRegiotis are at present respectively occupied 
 thus: 1. The Chinese Empire in the southeast part of 
 Asia ; 2. India in the south ; and, 3. Persia,, Arabia,, and 
 Turkey in the southwest. 4. The Hussian Dominions,, the 
 most extensive in the world, occupy the entire northeast 
 part of Europe and the northern half of Asia. 5. The south 
 of Europe is occupied by Tiirkey, Greece,, Austria,, Italy,, 
 Sioitzerland, France, Sjyain^ audi Portugal. 6. The German 
 States and Prussia are in central Europe. V. Sweden and 
 Norway in the northwest ; while, 8. The British Empire, 
 the most powerful in the eastern hemisphere, exercises 
 immediate sovereignty over the British Islands, of which 
 the most important are Great Britain (comprising England, 
 Scotland, and Wales) and Ireland. 9. The continent of 
 America, unknown to the people of Europe unlil its provi- 
 dential discovery by Columbus in 1492, consists of two 
 chief parts. North America and South America, which are 
 united by the Isthmus of Darien, about 10° north latitude. 
 
88 GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 This vast region, embracing mighty seas and lakes, pene- 
 trated by majestic rivers, and diversified by every variety 
 of surface, soil, and climate, enjoys facilities for supporting 
 mightier empires than have elsewhere ever existed. 
 
 3, Tlie Political Divisions of North America are — 
 1. British America at the north; 2. The United States, 
 from the Atlantic to the Pacific, in the central part ; 3. 
 Mexico with Central America in the south. 
 
 4:, The Political Divisions of South America are — 
 
 1. Columbia, Ve?iezuela, and Guiana in the north ; 2. 
 JBrazil in the east ; 8. Paraguay, Uruguay, the Argeiitine 
 Confederation, Chili, and Patagonia in the south ; 4. 
 Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador in the west. 
 
 5, The Noted Empires that have flourished in the mod- 
 ern history of Asia are — 1. The Chinese; 2. The J'apanese / 
 8. The Saracen ; 4. The Mogul, or Tartar ^ and, 5. The 
 Turkish. 
 
 6, The Great Empires in the modern history of Europe 
 are — 1. The Po}na?i / 2. The By zanti?ie, or Greek / 3. The 
 French ; 4. The German; 5. The British; 6. The Russian. 
 
 7, In ATnerica, since the time of Columbus, there have 
 arisen — 1 . The Empire of Brazil in South America ; and, 
 
 2. In North America, the Republic of the United States, 
 
 8, Egypt, in modern history, has generally been em- 
 braced in the great empires that have successively pre- 
 vailed in southwestern Asia. 
 
 SECTION II. 
 
 CITIES AND OTHER LOCALITIES. 
 
 1, JBowie, founded by Romulus, b. c. 753, in Latium, near 
 the centre of Italy, on the Tiber, sixteen miles from the 
 sea. It was at first built on a single hill, but was after- 
 
i:N"TRODUCTIOif. 89 
 
 ward extended over seven : the Palatine^ the AveJitine, 
 the Capitoline, the Cmlian, the Esquiline^ the Quirinal^ 
 and Viminal hills. 
 
 Tarquin the Elder built the capitol and enclosed the 
 city with walls, b. c. 616. In the year b. c. 390 the city 
 was taken and burned by the Gauls under Brennus, but it 
 was soon after recovered by the brave Camillus. 
 
 The emperor Augustus, about the beginning of the 
 Christian sera, greatly enlarged and beautified the city. 
 He was accustomed to boast, '■'' I found the, city brich, and 
 shall leave it marhleP About the year a. d. 250 the circuit 
 of Rome was fifty miles, and its population amouted to 
 three or four millions. 
 
 The emperor Constantine, a. d. 330, removed the seat of 
 government from Rome to Byzantium, changing its name 
 to Constantinople. But on the permanent division of the 
 empire, Rome continued to be the metropolis of the west. 
 
 The capture of Rome by Odoacer, king of the Heruli, 
 A. D. 476, terminated the western or Latin empire of the 
 Romans. But after the bishop of Rome became a temporal 
 prince, a. d. 755, the city of Rome was added to Ravenna 
 and Pentapolis, with which he had been previously in- 
 vested, and thus Rome became, what it has been for cen- 
 turies, the capital of the States of the Church. 
 
 The chief edifices of ancient Rome were — 1. The Capi- 
 tol; 2. The Forum, containing the senate-house and the 
 temple of Janus; 3. The Coliseum, an immense edifice 
 for the exhibitions of gladiators and wild beasts, built by 
 captive Jevvs brought from Jerusalem by the emperor 
 Vespasian ; 4. The Arch of Titus, commemorating his tri- 
 umph in the capture of Jerusalem, a. d, 70. On this arch 
 are sculptured representations of the Golden Candlesfick, 
 the Table of Shoio-JBread, and other sacred utensils taken 
 by the Romans from the Jewish temple. 5. The Mauso- 
 leum of Adrian, now the castle of St. Angelo. 6. The 
 
90 GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 Pantheon^ or temple of all the gods. This edifice is now 
 used as a church, and is the best preserved of all the 
 ancient buildings. It is 150 feet high, its walls are 18 feet 
 thick, and it is lighted from the roof by an opening 25 feet 
 in diameter. 
 
 Among the antiquities of Rome, none are more curious 
 and interesting than the Catacombs. These are vast exca- 
 vations beneath the city, in the form of galleries or cham- 
 bers from 8 to 30 feet from the surface of the ground, and 
 extending horizontally many miles. The galleries are gen- 
 erally 5 or 6 feet high and nearly four feet wide. And it is 
 supposed they were formed in procuring the material used 
 as mortar by the Roman masons in building the city, and 
 still known as Roman cement. On each side of the gal- 
 leries are two, and in some places three ranges of hori- 
 zontal cavities used as sepulchres for the dead. At certain 
 points in the city, and in the surrounding country, are 
 shafts for the admission of light and air into this vast net- 
 work of mines. 
 
 In the early times of persecution the disciples of Christ 
 were condemned to work in these mines, where, becoming 
 missionaries to the regularly employed heathen miners, 
 they made many converts among them. 
 
 Among the most noted edifices of modern Rome are — 1, 
 The Church of St. John Lateran^ said to be the most 
 ancient Christian church edifice in the world. It was built 
 by Constantine on property that had belonged to the estate 
 of the old Lateran family. Here the Pope officiates as the 
 bishop of the diocese of Rome. 2. The Vatican, occupied 
 by the Pope as the Vates (prophet or teacher) of his uni- 
 versal church. This imposing edifice, erected on the site 
 of Nero's palace, is an immense assemblage of buildings 
 serving for the papal palace, the conclave of cardinals, and 
 apartments lor extensiv e libraries, vast collections of curi- 
 osities, paintings, statuary, etc., all most rare and costly. 
 
 a 
 
INTRODUCTION. 91 
 
 3. St. Peter^s Churchy the renowned cathedral of the 
 Roman hierarchy, and the largest church in the world, is 
 the place of the worship conducted by the Pope as St. 
 Peter's successor and supreme universal bishop. It occu- 
 pies the site of a basilica or imperial church, which had 
 been erected upon the circus of Nero by the emperor Con 
 stantine, a. d. 324. This stupendous work of labor and 
 skill was commenced in the year a. d. 1506, by order of 
 Pope Julius II., and its completion occupied one hundred 
 and twenty years, under the direction of twenty popes and 
 twelve successive architects, of whom Bramante was the 
 first, and Michael Angelo one of the most renowned. It 
 was dedicated in 1626 by Pope Urban YIIl. The form of 
 St. Peter's is that of a Latin cross, 720 feet long, 510 feet 
 broad, and 500 feet from the pavement to the summit of 
 the cross that surmounts the massive and gorgeous dome. 
 Among the ornaments of this cathedral are — the Bronze 
 Canopy^ 90 feet high, surmounting tlie high altar; the 
 Chair of St. Peter, occuyjied by the Pope on festival occa- 
 sions ; and tlie colossal Image of St. Peter. 
 
 2, Constantinople (anciently Byzantium), a celebrated 
 city on the Black Sea, was founded by Byzas with a colony 
 of Argivps, B. c. 658. The situation of this city, being at 
 once enchanting to the view and highly favorable for com- 
 merce, it rapidly rose to importance as the emporium of an 
 extensive trade. After the experience of various fortunes 
 under the Persians, Greeks, and Romans, the emperor Con- 
 stantine made B3'zantium the seat of his vast dominions 
 instead of Rome, changing its name to Constantinople. On 
 the j)ermanent division of the empire, a. d. 395, Constan- 
 tinople became the capital of the eastern or Greek (Byzan- 
 tine) empire, while Rome remained the metropolis of the 
 western or Latin empire. Under the Greek emperors, and 
 after the fall of Rome, a. d. 476, Constantinople became 
 the resort of learned men aod the refuo-e of the arts and 
 
92 GEifERAL HISTORY. 
 
 sciences. In the year a. d. 1204 a body of French crusaders 
 tinder Baldwin I, seized Constantinople, and held possession 
 until 1261, when Michael Paleologus expelled the French 
 and recovered the throne. In 1453 Constantinople Was 
 captured by the Turks, and they still hold it as the metrop- 
 olis of their empire. 
 
 3, Mecca and Medina, cities of Arabia, are both situ- 
 ated near the coast of the Red Sea, in the district of Hedjaz, 
 which is now claimed as a part of the Turkish empire. 
 These places possess no historic interest, except as they are 
 associated with the exploits of Mahomet. 
 
 1. Mecca, the metropolis of the Mahometan faith, 
 was, in ancient times, a great mart for both African and 
 Indian merchandise; but it is now visited chiefly by pil- 
 grims to the Kaaba, or chief temple of the Mahometans. 
 This structure is a large uncDvered square, surrounded 
 with colonades and adorned with minarets. This enclo- 
 sure contains five or six chapels for prayer, among which 
 is one in the centre called by way of eminence the Kaaha^ 
 being the depository of a hlack stoiie^ which was an ob- 
 ject of adoration with the Arabians before the time of 
 Mahomet. And although he abolished that idolatrous 
 worship, yet this black stone, together with the water of 
 the holy well Zemzem.^ and even the soil of Mecca, are held 
 sacred by his followers. 
 
 2. Medijsta, some distance north of Mecca, contains the 
 mosque founded by Mahomet, which is supported by four 
 hundred columns and illuminated by three hundred lamps 
 constantly burning. Here is also the tomb of the False 
 Prophet, and the tombs of Abu-beker and Omar his suc- 
 cessors. (See Damascus and Mahomet.) 
 
 4, Tlie Palatinate of the Rhine (now a part of the Grand 
 Duchy of Baden) was that division of ancient Gaul which 
 was situated on both sides of the Rhine, nearly midway be- 
 tween the mouth of that river and its source in the Alps. 
 
IKTRODUCTI023'. OO 
 
 Then, as at present, this region was celebrated for its 
 fertility and beauty. During the ancient Frank monarchy 
 it was the favorite residence of the kings and the arena of 
 the national assemblies. Nominally under the immediate 
 rule of the sovereign, this region was actually governed by 
 the mayors of the palace, the last of whom, under the 
 Merovingians, Pepin le Bref, gradually acquiring the 
 powers of royalty, finally ascended the throne of his de- 
 posed master, Childeric III., a. d. 751. 
 
 Under Charlemagne, a. d. 8€0, these favored lands became 
 the centre whence he ruled his vast empire. Here were his 
 imperial palaces. Here stood the castles of the Counts of 
 the Palace^ that supreme class of nobles whose office it was 
 at the Carlovingian court to watch over the interests and 
 privileges of the crown, to administer justice in the name 
 of the sovereign, and as his deputies to preside in the su- 
 preme tribunal. From this intimate relation to the impe- 
 rial palace this region received the appropriate name — the 
 Palatinate. 
 
 Under the immediate successors of Charlemagne the 
 count palatine continued to be a kind of champion of the 
 crown and the chief minister of state ; and finally, under 
 the German empire, the palatine dignity, from its wealth 
 and renown, and as possessing an electoral vote in the 
 choice of the emperor, was eagerly sought by the most 
 illustrious princes. In a. d. 1155 the emperor Frederick I. 
 bestowed this dignity upon his half-brother Conrad, who 
 established his court at Heidelburg ^ which city he enlarged 
 and beautified, and which in after ages became famous for 
 its university and for its civil and religious liberty. 
 
 In A. D. 1593 Prince Fiederick IV., elector palatine, married 
 Juliane, the daughter of William the Silent, prince of Or- 
 ange; and their son, the elector Frederick Y., having mar- 
 ried Elizabeth, daughter of James I. of England, was in a. d. 
 1619 elected king of Bohemia and placed at the head ol* 
 
94 GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 the Evangelical Union, which had been organized by tl)e 
 Protestants to resist the measures of the Souse of Austria. 
 But failing to sustain himself against the arms of the pow- 
 erful duke of Bavaria, Maximilian, who led the Catholic 
 League., Frederick Y. not only lost his newly-acquired king- 
 dom of Bohemia, but was also in 1621 driven from his 
 hereditary dominions of the Palatinate. During the prog- 
 ress of the Thirty Years'* War the Palatinate, with Bohemia 
 and other portions of Germany, suffered dreadful devas- 
 tation. 
 
 5. The Holy Sepulchre, — After Jerusalem had been 
 partially rebuilt by Adrian and other Roman emperors, the 
 pious Helena, mother of Constantine, explored the city and 
 the adjacent localities, and is said to have identified most 
 of the places that had been rendered sacred in the history 
 of our Saviour, and erected upon them commemorative 
 edifices. Of these the Church of the Holy Sepulchre\?> the 
 most noted. This edifice occupies a site which includes the 
 scenes of the crucifixion, the entombment, and the resur- 
 rection, and properly consists of three parts: 1. The 
 Church of the Holy Sepulchre; 2. the Church of the Holy 
 Cross; and, 3. the Church of Mount Calvary, the whole 
 forming a massive pile adorned with columns, domes, etc., 
 beyond the power of verbal description. 
 
 The largest and most important division is that of the 
 Church of the Holy Sepulchre, which contains among 
 other noted objects the Stone of Anointing. The rock in 
 which the tomb was originally excavated has been to a 
 large extent cut away, but the place where the sepulchre 
 w^as is still pointed out covered with vercle a7\tique marble, 
 and otherwise adorned by the devotees that have from age 
 to age visited this sacred locality. Near the entrance to 
 the tomb a block of white marble is shown as the stone 
 upon which the angel sat that announced the resurrection; 
 and a vast quantity of other supposed relics are exhibited, 
 
ri!?'riioDUCTiox. 95 
 
 all of which, through ages of darkness and superstition, 
 have been objects of profound veneration. About two 
 hundred lamps are here kept constantly burning, and orna- 
 ments of the most costly description are heaped in abun- 
 dance upon the tomb. Adjoining is the Church of the Holy 
 Cross : the Cross which it is affirmed was miraculously dis- 
 covered by the empress Helena. Among other remarkable 
 things there is shown a rent in the rock beneath, caused by 
 the earthquake which accompanied the expiring agonies of 
 the Son of God. The third church is that of Mount Cal- 
 vary. Here the rent in the rock appears again, with the 
 addition of three deep holes made to receive the three 
 crosses. 
 
 Around and within these venerated enclosures are ever 
 to be found clustering monks of all nations : eastern and 
 western, Latins, Greeks, Abyssinians, Nestorians, Copts, 
 Armenians, Georgians, Maronites, and others. Their voices 
 are heard at all hours of the day and night. The ear is 
 assailed alternately or all at once by the organ of the Lat- 
 ins, the cymbals of the Abyssinians, the song of the Greek 
 coloyer, the prayer of the solitary Armenian, and by the 
 plaintive accents of the Coptic friar. 
 
 The Saracen Caliph Omar, a. d. 637, captured Jerusalem 
 and built the Mosque which bears his name, near the spot 
 formerly occupied by the Temple of Solomon. In a. d. 
 1C65 the city was taken by the Turks, whose oppressive 
 cruelties toward the Christian pilgrims gave rise to the 
 Crusades, lf^96. In 1C99 the Crusaders captured Jerusalem, 
 and it was held by them with some interruptiou till 1291, 
 when the city was retaken by the Turks, who have held it 
 to the present time, and who permit the various classes of 
 pilgrims and other strangers to visit all parts of the city ex- 
 cept the Temple grounds. Disputes respecting the custody 
 of the sacred places were among the causes that produced 
 the late Crimean War. (See Crusades.) 
 
96 GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 6, St. Salvador, one of the least of the West India 
 islands, derives its importance solely from being the land 
 first discovered by Columbus. That illustrious navigator 
 rightly supposing that India could be reached by a western 
 passage more directly than by that around the coast of Africa, 
 j^lanned and accomplished the momentous enterprise which 
 revealed to the old world the existence of the new. But 
 Columbus never realized the importance of his providen- 
 tial discovery. Pie died under the impression that he had 
 reached regions adjacent to the eastern coast of Asia; nor 
 was this error corrected until Balboa, in a. d. 1513, from the 
 heights of Darien beheld the mighty waters of the Pacific. 
 Then to distinguish the lands discovered by Columbus from 
 the regions which he expected to reach, they were named 
 respectively West Indies and JEJast Indies, 
 
 7. Philadelphia, although the second city in the United 
 States, possesses little historic interest except its association 
 with our struggle for national existence. Here, on the 5th of 
 September, 1774, assembled the first Continental Congress,* 
 composed of the representatives of all the colonies except 
 Georgia. Of this first national assembly Peyton Randolph 
 of Virginia was chosen president, and Charles Thompson 
 of Pennsylvania secretary. The opening speech was made 
 by Patrick Henry. The resolutions adopted asserted the 
 rights of the colonies, and suspended commercial inter- 
 course with Great Britain until those rights were ac- 
 knowledged. 
 
 On the lOth of May, 1775, congress met again in Phila- 
 delphia, and in the absence of Mr. Randolph, John Han- 
 cock, of Massachusetts, w^as chosen president. Their chief 
 acts at this time were — the formation of a union of the colo- 
 nies, a resolution to raise and equip an army, and the 
 
 * An assembly composed of committeee appointed by the Colonial Legislatures 
 had met at New York in 1T65. 
 
INTRODUCTION?". 97 
 
 appointment of George Washington its commander-in-chief. 
 And here, on the 4th of July, 1776, they published to the 
 world their unaniuious Declaration^ that the American 
 Colonies were, and of right ought to be, Free and Inde- 
 pendent States. 
 
 From September 26th, 1777, to June 18th, 1778, Phila- 
 delphia was occupied by the British under Generals Lord 
 Howe and Sir Henry Clinton. During the continuance of 
 the war, and for some time after the adoption of the Federal 
 Constitution, congress met chiefly in Philadelphia ; but in 
 the year 1800 the city of Washington became the seat of 
 the national government. 
 
 8, London^ the capital of Great Britain, and the empo- 
 rium of the British empire, is situated in the southeast part 
 of England, on the river Thames, about 60 miles from its 
 mouth. This city, founded before the Christian sera, and 
 mentioned by Tacitus as an important commercial place in 
 the reign of the emperor Nero, a. d. 60, has become the 
 largest city in the world. Its area is over 100 square miles, 
 and its population three millions. and a half, being twice as 
 great as that of either Paris, Pekin, or Jeddo.* The name 
 London is derived from two Celtic words, llin, a pool or 
 lake, and c?^V^, a town or harbor for ships. The Romans 
 called it Lundinium ; the ancient Britons Lundayn ; and 
 the Saxons Londenceaster^ Lundeii-JByrig, and Liinden Wye. 
 This vast metropolis consists of four principal divisions : — 
 1. The City, which is the great centre and the chief locality 
 of business ; 2. The East End, which is the port for ship- 
 
 * The Registrar-General, in his report for 1866, says: — London is growing 
 greater every day, and within its present bounds', extending over 122 square miles of 
 territory, the population amounted last year by computation to 3,03T,991 souls. In 
 its midst is the ancient city of London, inhabited at night by about 100,000 people ; 
 while around it, as far as a radius of 15 miles, stretches from Charing-cross an 
 ever thickening ring of people within the area which the metropolitan police 
 watches over, making the whole number on an area of 687 square miles around St. 
 Paul's and Westminster Abbey 3,5^1,267 souls. 
 
 5 
 
98 GE]!^ERAL HISTORY. 
 
 ping ; 3. The West End, where are situated the royal 
 palaces, the Houses of Parliament, Westminster Abbey, ^ 
 and the residences of the nobility and gentry ; 4. Surrey^ 
 which lies on the south side of the Thames, containing the 
 chief manufacturing establishments and dwellings of private 
 families. That large portion of London denominated the i 
 Bills of Mortality, appears to have been the chief locality 
 of the plague, and it is so called from the bills or bulletins 
 which were first used in 1592, to publish the daily progress 
 of the pestilence. The more noted edifices of London are: — 
 
 1. The Royal Palace of St. James, built on the 
 site of St. James's Hospital by Henry YHI., who in 
 1532 enclosed St. James's Park. Although the external 
 appearance of this edifice is by no means imposing, yet the 
 internal arrangements are distinguished by a style of costly 
 magnificence becoming the splendid court which here 
 gives audience to the ambassadors of the civilized world. 
 
 Whitehall, a large square building, formerly inhabited 
 by the kings of England, was the scene of the memorable 
 execution of Charles L, Ao d. 1649. These, together with 
 the two Houses of Parliament and the principal government 
 offices, are all in the same immediate vicinity. 
 
 2. St. Paul's Cathedral, situated on the north bank of 
 the Thames, is the chief house of worship in the metrop- 
 olis. It was originally founded by Ethelbert, king of Kent, 
 A. D. 610, and after being several times partially burned, it 
 was destroyed in the great fire of 1666. The ground plan 
 of this renowned edifice is in the form of a cross, 500 feet 
 long, and 250 feet broad. From the body of the church a 
 stately dome arises, adorned with Corinthian columns, sur- 
 rounded- at its base by a balcony, and crowned at the sum- 
 mit with a gilded ball and cross. St. Paul's is ornamented 
 with three magnificent porticoes : one at the principal en- 
 trance facing the west, and the others at the extremities of 
 the cross aisle facing north and south. The western por- 
 
I^^TRODUCTIOS-. 99 
 
 tico consists of twelve lofty Corinthian columns below, and 
 eight composite above supporting a grand pediment, the 
 whole resting on an elevated base which is ascended by a 
 flight of twenty-two square steps of black marble. The 
 entire circuit of St. Paul's is 2,292 feet, and the height to 
 the top of the cross 340 feet. The interior of' the building 
 is ornamented with statues and monuments erected to the 
 memory of eminent men, of which that of Lord Nelson is 
 the most conspicuous. This noble edifice was erected at 
 the national expense by the celebrated architect Sir Chris- 
 topher Wren. Its cost amounted to £1,500,000, and its 
 construction occupied 35 years. It was completed in 1710. 
 Over the entrance to the choir is a marble slab bearing^ this 
 inscription : — " Beneath lies Christopher Wren, builder of 
 this church and city, who lived upward of ninety years, 
 not for himself but for the public benefit. Reader, do you 
 seek his monument ? Look around !" 
 
 3. Westminster Abbey, which was founded by Sibert, 
 king of Essex, a. d. 611, continued by Henry III., Edward I., 
 Henry VII., and others, and completed by authority of Par- 
 liament in the reign of William and Mary, under the direction 
 of Sir Christopher Wren. This renowned edifice consists of 
 a principal building, 416 feet long from east to west, with a 
 north and south transept of 203 feet. The two towers, 
 which are at the western front, are 225 feet high. The por- 
 tico, which forms the north entrance to the transept, is an 
 object of surpassing grandeur. It is styled by some " the 
 beautiful^'' or ^' Solomon'' s gatey Attached to the Abbey 
 are a number of cloisters and chapels, all superbly orna- 
 mented, of which the most noted are Edward the Coiifes- 
 sor^s Chapel, in which are deposited the coronation chairs, 
 and Henry VII.'*s Chapel, designed as a royal sepulchre. 
 Here are interred none but such as were of the blood royal ; 
 but in other parts of the Abbey there is a multitude of 
 tombs and monuments of the great, the noble, or the good, 
 
100 GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 whose fame or virtue during life procured them the much 
 coveted distinction of reposing in the midst of this vast 
 cono^resfation of the illustrious dead. 
 
 Westminster Abbey is associated with many important 
 events in English history. The Chapter-house o^ the Ahh^y 
 was the place where the Commons of Great Britain first 
 held their regular sittings, 1377. It is at present filled 
 with ancient public records, among which is the famed 
 Doomsday-Book, compiled by order of William the Con- 
 queror, and now nearly 800 years old. Near the Abbey 
 stood the Sanctuary, or house of refuge, where the unhappy 
 queen of Edward IV. took shelter with her younger son, 
 Richard, to save him from the cruelty of his uncle the Duke 
 of Gloucester, who already had possession of his elder 
 brother, Edward V. 
 
 In the Almonry of the Abbey the celebrated William 
 Caxton erected the first printing-press in England, 1474. 
 In Henry VII.'s Chapel sat the renowned Westminster As- 
 semhly of Divines, 1643-1648. And in the great audi- 
 ence chamber of the Abbey itself is performed the state 
 ceremony of crowning the sovereigns of Great Britain. 
 Both at St. Paul's and in the Abbey divine service is per- 
 formed every day at nine o'clock a. m. and at three p. m. 
 
 4. The Tower of London. — This celebrated state prison 
 and fortress was built by William the Conqueror, a. d. 1067, 
 on the site of an old Roman fort. It is situated on the north 
 bank of the Thames, and its walls and fortifications enclose 
 an area of about 12^ acres. The principal edifices within 
 the enclosure are — 1. The Tower proper, containing the 
 royal apartments, which were occupied as a palace for 500 
 years, until the reign of queen Elizabeth. 2. At the south 
 side of the Tower is an arch called the Traitor'^s Gate, 
 through which state prisoners were formerly brought from 
 the river. 3. The Bloody Toicer, in which it is supposed 
 the two young princes, Edward V. and his brother Richard, 
 
IiTTRODUCTIO>N'. 101 
 
 were smothered by order of Richard III. 4. The Beait- 
 champ Tower^ noted for the illustrious personages once 
 confined within it, among whom were the ill-fated Anna 
 Boleyn, and the pious and accomplished Lady Jane Grey. 
 5. The Cimrch of St. Peter-in- V^incida, noted as the rest- 
 ing-place of the headless bodies of a number of those who 
 had by their crimes or virtues incurred royal displeas- 
 ure. 6. The White Toioei\ a large square building, con- 
 taining a vast amount of military and naval stores, and 
 armories of warlike weapons. 7. The Jewel Office^ a dark 
 and strong room in which are deposited the crown jewels 
 or regalia of Great Britain. These consist of the imperial 
 crown, which is enriched with precious stones of every de- 
 scription, the golden orb, the golden sceptre and its cross, 
 the sceptre with the dove, St. Edward's staff, state salt- 
 cellar, the curtana or sword of mercy, golden spurs, 
 armilla or bracelets, ampilla or golden eagle, and the 
 golden spoon. Besides these emblems of royalty used at 
 the coronations, there are shown here the silver font used at 
 the baptism of the royal family, the Parliamentary diadem, 
 and a large amount of ancient plate. 
 
 Although London has been connected with nearly every 
 important event in the history of England, yet the follow- 
 ing are those with which the city has been more particu- 
 larly identified : 
 
 1. The Rebellion^ of Wat Tyler in 1381 (Richard IL), 
 when his followers destroyed many streets, liberated prison- 
 ers, and plundered the houses of the nobility. Tyler being 
 stabbed by Sir William Wallworth, the Lord Mayor, the 
 rebels dispersed. 
 
 2. The Rebellion of Jack Cade, 1450 (Henry YL) — 
 Cade having collected a large force, encamped on Black- 
 heath, where, defeating the troops sent against him, he 
 marched in triumph into London. Here he and his follow- 
 ers committed such outrasres that the citizens arose, and. 
 
102 GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 with the aid of a party of soldiers from the Tower, drove 
 the rebels from the city. 
 
 3. The iNTRODucTioisr of Printing into England by 
 William Caxton in 1474, who established his press in the 
 Almonry of Westminster Abbey. 
 
 4. The Burning of the Protestants at Smithfield in 
 the reign of Queen Mary, 1553-1558. 
 
 5. The Public Execution of King Charles I. at White- 
 hall, 1649. 
 
 6. The Great Plague of 1665 (Charles II.), which car- 
 ried off 97,000 persons within a year. This was the fifth 
 occurrence of the plague in London, from the year 1592. 
 Each time about one-fifth of the population perished. 
 
 7. The Great Fire of 1666 (Charles II.), which swept 
 off 13,000 houses, destroying property to the amount of 
 £10,000,000. 
 
 8. The Riots of London in 1780 (George III.), in con- 
 sequence of the act of Parliament for the relief of the 
 Roman Catholics. The rioters numbered 50,000, and were 
 headed by Lord George Gordon. 
 
 Beside objects of historic interest, London is remarkable 
 for the number and munificence of its literary, scientific, 
 and charitable institutions. 
 
 Among the Antiquities of England the most remai-k- 
 able are the Cromlechs, Kist-vaens, and Druid Circles, 
 which appear to have been connected with the ancient 
 Druidical religion. The Cromlechs (from crwm^ leaning, 
 and llech^ a broad flat stone) consist of large stones, some 
 of immense size, placed in an inclining position on smaller 
 ones, generally three in number. These were probably the 
 Druidical altars of burnt sacrifice. The Kist-vaens (stone 
 chests), which are commonly found in the middle of the 
 great stone circles, and near the Cromlechs, are supposed 
 to have been sacred sepulchres. They consist of several 
 large flat stones placed together in the form of an ark or 
 
Il^TEODUCTIOX. 103 
 
 chest. The Druidical Circles usually consist of huge 
 stones placed on end, enclosing a considerable area, con- 
 taining Cromlechs, Kist-vaens, and sometimes less circles, 
 the whole forming objects at once rude and imposing. Of 
 these circles, which were evidently the temples of the Dru- 
 idical religion, the most noted are those of Stonehenge, on 
 Salisbury Plain ; Abiiry, in Wiltshire, and the one in the Isle 
 of Jersey. 
 
 The priests of that idolatrous worship were the Druids, 
 so called from drus^ an oak tree, the oak and the mistletoe 
 being held by them in great veneration, and used in most 
 of their religious ceremonies. These Druids were divided 
 into three orders — Bards, Eubages, and common Druids, all 
 under the authority of a sovereign chief, or Arch-Druid. In 
 their religious ceremonies, which were celebrated, not in 
 temples but in retired and shady groves, the priests were 
 clad in white, and they offered human as well as other sac- 
 rifices. " The pen of history trembles as it records the 
 baleful orgies of their frantic superstition when enclosing 
 their victims, men, women, aud children, in a huge wicker 
 iraage^ in the form of a man, and placing in it all kinds of 
 combustibles, they set fire to the huge colossus. While the 
 dreadful holocaust was offering, the groans and shrieks of 
 the consuming victims were drowned with horrid music 
 and shouts of barbarous triumph." 
 
 9, Edinburgh, the metropolis of Scotland, is situated in 
 the southeast, about two miles from the Frith of Forth. 
 This famous city, consisting of two principal parts, the old 
 and new towns, occupies a cluster of hills, gently rising 
 toward the west, where the eminence terminates in an 
 abrupt rock, on which stands the castle of Edinburgh. Be- 
 tween the old and new towns, as well as in other sections 
 of the city, there are beautiful squares and gardens laid 
 out in modern landscape style, forming delightful places of 
 recreation. 
 
104 MODEEN HISTORY. 
 
 The chief objects of interest in Eclinbui-gh are — 1. The 
 Castle, a large fortress romantically situated on a mass of 
 rock nearly three hundred feet in height. This edifice con- 
 tains various batteries and other fortifications ; the ancient 
 palace in which was born king James VT. of Scotland and 
 I. of England ; and a well-protected apartment, in which 
 are deposited the crown, sceptre, mace, and sword that 
 formed the regralia of the Scottish kino-s. 2. The Great 
 Hall in Parliament-square, in the centre of the old town, 
 was formerly used by the Scottish Parliament, but is now 
 occupied by the courts of law. 3. Holyrood House, the 
 palace of the kings of Scotland, stands at the lower ex- 
 tremity of the principal street of the old town. The oldest 
 part of this palace was erected by James Y., and contains 
 the presence chamber, bedroom, and other apartments used 
 by queen Mary, with some of the original furniture ; ex- 
 hibiting the style of the domestic accommodations of a 
 princess of the sixteenth century, and recalling the painful 
 incidents of the assassination of Mary's Italian favorite, 
 David Rizzio. 4. The C/zizvers^Yy o/*^(:/^?^Z>^^r^A, embracing 
 celebrated schools of medicine, law, and divinity, contains 
 class-rooms for thirty-three professors, a library of mag- 
 nificent proportions, and a museum of natural history. 
 5. St. Giles's Church \^ the, most noted place of worship, a 
 Gothic building of the fifteenth century. This venerable 
 pile forms one side of Parliament-square, and is an object 
 of remarkable beauty. A tower rising from the centre of 
 the^ edifice is surmounted by slender arches of exquisite 
 workmanship, and these support a majestic steeple ; the 
 whole representing in the air the figure of an imperial 
 crown. Beneath the vault of St. Giles' repose the ashes 
 of Napier, the immortal inventor of logarithms, a. d. 1617. 
 Another church, the Grey Friars, \^ celebrated as the place 
 of meeting of the nobility, gentry, clergy, and burgesses 
 of Scotland, March 1, 1638, when they renewed in the 
 
INTRODUCTIOK. 105 
 
 most solemn manner and with great enthusiasm their 
 national covenant to maintain their religious liberty and 
 to resist all attempts to change the faith and worship of 
 the established Presbyterian Church. 
 
 10, Dtiblin, the principal city of Leinster, and the me- 
 tropolis of Ireland, is beautifully situated on a fine bay of 
 the river Liffey. In extent this city is rather larger than 
 Edinburgh, and never fails to surprise and delight the 
 stranger. The public edifices present an elegant appear- 
 ance, and most of them are associated with events of great 
 interest. The principal are — 1. The Four Courts^ a superb 
 structure overlooking the river from the northern section 
 of the city. 2. The Tlnwersity of Dublin^ founded by 
 Queen Elizabeth in 1591, occupies a conspicuous situation 
 south of the river. The buildings are spacious and elegant, 
 containing a theatre for examinations, halls for various 
 literary purposes, a library, and a museum, in which is 
 preserved the harp of Brian Boromhe, a renowned Irish 
 prince o^ the tenth century. In the vicinity of the uni- 
 versity is, 3. The J3ank of Ireland^ an edifice of surpassing 
 beauty, originally the place of meeting of the Irish Par- 
 liament. The present " settling-room" of the bank was 
 once the hall of the Irish Commons, which then resounded 
 with the matchless eloquence of a Grattan and a Curran. 
 But the hall of the peers, now used only by the bank 
 directorate, is adorned with rich and beautiful tapestry 
 representing the battle of the Boyne and other events in 
 the conquest of Ireland by King William. 4. The Castle 
 of JDnhlin., the ancient seat of the viceregal government, is 
 an object of profound interest, associated as it is with the 
 eventful and turbulent history of the country. The apart- 
 ments of the lord-lieutenant, furnished in the style of the 
 last century, are elegant, but not remarkable for grandeur ; 
 but the Castle chapel is regarded by some as a model of 
 religious architecture. Population of Dublin, 1300,000. 
 
 5 "'■ 
 
106 GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 Of the natural curiosities of Ireland, the most remarka- 
 ble is the Gianfs Causeway^ situated on the northern 
 coast. This remarkable formation consists of an immense 
 collection of basaltic pillars extending more than 600 feet 
 into the sea, from 120 to 240 feet wide, and from 16 to 36 
 feet above the level of the adjacent beach. The pillars are 
 mostly in a vertical position, and for a consideralbe space 
 of an equal height, forming a kind of pavement. They are 
 of various forms, but mostly pentagonal and closely com- 
 pacted together. They are rarely of a single piece, but for 
 the most part consist of several pieces whose sections are 
 planes, or alternately concave and convex ; and each col- 
 umn varying in diameter from 15 to 24 inches. So com- 
 pact is the texture of this basalt that the angles of the 
 columns have preserved their sharpness, although exposed 
 to the action of the sea for thousands of years. That part 
 of this famed curiosity which is called the Organ is situ- 
 ated at the northeast corner adjoining the land. It con- 
 sists of fifty massive columns ; the one in the centre of 
 the colonade being 40 feet high, while the others on 
 each side gradually diminish in altitude. The whole pre- 
 senting the appearance of a church organ of colossal di- 
 mensions. 
 
 11. JParis^the capital of France, is situated on both sides 
 of the river Seine, about 130 miles from Havre, which is 
 the port of Paris, at the mouth of the river. 
 
 When the Romans under Julius CsBsar, b. c. 55^ accom- 
 plished the conquest of Gaul, they found here a poor vil- 
 lage, and the only one in the territory of the Parisii, and 
 this the invaders named Littetia. Gradually enlarged and 
 improved under successive dj^nasties, this renowned empo- 
 rium lost both its early name and insignificance, and be- 
 came the seat of an empire of which Rome itself was but 
 a province ; and at length, occupying an area of more than 
 8,000 • cres, and containing a population of more than 
 
INTRODUCTION. 107 
 
 1,500,000, Paris is to-day the centre of the world of fash- 
 ion, science, and art. 
 
 Many of the streets, bridges, and public edifices of Paris 
 commemorate events of glory in the national history of 
 France, while the number and variety of its humane and 
 reli2;ious institutions are exceeded only by those of London. 
 
 The chief edifices of Paris are — 1. The four palaces, the 
 Louvre, the Palais Royale, the Luxemburg, and the Tuil- 
 eries, which last derives its name from its occupying the 
 place of the principal tile-kilns (tiiileries) of Paris. This 
 palace was begun by Catharine de Medicis, continued by 
 Henry IV., and completed by Louis XIV. 2. The Cathe- 
 dral of Notre Dame, a grand Gothic structure, and one of 
 the largest churches in Europe. 3. The church of >iS'^. Ger- 
 rtiain, the great bell of which was used to signal the mas- 
 sacre of the Huguenots in 1572. 4. The Temple, which 
 was used during " the Reign of Terror," 1797, as the prison 
 for the victims of the Jacobin Club, while awaiting the 
 guillotine. 5. The Hotel des Lnvalids, a magnificent struc- 
 ture, built by Louis XIV. as a home for wounded and su- 
 peranuated soldiers. 6. The JBastile, the far-famed state 
 prison of the French kings, was originally the castle of 
 Paris, and was built by order of Charles V. about 1380, by 
 Hugo Aubriot, prevot of Paris, as a defence against the 
 English. During the reigns of Louis XIV. and Louis XV. 
 great numbers of persons of the higher ranks were here 
 immured, the victims of political despotism, court intrigue, 
 or ecclesiastical tyranny. On the 14th of July, 1789, the 
 Bastile was attacked by an armed mob, aided by a portion 
 of the soldiers who had joined the people against the des- 
 potic monarchy, and in the contest which ensued one of 
 the besieged and 150 of the people were killed or wounded. 
 The fortress at length being captured, Delaunay, the com- 
 mander, was seized and instantly despatched, and his head 
 carried by the infuriated populace through the streets of 
 
108 GEifERAL HISTORY. 
 
 Paris. In the vaults of this prison were found the most 
 horrible engines of torture, one of which was an iron cage 
 enclosing the skeleton of a man ! Among the prisoners 
 released at the destruction of the Bastile were a Major 
 White, a Scotchman, and the Count de Lorges, whose long 
 white beard and inability to speak gave evidence of long- 
 continued, cruel, solitary confinement. The column which 
 now stands on La Place de la Bastile bears the names of 
 the 654 persons who aided in its capture and demolition. 
 The key of the Bastile is now at Mount Vernon. 
 
 12, Madrid, the capital of Spain, situated on the Manza- 
 narez, a branch of the Tagus, is remarkable as the most ele- 
 vated European metropolis, being 2,276 feet above the level 
 of the sea. The word Madrid is of Arabic origin, and sig- 
 nifies salubrious dwelling. The city was at first a mere 
 village, and did not become the capital of the kingdom 
 until the reign of Philip IL, a. d. 1563. The form of this 
 city is that of a square about six or seven miles in circuit. 
 It is entered by fifteen gates, and contains forty-two 
 squares, five hundred and six streets, several hundred 
 churches, besides a large number of convents, colleges, 
 hospitals, fountains, and promenades. Of the public build- 
 ings, the Royal Palace is the most important. It is situated 
 on an eminence, at one extremity of the city, enclosing a 
 square 404 feet on each side. In the centre of the palace 
 is a court 120 feet square. The entire edifice is substan- 
 tially built, without wood in any part, having all the apart- 
 ments vaulted. The furniture and ornaments of the palace, 
 especially those of the king's hall, are of great taste and 
 beauty. The collection of paintings (except that those of 
 French artists are excluded) is one of the finest in Europe. 
 Here also are deposited the state jewels and regalia, and 
 the costly throne constructed for Philip II. ornamented 
 with rich gold embroidery, massive silver, columns of rock 
 crystal, and a vast quantity of other more precious stones. 
 
INTRODUCTIOif. 10^ 
 
 The colleges, academies, and benevolent institutions of 
 Madrid are numerous. The Royal Library contains over 
 100,000 printed volumes, besides a large collection of man- 
 usciipts, medals, and other antiquities. The most noted 
 promenade within the walls of Madrid is the Prado^ so cel- 
 ebrated in Spanish romances, and the actual scene of polit- 
 ical plots and private assassinations. The amusements of 
 the inhabitants are chiefly the coffee-houses, theatres, operas, 
 religious processions, particularly those on Corpus Christi 
 day, and above all the brutal bull-fights, of which all ranks 
 of the people are passionately fond. 
 
 Other noted places in Spain are: Cordova, on the Gau- 
 dalquiver, the early metropolis of the Saracens, and w^hich 
 in the tenth century became the most celebrated seat of 
 learning in Europe ; Granada, the last of the Saracen pos- 
 sessions in Spain, and where still stand the remains of their 
 renowned palace and fortress, the Alhambra ; Palos, the 
 port of departure of Columbus on his first voyage of dis- 
 covery, August 14th, 1492; and Gibraltar, the renowned 
 fortress on the Mediterranean, held by Great Britain, 
 since its capture in 1704. 
 
 13, Important Events in the History of Spain. — 
 The original inhabitants of Spain were the Celts, the 
 Iberians, their descendants, the Celtiberians. 
 
 B. C. 
 
 260. Spain conquered by the Carthaginians. 
 196. Spain conquered by the Romans. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 395. Spain occupied by the Goths and Vandals for 300 years. 
 
 714. Euled by the Saracens (Moors) for 750 years. 
 
 14T9. Castile and Aragon united by the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella. 
 1492. Conquest of Granada — Moors defeated — The Voyage of Cohimbus. 
 1517. The splendid reign of Charles V., grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella. 
 1580. The annexation of Poitugal to the crown of Spain by Philip 11. 
 1640. Portugal becomes independent. 
 1700. Accession of Philip V., grandson of Louis XIV. of France. This causes the 
 
 War of the Spanish Succession. 
 18vl8. Occupied by the French under Joseph Bonaparte. 
 1814. The French expelled. Ferdinand VII. restored. 
 
 1834. The Carlist Civil War, incited by Don Carlos against his niece, Isabella IT. 
 1S68. Revolution under General Prim, Isabella expelled. 
 
GENERAL HISTORY. 
 
 PAET SECOE^D-MODERjSr HISTOEY 
 
 Period I. — Roman Empire. 
 Battle of Actium, ) ( Rise op Greek Empire. 
 
 B. c. 80. V 360 years. < a. b. 330. 
 
 Augustus — Home. ) ( Constantlne — Consiaii'ple. 
 
 1, Period of the Itomafi Empire is distinguished by — 
 1, The prevalence of the Roman dominion under forty-five 
 Emperors. 2. The introduction of the Gospel op the 
 Son of God. 8. The Ten persecutions of the Christians 
 by the pagan Romans. 
 
 II. — The Chronology of the Period. 
 
 B. C. 
 
 4 The Nativity of Chtrist at Bethleliem. 
 
 0. Anno Domini begins when Christ is four years old. 
 
 14. Tiberius, emperor of Rome. (Population of Rome, 4,037,000 
 
 citizens.) 
 
 26. Christ baptized in the Jordan. 
 
 33. Christ crucified. 
 
 36. Paul converted on the way to Damascus. 
 
 37. Caligula, emperor of Rome. 
 
 40. The disciples of Clirist called Christians first at Autioch. 
 
 41. Claudius, emperor of Rome. 
 
 50. Paul preaches at Athens. London built by the Romans. 
 
 51. Caractacus led captive to Rome. 
 54. Nero, emperor of Rome. 
 
 64. First persecution of the Christians. 
 
 67. The martyrdom of Peter and Paul. 
 
 68. Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Vespasian, emperors of Rome. 
 70. Jerusalem captured by Titus. 
 
ROMAIC" EMPIRE. Ill 
 
 A. D. 
 
 79. Titus, emperor of Rome. Herculaneum and Pompeii de- 
 stroyed. Pliny tlie elder. 
 81. Domitian, emperor of Rome : — the last of the twelve Caesars. 
 
 95. Second persecution of the Christians. John banished to Patmos. 
 
 96. Nerva, emperor of Rome. 
 
 98. Trajan, emperor of Rome. Pliny the younger. 
 107. Third persecution. Martyrdom of Ignatius. 
 117. Adrian, emperor of Rome. Juvenal, Tacitus, Plutarch, Ptolemy. 
 120. Adrian's wall built across Britain. 
 138. Antoninus Pius, emperor of Rome. 
 161. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, emperor of Rome. 
 163. Fourth persecution. Martyrdom of Polycarp and Justin. 
 180. Commodus, emperor of Rome. 
 193. Septimus Severus, emperor of Rome, issues a decree for the Fifth 
 
 persecution, etc. 
 203. Fifth persecution. Galen, Turtullian. 
 222. Alexander Severus, emperor of Rome. 
 236. Sixth persecution. 
 
 250. Seventh persecution. Martyrdom of Origen. Origin of mo- 
 nastic life. 
 257. Eighth persecution. Cyprian, bishop of Carthage. 
 
 " Emperor Valerian put to death by Sapores, king of Persia. 
 273. Ninth persecution. Queen Zenobia defeated by Aurelian. 
 284. Diocletian, emperor of Rome. Eusebius, Lactantius. 
 303. Tenth persecution. 
 312. Constantine the Great, emperor of Rome. Arius, Athanasius 
 
 III, — The History^ biography, etc., of the Period, 
 
 1, The Rofnan Empire under Augustus comprehended 
 nearly the whole of the civilized world, embracing an area 
 about 3,000 miles long and 2.000 broad. The whole /)0jt9w- 
 lation was 120 millions, of which at least one-half were slaves, 
 and of the remainder, 40 millions were freedmen and only 
 20 millions were free citizens. The government w^as a mon- 
 archy with the forms of a republic : the offices and author- 
 ity of consul, tribune, and Pontifex Maximus being united in 
 the person of the emperor. The army consisted of 400,000 
 men, divided into thirty legions, and distributed in different 
 
112 GENERAL HISTOET. [B. C. 30 
 
 purts of the empire, with 20,000 Praetorian guards sta- 
 tioned in Italy. The navy numbered 50,000 men, and 
 cruised chiefly in the Mediterranean, Black Sea, British 
 Channel, on the Rhine and Danube. During a period of 
 500 years the imperial throne was occupied by seventy- 
 eight emperors : of whom Augustus, b. c. 30 ; Vespasian, 
 A. D. 70; Titus, 79; Trajan, 98; Adrian, 117; Antoninus 
 Pius, 138 ; Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, 161 ; and Alexan- 
 der Severus, 222, were remarkable for their eminent abili- 
 ties as soldiers or statesmen. Tiberius, a. d. 14 ; Caligula, 
 37 ; Claudius, 41 ; Nero, 54 ; and Commodus, 180, were 
 among the most infamous. Constantine, 312, is noted for 
 his suppressing the persecutions of the Christians and 
 removing the seat of empire from Rome to Byzantium, 
 Julian, 361, for his apostacy. Theodosius, 379, for his zeal- 
 ous support of Christianity. And Augustulus Romulus, 
 475, as being the last and least of all. 
 
 2» Jesus Christ, the Son of God, and the Saviour of 
 men, was born at Bethlehem of Judea, according to the 
 prediction of the prophets ; his mother, the Virgin Mary, 
 and her husband Joseph, being of the house and lineage of 
 David. The wise men from the east that came to worship the 
 infant Jesus were directed to Bethlehem by the sudden ap- 
 pearance of a new star or star-like meteor which, according 
 to the prevailing belief at that time, would attend the birth 
 of the long-promised King of Israel. After the Saviour's 
 return from Egypt nothing is recorded of his early life ex- 
 cept his conversation at twelve years of age with the doc- 
 tors in the temple. 
 
 When Jesus was about thirty years of age, a. d. ^%^ he 
 was publicly baptized in the Jordan by his forerunner, 
 John the Baptist; and having for seven years preached the 
 gospel and attested his claim to the Messiahship by mira- 
 cles of the most astonishing character, which he wrought in 
 the presence of chosen witnesses, he expiated the sins of 
 
toA. I>. 330.] liOMAN^ EMPIRE. 113 
 
 men upon the cross in the eighteenth year of the emperor 
 Tiberius, a. d. 33. 
 
 3, The Apostles of Christ were the twelve chosen wit- 
 nesses of the Saviour's ministry, death, resurrection, and 
 ascension, and who were divinely commissioned and qual- 
 ified to preach the gospel to all nations, and establish the 
 Christian church. 
 
 4, The JBooks of the New Testament, twenty-seven in 
 number, were, as those of the Old Testament had been, all 
 written by inspired men, and were so received by the 
 Christian church during the lifetime of the apostles, that 
 is, before the close of the first century. The chief subjects 
 treated of in the New Testament as establishing the truth 
 of the Christian religion are — 1. The descent of Christ 
 from king David. 2. The sinless life and divine character 
 of Christ. 3. His miracles and doctrines. 4. His triumph- 
 ant resurrection from the dead : all in accordance with 
 prophecies delivered long before our Saviour appeared on 
 earth. 
 
 o. The Invasion of Britain was the only event of 
 importance in the reign of the emperor Claudius. When 
 Caractacus, the king of South Wales, was led captive to 
 Rome, he expressed his astonishment that an emperor, occu- 
 pying such a palace as that of Rome, should envy him in 
 his humble cabin in Britain. The first invasion of Britain 
 by the Romans was under Julius Caesar, b. c. ^5, and they 
 held possession of the island until a. d. 426. 
 
 6. Nero, the fifth Roman emperor, an atrocious mon- 
 ster, who murdered his mother, his wife, his instructer, 
 Seneca the philosopher, and many other eminent persons. 
 Having in mere wantonness set the city of Rome on fire, 
 he charged this crime on the Christians. This originated 
 the first persecution, a. d. 64, during which the apostles 
 Paul and Peter suffered martyrdom, a. d. 67. In the reign 
 of Nero, Boadicea, a queen of Britain, defeated a Roman 
 
114 GENERAL HISTORY. [B. C. 30 
 
 army, causing the loss of 70,000 men. But this disaster 
 was speedily avenged by the slaughter of 80,000 Britons. 
 After this the Britons quietly submitted to their con- 
 querors. 
 
 7, The Destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans, un- 
 der Titus, in the reign of his father Vespasian, a. d. 70, 
 extinguished the Jewish nation. The siege lasted six 
 months, during which time bloodshed, famine, and pesti- 
 lence raged in the city, and more than a million of Jews 
 perished. After the capture of the city multitudes were 
 sold into bondage and scattered over the earth. (Josephus, 
 Wars of the Jews, book vi.) 
 
 8, Titus f the tenth emperor of Rome, and the hero 
 of the Jewish war, was remarkable for his many virtues. 
 Remembering one evening that he had done no act of 
 charity during the day, he exclaimed: ^'' My friends, I have 
 lost a day P"* So regardless was he of censure and abuse 
 that he was heard to say upon a certain occasion : " Why 
 should I he displeased at censure when I do viothing to 
 deserve it .^" 
 
 In the year that Titus became emperor, a. d. 79, occur- 
 red that eruption of Mount Vesuvius which overwhelmed 
 the cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii, and which caused 
 the death of the great naturalist Pliny the elder, who was 
 suffocated while viewing the terrific scene. 
 
 9, Domitian, eleventh emperor and the last of the 
 twelve Ccesars, was the unworthy brother of Titus, being 
 remarkable for baseness and cruelty. In his reign occurred 
 the second persecution, a. d. 95, during which 40.000 
 Christians were put to death; and the apostle John, the 
 only survivor of the Twelve, was banished to the island of 
 Patmos. There he beheld the prophetic visions which are 
 recorded in the Book of Revelation. 
 
 It is related of the apostle John, that upon a certain occa- 
 sion becoming interested in a young man of great promise, 
 
toA. I>. 330.] ROMAN EMPIKE. 115 
 
 he warmly recommended him to the care of a particular 
 pastor. In due time the youth was baptized, and for awhile 
 lived a Christian life. At length, however, being seduced 
 by evil company, he became idle and intemperate, and 
 finally fled to a band of robbers, of which he became the 
 leader. 
 
 Some time after this the apostle learned to his surprise 
 and grief the sad fall of the young convert, and repairing 
 to the rendezvous of the banditti, he exposed himself to be 
 captured. When seized by one of the robbers the venera- 
 ble John said, " Bring me to your captain." The unhappy 
 young chieftain seeing the apostle approaching, immediately 
 fled. The holy man instantly pursued him, crying, "My 
 son, why fliest thou from thy father, unarmed and old ? 
 Fear not. As yet there remaineth hope of salvation. Be- 
 lieve me, Christ hath sent me." Hearing these words of 
 parental tenderness the young robber stood still, trembled, 
 and wept bitterly. At the earnest entreaty of John he re- 
 turned to the society of his Christian friends, nor did the 
 apostle leave him until he judged him fully restored by 
 divine grace. 
 
 During the reign of Domitian, a. d. 81-96, flourished 
 Josephus the Jewish historian; Agricola^ the brave general 
 of Domitian, who conquered Britain as far as the friths of 
 Scotland ; and Quintilian^ the most eminent writer on 
 rhetoric, whose works still exist. 
 
 10, The Emperor Nerva, who succeeded Domitian, 
 being of a gentle and humane disposition, forbade the per- 
 secution of any person for Judaism or impiety, meaning by 
 this latter term Christianity. For the heathen regarded 
 the Christians as impious men and atheists, because they 
 used neither altars, sacrifices, nor idols in their religious 
 worship. Nerva recalled the Christian exiles, restored to 
 them their forfeited estates, and granted a full toleration tc 
 the Christian relio^ion. 
 
116 GENERAL HISTORY. [B, C. 30 
 
 11, The Emperor Trajan was a successful warrior 
 and a very popular sovereign. The character of this prince 
 appears in the following incident. Decebalus, king of 
 Dacia, having been subdued by the emperor Trajan, died a 
 prisoner among the Romans. The emperor then took the 
 son of the deceased captive king and determined to educate 
 him with the intention of restoring him to his father's 
 throne of Dacia. But one day, seeing the boy break into 
 an orchard, the emperor asked him at night where he had 
 been during the day. The boy replied, " Nowhere but in 
 school." Trajan was so offended at the disposition mani- 
 fested by this falsehood, that neither the Dacians nor the 
 Romans could induce him to fulfil his intention of replacing 
 the youth on the throne of his father, " for,'' said he, " one 
 who begins thus early to be a liar can never be qualified to 
 be a king." In an edict issued against secret societies, Tra- 
 jan authorized the third persecution of the Christians, a. d. 
 107. In this persecution Si7neon^ who had been bishop of 
 Jerusalem, was crucified; and Ignatius^ bishop of Antioch, 
 was devoured by wild beasts at Rome. Simeon, when 120 
 years of age, was accused before the Roman governor of 
 being a Christian. He was cruelly scourged for many days, 
 but still remaining faithful to the profession of his holy 
 religion, he was led out and crucified. Ignatius, fearing for 
 the people of his charge, went to meet the Roman emperor, 
 who was on his way to the Parthian war, and offered to 
 suffer in their stead. Trajan received the apostolic man 
 with great haughtiness, and being exasperated at his gen- 
 erosity and dignity, he ordered him to be sent to Rome and 
 thrown to the wild beasts in the amphitheatre, for the en- 
 tertainment of the populace. 
 
 12, The Persecution of the Christia/tis by the heathen 
 Romans appears to have originated partly from the cor- 
 rupting and debasing influence of idolatry, which pervaded 
 not only the religion of the Romans, but also their political 
 
to A. 11.330.] ROMAIC EMPIRE. 117 
 
 institutions and their familiar and social intercourse. Their 
 houses and furniture, as well as their temples, were deco- 
 rated with images of their numerous divinities; at their 
 convivial feasts, sacrifices were offered, and libations poured 
 out to their imaginary gods and goddesses, and their 
 common language abounded with profanity and impiety. 
 It was therefore impossible for a conscientious and enlight- 
 ened Christian to hold any intercourse with his heathen 
 neighbors, and not be constantly liable to give offence, 
 either by refusing to acknowledge the divinity of Jupiter, 
 or declining a compliment in the name of Juno. This 
 constant testimony against the popular superstition, united 
 with their exclusive devotion to the purity and spirituality 
 of the gospel of Christ, speedily aroused that relentless 
 hostility of the heathen world, from which the primitive 
 Christians so long and so severely suffered. From a letter 
 written to the emperor Trajan, by Pliny the younger, who 
 was the Roman consul of Bithynia, we learn that the 
 Christians of that period were pure and exemplary in their 
 lives, and were charged by their enemies with no other 
 crime than that of worshipping the Lord Jesus Christ as 
 God, and refusing to worship the heathen gods. And that 
 the gospel, which Pliny called " a depraved superstition," 
 had spread through cities, villages, and farm-houses, to so 
 great an extent, that the heathen temples had become 
 almost desolate. 
 
 13, Adrian, the celebrated Roman emperor who spent 
 thirteen years in travelling through the empire, reforming 
 abuses and rebuilding cities. To defend the Britons from 
 the incursions of the Scots, he caused a wall sixty-eight 
 miles long to be built across the northern part of England, 
 which then belonged to the Roman empire, a. d. 120. This 
 emperor issued no persecuting edicts against the Christians, 
 but on the contrary, endeavored to restrain the spirit of 
 persecution. During the reign of Adrian, a. d. 117-138, 
 
118 GEi^ERAL HISTORY. [B. C. 30 
 
 flourished the poet Juvenal; Tacitus^ the historian; 
 Plutarch^ the chief biographer of antiquity; and Ptolemy^ 
 the astronomer and geographer. 
 
 14:, Antoninus Pius swayed the sceptre of the empire 
 twenty-three years, a. d. 138-161. His reign was dis- 
 tinguished by equity, peace, and prosperity. When told 
 of warlike heroes, he was accustomed to say, with Scipio : 
 a J prefer the life and happiness of one suhject to the death 
 of a hundred enemies ! ''^ 
 
 la, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, son-in-law, and suc- 
 cessor of Antoninus Pius, a. d. 161-180, was noted for 
 his austerity as a heathen philosopher, and for his implaca- 
 ble enmity to the Christians. In his reign occurred the 
 Fourth Persecution^ 163, during which Polycarp, bishop 
 of Smyrna, was burned at the stake, and Justin Martyr 
 was beheaded, a. d. 166. The venerable Polycarp, who, 
 with Ignatius, had been a disciple of the Apostle John, was 
 bishop of Smyrna eighty years. As he was about being 
 nailed to the stake to be burned, he said ; " Let me remain 
 as I am, for He who giveth me strength to sustain the fire, 
 will enable me to remain unmoved." Justin Martyr, a man 
 of distinguished piety and learning, had rendered himself 
 remarkable by his masterly defence of the gospel in two 
 ^^Apoloyies for the Christians,^'' addressed to the emperor 
 and senate of Rome. He was at length accused and 
 imprisoned with six of his brethren. When brought before 
 the prefect, they were urged to renounce the gospel, and 
 sacrifice to the gods ; but remaining faithful to their divine 
 religion, they were sentenced to be first scourged, and 
 then beheaded, according to the cruel law of persecution. 
 Marcus Aurelius died in the nineteenth year of his reign, 
 on an expedition against the Marcomanni, then at war with 
 Rome. During the reign of Marcus flourished Galen, a 
 celebrated physician, who so astonished the world by his 
 successful practice, that his cures were popularly attributed 
 
to A. Jtt. 330.] EOMA]^ EMPIRE. 119 
 
 to magic. He died at Pergamiis, tlie place of his birth, at 
 the age of ninety, a. d. 193. 
 
 16, After Marcus Auf^elius the throne of the empire 
 was occupied successively by his son, the profligate Cora- 
 modus, 180; bf Pertinax, a venerable soldier, who was pro- 
 claimed by the army and then assassinated by them, 193, 
 and by Didius Julianus, a wealthy senator, who bought 
 the empire at auction of the Praetorian Guards, for about 
 $9,000,000. The authority of Didius not being recognized by 
 the military commanders in the distant provinces, a mutual 
 contest arose, which terminated in the triumph of 
 
 17* Septimius Sever us, 193, a despotic soldier, who 
 totally defeated his competitors, Niger and Albinus, and 
 reigned with firmness and ability eighteen years. During 
 this reign occurred — 1. the Fifth Persecution^ a. d. 202, 
 in which Irenaeus, bishop of Lyons, suffered martyrdom ; 
 2. the capture of Byzantium, 195 ; and, 3. the building 
 of a wall across Britain, from the Forth to the Clyde, to 
 repel the Caledonians, 209. This wall, nearly parallel with 
 that of Adrian, was eight feet broad at the top, twelve feet 
 high, and defended by means of towers, one mile apart. 
 These garrisons communicated with each other by means of 
 metallic speaking-tubes built in the wall. About this period 
 flourished TertuUian, a Carthaginian, and a man of em- 
 inent abilities and learning, which, on his conversion to 
 Christianity, he ardently devoted to the defence of the 
 gospel. 
 
 18. Aleacander Severus, a mild and beneficent prince, 
 ascended the throne at the age of sixteen, 222, after the 
 short and turbulent reigns of Caracalla and Geta, 211, 
 Macrinus, 217, and Heliogabalus, 218. During the reign 
 of Alexander, the Christians enjoyed protection and tran- 
 quillity. 
 
 A piece of common land, which had been occupied by 
 the Christians as the site of a church edifice, was claimed 
 
130 GEKEEAL HISTORY. ^ [B. C. 30 
 
 by a lieatheii tavern-keeper. The disputed title to the 
 property was referred to the emperor for settlement. "It is 
 better," said Alexander, " that God should be served there, 
 in any manner whatever, than that a tavern should be made 
 of it." 
 
 19, 3Iaaciminf a giant, the son of a Thracian herdsman, 
 having incited the soldiers to assassinate Alexander Se- 
 verus, succeeded him as emperor of Rome, 235. Dreading 
 the opposition of the Christians, whom his predecessor 
 had favored and protected, Maximin authorized the Sixth 
 Persecution^ 236, ordering the ministers, whom he knew 
 Alexander had treated as his intimate friends, to be seized 
 and put to death. At the same time, also, suffered Victor, 
 bishop of Rome, Leonidas, Perpetua, and Felicitas. 
 
 20. The Seventh Persecution of the Christians, A. d. 
 250, one of the most remarkable in its results, took place 
 in the reign of the emperor Decius. The most eminent 
 martyr at this time was Origen, a distinguished minister of 
 the gospel at Alexandria, and the luminary of the age in 
 which he flouiished. His great work was The Hexapla^ 
 which was the Bible written out in six different languages. 
 
 Until this period few instances occurred of Christians 
 apostatizing from the faith of the gospel. But now vast 
 numbers in many parts of the empire lapsed into idolatry. 
 Among those who, to escape persecution, basely abandoned 
 the cause of Christ, was Eudemon, bishop of the church in 
 Smyrna. Far different, however, at the same time, was 
 the conduct of Pionius, a presbyter in the same church. 
 Nobly disregarding both the tortures and entreaties that 
 were used to induce him to deny his Redeemer, he remained 
 faithful to Christ ; while the unhappy Eudemon, bearing 
 the emblems of his apostacy and infamy, bowed before the 
 altar of idolatry. The constancy of Pionius served only to 
 inflame the rage of his heathen persecutors. The execu- 
 tioner having prepared the materials for his martyrdom, 
 
to A. ». 330.] KOMAlf EMPIRE. 121 
 
 Pionius stretched himself upon the stake, and was then 
 nailed to it by the soldiers. " Change your mind," said the 
 executioner, "and the nails shall be withdrawn." *^I have 
 felt them," exclaimed the martyr; and after a few moments, 
 added, "O Lord, I hasten." The stake then being raised 
 with the expiring martyr nailed to it, and placed in the 
 socket prepared for it, the fire was kindled. For some 
 time Pionius remained motionless — his eyes closed, and his 
 spirit evidently in holy converse with God. At length, 
 with a cheerful countenance, and eyes elevated to heaven, 
 he exclaimed, "Amen ! Lord, receive my soul." 
 
 At the breaking out of this persecution, the habit of 
 monastic life was introduced by Paul the Hermit, who, 
 to avoid persecution, retired to the deserts of Thebais, in 
 Africa, where, acquiring a love for solitude, he remained 
 from the age of 23 until the close of his life, at the age of 
 113 years. 
 
 21^ Valerian, a commander of one of the provincial 
 armies, ascended the throne of the empire, a. d. 254, on the 
 death of Gallus, a vicious tyrant, who was slain in a civil 
 war. In a war with Persia, Valerian was captured by 
 Sapores L, the Persian king, and held as an abject prisoner 
 for life. To complete his humiliation, Sapores would at 
 times compel Valerian to stoop to the earth, and then set 
 his foot upon him to mount his horse. The manner of his 
 death was most horrible. His eyes were plucked out, he 
 was flayed alive, and then rubbed with salt, 261. 
 
 Under Valerian occurred the JEighth Persecution^ pro- 
 duced by the influence of the emperor's favorite, the cruel 
 Macrianus. It was at this time the crown of martyrdom 
 was obtained by Novatian, a presbyter of Rome, and by 
 Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, 259. 
 
 22, Aurelian, the most valiant soldier of the age, was 
 elevated to the throne, a. d. 270, as was then the custom, 
 by the choice of the army. The bodily strength of this 
 
 6 
 
122 GENERAL HISTORY. [B. C. 30 
 
 emperor is said to have been so great, that in a single 
 engagement, with his own hand, he killed forty of the 
 enemy, and in different battles, nine hundred ! 
 
 Events during this reign : — 1. the AUemanni and Mar- 
 comanni ravaged the empire, 271. 2. The Ninth Persecu- 
 tion^ which was instigated by the restless persecuting pagan 
 priests, 273; and, 3. Zenobia, the beautiful and valiant queen 
 of Palmyra, was conquered and led captive to Rome, 273. 
 Palmyra, or "Tadmor in the wilderness," built by king Sol- 
 omon, was situated about 180 miles northeast of Damascus. 
 In modern history this remarkable place became the capital 
 of Zenobia, styled "The Queen of the East." On the cap- 
 ture of the city by Aurelian, Zenobia's secretary of state, the 
 learned Longinus, was put to death, and the vanquished 
 princess led to Rome in triumph. The ruins of this ancient 
 city, still arrest the attention of the traveller. Beautiful 
 arches, vaults, temples, and porticos abound. One colon- 
 nade, four thousand feet long, and terminated by a beauti- 
 ful mausoleum, is an object of profound interest. 
 
 23, Diocletian (after Tacitus^ Probus, CaruSy and his 
 sons Carinus and N-umerian) w^as declared emperor in the 
 year 284. In a short time, finding the burden of so vast an 
 empire too great, Diocletian associated with himself in the 
 government his friend Maximian ; and in the year 292 
 they appointed two subordinate colleagues, whom they 
 named Ccesars^ viz., Galerius and Constantius. Among 
 these four the administration of the government was for a 
 time divided. But this novel state of affairs did not long 
 continue. In the year a. d. 304 the two emperors resigned 
 their authority into the hands of the Caesars and retired into 
 private life. The two Caesars then, adopting the policy of 
 their predecessors, associated with them two partners, Se- 
 verus II. and Maximian II., so that the empire was again for 
 a short space in the hands of four rulers. In the jealousies 
 and contests which ensued among the successors of these 
 
toA. I>. 330.] BYZAKTIXE, OR GREEK EMPIRE. 123 
 
 emperors and Caesars, the Christians suffered long and se- 
 verely. In the Tenth Persecution^ 303, inflicted by the two 
 Maxiraians, it is stated that not less than 17,000 persons 
 were put to death in the space of a month ; and that in the 
 province of Egypt alone 150,000 persons died by violence. 
 In the year 311, the empire was found in the hands of 
 Constantine, the son of Constantius, and Licinius^ who 
 had succeeded Galerius. These emperors, agreeing to arrest 
 the spirit of persecution, issued a joint edict at Milan, 
 granting free toleration to the Christians in the exercise of 
 their religion, a. d. 313. On the death of Licinius, 323, Con- 
 stantine the Great became sole emperor of Rome. It is 
 related that when Constantine was marching^ to battle 
 ao^ainst Maxentius, he saw in the air a luminous cross bear- 
 ing the inscription: '''■In hoc signo vinces.'''* "By this 
 sign thou shalt conquer." Soon after the victory which he 
 achieved he became the friend and patron of the Chris- 
 tians, and is called the Jirst Christian emperor. 
 
 Period II. — Byzantine, ok Greek Empire. 
 
 RtSE op Greek Empire, ) ( Rise op Saracen Empire. 
 
 A. D. 380. [ 292 years. \ a. d. 622. 
 
 Constantine— C(:>/iste7i'^?e. ; ( Mahomet — Mecca. 
 
 1, The Byzantine Teriod is distinguished by — 1. The 
 removal of the seat of empire from Rome to Byzantium, 
 330 (thence named Constantinople), resulting in the divi- 
 sion of the great empire of the Romans into two parts, 
 the eastern, or Greek empire, and the w^estern, or Latin em- 
 pire, A. D. 395. 2. By the conquest of the western empire 
 by Odoacer, king of the Heruli, a. d. 476. 3. By the estab- 
 lishment of the French monarchy, a. d. 486. 4. By the 
 conquest of Britain by the Saxons, 450-584. 
 
 I H H 
 
 * The initialgi forming the symbol, — " y' * 
 
VZ4: GENERAL HISTORY. [A. ». 330 
 
 II. — The Chronology of the Period. 
 
 A. D, 
 
 330. Byzantium made the metropolis of the empire. 
 
 337. Constantine dies and is succeeded by his three sous, Constan- 
 tine II., Constans, Constantius II., and two uephews. 
 
 361. Julian, the apostate, attempts to rebuild the Temple of Jeru- 
 salem, 
 
 384. The Roman senate abolishes Paganism as the religion of the 
 empire. 
 
 395. The empire divided between Arcadius, emperor of the East and 
 Honorius, emperor of the West. 
 
 409. The West invaded by Yandals, Alians, Suevi, Goths, Visigoths, 
 
 and other barbarous tribes from the north of Europe. 
 
 410. Rome captured by Alaric. 
 
 429. Britain, abandoned by tlie Romans, is invaded by the Scots. 
 
 432. St. Patrick introduces the Gospel into Ireland. 
 
 447. Hengist and Horsa invited to aid the Britons. Attila, the Hun. 
 
 ravages Europe. 
 455. Rome plundered by Genseric, the Vandal. 
 476. Augustulus, the last emperor of Rome, conquered by Odoacer. 
 486. The French monarchy founded by Clovis. 
 493. Italy conquered by Theodoric, the Ostragoth. 
 511. Prince Arthur defeats the Saxons in the battle of Badon Hill, 
 516. The Christian .^ra — Anno Domini — introduced. (See Sec. iv.l2.) 
 527. Justinian I., emperor of the Eastern empire, 
 565. St. Columba founds the schools of the Culdees at lona 
 568. The Lombards under Alboin take possession of Italy. 
 596. Gregory the Great sends missionaries to Britain. 
 606. Emperor Fhocas acknowledges the supremacy of the Pope. 
 611. Westminster Abbey founded by Sibert, king of Essex. (See 
 Mod. Hist, Int., London.) 
 
 III. — The History^ Hiography., etc., of the Period. 
 
 1» Constantine^ a man of great abilities and of remark- 
 able decision of character, has rendered his name famous 
 by two important measures of state policy : 1. the favor- 
 ing of the Christian religion, which resulted in its becom- 
 ing the established religion of the empire ; 2. the removal 
 of the seat of government from Rome to Pyzantium, cau^^- 
 ing ultimately the division of the empire. It is related 
 
to 622.] BYZANTIJ^E^ OR GREEK EMPIRE. 125 
 
 that Constantine had selected for his new capital a site near 
 Chalcedon, on the eastern side of the Bosphorus; and as 
 they were laying out the grounds an eagle seized the meas- 
 uring line and flew oif across the water toward Byzantium. 
 Acting on this suggestion, Constantine decided upon this 
 latter place as the seat of empire. Here he built a capitol, 
 an amphitheatre, several churches, and other public edifices. 
 Then, dedicating the city to the God of the martyrs, he 
 changed its name to Constantinople^ and removed hither 
 with his imperial court. 
 
 2, Julian, called the apostate^ from his renouncing his 
 Christian education and embracing paganism, was a 
 nephew of Constantine the Great. Surviving the sons and 
 other nephews of Constantine, with whom he had been 
 associated in the empire, Julian became sole monarch a. d. 
 361. Nothing could exceed the deep malignity of this 
 abandoned man toward the name and cause of Christ. The 
 heathen temples were rebuilt and the pagan priests hon- 
 ored, while the Christians were deprived of their civil 
 rights, their schools closed, and their religion treated with 
 contempt and ridicule. His impious attempt to rebuild the 
 Temple at Jerusalem, for the purpose of discrediting the 
 prophecy of Christ, was of course a signal failure. Being 
 at war with the Persians, he was mortally wounded in bat- 
 tle with a lance, and he is said to have received in his hand 
 a quantity of blood from the wound, and indignantly cast- 
 ing it in the air, exclaimed : " Galilean ! thou hast con- 
 quered.''^ 
 
 3, Tlieodosius the Great (the son of an eminent Koman 
 general) was chosen as the colleague of Gratian, who in 
 this way endeavored to atone for the unjust and cruel exe- 
 cution of the father of Theodosius. 379. After reigning for 
 some years over the eastern division, Theodosius became in 
 392, sole emperor, and at his death, 395, the empire was 
 permanently divided : his son Arcadius reigning over the 
 
126 GENERAL HISTORY. [A. ». 330 
 
 eastern division at Constantinople, and his other son, -ffb^io- 
 rius, over the western division at Ravenna. 
 
 During the reign of Theodosius the comparative merits 
 of Christianity and paganism were debated in the senate 
 of Rome ; Ambrose, bishop of Milan, advocating the former, 
 and Syinmachus, a pagan philosopher, the latter. At the 
 close of the disputation the senate solemnly abolished pa- 
 ganism as the religion of the empire, a. d. 384. 
 
 4, The Fall of the Western Empire, — Between the 
 years a. d. 409 and 420 the Vandals, Alians, Suevi, Goths, 
 Visigoths, Franks, and other barbarous tribes from the 
 north of Europe and northw^est of Asia invaded and sub- 
 jugated various portions of the western empire. In 410 
 Rome was captured by Alaric the Goth, after a seige of 
 two years. The plundering of the city occupied six days ; 
 the streets were deluged with blood ; and some of the 
 noblest edifices were totally demolished, although the con- 
 queror endeavored to save them from destruction. 
 
 After the Romans had withdrawn their forces from Brit- 
 ain, 426, the ^cots and Picts, warlike tribes from the north- 
 ern part of the island, began to make inroads upon the 
 defenceless Britons, 429. To repel these hostile incursions 
 Sengist and Horsa, leaders of the Saxons and Angles, 
 were invited into Britain, and these rapacious allies finally 
 took possession of the country, founding the seven king- 
 doms of the tSaxon Heptarchy. These seven kingdoins 
 were Kent, founded by Ilengist ; Sussex, by Ella ; Wes- 
 sex, by Cerdic ; Essex, by Sigobert ; Northumberland, by 
 Idda ; East Englia, by Offa ; and Murcia, by Crida, a. d. 
 450-584. The valiant Briton, Prince Arthur, who held his 
 court at Caerleon, in Wales, defeated the Saxons in the bat- 
 tle of Badon Hill, 511; but he was afterward overcome by 
 Cerdic, king of Wessex, 519. Atilla the Ilun, who from 
 the extent and cruelty of the ravages of his army of 
 500,000 men, was designated the /iS'coi^r^e of God, desolated 
 
to 622.] BYZANTINE, OR GEEEK EMPIRE. 127 
 
 Italy, 447. Genseric^ the Yandal king, plundered Rome, 
 455 ; and in 476 Odoacer, the valiant king of the Heruli, 
 defeated Augustulus, the last emperor of the west, captured 
 Rome, and established the hhigdom of Italy, 1229 years 
 from the building of Rome. In 493 Theodoric, king of 
 the Ostragoths, became master of Italy, after putting 
 Odoacer to death ; and in 568 the possession of Italy was 
 obtained by the Lombards under their leader Alboin. 
 
 5, The Eastern Mtnpire dates its establishment from 
 the death of Theodocius the Great, a. d.395, and it endured 
 in a state of gradual decay 1058 years, to a. d. 1453, when 
 Constantinople was captured by the Turks. The eastern 
 empire varied in extent at different periods : at one time 
 embracing Italy, Greece, and Egypt, it extended to the 
 river Tigris. At other times it was limited by the walls of 
 Constantinople. 
 
 The government was an absolute monarchy, the emperors 
 imitating, in their luxury and magnificence, and in the ser- 
 vile obedience which they exacted of their subjects, the 
 ostentation and despotism of Asiatic sovereigns. 
 
 6*. Justinian J., 527-565, was the most noted emperor 
 during the Byzanti Period. Although personally un- 
 worthy and incompetent, his reign was rendered illustrious 
 by the genius and valor of his renowned generals, Bellsa- 
 rius and Narses, and by the publication of the Pandects, 
 or code of laws, compiled by the learned Trebonius. 
 
 The arms of Belisarius supported the throne of the em- 
 pire. He defeated the kings of Persia, Cabades, and Cos- 
 rhoes in several sanguinary engagements ; suppressed a 
 formidable riot in Constantinople that threatened to hurl 
 Justinian from the throne; rescued Carthage from the 
 dominion of the Vandals, 534, and for a time restored Italy 
 to the government of its ancient masters, 547. Although 
 Belisarius had been so signally successful, yet the contempt- 
 ible Justinian, jealous of his brave lieutenant, recalled him 
 
128 GENERAL HISTORY. [A. ». 330 
 
 to Constantinople and repaid his eminent services with base 
 ingratitude. JVarses, who in 553 succeeded Belisarius, was 
 not less successful in arms than he had been wise in council. 
 He defeated the Goths and governed Italy as a duke for 
 fourteen years. But on sharing the fate of his noble pre- 
 decessor in being meanly recalled from his government, 567, 
 Narses, in revenge, surrendered Italy to Alboin, the leader 
 of the Lombards, 568. 
 
 7. The Habit of Heriinit Life prevalent, — From the 
 time of Paul the Hermit, 250, there had been a gradual 
 prevalence throughout Christendom of the disposition to 
 forsake the active scenes of social Christian life in order to 
 pursue a life of austerity in seclusion from the world. In 
 the year 356 died Anthony the Hermit, a native of Alexan- 
 dria, at the age of 105 years. He had spent the greater 
 part of his long life in the practice of the severest austeri- 
 ties among the tombs, in ruined towers, and in the desert, 
 east of the river Nile. Multitudes were influenced, from 
 the imagined superior sanctity of such a life, to imitate his 
 gloomy example. 
 
 But one of the most remarkable instances of monkish 
 penance is that of St. Simon, a Syrian monk, who lived 
 about the year 450. For thirty-six years he lived upon a 
 pillar erected on the summit of a mountain in Syria. From 
 this pillar it is said he never descended, unless to take pos- 
 session of another, which he did four times, having in all 
 occupied five of them. On his last pillar, which was sixty 
 feet high, and only three feet broad at the top, he remained 
 standing for fifteen years without intermission. 
 
 8. The French Monarchy, founded by Clovis, who in 
 486 defeated the Roman governor of Gaul. Clovis was 
 the grandson of 3Ierov(eus^ a renowned chieftain of the 
 Franks, who in 420, under Phara/niond, had settled in the 
 northern part of Gaul, then claimed by the Romans. 
 Clovis, in 496, being about to engage in battle with the 
 
to 622.] BYZANTINE, OR GREEK EMPIRE. 129 
 
 Germans, invoked the aid of the God of his wife Clotilda, 
 a Christian princess. Gaining a decisive victory, he with 
 his sister and three thousand of his army was on Christmas 
 day baptized and received into the church. The successive 
 2'ieriocl$ of French history are — 1. the 3ferovingian, 186; 
 2. the Carlovingian, 800 ; 3. the Capetian^ 987 ; 4. the 
 Valois, 1328; 5. the J^oi^7^bon, 1589; 6. the JV^cfpoleonic, 
 1804. 
 
 9, Missionary Enterprises, — During the ByzantAne 
 Period there were undertaken three important missionary 
 enterprises^ — 1. that of St. Patrick to Ireland, 432 ; 2. St. 
 Columba to Scotland, 585; 3, St. Austin to Britain, 591 
 
 St. Patrick, whose original name was Saccath^ was a 
 native of Bonnaven, a small Scottish village between Glas- 
 gow and Dumbarton, at that time considered a part of 
 Britain. His father, who was a deacon in the village 
 church, gave him a Christian education, and thus prepared 
 him for future usefulness. At sixteen years of age he was 
 carried off by pirates, taken to the northern coast of Ireland, 
 and sold as a slave to an Irish chieftain, who made him the 
 keeper of his flocks. In this situation he remained six 
 years, during which time he experienced the renewing in- 
 fluences of divine grace. 
 
 An opportunity occurring, he escaped from bondage, but 
 was soon after recaptured. In a short time, however, he 
 was permitted to return to his home, whence, having de- 
 voted himself to the work of the Christian ministry, he 
 went to Gaul to prosecute his studies in theology. In due 
 time he was ordained and sent, in company with several 
 others, as a missionary to Ireland, where he preached the 
 liberty of the gospel to them who had once held him in 
 bondage, and became the devoted and venerated spiritual 
 shepherd of the men whose flocks and herds he had for- 
 merly fed, 432. 
 
 St. Columba, or Coi.umbakus, a native of Ireland, pass- 
 
130 GENERAL HISTORY. [A. ». 330 
 
 ing over into the western parts of Scotland, 565, promul- 
 gated the gospel of Christ among the northern Picts and 
 other pagan tribes. On the secluded and beautiful island 
 of lona (in Celtic Ithona, i. e., Isle of Waves) ^ Columba 
 established the Seminary of the Ctildees (the family or ser 
 vants of God), who were here prepared for their work as 
 Christian missionaries to the pagan tribes of northwestern 
 Europe. Columba was a man of superior ability, and the 
 first author of any distinction in British history. He wrote 
 in Latin, according to the custom of the learned at that 
 period, and his works are poems and religious treatises. 
 He died a. d, 615. 
 
 St. Austin, the missionary who in the year 596 was sent 
 with forty others, by Pope Gregory the Great, to convert 
 the inhabitants of Britain. The origin of this mission was 
 remarkable. While yet a private clergyman in the city of 
 Rome, Gregory, one day passing through a slave market, 
 became uncommonly interested in the appearance of some 
 light-haired, fair-complexioned youths who stood exposed 
 for sale. " Whence came these lads ?" he asked. " From 
 Britain," was the answer. "Are the people Christians 
 there ?" he inquired. " No, they are pagans," he was in- 
 formed. " Alas !" he exclaimed, " how grievous it is that 
 faces fair as these should own subjection to the swarthy 
 devil!" His next question was, " What do they call the 
 tribe from which these young people sj)ring ?'' " Angles," 
 replied the slave-dealer. "Ah! that is well," rejoined 
 Gregory ; ''^Angels they are in countenance, and choirs of 
 angels they ought to be." ** Where in Britain do their 
 kindred live ?" " In Deura," was the reply. " Well, 
 again," said the pious clergyman, " it is our duty to deliver 
 them from GocVs ire.''^ " Pray, who is king of the land so 
 significantl}^ named?" " Ella," replied the merchant. "Ah !" 
 added the earnest inquirer, " //a //eZ?//«/i must be sung in 
 that man's country." — (I>ede the Venerable, a, d. 735.) 
 
to SOO.l SARACEi^^ EMPIRE. 131 
 
 Although Christianity had been introduced into Britain 
 at a very early perioc!, probably in the days of the apostles, 
 yet some of the Britons, and all their Saxon conquerors, 
 were at this time idolaters worshipping Thor, Woden, 
 and other heathen divinities. Traces of that idolatry re- 
 main among us to the present time in the form of many 
 popular superstitions, and in the names of the days of the 
 week. 
 
 Ethelbert, who was king of Kent at tbe arrival of Austin 
 and his companions, received them kindl}'-, and through the 
 influence of his queen, Bertha, who had long been a Chris- 
 tian, Ethelbert and most of his subjects were soon con- 
 verted, and Austin became the first archbishop of Canter- 
 bury. 
 
 10, Siijyrentficy of the BisJiop of Home, — From the 
 rivalry between the two great cities of Rome and Constan- 
 tinople there had existed for a long time a contest between 
 their respective bishops for supremacy over the church of 
 the empire. In the year a. d. 6€^ Phocas, a centurion in 
 the Byzantine army, having dethroned the emperor Mauri- 
 tius and seized the imperial sceptre, made such concessions 
 to pope Boniface III., bishop of Rome, as served to con- 
 firm the claims of that prelate to universal supremacy in 
 opposition to the rival pretensions of the bishop of Con- 
 stantinople. 
 
 Period III. — Saracex EairiRE. 
 
 The Hegira, ) ( Rise of German Empire, 
 
 A. D. 622. [ 178 years, -j a. d. 800. 
 
 Mahomet — Mecca. ) ( Charlema.gne — Palatinate. 
 
 1, The Period of the Saracen JEmjjlre is chiefly dis- 
 tinguished by — 1. The establishment and progress of the 
 Mahometan religion. 2. The establishment of the tempo- 
 ral dominion of the pope of Rome. 
 
132 GEKERAL HISTORY. [A. ». 622 
 
 II. — The Chronology of the Period, 
 
 A. D. 
 
 622. The Hegira, or fliglit of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina. 
 
 632. Dagobert, king of France, creates the office of Mayor of the 
 Palace. 
 
 640. Omar conquers Syria and Egypt ; burns the library of Alexan- 
 dria. 
 
 644. University of Cambridge founded by Sigebert. 
 
 653. The Colossus of Rhodes demolished and sold by the Saracens. 
 
 673. Calinious defends Constantinople against the Saracens. 
 
 674. Glass introduced into England. 
 
 690. Pepin d'Hiristal wi'ests the sceptre of France from Thierry III. 
 
 726. Leo, emperor of the Eastern Empire, forbids tl\e use of images 
 
 in churches. 
 
 727. The tax of " Peter's pence" instituted. 
 
 732. The battle of Tours ; Charles Martel defeats the Saracens. 
 
 735. Death of Bede the Venerable. 
 
 752. Childeric III., king of France, deposed by Pepin-le-Bref. 
 
 755. The Moors conquer Spain and found the caliphate of Cordova. 
 
 " Pope Stephen II. becomes a temporal prince. 
 762. Bagdad built by the caliph Al Mansor. 
 785. Haroun Al Raschid, caliph of Bagdad. 
 
 Ill — The History^ Biography^ etc.^ of the Period. 
 
 1, The Saracens, — From the time of Mahomet the 
 Arabians are known in history as Saracejis. Descended 
 from Ishmael, the eldest son of Abraham, they have lived 
 from the earliest times, according to the prophecy (Genesis, 
 xvi. 7-12), in a state of continual hostility to other nations, 
 and remain to. the present day, to a great extent, an inde- 
 pendent people. 
 
 2, MaJiomet, the celebrated Arabian false prophet, and 
 the author of the religion which bears his name, was born 
 at Mecca, about the year a. d. 570- He w^as descended 
 from illustrious ancestors, and was naturally endowed with 
 an attractive personal appearance, superior intellectual pow- 
 ers, and persuasive eloquence. But losing his parents at 
 
to 800.] SAKACEiq^ EMPIRE. 133 
 
 an early age, Mahomet's education was totally neglected, 
 and he grew up quite illiterate. At the age of twenty-five 
 he entered into the service of Cadijah, a wealthy widow of 
 Mecca, whom he soon after married, thereby gaining the 
 social position formerly occupied by his ancestors. 
 
 From early youth Mahomet was given to retirement 
 and contemplation. At certain seasons every year he was 
 accustomed to retire to a cave a few miles from Mecca, 
 where, it appears, he at length matured that system of 
 false religion which he afterward propagated with so great 
 success. The doctrines of Mahomet, which he bes^an to 
 preach a. d. 612, are contained in the Koran^ a book which 
 he pretended he had written with the assistance of an an- 
 gel. His chief article of faith was, '■^ There is hut o?ie God, 
 and Mahomet is his prophet^ For many years he had 
 but four converts — his wife, his servant, a pupil, and a 
 friend. In the year 622, having lied to Medina to escape 
 persecution at Mecca, and being joined there by a number 
 of converts, among whom was the brave Omar, he turned 
 upon his persecutors, enforced the religion of the Koran 
 at the point of the sword, and founded the empire of the 
 Moslems (^. e. True Believers). The Flight of Mahomet, 
 (Friday, July 15th, 622) — in Arabic, Hegira or Sejra — 
 is the great epoch of Saracen history. 
 
 3. Omar, an energetic successor of Mahomet in the 
 military and ecclesiastical despotism which he founded, in 
 one campaign conquered Syria, Phoenicia, Mesopotamia, 
 and Chaldea, 633; and in 640 his generals subdued Egypt 
 and all the northern part of Africa. By the command of 
 Omar the famous library of Alexandria was burned, de- 
 stroying 700,000 volumes — the accumulated literature of 
 antiquity. 
 
 Concerning the loss of this collection, President Way- 
 land remarks : " From the remains of antiquity discovered 
 in Herculaneum and Pompeii, we learn that every ancient 
 
134 GEXERAL HISTOKY. [A. ». 622 
 
 work of man was penetrated by corruption and defiled 
 with uncleanness. And it is probable that the volumes 
 here collected partook the common defilement. So that 
 the Almighty, in introducing a better dispensation, deter- 
 mined to cleanse the world from the accumulated pollution 
 of ages. As, when all flesh had corrupted his way. He 
 purified the world by the waters of a flood ; so, when ge- 
 nius had covered the earth with images of sin, He over- 
 whelmed the works of ancient civilization with a deluge 
 of barbarism, and consigned to the flames these splendid 
 monuments of polluted literature and art." 
 
 4. DagobeH was the king of France who first com- 
 mitted the exercise of royal power into the hands of the 
 mayor, or master of the palace, 632. The succeeding kings, 
 in the same manner, neglecting their kingly duties, were 
 appropriately called *• Sluggards," From the custom thus 
 introduced, there resulted in the following century the 
 transfer of the sceptre from the Merovingians to the Car- 
 lovingians, 752. 
 
 5, The University of Cambridge, — This renowned in- 
 stitution was founded by Sigebert, king of East Anglia, 
 644. It has, however, no reliable history earlier than 1229; 
 and its first charter dates from the time of queen Eliza- 
 beth, 1600. This ancient seat of learning now consists 
 of seventeen colleges, founded at different times, and all 
 richly endowed. 
 
 <?. CalinicuSf the celebrated mathematician who in- 
 vented the Greek fire, by which the ships of the Saracens 
 were destroyed, in their repeated attacks on Constantino- 
 ple, seven years in succession, 673-680. 
 
 7. Tlie Introcluctldn of Glass into England. — Glass 
 was introduced into England a. d. 674, by tlie Abbot Ben- 
 edict, for the windows of the church of Wearmouth, in 
 Durham. The formation of glass was discovered accident- 
 ally, before the Christian aera, by the crew of a merchant 
 
lo SOO.] SABACZX EMPIEE 135 
 
 vessel laden with nitre, or fossil alkalL Being driven 
 ashore on the coast of Palestine, they went in search of 
 provisions, which they dressed in a kettle supported on 
 large lumps of the nitre. The heat of the fire causing the 
 nitre to unite with the sand of the beach, produced glass. 
 This important hint was soon improved into the manufac- 
 ture of glass for various useful and ornamental purposes. 
 Italy was the first country, in modem times, in which glass 
 was used for windows. It was not generally adopted in 
 England until the close of the tenth century. Before that 
 period windows were covered with thin linen cloth. 
 
 8. JPepin d'SiristaJ, a man of great ability and un- 
 bounded ambition, was mayor of France in the reign of 
 Thierry IIL Making war upon his sovereign, and restrict- 
 ing him to a small territory, Pepin ruled France for thirty 
 years with absolute authority and great wisdom. 699. 
 
 9. Cliarles JIarfel (77/<r Marumer), son of Pepin d'Hir- 
 istal, was still more eminent than his father as mayor of 
 the palace. Completely victorious over all his domestic 
 foes, during the reigns of three kings — Dagobert III., 
 Chilperic II., and Thierry IV. — he saved the religion and 
 liberties of Europe by the total defeat of the Saracens in 
 the battle of Tours, 732. 
 
 10. The Controversy respecting the Use of Images 
 in IteUgious IVorship between the emperoi"^ of the Greek 
 empire and the popes of Rome, 726-787- Long before 
 this period images of the saints had been set up in the 
 churches as ornaments, or as aids of devotion ; but now 
 they had become, with the ignorant and superstitious mul- 
 titude, objects of worship, at least so it appeared to the 
 emperor Leo HI., who, in 7!26, issued a decree against the 
 veneration of images. Tliis occasioned violent tumults 
 throughout the empire for many years. The popes of 
 Pome strenuously advocated the retention of images in the 
 churches; and after three centuries of fierce contention, 
 
136 GEJs^ERAL HISTORY. [A. D. G22 i 
 
 the churches of the Eastern Empire renounced the author- ,j 
 ity of the pope of Rome, and formed the Greek Church, | 
 under the headship of the Patriarch of Constantinople, a. d. 
 1054. 
 
 11. ''Peter's Pence,''— In^^ the king of Wessex, when 
 on a pilgrimage to Rome, promised the pope the annual f 
 contribution of one penny from each family in his king- 
 dom, 727. This tax, called "Peter's Pence," was paid 
 on St. Peter's day, and was intended to keep in repair the 
 tombs of St. Peter and St. Paul, and to support a house in * 
 Rome for English pilgrims. In the thirteenth century 
 this tax, having been extended to all England and Ireland, | 
 exceeded the revenues of the kings of England. It was 
 continued until abolished in the reign of Henry VIII. 
 
 12. Bede the Venerable, a monk of Yarrow, stands 
 pre-eminent as a British author. His works are Scripture 
 translations, commentaries, histories, etc., to the number 
 of forty-four. He died 735. 
 
 13. Pepin-le-Bref {Pepin the little), was the son of 
 Charles Martel, whom he succeeded as mayor of the palace 
 and duke of France, 741. Pepin, inheriting the distin- 
 guished talents of his family for government and desirous 
 of enjoying the title as well as the actual power of king, 
 applied to the pope, who sanctioned his purpose of removing 
 the imbecile Childeric HI. from the throne. Then assem- 
 bling a parliament at Soisons, 751, he caused himself to be 
 proclaimed king of France, while Childeric, the last of the 
 Merovingians, was dismissed to a convent, 752. 
 
 Soon after this the Lombards invaded the principality of 
 Ravenna, and threatened the conquest of Rome. To repel 
 this invasion and to protect the imperial city, the pope 
 invoked the aid of Pepin, who expelled the Lombards from 
 Ravenna, the government of which he conferred upon the 
 pope, 755. This grant, afterward confirmed and enlarged 
 by Charlemagne the son of Pepin, is considered the orityin 
 
to 800.] SARACEK EMPIRE. 137 
 
 of the temporal dominion of the popes as sovereigns of the 
 Stales of the Church. 
 
 14, Hie Conquest of Spain hy the Saracens, — A branch 
 of the Saracens, having extended their conquests along 
 the northern coast of Africa, passed from Mauritania into 
 Spain, and were thence called Moors. The Visigoths, retir- 
 ing before these invaders, founded the kingdom of Asturias, 
 under Pelagius, 718 ; while, in the year 755, the Moors 
 under Abderrahman I. founded the Caliphate of Cordova, 
 which they held for several hundred years. During the 
 tenth century Cordova became under Abderrahman III. 
 the seat of Arab learning. Its schools in the arts and sci- 
 ences became so famous that Christian princes sent their 
 sons thither to be educated. At Granada, the last of the 
 Saracen possessions in Spain, still stand the remains of 
 their renowned palace and fortress, the Alhambra. 
 
 15, The Caliphate of Bagdad, founded by AlMansor, 
 762. Under this enlightened prince, who claimed dominion 
 over the more eastern conquests of the Mahometans, sci- 
 ence and literature were encouraged, and Bagdad, which 
 he had built upon the Tigris, soon became a second Nine- 
 veh. Here was held the brilliant court of the Caliphs, and 
 here originated so many of those fascinating legends that 
 distinguish oriental poetic literature. 
 
 16, Haroun Al HascJiid, the brave and benevolent 
 Caliph, whose reign was " the Augustan age" of Saracen 
 literature, 785. He presented the emperor Charlemagne 
 with a clock, the first ever seen in Europe. This was a 
 water clock, similar in construction to the sand hour-glass. 
 It was ornamented with automaton figures which moved 
 and played on several instruments. Clocks with toothed 
 wheels were invented in France by Gerbert, a. d. 996 ; and 
 pendulum clocks by Galileo, in Italy, a. d. 1630 or 1640. 
 
138 GENERAL HISTORY. [A. ». 800 
 
 Period IV. — German Empire. 
 
 Rise of German Empire, ) ( The Pirst Crusade, 
 
 A. D. 800. > 296 years, } a. d. 1096. 
 
 Charlemagne — Palatinate ) ( Peter, Hermit — Holy Sep. 
 
 1, The Teriod of the German Empire is distinguished 
 by — 1. The attempt of Charlemagne to revive the western 
 empire^ 800. 2. The consolidation of the Saxon Heptarchy 
 into the kingdom of England, 827. 3. The rise of the 
 Turkish power among the Saracens, 861. 4. By the Nor- 
 man conquest of England, 1068. 
 
 II. — The Chronology of the Period. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 800. Charlemagne crowned emperor of the "West. 
 
 827. Egbert, king of Wessex, unites the kingdom of the Heptarchy, 
 forming the kingdom of England. Saxon line begins. 
 
 844. Irruption of the Scandinavian sea-kings. 
 
 848. The Saracens attempt the conquest of Sicily and Italy. 
 
 861. Turkish slaves dispose of the throne of the Caliphs. 
 
 867. Basil I., emperor of the Greek empire. 
 
 872. Alfred the Great, king of England. 
 
 901. Edward the Elder, king of England. 
 
 912. Abderrahman IH., caliph of Cordova. 
 
 920. Henry I. of Saxony, emperor of Germany. 
 
 925. Athelstan, king of England. 
 
 936. Otho I. the Great, emperor of Germany. 
 
 946. St. Dunstan, archbishop of Canterbury. 
 
 060. Wales invaded by Edgar, king of England. 
 
 968. Cairo built by the Caliph Malz ad Din. 
 
 987. Hugh Capet, king of France. 
 
 991. Arithmetical figures and paper introduced into Europe by the 
 Saracens. 
 
 997. Mahmud, sultan of Ghizni and conqueror of India. 
 1000. Venice, Genoa, and Pisa arise in importance. 
 1004. England conquered by Svveyn, king of Denmark. Danish line. 
 
 1016. Edmund Ironside, king of England. 
 
 1017. Canute the Great, king of England. 
 
 1025. The musical scale, consisting of six notes, invented by Guido 
 Aretino. 
 
to 1096.] GEEMAlif EMPIRE 139 
 
 1040. " The Truce of God." 
 
 " Duncan murdered by Macbeth, who thus becomes king ol 
 Scotland. 
 
 1041. Edward the Confessor, king of England. 
 1054. The schism of the East completed. 
 
 1055-65. Bagdad and Jerusalem captured by the Turks. 
 1066. The Norman conquest of England. Norman line. 
 1072. The Cid Campeador conquers New Castile. 
 
 III. — The Biography^ History^ etc.^ of the Period. 
 
 1. Charlemagne^ or Charles the Great, was the son of 
 
 Pepin-le-Bref, and the first of the Carlovingian race of 
 French kino-s. He founded the new empire of the West, 
 being crowned emperor at Rome 800. This ultimately 
 gave rise to the German empire, which became so conspic- 
 uous in the history of modern Europe. Charlemagne 
 defeated the Saxons seven times, 803. He confirmed and 
 enlarged the grant of territories made by his father Pepin- 
 le-Bref to the popes of Rome, and successfully defended 
 the papal dominions against the incursions of the Lombards. 
 
 Chai'lemagne was brave and industrious, a patron of 
 learning, and a great statesman. He lived nearly fourteen 
 years after becoming emperor, and died at Aix-la-Chapelle 
 in the seventy-second year of his age. (See the Palatinate.) 
 
 2, Egbert the Great, king of Wessex, becoming the 
 sole descendant of the Saxon conquerors of Britain, 
 claimed and achieved the sovereignty of the other six 
 kingdoms of the Heptarchy^ thus uniting all Exglaxd in 
 one compact and powerful monarchy, four hundred years 
 after the withdrawal of the Romans, 827. The successive 
 lines of English sovereigns have been — 1, Saxon, of which 
 there were seventeen kings, 827 ; 2, Danish, three kings, 
 1C17 ; 3, Norman, four kings, 1C66 ; 4, Plantagenet, four- 
 teen kings, 1154; 5, Tudor, five sovereigns, 1185; 6, Stu- 
 art, six sovereigns, 1603; 7, Orange, one sovereign, 1688; 
 8, Hanoverian, or Brunswick, six sovereigns, 1714. 
 
140 GEKEKAL HISTORY. [A. ». 800 
 
 5. The Korman Sea-Kings were a race of Scandina- 
 vian pirates that during two centuries, 800-1000, ravaged 
 every coast of Europe. In the year 843 they plundered 
 the city of Rouen, in 845 they captured Hamburg and 
 penetrated into Germany, and in 912 Hollo the N^orman 
 extorted Neustria from the king of France, and founded 
 the duJcedom of Normandy. 
 
 4, The Turks are first mentioned in history as merce- 
 nary soldiers in the armies of the Greek empire, and as the 
 body-guard of the Saracen caliphs. After the assassina- 
 tion of the caliph Al Montaser, they disposed of the throne 
 of the caliphate at their pleasure, 861. 
 
 5, Sasil I, founds the Macedonian race of emperors 
 of the Greek empire, 867. This emperor was of obscure 
 parentage, but proved himself worthy of a throne. His 
 reign was vigorous. He defeated the Saracens in the east 
 and expelled them from Italy, and to a great degree sus- 
 tained the declining honor of the empire. 
 
 The followins: incident is related of this sovereisrn : His 
 son Leo (afterward Leo VI.) had, on a false accusation, 
 been banished from the imperial court ; and the father, 
 assured of his son's guilt, became impatient at the repeated 
 intercessions of friends for the pardon of the prince, and 
 finally forbade the mention of the young man's name in his 
 hearing. 
 
 It happened, however, upon a certain occasion, that a 
 favorite parrot of the emperor's, having often heard expres- 
 sions of regret for the unhappy Leo, suddenly cried out, 
 "Alas, poor Leo .^" This so affected the mind of Basil that 
 he sent for his son and received him again into favor. 
 
 G, Alfred the Great was the brave and virtuous (Saxon) 
 king of England, who is justly styled "the father of his 
 country," 872. He defeated the Danes, who had invaded 
 England, in eight battles ; he divided England into coun- 
 
to 1096.1 GERMAK EMPIRE. 141 
 
 ties ; established trials by juries^ that is, men sworn to 
 render a just verdict; and founded Oxford University, 
 886.* 
 
 Previous to the time of Alfred judicial trials were usually 
 conducted by the " Ordeal," or, as it was called, the '* Judg- 
 ment of God." It was performed generally with cold water, 
 with boiling water, or with red-hot iron. A person accused 
 of a crime, who could not otherwise prove his innocence, 
 was required, with his naked hand to take from a vessel of 
 boiling water a stone immersed in it, or to carry for a cer- 
 tain distance in his naked hand a piece of red-hot iron. His 
 hand was then wrapped up, and if after three days there 
 appeared on it no mark of burning he was pronounced in- 
 nocent. The ordeal with cold water was different. The 
 accused person was bound hand and foot and thrown into 
 a vessel of cold w^ater. If he floated, he was considered 
 guilty, taken out, and punished. But if he sank and were 
 drowned he was pronounced innocent. The iron and water 
 in both instances, before being used, were consecrated by 
 many superstitious ceremonies. 
 
 Alfred was succeeded by his son Edward the Elder, 
 901, who was a gi-eat warrior, and the first that assumed the 
 title Itex Anglorimi. He reigned successfully twenty-four 
 years. 
 
 7. Abdert^ahnian III,, the greatest of the Moorish 
 princes of Spain, 912. During his reign splendid edifices were 
 built, learning was encouraged, and commerce flourished. 
 The Saracen city of Cordova became the seat of Arab learn- 
 ing. Its schools of mathematics, chemistry, and medicine 
 became so celebrated that the princes of Christendom sent 
 their sons thither to be educated. 
 
 8, Henry J., the Fowler, of the house of Saxony, 
 
 * This renowned institution now consists of nineteen colleges, five halls, and is 
 attended by nearly sixteen hundred students. 
 
142 GENERAL HISTORY. [A. D. SOO 
 
 emperor of Germany, to which dignity he was elected on 
 the death of Conrad I.,* 920. ^ 
 
 Henry was a man of ability, and introduced order and 
 good government among the people. He built cities, 
 encouraged commerce, and annexed several provinces to 
 his dominions. Henry was succeeded by his son — ^ 
 
 ,9. Otho J., accounted the greatest })rince of his time, 936. 
 Otho prosecuted his father's system of government in ! 
 repressing the usurpations of the lords. He conquered j 
 Bohemia, 950; expelled Berenger IL from Italy, 961 ; and 
 deposing pope John XII., claimed for the emperors of Ger- ' 
 many, the right to appoint the popes to their office, and to 
 dispose of the crown of the kingdom of Italy, 964. i 
 
 10, Athelsfan, the grandson of Alfred the Great, and 
 the eighth king of England from Egbert. He wisely 
 encoui-aged the prosecution of foreign commerce by enact- 
 ing that any merchant who, on his own account, should 
 make three sea voyages, should be rewarded by being raised 
 to the rank of " thane," or " gentleman," 925. 
 
 11. St, Dunstan, abbot of Glastonbury, and afterward 
 archbishop of Canterbury, was a celebrated monk who 
 exercised great influence in England in the reigns of Edred, 
 Edwy, and Edgar, 946. He was remarkable for his cruelty 
 to king Edwy, and to his beautiful queen, 955; and for his 
 subserviency to the succeeding monarch, the proflio-ate 
 king Edgar, 959. 
 
 To atone for the vices of his early life and to gain the 
 admiration of the people, Dunstan shut himself up for a 
 long time in a cell so small that he could neither stand 
 upright in it nor lie down at full length. Here he occupied 
 his time in prayers and manual labor. Here, according to 
 his own account, "when the devil came to him on a certain 
 occasion, in the shape of a beautiful woman, and looked in 
 
 * Conrad, duke of Pranconia. was* the first emperor of Germany that occupied 
 the throne by election, 912. His predecessors had been descendants in the male 
 line from Charlema£rne. 
 
♦o 1096.] GEEMAN" EMPIRE. 143 
 
 at his window to persuade him to sin, he caught the tempter 
 by the nose with a pair of red-hot pincers, and held him 
 till he shrieked aloud with agony, and promised to go away 
 and give the saint no more trouble." 
 
 12, Cairo, the modern capital of Egypt, was built about 
 the year 968 or 970, by the caliph Malz ad Din, a descend- 
 ant of Fatima, a daughter of Mahomet. This renowned 
 metropolis is situated about a mile and a half from the 
 Nile, and extends eastward nearly three miles. It is sur- 
 rounded by stone walls, which are surmounted by fine bat- 
 tlements, and fortified with lofty towers at every hundred 
 paces. The city is adorned with bazaars, mosques, and 
 minarets, and contains a population of 350,000. 
 
 The Fatimite dynasty of the Mahometans, having con- 
 quered Egypt and established their capital at Cairo, from 
 this time contend with the caliphs of Bagdad and Cordova 
 for supremacy, as the only true successors of Mahomet. 
 The Fatimites ruled Egypt for ten generations, 1171, when 
 they were expelled by the sultan Saladin. 
 
 13, Edgar,, king of England, 959, was a grandson of 
 Edward the Elder. Although his private character was 
 infamous, yet his public administration was marked with 
 energj'- and success. Having invaded Wales, he laid the 
 two princes, Javaf and Jago, under the annual tribute of 
 three hundred wolves' heads. This expedient soon cleared 
 the land of these rapacious beasts, 960. 
 
 '14:, Hugh Capet, the founder of the third or Capetian 
 dynasty of French kings, ascended the throne, 987, at the 
 death of Louis V. Althouq-h crowned at Rheiras, he es- 
 tablished his court at Paris, which had been deserted by 
 the sovereigns of France for nearly two centuries. The 
 legitimate heir to the throne at this time was Charles of 
 Lorrain, who, attempting to secure his rights by force, was 
 defeated and imprisoned, and soon after died. Hugh Ca- 
 pet, like Pepin-le-Bref, swayed with distinguished ability 
 
144 GEI^^ERAL HISTORY. [A. D, 800 s) 
 
 the sceptre which he had assumed by usurpation. Yet . 
 such were his modesty and prudence, that not even on the j 
 most solemn state occasions did he ever appear with the j 
 insignia of royalty; but always in the plain and simple ) 
 dress of a private person. ] 
 
 15, Arithtnetical Figures were introduced into Eu- | 
 rope by the Saracens, who also, about the same time, taught : 
 the manufacture of paper from cotton rags, a. d. 991. 
 
 10, Mahniud the Great, sultan of Ghizni, was the | 
 first Mahometan invader of India, a large part of which | 
 he conquered and annexed to his vast empire, 997-lCCO. | 
 The city of Ghizni, once the renowned metropolis of the 11 
 Ghiznevide dynasty of the Mahometans, and the home of | 
 Ferdusi, the Persian Homer, is now an inconsiderable town 
 of Afghanistan, although some antiquities remain to attest 
 its former grandeur. The conquest of Mahmud introduces 
 the regular authentic history of India. 
 
 17, Siveyn, the king of Denmark, who invaded and 
 conquered England in the reign of Ethelred II. to retaliate 
 the massacre of the Danes living in England, 1001. 
 
 18, Edmund Ironside, the noble son of Ethelred II., 
 and successor of JSweyn as king of England. He bravely 
 defended his country against the Danes, but he was mur- 
 dered at the instigation of his treacherous brother-in-law, 
 Edric, 1016. 
 
 19, Canute the Great was the son of Sweyn the Dane, 
 who became king of all England on the death of Edmund 
 Ironside, 1017. Though an unprincipled and tyrannical 
 usurper, Canute showed great sagacity in governing his 
 subjects, and became the most powerful sovereign at this 
 period in Europe. 
 
 The court sycophants of this shrewd monarch attempted 
 to persuade him that he was so great a sovereign that even 
 the elements of nature would do him reverence. In order 
 to rebuke these base flatterers he caused a throne to be 
 
 i 
 
to 1096.] GERMAN" EMPIRE. 145 
 
 erected on the sea beach, at low tide, and ascendin<r it he 
 pretended, according to their vain adulation, to command 
 the waves, when the tide began to flow, not to approach 
 his sacred person. But the advancing waves, regardless 
 of the king's command, cast the salt spray over him and 
 his royal court, threatening to overwhelm them all. Ap- 
 prehensive of the danger they hastily retired from the 
 water, when Canute administered to his attendants this 
 merited reproof: " Vile sycophants ! did you suppose I 
 believed your abject flatteries ? Know there is but one 
 Being whom the sea will obey. He alone is sovereign of 
 heaven and earth, the King of kings, and Lord of lords. 
 He alone can say to the ocean, thus far shalt thou go and 
 no farther, and here shall thy proud waves be stayed. Let 
 kings from my experience learn humility, and courtiers 
 from your disgrace to speak the truth." 
 
 20, The Truce of God was a merciful regulation, intro- 
 duced by the clergy during this barbarous age, which for- 
 bade private and civil warfare, duelling, etc., from Wed- 
 nesday evening till Monday morning. In a state of society 
 in which the lords and barons were continually at variance, 
 with no restraint from the civil power, this prohibition was 
 very salutary, 1040. 
 
 21, Macbeth, a Scottish nobleman who usurped the 
 throne of Scotland, after murdering Duncan, the lawful 
 king, 1040. 
 
 22, Edward the Confessor, son of Etherald II., suc- 
 ceeded Canute 11. as king of England, 1041. In Edward the 
 Saxon line was restored and terminated, as he was the last 
 English monarch of that race. Edward, having no chil- 
 dren, and wishing to defeat Harold, the son of earl Godwin, 
 an aspirant to the throne, nominated as his successor Wil- 
 limn^ duke of Norinmidy. 
 
 Edward the Confessor was the first English monarch 
 that pretended to cure the king's evil by his touch. His 
 
146 GEi^EEAL HISTOEY. [A. ». 800 
 
 collection of all the laws of England into one body, forms 
 the Common Law. 
 
 23, The Schism of the East, — The separation of the 
 eastern or Greek church from the church of Rome, in 
 consequence of the controversy respecting image-worship, 
 which had lasted more than three centuries, 726-1054. 
 
 24, The Conquests of the Turks, — Seljuk, a Turkish 
 officer in the army of the kahn of Tartary, having become 
 a Mahometan, his grandson Togrul JSeg^ in 1037, assumed 
 the title of sultan. In 1042 he conquered Persia, and Bag- 
 dad in 1055. To these conquests of the Turks was added 
 that of Jerusalem in 1065. From this period the Saracen 
 caliphs lost their political power and became the mere pon- 
 tiffs of the Mahometan faith. 
 
 Between 1055 and 1080 three Turkish sultanries were 
 established : that of Ducas at Damascus, Melech at Aleppo, 
 and of Gutlu Muses at Iconium. (See sec. 4, supra.) 
 
 25, William the Conqueror, duke of Normandy, hav- 
 ing been nominated to the English throne by Edward the 
 Confessor, invaded England 1066 ; and in the battle of 
 Hastings defeated Harold II., son of the earl Godwin, who 
 had been elected king at the death of Edward. 
 
 The duke of Normandy, styled as king of England Wil- 
 liam I., introduced the feudal system into England; ordained 
 the Norman French language to be used in all law pro- 
 ceedings ; ordered a survey of all England, which was re- 
 corded in a volume called Doomsday Booh^ and appointed 
 the Curfew J3 ell. At the ringing of this bell in each parish, 
 at the close of the day, the English were required by their 
 Norman conqueror to put out fire and candle in all their 
 dwellings. It was called "the Curfew," from a corruption 
 of the French, Couvrir Feu — cover the fire. 
 
 26, The Feudal System was that regulation by which 
 in the early history of modern Europe the tenant occupied 
 an estate on the condition of military service rendered to 
 
to 1096.1 GERMAN" EMPIRE. 147 
 
 the landlord. It was generally adopted by those migratory 
 tribes from the north of Germany that overran the prov- 
 inces of the Roman empire, and established themselves in 
 the conquered territory. Among these the Lombards, hav- 
 ing abandoned their original country and seized upon 
 northern Italy, erected there the kingdom of Lombardy, 
 about A. D. 568. In order more effectually to secure their 
 conquests they divided the conquered country among their 
 chief captains under fealty to the king as supreme liege 
 lord ; and these captains, after retaining as much as was 
 sufficient for themselves, parcelled out the remainder to a 
 lower rank of officers, and so on, under a subordinate con- 
 dition of fealty and military service. This system became 
 very popular in an age of military emulation and adven- 
 ture, and was eventually adopted by nearly all the princes 
 of Europe. It was adopted by Charlemagne in founding 
 the new empire of the West, a. d. 800, and it was introduced 
 into England by William the conqueror, who, in order to 
 keep the English in the greater subjection, deprived theni 
 of nearly all their landed estates, which he divided into 
 baronies and distributed, as liege lord, among the chief 
 Norman adventurers who had aided him in the conquest of 
 the country. 
 
 27* TJie Institution of Chivalry^ an institution which 
 arose in the eleventh century, in connection with the feudal 
 system, consisted in a romantic spirit of adventure and love 
 of arms, courtesy of manners, the point of honor, and a 
 devoted and respectful attachment to the fair sex. These, 
 together with a love of military display in time of peace, 
 by means of tournaments, a strong attachment among the 
 knights that professed chivalry, and certain ceremonies 
 observed in conferring knighthood, made up the chief ele- 
 ments of chivalry. 
 
 Those who were destined for the duties of chivalry were 
 generall}'' required to pass through a regular course of sys- 
 
148 GEN'ERAL HISTORY. [A. ». 1096 
 
 tematic training, first as pages^ from the age of seven to 
 fourteen ; then as esquires, from fourteen to twenty-one, at 
 which age, if found qualified, they were admitted to the 
 full honors of hnigUthood. 
 
 Although traces of this institution appear at an early age 
 in European history, yet it was not until some time after 
 the year 1025 that it began to assume the form of a regu- 
 lated institution. The institution of chivalry found its 
 appropriate exercise in the abuses of the feudal system ; 
 but in the Crusades it enjoyed the opportunity of indulging 
 in the wildest extravagance. 
 
 The prevalence of the spirit of chivalry and romance 
 tended to restrain lawless violence at a time when civil 
 laws were very ineflicient, to promote cultivation and 
 refinement in a semi-barbarous age, and to encourage liter- 
 ature so far as to celebrate in ballads and romances the 
 exploits of brave knights and the beauty and sufierings of 
 their fair mistresses. 
 
 28, Don Hoderiffo, a Spanish knight errant, styled the 
 Cid Cavnpeador (Lord Gliainpiori),\v. 1072 conquered New 
 Castile for his king Alphonso VI., and performed so many 
 acts of valor that long after his death his name was terrible 
 to the enemies of his country. 
 
 Period Y. — The Crusades. 
 
 First Crusade, ) ( Discovery of America, 
 
 A. D. 1096. \ 396 years. \ a. d. 1493. 
 
 Peter, Hermit — Hy. Sep. ) { Columbus — San Salvador. 
 
 1, The Period of the Crusades is distinguished by — 
 1. The wars of the Christians of western Europe for the 
 conquest of Palestine, 1098. 2. The conquest of the Mo- 
 guls, of the Tartars, and of the Turks, 1218-1153. 3. The 
 invention of printing, 1435-1458. 4. The Wars of the 
 Roses in England, 1453-1483. 
 
to 1492.] THE CEUSADES. 149 
 
 II. — The Chronology of the Period. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1092. Peter the Hermit preaches the first Crusade. 
 1095. The Council of Clermont decrees the conquest of the Holy 
 Sepulchre. 
 
 1099. Jerusalem captured by the Crusaders 
 
 1100. Henry I., Beauclere, king of England. 
 1118. John I., Comnenus, emperor of the East. 
 1125. Peter Abelard, scholastic divine. 
 
 1188. Conrad IH , emperor of Germany. Guelphs and Ghibelenes 
 1147. The second Crusade by St. Bernard. 
 
 1154. Henry II. of England. Plantagenet — Thomas k Becket 
 1171. The conquest of Ireland in the reign of Henry II., chiefly by 
 
 the valor of earl Strongbow. The island had been granted 
 
 to Henry by the pope in 1156. 
 1187. Jerusalem captured by Saladin. 
 
 1189. Richard Coeur de Lion, king of England. The third Crusade 
 
 by Richard Coeur de Lion and Philip Augustus. 
 1215. Magna Charta signed by king John. 
 1218. Genghis Kahn founds the Mogul empire 
 1226. St. Louis IX., king of France, defeats Heniy III. of England 
 
 in the battle of Sniiites, 1242. 
 1250. Mamelukes rule in Egypt. 
 
 " Marco Polo visits China. 
 1272. Edward I., Longshanks, king of England. Roger Bacon. 
 1278. Rodolph of Hapsburg, emperor of Germany. 
 1282. The Silician vespers. 
 1285. Philip IV., the Fair, king of France. 
 1297. Battle of Stirlmg. Wallace defeats the English. 
 
 1299. Othman I. founds the Turkish empire. 
 
 1300. Dante, the father of modern Italian poetry. 
 1302. Mariner's compass invented, or improved. 
 1307. William Tell shoots Gesler. The Swiss revolt. 
 1827. Edward III., king of England. 
 
 1340. Gunpowder discovered — or in 1830. 
 
 1342. Fire-arms invented. Petrarch and Boccaccio. 
 
 1364. Charles V., king of France. Du Guesclin. Froissart. 
 
 1369. Tamerlane founds the empire of the Tartars at Samarcand. 
 
 1381. Wat Tyler's insurrection. 
 
 1385. Invention of playing-cards. 
 
 1390. The first paper-mill in the world. 
 
150 GENERAL HISTORY. LA, ». 1096 
 
 1399. Henry IV. of England. Chaucer. 
 1413. Henry V. of England invades France. 
 1422. Charles VII. of France. Joan of Arc. 
 1435. Printing invented. 
 1453. The Turks capture Constantinople. 
 
 The Wars of the Roses begin, and last 30 years. 
 
 1485. The battle of Bosworth Field. Henry VII. Tudor. 
 1491. Ferdinand and Isabella expel the Moors from Spain. 
 
 III. — History, Biography, etc., of the Period, 
 
 1, The Crusades were ecclesiastical and military ex- 
 peditions undertaken by the Christians of Western Europe 
 to rescue Jerusalem and the Holy Land from the possession 
 of the Mahometans, 1096. 
 
 They were called " Crusades," or " Croisades," from the 
 figure of the " Cross" cut in red cloth, and worn by the 
 troops on the shoulder, and borne on their banners, as the 
 emblem of their religion, and of the imagined holiness of 
 the cause in which they were enlisted. 
 
 2. The Origin of the Crusades. — Helena, mother of the 
 emperor Constantine, had from motives of piety visited 
 Jerusalem, and caused a spacious church to be built over 
 the sepulchre of Christ, and with the utmost diligence 
 sought out and distinguished nearly every other place that 
 had been rendered sacred in the life of the Saviour. In the 
 following ages of ignorance and superstition these places 
 were regarded with peculiar veneration. Pilgrims from 
 every part of Christendom visited Jerusalem as a religious 
 duty. These pious visitors, even after Jerusalem was taken 
 by the Saracens, a. d. 637, were treated with respect, and 
 wei'e permitted to enjoy free access to the holy places. But 
 the ferocious Turks, who conquered the country, a. d. 106a, 
 behaved toward the Christian pilgrims in the most unjust 
 and cruel manner; and these continued oppressions being 
 narrated in the most lively and exciting colors by those 
 who were permitted to return to their homes, all classes of 
 society were soon aroused with the fiercest indignation. 
 
to 1492.] THE CRUSADES. 151 
 
 Among them who returned from the east with the tale of 
 woe was Peter the Hermit, a native of Amiens, and a man 
 of uncommon eloquence, zeal, and perseverance. By the 
 authority of pope Urban XL , who had long desired to oppose 
 the encroachments of Mahometanism, Peter visited and 
 harangued the courts of the kings and princes of Europe, 
 exhorting them in fervid strains to march to the rescue of 
 the Holy Sepulchre. At a council of the church held at 
 Clermont, which was attended by an immense body of 
 ecclesiastics and laymen, the impressive eloquence of the 
 pope, with his absolutions and benedictions, completed what 
 had been successfully begun by Peter. With the enthusi- 
 astic approbation of all present, the conquest of Palestine 
 was solemnly decreed, 1095. 
 
 3. Tlie Leaders of the first Crusades were Peter the 
 Hermit and Gautier sans avoir, or Walter the Penniless, 
 a Burgundian gentleman and soldier of fortune, who started 
 early in the spring of IC96 at the head of several hundred 
 thousand undisciplined troops, which were rather a dis- 
 orderly, rapacious rabble, than an army. These, before 
 reaching Palestine, were nearly all cut off by the Turks, 
 excepting Peter and a slender remnant of his fanatical fol- 
 lowers. But they were speedily re-enforced by an effective 
 body of 100,000 horse and 600,000 foot, under Godfrey of 
 Bouillon, Hugh of Vermandois, Robert, duke of Normandy, 
 Raymond of Toulouse, Robert of Flanders, Bohemond of 
 Tarentum, Tancred of Otranto, Adhemar, bishop of Puy, 
 with a multitude of knights, gentlemen, and priests. 
 
 4. The Success icJiieh attended the first Crusade, — The 
 troops under Godfrey and his fellow-chieftains, having been 
 joined by Peter and the small remnant of his host, besieged and 
 conquered JViee, the capital of the Turkish possessions, 1097- 
 In tlie capture of Antioch they defeated the Turkish sultan 
 /Soli/mcm, and the Persian emir. In the battle of Ascalon, 
 they defeated 500,000 Mahometans, under Mustali, 1098 ; 
 
152 GEl^ERAL HISTORY. [A. ». 1096 
 
 and having obtained, in the conquest of Jerusalem, the 
 chief object of their expedition, they elected Godfrey of 
 Bouillon king of the Holy City, 1099. 
 
 There were in all seven distinct Crusades asrainst the 
 Mahometans : six besides that led by Peter the Hermit, ex- 
 tending from 1096 to 1270, a. d. 
 
 5. The chief Hesulfs of the Crusades, — In the disasters 
 which attended the Crusades from first to last, it is com- 
 puted two millions of Europeans were buried in the East. 
 Among these there were many noble, chivalrous, and vir- 
 tuous men ; but in the loss of the mass, Europe was purged 
 of much lawlessness, vice, and ignorance. The Italian cities 
 of Venice, Pisa, and Genoa, were greatly enriched by the 
 supply of merchandise to the Crusaders. And although the 
 immediate influence of the Crusades was unfavorable to 
 human improvement, yet indirectly and ultimately they 
 tended greatly to promote literature, commerce, and human 
 liberty. 
 
 6, The Orders of Knighthood that arose duritig the 
 CriisadeSf were those of St. John of Jerusalem, or the 
 Hospitalers, the Templars, and the Teutonic Knights. These 
 fraternities were of a monastic and military character, and 
 were originally designed to protect Christian pilgrims 
 visiting the Holy Land, and to provide for them in time of 
 sickness. 
 
 On the conquest of Nice by the Mamelukes, 1291, which 
 terminated the Christian kingdom of Jerusalem, these or- 
 ders of knighthood were compelled to seek other fields for 
 the display of their piety or valor. 
 
 1, The Knights of St. John conquered the island of 
 Rhodes in 1310, and held possession of it until they were 
 expelled by the Turks under Solyman the Magnificent, 
 in 1522. 
 
 The emperor Charles Y. then became their patron, and 
 granted them the island of Malta, upon the condition that 
 
to 1492.] 
 
 THE CRUSADES. 153 
 
 they would defend the island against the Turks ; five hun- 
 dred of the order, with their Grand Master, to reside upon 
 the island, and the rest to appear in arms when called upon. 
 From this period they were named Knights of Malta, 
 In the year 1798 Malta was captured by Napoleon I. on his 
 expedition to Egypt, and by him the order was abolished. 
 
 2. The Knights Templars were instituted 1118, and 
 were patronized by Baldwin, king of Jerusalem. Attract- 
 ing the admiration of all Europe by their deeds of valor 
 and by their generous hospitality, they became possessed 
 of immense wealth and splendid endowments. After their 
 return to Europe, these great possessions proved the de- 
 struction of the order. The rapacious monarchs that coveted 
 their wealth, charged them with the most heinous crimes, 
 and by the General Council of Vienne, 1312— at which were 
 present pope Clement V.; Philip the Fair, king of France ; 
 and his son Louis of Navarre, and others interested in 
 the overthrow of the knights — their order was abolished 
 and their property confiscated and divided among their per- 
 secutors. Their Grand Master, with many of the brethren, 
 was burned at Paris ; and in England, by act of Parlia- 
 ment, the whole order were declared convicts and felons. 
 
 3. The Order of Teutonic Knights was founded by a 
 German nobleman for the special protection and care of the 
 German pilgrims visiting Jerusalem, 1164. On their leaving 
 the Holy Land, 1212, they were taken under the patronage 
 of the emperor Frederick IL, who conducted them to 
 Germany, and employed them in the conquest of Prussia. 
 They built Marienhurg in honor of their patroness, the 
 Virgin Mary, and held possession of the country until 1525, 
 when Albert of Brandenburg, their last Grand Master, was 
 created hereditary duke of Prussia as a vassal of Sigismund, 
 king of Poland. From Albert, the present reigning family 
 of Prussia derive their right. 
 
 7. Henry I„ Beauclerc, king of England, 1100, was the 
 
154 GENERAL HISTORY. [A. ». 1096 
 
 youngest son of William the Conqueror, and succeeded his 
 brother, William Rufus, to the exclusion of his eldest brother, 
 Robert, duke of Normandy, then absent on the first Crusade. 
 On Robert's return to England to claim the throne, he was 
 induced by the consideration of a sum of money to relin- 
 quish his rights and retire to his dukedom of Normandy. 
 But Henry, still not satisfied, invaded Normandy, 1106, and 
 having captured his brother in the war, brought him to 
 England, caused his eyes to be burned out, and imprisoned 
 him for life (28 years). The loss of Henry's son, prince 
 William, who was drowned at sea, made so deep an impres- 
 sion on him that, it is said, " Ae 7iever smiled again.'''* 
 
 8, John l.f Comnenus, emperor of the East, 1118, a noble 
 sovereign, who founded the dynasty of the Cotnneni, by 
 whose valor and talents the Greek empire was greatly 
 strengthened for nearly a century, until the conquest of 
 Constantinople by the French in 1204. 
 
 9, Feter Ahelard was a celebrated French divine, whose 
 writings greatly promoted the scholastic philosophy of the 
 age in which he lived. This remarkable man was not less 
 noted for his genius and learning than for his unhappy 
 marriage with the beautiful Heloise, 1125. 
 
 10, Conrad III,, of the House of Suabia, elected emperor 
 of Germany 1138, in opposition to Henry the Proud, whose 
 cause was warmly espoused by the pope of Rome. From 
 this contest arose the two political factions, the Guelphs^ 
 and Ghihellines ; the former maintaining the cause of the 
 popes, and the latter that of the emperors. Their mutual 
 hostilities, for three hundred years, desolated the fairest 
 portions of Germany and Italy. 
 
 11, Henry II,, Pkmtagenet, succeeds Stephen as king of 
 England, 1154. Henry's mother was Matilda, a daughter of 
 Henry L, Beauclerc, and his father was Henry Plantagenet, 
 earl of Anjou. Henry, who proved himself the greatest 
 sovereign of the age, held dominions which were more ex- 
 
to 1492.] THE CRUSADES. 155 
 
 tensive than those of any preceding king of England ; as, 
 in addition to the throne of England, he inherited from his 
 father a large portion of France; and Ireland, which he 
 acquired by conquest, 1171. 
 
 12, Tlionnas a Heclcetf the lordly archbishop of Canter- 
 burs', who, opposing the administration of Henry IL, king 
 of England, was assassinated by four of Henry's courtiers, 
 1170. Henry, feeling his culpability in this affair, and to 
 appease the public indignation at the murder of Becket, who 
 was now regarded as a saint, did penance at the tomb of 
 Becket in submitting his bare shoulders to be scourged by 
 the assembled monks, 1174. 
 
 Becket's Shritste, or Tomb, in Canterbury cathedral, was 
 for ages an object of profound veneration, attracting mul- 
 titudes of pilgrims from all parts of Christendom ; and the 
 many costly gifts and oiFerings presented by these devotees, 
 in honor of the saint, constituted an important revenue of 
 the Church. A short time before the Reformation, Erasmus 
 was permitted to behold the treasure here deposited. He 
 tells us that " the value of it he could not estimate. Gold 
 w^as the meanest thing to be seen. The whole place shone 
 and glittered with jewels the most rare and precious, the 
 greater portion of which were of an extraordinary size." 
 At the abrogation of the pope's authority in England, 
 Henry VHI. seized and appropriated this immense wealth, 
 which was so great that it filled two large chests, each of 
 which required six men to convey it out of the church. One 
 of the precious stones, csAledi \\\e Regal o/ France^ yA\'\iA\ 
 had been presented by Louis YIl., Henry had set and wore 
 as a thumb-ring. 
 
 13, Saladiiif sultan of Egypt, an upright and valiant 
 prince, who conquered Syria, Assyria, Mesopotamia, and 
 Arabia, 1171. He took Jerusalem from the Crusaders, 
 1187 ; but was finally defeated by Richard Coeur de Lion, 
 in the third Crusade, 1192. 
 
156 GEi^EEAL HISTORY. [A. ». 1096 
 
 14:. Michard Cceur de Lion, or the lion-hearted, was 
 Richard I., king of England, and son of Henry II. He is 
 justly celebrated for his personal courage, especially in his 
 contests with Saladin, sultan of Egypt, whom he defeated 
 in the third Crusade, 1192. But the ingratitude and 
 barbarity with which he treated his too indulgent father 
 render his name truly infamous. 
 
 The contemporaries of Richard, 1200, were Philip II. ; 
 Augustus, of France, who banished the Jews and confis- 
 cated their property ; Pope Innocent III, who established 
 the Inquisition, 1204 ; Henry VI. of Germany ; and Saladin, 
 sultan of Egypt. 
 
 15. Magna Charta. — John, king of England, having 
 acted toward his subjects in the most tyrannical and 
 oppressive manner, his indignant barons assembled at Run- 
 nemede, in 1215, and compelled him to sign a document, or 
 Constitution, defining the royal prerogative, and securing 
 the rights of all classes of subjects. This document is 
 " Magna Charta," or the Great Charter of England. 
 
 16. The Mogul Empire, founded by Genghis Kahn, 
 1218, embraced nearly all Asia and the eastern part of 
 Russia in Europe. In 1227, Ougtai Kahn succeeded to 
 the throne, and he completed the conquest of China. And 
 in 1236, Batu Kahn, the nephew of Ougtai, invaded 
 Europe with an army of a million and a half, ravaging 
 Russia, Poland, and Hungary. 
 
 17. Hie Mamelukes were originally Turkish slaves, 
 whom the successor of Saladin had introduced into his body- 
 guai'd. They seized on the government of Egypt in 1250 ; 
 they took Antioch from the Crusaders in 1268; they put an 
 end to the kingdom of Jerusalem by the capture of Nice, 1291 ; 
 and, under Othman I., founded a new empire, which is the 
 present empii'e of the Turks, 1299. In 1517, Selim I.^ em- 
 peror of the Turks, conquered Egypt and Syria, and put an 
 end to the dominion of the Mamelukes ; and in 1835, the 
 
to 1492.] • THE CEUSADES. 157 
 
 whole body of Mameluke soldiers in Egypt was extermin- 
 ated in a single hour, by order of the pacha, Mehemet AH. 
 The name " Mameluke" is derived from the Arabic word 
 Memelik^ which means slave. (See Per. JVi, /Sees. 4, 24.) 
 
 18, Hoger Bacon, — A distinguished English philosopher, 
 and a friar of the order of St. Francis, 1214. His attain- 
 ments in ancient learning, in mathematics, astronomy, and 
 natural philosophy, were truly astonishing. The invention 
 of gunpowder is justly ascribed to him, although it was 
 claimed by a monk in the following century. His knowledge 
 of astronomy suggested the correction of the calendar which 
 was adopted by Gregory XHI. in a. d. 1582 ; and his dis- 
 coveries in other branches of science anticipated many of the 
 improvements of modern times. So vastly superior was he 
 to the age in which he lived, that his ignorant and super- 
 stitious brethren, the monks, charged him with magic, 
 necromancy, and other diabolical arts. In consequence of 
 these unjust and malicious slanders, the philosopher was 
 forbidden to engage in the instruction of youth, and was 
 condemned, for many years, to endure a close and rigorous 
 confinement. Bacon was born a. d. 1214, and died 1292. 
 
 19, 3Iarco Polo, — A distinguished Venetian, who, in 
 company with his father and uncle, visited China about 
 the year 1250, and spent there many years in a high official 
 position, observing the manners and institutions of the 
 nations in that part of the world. His accounts of those 
 regions, which he published on his return, aided materially 
 in exciting that spirit of commercial enterprise in western 
 Europe which, in the following centuries, resulted in the 
 discovery of America and the establishment of the East 
 India ti'ade. 
 
 20, Edward I,, surnamed Longsha?iks^ w^as the son 
 and successor of Henry HI. as king of England, 1272. 
 The Commons had been admitted to form a part of the 
 Parliament by Edward's father, and he repeatedly ratified 
 
158 GENERAL HISTORY. [A. I>. 1096 
 
 Magna Charta, rendering it the permanent law of the 
 kingdom. In 1282, Edward conquered Wales — its king, 
 Llewellyn, being slain in battle ; and from that time the 
 eldest son of the king of England has borne the title of 
 Prince of Wales. Being called in as umpire by Bruce and 
 Baliol, the competitors for the crown of Scotland, Edward 
 decided in favor of Baliol, who received the kingdom as a 
 vassal of the English king, 1292. 
 
 21, Modolph of Hapshiirg, the chamberlain of the 
 king of Hungary, who, after being elected emperor of 
 Germany, 1273, conquered Austria from his former sover- 
 eign, 1278. The House of Hapsburg retain the empire of 
 Austria to the present time. 
 
 22, The Sicilian Vespers, — In the progress of the con- 
 tests between the Guelphs and Ghibellines (see sec. 10, supra). 
 Pope Clement IV., to oppose the imperial family of Frederick 
 II., who were, from 1208 to 1265, kings of Sicily, authorized 
 Charles of Anjou, bro-v'her of Louis IX., king of France, to 
 invade and conquer the kingdom of the Sicilies. This 
 Charles successfully accomplished, defeating his opponents 
 and putting them to death, 1285. This act of aggression 
 and usurpation the Sicilians revenged by the massacre, in 
 one night, of every Frenchman on the island, amounting to 
 10,000. This terrible deed was commenced on Easter 
 Sunday, 1282, at the sound of the vesper bell, from which 
 it is called " The Sicilian Vespers." 
 
 23, Philip the Fair, — Philip IV., surnamed The. Fair, 
 was the son of Philip the Hardy, and king of France, 
 1285, contemporary with Rodolph of Hapshurg, emperor 
 of Germany, and Fdward I.,\img of England. Philip res- 
 olutely opposed the aiithority of Pope Boniface VHI., who 
 had forbidden the French clergy to contribute any money 
 for the support of the French government. He was guilty 
 of commencing a cruel persecution of the Knights Templars, 
 seizing their large possessions to replenish his exhaustd^ 
 
to 1492.] THE CRUSADES. 159 
 
 treasury, 1307. In the reign of this king, The Third 
 Estate^ or Commons, were summoned to the National As- 
 sembly, or French Parliament, which before had consisted 
 only of the nobility and higher clergy. Thus, in both 
 France and England, nearly about the same time, t\\e people 
 began to be represented in the national legislature. 
 
 The people of western and southern Europe generally, 
 had for some time greatly improved in commerce and civil- 
 ization, and had thereby become a much more important 
 national element than formerly ; but the immediate cause 
 of this change, in both England and France, was the mutual 
 jealousy and strife between the sovereigns and the nobles. 
 
 24, William Wallace^ the heroic Scottish patriot, who 
 defeated the English in the battle of Stirling. 1297. But 
 afterward he was basely betrayed by his countrymen into 
 the hands of the English king, Edward L, by whom he 
 was unjustly condemned as a rebel, and cruelly executed, 
 
 1305. 
 
 25, WilMam Tdl^ the renowned Swiss hero, who by 
 
 shooting Gcsler, 1307, one of the tyrannical bailiffs of 
 Albert I., emperor of Germany, began the revolution which 
 secured the independence of Switzerland. 
 
 20, Imjirovements and Inventions in the early part 
 of the fourteenth century : 
 
 The 3Iariner^s Compass improved by Flavio Gioia, at 
 Xaples. It had been known long before to the Chinese and 
 Arabians, 1302. 
 
 The Dissection of Dead Bodies^ 1315. But this practice, 
 now regarded so necessary, was afterward, from motives of 
 piety, forbidden by the pope. 
 
 The Invention of Gunpowder claimed by Schwartze, a 
 monk of Cologne, 1340. It was, however, known to Roger 
 Bacon, 1250 ; to the Moors of Spain, 1000 ; to the Saracens, 
 600; and at a much earlier date to the Chinese. 
 
 Fire-arms. — Cannons were invented in 1342 ; and muskets 
 
160 GENERAL HISTORY. [A.D. 1096 
 
 111 1370. These were supported on a rest, and discharged 
 with a match. Gun-locks were not invented until 1517. 
 
 27, Edward III,, the king of England who, in 1337, 
 claimed the crown of P^rance in the right of his mother, 
 Isabella, daughter of Philip the Fair, king of France. 
 With the assistance of his gallant son, Edward the Black 
 Prince^ so named from the color of his armor. King Ed- 
 ward gained the splendid victories of Cressy, 1346, in 
 which battle cannon were first used ; Calais^ 1347 ; and 
 Poitiers, 1356. In this last battle the French king, John, 
 was defeated and taken prisoner to England by the Black 
 Prince. 
 
 28, The Salique Laws prohibited the su(!cession of 
 Edward to the throne of France. 
 
 When the Franks lived in their own country (Germany), 
 their whole property consisted in slaves, cattle, horses, 
 warlike weapons, and agricultural implements, together 
 with a hut or cabin with a small precinct of ground. Lands 
 for cultivation belonged to the State, and were assigned to 
 the citizens for a year at a time. And even the homestead 
 (in German Salbac), although the permanent home of each 
 occupant, was held on the condition of military service, and 
 therefore descended in the male line only. 
 
 After these warlike tribes had conquered and occupied 
 Gaul, they continued to call their lands Salbac, Salic, or 
 Salique Lands, and the laws relating to them Salique 
 Lav3s. These laws, reformed and published by Clovis, 500, 
 were afterward so interpreted and applied as to exclude 
 females from the succession to the throne of France. The 
 claim of Edward, therefore, in right of his mother, although 
 valid in England, was by the Salique Law wholly inadmissi- 
 ble in France. {'^Q.Q Feudal System,^. 146.) 
 
 29, Learned 3Ien of the Fourteenth Century : 
 
 1. Dante, the father of modern Italian poetry, died 1321. 
 
 2. Petrarch, a learned Italian, who promoted the study 
 
to 1492.] THE CKUSADES. 161 
 
 of ancient literature, and Avhose poems have rendered famous 
 the name of the young and beautiful JLaura, 1374. 
 
 3. Boccaccio, the father of modern Italian prose, died 
 1375. 
 
 4. John Wiclif, the "Morning Star" of the Reforma- 
 tion, was a celebrated English reformer in the reio<-ns of 
 Edward III. and Richard II. To him belongs the honor 
 of giving to his native country the first English translation 
 of the entire Bible, 1380. 
 
 5. Geoffrey Chaucer, the father of English poetry and 
 the author of The Canterbury Tales, and other poems, died 
 1400. 
 
 6. Froissart, a French historian and poet in the reign 
 of King Charles YI. Died 1400. 
 
 SO. Tamerlane, a celebrated conqueror of Turkish 
 descent, who overthrew the Moguls, and founded the em- 
 pire of the Tartars, which included nearly the whole of 
 Asia, 1369. On taking Ishpahan, the capital of Persia, he 
 slaughtered the inhabitants and built pyramids of human 
 heads, 1384. In the battle of Aiigoria^ 1402, Tamerlane 
 conquered the Turkish emperor, Bajazetl. ; but in 1404, this 
 mighty conqueror died on an expedition to China. 
 
 31. Charles V., the Wise^ king of France, 1364, was 
 the eldest son of John II., The Good, and the first prince 
 that bore the title Dauphin, so named from the province 
 Dauphiny, which had been annexed to France in the pre- 
 ceding reign, 1349. Under Du GuescUn, the general of 
 Charles V., the French recovered nearly all the places that 
 had been captured by the English. 
 
 32. Wat Tyler and Jaels, Straw were the popular lead- 
 ers of an insurrection in England, in the reign of Richard II., 
 which had been excited by the cruelty and oppression of 
 the tax-gatherers, 1381. 
 
 33. Playing-Cards were invented to amuse Charles VI., 
 king of France, a weak-minded prince, subject to occasional 
 
162 GENERAL HISTOKY. [A. B. 109G 
 
 insanity, 1385. What effect this amusement bad in restor- 
 ing the mind of a lunatic we cannot say ; but we know 
 that the use of cards frequently tends to make sane people 
 mad. 
 
 34. The first JPaper-^nill in the world was erected at 
 Nuremburg, in Germany, in the year 1390 ; the first in 
 England was in 1588. The first in the United States was 
 erected in 1690, near Germantown, Pa. (See jo. 144, ;sec. 16.) 
 
 35. Henri/ I T\, king of England, 1399; first of the 
 House of Lancaster, and uncle of Richard II., from Avhom 
 Henry wrested the sceptre of England. In the battle of 
 Shreioshury Henry triumphed over all opposition, but his 
 usurpation of the throne originated, a few years later, the 
 civil wars between the Houses of York and Lancaster. 
 
 36. Henry V,, the English monarch, who in prosecut- 
 ing his claim to the throne of France gained the celebrated 
 ViGtoYy oi Agincoiirt, 1415; and who was in consequence 
 acknowledged heir to the French throne in the treaty of 
 Troyes, 1420. 
 
 37. Joan of Arc, " the Maid of Orleans," was the 
 famous French heroine who, in the reign of Charles VII., 
 by her undaunted courage compelled the English to raise 
 the siege of that place. She was afterward captured by 
 the English, tried for sorcery, and inhumanly burned, by the 
 command of the duke of Bedford, who led the English 
 forces, 1430. 
 
 38. The Art of Printing. — An art of printing was 
 known and practised in China at a very early period. But 
 the art as known by us was not received from the Chinese. 
 It was discovered by Laurentius of Harlaem, 1435, who, 
 walking in a wood one day, amused himself by cutting let- 
 ters in the rind of a beech-tree; and these being pressed on 
 paper, suggested to him the idea of printing from wooden 
 types. The use of movable metallic types was invented by 
 Guttenberg, at Mentz, in compan}- with his brother, and 
 
to 1492.] THE CRUSADES. 1G3 
 
 John Faust, 1445. The art of casting the types in a mould 
 or matrix, instead of cutting them in the metal, was in- 
 vented by Peter SchoefFer, an assistant of Faust, 1458. 
 One of the first books printed was the Holy Bible. Faust, 
 having printed ofi" a number of copies to imitate those sold 
 in manuscript, undertook the sale of them at Paris, 1462, 
 where the art of printing was then unknown. As he sold his 
 printed copies for sixty crowns, while the scribes demanded 
 five hundred, it created universal astonishment ; and when 
 he produced copies as fast as they were wanted, and lowered 
 the price to thirty crowns, all Paris was agitated. The uni- 
 formity of the copies increased the wonder. Informations 
 were made to the magistrates against him as a magician ; 
 his lodgings were searched, and a great many copies were 
 found and seized. The red ink with which they were em- 
 bellished was supposed to be his blood. It was thereon 
 seriously adjudged that he was in league with the evil 
 spirit. But on discovering the method by which Faust 
 produced his Bibles, the parliament, in consideration of 
 his useful invention, passed an act to discharge him from 
 all persecution. The first book printed in the English lan- 
 guage was the History of Troy, translated from French 
 into English by Wm. Caxton, and published at Cologne, 
 A. D. 1471. The next year Caxton returned to his native 
 country, England, with the art of printing; and in 1474, 
 he printed The Game of Chess, which was the first book 
 ever printed in England. The Latin Bible, or Vulgate, was 
 first printed on the continent in 1450 ; the Old Testament 
 in Hebrew, in 1488 ; and the New Testament in Greek, in 
 1518. The first printed edition of the Bible in any modern 
 language, was the German, in 1466. The first edition of 
 the New Testament printed in the English language was 
 Tyndale's translation, executed at Antwerp, 1526. Printing, 
 from stereotype plates was invented by William Ged, a 
 goldsmith of Edinburgh, 1725. 
 
164 GEi^^ERAL HISTORY. [A, ». 1096 
 
 39, The Greek Empire ovei^hrown, — Mahomet II., 
 emperor of the Turks, at the head of 300,000 men and 300 
 ships, conquered Constantinople, 1453. The citizens, how- 
 ever, obtained security and the free exercise of their reli- 
 gion. The Greek empire originated a. d. 395. It there- 
 fore had subsisted 1058 years. The Turks still hold Con- 
 stantinople as the capital of the Ottoman empire. {Seel/it. 
 Constantin ople. ) 
 
 4:0. The Wars of the Moses, in England. — This name is 
 given to the contests for the crown of England, which be- 
 gan in 1453, between the houses of York and Lancaster: 
 the former of which was designated by a white rose, and 
 the latter, by a red rose. The battles fought by these, con- 
 tending parties were — 
 
 I. The battle of St. Albans^ in which Henry VI. of 
 Lancaster was defeated and taken prisoner, 1455. 2. The 
 battle of NoTthamptoyx^ 1460, in which Henry was again 
 defeated by the earl of Warwick, who the next year placed 
 Edward IV. of York on the throne, 1461. 3. The battle 
 of Towton^'xw which Edward IV. defeated the Lancastrians, 
 who lost 40,000 slain, 1461. 4. The battle of J3arnet, in 
 which the Lancastrians were again defeated, and the brave 
 but vacillating Warwick slain, 14T1. 5. The battle of 
 Teiokesbury^ proving fatal to the Lancastrians, secured the 
 throne to Edward IV. of York, 1471. 
 
 4rl. The Battle of Bosworth Field, 1485.— On the death 
 of Edward IV., his brother Richard, Duke of Gloucoster, 
 causing his two nephews to be smothered in the Towar of 
 London, ascended the throne as Richard IH., 1483. After 
 reigning two years, England was invaded by Henry Tudor, 
 who in the battle of ^oswJor^A defeated and slew the usurper, 
 Richard IH. Henry was descended from John of Gaunt, 
 a son of Edward IH., 1327; and by his marriage with Eliza- 
 beth, daughter of Edward IV., the houses of York and 
 Lancaster were united. 
 
to 1492.J colo:n^izing. 1G5 
 
 42. Ferdinand and Isabella. — Ferdinand was king of 
 Arragon, and Isabella was queen of Castile and Leon. By 
 their marriage they united their dominions, forming the 
 kingdom of Spain, 1479. 
 
 The reign of these sovereigns was chiefly remarkable for 
 the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus, and 
 for the voyage of Vasco di Gama to India by way of the 
 Cape of Good Hope, 1492, 1498. 
 
 Period YI. — Colonizing. 
 
 Discovery of America, ) ( Deo. Am. Independence, 
 
 A. D. 1492. \ 284 years. \ a. d. 1776. 
 
 Columbus — St. Salvador. ) { Washington — Philadelphia. 
 
 1. The Colonizing Period is chiefly distinguished by — 
 1. The discovery and colonization of America. 2. The 
 Reformation, 1517. 3. The union of the crowns of Eng- 
 land and Scotland, 1603. 4. And by the rise of the Rus- 
 sian empire. 
 
 II. — The Chronology of the Period, 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1492. St. Salvador discovered by Columbus. 
 
 1497. North America discovered by the Cabots. 
 
 " Vasco di Gaiua doubles the Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 1498. South America discovered by Columbus. 
 
 1499. Vespuccius visits South America. 
 
 1500. Brazil visited by the Portuguese under Cabral. 
 
 " James IV, of Scotland marries Margaret, sister of Henry VIII. 
 
 1508. First African slaves brought to the West Indies. 
 
 1509. First European settlement on the continent atDarien. 
 " Henry VIII., king of England. 
 
 1513. The Pacific Ocean discovered by Balboa. 
 " The battle of Flodden James iV. of Scotland defeated by earl 
 of Surrey. 
 
166 GEl^ERAL HISTORY. [A. ». 1492 
 
 1515. Francis I., king of France. 
 
 1517. The Reformation begun by Luther. 
 
 1519. Charles V., emperor of Germany. 
 
 '* Cortez invades Mexico. 
 1523. The first voyage round the world by one of Magellan's vessels. 
 
 " Rhodes captured by Solyman the Magnificent, emperor of 
 the Tuiks. 
 1523. Gustavus Vasa, king of Sweden. 
 
 1525. The battle of Pavia. Francis I. defeated and made prisoner. 
 1529. The diet of Spire condemns the Lutherans. Ojigin of the 
 
 term Protestant. 
 1532. The conquest of Peru by Pizarro. 
 1541. De Soto discovers the Mississippi. 
 1547. Edward VI. of Ecgland. 
 
 '* Henry II. of France. 
 1550. Rise of the Puritans in England. 
 1553. Mary, daughter of Henry VIII., queen of England. 
 1556. Philip II., son of Charles V., king of Spain. 
 
 1558. Elizabeth, sister of Mary, queen of England. 
 
 1559. Peace of Chateau Cambresis. 
 
 " Francis II., king of France, husband of Mary queen of Scots. 
 1500. Presbyterian Church of Scotland established. 
 
 1564. Church of England established. 
 
 1565. St. Augustine, Florida, built by Melendez. 
 1572. Massacre of St. Bartholomew's day. 
 
 1579. Holland revolts from Spain. William the Silent. 
 
 1587. Mary queen of Scots beheaded. 
 
 1588. The Spanish Armada defeated. 
 
 1589. Henry IV. of France. House of Bourbon. 
 1598. The edict of Nantes. 
 
 1600. British East India Company. Shakspeare, Lord Bacon, Cer- 
 vantes, Arminius, Tycho Brahe, Galileo. 
 1603. James VI. of Scotland and I. of England. House of Stuart. 
 1605. The Gunpowder Plot. 
 
 1607. Jamestown settled. . First permanent English settlement. 
 1611. Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden. King James's Bible 
 
 published. 
 1614. New Amsterdam (New York) settled. 
 1618. Thirty Years' War begins. 
 1620. Plymouth, Mass., settled by English puritans. 
 " First African slaves brought to Virginia by the Dutch. 
 
tolT76.] COLONIZING. 167 
 
 1633. Kew Hampsliire settled at Dover. 
 
 1624. New Jersey settled at Bergen 
 
 1625. Charles I., king of England. 
 
 1633. Connecticut settled at Windsor. 
 
 1634. Maryland settled at St. Mary's. 
 1636. Rhode Island settled at Providence. 
 
 1638. Delaware settled at Christiana Creek. 
 
 1639. First printing press in America. 
 1643. Louis XIV. of France. 
 
 1648. Peace of Westphalia, at the close of the Thirty Years' War. 
 
 1649. Charles I. beheaded. Commonwealth of England. Crom- 
 
 well. Milton. 
 1660. Charles II. of England. Stuarts restored. 
 
 1665. The Great Plague in London. 
 
 1666. The Gieat Fire in London. The Covenanters defeated at 
 
 Pentland. 
 1670. South Carolina settled at Old Charleston 
 1682. Philadelphia founded by William Penn. 
 1685. Revocation of the edict of Nantes. 
 " James II. of England. 
 
 1688. The Revolution. William and Mary of England. Orange. 
 
 1689. Peter the Great, emperor of Russia. 
 
 1700. Locke, Boyle, Boileau, Newton, Leibnitz, Charles XIL, king 
 
 of Sweden. 
 
 1701. War of the Spanish Saccession— lasts fourteen years. 
 
 1702. Anne, second daughter of James IL, queen of England. 
 
 1713. I'eace of Utrecht closes the war of the Spanish Succession. 
 
 Britain acquires Newfoundland, etc. 
 
 1714. George L, king of England. House of Hanover. 
 1729. Rise of the Methodists. 
 
 1733. Georgia settled at Savannah. 
 
 1740. War of the Austrian Succession — lasts eight years. 
 
 " Frederick II. (Great), king of Prussia. 
 1745-6. The Stuarts attempt to regain the crown of Britain. 
 1748. Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle determines the Austria Succession. 
 1750. Johnson, Hume, Voltaire, Mosheim, Linnaeus. 
 1754. The French and Indian war in America begins. 
 1760. George III., king of England. 
 1763. Peace of Paris. 
 
 1765. Stamp Act passed, taxing the American colonies. 
 1774. Louis XVL, king of France. 
 
X68 GEl!j^ERAL HISTOET. [A. ». 1492 I 
 
 III, — History^ Biography^ etc., of the Period. 
 
 t, Columbus, the Great Discoverer, — The New World 
 became known to the people of the eastern continent on 
 the 12th of October, 1492. This grand discovery was made 
 by Christopher Columbus, or Columbo, a native of Genoa, 
 sailing at this time under the auspices of Ferdinand and 
 Isabella, the sovereigns of Spain. This important voyage 
 was undertaken in order to reach India by a westerly pas- 
 sage from Europe, as probably more direct than that around 
 the coast of Africa, the route by which the Portuguese 
 were attempting to reach that country, with the view of 
 enjoying its valuable commerce. 
 
 Columbus was eminently qualified to conduct this great 
 enterprise. Both his talents and his education were such as 
 to render him distinguished as a navigator. He went to sea 
 at the early age of fourteen ; and after making many ex- 
 tensive and adventurous voyages, he settled at Lisbon, in 
 Portugal, where he married the daughter of Palestrollo, 
 a celebrated Portuguese navigator. In perusing his father- 
 in-law's journals, Columbus felt desirous of visiting the 
 countries with which he thus became acquainted ; and for 
 many years he continued to trade with the Canaries, Ma- 
 deira, the cost of Guinea, and other regions. In this man- 
 ner his experimental knowledge of geography and other 
 sciences was matured, which, with his ardent love of adven- 
 ture and his exalted genius, prepared him to become the 
 leader of this bold expedition. 
 
 The spherical figure of the earth was generally admitted, 
 and its size had been ascertained with some desrree of ac- 
 curacy; and, the existence of another continent being un- 
 known, it was supposed that Asia extended much farther 
 to the east than it really does. It therefore appeared evi- 
 dent to Columbus that, by sailing directly west from Eu- 
 
to 1776.] COLOJflZIiq'G, 169 
 
 ropo, he would, in a voyage of no great length, reach the 
 eastern coast of Asia. 
 
 This opinion of Columbus was supported by several con- 
 siderations. Timber curiously carved, and canes of large 
 size, supposed to be from India, borne by the Gulf Stream, 
 and driven by westerly winds, were found floating on the 
 ocean west of the Madeira Islands. These and similar 
 facts confirmed Columbus in his matured theory, and de- 
 cided him to seek the means of making a westerly voyage 
 to India. 
 
 He patriotically first applied to the government of his 
 native country, Genoa. But, from his long absence abroad, 
 they were unacquainted with his character ; and being un- 
 able to appreciate the importance of his proposed enter- 
 prise, they refused the desired aid. He next applied to 
 king John of Portugal, who, after hearing his proposed plan, 
 basely attempted to rob him of the opportunity of being 
 the first to accomplish it, by sending out secretly an expedi- 
 tion for that purpose. This dishonorable project completely 
 failed, and the treachery which it betrayed determined 
 Columbus to break off at once all negotiations with a 
 prince so devoid of integrity. 
 
 As a final eflTort, he sent his brother Bartholomew to the 
 court of Henry YII., king of England, to solicit the required 
 aid of that monarch, while he himself applied to Ferdinand 
 xmd Isabella, the sovereigns of Spain, who, after much cau- 
 tious hesitation, and a delay of seven years from his first 
 application, supplied him with ninety men and three small 
 ships, the Santa Maria, the Pinta, and the Nigna, with pro- 
 visions for twelve months. 
 
 Columbus thus appointed set sail on the third of August, 
 A. D. 1492, from Palos, a port of Spain, and having touched 
 at the Canary Islands, he boldly directed his course on the 
 6th of September, due west, into an ocean hitherto unknown 
 to the Spaniards. 
 
 k 
 
 8 
 
I 
 
 170 GENERAL HISTORY. A. D. 1492 I 
 
 After beinoj some time at sea his men became alarmed at i 
 the variation of the compass, and at being so far from the i 
 shores of their native country. They began to mutiny, and 
 threatened to throw their commander overboard if he did 
 not immediately return. 
 
 In these difficult circumstances Columbus conducted 
 himself with the utmost self-possession. He explained the 
 variation of the compass (a phenomenon which he did not 
 himself fully understand) in a way that allayed the fears 
 of his men ; and being convinced from several circum- 
 stances that they w^ere not far from land, he prevailed on 
 his men to submit to his authority for a few days longer; 
 and he promised them that if land was not in that time dis- 
 covered he would immediately return. 
 
 A short time after this, as Columbus had anticipated, 
 land was discovered. 
 
 On the night of the 11th of October Columbus noticed 
 a light moving from place to place, at some distance from 
 his ship, and the next morning, the 12th, the delighted 
 Spaniards beheld the shores of Guanahani, one of the 
 Bahama Islands, to which Columbus, in pious gratitude 
 to God, gave the name of San Salvador, that is. Holy 
 Saviour. 
 
 The inhabitants of these islands were found to be a 
 simple, timid people. They wore no thing; they lived 
 chiefly upon the abundant vegetable productions of the 
 fertile soil ; and although well acquainted with the precious 
 metals, they were ignorant of the use of iron. They re- 
 ceived the Spaniards with the utmost kindness and respect, 
 regarding them with, superstitious reverence as a race of 
 superior beings. 
 
 After visiting Cuba, Hayti, and several other islands, 
 and leaving in Hayti a colony of thirty-eight of his men, 
 Columbus embarked on his return voyage, taking with him 
 several of the natives, a quantity of gold, and some speci- 
 
to 17T6.] COLONIZII^G. 171 
 
 mens of birds and plants. He reached Palos, the port of 
 his departure, on the 15th of March, 1493, after an absence 
 of seven months and eleven days. 
 
 To these newly- discovered regions Columbus made three 
 other voj^ages, four in all. 
 
 On his third voyage, in 1498, he discovered the continent 
 of South America, the year before it was visited by Araer- 
 icus Vespucoius. On his fourth voynge Columbus explored 
 the coast of Darien, on the Gulf of Mexico, in search of a 
 passage which he imagined led into the China Sea, or 
 Indian Ocean. After being shipwrecked on the Island of 
 Jamaica he returned to Spain, where he soon after died at 
 the age of VO years, still under the impression that the land 
 he had discovered was a part of the Asiatic continent. 
 And this error was not corrected until a. d. 1513, when 
 Balboa discovered the Pacific Ocean. Then, to distinguish 
 the lands discovered by Columbus from those of Asia, they 
 were respectively named West Indies and East Indies. 
 
 The successful enterprise of Columbus merited from his 
 sovereisrn the hio^hest consideration. This, however, he 
 did not receive. On the contrary, he was treated by the 
 king of Spain with the utmost unkindness and injustice. 
 He had been invested by the king with authority to govern 
 the regions he might discover as lord high admiral. And 
 while exercising this authority over the islands and seas 
 which he had discovered, false charges were preferred 
 against him by his envious and malignant enemies, and he 
 was in consequence deprived of his government and sent 
 home in fetters. And although he was there acquitted of 
 the crimes laid to his charge, he was never restored to his 
 just rights as lord high admiral, but was ever after treated 
 by king Ferdinand with a distrust and neglect character- 
 istic of that narrow-minded and ungenerous monarch. 
 
 In estimating the character of Columbus we must pro- 
 nounce him one of the greatest of men. He was endowed 
 
172 GEl^ERAL HISTORY. [A. O, 1492 
 
 with a capacity to conceive and an energy to execute the 
 greatest designs; a patient perseverance, which no disap- 
 pointments could exhaust ; a dauntless courage, which no 
 dangers could intimidate; and a composure and self-pos- 
 session, which no difficulty could disconcert. To these rare 
 qualities he added the ornament of a sincere and humble 
 piety, which, at the same time gave direction and efficiency 
 to his whole character. 
 
 The tomb of Columbus at Seville bears this beautiful 
 inscription: — " To Castile and Leon, Columbus gave a new 
 world!" 
 
 2, The Cabofs — John and his son Sebastian, were na- 
 tives of Venice ; but they had resided for many years as mer- 
 chants at Bristol, England. They sailed in May, a. d. 1497, 
 and in June they discovered the coast of Labrador, the 
 year before Columbus discovered South America, and two 
 years before Vespucci us sailed west of the Canaries. 
 
 3, The New World, named America from Araericus 
 Vespuccius, or Vespucci, a native of Florence. This adven- 
 turer accompanied the expedition of Alonzo de Ojeda, who, 
 in 1499, reached the continent of South America — the year 
 after it had been discovered by Columbus, and two years 
 after North America had been discovered by the Cabots. 
 Vespuccius, on his return, published such an account of his 
 voyage as led to the belief that he was the original discov- 
 erer of the continent. The honor of giving his name to 
 the newly-discovered world was accordingly awarded to 
 Vespuccius, in manifest injustice to Columbus, from whom, 
 however, no one can wrest the infinitely greater honor, 
 that of the original discovery. 
 
 4, The I^ortug lie se, A.J). 1497 — 1500, accomplished two 
 important voyages — one by Pedro Alvarez Cabral, who, 
 attempting, like Columbus, to reach India by a westerly 
 passage, discovered Brazil ; and the other by Vasco di 
 Gama, from Portugal to the East Indies by the wny of the 
 
f« 1776.] COLOIS^IZIXG. 173 
 
 Cape of Good Hope. After this the celebrated Alphonso 
 d'AIbuquerque conquered the whole coast of Malabar, and 
 took the city of Goa, where the Inquisition was in a short 
 time established. The extensive and valuable commerce 
 of Africa and India thus acquired by Portugal was, how- 
 ever, nearly all lost when Philip II. seized Portugal and 
 annexed it to the crown of Spain, 1580. 
 
 5. African Slaves hrought to America. — The Spanish 
 adventurers who colonized the West India Islands treated 
 the natives of these islands more like beasts of burden 
 than human beings. Unaccustomed to severe labor, either 
 of body or mind, the eiFeminate and indolent natives were 
 incapable of sustaining the oppressive toil which their 
 rapacious conquerors imposed on them, in cultivating the 
 land and working the mines ; and several of the islands 
 were almost depopulated before the court of Spain was 
 sufficiently apprised of the matter to interpose its authority 
 in behalf of the oppressed Americans. To emancipate 
 these unfortunate people and to supply the colonists with 
 more competent laborers, Father de las Casas, Cardinal 
 Ximenes — and other zealous friends of the West Indians, 
 recommended and promoted the introduction of African 
 slaves. The first importation of negroes from Africa to 
 the West Indies was made in 1503 by the Portuguese, and 
 a larger one was made by order of Ferdinand of Spain in 
 1511. The first African slaves brouo^ht to the Eno-Hsh col- 
 onies were landed in Virginia from a Dutch man-of-war in 
 1620. From that period until very recently the African 
 slave trade has been carried on or patronized by nearly 
 every nation of Europe and America. It was prohibited 
 by Great Britain in 1807, and by the United States in 
 1794, the law to take effect in 18€8. The institution of 
 domestic slavery was abolished in the French colonies in 
 1791 ; in the English colonies in 1883; in the United States of 
 America, December 18th. 1865 ; and in Brazil, April 8th, 1867. 
 
174 GEK^ERAL HISTORY. [A. JD. 1492 
 
 6. The Origin of tJie Term '^Slave,'^ — The word slave 
 succeeded to the Latin servifs, the Greek doulos, the He- 
 brew obed, and the Arabic abd. In the sixth and seventh 
 centuries of the Christian sera the vast regions of the Scla- 
 vonic tribes, extending from the Baltic to the Euxine Sea, 
 were overrun by the Goths, who, according to the common 
 practice of war, reduced their captives to perpetual bond- 
 age. Multitudes of these were sent to the markets of 
 Italy, Gaul, Spain, and other countries, where, being pur- 
 chased as bond-servants, their national appellation of Scla- 
 vo7iian, Slavonian^ Slava, or slave, soon became the popu- 
 lar desiscnation of their condition of servitude. 
 
 The word slava in the ancient Slavonic language means 
 glory, which, with its modern signification of degraded 
 servitude^ forms a stransje antithesis. 
 
 7, Henry VIII. King of England, 1509, son of Henry 
 VII., was remarkable for his intolerant bigotry in religion, 
 his cruelty to his wives, and his unscrupulous tyranny over 
 his subjects. Henry had successively six wives : Catharine 
 of Arragon, Anna Boleyn, Jane Seymour, Anne of Cleves, 
 Catharine Howard, and Catharine Parr, At the besjinnino: 
 of the Reformation Henry wrote a book against Luther 
 and his doctrines, for which service Pope Leo X., in 1521, 
 conferred upon the king the title of Defender of the Faith, 
 a title ever since retained by the sovereigns of Great 
 Britain. 
 
 Henry, however, did not remain faithful to the Church of 
 Rome. Pope Clement VII. having excommunicated him 
 for divorcing his first wife, Catharine of Arragon. the rebel- 
 lious king in retaliation abolished the authority of the pope 
 in his dominions, and proclaimed himself head of the 
 Church of England, 1534-39. He dissolved the monas- 
 teries and confiscated their immense treasures,* forbade the 
 
 * The annual revenue of all the suppressed houses amounted to £142,914 
 
 lis. gi/a^^- 
 
«o 1776.1 COLON^IZIJ^G. 175 
 
 payment of Peter's pence, and exposed the immoralities of 
 the monks. But still Henry did not adopt the doctrines of 
 the Retbrraation. Although he had renounced the author- 
 ity of the pope, and had made himself pope of his own 
 kingdom, he was, nevertheless, ardently attached to the 
 peculiar tenets of the Church of Rome. 
 
 The imjoortant events of the reign of Henry VHI. (38 
 years) were — 1. The battle of Flodden Fleld^ in which 
 Henry's brother-in-law, James IV. of Scotland, who had 
 invaded England, was defeated by the earl of Surrey. 
 2. The Pacitic Ocean discovered by Balboa from the 
 heights of Darien. 3. The Reformation by Luther. 4. The 
 conquest of Mexico by Cortez. 5. The conquest of Peru 
 by Pizarro. 6. The discovery of the Mississippi by De 
 Soto, 1541. 
 
 The contempararies of Henry were, Francis I. of France> 
 1515, and the emperor Charles V. of Germany, 1519. 
 
 8, 3Iartin Luther, an Augustine monk and professor 
 of divinity at Wittenburg, began the Reformation by 
 preaching against the sale of indulgences. These indul- 
 gences were certificates, properly authenticated, by which 
 certain degrees of merit were supposed to be transferred 
 to the purchasers in order to release them from the guilt 
 of the sins which they had confessed, and thus to save 
 them from the punishment otherwise due to those sins. 
 
 Such transfers of merit or indulgences were granted by 
 pope Urban II., at first to all who went in person on the 
 crusades, and afterward to those who hired a substitute for 
 that purpose. Pope Julius II. bestowed indulgences on all 
 that contributed money toward building St. Peter's church 
 at Rome ; and Leo X., in carrying on the same work, re- 
 sorted to the same prolific soui-ce of revenue. Albert, 
 archbishop of Magdeburg, being authorized by the pope 
 to promulgate indulgences in Germany, employed John 
 Tetzel, a Dominican friar, to retail them in Saxony. And 
 
176 GENERAL HISTORY. [A. ». 1492 
 
 Tetzel, it is related, recommending the purchase of his 
 indulorences in an offensive way, aroused the indigrnant 
 opposition of the Augustine profiessor. 
 
 The early religious faith of Luther Avas, of course, in 
 entire conformity with the received doctrines of the Church 
 of Rome, for in them he had been educated from childhood. 
 But while pursuing his studies in the University at 
 Erfurth he providentially met with a copy of the Sacred 
 Scriptures. Astonished to discover how^ little he knew of 
 the inspired volume, he devoted himself to its study with 
 the utmost avidity. The result of this was tlie adoption 
 of religious sentiments substantially similar to those held 
 and maintained by John Calvin, at Geneva, John Knox, in 
 Scotland, Ulric Zwingle, in Switzerland, and by other emi- 
 nent reformers of that period, and by the Protestant 
 churches of the present day. 
 
 These religious opinions, however, did not originate with 
 the reformers of the sixteenth century. As they were de- 
 rived from the inspired Scriptures, they must have been 
 held, with some diversity, no doubt, from the days of the 
 apostles, by all that received the Scriptures alone as the 
 rule of their faith. They were advocated in England by 
 John Wiclif, in the fourteenth century ; by the Waldenses 
 in Piedmont, certainly in the fourth century, and probably 
 from apostolic times; and by the ancient British Christians 
 from the earliest times of the church to a. d. 597, when 
 Austin, with forty other missionaries, arrived from Rome, 
 with the peculiar tenets of the church of that city. They 
 were held also by the ancient Syrian churches on the west- 
 ern coast of India, froni apostolic times to the arrival of the 
 Portuguese missionaries at Goa with Albuquerque. 
 
 9. Origin of the Term *^ JProtestant," — After the 
 Reformation had made some good progress in Germany, 
 numbering among its firm advocates sovereign princes, 
 electors, the magistrates of free imperial cities, and a vast 
 
to ITTC.l COLO]!^IZIKG. 177 
 
 multitude of the people, diets and assemblies were held, by 
 the authority of the German emperor, to decide the ques- 
 tions in dispute between Luther and his followers and their 
 opponents, the authorities of the Church of Rome. In one 
 of those diets, held at Spire, April 19th, 1529, a decree was 
 passed against the Reformers, designed by the emperor to 
 arrest the progress of free investigation, and to re-establish 
 the authority of the Church of Rome in those states in 
 which it had been abolished. Against this unjust decree 
 the Beformers protested; and from this they received the 
 name of Protestants. And the same appellation has since 
 been applied, in a more general sense however, to all that 
 reject the peculiar doctrines of the Church of Rome, and 
 that adhere to the inspired Scriptures as the only rule of 
 their religious faith. 
 
 10, Francis J., king of France, was a brave general and 
 a wily politician; he was very popular with his subjects, 
 and accounted the most polished gentleman of his day. 
 He was the unsuccessful candidate for the throne of the 
 German empire, when Charles Y. was elected, and 
 hence the jealousies and contests which ensued between 
 them, 1515-1547. 
 
 11, Charles V,, who was emperor of Germany, contem- 
 porary with Luther, Henry VHL of England, and Francis 
 L of France, was at the same time king of Spain and Hol- 
 land. Charles was the grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella, 
 and one of the most powerful monarchs that ever occupied 
 a European throne. In the controversy with the Reform- 
 ers he took a decided part in favor of the Church of Rome, 
 to which he was ,ardently attached. In his wars with 
 Francis I., king of France, he took that monarch prisoner 
 in the battle of Pavia^ a, d. 1525. In the year 1556 Charles 
 retired from public life to spend the remainder of his days 
 in a convent. He resigned the crowns of Spain and Hol- 
 land to his son Philip II., and abdicated the throne of the 
 
 8* 
 
178 GENERAL HISTORY. [A. D. 1492 
 
 German empire, to which his brother, Ferdinand I., was 
 chosen as his successor. 
 
 12, Ferdinand Cortez, the Spanish adventurer who 
 invaded the kingdom of Mexico, a. d. 1519. Cortez, at the 
 head of 663 Spaniards from Cuba, landed in Mexico, and 
 was at first kindly received by the unsuspecting monarch, 
 Montezuma. But in a short time the designs of the Span- 
 iards became evident. A sanguinary contest ensued — Mon- 
 tezuma was slain, and Mexico, with its vast treasures of 
 gold and silver, was speedily subdued. In this conquest, 
 which was completed 1521, nearly a million of the inoffen- 
 sive Mexicans were massacred. 
 
 13, Peru Conquered by Pizarro and Almagro, 
 Spanish adventurers, at the head of three hundred men. 
 They took the king, Atabalipa, prisoner ; and after receiving 
 an immense amount of gold for his redemption (£1,500,000), 
 they perfidiously and cruelly put him to death, and massa- 
 cred thousands of the simple-hearted natives, a. d. 1532. 
 
 These rapacious invaders perished in quarrelling about 
 the division of their ill-gotten plunder. Almagro was be- 
 headed, and Pizarro was assassinated. 
 
 14, Edward VI., the son of Henry VIII. and Jane 
 Seymour, 1547. Edward was a youth of decided piety, and, 
 aided by Archbishop Cranmer, he diligently promoted the 
 Reformation in England. At the coronation of this prince, 
 when, according to the custom of that period, the three 
 large swords were presented to him as emblems of his being 
 king of three kingdoms (England, Ireland, and France), he 
 observed to the surrounding nobles that there was j^et 
 another sword wanting. And when they asked him what 
 that was, the king answered, "the Bible." '*That Bible," 
 added he, " is the sword of the Spirit, and it is to be pre- 
 ferred before these swords. That, in all rio^ht, ouo^ht to 
 govern us who use the sword, by God's appointment, for 
 the people's safety. He who rules without the Bible is not 
 
to 1776.] COLOJIS^IZIK^G. 179 
 
 to be called God's minister or a king. Under that we 
 ought to live, to fio^ht, to govern the people, and to perform 
 all our aifairs. From that alone we obtain all power, vir- 
 tue, grace, salvation, and whatsoever we have of divine 
 strength." This remarkable prince died at the early age 
 of sixteen years, 
 
 15. Queen Mary of England was the daughter of 
 Henry VIII. and Catharine of Arragon. In the early 
 part of Mary's inglorious reign she procured the unneces-. 
 sary condemnation and death of the amiable and accom- 
 plished Lady Jane Grey and her husband, Lord Guilford 
 Dudley, who had been unwillingly proclaimed king and 
 queen by their ambitious relatives. In 1554 Mary married 
 Philip II., king of Spain, who readily aided her in the 
 determination to abroo^ate the Reformed relifrion, and to 
 restore in England the authority of the pope of Rome. In 
 accomplishing this she persecuted her Protestant subjects 
 in the most cruel manner. During her reign of five years 
 she caused to be burned five bishops — Hooper, Farrar, 
 Ridley, Latimer, and Cranmer,* — twenty-one minor clergy- 
 men, and three hundred other persons. The celebrated 
 John Rogers, eminent for piety, virtue, and learning, had 
 the melancholy honor of being the first victim of this mer- 
 ciless persecution, which embraced the old and the young, 
 the learned and the uneducated, men, women, and children, 
 and which extended to every county in England. 
 
 16, The Puritans were a large and respectable body of 
 English Protestants, in the sixteenth century, who, dissent- 
 ing from the established religion, professed what they con- 
 sidered 2k purer form of religious faith and practice. The 
 form of church government which, for the most part, they 
 adopted, is that which is known as Congregationalism, or 
 Independency. The Puritans were remarkable for their 
 
 » The Martyrs' Memorial, a splendid monument erected at Oxford in 1841, to the 
 memory of Ridley, Latimer, and Cranmer. is an objact of peculiar interest. 
 
180 GEis'ERAL HISTOrtY. [A. D. 1492 
 
 energy of character, their enterprising spirit, their intelli- 
 gence, and their love of civil and religious liberty. A num- 
 ber of these people, in the year 1620, emigrated to the New 
 World, to enjoy in a distant land an asylum from religious 
 persecution. They landed at a place which they named 
 Plymouth, and settled Massachusetts, and other New Eng- 
 land colonies. 
 
 17 » Queen Elizabeth^ the daughter of Henry VIII. and 
 Anna Boleyn, reigned in England from 1558 to 1003. 
 Aided by eminent statesmen, Elizabeth enjoyed a splendid 
 reign, which, however, was much disturbed by several con- 
 spiracies against the queen's government and life. During 
 the reign of this princess — 1, the Church of England was 
 established in its present form, 1564 ; 2, seventy thousand 
 Huo;uenots were massacred in France on St. Bartholomew's 
 day, 1572; 3, admiral Drake made his first voyage round 
 the world, 1585 ; 4, Mary, queen of Scots, was beheaded 
 for conspiracy against the government of queen Elizabeth, 
 1587 ; 5, the Spanish Armada was defeated, 1588 ; and 6, 
 the British East India Company established, 1600. Eliza- 
 beth ascended the throne at the age of 25 years, as the suc- 
 cessor of her half-sister Mary; she lived a maiden queen, 
 and died at the advanced age of 70 years, in the forty-fifth 
 year of her reign. This princess was not less remarkable 
 for her personal vanity and waywardness than for her emi- 
 nent talents in bearing the sceptre. 
 
 18, Improvements and Inventions shortly before and 
 during ttie reign of Elizabeth. 
 
 The interests of education and of civil and religious lib- 
 erty had been greatly promoted by the translation and 
 study of the Holy Scriptures in the three preceding reigns. 
 Durinsf the rei2:n of Elizabeth coaches were introduced into 
 England ; the first astronomical observatory in Europe was 
 erected at Cassels in Germany, 1561 ; Sir Walter Raleigh 
 brought tobacco and potatoes from America, 1560-1586 ; 
 
to 1776.] COLONIZIXG. 181 
 
 and in 1588 Lord Burleigh established the English Mer- 
 cury^ which was the first newspaper in England. 
 
 19, Etninent Men in Europe in the JReign of Eliza- 
 betJi. — Tycho Brahe, the Danish astronomer ; Cervantes, 
 the author of Don Quixotte, in Spain ; and the celebrated 
 Jolm Knox, the Reformer, who was chiefly instrumental 
 in the establishment of Presbyterianism as the national 
 religion of Scotland, 1560. The eminent men of Eliza- 
 beth's court were Sir Walf«^r Raleigh, who made the first 
 efforts to colonize North America ; Shakspeare, the great 
 dramatist ; the poet Spenser, who wrote the Fairie Queen j' 
 and Sir Philip Sidney, who was styled " the jewel of his 
 time." 
 
 Sir Philip was remarkable for his many elegant accom- 
 plishments, his love of literature, and his great humanity. 
 This was very conspicuous in his last moments. Being 
 mortally wounded in the battle of Ziitphen, 1585, and suf- 
 fering from intense thirst, his attendants were about to 
 present to his parched lips a bottle of water. At this mo- 
 ment he caught the eye of a poor soldier, who like himself 
 was mortally wounded, and who was looking at the bottle 
 with that intense desire which only the fevered dying sol- 
 dier can experience. " Give him the water," said the dying 
 hero, " his necessity is still greater than mine." 
 
 20, The Massaci^e of St, Bartholonieiv's Dap, — This 
 was the murder of 70,000 Huguenots, or Protestants, in 
 France, on St. Bartholomew's day, August 24th, 1572, per- 
 petrated by the command of king Charles IX., who was 
 instigated to this inhuman butchery of his subjects that dif- 
 fered from him in religion, by his mother, the infamous 
 Catharine de Medici. 
 
 Ihe prince of Navarre, admiral Coligni, the prince of 
 Conde, and many of the principal Huguenot nobility and 
 gentlemen of France were assembled in Paris, at the invi- 
 tation of Charles IX., to attend the marriage of the prince 
 
182 GEN^ERAL HISTORY. [A. ». 1492 
 
 of Navarre, the leader of the Huguenots, to the king's sis- 
 ter, Margaret of Valois. A few days after the marriage, 
 on the night of St. Bartholomew's day, the great bell of the 
 church of St. Germain sounded the appointed signal, and 
 the work of bloodshed commenced. It is related that the 
 king himself, accompanied by his inhuman mother, beheld 
 from a window of his palace the horrid massacre ; and in- 
 citing thefury of the murderers, aided in their bloody work 
 by shooting down his betrayed and defenceless Protestant 
 subjects. 
 
 The venerable Coligni, one of the principal Protestant 
 chiefs, was assassinated by the attendants of the duke of 
 Guise, in an upper chamber of the admiral's lodgings, and 
 his lifeless corpse was thrown from a window into the court- 
 yard, where the blood-thirsty Guise awaited to enjoy in 
 dastardly triumph the nefarious work of his inhuman 
 emissaries. 
 
 The massacre continued in different parts of France with 
 unabated fury for three days. Men, women, and children 
 were butchered by the royal troops and by the infuriated 
 populace. In Paris alone about six thousand persons, of 
 whom five hundred were nobility, perished in this base and 
 sanguinary affair. 
 
 It is pleasant to record that although the spirit of perse- 
 cution actuated the great mass of the Catholics, as well as 
 the queen-mother, the king, and the influential court party 
 of the house of Guise, there were many noble exceptions in 
 the persons of the governors of distant provinces. Among 
 these w^ere Claud of Savoy, governor of Dauphine ; Ber- 
 trand de Simiance ; St. Heran, governor of Auvergne ; Tan- 
 neguy le Veneur of Rouen, who all, humanely disregarding 
 the kinjr's command, hindered or restrained the slauorhter 
 of the Protestants. But the answer returned to Charles 
 by Viscount d'Ortez, governor of Bayonne, is worthy of 
 all admiration : " You must not, on this point, expect obedi- 
 
to 1776.] COLON"IZIKG. 183 
 
 ence from rae. I signified the orders sent from your majesty 
 to the inhabitants of the town and to the troops in garri- 
 son, and I found them all ready to act like good citizens and 
 brave soldiers, but there is not one hangman among themP 
 
 21. Mary^ Queen of Scots, was the daughter of James 
 v., king of Scotland, and the second cousin of queen Eliza- 
 beth, and is celebrated for her beauty, her crimes, and her 
 misfortunes. Her first husband was Francis II., the dauphin 
 of France, who, dying in the year 1561, Mary returned 
 to reign in her own kingdom. In 1565, she married lord 
 Darr.ley, with whom she lived very unhappily, partly in 
 consequence of that nobleman's unpleasant temper, but 
 chiefly on account of her partiality to foreign favorites. 
 This led to the death of her Italian secretary, Rizzio, who 
 was assassinated by lord Darnley and a few selected 
 friends. After this tragic affair Mary became intimate 
 with the atrocious earl Both well, whom it is charged she 
 aided in the murder of her husband, lord Darnley. In a 
 short time after his decease she married Bothwell, and ele- 
 vated him to share her throne. 
 
 Mary's indignant nobles, justly incensed at conduct so 
 flagrant, took up arms against her, and making her their 
 prisoner, they compelled her to resign the crown to her son, 
 James YI. (afterward James I. of England). Escaping 
 from Loch-Leven castle, where she had been confined, 
 Mary fled, to England, and there, after being held as a cap- 
 tive for eighteen years, she was executed at Fotheringay 
 castle, by the authority of the English government, and 
 with the approbation of the English people, on the charge 
 of conspiring against the crown and life of queen Eliza- 
 beth. Thus perished Mary Stuart, queen of Scots, the 
 victim of the fanatical schemes of base conspirators, of 
 whom, however, she appeared to be the willing representa- 
 tive and the acknowledged head, 1587. 
 
 22. Peace of Chateau- Canihresis, 1559, concluded 
 
184 GEI^ERAL HISTORY. [A. ». 1492 
 
 between Spain and England on one side, and France and 
 l^ope Paul IVi on the other. For some time previous to 
 this, Spain, under the powerful sceptre of the house of 
 Austria, had predominated in the affairs of Europe. On 
 the abdication of Charles V., 1558, his son, Philip II., be- 
 came king of Spain, Sicily, Milan, and the Netherlands. 
 In addition to this, for a short time, as the husband of 
 Mary, he directed the government of England. 
 
 The pope, long jealous of the power of Spain, formed an 
 alliance with Henry II. of France to deprive Philip of 
 Milan and Sicily. But Philip, aided by England, gained 
 the battles of jSl Quintin and Gravelines^ which brought 
 on the treaty of Chateau-Cambresis. This secured to 
 Philip not merely the possession of his former dominions, 
 but also the acquisition from the allies of eighty-nine forti- 
 fied cities in the Netherlands and in Italy. During the 
 war, however, the English lost Calais, which they had held 
 for two hundred years. In 1580, Philip added to his exten- 
 sive dominions the throne of Portugal, which he seized in 
 right of his mother. 
 
 23. The lievolt of the Netherlands froin Spaing 1579, 
 was caused by the attempt of Philip II. to carry on the 
 tyranny of his father, Charles V., in the purpose to curb 
 the spirit of independence for which the Dutch were noted, 
 and to exterminate the Protestant religion, which multi- 
 tudes of that intelligent and inquiring people had embraced 
 at an early period of the Reformation. During the forty 
 years- reign of Charles, 50,000 persons perished for con- 
 science' sake. And under the duke of Alva, and other gov- 
 ernors appointed by Philip, 18,000 persons were in five years 
 delivered to execution, and 100,000 families driven from 
 the land. 
 
 At length, driven to desperation, the people arose in 
 open and violent revolt, and the seven northern provinces, 
 which, were chiefly Protestant, uniting under William, 
 
to 1776.] COLOIflZIJ^G. 185 
 
 Prince of Orange, as stadtholder, became the celebrated 
 Dutch Eepublic. 
 
 24, William of Nassau, Prince of Orange and 
 Stadtholder of Holland, \579^Viras one of the most illustri- 
 ous of men. Descended from a family that had given an 
 emperor to Germany (Adolphus, 1292), he became the 
 great-grandfather of the prince of Orange, who was called 
 to the throne of Great Britain in 1688, as William III. ; and 
 the descendants of his great-granddaughter, the electress 
 Sophia, have worn the British crown since 1714. 
 
 At the age of fifteen, William entered the household of 
 the emperor Charles Y., and at twenty-two he commanded 
 the imperial forces. As he grew older, important affairs of 
 state were committed to his charsje. His remarkable reti- 
 cence obtained for him the name of William the Silent. 
 But while he conversed little he reflected the more pro- 
 foundly, and when he did speak he riveted the attention of 
 his hearers. To the decision and courage of the hero he 
 united the foresight and wisdom of the profound states- 
 man. Upright and generous, he scorned the prevailing ser- 
 vility of courts, and recoiled from the idea of oppression. 
 Instructed in early life both in the faith of the Church of 
 Rome and in the doctrines of the Reformation, he became, 
 on mature conviction, a zealous Protestant, and devoted 
 himself to the cause of civil and religious liberty. In the 
 year 1581, in the midst of his noble career, this truly great 
 and good man perished by assassination, the work of a base 
 fanatic, purchased by the gold of Philip II. 
 
 25. The Spanish Armada, or as it w^as called, "the 
 Invincible Armada," was an immense naval armament, 
 fitted out by Philip IT., king of Spain, for the invasion and 
 conquest of England, 1588. This vast and costly enter- 
 prise met with complete disaster. The vessels that escape<J 
 the valor of the English navy were nearly all wrecked on 
 the coasts of Norway, Scotland, and Ireland. 
 
186 GENERAL HISTORY. [A. D, 1492 
 
 The motives which probably induced Philip IT. to under- 
 take this enterprise were — 1, to prosecute his pretended 
 claim to the throne of England, as the surviving husband 
 of the late queen Mary ; 2, to resent the refusal of queen 
 Elizabeth to marry him ; 3, to retaliate the aid she had 
 afforded his revolted subjects in the Netherlands ; 4, to 
 avenge the death of Mary, queen of Scots ; 5, to restore 
 England to the bosom of the Church of Rome, from which 
 it had been wrested by Henry VIII. 
 
 26, The JBritish East India Company was a com- 
 pany of London merchants incorporated on the last day of 
 the year 1600, by queen Elizabeth, for the purpose of 
 trading to the East Indies. From the days of king Solomon 
 (b. c. 1000, 1 Kings ix. 26-28), the productions of the East, 
 in almost every age, constituted a valuable part of the 
 commerce of other nations. And the intense desire of the 
 merchants of Western Europe to engage in that commerce 
 prompted those great maritime enterprises which resulted 
 in the discovery t)f America and the route to India and 
 China by way of the Cape of Good Hope. After the success- 
 ful voyage of Vasco di Gama, 1597, the Portuguese, the 
 Dutch, and the French vied with each other for the monop- 
 oly of the East India trade. But wanting the ability to 
 comprehend and to prosecute successfully so vast an enter- 
 prise, they all, in process of time, retired before the superior 
 fortune, address, and prowess of the British. Their first 
 permanent station in India was at Surat, which the ambas- 
 sadors of king James I. obtained from Aurungzebe, the 
 Mogul emperor, 1613. Soon after this they obtained per- 
 mission to establish stations on the Ganges and the Bay of 
 Bengal ; and in 1668 king Charles H. ceded to the com- 
 pany the important island of Bombay, which he had re- 
 ceived as a part of the marriage portion with his wife, 
 Catharine of Portugal. With these favorable beginnings, 
 and taking advantage of the mutual contests that were 
 
to 1T76.] COLOKIZING. 187 
 
 ever occurring between the Mogul emperor and the rsative 
 princes, they succeeded in obtaining absolute dominion 
 over large tracts of country; while with their ever increas- 
 ing wealth they supported large armies in India, and pro- 
 cured any desirable legislation in their favor at home. 
 
 This prosperity and these successes, however, were not 
 achieved without corresponding efforts and sacrifices. Many 
 desperate battles were fought, in some of which the Eng- 
 lish name seemed almost about to perish. In 1 756, Surajah 
 Dowlah, the nabob of Bengal, captured Calcutta and mas- 
 sacred a large number of the prisoners. But the next year, 
 1757, in the celebrated battle of Plaissy^ lord Clive com- 
 pletely retrieved the disaster. Some years after, the 
 renowned Hyder Ali, prince of the Mysore, aided by his 
 son Tippoo Saib, completely devastated the Carnatic with 
 a force of 100,000 men; but these valiant Hindoos were, 
 however, ultimately defeated by sir Eyre Coote in five 
 pitched battles. On the final overthrow of Tippoo Saib by 
 lord Wellesley in 1799, his immense dominions were seized 
 by the company. In 1815, the marquis of Hastings, whose 
 mercenary and despotic administration as governor-gen- 
 eral caused his recall and impeachment, added the kingdom 
 of Nepaul to the possessions of this monster corporation. 
 And in 1848, by the successful termination of the Sikh 
 war, the subjugation of the whole of India, reaching from 
 the Himmaleys to the ocean, with its exhaustless wealth 
 and its teeming population, crowned with success an enter- 
 prise the most persistent, energetic, and unscrupulous the 
 world had ever witnessed. The most noted event in the later 
 history of the company was the Sepoy rebellion in 1857. 
 
 The Sepoys were Mahometan soldiers in the service of 
 the East India company, numbering at this time about 
 quarter of a million, but commanded by British officers. 
 In order to regain the lost Mahometan influence in India, 
 and to re-establish the empire of the great Mogul, these 
 
188 GEKEEAL HISTOEY. [A. D. 1492 
 
 wily Moslems, taking advantage of the confidence reposed 
 in them, and of the absence of the main body of European 
 troops, and working upon the superstitious prejudices of 
 the native Hindoos, formed a wide-spread conspiracy to 
 throw oflT the yoke of the British East India Company by 
 a general massacre of the European inhabitants. The day 
 appointed was Sabbath, the 10th of May, 1857, the one 
 hundredth anniversary of the battle of Plaissy, 1757, which 
 according to a popular Hindoo tradition was to terminate 
 the British rule in India. The mutiny began at Meerut, 
 and was speedily followed at almost every other post where 
 the Sepoy regiments were stationed, marked by a savage 
 and wanton cruelty unequalled in the annals of rebellion. 
 The small English garrison at Lucknow suffered in a pecu- 
 liar manner. After sustaining a fierce seige for five months 
 it was at length gallantly relieved by the heroic Havelock, 
 who, after a series of w^eary marches and hard-fought bat- 
 tles, at the head of 2,000 brave men, drove off the relent- 
 less foe and turned the tide of war, Sept. 25, 1857. 
 
 After the rebellion was suppressed, all the affairs of the 
 East India Company were investigated by Parliament, the 
 company deprived of its charter, and the government of 
 India vested in the crown of Great Britain. 
 
 27 * Henry IV,, Prince of Navarre, who wore the 
 crown of France at the death of queen Elizabeth, ascended 
 the throne in 1589. Henry had been the leader of the 
 Protestants in France, and his accession to the throne was 
 very unacceptable to the Catholics. Nevertheless, his supe- 
 rior talents as a statesman and soldier, aided by those of 
 his minister Sully, rendered his government eminently use- 
 ful and popular. In the celebrated battle of Yvri, 1590, 
 he triumphed over the League which had been formed 
 against the Protestants, In 1593, from motives of state 
 policy, he became a Catholic, but his conversion failed to 
 conciliate his papal subjects. 
 
to 1776.] GOLONIZIKG. 189 
 
 In the year 1598, Henry IV. issued the Edict of Nantes, 
 granting his Protestant subjects the free exercise of their 
 religion, and in 1610 he was assassinated by the fanatical 
 Ravaillac, who held, with many others at that period in 
 Europe, the lawfulness of assassinating heretical princes. 
 Henry IV. was the first king of the House of Boarhon^ a 
 family that occupied the French throne for many years. 
 
 ^S. The Union of the Croivns of JEfigland and Scot- 
 land, in the person of James VI. of Scotland, who thus 
 became James I., king of Great Britain, 1603. James I. 
 was the son of Mary, queen of Scots, and lord Darnley, 
 and the first sovereign of England of the Hoitrse of 
 Stuart. 
 
 In character James was remarkably cautious and suspi- 
 cious, vain of his learning, and studious of peace with for- 
 eign nations. And while he was sadly destitute of the 
 personal dignity becoming a king, he entertained notions 
 of the royal authority so high that he brought himself fre- 
 quently into collision with the Parliament. These disputes 
 between the king and Parliament, continued and aggravated 
 during the reign of his son and successor, the arbitrary 
 Charles I., resulted in the establishment of the English 
 Commonwealth, 1649. 
 
 The chief events that distinguished the reign of James I. 
 were — the Gunpowder Plot, 1605 ; the translation of the 
 Bible, 1611 ; the beginning of the Thirty Years' War, 
 1618 ; and the permanent colonization of North America, 
 1607. 
 
 29, The Gunpowder Plot was a plot to blow up with 
 gunpowder the British Parliament house, with the assem- 
 bled king, lords, and commons. This plot was formed by a 
 small party of highly respectable English Catholics, for the 
 purpose of destroying at one blow the Protestant govern- 
 ment of England, in order to restore the kingdom to the 
 bosom of their church. If their plot had succeeded they 
 
190 GENERAL HISTORY. [A. ». 1492 
 
 intended to place Margaret, the infant daughter of king 
 James, upon the throne under a Catholic regency. 
 
 A short time before the meeting of Parliament, and 
 when the design was nearly ready for execution, one of 
 the conspirators Avrote a letter to a Catholic nobleman, 
 alluding to the plot, and warning him to absent himself 
 from the approaching Parliament, that he might escape 
 the doom about to fall upon their enemies. This letter 
 was handed to the king, who at once suspected the nature 
 of the threatened danger. On searching the vaults be- 
 neath the Parliament house, the night before that body 
 was to assemble, thirty-six barrels of powder were found 
 beneath a large quantity of fuel, and the chief agent of 
 the conspiracy, Guy Fawkes, with matches and tinder, 
 ready to fire the train, was arrested and put to death. 
 
 The 5th of November, the anniversary of the Gunpow- 
 der Plot, popularly called Guy Fawkes* Day, was cele- 
 brated in England by appropriate thanksgiving services in 
 the established church for more than two hundred years. 
 But recently, by Act of Parliament, those services have 
 been discontinued. 
 
 SO, Tlie New English Version of the Holy Scriptures 
 was authorized in order to provide a version of the Word 
 of God more accurate and uniform than the translations 
 previously in use. This translation, called "King James's 
 Bible," was executed by men pre-eminently distinguished 
 for their piety and for their profound learning in the origi- 
 nal languages of the Sacred Writings. It was commenced 
 in 1604, and completed and published in a. d. 1611 ; and it 
 has ever since been in general use both in England and in 
 this country. Of this translation it is justly observed that 
 "it is not only a standard translation, but the standard of 
 the English language;" and that "so accurately does it 
 render the sense of the inspired Hebrew and Greek Scrip- 
 tures, that whoever studies this English Bible is sure of 
 
to 1T76.] COLONIZING 191 
 
 gaining that knowledge and faith which, if duly applied 
 to the heart and conversation, will infallibly guide him to 
 eternal life." 
 
 31, The Thirty Years^ War resulted chiefly from the 
 religious controversies of the sixteenth century. Although 
 at the peace of Augsburg, 1555, the free exercise of the 
 Protestant religion was secured, yet early in the following 
 century renewed efforts were made to suppress the Re- 
 formed religion in Germany. 
 
 In Bohemia the Protestant cause had been popular for 
 more than two hundred years, and at this time it was the 
 religion of the great body of the kingdom. Notwith- 
 standing this, the emperor Ferdinand II., who was also 
 king of Bohemia, in attempting to impose on them the 
 papal religion, pursued a course of the severest persecution. 
 An extensive massacre occurred in Prague, and 30,000 fam- 
 ilies were banished. This caused a revolt of the Bohemi- 
 ans, who renounced their allegiance to Ferdinand and threw 
 his viceroy and other imperial ministers out of a window. 
 Then, having chosen as their sovereign the elector Palatine, 
 Frederick Y., 1616, they united with other Protestants in 
 the vindication of their common religious liberty. The 
 Evangelical JJnion^ which was led by the elector Frederick, 
 was opposed by the Catholic League^ headed by Maximil- 
 ian, duke of Bavaria. 
 
 From 1618, when open war began, till the peace of West- 
 phalia, 1648, thirty years, Germany was a scene of dread- 
 ful devastation. 
 
 In this sanguinary contest the Protestants were aided 
 by the noble Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, who 
 marched to their defence with 15,000 men. The chief bat- 
 tles of this protracted war were those of Leipsic, 1632, in 
 which Gustavus defeated the Catholic forces ; Liitzen^ 1632, 
 in which the heroic Adolphus, although again victorious, 
 fell, bravely defending the cause of religious liberty ; 
 
192 GEXEEAL HISTOKT. [A. B. 1492 
 
 and Nordlingen^ 1634, in which the Protestants were de- 
 feated. 
 
 At length both parties, worn out by the contest, agreed 
 
 to terminate hostilities, which they did by the peace of 
 
 Westphalia^ 1648. This secured freedom to all parties, and 
 
 it has been made the basis of many subsequent treaties 
 
 among the states of Europe. 
 
 32, Eminent Men during the Meign of tTames I, — 
 Lord Bacon ^ who introduced the "inductive method of 
 philosophy ;" Harvey^ who discovered the circulation of 
 the blood, 1619; Arminii/s, a prominent divine of Holland, 
 whose peculiar views in theology (since named Arminian- 
 ism) were condemned by the celebrated synod of Dort, 
 1618 ; and the renowned astronomers, Kepler in Germany, 
 and Galileo in Italy. 
 
 Galileo was born at Pisa, February 15th, 1564. Such 
 were his attainments in the mathematics that at an early 
 age he was made professor of that department of science 
 in the University of Pisa, a. r>. 1589. Noticing upon a cer- 
 tain occasion the motion of a lamp suspended in the cathe- 
 dral of Pisa, he w^as led to the invention of pendulum 
 clocks. Having heard in 16D9 of the invention of the tel- 
 escope by Jansens, a Dutchman, Galileo at once under- 
 standing the principle of its construction, made one for his 
 own use, and applying it to the heavens made the most 
 astonishing discoveries in astronomy. These discoveries 
 coinciding with those already made and published by the 
 illustrious Prussian astronomer, Copernicus, in 1530, gave 
 great offence to the Roman Inquisition. Accordingly 
 Galileo, at '70 years of age, was summoned before the holy 
 office and required to abjure, in the most solemn manner, 
 the Copernican system of the heavenly bodies as heretical 
 and contrary to Scripture, and to bind himself by oath 
 never to maintain, either in conversation or in writing, that 
 the earth turns on its axis and revolves around the sun. 
 
to 1776.1 COLONIZING. 193 
 
 This abjuration was signed June 22d, 1633; and it is re- 
 lated that on rising from his knees in the presence of the car- 
 dinal inquisitor he observed aside, " Nevertheless it turns.'''* 
 
 33, The Eocecution of Charles J. and the Estahlish- 
 inent of the Commomvealth of England^ 1649. — Charles 
 I., son and successor of James I., ascended the throne of 
 England in 1625. The exalted notions of this monarch 
 respecting the royal prerogative, and the general despotic 
 character both of the king and court party, in repressing 
 the prevalent desire on the part of the people for a greater 
 degree of civil and religious liberty, soon rendered the 
 reign of Charles exceedingly unpopular. The Parliament, 
 sympathizing with the people whom they represented, re- 
 fused to grant the king the supplies of money which he 
 demanded, and the king, setting the Parliament at defiance, 
 resorted, in 1630, to the unconstitutional measure of levying 
 taxes without their consent. The controversy thus exist- 
 ing was aggravated to the last degree by the long-contin- 
 ued and persistent persecution of the Puritans and other 
 dissenters from the established church. 
 
 The Earl of Strafford, Charles's prime-minister, and Laud, 
 archbishop of Canterbury, two of the chief agents of royal 
 despotism, inflicted, by means of the High Commissiofi 
 Court* and the Star Chamber,^ the severest penalties upon 
 all that incurred their displeasure. On a certain occasion 
 a nobleman's servant quarrelled with a citizen. The serv- 
 ant, to show his importance, displayed his master's badge, 
 or coat of arms, which he wore upon his sleeve — the badge 
 was a " swan.^'' The citizen replied in great contempt : 
 " What do you think T care for that goose ?" For these 
 words he was summoned before the Star Chamber, and fined 
 an enormous sum for havino^ insulted a nobleman's crest 
 by calling the swan a goose. 
 
 * Established by Queen Elizabeth. + Established in 1486. 
 
 n 
 
194 GEN'ERAL HISTORY. [A. I>. 1402 
 
 The cruelty of Archbishop Land has rarely been ex- i 
 ceeded. Dr. Leighton, a Puritan divine, published an ap- i 
 peal to the Parliament against the prelates. For this he 
 was brought before the Star Chamber, and condemned to be 
 punished. When the sentence was pronounced the arch- ' 
 bishop took off his cap and gave thanks to heaven. The | 
 terrific sentence, when executed, as recorded by Laud him- 
 self, was this: "His ears were cut off, his nose slit, his face 
 branded with burning irons ; he was tied to a post and i 
 whipped with a treble cord, of which every lash brought || 
 away the flesh. He was kept in the pillory near two hours 
 in frost and snow." He was then imprisoned for eleven , 
 years, and when released by Parliament he could neither i 
 hear, see, nor walk. The Star Chamber and High Commis- 
 sion Court were abolished. Strafford and Laud were both i 
 impeached by Parliament, found guilty of treason, and be- 
 headed, 1641, 1643. 
 
 The Parliament that so successfully resisted the tyranny 
 of King Charles L was named the Long Parliament^ from 
 its having continued in session, with some interruption, for 
 more than eighteen years, from the time of its first meeting 
 in 1640. On the 4th of July, 1642, this body of patriots 
 assumed, from the necessitv of the circumstances in which 
 they were placed, the executive government of England. 
 On that memorable day they appointed a committee to 
 take into consideration " whatever might concern the safety 
 of the kingdom, the defence of Parliament, the preserva- - 
 tion of the peace of the kingdom, and the opposing of any * 
 force which might be raised against the Parliament." This 
 committee consisted of fifteen persons, of whom five were 
 of the House of Lords, with the Earl of Northumberland 
 at their head ; and ten of the House of Commons, headed 
 by the immortal John Hampden. " That renowned Par- 
 liament," says Macaulay, " in spite of many errors and dis» 
 asters, is justly entitled to the reverence and gratitude of 
 
to 1776.] COLONIZING. 195 
 
 all who, in any part of the world, enjoy the blessings of 
 constitutional government." 
 
 Some of the more prominent leaders of the Parliamentary 
 party at this period were : John Hampden, John Pym, 
 Thomas Harrison,* Oliver Cromwell, Lord Fairfax, the 
 Earl of Essex, the Earl of Northumberland, Sir Henry 
 Yane, and Henry Ireton. 
 
 In this contest, the Scotch having been irritated by the 
 unlawful and despotic attempts of Charles to enforce, in 
 that part of the kingdom, the establishment of Episcopacy, 
 instead of their cherished Presbyterianism, united with the 
 English, in the year 164«% in the famous Solemn League 
 and Covenant, by which both parties engaged to defend 
 each other against all opposition, and " to endeavor to ex- 
 tirf»ate popery, prelacy, superstition, heresy, schism, and 
 profaneness." It was at the same time agreed that 21,000 
 Scotch troops should co-operate with the array of the Eng- 
 lish Parliament. 
 
 During the early part of the political troubles in Eng- 
 land an attempt was made by the Catholics in Ireland to 
 massacre, in one day, all the Protestants in that island. 
 This took place on October 23d, 1611 ; and it was resolved 
 on to retaliate the act of the British Parliament in refusins: 
 to allow them the free exercise of their religion. Upon 
 this occasion many thousands of persons suffered death in 
 the most appalling manner, for the act of a body over 
 which they had no control, and for which they could not 
 be responsible. 
 
 One of the most important measures of the Long Par- 
 liament was an act "to settle the government, liturgy, and 
 doctrines of the Church of England." To this end the 
 Parliament authorized the assembling of a body of ap- 
 proved divines, and other learned and pious men ; and 
 
 * An ancestor of the Harrison family of Virginia, of which Benjamin wae a 
 f itjner of the Declaration of Independence. 
 
196 GENERAL HISTORY. [A. I>. 149!^ 
 
 appointed to this " extraordinary synod"' the most eminent 
 div^inea among Episcopalians, Presbyterians, and Indepen- 
 dents, as these were the most important denominations at 
 that time in England. They also invited to this synod 
 commissioners from the General Assembly of the Kirk of 
 Scotland. The divines and others, thus called together, 
 with the exception of nearly all the Episcopalians and a few 
 others, met on the first of July, 1643, in Henry YII.'s 
 Chapel at Westminster, and continued their sessions for 
 about five years. During that time the Westminster As- 
 sembly^ as this synod is named, prepared a Confession of 
 Faith, Larger and Shorter Catechisms, a Form of Church 
 Government, and a Directory for Worship. These formu- 
 laries being approved by Parliament, were adopted as the 
 standards of the Church of England. They were adopted 
 also by the General Assembly of the Kirk of Scotland, and 
 with some modification, they have been adopted by nearly 
 all other Presbyterian churches. The Church of England, 
 however, as actually established at this time by the Parlia- 
 ment, and as it existed during the Commonwealth, was not 
 Presbyterian^ but rather "an irregular body made up of a 
 lew Presbyteries, and many independent congregations, 
 which were all held down and held together by the author- 
 ity of the government." — Macaiday. At the same time 
 all sects, excepting Episcopalians and Roman Catholics, 
 were more or less freely tolerated. 
 
 After the battle of Naseby^ 1645, the victorious army of 
 the Parliament, under the efficient disciplineof its energetic 
 leader, Oliver Cromwell, gradually became more influential 
 in the nation than the Parliament itself. And as this army, 
 in opposition to a majority of the Parliament, demanded 
 the punishment of the king for his alleged political crimes, 
 they forcibly excluded from the Parliament House all ex- 
 cept about sixty members. These agreeing with the army 
 both in religion and politics, appointed a High Court of 
 
to 1T76.] colo:n^izikg. 197 
 
 Justice^ by which the king was tried on the charge ot 
 " making war on his Parliament;" and being found guilty, 
 he was condemned and executed. The president of this 
 court was the celebrated John Bradshaw, 1349. 
 
 The men composing Cromwell's army were remarkable, 
 not less for an austere morality and the fear of God, than 
 for an invincible prowess on the field of battle; and while 
 their political sentiments tended to the extreme of democ- 
 racy, their military subordination and discipline were with- 
 out a parallel. Such a body of men, influenced by an ex- 
 alted religious zeal, and led by the commanding genius of 
 Cromwell, could not fail to be irresistible both at home and 
 abroad. 
 
 As the supreme power had passed from the Parliament 
 to the army, so that power, after the death of Charles, nat- 
 urally passed into the hands of the cherished head of the 
 army, Oliver Cromwell, who, with the eminent abilities of 
 a profound statesman, directed during his life the affairs 
 of the realm, as Lord Protector of the Commonwealth. 
 
 34:, Oliver Cro^nwell was born in Huntingdon, England, 
 on the 2oth of April, 1599, of highly respectable parentage. 
 After spending some lime at Cambridge University, he 
 commenced the study of law, which he soon after aban- 
 doned as unsuitable to his taste. His early life was marked 
 by great enthusiasm and even turbulence of character. He 
 informs us that, on a certain occasion, as he was lying on 
 his bed in the day-time, in a thoughtful and melancholy 
 mood, a spectre appeared to him and informed him " he 
 should become the srreatest man in the kinardom." 
 
 Although raised and educated an Episcopalian, he joined 
 the Independents, shortly after his marriage, and at once 
 became a prominent leader in that popular denomination. 
 Having neglected his affairs and lost his property in his 
 devotion to the political and religious controversies of the 
 day, he resolved to seek his fortune in America. And hti 
 
198 GENERAL HISTORY. [A. D. 1492 
 
 had actually embarked with John Hampden, Haselrig, and 
 other leading republicans, who were seeking in the New 
 World an asylum from tyranny at home. But this pur- 
 pose, by a remarkable providence, was defeated by the 
 arbitrary Charles, who had issued a proclamation forbid- 
 ding the emigration of Puritans, thus detaining at home 
 the very men that proved his ruin. In the contest that en- 
 sued, Cromwell became a popular leader in the House of 
 Commons, and the idol of the troops he so successfully 
 commanded. 
 
 The strong points of Cromwell's character vrere an en- 
 terprising and ambitious spirit, uncommon personal cour- 
 age, a presence of mind and prudence which never forsook 
 him, an unquestioning faith in his vocation, and a pro- 
 found sagacity in using the men and circumstances which, 
 he believed. Providence had placed at his disposal. 
 
 During the protectorate of Cromwell, justice was admin- 
 istered between man and man with an exactness and purity 
 not before known in England. Property was secure. And 
 under no English government, since the Reformation, had 
 there been so little religious persecution. The protector's 
 foreign policy was such as to extort the ungracious appro- 
 bation of those who most detested him. And England, 
 from having but little influence in European politics, be- 
 came at once, under the master hand of Cromwell, the 
 most formidable power in the world. 
 
 In the administration of the government the protector 
 was materially aided by his son-in-law, Henry Ireton, and 
 by the illustrious John Milton, who, as Latin secretary of 
 state, largely contributed, by his exalted abilities, to render 
 Cromwell's government, to all its foes, an object of mingled 
 aversion, dread, and admiration. 
 
 England, during the time of Cromwell, was engaged in a 
 war with Holland for naval superiority, in which De Ruy- 
 tcr and Van Tromp were defeated by the gallant x\dmiral 
 
 9* 
 
tol776.J COLOIS^IZII^G. 199 
 
 Blake, 1653 ; and a war with Spain, in which the triumph- 
 ant Blake captured an immense treasure and destroyed a 
 Spanish fleet, 1655 ; and in which Admirals Venable and 
 Penn* captured the island of Jamaica. It was during the 
 Commonwealth of England that the celebrated George Fox 
 founded the religious society of the Friends or Quakers, of 
 which system, after the restoration of the Stuarts, Robert 
 Barclay and William Penrt became able and distinguished 
 advocates. 
 
 At the death of Oliver Cromwell, 1658, his son Richard 
 succeeded to the protectorate, but he in a short time abdi- 
 cating the oflice, a new Parliament assembled in 1660, and 
 restored the monarchy. This Parliament proclaimed as 
 king, Charles II., who had been in exile during the Com- 
 monwealth. 
 
 This event, known in English history as the Restoration^ 
 was effected mainly by the influence of General George 
 Monk, the commander of the army of the protector, which 
 had been for some time stationed in Scotland. But he ap- 
 pears to have acted in accordance with the clearly expressed 
 wishes of the great body of the people both in England 
 and Scotland. 
 
 35, Charles 11,^ son of Charles I., although in his man- 
 ners a polished gentleman, yet as a prince and a man, he 
 inherited all the faults of his ancestors, especially their 
 total want of truthfulness. His court was the theatre of 
 extravagance, profaneness, and debauchery, in all of which, 
 Charles himself was the most distinguished example. 
 
 Policy of Charles toward the Regicides.— The Parlia- 
 ment passed a bill of indemnity, from which only a small 
 number of the leading men were excepted ; and Charles 
 issued a proclamation ordering the late king's judges to 
 surrender within nineteen days, otherwise they should re- 
 ceive no pardon. Notwithstanding this, Scrope, one of the 
 
 * The father of William Penn, 
 
200 GENERAL HISTORY. [A. D. 1492 
 
 judges, who gave himself up on the faith of the king's 
 proclamation, was put to death. Even the military officers 
 that attended the execution of Charles I. were executed ; 
 the bodies of Cromwell, Ireton, and others that had died 
 before the Restoration, were dug up, and in indecent re- 
 venge hung upon a gallows. Three of the regicides, Ed- 
 ward Whalley, William Goffe, and John Dixwell, escaped 
 in safety to New England ; while John Bradshaw, the pres- 
 ident of the court, died in the island of Jamaica, where his 
 remains lie buried on the summit of a hill near Martha 
 Brea. 
 
 His grave is marked by a cannon bearing the following 
 epitaph ; 
 
 " Stranger, 
 
 Ere thou pass, contemplate this cannon ! 
 
 Nor regardless be told, that near its base, lies deposited the dust of 
 
 JOHN BRADSHAW, ' 
 
 Who nobly superior to selfish regards. 
 
 Despising alike the pageantry of courtly grandeur, the blast of calumny, 
 
 And the teiTors of Royal vengeance ; 
 
 Presided in the illustrious band of heroes and patriots, 
 
 Who fairly and openly adjudged 
 
 Charles Stuart, Tyrant of England, 
 
 To a public and exemplary death : 
 
 Thereby presenting to the amazed world. 
 
 And transmitting down through applauding ages. 
 
 The most glorious example of 
 
 Unshaken virtue, love of Freedom, 
 
 And impartial justice. 
 
 Ever exhibited on the blood-stained theatre of human actions. 
 
 Oh Reader ! 
 
 Pass not on, till thou hast blest his memory ; 
 
 And never, never forget, 
 
 That rebellion to Tyrants is obedience to 
 
 God!" . 
 
 Charles's Policy icith respect to the Estahlishynent of 
 Religion. — Although Charles had given repeated and 
 solemn promises to grant religious toleration ; and had 
 
to 1TT6.] COLOKIZi:tTGc 201 
 
 sworn, when in Scotland, to support the Presbyterian 
 Church of that realm, according to the terms of the Sol- 
 emn League and Covenant ; yet early after his restoration 
 Episcopacy was re-established in England, in the most rigid 
 form, while all that did not conform to it were visited with 
 the severest penalties. By the Act of Unifoiinity^ 2000 
 non-conformist ministers were ejected from their livings, 
 banished from their homes, and they and their dependent 
 families reduced to the utmost distress. 
 
 In Scotland, in violation of the king's oath, the attempt 
 to enforce Episcopacy, w^hich had proved so disastrous 
 to Charles I., was renewed. A Court of Ecclesiastical 
 Commission traversed the kingdom, from place to place, 
 whose sentences were pronounced, like those of the Spanish 
 Inquisition, without lawful accusation, evidence, or oppor- 
 tunity of defence. The brutal soldiery were let loose upon 
 the people. All who attended, or were suspected of attend- 
 ing, Presbyterian worship, were lined, imprisoned, trans- 
 ported, or mercilessly hunted and shot down like beasts of 
 prey. 
 
 When Rufferinofs too o-reat for human endurance had at 
 length driven the Scottish Presbyterians to insurrection, 
 their defeat at Pentland aiforded the pretext for judicial 
 bloodshed. McKail, a young Presbyterian minister, whom 
 the prelates had tortured with the '•^Iron Boot^''"' to extort 
 a confession of his associates, endured the agony till his leg 
 was crushed and broken ; and then expired in triumph upon 
 the scaffold, exclaiming, with a sublime enthusiasm, " Fare- 
 w^ell, thou sun, and moon, and stars ! farewell, world and 
 time ! farewell, weak and frail body ! welcome, eternity ! wel- 
 come, angels and saints ! welcome, Saviour of the world ! and 
 welcome, God, the judge of all !" But besides all this stern 
 and dishonorable enforcement of Episcopacy in Scotland, 
 Charles, in 1670, entered into a secret alliance with Louis 
 XIV., king of France, for the destruction of the Protestant. 
 
 9* 
 
202 GENERAL HISTORY. [A. ». 1492 
 
 Dutch Republic, and for the re-establishmeut of the Romish 
 religion and despotic power in England, upon the condition 
 of receiving from France £200,000 per annum. 
 
 SO. Tlie Conspiracy of Titus Dates and others against 
 the Roman Catholics of England. Titus Oates, an unprin- 
 cipled and infamous informer, with two abandoned accom- 
 plices, Kirby and Tonge, pretended to have discovered, in 
 1678, an alleged Popish plot for the assassination of the 
 royal family, the burning of London, and the massacre of 
 the Protestants of England. The agitation of the public 
 mind by the evident designs of the faithless Charles, the 
 popular abhorrence of the king's brother, James, Duke of 
 York, as a bigoted Romanist, and a general consternation 
 for the safety of the Protestant religion, had prepared the 
 nation to receive such a rumor at this time. And the state- 
 ments of these base and artful informers were corroborated 
 by the discovery of a criminal correspondence between the 
 Duke of York and Louis XIV. of France, respecting the 
 religion and liberties of England ; and by the well remem- 
 bered actual plots of Romanists in former reigns. 
 
 So intense was the national panic for two years, that 
 judges and juries, blind to the chicanery of incredible wit- 
 nesses, seemed really the patrons and abettors of perjury 
 in their judicial murder of innocent men^ 
 
 57. The Habeas Corpus Act, — an act passed by 
 the British Parliament in 1679, to prevent unlawful and 
 arbitrary imprisonments. By this law, when a person is 
 imprisoned on mere suspicion of any offence, or by the 
 malice of a despotic ruler, the judge, on being petitioned, 
 issues a " Writ of Mciheas Cor2yys.^'' This requires the 
 person unlawfully imprisoned to V>e brought into court, that 
 the charges against him may be fairly examined. If these 
 charges appear to be well founded, the prisoner is detained 
 for trial ; but if they are not properly sustained, the pris- 
 oner is at once set at liberty. This writ, so important to 
 
10 1T76.] COLOXIZIi^^G. 203 
 
 personal liberty, cannot be lawfully suspended, except in 
 time of civil war, or in other extreme cases of great pub- 
 lic danger. 
 
 38, The Hi/e-House JPlot, 1683. — This was an alleged 
 conspiracy for the assassination of King Charles II. of 
 England, and is so named from a farm called Ht/e-JTouse, 
 the place where the so-called conspirators usually met. Upon 
 testimony of base government spies and detectives, there 
 wereimplicated in this affair, Monmouth, Shaftsbury, Russell, 
 Essex, Algernon Sidney, and Hampden, the grandson of 
 the patriot who figured in the reign of Charles I. Upon 
 perjured testimony, two of their number, the illustrious 
 Sidney and Russell, w^ere executed ; Hampden suffered only 
 by a heavy fine; and Essex, one of the greatest men of the 
 age, fell by a voluntary death. While nothing treasonable 
 was proved against this band of patriots, it is conceded 
 they were secretly associated to devise means for deliver- 
 ing their oppressed country from the base servitude in- 
 flicted by the false, despotic, and remorseless Stuart?. 
 
 39, TJie Revocation of the Edict of Nantes^ 1685. — 
 Henry IV., king of France, had in the year 1598, issued 
 the Edict of Nantes^ which granted i-eligious toleration to 
 his Protestant subjects. Under this protection they had 
 lived for nearly a century in the free enjoyment of their 
 religion, greatly promoting, by their industry and enter- 
 prise, the best interests of France. But Louis XIV., in 
 1685, in wanton despotism, revoked the Edict of Nantes, 
 reviving against his Protestant subjects the murderous 
 spirit of Charles IX. (See p. 181, sec. 20.) By this most 
 injudicious policy, France lost more than half a million of 
 her best citizens. Of these, more than 20,000 took refuge 
 in Prussia, many escaped to England, and many more 
 found an asylum in America; benefiting the countries to 
 which they fled, not less by the purity of their lives, than 
 by their mechanical skill and commercial enterprise. Those 
 
204 GENERAL HISTORY. [A. «. 1492 
 
 who were unable to leave France, and who refused to re- 
 nounce their religion, were reduced to abject poverty, and 
 subjected to the most inhuman persecutions. 
 
 40. James JI,, who in 1685 succeeded his brother, 
 Charles IT., as king of England, distinguished his reign 
 chiefly by his inhuman persecution of the Scottish Covenan- 
 ters ; by the merciless measures adopted to suppress the 
 rebellion, headed by his nephew, the Duke of Monmouth ; 
 and by his persevering endeavoi*s to restore the Roman 
 Catholic religion in England. 
 
 James's chief agent in the Scottish persecutions was the 
 inhuman Claverhouse, whose enormities in profanity and 
 bloodshed have never been exceeded. John Brown, a poor 
 carrier, who was, for his eminent piety, commonly called 
 " the Christian carrier," was arrested by Claverhouse and 
 condemned to death for no other crime except that he ab- 
 sented himself from the Episcopal worship. The prisoner, 
 in the near pros]3ect of eternity, prayed long and fervently, 
 as one inspired, till Claverhouse, in a fury, shot him dead ; 
 for his dragoons, although men hardened in crime, were too 
 much affected to execute the inhuman sentence. And 
 when Brown's widow, who had witnessed the bloody trans- 
 action, cried out in her agony, " Well, sir, well; the day 
 of reckoning will come :" the assassin replied, "To man 
 I can answer for what I have done; and as for God, I will 
 take him into my own hand." 
 
 Upon another occasion, a base apostate from the Cov- 
 enanters named Westerhall, to signalize his loyalty to the 
 tyrant of England, having pulled down the house of a poor 
 woman for having given shelter to a dying Covenanter, 
 seized one of her young sons and dragged him before 
 Claverhouse. The order for his death being given, the 
 guns were loaded, and the youth told to pull his bonnet 
 over his face. This he refused, and stood bravely confront- 
 ing his murderers with the Bible in his hand. ^' I can look 
 
to 1776.] coLOi;riziifG. 205 
 
 you in the face," he said ; " I have done nothing of which 
 I need be ashamed. But how will you look in that day 
 when you shall be judged by what is written in this book ?" 
 He fell dead at the feet of those who despised both the 
 book and its glorious author, the Righteous Judge of all 
 the earth. 
 
 The base minister of James II., in the suppression of the 
 rebellion led by the Duke of Monmouth, was the infamous 
 Judge Jeffries, whose fierce and vindictive proceedings 
 have been properly named " The Bloody Assizes.^^ 
 
 41, The devolution, 1688. — The event in English 
 history so named was the transfer of the sovereignty of 
 Great Britain from James II., the brother of Charles IL, to 
 William III., prince of Orange, and his wife Mary, eldest 
 daughter of James II. 
 
 The causes which produced this revolution were — the 
 general bad government of King James, but more especially 
 his unlawful attempt to subvert the established Protestant 
 religion of England, and to introduce the Roman Catholic 
 religion in its stead. To arrest the mal-administration of 
 James, William, prince of Orange, James's son-in-law, was 
 invited to England. On his arrival, with a large army. King 
 James fled to France, and a convention-Parliament, haVing 
 voted the throne vacant, proclaimed William III. and 
 Mary joint sovereigns, 1689. From this period the gov- 
 ernment of England became more settled and constitu- 
 tional. 
 
 42. Willia^n III,, Prince of Orange, great-grand- 
 son of W^illiam the Silent, was, at this time, stadtholder or 
 chief magistrate of Holland, having been invested with 
 that office on the 4th of July, 1672, on the invasion of Hol- 
 land by the French and English. Upon that occasion, as 
 there appeared at first but little prospect of successfully 
 repelling the immense army of France and England, Cor- 
 nelius and John De W^itt, two eminent men of Amster- 
 
 5* 
 
206 GENERAL HISTORY. fA. D. 1492 
 
 dam, proposed surrendering. This suggestion was rejected 
 by the indignant people, who, preferring their national in- 
 dependence to every other consideration, slew the brothers 
 De Witt on the spot, and proclaimed the young prince of 
 Orange stadtholder. And he, at the head of a few deter- 
 mined troops, opened the sluices of their sea-dykes, caus- 
 ing an overflow of the whole country, which promptly and 
 effectually expelled the invaders. 
 
 The chief events of William and Mary's reign were:— 
 
 1. The celebrated siege of Londonderry by James II. 
 ■with 20,000 troops, successfully sustained by 7,360 citizens, 
 headed by the Rev. George Walker and Major Baker, 1689. 
 
 2. King William's War with France, 1689-1697, which 
 extended to the American colonies. During this contest, 
 which terminated with the Peace of Ryswich, the French 
 and Indians burned Schenectady, New York, and massa- 
 cred its inhabitants, 189D. 
 
 3. The Battle of the Boyne, July 1, 1690, in which the fu- 
 gitive James II., who, aided by France, had invaded Ireland, 
 was triumphantly defeated by King William III., leaving 
 2,000 killed and wounded on the field. 
 
 4. T lie Massacre of Glencoe, January 31, 1692, in which 
 perished nearly the whole clan of the MacDonalcJs, men, 
 women, and children, in pursuance of authority from King 
 William, obtained, however, by the false representations of 
 Lord Stair, Earls Braedalbane, Dalrymple, and other vindic- 
 tive Scottish officials. The MacDonalds of Glencoe were 
 among the last of the Highlanders who abandoned the 
 cause of the exiled King James ; but their submission to 
 William came so late that their resentful countrymen de- 
 frauded them of the pardon it should have secured. 
 
 4:3, Peter the Great, Czar of Russia, 1689. — 
 This remarkable man became a great benefactor to his 
 country. Leaving his throne and his empire, he went 
 incognito to Holland aiid England, where he learned ship- 
 
to 17T6.] COLONIZING. 207 
 
 Imilding and other useful arts. On his return to Russia 
 he taught his subjects what he had learned abroad, thus 
 greatly promoting the commerce and general influence of 
 his people. He built St. Petersburg, promoted learning, 
 and laid the foundation of the future greatness of the Rus- 
 sian empire. 
 
 44, Charles XII,, King of Sweden, 1697, was remark- 
 able for his passion for war and conquest. Russia, Denmark, 
 and Poland having united against him, he defeated 
 Frederick IV. of Denmark ; overcame the King of Poland, 
 Frederick Augustus, in the battle of Riga ; and in the 
 battle of Narva he defeated the Russians. But in the 
 battle oi Pultowa^ 1T09, he was so completely overcome by 
 Peter the Great, that he was obliged to seek refuge for a 
 time in Turkey. After collecting another army he laid 
 siege to FredericJcshall^ Norway, where he met with his 
 death : his head being shot off by a cannon-ball. No 
 conqueror ever had a more enthusiastic passion for military 
 glory than Charles XII. His preceptor, on a certain 
 occasion, asked him, when a pupil, what he thought of 
 Alexander the Great. "I think," said Charles, " that I 
 should desire to be like him." " But," said the tutor, 
 " Alexander lived only thirty-two years." " Well," replied 
 the prince, " that is long enough, when a man has conquered 
 the world." 
 
 45, Eminent Literary Men of the 17th Century - 
 
 1. In France, Cardinal Richelieu, prime-minister of Louis 
 XIII.; Cardinal Mazarin, prime-minister of Louis XIV. ; 
 the theologians Jansenius and Pascal ; the poets Corneille 
 and Boileau, and Fenelon, the author of *' Telemachusy 
 
 2. In Prussia, Fahrenheit, the great improver of the ther- 
 mometer. 3. In England, John Milton, who wrote ''''Para,- 
 diseljost f"^ Dryden, the author of the '''•Ode on jSt. Cecilia^ s 
 Day /" Daniel de Foe, the author of ^^Pobinson Crusoe ;" 
 Joseph Addison, the chief writer of the " Spectator ;" 
 
208 GENERAL HISTORY. [A. O. 1492 
 
 Sir Matthew Hale, Lord Chief Justice of England ; and 
 John Bunyan, the author of " The Pilgrim's Progress j^^ 
 John Locke, the philosopher, who wrote the ^''Essay on the 
 Hainan Understanding f"^ and Sir Isaac Newton, who dis- 
 covered the laws of gravitation and of light. 
 
 46. Tlie War of the Spanish Succession — 1702-1714 
 — during the reign of Queen Anne of England, was under- 
 taken to prevent Philip V., a grandson of Louis XIV., king 
 of France, from ascending the throne of Spain, and thus 
 to hinder a union between France and Spain that might 
 prove dangerous to the interests of the other European 
 powers. In this contest Great Britain and nearly all Eurojje 
 were united against France and Spain. The British forces 
 were led by the Duke of Marlborough, and the allies by 
 Prince Eugene. These successful leaders defeated the 
 French in the battles o{ Blenheim^ 1704; Mamillies, 17C6; 
 Oudenarde, 1708; and Maljylaquet^ 1709. In 1704 the Brit- 
 ish, under Admiral Rooke, took from Spain the fortress of 
 Gibraltar, which they retain to the present time. This 
 war closed with the Peace of Utrecht^ 1713, which se- 
 cured to Philip the crown of Spain. 
 
 4:7 • The Hanoverian Succession to the throne of Great 
 Britain, 1714. 
 
 At the death of Queen Anne, the House of Planover or 
 Brunswick acceded to the British throne in the person of 
 George I., who was the son of the elector of Hanover and 
 Sophia, daughter of Frederick V., elector Palatine, and 
 Elizabeth, daughter of James I., of England. George, 
 therefore, was a great-grandson of James I., and his 
 mother, Sophia, was grand-daughter of James I., and 
 great-grand-daughter of William the Silent, prince of 
 Orange. 
 
 48, George II,, the son and successor of George L, 
 ascended the throne of Great Britain in 1727. This reii^n 
 is chiefly distinguished by — 1, The rise of the Methodists 
 
to 1776.] COLOKIZIIs^G. 209 
 
 in England, under the eloquent preaching of John and 
 Charles Wesley, George Whitefield, and other eminent men 
 of God, 1729; 2, The war of the Austrian Succession; 
 and, 3, Renewed attempts of the exiled Stuarts to regain 
 the British crown. 
 
 49, Frederick II,, the Great, ascended the throne of 
 Prussia in 1T40. Intellectual, ambitious, and unscrupulous, 
 he proved himself the greatest warrior of his time. Inher- 
 iting a small principality, but with a well-disciplined army 
 of sixty-six thousand, he enlarged his dominions by the 
 conquest of Silesia, 1742, and a part of Poland, 1772. 
 Frederick's ambition, however, was not confined to martial 
 exploits. He aimed at the reputation of a poet and phi- 
 losoj^her, and was a voluminous writer. But it is to be 
 regretted that talents so extraordinarj' were not exercised 
 in a more worthy manner. His martial prowess was con- 
 fined to self-aggrandizement, and his literary labors were 
 devoted to the cause of irreligion, while his court was the 
 rendezvous of atheists and libertines. 
 
 50, The War of the Austrian Succession, 1740-1748, 
 in which nearly all Europe was involved, was caused by 
 the Pragmatic Sanction^ a decree issued by the emperor 
 Charles VI. of Germany, who, having no son, desired to 
 secure his hereditary dominions to his daughter, Maria 
 Theresa, queen of Hungary. The most energetic of Maria's 
 opponents was Frederick the Great of Prussia ; but, aided 
 by England and Holland, she secured the election of her 
 husband, Francis I., to the imperial throne, 1745; and at 
 the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle flliS, she obtained possession 
 of her father's dominions. 
 
 51, The Exiled Stuarts f in the year 1745, renewed the 
 unsuccessful attempt to regain the throne of Great Britain. 
 Charles, son of the old Pretender, James, aided by Louis 
 XV., in that year invaded England, and after gaining 
 victories over the royal forces in the battles of Preston 
 
210 GEi^ERAL HISTORY. [A. D. 1776 
 
 Pans and Falkirk^ he was totally overthrown in the decisive 
 battle of Cidloden^ 1746. This war soon extended to the 
 American colonies, where the most important event was 
 the capture of the island of Cape Breton from the French, 
 1745. But at the Peace ofAix-la- Chapelle, 1748, the island 
 was restored to France. 
 
 I>2, Some of the Eminent Men of the ISth Century 
 were Linnajus, in Siceden ; Mosheim, Kant, Heyne, and 
 Klopstock, in Germany / Montesquieu and Voltaire in 
 France; Dr. Johnson, Hume, Gibbon, Pope, Thomson, 
 Watts, Covvper, Burns, Burke, and Lord Chatham in Great 
 l^ritain. 
 
 Period VII. — American Progress. 
 
 Dec. of Independence, ) ( 
 
 A. D. 177:5. V 94 years. ] Present Time— 1870. 
 
 Washington — PhiladelpJda. ) ( 
 
 The period of American Progress^ as a division of Gen- 
 eral History, is distinguished chiefly by — 1. The war be- 
 tween Great Britain and her American colonies, which 
 resulted in the independence of the United States of Amer- 
 ica. 2. The overthrow of the Bourbons in France, and the 
 wars of Napoleon L 3. The rapid development of Ameri- 
 can wealth, civilization, and power. 
 
 Part I. — General History of the Period. 
 
 The Chief Events in the general history of this period 
 are the following : — 
 
 1, The French Bevolution, 1789, which led to the 
 overthrow of the regal government, the execution of 
 King Louis XVI. and his queen, Marie Antoinette; the 
 abolition of the Christian religion ; and the introduction 
 
to 18 70.] AMEKICAIf PROGRESS. 211 
 
 of "The Reign of Terror," 1793-4, under Robespierre and 
 other despotic public leaders. During this period multi- 
 tudes were sacrificed by the sanguinary aspirants to power; 
 and the very streets of Paris ran with the blood that flowed 
 from the guillotine.* 
 
 The Causes of this Popular Outbreak. — The people of 
 France, exhausted by royal oppression, irritated by the 
 licentiousness of the nobility and clergy, and encouraged 
 by the success of the American Revolution, arose in fury 
 against their tyrants, and swej^t away all government and 
 all religion. 
 
 The French devolution distinguished from that of the 
 American Colonies. — The patriots of America, putting 
 their trust in God, and depending upon the favor of his 
 providence, contended for the great principles of human 
 justice and regulated liberty ; whereas the infuriated pop- 
 ulace of France, with no aim but A^engeance, and led for the 
 most part by unprincipled, infidel, and incompetent men, 
 madly confounded royal despotism with the fear of God, 
 and profligate superstition with the pure and holy Gospel 
 of the blessed Jesus. And in their hatred of earthly 
 kings and priests they enacted blasphemy against the God 
 of Heaven. 
 
 The Anarchy of the so-called Repuhlic of France suc- 
 ceeded by the Imperial Government of Napoleon Pona- 
 parte, v^ho caused himself to be proclaimed Empyer or .^ 3Ia,y 1, 
 1801. — Napoleon I., a native of Corsica, was the greatest 
 soldier of his day. Having received a military education, 
 he entered the French army at an early age, and very soon 
 
 *The name of the machine ueed for decapitation, so called from Dr. Guillotine, 
 who, however, was not, as generally eupporied, its inventor, but who was merely 
 the framer of a humane law passed by the Constitueut Assembly in 1790, to the 
 effect that the mode of capital punishment should be uniform in all cases, and 
 that decapitation by a simple michine should be the mode for all, whether noble 
 or plebeian. The guillotine was invented at the suggestion of Dr. Louis, who 
 was at that time secretary of the Academy of Surgery. 
 
312 GEiq^EEAL HISTORY. [A. », 17-36 
 
 distinguished himself as an officer. The distracted condi- 
 tion of France presented him the opportunity of gratifying 
 his ambition, and his talents as a soldier and statesman 
 were such as to secure a rapid advancement to supreme 
 power. 
 
 After occupying the imperial throne of France for ten 
 years, and successfully contending against the allied armies 
 of Europe in many splendid battles, Napoleon was defeated 
 by the allies, under Wellington and Blucher, in the battle 
 of Waterloo, June 18, 1815 ; and having surrendered to the 
 English, he was banished to the island of St. Helena. 
 
 2, Political changes in France since 1789 — 
 
 1. King Louis XVI. accepts the Limited Monarchy, 
 which had been established by the National Assembly, 
 Aug. 1, 1789. 
 
 2. France declared a Repuhlie, Sept. 23, 1792. Louis 
 XVL and his queen, Marie Antoinette, beheaded. " Reign 
 of Terror." 
 
 3. The Directory of Five : Reubel, Barras, La Reveil- 
 liere-Lepaux, Merlin, and Treilliard, Oct. 28, 1795. 
 
 4. The Consulate: Napoleon for ten years, Cambaceres 
 and Le Brun, each for five years, Nov. 9, 1799. 
 
 5. The Consulate for life : Napoleon, Aug. 2, 1802. 
 
 6. The Empire : Napoleon, May 1, 1804 ; crowned, 
 Dec. 2. Napoleon defeated in the battle of Leipsic^ Oct. 
 19, 1813, is dethroned by the Allied Powers and permitted 
 to retire to the island of Elba, March 31, 1814. 
 
 v. Bourbons and Monarchy restored : Louis XYIIL, 
 April 6, 1814. 
 
 8. Imperial Reign of the " One Hundred Days:'''* Na- 
 poleon, March 20, 1815. Finally defeated in the battle of 
 Waterloo, June 15-18, 1815, Napoleon is banished to St. 
 Helena, where he lands Oct, 13, 1815, and dies in 1821. In 
 the year 1840, his remains were brought to France by the 
 Prince de Joinville. 
 
to 1870.] AMERICAiq^ PROGEESS. 213 
 
 9. JBourhons restored : Louis XVIII., July 6, 1815. 
 Louis dying, Sept. 1824, is succeeded by his brother, 
 Charles X. 
 
 10. Revolution of 1830 : " Glorious Three Days of 
 Julyy Louis Philippe, " citizen king," Aug. 9, 1830. 
 
 IL Second Republic: Lamartine President, Feb. 26, 
 1848. 
 
 12. Dictatorship of Louis Napoleon, Dec. 2, 1851. 
 
 13. Empire restored: Napoleon IIL, Dec. 9, 1852. 
 
 14. Napoleon having declared war against Prussia, July 
 15, 1870, is defeated at the battle of Sedan^ and surrenders 
 to King William I., of Prussia, Sept. 2. France the third 
 time attempts a Republic. 
 
 3, The Bevolutioii of Greece, 1821. Fiom the capture 
 of Constantinople by the Turks, 1453, Greece formed a part 
 of the Turkish empire. But the government of that power, 
 as administered by the Beys and other officers of the Sultan, 
 becoming intolerable, the Greeks, under Ypsilanti, Marco 
 Bozaris, and other popular leaders, threw oft* the Turkish 
 yoke and declared their independence, 1821. To suppress 
 this revolution the Greeks, not only in Greece but also in 
 all parts of Turkey, were treated in the most inhuman man- 
 ner. In Constantinople multitudes were slain or imprisoned ; 
 and at Scio, 40,000 were massacred and 30,000 sold as 
 slaves. At length, after a desperate contest, during which 
 all Greece was desolated, the decisive battle of JVcivarino, 
 October, 1827, in which the Turko-Egyptian fleet, under 
 Ibrahim Pasha, was destroyed by the combined fleets of 
 England, France, and Russia, effectually secured the inde- 
 pendence of Greece. At first their government was a 
 Republic; but in 1832 it became a Monarchy^ under 
 Otho Z, a Bavarian prince, who in 1863 was succeeded 
 by George Z, King of the Hellenes, a son of the King of 
 Denmark. 
 
 4:, JRevolutimi of Meooico and of the Spanish Colqiiies 
 
314 aEXERAL HISTORY. [A. ». i7t6 
 
 of South America. From the period of their settlement or 
 conquest by the Spaniard;*, these countries remained subject 
 to the mother county until she was no longer able to retain 
 them in subjection. Mexico became independent in 1822, 
 with Iturbide as emperor. After various political changes 
 under a series of presidents, or dictators, Maximilian, 
 Arch-Duke of Austria, was in 1864 placed on the throne by 
 the aid of the Emperor Louis Napoleon ,who, withdrawing 
 his forces, left his protege to the mercy of the Mexican re- 
 publican authorities, by whom the unfortunate prince was 
 shot. Peru became independent in 1822, with San Martin 
 as protector. Chili, under the auspices of the patriots San 
 Martin and O'Higgins, became independent in 1823, and 
 the remaining Spanish colonies about the same period. 
 Brazil, the only remaining monarchy on the western con- 
 tinent, became independent of Portugal, Oct. 12, 1822. 
 The present emperor is Don Pedro XL, who ascended the 
 throne April 7, 1831, on the abdication of his father, Don 
 Pedro I. 
 
 5. The Crimean War, between Russia and Turkey, 
 1853-1856. — The origin of this contest was partly a dispute 
 between Russia and Turkey respecting the holy places in 
 Palestine. (See tTerusaleni 2^x\dL Holy Sepulchre.) The 
 Turks were aided by England, France, and Sardinia, whose 
 united forces captured Sebastojyol, September 10th, 1855. 
 In 1856 the belligerents entered into a treaty of peace, ac- 
 cording to which Christians in Turkey are entitled to equal 
 rights with the Turks. 
 
 6. The Sepoy JRebellion in India, 1857. — For which 
 see page 18 V. 
 
 7. Tlie Carlist War in Spain,. — Ferdinand YII., King 
 of Spain, having abolished the Salique law (seep. 160), his 
 daughter Isabella ascended the throne at his death in 1833. 
 Iler uncle, Don Carlos, the brother of Ferdinand VII., con- 
 tested her right to the succession, and raised a civil war, 
 
to 1870.] DISCOVERT. 215 
 
 vvliich continued several years with great violence, and 
 which terminated in the suppression of the Carlists in 
 1840; and Queen Isabella, proving herself unworthy of a 
 crown, was banished September, 1868. Since that period 
 a provif^ional government has administered the affairs of 
 Spain, and their recent offer of the throne to a Prussian 
 prince furnished a pretext to Louis Napoleon to declare 
 war against Prussia, July, 1870. 
 
 8, The Sovereigns of Great Britain during tJiis 
 Period: — George III., 1760, during whose reign occurred 
 the American War of Independence. Grorge IV., 1820, 
 under whom, as Prince Hegent^ occurred the second 
 war between England and the United States, 1812-1814. 
 William IV., brother of Geoi-ge IV., 1830. Victoria 
 (daughter of the Duke of Kent and niece of George IV. 
 and William IV.), who ascended the throne in 1837, and 
 married Prince Albert in 1840. 
 
 Part II. — The History of the United States, 
 
 The History of the United States may be conveniently 
 divided into JViree Periods^ viz., I. Discovery ; II. Colo- 
 nial; III. Federal. 
 
 Period I. — Discovery. 
 
 1493.... A. D....1607. 
 CoLUJiBus John Smith. 
 
 861. Iceland, an American island, discovered by the Nor- 
 wegians. 
 
 982. Greenland settled by Eric Rufus, a Norwegian. Be- 
 fore the eleventh century churches were established and 
 considerable progress made in civilization. 
 
216 HISTORY OF THE UKITED STATES. [A. D. 1492 
 
 1C02. Viuelaiid, which is probably Labrador or Newfound- 
 land, discovered by Biorn, an Icelander. A Norwe- 
 gian colonv was soon after established here; but of their 
 fate we have no record. 
 
 1492. Guanahani, or St. Salvador, Cuba, and Hispaniola, 
 discovered by Columbus on his first voyage. 
 
 1493. Columbus, sailing in September on his second voyage, 
 discovered the islands of Dominica, Jamaica, Porto 
 Rico, and several others. And having founded the 
 city of San Domingo^ in Hispaniola, he returned to 
 Spain in 1496. [San Domingo, therefore, is the oldest 
 European settlement in the New World. It was at 
 this place the conquerors of Mexico, Chili, and Peru 
 formed their vast designs, and fitted out their suc- 
 cessful expeditions. Here, too, the ashes of Columbus 
 reposed for a time, after being removed from Se- 
 ville, but finally his coffin was deposited in the cathe- 
 dral of Havana.] 
 
 1496. John Cabot, a Venetian, sailing under a commission 
 of Henry VII. of England, discovered the coast of 
 Labrador ; and the next year, 1491, with his son Se- 
 bastian, he discovered Newfoundland^ and explored 
 the coast of North America as far as the southern 
 cape of Florida. 
 
 1498. Columbus, on his third voyage, August 1st, discovered 
 the continent of South America at the mouth of 
 Orinoco river, together with the island of Trinidad. 
 On his return to San Domingo he was arrested and 
 sent home in chains. 
 
 1499. Americus Vespuccius visited the coast of South 
 America, and gave name to the New World. 
 
 1500. Pedro Alvarez Cabral, a Portuguese, on a westerly 
 voyage to the East Indies, discovered the coast of 
 Brazil. 
 
to 1607.] DISCOVERY. 217 
 
 15C2. In this year, Columbus made his fourth and last 
 voyage, during which he explored the Gulf of Mexico, 
 in search of a westerly passage to India. Returning, he 
 was shipwrecked on the island of Jamaica. 
 
 1509. The Spaniards under Vasco Nunez de Balboa estab- 
 lished a colony at Darien^ on the isthmus, which was 
 the first European settlement on the continent. 
 
 1513. Balboa, from the mountains of the isthmus, discov- 
 ered the Pacific Ocean ; and having descended to the 
 coast, he waded into the water and took formal posses- 
 sion of it in the name of the King of Spain. In 
 the same year John Ponce de Leon, on Easter Sun- 
 day, discovered and visited a coast which, from its 
 abundance of flowers, and from the Spanish name of 
 the Easter festival, II Pascua Florida^ he named 
 Florida. 
 
 1520. Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese navigator, in the 
 service of Spain, discovered the straits that bear his 
 name, sailing through them into the Pacific. 
 
 1521. The conquest of Mexico accomplished by Cortez, 
 after a struggle of two years. 
 
 1532. The conquest of Peru by Pizarro and Almagro. 
 1534. James Cartier, in the service of Francis I. of France, 
 
 on the day of the festival of St. Lawrence^ discovered 
 
 the bay and river which bear that name. 
 1534-6. The Spaniards settle JVew Grenada, Buenos Ayres, 
 
 and Chili, South America. 
 1541. De Soto, governor of Cuba, having explored Florida, 
 
 passed on and discovered the Mississijypi* river, and 
 
 dying shortly after, he was buried beneath its waters. 
 1548. Brazil, settled by Jews banished from Portugal ; and 
 
 the next year, 1549, the governor, De Sonza, founded 
 
 the city of Jiio Janeiro. 
 
 * From Meschacebe, eignifying the Father of Waters. 
 10 
 
218 HISTORY OF THE tJI^ITED STATES. [A. », 1493 
 
 1553. Sir Plugh Willoughby discovered the island of 
 Spitzbergen. 
 
 1565. The Spaniards under Melendez built the city of St. 
 Augusti?ie, Florida, after having destroyed a colony of 
 French Protestants, that had been planted on the St. 
 John's river in 1562, by John Ribault. St. Augustine 
 is, therefore, the oldest city extant in the United States ; 
 Mexico the oldest in America; and San Domingo in the 
 Western hemisphere. 
 
 1578. Sir Francis Drake, during this year, explored the 
 western coast of South America; and in 157^ he dis- 
 covered California, naming it JVew Albion. Sailing 
 thence westward to the East Indies, he returned to Eng- 
 land in 1580, having accomplished the circumnavigation 
 of the world in two years and ten months. 
 
 1585. John Davis, an English navigator, sailing west of 
 Greenland, discovered the sti^aits which bear his name. 
 Subsequently, he discovered Disco island and Cumber- 
 land straits. 
 
 1598. The Isle of Sable^ on the coast of Nova Scotia, was 
 peopled by a colony of French convicts, left there by 
 the Marquis de la Roche. 
 
 1604. Henry IV. of France, having granted a patent of 
 American territories from latitude 40° to 48° to the Sieur 
 de Monts, that adventurer, the next year, 1605, founded 
 Port 72oya^ (now Annapolis, Nova Scotia). 
 
 During the reign of Queen Elizabeth, 1583-1587, Sir 
 Humphrey Gilbert, Sir Walter Raleigh, and others, 
 made great efforts to form settlements in the extensive 
 region then designated Virginia. But all those attempts 
 proved unsuccesisful. Many of the colonists perished 
 by disease and famine ; some were destroyed by the In- 
 dians, whose hostility had been provoked by the impru- 
 dence or injustice of the whites; and the survivors 
 were carried back to Ensfland, . 
 
tol607.] COLOXiAL. 210 
 
 1606. In this year James I., having chartered two compa- 
 nies, the London Company and the Plymouth Company, 
 granted to the former the region lying between the 34th 
 and 38th degrees of north latitude, and to the latter 
 that lying between the 41st and 45th degrees, for the 
 purpose of establishing colonies. 
 
 Period II. — Colonial. 
 
 1607. ...A. D... 1789. 
 
 John Smith George Washington. 
 
 1607. — Virginia. — The London Company sent out a col- 
 ony of 105 persons under Captain Nev/port and Edward 
 Wingfield, who, sailing up the James river, began the 
 settlement of Jamestown. The most eminent person 
 among these colonists was Captain John Smith, whose 
 fame is identified with this, the first successful attempt 
 of the English to settle America, 115 years after its 
 discovery by Columbus. 
 
 The same year the Plymouth Company sent out a 
 colony of 100 persons under George Popham and 
 Raleigh Gilbert, who sailed to the mouth of the Ken- 
 nebec river and began a settlement, which they named 
 Fort St. George. The following spring it was abandoned. 
 
 1608. — Canada. — The French under Champlain settled 
 Canada at Quebec. 
 
 1609. Henry Hudson, sailing in the service of the Dutch 
 East India Company, discovered the river to which he 
 gave his name, and which he ascended as far as Albany. 
 The next year, 1610, he discovered and named Hudson's 
 straits and Hudsori's bay. 
 
 1614. — New York. — The Dutch, claiming the regions vis- 
 ited by Hudson, began the settlement of Kein Kether- 
 
320 HISTORY OF THE UITITED STATES. [A. jtt. 1607 
 
 lands (New York), by planting a colony on Manhattan 
 island, which they named Weio Amsterdam^ and another 
 far up the Hudson river, which they named Fort Orange 
 (Albau}^). In 1664, a war having arisen between Eng- 
 land and Holland, Charles If. seized New Netherlands 
 and the other Dutch settlements, and granted them to 
 his brother James, Duke of York and Albany, who 
 changed the name of this colony to Wew ITorh. At 
 the Treaty of Breda, 1668, the Dutch ceded the colony 
 to England. 
 
 1620. — Massachusetts. — A company of English Puritans, 
 a part of Rev. Mr. Robinson's Congregational Church, 
 under Elder Brewster, Governor Winslow, John Carver, 
 Miles Standish, and others, made the first permanent 
 settlement of Massachusetts at Plymouth. The same 
 year African slavery was introduced into Virginia by 
 the Dutch. 
 
 1623. — Neiv Hampshire. — The Plymouth Company hav- 
 ing granted this region to Ferdinando Gorges and John 
 Mason; they made their first settlement of the colony 
 at Dover, on the Piscataqua river. 
 
 1621. — Neiv Jersey. — This colony was commenced at 
 Bergen by a number of Dutch settlers, who claimed the 
 country as a part of their colony of New Netherlands. 
 In 1661, Charles IL, having seized the Dutch possessions 
 in America, granted them to his brother James, Duke 
 of York and Albany, who immediately conveyed this 
 part of his province to Lord Berkeley and Sir George 
 Carteret, naming it I^ew Jersey, in compliment to Sir 
 George, w^hose family came originally from the Isle of 
 Jersey. 
 
 1^27. — Delatvare. — So named from the Bay, but originally 
 from Zord Be la War, one of the early governors of 
 Virginia, was settled by a colony of Swedes and Finns, 
 first at Cape Henlopen, which they named Paradise 
 
to 1789 ] C0L02^IAL. 221 
 
 Point ; but abandoning this in 1638, they made another 
 at Christiana CreeJc, naming it JSTew Sweden, 
 
 1630. — Maine. — The earliest attempt to settle Maine was 
 made in the year 1607, by a company of colonists under 
 George Popham, who had received a charter from the 
 Plymouth Company. This settlement, however, was 
 soon after abandoned, and nothing further was attempted 
 till 1630, when York was permanently settled by a col- 
 ony of English from Massachusetts. In 1635, the dis- 
 trict was granted to Sir Ferdinando Gorges by Charles 
 I. Subsequently the colony was incorporated with Mas- 
 sachusetts, and it so remained till 1820, when it was 
 admitted into the Union as a State. 
 
 1631. — Maryland.— '^o named in honor of Queen Marie, 
 was settled by Lord Baltimore, an English nobleman, 
 with 200 colonists, who purchased a village from the 
 Indians, which they named St. 3fary^s. Clayborne, an 
 English surveyor, had previously made a settlement on 
 Kent island, and for some time gave trouble to the 
 government of Lord Baltimore. 
 
 1635. — Connecticut had been granted by the Plymouth 
 Company in 1630, to the Earl of Warwick, and he in the 
 following year conveyed his rights to Lords Say and 
 Seal and Lord Brooke. Under their authority, Wi^idsor 
 and Weathersfield were settled by emigrants from Mas- 
 sachusetts. 
 
 1636. — Hhode Island. — This colony was settled at Prov- 
 idence^ by Roger Williams, who, on account of a change 
 in his religious views, had been banished from Massa- 
 chusetts. 
 
 1638. — Harvard College was this year founded at Cam- 
 bridge, Mass., and the following year, 1639, the first 
 printing-press S^ America, was erected at the same place. 
 
 1660. — NoHh Carolina, — The first attempt of the Eng- 
 lish to settle America was made in this State, 1585, by 
 
1 
 223 HISTOEY OF THE UNITED STATES. [A. ». 1607 
 
 Sir R. Grenville. under the auspices of Sir Walter Ra- 
 leigh. He established a colony on Roanoke island, and 
 left it under the care of Ralph Lane. But becoming 
 discouraged, they all, early the next year, returned to 
 England with Sir Francis Drake. The first permanent 
 settlement was made in 16SD, by~ emigrants from Vir- 
 ginia, who settled on the east bank of the Chowan 
 river, naming the place Albemarle^ in compliment to 
 General Monk, Duke of Albemarle, who had been chiefly 
 instrumental in restoring Charles II. to the throne of 
 England. 
 
 1664. — Elliot's Indian Bible was this year printed on the 
 Cambridge press. 
 
 1670. — South Carolina was settled by English emigrants 
 under Governor Sayle, first at Port JRoyal^ next at old 
 Charleston, on the Ashley river, and finally, nine years 
 afterward, 1679, at the present city of Charleston. 
 
 1675. — King Philip's War. Philip defeated at Mount 
 Hope, 1676. 
 
 1681. — Pemisylvania, settled at Chester, by Friends, 
 under William Penn, who in 1682 founded the city of 
 Philadelphia. 
 
 1690. — King William's War terminated by the Peace of 
 Eysivick, 1697. 
 
 1692.— The Salem witchcraft. 
 
 1702. — Queen Anne's War, ended by the Peace of Utrecht, 
 1713. 
 
 1704. — First American newspaper, Poston JSfews-Ijetter. 
 
 1710. — First Post Office in America. 
 
 1733. — Georgia settled by English colonists under General 
 Oglethorpe at Sa/vannah. 
 
 1744. — King George's War, ended by the Peace of Aix-la- 
 Chapelle, 1748. 
 
 1752. — Dr. Franklin discovers the identity of lisfhtnincr 
 with electricity. 
 
 1 
 
to 1789.] COLOiflAL. 223 
 
 1754. — The Fkench and Ijstdian War, ended by the Peace 
 
 of Paris, 1763. 
 1765. — The Stamp Act extended to the American Colonies. 
 
 Observations on the early History of the Colonial Period. 
 
 1, The Right to Colonize the New World. — In an age 
 
 of ignorance and superstition, the profession of Christianity 
 as the only true religion, and the misapprehension or per- 
 version of certain prophecies (Psalm ii. 8, 9) were made to 
 justify the invasion and seizure of any part of the heathen 
 world, without the least regard to the rights of the original 
 inhabitants. On this unrighteous principle the pope 
 granted to the sovereigns of Spain all the regions that 
 might be discovered by their subjects. 
 
 Columbus was appointed admiral of all the seas which 
 he should explore, and governor of all the inlands and 
 countries which_ he should discover and subdue. The 
 Cabots, in virtue of a similar commission from Henry VII., 
 took, for the crown of England, formal possession of that 
 part of North. America which they had discovered, by 
 erecting crosses along the coast, from Newfoundland to 
 Floi-ida, And Queen Elizabeth granted to Sir W. Raleigh 
 a commission " to discover, occupy, and govern, remote 
 heathen, and barbarous countries, not previously possessed 
 by any Christian prince or people." And thus, in the 
 name of "the glorious gospel of the blessed God," which 
 proclaims '' peace on earth, good will toward men," every 
 species of injustice, cruelty, and oppression was perpe- 
 trated on the ignorant aborigines of America, not only by 
 the rapacious and inhuman Cortez and Pizarro, but also by 
 nearly all besides that visited or colonized the newly-dis- 
 covered regions, 
 
 2, The Motives which actaated the First Colonists, — 
 
224 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [A. ». 1607 
 
 The Spanish adventurers that first emigrated to America 
 were for the most part influenced by an insatiable thirst for 
 wealth. So fierce was this passion that they endured in- 
 credible hardships to gratify it ; and in compelling the 
 poor Indians to aid them in their search for gold and silver 
 they sacrificed thousands of those unoffending and effemi- 
 nate people. 
 
 The New England colonies were established by the Pu- 
 ritans, that they might profess and enjoy their cherished 
 religion, at once safe from the persecution of the established 
 church at home, and free from the molestation of all that 
 held any opinions different from their own. 
 
 Virginia, New York, Maryland, and the other parent col- 
 onies, appear to have been chiefly commercial enterprises, 
 undertaken by men in search of such homes, fortunes, and 
 privileges in America as they did not desire, or could not 
 hope to obtain at home. But without exception the lead- 
 ing colonists were all men of uncommon energy, dauntless 
 courage, and indomitable perseverance. 
 
 3, Eminent Men of the Colonial Perioc?.— Captain 
 John Smith, in Virginia; Peter Stuyvesant, in New York; 
 John Carver and Elder Brewster, in Massachusetts; Lord 
 Baltimore, the proprietor of Maryland ; Roger Williams, 
 the founder of Rhode Island; William Penn, the propri- 
 etor of Pennsylvania ; and General Oglethorpe, the founder 
 of Georgia. 
 
 4. The Colonial Wars.— In nearly all the original 
 English colonies much trouble was experienced from the 
 hostility of the Indian tribes. This, however, was in gen- 
 eral caused by the injustice and cruelty of the whites. 
 Among the more hostile tribes were the Pequods, in Con- 
 necticut, who were subdued in 1637 ; the Powhattans, in 
 Virginia, who were conciliated by Captain Smith ; and 
 the Wampanoags^ under King Philip, who was shot at 
 Mount Hope, in Rhode Island, 16T6. 
 
to 1789.] COLONIAL. 225 
 
 Besides these Indian troubles the colonies were generally- 
 involved in the wars that at any time existed between the 
 mother country and her continental neighbors. Amonf>- 
 these were — 
 
 1. King William's War with France, 1689-1697, 
 which was occasioned by the effort of that power to re- 
 place the exiled James II. on the Enorlish throne. During 
 this contest in America the town of Dover was destroyed, 
 Schenectady was burned, and many inhabitants massacred 
 by the French and Indians, 1690; and unsuccessful attempts 
 were made by the English against Quebec and Mon- 
 treal. By the Treaty of Bysicick, 1697, which ended 
 the war, William's sovereignty was acknowledged by 
 France. 
 
 2. Queen Anne's War, 1702-1713, known in European 
 history as the War of the Spanish Succession, was waged 
 between England on one side and France and Spain on the 
 other. In this war Deerfield, Mass., was burned and its in- 
 habitants killed or carried prisoners to Canada. Port Royal 
 was captured by the English and its name changed to An- 
 napoUs,Y\\^. By the Treaty of Utrecht^ which terminated 
 the war. Great Britain acquired possession of Newfound- 
 land and Nova Scotia, and procured the liberation of the 
 numerous French Protestants that had been confined in 
 prisons and galleys in consequence of the revocation of 
 the edict of Nantes, by Louis XIY., 1685. 
 
 3. King George II.'s War, 1714-1748, which occurred 
 during the latter part of the War of the Austrian Succes- 
 sion, was occasioned by the invasion of Great Britain by 
 the exiled Stuarts, aided by the French, to recover the 
 throne. The contest, as in King William's war, soon ex- 
 tended to the colonies. The chief event of the war was 
 the capture of Louisburg and the whole island of Cape 
 Breton, by William Pepperell, with 3,200 colonists, aided 
 by a British fleet, commanded by Admiral Warren, 1745. 
 
 10* 
 
226 HISTORY OF THE UiflTED STATES. [A. ». 160T 
 
 The Treaty of Aix-la-ChcqDelle^ 1748, which concluded the 
 war, restored this conquest to France. 
 
 4. The Fkexcii and Indian War, 1754-1763, was occa- 
 sioned by the encroachments of the French upon the colo- 
 nial possessions of the English. The French claimed Can- 
 ada from its discovery by Cartier, and had settled Quebec 
 in 1608 under Champlain. From Canada they extended 
 their explorations down the Mississippi ; M. de la Salle, in 
 1682, being the first European that descended that river. 
 In 1699 M, Ibberville, from Canada, made the first French 
 settlement on the Mississippi, and claiming the extensive 
 region on the west, named it Louisiana. 
 
 In order to confine the English colonies within their 
 original limits, the French attempted to connect the ex- 
 treme points of their possessions by erecting a chain of 
 forts from Lake Erie down the Ohio and Mississippi rivers 
 to the Gulf of Mexico. In executing this design they in- 
 terfered with the claims of a number of English colonists, 
 named the Ohio Company^ who had received a gi'ant from, 
 the King of England of 600,000 acres of land on the Ohio 
 river, for the purpose of trading with the Indians. In 1753 
 a collision occurred between the .French authorities and 
 some of the English traders, who were seized and impris- 
 oned at Presque Isle, a French fort on the southern shore 
 of Lake Erie. From these circumstances originated a war 
 which, although at first disastrous to the English, termin- 
 ated in the most important results, both to the colonies and 
 to the parent country. 
 
 The Chief Events of the 'War were the following : — 
 
 1753. — George Washington sent by Governor Dinwiddle 
 with a letter of remonstrance to St. Pierre, the French 
 commander at Fort Du Quesne, on the Ohio. 
 
 1754. — The reply of St. Pien-e being unsatisfactory, Wash- 
 ington is sent against Fort Du Quesne with 400 men. 
 
to 17S9.] COLONIAL. 2'27 
 
 He captures a body of French, but is afterward com- 
 pelled, by a suj)erior force, to surrender his post, J^ort 
 Necessity^ J^ily 4th. 
 1755. — Braddock, the coinmander-in-chief of the English 
 forces, marching against Fort Du Quesne, is defeated 
 and mortally wounded by a body of French and In- 
 dians, in ambush, on the Monongahela. Colonel Wash- 
 ington saves the remnant of the army. The same year 
 the French under Dieskau are defeated by General 
 Johnson at Lake George. 
 1757. — Fort William Henry captured by the French and 
 Indians under Montcalm, and the garrison, although 
 promised protection, are massacred by the Indians. 
 1758. — Loidsburg^ Ticonderoga^ and Groimi Point cap- 
 tured b}^ the English under Amherst ; Fort Du Qcesne 
 by Forbes ; and Niagara by Prideaux. 
 1759. — Quebec captured by General Wolfe. 
 1760. — Montreal surrenders to General Amherst. This 
 closes the war. 
 At the Treaty of Paris, 1763, France ceded to Great 
 Britain Canada, and all her other possessions in North 
 America lying east of a line passing through the middle 
 of the Mississippi and Ibberville rivers to the lakes 
 Maurepas and Ponchartrain, and thence to the Gulf of 
 Mexico. 
 
 5. The Stamp Act, 1765. — This was an act passed by 
 the British Parliament, creating, in the form of stamp duties, 
 a revenue to reimburse the national treasury for the ex 
 penses incurred in carrying on the French and Indian war. 
 The colonies, denying the right of the Parliament to tax 
 them without their consent, resisted the execution of the 
 Stamp Act. And the Parliament, asserting their right to 
 tax and bind the colonies in all cases whatever, by force of 
 arms, brought on 
 
 6*. The War of the American Kevolution, — During 
 
228 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [A. ». 1607 
 
 this contest, which lasted eight years and five months, the 
 
 chief events were: — 
 
 1765. — Great commotions on account of the passing of the 
 Stamp Act. The legislatures of Massachusetts and 
 Virginia adopt resolutions denouncing it. Deputies 
 from nine of the colonies, meeting at New York and 
 composing the First Colonial Congress^ publish a Dec- 
 laration of lights. 
 
 1766. — Parliament repeals the Stamp Act, but in the fol- 
 lowing year, 
 
 1767, impose duties on paper, tea, glass, and painters' colors. 
 
 1768. — British troops occupy Boston to suppress the con- 
 tinued popular opposition. 
 
 1770. — All duties except that on tea repealed by Parliament. 
 
 1773. — A cargo of tea thrown into Boston harbor. 
 
 1774. — Boston Port Bill^ prohibiting all foreign commerce 
 at that place. 
 
 1774. — The First Continental Congress assemble at Phila- 
 delphia Sept. 5th, and while expressing all due allegi- 
 ance to the Crown, resolve to suspend commercial inter- 
 course with England. 
 
 1775. — The skirmish at Lexington^ April 19th. Battle of 
 Bunker Hill {Breed'^s Jlill), June iVth: — Howe (loss 
 1054) defeats Prescott (loss 453). Gen. Warren slain. 
 Washington, as commander-in-chief, arrives at Cam- 
 bridge, July 3d. Battle of Quebec/ Montgomery slain, 
 and the Americans defeated, December 31st. 
 
 1776. — Boston evacuated by the British forces under Howe, 
 Burgoyne, and Clinton, March 17th. Battle of Fort 
 3Ioultrie, Charleston harbor : — Col. Moultrie (loss 10) 
 defeats Sir Peter Parker, commanding a fleet of seven 
 ships (loss 225), June 28th. The Declaration of In- 
 dependence, July 4th. Commissioners sent by Con- 
 gress to solicit a treaty with France. Battle of Flat- 
 bushj Long Island: — Howe (loss 400) defeats Putnam 
 
to 1789.] COLONIAL. 229 
 
 and Sullivan (loss 2,000), August 27th. The British 
 occupy New York, September 15th. Battle of White 
 Plains, 'New York : — Howe (loss 400) defeats Washing- 
 ton (loss 300), October 28th. Washington retreats be- 
 yond the Delaware, November 28th. Congress adjourns 
 to Baltiuiore, December 12th. Battle of Trenton, 
 Washington (loss 9) defeats Rahl (loss 1000), Decem- 
 ber 26 th. 
 
 1777. — Battle of Princeton, New Jersey : — "Washington (loss 
 100) defeats Mawhood (loss 400), Jan. 3. Battle of i?e?i- 
 92ington,Yermont: — Starke (loss 100) defeats Baum and 
 Bremen (loss 600), August 16th. Battle of Brandy- 
 wine : — Howe (loss 500) defeats Washington (loss 
 1000), September 11th; La Fayette wounded. The 
 British occupy Philadelphia, September 27th. Battle 
 of Gerrnantown: — Howe (loss 600) defeats Washington 
 (loss 1200) Oct. 4th. ^2iii\e of Saratoga : — Burgoyne, 
 with 5,000 men, surrenders to Gates, October 17th. 
 
 1778. — France having entered into treaty with the Ameri- 
 cans, sends a fleet of eighteen ships and a body of 
 troops under Count D'Estaing. The British evacuate 
 Philadelphia, June 18th. Battle of Monmouth: — Wash- 
 ington (loss 230) defeats Clinton (loss 400), June 28th. 
 Battle of Rhode Island: — Sullivan (loss 200) defeats 
 Pigot (loss 260), August 29th. Savannah, Georgia, 
 captured by the British general, Campbell, December 
 29th. The Wyoming 3Iassacre, July. 
 
 1779. — Stony Point, New York, captured by the Ameri- 
 cans, July 16th. 
 
 1780. — Charleston, South Carolina, captured by the British 
 general, Clinton, May 12th. Battle of Camden, ^owlh. 
 Carolina: — Cornwallis (loss 325) defeats Gates (loss 
 730). The treason of Arnold. Andre executed. 
 
 1781. — l^^it\Q oi Cowpens : — Morgan (loss 72) defeats Tarle- 
 ton (loss 800),. January 17th. ^ditt\Q of Eataw Springs, 
 
230 HISTORY Cr THE UXITED STATES. [A. I>. 1607 
 
 South Carolina: — Greene (loss 5o0) defeats Stewart 
 (loss 1100), Sept. 8th. Battle of Torktown, Virginia : — 
 Cornwallis, with 7,073 men, surrenders to Washington, 
 October 19th. 
 1783. — Peace of Versailles. Independence acknowledged. 
 
 Observations on the Revolutionary War. 
 
 1, Tlie Declaration of Independence^ July 4th, 1776, 
 
 was the adoption and publication, by the Continental Con- 
 gress, of a carefulh^-prepared document, absolving the peo- 
 ple of the colonies from all allegiance to the British crown, 
 and assuming existence as an independent nation ; together 
 with a statement of the causes whicli impelled them to this 
 assertion of their rio-hts. 
 
 2, The Author sMjy of the Declaration,— On the 11th 
 of June, 1776, the Congress, then sitting in Philadelphia, 
 appointed a committee to prepare a Declaration of Inde- 
 pendence. This committee consisted of Thomas JeiFerson 
 of Virginia, John Adams of Massachusetts, Benjamin 
 Franklin of Pennsylvania, lioger Sherman of Connecti- 
 cut, and R. R. Livingston of New York, who agreed 
 among themselves that each one should draw up such a 
 paper as his judgment should suggest, and that from these 
 the committee would select one as their report to Congress. 
 When the committee met, Mr. Jefferson's paper was read 
 first ; and being regarded by each of the other members of 
 the committee as vastly superior to what he had prepared, 
 they spontaneously agreed to suppress the other papers, 
 and to recommend Mr. Jefferson's as their report to Con- 
 gress. On the 4th of July, 1776, that memorable document 
 was adopted and published to the world, 
 
 3. The Foxivth of July remark able in the History 
 of Human Liberly.—li was on the 4th of July, 1612, 
 
fo 1789.1 COLOls^IAL. 231 
 
 that the Lono^ Parliament rescued Great Britain from the 
 tyranny of Charles T. ; and on the 4th of July, 1672, Wil- 
 liam, Prince of Orange, was elevated to that position in 
 the Netherlands, from which, in 1688, he was called by the 
 British nation to become the champion of constitutional 
 government. 
 
 4. The Causes ivJiich produced the Declaration, — 
 The despotism which had so frequently distinguished the 
 government in England during this period had been ex- 
 tended in full measure to the colonies. Their charters, in 
 many instances, had been either annulled or altered at the 
 king's pleasure; tyrannical governors were frequently ap- 
 pointed over them ; their commerce had been restricted ; 
 and finally, when the oppressed colonists had refused to be 
 taxed by a legislative body (the British Parliament) in 
 which they were not represented, armed troops were sent 
 and quartered among them to enforce submission at the 
 point of the bayonet. A people that for the most part 
 were descended from those who had been driven from the 
 land of their fathers by the lash of tyranny, could hardly 
 be expected to submit meekly and permanently when thai 
 lash pursued them to their heaven-appointed home in the 
 New World. Not to revolt would have been to renounce 
 the manhood of the noble race from which they sprang. 
 
 The mere defraying of the expenses of the French and 
 Indian war was, in all probability, not the sole motive with 
 Parliament in taxing the colonies, but rather to establish a 
 despotic government over them. For while the colonies 
 very properly objected to the principle of taxcdion xoithout 
 representation^ they had never refused, during the long and 
 expensive war in which they acted so conspicuous a part, 
 to contribute to the utmost of their ability, and in many 
 instances beyond their fair proportion, when contributions 
 were asked for in a constitutional manner. And when, 
 under the violent popular opposition to the Stamp Act, it 
 
232 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [A. ». 1607 
 
 was repealed, 1766, yet immediately afterward other acts 
 
 were passed asserting the right of Parliament to tax the 
 
 colonies and to govern and bind them in all cases whatever. 
 
 S, Eifiinent IMen in the JBritish JParliament who 
 
 opposed the passage of the Stamp Act and advocated the 
 cause of the colonies: — General Conway, a prominent 
 member of the House of Commons, during the passage of 
 the Stamp Act denied in strong language the right of Par- 
 liament to tax the colonies. Col. Barre, upon the same 
 occasion, eloquently maintained, in opposition to the speech 
 of Mr. Charles Tovrnsend, that the colonies had been 
 planted in America, not as Mr. T. had affirmed, bt/ the care, 
 but bi/ the op2^ression of the government at home; that 
 they had grown up and prospered under the neglect of 
 that government ; that they had nobl}'' taken up arms in 
 defence of the colonial interests of the mother country ; 
 and that, while he believed the Americans were as loyal as 
 any subjects the king had, yet they were a people jealous 
 of their liberties, and would vindicate them if ever they 
 should be violated. 
 
 William Pitt, the enlightened patriot and eloquent 
 friend of liberty and equal rights, in advocating the repeal 
 of the Stamp Act, in 1766, said : "It is my opinion that 
 this kingdom has no right to lay a tax upon the colonies ;" 
 (for the reason that the colonies were not represented in 
 Parliament). " I rejoice," said Mr. Pitt, " that America 
 has resisted ; three millions of people so dead to all the 
 feelings of liberty as voluntarily to submit to be slaves, 
 would have been fit instruments to make slaves of all the 
 rest." 
 
 And Lord Camden, advocating the repeal of the stamp 
 duties, in the House of Lords, declared that "the insepara- 
 bility of taxation and representation is a position founded 
 on the laws of nature ; that it is, in fact, itself an eternal 
 law of nature ; that no man has a right to take another's 
 
to 1789.] COLO^nTIALc 233 
 
 property from him without bis consent. Whoever attempts 
 to do it," said the noble lord, "attempts an injury; who- 
 ever does it commits a robbery." And King George HI., 
 in his speech at the opening of the Parliament which re- 
 pealed the Stamp Act, said: "I have nothing at heart but 
 the assertion of legal authority, the preservation of the 
 liberties of all my subjects, the equity and good order of 
 my government, and the concord and prosperity of all parts 
 of my dominions." And when asked privately if he desired 
 to enforce the Stamp Act, he replied : " I do not desire 
 that it should be enforced unless it can he done without 
 bloodshed.'''* 
 
 6, On the other side, they who maintained the right 
 of Parliament to tax the colonies were : — George Gren- 
 ville, Charles Townsend, Lord Bute, with most of the no- 
 bility, and the whole bench of bishops. These were so 
 intent upon carrying out their arbitrary measures that they 
 were for forcing the Americans to submit with fire and 
 sword. And Lord North, upon a subsequent occasion, de- 
 clared that " a total repeal of all taxes on the colonies could 
 not be thought of till America is prostrate at our feet." 
 
 7. Effect of the Stamp Act in the Colonies, — The peo- 
 ple of America were affected by this measure just as they 
 should be who were, for the most part, the worthy descend- 
 ants and representatives of that old renowned party in 
 England which had ever contended so nobly for the inter- 
 ests of constitutional liberty. In some parts of the country 
 the popular indignation was expressed in such ways as 
 burning the stamps and the Stamp Act, burning in effigy 
 the stamp officers, throwing overboard cargoes of tea in 
 Boston harbor, and attacking the British soldiers in a riot- 
 ous manner, as in Boston. 
 
 But throughout the colonies there prevailed a remarkable 
 degree of dignified moderation, which expressed itself in 
 acts of the colonial lesfislatures, or of other lawful asseni- 
 
 O 7 
 
234 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [A. D. 1607 
 
 blies, discussing great principles of public liberty, protest- 
 ing against abuses, and petitioning for redress of griev- 
 ances. 
 
 It was not until all such peaceful and conciliatory methods 
 entirely failed to change the evil counsels of the mother 
 country and to arrest the progress of ministerial despot- 
 ism, and not until after precious blood had been shed in 
 defence of their inalienable rights, and after they had been 
 declared "out of the protection of Great Britain," that, 
 " with a firm reliance on the protection of divine provi- 
 dence," and "mutually pledging to each other their lives, 
 their fortunes, and their sacred honor," they gave to the 
 world their ever memorable Declaration of Independence. 
 
 8, Prominent Leaders in the Revolution, — Peyton 
 Kandolph of Virginia, the first president of Congress ; 
 John Hancock of Massachusetts, who succeeded him in 
 that office ; Richard Henry Lee of Virginia, who made the 
 first motion in Congress to declare independence of Great 
 Britain; Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, who wrote the ^ec- 
 laration ; John and Samuel Adams of Massachusetts, and 
 Patrick Henry of Virginia, who, by their wisdom and elo- 
 quence, supported that declaration ; Benjamin Franklin of 
 Pennsylvania, the printer, philosopher, and patriot, who, 
 with Silas Deane and Arthur Lee, effected a favorable 
 treaty with France ; Robert Morris of Pennsylvania, the 
 treasurer of Congress ; and George Washington of Vir- 
 ginia, who, as commander-in-chief, under divine provi- 
 dence, led forth the armies of the Republic to final victory. 
 These illustrious men, with their noble compatriots, in the 
 history of human greatness, have never been excelled. 
 
 9, The Treaty with France — Foreign Auociliaries of 
 the Americans, — Louis XVI., King of France, desiring 
 to be avenged for the loss of Canada, which had been con- 
 quered by Great Britain, 1760, and being willing to cripple 
 a rival power, readily consented to aid the Americans. In 
 
tolTSO.] COLONIAL. 235 
 
 the year 1778 he acknowledged the independence of the 
 United States, and sent a large land and naval force to 
 their assistance under Admiral D'Estaing, Count Rocham- 
 beau, Count de Grasse, the Chevalier de Ternay, and 
 others. 
 
 Besides this aid from the French government, a number 
 of brave and generous foreigners volunteered in the strug- 
 gling cause of American independence, among whom 
 were : Richard Montgomery, John Paul Jones, Count 
 Pulaski, Baron de Kalb, Baron Steuben, Kosciusko, and 
 the Marquis de la Fayette, noble men who, being ardently 
 attached to the cause of the Americans, came and fought 
 bravely in the glorious struggle for our national existence. 
 
 1. Gilbert Motier de la. Fayette was born at the Cas- 
 tle of Chavaniar, in Auvergne, September 6th, 1757. He 
 was educated at the University of Paris, and at the early 
 ag:e of 16 he married a dauojhter of one of the most distin- 
 guished families of France. At the age of ]9, relinquish- 
 ing his domestic felicity and his home of refinement and 
 affluence, he espoused the cause of American liberty, and 
 identified himself, in toil, in danger, and suffering, with 
 America's noblest sons. On the Yth of December, 1776, 
 La Fayette was appointed a major-general in the United 
 States army. He was wounded at the battle of Brandy- 
 wine, September 11th, 1777, and distinguished himself as 
 a brave soldier in manv other eno-ao^ements. He was with 
 Washington at the siege of Yorktown, and aided in the 
 capture of Lord Cornwallis. Having returned to France 
 after the successful termination of the war, he revisited 
 this country in 1784, and again in 1824, upon which latter 
 occasion he was welcomed as the nation's guest with every 
 demonstration of public gratitude. This distinguished 
 hero died at his home in France, May 20th, 1834. 
 
 2. Count Pulaski, a distinguished Polander, who nobly 
 oifered his services to the United States, and was appointed 
 
236 EISTORY OF THE UKITED STATES. [A. D. 1607 
 
 a brigadier-general in the army. He was mortally wounded 
 in the attempt to recapture Savannah from the British, 
 October 9th, 1779. 
 
 3. Baeon de Kalb, by birth a German, was in the early 
 part of his life an officer in the French array. At the 
 breaking out of the American Revolution he espoused the 
 cause of the United States, and was promoted to the rank 
 of major-general. He was killed while commanding the 
 Maryland and Delaware troops, in the battle of Camden, 
 South Carolina, August 15th, 1780. 
 
 4. Frederick William, Baron de Steuben, a native of 
 Prussia, and an aid-de-camp of King Frederick the Great, 
 volunteered his services in the cause of American inde- 
 pendence. His great military knowledge and experience 
 rendered his services highly valuable. He died at Steu- 
 ben ville. New York, 1794. 
 
 5. Thaddeus Kosciusko, a native of Warsaw, Poland, 
 was in the Revolutionary war an aid-de-camp of General 
 Washington. After the successful termination of the war 
 he returned to his native country, and subsequently aided 
 his countrymen in their unsuccessful attempt to become 
 independent of Russia. He was wounded and made pris- 
 oner by tlie Russians, who treated him with great respect, 
 the Emperor Paul presenting him with an estate. He 
 died in 1817. A beautiful monument has been erected to 
 his memory at West Point, New York. 
 
 6. Richard Montgomery, a native of Ireland, where he 
 was born 1737, distinguished himself as a hero in the cause 
 of American independence. In the autumn of 1775 Major- 
 General Montgomery invaded Canada, captured St. John's 
 and Montreal, and, being joined by General Arnold, who 
 had marched a body of troops through the forests, made 
 an assault on Quebec. In this attack, December 31st, the 
 l)rave Montgomery was slain and his troops defeated. 
 
 7. John Paul Jones, a native of Scotland, came to 
 
to 1789.] COLOisIAL. 237 
 
 to America at the commencement of the war, and received 
 a commission in the United States navy. He was distin- 
 guished as a man of desperate courage, and by his remark- 
 able success in several naval engagements. After the close 
 of the war he was for some time in the service of Russia. 
 He died at Paris in 1792. 
 
 10, Foreign Auxiliaries of the JBritish in the Hevo- 
 tionary War. — In the attempt to subjugate the American 
 colonies the British government entered into a treaty with 
 several German princes to furnish 17,000 men (Hessians, 
 Brunswickers, Waldeckers, etc.), at a cost, it is said, of 
 £1,500,000 per annum. Besides these foreign mercenaries 
 the British government secured the aid of a large number 
 of Indians. 
 
 In the early part of the war the cruelty of the Indians 
 was particularly displayed in the celebrated Wyoming 
 Massacre. The scene of that atrocious deed was the beau- 
 tiful valley of Wyoming (now Wyoming county, Pennsyl- 
 vania), near Wilkesbarre, on the north branch of the Sus- 
 quehanna river. In the month of July, 1778, a band of 
 four hundred Indians, led by Brandt, a merciless savage, 
 and about eight hundred Tories,* led by John Butler, a 
 more merciless white man, entered this peaceful settlement, 
 and having drawn a large body of the male inhabitants out 
 of their fortifications into the wilderness, under a pretext 
 of friendship, they massacred nearly four hundred of them. 
 Then returning to the village of Kingston, where a large 
 number of men, women, and children were crowded to- 
 gether in the small fort which they had hastily constructed, 
 the savage Tories and Indians set fire to the fort, whilst 
 they offered the unhappy inmates no terms of escape from 
 the devouring flame but the hatchet. Thus perished this 
 devoted band of martyrs in the sacred cause of American 
 
 * A name given to those colonists who favored the arbitrary measures of the 
 Biitish government, andoppcsed the Narional independence. 
 
238 HISTORY OF THE UKITED STATES. [A.D.I 607 
 
 national independence. [Campbell's poem, Gertrude of 
 Wyoming, celebrates in beautiful and touching verse this 
 dark scene of carnage.] 
 
 11, The Treason of Benedict Arnold^ 1780. — This 
 unprincipled officer, by his daring courage and a few other 
 good qualities as a soldier, had so gained the confidence of 
 General Washington as to be placed in command of West 
 Point, a highly important military post on the Hudson 
 river. This valuable fortress, with all its men, stores, and 
 ammunition, Arnold offered to betray into the hands of 
 General Clinton, the British commander in New York, for 
 £30,000, and a commission as brigadier-general in the Brit- 
 ish army. 
 
 This offer was of course readily accepted by the British 
 commander, who sent Major Andre, his adjutant-general, 
 to arrange with Arnold all the particulars of the transac- 
 tion. Just as this base design was about to be accom- 
 plished Andre was captured by three New York militia- 
 men, Paulding, Williams, and Van Wert ; Arnold escaped 
 to the British, and General Washington reached West 
 Point in time to save the place. 
 
 Major Andre was tried by a court-martial and hung as a 
 spy, a sentence which, although fully justified by the laws 
 of war, was universally lamented ; while the traitor Ar- 
 nold, receiving the wages of his iniquity, was treated dur- 
 ing life by friend and foe with merited contempt, and his 
 name, branded with the infaray of treason, will ever soil 
 the record of his country's wronofs. 
 
 12, The Surrender of Cormvallis at YorJitown, Va., 
 October 19th, 1781, closes the war. This brilliant termin- 
 ation of the revolutionary contest sent a thrill of joy 
 throughout the country. General Washington ordered 
 divine service to be performed in the different brigades of 
 the army, and the members of Congress marched in pro- 
 cession to church, and there oflfered up thanksgiving to 
 
to 1789.1 , FEDEEAL. 259 
 
 Almighty God for the signal success of the American arms. 
 The many remarkable instances of God's interposing prov- 
 idence were recounted, and public acknowledgment made 
 that their victory was due to God, whose voice alone com- 
 mands the winds, the seas, and the seasons. And Wash- 
 ington, whose sincere and unostentatious piety had sus- 
 tained him during the arduous struggle, declared that " the 
 unparalleled perseverance of the armies of the United 
 States, through almost every possible suffering and dis- 
 couragement, for the space of eight long years, was little 
 short of a startlinoj miracle." 
 
 Period III, — Federal. 
 
 1789.... A. D....1870. 
 
 George Washington .... Ulysses S. Grant. 
 
 1, George Washington, the father of his country, and 
 one of the purest of men, was endowed by the Almighty 
 with the elements of character that adapted him to the 
 exalted position which he so nobly occupied. In childhood 
 Washington was remarkable for truthfulness and filial affec- 
 tion ; in youth, for skill and perseverance in his enterprises ; 
 and in manhood, for self-denial, the love of country, and 
 the fear of God. 
 
 George, the son of Augustine Washington, was born in 
 Westmoreland county, Virginia, February 22d, 1732. His 
 father dying in early manhood, left George an orphan 
 quite young, to the care of his pious and excellent mother, 
 to whom he was indebted for that early moral training 
 which, by the blessing of providence, prepared him for 
 usefulness and honor. 
 
 At the age of fifteen he obtained, at his own solicitation. 
 
240 HISTOEY OF THE UNITED STATES. [A. ». 1TS9 
 
 the appointment of midshipman in the British navy. But 
 his mother disapproving his choice, George, with filial piety, 
 abandoned his cherished purpose, and awaited in the exer- 
 cise of heroic self-denial the opening of another path to the 
 profession of arms. The desired opportunity at length oc- 
 curred in the breaking out of the French and Indian War ^ 
 1754-1763 At nineteen years of age he was appointed 
 adjutant-general of Virginia, with the rank of major. At 
 twenty-one he distinguislied himself as the successful bearer 
 of despatches from the Governor of Virginia to the French 
 commander at Fort du Quesne, traversing with only a sin- 
 gle attendant an extensive resjion infested with hostile 
 Indians. The following year, as colonel, and at the head 
 of four hundred men, we find him bravely sustaining an 
 unequal contest at the Great Meadows in Western Vir- 
 ginia, and finally capitulating to a A^astly superior force of 
 French and Indians, Lo save the useless efi'usion of blood. 
 
 We next behold the youthful hero on the fatal field of 
 Braddock, July, 1755, rallying the discomfited forces of the 
 brave but unwary British commander ; and although him- 
 self exposed to the Indian ambush, yet at the head of his 
 colonial regiment he holds in check the victorious savages, 
 and covers the retreat of the remnant of Braddock's well- 
 appointed army. During the remainder of the war, which 
 in the colonies raged with great fury. Colonel Washington 
 commanded the troops of Virginia in the defence of the 
 frontier settlements. 
 
 From the close of the war Washington lived, with little 
 interruption, in domestic retirement at Mount Vernon, until, 
 by the unanimous voice of the Continental Congress, of 
 which he was an honored member, he was placed at the 
 head of the forces which were to vindicate the national 
 independence. Having prosecuted the war to a successful 
 termination, and having served as president of the con- 
 vention appointed to frame a national Constitution ; and 
 
do 1870.] FEDERAL. 241 
 
 then serving as chief magistrate of the Republic under 
 that Constitution during two terms of four years each, de- 
 clining a third election, he retired, like Cincinnatus, crowned 
 with glory, to the peaceful occupations of agriculture. 
 
 Perhaps few incidents related of General Washington 
 Iraore strikingly illustrate the magnanimity by which he 
 was distinguished than the following : — 
 
 Soon after the close of the Rev^olutionary War an Eng- 
 jlish gentleman, being in the United States, paid a visit to 
 General Washington at Mount Vernon. The stranger was 
 received with great hospitality, and entertained with pleas- 
 ant conversation on topics connected with the recent great 
 contest. At length Washington asked his visitor if he had 
 met any one in England whom he thought capable of writ- 
 ing the history of the war. The stranger replied that he 
 knew of but one person fully competent to execute that 
 important work. The general eagerly inquired: "Who, 
 sir, can that be ?" " Sir," replied the gentleman, " Caesar 
 wrote his own Commentaries." The general, bowing mod- 
 estly, replied : " Caesar could write his Commentaries ; but, 
 sir, I know the atrocities committed on both sides have been 
 so great and numerous that they cannot be faithfully re- 
 corded, and had better be buried in oblivion." 
 
 The Washington Monument^ at Baltimore, Maryland, a 
 marble shaft 168 feet high, surmounted by a colossal statue 
 of the patriot, bears upon the base these inscriptions : — 
 
 BoutU Face \ ^""^^^ February 22, 1732. 
 \ Died, December 14, 1799. 
 
 E(ut Face 5 CoMMANDER-m- Chief, June 15, 1775. 
 
 \ Resigned Commission, December 23, 1783. 
 
 W tl F \ Battle of Trenton, December 25, 1 776. 
 
 '■* \ Siege of Yorktown, October 19, 1781. 
 
 West Face,,.. \ P^^^esident, March 4, 1789. 
 \ Retired, March 4, 1797 
 11 
 
242 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [A. D. 1789 
 
 2, The Federal Constitution, — Among the thirteen 
 separate English colonies three kinds of government at 
 first existed. 1. The Charter Government^ in which the 
 powers of legislation were vested in a governor, council, 
 and assembly, chosen by the people, such as Massachusetts, 
 Connecticut, and Rhode Island. 2. The Proprietary Gov- 
 ernment^ in which the proprietor was governor and the 
 assembly only chosen by the people, such as Maryland and 
 Pennsylvania. 3. Royal Government^ in which the gov- 
 ernor and council w^ere appointed by the king, and the 
 assembly elected by the people, such as Virginia, New 
 Tork, New Jersev, the Carolines, and Georma. From 
 1777 to 1789 the united colonies were governed by a plan 
 of union styled Articles of Confederation ; but that plan 
 proving inefficient for the purposes of good government, 
 the present Federal Constitution was framed iu 1787, and 
 having been ratified by all the States, it went into operation 
 March 1, 1789. 
 
 This document consisted originally of seven articles. In 
 1791 it received ten amendments; in 1798 an eleventh 
 amendment; a twelfth in 1804; a thirteenth in 1865; a four- 
 teenth in 1868 ; and a fifteenth amendment in 1870. 
 
 3, The Chief Departments of the Federal Government, 
 as created by the Constitution, are : — 
 
 1. The Legislative, which makes the laws; 
 
 2. The Judicial^ which expounds the laws ; and, 
 
 3. The JExecutive, which attends to their due administra- 
 tion. 
 
 The legislative power is vested in a Congress, which is 
 composed of a senate and house of representatives, whose 
 joint acts, when signed by the president, become, with the 
 several articles of the Constitution, the laws of the land. 
 Tiie judicial power is exercised by a supreme court and a 
 number of inferior courts, whose office it is to decide ques- 
 tions of law under the jurisdiction of the general govern- 
 
to 18 TO.] FEDEKAL. 243 
 
 ment. And tlie executive power is committed to a presi- 
 dent, who is elected to his office for a term of four years; 
 and is eligible to re-election. 
 
 The president must be a native of the United States, and 
 must have attained the age of 35 years. Reappoints, with 
 the approbation of the senate, all other officers of the govr 
 ernment, not otherwise appointed ; and is ex officio the 
 commander-in-chief of the army and navy. The counsel- 
 lors of the president, named the Cabinet^ are the secretary 
 of state, of the treasury, of war, of the navy, of the inte- 
 rior, the postmaster-general, and the attorney-general. A 
 bill passed by Congress, in order to become a law, must 
 receive the president's signature. When he vetoes a bill 
 he returns it to Congress with his objections ; and if they 
 re-pass it, by a vote of two-thirds, it becomes a law without 
 his signature. In case of the president's death, resigna- 
 tion, or other disability, the vice-president becomes the 
 president. 
 
 4. Under this Constitution eighteen Presidents have 
 been inaugurated, viz. — 
 
 1. Washington, Va., served two terms from April 30, 1789. 
 
 2. John Adams, Mass., " one term, '* March 4, 1797. 
 
 3. Jefferson, Ya., " two terms, " " " 1801. 
 
 4. Madison, Ya., " " " " " " 1809. 
 
 5. Monroe, Ya., " " " " " « 1817. 
 
 6. J. Q. Adams, Mass., " one term, " " " 1825. 
 
 7. Jackson, Tenn., " two terms, " " " 1829. 
 
 8. Yan BuREN, K Y., " one term, " " " 1837. 
 
 9. Harrison, O. (who died at the end of a month), " 1841. 
 
 10. Tyler, Ya, (Yice-Pres.), completed the term, Apr.5, 1841. 
 
 11. Polk, Tenn., wdio served one term from March 4, 1845. 
 
 12. Taylor, La. (who died July 9, 1850), " '' 1849. 
 
 13. FiLLMORE,N.Y.(Yice-Pres.)completed term,JulylO,1850. 
 
 14. Pierce, N". H., who served one term from March 4, 1 853. 
 
 15. Buchanan, Pa.," " " " " " 1857. 
 
244 HISTORY OF THE UKITED STATES, [A. ». 1T89 
 
 16. Lincoln, III., who served one term from March 4, 1861. 
 
 (Re-elected, but assassinated April 14, 1865.) 
 
 17. Johnson, Tenn. (V.-R), completed 2d term, Apr.l5, 1865. 
 
 18. Grant, 111., inaugurated . . March 4, 1869. 
 
 I. — The Administration of George Washington. 
 
 1789—1797 : 8 years. 
 
 President, .... George Washington, Ya. 
 Vice-President, . . . John Adams, Mass. 
 
 The First CaUiiei.'^ 
 
 Secretary of State^ . . . Thomas Jefferson, Va. 
 
 Secretary of the Treasury^ . . Alexander Hamilton, N. Y. 
 
 Secretary of War, . . . Eenry Knox, Mass, 
 
 Postmaster- General,^ . . . Samuel Osgood, Mass. 
 
 Attorney -General,^ . . . Edmund Randolph, Ya. 
 
 Th£ First Supreme Court. , 
 
 Chief-Justice — John Jay, N. Y. 
 
 Associate Justices — John Rutledge, S. C. ; William Gushing, Mass. ; 
 James Wilson, Pa. ; John Blair, Ya. ; Robert H. Harrison, Md. 
 
 1, The Administration of the government by General 
 Washington, partaking his character, "was mild and firm 
 at home, noble and prudent abroad." 
 
 2, The Chief Events were the following : — 
 
 1. 7'he Indian War in Ohio^ September 30, 1790-1794, 
 in which General Harmer, with 1400 men, and General St. 
 Clair, with a much larger force, were successively beaten 
 with great loss. But General Wayne, failing to obtain 
 peace by treaty, attacked the Indians on the banks of the 
 Miami, and, completely routing them, reduced the whole 
 body of Indians in the northwest to terms of peace. 
 
 * For Cabinet officers of the following Administrations, see Ajjpendix. 
 + Not members of the Cabinv.'t at this lime. 
 
to 18 TO.] FEDERAL. 245 
 
 2. The establishment of the 3fint and a National Bank 
 in Philadelphia, 1791. 
 
 3. The Proclamation of Neutrality in the war between 
 France and the Allied Powers, 1793. The French revolu- 
 tionists, presuming on the sympathy of the people of the 
 United States, were both urgent and insolent in their de- 
 mands for aid, and many were in favor of granting it. But 
 Washington, adopting the wise policy of neutrality in all 
 contests among the nations of the Old World, issued a proc- 
 lamation to that effect. Notwithstanding this, M. Genet, 
 the French minister, landed at Charleston, and in defiance 
 of the proclamation, began to fit out armed vessels in the 
 service of France. At the request of Washington he was 
 recalled. 
 
 4. The Whisky Insurrection in western Pennsylvania, 
 1794. As one of the means of revenue for the support of 
 the government Congress laid a tax upon stills and distilled 
 spirits. The act being considered by many unconstitu- 
 tional, a large public meeting was held at Pittsburg, Sep- 
 tember, 1791, which adopted resolutions declaring all such 
 acts hostile to liberty, and denouncing all oflicers that 
 would attempt to collect such taxes. In this spirit of an- 
 tagonism a large number of armed men in western Pennsyl- 
 vania attacked the United States marshal and the revenue 
 ofiicers and drovje them from the region. To suppress this 
 serious riot the president sent General Lee, of Virginia, 
 with a large force, upon whose approach the insurgents laid 
 down their arms. 
 
 5. New States. — ^Vermont, which had been first settled 
 at Fort Dummer (Brattleboro') 1725, was admitted as the 
 fourteenth State, February 18, 1791. Kentucky, explored 
 by Colonel Boone in 1770, and settled by him at Boones- 
 horo\ 1775, was admitted as the fifteenth State, June 1, 
 1792. Tennessee, first settled at Fort Loudon, 1757, was 
 admitted as the sixteenth State, June 1, 1796. 
 
246 HISTORY OF THE U:N^ITED STATES. [A. ». 1789 
 
 II. — The Administration of John Adams. ' 
 
 I 
 
 1797—1801 : 4 years. . 
 
 Tlie Chief Events of Mr. Adams' administration were : — i 
 
 1. The Difficulties with France^ arising from the war in 
 Europe, 1797-1799, which now were become so serious that i| 
 the president was authorized to increase the navy, and to ' 
 raise an army, of which General Washington was appointed i 
 commander-in-chief. The French government refusing to 
 treat for peace, the capture of the French ships U'lnsur- 
 gente and La Vengea?ice by Captain Truxton, of the frigate 
 
 Constellation, suggested to the French the propriety of 
 opening negotiations for that purpose, and peace was finally 
 concluded September 30th, 1800. 
 
 2. The Alien Law and the Sedition Law, which origi- 
 nated in the difficulties with P" ranee. By the former the 
 president was empowered to order from the Unite*! States 
 any foreigner whom he might judge dangerous to the peace 
 and liberty of the country. This was a very unpopular 
 measure with the friends of France, and called forth vio- 
 lent attacks on the government, in public speeches, news- 
 papers, etc. To suppress this license of speech and of the 
 press was the design of the sedition law, which punished 
 with fine and imprisonment "all that should write, print, 
 or publish, any false, scandalous, or malicious writing 
 against the government, either house of Congress, the pres- 
 ident," etc. 
 
 3. The Death of General Washington, at Mount Ver- 
 non, December 14th, 1799, aged 68 years. 
 
 4. The Occupancy of Washington City as the seat of 
 government, 1800. The District of Columbia, in which 
 the city of Washington is situated, was originally a tract 
 ten miles square, on both sides of the Potomac, about 160 
 miles from the mouth of the river. This district was ceded 
 
to 1870] FEDERAL. 247 
 
 by the States of Maryland and Virginia to the United 
 States in 1789, and accepted by the general government in 
 1790. That portion at first belonging to Virginia was in 
 1846 retroceded to that State, leaving the present district 
 an area of about 55 square miles. 
 
 The city of Washington, bounded on the south by the 
 Potomac, on the east by the Eastern Branch, and on the 
 west by Rock Creek, occupies an area of about 14 miles in 
 circumference. The capitol, situated on an elevated pla- 
 teau, near the longitudinal centre of the city, is the largest 
 and most imposing legislative edifice in the world. The 
 entire length from north to south is 751 feet, and the great- 
 est depth, including the magnificent porticoes, flights of 
 steps, etc., is 324 feet. The height of the building from 
 the eastern base line to the top of the balustrade is 10 feet. 
 From the central division of the edifice rises a stupendous 
 dome of cast-iron to the height of 217 feet 11 inches, and 
 upon the summit of the dome stands a colossal image of 
 the goddess of liberty, of bronze, 19 feet 6 inches in height, 
 making the entire elevation from the base to the crown of 
 the image 307 feet 5 mches. The corner-stone of the orig- 
 inal building was laid by General Washington in 1793, and 
 that of the extension in 1851, by President Fillmore. The 
 cost of the capitol has exceeded six millions of dollars. 
 
 III.- — The Administration of Thomas Jefferson. 
 
 1801—1809 : 8 years. 
 
 The Chief Events of Mr. Jefferson's administration : — 
 
 1. The Purchase of Louisiana from France, April 30th, 
 
 1803. The vast region named Loxdsiana. as acquired by 
 
 the United States from France, embraced 930,928 square 
 
 miles. It was first visited by De Soto, 1541 ; but subse- 
 
248 HISTORY OF THE U:&iriTED STATES. [A. ». 1789 
 
 quently settled and claimed by the French, 1682-1699. (See 
 French and Indian War.) In 1762 France by a secret 
 treaty ceded the whole region west of the Mississippi to 
 Spain ; but the inhabitants opposing this unjust transac- 
 tion, Spain did not obtain full possession till August, 1769. 
 By the Treaty of Ildefonso^ October 1, 1800, Louisiana 
 was retroceded to France, and from France it passed to 
 the United States, April 30, 1803, for the sum of |15,D00, 000. 
 Soon after this the upper waters of the Missouri river were 
 explored by Captains Lewis and Clarke^ while Major Pike 
 explored the sources of the Mississippi. 
 
 2. The War vyitli Tripoli., \%^'^-\%^\:^ was occasioned by 
 the depredations of that piratical power on the commerce 
 of the United States in the Mediterranean Sea. During 
 the attack on Tripoli, commanded by Commodore Preble, 
 the ship Philadelpthia^ striking on a rock in the harbor, was 
 captured by the Tripolitans. The next year, 18C4, Lieu- 
 tenant Stephen Decatur, with sixty men, boarded and 
 burned the captured vessel. In 1805 the Bashaw of Tripoli 
 was reduced to terms of peace, by which he consented to 
 release from bondasje a laro^e number of Americans that 
 had been captured and enslaved. 
 
 3. The Conspiracy of Aaron 5wrr.— Aaron Burr, a son 
 of a distinguished clergyman and a president of Princeton 
 College, was a prominent politician, of brilliant and fas- 
 cinating address, and of unscrupulous vaulting ambition. 
 He had been vice-president during the first term of Mr. 
 Jefferson, 1801-1805, but having slain General Hamilton in 
 a duel, he fell into public odium, and remained for some 
 time in obscurity abroad. In 1806, however, he was 
 charged with a conspiracy, the design of which was either 
 to wrest from the United States the lower Mississippi val- 
 ley, and establish a separate government, with New Orleans 
 as its capital, or to invade the provinces of Mexico and 
 found an empire there. In 1807 he was brought to trial on 
 
to 1870.] FEDEKAL. 249 
 
 the charge of treason against the TInited States j but from 
 want of sufficient evidence he was acquitted. 
 
 4. Disputes respecting Neutral Rights with England and 
 France, being a continuation of the difficulties which had 
 arisen in the administration of General Washington. Great 
 Britain insisting upon the right to search neutral vessels, 
 her ships of war had upon several occasions boarded Amer- 
 ican vessels, and impressed their crews on the pretext that 
 the men wei-e deserters from the British service. The United 
 States frigate Chesapeake, when off the capes of Virginia, 
 1807, refusing to submit to this indignity, was attacked by 
 the British ship Leopard., and four of her men taken as 
 British subjects, of whom three were native Americans. In 
 consequence of this all British armed vessels were ordered 
 from American waters. And to protect American com- 
 merce from the hostility of both France and England, Con- 
 gress in 1807 laid an embargo on all United States merchant 
 vessels, forbidding them to leave their ports. In 1809 the 
 embargo law was repealed, and non-intercourse wdth France 
 and England substituted. 
 
 5. In 1802 Ohio, the seventeenth State, was admitted 
 into the Union. The first settlement was made at Marietta 
 in 1788 by emigrants from ISTew England. 
 
 6. In 1807 Fulton's first steamboat, the Clermont^ com- 
 menced to navisrate the Hudson river. 
 
 lY. — The Administkation of James Madison. 
 
 1809—1817 : 8 years. 
 
 1. The Second War with Great Britain, 1812-1814. 
 
 — The chief event of this administration, was occasioned 
 by the continued aggi'essions of that government on the 
 rights of the United States as a sovereign neutral power. 
 
 11* 
 
250 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [A. ». 1789' 
 
 Some reparation had been made for the attack on the Ches- 
 apeake (June 22, 1807) ; but the persistent hostility of the 
 British government produced ultimately a declaration of 
 warhy the United States against that power, June 18th, 
 1812. 
 
 2, During this Contest^ which was distinguished by a 
 devoted patriotism and a determined bravery, unexcelled 
 in the annals of war, there were fought between forty 
 and fifty battles on land^ and about twenty-five or thirty 
 brilliant actions at sea. The loss in men of the Americans 
 is stated to have been 11,978, while that of the British is 
 estimated to have been 14,096. 
 
 3, Afnong the more noted American Generals were — 
 
 1. General Harrison, who defeated the Indians under 
 Tecumseh, in the battle of Tippecanoe, November 7th, 1811, 
 and the British and Indians under General Proctor, in the 
 battle of the jTA^we^, October 5th, 1813, in which engage- 
 ment Tecumseh was killed by Colonel Johnson of Kentucky, 
 and the British nearly all slain or taken prisoners. 
 
 2. Generals Brown and Scott, who in the battle of JVi- 
 agara, July 25th, 1814, defeated the British under Generals 
 IviALL and Drummond. 
 
 3. General Macomb, who defeated Sir George Prevost 
 in the battle of Plattsburghy Septemhev llth, 1814. 
 
 4. General Winder, who was defeated by the British 
 under General Ross in the battle of JSlade?isbur(/, August 
 24th, 1814. No further opposition was made to the ad- 
 vance of the British except that by Commodore Barney and 
 Captain Miller, who commanded a small body of marines 
 and sailors. But this Spartan band being soon overpow- 
 ered, General Ross proceeded to Washington with about a 
 thousand men. The capitol, president's house, and other 
 public buildings were burned ;• while Admiral Cochrane, 
 who commanded the British fleet, captured and plundered 
 Alexandria. 
 
to 1870.] FEDERAL. 251 
 
 5. General Smith, wlio commanded the forces collected 
 to defend Baltimore^ September 12th, 13th, 14th, 1814. 
 General Ross and Admiral Cochrane, elated at their success 
 in the District of Columbia, proceeded to North Pointy 
 about fourteen miles southeast of Baltimore, where they 
 landed 5,000 men, and whence they advanced toward the 
 city. A sharp engagement occurred about eight miles 
 from the city between the head of the British column and 
 a body of the Americans numbering 3,000, under General 
 Stryker, at the close of which the latter began to fall back 
 toward their entrenchments ; and the incautious British 
 commander, pressing on at the head of his troops, was shot 
 by two young Baltimoreans named Wells and Mc Comas, 
 who were lying in ambusli for that purpose. Upcm this 
 Colonel Brooke, who succeeded to the command of the 
 British land forces, halted to await the result of the pro- 
 gressing bombardment of Forts McHenry and Covington,* 
 by Admiral Cochrane. But the gallant defencef of those 
 posts by Major Armistead of the army and lieutenant 
 Newcombe of the navy, effectually repulsing the fierce 
 attack, and the British commanders being unable to agree 
 with respect to further operations against Baltimore, aban- 
 doned the enterprise. 
 
 6. General Jackson, who had distinguished himself by 
 several victorious campaigns against the Creeks and other 
 Indian tribes, obtained a brilliant triumph over the British 
 in the renowned defence of New Orleans, Louisiana, the 
 crowning victory of the contest. In this noted battle, 
 fought January 8, 1815, the brave General Pakenham 
 was slain, and 2,600 men, the flower of the British army, 
 were killed or wounded ; while the Americans, protected by 
 breastworks of cotton bales, lost but thirteen ! 
 
 * At the entrance of the harbor of Baltimore. 
 
 + Celebrated in the patriotic song, ''•The Star Spangled Bailor,''' by the late F. 
 S. Key, of Maryland. 
 
252 HlSTOliY OF THE UNITED STATES. [A. I>. 1T89 
 
 4. Of the Menoivned American Naval Heroes durmg 
 
 this war may be named : — 
 
 1. Commodore Rogers, of the frigate President^ who 
 captured the British sloop-of-war Xz^^^e Belt, Captain Bing- 
 ham, off the coast of Virginia, May 16, 1811. 
 
 2. Commodore Hull, of the frigate Constitution, who 
 captured the Querrier, Captsiin. Dacres, August 19lh, 1812. 
 
 3. Commodore Porter, who, commanding the Essex, 
 captured the Alert, August 13th, 1812, but who was com- 
 pelled to surrender his vessel to two British men-of-war 
 after a sanguinary action, in the harbor of Valparaiso, 
 March 28, 1814. 
 
 4. Commodore Decatur, who, as a lieutenant under 
 Commodore Preble, distinguished himself in the war with 
 Tripoli, 1804 (see ji?a^e 247) ; afterward arose to the first 
 rank of naval heroes. As commander of the frigate United 
 States he captured the Macedonian, Captain Carden, Oc- 
 tober 25th, 1812. Subsequently, in command of the Pres- 
 ide7it, he was defeated off the coast of Long Island, Jan- 
 uary toth, 1815, by a British squadron of four ships. 
 
 5. Commodore Perry, who, on Lake Erie, with a fleet 
 of nine vessels (54 guns), captured a British squadron of 
 six vessels (63 guns). Commodore Barclay, September 
 10th, 1813. Perry's announcement of this victory was: — 
 " We have met the enemy, and they are ours.'*'' 
 
 6. Commodore McDonough, w^ho defeated Commodore 
 DowNiE on JLahe Champlain, Seiptemher 11th, 1814. The 
 American fleet mounted 86 guns, and that of the British 95. 
 
 The war closed with the Treaty of Ghent, signed De- 
 cember 24th, 1814, and ratified by the United States Senate 
 February 18th, 1815. 
 
 During this administration, Louisiana, the eighteenth 
 State, was admitted in 1812 ; and Indiana, the nineteenth, 
 in 1816. Indiana was settled first at Yincennes, 1700, by 
 French emigrants from Canada. 
 
to 1870.] FEDERAL. 253 
 
 V. — The Administeation of James Monroe. 
 
 1817—1825: 8 years, 
 
 Tlie Chief Events oi this administration were : — 
 
 1. The admission of Jive new States to the Federal 
 Union, viz. : — 
 
 Mississippi, twentieth, December 10th, 1817. Settled 
 by the Spaniards in 1540, and by the French at Natchez in 
 1716. 
 
 Illinois, twenty-first, admitted December 23d, 1818. 
 Settled by the French at Kaskashia 1683. 
 
 Alabama, twenty-second, admitted December 19th, 1819. 
 Settled by the French at Mobile, 1713. 
 
 Maine, twenty-third State, settled by the English at 
 York, 1630; admitted to the Union in 1820. 
 
 Missouri, settled at St. Genevieve in 1763 by the French, 
 and admitted into the Union December 14th, 1821. The 
 act of Congress admitting this State, named " The Missouri 
 Comprondse^'' permitted the existence of slavery in Mis- 
 souri, but prohibited that institution in all United States 
 territory west of the Mississippi river and north of latitude 
 36° 30' north. 
 
 2. " The Monroe Doctrine^'' that " the American conti- 
 nent is not to be considered as subject for future coloniza- 
 tion by any European power." This ground was taken by 
 the president in his proclamation recognizing the independ- 
 ence of the republics of South America, 1822. 
 
 3. The Purchase of Florida from Spain, by which the 
 United States acquired 59,268 square miles additional ter- 
 ritory. This region, originally occupied and claimed by 
 Spain, was by the Peace of Paris, 1763, ceded to Great 
 Britain in exchange for Havana, which city the English 
 had seized in 1761. In 1781 Spain seized and re-occupied 
 West Florida, and in 1783 obtained possession of the re- 
 
254 HISTORY OE THE UKITED STATES. [A. ». ITSQ 
 
 mainder of the country by the Treaty of Versailles. In 
 1821 the whole region was purchased from Spain by the 
 United States for the sum of $5,000,000. 
 
 4. Marquis de la Fayette, as the nation's guest, visited 
 the United States in 1824. 
 
 VI. — The ADMiNTSTRATioisr of John Quincy Adams. 
 
 1825—1839 : 4 years. 
 
 During this administration, which was distinguished by 
 peace at home and abroad, and universal prosperity in all 
 sections of the country, there were few events of great im- 
 portance. 
 
 1. The completion of the JErie and Hadson Canal, in 
 1825. This valuable work of internal improvement, the 
 longest canal in the world, excepting the Imperial canal of 
 China, extends from the Hudson river at Albany to BuiFalo 
 on Lake Erie, a distance of 362 miles. It w^as commenced 
 July 4th, 1817, and completed October 26th, 1825, at a cost 
 of about $8,000,000. 
 
 2. The death of the venerable patriots John Adams and 
 Thomas Jefferson, two of the illustrious heroes of the Rev- 
 olution, and both of them ex-presidents, on the fourth of 
 July, 1826, the fiftieth anniversary of the day, which by 
 their devotion to the cause of enlightened and regulated 
 liberty, they had contributed to render ever memorable in 
 the annals of time. 
 
 YII.— The Administration of Andrew Jackson. 
 1829—1837 : 8 years. 
 Tlie most Important Events of this administration 
 
 were :- 
 
HplSTO.] FEDERAL. 255 
 
 1. TJie War icith the Winnebago and Seminole Indians. 
 The leader of the Winnebagoes was the celebrated chief 
 Black HawJc^ who, after the defeat of his confederates, the 
 ,Sacs and Foxes^ in northern Illinois, still continued the con- 
 test for a time with fierce determination. This hostile chief 
 jwas finally defeated and captured by General Atkinson, 
 August 27th, 1832; and General Scott, superseding Atkin- 
 jison, concluded a treaty with the Indians, which secured for 
 [the United States nearly all Wisconsin and Iowa. The 
 Seminole and Creek Indians in Flo rida had aofreed to re- 
 .move to the Indian Territory west of the Mississippi; but 
 jtinder the chieftainship of the famed warrior Osceola and 
 others, they determined to remain in their old hunting- 
 grounds, and in retaliation of former injuries made war upon 
 tlie whites in Florida, Georgia, and Alabama, 1835-42. In 
 the early part of this sanguinary contest Major Dade, with 
 jllO men, and General Thompson, with a party of friends, 
 Avere nearly all massacred, December 28th, 1835. At 
 length Generals Clinch, Gaines, and Scott successively 
 obtained such advantages over them that many were in- 
 duced to remove to the west ; and the heroic though savage 
 Osceola, being dishonorably seized by General Jessup, was 
 sent to Fort Moultrie, where he died in 1838. 
 
 2. The Nidlijication ordinance passed by the legislature 
 of South Carolina, setting aside the authority of Congress 
 5n passing certain tariff laws by which additional duties 
 were imposed on foreign goods. South Carolina regarding 
 the operation of this high tariff law as injurious to her in- 
 terests, threatened resistance to its execution. But the dif- 
 ficulty was speedily removed by the firmness of the presi- 
 dent, aided by the influence of the Compromise Act, 
 adopted b}^ Congress, at the suggestion of Mr. Clay. 
 
 3. The Removal of the Funds of the United States, 
 jamounting to about 110,000,000, from the United States 
 [Bank to the State banks, October 1st, 1833. The Specie 
 
256 HISTORY OF THE UI^ITED STATES. [A. ». 17S9 
 
 Circular^ issued by the treasury department, requiring 
 gold or silver in payment for the public lands, July, 1836. 
 The Distribution Act, which ordained that all money in the 
 national treasury on the 1st of January, 1837, should be 
 divided among the States. 
 
 4. AiiKANSx\s, settled at ArJcansas I^osthy the French in 
 1685, was admitted, twenty-fifth State, June 15th, 1836. 
 Michigan, twenty-sixth State, was settled by the French 
 at Detroit, 1670, and admitted to the Union January 26th, 
 1837. 
 
 5. Death of Mninent Men. — John Jay, one of the 
 presidents of the Continental Congress, and the first chief- 
 justice under the Federal government, died at Bedford, 
 New York, May 17th, 1829, aged 84 years. James Mon- 
 roe, the fifth president of the United States, died in New 
 York, July 4th, 1831, aged 73, being the third ex-president 
 that had died on the 4th of July. Charles Carroll, of 
 Carrollton, Maryland, the last survivor of the illustrious 
 signers of the Declaration of Independence, died in Balti- 
 more, November 14th, 1832, aged 96. John Randolph, of 
 Roanoke, Virginia, a descendant of Pocahontas, and for 
 thirty years a distinguished member of Congress, died in 
 Philadelphia, May, 1833, at the age of 60. John Mar- 
 shall, of Virginia, who for many years presided in the su- 
 preme court with an ability and a dignity which have not { 
 been surpassed, died in the year 1835, at the age of 85. 
 
 VIII. — The Administration of Martin Van Buren. 
 
 1837—1841 : 4 years. 
 
 1. In this administration were experienced some of the 
 results of the measures of the preceding administration. 
 The banks throughout the country suspended specie pay- 
 ments, and great pecuniary distress generally prevailed. 
 
to 1870.] FEDBRAL. 257 
 
 2. In the year 1837 an insurrection broke out in Canada, 
 which was aided from the opposite shore of the United 
 States by a number of those restless spirits which are ever 
 ready to engage in questionable enterprises. After several 
 fruitless attempts to revolutionize Canada, the American 
 aiders and abettors of the so-called patriots were dispersed 
 by the authorities of the United States. 
 
 3. August 18th, 1838, the United States Exploring Ex- 
 pedition^ consisting of six vessels, under Commodore 
 Wilkes, sailed from Hampton Roads, Virginia. And hav- 
 ing visited and explored many places before unknown, 
 among others that which is supposed to be the coast of an 
 Antarctic continent, the squadron returned in June, 1812, 
 bringing home a great variety of rare and valuable speci- 
 mens of natural history. 
 
 IX. — The Administratioit of Harrison and Tyler. 
 1841—1845 : 4 years. 
 
 1, William Senry Harrison^ the son of Benjamin 
 Harrison, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, and 
 the hero of Tippecanoe, the Thames, and other battles in 
 the war of 1812-1814, became, by a large popular vote, the 
 ninth president of the United States, March 4th, 1841. But 
 the president lived only one month after his inauguration, 
 dying April 4th, when, according to the Constitution, John 
 Tyler, the vice-president, became president for the remain- 
 der of the term. This was the first instance of the death 
 of a president while in office. 
 
 2, The Chief Events occurring during this administra- 
 tion : — 
 
 1. The Eunher Hill Monument completed after a prog- 
 ress of seventeen years, July 23d, 1842. 
 
258 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [A. ». 1789 
 
 "2. The Kortlieastern Boundary lAne botween Maine and 
 New Brunswick ratified by the Senate as determined by 
 the commissioners, Daniel Webster and Lord Ashburton, 
 July, 1842. 
 
 3. S. I^\ B. Morse enabled, by a Congressional grant of 
 $30,000, to erect an experimental telegraph between Balti- 
 more and Washington cities, March 3d, 1843. 
 
 4. The Dorr Rebellion in Rhode Island, 1843, was occa- 
 sioned by an effort on the part of some of the people to 
 substitute a State Constitution for the old charter granted 
 by Charles 11., 1663, under which the State had remained 
 until this time. The movement, led by Thomas W. Dorr, 
 designed to set aside the old charter, not according to legal 
 forms but by a spontaneous revolutionary act of the people. 
 The party opposed to Dorr's movement, called the Charter 
 Party ^ were not unwilling to adojjt a new Constitution, but 
 were determined it should be accomplished in a regular and 
 peaceful manner. This party at length triumphed. Dorr 
 was ti'ied and imprisoned, but was aiterward released. 
 
 5. Florida, settled at 8t. Augustine by the Spaniards in 
 1565, was admitted into the Union as the twenty-seventh 
 State, March 3d, 1845. 
 
 X. — The Admhstistration of James K. Polk. 
 
 1845—1849 : 4 years. 
 
 1, Three new States were received into the great family 
 union durincf this administration : — Texas, Iowa, and Wis- 
 consin, making the whole number thirty. 
 
 1. Texas was settled at Bexar (San Antonio), in 1694, by 
 the Spaniards; and although it had been explored botli by 
 Ponce de Leon and La Salle, yet until 1836 it was consid- 
 ered as subject to Mexico. At that time the people, being 
 for the most part immigrants from the United States, threw 
 
to 1870.] FEDERAL. 259 
 
 off the oppressive and degrading government of Mexico 
 and declared thennselves independent. This act being re- 
 cognized by the United States, Great Britain, France, and 
 other powers, Texas was acknowledged as an independent 
 republic. But it was rather a small and feeble nation, and 
 being unable at once to sustain itself as an independent 
 power, application was made for admission into the Federal 
 Union. This was readily granted, and Texas became the 
 twenty-eighth State, in 1845, adding to the area of the 
 great Republic 237,504 square miles. 
 
 2. Iowa at first formed a part of the territory purchased 
 from France as Loidsiana, in 1803. Permanent settlements 
 were made about the year 1830, at Dubuque, and Hurling- 
 ton by colonists from Michigan and Illinois. Iowa was ad- 
 mitted as the twenty-ninth State, December 25th, 1846. 
 
 3. Wisconsin, originally a part of the Northwest Terri- 
 tory, was settled by the French at Green 3ay in 16G9, and 
 admitted to the Union, the thirtieth State, May 29th, 
 1848. The Northwest Territory was at first a part of Vir- 
 ginia, extending north to the Lakes and west to the Missis- 
 sippi. 
 
 ^. Tlie War ivith Mexico was the result of the annex- 
 ation of Texas to the United States, as Mexico had not re- 
 linquished her claim to Texas. During this contest, which 
 began April 26th, 1846, General Taylor defeated the Mex- 
 icans in the battles of J^alo Alto, Hesaca de la Palma, 
 Monterey ; and in 1847, Buena Vista. In these engage- 
 ments the Mexicans were commanded by Generals Arista 
 and Ampudia. In 1847 General Scott captured Vera Cruz, 
 and prosecuting the war defeated the Mexicans in the suc- 
 cessive battles of Cerro Gordo, Contreras, Cheruhusco, 
 Molino del Hey, Chapultepec, and finally captured the city 
 of Mexico. In these battles the Mexicans were generally 
 led by the celebrated Santa Anna. By the Treaty of 
 Guadaloupe Hidalgo, February 2d, 1848, California and 
 
2G0 HISTORY OF THE U:N^ITED STATES. [A. B. 1789 
 
 New Mexico were ceded to the United States for 
 $15,000,000. Santa Fe, the capital of New Mexico, was 
 settled in 1682. 
 
 3, The Oregon Boundary Line determined to be the 
 forty-ninth degree of north latitude by the commissioners, 
 James Buchanan and Sir R. Packenham, 1846. 
 
 4, Obituary. — On the 8th of June, 1845, ex-president 
 Andrew Jackson died at the Hermitage^ in Tennessee, at 
 the age of 78. He was a native of South Carolina, where 
 he was born March 15th, 1767. He was a man of great 
 firmness and energy of character, not kss popular as a pol- 
 itician than admired as a soldier, and no man was more 
 sincerely regarded than he in the relations of private life. 
 
 On the 22d of February, 1848, ex president John Quincy 
 Adams expired in the capitol at Washington, at the age of 
 81. Having devoted his life to the service of his country, 
 he had occupied with distinguished ability every position 
 to which he had been called. His last words were : " This 
 is the last of earth — I am content.'^'* 
 
 XL — The Administration of Taylor and Fillmore. 
 
 1849—1853: 4 years. 
 
 1, The Ifiiportant Matters at this time were the ad- 
 mission of California into the Union and the settlement 
 of the exciting questions which arose in connection with it. 
 The people of California had adopted a constitution prohib- 
 iting domestic slavery, and applied to be admitted as a free 
 State. This was violently opposed in Congress, because a 
 large part of the proposed State lay south of the Missouri 
 Com2)romise Line. To obviate the difficulty Henry Clay, 
 the great pacificator, introduced a compromise bill into Con- 
 gress, familiarly named the Omnibus Bill, arid wliich was 
 finally adopted, providing, 1. That California should be ad- 
 
to 1870.] FEDEKAL, 261 
 
 mitted as a free State. 2. That the territories of Utah and 
 New Mexico should be erected without mention of domestic 
 slavery, and that $10,000,000 should be paid to Texas for 
 her claims on New Mexico. 3. That the slave-trade should 
 be abolished in the District of Columbia. 4. That a law 
 should be passed for the return of fugitive bond servants. 
 Upon the adoption of this bill, September, 1850, California 
 was admitted to the Union, being the thirty-first State. It 
 was settled by the Spaniards in 1769, at Los Angelas. 
 
 2, Obituary. — On the 9th of July, 1850, died President 
 Zachary Taylor, after an illness of a few days : a brave 
 soldier, a pure patriot, and an upright man. 
 
 At the city of Washington, March 31, 1850, died John 
 C. Calhoujst, of South Carolina, agod 68 years ; at the 
 same place, June 29, 1852, Henry Clay, of Kentucky, in the 
 75th vear of his as^e : and on the 24th of the following: Octo- 
 ber, at Marshfield^ Massachusetts, Daniel Webster, aged 
 70 years. Men of peerless renown : their history is the 
 record of their country's fame. 
 
 XII. — The Administration of Franklin Pierce. 
 
 1853—1857 : 4 years. 
 
 Chief Events, — 1. Death of the Vice-President. — Wil- 
 liam RuFus King of Alabauia, who had been elected as 
 vice-president with Mr. Pierce, died on the 18th of April, 
 1853, not having been inaugurated, and leaving the mce- 
 presidency vacant during this administration. 
 
 2. The Purchase of A^^izona, 1853. — The boundary-line 
 between Mexico and the territories of New Mexico and 
 California not having been accurately defined when those 
 regions were obtained by the United States in 1848, a dis- 
 pute arose between the two governments respecting it. In 
 order to settle this question amicably an additional region 
 
362 HISTORY OF THE UKITED STATES. [A. ». 1789 
 
 named Arizona, embracing an area of 27,500 square miles,|l 
 and including the territory in dispute, was purchased from 
 Mexico for $20,000,000. 
 
 3. Treaty with Japan, March 23d, 1854. — Commodore] 
 Perry* having been sent on a friendly expedition to Japan,: 
 succeeded in negotiating between that empire and the I 
 United States a treaty of commerce, which has proved mu-' 
 tually advantageous. 
 
 4. The Civil War in ITansas, 1855. — The Congress hav- 
 ing passed an act named the Kansas- N^ehraska JMll, organ- 
 izing those territories, with the privilege of coming into the 
 Union either as free States or slavery States ; and one of 
 the provisions of this act repealing the Missouri Compro- 
 7nise, the old question respecting the extension of the insti- 
 tution of domestic slavery was reopened with great vio- 
 lence. Yery soon the two parties. Pro-slavery and Anti- 
 slavery, were slrongly represented in Kansas, and for a long 
 time they engaged in a fierce civil w^ar, which resulted ulti- 
 mately in the triumph of the anti-slavery or free-soil party, 
 and the admission of Kansas in 1861 as a free State. 
 
 XIII. — The Administratioi^ of James BucHANAif. 
 
 1857—1861 : 4 years. 
 
 Chief Events, — 1. The Mormon Rebellion. — The Mor- 
 mons, a sect of fanatical religionists, now occupying Utah 
 Territory, originated in 1827, at Palmyra, New York, with 
 one Joe Smith, who pretended that he had by a divine rev- 
 elation discovered an ancient book called the Book of Mor- 
 mon, containing the doctrines and laws of the only true 
 church. Smith soon collected a number of ignorant or 
 designing followers, from nearly all parts of the world, who 
 
 * A brother of the hero of Lake Erie. 
 
tolS70.j FEDERAL. 263 
 
 proclaimed themselves The Latter-day Saints, who are to 
 possess the earth. They formed a settlement at JVauvoo, 
 Illinois, where in 1845 Joe Smith and his brother Hiram 
 were shot in a riot occasioned by their disorderly and im- 
 moral practices. Being driven from Illinois they emigrated 
 beyond the Rocky Mountains, and in 1847 established 
 themselves near the Great Salt Lake, where they founded 
 a state, which they named Deseret, built a city and a tem- 
 ple, and lived under their own laws as an independent peo- 
 ple : ^righam Young being their acknowledged prophet, 
 priest, and king. In 1850 this region, having been origi- 
 nally a part of Upper California, was organized by Con- 
 gress as the Territory of Utah ; and Brigham Young was 
 appointed the first governor by President Fillmore. Young 
 was continued in this office until 1857, when, in consequence 
 of the repeated outrages committed by the Mormons upon 
 all government officers in the territory who were not Mor- 
 mons, their constant molestation of emigrants going through 
 the territory, and their frequent destruction of the provi- 
 sion trains of the United States army. President Buchanan 
 appointed another governor, a Mr. Cumming, and with him 
 sent an army to sustain, if necessary, the Federal authoi-ity. 
 Upon this the saints submitted reluctantly to the new order 
 of things ; but subsequent events render it evident that, as 
 Mormons, these misguided people can never be law-abiding 
 citizens of the United States. 
 
 2. Three New States — Minnesota, Oregon, and Kansas. — 
 1. Minnesota formed a part of the Louisiana purchase, 
 1803. It was visited by traders and trappers from Canada 
 about 1654. In 1680 Louis Hennepin explored the Upper 
 Mississippi region ; and again in 1766 the territory was ex- 
 plored by Jonathan Carver of Connecticut. The first set- 
 tlement was a fort on Lake Pepin, by Perrot and Le Sueur, 
 in 1689. Minnesota was organized as a territory in 1849, 
 and admitted as a State May 1 Ith, 1857. 2. Oregon was vis- 
 
264 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [A.U. 1789 
 
 ited by the Spaniards at an early period, but Captain Gray 
 of Boston, sailing in the ship Columbia, took possession of 
 the country in 1792, naming its principal river Columbia, 
 after his vessel. It was afterward visited by Captains Lewis 
 and Clarke, 1804-6. Organized as a territory in 1848 ; di- 
 vided from Washington territory in 1852, and admitted as 
 a State February 14th, 1859. 3. Kansas, after some delay, 
 was admitted into the Union, the thirty-fourth State, Janu- 
 ary 29th, 1861 (see p. 262). 
 
 3. The Secession of eleven Southern States from the 
 Federal Union, December 20th, 1860— May 21st, 1861, viz., 
 South Carolina, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, 
 Alabama, Texas, Arkansas, Virginia, Tennessee, and North 
 Carolina. This movement orig^inated in a determination not 
 to ^submit to the rule of the political party that had elected 
 Mr. Lincoln to the presidency, and it was justified on the 
 principles of a class of politicians, the State Mights party, 
 which, confined to no section, had existed from the origin 
 of the government, and which held among other things 
 that " the sovereis^n States which had formed the Federal 
 compact were competent at any time, for cause, to with- 
 draw from it." The States that had thus seceded formed 
 for themselves a general government as The Confederate 
 States of America, of which Jefferson Davis of Missis- 
 sippi was chosen president, and Alexander H. Stephens 
 of Georgia vice-president, February 9Lh, 1861. 
 
 XIY. — The Administration of Lincoln and Johnson. 
 
 1861—1869 : 8 years. 
 
 1. On the 4th of March, 1861, Abraham Lincoln of 
 Illinois, and Hannibal Hamlin of Maine, were inaugurated 
 
to 1870.] FEDERAL. 365 
 
 president and vice-president of the United States. Poind- 
 ing the authority of the Fedoral government set aside in 
 the seceded States, and that those States had actually pro- 
 jeeeded to open and armed hostility to that authority, Mr. 
 I Lincoln, according to the principles of another great politi- 
 ical party, the J^c/er a/, regarding the Federal Constitution 
 as the supreme law of the land and obligatory upon all the 
 jcitizens, and having in his inauguration oath sworn to 
 *' preserve, protect, and defend" that Constitution, prepared 
 |by force of arms " to restore the authority of the Federal 
 government in all places where it had been abolished." The 
 capture of Fort Sumter, in Charleston harbor, by the Con- 
 federates, after a desperate defence by a small United 
 States garrison, was the actual commencement of the war, 
 April 12 th, 1861. 
 
 2. During the sanguinary contest which ensued, one hun- 
 dred and twenty-seven important battles are reported to 
 have been fought ; of which, it is stated, seventy-seven re- 
 sulted favorably to the Federal government, and forty-six 
 to the Confederates; while /bi^r are set down as having 
 been indecisive. In these terrible battles, both on land 
 and water, there were exhibited on both sides personal 
 valor and deeds of heroism worthy of the great captains 
 of any age, and for which the American soldier has ever 
 been distinguished. 
 
 3. The capture of Petersburg, Virginia, by the United 
 States forces under General U. S. Grant, and the conse- 
 quent evacuation of Richmond, followed by the surrender 
 of the Confederate array under General Robert E. Lee, 
 terminated this great civil war, April 9th, 1865. 
 
 4. On the 14th of the same month Mr. Lincoln, who had 
 been re-elected president, was assassinated by a theatrical 
 desperado, and Vice-President Andrew Johnson became 
 president for the remainder of the term, ending March 4th, 
 1869. 
 
 12 
 
2G6 HISTOEY OP THE UKITED STATES. [A. ». 1780 
 
 5. Between President Johnson and the Congress there 
 soon arose a controversy respecting the terms upon which 
 the late Confederate States should hii reconstructed^ i. e, re- 
 stored to their original relations to the Federal Union, and 
 respecting other matters in the administration of the gov- 
 ernment. On the 5th of March, 1868, the president was 
 impeached by the House of Representatives for high crimes 
 and tnisdoneanors, and having been tried by the Senate, 
 Chief- Justice Chase presiding, he was on the 16th of May 
 acquitted by that high tribunal. 
 
 6. On the 25th of December, 1868, the president issued 
 a proclamation of general amnesty, restoring to their civil 
 rights all that had taken part in the so called ''''rebellion^'' on 
 their taking a certain oath of allegiance to the Federal 
 government. 
 
 7. On the 4th of March, 1869, Ulysses S. Grant and 
 SnHUYLER Colfax were inaugurated president and vice- 
 president of the United States, their official term to expire 
 March 4th, 1873. 
 
 Observations on the Federal Period. 
 
 1, Instances of Sectional JDiscontent in the Federal 
 Union, — Prior to the late secession of the Southern States 
 there had occurred several instances of serious sectional dis- 
 content with the administration of the Federal government. 
 
 1. 71ie 'Whisky Insurrection^ in western Pennsylvania. 
 
 2. The Opposition of the Nein England States to the 
 war with Great Britain, 1812-1814, as expressed in the pro 
 ceedings of the Hartford Convention^ December 15th, 1811. 
 
 3. The Nullification ordinance of South Carolina 
 (p. 255). 
 
 4. Petitions for the Dissolution of the JJnion^ miles.^ 
 
to 1870.] FEDERAL. 267 
 
 davery were abolished^ signed by a large number of per- 
 sons in Massachusetts, and presented to Congress by tlieir 
 representative, John Q.uincy Adams. 
 
 From the adoption of the Federal Constitution to the 
 present time diverse opinions have been honestly enter- 
 I tained respecting both the interpretation of that instrument 
 and the best policy to be observed in the particular admin- 
 istration of the government. Between President Wash- 
 I ington and Mr. Jefferson, his secretary of state, there existed 
 i a decided difference of opinion respecting the constitution- 
 ality of the act of Congress chartering the Bank of the 
 United States. The secretary, holding the necessity of a 
 strict constructio7i of the Constitution, maintained theiiega- 
 tive, while the president, adopting the principle of a /reer 
 inter 2)retation^ as conscientiously maintained the affirma- 
 tive. And the respective principles involved in this and 
 similar questions have ever had numerous and jjowerful 
 advocates. This diversity of opinion upon political as well 
 as upon other debatable subjects, is to be expected. Nor 
 is it in itself undesirable, for it is only through the conflict 
 of ideas, investigation, controversy, and experiment, that 
 intelligent yet fallible men discover upon such subjects the 
 great principles of truth and wisdom, and the proper mode 
 of their application. But in order to attain the desired 
 result the conflict should be a fair one j the investigation 
 should be conducted with candor ; and the controversy 
 should be marked with self-respect and generosity. When, 
 however, the contest is for mere victory and not for truth ; 
 for selfish or sectional aggrandizement and not for the na- 
 tional welfare ; and when the controversy is distinguished 
 by personal invective and acrimony of temper, then party 
 spirit becomes the bane of the republic. 
 
 But it must ever be borne in mind that the Constitution 
 of the United States, having been devised by a body of 
 men, distinguished not less by private virtue and personal 
 
268 HISTOEY OF THE UKITED STATES. [A. ». 1789 
 
 honor than by political ability and enlightened patriotism, 
 for the purpose of securing to the people of the United 
 States, on the principle of self-government, the blessings 
 of civil and religious liberty, it accomplishes that exalted 
 purpose only when the officers of the government are actu- 
 ated by the virtue and the patriotism of the noble men 
 who " pledged their lives, their fortunes, and their sacred 
 honor," for the privilege of adopting such a national com- 
 pact, and only so far as the people themselves are disposed 
 and qualified to enjoy the blessings which that compact 
 guarantees. 
 
 2. Iniportatit Mechanical Inventions originating with 
 citizens of the United States : — 
 
 1. The CoTTOi!^ Gin, invented in 1790, by Eli Whitney, 
 a native of Massachusetts, but at that time residing in 
 Georgia ; 2. The Steamboat, by Robert Fulton ; 3. The 
 Magnetic Telegraph, by S. F. B. Morse ; and 4. The 
 Mow^ER AND Reaper, by C H. McCormick. 
 
 Cotton was used in India as a cloth four hundred years 
 before the Christian a3ra. It was brought into Arabia by 
 the Saracens, and in the ninth century after Christ the 
 Moors introduced it into Spain. 
 
 The Crusaders brought cotton cloth to Europe from Mo- 
 sul, whence it was named by them Mosuline (muslin). The 
 manufacture of this fabric was introduced into England in 
 the reign of Queen Elizabeth, by refugees from Holland ; 
 in 1730 3Ir. Wyatt began to spin cotton by machinery, and 
 the first cotton-mill in England was erected at Manchester 
 in 1742. Soon after this Arkwright brought cotton ma- 
 chinery very nearly to its present state of perfection. 
 
 The first cotton-mill in America w^is built by a Mr. Slater 
 in 1790, at Pawtucket, Rhode Island, at which period 
 cotton was little known or used in this country. In 1800 
 the whole product was but 85,000 bales. Fifty years later 
 it was 3,500,000 bales. 
 
lo 18T0.1 FEDEKAL. 269 
 
 2. Although the Steam-Engine had been applied in Eng- 
 land to various mechanical purposes before the present cen- 
 tury, yet the honor of applying it to the purposes of navi- 
 gation is due to Robert Fulton, of Lancaster county, Penn- 
 sylvania, where he was born in the year 1765. Having 
 gone to Europe to prosecute his scientific studies, Fulton's 
 attention was directed, while in Paris, to the subject of 
 steam navigation by R. R. Livingston, the American min- 
 ister to France. In the year 1803 he made a successful 
 experiment with a model steamboat on the river Seine, in 
 the presence of a vast concourse of people. On the return 
 of Fulton and Livingston to the United States in 1806, 
 they commenced building a steamboat, and in 1807 this 
 vessel, called the Clermont, began navigating the Hudson 
 at the rate oijive miles an hour. 
 
 From that memorable a3ra in the life of the indefatigable 
 Fulton the art of navigating by steam has been advanced 
 to great perfection. Land steam-locomotion has been intro- 
 duced; and the steam-engine, of every dimension and 
 power, has been applied to all purposes in the arts and 
 manufactures requiring velocity and force. And it is not 
 improbable that another Fulton may hereafter apply it suc- 
 cessfully to the purposes of atmospheric travel. 
 
 3. The 3fagnetic Telegraph, the wonder of the age, is 
 the result of the persevering efforts of Samuel F. B. Morse, 
 in applying to this important purpose discoveries in the 
 science of electro-magnetism w^hich had been previously 
 maile by Professor Joseph Henry, the distinguished secre- 
 tary of the Smithsonian Institution. In the month of May, 
 1844, the first telegraphic lines were laid between Baltimore 
 and Washington; and the first message sent over the wires 
 was this : " What hath God wrought P' In the year 1858 
 was successfully laid the telegraphic cable between the 
 eastern and western continents, placing the Old World and 
 the New in hourly communication. 
 
270 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [A. ». 1789 
 
 4. If a mechanical invention that annually adds millions 
 to the general income of the country, and that, more than 
 any other, has alleviated the oppressive toil of the husband- 
 man, is worthy of historic mention, then we must name, 
 with every mark of consideration, the far-famed lloioer and 
 Heaper, invented in 1831 hy Cyrus H. McCormick, of Vir- 
 ginia, then in the twenty-second year of his age. 
 
 5. The Importance arid Dignify of the Mechanical 
 Professions, — In some classes of society there exists an 
 unreasonable prejudice against engaging in these important 
 pursuits of life. But if there had been any essential un- 
 w^orthiness connected with such eirployraents it has been 
 forever removed. For when the Eternal Son of God, in 
 the exercise of infinite love, would visit our world to in- 
 struct and save the lost. He assumed our nature in the per- 
 son of Mary's son; and the Incarnate Divinity was known 
 as a carpenter in Galilee. He chose his apostles chiefly 
 from among the working-classes, and kings and rulers 
 trembled at the eloquence of the inspired tent-maker of 
 Tarsus. 
 
 4. Classification of States and Territories according 
 to Geographical JPosition, 
 
 1. Eight Northern Divisions: Washingtoir, Idaho, 
 Montana, Wyo'ining, Dacotah, Minnesota, Wisconsin, 
 Michigan. 
 
 2. Fourteen Eastern: Maine, New Hampshire, Ver- 
 mont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New 
 York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, 
 District of Columbia, Virginia, North Carolina. 
 
 3. Seven Southern : South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, 
 Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas. 
 
 4. Seven Western : Oregon, California, Nevada, Ari- 
 zona, JSfe'W Mexico, Colorado, Utah. 
 
 5. Twelve Central : Nebraska, Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, 
 Ohio, West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, 
 Missouri, Kansas, Indian Territorii. 
 
to 1870.] FEDERAL. 271 
 
 6. Alaska, purchased from Russia in 1867 for $7,200,000, 
 lies at the extreme northwestern part of North America. 
 Total, 49 divisions. 
 
 o. Progressive Enlargement of Territory, 
 
 Sq. miles. 
 Area of the United States at Treaty of Peace, 178:] 815,615 
 
 Louisiana, as purchased from France, 1803 930,928 
 
 Florida, as purchased from Spain, 1821 59,268 
 
 Texas, as annexed in 1845 237,504 
 
 Oregon, as determined by treaty, in 1846 280,425 
 
 California and New Mexico, obtained in 1847 649,762 
 
 Arizona, purchased from Mexico in 1854 27,500 
 
 Alaska, purchased from Russia in 1867 577,390 
 
 Total in 1870 .3,578,392 
 
 Increase in 87 years 2,762,777 
 
 6, Increase of Population since A, D, 1790, 
 
 1790 3,929,827 
 
 1800 5,305,925 
 
 1810 7,239,814 
 
 1820 9,638,131 
 
 1830 12,866,020 
 
 1840 17,069,453 
 
 1850 23,191,876 
 
 1860 31,443,321 
 
 1870 40,000,000 + . 
 
 The ratio of increase varying from 32.67 to 36.45 per 
 cent., and the absolute increase in eighty years more than 
 35,000,000. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 I. The Chief Officers of the Federal Government. 
 
 1. The President. (See p. 243.) 
 
 2. The Vice-Presidents, {ex-officio Presidents of the Senate.) 
 
 John Adams, Mass April 30, 1789 
 
 Thomas Jefferson, Va March 4, 1797 
 
 AaronBnrr, N. Y " 4,1801 
 
 George Cliuton, N. Y ' " 4, 1805 
 
 (Died April 20, 1812.) 
 Elbridge Gerry, Mass March 4, 1813 
 
 (Died Nov. 23, 1814.) 
 Daniel D. Tompkins, N. Y., Mar. 4, 1817 
 
 John C. Calhoun, S. C " 4, 18-25 
 
 Martin Van Bureu, N. Y. . . . " 4, 1833 
 Richard M. Johnson, Ky. . . . " 4, 1837 
 
 John Tyler, Va " 4,1841 
 
 (Succeeded Harrison as Pres.Apr.4,1841) 
 
 George M. Dallas, Pa March 4, 1845 
 
 Millard Fillmore, N. Y. . . . " 4, 1849 
 (Succeeded Taylor as President, July 9, 
 
 1850.) 
 
 William R. King, Ala. (Died April 18, 
 
 1853, Vice-Presidency vacant 4 years.) 
 
 John C. Breckinridge, Ky., Mar. 4, 1857 
 
 Hannibal Hamlin, Me " 4,1861 
 
 Andrew Johnson., Tenn. . . " 4, 1865 
 (Succeeded Lincoln as President, April 
 
 15, 1865.) 
 Schuyler Colfax, Ind March 4, 1869 
 
 3. Secretaries of State. (" Department of Foreign Affairs," created by 
 gress, July 27, 1789— afterward changed to that of " State.") 
 
 Thomas Jefferson, Va Sept. 26, 1789 
 
 Edmund Randolph, Va Jan. 2, 1794 
 
 Timothy Pickering, Mass., Dec. 10, 1795 
 
 John Marshall, Va May 13, 1800 
 
 James Madison, Va Marcli 5, 1801 
 
 Robert Smith, Md " 6,1809 
 
 James Monroe, Va April 2, 1811 
 
 John Quincy Adams, Mass., Mar. 4, 1817 
 
 Henry Clay, Ky " 4,1825 
 
 Martin Van Buren, N. Y. . . " 6, 18:9 
 
 Ed. Livingston, La May 24, 1831 
 
 Louis McLean, Del " 29, 1833 
 
 John Forsyth, Ga June 27, 1834 
 
 Daniel Webster, Mass . . . .March 5, 1841 
 
 Hugh S. Legare, S. C May 9, 
 
 Abel P. Upshur, Va June 24, 
 
 John Nelson, Md. . . Feb. 29, 
 
 John C. Calhoun, S. C March 6, 
 
 James Buchanan, Pa " 5, 
 
 John M. Clayton, Del " 7, 
 
 Daniel Webster, Mass July 20, 
 
 Edward Everett, Mass Dec. 9, 
 
 William L. Marcy, N. Y., March 5, 
 
 Lewis Cass, Micb " 6, 
 
 Jeremiah S. Black, Pa Dec. 14, 
 
 Wm. H. Seward, N. Y. . . .March 5, 
 
 E. B. Washburne, 111 " 5, 
 
 Hamilton Fish, N. Y " 11, 
 
 Con- 
 
 1843 
 1&13 
 1844 
 1844 
 1845 
 1849 
 1859 
 1851 
 1853 
 1857 
 1860 
 1861 
 1869 
 1869 
 
 Secretaries or the Treasury. (Department created by Congress, Septem- 
 ber 2, 1789.) 
 
 Alex. Hamilton, N. Y Sept. 12, 1789 
 
 Oliver Wolcott, Ct Feb. 4, 1795 
 
 Samuel Dexter, Mass Dec, 31, 1800 
 
 Albert Gallatin, Pa May 14, 1802 
 
 Geo. W. Campbell, Tcnn., Feb. 9, 1814 
 Alex. J. Dallas, Pa Oct. 6, 1814 
 
 Wm. H. Crawford, Ga Oct. 22, 1817 
 
 Richard Rush, Pa March 7, 182.5 
 
 Samuel D. Ingham, Pa. . . . " 6, 1820 
 
 Loui^ McLean, Del Aug. 8, 1831 
 
 Wm. J. Duane. Pa May 2), 1833 
 
 Roger B. Taney, Md Sept. 23, 1833 
 
274 
 
 OFFICERS OF FEDERAL GOYERKMENT. 
 
 Levi Woodbury, N. H June 27, 1834 
 
 Thomas Ewing, Ohio March 5, 1841 
 
 Walter Forward, Pa Sept. 13, 1841 
 
 John C. Spencer, N. Y. . . .March 3, 1843 
 
 George M. Bibb, Ky June 15, 1814 
 
 Robert J. Walker, Miss.. .March 5, 1845 
 
 Wm. M. Meredith, Pa "■ 7, 1849 
 
 Thomas Corwin, Ohio June 20, 1850 
 
 James Guthrie, Ky March 5, 1853 
 
 Howell Cobb, Ga March 6, 1857 
 
 Philip F. Thomas, Md Bee. 10, 18r.O 
 
 John A. Dis, N. Y Jan. 11, 1861 
 
 Salmon P. Chase, Ohio... March 5, 1861 
 
 Wm. P. Fessenden, Me July 1, 1864 
 
 Hugh McCulloch, Ind... March 7, 1865 
 Alex. T. Stewart, N. Y.... '' 5, 18(59 
 George S. Boutwell, Mass. " 11, 1869 
 
 5. Secretaries op War. (Department created by Congress, August 7, 1789.) 
 
 Henry Knox, Mass Sept. 12, 1789 
 
 Timothy Pickering, Mass... Jan. 2, 1795 
 
 James McHenry, Md Jan. 27, 1796 
 
 Samuel Dexter, Mass May 13, 1800 
 
 Roger Griswold, Ct Feb. 3, 1801 
 
 Henry Dearborn, Mass March 5. 1801 
 
 William Eustis, Mass " 7, IB'^D 
 
 John Armstrong, N. Y Jan. 13, 1813 
 
 James Monroe, Va Sept. 27, 1814 
 
 Wm. H. Crawford, Ga ....March 2, 1815 
 
 Isaac Shelby, Ky •' 5, 1817 
 
 (Declined the appointment.) 
 
 George Graham, Va April 7, 1817 
 
 John C. Calhoun, S. C Oct. 8, 1817 
 
 James Barbour, Va March 7, 1825 
 
 Peter B. Porter, N. Y May 26, 1828 
 
 Benjamin F. Butler, N. Y., Mar. 3, 1837 
 
 Joel R. Poinsett, S. C " 7, 1837 
 
 John Bell, Tenn " 5,1841 
 
 John McLean, Ohio Sept. 13. 1841 
 
 John C. Spencer, N. Y Oct. 12, 1841 
 
 James M. Porter, Pa .March 8, 1843 
 
 William Wilkins, Pa Feb. 15, 1844 
 
 William L. Marcy, N. Y. ..March 5, 1845 
 George W. Crawford, Ga., " 6, 1849 
 
 Charles M. Conrad, La Augu-t 8, 1850 
 
 Jefferson Davis, Miss March 5, 1853 
 
 John B. Floyd, Va " 6,1857 
 
 Joseph Holt, Ky Dec. 30, 1860 
 
 Simon Cameron, Pa March 5, IStil 
 
 Edwin M. Stanton, Pa.. .Jan. 13, 1862 
 U. S. Grant, Illin ois Aug. 12, 1867 
 
 John H. Katon, Tenn March 9, 1829 } John M. Schofield April 23, 186S 
 
 Lewis Cass, Mich August 1, 1P31 j John A. Rawlins, 111 March 11, 18G9 
 
 6. Secretaries op the Navy. (Department created by Congress, April 3,1793.) 
 
 George Cabot, Mass May 3, 1798 
 
 Benj. Stoddert, Md "21, 1798 
 
 Robert Smith, Md July 15, 1801 
 
 Jb. Crowninshield, Mass May 3, 1805 
 
 Paul Hamilton, S. C March 7, 1SU9 
 
 William Jones, Pa Jan. 12, 1813 
 
 B. W. Crowninshield, Mass.,Dec.l7, 1814 
 
 Smith Thompson, N. Y Nov. 9, 18! 8 
 
 John Rodgers, Mass Sept. 1, 1823 
 
 S. L. Southard, N.J " 16, 1823 
 
 John Branch, N, C March 9, 1829 
 
 Levi Woodbury, N. H May 23, 1831 
 
 Mahlon Dickerson, N. J. . . June 30, 1834 
 Jas. K. Paulding, N. Y " 20, 1838 
 
 7. Secretaries of the Interior. 
 
 Thomas Ewing, Ohio March 7, 1849 
 
 T. M. T. McKennan, Pa... Aug. 16, 1850 
 Alex. H. H. Stuart, Va....Sept. 12, 1850 
 Robert McClelland, Mich.. March 5, 1853 
 Jacob Thompson, Miss •' 6, 18:>7 
 
 Geo. E. Badger, N. C March 5, 1811 
 
 Abel P. Upshur, Va Sept. 13, 1&14 
 
 David Henshaw, Mass July 24, 1S43 
 
 Thos. W. Gilmer, Va Feb. 12, 1844 
 
 John Y. Mason, Va March 14, 1844 
 
 George Bancroft, Mass... " 10,1845 
 
 John Y. Mason, \'a Sept. 9, 1846 
 
 Wm. B. Preston, Va March 7, 1849 
 
 Wm. A. Graham, N. C July 20, 1850 
 
 John P. Kennedy, Md " 22, 1852 
 
 Jas. C. Dobbin, N. C March 5, 1853 
 
 Isaac Toucey, Ct " 6, 1857 
 
 Gideon Welles, Ct " 5, 1861 
 
 Adolph E. Borie, Pa " 5, 1869 
 
 (Department created March 3, 1849.) 
 
 Caleb B. Smith, Ind March 5, 1861 
 
 John P. Usher, Ind Jan. 7, 1862 
 
 James Harlan, Iowa May 16, 1865 
 
 O. H. Browning, 111 Sept. 1. 1866 
 
 Jacob D. Cox, Ohio March 5, 1869 
 
OFFICERS OF FEDERAL GOVERNMENT, 
 
 275 
 
 . Postmasters-General. (Department of the General Popt-Office, created by- 
 Congress September 22, 1789 ; but the Postmaster-General was not a member of 
 the Cabinet until President Jackson's Administration, 1829-37.) 
 
 Samuel Osgood. Mass Sept. 26, 1789 
 
 Timothy Pickering. Mass. .Aug. 12, 1791 
 
 Jas. Habersham, Ga Feb. 25, 1*^95 
 
 Gideon Granger, Ct Nov. 28, 1801 
 
 Return J. Meigs, Ohio.. .March 17, 1814 
 
 John McLean, Ohio June 25, 1823 
 
 Wm. T, Barry, Ky March 9, 18^9 
 
 Amos Kendall, Ky " 1, 1835 
 
 John M. Niles, Ct May 18, 1840 
 
 Francis Granger, N.Y March (i, 1841 
 
 Chas. A. Wickliffe, Ky ...Sept. 13, 1841 
 Cave Johnson, Tenn March 5, 1845 
 
 Jacob Collamer, Vt March 7, 1849 
 
 Nathan K. Hall, N. Y July 20. 1850 
 
 Samuel D. Hubbard, Ct ..Aug. 31, 1852 
 
 James Campbell, Pa March 5, 1853 
 
 Aaron V. Brown, Tenn... " 6,1857 
 
 Joseph Holt, Ky " 14, 1859 
 
 Horatio King, Me Jan. 1, 1861 
 
 Montgomery Blair, Md March 7, 1S61 
 
 Wm. Dennison, Ohio Oct. 1, 1864 
 
 Alex. W. Randall, Wis.... July 15, 1866 
 John A. J. Creswell, Md.. March 5, 1869 
 
 9. Attornets-General. (Office created in the act of Congress establishing the 
 Judicial System, 1789 ; but the Attorney-General was not a member of the Cab- 
 inet until 1841-1845, under President Tyler.) 
 
 Ed. Randolph, Va Sept. 26, 1789 
 
 Wm. Bradford, Pa June 27, 1794 
 
 Charles Lee, Va Dec. 10, 1795 
 
 Levi Lincoln, Mass March 5, 1801 
 
 Robert Smith, Md " 2, 18:i5 
 
 John Breckinridge, Ky Dec. 25, 1805 
 
 Cfesar A. Rodney, Del Jan. 20, 1807 
 
 Wm. Pinckuey, Md .Dec. 11, 1811 
 
 Richard Rush, Pa Feb. 10, 1814 
 
 William Wirt, Va Dec. 16, 1817 
 
 John M. Berrien, Ga March 9, 1829 
 
 Roger B. Taney, Md July 20, lasi 
 
 Benj. F. Butler, N. Y Nov. 15, 1833 
 
 Felix Grundy, Tenn July 7, 1838 
 
 Henry D. Gilpin, Pa Jan. 11, 1840 
 
 J. J. Crittenden, Ky March 5, 1841 
 
 Hugh S. Legare, S. C Sept. 13, 1841 
 
 John Nelson, Md July L 1843 
 
 John Y. Mason, Va March 5, 1845 
 
 Nathan Clifford, Me Oct. 16, 1846 
 
 Isaac Toucey, Ct ...Jan. 21, 1848 
 
 Reverdy Johnson, Md March 7, 1849 
 
 J. J. Crittenden, Ky July 20, 1850 
 
 Caleb Cnshing, Mass March 5, 1853 
 
 Jeremiah S. Black, Pa . . . " 6, 1857 
 
 Edwin M. Stanton, Pa Dec. 14, 1860 
 
 Edward Bates, Mo March 5, 1861 
 
 James Speed, Ky... ... .Dec. 1864 
 
 Hy. Stanberry, Ohio July 1866 
 
 Wm. M. Evarts, N. Y July 19, 1868 
 
 E. R. Hoar, Mass March 5, 1869 
 
 Amos T. Akerman, S. C. ..June 23, 1870 
 
 in. Chief Justices op the Supreme Court. (The Supreme Court was created 
 in the act of Congress establishing the Judicial System of the United States, 
 1789.) 
 
 John Jay, N. Y Sept. 28, 1789 I John Jay, N. Y Dec. 19, 1800 
 
 John Rutledge, S. C July 1, 1795 John Marshall, Va Jan. 27, 1801 
 
 William Cushing, Mass . . . . Jan. 27, 1796 | Roger B. Taney, Md Dec. 28, 1835 
 
 Oliver Ellsworth, Ct March 4, 1796 I Salmon P. Chase, Ohio Dec. 6, 1864 
 
 11. Associate Justices.— James Iredell, N. C, 1790; Thos. Johnson, Md., 1791 ; 
 Wm. Patterson, N. J., 1T93 ; Sam'l Chase. Md., 1796 ; Bushrod Washington. Va., 
 1798 ; Alfred Moore, N. C, 1799 ; Wm. Johnson, S. C, 1804; Brockholst Living- 
 ston, N. Y., 1806; Thos. Todd, Ky., 180^; Joseph Story, Mass., 1811; Gabriel 
 Dnvall, Md., 1811; Smith Thompson, N. Y., 1823; Robert Trimble, Ky., 1826; 
 John McLean, Ohio, 1829 ; Hy. Baldwin, Pa , 1830; James M. Wayne, Ga., 1835; 
 P. P. Barbour, Va., 1836; John Catron, Tenn., 1837; John McKinley, Ala., 1837; 
 
276 APPENDIX. 
 
 p. V. Daniel, Va., 1841; Samnel Nelson, K Y., 1845; Levi Woodbury, N. H., 
 1845; Robert C. Grier, Pa., 1846; Benj. R. Curtis, Mass., 1851 ; Jas. A. Campbell, 
 Ala., 1853 ; Nathan Clifford, Me., 1858; Noah H. Swayne, Ohio, 1862; Samuel F. 
 Miller, Iowa, 1862 ; David Davis, 111., 1862 ; Stephen J. Field, Cal., 1863. 
 
 II. Battles of the War with Great Britain and her 
 Indian Allies, 1807-1815. 
 
 g^^~ With the Land Battles are given (the forces engaged and the — losses) ; 
 and with the Naval Battles (the number of guns). The American Commanders 
 and Vessels are in italic type, and the VICTORS iu capitals. Land Battles in 
 small capitals. 
 
 1807— June 22.— Ofl coast of Virginia, "C^iesopea^e" (36), Barron: LEOPARD 
 
 (50), HUMPHREYS. 
 1811 -May 16.— Off coast of Virginia, "■PRESIDENT'' (50), ROGERS, " Little 
 
 Belt" (18), Bingham. 
 Nov. 7.— Tippecanoe, HARRISON' (loss 188) : Indians under Tecumseh 
 
 (loss 301). 
 1812— June 18. — War declared against Great Britain. 
 
 August 4.— Brownstown, VAN HO /i ^ (200— 41) : British and Indians (800- 
 
 loss not known). 
 August 9.— Maguago, MILLER (600—76) : Muir and Tecumseh (800—129). 
 August 13.— Off Newfoundland, ''ESSEX'' (32), PORTER: '' Alert" (20), 
 
 Langhorne . 
 August 16. — Detroit, with 2500 troops, surrendered by Hull to BROCK. 
 August 19.— Off coast of Massachusetts, ''CONSTITUTION''' (44), HULL: 
 
 " Guerriere" (38), Dacres. 
 October 13.— Queenstown, Van Rensselaer 0000 -mO) : BROCK (2500—150). 
 October 18.— Off coast of North Carolina, " WASP" (20), JONES : "Frolic" 
 
 (22). Whinyates. 
 October 25.— Near Canary Islands, " J7A77WZ> /ST.47W*S"' (54), DECATUR: 
 
 " Macedonian" (49), Carden. 
 December 29.— Off St. Salvador, " CONSTITUTION" (54), BAINBRIDQE : 
 
 " Java" (49), Lambert. 
 1813— January 22.— Frenchtown,* Tfiwc/ies^eT' (958—958): PROCTOR {mXh- 
 
 305). 
 February 24.— Coast of Demarara, "HORNET'- (23), LAWRENCE: "Pea- 
 cock" (20). Peake. 
 April 27.— York, U. C, PIKE (1700-269) : Sheaffe (1800-695). 
 May 1.— Fort Meigs, HARRISON {nO^—\^^): Proctor (2000— unknown). 
 May 27.— Fort George, DEARBORN (4000—160) : Vincent (1500—557). 
 May 29.— Sackett's Harbor, 5^(9 TFiV^ (1000—131) : Prevoyt (1000—164). 
 June l.—Masisachusetts Bay, "Cliesapeake" {4%), Lawrence: "SHANNON" 
 
 (53), BROOKE 
 August 2.— Fort Sandctsky, CROGHAN {\%Q—^): Proctor (1300— 176). 
 August 14.— British Channel, "Argus" (20), Allen: "PELICAN" (21), 
 
 MAPLES. 
 
 * Now Monroe, Michigan. 
 
APPENDIX. 277 
 
 1 8 1 3-September 5.— Coast of Maine, " ENTERPBISEr (1(5), BUR.^OUQHS : 
 
 '' Boxer" (18), Blythe. 
 September 10.— Lake Erie, JUNE VESSELS (54), PERRT : six vessels 
 
 ((53), Barclay. 
 October 5.— Thames, HARRISON (3500—29) : Proctor (2000—635). 
 November 11.— Williamseukg, U. C, Boyd (1500—339) : MORRISON 
 (2100—180). 
 1 8 1 4— March 2S.— Harbor of Valparaiso, ''Essex'' (46), Po)'ter, " PH(EBE, and 
 " CHERUB" (81), HILYAR and TL'CKER. 
 April 21.— Off Matauzas, ''Frolic'' (22), Bainbridge : " ORPHEUS" (— ), 
 
 PIGOT. 
 April 29.— Near Cuba, " PEACOCK" {22), WARRINGTON : ''Epervier" 
 
 (18), Wales. 
 June 28.-British Channel, " WASP" (22). BLAKELT : "Reindeer," (19), 
 
 Manners. 
 July 5.— Chippewa, 5i? 6> TFiV (3500— 323) : Riall (5000—538). 
 July 25.— Niagara,* BROWN, and SCOTT (3500— 853) : Riall and Driim- 
 
 moiid (5000—878). 
 August 15.— Fort Erie, GAINES {imQ—S^) : Drummond (.5010— 990). 
 August 24.— Bladensburg, Winder (00,10 -190) : ROSS (5000—130). 
 Septemberl.— Coast of Africa, '' fF.45P" (2w>), BLAKELY : "Avon" (22), 
 
 Arbuthnot. 
 September 11. —Lake G\\9.m^?\-i\xi, FOURTEEN VESSELS (86), MACDON- 
 
 OUGH : seventeen vessels (95). Dovvnie. 
 September 11.— Plattsburg, MACOMB (-2000-119) : Prevost (14,000— 
 
 2500). 
 September 12.— North Point, StnjJcer (3000—212) : Ross (5000—380). 
 September 13.— Fort McHenry, Major ARMISTEAD : Lord Cochrane 
 
 (British Fleet). 
 1815— January 8.— New Orleans, JACKSON {m(i\)--m : Packeuham (12,000— 
 
 2600). 
 February 20.— Off Madeira, "CONSTITUTION" (52), STEWART : " Cyane," 
 
 and " Levant" (55), Falcon, Douglass. 
 
 III. Important Battles op the late Civil War. 
 
 1^" The names of the Federals in ITALIC, and those of the Confederates in 
 ROMAN CAPITALS. 
 
 1861. 
 
 April 12.— Fort Sumter. S. C, ANDERSON : BEAUREGARD. 
 
 June 18.— Booneville, Mo., LYON : PRICE. 
 
 July 2.— Martinsburg, Va , PA TTERSON : JACKSON. 
 
 " 21.— Bull Run, Va., McDOWELL : BEAUREGARD, JOHNSON. 
 August 29— Forts Hatteras and Clarke, N C, captured by BUTLER and 
 
 STRINGHAM. 
 October 21.— Ball's Bluff, Va., STONE : EVANS. 
 November 7.— Port Royal, S. C, captured by DUPONT. 
 
 * Eridgewater, or Lunuy"s Lane. 
 
278 APPEi^DIX. 
 
 1862. 
 
 January 19.— Mill Spring, Ky., THOMAS : CEITTENDEN, ZOLLIKOFFER. 
 February 6.— Fort Henry, Tenn., FOOTE : TILGHMAN. 
 
 8.— Koanoke Island, N. C, captured by QOLBSBO ROUGH, BURN- 
 SIDE. 
 February 16.— Fort Donelson, Tenn., GRANT : FLOYD, PILLOW, BUCKNER. 
 March 8.— Hampton Roads, Va., '^ MONITOR' : '• MEERIMAC." 
 April 6.— Shiloh, Tenn., GRANT, BUEL : BEAUREGARD, A. S. JOHNSON 
 " 7.— Island No. 10, FOOTE, POPE : MAKALL. 
 '• 25.— New Orleans, La., captured by FARRAGUT, PORTER. 
 May 31— June 1.— Fair Oaks, McCLELLAN : R. E. LEE. 
 June 24— July 1.— Peninsula, Va., McCLELLAN : R. E. LEE. 
 July 3.— Vicksbur^, Miss., FARRAGUT : PEMBERTON. 
 August 30.— Second liiill Run, Va., POFE : R. E. LEE. 
 September 14.— South Mountain, Md., McCLELLAN : LONGSTREET.. 
 15.— Harper's Ferry, Va., MILES : JACKSON. 
 " IK, n,— Antietam, Md., McCLELLAN : R. E LEE. 
 
 October 4,— Corinth, Miss., ROSECRANS : VAN DORN. 
 December 13.— Frederick sburg, Va., BURNSIDE : R. E. LEE. 
 
 27, 29.-Vicksburg, Miss., SHERMAN : PEMBERTON. 
 
 1863. 
 
 January 1.— Stone River, Tenn., ROSECRANS : BRAGG. 
 March 5.— Springfield, Tenn., COBURN : VAN DORN. 
 May 1-3.— Chancellorsville, Va., HOOKER : R. E. LEE 
 July 1-3.— Gettysburg, Pa., MEADE : R. E. LEE. 
 
 4.— Vicksburg, Miss., GRANT, PORTER : PEMBERTOJST. 
 " 8.— Port Hudson, La., BANKS : GARDNER. 
 Septemberl9.— Chickamauga. Ga., ROSECRANS : BRAGG. 
 November 23.— Chattanooga, Tenn., GRANT : BRAGG. 
 
 1864. 
 
 May 5, 6. — Wilderness, Va., \ 
 
 " 10.— Spottsylvania, Va., (. quanT : R.E. LEE. 
 June 1. — Cold Harbor, Va., j 
 
 " 12-16. — Grant crosses the James River and invests Petersburg, Va, 
 " 17.— Defences of Petersburg, Va., attacked unsuccessfully by Grant's forces 
 under GEN. W. F. SMITH. 
 June 19.— Off coast of France, "'KEARSARGE,'' WINSLOW : "ALABAMA," 
 
 SEMMES. 
 Jniy 9.— Monocacy, Md., WALLACE : BRECKINRIDGE. 
 August 5.— Mobile, Ala., captured by FARRAGUT, GRANGER. 
 " 19.— Reams's Siation, Weldon R. R., Va., WARREN : HILL. 
 " 25.— " " ■" " " HANCOCK : HILL. 
 
 " .30.— Atlanta, Ga., SHERMAN : HOOD. 
 Sept. 19— Oct. 1^.— SHERIDAN S Raid through the Valley of Virginia. 
 October 19.— Lexington, M.O., BLUNT : PRICE. 
 December 21.— Savannah. Ga., captured by SHERMAN. 
 
 25.— Fort Fisher, N. C, BUTLER : WHITING. 
 
 1865. 
 
 January 15.-Fort Fisher, N. C, TERR F : WHITING, LAMB. 
 
QUESTIONS. 279 
 
 April 2. — Gen. Crra^sfs force?, \v\-\0,<i\ Sheridan obtain possession of the South- 
 side Railroad. This compels the evacuation of Petersburg and Richmond 
 by the Confederates. 
 
 April 9. — Gen. R. E. Lee surrenders to Gen. Grant at Appomattox Court-House, Va. 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 Introduction. — Section I. 
 
 1. What is History? 
 
 2. Which are the chief elements of History? 
 
 3. In studying History, what questions should be constantly attended to ? 
 
 4. Name some of the uses of History. 
 
 5. What is the extent of the history of the world ? 
 
 6. How may tliis great extent of General History be conveniently divided? 
 
 7. How are the two periods of Geiveral History respectively named and desig- 
 na*^ed ? 
 
 8. How maj^ these two principal periods be properly subdivided ? 
 
 9. Name the seven important '■ Event?" that subdivide the great period before 
 Christ. Name the seven eminent '-PeD-oiis" of the period. Mention the impor- 
 tant "Places" of the period. Give the "Dates'' of the period. Give the events 
 wilh the associated " Persons," ■' Places," and "Dates." 
 
 1 O, Name the " Events" that subdivide thegreat period after Christ. What emi- 
 nent " Persons" are associated with those events? Name the "Places." The 
 ■"Dates." Give the "Events" with the associated "Persons," "Places," and 
 " Dates." 
 
 11. What other division of General History has been adopted ? 
 
 12. Why is the division into two periods by the advent of Christ to be pre- 
 ferred ? 
 
 13, What is the division of History with respect to the sources from which it 
 is derived ? What is Sacred History ? What is Profane History ? 
 
 14. Which is the more ancient, I- acred or Profane History? When did Moses 
 flourish ? With which Hebrew prophet wa^ Herodotus contemporary? 
 
 15, At what date does Profane History begin? What of the accounts of th<3 
 times prior to the foundation of Rome ? 
 
 16, How is HisTory divided with respect to the subjects treated of? (1.) What 
 is General History ? (2.) Ethnological History? (3.) Geographical? (4.) Eccle- 
 tiastical ? (5.) Biography ? 
 
 17, Are these different kinds of history usually treated separately ? 
 
 18, How does history differ from traditicm ? 
 
 19. What is the relation of history to the Holy Scriptures ? 
 
 20. Name some events in history that illustrate the fulfillment of prophecy ? 
 (1.) When did the Prophet Daniel deliver his predictions respecting the four great 
 empires of antiquity ? Where are those prophecies recorded ? (2.) When occur- 
 red the Babylonish Captivity of the Jews ? By whom was it foretold ? Who 
 predicted the restoration of the Jews? (3.) What did Moses foretell respecting 
 the advent of our Blessed Saviour ? What things relating to Christ were foretold 
 by Isaiah, Zechariah, and Joel ? In what Books of the New Testament ai-e re- 
 corded the events which fulfill these prophecies ? What do these things evidently 
 prove ? 
 
280 APPENDIX. 
 
 iNTRODtJCTIOlSr. — SeCTION II. 
 
 1. Which parts of the earth were first settled after the Flood ? In which direc- 
 tion from Mount Ararat was Armenia? The Mediterranean Sea from Babel? 
 China and India from the Mediterranean ? 
 
 2. What Kingdoms occupied the Regions south and southeast of Mount Ararat ? 
 (2.) Where was Syria situated? (3.) Egypt? For what is Egypt celebrated? 
 (4.) What was the location of Asia Minor ? In what empire is it now included ? 
 (5.) What is tho situation of Greece, and how separated from Asia Minor? What 
 famous Republics in Ancient Greece ? (6.) Which way from Greece was Mace- 
 donia? What empire was overthrown by Alexander the Great? (7.) Where is 
 Italy, and how separated from Macedonia and Greece ? 
 
 3. Name the more important Nations and Empires of Ancient History. 
 (1.) What were embraced in the Assyrian empire, and how long did it continue? 
 Who was the last king? (2.) By whom was the Monarchy of Egypt founded ? 
 How long did it subsist? ("5.) With what event did the Hebrew Theocracy com- 
 mence, and wlien did it terminate? (4.) The Republics of Greece ? (5.) The Re- 
 public of Carthage ? (6.) Who was the founder of Rome ? How many years 
 from Romulus to Augustus ? (7.) What was the duration of the Medo-Persian 
 empire? (8.) Who founded the Macedonian empire? What countries did it 
 comprise ? How was it tinally divided ? 
 
 4. Name the noted Cities of Ancient Assyria? (1.) By whom was Babylon 
 built? Wheie ? When? What were the dimensions of the walls of this city? 
 What were the chief ornaments of the city ? (2.) When was Nineveh built? By 
 whom? Where? What was the extent of the walls? How was the city de- 
 fended ? Number of inhabitants in the time of Jonah ? During what time have 
 we no history of Babylon and Nineveh ? What of Sardanapalus ? How was the 
 empire divided at his death ? When and by whom was the second Assyrian em- 
 pire formed? By whom was Nineveh destroyed? When? By whom was Baby- 
 lon captured, b. c. 538 ? What now remain of Babylon ? By whom was the deso- 
 lation of Babylon foretold? 
 
 5. Name the noted Cities of Syria and the Holy Land. (1.) What is the situa- 
 tion of Damascus ? For what is this city remarlcable ? (2.) What does the name 
 Jerusalem, signify ? Where is this city situated ? What mountains in Jerusalem ? 
 What great events have rendered Jerusalem remarkable ? Name the chief events 
 in the history of Jerusalem. (3.) How is Bethlehem situated with respect to 
 Jerusalem? For what was Bethlehem remarkable? (4.) Of what kingdom was 
 Samaria the capital ? By whom was Samaria built? By whom and when de- 
 stroyed? What of Samaria in the time of our Saviour? Who were the Samari- 
 tans? (5.) What was the location of Sidon, and by whom built? What of the 
 Sidonians ? (6.) Which way from Sidon was Tyre ? When and by whom built ? 
 What was the origin of the celebrated Tyrian purple dye? What of Hiram II. ? 
 Of Pygmalion? Give the chief events in the history of Tyre from b. c. 572? 
 What is said of Tyre in the Holy Scripture ? 
 
 6. Name the celeljrated Ancient Cities of Africa. (1.) What is said of Thebes? 
 Why called Hecatempylos f What of its populousness ? The extent and grandeur 
 of its ruins ? What is related of tlie Statue of Memnon ? By whom was Thebes 
 destroyed? (2.) Where was Memphis situated? What antiquities near Mem- 
 phis? What is the Sphinx? What are the Pyramids? How many are more 
 uoted? The dimensioni of the lar;jebt Pyrj,iuiJ ? Wheu were they built? (.3.) By 
 
QUESTIONS. 281 
 
 whom and when was Alexandria built ? What of its celebrated library ? (4.) By 
 whom was Carthage built, when, and where ? Why was the citadel named Byrsaf 
 What of the subsequent history of Carthage ? What is said of the ancient Car- 
 thaginians ? What of their religion ? Origin of '••Puriica Fides?'''' Of the Panic 
 Wars ? Name some of the eminent Carthaginians. 
 
 7. Name the renowned Cities of Asia Minor. (1.) What was the location of 
 Troy, and by whom founded ? What led to the destruction of Troy ? (2.) Of 
 what was Sardis the capital? What of Croesus ? What occasioned the burning 
 of Sardis, b. c. 504 ? and to what did it give rise ? (3.) What is said of Halicar- 
 nassus ? Origin of '•^Mausoleum''' as the name of a costly sepulchre? (4.) Give 
 the situation of Tarsus. For what remarkable ? Describe the voyage of Cleo- 
 patra up the river Cydnus. What law illustrated in the fate of Cleopatra and 
 Mark Antony ? 
 
 8. What was the ancient capital of Persia? By whom enlarged and adorned ? 
 Describe the Eoyal Palace of Forty Pillars. By whom was this noble edifice 
 destroyed ? 
 
 9. Name the noted Cities of Ancient Europe. (1.) Where is Athens ? When 
 and by whom founded ? What was it called at first ? Name the noted places in 
 Athens. Why is Zeno named the Stoic philosopher? Origin of Academy as tlie 
 name of a place of learning? Describe tlie Lyceum. Who is called the Peripa- 
 tetic philosopher, and why ? What were the extent and, population of Athens in 
 the time of Pericles ? (2.J By whom was Sparta built ? When ? Name the chief 
 public places of Sparta. What incident connected with the Temple of Minerva ? 
 What was the character of the Spartans ? 
 
 Introduction. — Section III. 
 
 1. Name the noted Seas of Antiquity. (1.) What is the situation of the Medi- 
 terranean Sea? Why so called? Its length and breadih? (2.) What is the po- 
 sition of the Red Sea ? Origin of its name ? What is its length ? For what 
 remarkable ? (3.) What was the ancient name of the Black Sea f Where situ- 
 ated ? How connected with the Mediterranean ? (4.) What is the Hellespont f 
 Why so named? Length and breadth of this strait? For what celebrated? 
 (5.) Where is the Sea of Galilee ? Length and breadth ? With what river is it 
 connected? What occasion a violent agitation of this sea? (6.) What is the 
 situation of the Dead Sea? Its dimensions? What cities once occupied this 
 region ? Describe the appearance of the Dead Sea. 
 
 2. Name the noted Rivers of Antiquity. (1.) Describe the Euphrates. (2.) The 
 Tigris. (3.) 'Yhe Jordan. What events associated with the Jordan? (4.) The 
 ISlile? For what is the Nile remarkable? The chief ancient cities situated on 
 the Nile? (5.) Describe the Gran'icus. (6.) The Meander. For what remark- 
 able ? (7.) Describe the Tiber. From whom named ? 
 
 3. Name the chief Mountains mentioned in Scripture History. (1.) Describe 
 Mount Ararat. For what remarkable ? (2.) Mount Moriah. With what events 
 connected ? (3.) Describe Mounts Horeb and Sinai. (4.) Name the chief moun- 
 tains mentioned in the New Testament. 
 
 4. What Mountains are noted in Ancient Profane History? (1.) What of 
 Mount Ida? (2.) Describe Mount Olympm. (3.) Mount Parnassus. What ci*;y 
 
282 APPEJfDIX. 
 
 at the foot of Mount Parnassus; ? (4.) Describe the Alpi^. With what event con- 
 nected ? C5.) Deircribe Mount Vesuvius. With what remarkable event connected ? 
 (6.) Describe Mount Atlas. Why so called ? 
 
 5. Name other localities remarkable in Ancient History. (1.) What of the 
 location of the Gardenof Eden? (2.) What of TJr of the Ghaldeesf (3.) Where 
 is ihe Wilderness tlirongh which the Israelites journeyed from Eg'ypt to Canaan ? 
 What names were oiven to different parts of this Desert ? What provision was 
 made for the Israelites during their journey ? (4.) Where is the Plain of the Medi- 
 terranean Sea?- (5.) Where is Marathon? For what celebrated? (tj.) What is 
 Thermoj)ylcB ? How situated ? Whence its name ? By what rendered famous ? 
 (7.) For what is Arbela noted ? (8.) For what is Zama remarkable ? (9.> Where 
 i'&Actium? With what event associated ? (10.) What are Scylla and Chafibdis ? 
 
 6. Name the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. (1.) Describe the Walls of 
 Babylon. (2.) The Pt/ramids of Egypt. (3.) The Lab]/rinth of Psammetichvs. 
 Where was another labyrinth? (4.) Describe the Temple of Diana. By whom 
 built? By whom burned? (5.) What was the Colossus of Rhodes ? By whom 
 constructed ? What finally happened to the Colossus ? What other works of art 
 atEliodes? (6.) What was the P/iaro.s ? By whom and for what purpose built? 
 What is related of Sostratus ? (7.) What were the Aqueducts of Pome ? Where 
 are found remains of Roman aqueducts ? 
 
 Introduction. — Section IV. 
 
 1 . The Dat. What people began the day at sunrise ? By whom was the day 
 begun at sM«se^.? By whoraat mirfcfa?//' By whom at mtcfttigAi / Who divided 
 the day and the night each into four parts ? How did the Jews ia the time of our 
 Saviour divide the day and the night ? How is the day divided by modern nations 
 generally ? What exceptions to this ? 
 
 2. B'rom what did the Ancient Chaldeans name the days of the week ? Whence 
 are derived the English names of the days? 
 
 3. What was the origin of the division of time iuto periods of seven days 
 each ? With which days have different people begun the week ? 
 
 ' 4. Give the history of the names of the Months. The Latin derivation. The 
 corresponding Jewish name. What called by the ISaxons ? 
 
 5. What people began the Year at the Autumnal Equinox ? When does the 
 Jewish sacred year begin ? (2.) What nations begin the year at or near the Win- 
 ter Solstice ? (3.) When do the Chinese begin the year ? (4.) The Mahometans ? 
 (5.) The American Indians ? (6.) How did Romulus divide the year? What ad- 
 ditions were made by Numa ? What errors grew out of this ? 
 
 6. What corrections were introduced by CiBsar ? What is meant by Leap-year ? 
 What name is given to the Calendar as corrected by Csesar ? What was the 
 amount of the error that still remained ? 
 
 7. By whom was this error fii:st noticed in modern times ? By whom was it 
 corrected ? How was the 21st of March restored to the time of the Vernal Equi- 
 nox ? What was done to prevent the recurrence of the error? What is this 
 arrangement called ? Is it perfectly correct ? Which ( alendar is called Old style ? 
 Which Nezo style? By whom is Old style still retained? Who have adopted 
 New style ? 
 
 Note. — P. 40. — Meaning of " Almanack ?" By Avhom first made in modern 
 times ? 
 
QUESTIONS. 283 
 
 8. Name the Chronological ^kas of History. (1.) What different dates are 
 given for the Creatwn of the World ? (2.) What is the date of the JSra of the 
 Olympiads^ and by whom used ? (3.) The uSra of Naboaassar f (4.) Meaning of 
 A. u. c. noting the ^ra of the Foundation of Rome ? (5.) At what date began tlie 
 JEra of the Selevcidoe, and by whom adopted ? By what other names called ? 
 How long was it used ? (6.) Meaning oi Hegira? By whom adopted? (7.) By 
 whom and when was the Christian ^ra introduced ? When generally adopted ? 
 What error afterward discovered ? How many years have elapsed since our 
 Saviour was born ? 
 
 QUESTIONS ON THE PERIODS FOR WEEKLY REVIEW. 
 
 9. Name the Seven Periods of Ancient History. The Seven of Modern His- 
 tory. Give the associated Event, Person, Place, and Bate* introducing the First 
 Period of Ancient History. (2.) What is the extent of the Period? (3.) For 
 what remarkable ? (4.) By what name distinguished ? {Repeat the last four ques- 
 tions on each of the Periods.) 
 
 10. Which is the Antediluvian, Period ? 
 
 1 1-23. Which the Dispersion Period ? {Identify each Period by '■'Name.'"') Which 
 Period begins with the Creation f Which with the Deluge? Which with the 
 Call of Abram? {Identify each of the Periods by the leading '•'•Event.'') With 
 which Period is Washington associated ? Columbus .^ Peter the Hermit ? {Identify 
 by the distinguished " Person.'") With which event is Eden associated ? Mount 
 Ararat? Ur of the Chaldees? Red Sea? {Note the association of the remaining 
 " Places" and ''• Events.'''') For what Is the Antediluvian Period remarkable ? The 
 Dispersion Period? etc., etc. Which Period begins b. c. 4004? Which begins 
 B. c. 23i8 ? {The same questions to be repeated on the remaining " Dates."") 
 Which Period continued 165(j years? Which 42T years? Which 430 years? 
 {Repeat this question on the du?^ation of the remaining Periods.) Which event in 
 Modern History corresponds in date with the " Conquest of Persia" ? Which 
 event in Ancient History corresponds nearly in date with the "Discovery of 
 America" ? 
 
 Period I. — Antediluvian. 
 
 What is the meaning of Antediluvian ? With what event does the Period com- 
 mence? Give the associated "Elements." What is the extent of the Period? 
 1, Where have we the only history of this Period ? 2. What are the chief sub- 
 jects of this history? 3. When and by whom was the world created ? Give the 
 progressive steps in the work of creation. Where were our first parents placed 
 at their creation ? Why were they expelled from the Garden of Eden ? 4. What 
 promise was given in connection with the curse pronounced on the tempter ? 
 5. How were Enoch and Methuselah respectively distinguished? 6. What is 
 paid of progi-ess in the arts during the AntediUivian Perio.l ? 7. What is the date 
 of the Deluge ? How long did it continue ? Why did God thus destroy mankind ? 
 
 * See Preface, page 3. 
 
284 APPENDIX. 
 
 Period II. — Dispersioi!?^. 
 
 Why is this Period so named ? With what does it commence ? Give the assc- 
 ciated *' Elements" of Person, Place, and Date. 1, For what is the Period chiefly 
 noted? 2. What are its chief matters ? 3. What were the dimensions of the 
 Tower of Babel ? Its location ? In what did the Confusion of Tongues consii^t, 
 and what was its result? 4. Name the sons of Noah. Name the sons of Japhet, 
 with the people descended from each. The sons of Shem. Of Ham. 5. What 
 of Noah ? 6. What is here related of Nimrod ? 7. What is Astrology ? What 
 distinction in the heavenly bodies noticed at an early period ? By whom vas the 
 north polar star first noticed? 8. What city was founded by Ashur? What 
 cities formed the First Assyrian Empire ? 9. Who was Misraim ? What is said 
 of the Ancient Egyptians ? What cities were founded during this Period ? Which 
 of these cities still remains ? 
 
 Period III. — Patriarchal. 
 
 What is the extent of this Period ? With what event does it begin ? Give the 
 associated " Elements" of Person, Place, and Date, at the beginning and at the 
 close — 
 
 I. By what chiefly distinguished ? 
 
 II. What event occurred 19-21 b. c. ? 
 
 1. Mention the other events in the life of Abram here given, with the date of 
 each. What promises had been made to Abram ? Why was his name changed ? 
 
 2. Who was Melchizedelv, and where is liis history recorded? What cities 
 destroyed 1897 ? 
 
 3. What is here related of Ishmael ? 
 
 4. Repeat the story of Isaac. 
 
 5. Who was Esau ? 
 
 6. What is recorded of Jacob b. c. 1760? When was Joseph made governor 
 of Egypt ? 
 
 7. Why was he thus elevated? What was his previous history? What is 
 remarkable with respect to the year b. c. 1707 ? What eminent kings reigned 
 during this Period ? 
 
 9. Who were the Shepherd kings, 1825? WTiat celebrated contest decided, 
 1532? 
 
 13. By whom was the Court of the Areopagus founded? What other tribunal 
 in Greece founded, 1521-1497? (See Parnassus, p. 2!).) What ancient cities 
 founded during this Period? Which of them during the life of Moses? (See 
 p. 55.) 
 
 1 5. By whom was alphabetic writing introduced into Greece ? 
 
 12. What are the Arundelian' Marbles ? 
 
 Period IV. — Hebrew Commonwealth. 
 
 1. How is this Period distinguished? With what event does it commence? 
 Give the associated " Elements" of Person, Place, and Date. W^heu was the Pass- 
 
QUESTIONS. 285 
 
 over inssfituted ? Why was that transaction named the " Passover /" What was 
 Xhe Exodns ? 
 
 2. Relate the chief events in the life of Moses. Which books of the Bible were 
 written by Mo!?es ? What ancient cities were built during his lifetime ? 
 
 3. Who was the first Jewish High- Priest? 
 
 4. By whom was Moses succeeded as the leader of the Israelites ? 
 
 5. Name the most famous Hebrew Judges. Name the first three kings of the 
 Israelites, giving the date of accession of each. Name the several Grecian kings 
 and heroes given in the chronology. 
 
 6. What were the Olympic Games ? By whom instituted? 
 
 •y. Who were the Argonauts ? What was the origin of this expedition? 
 
 8. For what is Lacedsemon distinguished? 
 
 9. What was the origin of the Trojan War ? Name the chief Grecian captains. 
 By whom were the Trojans led ? How was the city finally taken ? How was the 
 intelligence of this victory conveyed' to Greece ? 
 
 10. Relate the story of the Trojans that escaped the destruction of Troy. 
 
 11. What is related of the Heraclidte ? 
 
 14. Who was Codrus ? How did he show his devotion to his country ? How 
 did the Athenians honor his memory ? 
 
 Period Y. — Assyrian Empire. 
 
 When does this Period begin ? To what event does it extend ? How is this 
 Pe iod distinguished ? 
 
 1 . Where was the Temple of Solomon built ? When was it dedicated ? What 
 were its dimensions ? What were its chief interior apartments ? With what 
 courts was the Temple surrounded ? 
 
 2. What is here recorded of Solomon ? 
 
 4. What occasioned the formation of the kingdom of Israel ? Date of this 
 event ? 
 
 5. Which is the greatest military slaughter in one battle on record ? 
 
 6. What three eminent Jewish propliets flourished during this Period ? Who 
 reigned in Israel in the time of Elijah ? How did Elijah prove that Baal and all 
 false gods are nothing ? Who were his contemporaries ? 
 
 11. What is related of Jonah ? When did he flourish, and who were his con- 
 temporaries ? 
 
 14, What is recorded of Isaiah ? Who were his contemporaries ? What great 
 event foi'etold by Isaiah ? 
 21. How was Daniel introduced to public notice ? 
 23. What was the length of the Babylonish captivity of the Jews ? 
 
 3. Wiiat is related of Shishak ? 
 
 S. Of Dido ? (See Carthage, p. 19.) 
 
 7 . What two eminent Greek poets contemporary with the Prophet Elijah ? 
 Name their chief works. 
 
 9. Who was Lycurgus ? What was the influence of his laws ? What form of 
 government did he establish ? 
 
 10. Who first coined silver muney ? 
 
 12. Who introduced the epoch of the Olympiads ? 
 
286 APPENDIX. 
 
 1 9. What name was given to the code of laws established by Draco the Athe- 
 nian ? Who were his contemporaries ? 
 
 13. What is related of Eomuhis ? 
 
 1 8. What event occurred in the reisn of Tnllus Hostilius ? 
 
 20. Who was the fifth king of Kome ? What were some of his exploits ? 
 
 15. Who was the last king of the first Assyrian Empire ? What was his end ? 
 How WHS the empire then divided ? 
 
 16. Who was Shalmanezar? What was the result of his capture of Samaria ? 
 What was the origin of the Samaritans ? 
 
 17. For what was Sennacherib remarkable ? 
 
 21. Who was Nebuchadnezzar ? Name his chief conquests ? 
 
 2i. What were signified by the several parts of the great image which he saw 
 in his first prophetic dream ? 
 
 23. Name the eminent persons of the world that flourished during the seventy 
 years' captivity of the Jews at Babylon ? 
 
 24. Name the seven wise men of Greece. Repeat the remarkable saying of 
 each. How is Solon distinguished ? What was the origin of the name Sycophant f 
 Origin of Parasite ? 
 
 •I 5 m Narrate the history of Croesus. 
 
 26. By whom was Babylon captured ? Who was the last king of Assyria ? 
 How had he provoked the divine wrath ? How was the city finally taken ? 
 
 27. What eminent Chinese reformer contemporary with the Prophet Daniel ? 
 
 Period VL — Medo-Persian Empire. 
 
 Give the associated "Elements" at the beginning of this Period. Those at its 
 close. The length of the Period. 
 
 1. By what events is this Period distinguished? [What chief nations fiour- 
 ished during this Period ? Ans. The Persians, the Grecians, and the Romans. 
 What was the condition of the Jews ? Ans. They were living chiefly in their 
 own country, but under the protection of the Persian kings. When do the Mace- 
 donians appear prominently in General History ? Ans. During the latter part of 
 this Period (b. c. 338), when they began to intermeddle in the afiairs of Greece.] 
 
 1 . Who was Cyrus the Great ? When did he ascend the throne of Persia ? How 
 did he signalize his accession ? What is related of him when a youth ? How was 
 he accustomed to treat his captives taken in war ? Narrate the story of the king 
 of Armenia captured by Cyrus ? What is to be remarked in the character of the 
 wile of Tigranes ? 
 
 2. When was the second Temple dedicated, and what remarkable prophecy in 
 connection with it ? 
 
 3. Under what circumstances did Darius Hystaspes become king of Persia ? 
 
 4. Who were the Pisistratidae ? 
 
 5. When flourished Pythagoras, and to what honor is he entitled ? 
 
 6. Under what circumstances and w^hen did Rome become a republic ? How 
 long did this form of government continue ? By what different officers was the 
 government administered during that time ? 
 
 7. What occasioned the Persian invasions of Greece? By whom were the 
 Pcri^ims defeated in the battle of Marathon ? By whom was a second attempt 
 
QUESTIONS. 287 
 
 made to conquer Greece ? Who led the Greeks at Thermopylte ? What was the 
 final result of this expedition ? Name the Greek victories. 
 
 8. By whom were the Books of the Old Testament collected into one volume ? 
 By whom was Ezra succeedtd in his work of re-establishing and reforming the 
 Jewish state ? 
 
 9. What is related of Herodotus ? 
 
 1 0. With whom was Pericles contemporary ? What is said of the character 
 of his government ? 
 
 11. Who was Cincinnatus ? Narrate what is here related of his patriotism. 
 12,, What military engines were invented about e. c. 441 ? 
 
 13. What was the character of Socrates ? Why was he persecuted by his 
 countrymen ? What method of reasoning did he introduce ? 
 
 14. Who was Hippocrates ? How did he manifest his patriotism ? 
 
 15. W^hen did Xenophon flourish '' In what expedition did he engage ? What 
 was the result of the battle of Cunasa ? What is said of the retreat of the Greeks 
 that survived this battle ? What works were written by Xenophon ? 
 
 1 6. For what was Dionysius the Elder remarkable ? Narrate the story of Da- 
 mon and Pythias. Give the story of Damocles. 
 
 1 7. By whom was Rome rescued from the Gauls, b. c. .390 ? 
 
 18. Wiih whom departed the glory of Thebes ? How had Epaminondas dis- 
 tinguished himself against the Spartans ? 
 
 19. W^hat eminent men flourished about the year b. c. 350 ? (1.) What was the 
 character of Plato ? (2.) How was Demosthenes distinguished ? (3.) What 
 name is given to Aristotle, and why ? (4.) What was the character of Diogenes ? 
 (5.) Who was Philip the Great? How was he introduced into Greece ? What 
 was the result of the battle of Chaeronea ? 
 
 Period YII. — Macedonian Empire. 
 
 Give the associated "Elements" with which this Period begins. With what 
 " Elements" of Event, Person, Place, and Date does it end ? What is the length 
 of the Period ? 
 
 I. What great events distinguish this Period ? 
 
 II. Give the battles and wars as stated in the Chronology. What nations are 
 referred to in the Chronology ? Ans. The Jews, Greeks, Carthaginians, and 
 Romans. 
 
 1. Who was Alexander the Great? When and where was he born? Who 
 was his tutor ? To what profession was he decidedly inclined ? What countries 
 did he subdue in establishing the Macedonian Empire ? What chief battles were 
 fought in the conquest of Persia ? What was the fate of Darius Codomanus ? 
 W^hat were discover.-d on reaching Babylon ? What was the end of Alexander ? 
 
 2. How was the Macedonian Empire al first divided at the death of Alexander ? 
 Who was deleated in the battle of Ipsus, b. c. 301 ? How was the empire finally 
 divided ? 
 
 3. What eminent men flourished about b. c. 300 ? 
 
 4. For what was Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, remarkable ? Relate the interview 
 between Pyrrhus and Cinea:*. 
 
288 APPENDIX. 
 
 5. Why was the Septuagint translation of the Old Testament so named ? When 
 and for whom was it made ? 
 
 6. What was the origin of the Sadducees and Pharisees ? 
 
 T. What were the Punic Wars ? Why called Punic ? Narrate the events of 
 the first Punic War. By whom were the Carthaginians led in the second Punic 
 War ? By what route did he enter Italy ? In what hattles was Hannibal victori- 
 ous ? How long did he remain master of Italy ? By whom was he oppo:?ed? 
 What was the policy of Fabius ? By whom was Syracuse- defended ? How was 
 Hannibal drawn out of Italy ? What was the result of the battle of Zama ? How 
 did the third Punic War terminate ? 
 
 8. What led to the formation of the Achaean League ? What was effected by 
 this confederacy? What was the result of the attempt to expel the Romans 
 from Greece ? What battles proved fatal to Macedon ? What was the result of 
 the fall of Corinth ? 
 
 9. Who were the Maccabees? How was their country situated with respect to 
 Ee:ypt and Syria ? What resulted from this? How had the Jews suffered from 
 t!;e tyranny' of Ptolemy Philopater ? How from Antiochus Epiphanes ? What 
 was done by the Maccabees to resist these outrages ? By whom was Judea finally 
 delivered from the yoke of Syria ? Who finally subdued both Syria and Judea ? 
 
 10. What circumstances marked the decline of the Roman Republic? What 
 produced the Social War ? By whom and when was Jugurtha subdued ? What 
 war among the Romans b. o. 88 ? What was the Servile War ? By whom was 
 the conspiracy of Cataline crushed? Who composed the First Triumvirate? 
 What was the result of the battle of Pharsalia ? What had been the career of 
 Julius Caesar ? Who led the conspirators tliat slew Julius Caesar ? What was the 
 result of the battle of Philippi ? Who formed a Seccmd Triumvirate ? What be- 
 came of Lepidus ? By whom was the battle of Actium fought, and with what 
 result ? What was the fate severally of Anthony, Cleopatra, and Octavius ? 
 What eminent authors were contemporary with Augustus ? 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 Introduction. — Section I. 
 
 1, What regions of the earth have been the chief theatre of the events of Mod- 
 ern History ? 
 
 2. How are these regions respectively occupied ? Where is the Chinese Em- 
 pire ? India? What countries in the southwest part of Asia ? Where are the 
 Russian dominions ? By what is the south of Europe occupied ? Where are the 
 German States and Prussia ? Where are the British Islands and what do they 
 comprise? Where is the Continent of America ? Of what does it consist ? \v'nat 
 is the general character of this vast region ? 
 
 3. Name and locate the political divisions of North America. 
 
 4, Give the position of the several divisions of South America. 
 
 5, What noted empires have flourished in the modern history of Asia ? 
 
 6. The great empires in the modern history of Europe ? In America ? 
 8. What of Egypt? 
 
QUESTION-S. 289 
 
 Introduction". — Section II. 
 
 1 . When and by whom was Rome founded ? Name the seven hills of Rome. 
 What improvements were made by Tarquin the Elder ? What was the boast of 
 Aiii,Mistus ? What were the extent and population of Rome a. d. 250 ? What 
 change was eff-ected by Constantine ? What event terminated the Western or 
 Latin empire . When did Rome become the capital of the States of the Church ? 
 [When did the Pope lose his sovereignty as a temporal prince ? Ans. In the 
 month of October, 1870. when by the Plebiscite^ or popular vote (50,000 to 50), the 
 people transferred their political allegiance from the Pope to Victor Emmanuel, 
 thereby making the States of the Church a part of the kingdom of Italy.] 
 
 Name the chief edifices of Ancient Kome ? (6.) What use is now made of the 
 Pantheon ? What are the Catacombs ? For what purpose were these excavations 
 made ? How are the Catacombs associated with the Christian religion ? Name 
 the most noted editices of Modern Rome. What of the Church of St. John Lat- 
 eran ? Why is the Vatican so named ? For what is it used ? By whom is the 
 worship in St. Peter's church conducted ? When and by whom was this cathe- 
 dral commenced ? Under whose direction was it erected ? When and by whom 
 3edicated ? What are its dimensions ? What ornaments in the interior ? 
 
 2. What was the ancient name of Constantinople ? Narrate the chief incidents 
 in the history of this city. 
 
 3. Where are Mecca and Medina ? What is their importance in history ? By 
 whom is Mecca now chiefly visited ? What is the Kaaba ? What edifices at 
 Medina ? 
 
 4. Where was the Palatinate ? For what celebrated ? By whom at first gov- 
 erned ? What of the Palatinate under Charlemagne ? Whence the name Palati- 
 nate ? What is said of the Palatine dignity under the German Empire ? Where 
 is Heidelburg ? For what did it become famous ? Who was the Elector Palatine 
 Frederick V. ? How was he related to William the Silent and to James I. of Eng- 
 land ? What part did Frederick V. take in the contests then waging in Germany 
 between the Catholics and Protestants ? What was the fate of Frederick V. as a. 
 result of this contest ? What was the condition of the Palatinate during the 
 Thirty Years' War. 
 
 o. What is the Holy Sepulchre and by whom were this and the other sacred 
 places identified ? What places are embraced in the Church of the Holy Sepul- 
 chre : Describe the present condition of the Sepulchre. What of the two 
 adjoining churches ? Who are ever to be found in these sacred enclosures ? By 
 whom was the Mosque of Omar built ? Give the incidents in the subsequent 
 history of Jerusalem. 
 
 6. Where is St. Salvador, and what is its importance in history ? When and 
 why were the islands discovered by Columbus named We$t Iiidiis ? 
 
 ?, From what does Philadelphia derive its historic interest? Narrate the 
 several incidents in the history of the Revolutionary War connected with Phila- 
 delphia. » 
 
 8. Where is London ? By whom and when founded ? The present area and 
 population of London ? By what names has it been called ? Of what chief parts 
 does it consist ? Whence the name Bills of Mortality f (1.) Describe the Palace 
 of St. James. What of Whitehall ? (•>.) By whom was St. Paul's Cathedral 
 founded ? What is its ground plan ? Describe the architecture of this edifice. 
 How is the interior of this edifice ornamented ? (3.) Who founded Westminster 
 
 13 
 
290 APPEN'DIX. 
 
 Abbey ? By whom continued and completed ? Give its dimensions. Describe 
 its architecture. What chapels and other houses attached to the Abbey ? Who 
 are interred in Henry Vll.'s Chapel ? Give some of the historic associations of 
 Westminster Abbey. (4.) By whom was the Tower of London built? Which are 
 its principal edifices ? Describe them severally. With what events in the history 
 of England has London been more particularly identified ? 
 
 What antiquities of England are mentioned as remarkable ? What are the 
 Cromlechs? The Kist-Vaens ? The Druidical Circles ? What were the Druids? 
 Whence the name Druid ? How were the Druid priests divided ? What is 
 related of their religion ? 
 
 9. Where is Edinburgh ? Name the chief objects of interest in Edinburgh. 
 What is the Castle of Edinburgh? etc., etc. 
 
 10. Where is Dublin ? How does it compare in size with Edinburgh ? Name 
 and describe severally the public edifices of Edinburgh. Describe the Giant's 
 Causeway. 
 
 11. Where is Paris ? By whom was this city named ? What is said of the 
 progress of this renowned emporium ? Name and describe severally the chief 
 noted edifices of Paris. (6.) Narrate the history of the destruction of the Bastile. 
 
 12. Wher? is Madrid ? Whence the name ? Give a general description of this 
 city. Describe the Roj'al Palace. What is the Prado ? What other noted historic 
 places in Spain ? Give the events in the history of Spain here recorded (page 109). 
 
 Period I. — Roman Empire. 
 
 Give the "Elements" of Event, Person, Place, and Date, with which the Period 
 begins and ends. By what events is this Period chiefly distinguished ? How 
 many emperors reigned during this time ? 
 
 1. What was the extent of the empire under Augustus ? Its population ? The 
 form of government ? The size of the army and navy? How many emperors 
 occupied the throne during five hundred years ? Name thO!=e most remarkable, 
 and how they were severally distinguished. 
 
 2. Where and when was our Saviour born ? Who were the wise men that came 
 at his birth to worship him ? What is recorded of our Saviour's early life ? When 
 and by whom was He baptized ? What was the length of his minibtry ? How did 
 He attest His claim to the Messiahship ? When did He expire upon the cro-s ? 
 
 3. Who were the apostles of Christ ? What were they appointed to do ? 
 
 4. What is the number of the books of the New Testament ? By whom writ- 
 ten ? When were they so received by the Church ? What are the chief subjects 
 of these sacred books ? 
 
 5. What is the chief event in the reign of Claudius ? What is related of Carac- 
 tacus ? When was Britain first invaded by the Romans ? 
 
 6. What was the character of Neit) ? What originated the first Persecution of 
 the Christians by the Romans ? Who then sufi"ered martyrdom ? What circum- 
 stance resulted in the quiet submission of the Britons to the Romans ? 
 
 7. Describe the siege and destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans. 
 
 8. What was the character of Titus ? What event occurred the same year that 
 he became emperor of Rome ? 
 
 9. What is i-elated of Domitian ? How many Christians perished in the second 
 
QUESTIONS. 2D1 
 
 Persecution, A. d. 95 ? ^-Tiat is related of the apostle John 1 What eminent men 
 flourished in the reign of Domirian ? 
 
 10. Wliat was the character of Nerva ? How did he treat the Christians ? Why 
 were the Christians regirded as impious men and atheists ? 
 
 1 I . What incident illustrates the character of Trajan ? Upon what ground did 
 he authorize the third P»?rsecution ? What eminent men at this time obtained 
 the crown of martyrdom ? 
 
 12. In what oilginated the persecution of the Christians by their heathen 
 neighbors ? What do we learn from a letter written by Pliny to Trajan ? 
 
 13. What is related of the public acts of the Emperor Adrian ? How did he 
 treat the Christians ? What eminent literary men flourished during the reign of 
 Adrian ? 
 
 14. How long was the reign of Antoninus Pins, and how was it distinguished ? 
 How did he regard the exploits of warlike heroes ? 
 
 15. For what was Marcus Aurelius Antoninus noted? What eminent men 
 salFered martyrdom in the fourth Persecution ? What were the dying words of 
 Polycarp ? How had Justin Martyr become remarkable ? What is here recorded 
 of Galen ? 
 
 16. By whom was Marcus Aurelius succeeded on the throne of the empire ? 
 
 1 7. What chief events occurred in the reign of Septimias Severus ? What em 
 inent martyr in the fifth Persecution ? Describe the wall which Septimius built 
 across Britain ? What is related of Tertullian ? 
 
 18. By whom had Alexander Severus been preceded on the throne ? What 
 anecdote is related of this emperor illustrating his disposition toward the Chris- 
 tians ? 
 
 19. By what means did Maximin become emperor of Rome ? Why did he 
 authorize the sixth Persecution ? What noted persons suff'ered at this time ? 
 
 20. When occurred the seventh Persecution ? Who was the most eminent 
 martyr at this time ? Of what great work was he the author ? What had been 
 the character of the Christians before this time? What occurred now ? What 
 is re'ated of Eudemon ? What of Pionius ? By whom was the habit of monastic 
 life introduced ? 
 
 21. Who ascended the throne, A. d. 254? How was Valerian treated by the 
 King of Persia ? What persecution occurred under Valerian ? What eminent 
 persons obtained the crown of martyrdom in the eighth Persecution ? 
 
 22. By whom and when was Aurelian elevated to the throne ? What is related 
 of the bodily strength of this emperor ? What were the chief events of this 
 reign ? Who instigated the ninth Persecution ? Who was Zenobia ? Who was 
 her secretary of state ? How did Aurelian treat these illustrious captives? By 
 whom and where was Palmyra built ? What is said of the ruins of this aucieut 
 city ? 
 
 23. Whom did Dioclesian succeed in the empire ? What changes did he intro- 
 duce in the administration of the government ? What further changes took place 
 A. D. 304? How did these changes aff"ect the Christians ? How many persons 
 perished in the tenth Persecution ? In whose hands was the government in the 
 year a. d. 311 ? What policy did they adopt toward the Christians ? When did 
 Con.-^tautine become sole emperor ? What is said to have induced Constantine to 
 become the friend and patron of the Christians ? 
 
292 app:ei)?^dix. 
 
 Period II. — Byzantine Empike. 
 
 Give the associated "Elements" of Event, Pergon, Place, and Date, with which 
 this Period begins and ends. 
 I. How is the Byzantine Period distingmshed ? 
 
 1. What was the character of Constantine ? By what measures of state policy 
 is his name rendered famous ? What is related concerning the selection of 
 Byzantium for the capital of his empire ? 
 
 2. Why is Julian called the AiJOstafe f How did he manifest his hatred of the 
 Christian religion ? How did he succeed in his attempt to discredit a prophecy 
 of Christ ? What was his end ? 
 
 3. Who was Theodosius the Great ? By whom and why was he elevated to the 
 throne ? When did he become sole emperor ? How was the empire divided at 
 his death ? What celebrated discussion during the reign of Theodosius ? 
 
 4. By what tribes of barbarians was the western empire subdued between the 
 years a. d. 409—420 ? What is said of the capture of Rome by Alaric, a. d. 410 ? 
 Who invaded Biit lin after the withdrawal of the Romans ? Who were invited to 
 repel the Scots and Ticts ? Name the seven kingdoms of the Saxon Heptarchy ? 
 What is related of Prince Arthur ? Why was Atilla called the Scourqe of God? 
 By whom was Rome plundered, 455 ? What were the exploits of Odoacer, 4T6 ? 
 How long was this from the building of the city ? Who became master of Italy in 
 493 ''' Who in 568 ? 
 
 5. When does the Eastern empire date its establishment ? When did it termi- 
 nate ? What is said of the extent of the empire at different periods ? W^liat wa3 
 the character of the government? 
 
 6. Who was the most noted emperor of the Byzantine Period ? What was the 
 character of Justinian I. ? How was his reign rendered illustrious ? What vic- 
 tories were achieved by Belisarius ? How was he repaid by Justinian ? W^hat 
 was the experience of Narses ? How did he avenge himself ? 
 
 7. What is said of the prevalence of the habit of hermit life ? What is bere 
 related of Anthony the Hermit ? Of Simon the Pillar Saint ? 
 
 8. By whom was the French Monarchy founded ? Who was Clovis ? Under 
 whom and when had the Franks settled in Gaul ? When and by what means was 
 Clovis converted to Christianity ? What are the successive periods of French 
 history ? 
 
 9. Name the missionary enterprises undertaken during the Byzantine Period, 
 Narrate the story of St. Patrick's early life. What was his sabsequeiit history ? 
 Give the account of St. Columba. Who was St. Austin ? What was the origin 
 of This mission ? What was at this time the religion of most of the people of 
 Britain ? How were Austin and his companions received ? To what dignity was 
 Austin afterward advanced ? 
 
 10. W^hen and by whom were first officially acknowledged the claims of the 
 Bishop of Rome to universal supremacy ? 
 
 Period III. — Saracen Empire. 
 
 With what " Elements" of Event, Person, Place, and Date, does this Period 
 begin and end ? 
 I. By what chief events distinguished ? 
 
QUESTIONS. 293 
 
 n. Name all the Persons mentioned in the Vhronology. To which nations did 
 they severally belong ? 
 
 1 . Who are the Saracens ? From whom descended ? 
 
 2. Who was Mahomet ? W^hat were his natural endowments? Where did he 
 mature his system of religion ? What is the chief article of his faith ? What is 
 the Koran f What success had he at first ? Bi* what means did he found hia 
 empire ? Meaning of Moslems f Of Hegiraf 
 
 3. What is said of the exploits of Omar ? What is said of the Alexandrian 
 Library? What is remarked by President Wayland concerning this loss ? 
 
 4. Who was Dagobert ? Why were kings of France called Sluggards f 
 
 5. By whom was the University of Cambridge founded ? What is its present 
 condition ? 
 
 6. Who was Calinicus ? 
 
 7. By whom was glass introduced into England ? How was the formation of 
 glass discovered ? 
 
 8. Who was Mayor of France in the reign of Thierry III. ? What is said of his 
 adminisrration ? 
 
 9. What were the achievements of Charles Martel ? 
 
 10. What great controversy prevailed a. d. 726—787? What use had been 
 made of images before this time ? How did Leo III. regard their use at this time 
 by the ignorant and superstitious multitude ? What did the popes of Rome 
 advocate ? What was the final result of this controversy ? 
 
 11. What was the origin of the tax. called '•^ Peter'' s Pence f'' When was it 
 abolished ? 
 
 12. What eminent man died in 735 ? 
 
 13. By whom were the Merovingians deprived of the crown of France ? What 
 is considered the origin of the temporal dominion of the popes of Rome ? 
 
 14. Why were the Saracens that conquered Spain in the eighth century called 
 Moors f What kingdom was founded by Pelagius, 718 ? Who founded the 
 Caliphate of Cordova ? What of Cordova in the tenth century ? 
 
 15. What is related of Bagdad under Al Mansor ? 
 
 16. Which was the first clock ever seen in Europe? How did it differ from 
 the clocks now in use ? Who invented clocks with toothed wheels ? What im- 
 provement was made by Galileo ? 
 
 Period IY. — German Empire. 
 
 With what associated '• Elements'" does this Period begin and end ? 
 
 I. By what chief events is this Period distinguished ? 
 
 IT. Name the eminent men given in the Chronology . What nations are here 
 introduced ? 
 
 1. Who was Charlemagne ? What empire resulted from his attempt to revive 
 the Empire of the West? Mention some of the military exploits of Charlemagne. 
 What was his character ? By whom was Charlemagne succeeded in the German 
 Empire ? Ans. Louis T., Le debonnaire, the son and immediate successor of Char- 
 lemagne retaining the throne of the empire, divided among his children portions 
 of Germany, France, and Italy, excepting the States of the Church, which their 
 ancestors had conferred on the popes of Rome. The descendants of Louis I. in 
 the male line inherited the imperial crown until a. d. 912, when Louie III., the 
 
294 APPEIfDIX. 
 
 last of the Carlovingians. dying without children, Conrad I., Duke of Franconia, 
 was elected emperor. From that time the throne was obtained by election. Who 
 were the imperial electors ? Ans. The King of Bohemia, the Dukes of Bavaria, 
 Saxony, Brandenburg, and Hanover; the Count Palatine of the Rhine, and the 
 Bishops of Mentz, Treves, and Cologne. Name the chief historical epochs of 
 Germany. (1.) The original state of independence and barbarism. (2.) The con- 
 quest by the Eomans under a son of Drusus, thence named Germanicus, a. d. 17. 
 (.3.) The conquest of Italy and Germany by Charlemagne, King of France, who was 
 crowned emperor of the west at Rome by Pope Leo III., on Christmas-day, a. u. 
 800. (4.) The election of Conrad I., Duke of Franconia, a. d. 912. (5.) The acces- 
 sion of Conrad III., a. d. 1138, originating the contests between the Guelphs and 
 Ghibelines. (6.) The accession of Rodolph I. of Hapsburg, founder of the House 
 of Austria, 1273. (7.) The Revolt of Switzerland, under Albert I., 1307. led by 
 Tell. (8.) The Invention of Printing, 1485—58, under Frederick III. (9.) The Re- 
 formation under Charles V., 1517, led by Luther. (10.) The Thirty Years' War, 
 A. D. 1618—1648, Peace of Westphalia. (11.) War of the Austrian Succession, 
 1740—1748, Peace of Aix la Chapelle. (12.) The Dissolution of the Empire by the 
 resignation of Francis II., who then became Emperor of Austria, 1806. (13.) "'The 
 Confederation of the Rhine," (Napoleon, Protector,) lfc09— 13. (14.) ''The North 
 German Confederation," under the auspices of Prussia, a. d. 1866. (15.) Empire 
 revived— William 1. of Prussia, 1870. 
 
 2, Upon what ground did Egbert claim the sovereignty of all the kingdoms of 
 the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy ? When was this conquest achieved ? How long 
 after the withdrawal of the Romans ? What lines of sovereigns have worn the 
 crown of England from a. b. 827 ? (1.) Name the Saxon kings. Ans. Egbert, 
 827; Ethelwolf, 838; Ethelbald, 857; Ethelbert, 860; Ethelred L, 866; Alfred, 
 8T2; Edward the Elder, 901; Ethelstan, 925; Edmund I., 941 ; Edred, 946: Edwy, 
 955 ; Edgar, 959 ; Edward II., the Martyr, 975 ; Ethelred II., 978 ; Edmund II., Iron- 
 side, 1016; Edward III., the Confessor, 1041 ; Harold II., 1066. (2.) Who were the 
 three Danish kings of England ? Ans. Canute the Great, 1017; Harold I., Hare- 
 foot, 1085 ; and Hardicanute, 103!>. (3.) Mention the four Norman kings. Ans. 
 William I., the Conqueror, 1(;66; William II., Rufus, 1087; Henry I, Beau Clerc, 
 1100; and Stephen, 1135. (4.) Who were the fourteen Plantagenets ? Henry II., 
 1154 ; Richard I., Cceur de Lion, 1189 ; John Lackland, 1199 ; Henry HI., 1216 ; Ed- 
 ward L, 1272 ; Edward II., 1307 ; Edward III., 1327 ; Richard II., 1377 ; Henry IV., 
 Duke of Lancaster (Red Rose), 1399; Henry V., 1413; Henry VL, 1422; Edward 
 IV., Duke of York (White Rose), 1461 ; Edward V., 1483; and Richard IIL, 1483. 
 (5.) Name the five Tudors. Ans. Henry VII., 1485; Henry VIIL, 1509; Edward 
 VL, the Pious, 1517; Mary L, 1553; and Elizabeth, 15.58. (6.) Who were the six 
 Stuarts? Alls. James I., 1603; Charles I., 1625; (the Commonwealth and the 
 Protectorate of Oliver and Richard Cromwell. 1649;) Charles II., 1660; James IL, 
 1685 ; William III. (Orange), and Mary II. , 1688 ; and Anne, 1702. (8.) Name the 
 Sovereigns of the House of Hanover. George I., 1714; George II. , 1727; George 
 IIL, 1760; George IV., 1820; William IV., 18:">0; and Victoria. 1837. 
 
 3, Who were the Norman Sea kings ? What conquests were made by them ? 
 
 4, When are the Turks first mentioned in history ? 
 
 5, What was the character of Basil I. ? What incident is related of him ? 
 
 6, Which king of England is justly styled " the father of his country V Name 
 the chief acts of King Alfred's reign. Describe the '•'Ordeal.'" Who first assumed 
 the title Rex Anglorum ? Who was the greatest of the Moorish princes of Spain ? 
 \\ hat was the character of Henry I., Emperor of Germany ? 
 
QUESTIONS. 295 
 
 9. Mention some of the exploits of Otho I. 
 
 10. How did Athelstan encourage the prosecution of foreign commerce ? 
 
 11. Narrate the !?tory of St. Diinstan. 
 
 I'Z, Where if Cairo ? By whom and when built ? Describe this city. What 
 of the Fati.nite uynasty ? 
 
 13. By what means did Kin^ Edgar clear his kingiom of wo>es ? 
 11. Who was; Hugh Capet ? What was the chaiacter of lii:« reign ? 
 
 15. What improvements were introduced into Europe a. d. 991 ? 
 
 1 6. Who was the first Mahometan invader of India ? What is the present con- 
 dition of the city of Ghizni ? 
 
 1 7. Why did Sweyn, King of Denmark, invade England ? 
 
 18. What is related of Edmund Ironside ? 
 
 19. What was the character of Canute the Great ? How did he rebuke the 
 sycophants of h.s court ? 
 
 20. What was the Truce of God ? 
 2 1 . Who was Macbeth ? 
 
 22. What is related of Edward the Confessor ? 
 
 23. What was the Schism of the East ? 
 
 24. What conquests were made during this Period by the Turks ? 
 
 25. Who was Wi.liam the Conqueror ? Name the chief acts ol his reign. 
 
 26. What was the Feudal System ? 
 
 27. In what consisted the institution of Chivalry f Through what course of 
 training were thekuights required to pass ? What were some of the advantages 
 of Chivalry ? 
 
 28. Who was the Cid Campeador ? 
 
 Period V. — Crusades. 
 
 Give the " Elements" of Event, Person, etc., with which this Period begins and 
 ends. By what chief events is it distinguished ? Name the kings of England 
 mentioned in the Chronology. The kings of France. The emperors of Germany. 
 The emperors of the East. The battles and conquests. What empires founded? 
 What inventions and improvements are mentioned ? 
 
 1. What were the Crusades ? Why so called ? 
 
 2. What was the origin of these expeditions ? Who was Peter the Hermit ? 
 What of the council of Clei'mout ? 
 
 3. Who \vere the leaders of the first Crusade ? 
 
 4. With what success was it attended ? How many Crusades were undertaken 
 agamst the Mahometans ? 
 
 5. Mention some of the results of the Crusades. 
 
 6. What orders of Knighthood arose during the Crusades? (1.) What is 
 recorded of the Knights of St. John ? (2.) Of the Knights Templars ? (.3.) Of 
 the Teutonic Knights ? 
 
 7. Who was Henry I. of England ? What was his conduct toward his brother ? 
 
 8. By whom was the dynasty of the Comnerd founded ? 
 
 9. What is related of Feier Abelard ? 
 
 10. What originated the contests between the G-uelp/LS andi Ghihelines f 
 
 11. Who were the parents of Henry H., King of England ? What is said of iho 
 extent of his dominions ? 
 
296 APPENDIX. 
 
 12. Who Avas Thomas a Becket ? How was Hetiry affected at his death ? What 
 is said of Becket's Shrine ? 
 
 13. What conquests were made by Saladin ? By whom was he defeated ? 
 
 14. Who was Richard Cceur de Lion ? What was his character ? Who were 
 his contemporaries ? 
 
 1 5. What is Magna Charta f What was the origin of this document ? 
 
 16. By whom was the Mogul Empire founded ? What conquests were made 
 by the successors of Genghis Kahn ? 
 
 17. What was the origin of the Mamelukes ? Meaning of Mameluke f What 
 conquests were made by them ? What was their end ? 
 
 18. Who was Roger Bacon ? What is related of his. genius and discoveries ? 
 
 19. When did Marco Polo visit China ? What was the influence of his publi- 
 cations in the following centuries ? 
 
 20. Who succeeded Henry III. as King of England ? What was the origin of 
 the title Prince of Wales F What controversy was decided by Edward I. ? Name 
 from the Chronology some of the contemporaries of Edward I. (1250 — 1300). 
 
 21. Who was elected emperor of Germany in l%T-i ? For what is Rodolph 
 remarkable ? 
 
 22. What were the Sicilian Vespers ? Why so called ? 
 
 23. With whom was Philip the Fair contemporary ? What controversy between 
 Philip and Pope Boniface ? What polilical change in the reign of this king ? 
 Causes of this change ? 
 
 24. Who gained the battle of Stirling, 1297 ? What was the end of Wallace ? 
 
 25. Who led the Swiss revolution in 1307 ? 
 
 26. Name several important improvements made in the early part of the four- 
 teenth century. 
 
 27. Upon what right did Edward III. claim the throne of France ? What vic- 
 tories gained by him and his son over the French ? What prisoner taken 1336 ? 
 
 28. What were the Salique Laws f How did those laws affect Edward's claim 
 to the French throne ? 
 
 29. Name some of the learned men of the fourteenth century. 
 
 30. What empire in Asia succeded that of the Moguls ? What conquests 
 made by Tamerlane ? 
 
 31. Who first bore the title Dauphin ? What important service was rendered 
 Charles V. by Du Guesclin ? 
 
 32. Who were Wat Tyler and Jack Straw ? 
 
 33. What was the origin of Playing-Cards ? 
 
 34. Which were the first Paper Mills in the world ? 
 
 3 5 . Who was the first English king of the House of Lancaster ? To what did 
 his usurpation give rise ? 
 
 36, What was accomplished by the victory of Agincovrt, 1415 ? 
 
 37, Who was Joan of Arc ? How was she treated by the Duke of Bedford ? 
 
 38, What was the origin of the Art of Printing in Europe ? What improve- 
 ment was made by Giittenburg? By Sch8eff"er ? By Ged ? What is the story of 
 Faust and the Bible in Paris ? What book published in J471 ? In 1474? In 1450? 
 Which was the first printed modern translation of the Bible ? What of Tyndale's 
 translation ? 
 
 39, By whom was the GreekEmpire overthrown ? How long had it subsisted ? 
 What of Constantinople ? 
 
 40, What were the Wars of the Poses f Why so named ? What battles were 
 fought by the contending parties ? The result of each ? 
 
QUESTI02^S. 297 
 
 41 . Who became king of England in 1483 ? By what means ? What was the 
 result of the victory of Bosivorth f From whom was Henry VII. descended ? 
 How were the Houses of York and Lancaster united ? 
 
 42. Who were Ferdinand and Isabella ? For what was the reign of these 
 sovereigns remarkable ? 
 
 Period YI. — Colon zing. 
 
 Give the " Elements" and length of the Period. 
 
 I. By what events is this Period chiefly distinguished ? 
 
 II. Name the sovereigns of England mentioned in the Chronology. The kings 
 of France. Other sovereigns. What discoveries are recorded ? What places set- 
 tled ? What wars and conquests ? What treaties of peace ? 
 
 1. What important event occurred October 12th, 1492 ? By whom was the dis- 
 covery made 't Why was this voyage undertaken ? How was Columbus qualified 
 to conduct, this great enterprise ? What appeared evident to Columbus ? By 
 what circumstances was the opinion of Columbus sustained ? To whom did he 
 apply for assistance ? By whom was he finally aided ? Describe the voyage of 
 Columbus. What was the character of the natives of these islands ? Describe 
 the other voyages of Columbus. Why were the regions thus discovered named 
 Indies f When was the error discovered ? How was Columbus treated by King 
 Ferdinand ? What was -the character of Columbus ? 
 
 2. Who were the Cabots ? What discoveries were made by them ? 
 
 3. From whom was the New World named ? 
 
 4. What voyages were made by the Portuguese about the year 1500 ? 
 
 5. Why were African slaves brought to America ? When were the first impor- 
 tations made ? When was the African slave-trade abolished by England and the 
 United States ? When was domestic slavery abolished ? 
 
 6. What was the origin of the tei'm s'ave ? 
 
 "7. What was the character of Henry VIII. ? Whence his title Defender of the 
 Faith ? Did King Henry remain faithful to the Church of Rome ? Name the 
 important events during the reign of Henry VIII. Who were his contemporaries ? 
 
 8. Who was Martin Luther ? What were Indulgences ? Upon what occasions 
 had Indulgences been granted ? In what faith had Luther been educated ? What 
 was the result of Luther's study of the Bible ? Did those religions opinions 
 originate with the refoi'mers of the sixteenth century ? By whom, before this 
 time, had those or similar opinions been held ? 
 
 9. What was the origin of the term Protestant? 
 
 10. What was the character of Francis I. ? 
 
 11. Who was Charles V. ? What was his character ? To whom did he leave 
 his dominions ? 
 
 12. Narrate the conquest of Mexico by Cortez. 
 
 13. Who were the conquerors of Peru ? What was their end ? 
 
 14. What occurred at the coronation of Edward VI. of England ? 
 
 15. What occurred in England during the reign of Queen Mary ? 
 
 16. Who were the Puritans ? 
 
 17. Name the chief events of Queen Elizabeth's reign. 
 
 1 8. What improvements and inventions about this time ? 
 
 1 1>. What eminent men flourished during the reign of Elizabeth ? What is 
 related of Sir Philip Sidney ? 
 
 13* 
 
^98 APPEiTDIX. 
 
 20. What massacre Augnst 24th. 1572 ? Upon what occasion ? What noble 
 exceptions to the spirit of persecution ? 
 
 2 1 . Narrate the history of Mary Queen of Scots. 
 
 22. What Treaty of Peace concluded, 1559 ? What occasioned the war thus ter- 
 minated ? 
 
 23. What occasioned the revolt of the Netherlands from Spain, 1579 ? 
 
 24. What was the character of William the Silent ? 
 
 25. What was the design of the Spanish Armada, 1588 ? What motives induced 
 Philip II. to undertake this expedition ? 
 
 26. Give the history of the British East India Company ? What was the Sepoy 
 Rebellion ? 
 
 27. What is related of Henry IV., Prince of Navarre ? What was the Edict of 
 Nantes ? 
 
 28. lu whom were united the crowns of England and Scotland? What was 
 the character of James I. ? The chief events of his reign ? 
 
 29. What was the design of the Gunpowder Plot ? How was it defeated ? 
 
 30. Why was a new version of the English Bible authorized ? What is said 
 of this translation ? 
 
 31. Wliat produced the Thirty Years' War f Who were the chief leadi-rs ? 
 What battles were fought ? By what Treaty terminated ? 
 
 32. What eminent men flourished during the reign of James I.? What is 
 related of Galileo ? 
 
 33. What occasioned the controversy between Charles I. and his Parliament ? 
 Who^were the chief agents of Charles's despotism ? What is related of Dr. 
 Leighton ? What measures were adopted by the Long Parliament, July 4th, 1642 ? 
 Name the prominent Parliamentary leaders. What part in the contest was taken 
 by the Scotch ? What occurred in Ireland, 1641 ? What was the Westminster 
 Assembly of Divines ? What Formularies were prepared ? What was the Church 
 of England during the Commonwealth ? What took place after the battle of 
 Ka^eby ? What is said of the men of Cromwell's army? By what means did 
 Cromwell become Lord Protector? 
 
 34. Narrate the history of Oliver Cromwell. What was his character ? What 
 the character of his government : By whom aided ? What were the chief 
 events of his administration ? Bj"^ whom and when was monarchy restored ? 
 
 35. What was the character of Charles II. ? What was his policy toward the 
 regicides ? Repeat the Epitaph on John Bradshaw. What course was pursued 
 by Charles II. with respect to religion ? What resulted from the Act of Ur.i- 
 formily ? What measures were adopted to enforce Episcopacy m Scotland? 
 Narrate the martyrdom of McKail. 
 
 36. What was the conspiracy of Titus Gates, Kirby, and Tonge ? 
 
 37. What is the design of the Habeas Corpus Act f 
 
 38. Who were implicated in the Eye- House Plot ? What was the real design 
 of these patriots ? 
 
 39. By whom was the Edict of Nantes revoked ? What was the result of this 
 measure ? 
 
 40. How did James II. distinguish his reign ? Narrate the martyrdom of 
 John Brown. What were the Bloody Assizes f 
 
 41. What causes produced the Revolution in England, 1688 ? 
 
 42. What had been the previous history of William HI. ? What were the chief 
 events of the reign of William and Mary ? 
 
 43. What is related of Peter the Great ? 
 
QUESTIONS. 299 
 
 44, For what was Charles XII. of Sweden remarkable ? In what battles did he 
 enga<?e ? 
 
 45, Name the eminent men of the seventeenth century. 
 
 46, What occasioned the War of the Spanish Succession ? Who were the 
 leaders ? What battles fought ? How terminated ? 
 
 4 7. Who was George I. of England ? 
 
 48. What events distinguished the reign of George II. ? 
 
 49. What was the character of Frederick II. the Great of Prussia ? 
 
 50, What caused the War of the Austrian Succession, 1740-48 ? W'hat was the 
 result ? 
 
 51, What success attended the renewed attempt of the exiled Stuarts to regain 
 the British throne ? 
 
 52." Eminent men of the eighteenth century ? 
 
 Period VII. — American Progress. 
 
 Give the Elerrents o^ Events ^ etc. How is this Period distinguished as a division 
 of General History ? Name the chief events in the general history of Europe. 
 
 1, What were some of the results of the French Revolution of 178!» ? Who 
 were some of the prominent leaders ? What was the Guillotined (Ans. Page 
 ^ll.Nofe.) What were the chief causes of this popular outbreak ? How did this 
 differ from the American Revo.ution ? By what government was the Anarchy of 
 the French Republic followed ? Who was Napoleon Bonaparte ? His character ? 
 
 2, Name the political changes in France since 1789. What is the condition of 
 France at this time (November 1, 1870?) Ans. The successful Prussian army, 
 under William I., have almost entire possession of the country, and Paris is closely 
 besieged for the fourteenth time in the history of that city. 
 
 3, When did Greece become independent of Turkey ? What is the present 
 government ? 
 
 4, When did Mexico and the Spanish colonies of South America become inde- 
 pendent ? What of Maximilian ? Who is the Emperor of Brazil ? 
 
 5, Wiiat was the cause of the Crimean War f Its result ? 
 
 6, Narrate the account of the Sepoy Rebellion. 
 
 7, What caused the Carlist War in Spain? What act of the government of 
 Spain led indirectly to the present war between France and Spain ? (See War of 
 the Spanish Succession, p. 208.) 
 
 8, Name the sovereigns of Great Britain since 1760. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 Period I. — Discovert. 
 
 What discoveries before the time of Columbus ? What discoveries and settle- 
 ments were made by Columbus? What of San Domingo? What discoveries 
 were made by the Cabois ? How is Americus Vespucius distinguished ? What 
 voyages and settlements were made by the Portuguese f By the Spaniards f By 
 th« French ? By the English f What is said of the colonies planted during the 
 reign of Queen Elizabeth ? What companies chartered by James I. ? 
 
300 APPEI^DIX. 
 
 Period II. — Colonial. 
 
 Name the Colonies in the order of time, with the date of each. What discov- 
 eries were made 1609, 1610 ? Which is the oldest college in the United States ? 
 Where was erected the first printing-press ? Which was the first Bible printed in 
 America ? Which was the first newspaper ? The date of the first Post-oflSce ? 
 What discoveries made, 1752 ? In what wars were the Colonies involved ? 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON THE COLONIAL PERIOD. 
 
 1. Upon what ground did the sovereigns of Europe claim the right to colonize 
 the New World ? To what office was Columbus appointed ? What was done by 
 the Cabots ? What commission was granted by Queen Elizabeth to Sir Walter 
 Raleigh ? 
 
 2. What motives appear to have actuated the first Spanish colonists ? What 
 were the chief motives of the New England colonists ? What of the colonies of 
 Virginia, Maryland, and New York ? 
 
 3. Name some of the eminent men of the Colonial Period. 
 
 4. What chiefly caused the first difficulties between the colonists and the 
 Indians ? Which were among the more hostile tribes of Indians ? In what other 
 wars were the English colonies involved ? (1.) What occasioned King William 
 III/s War wnth France ? What events in America during this war ? Date of ihe 
 Treaty of Ryswick ? Its result ? (2.) By what name is Queen Anne's War ki own 
 in European History ? Events of this war in America ? What Avere some of the 
 results of the Treaty of Utrecht ? (3.) When occurred King George II. 's War 
 with France ? What was the chief event of the war in America ? What was 
 accomplished with respect to America by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ? (See 
 Vtarof theAustHan Succession., p. 209, and Salique Law, p. 160). (4.) What occa- 
 sioned the Frer.ch and Indian War ? What was the ground of the French claim 
 to Canada and Louisiana ? How were these regions situated with respc ct to the 
 English colonies ? What measures were adopted by the French to confine the 
 English to their original limits ? How did the execution of this design afl:'ect the 
 claim of the English ? What occurred in 1753? Name the chief events of this 
 war in order, with the date of each. Name the French commanders. The Colo- 
 nial and English commanders. What was the result of the Treaty of Paris ? 
 Point out this line on a Map of the United States. Which part of this territory 
 became independent of Great Britain at the close of the Revolutionary War of 
 1776 ? Which part is still held by Great Britain ? 
 
 5. What was the Stamp Act? How did the Colonies regard this measure? 
 What did the British Parliament assert ? 
 
 6. What war resulted from this- conflict of opinion ? How long did the war 
 continue ? State the chief events of each year in order. How many battles are 
 here named ? Which battles were fought before Independence was declared ? 
 Which was the first important battle ? Which the las^t ? Name the States in 
 which the several battles were fought. Name the chief American commanders. 
 Their French allies. The British commanders. What was the result of the war ? 
 
QUESTIOi^S. 301 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 
 
 I . What was the Declaration of Independence ? 
 
 2» Who were appointed to prepare a Declaration of Independence ? 
 
 3. Upon what other occasions had the Fourth of July been associated with great 
 political events ? 
 
 4. What causes chiefly produced the Declaration of Independence ? 
 
 5. What eminent men in the British Parliament advocated the cause of the 
 Colonies ? What were the views of the king ? 
 
 6. Who were prominent on the other side? 
 
 7. What was the effect of the Stamp Act on the people of America ? What 
 prevailed throughout the colonies ? Under what circumstances was the Declara- 
 tion of Independence given to the world ? 
 
 8. Name some of the prominent American leaders in the Revolution. 
 
 9. What aid was received by the Americans from France ? Name the foreign- 
 ers who nobly volunteered in the cause of the colonies ? 
 
 10. What foreign auxiliaries had the British Government? Narrate the 
 account of the Wyoning Massacre. 
 
 II, What remarkable case of Treason occurred during the war? What was 
 the fate of Major Andre ? 
 
 12. How did General Washington celebrate the victory of Yorktown ? What 
 was Washington's opinion of the conduct of the armies of the United States dur- 
 ing the war ? 
 
 Period III. — Federal. 
 
 1. What was the general character of Washington ? Give the chief events of 
 his life. What inscriptions on the base of the Washington Monument at Balti- 
 more, Md. 
 
 2. What forms of government at first prevailed among the colonies ? How 
 were they united in 1777 ? Why was the federal Constitution framed ? When 
 did it go into operation ? 
 
 3. What chief departments 9f government are created by the Constitution ? 
 In what is the legislative power vested ? By what tribunal is the judicial power 
 exercised ? To whom is the executive power committed ? What are the qualifi- 
 cations of the President with respect to nativity and age ? What are his official 
 powers? Who compose his Cabinet? What must a bill passed by Congress 
 receive in order to become a law ? When may a bill passed by Congress become 
 a law although vetoed (forbidden) by the President ? When does the Vice-Presi- 
 dent become the President ? 
 
 4. How many Presidents have been inaugurated under the Federal Constitu- 
 tion ? Name them in order, giving the date and length of each term. 
 
 GENERAL QUESTIONS ON EACH PRESIDENTIAL ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 When was {Washington) inaugurated ? How long did he serve ? Who was the 
 Vice-President ? Who was the Secretary of State ? Of the Treasury ? Of War ? 
 Of the Navy ? Of the Interior ? Who was Postmaster-General ? Attorney-Gen- 
 eral ? The Chief- Justice ? 
 
 What was the general character of the administration ? Name the chief events. 
 What new States admitted ? When and where were those States first settled ? 
 
302 APPEN^DIX. 
 
 What additional territory acquired ? What eminent men died ? In what foreign 
 war!? were the United States involved ? Name the chief commanders. What 
 questions with foreign states were settled hy Diplomacy ? (such as those respect- 
 ing boundary lines, p. 258). What public works completed ? What important 
 mechanical inventions ? What was the population of the United States during 
 this administration ? 
 
 GENERAL QUESTIONS ON THE HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 How many years from Columbus to Captain John Smith ? How many from 
 John Smith lo George Washington ? From Washington to the present time ? 
 Name the sovereigns of England during the Period of Discovery, 1492 — 1607. Of 
 France. Of Spain. Of Portugal. During the Colonial Period, 160T— 1789. Dar- 
 ing the Federal Period, 1789—1870. 
 
 Who was President of the United States when the Bastile was destroyed ? 
 Who when Napoleon was proclaimed emperor ? When Greece became independ- 
 ent? Upon what occasion was the Mo/troe Doctrine publis-hed ? Who was Presi- 
 dent when Aaron Burr was tried for conspiracy ? What was meant by the il/is- 
 souri Compromise Line f By the Omnibus Bill ? What war in Europe during 
 the presidency of Mr. Pierce ? What war in Europe now (1870) in progress ? 
 What two great political parties have existed from the adoption of the Federal 
 Coi.stitution, and which have been confined to no section of the country ? What 
 instances have occurred of sectional discontent under the Federal Government ? 
 Upon what ground did the eleven Southern States justify their withdrawing from 
 the Federal Union ? Upon what grotmd did the. Federal Government claim the 
 allegiance of the people of the South ? Who were elected President and Vice- 
 President of the Confederate States ? [Who composed Mr. Davis's Cabinet. Ans. 
 R. Toombs, Qi3l., Secretary of State ; C. S. Meminger, S. C, Secretary of the Treas- 
 ury ; L. P. Walker, Ala., Secretary of War ; S. R. Mallory, Fla., Secretary of the 
 Navy ; J. H. Reagan, Texas, Postmaster- General ; J. P. Benjamin, La.., Att07riey- 
 General.^ Name the principal Confederate generals. The chief commanders of 
 the Federal armies. What has been the increase of population of the United 
 Stales ? What additional territory has been acquired ? 
 
 METHOD OF OCCASIONAL GENERAL REVIEW. 
 
 Let this be according to the series of subjects as given in the Index : requiring 
 with each Event its associated person, place, and date ; with each Place, its posi- 
 tion on the map; and with each Per^Ort, his nationality, character, contempora- 
 ries, and the Period in whch he flourished. 
 
IE"DEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 A. 
 
 Aa'ron 55 
 
 Ab'ana and Phar'par 14 
 
 Abderrah'man III 141 
 
 A'bel 45 
 
 Ab'elard, Peter 154 
 
 Abi'jah 61 
 
 A'bram, A'braham 50 
 
 Aby'dotJ 26 
 
 Acadein'ic Philosophy 77 
 
 Acad'emy 24 
 
 Achie'an League 88 
 
 Ach'illes 57 
 
 Ac'ra 15 
 
 Acrop'olis 28, 94 
 
 Ac'tiiim 32, 8') 
 
 Ad'am 45 
 
 Ad'ams, John 234, 246 
 
 .Samuel 284 
 
 , John Q 254, 2<)0 
 
 Add'ison, Joseph 207 
 
 Ad'hemar 151 
 
 Ad'rian 117 
 
 Adriat'ic Sea 11 
 
 Ad'vent of Christ 6, 7, 9 
 
 ^a. or Ai, cap. of Colchis 26, 56 
 
 ^■jre'an Sea 26 
 
 ^gi'na 68 
 
 ^ne'as, ^'neid 57, 58 
 
 ^'sop 65 
 
 ^'tes 56 
 
 ^to'lians 83 
 
 Africa ,. 11, 18 
 
 A,2:aniem'non 57 
 
 Aijesila'us 77 
 
 A'lrincourt 162 
 
 A:?'ora 2:3 
 
 Aj^ric'ola 115 
 
 A'tiab 61 
 
 Aix-la-Chapel'le, Hhen. Prussia 209, 210 
 
 A'.ias 57 
 
 Alaba'ma... 253 
 
 Al'aric 126 
 
 Al'bany 220 
 
 Albe.mar'le 222 
 
 Al'bert, apb. Magdeburg 175 
 
 Al'bcrt, pr. Consort 215 
 
 Aibo'm 127, 128 
 
 Albuquer'que 173 
 
 Alexan'der Great 32, 33, 79 
 
 Alexan'der Seve'rus 119 
 
 Alexan'dria 19 
 
 Al'fred Great.. 140 
 
 A'lians 126 
 
 A'lien Law 246 
 
 Alma'gro 178, 217 
 
 Al'manack, Note 40 
 
 Al Man'sor 137 
 
 Al'phabet of Cad'mus 53 
 
 Alps 30 
 
 Al'va 184 
 
 Am'brose 1 2(> 
 
 Amer'ica, Discoverj"^ of 168 
 
 — , Divisions of 88 
 
 " American Progress," Period of. . . 210 
 
 Amei'icus Vespn'cius 172 
 
 Am'herst 227 
 
 Amphic'tyon 30 
 
 Arapii'dia 2.59 
 
 Am'ram 54 
 
 Ana'hasis 75 
 
 Anchi'ses 57 
 
 Andre'. Major 2-29, 238 
 
 Anne, Qnei-n of England 208 
 
 •"■ Antedilu'vian" Period 45 
 
 Arts 46 
 
 An'ihony, Mark 21, 86 
 
 An'thony the Her'mit . . 128 
 
 Antig'onns 80 
 
 Anti'ochus Epipha'nes 84 
 
 Antoni'uus Pius 118 
 
 Apostles of Christ 113 
 
 Aq'ueducts, Roman 35 
 
 Ara'bia 29, 31, 92 
 
 Ara'bians 35, 132 
 
 Arachnse'us 57 
 
 A^ram 47 
 
 Ar'arat 10, 28 
 
 Ara'tus 83 
 
 Arba'ces 14. 64 
 
 Arbe'la 32. 79 
 
 Arca'dius 125 
 
 Archim'edes 82 
 
 Arch of Ti'tus 89 
 
 Arch'ous .58 
 
 Areop'asrus 23, 52 
 
 Ar'go, Ar'gonauts 56 
 
 A r'gos. Ar'golis 52 
 
 Aridfe'us, Philip SO 
 
 Aris'ta 2.59 
 
 Aristi'des 73 
 
 Aristot'le 24, 77 
 
 Arithmet'ical Figures 144 
 
 Arizo'na 261 
 
 Arkan'?as 256 
 
 Ark, No'ah's 10, 47 
 
 Ark'wright 268 
 
 Arraa'da 185 
 
304 
 
 IKDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Arme'nia 10, 70 
 
 Armin'iup 19i 
 
 Arm'istead 251 
 
 Ar'nold 229, 288 
 
 Ar'phaxad 47 
 
 Arsin'oc 33 
 
 Artaxerx'es. Lono-iman'us. or Aha- 
 gne'rns {son of Xerxes mid husband 
 
 of E-'ther) 73 
 
 Artaxerx'es Miie'mon {grandson of 
 
 Arfax. Long.) 75 
 
 Arteme'eia 21 
 
 Artem'onep 74 
 
 Ar'thiir {a British Prince) li?6 
 
 Arundc'lian Marbles 52 
 
 Ascan'ius 5? 
 
 As'cra 62 
 
 Apdrn'bal 20 
 
 Ash'ur 13, 47, 4S 
 
 A'siaMi'nor 11 
 
 Apia. Modem Empires of 88 
 
 Asmone'cin Princes 84 
 
 Aspyr'ia, Empires of ■ 11, 13, 14 
 
 '' Assyr'ian Empire," Period of 59 
 
 Astrol'ofjy 48 
 
 Asty'ajjes 69 
 
 Atabal'ipa 178 
 
 Arh'amas 26 
 
 Atiiel'stan 142 
 
 A'theus 23, 52, 55 
 
 At'illa 126 
 
 At'kinson 2.55 
 
 At/las 30 
 
 Attor'neys-Geiieral 275 
 
 Augs'bur<^ (Bararia) 191 
 
 Augus'ta, or Sebas'te 16 
 
 Au<?us'tine, St.. city of 218 
 
 Anijns'tulns. Emperor 124, 127 
 
 Aiigus'tus, Emperor 12, 16, 43, 86, 112 
 
 Aure'lian 121 
 
 Aurun^'zebe 186 
 
 Aus'tin. St 180 
 
 Aus'tria, House of 94 
 
 " Aus'trian Succes'sion" 209 
 
 B. 
 
 Ba'al 13, 62 
 
 Ba'bel 18, 47 
 
 Bab'ylon 13, 47, 64, 67 
 
 ''Babylonish Captivity" 65 
 
 Ba'con, L(»rd Francis 192 
 
 , Roj^er ; 1.57 
 
 Bad'on Hill 126 
 
 Bas'flad 1.37 
 
 Ba'ker, Major 2(16 
 
 Balbo'a ■. . 175, 217 
 
 Bald'win I. {Jir---t Latin Emperor of 
 
 Eastern EmiYire) 173 
 
 Baldwin II. {King of Jerusalem) ... 153 
 
 Bal'timore, battle" of 251 
 
 , Lord 221 
 
 Bank, First United States 2J5 
 
 Ba'rak 55 
 
 Bar'clay, {British commodore) 252 
 
 Robert I'jy 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Bar'net 164 
 
 Bar'ney 250 
 
 Barre' 282 
 
 Ba'sil 1 140 
 
 Bastile' 107 
 
 Battles, 2d War with Gt. Britain. . . . 276 
 
 , Late Civil War 277 
 
 Baum 229 
 
 Bayard'. Chev. (a French knieht, 
 ''' sans peur et sans reproche, slain 
 
 in battle April 30. 15-24) 
 
 Beck'et 1.55 
 
 Bede the Venerable {from his emi- 
 nent jiiety and learning) 186 
 
 Bed'foril, Dukeof 162 
 
 Beit Lahhm 16 
 
 Bel'esis 14. 64 
 
 Belisa'rius 127 
 
 Belshaz'zar 14, 67 
 
 Ben'jamin, Tribe of 15 
 
 Ben'ninofton. Vt 2-.'9 
 
 Ber'een, N. J 2"20 
 
 Berke'ley. Lord 220 
 
 Beth'lehem 16 
 
 Bexar, Texas (Ba-har') 258 
 
 Beze'tha 15 
 
 Bi'as 66 
 
 Bi'ble. Elliot's 222 
 
 , KiniT James' 190 
 
 Binir'ham {British captain) 252 
 
 Biog'raphy S 
 
 Bi'orn 216 
 
 Birs Nim'rod 14 
 
 Bishop of Rome, Suprem. of 131 
 
 Bithyn'ia SO 
 
 Black or Enx'ine Sea 26 
 
 Black Hawk 255 
 
 Bla'densburg {a milage six miles N. 
 
 E. of Washington City) 250 
 
 Blake 199 
 
 Blen'heim {a village in Bavaria) ... 208 
 
 " Bloody Assizes" 205 
 
 Blii'cher 212 
 
 Boadice'a 113 
 
 Bocca'cio 161 
 
 Bo'hemond 151 
 
 Boi'leau 207. 
 
 Boleyn', Anna 174 
 
 Bombav' .... 186 
 
 Bom'ilear 20 
 
 Bo'naparte, Napoleon 1 211 
 
 . Napoleon III 213 
 
 Bon 'i face VIII 158 
 
 Bos'worth. {a town in Leice>'tershire, 
 Eng., 106 miles N.N. W. cf London 164 
 
 Bos'ton. Mass. (tbnnded l'680) 
 
 '• Bos'ton News Letter" 222 
 
 " Bos'ton Port Bill" 2-28 
 
 Both'well laS 
 
 Bour'bun, House of 1iS9 
 
 Bour'bons 212, 213 
 
 Boyne 206 
 
 Bozza'ris, Marco 213 
 
 Brad'dock 227, 240 
 
 Brad'shaw 197.200 
 
 Brandt 237 
 
INDEX. 
 
 305 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Bran'dywine 229 
 
 Brazil' 214. 216, 217 
 
 Bre'da {a city of Holland, 60 mile^ S. 
 
 of Amsterdahi) 220 
 
 Brem'en {British general) 229 
 
 Bren'nus 7T 
 
 Brew'ster 20 
 
 Bi'i'an Boroi'mhe 105 
 
 Brit'ain 113, l'?8 
 
 . Great 87 
 
 Brook Ke'dron 15 
 
 Brooke {British, colonel) 251 
 
 Brooke. Lord 221 
 
 Brown {American general) 250 
 
 Brown, John 204 
 
 Brnns' wickers 237 
 
 Bru'tup, Junius 72 
 
 Brn'tns andCas'f^ius 85 
 
 Buchan'an, James 2t)2 
 
 Bne'nos Ay'res 217 
 
 Buiik'er Hill 22"^ 
 
 Monument 257 
 
 Bun'yan. Joim 208 
 
 'Bunioy'ne {B7itish general) 228, 229 
 
 Burke. Edmund . . . '. 210 
 
 Bur'leigh. Lord 181 
 
 Burns, Robert 210 
 
 Burr, Aarou 248 
 
 But'ler, John 237 
 
 Byr'sa 19 
 
 " Byzan'tine" Period 123 
 
 Byzan'tium 91, 124 
 
 C. 
 
 Cah'inet 243, 244, 273 
 
 Ca'bors 172, 216 
 
 Cabral' 172, 216 
 
 Cade, Jack 101 
 
 Cadi'jah 133 
 
 Cad'mus 53 
 
 Cse'sar, Julius 39, 85 
 
 Cai'sars, Twelve 114 
 
 Cai'ro 143 
 
 Calais' (172 t/dles N. of Paris) 184 
 
 Calcut'ta {Kali cutta,'i. e., the city of 
 
 the goddess Kali) 187 
 
 Ca'leb 55 
 
 Cal'endar 39 
 
 Calhoun', J. C 261 
 
 Ca ilor'nia 260 
 
 Calin'icus 1:^j4 
 
 Calis'theries 8(i 
 
 Cal'vary 29 
 
 Cal'viu 1 76 
 
 Cam'bridoe University 134 
 
 , Mass 221 
 
 Camby'ses {King of Persia and fa- 
 ther of Cyrus the Great) 69 
 
 Camby'ses {^onand successor' of Cy- 
 
 7-ux 'the Great) 71 
 
 Cfini'deii, baiile of 229 
 
 Cam'deu, Lord 232 
 
 Camil'ius 77 
 
 Ca'naan 11 
 
 Cau'ada 219 
 
 Can'nae (a village in Avvlia) 
 
 Canute' 
 
 Capet' 
 
 Cape'tian 
 
 Capti v'ity, Babylonish 
 
 Caracal'la 
 
 Car'den {British captain) 
 
 Cari'nus 
 
 Carl'ist War 
 
 Carlovin'gian Dynasty ... 
 
 Carnat'ic {the Carnatic is a fertile 
 region on the fovlheast coast of 
 Hindostan, about 570 miles long). . 
 
 Caroli'na 221, 
 
 Car'roU. Charles 
 
 Car'teret, Sir George 
 
 Car'thage 12, 19, 62. 
 
 Carthagin'ians 20, 
 
 Cartier' ' . . 
 
 Ca'rus {an enterprising soldier who 
 succeeded Probus as Emperor of 
 Pome.^Sl) 
 
 Car'ver, John 
 
 Cassan'der 
 
 Cas'sius and Brutus 
 
 Cat'acombs 
 
 Cafaiine's Conspiracy 
 
 Catharine of Arra^on 
 
 de Medicis 
 
 82 
 144 
 143 
 129 
 
 65 
 119 
 2.' 2 
 1-^2 
 214 
 129 
 
 187 
 222 
 256 
 220 
 £3 
 82 
 217 
 
 Cath'olic League 94, 
 
 Cat'ullus 
 
 Cause'way, Giant's 
 
 Cax'ton, William lUO, 102. 
 
 Ce'crops, Cecro'pia 23, 
 
 Cervaii'tes 
 
 Cethi^'gus . 
 
 Chalde'a 
 
 Ciialdees'. Ur of 
 
 Champlain' 
 
 Cha'res 
 
 Charlemagn'e 
 
 Charles Martel' 
 
 Charles I.. King of England 
 
 II., son of Charles I 
 
 v., Emperor of Germany.. . 
 
 v.. the Wise, King of France 
 
 YL, King of France 
 
 VI., Emperor of Germany.. 
 
 IX., King of France 
 
 XII.. King of Sweden 
 
 Charles'Um, S. C 222, 
 
 Chaerone'a 78 
 
 Chateau' Cambre'^is {a castle 102 
 
 miles N. E. of Paris) 1P4 
 
 Chat'ham, Lord 210 
 
 Chau'cer 161 
 
 Ches'ter, Pa 222 
 
 Chil'deric III., King of France 136 
 
 Chi'li 214, 217 
 
 Chi'lo 66 
 
 Chi'na 47 
 
 Chiv'alry 147 
 
 Chkist Jesus, the Son of God 112 
 
 Chris'tian .^Era 41 
 
 Church 113 
 
 Chris'tians, why persecuted 116 
 
 122 
 
 2-20 
 80 
 85 
 90 
 85 
 174 
 181 
 l!!l 
 86 
 106 
 163 
 52 
 1-81 
 85 
 11 
 .'■^O 
 219 
 33 
 139 
 135 
 193 
 199 
 177 
 161 
 161 
 2(9 
 181 
 207 
 22.) 
 
106 
 
 IKDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Chronological JEras 40 
 
 Church of the Nativiry J6 
 
 Church of St. John, Lat'eran 90 
 
 , St. Peter's 91 
 
 . of the Holy Sepulcher 94 
 
 Cic'ero 85 
 
 Cid Campea'dor 148 
 
 Cnicinna'tus 74 
 
 Cine'a? 80 
 
 Clarke, Captain 248 
 
 C!aude of Savoy 182 
 
 Clav'erhouse 204 
 
 Clay. Henry 260, 261 
 
 Cl;iy'h(irne 221 
 
 CI em 'en t VIII., Pope 174 
 
 Cleob'ulus 66 
 
 Cleopat'ra 21. 32, 86 
 
 Clermont', Council of {Puy de Dome, 
 
 Fr) 151 
 
 Clermont/, first steamboat 249. 2(i9 
 
 Cl.'ves. Aniieof ... 174 
 
 Chn'ton. Sir Henry 97. 228, 2-29 
 
 , George, Vice-Pref: U. S. . . 273 
 
 . De Witt, Projector of the 
 
 Hyd.-o» and Erie Canal 254 
 
 Clive. Lord 187 
 
 Clocks 137 
 
 Clotil'da 1-9 
 
 Clo'vis 128, 160 
 
 Coaches 180 
 
 Coch'rane, British admiral 250, 251 
 
 Cod'rus 58 
 
 (;;()l'chip 56 
 
 Coli'gny, French admiral 181 
 
 Colise'iim 89 
 
 Collati'nus 72 
 
 "Colo'nial" Period 219 
 
 . . Eminent men of 224 
 
 \ Wars of 224 
 
 , Governments of 242 
 
 Col'onists. motives of 223 
 
 Col'onize New World, Eight to 223 
 
 Colos'sus of Rhodes 33 
 
 Colum'ba, St 129 
 
 Colum'bas 168, 216, 217 
 
 Com'modns 119 
 
 Com'mons, House of 157, 159 
 
 Cdmne'nus 154 
 
 Compass, Mariner's l.">9 
 
 Com'promise Act 255 
 
 Cou'chilis 17 
 
 Confed'erate States 2(14 
 
 Conledera'tion, Articlesof 242 
 
 Coiifu'cius 68 
 
 C(Jnfu'^il)n of 'i'ongues 47 
 
 Con'gress, Colonial 228 
 
 , Continental 96, 228 
 
 . Federal '. . . 24-J 
 
 Connec'ticut 2 '1 
 
 Con'rad HI 154 
 
 Constan'tus.... 122 
 
 Con'siaiiiine 89,123. 124 
 
 C<mstautino'ple 91 
 
 Coiisiitu'tion, l*"ederal 242 
 
 Con'way, British statesman 232 
 
 Cordo'va 141 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Corce'bus 63 
 
 Cor'inth 83 
 
 Corneil'le 207 
 
 Cornwal'lis 230, 238 
 
 Cor'tez 1"8, 217 
 
 Cot'ton 2ti8 
 
 Coun'cil. Amphictyo-'nic 30 
 
 Cov'enant, Scottish 105 
 
 Cov'enanters 204 
 
 Cow'pens, S. C. Battle of 229 
 
 Cow'per, William 21 
 
 Cran'mer 178, 17".» 
 
 Cras'sus 85 
 
 Creation, Mva. of 40 
 
 Creation, Days of 45 
 
 Croe'sus 21. 66 
 
 Cres'sy (Dep. Somme, Fr.) 160 
 
 Crime'an War {The Crimea) 214 
 
 Cromlechs' 102 
 
 Crom'well, Oliver 197 
 
 . Eichard 199 
 
 Crown Point, N. Y 227 
 
 '• Crusades,^' Period of 148 
 
 , Origin of 150 
 
 Ctes'iphon 33 
 
 Cn'ba 170. 216 
 
 CuHo'den {Scotlaid) 2i0 
 
 Cum'berland Strait 218 
 
 Ciinax'a ;.. 75 
 
 Cur'few 146 
 
 Curia'tii 64 
 
 Cul'lu Mu'ses.. : 146 
 
 Cyd'nus 21 
 
 Cynoceph'ale 83 
 
 Cyp'rian 21), 121 
 
 Cy rope'dise 75 
 
 Cyrus the Great 21 69 
 
 the Younger 75 
 
 D. 
 
 Da'cia {Hungary) 116 
 
 Da'cres 252 
 
 Dac'tyli, Idsei 56 
 
 Dade, American major 255 
 
 Dagobert', King of France 134 
 
 Damas'cus 14 
 
 Dam'ask 14 
 
 Dam'son 14 
 
 Dam'ocles 76 
 
 Da'mon and P.\ th'ias 75 
 
 Daniel the Prophet 67 
 
 Dan'te 160 
 
 Da'rien 21'' 
 
 Dari'us, Codotn'anus 32, 7v» 
 
 the Mede 69 
 
 Hystas'pes 71 
 
 No'thufe (the son of Artax 
 
 erxes Longima'nus and the father 
 of Cyrus the Younger, B c. 423).. 
 
 Darn'ley, Lord 183 
 
 David. King of Israel 58 
 
 Davis, John 218 
 
 Davis, Jefferson 264 
 
 Day, Names of. etc 35 
 
 Dead Sea 27 
 
INDEX. 
 
 307 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Dean, Silas. 2<34 
 
 Deb'orah f)5 
 
 Deca'tur. Comraodore 248, 252 
 
 Deceb'alns 11 ti 
 
 Declara'tion of Rights . . 228 
 
 T)f Independence.. 230. 231 
 
 Dedica'tion of firsit Temple f)9. 61 
 
 of second Temple 71 
 
 D\Esfai<J:n' 229, 235 
 
 De Foe. 207 
 
 De Eiiv'ter 198 
 
 Be So'to 217 
 
 De Son'za 217 
 
 De Witt, John and Corne'lius 205 
 
 Delau'ney lOT 
 
 Del'aware 220 
 
 Del'phi .SO 
 
 Del'iige of Noah 47 
 
 ^^ — of Ojj'ysei* 52 
 
 of Denca'lion 53 
 
 Deme'irins Polior'cetes 8.3 
 
 Demos'thenes 77 
 
 Det?'ert 31 
 
 Dia'na, Temple of 33 
 
 Did'ius Julia'nus 119 
 
 Di'do 19, 62 
 
 Dieskaii' 227 
 
 Din'widdie 226 
 
 Diocle'sian 122 
 
 Diog'enes 77 
 
 Diony'sius 75 
 
 Dis'co Island {Baffln's Bay) 218 
 
 " Dispersion Period" 46 
 
 Dissec'rion of bodies 15.? 
 
 " Distribu'tion Act" 256 
 
 Dix'well. John 200 
 
 Domi'tian 114 
 
 Dorr, Thomas W 258 
 
 Dort. Synod of {Holland) 192 
 
 Do'ver, N. H 220 
 
 Downie, British com 252 
 
 Dra'co 64 
 
 Drake, British admiral 180 
 
 Dru'ids 103 
 
 Drura'mond, British general 250 
 
 Dry'den 207 
 
 Dub'lin 105 
 
 Dii'cas 146 
 
 Dud'ley. Lord Guil'ford 179 
 
 Du Guesc'lin 161 
 
 Diiiriius 82 
 
 Dun'stan, St 142 
 
 Jyn qnQ^ne' {Pithbvrg , Pa.) . . . . 226, 227 
 Dutch Eepub'lic 184, 202 
 
 E. 
 
 Earth, first settlement of 10 
 
 East'ern or Greek Empire 127, 164 
 
 Eist Indies 171 
 
 East India Company. British 186 
 
 Ecclesias'tical History 8 
 
 Com'n, Court of 201 
 
 E'den .30 
 
 E'i.'ffar 143 
 
 '•E'dict of Nantes" issued 189 
 
 PAGE 
 
 " Edict of Nantes" revoked 203 
 
 Ed'inburgh 103 
 
 Ed'mnnd Ironside 144 
 
 Ed'red 142 
 
 Ed'ward the Elder 141 
 
 tile Confestsor 145 
 
 I , Longshanks 157 
 
 Ill 160 
 
 the Black Prince 160 
 
 IV 164 
 
 VI., the Pious 178 
 
 Ed'wy 142 
 
 E-'bert the Great 139 
 
 Eg'lou. a king of Moab 55 
 
 E'gvpt 11, 12, 80 
 
 E'hnd 55 
 
 Elea'zer 81 
 
 E'ii . .56 
 
 Eli'jah .. 61 
 
 Eliz'abeth 180 
 
 '• Embargo" 249 
 
 Eng'land 139 
 
 , Church of 1 80 
 
 , Antiq'uities of 102 
 
 English Sovereigns, lines of . . . 139, 194 
 
 " English Mer'cury" 181 
 
 E'noch 46 
 
 Epaminon'das 77 
 
 Kph'esus 33 
 
 Eph'ori 24 
 
 Epicu'rus 80 
 
 E'rie and Hud'son Canal 254 
 
 Erostra'tus .33 
 
 Esarhad'don 14 
 
 E'sau .51 
 
 Es'sex, Earl of 195, 203 
 
 Eth'eibert 131 
 
 Ethnolog'ical History 8 
 
 Eu'clid of Meg'ara 75 
 
 of Alexan'dria 80 
 
 Eu'demon 120 
 
 Eu'gene, Pr 208 
 
 Euphra'tes 27 
 
 Eu'rope 23, 87, 88 
 
 Eu'taw Springs 229 
 
 Eux'ine or Black Sea 26 
 
 ' • Evangel'ical Union" 191 
 
 Ex'odus .54 
 
 Eze'kiel , 65 
 
 F. 
 
 Fah'renheit. 207 
 
 Fair'lax, Lord 195 
 
 Fal'kirk. Battle of 210 
 
 Far'rar. Bishop 179 
 
 Fanst, John 163 
 
 Fawkes. Guy 190 
 
 Feli'citas 120 
 
 Fenelon 207 
 
 Fer'dinand and Isabel'la I(i5 
 
 I.. Emperor of Germany 178 
 
 n , ''' " 191 
 
 VII., King of Spain .... 214 
 
 Feu'dal System 146 
 
 Fire-arms 159 
 
308 
 
 IN^DEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Fire of Loivdoii 102 
 
 Fires, Teles^raph'ic 57 
 
 Fiat'bush, i3anle of 2-28 
 
 Flod'den Field, Battle of 175 
 
 Flor'ida 217, 253, 258 
 
 Foe. Daniel de 2(17 
 
 Forbesi, British general 227 
 
 Fo'rum 24, 89 
 
 Fotli'eriniray Castle 183 
 
 Founda'tion of Rome, "a. u. c.".. . 4il 
 
 '• Fourth of July" 280 
 
 Fox, George 19.) 
 
 France, Political chanj^es in 212 
 
 French Mon'archy " 128 
 
 French Sovereis^ns, lines of 129 
 
 French and Indian War 223, 226 
 
 Francis I., Kins: of France 177 
 
 II.. King of France 1S3 
 
 I.. Emperor of Germany. . . 209 
 
 Franklin, Dr. Benjamin 222, 284 
 
 Franks 12« 
 
 Fred'erick I., Emperor of Germany. 93 
 
 n.. Great, King Prussia. 209 
 
 IV., Elector Palatinate .. 93 
 
 v.. " " 93, 191 
 
 Fred'erickshall, Battle of 207 
 
 Froissart' 161 
 
 Ful'ton, Robert 2G8, 269 
 
 G. 
 
 Ga'len 118 
 
 Gale'rius 122 
 
 Gal'ilee, a division of the Holy Land 16 
 
 , Sea of 26 
 
 Gal \i.'o 192 
 
 Ga'ma. Vas'co di 172 
 
 Games, Olym'ine 56 
 
 Gar'den of E'den 30 
 
 Gar'dens, Hanging 13 
 
 Gates, American general 229 
 
 Gautier' sans avoir 151 
 
 Ged, William 163 
 
 Genet', M 245 
 
 Genser'ic 12!>, 127 
 
 George I., King of Great Britain. . , 208 
 
 II., " •' "... 2118 
 
 III., " '^ "... 215 
 
 IV.. " " "... 215 
 
 I., King of Helle'nes 213 
 
 Guor'gia 222 
 
 Geograph'ical His*;ory 8 
 
 '• Ger'man Empira," Period of 13S 
 
 , Events of 294 
 
 Ger'man town. Battle of 229 
 
 " Ger'trude of Wyoming" 233 
 
 Ge'ta, Emperor of Rome 119 
 
 Ghent, Treaty of • 252 
 
 Ghi b'elines and Guelphs 154 
 
 Gib'bon 210 
 
 Gibraltar 208 
 
 Giii'eoii, Hebrew judge 55 
 
 Gil'bert. teir Humphrey 218 
 
 Glass VU 
 
 Gleu'coe 206 
 
 Go'a 173 
 
 God'frey of Bon'illon 1 51 
 
 Gof le, William 200 
 
 " Golden Fleece" 26, 56 
 
 Gor'don, Lord George 102 
 
 Gor'ges, Ferd 220,221 
 
 Goths 126 
 
 Gran'icus River, Battle of 28. 79 
 
 Grant. Ulysses S 265, 2f;6 
 
 Grasse, Count de 235 
 
 Gravelines, Battle of 184 
 
 Great Britain 189 
 
 , second War with 249 
 
 Great Meadows, Battle of 240 
 
 Greece 11, 12, 72 
 
 " Greek Empire," Period of 123 
 
 Greek Empire overthrown 164 
 
 Greene, American general 230 
 
 Greenland 215 
 
 Grego'rian Cal'endar 40, 1.57 
 
 Gregory XilL. Pope 40, 1.57 
 
 Gren'ville, :>ir Richard 222 
 
 Geoge 233 
 
 Guadaloupe' Hidal'go 259 
 
 Guanaha'ni 216 
 
 Guelphs and Ghib'tlines 154 
 
 Guil'lotine 211 
 
 Guise, Duke of 182 
 
 Gunpowder, invention of lo'l 
 
 " Gunpowder Plot" 189 
 
 Gun Locks invented 160 
 
 Gusta'vHS Adol'phus 191 
 
 Gutt'enburg J62 
 
 H. 
 
 " Hab'eas Cor'pus" Act 202 
 
 Ha' gar 50 
 
 Hale, Sir Matthew 208 
 
 Halicarnas'sus 21 
 
 Ham. son of Noah 47 
 
 Harail'car 2;j 
 
 Hamp'den 194, 195, 203 
 
 Han'cock, John 96, 234 
 
 Hang'ing Gardens 13 
 
 Han'nibal 20, 30^ 82 
 
 Hanove'rian Succession , 208 
 
 Har'mer, American general 24 1 
 
 Ha'roun Al Ras'chid 137 
 
 Harrison, Thomas 195 
 
 — '■ , Benjamin 195 
 
 , William H 2.57 
 
 " Hart'ford Convention" 266 
 
 Har'vard College 221 
 
 Har' vey 1 92 
 
 Ha:-'elrig 198 
 
 Hast'i ngs. Marquis of 187 
 
 Have'loclv, British general 188 
 
 Hay'ti 110 
 
 He'brews 11. 49 
 
 He'brew Theoc'racy 12 
 
 " He'brew Commonwealth," Per. of 53 
 
 Hecatom'pyh)s 18 
 
 Hi-c'ior... ' 57 
 
 ■•Hegi'ra" 41, 133 
 
 Hei'delburg 93 
 
 llel'eua, Empress 150 
 
I-N-DEX. 
 
 300 
 
 Hel'enaSt.., Island 212 
 
 Heliogaba'lns 119 
 
 Hel'le, Hel'lei-pont . 26, 5»i 
 
 Hel'leii 
 
 Uen'ffisf and Ilor'sa 
 
 Hen'ry I., Fowler, Emp. Germany., 
 
 I., Beauclerc. King of Eng. . 
 
 II., Plantagenet, •' " . 
 
 IV., King of England 
 
 v., " '• 
 
 57 
 1-26 
 HI 
 1.^3 
 1.54 
 162 
 1(;2 
 l(i4 
 164 
 
 6-2 
 
 210 
 120 
 l'.)3 
 196 
 
 29 
 
 .56 
 
 116 
 
 245 
 
 62 
 253 
 135 
 
 52 
 
 . VI., " " 
 
 VII., Tndor, King of Eng 
 
 VII.V Chapel 9!» 
 
 VIII.. Kini; of England. ... 174 
 
 IV., Prince of Navarre.. 188, 218 
 
 , Patrick 231 
 
 . Prof. Jopeph, LL.D 2ii9 
 
 Hep'tarchv 1~^ 
 
 Iler'cules, Herac'lidae 5S 
 
 Pier'mit Life ■• 128 
 
 Her'od the Great, King of Judea — 16 
 
 Herod'otus '^^ ]^^ 
 
 Her'uli If;^ 
 
 Hes'iod 
 
 Eess'sians 
 
 Hey'ne 
 
 Hexap'la 
 
 '• High Commii^sion Court'' — 
 
 " High Court, of Justice" 
 
 Hip'pias, Hipparch'us 72 
 
 Hippo'crates ''5 
 
 Hi'ram II., Kingof Tyre 17 
 
 HispanMo'la 21b 
 
 His'iory. Elem. and Uses 5 
 
 . Divisions of 6, 7, 8 
 
 Illustrates Prophecy 9 
 
 , Ancient •• 45 
 
 , Modern 1 10 
 
 Holy City 1^ 
 
 Land 1^0 
 
 Sepulchre 94 
 
 Hol'land 185, 20o 
 
 Ho'mer o2 
 
 Hono'rius 12'> 
 
 Hoop'er, Bishop ll^9 
 
 Hor'ace ^*J 
 
 Hora'tii • 64 
 
 Ho'reb, Mount 29, 5o 
 
 "Horse, Wooden" 21, 51 
 
 How'ard, Catharine 174 
 
 Howe, Lord, British general^ 97, 228, 229 
 
 Had'son, Henry 219 
 
 Hudson's btrait, Bay 219 
 
 Hugh of Vermandois 151 
 
 Hu'guenots — 181 
 
 Hull. American general 276 
 
 , American commodore 2o2 
 
 I'da, Mount 20, 
 
 " Idas'i Dac'tyli" 
 
 Igna'tius 
 
 Ildefon'so, Treaty of 248 
 
 "iriad" 
 
 Illinois' 
 
 Ini'ages, Use of 
 
 In'achus • • 
 
 Independ'ence, Declaration of 22S 
 
 In'dia l^-^ 
 
 India'na ••• 252 
 
 Indies, East and West 96, 171 
 
 "Inductive Philosophy." {In dvco, 
 leading up. from particular facts 
 
 to general principles) 192 
 
 " Indulsiences" I'lp 
 
 '• In hoc signo vinces" 123 
 
 I'no „26 
 
 Inventions, Mechanical 268 
 
 lo'na If" 
 
 lo'nian Sea 11 
 
 I'owa 259 
 
 Ip'sus, Battle of ■_• 80 
 
 Ire'ton, Henry 195, 198 
 
 I'saac S';:" 
 
 Isabel'la, Queen of Spain 165, 169 
 
 II.,- " 214 
 
 Isa'iah ^^ 
 
 It^h'mael "^ 
 
 Is'rael, Kingdom of 61 
 
 Is'sus, Battle of '•'9 
 
 It'aly. 11,127 
 
 itur'bide, Emperor of Mexico 214 
 
 Hume, David. 
 
 Hyder Aii 
 
 Hyrca'nus 
 
 210 
 
 187 
 84 
 
 I. 
 
 lal'ysus _f4 
 
 Fbrahim Pasha 213 
 
 Ib'berville,M ...• 226 
 
 Ice'land 215 
 
 J. 
 
 Ja'cob 51 
 
 .lack'son, Andrew 251, 254, 2(iO 
 
 •' Jack Straw" 161 
 
 James IV.. King of Scotland 175 
 
 I., Kin"-- of Great Britain 189 
 
 II., Duke of York .. 202, 204, 209 
 
 Jame«'iown, Va 219 
 
 Jansen'ius 207 
 
 Jai>ai)', Treaty with 262 
 
 Ja'pheth 47 
 
 Ja'son »6 
 
 Ja'vaiand .lago 143 
 
 Jay, John 244, 256 
 
 Jeb'usites l-^ 
 
 Jefferson, Thomas 234, 247 
 
 Jeffries, Judge 20.^ 
 
 Jephthah 55 
 
 Jes'!«up, American general 2o5 
 
 Je'su!? Chbist 112 
 
 Jews, Captivity of the 65 
 
 , Ret-toiation of the 69, 71 
 
 Jo'an of Arc 162 
 
 Joch'ebed 54 
 
 John the Baptist 112 
 
 the Apostle 114 
 
 I., Comne'nus 154 
 
 , King of Portugal 1()9 
 
 John'son, Dr. S 210 
 
 Join'ville, Prmce de 212 
 
 Jo'nah 63 
 
 Jones, John Paul - 236 
 
310 
 
 IKDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Jor'dan Kiver 27 
 
 Jo'seph 51 
 
 Jose'phns 114, 115 
 
 Josli'iia 55 
 
 Jiide'a 16 
 
 Jiui'ge!*, Hebrew 55 
 
 Ju'Jun the Apos'tate 125 
 
 Ju'piter 50 
 
 Ju'riet? 141 
 
 Justices, Chief, U. S 275 
 
 . Associate, U. S 275 
 
 Jns'rin M.irtyr 118 
 
 Justin'ian I., Greek emperor 127 
 
 Ju'venal 118 
 
 K. 
 
 Kaa'ba 92 
 
 Kalb, Baron de 286 
 
 Kan'sas. Civil War in 262 
 
 " Kan'sas-Nebraska Bill" 262 
 
 Kant 210 
 
 Ke'dron. Brook 15 
 
 Kennebec' River 219 
 
 Kentuc'ky 245 
 
 Kep'ler 192 
 
 Kinjr George II.'s War 222, 225 
 
 King Philip's War 222, 2-24 
 
 King William III.'s War .. 206, i22, 225 
 
 King, William Kufus, Vice-Pres 261 
 
 King's Mountain, Battle of, in N. C, 
 1780. British under Ferguson de- 
 feated by the Americans under 
 Campbell and others. 
 
 Klop'stock 210 
 
 Knight'hood 147 
 
 Orders of 152 
 
 Knights of St. John ... 152 
 
 of Mal'ta 158 
 
 Temp'lars 153 
 
 Teuio'nic 153 
 
 Knox, John 176, 181 
 
 Ko'ran 183 
 
 Koscius'ko 236 
 
 Lab'rador 172, 216 
 
 Lab'yrinth Zi 
 
 Lacedai'mon 24, 56 
 
 La Fayette 229, 235, 254 
 
 Lake George, Battle of 227 
 
 Lan'caster, Duke of {Henry IV). .. . 162 
 
 , House of ln4 
 
 Lane, Ralph 222 
 
 La'ocoon ... .• 34 
 
 La Salle, M. de 226 
 
 Las Casas, Father de 173 
 
 Lat'imer 179 
 
 Lati'nus 57 
 
 La'tium 57 
 
 Laco'nia 24 
 
 Laud, Archbishop 193, 194 
 
 Lanren'tius 162 
 
 Lavin'ia 57 
 
 *• League Achae'an'' 83 
 
 PAGE 
 
 " League, Catholic" 188, 191 
 
 Lean'der 26 
 
 Lee, Richard Henry 234 
 
 , Arthur 234, 245 
 
 , Robert E 265 
 
 Leigh'ton, Dr 194 
 
 Leip'sic, Battle of 191 
 
 Leo III., Gretk emperor 135 
 
 VL, " " 140 
 
 X.Pope 174 
 
 Leon'idas. King of Sparta 32, 78 
 
 Leuc'tra, Battle of 77 
 
 Lewis, Captain 248 
 
 Lex'ington, Battle of 228 
 
 Li'brary of Alexandria 133 
 
 Licin'ius 123 
 
 Lightning' 222 
 
 Lincoln, Abraham 264, 2f)5 
 
 LinnjB'us 210 
 
 Liv'ingston. R. R 269 
 
 Locarities, Remarkable 30, 8S 
 
 Loch-Lev'eii Castle 183 
 
 Lucke, John 208 
 
 Lom'bards 127 
 
 Lon'don, City of 97 
 
 Company 219 
 
 Lon'donderry, Siege of . . . - 206 
 
 Longi'nns 122 
 
 Lou'is XIV., King of France 203 
 
 XV L, " " .. 210, 234 
 
 XVIII., ■•'■ " 213 
 
 Lou'isburg 2-;7 
 
 Louisia'na 226, 247, 25i 
 
 Lucre'tius 86 
 
 Luck'novv 188 
 
 Lu'ther, Mar'tin 175 
 
 Luti'tia 106 
 
 Lycur'gus 62, 88 
 
 Lyd'ia 11,21, 67 
 
 Lysim'achus 80 
 
 M. 
 
 Macheth' 145 
 
 Mac'cabees 84 
 
 MacDon'alds of Glencoe 206 
 
 Macedo'iiia 11, 12, 78, 80 
 
 •' Macedo'nian Period" 78 
 
 Macedo'nian Race of Emperors .. .. 140 
 
 Macomb' {American general) 250 
 
 Macria'nus 121 
 
 Macri'nus 119 
 
 Mad'ison, James 249 
 
 Mad'rid 108 
 
 Magel'lan 217 
 
 Mag'na Char'ta 156 
 
 Mah'mud the Great 144 
 
 Ma'liomet 132 
 
 Ma'homet II 164 
 
 Maine 221, 253 
 
 Mal'achi 8, 73, 74 
 
 Malplaquet', Battle of 208 
 
 Mam'elukes 156 
 
 Mantine'a, Baitle of 77 
 
 Mar'athon, Battle of 32, 73 
 
 Marcel'lus 82 
 
 Marcoman'ni 118, 122 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Ill 
 
 Mar'co Po'lo 157 
 
 Mai-'cns Aurelins Aiitoni'nus 118 
 
 IVlardo'iiiu;', l/i^other-in-law arid lieu- 
 tenant-general of Xerxes ; slain, 
 in the Battle of Platea, b. c. 479. . . 73 
 
 Mar'i^aret of Valois' 182 
 
 Mari'a There'!?a 209 
 
 Ma'rie Antoinette' 210 
 
 , Queen of Charles I. of Eng. . 221 
 
 " Mar'iuer's Compass' 159 
 
 Mar'ius 85 
 
 Mark An'thony 21,86 
 
 Marl'boroiiffh, Duke of . 2b8 
 
 Mar'shall, John 256 
 
 Ma'ry, Queen of England 1 79 
 
 , Queen of Scots 183 
 
 Ma'rylaud 221 
 
 Ma'son, John 22U 
 
 "iMat^on and Dixon's Line." The 
 boundary between the States of 
 Delaware. Maryland, and Pennsyl- 
 vania, so named from the English 
 surveyors by whom it was deter- 
 mined. 
 
 Massachu'setts 220 
 
 Mas'sacre, St. Bartholomew 181 
 
 , Glen'coe 206 
 
 , I'rish 195 
 
 , Wy'oming 229, 237 
 
 Mauri'tius 131 
 
 Mausole'um 21 , 89 
 
 Maw'hood 229 
 
 Maxiui'iiin 122 
 
 Maximii'ian, Duke of Bavaria U)l 
 
 , Empei'or ot Mexico. . . 214 
 
 M ax'imin 120 
 
 Maz'arin 207 
 
 McCor'mick, C. H 270 
 
 ]VIcDouough {American commo- 
 dore) 252 
 
 McHf n'ry. Fort 251 
 
 McKail 201 
 
 M ean'der River 28 
 
 Mec'ca 14, 92 
 
 Mechanical Professions 270 
 
 Me'dia 14, 64 
 
 Medes and Per'sians 12 
 
 " Medo-Per'siau" Period 6& 
 
 Medi'na 92 
 
 M edi terra'nean Sea 25 
 
 Mterut' 188 
 
 Melchiz'edek 5u 
 
 Me'lech 146 
 
 Melen'uez 2l8 
 
 Mem'uon ., 57 
 
 Memorabilia of Socrates 75 
 
 Meni'plus , 18 
 
 Meuela'us 57 
 
 Mesopota'mia 10 
 
 Messi'na, Straits of 32 
 
 Meth'odists 208 
 
 Methu'selah 46 
 
 Mex'ico 178, 214, 217 
 
 . War with 259 
 
 Mich'igan 256 
 
 Miii'iau, Land of 55 
 
 Milan' 123 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Mil'ler. American captain 250 
 
 Milti'ades 73 
 
 M ilioi), John 198. 207 
 
 Mini r'va. Temple of 23, 24 
 
 Minneso'ta 263 
 
 Mint, First United States 24.'> 
 
 Mis'raim 12. 48 
 
 Missist'ip'pi River 175, 2i7 
 
 State 253 
 
 Missouri River 2J8 
 
 State 253 
 
 '•' Mis^^ouri Compromise" 253 
 
 Miihrida'tes 85 
 
 Mue'mon. Aitaxerxes 75 
 
 Moe'ris Lake 33 
 
 Mogul' Empire 156 
 
 Mou'mouth,Dukeof 203 
 
 , Battle of 229 
 
 Monk, General George 199, 222 
 
 Monroe', James 253, 256 
 
 '• Moni'oe Doctrine" 253 
 
 Moiil'calm 227 
 
 Montesquieu' 210 
 
 Montezu'ma 178 
 
 Moiitgom'ery, Richard 228, 2S6 
 
 Months 36 
 
 Montreal' 227 
 
 Monts, Sieur de 218 
 
 Mon'ument, Bunker Hill 257 
 
 , Washington 241 
 
 Mor'gau (American general) 229 
 
 Mor'mons 262 
 
 Mor'ris, Robert 234 
 
 Morse, S. F. B 258 
 
 Mo'ses 54 
 
 Mosheim 210 
 
 MOirUl' 13 
 
 Mosuline (muslin) 268 
 
 Moun'iains of Ancient History 28 
 
 Mount Ac'ra 15 
 
 Ar'arat 28 
 
 At'las 30 
 
 Beze'tha 15 
 
 Ho'reb 29 
 
 I'da -.9 
 
 Mori'ah 15 
 
 Olym'pus 29 
 
 Parnas'i-us 29 
 
 Zi'on .... 15 
 
 '■ Mower and Reaper" 210 
 
 Munych'ia 24 
 
 Mysore' 187 
 
 N. 
 
 Nabonas'sar '. . 40, 64 
 
 ]Sab*>polas'sar 14 
 
 Nantes, tdict of, issued 189 
 
 , revoked 203 
 
 Na'pier 1*4 
 
 Napo'letm I 211 
 
 II., Duke of Reichstadt, 
 
 son of Napoleon 1 
 
 Napo^leon 111., nephew of Nap. I... 213 
 
 iNar'ses 127 
 
 Narva (a town of Russia on the Gulf 
 
 of Finland) 207 
 
112 
 
 IXDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Nase'by (a toion in, Northamuton- 
 
 sliire. Eng.) 196 
 
 Navar're. Prince of 18-2 
 
 Navari'no (a seapoi^t of Greece) 213 
 
 Nebucliadnez'zar 14, 15 Go 
 
 " Necesf-ity," Fort 227 
 
 Nei'^on, Lord 9!) 
 
 Nepaul' {ill the N. E. part of India). 18T 
 
 Ne'ro 113 
 
 Ner'va 115 
 
 Ne?'tor 57 
 
 Nc^th'erlHndt* {now Holland) 184 
 
 " Nentral'ity" Proclamation of 245 
 
 " Neii'tral Rights" „ 2-19 
 
 New Am't^terdam 220 
 
 New'combe, Lieutenant 251 
 
 Nevvfound'land 21() 
 
 New Grena'da 217 
 
 New Hamp'shire 22i) 
 
 New Jer's^ey 220 
 
 New Or'leans. La 251 
 
 Newport, Captain ... . 219 
 
 Newspaper, tirst English 181 
 
 ^, firr-t American . 222 
 
 Newton, Sir Isaac 2>i8 
 
 New York 219 
 
 Niag'ara,- N. Y 227, 250 
 
 Nile 28 
 
 Nun'rod 13, 47, 48 
 
 Nin'eveh 13, fj4 
 
 Ni'nus 48 
 
 No'ali 47 
 
 Non in'terconrsc 249 
 
 Noi lin'gen {Bavaria) 192 
 
 North, Lord ' 233 
 
 Northampton, England I(j4 
 
 '• 2>Jorthea-tern Boundary''' . 258 
 
 North Point, iNld 251 
 
 North Pol.-.r Star 48 
 
 Northura'berlaad, Earl of 194, 195 
 
 Notre Dame Cathedral 107 
 
 Nova'tian ... l-^l 
 
 '• Nulliflca'tion" 255 
 
 Niime'rian 122 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Om'ri {King of Israel) 16 
 
 O. 
 
 Gates, Ti'tus 
 
 Obadi'ah. {Hebrew prophet) 
 
 Observ'atory, First Asironomical .. 
 
 Octa'vius, Emperor of Eume 
 
 Odo'aeer. King of Ostrogoths . . 123, 
 
 " Od'yssy" of Homer 
 
 Officers of Federal Government 
 
 O'glethqrpe, General 
 
 Og'yges,' Deluge of 
 
 O'Hi^'gins 
 
 " Ohi'o Company" 
 
 Stale 
 
 Oje'da, Alouzo d' 
 
 Olives. Mount of 
 
 '■ Olympiads," ^ra of 
 
 '• Olympic Games" 
 
 Olympus, Mount 
 
 O'mar, Caliph 
 
 '• Om/nibus B 11" 
 
 20) 
 
 t)5 
 
 180 
 
 32 
 
 127 
 
 62 
 
 273 
 
 222 
 
 52 
 
 214 
 
 226 
 
 :i:49 
 
 172 
 
 29 
 
 40 
 
 56 
 
 29 
 
 13:J 
 
 260 
 
 O'phel, Mount 
 
 Orange, Win. the Silent, Prince of. 
 
 , William III., Prince of ... . 
 
 , Fort 
 
 " Orde'a!." Trials by 
 
 15 
 
 185 
 205 
 220 
 141 
 
 Or'egon, Boundary of . . . , 260 
 
 State of 263 
 
 Or'igen 120 
 
 " Ori'ou" 48 
 
 Or'leans, Maid of 163 
 
 Osceo'la 255 
 
 Os'trogoths {Eastern. Goths) 127 
 
 Oth'man I. {founder of the Ottoman 
 
 Empire) 156 
 
 Othni'el 55 
 
 O'tho I. {Emperor of Gerinamj) 142 
 
 1. {King of Greece) 213 
 
 P. 
 
 Pacific Ocean 175, 
 
 Pala'finate 
 
 Paleol'agus, Michael 
 
 Pal'estine, or the Holy Land 
 
 Palestrol'lo 
 
 Pa'los 
 
 Pan'dects ( Complete Digests) 
 
 Pan'iheon 
 
 Paper Mills 
 
 Par'adise Point, Delaware 
 
 Pa'ran, Wilderness of 
 
 ■• Par'asite" 
 
 Pa'ris, son of Pri'a m 
 
 {capital of France) 
 
 , Peace ot 223, 
 
 Par'ker, Sir Peter 
 
 Parl'iament, English 
 
 , French 
 
 — , Long 
 
 Parnas'sus, Mount 
 
 194, 
 
 Parr, Catharine 
 
 Par'thenon 
 
 Par' ihians 
 
 Pas'cal, Blaise 
 
 '■ Patiiarch'al" Period 
 
 Pat'rick, St 
 
 Paul the Apos'tlii 
 
 Paul the Her'mit 
 
 Paul IV^., Pope 
 
 Paul'ding 
 
 Pausa'nius 24, 
 
 Pa' via {a city of Milan, Italy) 
 
 Pack'enham {British genti'al) 
 
 Pedro II., Don {Emperor of Brazil) . 
 
 Pel'ops, Peiopidie 56 
 
 Pelopone'stts {now the Moj'ea) 
 
 Penn {British admiral) 
 
 , William 
 
 Pennsyl'vania 
 
 •' Pentateuch" ( Five Book-') 
 
 Pentel'icus, Mount (i/i. Attica) 
 
 Pent'land Hills {tn Edinburghshire, 
 
 iscotland) 
 
 Pe'pin d'Hiristal . . .• 
 
 Pe'pin le Bref {The Slwrt) '. 
 
 217 
 
 92 
 
 92 
 
 150 
 
 168 
 
 169 
 
 127 
 
 90 
 
 162 
 
 220 
 
 31 
 
 60 
 
 57 
 
 106 
 
 227 
 
 22s 
 
 100 
 
 159 
 
 231 
 
 29 
 
 174 
 
 2;i 
 
 85 
 
 207 
 
 49 
 
 129 
 
 113 
 
 128 
 
 1^4 
 
 2;38 
 
 73 
 
 177 
 
 251 
 
 214 
 
 , 58 
 
 54 
 
 199 
 
 222 
 
 2:2 
 
 55 
 
 32 
 
 201 
 135 
 136 
 
INDEX. 
 
 olo 
 
 Pe'quods 224 
 
 Perdic'cus 80 
 
 Pere'a {the Eastern division of Pales- 
 tine) 17 
 
 Perian'der 6ti 
 
 Per'icles 24, 74 
 
 " Periods" of General History. . . 41-44 
 Peripatetic (i. e., walking about). . . 24 
 
 Perpet'ua {a Christian martyr) 120 
 
 Perry {American commodore) . . 252, 262 
 
 Persecutions, '-Ten." 110,113, 114 
 
 116, 118, 119, J 20, 121, 122, 123 
 
 Persep'olis 22 
 
 Persia, Persians 11, 12 
 
 Per'tinax.. 119 
 
 Peru I'lS, 214, 217 
 
 Peter the Apostle 113 
 
 Peter, Church of St 91 
 
 Peter the Great, Czar 206 
 
 Peter the Hermit 151 
 
 " Peter's Pence" 136 
 
 Petersburg, St. {capital of Russia) . . 207 
 
 Petersburg, Ya 265 
 
 Pe'trarch 160 
 
 Phale'rum 24 
 
 Phar'amond 128 
 
 Pha'raoh {a title of the ancient kitigs 
 
 of Egypt) 51 
 
 Pha'ros 34 
 
 Phar'par and Ab'ana 14 
 
 Phar'isees 81 
 
 Pharsaiia (a plain near the city of 
 
 Pharsalus, Thessaly) 85 
 
 Pha'sis {a river of Colchis) 56 
 
 Phi'don 63 
 
 Philadelphia 96, 222 
 
 Philip the Great 78 
 
 IV., The Fair 158, 158 
 
 II. {King Spain) 177, 179, 184, 186 
 
 V. " •• 208 
 
 Philip'pi {a city of Macedon) 86 
 
 " Philip'pics" ... 77 
 
 Philis'tia 11 
 
 Philopse'men 83 
 
 Phryx'us 56 
 
 Pbo'cas 131 
 
 Pho'cians {Phocis) 29, 78 
 
 Phoeui'cia 11 
 
 Picts 126 
 
 Pierce, Franklin 261 
 
 Pike, Major 248 
 
 Pilgrims 14,95 
 
 Pio'nius.... 120 
 
 Piras'us 24 
 
 Pisis'tratus, Pisistrat'idse 72 
 
 Pitt, William 232 
 
 Pit'tachus 66 
 
 Pizar'ro 178, 217 
 
 Plague in London I(i2 
 
 Plain of the Mediterranean 31 
 
 Plais'sy, Plains of {Bengal^ India, 
 
 70 miles M. of Calcutta) 187 
 
 Platae'a (a town of B<mtia, 30 miles 
 
 iV. W. of Athens) 73 
 
 Pla'to 24 
 
 Plattsburg, N. Y 250 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Playing Cards 161 
 
 Pliny the Elder 114 
 
 — the Younger 117 
 
 Plutarch ns 
 
 " Plym'outh Company" 2l9 
 
 , Mass 2-:0 
 
 Pocahon'tas 256 
 
 Poland {formerly an important in 
 dependent kingdom, but in 1772, 
 1795 conqueredby Rvsna, Prus,-ia, 
 
 and Austria) 209, 296 
 
 Pulk, James K 25S 
 
 Pol'ycarp us 
 
 Pompe'ii {Pompa'y e) 30, 114 
 
 Pom'pey 84, 85 
 
 Ponce de Le'on, John 217 
 
 Popes {see Bishop of Eome) 
 
 Pope, Alexander 210 
 
 Pop'ham, George 219, 221 
 
 Porter {American commodore) 252 
 
 Port Eoyal 218 
 
 Po'ruB {King of India) 80 
 
 Postmasters-General 275 
 
 Powhattan' 224 
 
 '• Pragmatic Sanction" {"'Pragmat- 
 ic,''' i. e., interfering : in this in- 
 stance with the Salique Law) 209 
 
 Prseto'rian Guards 119 
 
 Preb'le, Commodore 248 
 
 Prescott, General 2:13 
 
 Presidents of United States 243 
 
 Vice- " "■ 273 
 
 Yrenton-V&n^ {Lancashire, Eng.)... 210 
 
 Prevost', Sir George 250 
 
 Pri ao 57 
 
 Prideaux' {British general) 227 
 
 Princeton, N.J 223 
 
 Printing, Art of 162 
 
 Pro'bus, Marc. Aur. Sev. {a brave 
 Eoman, elected Emperer a. d. :a75) 122 
 
 Proctor {British general) 250, 2'(C 
 
 " Profane History" 7 
 
 Propou'tis 26 
 
 Proph'ecy fullilled 9 
 
 - Prot'estant," Origin of 176 
 
 Providence. K. 1 221 
 
 Ptol'emy {King of Egypt) . .'d^, 80, 81, 84 
 
 , {The Geographer) Ii8 
 
 Pulas'ki, Count 235 
 
 " Pu'nica Fi'des" 20 
 
 Pu'nic Wars 20, 82 
 
 Puritans 179, 224 
 
 Putnam, General 228 
 
 Pyd'na {a city of Ma'cedon) 83 
 
 Pygmal'ion 18. 62 
 
 Pym, John 195 
 
 Pyr'amids 19 
 
 Pyr'rhus, King Epi'rus 80 
 
 Py thag'oras 72 
 
 Py th'ian Games 30 
 
 Pyth'ias 76 
 
 Q- 
 
 Quakers or '• Friends" 199 
 
 Quebec' {Canada) 219, 223 
 
 1-i 
 
314 
 
 Ils^DEX. 
 
 Queen An'ne's War 208, 222, 225 
 
 " Questions" 279 
 
 Quintil'ian 115 
 
 K. 
 
 Ra'chel (a wife of Jacob) 51 
 
 Kahl, General 229 
 
 lia'leigh, Sir Walter 180, 218 
 
 Ra'ma?es Mia'mum 54 
 
 Eamillies' {Belgium, 40 miles E. of 
 
 Brussels) 208 
 
 Ran'dolph, Peyton 96, 234 
 
 , John 256 
 
 Ray'mond of Toulouee' 151 
 
 Rebec'ca 51 
 
 Red Sea 25 
 
 " Reforma'tion" 175 
 
 " Regal of France^' 155 
 
 Reg'ulus 82 
 
 Rehobo'am 61 
 
 Re'mus 63 
 
 Repub'lic of Carthage 12 
 
 Repub'lics of Greece 12 
 
 Repub'lic of Rome 12, 72 
 
 Resa'ca de la Pal'ma 259 
 
 Restora'tion of Jews 65, 69, 71 
 
 of Stuarts 199 
 
 Retreat of the " Ten Thousand" .... 75 
 
 Revoca' tion of Edict of Kantes 203 
 
 Revolu'tion, American 227 
 
 , English 205 
 
 , French 210 
 
 . , Greek 213 
 
 , Mexican 213 
 
 Rha, The Volga River (see Map) 
 
 Pihce'tia, TheGrisons, Tyrol, etc. " 
 Ehe'nvs, The river Rhine '' 
 
 Rhe'sus, King of Thrace. 57 
 
 Bhodanus, The river Rhone . . (Map) 
 
 Rhodes. Island of 152 
 
 Rhode Island, State of 221 
 
 , Battle of 229 
 
 Ri'all, General 250 
 
 Ribault', John 218 
 
 Rich'ard I., Cceur de Li'on 156 
 
 II., grandson of Edward 
 
 III., King of England 161, 162 
 
 Richard III., Duke of Gloucester .. 164 
 
 Rifihelieu'. Car'dinal 207 
 
 Rid'ley, Bishop 179 
 
 Ri'ga, Battle of (a city of Bussia).. . 207 
 
 Ri'o Janei'ro (Brazil') 217 
 
 Riots of London 102 
 
 Rivers noted in Ancient History ... 27 
 
 Riz'zio, David 183 
 
 Roanoke' Island 222 
 
 Robert of Flanders 151 
 
 of Normandy .'. 151, 154 
 
 Robinson, Rev. Mr 222 
 
 Rochambeau', Count 235 
 
 Roche, Marquis de la 218 
 
 Rod'gers, Commodore 252 
 
 Ro'dolph of Hapsburg 158 
 
 Rodri'go, Don 148 
 
 Rog'ers, Rev. John 179 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Rol'lo the Norman 140 
 
 " Roman Empire," Period of 110 
 
 Roman Empire, Extent of Ill 
 
 divided 125 
 
 Roman Emperors 112 
 
 Rome, Kingdom of 12 
 
 . Kings of. [sEVBN : Romulus, 
 
 Numa Pompil'ius, Tul'lus Hostil'- 
 ius, An'cus Mar'tius. Tar'quin the 
 Elder, Ser'vius Tul'lius, Tar'quin 
 
 the Proud] 63 
 
 Rome, Republic of 72 
 
 , City of 88 
 
 Rooke, Admiral 208 
 
 " Roses." Wars of H')4 
 
 Ross, General 250 
 
 Rufiis, Eric 215 
 
 Runnemede' 156 
 
 Russell (British statesman) 203 
 
 Russian America (Alaska) 271 
 
 " Rye'house Plot" 203 
 
 Rys'wick, Peace of (Holland) 206,222,225 
 
 Sable, Isle of 218 
 
 Sacred History 7 
 
 Sala'din 155 
 
 Sal'amis, Battle of 73 
 
 Sal'atis 52 
 
 Salique' Laws 160 
 
 Salle, M 226 
 
 Sal'lust 86 
 
 Sama'ria 16, 64 
 
 Samar'itans 17. 64 
 
 Samson 56 
 
 Samuel 56 
 
 San Domingo 216 
 
 San Mar'tin 214 
 
 San Sal'vador 170 
 
 San'ta An'na, General 259 
 
 San'ta Fe , 260 
 
 Sapo'res 121 
 
 Sarah, wife of Abraham 50 
 
 Sarato'ga, N. Y., Battle of 229 
 
 " Saracen Empire," Period of 131 
 
 Sar'acens 132 
 
 Sardanapa'lus 14, 63 
 
 Sardis 21, 72 
 
 Sarmatia, Russia (Map) 
 
 Saul, King of Israel : . . . 58 
 
 Savan'nah 222, 229 
 
 Sa'viour promised 46 
 
 , Advent of 9 
 
 , Jesus Christ 112 
 
 Say and Seal, Lords 221 
 
 Sayle, Governor 222 
 
 Scaman'der 20. 52 
 
 Schenec'tady, N. Y 225 
 
 " Schism of the East" 146 
 
 Schsef'fer, Peter 163 
 
 Sci'o (Greece) 213 
 
 Scipio Alricanus, Elder 20 
 
 , Younger 20 
 
 Scots 126 
 
 Scott, General 250, 259 
 
II^DEX. 
 
 315 
 
 PAGE 
 
 " Scourge of God" 126 
 
 Scriptures, New Version of 190 
 
 Scrope 199 
 
 Scyl'la and Charib'dis 32 
 
 Seas noted in Ancient History 25 
 
 Sebas'te, or Aupfusla 16 
 
 Sebasto'pol {Crime' a) 214 
 
 " Seces'sion" 61. 264 
 
 Sec'retaries {Cabinet) 273-2'(5 
 
 Sedan' (115 miles N. E. Pariv) 213 
 
 Sego'via {Spain) 35 
 
 Suleu'cidaj 41,84 
 
 Seleu'cus Nic'ator 12, 41 
 
 Sel'juk 146 
 
 Sem'inole Indians 255 
 
 Semir'amis 48 
 
 Sendache'rib 64 
 
 Sepoys' 187, 214 
 
 Septim'ius Seve'rus 119 
 
 Sep'tuagint Translation 81 
 
 Sep'ulcnre, Holy 94 
 
 Serv'ile War 85 
 
 Ser'vius TuI'lius 63 
 
 Sessos'tris 52 
 
 Ses'tos 26 
 
 " Seven Wise Men" 66 
 
 Seven Wonders of Ancient World. . 32 
 
 " Seventy Years" 9, 18, 65 
 
 Shak'speare 181 
 
 Shalmaue'zer 64 
 
 Shain'gar 55 
 
 Sheni 47 
 
 She'mer 16 
 
 " Shepherd Kings" 48, 52 
 
 Shi'shak 61 
 
 Shrews'bury {Shropshire^ E7ig.) .... 162 
 
 Shur, Wilderness of 31 
 
 Sichaj'us 62 
 
 Sicil'ian Vespers 158 
 
 Sic'yon 48 
 
 Sid'ney, Al'gernon 203 
 
 -, Sir Philip 181 
 
 Sidon 17, 48 
 
 Sikh War 187 
 
 Sile'sia {S. E. part of Prussia) 209 
 
 Simeon {Bishop of Jerusalem) 116 
 
 Simiance', Bertrand de 182 
 
 Si'nai, Mount and Wilderness ... 29, 31 
 
 Sis^tii'^ 55 
 
 ' ' Slave,"' ' Origin of Term .' .' .' .' .' .' .' .' .' .' .' 174 
 
 Slaves, African 173 
 
 '• Slug'gards" 134 
 
 Smitlifleld 102 
 
 Smith, General 251 
 
 , Captain John 219 
 
 , Joe 262 
 
 " Social War" 85 
 
 Soc'rates 74 
 
 Sod'om ( City and Lake) 27 
 
 '' Solemn League and Covenant" . . . 195 
 
 Sol'omon 61 
 
 So'lon 66 
 
 Sophi'a, Electress 208 
 
 Sosig'enes 39 
 
 Sostrat'us 34 
 
 Spain 109, 137 
 
 PAGB 
 
 " Spanish Arma'da" 185 
 
 " Succession" 208 
 
 Sparta 24 
 
 Spartans 25, 32, 62, 73 
 
 "Specie Circular" 255, 256 
 
 Spenser {English Poet) 181 
 
 Sphinx 19 
 
 Spire, Diet of {Rhenish Bavai^ia) . . . 177 
 
 Spitzber'gen 218 
 
 " Stamp Act" 223, 227, 233 
 
 Standish, Miles 220 
 
 Star Chamber 193 
 
 Star, North Polar 48 
 
 " Star-Spangled Banner" 251 
 
 Starke, General 229 
 
 " State Rights" 264 
 
 States, Classification of 270 
 
 Steam-Engine 269 
 
 Stephens, Alex. H 264 
 
 Steuben, Baron 286 
 
 Stewart {British general) 230 
 
 Sto'a Psecile 24 
 
 Sto'ic Philosophy 24 
 
 Stony Point 229 
 
 Strafford, Eari 193 
 
 Stryk'er, General 251 
 
 Stuart, House of 189 
 
 Stuarts, Exiled 209 
 
 St. Al'bans (Heref ords^hire, Eng.) . . . 164 
 
 " St. Bartholomew's Day" 181 
 
 St. Clair, General 244 
 
 St. Dun'stan 142 
 
 St. Germain', Church o€ 182 
 
 St. Heran 182 
 
 St. James's Palace 98 
 
 St John the Apostle 114 
 
 St. John, Knights of 152 
 
 St. Law'rence, Bay and Gulf 217 
 
 St. Mary's 221 
 
 St. Paul's Cathedral 98 
 
 St. Petersburg 207 
 
 St. Peter's Church 91 
 
 St. Quin'tin 184 
 
 St. Salvador 96 
 
 Sua'bia, House of 154 
 
 Sue'vi 126 
 
 Sul'livan, General 229 
 
 Sul'ly 188 
 
 Supreme Court, U. S 244 
 
 Sura'jah Dow'lah 187 
 
 Surat' 186 
 
 Sur'rey, Earl 175 
 
 Sweyn 144 
 
 Sym'machus 126 
 
 Syr'ia 11 
 
 T. 
 
 Tab'ernacle 60 
 
 T a'bor. Mount 29 
 
 Tac'itus, Historian 118 
 
 , Emperor 122 
 
 Tad'mor 122 
 
 Tal'ent, Eoman = %'Am + 
 
 , Jewish=%Vim-¥ 
 
 Tam'erlane 161 
 
316 
 
 liJDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Tan'cred 151 
 
 Tanquy'le Veaeur 182 
 
 Tar'quin the Elder 65 
 
 Tar'quin the Proud 72 
 
 Tar'siis 21 
 
 Tar'tars 148. 161 
 
 Taylor. General 259, 260 
 
 Tecum'seh 2oU 
 
 Tel'eijraph 57. 269 
 
 Telem'achus 207 
 
 Tell, William 159 
 
 Tem''plars, Knights 153 
 
 Temple of Solomon 60 
 
 Second 71 
 
 of Diana 33 
 
 of Paris 107 
 
 Ten Commandments 29 
 
 Ten Tribes of Is'rael 61 
 
 Tennessee' 245 
 
 Te'rah 48 
 
 Ter'nay, Admiral de 2-35 
 
 Tertul'lian 119 
 
 Ter'ritory of U. S 271 
 
 "Terror, Keign of" 211 
 
 Tetzel, John 175 
 
 Teuto'nic Knights '. 153 
 
 Tewkesbury {Gloucestershire, Eng.). 164 
 
 Texas 258 
 
 Tha'les 66 
 
 Thames {England) 97 
 
 Thames (CawaeZa) 250 
 
 " Thane" , 142 
 
 Thebes {Egypt) 18 
 
 ( Greece) 53 
 
 Themis'tocles 73 
 
 Theod'oric 127 
 
 Theodo'sius the Great 125 
 
 Thermop'ylai 32, 73 
 
 The'seus 33 
 
 Thirty Years' War 94, 191 
 
 Thom'son, James 210 
 
 Thrace {N. of the j^gean Sea) 80 
 
 Thrasym'ene {Italy) 82 
 
 Thucyd'ides 75 
 
 Thym'bra 67 
 
 Ti'ber, Tiberi'nus 28 
 
 Tici'nus {Italy). 82 
 
 Ticondero'ga 227 
 
 Tig'lath Pile'ser 14, 64 
 
 Tigra'nes 70 
 
 Ti'gris 27 
 
 Tippecanoe' 250 
 
 Tippoo Saib 187 
 
 Ti'tus 114 
 
 Togrul Beg 146 
 
 Tongues, Confusion of 47 
 
 Tradition 8 
 
 Tripoli, Warwith 248 
 
 Trium'virate, First 85 
 
 , Second 86 
 
 Troy, City of 20, 53 
 
 Troyes, Treaty of 162 
 
 " Truce of God" 145 
 
 Tul'lus Hostilius 64 
 
 Turks 140, 146, 164 
 
 Turk'ish Empire , 156 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Tyler, Wat 101 
 
 , John 257 
 
 Tyn'dale, William 163 
 
 Tyre, City of 17 
 
 Tyrian Purple Dye 17 
 
 U. 
 
 Ulysses 57 
 
 " Uniformity, Act of " . 201 
 
 United States, History of 215 
 
 Exploring Expedit'a 257 
 
 Ur of the Chaldees 31 
 
 U'tah 263 
 
 Utrecht, Peace of {Holland) 2(j8 
 
 V. 
 
 Vale'rian 121 
 
 Van'dals 126 
 
 Vane, Sir Henry 195 
 
 Van Buren, Martin 256 
 
 Van Trump 198 
 
 Van Wert : 238 
 
 Var'ro 86 
 
 Vas'co di Ga'ma 172, 186 
 
 Vat'ican 90 
 
 Ven'able, Admiral 199 
 
 Vermont' 243 
 
 Versailles, Peace of {France) . . 230, 254 
 
 Veepu'ccius 172, 216 
 
 Vesu'vius, Mount 30 
 
 Vic'tor l--;0 
 
 Victor Emmanuel 286 
 
 Victo'ria 215 
 
 Vien'ne, Council of. 153 
 
 Vine'land/ 216 
 
 Vir'gil 86 
 
 Virsrin'ia 219 
 
 Vis'igoths 126 
 
 Voltaire' 210 
 
 W. 
 
 Wal'deckers 237 
 
 Waldeuses 176 
 
 Walker, Rev. George 206 
 
 Wall, Adrian's 117 
 
 , Severus's 119 
 
 Walter the Penniless 151 
 
 Wampan'oags 224 
 
 War of American Revolution ... 227 
 
 of Austrian Succession 209 
 
 of French Revolution 2i0 
 
 , French and Indian 226 
 
 , King George II.'s 225 
 
 , King William III.'s 225 
 
 , Queen Anne's 225 
 
 of Spanish Succession 208 
 
 , Thirty Years' 191 
 
 Wars, Colonial 2,.'4 
 
 Warren, General 2-28 
 
 Warwick, Earl of 164, 221 
 
 Washington, George.. 234, 2:^9, 244, 246 
 
 . , City of 24() 
 
 Waterloo, Battle of {Belgium) 212 
 
IXDEX. 
 
 317 
 
 PAGE 
 
 vVatts, Dr. Issaac 210 
 
 Wayne, General 244 
 
 Weathersfield, Conn 221 
 
 Web'ster. Daniel 261 
 
 Welle?ley, Marquis of 187 
 
 Wellington. Dnke of 212 
 
 Wells and McComas 251 
 
 Wesleys 209 
 
 We*terhall 204 
 
 Western Empire 126 
 
 West Indie? 171 
 
 Westminster Abbey 99 
 
 Assembly 196 
 
 Westphalia, Peace of 192 
 
 Whalley. Edward 20(^1 
 
 Whisky Insurrection 245 
 
 Whiteiaeld, Rev. George 209 
 
 Whitehall 98 
 
 White Plains. N. Y 229 
 
 Whit'ney. Eli 268 
 
 Wiclif. John 161, 116 
 
 Wilderness of Arabia 31 
 
 Wilkes, Commodore 257 
 
 Wilkesbarre 237 
 
 William I.. Conqueror 146 
 
 II., Eutus 154 
 
 III., Prince of Orange 205 
 
 IV. of England 215 
 
 ■!. of Prussia 213 
 
 the Silent, Nassau 185 
 
 Tell 159 
 
 Wallace 159 
 
 William Henry, Fort 227 
 
 Williams, David 238 
 
 , Roger 221 
 
 Willoughby, Sir H 218 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Winder, General 250 
 
 Windsor, Conn 221 
 
 Wingfield, Edward 219 
 
 Winneba'go Indians 255 
 
 Wins'low, Governor 220 
 
 Wiscon'sin 259 
 
 Wolf, General 227 
 
 '•Wooden Horse" 57 
 
 Wren, Sir Christopher 99 
 
 Wy'omiug Massacre 229, 237 
 
 X. 
 
 Xantip'pns 82 
 
 Xen'ophon 75 
 
 Xerx'es 32, 73 
 
 Xim'ines, Cardinal 173 
 
 Y. 
 
 Year, civil, and its divisions 38 
 
 York and Lan'caster, Houses 163 
 
 York, Maine 228 
 
 Yorktown, Va 230, 238 
 
 Ypsilan'ti 213 
 
 Yuri, Battle of 182 
 
 Z. 
 
 Zabian Idolatry 40 
 
 Zama 20, 32, 82 
 
 Zemzem, Well 91 
 
 Ze'no 85 
 
 Zeno'bia 124 
 
 Zin, Wilderness of 31 
 
 Zion, Mount 18 
 
 Zwingle, Ulric 176 
 
 ADDENDA.— Chief Events op the Present Franco-Pbussian War. 
 
 1870— Jm^2/ 15. — Napoleon declares war against Prussia, and on the 28th assumes 
 command of the army at Forhach. Aug. 2.— The heights above Saarbriick cap- 
 tured by the French. Aug. 4. — McMahon defeated at Weissenhnrg . Aug. 6.— The 
 French, falling back from the Prussian frontier, are defeated at Worth. Aug. 7. — 
 Paris declared in a state of siege. Aug. 10. — Strasburg invested by the Prussians. 
 Aug. 13.— The coasts of Prussia blockaded by the French. Aug. 14. — French de- 
 feated at Ifetz, avid, Aug. IQ, at Mars-Latour. McMahon at CA«/ons, is joined by 
 the Emperor. Aug. 18.— The French, under Bazaine, defeated at Bezonville and 
 driven into Metz. Aug. 20. — Camp at Chalons raised ; McMahon marches to aid 
 Bazaine. Aug. 30. — French defeated at .Bea?/mo/i^. Sept. 1. — Bazaine defeated at 
 St. Barbe. Sept. 2.— 6'erfa;i; McMahon capitulates and the Emperor surrenders. 
 Sept. 5. — Republic of France proclaimed. Sept. 16.— Provisional Government re- 
 tires to Tours, leaving Trochu in command at Paris. Sept. 23. — To^d surrenders. 
 Sept. 2:7.—St7'asburg surrendered by Gen. Ulric. Oct. li.—Orleam captured by the 
 Prussians. Oct. 16. — *Soi5son* captured. Oct. 21. — Bazaine surrenders ilfete. JS^ov. 
 9. — Orleans reoccupied by the French. Nov. 11. — Neuf-Breisach capitulates. Nao. 
 18.— French defeated at Dreux. Nov. 2D.—Thionville surrenders. Nov. 28.— 
 French Army of the Loire defeated at Beaune. Nov. 30.— A grand sortie from 
 Paris of 120,C00, under Trochu and Ducrot. Dec. 27.— British vessels in the Seine 
 Bunk by the Prussians. The bombardment of Paris commenced. 
 
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