THE COMMUNITY 
 
 AND 
 
 THE CITIZEN 
 
 DUNN 
 
Class "' 
 
 Book . 
 
 ioD\Tie'rTi\° 
 
 U H'^ 
 
 CCFl-RIGHT DEPOSIT. 
 
THE COMMUNITY 
 
 AND 
 
 THE CITIZEN 
 
 BY 
 
 ARTHUR WILLIAM DUNN 
 
 w 
 
 FORMERLY DIRECTOR OF CIVJCS 
 INDIANAPOLIS PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 REVISED AND ENLARGED 
 
 D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS 
 
 BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO 
 

 Copyright, 1907 antj 1914, 
 By D. C. heath & CO. 
 
 IK4 
 
 NOV 25 1914 
 
 GLA38S723 
 
PREFACE 
 
 The important changes in our community life, and especially in our 
 methods of self-government, that have occurred during the seven years 
 since the present volume was first published, have made a revision 
 desirable. In no particular, however, has the original point of view 
 been departed from, nor the method of presenting the subject modified. 
 The soundness of a point of view and of a method of elementary in- 
 struction in citizenship, which were novel seven years ago, has been 
 abundantly confirmed by their wide acceptance and by visible results 
 in the life of pupils and of communities. The only justification for the 
 book, in its original or revised form, is in its point of view and method. 
 It will be successful in the hands of the teacher in proportion as they 
 are realized in the work of the classroom. 
 
 In view of the importance of this fact, advantage has been taken of 
 the opportunity offered by revision to reorganize and supplement the 
 matter in the original " Preface " and " Suggestions to the Teacher,'' as 
 an Introduction on "Aims and Methods," which, it is hoped, will be 
 of service to the teacher who is seeking to make the work of instruc- 
 tion in citizenship more effective. 
 
 In the preface to the original edition the author acknowledged with 
 gratitude the invaluable assistance derived, in the preparation of the 
 book, from the test to which it was put, in a preliminary form, by a 
 year's use in the schools of Indianapolis. He had the benefit of the 
 practical experience, and the searching but sympathetic criticism, of 
 thirty or forty teachers who were daily using the text in their classes. 
 In addition to this, he now wishes to recognize the particular value, of 
 which he has become fully conscious only with the lapse of time, of the 
 spontaneous and frank, though unconscious, criticism of some twelve 
 hundred pupils in those classes, as expressed in their daily reactions to 
 their civics work. The best test of a method of instruction is in the 
 response of the pupils to it. Such success' as the book has enjoyed is 
 due in large measure to these two sources of suggestion, together with 
 the cordial cooperation of Dr. Calvin N. Kendall, then Superintendent 
 
iv PREFACE 
 
 of the Indianapolis schools, and now Commissioner of Education for 
 New Jersey. 
 
 The author would also again acknowledge his indebtedness to Dr. 
 George E. Vincent, formerly of the University of Chicago, now Presi- 
 dent of the Universit}- of Minnesota, and to Dr. Albion W. Small, 
 of the University of Chicago, for the first suggestion of method of 
 approaching the subject in their book. •• An Introduction to the Study 
 of Society." and in courses taken with them in the University : and to 
 Dr. Henry Suzzallo. then of Leland Stanford Junior University, now 
 of Teachers College. New York, and to Professor Henn.- E. Bourne, 
 of Western Resen-e University, for critical reading of the original 
 
 manuscript. 
 
 ARTHUR WILLIAM DUNN. 
 Washington, September i, 1914. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Introduction for Teachers : Aims and Methods 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 I. The Beginning of a Community 
 
 II. What is a Community? ..... 
 
 III. The Site of the Community .... 
 
 IV. What the People in Communities are Seeking 
 V. The Family . 
 
 VI. The Home and the Community 
 
 VII. The Making of Americans .... 
 
 VIII. How THE Relations between the People and the 
 
 Land are made Permanent and Definite . 
 
 IX. How THE Community aids the Citizen to satisfy 
 
 his Desire for Health 
 
 X. How THE Community aids the Citizen to protect 
 
 his Life and Property 
 
 XI. The Relation between the Community and the 
 
 Citizen in Business Life 
 
 XII. How THE Government aids the Citizen by Con 
 trolling Business Relations .... 
 
 XIII. How THE Community aids the Citizen in Trans 
 
 portation and Communication 
 
 XIV. Waste and Saving 
 
 XV. How THE Community aids the Citizen to satisfy 
 
 his Desire for Knowledge .... 
 XVI. How the Community aids the Citizen to satisf\ 
 his Desire for Beautiful Surroundings 
 
VI 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER ~ PAGE 
 
 XVII. How THE Community aids the Citizen to satisfy 
 
 HIS Religious Desire 169 
 
 XVIII. What the Community does for those who C-\n- 
 
 NOT OR will not CONTRIBUTE TO ITS PROGRESS 1 73 
 
 XIX. How THE Citizens of a Community govern Them- 
 selves i8i 
 
 XX. How OUR Methods of Self-government are 
 
 changing 200 
 
 XXI. The Government of Rural Communities: Town- 
 ship AND County 217 
 
 XXII. The Government of the City •. . . . 229 
 
 XXIII. The Government of the State .... 242 
 
 XXIV. The Government of the Nation .... 252 
 XXV. How the Expenses of Government are Met . 268 
 
 Appendix 
 
 I. The Constitution of the United States . . .' . 281 
 II. Table showing the Number of Homes owned and the 
 
 Number rented in Cities ...... 299 
 
 III. Immigration Tables ....... 300 
 
 Index 305 
 
INTRODUCTION FOR TEACHERS 
 
 Aims and Methods 
 
 The justification and aim of The Community and the Citizen 
 were stated, in the preface of the original edition, in these words from 
 Professor Dewey's Ethical Principles Underlying Education : 
 
 " The social work of the school is often limited to training for citizen- 
 ship, and citizenship is then interpreted in a narrow sense as meaning 
 capacity to vote intelligently, a disposition to obey laws, etc. . . . The 
 child is to be not only a voter and a subject of law ; he is also to be 
 a member of a family. . . . He is to be a worker, engaged in some 
 occupation which will be of use to society and which will maintain his 
 own independence and self-respect. He is to be a member of some 
 particular neighborhood and community, and must contribute to the 
 decencies and graces of civilization wherever he is. . . . To suppose 
 . . . that a good citizen is anything more than a thoroughly efficient 
 and serviceable member of society ... is a cramped superstition which 
 it is hoped may soon disappear from educational discussion. . . . 
 Training for citizenship is formal and nominal unless it develops the 
 power of observation, analysis, and inference with respect to what 
 makes up a social situation and the agencies through which it is 
 modified." 
 
 This broad view of citizenship, and the conviction that the chief busi- 
 ness of the school is to train for citizenship in this sense, are controlling 
 factors in the development of public education to-day. We hear much 
 of " socializing " the work of the school, of adapting it to the needs 
 of the child as a member of the community. The growing tendency to 
 deal with pupils as individuals instead of en masse marks an attempt to 
 help each one to find his proper place in the community. The increas- 
 ing attention to the physical well-being of pupils, vocational training, 
 school gardening, the reorganization of rural schools, and most of the 
 other important recent developments in the public schools, aim at a 
 
viii INTRODUCTION FOR TEACHERS 
 
 more efficient citizenship on the part of a larger proportion of those 
 who attend school. Dr. F. M. ^NIcMurn,-. of Teachers College. New 
 York, has ventured to judge the efficiency of all teaching on the basis 
 of standards of purely social import (see McMurry. •■ Elementary School 
 Standards." World Book Company) . 
 
 While the work of the school in training for citizenship is thus by no 
 means limited to instruction under the name of •• civics." this does not 
 mean that there is no further need for systematic instruction in this 
 subject. It only means that civics itself must be ••' socialized." adapted 
 more closely to the needs of the pupil and of the community, both in 
 subject-matter and in methods, in harmony with the tendency of educa- 
 tion in general. This book is an attempt to help the teacher to accom- 
 plish this. But even if the author were completely successful in his 
 task, the effectiveness of the teaching still depends upon the teacher 
 more than upon the book. 
 
 If ci\'ics instruction is to be vital, the object of study must be. not the 
 pages of the text-book, but the actual community of which the pupil 
 is a member. The text is designed to be a guid-e to the facts and rela- 
 tions of the pupil's own community life, and an interpretation of them. 
 It will facilitate the proper use of the book in this respect, if the teacher 
 will restate the titles of the chapters in terms of the community with 
 which the pupils are familiar. Thus, the title of chapter I. ■• The 
 Beginning of a Community." may be restated for the pupils of Browns- 
 ville, Maryland (let us say), as "The Beginning of the Community 
 of Brownsville," or •• of Mar}-land." The title of chapter IX may like- 
 wise be restated, •■■ How Brownsville (or Mar}-land) Aids her Citizens 
 to Satisfy their Desire for Health." This may be done for many of the 
 chapters of the book, and will force comparison between the statements 
 of the text and the real facts relating to '• Brownsville." 
 
 The same thing should be done with the topics at the ends of the 
 chapters. These are designed to direct the study to the actual com- 
 munity, and to keep the text related always to the realities b)' which 
 the pupil is surrounded. *• Whence does 'Brownsville ' get its author- 
 ity to add to its territory- ? '" is more effective than " Whence does • the 
 city' get its authority," etc. The topics given are only suggestive; 
 others should often be substituted to fit the needs of the class and the 
 conditions of the immediate community. Informal discussions of topics 
 are often better than formal reports by individual pupils, although the 
 latter have their place. The community spirit should be maintained 
 
AIMS AND METHODS ix 
 
 in the conduct of the class. While one group of pupils is working 
 cooperatively on one topic or set of topics, another group should be 
 attacking other topics. Let each one acquire a sense of responsibility 
 for a specific contribution to the progress of the class-community. 
 
 Materials are not always easily available to furnish an answer to some 
 of the topics, or to questions that arise in the course of the study. 
 This should not be discouraging. A great many questions in real civic 
 life have not yet been answered. The fact that a question cannot be 
 answered does not destroy its usefulness. It is worth a great deal to 
 discover that an important question exists. This is the first step in 
 civic progress. Of course an attempt should be made to answer it, or 
 to show why it cannot be answered. Here is what happened in one 
 case: 
 
 The teachers of civics were at first greatly disturbed because no 
 printed material was available to enable the pupils or teachers to answer 
 some apparently simple questions about the water supply of their city. 
 It was not difficult to show, by discussion, that the questions were of 
 real importance to the community. The pupils were asked to consult 
 parents and friends on the subject, the result being to show that they 
 also were ignorant in regard to this important matter. The first im- 
 portant result, then, was to demonstrate that ignorance prevailed re- 
 garding matters of prime importance to the community. A second 
 result was that the school authorities took the matter up with the water 
 company, who prepared a complete story of the development and present 
 status of the water supply, and provided guides to take pupils, teachers, 
 and parents through the power houses, filtration system, and other 
 parts of the plant, at any time. The whole community was educated 
 through the raising of questions which at first discouraged teachers 
 and pupils because of a lack of information. 
 
 In Newark, N.J., the public library has cooperated with the school 
 authorities in gathering and publishing a large body of material relat- 
 ing to the civic life and development of Newark. In Indianapolis the 
 Commercial Club cooperated with the board of education in a similar 
 way. A type of civics instruction in the schools that leads a commu- 
 nity to seek and distribute information regarding itself proves its effec- 
 tiveness. 
 
 The type of civics which this text-book represents has pretty gen- 
 erally acquired the name of •' community civics." There is danger of 
 some confusion of ideas about the significance of this term. Com- 
 
X INTRODUCTION FOR TEACHERS 
 
 muniU- civics does not relate merely to the local community (see chap- 
 ter II). Its significance does not lie in its geographical implications, 
 but in its implication of community relations, community of interests, 
 community cooperation through government for the common good. 
 The study of one's own town may be as lifeless and devoid of the spirit 
 of communit}- civics as the study of the old-time ''civil government": 
 while that spirit may be made thoroughly to infuse the study of the 
 state and of the nation. It wHl be found that the relations between 
 local, state, and national, and of all three to the interests of the indi- 
 vidual, are constantly maintained throughout the chapters of the book. 
 The teacher must never forget the community spirit, even when dealing 
 with the national government. One way of helping to cultivate and 
 maintain it is to nourish the community- spirit in the conduct of the 
 class (see chapter XV). The illustrative lessons given later in the 
 Introduction will be suggestive in this connection. 
 
 Those who are bound by the traditions of the old-time, formal civil 
 government sometimes profess to see in community civics an undue 
 subordination of government to pri\-ate social activities. It may be 
 well to caution the teacher against this false impression. Indeed. 
 whether the impression be false or not depends largely on whether 
 the teacher makes it so. As government is the chief means of commu- 
 nity cooperation, so it is the controlling idea in community civics. It 
 will be found that *'all roads lead to government" throughout this 
 book. WTiat has been attempted is to present government in its per- 
 spective, in its relations to the interests of the community and of the 
 individual, even of the pupil. The idea of government is interwoven 
 through every chapter, and the teacher should see that it is kept promi- 
 nent. The last few chapters are devoted to a description of the gov- 
 erning machinery. They are intentionally brief, for elementary pur- 
 poses. They should be constantly related, during their study, to what 
 has preceded. 
 
 One of the errors that have persistently hindered the progress of 
 civic education is the apparent assumption that the pupO will be a citi- 
 zen only at some future time. Even children have, in simple form, the 
 same civic interests from which all community action springs, and 
 which are the foundation of all community- arrangements and institu- 
 tions, including government. Every pupil has an interest of some kind 
 in his physical well-being, in his own personal safety and that of his 
 home and femOy possessions, in his father's occupation or business or 
 
AIMS AND METHODS xi 
 
 his own future vocation (perhaps in small business enterprises of the 
 present), in the matter of his education, in the appearance of his 
 neighborhood, and in social activities. These are the very things for 
 which government exists. What the civics teacher has to do is to 
 bring these real civic interests of the pupil into the foreground of his 
 consciousness, and relate them to the interests and activities of the 
 community as a whole, and of government as the community''s means 
 of cooperation. The first five chapters of the book are designed to 
 establish this point of view ; the remainder of the book aims to carry 
 out the idea consistently. 
 
 Civic education consists not merely in acquiring a fund of informa- 
 tion about one's community and its government. On the side of the 
 pupil it is a process of growth ; on the side of the teacher it is a process 
 of cultivating certain essential qualities of good citizenship. Effective 
 civics instruction depends on a clear notion of what these qualities are, 
 and the employment of methods adapted to their cultivation. The type 
 lessons given later will illustrate the point made here ; but let us first 
 see what some of the essential civic qualities are which civics instruction 
 should aim to cultivate. 
 
 First in importance is interest in one's civic relations. Bad citizen- 
 ship is more often due to lack of interest than to lack of knowledge. 
 To cultivate an abiding civic interest, which is one of the aims of civic 
 education, means much more than " to make the subject interesting." 
 It means to cultivate in the pupil a consciousness that these civic rela- 
 tions are^ now and always, of vital moment to him. 
 
 Closely allied to interest is motive. But real or apparent interest 
 may sometimes lead to the setting up of wrong motives. A group of 
 boys who were studying their own community from the standpoint 
 of cleanliness and beauty, were "interested" by the offer of a prize to 
 the boy who should bring in the largest number of discarded tin cans. 
 The motive set up was wrong, and uncivic action resulted. Some of 
 the boys hauled into the city wagon-loads of cans from the city's dumps ! 
 Good citizenship can only grow out of right motives, which it should be 
 an aim of civic education to cultivate. 
 
 No one can be effective in civic life unless his '- team work " is good. 
 The proper idea of government is that of a means of cooperation for 
 the common good. The cultivation of a spirit and habit of codperatio?i 
 should be another aim of civic education. 
 
 Assuming an interest in civic affairs, a right motive, and a willing- 
 
xii INTRODUCTION FOR TEACHERS 
 
 ness to work with others,, a man's citizenship \Yill not even then count 
 for much unless he h2iS good J7idg7ne?it when confronted by a civic situa- 
 tion, or by a choice of ci\'ic methods ; and unless he displays initiative 
 in applying the methods to the situations. Civic education should 
 therefore cultivate civic judgment and civic initiative. 
 
 The only test that we have been in the habit of applying to our civics 
 teaching in the past has been: How much do the children know? A 
 certain fund of information is essential to good citizenship ; but mere 
 knowledge will not of itself make a good citizen. Nevertheless, it is 
 an aim of civic education to give a serviceable fund of information relat- 
 ing to civic life. The problem which confronts the teacher and the 
 maker of the course of study is : How much and what kind of informa- 
 tion should be acquired by the pupil? No hard and fast rule can be 
 given for determining just what information should be given under aU 
 circumstances : but in general it may be said that information is valu- 
 able in proportion as it may be and is related to the experience and 
 interest of the pupil. 
 
 We shall find that our civics teaching will become increasingly effec- 
 tive if we continually test it by asking ourselves questions like the 
 following : 
 
 Does our civics teaching appeal to the pupil's present, actual interest 
 as a citizen? 
 
 Does it afford the pupil an adequate motive (cr) for studying the sub- 
 ject, ij)) for participating in civic activities? 
 
 Does it stimulate the pupil to cooperative activity in the interest of 
 his own community {i.e.. his class, school, family, neighbor- 
 hood, city, state, nation) ? 
 
 Does it train the pupil's judgment relative to civic situations and 
 methods of deahng with them? 
 
 Does it cultivate in the pupil civic initiative? 
 
 Does it select and organize information with reference to its relation 
 to the civic experience and interest of the pupil? 
 
AIMS AND METHODS xiii 
 
 A Lesson on How the Commnnity Aids the Citizen 
 to Satisfy His Desire for Health 
 
 (This lesson extended over several days, including observational work, discus- 
 sions, etc. Text-book assignment in chapter IX was made only after the class 
 discussion was well under way.) 
 
 The pupils discussed informally what good health means 
 to each one, and gave examples from their own experience 
 of consequences of sickness. They discussed specific 
 dangers to their own health, such as impure food, water, 
 or air. They explained how they individually care for 
 their own health, or how at times they are careless of it. 
 They discussed how in many cases their health depends 
 not merely on their own care, but on the care of others, 
 and how the danger to health is increased where many 
 people are gathered together. They gave examples of the 
 dependence of each upon others for health protection, as 
 in the case of epidemics. They derived from this the need 
 for cooperation in the interest of health. They illustrated 
 such cooperation in the home and in the school, and men- 
 tioned rules that necessarily exist in home and school for 
 health protection. They gave examples of neighborhood 
 cooperation for health protection, such as combined eiforts 
 for clean yards, alleys, and streets. After observation and 
 inquiry, they reported on actual menaces to health in their 
 own city, and made the logical deduction regarding the 
 necessity for cooperation on the part of the entire city to 
 avoid these dangers or to remove them. This raised the 
 question as to whether the city did so cooperate, and led 
 to a thorough discussion of how the city government pro- 
 vides the means for such cooperation. They went into 
 detail in regard to how the department of health insures 
 pure water for the use of each family, provides for the 
 removal of garbage from their back doors, and prevents 
 the spread of contagious diseases. This brought under 
 review the regulations (laws, ordinances) bearing on these 
 matters, the activities of the various health officers, and 
 how these are supervised by the board of health. The 
 
xiv ■ INTRODUCTION FOR TEACHERS 
 
 relation of the latter to the people was discussed, and also 
 the responsibility of each citizen for cooperation with the 
 board of health for the health of the community. 
 
 In a discussion of the various duties of the board of 
 health, one boy asserted that "it passes pure food laws.'' 
 Another at once objected. •• No. it is the national ^p^^m- 
 ment that makes the pure food laws."' At once the horizon 
 was broadened, the question why the national government 
 acts in a case hke this was discussed, and the relation of 
 the great packing houses (for example) to the common 
 health interests of the entire nation was disclosed. This 
 led to a consideration of other national health interests, 
 and of what the national government is doing in this field. 
 It also suggested the sphere of state activity, which was 
 in turn related to the interests of the individual and to the 
 activities of the local and the general governments. 
 
 There was in this lesson no lack of information regarding govern- 
 ment, but it was organized with reference to its relation to the pupil's 
 experience. The entire exercise was built on his interest in physical 
 well-being. Motive was supplied for the study both by the method of 
 conducting the lesson, and by the relation the subject bore to common 
 experience. The pupils were dealing with real things. They gathered 
 their information largely from direct observation, from the give-and- 
 take of discussion, from inquiries at home, from newspapers and printed 
 reports, merely supplementing when necessary from text-books. They 
 were ^i?/;/^ something all the time. The idea of cooperation was prom- 
 inent in the subject-matter, while its spirit prevailed in the conduct of 
 the class. The teacher was largely in the background — rather, she 
 was merely one of the class. The pupils asked more questions than 
 she. They were encouraged to make their own suggestions regarding 
 sources of information and methods of procedure, thus stimulating 
 initiative. Note, especially, the easy transition from a consideration of 
 the local government to that of the national and state governments, 
 of the relations between them, and of all to the individual. The time- 
 worn question of which should come first was naturally solved : if the 
 question of pure food laws had come up first in discussion the order of 
 treatment would doubtless have been reversed. 
 
 Still other points may be more clearly illustrated by the following 
 
AIMS AND METHODS XV 
 
 Lesson from a Fall of Snow 
 
 One morning after a heavy fall of snow the question was 
 raised in a number of civics classes, " What will be the 
 effects of this snowfall upon the life of the community?" 
 It was soon developed, among other things, that it inter- 
 fered seriously with traffic, resulting in interruption of the 
 schools, of business, and of other community activities ; 
 that it impeded the movements of the fire department ; 
 that, if it were allowed to melt and freeze, it might be 
 dangerous to life and limb ; and that, when it lay in dirty 
 heaps, it marred the beauty of the city. The snowfall was 
 thus seen in various community relations that had previ- 
 ously been discussed by the classes in other aspects. 
 
 Who cleaned the snow from the roadways? This was 
 done for the citizens by the street cleaning department 
 of ,the city government. Who cleaned it from the side- 
 walks ? This was not done by the city, but was left in the 
 hands of individual property owners. The pupils ob- 
 served, on their way home, how many walks were cleaned, 
 and made a report on the subject. Were the citizens left 
 to their own discretion in the matter? No, for there was 
 a city ordinance which commanded them to clean their 
 walks. Why was the ordinance not obeyed? Why was 
 it not enforced? What is the effect of having a law that 
 is disregarded? 
 
 The pupils were impressed by the facts. They talked 
 about it at home. They wanted to do something about it. 
 The question was, what could they do? Some suggested 
 complaining to the authorities ; but it was decided after 
 discussion that mere complaint seldom accomplishes much. 
 Some thought that they could speak personally to of- 
 fenders ; but this was voted to be slightly officious, and 
 perhaps offensive to older citizens. It was suggested that 
 groups of boys might clean the walks in their neighbor- 
 hoods. As a commercial venture this was approved ; and 
 in a few cases such groups cleaned walks before vacant 
 lots as a public service. But it was concluded, in general, 
 
xvi INTRODUCTION FOR TEACHERS 
 
 that for boys to go about cleaning other people's walks as 
 a public service when these people were expected to do it 
 for themselves, w-as shifting the burden of responsibilit}- 
 in a harmful way. 
 
 The actual result was that the boys pretty generally saw 
 to it that their own walks were cleaned, having impressed 
 upon them that the best civic service is usually performed 
 in the regular course of one's daily tasks ; and. further, a 
 public sentiment was created, starting in the class-rooms, 
 extending to the homes, and being spread by ci\-ic organ- 
 izations and the newspapers, until the householders saw 
 to it that there was a great improvement in conditions 
 during the remainder of the season. 
 
 A number of suggestions may be derived from this lesson, but 
 especially prominent are the stimulation of initiative and the training 
 of judgment as to modes of ci\-ic action. It also illustrates wisely-guided 
 pupil participation in a ci\-ic situation affecting the entire community. 
 As action is the end of all good citizenship, so it is the end. as well as 
 an invaluable means, of all good teaching. Pupils should be given 
 abundant opportunity to live their civics in the school communit}- and, 
 as far as possible, in the community outside of the school. While par- 
 ticipation in real civic activities is a desirable means of civic training, 
 its employment requires the best of judgment on the part of those who 
 direct it. The incident of the boys who brought tin cans from the 
 city's dumps in order to win a prize illustrates misdirected acti\'ity. 
 A child that is learning to walk must walk in order to learn : but he 
 should not be expected to walk far, nor to carry hea%y burdens. Ex- 
 periments in pupil participation in ci\-ic matters that thnist them unduly 
 into the public \-iew. or that impose upon them responsibilities that 
 properly belong elsewhere, are questionable. The business of the 
 school is to educate the child, and not to exploit him for a reformation 
 of the community that the proper agencies, or the more responsible 
 citizens, have failed to accomplish. 
 
THE COMMUNITY AND THE 
 CITIZEN 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 THE BEGINNING OF A COMMUNITY 
 
 Many years ago a company of people in the state of New 
 York decided to found a settlement in the far West. 
 Their purpose was to build a college for the whvthe 
 education of Christian ministers. Their first settlement 
 step toward actual settlement was to appoint was made 
 an exploring committee to search for a suitable site, and a 
 committee to find families who were willing to go. 
 
 The exploring committee was given instructions to ex- 
 amine the following points : 
 
 1. What is the quality of the water in wells 
 
 , . , What the 
 
 andsprmgs? ^ ^^pi^^^^ 
 
 2. Do the streams in the neighborhood rise committee 
 in, or pass through, swamps ? Or do they rise ™ *° ^°°^ 
 from springs ? Are they rapid or sluggish ? 
 
 3. Are there marshes in the vicinity ? 
 
 4. Is the land level or rolling ? 
 
 5. What is the quality and depth of the soil ? 
 
 6. Is there a convenient and abundant supply of timber 
 and fuel ? 
 
 7. Is there water power ? If not, is there coal .-* 
 
 8. Are there navigable streams, or canals and roads 
 already built or proposed ? 
 
2 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 After three months' search a suitable location was found 
 in a beautiful rolling prairie country, on the watershed be- 
 The site tween two large rivers, neither of which was 
 selected raore than fifty miles distant. The prairie land 
 was very fertile. Near at hand was a large tract of wood- 
 land containing oak, black walnut, and other fine trees, 
 which afforded shelter during the first hard winter, before 
 substantial houses could be built upon the open prairie, 
 and supplied building material and fuel. There were 
 numerous springs and streams which furnished water and 
 good drainage. Since the settlement has become a city, 
 one of these streams has become a menace to health be- 
 cause of the refuse drained into it. Near by an abun- 
 dance of coal was found, and in the course of time there 
 was discovered a great deposit of shale, good for the mak- 
 ing of paving brick, which is one of the chief industries of 
 the city at the present time. The settlement was made 
 before the day of railroads, and there were few wagon roads 
 and no canals in the region. But the location was such 
 that it was felt that roads were certain to center there 
 in the near future. 
 
 The committee to find families was also successful. 
 Thirty families, comprising one hundred and seventy 
 The families Persons, were found who would go to the new 
 for the settlement the first year. The settlement 
 
 settlement founded by these families still takes pride in the 
 fact that it is a city of homes. 
 
 The purpose of those who planned the settlement, ^ as 
 we have seen, was to found a college to educate Christian 
 r„„„,„ ministers. The famiUes chosen to make up the 
 
 Lommon ^ 
 
 interests of settlement were selected, therefore, with a view 
 the settlers ^^ getting people who Avould take an interest in 
 this purpose. The community was noted for its zeal for 
 
THE BEGINNING OF A COMMUNITY 3 
 
 education and religion. But this was not all that con- 
 cerned them. If you will examine the instructions given 
 to the exploring committee, you will see that care was to 
 be taken to find a site favorable to health ; it must also be 
 favorable to the production of wealth ; and there must be 
 easy means of communication among themselves and with 
 the outside world. Which of the instructions refer to 
 these different things ? 
 
 The little colony not only planned to build a church, a 
 college, and a common school; they also built houses 
 for shelter, they began to cultivate the soil, they put up a 
 sawmill and a gristmill. Many of the necessary occupa- 
 tions, such as making clothing and shoes, repairing tools, 
 and making furniture, were at first carried on in each 
 household, but soon carpenters, a blacksmith, a shoemaker, 
 and other tradesmen settled in the community. For social 
 life, the people had their singing schools and quilting 
 parties. 
 
 The colonists had acquired a township of land. Three 
 sections were reserved for the site of the village and the 
 college. The village was laid out in lots to be ^j^^ people 
 sold to those who wished to build homes and united with 
 places of business. The college land was tJ^ei^nd 
 fenced in, and lots were reserved for the church, an 
 academy, and a common school. Outside of the village 
 the land was sold in half-sections and quarter-sections for 
 farming. These farms were fenced in and improved by 
 cultivation and by the erection of permanent buildings. 
 The more the settlers improved the land, and the more 
 they invested in their homes and business, the greater cer- 
 tainty was there that the community would be permanent 
 and prosperous. 
 
 The early life of this little community was very simple. 
 
4 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 Each man, with his neighbors' help, chopped and hauled 
 Th lif f ^^^ ^^S^ ^^^^ which to build his cabin. In the 
 the early edge of the grove there were '' a dozen or two 
 community j^^ cabins, some built without a nail or a pane 
 of glass ; with the spaces between the logs chinked with 
 mud ; with outside chimneys made of clay and sticks ; with 
 boxes, barrels, and short logs for chairs, a large box for 
 the table, and a one-post bedstead^ for an honored guest." 
 Each man was his own mechanic, some were their own 
 cobblers, and the wives were the tailors and dressmakers. 
 A family in " average circumstances " is described as 
 having " enough money to pay taxes and postage." Serv- 
 ants were rare and were on equal terms with the family. 
 The cabins were adorned by such simple means as sticking 
 four balls of clay upon the corners of the chimneys. It is 
 said that it was strange " how quickly, under the good 
 taste and deft fingers of the ladies of the colony, these 
 cabins took on a cozy air and an appearance of beauty and 
 refinement." Books and papers were few, and were 
 handed about from house to house. Money was scarce, so 
 that the exchange of goods took place by barter. Farm 
 produce had to be hauled in wagons straight across the 
 prairie to the nearest large town, fifty miles away. When 
 any great undertaking was proposed, like the building of the 
 church, all the men of the community united in the work. 
 They chopped and hauled the logs from the grove, they 
 hewed out the timbers, they put the frame together, and 
 raised the building. 
 
 The people in this little community, selected as they 
 had been with great care by a committee, were at first 
 remarkably harmonious. They were of one nationahty ; 
 
 1 A one-post bedstead was built in the corner of the room, the two walls 
 serving as two sides of the bed. 
 
THE BEGINNING OF A COMMUNITY 5 
 
 they were of Puritan principles. They all rallied around 
 the idea of the Christian college. If any differ- Government 
 ences arose, they were at first settled by the of the 
 church organization. But with the coming of *^°"^°^"°**y 
 more settlers, and the development of new interests, it 
 became necessary to form a goveimment. 
 
 Such was the beginning of this community, which has 
 developed until to-day it is a thriving city with handsome 
 homes, busy streets, noisy factories, churches, schools, and 
 libraries. It is an important railroad center, and is thus 
 brought into the life of the world outside. It is a center 
 of culture and refinement, and a pleasant place in which 
 to live. 
 
 FOR INVESTIGATION 
 
 Keep in mind that your own co?nmunity is what you are to study, 
 and that the text is merely a guide. This chapter is the true story 
 of the founding of a community in Illinois. Every community, in- 
 cluding your own, has had a beginning more or less like that of the 
 one described here. The text with the following questions will suggest 
 the kinds of things you should look for in your own community. 
 
 1. Can you find out how the site of your community happened to be 
 selected ? 
 
 2. Take the list of instructions given to the exploring committee 
 mentioned on page i, and answer the questions there asked with 
 reference to your own community. 
 
 3. From what localities did the early settlers in your own com- 
 munity come ? What led them to found a new community ? How 
 did they make the journey from their old homes to the new settle- 
 ment ? 
 
 4. Find true stories of pioneer life in your own community, or in 
 your own state. 
 
 5. When Virginia was colonized, did the character of the site influ- 
 ence the life of the colony ? Did the character of the people do so ? 
 Answer these questions with reference to the other colonies. 
 
 6. What were the purposes that led the colonists to settle in New 
 England ? Compare with the purposes of the settlers described in 
 this chapter. 
 
6 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 7. Describe the life of the people in Massachusetts during the 
 first few years of the colony. Compare with the life of the settle- 
 ment described on page 4 of this chapter, and with the pioneer life 
 
 of your own community. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 1. Where possible, the pupil should gather information from old 
 settlers of his acquaintance. 
 
 2. Where available, local histories should be made use of. County 
 histories, reports of old settlers" meetings, etc., are useful. 
 
 3. Use any stories of pioneer life, like that of Lincoln's boyhood, 
 to supplement local history. McMurry's '• Pioneer History Stories " 
 (Macmillan) is good. 
 
 4. For questions 5-7, the ordinary school histories w^Il usually 
 suffice w^here other books on colonial life are not available. 
 
 5. There is an excellent series of books on colonial life, suitable 
 for pupils, by Alice Morse Earle. These will be useful throughout the 
 study. Some of the titles are : " Colonial Dames and Good Wives " ; 
 " Stage Coach and Tavern Days '" ; '' Home Life in Colonial Days " ; 
 "Child Life in Colonial Days." 
 
 6. " Pioneer Indianapohs,"' by Ida Stearns Stickney (Bobbs-Merrill, 
 Indianapolis, 1907). This monograph of sixty-eight pages is a good type 
 study of the early development of community life in its various impor- 
 tant aspects. The material is organized so as to bring out the civic rela- 
 tions and is in excellent literary form. This might well be a model for 
 similar studies in other communities. It illustrates how- much material 
 may be made available in almost any community by the cooperation of 
 school authorities, teachers and civic organizations, libraries, or public- 
 spirited citizens. 
 
 7. Small and Vincent, *' Introduction to the Study of Society,"' Book 
 II, pp. 99-165: "The Natural History of a Society." (For the 
 teacher.) 
 
CHAPTER II 
 WHAT IS A COMMUNITY? 
 
 The story of the founding of the colony in the West 
 illustrates certain things that we should know about com- 
 munities. Each one of us is a member of a community. 
 We wish to know just what our community is, and how it 
 grew. We wish especially to know what it does for us, 
 and what we owe to it. 
 
 The community whose beginnings we noticed in the 
 last chapter consisted of a group of people who settled 
 together in a single locality ^ and who were ji^^rA- 
 bound to each other by comjnon interests. They tionof a 
 were also subject to cominon laws. This may be *^°°^™^°^y 
 taken as a definition of any community. 
 
 Communities may be large or small ; that is, the people 
 may be many or few, and the locality in which they live may 
 include a large area or a small one. A group ^^ j. a 
 of neighboring farmers with their families may small com- 
 constitute a community. In this case the area ™"°^*^®s 
 occupied may be large, while the people are few in number. 
 Or the community may be a city, with a dense population 
 in a comparatively small area. Each state in our Union is 
 a community, and so is our nation, because each is com- 
 posed of a group of people occupying a common territory 
 and governed by common interests and common laws. 
 The nation is composed of state communities, and each 
 state is made up of many city and rural communities. 
 
 You may live in a small city which is a community in 
 
 7 
 
8 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 itself, with its group of people, its boundaries, its common 
 Communi- interests, and its common laws. A few miles 
 ties unite outside of your city is a community of farmers, 
 ones whose houses are far apart, but who have common 
 
 interests, such as keeping up the roads and the bridges in 
 their neighborhood. The farmers bring their produce to 
 the city for the use of the people there, and in turn depend 
 upon the city for many of their necessities and pleasures. 
 The country and the city communities thus have certain 
 interests in common, and their dealings with each other 
 are regulated by common laws. You are, therefore, a mem- 
 ber not only of your city community, but also of a larger 
 community including the farmers. You belong also to the 
 community of the whole state, and to a still larger one 
 including the nation. 
 
 No community ever began its existence fully formed, 
 but each has grown from small beginnings. It is Hke the 
 Communi- growth of a plant from the seed. You may have 
 hes g^o^ seen a tangled mass of vines growing from a 
 beginnings common root, with the branches and tendrils so 
 interwoven that it is difficult to trace one of them back to 
 the main trunk. So in a great community like a city, or 
 like our nation, we find the structure and the organization 
 so complicated that it is often difficult to understand them. 
 It is easier to take a community in its simpler stages, like 
 that of the last chapter, for a beginning of our study. 
 
 Being a member of a community means that each one 
 Member- ^^ ^^ takes part in, and contributes to, its life, 
 ship in a The hand is a member of the body; it receives 
 community |^-^ from the body and contributes to its life. 
 If the body is sick, the hand cannot do its work well ; if 
 the hand is crippled, the body suffers. So your life is 
 closely interwoven with that of the community of which 
 
WHAT IS A COMMUNITY? 9 
 
 you are a member. The best of your life comes from 
 participation in its life. You can imagine yourself shut 
 off from mankind, Hke Robinson Crusoe ; but what a narrow 
 life you would lead ! CitizeiisJiip means just this member- 
 ship in the community, with its giving to and 
 receiving from the community's life; and good 
 citizenship means performing well one's part as a member 
 of the community. Citizenship carries with it certain 
 privileges and certain duties. 
 
 FOR INVESTIGATION 
 
 1 . Talk over in class the four essentials of a community — the group 
 of people, the site, the common interests, and the common laws. Apply 
 these essentials to your own community. 
 
 2. Is your class a community? Explain. What are its common 
 interests ? Are its laws written or unwritten ? 
 
 3. Show how the different classes in your school are bound together 
 by interests common to the whole school. Compare this union of classes 
 into a school with the union of states into a nation. 
 
 4. What are some of the things in which your family and your 
 nearest neighbors have a common interest because of living close 
 together ? 
 
 5. What are some of the things in which the people of a city and the 
 neighboring farmers have a common interest ? 
 
 6. Name some things in which all the cities of a state have a com- 
 mon interest. What are some things in which the whole nation has a 
 common interest? 
 
 7. Show how an injury or a benefit to one person may be an injury 
 or a benefit to the whole community of which the person is a member. 
 Show how an injury or a benefit to a community will injure or benefit 
 the individual members of the community. 
 
 8. Can you be a member of your class without doing it either good 
 or harm? If a member of a community contributes nothing to its wel- 
 fare, can he avoid being harmful to it? Explain. 
 
 9. What are some of the things that a citizen receives from his 
 community? 
 
 10. Think of some ways in which a citizen may contribute to the 
 welfare of his community. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 THE SITE OF THE COMMUNITY 
 
 In beginning our study we must remember that the 
 people and the locality both contribute something to make 
 our community what it is. 
 
 The geographical features of the land enter into the 
 life of the community in many ways. In its relation 
 Importance to the land, we may compare the growth of a 
 of the land community to the growth of a plant. The 
 plant derives its support from the soil. Some kinds of 
 plants flourish in one kind of soil, other kinds in other 
 soils. In the case of all plants, their size and fruitfulness 
 depend not merely on the kind of seed sown, but also on 
 the character of the soil. It is the same with communi- 
 ties. Whether a community shall live or die may depend 
 entirely on the character of its site. 
 
 The importance of the character of the land is seen 
 clearly in the account of the founding of the community 
 in the first chapter. The site of a community is not 
 always selected so carefully as in that case ; but the in- 
 fluence of the site is always important. 
 
 Natural geographical conditions usually determine 
 where large cities shall grow. Nature seems to have 
 In deter- planned the mouth of the Hudson River as the 
 w^^cities ^^^^ °^ ^^^ greatest city on the Atlantic coast, 
 shau grow A good harbor, like that of Boston or San Fran- 
 cisco ; the junction of two navigable rivers, as at Pittsburg 
 or St. Louis ; the falls of a river, checking navigation 
 
THE SITE OF THE COMMUNITY II 
 
 and affording water power, as at Minneapolis or Louisville ; 
 the head of a river estuary, as at Quebec or Philadelphia ; 
 the center of a rich region where roads naturally cross, 
 as at IndianapoHs — all these are conditions favoring, if 
 not determining, the growth of large communities. 
 
 The health of a community depends in many ways on 
 the character of the land. Low, flat regions are Hkely to 
 be unhealthful. Sluggish streams and lakes in relation 
 that tend to become stagnant breed disease. '*°^®^*^ 
 The supply of drinking water is an important matter, and 
 often depends on the character of the underlying rocks 
 into which wells are sunk. These geographical influences 
 become of the greatest importance in cities where the 
 population is dense, for the artificial drainage may be 
 good or bad according to the character of the natural 
 drainage ; and the water supply is in much greater danger 
 of pollution in the city than in smaller communities. A 
 stream which is naturally clear and sparkling may be- 
 come, in the heart of a city, a foul breeding place of disease. 
 
 Climate is also one of the conditions that influence com- 
 munity life. A little thought will show how climate may 
 determine the mode of life — the character of influence of 
 the houses, the form of clothing, and even the climate 
 nature of the sports and amusements of the people. 
 
 The natural resources of a region go far to determine the 
 character of a community through the forms of industry 
 and the consequent modes of life to which they jj^^^^^q 
 lead. The fertility of the soil, the presence of of natural 
 mineral ores of different kinds, or of abundance ^®^°"^*^®^ 
 of fuel, or of forest products, or of water power, determine 
 the kinds of occupations, the size of communities, the char- 
 acter of the population, and even to a large extent the 
 nature of the laws and the forms of government. Can 
 
12 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 you not name some cities in the United States that are 
 celebrated for industries which depend on the presence of 
 important natural resources ? 
 
 In many rural communities the farmers are almost com- 
 pletely isolated from one another during a part of the year 
 because the roads are impassable, owing to a soil which 
 forms a deep mud, or to the fiat and swampy character of 
 Influence ^^^ land. This condition interferes with the 
 
 of surface Social, business, and intellectual Hfe of the farm- 
 features . , . 
 
 ers, and mtiuences their relations with one 
 
 another in many ways. An unusually hilly site may 
 affect the social and the business Hfe of a city. A river 
 and its branches may divide a city into parts more 
 or less distinct and with differing characteristics. Such 
 a city is Chicago, with its North, West, and South 
 Sides. 
 
 Virginia affords an example of how the land may shape 
 the character and the history of a large community. The 
 Influence of development of this colony and state was de- 
 geography termined to a remarkable extent by conditions 
 develop- °^ cHmate, soil, and surface which encouraged 
 ment of the Cultivation of the tobacco plant. This in- 
 ^g^nia. dustry required large plantations, which were dis- 
 tributed along the shores of the na\*igable rivers, of which 
 there were many. These rivers were large enough to per- 
 mit the ocean vessels of that time to pass some distance up 
 their courses. Therefore each planter had his wharf, at 
 which he loaded his tobacco for shipment and received 
 manufactured goods from abroad. These conditions dis- 
 couraged the growth of cities, and the population remained 
 almost wholly rural. i\n abundance of cheap labor was 
 necessary, and hence slavery gained a foothold. The 
 scattering of the population over wide areas made it dif- 
 
THE SITE OF THE COMMUNITY 13 
 
 ficult for the people to come together at a common meet- 
 ing place, so that the township organization with its 
 government by town-meeting, such as was found in New 
 England, was impracticable, and the county system of 
 government developed instead (see chapter XXI). 
 
 In New England, on the other hand, the infertility of 
 the soil, the severity of the winters, the hilly character 
 of the region, the presence of abundant water power, the 
 excellence of the fisheries along the coast, and the hostility 
 of the native Indian tribes all contributed to the concentra- 
 tion of the population in towns and helped to determine 
 the mode of life and a form of local government quite dif- 
 ferent from that of Virginia. 
 
 The character of our national community depends in a 
 large measure on the character of the land. Rich resources 
 have made our land a place of opportunity to all. ^j^^ j^^^^ 
 East of the Rocky Mountains, at least, the of our 
 country is well fitted geographically to be the 
 home of a single great nation rather than of many small 
 ones. The whole region from the Rockies to the Alle- 
 ghanies is closely bound together by river systems. The 
 navigable rivers in early days, and the conditions which 
 have made the building of railroads easy in later times, 
 have hastened the settlement of the country. Our situation 
 between the two great oceans has protected us from foreign 
 aggression, and it has also given us a great advantage in 
 the commerce of the world. Yet we have had many geo- 
 graphical difficulties to overcome. If it were not for the 
 wonderful development of means of rapid transportation 
 and communication, such as the railroad, the telegraph and 
 the telephone, the postal system and the newspapers, it 
 might have been very difficult for our great country to hold^ 
 together under one government, because of the geographical 
 
14 
 
 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 differences of the different sections. '' For the creation of 
 the nation the conquest of her proper territory from Nature 
 was first necessary. ... A bold race has derived inspi- 
 ration from the size, the difficulty, the danger of the task." 
 
 FOR INVESTIGATION 
 
 1 . a. If you live on a farm or are well acquainted with one, make a 
 sketch map of it, showing position of highlands, lowlands, marshes, 
 timber, streams ; also houses, barns, roads, bridges. 
 
 d. Did the features of the land determine the location of the build- 
 ings? Of the roads and bridges? The drainage of the farm? The 
 kinds of crops raised on different parts of the farm ? 
 
 c. Has the character of the land influenced the life of the farmer's 
 family in any way? (Bear in mind climate, the change of seasons, 
 the presence of woods, good or bad roads ; and think of their effects 
 upon going to school or church, amusements, social Hfe.) 
 
 2. Can you discover any advantages in the site of the town in which 
 you live, or of the one nearest to your home, that determined its loca- 
 tion ? How? 
 
 3. Make a map of the site of your town or city showing the natural 
 drainage ; i.e. the streams into which the land is drained. Is the 
 drainage good or bad? Is it equally good in all parts of the city ? 
 
 4. What are the natural resources of the region in which your com- 
 munity is situated? How have they influenced the life of the com- 
 munity ? 
 
 5. Are the geographical conditions in your community favorable to 
 good roads in the country districts? Explain fully. How does this 
 influence the life of the towns ? Of the farmers ? 
 
 6. Is your community divided into districts or regions by any natural 
 features (hills, streams, etc.) ? Can you show any results of this fact 
 upon the life of the community ? 
 
 7. What geographical conditions affect your supply of drinking 
 water? 
 
 8. Is your state noted for any particular industries? If so, what 
 geographical conditions have helped to make it so? 
 
 9. What geographical difficulties had to be overcome in the develop- 
 ment of your atate? How has the state government helped to over- 
 come them? 
 
 10. Describe some important work now being done by the national 
 government to overcome geographical difficulties. 
 
THE SITE OF THE COMMUNITY 
 
 15 
 
 1 1 . Do you know of any laws in your state that are due to particular 
 geographical conditions (such as the laws relating to water rights in an 
 irrigated region) ? 
 
 12. Explain how differences in geographical conditions once nearly 
 divided our nation into two. 
 
 13. What geographical sections of our nation would perhaps be most 
 likely to become independent politically if it were not for the invention 
 of easy means of communication ? 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 The teacher should see that the work in this cliapter is correlated 
 with the pupiPs work in geography. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 WHAT THE PEOPLE L\ COMMUNITIES ARE SEEKING 
 
 Man has been called a bundle of wants, and these wants 
 are constantly leading him to act in such a way as to 
 satisfy them. 
 
 First of all, men desire life and health. They will or- 
 dinarily give up anything in order to preserve their live§. 
 Good health is one of the most priceless pos- ^^^ ^^^^^ 
 sessions. A perfectly sound and healthy body for life and 
 is one of the greatest joys a man can have, ^^^^^ 
 and without it he is unable to satisfy his other desires to 
 the fullest extent. Recall the provisions made for the 
 protection of hfe and health by the colonists mentioned 
 in the first chapter. 
 
 Another thing that people want is to own something. 
 Bovs and girls like to have things that they can call their 
 own. The things that men seek to own — houses, The desire 
 cattle, books, pictures, and the like — constitute ^°^ wealth 
 wealth. The desire for wealth is a very strong one, 
 stronger in some persons than in others. What a man 
 owns is valuable because of what he can do with it. It 
 helps him to sustain and protect life. It enables him to 
 enjoy comforts and luxuries that he could not otherwise 
 have. It makes it possible for him to educate himself, 
 to satisfy his desire for art, to travel, and to enter more 
 fully into social life. Men engage in farming, in manufac- 
 turing, in buying and selling, and many other forms of 
 business to satisfy their desire for wealth. 
 
 i6 
 
WHAT THE PEOPLE ARE SEEKING 1 7 
 
 Men also want knowledge. That is why children ask so 
 many questions, and why boys like to take things to pieces 
 _.- , _ to see how they are made. It is this desire 
 sire for that led Peary to the arctic regions, and Living- 
 knowledge g^Qj^g ^Q ^^^ ^^^^^ ^f Africa. It lies at the 
 
 foundation of all science. It was one of the foremost 
 desires that led to the founding of the settlement in the 
 West (chapter I). 
 
 Men also take pleasure in things that are beautiful. 
 This may lead to travel, to the collection of pictures, to the 
 erection of beautiful buildings, and to the maintenance of 
 The desire well-kept Streets and lawns. There is a great 
 for beauty variety of activities for the satisfaction of the 
 desire for beautiful things. How did this desire show 
 itself in the community mentioned in the first chapter ? 
 
 No race or tribe of men has ever been known that did 
 not have some form of religion. The religious desire is 
 The desire characteristic of men. In every community 
 for right- there are certain things that men do to satisfy it. 
 eousness j^ ^^^ 1^^ ^-^^ sacrificing of animals, as among 
 the ancient Hebrews. It may be the throwing of chil- 
 dren to the crocodiles, as in India. It may be the build- 
 ing of beautiful temples, as in ancient Greece. It may 
 be waging a great war, like the Crusades ; or it may be 
 the founding of a hospital or some other charitable institu- 
 tion. The desire for the spread of religion was the chief 
 motive of the settlers mentioned in the first chapter. 
 
 Man desires companionship. He has been called a social 
 animal. He engages in many forms of activity to gratify 
 The desire his desire to associate with other men. How 
 for com- £^jj ^Q^j^ ^l^jg desire be satisfied in the little 
 
 panion- •' 
 
 ship community founded in the West ? 
 
 Many of the things that men do are the result of several 
 
l8 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 of these desires \Yorkmg together. A man's desires for 
 knowledge, for beautiful scenery, and for health ^ , . 
 may combine to lead him to the mountains, tions of 
 When Columbus sailed on his voyage of dis- ^®^""®^ 
 covery, he was led by his desire for knowledge, his desire 
 for wealth, and his desire to extend the influence of Chris- 
 tianity. Sometimes one desire may seem to ob- 
 
 1 1 • • ^ IT r ^^® desire 
 
 scure every other desire in the hfe of a person, sometimes 
 The love of wealth may take such possession of a shuts out all 
 
 . , -,. others 
 
 man that he becomes a miser, or perhaps dis- 
 honest. It has sometimes happened that a man has be- 
 come so enthusiastic in the pursuit of art, or of science, 
 that he has sacrificed his health, or even hfe itself, as in 
 the case of Andre, who attempted to reach the north pole 
 in a balloon. History tells us of men who were so devoted 
 to what they believed to be their rehgious duty that they 
 became hermits, shutting themselves away from all com- 
 pan ionship, denying themselves riches, mutilating ^^^ ^gjj. 
 and starving the body, and even suffering death, rounded 
 But in every normal person there are found all 
 the desires named, and t/ie well-roimded life is made iip of 
 activities to satisfy all of these desires i^i due proportion. 
 
 Two persons may have the same desires, but may at- 
 tempt to satisfy them in different ways. The Flathead 
 Indians bind boards upon the foreheads of their Different 
 children, flattenino- them, because thev think the "^^^^ °^ 
 
 sa.tisfvinfic 
 
 result is beautiful. A certain people blacken the same 
 their teeth and scorn Europeans who have ^^^^^ 
 " white teeth hke dogs." So among us there are people 
 who seem to take deUght in things that are repugnant to 
 others. The miser and the spendthrift both have wrong 
 ideas of the use of wealth. One man's desire for com- 
 panionship may lead him into profitable associations with 
 
WHAT THE PEOPLE ARE SEEKING 19 
 
 others. The same desire in another may lead him to 
 waste his time in the evil influences of the saloon. 
 
 Where there are so many desires and so many ways of 
 satisfying them it is not strange that the activities of peo- 
 Conflicts of P^^ sometimes conflict. The robber, in his pur- 
 desires and suit of wealth, conflicts with the desires of 
 o ac ivi les ^^j^^j-g^ q^q ^^^ ^^y Q^ect a cheap and ugly 
 
 building that is a nuisance in the neighborhood. An em- 
 ployer may maintain a poorly ventilated factory or store 
 that endangers the health of those who work for him. 
 A crowd of young people in their love of sport and com- 
 panionship may interfere with the peaceful pursuits and 
 the comfort of others. That community is best to live in, 
 in which each citizen not only has the greatest opportunity 
 to satisfy his desires in Hfe, but also recognizes the fact 
 that all other citizens have their desires, and an equal 
 right to satisfy them. 
 
 In the course of time men, living together in communi- 
 ties, have developed various means to secure harmony, 
 Mean t ^^^ ^^ prevent the rights of one from being 
 secure interfered with by others. Three means to 
 
 harmony gecure these results are : 
 
 1. T/ie school. Its chief purpose is to train children for 
 citizenship ; that is, for membership in the community. 
 (See chapter XV.) 
 
 2. The chtLTch. It works through the religious desires of 
 men. Its service in helping men to live harmoniously to- 
 gether may be expressed by its teaching, " Do unto others 
 as ye would be done by." 
 
 3. Government. It establishes and enforces laws for the 
 common good, which all should wiUingly observe. It is 
 not something placed over us from without, to tyrannize 
 over us, and to be feared and antagonized. It is a friend 
 
20 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 of our own making, and should be cherished and sup- 
 ported by every citizen to the fullest extent possible. The 
 beneficent purpose of government is stated in the preamble 
 of the Constitution of the United States, which reads : 
 
 Wey ''the people of the United States, in order to form a 
 more peifect union, establish justice, insure domestic tran- 
 qnillity, provide for the common defense, pj'omote the general 
 welfai'e, and secure the blessings of libei'ty to ourselves and 
 our posterity, do ordaiji a7id establish this Constitutioji for 
 the United States of America. 
 
 FOR INVESTIGATION 
 
 The f5nal impression to be left prominent in the mind of the pupil 
 as a result of the study of this chapter is that of government and laiu 
 as means of cooperation. 
 
 1 . What things are done in your own home for the purpose of satis- 
 fying the desires mentioned in this chapter ? 
 
 2. What are some of the things, outside of your home, that the 
 people of your community do to satisfy these desires ? 
 
 3. What desires are gratified by a person who does the following 
 things : paints his house : attends a concert ; visits a sick friend : buys 
 a book ; makes a garden ; keeps a dog : takes out a fire-insurance 
 policy ; keeps a store ; goes to church : attends a lecture ? 
 
 4. Show how the following arrangements help you and others to 
 satisfy the desires named : paved streets ; the post office ; a hospital ; 
 a library : a court house ; a market ; the telephone ; sewers ; a fire 
 department : a park. Name other community arrangements or institu- 
 tions and explain them in the same way. 
 
 5. Show how a person's desire for companionship may conflict 
 with his desire for knowledge ; how his desire for wealth may conflict 
 with his desire for health or for companionship. 
 
 6. Give illustrations of how some persons, in satisfying their desires, 
 interfere with the attempts of others to satisfy theirs. 
 
 7. Does community life make it easier, or more difficult, for men to 
 satisfy their desire for life ; for health : for wealth : for knowledge : for 
 beauty; for religion? Explain. 
 
 8. Show how, in the school, the pupil who " does as he pleases '' 
 interferes \^ith the Hberty of others. Is it right that his own liberty 
 
WHAT THE PEOPLE ARE SEEKING 21 
 
 should then be restricted? Why? Is liberty the right to "do as one 
 pleases" ? 
 
 9. Discuss some rules that regulate conduct in your home ; in your 
 school ; on your playground ; on the street. Show how such rules are 
 necessary to prevent conflict of interests. Compare such rules with 
 city or state laws. 
 
 10. Study together in class the first ten amendments to the Con- 
 stitution of the United States and, if possible, a part of the bill of rights 
 of your state constitution. Find how many of the desires mentioned in 
 this chapter are there provided for. 
 
 11. Mention one way in which, government helps you to satisfy 
 each of the desires mentioned in this chapter. 
 
 12. Discuss the idea of government as a means by which the people 
 may cooperate for the common good, and illustrate it with particular 
 cases. 
 
 REFERENCE 
 
 Small and Vincent, " Introduction to the Study of Society," pp. 169- 
 182. (Book III, chap. I.) (For the teacher.) 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 THE F.-\.MILY 
 
 It was pointed out in the first chapter that the commun- 
 ity in the West was settled by families, and grew up to 
 ^, ^ ., be ^ citv of Jiomcs. There are communities in 
 
 The family -■ -^ 
 
 in the our land in which a large part of the popula- 
 
 commumty ^^^^^ -^ without homes in the true sense of 
 the word. In the far West there are mining towns, 
 and in the North lumber camps, composed almost en- 
 tirely of men without families. In such communities 
 life is rough, some of the best features of civiUzed Life are 
 lacking, and the community is likely to be lawless. In 
 cities there are thousands of people who live in dwelling 
 places with very little that we usually associate with 
 home life. Many, indeed, have not even regular dwelling 
 places, as in the case of tramps. There are thousands of 
 unfortunate, homeless children adrift in our great cities. It 
 is largely in the drifting, homeless population that the dis- 
 orderly and criminal classes are found. The family and the 
 home are of the greatest importance to a community, first 
 because of what they do for the individual citizen in help- 
 ing him to satisfy the desires of life, and second because of 
 the services they render to the community as a whole. 
 
 What the normal family does for its members can best 
 be understood if we first study the Hfe of a pioneer family, 
 The pioneer cast almost entirely upon its own resources in a 
 family ^g^y countrv. Tempted by stories of rich lands 
 
 in the West and greater opportunities of gaining a Hveli- 
 
THE FAMILY 23 
 
 hood and accumulating wealth, this family had packed its 
 household goods and, with a team of horses and a wagon, had 
 undertaken the journey of six weeks or more into the wil- 
 derness. It selected a spot in an open space in the forest, not 
 far from the banks of a stream, where the conditions of the 
 land gave promise of making a new home safe, pleasant, 
 and productive of good results. The family then was miles 
 from any other human abode. There were no roads con- 
 necting it with civiHzation except the rough " trace " by 
 which it found its way into the forest. The family was 
 face to face with the great wilderness, whose conquest 
 was for the present its chief task. 
 
 The husband and father immediately began to make a 
 home. With the help of his son, he cut down trees from 
 the forest and built a log house. He became providing a 
 woodcutter, carpenter, and builder. They made shelter 
 some simple furniture, and built a great fireplace of clay 
 and sticks, with an oven. Fuel was found in abundance in 
 the forest. 
 
 The open space in the forest around the house was 
 enlarged by clearing away the trees, the ground was 
 plowed, and grain and vegetables were planted, providing 
 The grain was cut and threshed by hand, and ^°°^ 
 ground into meal in a home-made stone mill. For fresh 
 meat they had to depend chiefly upon game from the forest. 
 Some necessities, such as salt and powder, and a few lux- 
 uries, such as coffee, had to be brought with Exchange 
 great difficulty from the nearest settlement many of goods 
 miles away. In exchange for these things they gave their 
 surplus farm products and a few furs from animals trapped 
 during the winter. Money was almost never seen in this 
 Western country. 
 
 The man built a forge. Under the stress of necessity, 
 
24 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 and aided by some little experience gained in the East, he 
 Occupations was able to repair his tools, and even to make 
 and the^^ ^^ ^^^^' ones, to shoe his horses, and to do many 
 mother other things necessary on the farm. He experi- 
 
 mented in making moccasins and even shoes. He began 
 the raising of sheep and cultivated flax. A spinning wheel 
 and a hand loom were set up in the house, and coarse but 
 serviceable clothing was made by the mother's hand. 
 
 Little was to be feared, in those early days, frorn thieves 
 and marauders, although there were occasional rumors 
 Protection of threatened Indian attacks. Against possible 
 against dansfers of this kind the father was a watchful 
 
 violence and ^ 
 
 disease protector. Another enemy more difficult to cope 
 
 wnth was sickness, due to the presence of a swamp near at 
 hand. The medicine chest, supplemented by roots and 
 herbs from the forest, was a valuable part of the family 
 equipment. The mother proved herself a sympathetic and 
 resourceful physician and nurse. She also saw to it that 
 the cause of disease was reduced as much as possible by 
 keeping the premises clean. 
 
 The education of the children had to be looked after. 
 The son was taught the duties of the farm and the use of 
 Education tools of all kinds. He became a skillful woods- 
 and art man. The older girl learned the duties of the 
 
 household, how to spin and weave, and many other things 
 to fit her for the life she had to lead. The mother taught 
 the vounsrest child to read, and instructed all in ideas of 
 right lining. She planted a little flower garden in the 
 doorvard, and trained vines over the house. With the 
 crude materials at hand, she used her taste to the utmost 
 in beautifying the children's clothes. 
 
 The parents were religious people in accordance with 
 their early training. The family Bible occupied a promi- 
 
THE FAMILY 25 
 
 nent place in the household, and from it every day the 
 father read to the family group. There was no 
 church for miles around. 
 
 There was httle companionship for the members of this 
 family outside of the family group; but within the group 
 there was the closest association. The children 
 interested themselves in the work of the parents, 
 and the parents entered sympathetically into the pastimes 
 of the children. They read and sang together. The chil- 
 dren had their sports in fields and woods, appropriate 
 to the seasons. For want of other companions they made 
 pets of all the domestic animals. An occasional traveler 
 was welcomed in the home with the freest hospitaUty. 
 
 The occupations of the day were carried on in regular 
 order; each had his special duties to perform at certain 
 times. The children rendered obedience to their Govern- 
 parents. The father was the recognized head of ment 
 the family. His word was law. Yet he constantly had the 
 best interests of the family at heart, and was kind and 
 thoughtful with all his sternness. 
 
 Such was the life of the pioneer family. It was crude 
 and imperfect ; but you see that all the kinds of desires that 
 men have were provided for more or less completely within 
 the family itself. It looked after the protection of life 
 and health, the production of wealth, the education, the 
 religious training, and the social life of its members. 
 
 In the course of time other families came into the neigh- 
 borhood. Then an organization into a larger j.^^ family 
 community began. The settlers rendered aid to relieved by 
 each other in building houses and gathering crops. zatio?of°a 
 Many of the occupations formerly carried on larger 
 in the family were now transferred to members ^®™™"^^^ 
 of the community who made these occupations their 
 
26 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 business. A school was organized to provide a better 
 education than could be offered in the home, and a 
 church was built at the crossroads. A government also 
 was organized. 
 
 Although, as a communit}^ grows, various means arise 
 to help the family to pro\'ide for the wants of its members, 
 The re on- ^^^ family must always bear an important part of 
 sibiiity of the responsibility for the welfare of its members, 
 the family ^^-^ matter how good the doctors, the health of 
 the people in any community depends more on the family 
 than on anything else. Xo matter how efficient the schools, 
 a great responsibihty rests on the family for the proper 
 education of the children. No matter hoAv many social 
 organizations there mav be in the community, the social 
 life of the home is the most important of all and the most 
 far-reaching in its results. No matter how excellent the 
 government of a community may be, it can have httle 
 good result if the government in the home is lacking. 
 The surest way to secure good government in the com- 
 munity is through careful government in the homes that 
 make up the community, ^'o ^natter hozv large the com- 
 annuity, or Jioiv completely it is organized, tJie family re- 
 mains one of the most important vieatis to provide for tJie 
 li'ants of the citizens. 
 
 FOR INVESTIGATION 
 
 1. Find out what you can about femily life in the pioneer days of 
 your own community : the kind of dwellings ; where the food supply came 
 from; how health was cared for: the occupations in the household; 
 what was done to beautif}* the home : the social amusements. 
 
 2. Show to what extent the needs of a farmer's family in your own 
 neighborhood are satisfied by its own efforts. 
 
 3. Obsen-e whether your own family is chiefly dependent on itself 
 for its needs, or depends on arrangements supplied by the commu- 
 nity. 
 
THE FAMILY 2/ 
 
 4. Compare the advantages of the average country family with those 
 of the average city family, with respect to satisfying the desires of life. 
 Or, debate the question : Home life in the country has greater advan- 
 tages than home life in the city. 
 
 5. Study the way in which the average family governs itself. Why 
 is this government necessary? 
 
 6. Are there in your community many people without homes, as 
 explained in the first paragraph of this chapter? 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 See references under Chapter I. 
 
 Beard, "American Citizenship," pp. 21-32. Different kinds of 
 homes. 
 
 Beard, "American City Government," pp. 1-30. Family life in 
 cities. 
 
 Gillette, "Constructive Rural Sociology," pp. 57-76. Advantages 
 and disadvantages of farm life. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 THE HOME .\XD THE COMMUXITY 
 **No nation can be destroyed while it possesses a good home fife." 
 
 The normal family not only does much to pro\*ide for 
 the welfare of the indmdual, but it also performs certain 
 valuable services for the com m unit}- as a whole. 
 
 In the first place, the family has been called " a school 
 of all the virtues"' that go to make gcid citizenship. It 
 The family is a school in which not only the children, but 
 f?"^^= a'_so :::e parents, are trained for citizenship, 
 citizens It has been said that if a man is a good hus- 
 
 band, a good father, a good son, or a good brother, 
 the probabiht}- is that he vvtH also be a good citizen in the 
 community. And we must not forget the i^ives, mothers, 
 daughters, and sisters. The qualit}- of the citizenship 
 of the women of a communit}" is perhaps shown more 
 in their family life than that of the men, because such 
 a large part of their lives is spent in the family and the 
 household, and also because their influence there is so 
 great in molding the character of the men. In the family- 
 are developed thoughtfulness for others, the spirit of self- 
 sacrifice, loyalt}- to the group of which the indi\-idual is a 
 member, respect for the opinions of those of long ex- 
 perience, obedience to the head of the family and to the 
 rules which have been estabhshed for the welfare of all. 
 If these and other qualities of good citizenship are not 
 
 28 
 
THE HOME AND THE COMiMUNITY 
 
 29 
 
 cultivated there, the family is not in a healthy condition, 
 and is not doing its full service to the community. 
 
 There is no other kind of property that gives such satis- 
 faction to the owner as a home. Men usually look forward 
 with eagerness to the time when they can own The owning 
 their homes, and take great pride in that owner- ^^ * ^°^^ 
 ship when it is acquired. Many families live in homes 
 which they do not themselves own ; they rent from others. 
 When that is 
 the case, there 
 is lacking one 
 of the strongest 
 influences that 
 make the home 
 life complete. 
 The ownership 
 of a home adds 
 another bond of 
 union among the 
 
 members of the family through the common interest which 
 it affords. A man has a greater interest in improving 
 and beautifying a home that he owns than one that he 
 rents from another. 
 
 A family that owns its home will usually take a greater 
 interest in the community in which it lives than the family 
 that owns no home. It feels a se-nse of proprie- Creates 
 torship in a part of the community land. The ^^*^^g^* 
 value of a home will increase in proportion to community 
 the prosperity of the community as a whole. Its owner 
 will therefore be inclined to do all he can to promote the 
 welfare of the community for the sake of his family. A 
 community that is made up largely of homes owned by 
 their occupants is hkely to be prosperous on this account, 
 
 Modest Home. 
 
30 
 
 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 and its citizens will be loyal to it. This is why the commu- 
 nity mentioned in the first chapter has reason to boast that 
 it is a city of homes. 
 
 In large cities, where people are crowded together in a 
 comparatively small area, it is difficult for all to get pos- 
 session of a piece of 
 
 fei^d^ " " "^^.^ 
 
 te 
 
 ^M^^ ^--^^ 
 
 
 -- ' _ : 
 
 ground suitable for 
 
 The land, being 
 
 A Wretched Dwelling. 
 
 home. 
 
 in great demand, be- 
 comes very valuable, so 
 that many famiHes are 
 unable to buy it, or even 
 to pay the necessary 
 price for the use of it 
 The result is that such families are driven to make their 
 homes in the least desirable locaHties in the community. 
 _ ^ Thev mav resort to the lowlands alono^ a river 
 
 Dangers to ^ - ^ 
 
 home life flo^Tug through the community, where the land 
 m cities ^^ unhealthful and in danger of floods. In some 
 river towns most wretched dwelling places may be found 
 in such localities. In large cities many families are often 
 crowded together in buildings owned by men who can get 
 better returns by charging small rents to many families 
 than they could by charging larger rents to a few. These 
 crowded dwelling places, which often do not deserve the 
 name of homes, are called tenements, and the section of 
 the city where the crowding is the worst and the buildings 
 are the poorest constitutes what is known as the slums. 
 These tenement dwellings involve all sorts of evils. Where 
 so many families Hve in one building, and where many 
 buildings are crowded together without space between, 
 there cannot be the privacy that is essential to good home 
 hfe. Such conditions are also detrimental to health. The 
 
THE HOME AND THE COMMUNITY 31 
 
 sunlight never penetrates to the interior of some of these 
 buildings. They are ill-ventilated and unsanitary. There 
 is no room for playgrounds for the children. Among a 
 crowd of people in such wretched dwellings there are al- 
 ways many ignorant, immoral, and vicious persons, who 
 have a bad influence upon others with whom they are con- 
 stantly thrown. Criminals often find a safe hiding place 
 in the dark and crowded tenements of the slums. 
 
 Families living in such conditions as we have described 
 are less likely to take an interest in the welfare of the 
 community and to contribute to its well-being, ^j^^ ijuj-den 
 On the other hand, their part of the community of the worst 
 is a constant burden and menace to the whole upwi^the^*^ 
 community. Fires are likely to start among the whole 
 crowded and poorly constructed buildings, and *^°™™"^**y 
 to spread to other parts of the city. The unsanitary con- 
 ditions invite epidemics of disease, which may not easily 
 be restricted to the district where they originate. Dis- 
 order, vice, and crime are more frequent there, requiring 
 police supervision, which has to be paid for by the whole 
 community. In many ways the possessor of the good home 
 in the better part of the city has to bear the burden of, 
 and help pay for, the existence of these poor homes. A 
 very large part of the expense of government could be 
 avoided if the poor homes of the city could be converted 
 into pleasant homes, with plenty of room, light, and fresh 
 air. Much of government is made necessary in Qoygrnme t 
 order to take the place of what is lacking iji the and the 
 home life of the community. ' °°^® 
 
 In many large cities a movement has been begun for 
 the improvement of conditions in the tenement districts. 
 The old, unhealthful tenements are being removed and 
 better ones built. More sunlight is being let in and better 
 
32 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 plumbing introduced. Open courts, or yards, are pro- 
 \dded in order that the people may get out of doors. 
 „ , Parks and playo-rounds are beins; established 
 
 Movement r ^ o o ^ 
 
 toward in the vicinity of the crowded districts. The 
 reform introduction of rapid transportation has done 
 much to induce people to move out to the suburbs, where 
 life is more healthful and where conditions are better for 
 home life. 
 
 It is much better, however, to prevent wretched home 
 conditions from gaining a foothold in the community than 
 to have to correct them after they have appeared. They 
 are conditions that tend to appear wherever the population 
 is rapidly increasing. Some of our city and state govern- 
 ments have taken hold of the problem of the tenement, 
 
 and laws have been passed, prohibiting^ the 
 Laws pro- ^ . 
 
 tectingthe building of dwellings without sufficient space 
 
 ^°^^ around them to admit light and air, requiring 
 
 good sanitation, and forbidding the overcrowding of peo- 
 ple in a single building. Unfortunately these laws are 
 violated, and the government frequently fails to enforce 
 them. In the smaller cities, where such conditions have 
 not become sufficiently apparent to attract notice, there 
 are often very few laws upon the subject. It is in these 
 cities that especial care should be taken to prevent the 
 growth of dangerous tenements, by the enactment of pre- 
 ventive laws. 
 
 It is not merely the character of the dwelling, however, 
 that is of concern to the community. In recent years 
 many laws have been enacted to protect the breadwinners 
 of famihes against accident or the contracting of disease in 
 their occupations ; to shorten the hours of labor, so that 
 workmen may have more leisure time for recreation and 
 self-improvement; to reduce the hardships of women's 
 
THE HOME AND THE COMMUNITY 33 
 
 work ; to abolish child labor ; to secure the payment of 
 just wages so as to assure a proper standard of living ; 
 and in other ways to insure a better home life as the 
 foundation of a wholesome community life and of good 
 citizenship. 
 
 It is not to be supposed that unwholesome family life 
 is restricted wholly to the homes of the poor. Some of 
 the worst homes are occasionally found in surroundings 
 of luxury. Unless the relations between husband and 
 wife, between parents and children, and between brothers 
 and sisters, are of the right kind, the home will be imper- 
 fect, even though it be sheltered in a beautiful dwelling ; 
 and it will fail to perform its best service to the com- 
 munity. 
 
 FOR INVESTIGATION 
 
 1. Do most of the people in your neighborhood own their homes, or 
 do they rent ? Can you give illustrations to show that home owners 
 take a greater interest in the community than those who rent ? 
 
 2. Is there some section of your community where most of the peo- 
 ple own their homes, and another section where most of the people 
 rent ? If so, do you notice any difference in the general appearance of 
 the two sections ? Do you think that the difference, if any, is due in 
 any part to the fact that some of the people own and some rent ? 
 
 3. In the back of the book (page 299) there is a table showing the 
 number of homes owned and the number rented in the cities of the 
 United States having 100,000 population or over. 
 
 a. Find the city having the smallest per cent of homes owned. 
 How do you account for the small per cent in this city? 
 
 b. Find cities having large per cents of homes owned. Can you 
 account for this from what you know of these cities ? 
 
 c. Can you account for the fact that Washington, D.C., has such a 
 large per cent of rented homes? 
 
 d. Find out for what Fall River, Mass., is noted. Do you think 
 there is any relation between this fact and the large number of hired 
 homes? 
 
 e. Find the figures of your own city, if it is in the table, or the nearest 
 one to you, and compare it with other cities of about the same size. 
 
34 
 
 THE COMMUNITY .AJsD THE CITIZEN 
 
 4. Observe the character of the homes (dwellings, yards, gardens), 
 as you pass from the center of your city to its outskirts. Is there any 
 difference in their appearance? If so. why is it? 
 
 5. Is there any tendency for formers' femilies in your neighborhood 
 to move to the dty? If so. try to find the reasons for it. What be- 
 comes of their farms when the femilies move away ? 
 
 6. Is there any tendency for femilies in the city to move toward the 
 outskirts of the city, or to the suburbs? If so. why? Is it chiefly the 
 poorer people or the well-to-do? What happens to their old dwellings 
 in the center of the cit\- ? 
 
 7. Are flats and apartment buildings being erected to any extent in 
 vour community? If so. try to find the causes. What are some of the 
 ettects on family life of dwelling in flats ? 
 
 8. What is being done in your community to improve the home life 
 of the poorest fonulies ? 
 
 9. Can you think of any public institutions in your commu- 
 nitv that are made necessary by imperfect conditions of home 
 life? 
 
 10. If there is no law forbidding it has a man the right to make all 
 the monev he can by crowding as many tenants into a house as it will 
 hold ? Explain. 
 
 11. Show how good home life tends to de:rr:.5r ::-e need for gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 12. Are there any tenement-house laws in your community? If so, 
 what are some of the most important? 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Riis, Jacob A., " How the Other Half Lives." 
 
 Riis, Jacob A., "The Battle with the S!m~ = ." 
 
 Mr. Riis's books are very interesting £z.i ■ t!::\:l to an understa n di ng 
 of the conditions of the slums. 
 
 Cope, Henry ¥.. " The Home as the School of Social Li\Tng.'' pub- 
 lished by American Baptist Pubhcation Society. Philadelphia. 1910. 
 
 Hamilton. John, '•What the Government is Doing and Should Do 
 for Home and Children." in National Congress of Mothers Magazine, 
 June, 1909. pp. 288-293. 
 
 Henderson, -The Social Spirit in America.** chapter II: "Home- 
 Making as a Social Art.** and chapter IV: -Better Houses for the 
 People.*' 
 
 - Slums of Great Ciries. " Seventh Annual Report of the Commis- 
 sioner of Labor, by E. R. L. Gould. Washington, 1894. 
 
THE HOME AND THE COMMUNITY 
 
 35 
 
 *' Housing of the Working People," Eighth Annual Report of the 
 Commissioner of Labor, by E. R. L. Gould, 1895. 
 
 " Housing and Town Planning," Annals of the American Academy 
 of Political and Social Science, Philadelphia, January, 1914. 
 
 " Housing Problems in America," Proceedings of the Second National 
 Conference on Housing, 191 2. 
 
 " Homesteads for Workingmen," Labor Bulletin No. 88, January, 
 191 2, Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics. 
 
 The Survey, published weekly at 105 E. 22d Street, New York City, 
 is a useful journal in connection with many phases of civic and social 
 life. Its numbers contain material on the subject of this chapter. 
 
 A Tenement Back Yard. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 THE MAKING OF AMERICANS 
 
 Next to the ties of family relationship, those of common 
 nationality and language are perhaps the strongest in bind- 
 The bond of ing people together in groups. Americans in 
 nationauty foreign cities usually drift together and take lodg- 
 ings in the same locality. When foreigners come to this 
 countr\' thev tend to 2:roup themselves tosrether accordins: 
 to their nationality or language. This kind of grouping 
 may assume great importance in a country like ours, where 
 many thousands of foreigners are pouring in upon us every 
 year. 
 
 America has always been a land of opportunity, and 
 milhons of people have come here from foreign lands for the 
 The foreign purpose of bettering their condition. Some have 
 the United come. Hke the Pilgrims of Plvmouth, for religious 
 States freedom. Others have come, hke the founders of 
 
 Massachusetts Bay Colony, for political freedom. ]\Iany 
 more have come merelv to better their material welfare. 
 Thousands are coming every year because here work 
 is plentiful, and the opportunity is great to earn, not merely 
 a living, but land and a home with comforts that were im- 
 possible in their native lands. In the ten years from 1901 
 to 1910, 8,795,386 immigrants entered the United States, 
 and in the three years following (1911-13) almost 3.000,- 
 000 more arrived.^ Among them are representatives of 
 every countr}* of Europe and many from other lands. 
 
 ^ See Appendix, pp. 3C>o-304, Tables of Immigration. 
 36 
 
THE MAKING OF AMERICANS 
 
 37 
 
 The tendency of these incoming foreigners is to drift to 
 sections of the United States, or of the large cities, where 
 large numbers of their countrymen have already Djstribu- 
 made their homes. There are sections of the tion of 
 states of the Northwest, for example, where al- ^o^'^'S^^rs 
 most the entire population is Scandinavian, as in parts of 
 Minnesota. In other states we may often find large farm- 
 ing communities of Scotch or of Germans, as in parts of 
 
 Immigrants awaiting Inspection at Ellis Island, 
 New York Harbor. 
 
 Illinois and Pennsylvania. In some of the coal-mining 
 regions, as in western Pennsylvania and in West Virginia, 
 there is a large population from the Slavic countries of cen- 
 tral and eastern Europe. Manufacturing towns often have 
 
38 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 large populations of some one nationality, like the Belgian 
 glass-workers in some parts of Indiana. In cities, where 
 many foreigners settle, they usually arrange themselves by 
 nationality in different sections of the city. Thus we find 
 in New York a section occupied almost exclusively by 
 Italians, another by Chinese, another by Greeks, another 
 by Jews, and so on. 
 
 These different nationalities not only tend to Hve in 
 groups, but they also think and act in groups. It is very 
 Foreign common to hear at election time of the " German 
 within the vote" and the "Irish vote." There are also dif- 
 nation tend ferences in ideas of thrift and industrv, in forms 
 
 to act as . - 
 
 units of architecture, m home lite, and m many other 
 
 ways. One section of a city may be thrifty and law-abid- 
 ing because of the habits of the nationality occupying it, 
 while another section will be unsightly and disorderly. 
 
 There might' be great danger to the peace and unity of 
 the United States through the immigration of so many 
 The United foreigners, if they actually remained for any 
 nation of length of time as distinct national groups within 
 foreigners our country. But this is not usually the case. 
 IMost of these immigrants begin a process of transforma- 
 tion from Germans, Irish, Poles, or whatever their nation- 
 ality, into Americans, almost as soon as they have landed. 
 We are a nation of foreigners. Many Americans do not 
 have to go back very far until they find some ancestor 
 just immigrating into this country from a foreign land. 
 The hundreds of thousands who are coming to our shores 
 
 The growth ^^^^ ^'"^^^ ^^'^^^' ^^ ^^^ course of 3. few years, be 
 of common proud of the name of American ; and their 
 interests children, born here, will not be distinguishable 
 from the great mass of Americans. This breaking down 
 of the differences between the nationalities within our 
 
THE MAKING OF AMERICANS 
 
 39 
 
 A German Immigrant Family. 
 
 country is due to the growth of common interests among 
 all who live here. All came here for greater freedom of re- 
 ligion, of political belief, of labor. Our government allows 
 to all equal opportunities and equal rights. 
 
 In recent years there has been a great change in the 
 character of the immigration to this country. Formerly 
 most of our immigrants came from northern and ^, 
 western Europe — the British Islands, Scandi- type of im- 
 navia, Germany. At present the countries of "^'sration 
 southern and eastern Europe are sending us the great 
 multitudes — Russia, Poland, Italy, Greece (see tables, 
 pp. 300-302). These southern and eastern peoples differ 
 greatly from the northern and western peoples in physical 
 appearance and in language, thus making more difficult 
 the blending of the population. They also differ in their 
 social and pohtical experience, in their industrial skill and 
 
40 THE COMMUNITY AXD THE CITIZEN 
 
 Standards of living. The majority of them are unskilled 
 laborers. A much smaller percentage remain in this countr}'- 
 to establish homes than is the case with the earlier immi- 
 grants. They are also more slow to become legal citizens. 
 
 On the other hand, it is well to remember that mere 
 difference of language and customs by no means implies 
 What the inferiority of character or ability. It some- 
 bri^rSth times happens that immigrants who have diffi- 
 him cultv in finding suitable occupations, or who are 
 
 forced to take the work of day laborers to earn their Hving, 
 are perhaps skilled in some special vocation, or talented 
 in music or art, but are prevented from finding their proper 
 places merely through ignorance of our language and cus- 
 toms. They come from countries whose histories are 
 much longer than ours and often represent civilizations in 
 manv respects richer than our own. The great majority 
 of those who enter come with the same noble desire for 
 liberty that inspired the early colonists. In our pride in 
 our own country and its people, its language and its in- 
 stitutions, we must not underestimate the value of what 
 the immigrant may bring to us. While hastening in every 
 possible way the adjustment of the immigrant to the spirit 
 of American Hfe, we should, in turn, respect the heritage 
 that he brings with him and profit by the good that he has 
 to offer. Not only is he to be made into an American ; he 
 is also to help make America. 
 
 There are certain classes of foreigners whom our gov- 
 ernment does not permit to enter, or who may be returned 
 p- , to their native countries if they succeed in land- 
 
 immigrants ing bv eluding the vigilance of the immigration 
 ^'^^^ ^ officers. Idiots or insane persons, persons af- 
 
 flicted with dangerous contagious diseases, paupers and pro- 
 fessional beggars, persons who for any reason are unable 
 
THE MAKING OF AMERICANS 4I 
 
 to care for themselves and are likely to become a public 
 charge, criminals, grossly immoral persons, persons brought 
 over under contract to perform any kind of labor, are the 
 principal classes excluded. During the year ending June, 
 191 3> 19*605 such persons were prevented from landing, 
 and 3,461 were sent back after having landed. 
 
 Copyright by American Pre 
 
 U. S. Immigrant Station, Ellis Island. 
 View from an aeroplane. 
 
 In 1882 Congress passed a law known as the Chinese 
 Exclusion Act. This is the only case in which our gov- 
 ernment has excluded a nationahty. The chief reason for 
 it in this case is that the Chinese fail to become American- 
 ized in any degree. They remain a completely foreign 
 community on American shores, widely different in race, 
 language, and habits, while they supplant American labor- 
 ers on the farms, in the mines, and in other occupations 
 through their willingness to work for lower wages. 
 
 Should immigration be further restricted ? And, if so, 
 by what means ? In 1907 an Immigration Com- 
 mission of nine members was created by Con- ^"^^®5 
 
 -' restriction 
 
 gress to make a thorough study of the problem. 
 
 In its report the Commission said, " While the American 
 
42 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 people, as in the past, welcome the oppressed of other 
 lands, care should be taken that immigration be such both 
 in quality and quantity as not to make too difficult the 
 process of assimilation." One of the methods most often 
 suggested to keep out undesirable immigrants is to exclude 
 all who cannot read or write in some language. Other 
 methods proposed are to increase the "head tax" that 
 each immigrant is required to pay on entering, to increase 
 the amount of money that each immigrant must have in 
 his possession when he lands, or to exclude all unskilled 
 laborers who are not accompanied by their wives or fam- 
 ilies. 
 
 To hasten the process of " assimilation," it is also im- 
 portant that the immigrants should be distributed through 
 Distribution ^^^ country where their services are most 
 of needed and where their own opportunities for 
 
 immigrants g^(.(3gss ^^q greatest. The crowding of large 
 numbers of immigrants in colonies in the large cities not 
 only makes our own cit}' problems more difficult, but it 
 also makes it more difficult for the immigrants themselves 
 to obtain desirable homes and occupations, and retards 
 their assimilation with the American people. The United 
 States Bureau of Immigration, in cooperation with the 
 state governments, is seeking to distribute the immigrants 
 to the best advantage of themselves and of the nation. 
 
 The Constitution of the United States says: "All per- 
 sons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject 
 NaturaU- to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the 
 zation United States and of the state wherein they 
 
 reside " (Amendment XIV). In order to become legal 
 citizens of the United States, therefore, persons born in 
 foreign countries must go through the process of naturali- 
 zation. They must have lived in the United States at 
 
THE MAKING OF AMERICANS 43 
 
 least five years and in the state one year, and must have 
 declared, before a court, their intention of becoming citi- 
 zens at least two years before their citizenship papers are 
 given to them. They must also prove good character and 
 declare their intention of observing the principles of the 
 Constitution. They then have all the rights of native- 
 born citizens, except that they may not hold the office of 
 President or Vice-President. 
 
 Women may be naturalized as well as men ; but a 
 woman becomes a citizen without naturalization when her 
 husband is naturalized, or when she marries a citizen. 
 Children under twenty-one years of age also become legal 
 citizens by the naturalization of their parents. On the 
 other hand, children born abroad of parents who are citi- 
 zens of the United States are citizens of the United States 
 in spite of their foreign birth. 
 
 The privilege of naturalization has not been extended 
 to members of the MongoHan race. 
 
 Persons of foreign birth who have not been naturalized 
 are known as aliens. There are several millions of aliens 
 residing in our country. They enjoy almost, although not 
 quite, all the privileges of citizens. They are entitled to full 
 protection of their lives and property by our 
 government ; they may move freely about the 
 country and engage in business ; they are entitled to all 
 the privileges of the state courts, and to some privileges 
 of the national courts; they have freedom of religious 
 belief. In some states there are restrictions against the 
 holding of real estate by aliens ; but many states allow it 
 and by the Homestead Act (see page 48) Congress has 
 given millions of acres to them. In some states aliens may 
 even vote for state and national officers after having de- 
 clared their intention of becoming citizens. 
 
44 THE COMMUNITY AXD THE CITIZEN 
 
 In the development of our great country, with its vast 
 areas of land to be reduced to the use of man, and with its 
 abundant resources of all kinds, it has always it is 
 been considered desirable that foreigners should J^^at thT^ 
 come to our land to make it their home. But it foreigners 
 is plain that if they are to be valuable members f^orm^iito 
 of our community, they must have or acquire Americans 
 full sympathy with our American ideas. They must be- 
 come blended with the mass of Americans among 
 whom they live, and become Americans themselves, not 
 merely in dress and language, but in their spirit and prin- 
 ciples. Down to the present time this blending has gone 
 on easily and rapidly, because the great mass of the popu- 
 lation has always been native born. With the increasing 
 tide of immigration from foreign lands the problem be- 
 comes more serious, and calls for greater caution on the 
 part of government as to the admission of immigrants. 
 Most of those who come will undoubtedly make excellent 
 citizens. But there are many who will contribute nothing 
 to our welfare, and some who will even antagonize the law 
 and order which are so necessary in a community. 
 
 It is necessary that every means be adopted to instruct 
 those who come to our land in the ideals of American 
 citizenship, and to make of them not merely The 
 partakers of our liberty, but contributors to ^^^^biic° 
 our community welfare. The school performs school 
 an important sendee in this direction. It not only in- 
 structs the children of foreigners in the English lan- 
 guage. United States history, and other subjects that 
 acquaint them with American ideas, but by bringing them 
 in constant association with American children the school 
 hastens the adoption of American ways. Thus these chil- 
 dren of foreigners are rapidly transformed into Americans. 
 
THE MAKING OF AMERICANS 
 
 45 
 
 The very nature of the American government tends to 
 destroy all differences of nationahty. It is a fundamental 
 ^, idea of our government that there are certain 
 
 influence of political rights and privileges held by all in com- 
 government ^^^^^ which it is the business of the government 
 to protect. Our government is a strong bond of union, not 
 because it holds us together in a forced union, but because 
 we all have an equal interest and share in its benefits and 
 responsibilities. 
 
 FOR INVESTIGATION 
 
 I. Let each pupil in the class fill in the following blank. Tabulate 
 the results for the whole class on the blackboard, in order to show the 
 blending of nationalities in the present class : 
 
 
 Table showing Nationality of 
 
 Father 
 
 J Father's father 
 
 1- Father's mother 
 
 Father's grandparents \ 
 
 Mother 
 
 f Mother's father 
 
 --< \ Mother's grandparents < 
 
 1 Mother's- mother 
 
 2. Make a list of the different nationalities to be found in your com- 
 munity. Do any of these nationalities tend to form groups by them- 
 selves ? If so, show on a map of your community how this grouping has 
 taken place. 
 
 3. Is there any farming community in your neighborhood composed 
 entirely of some one nationality ? Are there any industries in your com- 
 munity in which the workmen are wholly or largely of some foreign 
 nationality? 
 
 4. Do any of the foreign nationalities in your community tend to act 
 as units (z.e. the Irish by themselves, the Italians by themselves) in 
 politics, in religious matters, or in business? 
 
 5. Are there any communities in your state composed largely of some 
 one foreign nationality ? Where are they? Why did these foreigners 
 settle there ? What are their occupations ? 
 
46 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 6. Gather some facts regarding the number of immigrants to this 
 country, their nationalities, their character and conditions, their dis- 
 tribution through the country and in cities. (See immigration tables in 
 the appendix, page 301 ; and for further details, see also the references 
 below.) 
 
 7. Debate the question : Foreign immigration should be further re- 
 stricted by the United States. 
 
 8. Debate the question : The Chinese should be allowed free admis- 
 sion to the United States as in the case of other foreigners. 
 
 9. Do you think it is right that aliens should be allowed to vote, as 
 in some states of the Union? Why? 
 
 10. Look up the subject of fraudulent naturaUzation. (See Mayo- 
 Smith, '^Emigration and Immigration," pp. 83-85; Hall, "Immigra- 
 tion,"^ pp. 192-197.) 
 
 11. Why would the persons excluded by the methods mentioned on 
 page 42 be ••' undesirable " immigrants ? 
 
 ^ 12. In the table, pages 301-303. note the number of each nationality 
 departing from this country as compared with the number entering. 
 Which nationahties show the largest per cent remaining ? What 
 reasons can you suggest for the large numbers departing ? 
 
 13. Report on organization and work of the United States Bureau 
 of Immigration and the method of inspecting immigrants. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Hall. Prescott F.. •• Immigration." Holt (1906). 
 
 Steiner. E. A.. -On the Trail of the Immigrant," Revell (1906). 
 
 Steiner. E. A.. "The Immigrant Tide." Revell (1909). 
 
 Antin. Mary. "The Promised Land." Houghton Mitflin Co. (1912). 
 
 Jenks and Lauck. " The Immigration Problem." Funk & Wagnalls 
 
 (1913)- 
 
 Immigration Laws. United States Department of Labor, Bureau of 
 
 Immigration, 191 3. 
 
 Naturalization Laws and Regulations. United States Department of 
 Labor. Bureau of Naturalization. 1913. 
 
 In the American Magai~ine. beginning March. 1914. there is an 
 interesting and suggestive series of articles by Mary Antin under the 
 general subject. " They who Knock at our Gates." 
 
 In the Popular Science Monthly, Vols. 63-66 (1903-1905). there is a 
 series of interesting articles on many phases of immigration by Dr. Allan 
 McLaughlin, of the L'nited States Marine-Hospital Service. 
 
 See also the " Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature " for current 
 articles. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 HOW THE RELATIONS BETWEEN THE PEOPLE AND 
 THE LAND ARE MADE PERMANENT AND DEFINITE 
 
 One of the things that distinguish civiHzed men from 
 savages is the fixed and permanent character of their com- 
 munities. Travelers through the unbroken wil- civUization 
 derness of America before its settlement by white marked by 
 
 , , , T 1 permanence 
 
 men reported that they saw many deserted ofcommun- 
 villages. The hunting life of the Indians made i*^®^ 
 a fixed dwelUng place undesirable, if not impossible. Their 
 organization into clans and tribes made it of little impor- 
 tance whether they lived in one place or another. In 
 civilized communities, on the other hand, the land is divided 
 into wards, and townships, and counties, and states ; and 
 citizens have certain rights and duties which they can 
 enjoy, or exercise, only in that division of the land where 
 they live permanently. In the development of man, every 
 step that united him more closely with the land was a 
 step in the direction of civilization, as when he passed 
 from the life of the hunter to that of the herdsman, or 
 from the life of the herdsman to that of the farmer. 
 
 The community described in the first chapter did not 
 pitch its tents with the idea of soon moving on. It made 
 arrangements to become a permanent commu- perma- 
 nity with definite boundaries and divisions of ^f^^® ^ . 
 
 -' aimed at m 
 
 land (see page 3). A community grows and founding a 
 prospers in proportion as the people and the community 
 land unite definitely and permanently. 
 
 47 
 
48 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 The family helps to bring about this union in a very im- 
 portant way through the building of a home (see page 29). 
 The service When the European nations were attempting to 
 faiidf in colonize America, many of the first settlements 
 this respect failed, chiefly because the settlers were adven- 
 turers who had no intention of building homes here. It 
 soon became apparent to the English that if they were to 
 have permanent settlements in this country, it would be 
 necessary to induce men to bring their families and found 
 permanent homes. 
 
 In the course of its history our nation has come into 
 possession of vast territories that would be useless if they 
 The were not occupied by a population that would 
 
 settlement develop their resources. Our government has 
 national hastened the occupation of this land by appeal- 
 domain jj^g ^Q men's desire to own homes. To the men 
 who fought in the Revolutionary War the government gave 
 about 10,000,000 acres of land for settlement, and to the 
 veterans of the Mexican War 60,000,000 acres, or about 
 as much as is comprised in the two states of Indiana and 
 Illinois. In 1862 Congress passed the Homestead Act, 
 which provided that any head of a family might receive a 
 quarter-section of land (160 acres) if he would live on it 
 for five years and pay a small fee. Under this law about 
 200,000,000 acres have been disposed of for settlement, or 
 nearly as much as the land included in the states of Ohio, 
 Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, ^Minnesota, and Michigan. 
 Besides this, large areas have been sold to individuals at 
 the low price of from Si. 25 to S2.50 per acre. Not only 
 farming land, but land rich in timber and minerals has thus 
 been made productive. More than 150,000,000 acres have 
 been given by the government to some of the great West- 
 em railroads, which have performed a valuable service in 
 
RELATIONS BETWEEN PEOPLE AND LAND 
 
 49 
 
 opening and developing the new lands. The nation has 
 been enriched, while at the same time individuals, families, 
 and business enterprises have been benefited. In 191 3 
 there were in the United States, not including Alaska and 
 our new island possessions, 297,927,203 acres of land still 
 open to settlement. 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 Y 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 Q 
 ii 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 BAS 
 
 S 
 
 1 
 LI 
 
 NE 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -z. 
 
 2 
 
 Z 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 en 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 W 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 I. X is 
 Y " 
 Z " 
 
 W" 
 
 township 3 north 
 " 4 " 
 
 " 2 south 
 
 4 " 
 
 range 3 west 
 
 " 4 „east 
 
 tt 2 iC 
 
 " 3 west. 
 
 After the Revolutionary War settlers began to enter the 
 Ohio Valley and claim land for farms. Each settler laid 
 out his own farm with little regard to the claims ^j^^ ^^^_ 
 of others. The result was great confusion and ernment 
 many disputes over boundary lines. The govern- ^^^®y 
 ment finally put an end to this state of affairs by making 
 a survey of the whole region and establishing lines by 
 means of which land could be located with certainty. 
 The accompanying diagrams will help to make clear the 
 plan. The survey was begun by establishing certain 
 north and south lines called principal meridiaits. There 
 
50 
 
 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 are now twenty-four of these, the first being the line that 
 separates Ohio from Indiana. The last runs through 
 Oregon. At intervals of six miles east and west of the 
 principal meridians were established other meridians 
 called range lines. A parallel of latitude across this 
 country was then chosen as a base line, and at intervals 
 
 Correction 
 
 !w' 
 
 Base 
 
 Une 
 
 Line 
 
 of six miles north and south of the base line other lines 
 were established called township lines. Thus the country 
 was divided into tozvnships, six miles square. These town- 
 ships were then numbered east or west from a principal 
 meridian, and north or south from the base line. Since 
 the meridians converge as we go north (see globe), the 
 townships would not be exactly square, but would become 
 smaller as we go toward the pole. To correct this, certain 
 parallels north and south of the base line were chosen as cor- 
 rection lines from which the survey began again, as from 
 the base line. Each township was divided into sections one 
 mile square, which therefore contained 640 acres. These 
 sections were numbered in each township from i to 36. 
 Each section is divided into halves and quarters. The farm 
 of each settler may be located exactly by means of this 
 sur\^ey, and his boundaries are recorded in the offices of the 
 government so that there can be no possible dispute over 
 
RELATIONS BETWEEN PEOPLE AND LAND 
 
 51 
 
 them. In cities the land is further subdivided into lots 
 which are also numbered and recorded. Definiteness and 
 permanence are thus secured. 
 
 A great deal of the land of the nation remains unsettled. 
 This is called public land. Some of it, in its natural con- 
 dition, is unfit for settlement because of its bar- „ ^,. , , 
 
 , Public Land 
 
 ren or swampy character. The national govern- 
 ment is reclaiming much of the arid land of the West to 
 man's use. In 1902 Congress created the Reclamation 
 Service. It has constructed reservoirs and a net-work of 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 a 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 II 
 
 12 
 
 18 
 
 17 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 29 
 
 28 
 
 27 
 
 26 
 
 25 
 
 31 
 
 32 
 
 33 
 
 34 
 
 35 
 
 36 
 
 40 
 acres 
 
 NE'4 
 NWJ4 
 
 Ny^ NE>^ 
 
 80 acres 
 
 
 SEK 
 NEK 
 40 acres 
 
 100 acres 
 SWM 
 
 ICO acres 
 SEJ4 
 
 IV. A Section (640 acres) 
 Suppose this to be section a of 
 diagram III. 
 Then the 160 acres in the lower 
 . ^, . „ . , ^ right-hand corner is the southeast 
 
 III. A Township Showmg Sections. (36 square , ^f 3ection 8 of township 3 north in 
 miles.) Suppose this to be township X in diagram I. ^ ^^^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^^^ 
 
 Then the section named a is section 8 of township 3 nE J NW J is the northeast \ of the 
 north in range 3 west. 
 
 northwest \ of section 8 of township 3 
 north in range 3 west. 
 
 canals by which the water from distant streams has been 
 conducted through the arid regions, transforming them into 
 productive farm lands, which have been thrown open to 
 settlement. By 191 3, 1,200,000 acres had been reclaimed 
 by this system of irrigation. 
 
 Another part of the public land consists of the national 
 forests, of which there were one hundred and sixty-three 
 in 191 3, embracing 186,616,648 acres. 
 
52 
 
 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 The right of the citizen to be secure in his property is 
 held very sacred in the United States; but when the 
 Government interests of the individual conflict with those of 
 control of ^^ communitv, the former have to vield. The 
 
 pnvate - ' • -u ■ t. 
 
 property government may control the way m which a 
 citizen uses his land. It may say to him, '' You must 
 
 
 
 keep your premises clean, so as not to endanger the 
 health of the community" (chapter IX). Or, ''Within 
 certam Hmits you shall not erect wooden buildings, be- 
 cause of the danger to the communit}- from fire" (chap- 
 ter X). It may prohibit some kinds of business in certain 
 parts of the community if they would interfere with safet)' 
 or comfort, as in the case of saloons. 
 
 If the interests of the whole community demand it, the 
 
Diversion Dam on Truckee River, l^h^v^ua. 
 
 When the gates in the dam are shut, the river below the dam becomes dry, and 
 the water is diverted through the headgates into the canal in the foreground. 
 
 Truckee Irrigation Canal, Nevada. 
 The canal is cement-lined and during the irrigating season carries the entire flow 
 of the Truckee River thirty miles into the valley of the Carson River, the flow 
 of which it supplements, and is then led by ditches over the land. 
 
RELATIONS BETWEEN PEOPLE AND LAND 
 
 53 
 
 government may even take away the land of a citizen and 
 devote it to public uses. This is called the right ^^^ ^^^^^ 
 of eminent domain. For example, if the national of eminent 
 government wishes to build a post office, it may ^°°^^"^ 
 condemn the property of private citizens, and remove all 
 buildings. The state has the same right and permits 
 
 Furrow irrigation, Arizona. 
 
 cities, counties, and townships to exercise it. Thus, if the 
 interests of the community call for a new street, it may be 
 constructed through the property of individuals, even to 
 the extent of removing buildings. So, also, a road may 
 be built through a man's farm by the county government. 
 The state also grants the exercise of the right of eminent 
 domain to railroads, because of the important public serv- 
 ice rendered by them. In exercising the right of emi- 
 nent domain a very important condition must be complied 
 with : the citizeji must be paid a just amount foi' his property. 
 The Constitution of the United States provides, ** nor shall 
 private property be taken for public use without just com- 
 
54 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 pensation " (Amendment V, last clause). If a dispute 
 arises between the citizen and the government (or the 
 railroad) over the price of the land, the matter mav be 
 brought before a court for settlement. 
 
 Communities may grant the use of their highways to 
 private corporations that render important public service, 
 ^ such as street railways, telephone and telegraph 
 
 granting of companies, and water and gas companies. The 
 franchises ^-g.^^ ^^ ^^^^ pubhc land in this 3vay is called 
 a francJiise. In return for the privileges of a franchise 
 the corporation must render definite services to the com- 
 munity, such as supplying hght of a good quality, water 
 that is pure, street-car service that can be depended upon. 
 The government in granting the franchise is acting solely 
 for the community, and should look -carefully after the 
 community's welfare. Unfortunately the officers of the 
 government do not always do their duty in this matter, 
 and franchises are granted that benefit a few individuals 
 without securing due advantage to the community (see 
 chapter XII I). 
 
 It was said in the first paragraph of this chapter that 
 our rights and duties as citizens are determined largely by 
 our place of residence. Citizens of the United States 
 have certain political rights, such as voting and holding 
 office, and certain duties, such as paying taxes. These 
 Political rights may be enjoyed, and the duties performed, 
 divisions of only within certain districts which the govern- 
 ment creates for this purpose. Were it not for 
 this restriction, unutterable confusion would exist. Thus, 
 a citizen has the right to vote within the state where he 
 lives but not in any other state. The boundaries of the 
 states are established by the national government (except 
 the original thirteen states of the Union, whose boundaries 
 
RELATIONS BETWEEN PEOPLE AND LAND 55 
 
 were fixed before the national government was organized) ; 
 but they may not be changed afterward without the con- 
 sent of the state. The states organize themselves into 
 counties and townships.^ Villages and cities are granted 
 definite boundaries by the state government, and organ- 
 ize themselves into wards and precincts. There are 
 also congressional, judicial, and revenue districts, the 
 boundaries of which are fixed by the governments of 
 the states or nation. Residence in any of these districts 
 carries with it duties and rights that the citizen does not 
 have elsewhere. 
 
 The widely varied topics of this chapter illustrate the 
 numerous ways in which our national, state and local gov- 
 ernments serve us by giving permanence and definiteness 
 to our relations with the land we occupy, and by securing 
 to the community and to the citizen the largest possible 
 benefits from the land. 
 
 FOR INVESTIGATION 
 
 1. What were the original boundaries of the town or city in which 
 you live ? How was the original town laid out? On a map of your city 
 mark the original city limits. 
 
 2. Whence does the city get its authority to add to its territory ? 
 
 3. Report on the coming of the first important factories to your com- 
 munity, and show how they gave permanence to the community. 
 
 4. Report on the coming of the first railroad to your community, 
 and its effect on the permanence and growth of the community. 
 
 5. Are there any business associations in your community that aid 
 citizens in obtaining homes of their own, such as Building and Loan 
 Associations ? If so, report how they operate. 
 
 6. Find out from a real estate agent, or in some other way, how a 
 piece of land in your community is laid off into lots. 
 
 7. Make a map of your county, showing townships. 
 
 1 In the West \}i\\?, political township usually corresponds with the township sur- 
 veyed by the national government. See pages 49-50. 
 
§6 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 8. Find out in what range your township is with reference to the 
 nearest principal meridian. Also, what is the number of your township 
 from the base line? (These facts may be learned from the map of the 
 United States, published by the U. S. Land Office, and mentioned 
 below.) 
 
 9. If you live in a city, tr}- to locate the lot in which you dwell by 
 lot number, section, township, etc. (See the deed giving title to the 
 property, or the records in the county clerk's office, or in the office of 
 the city engineer.) 
 
 10. Report more fully upon the Homestead Law. (See references.) 
 
 11. Do you know any instance of the exercise of the right of emi- 
 nent domain in your community ? Explain. 
 
 12. What are some of the ways in which the government regulates 
 the use of the land you live on? 
 
 13. Make a list of the lands owned by government in 3-our com- 
 munity, and state whether they belong to nation, state, or local com- 
 munity. 
 
 14. Describe the ward divisions of your city. How were they laid 
 out ? How may their boundaries be changed ? 
 
 15. Are there any forest or park reservations in your state ? If so, 
 what is their purpose ? Locate them. Do they belong to state or nation ? 
 
 16. Report on what has been done in the reclaiming of desert lands 
 in the West or in your state by irrigation. (See references.) 
 
 17. Has any land been given to your state by the national govern- 
 ment for purposes other than schools ? If so, what ? 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 A map of the United States published by the U. S. Land Office, 
 which can be secured for $ i .00, shows the government sur\'ey of the 
 Western lands, including principal meridians, base lines, and township 
 and range lines. It also shows forest and Indian reservations, light- 
 houses and life-saving stations, and other matters useful in the study. 
 
 County and city maps are usually available at the city and county 
 offices, if nowhere else. Such maps should be in each civics classroom. 
 
 Reports of the Commissioner of the General Land Office, Depart- 
 ment of the Interior, Washington. D.C. 
 
 "Vacant Public Lands in the United States," Circular No. 259, 
 General Land Office. Department of the Interior, 1913. 
 
 Twelfth Annual Report of the Reclamation Service, Department of 
 the Interior, 1912-13. 
 
 Report of the Secretary' of the Interior. 1912-13. 
 
RELATIONS BETWEEN PEOPLE AND LAND 57 
 
 "The Nation's Undeveloped Resources/' by Franklin K. Lane, 
 Secretary of the Interior, in the National Geographic Magazine^ 
 February, 1914- 
 
 The "New International Encyclopedia" and the "Encyclopedia 
 Americana " are excellent for looking up topics of national importance, 
 such as Irrigation, Public Lands, Homestead Act. These encyclopedias 
 will be of use throughout the study. 
 
 Hart's " Actual Government " has an excellent chapter on Land and 
 Landholding, including a discussion of private, corporate, and govern- 
 ment landholding, the public lands, the government survey, the Home- 
 stead Act. This book is most valuable as a book for the teacher's desk, 
 and will be found to cover practically every topic, local, state, or 
 national, referred to in this text-book. 
 
 On the subject of irrigation the following are good : 
 
 The Pacific Monthly, September, 1906. Contains a series of articles explaining 
 the work of the United States Reclamation Service in the various irrigation dis- 
 tricts of the West. 
 
 " An Object Lesson in Irrigation," Review 0/ Reviezus, 31 : 701 (1905). 
 
 " The Winning of the Desert," Outing, 45: 545 (1905). 
 
 "The Government as a Homemaker," The World To-day, 10: 156 (1906). 
 
 "Reclamation," Outlook, 2,2,: 933 (1906). 
 
 " Uncle Sam's Romance with Science and the Soil," Arena, 35 : 36. 
 
 See also " Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature." 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 HOW THE COMMUNITY AIDS THE CITIZEN TO 
 SATISFY HIS DESIRE FOR HEALTH 
 
 Communities have developed through the efforts of men 
 to satisfy their desires (see chapter IV). In so far as the 
 community provides for the wants of its citizens, it is a 
 good community ; if it fails to provide for any of them, it 
 is an imperfect community, and the lives of the citizens 
 will be incomplete. The deshe for health is the first to be 
 provided for. 
 
 In the conditions in which the pioneer family lived, life 
 and health were almost wholly dependent upon the efforts 
 The pro- and the arrangements of the family itself. 
 tection _ With the clearing of the wilderness and the 
 
 of health m ^ 
 
 the family advance of civihzation, the preservation of life 
 and health has become much less simple and direct. Not 
 that the responsibility of the family has decreased in any 
 way : it has rather become greater ; but the health of the 
 individual has become dependent upon so many things 
 outside of the family that the latter alone cannot provide 
 fully for it. 
 
 With the growth of the community, while the dangers 
 peculiar to the wilderness have disappeared, new ones 
 New have arisen to beset the life and health of the 
 
 dangers citizen. Streams that were originally clear and 
 
 arise 
 
 with the sparkling, supplying fish for food and water to 
 growth of drink, when passing through the crowded set- 
 
 commum- x- o o ^ 
 
 ties tlements of men become impure with the refuse 
 
 of factories and the sewage of dweUings. They then pour 
 
 58 
 
I. A section of the canal cut through solid rock. 
 
 2. A section of the canal where it passes from the solid rock to the soft earth. 
 
 3. The Chicago Drainage Canal. 
 
 Three Views of the Chicago Drainage Canal. 
 
THE PROTECTION OF HEALTH ^g 
 
 forth vile odors and disease germs. The drinking water 
 from wells and streams becomes unsafe. With the in- 
 crease of population the danger of epidemics of disease 
 increases. Impure and unwholesome food is sold in the 
 markets and over the counters of the stores. Wild beasts 
 and savages are no longer to be feared ; but unprotected 
 railroad crossings, rapidly running trolley cars and automo- 
 biles, poorly constructed buildings and elevators, burning 
 buildings, and robbers and thugs, constantly threaten the 
 life of the unwary. In the crowded cities a vigorous out- 
 door life is wanting. Men, women, and children grow 
 pale and sickly because of indoor occupations, lack of 
 exercise, and the breathing of air vitiated by smoke and 
 foul odors. Whatever disadvantages the country child 
 may suffer from an isolated life, his chances for a sound 
 and healthy body, a most priceless possession, are generally 
 greater than the city child's. 
 
 As the community grows and the people become busy 
 with their various caUings, it becomes necessary to arrange 
 for systematic protection, and to center the re- Government 
 sponsibility for it upon some designated person is given 
 or group of persons. With the organization of t^g health 
 a government, it is given supervision over the arrange- 
 
 111 XI ' ^ ments 
 
 health arrangements. In the community de- 
 scribed in the first chapter, the trustees of the town 
 were assigned the duty of ** securing the general health of 
 the inhabitants," and of ** keeping in repair the drains and 
 sewers." When the stream which ran through the town 
 became clogged with sawdust from the mill, the trustees 
 appointed a committee of one to investigate. He reported 
 and pledged himself, " should mildness and good nature 
 fail, to lend a hand in applying the strong arm of the law." 
 Again, a little later, information was received of the 
 
6o THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 approach of a band of Swedish immigrants afflicted with 
 cholera. Aid was sent to them, but they were warned 
 not to enter the town, and an appeal was published in the 
 little newspaper urging all to '' use every means to avert 
 the impending danger. Let your premises be thoroughly 
 cleansed and purified. Remove ever}'thing that will tend 
 to invite disease." A board of health was soon created, 
 and a cominissioner of health was appointed who was to 
 have general supervision over the sanitation of the town 
 and report to the board for action. A JiealtJi policeman 
 was also appointed. He inspected drains, sinks, and 
 cellars in private houses, and fruits and meats in the mar- 
 kets. X city piiysician was appointed to care for the sick 
 among the poor, and was paid by the community for his 
 sen'ices. In large cities the officers who have supervision 
 of the health arrangements are more numerous than in 
 the smaller communities, and their duties are more exten- 
 sive. They are all usually under the direction of the 
 board of health: 
 
 With the growth of a community the separate and 
 inadequate drains of individual householders soon give 
 ^ wav to an extensive svstem of sewers under- 
 
 Sewers 
 
 and water lying all the Streets, connections being made with 
 supply every lot and house in the city. Here the natural 
 
 slope and drainage of the community become very important, 
 because they determine the ease and effectiveness with which 
 the sewage can be carried away. Sometimes it is drained 
 into a stream that runs through or near the city. This is dan- 
 gerous to health unless the stream is converted into a closed 
 sewer of is keptpurified in someway. In Chicago the sewage 
 is drained into the Chicago River, and thus, until recently, was 
 carried into Lake Michigan, whence the people draw their 
 supply of drinking water. The result was a great deal of 
 
THE PROTECTION OF HEALTH 6 1 
 
 sickness, such as typhoid fever. The river also was a 
 menace to health, because it was a foul-smelling and disease- 
 breeding stream. Chemists were employed by the city to 
 examine the drinking water and report its condition in the 
 newspapers each day. The more careful families boiled 
 all water used for drinking. But in spite of these pre- 
 
 FiLTER Beds of the Indianapolis Water Works. 
 
 Water from White River is brought to these beds, where it is filtered through 
 layers of sand, gravel, and perforated tile. See next illustration. 
 
 cautions thousands of people were made sick, and many 
 died each year as a result of drinking this bad water. 
 This situation was greatly improved by the construction of 
 a drainage canal which carries the water of the Chicago 
 River into the IlHnois River, and thence into the Missis- 
 sippi, instead of allowing it to flow into the lake. This 
 effectually disposes of the sewage of the city, keeps the 
 river flushed and pure, and prevents the lake from being 
 contaminated. 
 
 A few years ago an epidemic of typhoid fever appeared 
 in an Eastern city, resulting in the death of a great 
 
62 
 
 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 many people and the sickness of many more. A careful 
 inspection disclosed the fact that there had been a case 
 of t}'phoid fever in a family living near the reservoir from 
 which the city drew its water supply, and that this family 
 had not been careful in the disposal of its sewage. The 
 ground about the house had become infected with the 
 disease, and heavy rains had carried the disease germs into 
 
 Filter Bed of the Indianapolis Water Works. 
 
 This %-ie\v shows the bed in process of construction : at the bottom a layer of per- 
 forated tile, and upon this a layer of gravel is being placed. Upon this wiU be 
 a layer of sand. 
 
 the reservoir. This case illustrates the important connection 
 between the drainage, the water supply, and the health of 
 a community. It illustrates also the heavy responsibility 
 of the individual citizen and family for the welfare of the 
 whole community. The larger the community, the greater 
 is the problem of preserving health. 
 
 The most important precaution against disease is clean- 
 liness. This is a matter that must be looked after principally 
 in the home. Lf each family would take proper 
 
 Cleanliness 
 
 precautions to secure cleanliness and plenty of 
 
THE PROTECTION OF HEALTH 63 
 
 fresh air, not only would the problem of disease in the 
 community be largely solved, but the expense of govern- 
 ment would be greatly decreased. Because of the failure 
 of the family and of the individual citizen to do their part, 
 the community, through its government, enacts ordinances 
 to compel people to keep their premises clean and their 
 drains in proper condition. Ordinances usually exist to 
 prevent the filthy and dangerous practice of spitting in 
 public places. This practice is one of the most effective 
 means of spreading some of the worst diseases, such as 
 tuberculosis or consumption, and the ordinances to prevent 
 it are among the most important enacted by our city govern- 
 ments. Unfortunately they are also among those most 
 seldom enforced and most often violated. Here is one of 
 the cases where constant and concerted action on the part 
 of all cleanly and well-informed persons is necessary to 
 secure the enforcement of the law. 
 
 Every city has its street-cleaning department, which 
 does not always do its work as well as it should. In -large 
 cities it consists of an army of men, with horses 
 and wagons and suitable machinery for sweeping cleaning 
 and cleansing the streets and alleys. These men f^^ smoke 
 are under the supervision of a board or a "^^^^^ ^°° 
 commissioner, acting under the authority of the government 
 (see chapter XXII). There are also smoke inspectors^ 
 whose work is important in keeping the atmosphere pure. 
 If the stoking of the furnaces in factories and large build- 
 ings is done properly, the smoke nuisance can be greatly 
 lessened. There are smoke consumers which aid in the 
 consumption of the smoke that is otherwise poured out of 
 the chimneys over the community ; but the expense and 
 trouble of putting them in prevents many men from doing 
 so. The community should insist, however, that the smoke 
 
64 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 nuisance be removed as far as possible, not only because it 
 is detrimental to health, but also because it mars the beauty 
 of the city. 
 
 Of great importance in large cities is the system of parks 
 provided for the recreation of the people. In small towns 
 parks are not of such great importance from the 
 play- standpoint of health ; but in crowded cities every 
 
 grounds breathing place, where fresh, pure air and grass 
 and trees can be found and enjo3'ed by the people, is of un- 
 told value. One of the best of the charitable works in large 
 cities is that by which thousands of poor children are sent 
 to the country or the seashore, or to "fresh-air farms," 
 during the summer months. This is doing much to lessen 
 the death rate and the sickness in the crowded tenement dis- 
 tricts. In the rapid growth of American cities not enough 
 care has been taken to provide for parks. Provision should 
 be made in all growing cities to leave spaces that may be 
 converted into beautiful and refreshing parks as need arises. 
 In some cities playgrounds are being established and pro- 
 vided with tennis courts, ball grounds, and gymnastic appa- 
 ratus. The opening of school yards as playgrounds during 
 vacation periods is a good practice that is growing. 
 
 Cities have hospitals, some supported by private organi- 
 zations, such as churches, and some supported at public 
 Hospitals; expense. The public hospitals are under the 
 quarantine charge of physicians, surgeons, and nurses paid 
 out of the public treasury. Precautions are taken against 
 the spread of contagious diseases. The government has 
 the right to declare a quarantine against a home, or even 
 against a whole section of the city ; this means that, in 
 case of the existence of a contagious disease, the occu- 
 pants of the dwelhng or of the section of the city may be 
 prevented from leaving it, and others prevented from 
 
THE PROTECTION OF HEALTH 65 
 
 entering it. Physicians are required by law to report 
 contagious disease to the health officers, who placard the 
 house, proclaiming the existence of the disease. Persons 
 in whose homes such diseases exist may be prevented 
 from going about their ordinary business, and the children 
 from going to school. Physicians sometimes grow care- 
 less about reporting such cases of sickness, and families, 
 thinking solely of their own convenience, often try to con- 
 ceal the presence of contagious disease in their homes. 
 This is not good citizenship. Such families endanger the 
 health of others. Much is being done in some of our 
 cities to prevent the spread of disease by a systematic 
 medical inspection in the schools. 
 
 Just as an individual, or a family, is dependent for health 
 on other individuals and families in the neighborhood, 
 so also a community is more or less dependent on other 
 communities for its health. This is especially true in 
 these days when the means of communication are so fully 
 developed and when travehng is so common. Contagious 
 diseases spread rapidly from town to town, and not infre- 
 quently cover large districts at the same time. When an 
 epidemic of smallpox breaks out in one city, it is Dependence 
 likely to appear in other cities, and even in the of one 
 country districts. Any ship that enters our har- ^p™™""^ ^ 
 bors may bring with it diseases from the slums another for 
 of Europe or of Asia. When a factory pollutes 
 the stream that runs by it with refuse, it threatens the 
 health, not only of the immediate community in which it 
 is situated, but also of other communities farther down the 
 stream. When Chicago turned its sewage into the drain- 
 age canal, and thence into the IlHnois and Mississippi 
 rivers, cities and towns for many miles along these streams 
 became very much alarmed, and St. Louis, which derives 
 
66 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 its drinking water from the Mississippi, brought suit in the 
 courts against Chicago. Fortunately, in this case, it was 
 proved that the water becomes freed from impurities, by 
 contact with the air, before it reaches these other cities. 
 Our community life is very compHcated, and it is not 
 always easy to foresee how the actions of one individual or 
 community may affect the lives of others. 
 
 On account of this interdependence in matters pertaining 
 
 to health, it is not safe to leave their regulation wholly to 
 
 each separate community, any more than to 
 
 for^state leave it to each separate family. The common 
 
 supervision interests of all the communities within a given 
 
 over health ^ , . . 
 
 area must be guarded by some common au- 
 thority. Hence the state, through its government, makes 
 provision for the health of all the people subject to its 
 laws. There is a state board of health which has super- 
 vision over these matters. The state government en- 
 deavors to prevent the pollution of the streams. Laws are 
 enacted to prevent the adulteration of foods. A state 
 government may declare a quarantine against neighbor- 
 ing states when contagious diseases are prevalent. When 
 yellow fever appears in New Orleans, the surrounding 
 states often refuse to allow passengers on the railways to 
 enter from Louisiana except after the most rigid medical 
 inspection. City, county, and township governments, in 
 their regulation of matters pertaining to health, must con- 
 form to the broader regulations of the state. 
 
 While the protection of the health of citizens is left 
 almost entirely in the hands of the state and local gov- 
 ernments, there are some things that can be better looked 
 after by the national government, because they are of 
 national interest. All immigrants from foreign countries 
 are required to undergo a medical inspection before they 
 
THE PROTECTION OF HEALTH 6/ 
 
 are allowed to land. If signs of disease are found, the 
 passengers of the ship may be quarantined until the danger 
 of contagion is past. Immigrants who are in ^^atth 
 such physical condition that they are unable to national 
 care for themselves, and would therefore be a doerfw^the 
 burden on the community, are required to re- health of 
 turn to the country from which they came. In "*^^®^^ 
 a recent session of Congress laws were passed providing 
 for the inspection of meats put up in the packing houses 
 of the country, and to prevent the adulteration of foods 
 with injurious materials. Since the product of a great 
 packing or canning estabhshment is sent all over the 
 country, its purity is a matter of national interest, and 
 therefore is a proper subject for regulation by the national 
 government. 
 
 The engineers and medical staff of the United States 
 army have done much in recent years to prevent loss of 
 life through the ravages of disease. Not only have they 
 found ways to prevent epidemics of typhoid fever and 
 other diseases that formerly prevailed in military camps 
 and destroyed more soldiers' lives than were lost in battle, 
 but they have even caused such dread diseases as smallpox 
 and yellow fever to disappear almost completely from re- 
 gions occupied by our army, as in Cuba, Panama, and the 
 PhiHppines. This has* been done in part by better sani- 
 tary arrangements, in part by discovering how such dis- 
 eases were carried, as by mosquitoes or rats, and destroy- 
 ing the carriers, in part by medical discoveries that prevent 
 people from contracting the diseases. This service of our 
 army engineers and medical men has been of untold bene- 
 fit to the entire world. 
 
 The community is thus doing a great deal, through gov- 
 ernment, to preserve the Hfe and health of its citizens, and 
 
6S THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 it owes to each citizen a reasonable assurance that protec- 
 tion will be afforded. On the other hand, each citizen 
 owes something to the community in this matter. As we 
 have seen, the health of the whole community depends 
 _., _ largely upon the cleanliness and w^atchfulness 
 
 sibiuty of of each family. The responsibility of the citi- 
 the citizen ^^^ ^^^^ much further than this. He should 
 do what he can to secure from the government the best 
 possible service in these matters. If a man employs a 
 watchman to guard his premises at night, and the watch- 
 man fails to do his duty, the owner will certainly call him 
 to task, and will take every precaution against a repetition 
 of the negligence. The people have a right to demand 
 that their government watchmen do their work well, and 
 to hold them accountable for every failure. It is unfortunate 
 that the officials charged with important duties of govern- 
 ment, even in such matters as protecting our lives and 
 health, often become negligent and careless. They can- 
 not be relieved of the blame for this. Yet their poor serv- 
 ice is largely the fault of the citizens themselves, who do 
 not take the trouble or the interest to inquire how their 
 servants are doing their work, or to call them to account 
 when it is badly done. Each citizen must constantly keep 
 his eyes open, and endeavor to maintain a lively public 
 sentiment in these matters by constant discussion. He 
 should always be wilHng to call attention to any remissness 
 in the enforcement of the laws. This is not merely a duty 
 to others ; his own welfare depends on it. 
 
 FOR mVESTIGATION 
 
 I. When your community was first founded, were the geographical 
 conditions favorable or unfavorable to health? As the community 
 has grown, have these geographical conditions become more or less 
 fevorable? Explain. 
 
THE PROTECTION OF HEALTH 69 
 
 2. How is health cared for in the average farmer's family? In a 
 city family? 
 
 3. If there are any records available from which to gain the infor- 
 mation, compare the means of protecting health in the early days of 
 your community with the means used at present. 
 
 4. If you live in a rural community, what is done by the county 
 and township governments for the protection of your health ? 
 
 5. If there is a board of health in your city, of how many mem- 
 bers does it consist? How is it chosen? What are its duties ? 
 
 6. What officers are employed by the city for the protection of 
 health? Report on their various duties. 
 
 7. Report on the street-cleaning department — what it does, what 
 it costs, how it is managed, etc. 
 
 8. Report on the sewage system of your community. How is the 
 sewage disposed of ? Cost ? Efficiency? 
 
 9. Report on the methods of disposing of garbage in different cities. 
 What methods seem to be best? What method is used in your city? 
 
 10. Report on the water supply for drinking purposes. To what 
 extent are private wells used? What is the source of the public 
 water supply? Compare the purity of the water from private wells 
 and from the public supply. 
 
 11. Do you know of any epidemic (such as typhoid fever) that has 
 appeared in your community, and that was directly traceable to impure 
 drinking water? To impure milk? 
 
 12. Report on means of keeping the atmosphere pure in your 
 community. 
 
 13. What means are employed in your community to secure pure 
 food? 
 
 14. Report on the park system of your cornmunity. How is it man- 
 aged? Is anything being done to establish pubHc playgrounds? 
 
 15. Is the ventilation of your school building good? Can you do 
 anything yourself to improve it? 
 
 16. Write an essay on the subject, " The Relation of Athletics in the 
 School to the Health of the Community.'' 
 
 17. Is there any kind of medical inspection in your school? If so, 
 explain its working. Find out if there are any well-established cases 
 where epidemics have been prevented or checked by school medical 
 inspection in your community, or in other cities. 
 
 18. What are some of the ordinances in your community for the pro- 
 tection of health? Are any of these ordinances commonly violated? 
 If so, why? Can you do anything to help secure the enforcement of 
 such ordinances? 
 
70 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 19. Report on the work of your state board of health. (So far as 
 possible printed repons should be secured directly from the proper 
 offices.) 
 
 20. What other state health officers are there? What is their work? 
 
 21 . Look up the story of how our government waged war on disease 
 in Cuba. What have been the results? Why should our national gov- 
 ernment interest itself in the matter ? (The same may be done with 
 reference to the Philippines or the Panama Canal Zone.) 
 
 22. Look up the story of the most recent war against yellow fever in 
 our own Southern states. Was it carried on by the local, state, or 
 national orovemment? Whv? 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Allen. William H.. - Civics and Health."' Ginn & Company (1909). 
 
 Burks. T- D. andF. W., " Health and the School." Appletons (1913). 
 
 The last mentioned book contains a bibliography that will prove 
 useful. The Uterature on public health is abundant. Reference should 
 be made to the Readers" Guide to Periodical Literature under the gen- 
 eral headings of " Health." •• Sanitation."" etc.. or under special headings 
 such as ■• Street cleaning." ■• Food.*" etc. 
 
 The following will be useful : 
 
 Harper's Monthly, April, 1912 : " The Xew Meaning of Public Health," by 
 Robert Bruere. 
 
 The Outlook, Dec. 7, 1912 : " The Problem of National Health," by Earl Mayo. 
 
 Annals American Academy of Political and Social Science, March, 1910 : " Pub- 
 lic Recreation Facilities." March, 1911 : " The Public Health Movement." 
 
 National Geographic Magasine, March, 1914: "Redeeming the Tropics," by 
 W. J. Showalter. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 
 HOW THE COMMUNITY AIDS THE CITIZEN TO PROTECT 
 HIS LIFE AND PROPERTY 
 
 One of the chief sources of danger to property, and often 
 to life, is fire. The loss from fire in the United States every 
 year averages about ^170,000,000. Much of Danger 
 this might be avoided if each citizen were more ^^°°^ ^^^ 
 careful ; but fire is too powerful an enemy to be left to the 
 individual or to the family to cope with, especially in cities. 
 If a farmer's house or barn is burned, he himself, or some 
 member of his family, is usually to blame for it, and he must 
 depend on his own efforts to prevent the loss. In the city 
 the safety of a citizen's home depends largely on his neigh- 
 bors. Fire is an enemy that endangers the whole commu- 
 nity ; the whole community must unite for defense against it. 
 
 In Philadelphia, in Benjamin Franklin's time, "each 
 householder kept in his shop or his pantry a bucket and four- 
 teen-foot swab ; while the city provided hooks, ^.^^j 
 ladders, and three rude engines of English make, methods of 
 At the first cry of fire the whole town was in ^^ ^ *^°^ 
 excitement; the laborer quit his work, the apprentice dropped 
 his tools, buyers and sellers swarmed from the market, and 
 the shopkeeper, calling his wife to watch his goods, seized 
 his bucket and hurried away. About the burning building 
 all was confusion and disorder. No man was in authority. 
 Each man did as he pleased. Some fell into line and helped 
 to pass the full buckets from the pump to the engine, or the 
 
 71 
 
-2 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 empty buckets from the engine to the pump; some caught 
 up the hooks and pulled down blazing boards and shingles ; 
 some rushed into the building with their bags, and came 
 out laden with household stuff." Franklin, who was always 
 on the lookout for opportunities to improve the condition 
 of his community, thought that " if so much could be done 
 in a way so bad, a hundredfold more could be done if a 
 little order were introduced." He aided in the organization 
 of several fire companies equipped with the best apparatus 
 of the times and working together under discipline, which 
 greatlv reduced the losses from fire in Philadelphia. 
 
 At one time the fire companies of cities were volunteer 
 organizations, whose eflficiency was kept up largely through 
 the spirit of rivalry. Frequent tournaments were 
 teer fire held in which the companies of the community, 
 companies ^^ ^^ ^^^ neighboring towns, contested with each 
 other in running, climbing ladders, and other feats. Such 
 organizations may still be found in small communities. 
 
 In modern cities the fire-fighting arrangements are much 
 more complicated and effective. Steam fire engines and 
 elaborate apparatus of all kinds have been in- 
 fig°hti^^"" vented. Horses, trained until they show almost 
 arrange- human intelligence, draw the engines and trucks 
 ™^^*^ to the fire at a run. A system of electric sig- 
 
 nals is in operation in every city, so that a fire can be 
 announced instantly to the nearest fire station, and within 
 a minute after the receipt of the signal the horses are going 
 down the street at a gallop, with men and apparatus. The 
 firemen are organized into permanent companies with per- 
 fect discipline, and are paid by the community. The 
 whole department is under the direction of a chief, who is 
 appointed by the mayor or by a board. The New York 
 Cit}- fire department is the largest in the world and com- 
 
THE PROTECTION OF PROPERTY AND LIFE 
 
 73 
 
 prises about 5000 firemen, 1300 horses, 200 fire engines, 
 more than 100 hook and ladder trucks, and several fire 
 boats for the protection of property along the water front. 
 
 An important part of the means of protection against 
 fire is a reliable water supply. At first private wells and 
 cisterns supplied water for fires ; then public The water 
 cisterns were built at convenient points. Now supply 
 every large city is supplied with water from some unfailing 
 source. Cities on the Great Lakes, like Chicago, draw their 
 water from them. Cincinnati and St. Louis receive theirs 
 from the rivers on which they are situated. Inland cities 
 sometimes get their water from deep wells. It is often 
 necessary to provide storage reservoirs. The water is 
 forced to every part of the city through pipes, and hydrants 
 at the street corners or other convenient points serve for 
 the attachment of hose. Waterworks are sometimes owned 
 and operated by cities themselves, but usually by private 
 companies which receive a franchise from the city. 
 
 No department of the public service in cities is better 
 organized or more efficient than the fire department. It has 
 upon it a great responsibility, and the community 
 will not be satisfied with anything but the greatest ^f city fi^r^ 
 efficiency possible. The service requires men of depart- 
 intelligence, sobriety, courage, and endurance ; 
 men who are willing constantly to risk their lives for the 
 good of all. 
 
 It has been said that seven eighths of the fires that occur 
 are the result of a lack of proper precautions in building. 
 That this is true is due, in part, to a lack of in- „ ., 
 
 ' ^ ' Faulty con- 
 
 telligence on the part of builders ; in part to the struction of 
 willingness of men to take chances for the sake ^"^^dings as 
 
 ° a cause of 
 
 of cheapness. In either case the person re- loss from 
 sponsible for poor construction of buildings is a ^®^ 
 
74 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 menace to the community. A builder is showing good 
 citizenship when he does his job well ; poor citizenship, 
 when he does it badly through ignorance, carelessness, 
 or avarice. 
 
 Communities try to protect themselves against loss of 
 property and life from fire by means of laws regulating the 
 Building materials used in construction, the height of 
 ordinances buildings, the number of exits, the presence of 
 fire escapes, and many other details. Building inspectors 
 are appointed. An unsafe building may be condemned 
 and its use forbidden until its defects are remedied. It 
 would seem that the people would take a great interest 
 in the safe construction of their buildings, and that the laws 
 protecting them would be rigidly enforced ; but such is not 
 always the case. For a long time no accident happens. 
 The people become careless, and the laws regulating build- 
 ing are violated constantly. Of 333 tenement houses 
 which were being built in New York at one time, it is said 
 that only 15 conformed to the law. It requires some great 
 disaster to arouse the people to their own responsibility. 
 Such was the Iroquois theatre fire in Chicago, in 1903, in 
 which 600 people lost their lives. 
 
 In order to prevent great loss to individuals from fire, 
 
 fire insurance companies have been organized. It is to be 
 
 noted, however, that insurance companies do 
 
 Fire ' ^ 
 
 insurance not actually prevent the loss of property. They 
 companies ^lerely distribute that loss among many citizens. 
 When a man insures his property, he has to pay the com- 
 pany 2. proniiim for the protection afforded. The premi- 
 ums of thousands of persons produce a large sum of 
 money out of which the occasional losses by an individual 
 are met. Thousands of property owners in all parts of 
 the land are thus sharing in the losses of individuals. 
 
THE PROTECTION OF PROPERTY AND LIFE 75 
 
 When the great fire occurred in San Francisco, following 
 the earthquake in 1906, the loss fell very heavily on the in- 
 surance companies. In order to meet the loss many com- 
 panies raised the rates of insurance all over the country. 
 Thus people everywhere were helping to bear the burden. 
 Fire insurance companies have an influence in keeping 
 fire departments efficient, for they raise the rates of in- 
 surance when they think that fire protection is not so good 
 as it should be. The people who have to pay these rates 
 then demand better equipment and better organization in 
 their fire departments. 
 
 Property and life are endangered also by thieves and 
 other enemies of good order. In rough communities on 
 the frontier, before government and law are ^^ 
 well established, as in the early days of CaUf or- from law- 
 nia, the honest but rough citizens sometimes pro- ^^®^^®^^ 
 tect themselves by voluntary organizations, frequently 
 known as vigilance committees. They seek out offenders 
 and punish them promptly, too often without giving them 
 a fair trial. Similar methods are sometimes found in com- 
 munities where there is a regular government, as in the case 
 of "white-capping" and lynching parties. Such methods 
 are full of evil. They are usually carried out under cover 
 of darkness and in secret, thus opening a way for rowdy- 
 ism and violence under a pretense of administering justice. 
 A crowd of men gathered together hastily in a spirit of 
 revenge quickly becomes a mob, and is likely to adminis- 
 ter punishment to innocent persons, or cruel and inhuman 
 punishment to the guilty. 
 
 One of the most sacred rights of Americans is the right 
 to a fair trial, before a jury of fellow-citizens, even though 
 the accused is known to be guilty. This right jj^g ^^ j^^ ^^ 
 is guaranteed in the Constitution of the United a fair trial 
 
76 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 States, which says also that no cruel and unusual punish- 
 ments shall be inflicted (see Amendments VI and VIII). 
 It declares also that no person shall be " deprived of 
 life, liberty, or property without due process of law" 
 (Amendment V). Vigilance committees may be in a 
 measure justified in communities where there is no regu- 
 larly organized government or law; but white-capping 
 and lynching parties in communities with regularly or- 
 ganized governments are wholly without excuse. Such 
 parties usurp powers granted by the Constitution to the 
 existing government, and are as lawless as the original 
 offender. They tend to create a disregard for law and 
 order and disrespect for government. 
 
 Our local governments have officers to protect the life 
 and property of citizens, and to arrest persons who inter- 
 fere with the rights of others. In townships 
 there are constables; in counties, sheriffs and 
 their deputies ; in cities, the poHce department. The 
 police department requires a high degree of organization 
 because of the complex conditions of city life. Before the 
 middle of the last century the poHce of our cities were as 
 poorly organized as the fire departments of Franklin's 
 time. In New York, although the population numbered 
 more than 300,000, the policing of the city at night was 
 performed by a body of citizens who pursued other occu- 
 pations during the day. In the city of greater New York 
 the police force consists now of more than 10,000 men, as 
 many as constituted the American army at its best during 
 the Revolutionary War. It is organized very much Hke 
 an army, under a chief of poHce and many subordinate 
 officers. 
 
 The poHce of a city patrol its streets at all times of the 
 day and night to protect property and life against vio- 
 
THE PROTECTION OF PROPERTY AND LIFE 
 
 17 
 
 lence. They keep order in crowds ; they guard Duties of 
 dangerous street crossings, assisting people the police 
 across and regulating the movements of vehicles ; they 
 assist the health department in enforcing its regulations ; 
 they render aid at fires in keeping the crowds back for 
 their own safety, and to prevent interference with the work 
 of the firemen ; they restore lost children to their homes. 
 As in the case of the fire department, the duties of the 
 police require strength, courage, and inteUigence. It is a 
 misfortune, however, that the police departments of our 
 cities are not always as efficient as the fire departments 
 (see pages 235-6). The police department of the city often 
 works together with the sheriff of the county and his dep- 
 uties, and in times of great danger private citizens may 
 be sworn into service to aid the police. At all times the 
 police may call on private citizens for aid if necessary. 
 Offenders against the persons or property of citizens are 
 brought for trial before the police (or magistrates') courts 
 of cities ; or, for more serious offenses, before the higher 
 courts of the state (see chapter XXIII). 
 
 Another important arrangement for the safety of prop- 
 erty and life is a system of street lighting. In ancient 
 cities, as in Rome, the streets were narrow and street 
 crooked, and at night were totally dark, except ^^g^^^^g 
 as citizens lighted their way with torches. Philadelphia had 
 no regular system of street lamps until it was established 
 by Franklin. Modern American cities as a rule have 
 broad, straight, paved streets, illuminated at night by oil, 
 gas, or electric fights. The street-lighting plant is some- 
 times owned by the city and managed by the government ; 
 but it is usually in the hands of private companies paid 
 by the city for their services. 
 
 Communities often regulate certain kinds of business for 
 
yS THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 the sake of safety. The manufacture of explosives is 
 R ui ti n dangerous to life and property, and is therefore 
 of business usually Carried on under restrictions as to the 
 for safety location of the factory. The liquor traffic is often 
 restricted to certain localities, and is checked by the im- 
 position of license fees. In some communities it is pro- 
 hibited altogether. A large part of the poHcing of a city 
 is made necessary by the disorders growing out of the 
 sale of intoxicating liquors. Pawn shops are subject to 
 regulation by government to prevent them from receiv- 
 ing and disposing of stolen goods. 
 
 In a large community each man's life and safety de- 
 pend, to a great extent, on the carefulness of others. 
 Prevention The thousands of people who travel on the cars 
 of accidents ga.ch day are at the mercy of those who run the 
 train — the engineer, the conductor, the switchman, the 
 train dispatcher. Gross carelessness on the part of such 
 responsible persons may be considered a criminal offense, 
 and may be punished by the proper authorities ; but it is 
 better to prevent accidents than to punish the responsible 
 person after the accident occurs. Therefore the work of 
 such persons is usually regulated by law, and arrange- 
 ments are made to prevent accident. Railroads may be 
 compelled to station watchmen at dangerous crossings, to 
 provide gates that are closed at the approach of a train, or 
 to run their tracks across streets on elevated roadways or 
 underneath the street. The rate of speed at which a 
 train, or electric car, or automobile may run is estabUshed 
 by law, and violations of the law are punishable by fine. 
 The government also appoints building inspectors and 
 boiler inspectors. These are only examples of many pre- 
 cautions taken to prevent accident to life and property. 
 
 Here again we have to notice the constant violation and 
 
THE PROTECTION OF PROPERTY AND LIFE 79 
 
 lax enforcement of the law. Trains rush through cities and 
 
 across streets at unlawful speed. Street cars and Lax 
 
 automobiles do the same. Railroads often resist enforcement 
 , , of laws to 
 
 as long as they can attempts to compel them prevent 
 to elevate their tracks, or to provide safety accident 
 gates. Elevators are run by incompetent persons and 
 without inspection of the machinery. Inspectors do their 
 work in a careless manner. Theatres are built without 
 due regard to the number and position of exits. The 
 individual who disregards the regulations imposed by the 
 community, even in such slight matters as the speed of his 
 bicycle, or the lighting of its lamp on a dark night, is help- 
 ing to make his community an unsafe and unpleasant 
 place in which to live. 
 
 In 191 2, 78,700 persons lost their lives by accident in 
 the United States. A much larger number were more 
 or less seriously injured. For example, while ^ ^ 
 there were 41 persons killed in Fourth of July for accident 
 accidents, there were 947 who were injured. P'"®^®"*^^" 
 Because of the movement for a more intelligent celebra- 
 tion of Independence Day, the total number of such acci- 
 dents decreased from 5623 in 1908 to 988 in 191 2. A 
 very large number of injuries, many of them fatal, are 
 received by persons in their regular occupations. These 
 are known as industrial accidents. In the year 191 1, for 
 example, there were 2719 men killed and 31,334 injured 
 in the coal mines of the United States. 
 
 The United States Bureau of Mines has been active in 
 its efforts to increase the safety of mining operations, by 
 investigating the causes of mine accidents and urging 
 measures to prevent them. There is now a pretty general 
 movement for the prevention of industrial accidents. In 
 the American Museum of Safety in New York City there 
 
8o THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 may be seen all kinds of de\'ices for the protection of 
 those who work with machinery or in dangerous places. 
 Railroads and industrial organizations are adopting 
 " Safety First " as their watchword. In order to compel 
 employers to take every possible precaution for the safety 
 of their employees, laws have been passed, known as 
 "employers' liabilit}' laws," which hold the employer re- 
 sponsible for accidents occurring to workmen in their em- 
 ploy. Many industrial accidents, however, are due wholly 
 or in part to carelessness on the part of the workmen 
 themselves. Both employers and employees have a moral, 
 if not a legal, responsibility for the safety of themselves 
 and others. 
 
 Although the protection of property and life is largely 
 in the hands of the local communities, most of the laws 
 that local officers are called on to enforce are made by the 
 state government, and apply ahke to all the communities 
 of the state. 
 
 The state militia corresponds, in a measure, to the police 
 of cities. It consists of all able-bodied male citizens of 
 The state the States and territories and of the District of 
 °^ti^ Columbia, and of all able-bodied males of for- 
 
 eign birth who have declared their intention to become 
 citizens, who are between eighteen and forty-five years of 
 age. It is di\-ided into two parts : the organized mihtia, 
 known as the National Guard of the several states, terri- 
 tories, or the District of Columbia ; and the reserve militia, 
 including all the remainder of those eligible to serve. In 
 case of riot or disorder or calamity which the local authority 
 cannot handle, the governor of the state may send the 
 National Guard to aid in restoring order, as in the case of 
 recent labor troubles in the Colorado coal mines (see page 
 82), or during the floods in Ohio in 191 3. 
 
THE PROTECTION OF PROPERTY AND LIFE 8 1 
 
 The militia may be called out by the President of the 
 United States to suppress insurrection or to repel invasion. 
 It then becomes a part of the volunteer forces of the army 
 of the United States, is subject to the same regulations as 
 the regular army, and may be used either within or with- 
 out the territory of the United States. 
 
 In the Revolution and in the War of 1812 the militia 
 caused much trouble because of the jealousies of the sev- 
 eral states. Governors sometimes refused to allow their 
 miHtia to go outside of their states. Then, too, as in more 
 recent wars, the militia has sometimes been poorly officered, 
 poorly drilled, and impatient of discipHne. Laws have 
 been passed by Congress to remedy these defects, the most 
 recent being that of 1914, which gives the President au- 
 thority to appoint the officers of the militia in time of war. 
 
 For the defense of our national possessions and of the 
 liberty of our citizens against enemies from without, we 
 maintain an army and a navy. Our army is National 
 very small as compared with the armies of other defense 
 nations. Our geographical position, separated as we are 
 from other great powers, has made a large standing army 
 unnecessary. The belief of the founders of our nation was 
 that a large standing army was dangerous to the liberties 
 of the people and a burden of expense. Our policy there- 
 fore has always been in favor of as small an army as is 
 consistent with our national safety. In time of war our 
 dependence has been chiefly on the militia or army of citi- 
 zens enhsted for the occasion. At the time of the Civil 
 War an army of more than 2,000,000 men was raised by 
 enlistment in the North, and one of 1,000,000 men in the 
 South. At the present time it would be possible to raise a 
 vastly greater army than this, although our standing army 
 of regular soldiers numbers less than 100,000 men. 
 
82 
 
 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 The army not only defends our territory against invasion, 
 but it may also be sent to any part of the world to protect 
 the rights of American citizens. It may be 
 called on to quell local disturbances when the 
 state authorities are unable to do so. In the recent Colo- 
 rado mine troubles referred to above (page 80) the state 
 and local authorities failed to maintain order. The dis- 
 
 The army 
 
 Lawrenceburg, Ind., during the Flood of the Ohio River in 1883. 
 
 turbance assumed national importance. Therefore the 
 President of the United States, who is commander-in-chief 
 of the army, sent national troops to take charge of the situ- 
 ation. At the time of the earthquake and fire in San 
 Francisco national troops from the fort near by were 
 rushed into the city to help in maintaining order and in 
 protecting property and life. They, of course, cooperated 
 with the state militia and the city police. The national 
 troops are usually more effective in restoring order than 
 either the militia or the police. 
 
THE PROTECTION OF PROPERTY AND LIFE 83 
 
 The navy is another means of national protection. It 
 has been the policy of the American government to limit 
 our navv to the smallest size consistent with _ 
 
 '' The navy 
 
 national safety, as in the case of the army. But 
 because of our rapidly growing commerce and the increas- 
 ing interests of American citizens in foreign lands, together 
 with the acquisition of territory across the seas, a strong 
 
 Building the Levee at Lawrenceburg, Ind., for the Protection of 
 THE City against Floods. 
 
 navy has become more essential than a large army. At 
 the present time our navy compares favorably in strength 
 with the navies of other large nations. 
 
 Many people believe that our navy should be greatly 
 strengthened year by year. Others believe that such war- 
 like preparations should be checked. Both The peace 
 parties are desirous of peace with all the world ; movement 
 but one party believes that the surest way to maintain 
 peace is to be thoroughly prepared for war, while the 
 other party would impress the world with our peaceful 
 intentions by ceasing to prepare for war. The cost of the 
 
84 
 
 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 navy is increasing at a rapid rate with the increasing size 
 of battleships and armaments. Proposals have recently 
 been made to seek an agreement among the nations to 
 stop naval construction for a time. Xo one nation feels 
 that it can stop building as long as the others continue to 
 do so. It is beUeved by the friends of this plan that it 
 
 1^ 
 
 ! 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r.t. 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^j_ 
 
 -'^ 
 
 =^„"- 
 
 — N 
 
 % 
 
 ^ 
 
 - '' 
 
 ^^^■i 
 
 -:pz: 
 
 ■=:i^" 
 
 ^-'' 
 
 %■ 
 
 
 _.-^-"^ 
 
 :dP 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 / 
 
 
 :t\* 
 
 I--- -' 
 
 '..^-1 
 
 An Ohio River Flood seen from the Top of the Le^tee at 
 
 Lawrenceburg, Ixd. 
 
 The city is now entirely protected by the great embankment 
 
 Notice the railroad tracks on the levee for safety. 
 
 would be a step in the direction of universal peace, besides 
 relieving the nations of a vast burden of expense. 
 
 The national government has done a great deal for the 
 protection of life and property by removing obstructions 
 Life-saving to navigation along the coast, by improving 
 on the coast harbors, as at New York and at the mouth 
 of the Columbia River, by erecting Hghthouses and 
 establishing life-sa\ing stations. Every year the life- 
 
THE PROTECTION OF PROPERTY AND LIFE 85 
 
 savers perform deeds of heroism by which scores of lives 
 and thousands of dollars' worth of property are saved. 
 The national government has constructed levees along 
 some of our rivers, as on the lower courses of the Missis- 
 sippi, for the protection of the land against floods. 
 
 We may learn from this chapter that the protection of 
 our lives and property is placed almost wholly in the 
 hands of the local governments; that the state govern- 
 ment acts only when the welfare of the Protection 
 
 ctiiGfiv in 
 
 whole state demands it, or when the difficulties the hands of 
 to be met are beyond the powers of the local local and 
 
 -' '- state gov- 
 
 authorities; and that the national government ernments 
 acts for the nation at large, and interferes in local pro- 
 tection only when the interests of the whole nation are at 
 stake, or when the local and state authorities prove them- 
 selves incapable of handling the situation. 
 
 FOR INVESTIGATION 
 
 1. What were the means of fighting fires in your community in the 
 early days? How did the methods compare with those of Franklin's 
 time? 
 
 2. Describe the organization of the fire department in your city. 
 How is the highest degree of efficiency among the firemen secured? 
 
 3. Report on the waterworks system of your city. Is it efficient? 
 If not, why ? 
 
 4. Try to find out the chief causes of the fires in your community 
 in the last year. What may you do to prevent them? 
 
 5. From the city ordinances find some of the regulations regarding 
 the construction of buildings. 
 
 6. Is there building inspection in your community? Is violation 
 of building ordinances common? 
 
 7. Report on the duties of the constable. Of the sheriff. 
 
 8. Describe the organization of the police department. What 
 qualifications must a man have to receive appointment as a policeman 
 in your community? 
 
 9. Look up the services of Benjamin Franklin in Philadelphia in 
 
86 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 improving the fire department, the night watch, and the lighting of 
 the streets (see Franklin's Autobiography). 
 
 ID. What is the method of street lighting in your community? Is it 
 done bv the community itself, or by a private company? Is it as well 
 done as it should be ? 
 
 11. What kinds of business in your community are regulated for the 
 protection of life and property ? 
 
 12. W^hat other ways can you find in which property is protected 
 besides those mentioned in this chapter? 
 
 13. Investigate the subject of the \-iolation of speed regulations, and 
 other regulations to secure safety on the streets of your city. 
 
 14. Have vou an organization of militia in your community? Find 
 out what you can about its organization. Tr}- to find out something 
 about the following points : a. What is the numerical strength of the 
 militia in your state? b. How are its officers chosen? c. What in- 
 stances do you know of your state militia being called out to suppress 
 disorder? 
 
 15. Find out what you can about the organization of the United 
 States army ; of the United States navy. 
 
 16. Find out what you can about the work of the life-saving service 
 of the United States. 
 
 17. Report on instances of the use of the army in time of calamity 
 other than war. 
 
 18. Report on the cost of a modem battleship, and of the American 
 navy for one year. 
 
 19. Report on devices for the prevention of industrial accidents. 
 
 20. Discuss methods by which you may reduce the danger of 
 accidents in vour dailv life. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 For information regarding the organization of branches of local gov- 
 ernment, such as the fire and pohce departments, the cit}- charter and 
 cit}' ordinances may be consulted. In many cases there may be printed 
 reports of the departments in question. It will often be impracticable 
 to expect the whole class to gather full information on such matters ; 
 but one or two pupils may make special reports. 
 
 Benjamin Franklin's Autobiography. 
 
 Riis, Jacob, " Heroes Who Fight Fires." in Century Magazine, 33 : 483. 
 Forman, " Advanced Civics," chapter XXXIII. 
 
 Hart, A. B., " Actual Government," pp. 462-477. for the organization of the 
 army, the navy, and the miUtia ; pp. 573-582 (fire protection, pohce, etc) . 
 
THE PROTECTION OF PROPERTY AND LIFE 8/ 
 
 Fairlie, J. A., " Municipal Administration," chapter VIII, " Public Health and 
 Safety." 
 
 "Wilcox, D. F., " The American City," chapter VI, " Municipal Insurance." 
 
 " Chief Causes of Fires," in The American City, July, 1914, p. 41. 
 
 Conkling, " City Government in the United States," chapters V, VI. 
 
 Adams, W. H. S., " The Story of our Lighthouses and Light Ships." 
 
 " Heroes of Peace," Century Magazine, 55 : 925 ; 58 : 210. 
 
 " Organization and Methods of the Life-Saving Service " ; a pamphlet that may 
 be obtained from the Superintendent of the Life-Saving Service, Washington, D.C. 
 
 Report of the United States Life-Saving Service, 1913, Treasury Department, 
 Washington, D.C. 
 
 The location of lighthouses and life-saving stations may be seen on the Land 
 Office Map of the United States already referred to. 
 
 Report of the Secretary of War, 1913, Washington. 
 
 Report of the Secretary of the Navy, 1913, Washington. 
 
 " The Doom of War," by Arthur Deerin Call. Published by the American 
 Peace Society, 1914. Pp. 3-5 give striking figures relative to the cost of the navy. 
 
 On the Peace Movement see the publications of the American Peace Society, 
 Colorado Building, Washington, D.C. 
 
 Publications of the American Museum of Safety, New York City. 
 
 Publications of the National Council for Industrial Safety, Chicago. 
 
 Lighthouse on the Shore of Lake Michigan. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 
 THE RELATION BETWEEN THE COMMUNITY AND THE 
 CITIZEN IN BUSINESS LIFE 
 
 A LARGE part of the activity of the people of every com- 
 munity is due to their desire for wealth, and constitutes the 
 Thebusi- business life of the community. It is well to 
 nes^siife remember that, when we speak of wealth in 
 community this connection, we do not necessarily mean 
 great riches, but all m.aterial goods, however much or 
 little, for which men are willing to work. In many 
 people the desire for wealth is very strong, and some- 
 times becomes a passion that smothers the other de- 
 sires of life ; then it tends to make men narrow and selfish, 
 and to interfere with their greatest usefulness in the com- 
 munity. Wealth is worth having only when it contributes 
 to the health, the knowledge, the beautiful surroundings 
 — in a word, to the complete life of those who possess it. 
 But whether the purpose be to attain completeness of life, 
 or merely to satisfy greed, or perhaps to enjoy the excite- 
 ment of the game of business, the business life of a com- 
 munity always occupies a large part of the attention of the 
 people. 
 
 The dependence of each citizen on the community is 
 nowhere seen more clearly than in his business life ; no- 
 where is his responsibility to the community greater ; no- 
 where is there greater opportunity for good citizenship. 
 
 How dependent the individual is on the community for 
 
 ss 
 
THE BUSINESS LIFE OF THE COMMUNITY 89 
 
 success in satisfying his desire for wealth might be shown 
 in many ways, but we shall take only one or The pioneer 
 two illustrations. The pioneer family was al- family was 
 most wholly dependent on its own efforts for lig^e^y^on 
 the accumulation of wealth, and consequently i*^®^ 
 this wealth was very limited in quantity and quality. 
 The articles of home manufacture were usually few 
 and rough. There were few materials to select from, 
 and the many things to be done left little time for doing 
 any one thing except in the simplest way possible. All 
 the members of the family contributed to the common re- 
 sult, and they divided the work so that each had his 
 special tasks and became more skillful than the others in 
 their performance. All worked together for the common 
 good, and each received a share of the results of the labor 
 of all. 
 
 As this small community consisting of one family was 
 increased by other famiHes, a better opportunity was given 
 for a division of labor. One member of the There- 
 original family, who had formerly made the division of 
 shoes for his family only, on account of his skill labor 
 at that work and because of the demands of the addi- 
 tional families, was now enabled to devote his entire 
 time to shoe making. Members of these new families were 
 skillful in other crafts, one a baker, another a weaver, 
 another a miller, and another a blacksmith. The needs 
 of the community for bread, clothing, flour, and tools were 
 now sufficient to enable the baker, the weaver, the miller, 
 and the blacksmith to devote their entire time to their 
 trades, thus both increasing the amount and improving the 
 quality of their products. One after another the duties 
 of the farmer were lessened until finally it became his 
 special business to provide farm products for the whole 
 
90 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 community in return for the things that the others did for 
 him. 
 
 With the introduction of machinery and the building 
 of factories where hundreds of men are employed, the 
 Effect of division of tasks has become more complete, 
 modem ^nd each worker rarely produces more than one 
 organiza- thing. In well-organized factories, each work- 
 tioii man devotes his entire time to producing one 
 
 small part of each article. In a factory for the manufac- 
 ture of milling machinery, for example, one set of work- 
 men does nothing but chip the surface of millstones with 
 hammers to make them rough. They apparently con- 
 tribute very little to the general welfare; but the com- 
 munity provides them with a living in order that they 
 may do this one thing, and do it well. We say that they 
 receive so much a day for their work. In realit}^ they 
 are being suppUed with bread and meat, clothing and 
 shelter, furniture and tools, medicines and doctors' serv- 
 ices, education for their children, rehgious teaching on 
 Sundavs, entertainment at the theaters, and scores of 
 other things, in exchange for their monotonous and ap- 
 parently unimportant work of putting rough surfaces on 
 millstones. 
 
 Division of occupations also takes place in accordance 
 with geographical location. This is of great importance 
 
 in a lar2:e communitv like our nation. In 
 Geographi- ° - • ,u t,- -f a 
 
 cai division some parts of the country corn is the chiel prod- 
 
 of labor ^^^ . ^^ others cotton ; in others fruit. In some 
 
 parts cattle or sheep raising takes the place of farming ; 
 
 in other parts mining. The different metals are found in 
 
 different localities. In one place lumbering is the chief 
 
 occupation ; in another place fishing. One region becomes 
 
 famous for its cotton manufactures; another for silk; 
 
THE BUSINESS LIFE OF THE COMMUNITY 91 
 
 another for iron. The gardener who gives his whole time 
 to raising vegetables to supply the market of some small 
 city receives in return bread from wheat raised in the Da- 
 kotas ; clothing manufactured in New England from cotton 
 raised in Texas, or from wool raised in Montana. He 
 uses wagons made in Indiana of timber raised in the South 
 and of iron mined in Minnesota and smelted in Ohio. 
 
 WKS^L^'*'^" 
 
 
 L 
 
 
 PHI 
 
 
 H^? 
 
 •■■l^ETK- 1 
 
 ^3 
 
 1 
 
 RHB^^I^Kj^K. K^T''^ 
 
 jyc^ 
 
 ^-^i 
 
 1^ ^2^R| 
 
 ^M 
 
 ^^K [ ,^"4^ !^^J^-^ 
 
 
 Bi^ 
 
 
 9 
 
 Kd^^a 
 
 
 
 HI^^'^VBl 
 
 8 
 
 ^^^^■r%i 
 
 
 BBi^^^B 
 
 
 [^■H 
 
 ■^^^^^^^^^^■^gSHj^^k ^V&^ 
 
 
 
 
 HI 
 
 A Market Scene. 
 
 In these days of large business enterprises, the men who 
 run the machines and perform labor of other kinds are 
 not usually the men who furnish these machines Dependence 
 and the other forms of capital. The men who °^ employer 
 
 and em- 
 furnish the capital and those who furnish the pioyeeon 
 
 labor are dependent on each other. It is true ®*^^ ^^^^' 
 
 that they often act toward each other as if their interests 
 
 were antagonistic. Although the workingmen are far 
 
 more numerous than their employers, the latter have 
 
 usually had the advantage in a conflict, because their 
 
 greater wealth enables them to sustain themselves in 
 
 idleness for a time without suffering. In order to protect 
 
92 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 their own interests workingmen in many trades and indus- 
 tries have organized themselves into tinions, so that by 
 acting together they may secure from their employers a 
 recognition of their rights. This is well, provided that 
 the unions remember always that their employers and the 
 community at large also have rights which must be 
 regarded. "Neither can take advantage of the other with- 
 out the common interest suffering. The mutual object 
 of both is to produce the best possible article at the lowest 
 possible price, in order to place it within reach of the 
 greatest possible number of purchasers." 
 
 Thus we see how every worker in the community is 
 dependent on all the other workers. The success of each 
 depends very largely on how well the whole business 
 organization of the community does its work. On the 
 other hand, the community depends on each individual, 
 and on each class of workers, to do his or its work well. 
 Each citizen, as a worker in the business life of the com- 
 munity, has upon him a great responsibility. 
 
 A man engages in business activities primarily to satisfy 
 the wants of himself and his family. But he can do this 
 The life of a 01^1}' by performing work that will be useful to 
 community others, and that will help to satisfy their desires. 
 
 is a life of . . , . i ■ i ■ i i i 
 
 productive A carpenter, m order to gam a livehhood and 
 work to provide his family with the comforts of life, 
 
 must build houses for others. He may be most concerned 
 about what he will receive for his work ; the community is 
 most concerned about what he produces. If he does care- 
 ful, skillful work, he is considered a valuable member of 
 the community. If he is careless, or a poor workman, he 
 is considered in that respect a poor citizen. Good citizen- 
 ship shows itself in the productive work of a man more 
 than in any other way. 
 
THE BUSINESS LIFE OF THE COMMUNITY 93 
 
 The history of our country has been very largely a story 
 of the clearing of forests, of the reclaiming of the soil 
 for agriculture, of the opening of mines, and of j.^^ builder 
 the growth of commerce, manufactures, and of our 
 cities. It is a story of the building of railroads 
 and steamboats, of telegraphs and telephones. The men 
 who have done these things are as much the builders of 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 fiS 
 
 
 
 
 ■ .:^%.-i' 
 
 •.^»i^>' 
 
 
 w. •,.„....^^^ 
 
 —T— 
 
 z 1^ 
 
 ^ ! ^ 
 
 Two Views of an Engine Factory. 
 
 Showing how the factory has been given attractive appearance. 
 
 Notice the vine-covered buildings and smoke-stack. 
 
 our nation as the men who made our constitutions and 
 organized our governments. The men and women who are 
 to-day working on the farms or in the mines, in factories 
 and shops, in stores and offices, or in other Unes of business, 
 are as truly doing their country a service as those who 
 hold the offices of government. Both kinds of service 
 are necessary, and in either case patriotic citizenship 
 consists in giving to the community the best service 
 possible. 
 
 It is important that the citizen should realize that, in 
 the work by which he makes a living, he has a great 
 responsibility toward the other members of the community. 
 
94 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 The employee is responsible to his employer for the very 
 
 best work he can do, for the employer is depending on him 
 
 to help in producins; the best possible article 
 
 The respon- ^ ^ '=' . i, 
 
 sibiiity of ±or the use ot the community. The employer, 
 the citizen ^^ ^^^ Other hand, is responsible for the 
 
 in business ^ 
 
 welfare of those who work for him. A con- 
 stantly increasing number of employers are coming to 
 realize that this means more than merely giving fair wages 
 to the employees and are providing them with better places 
 in which to work, with healthful and pleasant surroundings, 
 and with arrangements for their comfort and convenience. 
 In some cases employers are even aiding their workmen 
 to secure pleasant and comfortable homes, knowing that 
 the better their workmen are cared for by them, the more 
 earnestly will they work for the success of the business. 
 Everv citizen in his business life is under obhgations to 
 the community as a whole. Xo man's business belongs to 
 A citizen's himself alone ; it belongs also to the community, 
 business is The community enters into a sort of agreement 
 ^!^i?® with him in res^ard to his business, to the effect 
 nity's that if he will perform a certain service for the 
 
 usiness community, the community will support him. 
 If he is a merchant or a manufacturer, the community 
 has a right to expect from him honest goods and full 
 measure. If he is a mechanic, it has the right to expect 
 from him good workmanship. If he is engaged in the 
 management of a railroad, it has a right to demand safety, 
 comfort, and reasonable rates. No matter what his 
 occupation may be, nor how large or how small his 
 business, he is sure to show the character of his citizenship 
 in the character of the product of his labor. 
 
 But the citizen in business has a greater responsibility 
 than for the quality of the product of his work. Business 
 
THE BUSINESS LIFE OF THE COMMUNITY 95 
 
 life, and in fact the whole life of the community, could 
 not be successfully carried on if it were not for the con- 
 fidence that men have in each other. Think for jhe respon- 
 a moment what confusion and unhappiness there sibiiity of 
 
 , . ^ , the citizen 
 
 would be if it were not for this conhdence. for con- 
 When we ride on the railroad, we need confidence fidence 
 in the excellence of the work of those who made the loco- 
 motive, of those who laid the rails and built the bridges, 
 of those who run the train, and of those who arrange the 
 schedule and give the signals. When we buy food, or 
 clothing, or any other product of human labor, we must 
 have confidence in the merchant and in the manufacturer 
 before we willingly part with the money that we have 
 earned by our own efforts. When we receive money for 
 our work, we must have confidence in the government that 
 stamps the bills with its promise to pay a certain sum. 
 
 By far the greater part of the business dealings 
 between individuals, between communities, and between 
 nations, is carried on by a system of credit, which is based 
 on the confidence that men feel in one another and in the 
 arrangements of the business world. Men would never 
 deposit their money in banks if it were not for the confi- 
 dence they feel in the banks, and in the government and 
 laws that are behind them. Every accident on the rail- 
 roads causes men to lose confidence, not only in the man 
 who was guilty of carelessness, but also in the management 
 of railroads in general. When an employer finds that he 
 cannot trust one of his employees, it tends to destroy con- 
 fidence in all employees. Every failure on the part of an 
 individual to meet his business obligations tends to destroy 
 the confidence of men in one another's business integrity. 
 In short, every exhibition of dishonesty or inefficiency on 
 the part of a citizen in his business relations helps to 
 
96 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 undermine the confidence of the community, and to shake 
 the foundation upon which the community rests. 
 
 It is one of the best marks of good citizenship to per- 
 form the most efficient work possible, whatever one's call- 
 ^ . . ins:. We call it patriotism when a man gives 
 in business all that he has, even his hfe if necessary, tor the 
 ^® good of his country, \\4thout stopping to con- 
 
 sider whether he will receive an equal benefit in return. 
 There is no higher type of patriotism than that which 
 leads a citizen to perform his best service for the com- 
 munity in his daily calHng, not for what he can get for it, 
 but for what he can give. 
 
 rOR INVESTIGATION 
 
 1. Find out what the early settlers in your community had to pay for 
 the land. What is the same land worth now? What has produced 
 the change in value ? 
 
 2. Compare the extent to which a farmer's family is dependent on 
 others in making a lixing. with that to which a city family is dependent. 
 
 3. Make a list of tsvelve or fifteen different occupations in your com- 
 munity. How many of these did each femily have to carry on for itself 
 in the early days of your community ? 
 
 4. What advantages can you see in a di\ision of tasks or occupa- 
 tions? What disadvantages? 
 
 5. Visit a factor}- in your community and report on the division of 
 labor that you find there. 
 
 6. Take' the list of occupations mentioned in the paragraph on geo- 
 graphical division of occupations (page 90) and locate on a map of the 
 United States a region characterized by each. Show hov,- geographical 
 conditions determine this division of occupations. 
 
 7. Is there a geographical division of occupations in 3-our state? 
 Draw a map of your state and locate characteristic industries. 
 
 8. yi2ke a list of the different kinds of workmen that have been 
 engaged in producing the different objects in your schoolroom. What 
 different parts of the United States have contributed to the equipment 
 of your schoolroom ? 
 
 9. Show how a strike of workmen against their emplo^-ers injures the 
 emplovers ; the workmen themselves ; the whole community. (Use for 
 illustration a strike that has occurred in your own community.) 
 
THE BUSINESS LIFE OF THE COMMUNITY 
 
 97 
 
 10. Is it true, in your community, that the most useful citizens are those 
 who care more about the excellence of their work than about what they 
 receive for it? Illustrate. 
 
 11. So far as your experience goes, what boys have been most success- 
 ful in business — those who make it a practice to do all they can for their 
 employers, or those who have tried to do the least possible ? 
 
 12. Who have been some of the builders of your own community by 
 reason of their business life? Explain. 
 
 13. Show how a few dishonest pupils in a school will tend to destroy 
 confidence throughout the whole school. What are some of the results 
 of this loss cf confidence on the life of the school? 
 
 14. Do you know of any case in your community in which the failure of 
 some individual to do his whole duty in business has shaken the confidence 
 of the entire community? 
 
 15. Are there any business establishments in your community in which 
 special efforts are made to provide for the welfare and comfort of the em- 
 ployees ? What is the eff"ect upon the employees ? Upon the business? 
 Upon the community ? 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Forman. "Advanced Civics," chapters XLVII, XLVIII. 
 
 Smith, Adam, "The Wealth of Nations," Book I, chapters I-III (division of 
 labor) . 
 
 Meakin, Budgett, " Model Factories and Villages." Gives an excellent account 
 of what employers are doing for their employees in this country and in Europe. 
 
 Earle, Alice Morse, " Colonial Dames and Good Wives," chapter XII, ** Fire- 
 side Industries." 
 
 The Well-kept Home of an Employee of a Mining Company in 
 
 Michigan. 
 
 This company is much interested in the welfare of its employees, 
 
 and encourages them in the improvement of their homes. 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 
 HOW THE GOVERNMENT .-UDS THE CITIZEN BY CON- 
 TROLLING BUSINESS RELATIONS 
 
 Security in one's material possessions has always been 
 one of the most sacred rights of Americans. The Revolu- 
 The sacred- tionarv War was brought on because the English 
 ^^^^ °i_ sfovernment persistently refused to recognize 
 
 property t> r ^ o 
 
 rights this right of the colonists. It took away a 
 
 part of their property by taxation without asking their 
 consent. It passed laws interfering with their commerce 
 and manufactures. It quartered troops in their houses 
 without their permission. It gave its officers unlimited 
 power to search their houses and ships without duly pro- 
 tecting the rights of innocent and law-abiding citizens. 
 When independence had been won and a constitution was 
 to be adopted, the people demanded a sure protection of 
 this right to their property. They refused to ratify the 
 Constitution until amendments guaranteeing security in 
 their possessions had been promised. 
 
 The colonists recognized the necessity of some regulation 
 of their property rights and of their business relations by 
 The desire government. Nowhere else do individuals come 
 for self- into conflict with each other so often as in their 
 
 government .. ,. ,^ . . ^. , .^ 
 
 in business busmess relations. ]\Iost ot the disputes Drought 
 matters before the courts for settlement are over busi- 
 ness or property matters. Such matters concern the 
 individual so closely that the colonists believed that 
 
 their resiulation should be under their own control 
 
GOVERNMENT AND BUSINESS LIFE 99 
 
 through their local colonial governments. The same 
 idea prevailed when our Constitution was framed. Busi- 
 ness matters were not placed under the authority of the 
 national government, except such as concern the rela- 
 tions between citizens of this country and those of foreign 
 countries, or between citizens of two or more states. Each 
 state has unlimited control over all business relations 
 within its own borders. At the same time, it is the policy 
 of our state governments to leave to each citizen as much 
 individual freedom in his business activities as is consistent 
 with the welfare of the community. 
 
 When a group of men wish to organize as a corporation 
 for manufacturing purposes, or to build and operate a rail- 
 road, or to do an insurance business, it is almost gt^te 
 always the state that gives them the authority, control over 
 The state has done much to aid business by the business 
 construction of roads (see chapter XIII). The relations 
 state protects the interests of workingmen and working- 
 women. Most of the states have laws permitting the 
 incorporation of labor unions. State laws place restric- 
 tions on the labor of children and limit the number of 
 hours that women may work in factories. State laws also 
 provide for the health of workers in factories and mines 
 by requiring employers to maintain good sanitary con- 
 ditions, and by a system of inspection to see that the 
 requirements are carried out. In some of the more recent 
 state constitutions special safeguards are thrown about the 
 working classes. In the older constitutions such provisions 
 are not found because, when these constitutions were 
 framed, labor organizations and the factory system did not 
 exist. In these older states the legislatures enact, from 
 time to time, such laws as seem necessary. State laws 
 also endeavor to prevent the community from being de- 
 
lOO THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 frauded by persons and corporations that seek to render 
 dishonest or inefficient service. 
 
 During the Revolutionary War and after it, until the 
 
 Constitution was adopted, the thirteen states were bound 
 
 to2:ether in a very loose Confederation merely 
 
 The need of^ •> ^ 
 
 a national for purposes of common defense. There were 
 government £g^ jg^^yg applying to all the States alike. There 
 was little uniformity among them in their methods of 
 regulating the business relations of their citizens. Each 
 state had its own form of money. Each was at liberty to 
 levy taxes on goods brought from other states, thus 
 tending to check commerce. So little uniformity was 
 there, so bitter were the jealousies among the states, and 
 so great did the confusion become, that the Confederation 
 was about to fall to pieces, and the fruits of the Revolu- 
 tion were in danger of being lost. It was this danger, 
 due to the confusion in business affairs, that led to the 
 calling of the convention that framed our present Constitu- 
 tion. It was found necessary to have a government that 
 could protect the common business interests of all the 
 states alike. 
 
 The Congress created by the Constitution was given 
 the power, which the Congress of the Confederation had 
 The powers not had, of laying and collecting taxes '' for the 
 of Congress common defense and general welfare," but it 
 
 in business , - . . 
 
 matters was provided that the '' duties, imposts, and ex- 
 cises shall be uniform throughout the United States " 
 (Art. I, sec. 8, clause i). The states were forbidden 
 to lay duties on goods coming in from other states, 
 so that interstate commerce should not be interfered with. 
 Congress was also given power '' to regulate commerce 
 with foreign nations and among the several states, and 
 with the Indian tribes" (Art. I, sec. 8, clause 3). In 
 
GOVERNMENT AND BUSINESS LIFE lOI 
 
 order to maintain successful business relations in a com- 
 munity it is necessary that there be a reliable and uniform 
 system of money ; and since this was a matter of common 
 interest to all the states, Congress was given power ** to 
 coin money," and to "regulate the value thereof." Under 
 these last powers Congress has established mints for the 
 coining of money, has enacted laws providing for a uni- 
 form currency, and has established a national banking 
 system which is not merely an aid to the government in 
 regulating the currency and in borrowing money, but is 
 also a great convenience to the business men of the whole 
 country. Congress was also given the power to fix the 
 standard of weights and measures (Art. I, sec. 8, clause 5). 
 
 Under its power to regulate foreign commerce, Con- 
 gress has levied import duties sufficiently heavy to check 
 the importation of foreign manufactures, and Regulation 
 thus to encourage the manufacture of these of foreign 
 articles at home. The question of the extent ^^^^^^'^^ 
 to which imports should be taxed (the tariff question) has 
 always been one of the main issues dividing the great 
 political parties of the United States. At the very be- 
 ginning of our national history Alexander Hamilton argued 
 in favor of import duties so high as to exclude foreign 
 manufactures, and thus to protect our own " infant indus- 
 tries." Thomas Jefferson, who beheved that the chief 
 sources of America's wealth would be agriculture and 
 commerce, argued against such protective duties. He 
 thought that a " free trade" policy would stimulate com- 
 merce and agriculture. 
 
 Hamilton's protective policy has prevailed during a 
 large part of our history, although always opposed by one 
 great party. To-day conditions are quite different from 
 those of his time. We have become a great manufactur- 
 
102 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 ing nation. Our industries are no longer "infant," but 
 are very largely in the hands of wealthy and powerful 
 corporations. The opponents of the protective tariff hold 
 that it tends to raise prices and thus to increase the cost 
 of living. Its friends argue, on the other hand, that it 
 helps to maintain high wages by protecting the American 
 workman against competition with the cheaper labor of 
 foreign countries. The whole question is a very difficult 
 one, and it is by no means easy to devise a tariff that will 
 be wholly just to every producer as well as to the con- 
 sumer in all parts of our country. A new tariff was 
 enacted by Congress in 191 3, materially lowering the 
 duties on many important articles. It is known as the 
 Underwood Tariff, taking the name of the chairman of 
 the Ways and Means Committee of the House of Repre- 
 sentatives, who was largely responsible for its form. 
 
 Congress has also established a consular system to look 
 after the commercial relations of this country with foreign 
 nations. Consuls are appointed by our government to go 
 to the important cities of all civilized countries. Among 
 their many duties, they investigate the products and 
 manufactures of the countries to which they are sent, try 
 to create a market in those countries for products of the 
 United States, and, in general, try to stimulate favorable 
 business relations between our country and all the world. 
 
 Under its power to regulate commerce among the sev- 
 eral states, Congress has enacted a number of laws regu- 
 lating the activities of railroads and other corporations 
 whose business affects the entire nation. In 1887 an 
 Interstate Commerce Act was passed to prevent cer- 
 tain unjust business methods on the part of transpor- 
 tation companies, such as charging rates that discriminate 
 in favor of one individual or locality as against another. 
 
GOVERNMENT AND BUSINESS LIFE 103 
 
 This law created an Interstate Commerce Commission 
 with authority to inquire into the management of the busi- 
 ness of ** common carriers," such as railroads, Regulation 
 steamship lines, or express companies. A later of interstate 
 law gives the Commission power also to fix the *^°™™®''*^® 
 maximum rates which may be charged by such " common 
 carriers." 
 
 The history of business development in recent years 
 has been marked by the growth of great business organi- 
 zations known as corporations. » With the enormous capital 
 at their command, and with the economies of management 
 made possible by doing business on a large scale, these 
 corporations have been enabled to gain control of many 
 
 lines of business. Then, in some cases, a num- „ , ,. 
 
 ' Regulation 
 
 ber of corporations in the same Hne of business of 
 have formed combinations known as trusts corporations 
 which still further control business and prices. As a 
 result of abuses of this power Congress, in 1890, passed an 
 "Anti-Trust Law" which made illegal any "contract, 
 combination ... or conspiracy in restraint of trade " 
 among the states or with foreign nations, and made any 
 person liable to punishment who should, alone or in com- 
 bination with others, attempt to monopolize any part of 
 interstate or foreign commerce. In 1903 a National 
 Bureau of Corporations was created to investigate the 
 organization and management of corporations. The extent 
 to which corporations and trusts should be controlled by 
 government, and the means. by which it should be done, 
 are among the greatest questions before our country at 
 the present time. 
 
 In 1906 a Food and Drugs Act was passed to prevent 
 " the manufacture, sale, or transportation " of impure, 
 falsely labeled, poisonous, or injurious "foods, drugs, 
 
I04 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 medicines, and liquors," and a Bureau of Chemistry was 
 created in the Department of Agriculture to investigate 
 such mat-ters. 
 
 These laws illustrate how the growth of business inter- 
 ests affecting the entire nation has led the government to 
 provide means of national cooperation unthought of by 
 the makers of our Constitution. Among these means are 
 three important departments of government, the Depart- 
 ment of Agriculture, the Department of Commerce, and 
 the Department of Labor, the last two of which were 
 established as separate departments in 191 3. 
 
 While some of this regulation of business by the state 
 and national governments imposes serious restrictions on 
 The pxirpose particular business interests, its purpose is nev- 
 of govern- ertheless to further the interests of the country 
 to afford at large. The purpose of the government is not 
 opportunity ^q hedge the citizen about with restrictions on 
 his activities, but to afford to all the greatest possible 
 opportunity for material prosperity. Sometimes the 
 interests of the individual must yield before the interests 
 of the community ; but usually, in the long run, the ad- 
 vantage of the community will also be the advantage 
 of the individual. Occasionally a law is unwisely or 
 dishonestly enacted which benefits a small class to the 
 detriment of the majority of the people. Such legislation 
 is un-American, for the underlying principle of American 
 government is the greatest possible good to the greatest 
 possible number. 
 
 FOR mVESTIGATION 
 
 I. WTiich of the first ten amendments to the Constitution of the 
 United States guarantee the property rights of citizens ? Explain each 
 of these amendments. 
 
GOVERNMENT AND BUSINESS LIFE 105 
 
 2. Get a list, or summary, of the laws passed during the last session 
 of your state legislature, and note about what proportion of them are 
 for the regulation of business matters. Study the list to get an idea of 
 the different kinds of business matters dealt with. 
 
 3. Is there anything in your state constitution for the protection of 
 the interests of the workingmen? Anything for the regulation of 
 business corporations? 
 
 4. What laws are there in your state for the regulation of the labor 
 of children ? Of women ? 
 
 5. Is there any system of factory inspection in your state? If so, 
 what is the nature and purpose of the inspection ? 
 
 6. Mention some recent laws passed by Congress under its power 
 to regulate interstate commerce. 
 
 7. How does a bank help business men ? Are there any other banks 
 besides national banks ? Explain. 
 
 8. How does money help in the transaction of business? 
 
 9. Investigate the organization and duties of the consular service. 
 
 10. Report on the various activities of the Department of Agriculture ; 
 of Commerce ; of Labor. 
 
 11. Make a report on the business confusion during the time of the 
 Confederation. 
 
 12. Discuss in class, in the simplest terms possible, the meaning of 
 "protection " and '' free trade." Illustrate with concrete cases. What 
 is the attitude of the present administration at Washington on the 
 subject? 
 
 13. Discuss in class, in simple terms, the meaning of "corporation " 
 and " trust." What is the attitude of the present adniinistration in 
 regard to their control ? 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 A copy of the state constitution should be on the teacher's desk for 
 reference. 
 
 It is probable that a summary of the laws passed by the last legislature 
 can be obtained at the city or county offices. If not, it can be obtained 
 from the office of the secretary of state of your state. It would be desir- 
 able to have on the teacher's desk a copy of the revised statutes of the 
 state. 
 
 Copies of the laws regulating the labor of women and children, factory 
 inspection, etc., can usually be had by applying to the bureaus or depart- 
 ments of the state government dealing with such matters. The general 
 treatment of these subjects, as also of the United States mint and the 
 consular service, can be found in the New International Encyclopedia. 
 
I06 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 Fiske's "The Critical Period of American History '" lias an excellent 
 chapter on the business confusion during the Confederation. (Chapter 
 IV, •• Drifting toward Anarchy.") 
 
 Hart's •• Actual Government "" will again be found useful in connection 
 with this chapter : especially the chapters on •• Commercial Organiza- 
 tion " (chapter XXVI) and -Foreign Commerce" (chapter XXIV), 
 and the section on - Consuls." on page 436. 
 
 Forman. •• Advanced Civics." chapters XL-XLIV. 
 
 Beard. -American Citizenship." pp. 175-197: 231-236. 
 
 Latest Annual Reports of the Secretaries of Agriculture. Commerce, 
 and Labor. 
 
 -Department of Commerce: Condensed History. Duties, and Prac- 
 tical Operation." Government Printing Office. Washington. 1913. 
 
 Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage-Earners in the 
 United States, vol. XIX. -Labor Laws and Factor}- Conditions." 
 Prepared by the United States Commissioner of Labor. Charles P. 
 Neil. Government Printing Office. Washington. 1912. 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 
 HOW THE COMMUNITY AIDS THE CITIZEN IN TRANS- 
 PORTATION AND COMMUNICATION 
 
 You will recall that in seeking a site for the community 
 
 described in the first chapter, the exploring committee was 
 
 to notice whether there were roads or canals near Community 
 
 by. The very nature of a community implies ^^^® ^™Pi\®s 
 J J J r commum- 
 
 that there must be communication, for without cation 
 it there could be no way of acting together. One of the 
 obstacles in the way of united action among the thirteen 
 American colonies was the absence of good roads connect- 
 ing them. The trip from New York to Boston in those 
 times required six days. A traveler tells us of spending a 
 month in making the journey from New York to Washing* 
 ton at a little later time. Under such conditions it is not 
 strange that it was difficult to develop a spirit of union 
 among the colonies. 
 
 In the early part of the last century it cost ^125 to haul 
 a ton of goods from Philadelphia to Pittsburg by wagon, 
 the only means of transportation. It cost ;^2.50 q^^^^^ 
 to carry a bushel of salt three hundred miles, transporta- 
 Wheat could not profitably be transported by *^°^ 
 wagon more than one hundred and fifty miles, because it 
 could not be sold at a price to cover the cost of transporta- 
 tion. When the cost of transportation was so great, the 
 commonest articles of household use to-day were luxuries 
 which the people could not afford. The cause of all this 
 was excessively bad roads. 
 
 107 
 
I08 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 The food supply of the nation comes from the farms. 
 The raw materials for manufacture come from the farms, 
 Importance ^^^ forest, and the mines. The comfort of living 
 of country for all of US, in the city as well as in the country, 
 ^°^ ^ depends in a great degree on the ease with which 
 
 these raw products can be brought from the country districts. 
 It is said that ninety-five per cent of every load by train, 
 steamship, or express, must be carted over a highway.. 
 The country roads are the foundation of our transportation 
 system. And yet they have been given comparatively Httle 
 attention, and America is far behind many other civilized 
 countries in the construction and preservation of roads. 
 
 The character of the land has great importance in de- 
 termining good or bad roads. In the fertile prairies of the 
 Geography ^^est, although the land is almost as level as a 
 and good floor, the roads often become impassable in wet 
 weather. Where there are hills, the cost of 
 hauling is twice as much as in a level country, because 
 only half as much can be hauled in each load. The effect 
 of the character of the land on roadways seems not to have 
 been fully considered in America. Many of our roads run 
 straight over hills, or through swamp land, which adds both 
 to the difficulties of transportation and to the expense of 
 keeping the roads in repair. 
 
 The methods of road building and repairing in the 
 United States have been wasteful of the people's money. 
 Wasteful Not onlv has little care been exercised, fre- 
 road ° ^ ° quently, in the location of the roads, but 
 making their construction and repair have been left 
 to the farmers in the neighborhood. In Indiana, for 
 example, each township trustee levies an annual tax on the 
 property of the farmers for the purpose of road improve- 
 ment. This tax may be worked out by the farmers. 
 
TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION 109 
 
 Every able-bodied man between the ages of twenty-one 
 and fifty years, residing in a road district of a township, is 
 required to perform not less than two nor more than four 
 days* labor on the public roads each year or to furnish a 
 substitute; or he may pay to the road overseer ^1.50 a 
 day for each day that he should have worked. 
 
 The making of a good road requires scientific knowledge 
 and skill, and is work that should be supervised by a 
 trained engineer. The practice of requiring the improve- 
 farmers to work on the roads should be aban- ™®°* "^ , 
 
 , t ■ 1 • 1111 methods of 
 
 doned, and the tax, paid m money, should be road 
 devoted to the employment of skilled engineers, making 
 Improvement in the character of the roads has been 
 secured in some cases by placing their management in the 
 hands of the county government instead of leaving it 
 under the control of the township. Management by the 
 county helps to secure more uniformly good roads over a 
 larger area, and makes it possible to secure better super- 
 vision, because the road taxes of the whole county can be 
 devoted to the employment of a county engineer. In those 
 sections where the people have shown that they really 
 want good roads, much progress has been made toward 
 getting them. The first thing necessary is to arouse pub- 
 He interest in the matter. That there has been so little 
 interest in the past is due to ignorance of the importance 
 of the roads to the entire community, and of the methods 
 by which they may be secured. In the last few years the 
 National Good Roads Association has done much to arouse 
 public interest and to secure legislation in many states. 
 The farmers are likely to object to the first cost of im- 
 provements, until it is shown that the better roads enable 
 them to haul larger loads and to make quicker time, thus 
 saving, in a few years, more than the improvements cost. 
 
no THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 In the beginning of our national histon* the question of 
 road making became very important in connection with 
 Construe- the Settlement of the West and the presentation 
 tion of early qj -'^^ Union. Roads and canals were proposed 
 left to the 1^ gi'ss.t numDers. ihe question at once arose 
 states whether the national or the state govern- 
 
 ment should aid in constructing highways. The only 
 clauses in the Constitution that could be interpreted as 
 gi\'ing the national government authority to construct 
 roads were those besto\sTng the power '' to estabUsh post 
 offices and post roads," "to regulate commerce with 
 foreign nations, and among the several states," and to 
 make war. The national government was cautious about 
 exercising powers not expHcitly given to it, and the mak- 
 ing of highways was left chiefly to the states or to private 
 enterprise. IMany turnpikes were built by private com- 
 panies, for the use of which tolls were charged. 
 
 The one great example of road building by the United 
 States government is the National, or Cumberland, Road. 
 This road was authorized by Congress in 1 806, 
 National and was to extend from Cumberland, ]\Id., 
 ^°^^ into Ohio, to aid in the settlement of the West. 
 
 It was extended finally as far west as Illinois. It after- 
 ward passed under the control of the states through which 
 it ran, and thence was given over to the management of 
 tbe counties. 
 
 The introduction of canals and of railroads caused the 
 
 private turnpikes to become unprofitable, and the feeling 
 
 srrew that the countn" highwavs were a matter 
 
 State man- » . o . 
 
 agement of for local management. i\t the present time it 
 roads ^^ recognized that good countr}^ roads are a 
 
 benefit, not only to the farmers li\-ing on them, but also 
 
 to the people of that count}', and even to the whole state, 
 
TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION III 
 
 including the towns and cities. Some of the states, mostly 
 in the East, are therefore making a systematic reform in 
 road making. The movement is slowly spreading west. 
 In New Jersey a state highway law was passed in 1892. It 
 created a state commissioner of public roads, and provided 
 that when two thirds of the property owners along a road 
 petition the county for improvements they shall be made. 
 
 Old Wooden Bridge on the National Road crossing White River, 
 Indianapolis. 
 
 One tenth of the cost is paid by the property owners along 
 the road, one third by the state, and the remainder by the 
 people of the county in which the improvement is made. 
 The expense is thus distributed over the whole state, 
 although the main part is borne by the immediate com- 
 munity. The work is done under the direction of a county 
 engineer, but must be approved by the state commission. 
 Similar systems have been adopted in other states. 
 
 Road making, especially in an unsettled country, is dif- 
 ficult, and the cost of transportation by wagon is heavy. 
 In the early days of our country, therefore, River trans- 
 water routes were always used when possible, portation 
 The rivers were the natural highways into the West, and 
 
112 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 schemes were early proposed to improve them, as when 
 Washington urged the improvement of the Potomac. The 
 invention of the steamboat by Robert Fulton in 1806 gave 
 a great impetus to water transportation, and steamboats 
 were soon plying the rivers, both in the East and in the 
 West, as well as the Great Lakes. The rapid development 
 of railways checked the use of the rivers, although they are 
 still an important factor in the transportation system of 
 our country. The commerce of the Great Lakes has 
 steadily increased, and is to-day of enormous proportions. 
 
 A great deal has been done by state and national gov- 
 ernments for the improvement of our rivers. The River 
 and Harbor Bill, passed every two years by Congress, 
 River and involves one of the heaviest items of expense 
 harbor im- by the government. For the benefit of na\dga- 
 provemen ^.^^ ^^ ^^^ coast the national government has 
 established a coast survey, by which the safe channels and 
 the dangerous points along the coast are charted for the 
 guidance of seamen. 
 
 The advantages of water communication were so great in 
 
 the days before railroads that the construction of canals was 
 
 strongly uro;ed bv manv. Albert Gallatin, in 
 Canals t=> j ^ ^ j > 
 
 Jefferson's administration, proposed a series 
 of coast\\*ise canals from New England to South Carolina. 
 There was great opposition to such improvements at na- 
 tional expense ; and, as in the case of roads, it was left 
 chiefly for the states and private companies to undertake 
 them. The most successful of the early canals built under 
 state authority was the Erie Canal, connecting Lake Erie 
 with the Hudson River and thus with the Atlantic. 
 Its success aroused other states to similar enterprises. 
 Some of these canals were successfully constructed and 
 operated, but most of them were not. 
 
TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION 113 
 
 It was the coming of the railroads that caused the down- 
 fall of the canal schemes. Under certain circumstances 
 canals remain, nevertheless, an important means of trans- 
 portation. The Erie Canal is still an important highway, 
 and the state of New York is now spending ^100,000,000 to 
 improve it so that large modern freight boats may navigate 
 it. The United States government has built a number of 
 important canals in recent times for the purpose of avoid- 
 ing rapids in rivers, or to connect the Great Lakes. One 
 of the largest of these is the canal at Sault Ste. Marie, be- 
 tween Lake Superior on the one hand, and Lakes Huron 
 and Michigan on the other. The greatest canal ever un- 
 dertaken is the Panama Canal now nearing completion by 
 the United States. It has been constructed under the 
 greatest difficulties. Its cost will be about $400,000,000. 
 It will shorten the voyage from New York to San Fran- 
 cisco by 8000 miles, and will be of untold value to the entire 
 world. 
 
 Steam railways revolutionized transportation. They 
 
 quickly displaced most of the older turnpikes and canals, 
 
 and made travel rapid beyond the imagination 
 
 ^ r ^^ ' ^r^i Railfoads 
 
 of the people of earlier times. They soon cov- 
 ered the country with a network of tracks until, at the 
 present time, the railways of the United States would en- 
 circle the globe eight and a half times, without counting 
 second tracks and sidetracks. The importance of the rail- 
 roads in the building of our nation can hardly be over- 
 estimated. It is quite possible that the territory we now 
 occupy could never have been included in a single nation 
 if it were not for the railroads that bind together its widely 
 separated parts. San Francisco and New York are to-day 
 as close together, so far as ease of communication is con- 
 cerned, as New York and Boston were in Washington's 
 
114 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 time. Because of their great service to the country in this 
 way, railroads have at various times been aided by both 
 state and national governments. The national govern- 
 ment gave to many states, in early times, large tracts of 
 public land, the revenue from which was to be used in the 
 work of constructing railroads. When the great Western 
 roads were proposed, Congress gave about 100,000,000 
 acres of land to aid in the enterprise. 
 
 Railroads in this country are owned by corporations 
 chartered by the state governments or, in some cases, by 
 the national government. Since the service they perform 
 is of such a public character their conduct is regulated to 
 a large extent, as we have seen, by the Interstate Commerce 
 Commission (p. 103). Many of the states also have railway 
 commissions and laws to regulate the business of railroads 
 within the state boundaries. There are many who believe 
 that railroads should be owned by the government, as is the 
 case in many European countries. 
 
 Another most important step in binding separate com- 
 munities together, and especially in bringing isolated 
 ^, ^ . communities into relation with lararer centers 
 
 Electnc ^ 
 
 interurban of life, is the recent growth of electric inter- 
 ^^^^ urban railways. Many little communities not 
 
 heretofore touched by steam railways have been brought 
 into the stream of life of the larger community about 
 them. There was a time not long ago when the life of the 
 farmer was a Hfe of isolation. He had few of the advan- 
 tages of the city, and seldom came into intimate contact 
 with the life of the world. All this is rapidly being 
 changed by the building of electric lines through the rural 
 districts, together with the establishment of free rural mail 
 delivery and the extension of telephones in the country. 
 By these means city, town, and rural populations are being 
 
TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION 
 
 bound more closely together. The people mingle more 
 freely. What affects one for good or ill more quickly affects 
 all. The whole country is being united more firmly into 
 a single community. 
 
 A Portion of the Lake Front, Chicago. 
 
 Observe the railroad yards, the piers extending into the lake, and the 
 
 viaduct over the railroads to the piers. 
 
 Compare this scene with that in the illustration on page 140 
 
 The question of transportation in cities is an important 
 one, and presents difficulties not found in rural commu- 
 nities and small towns. First in importance is Transpor- 
 the street itself. All cities have a department cities" «ie 
 of government to manage the construction and street 
 repairing of the streets, and employ engineers who under- 
 
Il6 THE COMML^NITY AXD THE CITIZEN 
 
 Stand the principles of good street making. It is too often 
 true, however, that street commissioners and other officers 
 in control of the streets are appointed as a reward for 
 pohtical ser\'ices rather than because of fitness for the 
 work. Too often large contracts for street making are 
 let, through political favoritism, to men who are more 
 interested in the amount of money they can make out of 
 the job than in the welfare of the community. Such con- 
 tractors, and the officers of government who knowingly 
 employ them, are enemies to the communitv. 
 
 The streets are for the use of the people. No one has a 
 right to block them unnecessarily to the inconvenience or 
 Blocking danger of others. There are ordinances to pre- 
 the streets yQ^t storekeepers and others from blocking the 
 sidewalks with boxes or otherwise. These ordinances are 
 often violated, making the way of the pedestrian both diffi- 
 cult and dangerous, besides making the streets unsightly. 
 In large cities the sidewalks and streets are necessarily 
 crowded, and a sHght accident may block traffic completely 
 for a time. 
 
 It is necessary to use the streets in cities for the laying 
 of sewer, water, and gas pipes, the stretching of telegraph, 
 F hises telephone, and electric-hght wires, and the con- 
 struction of street railways. Franchises for these 
 purposes are granted, on tu'o conditions : first, definite serv- 
 ices must be performed for the people ; and, second, the 
 natural use of the streets by vehicles and pedestrians must 
 not be interfered vrith. Here again we often find the rights 
 of the people disregarded, both by the companies which ob- 
 tain the franchises, and by the government officials who 
 grant them. Sometimes franchises are carelessly drawn up 
 and give away pri\-ileges to companies without safe-guard- 
 ing the rights of the people, Sometimes the officers of 
 
TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION 11/ 
 
 government dishonestly and un patriotically give- away the 
 people's rights for private gain. 
 
 Copyright, 1907, by Underwood ^^ Underwood, New York. 
 
 Transportation in a Large City. 
 
 Life in cities has been almost revolutionized by the devel- 
 opment of rapid transportation by electric trolley cars. In 
 some of the largest cities there are elevated j^ .^ 
 railways, upon which trains are driven without transit in 
 the delays necessary in surface transporta- "*^®^ 
 tion. In New York and other cities there is also a 
 system of subway transportation under the streets. 
 
Il8 THE CO:>IMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 The regular steam railways run trains a few minutes 
 apart between the centers of all large cities and their 
 suburbs. In a single year the surface,, elevated, and sub- 
 way trains in the city of New York carried more than 
 860,000,000 passengers; in Boston, 270,000,000; and in 
 Chicago the surface and elevated roads carried nearly 
 550,000,000. 
 
 The city railways are owmed and operated by private cor- 
 porations under franchises. It has been proposed that cities 
 ^ should acquire possession of their transportation 
 
 Government n r r 
 
 ownership svstems and should operate them themselves, as 
 of railways -^ done in many European cities. It is argued 
 that the ser\-ice could then be made just as good as the 
 people want it, and the fares could be reduced greatly. 
 It is said, in reply to this, that if city governments can- 
 not wiselv and honestly control the giving of franchises, 
 and enforce their terms, how much less likely would the 
 governments be to manage the entire business wisely and 
 honestly. 
 
 In community life there must be an exchange of ideas 
 as well as a means of transporting goods and people. The 
 Communi- nianufacturer must know what kinds of goods 
 cation of the people want and what they will be willing to 
 ^^^^^ pay for them. He must also know where he 
 
 can get his materials for manufacture most advanta- 
 geously. In a large country like ours the people in sections 
 far removed from each other, Hke New England and Cali- 
 fornia, would be likely to develop very great differences 
 in manner of speech, in dress, in ways of thinking, and in 
 forms of government, if they w^ere not in constant com- 
 munication with each other. The exchange of ideas is kept 
 up partly by means of travel. There is a constant min- 
 gUng of the people of different sections. We have, besides, 
 
TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION 119 
 
 our postal system, the telegraph and telephone, and the 
 newspaper. When an important event happens, the news 
 of it is at once flashed to every part of the land and within 
 a few hours, at most, is laid at our doors in the columns 
 of a newspaper. 
 
 The Constitution gives Congress power to create post 
 offices and post roads, and the post-office system has 
 existed from the beginning under the complete Postal 
 control of the national government. At first the system 
 mails were usually carried on horseback, sometimes by 
 boys, or by old men who '* whiled away the hours by knit- 
 ting woolen mittens and stockings" along the way. At 
 the close of the Revolution letters were sent from New 
 York to Boston two or three times a week. It sometimes 
 required five weeks for a letter to go a distance now passed 
 over in a single afternoon. Out of this small beginning 
 has developed the extensive postal system which we enjoy 
 to-day. Formerly, as to-day in very small communities, 
 people went to the post office for their mail ; but now in 
 all cities and large towns it is delivered at their doors. 
 There is also a rural free delivery, postmen driving daily 
 from farmhouse to farmhouse. In 191 3 a parcel post was 
 established, which means a package express service here- 
 tofore performed by private express companies. 
 
 So great is the service performed by the telegraph, the 
 trans-oceanic cable, and the telephone, that it is hard to 
 see how life could go on without these means of Telegraph 
 almost instantaneous communication connecting and 
 business offices or homes, farmer and city dweller, ^ ^^ 
 distant cities, and the nations of the world. The first tele- 
 graph Hne in the United States was owned and operated 
 as a part of the government postal service, as is now the 
 case in some countries, but the telegraph and telephone 
 
120 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 are now in the hands of private corporations. The Post- 
 master General of the United States, in his report for 191 3, 
 expresses his conviction that the Post-office Department 
 should control all these means of communication and his 
 belief that this will ultimately be the policy of the United 
 States as of other countries. 
 
 We must not close this chapter without reference to 
 the wonderful invention of radio-comvuinication — wireless 
 telegraphy — which is one more powerful means of bind- 
 ing _ the whole world into one community with common 
 interests. We prize it especially, perhaps, as a means of 
 saving life on the sea. So much depends upon this means 
 of communication that our government has passed special 
 laws to prevent interference with important messages. 
 Every one who operates a wireless station should conscien- 
 tiously observe these laws. 
 
 FOR INVESTIGATION 
 
 1. Look up the difficulties of travel and transportation in our country 
 in the beginning of the nineteenth centuiy, and their eflfects on the life 
 of the time. 
 
 2. Are the geographical conditions favorable to the making of good 
 roads in your community? What is the condition of the country roads 
 in your neighborhood during the winter? What effect do the road con- 
 ditions have on the life of the farmer? On the life of the town people? 
 
 3. Who has control over the making and repairing of the country 
 roads in your community? How is the expense of keeping them in re- 
 pair met? Do the farmers work out their road tax? Are experienced 
 persons employed to oversee the work of construction and repair? 
 
 4. Look up the histor}^ of road building in your state. Have there 
 been any state roads ? If so, locate them on the map. Is your state 
 government now taking any steps to improve the condition of the coun- 
 try roads ? 
 
 5. Make a report on the history and influence of the National Road. 
 Did it have any particular influence on the settlement of your state ? 
 
 6. Give an account of the use of rivers in your state for transporta- 
 tion. To what extent are they used now? 
 
TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION 12 1 
 
 7. Do you know of any river improvement going on in your state? 
 By whom is it being made, state or national government? 
 
 8. Make a report on the work of the United States Coast Survey. 
 
 9. Make a report on the building and influence of the Erie 
 Canal. 
 
 10. Look up the history of canal building in your state. Have there 
 been any successful canals operated there ? Are any of them still in 
 operation ? 
 
 1 1 . Report on the purpose and history of the Panama Canal. What 
 arrangements did our government have to make with other nations in 
 regard to it? Of what advantage will it be to the world? What special 
 advantages will the United States derive from it? 
 
 12. Report on the early history of railroad building in your 
 state. 
 
 13. If there are interurban electric lines in your neighborhood, re- 
 port what influence they have had on the life of the farmers ; on the 
 prosperity of the cities. 
 
 14. How does your city government manage the building and re- 
 pairing of the streets? If you wanted the street on which you live 
 paved, how would you set about it? How would the expense be 
 met? 
 
 15. Are the ordinances respecting the blocking of sidewalks observed 
 in your community ? 
 
 16. If you have a street railway in your community, find out what 
 the terms of the franchise are with reference to the use of the streets. 
 Also with reference to the paving of the streets through which the 
 tracks run. Are the people getting as good service from the street 
 railways as they should ? If not, why ? 
 
 17. Debate the question, " Street railroads should be owned and 
 operated by the city." 
 
 18. Report on rural free mail delivery in your neighborhood. What 
 influence does it have on the improvement of the country roads ? (See 
 Report of Postmaster General for 1913, pp. 32-33.) 
 
 19. Report on the organization of a large newspaper for the gather- 
 ing and distribution of information. 
 
 20. Report on the laws regulating the use of wireless telegraph by 
 amateurs. (Copies of the regulations may be obtained from the Bureau 
 of Navigation, Department of Commerce, Washington.) 
 
122 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 The Office of Public Roads. Department of Agriculture. Washington, 
 D.C., has issued a series of circulars on the public roads of the differ- 
 ent states, giving the mileage of improved and unimproved roads, road 
 laws, etc. 
 
 Some of the state governments have issued reports on the public 
 roads of these states ; as in Indiana, the Report of the State Geologist 
 for 1905 deals with the Roads and Road Materials of Indiana. 
 
 Henderson, "The Social Spirit of America," chapter VI, " Good Roads and 
 Communication." 
 
 Hart, "Actual Government," chapter XXVII, " Transportation." 
 
 Bryce, "The American Commonwealth," last edition, vol. II, chapter CIII, 
 " Railroads." 
 
 McMaster, "History of the American People," I: 11-13; 40-54; 67-70; II: 
 553-557; 560-563; III: 462-481. These references are good for the conditions 
 of travel and communication in the early histon,^ of our countr^^ Also for the 
 National Road, the Erie Canal, and the establishment of the Coast Survey. 
 
 Earle, Ahce M., " Home Life in Colonial Days," chapter XIV, " Travel, 
 Transportation, and Taverns." 
 
 Earle, Ahce M. " Stage-Coach and Tavern Days." 
 
 Sparks, " The Expansion of the American People," chapters XII, XX, XXI, 
 XXII, XXIII, XXX. An entertaining account of the development of means of 
 transportation. Chapter XXII deals with the Cumberland Road and the Erie 
 Canal. 
 
 Wilcox, "The American Cit>^" chapter II, "The Street," and chapter III, 
 " The Control of PubUc Utihties." 
 
 FairUe, "Municipal Administration," chapter XII, 291-307, "Urban Trans- 
 portation." Makes a comparison between European and American systems. 
 
 Report of the Postmaster General of the United States (1913), Government 
 Printing Qfi&ce, Washington. 
 
 " Promotion of Commerce." An outhne of the ser\ice maintained by the 
 Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce and other bureaus and offices of the 
 Government of the United States. Department of Commerce, Di\ision of PubUca- 
 tions, Washington (1913). 
 
 Report of the Secretan,- of Commerce (1913). Government Printing Office, 
 Washington. 
 
 Official Handbook of the Panama Canal (1913). Published by the Isthmian 
 Canal Commission, Washington. 
 
 In the National Geographic Magazine ior Februar}-, 1911, there is an article on 
 " The Panama Canal," by Col. Geo. W. Goethals. In the same magazine for 
 February, 1914, there is an article on " The Panama Canal," by Lt. Col. W. A. Sibert, 
 one on " Battling with the Panama SUdes," by W. J. Showalter ; and one on " The 
 Probable Effect of the Panama Canal on the Commercial Geography of the World," 
 bv O. P. Austin. 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 
 WASTE AND SAVING 
 
 In the accumulation of wealth, saving is as important 
 as production. Waste must be avoided. There is usually 
 Waste ^ good deal of waste in the household. There 
 
 in the is waste in clothing through lack of proper care, 
 
 ouse o through unwise purchasing of unsuitable ma- 
 terials, and through extravagance in the purchase of un- 
 necessary articles. There is waste in fuel, sometimes by 
 overheating the houses, sometimes by improper care of the 
 furnaces or stoves. One of the greatest wastes is in the 
 matter of food. " Scraps " are thrown away that a skillful 
 housekeeper would use. Unnecessary quantities of food 
 are bought and prepared. Many a good dish is spoiled 
 in the cooking. Another waste is due to ignorance of 
 the nourishing values of different articles of food. The 
 man who works with his hands in the open air, con- 
 stantly exercising his muscles, needs a different kind of 
 nourishment from the student who sits at his desk all day. 
 Those who are fed on the wrong kinds of food, or on food 
 improperly prepared, cannot do as good work as they 
 otherwise could. Not the least important means of secur- 
 ing good citizenship, as shown in effective work in the 
 community, is a better management of the kitchens in the 
 homes of the community. 
 
 It is said that more than three fourths of the household 
 expenditures in our country are made by the women. It 
 
 123 
 
124 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 is a highly important service to the community for the girls 
 who are to become the managers of the households to 
 learn the lesson of saving. In the pioneer days women 
 every girl learned at home the details of house are the 
 management. In modern life, especially in of the 
 cities, it is not always so. It is now recognized iiousehold 
 that, in the attempts to improve the conditions of life in 
 the slums of a city, one of the first things to do is to teach 
 the people who live there how to save in their households, 
 in order to get the best results from what they have. 
 
 In recent years the school has been assuming some of 
 the responsibility for the education of the girls in domestic 
 science. Courses in cooking and sewing are jj^g respon- 
 offered in an increasingly large number of pub- sibiiity of 
 lie and private schools. Universities are 
 training young women to become teachers of domestic 
 science. It is being recognized, as it should be, that the 
 skillful management of a household is as useful and honor- 
 able a service to the community as the management of a 
 business. 
 
 The successful business man always tries to avoid waste. 
 By introducing smoke consumers, or by employing skillful 
 stokers, he converts the smoke of his furnaces waste in 
 into steam power instead of pouring it out in business 
 clouds over the community. In a well-managed sawmill 
 not only is the body of the logs sawed into lumber, but the 
 waste from this process is made into tool handles, chair 
 rounds, and other small articles. The pieces of wood that 
 are too small for manufacturing purposes may be sold in 
 cities for kindling. Even the sawdust is put to various 
 uses. When the refining of petroleum oil was first begun, 
 there was a great deal of waste product. From this 
 former waste there are now produced many valuable by- 
 
WASTE AND SAVING 125 
 
 products, such as paraffin, vaseline, and dyestuffs. The 
 by-products of a manufacturing process are sometimes 
 more valuable than the main product. 
 
 Another kind of wastefulness is common in the home, 
 in industry, in personal and public affairs. One's kitchen 
 may be so poorly arranged that many unneces- scientific 
 sary steps are taken in doing the daily work ; manage- 
 or, it may not be the fault of the arrangement °^^° 
 but of lack of plan in doing the work. Sometimes we see 
 people working with tools that are dull or poorly adapted 
 to the task in hand, when a Httle thought given to the 
 matter, or a little time spent in putting the tools in good 
 condition, would save time and effort besides securing 
 better results. A brick mason once observed that many 
 unnecessary motions were made in laying bricks. By de- 
 vising a new kind of scaffolding which could always be 
 kept in the same position in relation to the top of the wall, 
 and by other adaptations, he made it possible for a man to 
 lay two or three times as many bricks as before with no 
 greater effort. 
 
 A new profession has recently developed out of such 
 facts, known as ** efficiency engineering." The " efficiency 
 engineer " makes a business of studying industrial plants 
 or business offices or occupations with a view to determin- 
 ing how to get the largest possible results with the least 
 waste of time, energy, and materials. The results are se- 
 cured through " scientific management." While in a large 
 business or industrial undertaking it may be necessary to 
 employ a specially trained efficiency engineer, the principle 
 of scientific management may be employed by each of us in 
 our daily work. 
 
 Saving does not mean hoarding. He who hoards is 
 really wasteful, for the money that he hoards might be in- 
 
126 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 vested in such a way that it would produce more wealth. 
 He might buy machinery with it for manufac- 
 is not turing purposes ; he might build houses with 
 
 hoarding -^ ^^ rent; he might buy a stock of goods 
 with it, and sell them at profit ; or he might lend the 
 money to others who wish the use of it and receive interest. 
 
 It is the duty of every person to save by investing the 
 surplus of his earnings, so far as he is able to do so. In the 
 g .^ ^ first place, he should endeavor to put it beyond 
 investment a possibility that he shall ever be a burden on 
 IS a uty others for his support, or for the support of his 
 family, in time of sickness, old age, or lack of employment. 
 In the second place, it is through the investment of sav- 
 ings that productive industries are maintained, and the 
 wealth of the community is increased. The man who 
 saves by investment supplies the community with factories, 
 machinery, railways, and other forms of capital. He also 
 becomes an employer of labor. He thus contributes to 
 the prosperity of the community. 
 
 A postal savings system was estabhshed by the United 
 States government in 191 1. At the end of two and one- 
 Postal sav- half years there were $ 33,818,870 on deposit in 
 ings banks 12,820 post offices that had been designated as 
 depositories. Practically all of this large sum is made up 
 of small savings that had been hidden away by wage- 
 earners, many of them foreigners, who have confidence in 
 the government but not in private savings banks. Many 
 children make use of this method of saving. Savings 
 stamps and savings cards may be bought at the post oflfice 
 banks to help save amounts less than a dollar. When the 
 amount reaches one dollar it may be deposited. This 
 postal savings system is a benefit to the individual, by af- 
 fording safety to his savings and paying interest on them, 
 
WASTE AND SAVING 12/ 
 
 and also to the community, for it has drawn out from hid- 
 ing places this large sum of money, which is thus placed 
 in circulation for business purposes. 
 
 Another means of saving is by insurance. A person 
 may insure his property against loss by fire, storm, or bur- 
 glary (see p. 74). He may also insure his family 
 
 , r 1 ,. • . 1 1- Insurance 
 
 or others dependent upon him agamst loss by 
 reason of his death or injury. As in the case of fire in- 
 surance, the premiums that he and thousands of others 
 pay to a life or accident insurance company constitute a 
 fund, which the company greatly increases by investment, 
 and from which losses are paid to his beneficiaries (those 
 who benefit by his insurance). By one form of life in- 
 surance, the endowment plan, the insured person may him- 
 self receive the full amount of his policy at the end of a 
 ten, fifteen, or twenty year period, if he lives that long. 
 In case of his death before the expiration of the period, 
 his beneficiaries receive the full amount. 
 
 Life insurance companies have a peculiarly sacred obli- 
 gation, for they pledge themselves to protect widows and 
 orphans against financial loss. Dishonesty or bad man- 
 agement on their part is therefore especially blameworthy, 
 as in the case of savings banks, where thousands of poor 
 people deposit their small savings. Therefore the govern- 
 ment subjects these corporations to careful investigation, 
 and has enacted laws for the protection of policy holders 
 against misuse of their insurance investments. 
 
 The very abundance of the natural resources of our 
 country has led us as a people to be wasteful conservation 
 of them. Threatening exhaustion of some of of natural 
 them has called attention to national spend- ^®^°"^*^®s 
 thrift habits, and forced our government to take steps to 
 ''conserve " these sources of wealth. 
 
128 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 The rapid occupation of all available farming land led 
 to the reclamation by irrigation of vast areas of supposedly 
 waste land (see page 51). But even after its reclamation 
 about half of it still remains idle. One reason for this is 
 Reclamation ^'^^^ much of the irrigated land was taken up 
 of land by "speculators,"' men who buy the land and 
 
 hold it without farming it, expecting that it will increase 
 in value through the improvement of other lands in the 
 neighborhood by real settlers. While the speculators 
 make large profits through the efforts of others, their land 
 lies idle, and is therefore waste so far as national benefit 
 is concerned. Such speculation has occurred also in 
 mineral and other lands. In his annual report of 191 3, 
 the Secretary of the Interior urges that the government 
 take steps to prevent the acquisition of public lands except 
 by settlers who will make them productive. 
 
 When there were still available large areas of fertile 
 land, it did not seem necessary to force each acre to pro- 
 duce all that it was capable of producing. With the 
 increasing needs of the people, it has become necessar}^ 
 Conservation ^^ consenv'e the resources of the soil, which 
 of the son means to make it yield all that it can at the 
 same time that its power to yield in the future is not 
 impaired. In the Department of Agriculture of the 
 national government there is a Bureau of Soils, which 
 studies the soils in all parts of the countr}^ and instructs 
 farmers how to presence or increase the soil fertiht}-, and 
 how to get the largest possible returns. The national 
 government cooperates in such work with the state gov- 
 ernments, many of which have agricultural departments 
 and agricultural schools and experiment stations. 
 
 Our forest resources have been sadly wasted by forest 
 fires, by destructive methods of cutting timber, and in 
 
WASTE AND SAVING 1 29 
 
 other ways. This means not only the loss of the timber, 
 but also an increased danger of floods with their con- 
 sequent losses ; the drying up of the sources of 
 streams, thus interfering with navigation, irri- 
 gation, and water power ; and the more rapid erosion of 
 the soil itself. The national government maintains a 
 Forest Service, whose work of forest conservation is saving 
 enormous wealth to the country. Many of the state gov- 
 ernments are doing similar work. The national govern- 
 ment has set aside a large number of national forests (see 
 page 51), not for the purpose of preserving them as they 
 stand, but to make them yield as much wealth to the 
 nation as possible for all time to come. 
 
 Water is a source of great wealth, and a cause of 
 much destruction. Millions of dollars' worth waste from 
 of damage is caused annually by floods. The floods 
 work of the government in building levees along the 
 banks of rivers to prevent flood destruction has already 
 been mentioned (page 85). One purpose of the national 
 forests on the watersheds of the country is to reduce the 
 danger from floods. In some parts of the country, as in 
 New England, reservoirs are constructed to receive and 
 hold flood waters to prevent their overflowing the country. 
 This " impounding " of flood waters in reservoirs is not 
 only to prevent them from doing harm ; it is also to force 
 them to do good. The floods thus imprisoned may be let 
 out gradually in dry seasons to irrigate the land, as in 
 the reclaimed lands of the West, or to furnish water power. 
 
 Niagara Falls and other sources of water power have 
 been harnessed to generate electrical power by which cities 
 are lighted, street cars propelled, and wheels of industry 
 turned. But only a small fraction of the power available 
 in this country is used at present. 
 
I30 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 As communities grow in size, it becomes increasingly 
 difficult and costly to provide every one with an adequate 
 Water con- supply of pure water. The water supply system 
 servation of Philadelphia has cost about S62, 000,000 and 
 requires one and a quarter miUion dollars a year for its 
 operation ; but so rapidly has the city grown that the 
 present system is hardly adequate in the summer months. 
 New York City is expending about $176,000,000 on its 
 new water supply from the Catskill Mountains. So easy 
 is it for a person to supply his needs from the tap in the 
 wall or the hydrant on the lawn, that he forgets that water 
 is not as free as the air he breathes. It even seems absurd 
 to many people to speak of "wasting water." But it is 
 one of the most common forms of waste. It has been 
 estimated that by installing water meters throughout 
 Philadelphia, a saving of 32,600,000 gallons daily could 
 be effected, enousfh to relieve the strain on the water 
 system for five years, at the present rate of the city's 
 growth. ]\Iuch can be done by each person to conserve 
 the communitv's water supplv. A very tiny stream run- 
 ning constantly may mean a large waste in 
 
 / ^y At 40 pounds pressure, in 24 hom's, 
 
 .... a stream running through this size of opening would 
 mean a waste of 170 gallons, 
 
 170 
 
 970 
 3600 
 
 through this opening a waste of 970 gallons, and 
 
 through this opening a waste of 3600 gallons. 
 
 the course of a day. The accompanying il- 
 lustration, furnished by the Superintendent of 
 
 Water Works of Milwaukee, Wis., will make this matter 
 
 plain. 
 
WASTE AND SAVING I31 
 
 Land, soil, forests, and water are only a few of the 
 natural resources that have been wasted, and that the 
 government is seeking to conserve for perma- ^0^5^^^- 
 nent use. At the end of this chapter will be tion of other 
 found references to interesting accounts of this ^®^°"^^®^ 
 work of the government, including that of the Bureau of 
 Mines in conserving our mineral resources ; that of the 
 Bureau of Fisheries in conserving the life of our streams, 
 lakes, and coasts; that of the Departments of the Interior 
 and Agriculture in protecting bird life largely to save 
 crops and trees from the ravages of insects. In some of 
 this work of conservation we may all have a direct part, 
 as in protecting birds and in preventing waste of water. 
 And in all cases we may help to mold pubHc opinion 
 against wastefulness and to cultivate habits of thrift. 
 
 On page 71 reference was made to the enormous waste 
 by fire in the United States, much of which is preventable. 
 
 Oreranizations are growino^ up in various places 
 
 ,., . ? .? ^ ^, . Fire waste 
 
 which, in cooperation with government authori- 
 ties, are seeking to impress on the people the needlessness 
 of this waste and how they can help to prevent it. This 
 is a work in which children can do much to help. 
 
 Wastefulness is often found in the management of the 
 community's business by government. It is seen in many 
 forms. Through a false idea of economy im- Waste in 
 provements that would result in real economy government 
 are not made, as when roads or streets are allowed to re- 
 main unimproved, thus causing an unnecessary expense 
 in transportation. For lack of funds pavements that have 
 been built at great expense are allowed to go without repair 
 from year to year until the whole work has to be done 
 over again ; or the equipment of a fire department may 
 be allowed to deteriorate, while the loss from fires in- 
 
132 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 creases. In Philadelphia a saving of 330,000 a year was 
 effected merely by a simple improvement of methods of 
 cleaning the city hall. In Chicago 3200,000 a year was 
 saved in the time of city employees by a slight change in 
 the method by which they received their salary checks 
 and had them cashed. 
 
 Wastefulness in government may sometimes be attributed 
 to the incompetence of officials, sometimes to their dishon- 
 Who is estv. It is sometimes due to too little sense of 
 
 responsible ' ., .,. . . ^ , . ,. 
 
 for an responsibility on their part for the wise expendi- 
 
 economicai ture of monev that belongs to the public; for 
 
 govern- ' ^ 
 
 ment? '"the public "' means to them nobody in particular. 
 
 It is most often due, however, to bad management, to 
 ineffective methods. But after all, wastefulness in the 
 government of the community is largely the fault of the 
 citizens themselves. They are inclined to place the respon- 
 sibility for unwise expenditures and other forms of waste- 
 fulness upon the officers of government, unmindful of the 
 fact that it is their own business that is being mismanaged. 
 Each citizen owes it to himself and to the community to use 
 everv means at his command to secure an economical 
 administration of the affairs of his community. One way 
 of doing this is by keeping thoroughly informed about 
 what the government is doing and how it does it, and by 
 insisting that full information be provided by government 
 itself, A person is alwavs stimulated to do his best work 
 when he knows that his employers are interested in it and 
 understand his duties and his problems. One of the best 
 reasons why every citizen should know how his govern- 
 ment is organized and how it works, is for the effect that 
 this knowledge may have, not upon the citizen himself, but 
 upon those who are attending to the citizen's business in 
 go\*ernment positions. 
 
WASTE AND SAVING 133 
 
 FOR INVESTIGATION 
 
 1. What are some of the ways in which you are wasteful? 
 
 2. What are some ways of preventing waste in your household? 
 
 3. Is the kitchen in your home so arranged as to secure economy of 
 time and of steps? Can you suggest ways of improving it? 
 
 4. By "scientific management" can you find a way of preparing 
 your school work better and in shorter time, and thus save time for 
 recreation and other activities ? 
 
 5. Investigate some factory or business establishment to find out 
 how waste is avoided. 
 
 6. Visit a gas factory and find out what by-products of value result 
 from the manufacture of gas. 
 
 7. What other industries do you know in which there are useful by- 
 products ? 
 
 8. What are some of the ways in which men save by investment? 
 Show how each of these methods of investment benefits the community. 
 
 9. Report on the postal savings system (see references). 
 
 10. Report on barren or swamp lands in your locality or state that 
 have been or might be reclaimed. 
 
 11. Report on forest conservation by the national government. By 
 your own state government. 
 
 12. What are the farmers in your locality doing to conserve the 
 soil? 
 
 13. Report on the conservation of bird life. How does this result 
 in saving for the farmers ? How can you help the farmers in this 
 matter? 
 
 14. Report on the conservation of fish and game by the national 
 government. 
 
 15. Report instances of economies eiTected in city government by the 
 use of scientific management (see references to Bureaus of Municipal 
 Research). 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 " The Problem of Waste," Independent, 55 : 1324. 
 
 " A Century of Waste," Independent, 52 : 2400. 
 
 " The Utilization of Wastes," Engineering Magazine, 26: 118. 
 
 " Reclaiming Waste," Current Literature, 30 : 743. 
 
 " Conserving Waste Products," World's Work, 4 : 2352. 
 
 " The Utilization of Waste," Forum, 32 : 74. 
 
 " The Wastes of a Great City," Scribners Magazine, 34 : 387. 
 
 Goodrich, " The Economic Disposal of a Town's Refuse." 
 
134 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 " Changing Garbage Disposal from an Expense to a Revenue," Attierican City, 
 9: 244-5 (September, 1913). 
 
 " Food from Waste Products," Literary Digest, 46: 15 (January 4, 1913). 
 
 " Power from Waste Fuel," Scientific American Supplement, 75: 267 (April 26, 
 
 1913)- 
 
 "Wealth from Wasted Gas," Technical World, 19: 37 (March, 1913). 
 
 On Scientific Management see '• Readers' Guide to Periodical Litera- 
 ture." A few references are : 
 
 " Story of Emerson, High- Priest of the New Science of Efficiency," Review of 
 Reviews, 48: 305-315 (September, 1913). 
 
 " Putting ^\^oman and Her Home on a Business Basis," Review of Reviews 
 (Februar}', 19 14). 
 
 " Scientific Management in the Home," Outlook, April 13, 1912, and Sept. 14, 
 1912; Current Opinion, April, 1914. 
 
 " Efficiency Movement," Harper s Weekly, Nov. 2, 1912. 
 
 " Work done by the Economy and Efficiency Commission at Washington," 
 Syste7n, April, 1913. 
 
 On Conservation of Natural Resources, see •• Readers" Guide." 
 f" The following government publications are valuable (Government 
 Printing Office, Washington, D.C.) : 
 
 I2th Annual Report of the Reclamation Service (1913)'. 
 
 Report of the Secretar\^ of the Interior (1913), pp. 1-24; 55-69; 70-71; 93-94. 
 
 Report of the Director of the Bureau of Mines (1913), pp. 10-13; '^9- 
 
 United States Bureau of Fisheries : Its Organization, Operations, and Achieve- 
 ments (19 10). 
 
 Fish-Culttural Practices in the United States Bureau of Fisheries (1910). 
 
 " A Primer of Forestry," by Gifford Pinchot, Farmers' Bulletin issued by Depart- 
 ment of Agriculture (1911), 
 
 " Status of Forestr}- in the United States," by Treadwell Cleveland, Forestry 
 Bulletin (1909). 
 
 Report of the Secretaiy of Agriculture (1913). 
 
 Report of the Third Assistant Postmaster General (1913), pp. 27-40, on Postal 
 Savings. 
 
 The Bureau of Municipal Research, 261 Broadway, New York City, and the 
 similar Bureaus of Philadelphia, Cincinnati, and other cities, publish literature 
 illustrating vividlv waste and economies in cit\- governments. 
 
CHAPTER XV 
 
 HOW THE COMMUNITY AIDS THE CITIZEN TO SATISFY 
 HIS DESIRE FOR KNOWLEDGE 
 
 In 1607 the first permanent English colony was founded 
 in Virginia. Sixty-four years after its founding Governor 
 Berkeley reported to the king on the condition of 
 Berkeley on the colony, and among other things he said, " I 
 education thank God there are no free schools nor printing, 
 and I hope we shall not have, these hundred years." A 
 statement like this from one in authority seems strange to 
 us now, when one of our chief causes of pride is our system 
 of free schools and our busy printing presses. It is a good 
 example of the belief of despotic rulers that much knowl- 
 edge on the part of the people is dangerous. It is true 
 that a despotic government cannot exist in a nation where 
 the mass of the people are educated. What Governor Berke- 
 ley wanted to see was a colony of loyal subjects of the king, 
 contented because ignorant of their rights and powers, and 
 without ambition to extend their liberties by revolting against 
 the government of the king and his officers. 
 
 Fortunately for the growth of a free and self-governing 
 people. Governor Berkeley's ideas were not to prevail. 
 The people of Virginia were eager enough for schools, 
 The New though geographical conditions hindered their 
 England development. Within a few years from the 
 ^^^^ founding of Virginia, another group of colonists 
 
 founded Massachusetts. Here a law was passed providing 
 
 135 
 
136 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 that in every town of fifty householders an elementary 
 school was to be estabUshed, and in every town of one 
 hundred householders, a grammar school. New England 
 grew under a system of free schools, free discussion, and 
 a free press, and because of these things, one hundred 
 years after Berkeley's time became a center of rebellion 
 against English oppression. 
 
 We must look first to the family as the most important 
 arrangement for the education of the citizen. If education 
 were left entirely to the family, however, it would ^j^ ^ 
 be inadequately and unequally provided. A iiyand 
 large proportion of the citizens of America are ^^^^^^^°°- 
 foreigners. They and their children would make little 
 headway in acquiring the knowledge that makes them in- 
 telHgent citizens if their education were left for their families 
 to accompHsh. The children of wealthy families might be 
 highly educated by means of books and travel, and by the 
 employment of private teachers at home; while the children 
 of wage earners would have to get along with very little 
 education. It is not a high degree of education on the part 
 of a few that makes a republic like ours great. It is rather 
 a fairly generous amount of knowledge permeating all ranks 
 and classes. Since the community is to be the gainer by 
 it, the community must afford a means of education that 
 shall be within the reach of all. 
 
 As was stated at the beginning of this chapter, Massa- 
 chusetts at an early time recognized the importance of a 
 generally educated people by establishing a sys- Education a 
 tern of public schools. Connecticut made a fundamen- 
 
 . ., . . r -1^1 , . tal idea of 
 
 Similar provision soon afterward. Other colonies our govern- 
 and sections of the country were slower about ™®^^ 
 providing for the general education of the people, 
 but in the course of time the Massachusetts way has 
 
EDUCATION 137 
 
 become characteristic of the American community. 
 One of the foundation ideas of our free country is that 
 there shall be the greatest possible freedom of thought and 
 the most widespread information among the people. After 
 the Revolutionary War, when the Ordinance of 1787 was en- 
 acted by Congress for the government of the Western lands, 
 it provided that " religion, morality, and knowledge being 
 necessary to good government and the happiness of man- 
 kind, schools and the means of education shall be forever 
 encouraged." When new states were created out of this 
 Western land, it was provided that each should reserve one 
 section of every township for school purposes. States ad- 
 mitted after 1848 were to reserve two sections of each town- 
 ship. Thus began the public school system in the great 
 West. In the law of 1906, providing for the admission 
 of Indian Territory and Oklahoma as the state of Okla- 
 homa, it was provided that the proceeds from the sale of 
 all public lands should be used for school purposes. 
 
 The public schools of the United States are one of the 
 largest items of expense to the government. In 1911-12 
 the states expended on their public elementary 
 and high schools $482,886,793. This amounts cost of 
 to about $26 a year for each child enrolled. Why education 
 
 , - , . , , - , is justified 
 
 should the community expend so much tor the 
 education of its young people } Do they receive this edu- 
 cation freely from the community for their own advantage 
 alone ? Community life is never one-sided. The child is 
 educated by the community not that he may get more out of 
 life (although it is true that he may), but that he may be 
 able to give mo7'e to the well-being of the community. Our 
 nation is annually investing millions of dollars in its young 
 people, expecting to get its returns in greatly increased 
 efficiency in the services rendered to it by its citizens. 
 
138 
 
 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 Training for citizenship is accomplished by the school 
 chiefly in two ways : 
 
 I. Through a course of instruction that will unfold to 
 the pupil his various relations to life, and that will develop 
 
 his powers of clear thinking and right action, 
 schools ^Ve usually think of civics and history as the 
 
 train for -(iwo subjects intended to train for citizenship, 
 
 but every subject in the course of study should 
 contribute to the same end. Language, literature, mathe- 
 matics, science, manual arts, and vocational training, are 
 
 The William Clark School, St. Louis, Mo. 
 all intended to broaden the view of the individual, to de- 
 velop an all-round manhood and womanhood, to cultivate 
 the different desires and powers in such a way as to fit the 
 individual for life in the community. 
 
 2. The second way in which the school should train for 
 citizenship is in the life of the school itself. The school 
 is a community and is also a part of the larger community 
 about it. It is a mistake to think that the school is merely 
 a place to prepare for Hfe. It is life. School children are 
 doing just what the community expects them to be doing 
 during their time of life. By so doing they are contrib- 
 uting to the welfare of the community as well as receiving 
 a benefit from it. 
 
EDUCATION 139 
 
 People learn to do things by practice. AH the principles 
 of community life found in the world outside of the school 
 are found also within the school. Here are xheprinci- 
 grouped together a number of people with dif- p^^^ p^ 'j?™- 
 fering desires and motives, but all possessing found in 
 certain common interests. Here are probably *^® school 
 represented several different nationalities going through 
 the process of being molded into Americans by common 
 instruction and by association with each other. Here are 
 children from all classes in the community, all on an 
 exactly equal footing before the laws of the school, and 
 with exactly equal opportunities of showing their worth 
 and winning advancement by their own efforts. This is 
 the real idea of democracy that we are trying to realize in 
 our national and local communities. If we ever realize it 
 perfectly, it will be largely through the influence of the 
 public schools. 
 
 In the school is found the necessity for industry and 
 productive work ; for a division of tasks and united action, 
 under the direction of teachers, for the common good. 
 Here is seen the necessity for organization and govern- 
 ment in order that the greatest good for the greatest 
 number may be secured. Here more or less responsi- 
 bihty rests upon each member for the welfare of all. 
 Failure or wrongdoing on the part of one not only brings 
 disaster to himself, but tends to disturb the harmony and 
 well-being of all. Certain phases of school life tend to de- 
 velop particular quaUties of good citizenship ; in athletics 
 courage, decisiveness in action, and the spirit of square 
 dealing are emphasized. And so in the life of the school 
 habits are formed by practice that will work good or ill by 
 being perpetuated in the life of the larger community out- 
 side of the school. 
 
140 
 
 THE COMML'XITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 In order to give pupils practice in community govern- 
 ment, many schools are organized somewhat on the plan 
 Pupil par- of a city or state, with corresponding officers, 
 ticipationin ^^^^-^ ^^ ^ mavor, councilmen, and judges. The 
 
 scnool - J ^ 
 
 government '' school city" plan of pupil self-government is 
 widely known. In other cases a large degree of pupil 
 participation in the management of the school is secured 
 
 The Work-shop of a Special School for Boys. 
 without anv special organization like that of the school 
 city. Opinions differ as to the desirability of the various 
 self-government plans. It is clear, however, that no ma- 
 chinery of self-government can be successful without a 
 real community spirit among both pupils and teachers. 
 Furthermore, it is important to remember that the school 
 is not a city or a state, but a sc/ioo/ community, differing in 
 manv particulars from the former. However valuable it 
 may be, as a means of instruction, to adopt the form of 
 
EDUCATION 141 
 
 government found in the community outside of the school, 
 the really important thing is to form habits of good private 
 citizenship in the school community, under the natural 
 conditions found in school life. 
 
 Education is not only a privilege ; it is a duty, because 
 every citizen owes it to his community to equip himself to 
 render the best citizenship possible. In most Education 
 of the states there are laws which require every * *^^*y 
 child to attend school until a certain age (usually fourteen, 
 fifteen, or sixteen), and parents are held responsible for the 
 attendance of their children. A great many pupils, how- 
 ever, drop out at the end of each grade for various reasons, 
 so that a large proportion of those who enter fail to com- 
 plete the entire course of the elementary school. The 
 United States Bureau of Education estimates that only 
 about one-fourth of the children who enter the first grade 
 of the elementary school reach the high school, and of 
 these only about forty per cent graduate. 
 
 What is the cause of this loss in school attendance ? It 
 is due in part to the fact that backward pupils, those who 
 repeatedly fail of promotion, and reach the age ^^^ ^ 
 when they may legally leave school before they children 
 complete the course, dislike to remain in the leave school? 
 lower grades with children much younger than themselves. 
 It used to be thought that many of those who left did so 
 because they ** had to work " to contribute to the support 
 of their families. Investigations have shown, however, 
 that it is not so often a real necessity of going to work, 
 as it is a failure on the part of children and their parents 
 to see why remaining in school is of any great advantage 
 after the child is old enough to ''get a job." 
 
 These facts have led educators and others to study 
 seriously the question whether the schools are doing all 
 
142 THE COMMUNITY .A^■D THE CITIZEN 
 
 that they should for their pupils. Surely, if parents are 
 required to keep their children in school until fourteen or 
 Adjusting sLxteen years of age, it ought to be made plain 
 schools to that it is worth while. It ought to be made so 
 pupub nee s ^i^^ ^^^^ ^ -j^^y qj. g^j would be eager to 
 
 remain until the course is completed, even if it required 
 a longer time than tiiat fixed by law. Study of this 
 question is leading to some important changes in school 
 methods. It is leading to greater attention to the needs 
 and capacities of the individual pupil. PupUs who have 
 particular difficulties are given particular attention, and 
 are not allowed to fall behind or drop out simply because 
 others in the class have less difficult}-. In some cases 
 there are special classes or special schools for pupils who 
 do not get on well in the regular grades or who have 
 special interests. In such schools manual or vocational 
 training usually has a large place. But most important of 
 all is the attempt that is being made by school authorities 
 to adjust the entire course of study and the methods of 
 teaching more closely to the real needs and interests of 
 the pupUs, and to make it e\ident to ever}- boy and girl 
 that it is to their interest to remain in school as long as 
 possible. 
 
 While the average cost of education throughout the 
 
 U::::ed States is about S26 for each pupil enrolled, the 
 
 cost of high schools is more than S50 for ever^- 
 
 The respon- . -> j 
 
 sibiiity of pupil enrolled in them. This higher education 
 the high Qf ^ few bv the community- demands in return 
 
 school pupil ' . , ' . .—. 
 
 greater semce to the commumt}\ The com- 
 munit}^ has a right to expect more from an educated man 
 
 than from an uneducated one; more from a high school 
 graduate than from one who has not attended high school. 
 A hberal education is not intended to reheve a person 
 
EDUCATION 143 
 
 from hard work, but to fit him for more and better work 
 than he could do otherwise. 
 
 The duty of education falls on the state, and not on the 
 national government. The state, in turn, has left the 
 matter largely in the hands of the local com- „, . 
 munities. For this reason we find a good deal in the hands 
 of variety in the organization and management ^^cai^^^ *^^ 
 of schools. Usually, in rural communities, the govern- 
 township or county is divided into school °^®^*^ 
 districts. If the district is small, it has but one school. 
 Sometimes the township, or even the county, constitutes 
 a single district, and then there are probably several 
 schools under a single management. In some cases 
 the school business is transacted directly by the voters of 
 the district, who assemble at stated times for the purpose. 
 Usually it is placed in the hands of one or more com- 
 mitteemen or trustees, who are elected by the people. In 
 most cases all the schools of a county are united under the 
 management of a board, which sometimes con- Township 
 sists of the several township trustees. The ^nd county 
 
 ^ manage- 
 
 board of trustees looks after the school build- ment 
 ings, employs teachers, and often selects the text-books to 
 be used. In order to secure uniformity and excellence in 
 all the schools of the county there is usually a county 
 superintendent, appointed by the board or elected by the 
 people, whose business it is to supervise the actual work 
 of the schools. 
 
 Rural schools are often poorly organized. The terms 
 are too short. Pupils of all ages and all stages of advance- 
 ment are grouped together in one room, often in the same 
 classes, and taught by the same teacher. This defect 
 has in some places been partly overcome by consolidating 
 the schools of the township in one centrally located build- 
 
144 
 
 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 ing, where the pupils can be graded, and where several 
 teachers can be employed under the supervision of a prin- 
 The organ- ^ip^^- ^ single township high school is often 
 secured by this method of consolidation, al- 
 though the separate districts could not support 
 one. The difficulty in the way of consolidation 
 has been the distance the pupils have to travel 
 from the remote parts of the township. This difficulty 
 has been met in some states by providing means of con- 
 veyance at pubhc expense. 
 
 ization and 
 manage- 
 ment of 
 country 
 schools 
 
 City schools 
 
 A Rural District School. 
 
 In cities the organization of schools can be more per- 
 fectly effected. The large number of children makes it 
 possible to grade them from the primary classes 
 up to the high school. The compactness of the 
 population makes it easier to supervise the work of all the 
 schools alike and to secure unity throughout the school 
 system. Better buildings, better equipment, and better 
 teachers can be afforded. The schools are under the 
 management of a board, the members of which are some- 
 times elected by the people and sometimes appointed, and 
 a superintendent, w^ho is usually elected by the board. 
 
EDUCATION 
 
 145 
 
 City school boards are usually given wide powers in 
 school matters, and act more or less independently of the 
 other branches of the government, in order to secure free- 
 dom from political influence. 
 
 Conditions of life in cities differ so much from condi- 
 tions in the country that the state allows cities great lib- 
 
 A Consolidated Rural School in Indiana. 
 
 Observe the large number of children in attendance, and the wagons by which 
 they are carried to and from school. 
 
 erty in organizing and managing their school systems. 
 The schools of the smaller towns and rural districts are 
 usually controlled in their general methods by a g^^^^ 
 central state authority. There is a state board control of 
 of education, and often a state superintendent. 
 The state superintendent is chosen sometimes by elec- 
 tion, sometimes by appointment. In some states the 
 text-books used are prescribed for the whole state by the 
 
146 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 state board of education. In some cases they are fur. 
 nished free to the pupils at the expense of the state. 
 
 A number of the states provide state universities for the 
 higher education of their young men and women. These 
 state universities afford not only a broad collegiate 
 
 universities education that will better fit any one for life in 
 the community, but they also offer special training for the 
 law, for medicine, for engineering, and for other profes- 
 sions. Attendance at the state universities is usually free 
 to citizens of the state ; but so excellent are these institu- 
 tions that they generally attract students from other states, 
 who are required to pay tuition. 
 
 While education is thus chiefly in the hands of the state, 
 the national government is not wholly inactive in the mat- 
 Educational ter. We have seen how it gave a start to the 
 nat^ionai ^ educational work of the states by the donation 
 government of tracts of land. In addition to this it has 
 established a Bureau of Education, at the head of which is 
 the United States Commissioner of Education. His duties 
 are chiefly to collect information on educational matters, 
 to publish this information in reports and bulletins, and to 
 exercise an influence on educational movements through- 
 out the country. The national government maintains mili- 
 tary and naval schools, schools for the Indians, and schools 
 for the city of Washington. 
 
 We have given our attention to the public school system 
 as the chief means of education directly controlled by 
 0th government. But.it must not be supposed that 
 
 educational this is all the community does for this purpose, 
 institutions -pj-^gj-g g^j-g thousands of private schools scattered 
 over the country, especially in the cities. There are paro- 
 chial schools ; that is, schools managed by certain churches, 
 as in the case of the Roman Catholic church. There are 
 
EDUCATION 
 
 147 
 
 many colleges which are self-supporting, or derive their 
 support from private funds. There are schools for the 
 deaf and dumb, and for the blind, supported by the state. 
 There are thousands of libraries all over the country, many 
 of which are public libraries for the free use of the citizens. 
 These are a valuable ally of the public schools, and are 
 sometimes managed by the school board in cities. Many 
 
 
 % 
 
 
 High School, Fort Wayne, Ind. 
 
 of the states have state libraries, and at Washington 
 there is the great Congressional library, a national in- 
 stitution. 
 
 In the colonial days of New England the town meeting 
 was one of the greatest educational forces. Here the peo- 
 ple gathered to discuss matters of common in- Freedom of 
 terest. Every citizen was educated on matters speech, of 
 
 the press, 
 
 of public importance. This widespread infor- and of 
 mation is important in a republic like ours. The assemblage 
 love of meeting together to discuss public questions, or to 
 hear them discussed by well-informed persons, is very 
 
148 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 striking in America. We have only to compare ourselves 
 with some of the countries of the world, like Russia, where 
 men may be sent into exile for expressing their thoughts 
 too freely, where public meetings are largely forbidden, 
 and where no news may be printed in the newspapers 
 until it has been examined by government officials, to be 
 thankful that our Constitution provides that " Congress 
 shall make no law . . . abridging the freedom of speech, 
 or of the press, or the right of the people freely to assem- 
 ble" (Amendment I). 
 
 The town meeting has almost disappeared. But in its 
 place manv other means for the discussion of public ques- 
 tions have arisen. In this connection we again come back 
 to the pubhc school house. The people are just beginning 
 
 ^ , to realize that their school buildings, which 
 The school ° 
 
 a civic have generally stood idle except during the 
 
 center hours when school is in session, might have a 
 
 much wider use, and afford an excellent place for neigh- 
 borhood meetings. In many localities, therefore, in both 
 city and rural communities, the school houses have be- 
 come civic or social centers of great influence in the 
 education of the people through neighborhood discussion 
 of public questions. It is the town meeting idea adapted 
 to modern conditions. " It is in this idea of the school as 
 a social center that the whole modern evolution in educa- 
 tion finds its completion. The school building becomes 
 not merely a place for educating the young, it is the place 
 where the whole community educates itself, adults as well 
 as children." 
 
EDUCATION 149 
 
 FOR INVESTIGATION 
 
 1 . Find what you can about the school life of the child in colonial 
 New England ; in colonial Virginia. 
 
 2. Find what you can about the first schools in your own com- 
 munity. How did they differ from the schools of to-day? How long 
 was the school term ? Did all children attend ? Were they private 
 schools, or public? Where did they get teachers? How well were the 
 teachers paid? 
 
 3. What does the family do for the education of the children that 
 the school cannot do? What does the school do that the family 
 cannot? 
 
 4. What does your state constitution provide with regard to 
 education ? 
 
 5. Describe the organization of the schools in your township and 
 county. 
 
 6. If the schools in your community are graded, when and why did 
 the grading take place? Show how the graded system is better than 
 the ungraded system. 
 
 7. Are the country schools consolidated in any part of your state? 
 If so, how does the system work? What are some of the advantages of 
 consolidating small country schools ? 
 
 8. If you live in a city, describe in detail the organization of the 
 city schools. Describe the board of education, number of members, 
 term of office, powers, etc. 
 
 9. What are the qualifications prescribed for teachers in your com- 
 munity? How are the teachers selected? 
 
 10. Describe the work of the state board of education and that of 
 the state superintendent of education in your state. 
 
 11. How are the school books selected in your state? In your 
 city? Are they free to the children? What advantages and disad- 
 vantages result from free school books ? 
 
 12. What do the public schools cost your city each year ? Your 
 county? Your state? 
 
 13. Compare the school community of which you are a member with 
 the community outside of the school, as suggested on page 139 of this 
 chapter. 
 
 14. How does the government of your school differ from the gov- 
 ernment of the city or town in which you live? What is the reason 
 for this difference? Would it be wise to make the government of the 
 school more like that of the city? Give your reasons. Look up plans 
 of pupil self-government and report your opinion of them (see refer- 
 ences below). 
 
150 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 15. What are the compiilson- education laws of your state? How 
 are truants looked after in your communit}* ? 
 
 16. What reasons can you give why the high school should be 
 maintained at the expense of the community, in spite of the small 
 proportional attendance and the large proportional cost? 
 
 17. Make a list of the educational agencies in your communit}- out- 
 side of the public school. 
 
 18. See the reports of your city supenntendent of schools and report 
 on improvements in your school system during the past few years. 
 What recommendations for future improvement does he make? 
 
 19. Report on the present or possible use of schoolhouses in your 
 community outside of school hours. 
 
 20. What means of discussion take the place of the town meeting in 
 your community? 
 
 21. What improvements are being made in rural schools to adapt 
 them to the needs of rural communities? 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Hart, ■• Actual Government." chapter XX^'III, - Education." 
 
 Forman, •• Advanced Ci\-ics." chapter XLVI. 
 
 Dewey, John. •• The School and Society.'" 
 
 Henderson. C. R.. -The Social Spirit in America." chapter XII. 
 *'The Social Spirit in the State School System." 
 
 Earle. Alice M., •• Child Life in Colonial Davs.'' chapters III-VI. 
 
 King. IrA-ing, "Social Aspects of Education " (1913). *• A book of 
 sources and original discussions with annotated bibliographies.-- This 
 book contains chapters on various topics mentioned in the text, and 
 will be found useful because of the reproduction of discussions by au- 
 thorities on the various subjects and for the bibliographies. It con- 
 tains chapters on : 
 
 " The Social Relations of Home and School " (ch. IV). 
 
 " The School as a Center of Social Life in the Community.- " fch. V) . 
 
 " The Social Need for Continuing the Education of the Adult " (ch. VI) . 
 
 " Industrial and Vocational Education " (ch, IX). 
 
 "Pupil Self-Govemment " (ch. XVI) . 
 
 Perr}\ C. "Wider Use of the School Plant" (1910). 
 
 Welling. Richard. " Some Facts about Pupil Self-Govemment." A 
 pamphlet published by the School Citizens' Committee. 2 W^all Street 
 New York City. A good summan.- in favor of self-government. 
 
 Clapp. H. L., " Self-Govemment in Public Schools." Education. 
 29 : 335-3-34 (1909)- Arguments against. 
 
EDUCATION 
 
 151 
 
 Morehouse, Frances M., " The DiscipHne of the School," chapter iv. 
 
 For these and other topics see " Readers' Guide to Periodical Litera- 
 ture." 
 
 Reports of the City Superintendent of Schools, of the State Commis- 
 sioner or Board of Education, and of the United States Commissioner 
 of Education should be used. 
 
 The U. S. Bureau of Education issues Bulletins on many phases of 
 education. A list of these may be obtained by writing the Bureau. 
 
 The McKinley High School, St. Louis, Mo. 
 
CHAPTER XVI 
 
 HOW THE COMMUNITY AIDS THE CITIZEN TO SATISFY 
 
 HIS DESIRE FOR BEAUTIFUL SURROUNDINGS 
 
 Ix one important way the growth of communities has 
 tended to destroy the beautiful surroundings of man. It 
 
 View of a River Froxt. 
 Notice the iinsightly sheds, the heaps of refuse, and the smoking factories. 
 
 Civilization is a misfortune that much of the natural beauty 
 
 destroys of the landscape must disappear before the ad- 
 much 
 
 beauty of vance of civilization. The forest and the flower- 
 nature clothed prairie are transformed into farms and 
 building sites. The hills are cut away for the resources 
 that they contain. The streams are lined with ugly and 
 
 152 
 
CIVIC BEAUTY 1 53 
 
 noisy factories, and clogged with refuse. The sky is 
 obscured with smoke. 
 
 The community, acting sometimes through the govern- 
 ment and sometimes in other ways, may prevent a great 
 deal of unnecessary destruction of the beauty of 
 
 . Unnecessary 
 
 nature. The national government and some of destruction 
 the states have forestry bureaus, which have of natural 
 
 beauty 
 
 for their purpose the preservation of the forests. 
 Needless pollution of streams may be checked by state 
 
 Boulevard on the Bank of a Stream. 
 This stream is thus made a most attractive feature in the heart of a large city. 
 
 laws, and their natural beauty in a measure preserved by 
 preventing dilapidated and untidy premises along their 
 banks in cities, and in some cases by converting their 
 banks into parks. Sentiment may be aroused among the 
 boys, in the school and otherwise, against the killing of 
 birds. Much natural scenery may be preserved by the 
 creation of national and state parks, as in the case of the 
 Yellowstone and the Yosemite. Niagara Falls is now in 
 
154 
 
 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 danger of being transformed from one of the great wonders 
 of nature into a mere sluice for the turning of mill wheels 
 unless the government can be induced by public sentiment 
 to prevent it. 
 
 If natural beauty tends to disappear before the growth 
 of communities, the opportunity for art increases. Beauti- 
 ful houses and imposino- business blocks make 
 
 Community a i, • r -i -. 
 
 life creates their appearance. Art galleries are founded. 
 
 opportuni- Relio-ious Organizations and institutions of other 
 ties for art _ ° ° , , . , , ., , 
 
 kinds grace the community with beautiful 
 
 A Beautiful Back Yard. 
 By courtesy of the National Cash Register Co., Dayton, Ohio. 
 
 churches and other structures. Schools cultivate the taste 
 for beautiful things, and the people are taught how to 
 enjoy life in ways that they could not if they lived in 
 isolation. 
 
 The place to begin beautifying the community is in the 
 home. The citizen who is careless about the appearance 
 of his own home is almost sure to have little in- 
 terest in the appearance of the rest of the com- 
 munity. A home that is unsightly takes away from the 
 
 Beauty in 
 the home 
 
CIVIC BEAUTY 
 
 55 
 
 enjoyment of all who see it. The first essential to beauty 
 is neatness and orderliness. But it is possible to do more 
 than merely to keep the premises clean and in order. Grass 
 can be made to cover bare ground, or to take the place of 
 weeds. There is almost always a spot for vines and flowers 
 to grow, if it is only in window boxes. It is wonderful 
 what a transformation has often taken place even among 
 the crowded dwellings of the poor in the heart of cities, by 
 
 School Gardening in St. Louis. 
 the introduction of vines over the fences, a flower bed 
 in the small rear yard, and boxes of growing plants at the 
 windows. The practice of thus adorning the dwelling place 
 is contagious, and spreads from home to home, and from 
 neighborhood to neighborhood. One well-kept lawn in a 
 neighborhood is followed by others, until whole squares 
 and whole streets present an unbroken view of beauty. 
 
 It is wonderful how much children can do toward mak- 
 ing the community beautiful in this way. In Cleveland 
 
156 
 
 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 there is a Home Gardening Association, working chiefly 
 The through the school children, which has trans- 
 
 children's formed home yards, school grounds, and vacant 
 oppor ty j^^g ^^^^ barren and disorderly spots, in many 
 cases, into beautiful flower and vegetable gardens. This 
 Association early learned that " the easiest and surest way 
 
 A School Garden. 
 Picking and crating tomatoes. 
 
 to results is through the enthusiasm of youth." In most 
 phases of community life we usually think that active citi- 
 zenship is for men and women ; but in the beautifying of 
 the community, in which a high type of citizenship can be 
 shown, the children may take an active and prominent part, 
 and are doing so in many communities. 
 
 It is appropriate that the school and the home should 
 work together in this matter. The school buildings scattered 
 
CIVIC BEAUTY 1 57 
 
 throughout a city, and also in the country districts, should 
 be centers of pride in their neighborhoods be- Beauty in 
 cause of their beauty. Happily, communities *^® school 
 are beginning to realize this, and the architecture of schools 
 is improving. Even if the buildings are old and ugly, their 
 surroundings, in most cases, can be made beautiful and in 
 
 A Well-kept Street. 
 Notice lawns, pavements, water hydrant, mail-box, telephone poles. 
 
 this the children can have a part. The work of the Cleve- 
 land Home Gardening Association began with the improve- 
 ment of a school yard in the heart of the city. 
 
 A city is judged by the appearance of its streets perhaps 
 more than in any other way, unless it is by the appearance 
 of its homes. The eye passes naturally from Beauty in 
 one to the other. The street is public property, t^® street 
 This means that each citizen has a share in it ; he has a 
 right to its use, and a right to expect that it will be kept in 
 
158 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 good repair and good order. He also has a share of the 
 responsibility for keeping it so. There was a time in certain 
 cities when each householder was required to keep the street 
 directly adjacent to his property swept and in good order. 
 At first this was done by the householder himself, or by 
 his servant. Then a group of neighbors would unite in 
 employing some one to do it for the neighborhood, or for 
 the whole street. In the course of time it was found that 
 the work could be done better and more economically by 
 placing it all under the direction of a central authority, and 
 by having a body of men give their whole time to it. The 
 nsi expense was met by taxing the householders. 
 bUity of the Now that the care of the streets has been shifted 
 citizen from the individual householder to the govern- 
 
 ment of the community, the householder has come to feel, 
 in many cases, that he has also shifted the responsibility ; 
 but the employer is responsible for the work of those 
 whom he employs. 
 
 In city communities good pavements are perhaps the 
 first essential to beautiful streets. Holes and uneven 
 Pavements; places are unsightly as well as unsafe. A rough 
 noise pavement also adds to the noise of a city. The 
 
 desire for the beautiful may be satisfied as much through 
 the ear as through the eye. Noises are often our safe- 
 guards against danger. This is the excuse for gongs on 
 street cars and fire engines, bells on bicycles, and whistles 
 on locomotives. But the noise in most of our large cities 
 is unnecessarily great and trying. In some cities ordinances 
 exist to decrease the amount of noise, as where iron pipes 
 must be wrapped before they are hauled through the streets, 
 where the shrill whistle of interurban cars is forbidden 
 within the city limits, or where the calling by hucksters 
 and newsboys is forbidden. 
 
CIVIC BEAUTY 
 
 159 
 
 In the matter of clean streets, as in so many other 
 things, prevention is better than cure. Refuse is often 
 swept or thrown into the streets, and paper is uttering 
 strewn along them that should be disposed of in ^^^ streets 
 some other way. Ordinances sometimes exist forbidding 
 such unnecessary littering of the streets, but they are in 
 the class of regulations commonly disregarded. In some 
 
 A Street in St. Louis. 
 
 cities boxes are provided on the street corners to receive 
 waste paper and other matter. Care must be taken that 
 such boxes shall not themselves be unsightly. 
 
 It has been said by some observing persons that school 
 children are largely responsible for the unsightly appear- 
 ance of our streets from the scattering of scraps of paper. 
 It may not be true that school children are any more in- 
 clined to throw scraps in the streets than other people. It 
 is true, though, that they have unusual temptation, as 
 they come from school with an accumulation of papers that 
 they no longer want. Their large numbers make possible 
 
i6o 
 
 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 a good deal of paper scattering in a few minutes. If 
 children can do a great deal toward beautifying the 
 community by gardening at home and on the school 
 grounds, they can also do a great deal to prevent an un- 
 
 An Unsightly Neighborhood. 
 
 sightly appearance by refraining from throwing papers. 
 Habits formed in school go a long way in such matters. 
 Boys and girls who scatter scraps of paper in the schooh 
 room and halls, will do the same thing on the streets and 
 in other public places. 
 
 Among the most beautiful objects in nature are trees. 
 
CIVIC BEAUTY l6l 
 
 They are also among the objects that have been most 
 recklessly sacrificed by growing communities. The beauty 
 Nothing adds more to the attractiveness of a octrees 
 village or a city than shaded lawns and tree-arched streets. 
 What is more pleasant than a country road lined with 
 beautiful trees ? 
 
 The trees of many communities are suffering from the 
 ravages of insects and parasites. The government is 
 doing a great deal toward discovering means to Destruction 
 destroy the tree pests, and to acquaint the peo- ^^J' ™"*^' 
 pie with these means. The trees also have trees 
 enemies among men, to whom they would contribute 
 so much in health and pleasure. In the first place, men 
 clear away fine trees, sometimes necessarily, but often 
 unnecessarily, to make way for so-called " improvements." 
 Magnificent trees are sacrificed ift order that an ordinary- 
 looking house may be built at a particular spot. Often 
 a home would be improved a hundred fold in appear- 
 ance, if the trees were left and the house placed farther 
 back or to one side. A great deal of monotony is pro- 
 duced in our streets and an opportunity for a display of 
 artistic taste is lost, by building our houses too much alike, 
 and all at exactly the same distance from the street, without 
 regard to the nature of the lots or the disposition of the 
 trees and other natural features upon them. 
 
 In the second place we do not take sufficient care to re- 
 place trees that die, or that are necessarily cut down. In 
 some European cities it is required by law that every tree 
 that dies or is removed, unless removed to prevent crowding, 
 must be replaced by another. Trees are of comparatively 
 slow growth, and this may be one reason why householders 
 hesitate to plant them, fearing that they may never get 
 the benefit of them. This shows a lack of community 
 
1 62 
 
 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 spirit. Arbor Day affords an opportunity for children to 
 do something in this connection. The systematic planting 
 of trees on this day not only helps to beautify the com- 
 munity- at once, but is a splendid lesson in citizenship. 
 
 One of the worst kinds of tree mutilation is that which 
 makes way for telegraph or telephone poles and wires. 
 
 This is an evil that ex- 
 ists both in the country 
 a:::i ::: the cizv. ^lany 
 a beautiiul street or road 
 has been made unsightly 
 by such mutilation of 
 trees. This is a matter 
 for the communit}^ gov- 
 ernment to control ; but 
 the government will not 
 
 T^ MUTILATION ON A COUNTRY RO.^. ^^^^jj^, ^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^.^, 
 
 zens show an interest in the presen'ation of the trees. 
 
 Telegraph, telephone, and trolley poles are in themselves 
 unsigbtlv. In the business portions of cities the network 
 Poles of wires is dangerous in time of fire, and this 
 
 and wires j^g^g ]g J ^q their removal in many cities. This 
 has been accomphshed by placing the wires underground. 
 Civic beauty has strong claims to the removal of such un- 
 sigbtlv objects from the streets. Public sentiment is slowly 
 being awakened in regard to this matter, and the time 
 is coming when the \-iew of a beautiful street will not be 
 obstructed by Hnes of ugly poles and a network of wires. 
 
 Another means of disfiguring our streets is by a reck- 
 less use of advertising. Men have a right to attract at- 
 tention to their wares ; but thought should be 
 
 Advertise- ' . , 
 
 ments and given to the means, tne time, and the piace or 
 biUboards ^oing SO. We allow beautiful features of our com- 
 
CIVIC BEAUTY 
 
 163 
 
 munities to be marred, and ugly features made more ugly, by 
 permitting citizens to exercise perfect freedom in advertising 
 for private gain. Unattractive signs are nailed to beauti- 
 ful trees, which should not be marred by any kind of sign. 
 Ugly telephone poles are made still uglier by the same 
 means. Attractive residence streets are made unattractive 
 
 W^'' 
 
 mww^ 
 
 
 m-^ 
 
 A View in a City Park. 
 
 by huge billboards with inartistic signs upon them. Even 
 the signs on business blocks, where they have a right to 
 be, are often inartistic and wholly out of harmony with 
 the architecture of the street. 
 
 All cities have their systems of parks and boulevards, 
 though they are developed more fully in some cities than 
 in others. Boston has 15,000 acres devoted to Parks and 
 parks, which are connected with each other by boulevards 
 boulevards, and include a stretch of ocean beach. Some 
 
i64 
 
 THE COMMUNITY -\XD THE CITIZEN 
 
 cities have preserved in their midst a bit of natural scenery 
 to refresh the eye. In some of the larger cities spaces are be- 
 ing cleared of tumble-do\Yn buildings in the crowded portions 
 to make way for small parks with grass and trees, flowers 
 and fountains, which may bring a little pleasure into the lives 
 of those who seldom enjoy the fresh air of the country. 
 
 An Uximpro'^ild Corner. 
 The same comer is sho\\-n improved in the next iUustration. 
 By courtesy of the National Cash Register Co., Dayton, Ohio. 
 
 Such is the little park at ^Mulberry Bend, in Xew York, 
 which was once the center of the most \'icious part of the 
 slums. Parks and boulevards are under the care of boards of 
 park commissioners, who sometimes also have care over the 
 trees of all the streets. Sometimes the trees are placed 
 under the charge of special tree commissioners or foresters. 
 Smoke is another of the accompaniments of growing 
 Prevention Communities. Smoke, like the network of wires 
 of smoke jj^ ^]^g Streets, has been assumed to be a neces- 
 sary sign of material prosperity. As the wires are dis- 
 
CIVIC BEAUTY 
 
 165 
 
 appearing beneath the surface of the streets, it is also 
 being found that clouds of black smoke are not necessary 
 to industry. A few large cities have earnestly determined 
 to be free from the smoke, ordinances have been passed 
 and enforced against it, and the beauty of the com- 
 munities has been greatly increased as a result. 
 
 A Corner Improved. 
 
 The same as in the preceding illustration. 
 By courtesy of the National Cash Register Co., Dayton, Ohio. 
 
 Ugly features of community life have been mentioned 
 only to emphasize the fact that our communities are doing 
 more to-day than ever before to get rid of them. _ . 
 There is a steady improvement in the character for beauty 
 of the architecture in our cities. The people of ^^ growing 
 
 ^ '^ stronger in 
 
 small means are living, not only in more com- our com- 
 fortable homes, but in more beautiful ones. ™^^**^®^ 
 Their taste for beauty and refinement is steadily growing. 
 The streets are constantly becoming more pleasant to look 
 upon. Art museums are being established in increasing 
 
1 66 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 numbers. Civic Improvement Associations and similar or- 
 ganizations exist in almost every city and town. Cities 
 themselves are more thoughtfully planning their growth 
 by reserving lands for parks and parkways, by laying out 
 boulevards, by grouping public buildings, by regulating the 
 height of buildings, and by preventing the growth of slums. 
 But thete is still much to be accomplished in this direction, 
 and its accomplishment depends on the citizens of the 
 present and the future. 
 
 The improvement in the surroundings of the people is 
 bound to produce a better citizenship, ^len and women 
 Beautiful ^°^^ ^^^^^ spirits, become depressed, when their 
 surround- surroundings are unpleasant. They lose hope 
 Sfce^better ^^^ ambition. Much of the vice and crime of 
 citizen- large cities is no doubt induced by this cause. 
 
 ^ One of the first steps toward transforming men 
 
 and women into good citizens, who will contribute to the 
 welfare of the community, is to give them pleasant 
 surroundinsfs. 
 
 o 
 
 FOR INVESTIGATION 
 
 1 . Has any natural scenery been destroyed by the growth of your 
 community? Was it altogether necessary? 
 
 2. Is anything being done in your community to prevent unneces- 
 sary destruction of natural beauty? 
 
 3. What relation has the killing of birds to civic beauty? 
 
 4. Report on the use of Niagara Falls as a power for industrial pur- 
 poses. What is being done to preserve this natural wonder? Do you 
 think that the usefulness of the Falls in industry justifies the destruction 
 of their beauty ? 
 
 5. Is your community notable for its beautiful homes? In what 
 sections of the community is the greatest care taken in this respect ? 
 Why is it? 
 
 6. Observe the premises of the homes in your neighborhood, begin- 
 ning with your own. with reference to the care of the lawn : growth of 
 weeds ; the accumulation of rubbish ; the neatness of the back yards ; 
 
CIVIC BEAUTY 167 
 
 the growth of flowers; the care of the streets and alleys adjoining. 
 Make a report of conditions, and suggest improvements. 
 
 7. Let each pupil report a plan to improve the appearance of his 
 own yard. Begin a systematic movement to put these plans into effect. 
 
 8. Is your school as beautiful as it could be in the appearance of the 
 yard? In the care of the halls and rooms? -Could you do anything to 
 improve it? Do the people in the neighborhood take pride in the 
 school building and grounds ? If not, how could they be made to do so ? 
 
 9. Are the streets in your community beautiful? If not, what are 
 their defects? If they are, what consdtutes their beauty? 
 
 10. Report on the character of the pavements with reference to their 
 appearance. 
 
 11. What noises in your community are unnecessary? How could 
 they be lessened? 
 
 12. What is done in your community to keep the streets clean? 
 What ordinances exist on this matter? Are they observed and en- 
 forced ? 
 
 13. Observe the trees in your neighborhood, in streets and lawns, 
 and report on their general condition and appearance. Is care taken 
 to preserve beautiful trees? Is anything being done in a systematic 
 way in tree planting? Are the trees being mutilated or destroyed by 
 linemen or otherwise? Is any attempt being made to create a senti- 
 ment in favor of the trees? Does the city government provide any one 
 to care for the trees in the streets? 
 
 14. Make a report on street advertisements in your neighborhood. 
 Observe w4iether the appearance of the streets, or of private property, 
 is marred by such adverdsements. 
 
 15. Report on the parks and boulevards of your community. De- 
 scribe their points of beauty. Are they used by the people freely? 
 How are they managed? 
 
 16. What societies exist in your community to improve its appear- 
 ance? How do they work? 
 
 17. Is your community active at the present time in beautifying the 
 streets and public places by the erection of statuary, monuments, foun- 
 tains, and in other ways? 
 
 18. Is the architecture of your community improving in character? 
 Observe residences, business blocks, churches, schools, and public 
 buildings. 
 
 19. Select one of the most beautiful buildings in your community 
 and give a detailed description of it. 
 
 20. Is anything being done in your community to cultivate a taste 
 for beautiful surroundings among those who live in the tenements, or 
 in the poorer quarters of the city ? 
 
l68 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 2 1 . Make a report on city planning. If any plan exists for your city, 
 describe it with the help of maps and diagrams. 
 
 22. Write an essay on the relation between civic beauty and good 
 citizenship. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Robinson. -The Improvement of Towns and Cities." 
 
 Robinson, •• Modern City Art." 
 
 Eggleston, N. H., "Home and Its Surraundings." 
 
 Henderson, " The Social Spirit in America,'' chapter XIV, '-Social- 
 ized Beauty and Recreation." 
 
 The magazine literature on the subject of civic beauty is abundant. 
 See the - Readers" Guide to Periodical Literature." 
 
 The American City contains in every issue valuable material on the 
 subject of this chapter. 
 
 Unwin. Ravmond : -Town Planning in Practice." A standard 
 work, illustrated, but rather high priced ($600. Scribners). 
 
 Proceedings of Conferences on City Planning. Address Flavel 
 Shurtleff, Secy., Boston. 
 
 Greene, M. Louise. " Among School Gardens." Charities Pubhcation 
 Committee. New York. 
 
 McFarland, J. Horace. -Furnishing the Streets in Suburban Com- 
 munities," in Suburban Life, February, 1 9 1 1 . 
 
 Publications of the American Civic Association. Washington, D.C 
 Include pamphlets on city planning, parks, billboards smoke nuisance, 
 etc. 
 
CHAPTER XVII 
 
 HOW THE COMMUNITY AIDS THE CITIZEN TO SATISFY 
 HIS RELIGIOUS DESIRE 
 
 The community described in the first chapter grew around 
 the college and the church, which occupied the most 
 important place in the minds and hearts of the settlers. 
 Every one of those first families was deeply religious. 
 The simple social Ufe of the early days centered chiefly in 
 the church. The only government of the village, for a 
 brief period, was the government of the church organiza- 
 tion. These people were of Puritan descent and principles, 
 and they remind us of the colonists of New P^ngland. 
 
 The love of religion has played a very important part 
 in the history of the world. Perhaps no other motive has 
 driven men to action more powerfully than this. Religion 
 In the history of our land this is shown. The ^^^ been a 
 
 1 • r 1 ^ r ^^ • pOWefful 
 
 desire for the spread of rehgion was not the motive in 
 least of the motives that brought Columbus to history 
 America. The Spaniards made their conquests in the 
 name of religion, and they estabhshed missions wherever 
 they went. The priests led the way in the French explora- 
 tion and settlement of America. The Pilgrims came to 
 Plymouth to find freedom of reHgious worship, and all 
 through the history of the various colonies religious ques- 
 tions had an important influence. 
 
 When the English colonies in America were founded, 
 England, like most other countries of the world, had a 
 state religion and a state church. That is, the government 
 
 169 
 
lyo THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 prescribed what form of religion thie people must observe. 
 The Puritans came to America because they could not 
 conform to these requirements, and desired liberty to wor- 
 ship as they beheved to be right. We might think that, 
 since they desired religious liberty for them- 
 mtofer°i^ce selves, when they came to America they should 
 in colonial ^ave granted equal liberty to others who came to 
 
 times , . , r^ 1 1 T-i 
 
 their settlements. Such was not the case. 1 he 
 Puritans were intolerant of all who differed from them in re- 
 ligious matters. They hated the rehgious ceremonies of the 
 Roman CathoHc church. They drove the Quakers away 
 from their settlements, and even put some of them to death. 
 Roger WiUiams was driven out from Massachusetts partly 
 because of his religious views. The Roman Catholics, the 
 Quakers, and the Episcopalians were about as intolerant 
 of the Puritans and of each other as the Puritans were of 
 them. It was considered a remarkable thing when Mary- 
 land was founded by Roman Catholics and Protestants 
 together, and that they lived side by side in harmony. 
 
 In most of the colonies there was a very close relation 
 between the church and the government, as there was in 
 The relation England, although it was not always the Church 
 between the ^^ En2:land that was recognized in the colonies. 
 
 church and ° ^ _ 
 
 the govern- In some colonies no one could enjoy full politi- 
 ^!^^"^ cal riofhts, such as the rio-ht to vote and to hold 
 
 colonial & ' o 
 
 times office, except members of the church officially 
 
 recognized in the colony. In Xew England the ministers 
 were usually the most influential men in the affairs of gov- 
 ernment. Many of the laws were taken directly from the 
 Bible, and men were tried in the courts and punished for 
 violation of commonly accepted religious beliefs, as for 
 breaking the Sabbath or swearing. Thus in various ways 
 the government controlled the religious life of the people. 
 
GOVERNMENT AND RELIGION 
 
 i;i 
 
 After the Revolution the connection between the church 
 and the government gradually became less' complete. Re- 
 strictions on the right to vote because of relisrious ^ 
 
 ° ° Separation 
 
 beliefs rapidly disappeared. With the growth of between 
 democratic ideas, according to which one man ^^^R^ 
 has as much right to his opinions as another; govern- 
 with the increasing immigration of people of °^®^* 
 different nationality and religious beUef ; and with the de- 
 velopment of means of communication by which people of 
 different sections were brought into contact with one an- 
 other, men became more tolerant of each other's beliefs and 
 forms of worship. It came to be recognized that a man's 
 religious opinions were a matter for his own individual con- 
 science, not to be dictated or controlled by government. 
 
 Accordingly, when the Constitution of the United States 
 was adopted, an amendment was added declaring that 
 '' Congress shall make no law respecting an estabhshment 
 of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof " (Amend- 
 ment I). The federal Constitution does not, however, 
 prohibit the states from exercising control over matters 
 of religion. Some of the states continued, for a time, to 
 require religious qualifications for voting. Some re- 
 fused to accept testimony in the courts from persons who 
 denied the existence of God. In a few cases churches 
 have received aid from the state. Nevertheless, most 
 state constitutions now prohibit governmental support of 
 churches, although it is customary for state governments 
 to exempt from taxation the property of churches. 
 
 The Ordinance of 1787, in providing for the first gov- 
 ernment of the Northwest Territory, said, *' Religion, mo- 
 rality, and education being necessary to good government 
 and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means 
 of education shall forever be encouraged." Religion and 
 
1^2 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 education are here coupled together and recognized as 
 The attitude two of the greatest influences in the progress 
 of our Qf a^ nation. A man's beliefs have much to 
 
 government . , , . tt- i • 
 
 toward do With his conduct. His rehgion consists of 
 
 reUgion ^^g attitude, not only toward God, but also 
 toward his fellow-men. It teaches him to love his neigh- 
 bor as himself, and to do unto others as he would be done 
 by. If all men did these things, we should have better 
 communities and better citizenship. But so far as our 
 government is concerned, its attitude toward the religious 
 life of the citizen is merely to allow the greatest possible 
 personal liberty in the matter, and to offer the fullest op- 
 portunity for rehgious influences to develop the qualities of 
 good citizenship. 
 
 FOR INVESTIGATION 
 
 1. Make a list of some of the great historical events in the world 
 that were due to religious causes. 
 
 2. Let indiddual pupils make reports on the following topics: 
 
 a. The rehgious life of the Puritans in New England. 
 
 b. The story of the Quakers in Pennsylvania. 
 
 c. The story of Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson. 
 
 d. Religious toleration in Maryland. 
 
 e. The relation between the church and the government in colonial 
 Massachusetts. 
 
 3. Report on the religious life of your community in early days. 
 
 4. What different religious sects or denominations ai'e represented 
 in your community to-day? What other religious organizations are 
 there besides the churches? What do they do for the community? 
 
 5 . Are there any schools, hospitals, or other institutions in your com- 
 munity supported by rehgious organizations? 
 
 6. What does the constitution of your state say about religion ? 
 
 7. What pro\-ision is there about teaching rehgion in the public 
 schools? Why is this? 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Howe. Daniel Waite. '• The Puritan RepubHc." 
 Hart, '-Actual Government/" chapter XXIX. 
 
CHAPTER XVIII 
 
 WHAT THE COMMUNITY DOES FOR THOSE WHO CANNOT 
 OR WILL NOT CONTRIBUTE TO ITS PROGRESS 
 
 There are three classes of persons who contribute noth- 
 ing to the advancement of the community. The first class 
 consists of those who are physically or mentally unable to 
 do so, a class known as defectives. The sec- Defectives, 
 ond class consists of those who, though physi- and^deiin?' 
 cally able to do something, are, nevertheless, not quents 
 self-supporting, and depend on the community to support 
 them. These are called dependents. The third class con- 
 sists of those who live in positive violation of the law 
 of the community. These are criminals. These three 
 classes of people have to be taken account of in every com- 
 munity, and if they cannot be made to contribute to the 
 common welfare, they must at least be prevented from 
 doing harm. 
 
 There was a time in the development of mankind when 
 the physically defective — the bUnd, the crippled, the hope- 
 lessly ill, and the aged — were such a serious burden to 
 the community that it was considered necessary Treatment 
 to put them to death. This was a time when J^eslbythe' 
 the very existence of the community depended uncivilized 
 on the physical strength of its members. If a man was 
 not a fighter and a food getter, he endangered the exist- 
 ence of his fellows. He had to be fed from the hard- 
 earned stores of the others, and had to be defended 
 against enemies. Many savage tribes put to death the 
 
 173 
 
174 
 
 THE COM-MUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 hopelessly sick, the aged, and the crippled. The an- 
 cient Spartans exposed sickly children to die upon the 
 mountains. 
 
 As men have become civihzed, as sympathy for others 
 has become stronger, and as it has become easier to sustain 
 hfe, the weak and the helpless have been taken under the 
 It is the care of the strong, and it is now considered the 
 duty of the (^^j^y Qf |-}^g communitv to provide for those who 
 
 communii^ ' . ,, , . ' - , ' ^ 
 
 to care for are phvsically unable to care for themselves. In 
 the helpless niany cases the defective may be benefited to 
 such an extent that he may become self-supporting, and 
 able even to contribute something to the welfare of the 
 communitv. The bUnd and the deaf and dumb may be 
 educated by special methods so that they may engage in 
 various occupations for their own support and happiness. 
 The government has established schools and asylums for 
 these unfortunate classes. The government also main- 
 tains hospitals for the insane, where they are not only 
 prevented from doing harm to others, but where they are 
 also made happier, and often cured and restored to use- 
 fukiess. There are institutions for the helplessly crip- 
 pled and the hopelessly ill, where their suffering may at 
 least be alleviated. There are also institutions for the 
 homeless aged, and for orphaned children. 
 
 The work of caring for this class of citizens is in the 
 hands of the state, not of the national government. Local 
 It is a care Communities, and especially cities, often do much 
 of the state f^j- ^|^g ^^^^ of []^^\^ defective members. But 
 the work is so costly that it is chiefly concentrated in 
 the hands of the state government, which maintains in- 
 stitutions for the purpose in a few favorable localities, to 
 which the sufferers are brought from all parts of the state. 
 
 The dependent class of people, as distinguished from the 
 
CHARITY AND CRIME 175 
 
 defective class, consists of those who through poverty 
 are a burden on the community. Poverty may 
 
 . , . , .1. . 1 r , Poverty 
 
 be due to physical mabihty to provide for one s 
 self. If this is the case, there are the institutions already 
 mentioned to care for such dependents. But the poverty 
 may be due, in some cases, merely to bad management 
 and a lack of foresight. It may often be due to drunken- 
 ness on the part of one or both of the parents, or to lazy 
 and shiftless habits, or to a desire to live at the expense of 
 others rather than by honest effort. 
 
 The care of the poor was at one time almost wholly in 
 the hands of the church, and the church still does a great 
 deal to this end. In the reign of Queen Eliza- 
 
 ^ ^ 7 T- T , 1. Poor relief 
 
 beth a law was passed by the English parha- 
 
 ment requiring each parish to care for its own poor. 
 Since then the government has done much to relieve 
 poverty, and poor laws were enacted in America modeled 
 after those of England. Poor relief is considered a matter 
 for the local community to regulate. 
 
 Poverty has always appealed to the sympathies of 
 people, and voluntary efforts on the part of individuals 
 and societies to relieve it have long been com- ^^^ danger 
 mon. Until recently this relief has been offered inunorgan- 
 in an altogether disorganized way, each giver "® c any 
 •giving as he saw fit, without knowledge of the real needs 
 of the applicant for relief, or of what other persons 
 and societies were doing. This kind of charity has some- 
 times done more harm than good. It may, indeed, often re- 
 lieve thesuffering of the really needy ; but it has justasoften 
 encouraged the unworthy to expect charity, and has tended 
 to increase the dependent class instead of diminishing it. 
 There are many people v/ho will make no effort to support 
 themselves so long as they feel that others will support 
 
i;6 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 them. Many professional beggars make a good living by 
 taking advantage of the sympathies of random givers. 
 During a certain period of great suffering among the very 
 poor of American cities, due to unusually hard times, free 
 eating houses were established in the hope of rehevin^ the 
 situation. The free food attracted hundreds away from 
 the work they had, and greatly increased the army of the 
 unemployed. Thoughtless or unwise giving may make 
 paupers of many who would otherwise be self-supporting. 
 
 In nearly all of our large cities at the present time, and 
 in many of the smaller ones, the rehef of the poor is be- 
 Charity coming more systematic. Charity bureaus, or 
 
 organization societies, have been created, which seek to secure 
 cooperation among all the charitable organizations of the 
 community. They investigate the worthiness of applicants 
 for rehef. They expose impostors, of whom there are a 
 great many. They seek to remove the causes of poverty 
 rather than merely to relieve the needs of the poor for the 
 time being. They find employment for those who need it 
 and are able to take it. They wage war against the evils 
 of tenement life. They encourage the unfortunate by 
 giving them better opportunities and by creating in them 
 new ideals of life. 
 
 It is of course necessary and desirable to relieve actital 
 suffering by gifts of food, clothing, and other necessities. 
 It is much more important to provide an opportunity, and 
 to create a desire, for self-support by productive work. It 
 is better for the unfortunate individual, for it gives him 
 greater self-respect, and makes him more independent ; 
 and it is better for the community, because it transforms 
 those who have been a burden to others into producers 
 and contributors to the general welfare. 
 
 The third class of persons who contribute no good to 
 
CHARITY AND CRIME 177 
 
 the community is the criminal class. This may be said to 
 include all offenders against the law and order Crime 
 of the community, the enemies to the rights of other 
 people. 
 
 The method of dealing with criminals has changed very 
 greatly in the progress of civiHzation. Formerly the main 
 idea was punishment, or retaliation. It was Treatment 
 •'an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth, a Hfe ^ear^'""^^ 
 for a Hfe." Well into the last century, even times 
 in our own country, the penalties inflicted were often 
 terrible. Offenders were imprisoned in dark and filthy 
 underground cells. Tongues were pierced, ears cut off, 
 and marks branded upon the body with hot irons. Pris- 
 oners were placed in stocks and held up to the ridicule 
 and abuse of passers-by. 
 
 At the present time our ideas of the treatment of crimi- 
 nals are very different. The criminal is still an offender 
 against the community, and he is still believed xhe 
 
 to deserve punishment of some kind. Much protection 
 
 , 1 .1 ^ , ofthe 
 
 more miportant than the punishment of the community 
 
 criminal, however, is the protection of the com- ^^^t^^ 
 
 ^ . , reformation 
 
 munity against any future crimes. Two ideas of the 
 
 are uppermost in our present methods of deal- ^^^^^^^ 
 ing with criminals. The first is to place them, temporarily 
 at least, where they cannot harm the community. The 
 second is to reform them — or to cure them, for crime is 
 now considered as a result of a mental and moral, if not 
 physical, disease. Except in the case of the very worst 
 crimes, which may be punishable by death or life impris- 
 onment, the effort is usually made to return the offender 
 to the community, in the course of time, as a useful citizen. 
 Cruel and inhuman punishments have been abandoned. 
 The death penalty has been abolished, even for murder, 
 
1 78 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 in some states. It is now quite common to imprison 
 offenders with an indeterminate sentence ; that is, they are 
 sent to prison for a period the length of which will depend 
 on the conduct of the prisoner himself and on the inclina- 
 tion he shows to live right in the community. Prisoners 
 are comfortably housed and clothed, and are given whole- 
 some food and, if necessary, medical attention. Where 
 the prisoners are illiterate, they are often given instruction 
 in the common branches of education. They are made to 
 work, not so much with the idea of punishment as to teach 
 them habits of industry and to instruct them in some man- 
 ner of making an honest living. 
 
 Greater care than formerly is now taken to prevent 
 crime, in preference to punishing the criminal after the 
 
 ^, crime is committed. Youthful offenders are 
 
 The 
 
 prevention sent to reform schools, rather than to prisons 
 ot crime designed for more hardened criminals. It was 
 once the custom to imprison young offenders, guilty 
 of some minor offense, together with older and har- 
 dened criminals guilty of serious crimes. The result of 
 this was to harden the younger ones by association with 
 the others. In a few cities juvenile courts have been 
 estabhshed, where only young offenders are tried. Those 
 who have just begun their criminal career are often not 
 punished at all, but are placed on probation ; that is, they 
 are given their liberty, but under the eyes of probation 
 officers, or "official parents," who look after them and aid 
 them to get a start in life. Many, who would by punish- 
 ment be hardened, are thus led to become good citizens. 
 
 The regulation of crime and the correction of criminals 
 are almost wholly under the control of the state govern- 
 ments. What is considered a crime in one state 
 is not always a crime in another state; that is, while the 
 
CHARITY AND CRIME 1 79 
 
 act may be just as harmful to the community in one state 
 
 as in another, some states may have no law on Regulation 
 
 the subject. Unless an act is in violation of of crime by 
 
 the law, it is not legally a crime and cannot ^ ®s*^*® 
 
 be punished as such. The same crime may be punishable 
 
 in different ways in different states, because the kind of 
 
 punishment is determined by state law. It would be well 
 
 if the states could agree more closely in regard to what 
 
 constitutes crime, and how it should be treated. 
 
 The national government has jurisdiction over some 
 
 kinds of crimes. Since the entire government of the 
 
 territories and of the District of Columbia is in _ , . 
 
 Regulation 
 the hands of Congress, this body defines crmie of crime by 
 
 in these places and fixes its penalties. Crimes the national 
 
 ^ '■ government 
 
 against national law, wherever they are com- 
 mitted, are punishable by the national government. The 
 accused person is tried before a federal court in the 
 state where the crime is committed. For instance, 
 violation of the postal laws, counterfeiting money, or 
 evading the laws for the regulation of interstate commerce 
 are crimes punishable by the national government. The 
 national government also has jurisdiction over crimes 
 against the laws of nations, as contained in treaties, and 
 over piracy. One crime against the nation is punishable 
 by death, — treason, the worse crime recognized by civilized 
 nations. The Constitution defines treason against the 
 United States as " levying war against them, or in adhering 
 to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort" (Art. Ill, 
 sec. 3). In order to convict a person of treason there 
 must be two witnesses of the treasonable act to give 
 evidence against him. 
 
 In order that no injustice may be done to innocent 
 persons, the rights of accused persons are protected care- 
 
l8o THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 fully by the Constitution of the United States. It is a 
 The pro- principle of law that every accused person is 
 the lights of ^ssumed to be innocent until he is proved to be 
 the accused guilty. Every precaution is taken to secure for 
 him a fair trial. He is entitled to a trial by a jury of his 
 fellow-citizens in the locaUty where the crime occurred. 
 The accusing witnesses must give their evidence to the 
 court in the presence of the accused and he is entitled 
 to witnesses in his favor, as well as lawyers to defend 
 him. He may not be compelled to testify against himself. 
 These are a few of the careful provisions made to protect 
 even a guilty citizen against injustice. 
 
 FOR mVESTIGATION 
 
 1. What public institutions are there in your community for the 
 care of defective persons? Are tiiere any private institutions of a 
 si.nilar kind? 
 
 2. Make a list of all the institutions and associations that you know 
 of in your community for the care of the poor. 
 
 3. Is there charity organization in your community? Find out its 
 methods of work. 
 
 4. What does your local government do for the relief of the 
 poor? 
 
 5. Report on the treatment of criminals in colonial times. (See 
 McMaster. •■ Histon,- of the American People." vol. I, pp. 93-102.) 
 
 6. What reform schools are there in your state? How are the in- 
 mates of these schools dealt with ? 
 
 7. Is there a juvenile court in your community? If so, report on its 
 work, and describe the work of the probation officers. 
 
 8. Debate the question. •• Capital punishment should be abolished.'" 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Henderson. •'•' The Social Spirit in America." chapter XV. 
 
 Henderson. •• Dependents. Defectives, and Dehnquents." 
 
 Warner. •• American Charities.*' 
 
 Wines, '• Punishment and Reformation."' 
 
 Morrison, •• Juvenile OtTenders." 
 
 Forman. '• Advanced Civics." chapters XLIX. L. 
 
 Goodnow, *• City Government in the United States," chapter X. 
 
CHAPTER XIX 
 
 HOW THE CITIZENS OF A COMMUNITY GOVERN 
 THEMSELVES 
 
 We have now looked at the life of the community from 
 several points of view. We have seen that the people are 
 striving to satisfy their desires in a variety of The purpose 
 ways. We have seen that there are common of govern- 
 interests, and that the welfare of one is the wel- ™®°* 
 fare of all. Yet it does not always seem so. Men do not 
 always recognize their dependence on, and obligation to, 
 others. Sometimes they lack sufficient knowledge to do 
 so. Sometimes they selfishly disregard the rights of others, 
 as, for example, when a man persists in clouding the at- 
 mosphere with smoke from his factory, although he knows 
 it is injuring the community ; or when a railroad charges 
 unjust rates, or affords inadequate facilities for trans- 
 portation. Consequently we often get the impression that 
 community life is a Hfe of conflict rather than of harmoni- 
 ous action. Under such imperfect conditions there must 
 be some just agency that is more far-sighted than any 
 individual can be, to secure the intelligent working to- 
 gether of all. Such an agency government is intended 
 to be. 
 
 The first idea that we must understand about gov- 
 ernment in America is that it is intended to be Govern- 
 
 ., /- 7 7 7 7 • ment the 
 
 t/ie servant of t/ie peopte and not tlieir master, servant, not 
 
 When it begins to act contrary to the will of t^® master, 
 the people, it goes beyond its rightful powers, people 
 
 i8i 
 
1 82 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 The American colonists sought their independence 
 from England because the EngHsh government in- 
 sisted on taxing them, and otherwise exercising authority 
 over them, luithout tJieir consent. In 17S7 a convention of 
 leading m^n of the country, chosen by their respective 
 states, met in Philadelphia, and after four months of dis- 
 cussion laid before the people of the thirteen states a Con- 
 stitution, containing a plan of government. The preamble 
 of this Constitution emphasizes the fact that this gov- 
 ernment was estabhshed by the people to do certain things 
 for them. 
 
 The simplest form of self-government is where the 
 people meet together and make their own laws. Such 
 Direct and ^^'-^ ^^^ town meeting in New England. When 
 representa- ^^ communir\' grows large, it becomes imprac- 
 govern-' ticable for the citizens to attend to the details of 
 ment o;overnment bv such means. Then thev resort 
 
 to the plan of selecting certain of their number to perform 
 the work of government for them. This is representative 
 self-government. The representatives ^y the people, chosen 
 by the people, act /t?/' the people. 
 
 The next fact about our government that we must 
 understand is its threefold character. In the preceding 
 The three- chapters there has been constant reference to 
 fold char- local. State, and national governments. Each 
 
 acter of our . ' . ^ , i r n ^-u t^ ■ t,*. 
 
 govern- o± US IS under the control of all three. It might 
 
 ^eni seem, at first thought, that we are greatly op- 
 
 pressed with government. We must remember that ive, the 
 people, are our own rulers, and that we have simply found 
 it more convenient and more to our advantage to have 
 three groups of governing machinery than one. Each 
 group has its particular work to do for us. Let us now 
 see how the division of poivers is made among them. 
 
HOW THE COMMUNITY GOVERNS ITSELF 183 
 
 The first division of powers is that between the state 
 and national governments. When the Constitution was 
 made, the thirteen states were already in ex- jjj^jgjQjj ^ 
 istence, each with its own government organized powers be- 
 under a state constitution. Why, then, was it Jj^^^^^ 
 necessary to have a national government in state govem- 
 addition ? It was because while the states were ^^^^ 
 thirteen separate communities in many particulars, 
 they were, in other particulars, only parts of one 
 community with certain interests common to all alike. 
 This was illustrated in chapter XII (see page 100). The 
 union of a number of states under a central government 
 constitutes a federal nation. The central government is 
 called the federal government. 
 
 The federal government may exercise only such powers 
 as are granted to it by the people in the Constitution, and 
 these powers are few in number though very important. 
 They are enumerated in section 8 of article I of the Con- 
 stitution. All other powers are left with the states. The 
 tenth amendment to the Constitution says, ''The powers 
 not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, 
 nor prohibited by it to the states [see Art. I, sec. 10], are 
 reserved to the states respectively, or to the people." By 
 this arrangement the states retain by far the greater part 
 of the governing powers. Where the national government 
 controls our conduct once, the state government controls it 
 many times. The state government protects us in our re- 
 ligious rights (chapter XVII), provides for our education 
 (chapter XV), determines who shall have the right to vote 
 (page 188), prescribes the rules of marriage and of family 
 relations, has almost the entire care of our health (chapter 
 IX), protects our property (chapter X), controls business 
 relations of every kind except where foreign and interstate 
 
l84 THE COMMUNITY .\ND THE CITIZEN 
 
 relations are concerned (chapter XII). and provides for the 
 prevention and punishment of crime, except in a very few 
 cases that come under national control, such as the coun- 
 terfeiting of money and the robbing of the mails (chap- 
 ter XVIII). 
 
 In -this division of powers between state and national 
 governments we see the American love for self-govern- 
 ment emphasized. The people of each state retain for 
 themselves the regulation of almost all the details of their 
 lives. In the course of our histor}', however, as the nation 
 has beccir.e r:". :re closely bound together by common in- 
 terest:. ? - d as one part has become more dependent upon 
 orrers, : :e:e has been a constant tendency for the national 
 government to extend the scope of its powers by a broad 
 ijiterprctation of certain clauses in the Constitution. For 
 example, it was by a broad interpretation of the power to 
 regulate interstate commerce that Congress enacted pure 
 food laws, thus protecting the health of the people, which 
 has been considered primarily a duty of the state, against 
 the distribution of injurious or unwholesome food materials. 
 In other ways the national government is extending its ac- 
 ti\-ities in behalf of the pubUc welfare, where the interests 
 of the nation as a whole demand it. 
 
 The second division of the powers of government is be- 
 tween the central state government and the government 
 Relation be- of local Communities. The relation between the 
 nveen state ]ocal and State 2:ovemments is somewhat differ- 
 
 and local 
 
 govern- ent from the relation between the state and the 
 
 ments national governments. The state governments 
 
 are in no sense branches of the national government. 
 State and national governments both get their powers 
 directly from the people. The local governments are 
 merely branches of the state government, and get their 
 
3. Finishing the road. 
 
 Road Making by the National Government. 
 
 This road in Tennessee was selected for improvement as an object lesson. The 
 photographs were furnished by the Public Roads Inquiry Office, Dept. of 
 Agriculture. 
 
HOW THE COMMUNITY GOVERNS ITSELF 185 
 
 powers from it, and not from the people of the local com- 
 munity. The state government is organized according to 
 a plan laid down in the state constitution, which is framed 
 by the people themselves. A city government is organized 
 according to a plan laid down in a charter, which is granted 
 to the people of the city by the state. The local governments 
 have for their work primarily the carrying out of the laws 
 enacted by the state government. Their duties are chiefly 
 administrative. For example, there is a state law against 
 burglary ; but it is the local officers who protect property 
 against burglars and arrest offenders. Local governments 
 are allowed some law-making powers, especially in cities^ 
 where the city council enacts ordinances (see chapter 
 XXII). The principle of the division of powers between 
 state and local governments, however, is the same as in 
 the division between national and state governments ; that 
 is, to leave matters that touch the life of the individual 
 most closely, and are of purely local interest, in the hands 
 of the local government as much as possible, while matters 
 of more general interest, such as the regulation of the rail- 
 roads and matters of general health, are regulated by the 
 central state government. 
 
 The relation of the different governments to each other 
 and to the people is shown by the diagram on page 186. 
 
 A third important feature of the organization of our 
 government is the separation of powers among the three 
 branches — legislative, executive, and judicial, ^he sepa- 
 The laws are made by the legislative branch, ration of 
 The enforcement of these laws is intrusted to it^fJfJlX.®' 
 
 executive, 
 the executive branch. If any question arises as and judi- 
 to the meaning of the laws, it is finally settled "^ powers 
 by the judicial branch. The purpose of the separation of 
 powers is to prevent any one man, or group of men, from 
 
l86 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 The people govern themselves 
 through the machinerv of 
 
 
 
 
 r/^ 
 
 
 y 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 n 
 
 < 
 
 en 
 
 O 
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 r^ . 
 
 
 <: 
 
 
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 M 
 
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 5 '^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^5 ^ 
 
 
 v: 
 
 
 o 
 
 n 2 
 
 en 
 
 II' 
 
 P 2— 9.2=^= = ^ 
 
 o 
 
 P 
 
 J^S-:^ 00^ ^'^o 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 o J^ 
 
 ^. ^ ^ §- ^ = .= ctq' p* 
 
 ;:; -1 •-! o r- .,"x ,_ <-i- S 
 
 n n ^ '^ •=.• J-^ '-^ cfl «» 
 
 o 
 
 ft; 
 
 73 
 
HOW THE COMMUNITY GOVERNS ITSELF 187 
 
 acquiring too much authority and becoming despotic. The 
 legislative body may restrain the executive by refusing to 
 appropriate money for executive purposes, as often hap- 
 pened in the colonies; or it may impeach the executive 
 (see page 256). The executive may veto a law passed by 
 the legislature. The judicial branch has the final power to 
 determine whether a law is in accordance with the consti- 
 tution. There is thus a system of checks and balances by 
 which each branch of government is restrained by the 
 others, thus safeguarding the liberties of the people. This 
 system is found, to a greater or less extent, in local, state, 
 and national governments, though it is less definite in 
 cities. 
 
 It is a principle of American government that the 
 people's representatives shall be chosen by the people 
 of the various localities from their own number. Represent- 
 The English colonists in America felt that they chos^enby 
 were not represented in the House of Commons, the people 
 because they did not have a voice in choosing q^iq^^I 
 representatives to that body, nor did any member districts 
 of the House come from America. In the early history of 
 Massachusetts the people gradually allowed the taxing 
 power to fall into the hands of a few men called the gov- 
 ernor's assistants, who held office from year to year with- 
 out reelection. One day the people at Watertown decided 
 ** that it was not safe to pay moneys after that sort, for 
 fear of bringing themselves and posterity into bondage." 
 Therefore " every town chose two men [from its own 
 citizens] to be at the next court to advise with the governor 
 and assistants about the raising of a public stock, so as 
 what they should agree upon should bind all." This idea 
 has determined the usual practice in the United States. 
 City councils commonly consist of representatives from the 
 
1 88 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 several city wards, though this is not always true. In some 
 states at least, each township has its representatives on 
 the board of county commissioners. Each state is divided 
 into districts, from each of which a representative is sent 
 to the state legislature, and into other districts from each 
 of which a representative is sent to the lower house of the 
 national Congress. Each state has two representatives 
 in the United States Senate. 
 
 The right to vote for representatives in the government 
 is called the suffrage. It is not a right that all citizens 
 The suf- possess, like the right to life, liberty, and prop- 
 frage erty. It is a privilege bestowed by the state 
 
 on those who have certain qualifications. These qualifica- 
 tions are prescribed by the state constitutions. Only in 
 one case does the United States Constitution limit the 
 right of the state to regulate the suffrage ; that limitation 
 is found in th-e fifteenth amendment, adopted after the 
 Civil War, which reads, ''The right of citizens of the 
 United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by 
 the United States, or by any state, on account of race, 
 color, or previous condition of servitude." 
 
 At the beginning of our history the right to vote was 
 limited to a relatively small number of the citizens. These 
 Ouaiifica- restrictions have largely been removed. We 
 tions for have become more democratic. But there are 
 e su rage ^^^^ g^^^g restrictions, which vary more or less 
 in the different states. In no state may any one vote who 
 is under twenty-one years of age. All states require a 
 residence in the state, and in the county and city ward, for 
 a certain time prior to voting. In colonial times the right 
 to vote was denied to all who did not own a certain amount 
 of property. ^ To-day property restrictions have been almost 
 wholly removed. It was also common, in colonial times, to 
 
HOW THE COMMUNITY GOVERNS ITSELF 189 
 
 deny the right to vote to all who were not members of the 
 church (see page 170). All religious quahfications have 
 long since been removed. The suffrage is denied to citi- 
 zens who are mentally unsound, and in some states to those 
 who cannot read and write, and to paupers. A citizen may 
 also be disqualified from voting by crime. With compara- 
 tively few exceptions, all male citizens who are twenty-one 
 years of age or over possess the suffrage. In a few states 
 even ahens may vote at all elections, provided they have 
 declared their intention of becoming citizens. 
 
 The suffrage has long been denied to women, but there 
 is now a strong movement in favor of extending it to them. 
 As early as 1691 women property holders in woman 
 colonial Massachusetts were permitted to vote, suffrage 
 New Jersey by its first constitution gave the suffrage to 
 women, provided they owned a certain amount of property, 
 but the right was taken from them early in the last century. 
 Since that time, the first state to grant the suffrage to 
 women on full equality with men was Wyoming, which 
 entered the Union in 1890 with a constitutional provision 
 for it. Colorado followed the example of Wyoming in 
 1893, and Utah and Idaho in 1896. Not until 1910 did 
 another state extend full suffrage to women, when the 
 state of Washington did so, followed during the next two 
 years by California, Kansas, Oregon and Arizona. 
 
 In addition to these nine states which at present possess 
 complete woman suffrage, Illinois now permits women to 
 vote for presidential electors, for all elective city officers, 
 and for some state and county officers ; the suffrage has 
 been granted to the women of the territory of Alaska ; 
 about twenty states permit women to vote on school ques- 
 tions, or to exercise the suffrage in other restricted ways ; 
 and a number of states are about to submit to a vote of the 
 
190 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 people amendments to their constitutions which, if adopted, 
 will very much extend the political equality of women. 
 
 If at an election each voter should cast his vote for the 
 man of his individual choice, it might easily happen that 
 Nomina- among the many men voted for no one would 
 tions fairly represent a large number of citizens. It 
 
 is necessary that the choice of the voters be limited to a 
 few men who are nominated as the regular candidates for 
 the offices in question. The method of nomination that 
 has long been practiced is very complicated. It was not 
 prescribed in the state or national constitutions, nor by 
 law, but grew up gradually and became fixed by custom. 
 In order to understand it, it is necessary to know some- 
 thing about political parties. 
 
 In every community there are differences of opinion on 
 almost any question, as in religion, in educational matters, 
 PoHticai 0^ in business poHcy. If any such question is 
 parties to be acted upon, those whose opinions are alike 
 
 will act together in opposition to those who think differ- 
 ently. In questions of government there are differences 
 of opinion. In the division of the people on any such 
 question, those who think ahke and act together systemati- 
 cally and constantly constitute a political part}\ The party 
 mav be of a local character and may be formed with refer- 
 ence to a local question, such as the paving of the streets 
 or the licensing of saloons ; or it may be national in its 
 extent and arise out of some great national question, such 
 as the extension of slavery or the acquiring of new territory. 
 
 When Washington was first elected President, questions 
 of governmental pohcy had not yet divided the people, 
 and his popularity was so great that all united on him 
 as their choice for the presidency. When differences of 
 opinion arose over the bank, foreign policy, internal im- 
 
HOW THE COMMUNITY GOVERNS ITSELF 191 
 
 provements, and other matters, each party strove to elect rep- 
 resentatives to the government who would carry out its ideas. 
 It must first of all agree on a single candidate for each of 
 the offices, so that the party's vote would not be divided. 
 
 The first method used by the parties for the nomination 
 of a candidate for the presidency was for the representa- 
 tives of each party in Congress to meet and i^etho^g of 
 make the nomination. This method after a nominating 
 while became unpopular because the nomina- 
 tion fell into the hands of a small group of politicians, and 
 the people felt that they did not have a sufficient voice in 
 the matter. Then the custom arose of making the nomi- 
 nations in the several states. Sometimes it was done by 
 the party members of the state legislature. The custom 
 gradually began to prevail of holding state conventions 
 composed of delegates elected especially for the purpose 
 by the people of the state. This method had the advan- 
 tage of placing the nomination more directly in the hands 
 of the people. It had the disadvantage of tending to 
 divide the party, for each state was likely to nominate its 
 own favorite candidate regardless of the action of the other 
 states. This difficulty was finally overcome by placing the 
 nomination of the candidates for the presidency and the 
 vice-presidency in the hands of a national convention com- 
 posed of delegates from all the states. This is the method 
 still in use for the nomination of the President and the 
 Vice-President. 
 
 For the nomination of officers other than the President 
 and Vice-President the nominating convention is giving 
 way, in some states, to another method which is Primary 
 described on page 193. But since it is still elections 
 widely used let us briefly describe the steps leading to it. 
 Let us suppose that an election time is approaching, and 
 
192 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 that local, state, and national officers are to be elected at 
 one time, although this is not always the case. Several 
 months before the election day, the proper committees of 
 each party call for what have been known as the primary 
 elections. These must not be confused with the direct 
 primaries to be described later. The so-called primary 
 elections are elections held in each of the smallest (pri- 
 marv) election districts of the state. In cities the primary 
 district is a zuard, or precinct of the ward ; in rural com- 
 munities it is the township, or precinct of the township. 
 It is the business of the primary election to nominate can- 
 didates for offices of the primary district, as ward council- 
 men or township trustees, and to elect delegates to iwmijiat- 
 ing co?ii'entio?is of larger districts. This business is trans- 
 acted sometimes by ballot, each voter going to the voting 
 place some time during the day ; sometimes in a meeting, 
 or caucus, of the voters, very much on the order of a town- 
 meeting. 
 
 The primary elections are follow^ed in due time by the 
 various conventions to nominate candidates for the offices 
 Nominating 0^ ^^^ districts which they represent, and to 
 conventions choose delegates to still other conventions for 
 larger districts. County conventions nominate for county 
 offices ; city conventions for city offices ; assembly district 
 conventions for the lower house of the state legislature; 
 senatorial district conventions for the state senate ; con- 
 cessional district conventions for the lower house of con- 
 
 o 
 
 gress ; and state conventions for state offices. The state 
 conventions elect delegates to the national convention for 
 the nomination of the President and Vice-President. The 
 nominees are chosen from among a number of men who 
 have pre\-iously been announced as candidates, or who 
 have been determined upon by the party managers. 
 
HOW THE COMiMUNITY GOVERNS ITSELF 193 
 
 Faithful party members are expected by the party 
 managers to render their support to the candidates nomi- 
 nated by their respective primaries and conven- independ- 
 tions ; but at every election there are many in- ^^t voting 
 dependent voters who scratch their ballots, that is, scratch 
 off the names of some of their party candidates and sub- 
 stitute the names of candidates of other parties. This is 
 largely due to the fact that many voters think it more im- 
 portant to elect good men than that any particular party 
 should possess all the offices. Ballot scratching has been 
 more common in local elections than in national elections, 
 because party lines are not so clearly drawn in the former 
 as in the latter ; but it has been increasing even in national 
 elections, and seems to indicate that the voters are form- 
 ing the habit of deciding for themselves as to the desira- 
 bility of candidates, instead of allowing a group of party 
 leaders to decide for them. 
 
 The method of nomination that has just been described 
 is not only complicated, but it is objected to on other 
 grounds, chiefly because it places the determina- „ . . 
 tion of the candidates for election in the hands by direct 
 of a few party leaders instead of in the hands P"°^^"®^ 
 of the people themselves. In many states, therefore, it 
 has already been supplanted by nomination by direct pri- 
 maries. In most of the states that have adopted this 
 method, both state and local officers are so nominated, but 
 in others the direct primary is used only for the nomina- 
 tion of local officers, the state officers being nominated by 
 the convention system as of old. It seems probable that 
 the direct primary will soon become the regular method of 
 nomination in all states. 
 
 The methods of conducting direct primaries differ in 
 different states ; but, in general, any citizen possessing 
 
194 
 
 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 the proper qualifications for holding office may become a 
 candidate for nomination to a given office by securing the 
 signatures of a specified number of voters to a petition. 
 His name is then placed on the primar}^ ballot of his party 
 along with the names of all others who have filed similar 
 petitions. On the day of the primaries the voters go to 
 the polls, or voting places, and cast their ballots as at a 
 regular election, after ha\-ing marked the names of the 
 candidates of their choice. The candidate for a given 
 office who receives the largest number of votes (in some 
 cases a majority is required) becomes the nominee of his 
 party for that office. The direct primary is followed in 
 due time by the regular election, at which the contest is 
 between the nominees of the various parties. 
 
 While the President of the United States is still nomi- 
 nated bv a national convention, in a number of states laws 
 „ .^ . , have been passed pro\ddin2^ for presidential 
 
 Presidential r r o .r 
 
 preferential preferential primaries, at which the voters at 
 pnmanes ^^^ ^oVis> express their preference for the presi- 
 dential candidate. The delegates to the national conven- 
 tions from a state holding such a primary are thus instructed 
 bv the voters for whom to vote as their nominee. Bills 
 have been introduced in Congress to provide for presiden- 
 tial nominating primaries throughout the United States. 
 So far none of these has become law ; but, if such a law 
 is enacted, it will do away with the national conventions 
 for nominating the President and Vice-President. 
 
 The period of three or four months between the nomi- 
 nations and the election day is spent by each party in 
 The cam- trA'ing to win support for its candidates. The 
 paign winning of votes sometimes seems to be the all- 
 
 important thing, not always, unfortunately, with due re- 
 gard to the right or wrong of the methods used. 
 
HOW THE COMMUNITY GOVERNS ITSELF 195 
 
 At a specified time before election day, every voter is 
 required to register at his proper voting place. . This means 
 recording his name, age, residence, and other Registration 
 information necessary to prove his right to vote, ^^^ election 
 and is intended to prevent fraudulent voting. On election 
 day he again goes to the polls, is given a ballot upon which 
 
 An Election Scene. 
 
 Each voter has his name checked off from the book where it is registered, and 
 then passes into the building, where he casts his vote. 
 
 are printed the names of all candidates, and in the privacy 
 of a voting booth marks the names of those candidates for 
 whom he wishes to cast his vote. He then hands his bal- 
 lot folded to an election officer who deposits it in the ballot 
 box to await counting at the end of the election day. 
 
 To arrange for the nominations, to carry on the cam- 
 paign, and to provide for the elections, requires a thorough 
 organization of the party. The management is largely in 
 
196 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 the hands of committees. Each of the election districts 
 
 named above, from the ward to the state and nation, has 
 
 ^ . its central committee. It is the business of 
 
 Organiza- 
 tion of the these committees to keep in touch with the 
 
 ^^^^ voters, to gather and distribute information, to 
 
 collect and disburse funds for the conduct of the campaign, 
 to provide speakers, publish literature, and to do many 
 other things. The committees of the larger districts, and 
 especially the state and national committees, are of great 
 importance and exert great influence. The chairmanship 
 of the national committee is sought by ambitious men as 
 much as the highest public offices in our government. 
 
 We have been speaking, for convenience, as if there 
 were only one campaign and one election time for all 
 Frequency offices in our government, local, state, and 
 of elections national. This is not, in fact, the case. The 
 terms are not the same length for all offices. The Presi- 
 dent and the Vice-President are elected for four years, 
 members of the House of Representatives for two years, 
 judges for the state courts, when not appointed, for from 
 two to twenty-one years, governors for from one to four 
 years. The practice in the United States is to make the 
 terms of office short in order to give the people a chance 
 frequently to express their approval or disapproval of the 
 service rendered by their representatives. The frequency 
 of elections is increased by the fact that in many cases 
 local elections are held at different times from national 
 elections. The purpose of this is primarily to prevent the 
 confusion of local with national questions. At times of 
 national elections attention is centered so completely upon 
 the great national issues and the election of the chief 
 magistrate of the land, that questions of purely local im- 
 portance would be likely to be neglected. Besides, local 
 
HOW THE COMMUNITY GOVERNS ITSELF 197 
 
 questions usually have nothing to do with the divisions 
 between the great national political parties. 
 
 Not all of our representatives in the government are 
 chosen by a direct vote of the people. Although the gov- 
 ernors of all states are now so chosen, it was indirect 
 once the common practice for the state legisla- election of 
 tures to elect them. United States senators sentativesof 
 have always been chosen by the legislatures of government 
 their respective states in accordance with the provision of 
 the Constitution (Art. i, sec. 3, clause i); but by an 
 amendment to the Constitution enacted in 191 3, the sena- 
 tors will hereafter be elected by direct vote of the people 
 of their respective states. 
 
 The Constitution of the United States provides that the 
 President and the Vice-President shall be elected by a 
 group of men from each state, called electors (Art. II, sec. i, 
 clause 2 ; Amendment XII). Each state may appoint 
 its electors in any manner it chooses. Formerly they 
 were appointed by the state legislatures; but to-day they 
 are elected by popular vote in all the states. When the 
 voters go to the polls on election day in November, they 
 in reality cast their ballots for the electors, who have been 
 nominated in the state convention, and not for the Presi- 
 dent and the Vice-President directly. The intention of 
 the Constitution was that the electors should have the 
 choice of the President entirely in their hands, the thought 
 being that they would be better able than the people to 
 select a capable man for the office. Since the party 
 system, with its method of making presidential nomina- 
 tions, has arisen, the choice by the electors is a mere form, 
 for they invariably vote for the candidates nominated by 
 their parties. 
 
 By far the greater number of those who serve the peo- 
 
198 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 pie in government offices are not elected at all, but are ap- 
 pointed by various executive officers, such as the President, 
 . . the governors, the mayors of cities, and their 
 
 Appoint- ^ ' -^ • 1 1 r 
 
 mentof subordinates. It \Yould be impracticable for 
 
 officers ^i^g people to elect all the thousands of officers 
 
 and employees necessary for carrying on the work of the 
 
 government. It is deemed better to elect only the chief 
 
 officials, upon whose work the people can keep their eyes 
 
 with comparative ease, and to hold them responsible, not 
 
 only for their own work, but also for the work of all those 
 
 whom they appoint to subordinate positions. 
 
 We have said that government is the ser^-ant, and not 
 
 the master, of the people. What, then, about obedience to 
 
 the Sfovernment.^ Shall masters obey their serv- 
 The citizen ^ . ^ ., ... , 
 
 must obey ants } The feeling of personal respojistbility for 
 
 the govern- ^^^q conduct of community affairs, and obedience, 
 
 ment as the -^ . 
 
 agent of the are two of the most essential qualities of good 
 
 community citizenship. The government represents the 
 community, and the individual is called on to obey the 
 government as the agent of the community. When the 
 government says to an individual that he must do this, or 
 that he must not do that, it is the voice of the people speak- 
 ing to him through the government. It was WilHam Penn 
 who said: '' Any government is free to the people under it 
 ivJiere the lazvs rule and the people are a party to those lazus. 
 L iberty without obediefice is confusion, and obedie?ice without 
 liberty is slai'ery.'" 
 
 FOR INVESTIGATION 
 
 1. Re\-iew together in class the preamble of the Constitution, notic- 
 ing carefully the thought and the language. 
 
 2. Discuss direct and indirect self-government. Does direct self- 
 government exist in any way in your community ? 
 
 3. Discuss in class the meaning of democracy : of a republic. What 
 other forms of government are there besides republics ? 
 
HOW THE COMMUNITY GOVERNS ITSELF 199 
 
 4. Discuss the meaning of a federal nation, and of the federal gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 5. Study the powers of Congress enumerated in Art. I, sec. 8, of the 
 Constitution ; the powers denied to the states in Art. I, sec. 10. 
 
 6. Discuss some of the powers that may be exercised by both state 
 and national governments. 
 
 7. Discuss in class how the relations between state and local govern- 
 ments differ from the relations between state and national governments. 
 
 8. Give examples of how the local government carries out the pro- 
 visions of state laws. 
 
 9. Give examples of some of the laws enacted by your local govern- 
 ment. 
 
 10. What are the advantages of having our representatives live in 
 our own locality ? What disadvantages might arise from this custom ? 
 
 11. What are the qualifications for the suffrage in your state.? Do 
 you think that the suffrage should be further extended, or restricted? 
 
 12. Report on the meaning of the fifteenth amendment to the Con- 
 stitution, and the historical reason for its enactment. 
 
 13. What are the great poHtical parties of to-day ? What are some 
 of the questions on which they are opposed to each other ? 
 
 14. Are there, or have there been, in your community any local 
 political parties growing out of local questions ? 
 
 15. How are nominations made in your community ? 
 
 16. Describe how an election is conducted in your community. 
 (Special attention should be given to this while an election is in process.) 
 
 17. Find out what you can about the organization in your community 
 and state of the party which you favor (committees, etc.). 
 
 18. Describe methods used in conducting a political campaign. 
 
 19. What is the method of electing the President as given in the 
 Constitution, Art. II, sec. 2, and Amendment XII ? Discuss in class 
 the purpose of this method, and how the method actually works. 
 
 20. How many persons hold government positions in your commu- 
 nity ? What proportion of them are elected? Appointed? 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Hart, "Actual Government," chapters III-V. 
 
 Forman, " Advanced Civics," chapters II-VII, X, XI, XIV, XXX, 
 XLV. 
 
 Bryce, " The American Commonwealth " (last edition), vol. I, chap- 
 ters XXVII, XXVIII; vol. II, chapters LIII-LV ; LIX, LX, LXVI, 
 LXIX-LXXI (abridged edition, chapters XXVI, XXVII, LII-LIV). 
 
 See other standard text-books on civil government. 
 
CHAPTER XX 
 
 HOW OUR METHODS OF SELF-GO VERXMEXT ARE 
 CHANGING 
 
 A GREAT many changes are taking place in our methods 
 of self-government. Some of them are due to the fact 
 T^/r ^t, J f that the older methods do not always work as 
 
 MetlLods of 
 
 government originally intended. Others are due to chang- 
 c ange ^^^ conditions in our community life, which 
 
 necessitate corresponding changes in the governing ma- 
 chinery. Still others are due to changes in our ideas of 
 what government should do for us. I\Iany of them are ex- 
 perimental in character and may be permanent or not ac- 
 cording as they prove, in the course of time, to meet real 
 needs. Such experiments are often tried in some one 
 locality, or state, and become more generally adopted only 
 when they prove successful. In general, most of these 
 changes have been in the direction of giving to a larger 
 number of the people a more direct part in government; 
 that is, in the direction of a more complete democracy. 
 At the same time their aim has been to insure better gov- 
 ernment by the people's representatives. 
 
 We speak of our government as a government by the 
 R stri t d people. As a matter of fact, comparatively few 
 self-govern- of the people have ever taken any direct part 
 ^^^ in governing. The founders of our national 
 
 government had no idea of giving all the people a direct 
 voice in their government. They believed that safety 
 
CHANGING METHODS Of^ SELF-GOVERNMENT 201 
 
 and good order depended on keeping the control of gov- 
 ernment in the hands of the most competent portion of 
 the people. We have seen how the suffrage was originally 
 restricted, and how it has been extended only by very 
 gradual stages. It was this fear of the masses of the 
 people that led the makers of the Constitution to adopt the 
 clumsy, and now useless, method of electing the President 
 by means of a chosen body of electors (see page 197). 
 
 Many citizens have lacked sufficient interest to take 
 part in government as much as they could. 3gif_go^_ 
 They do in this as they are inclined to do in emment de- 
 other matters: having employed some one to {f^^ interest 
 look after the business of government for them, of ailciti- 
 they feel relieved of all responsibility. If we 
 are to be a really self-governing people, each citizen must 
 take an active part. 
 
 There are only a few ways in which most citizens can 
 take actual pait in governing, but these are very important. 
 Not many citizens can hold office. In a self- The duty of 
 governing community it is the duty of a citizen, taking office 
 as well as a privilege, to take office when the community 
 calls upon him. It may seem unnecessary to emphasize 
 this, for usually there are more men who want office than 
 there are offices to fill. The trouble is that the men who 
 seek office do not always make the best officers. The men 
 who will look after the community business best are most 
 often men who have large interests of their own. The 
 wide-awake community that is fully alive to its best inter- 
 ests will usually look among these busy, successful men 
 and say to one of them, " You are capable, honest, and 
 successful in managing your own affairs ; we want you to 
 help manage the community's affairs in office." Unfortu- 
 nately such men too often shrink from the burdens and 
 
202 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 cares of office, or from giving up the necessary time from 
 their own business. Patriotism to one's community calls 
 for just such sacrihces. 
 
 The same lack of patriotism is shown in a smaller way 
 by a larger number of citizens who make all manner of 
 Patriotism in sxcuscs to avoid public service of various kinds. 
 jury sen-ice ^j\_ good example of this is in jury ser\'ice. Every 
 person accused of crime or sued at law has the right to 
 trial before a jury of his fellow-citizens (Constitution, 
 Amendments VI and VII). Nearly every man may be 
 called upon to ser^-e on a jury, and he is shirking an im- 
 portant responsibihty if, without good cause, he seeks to 
 avoid it. There are some classes of men who are regularly 
 and properly excused from jury sen,-ice, such as physicians. 
 Other men may, at times, have a valid excuse for not 
 serving. The fact that it is so difficult to get jurymen 
 from the best classes of citizens often results in juries of 
 idlers and ignorant men. One of the strongest safeguards 
 against injustice is thus weakened. 
 
 The papng of taxes is a most important way of taking 
 part in the government. All citizens who have property 
 Patriotism ^^^ taxed to help pay the expense of govern- 
 in paying ment. It is surprising to find how many citi- 
 ^^^^ zens endeavor to avoid paying their share 
 
 toward sustaining the government in its work for them. 
 
 Another way of taking part in government is by voting 
 for the nomination and election of officers. Thousands of 
 Patriotism voters fail to register or to cast their votes, 
 in voting throwing away the privilege of self-government, 
 and allowing others to govern them. This is especially 
 true at the primaries held to elect delegates to the nomi- 
 nating conventions. The choice of good men for the 
 highest offices in the land, even the President, depends on 
 
CHANGING METHODS OF SELF-GOVERNMENT 203 
 
 the choice of good men at these primaries. Yet it is 
 
 notorious that the primaries are poorly attended. 
 
 There are several reasons for this. One is that men 
 
 feel too busy to leave their work, or they consider the 
 
 election of delesrates and the nomination of „^, 
 
 . Why men 
 
 local officers too unimportant to take their time, do not at- 
 
 Another reason voters srive for not attending tend the 
 
 '^ . , . , pnmanes 
 
 the primaries is that they are unacquainted with 
 
 the candidates for nomination or election, and therefore 
 
 cannot vote intelligently. In large communities where 
 
 men do not know all their neighbors, it is difficult for the 
 
 ordinary busy citizen to keep informed in regard to the 
 
 merits of the various candidates. If a citizen is sufficiently 
 
 interested, and does not wait until a day or two before the 
 
 primary to inform himself, it is usually possible for him to 
 
 enlighten himself sufficiently to cast his vote wisely. This 
 
 excuse is often an admission of flagging interest in what 
 
 is going on in the community during the time between 
 
 elections. In many of our cities there are associations of 
 
 citizens which publish, before election time, the names of 
 
 the candidates of all parties with a sketch of their records 
 
 as citizens and pubHc servants. 
 
 At the primaries in New York City in 191 2 a ballot 
 
 fourteen feet long was used, containing 590 names. 
 
 While this is an extreme case, it illustrates the The short 
 
 difficulty which the conscientious voter faces Fallot 
 
 when he tries to vote intelligently. In order to remove 
 
 this difficulty a movement has been gaining headway in 
 
 favor of a s/iort ballot. As the name indicates, the plan 
 
 is to reduce the number of names to be voted for to a very 
 
 brief list. The chief means of accomplishing this is by 
 
 having only the most important officials elected by the 
 
 people, leaving the less important ones to be appointed 
 
204 THE COMMUNITY AXD THE CITIZEN 
 
 by those elected. The few elective officials would thus 
 stand out prominently before the voters, and could be 
 held responsible by the people for the appointment of 
 capable subordinates. This plan not only makes it 
 easier for the voter to vote intelligently, but also tends to 
 secure more capable men in office. 
 
 Another thing that has kept many voters away from 
 
 the primaries of the old type is the feeling that their votes 
 
 have no real influence, either because of unfair 
 
 Pnmanes 
 
 controUed treatment at the primaries, or because the ac- 
 by a few ^-^^^ ^£ ^i^^ primary and of the later nominating 
 convention is determined beforehand by a few party 
 leaders. Even these are not sufficient reasons. By stay- 
 ing away the timid voters abandon the fight, before it is 
 begun, to the small but wide-awake group of politicians, 
 who can therefore run things as they please, whether for 
 good or for ill. Nomination of all candidates by direct 
 vote of the people (see page 193) largely removes this excuse 
 of the voter for not taking interest in the primaries, since 
 it gives him a real voice in the choice of candidates, and 
 increases the probability of nominating acceptable men. 
 
 This brings us to some of the dangers to self-govern- 
 ment resulting from the way in which political parties are 
 •organized and managed. 
 
 Political parties are unavoidable under a form of gov- 
 ernment like ours. They are the means of securing united 
 ^ , action anions^ the voters who think alike. A 
 
 Dangers of ° 
 
 the party voter cannot accomplish much unless he belongs 
 ^^^^ to a party and works and votes with it. Yet it 
 
 must be remembered that a party is merely a means to ac- 
 comphsh a result, and not in itself a sacred thing. The 
 purpose of a party should be to secure good government 
 for all the people. The words of Washington in his Fare- 
 
CHANGING METHODS OF SELF-GOVERNMENT 205 
 
 well Address should always be kept in mind by the pa- 
 triotic American citizen. He said: "The spirit [of party], 
 unfortunately, is inseparable from our nature, having its 
 root in the strongest passions of the human mind. It 
 exists under different shapes in all governments, more or 
 less stifled, controlled, or repressed ; but in those of the 
 popular form it is seen in its greatest rankness, and is truly 
 their worst enemy. The alternate domination of one faction 
 over another, sharpened by the spirit of revenge natural 
 to party dissensions . . . is itself a frightful despotism. . . . 
 The common and continual mischiefs of the spirit of party 
 are sufficient to make it the interest and duty of a wise 
 people to discourage and restrain it." 
 
 To secure united action among the members of a party 
 there must be organization under the direction of leaders. 
 
 Each city ward has its leader, or leaders, who 
 
 . .... The party 
 
 gain their position through their ability to influ- machine, 
 
 ence the voters of the ward and to hold them "^s^ *^^ 
 
 bosses 
 together. These ward leaders are under the 
 
 authority of a leader, or group of leaders, for the whole 
 city. If one leader gains great influence over the party 
 in the city, or in the state, he is called a boss. This or- 
 ganization extends throughout the nation, with branches 
 in every community. The organization is often called the 
 machine, the group of leaders controlling the machine 
 is a political 7Hng, and the boss is the commander-in- 
 chief of all, his influence sometimes being limited to a 
 city, or extending over a state or even the whole nation. 
 
 These names — machine, ring, and boss — 
 were applied by the party's enemies. They do agement 
 not necessarily mean anything bad. A machine ^o^ selfish 
 (that is, an organization) is necessary, and there 
 must be bosses, or leaders. The evil connected with these 
 
206 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 things arises from the fact that the machine sometimes 
 falls into the hands of ambitious, but unscrupulous, bosses 
 and rings, who manage the part}' merely for the part}^'s 
 sake, or what is worse, for their own selfish ends. 
 
 It sometimes happens that bosses and rings are them- 
 j. ■ ^ ^ selves under the domination of wealthy corpora- 
 of wealthy tions which are seeking to secure legislation 
 corporations f^vQj.^|3ie to their own interests. In such cases 
 the people are not their own governors, but are subject to 
 the domination of the corporations, 
 
 The leaders of a party use various methods to maintain 
 
 their control over the voters, and over the subordinate 
 
 leaders. Sometimes thev do it bv arsrument and 
 
 How the . . 1 ' 1 ' . , 
 
 party main- persuasion, sometimes by threats, sometimes by 
 tains control promises of reward, and sometimes by actual 
 
 over voters . 
 
 briber}'. A common method is to hold before 
 
 the party worker the promise of reward by appointment 
 to some office of government. 
 
 It was formerly customar}- for each party to have its 
 ticket ( list of candidates ) printed separately and usually 
 
 Secrecy of ^'^ paper of different color from that of other 
 the baUot party ballots. It was then easy for watchers 
 to see how each man voted, and he could be held to 
 
 account if he did not vote as expected. This method 
 of controlling a i^i^'s v::e vns prevented b-.- the intro- 
 duction of the A:is:r,7^:,::: r.?dV:, v,-l:i:h conriins :::e names 
 of the candidates of all parties on a single sheet. Each 
 voter receives c::e of these from the elerrior. ontcers at the 
 polls, and retires alone into a bootfx v/nere he marks the 
 names of the candidates for whom he \\ishes to vote, un- 
 seen by any one. The secrecy of his ballot gives him 
 greater independence. A more recent innovation is the 
 z-oting viachinc, a mechanical device by means of which 
 
CHANGING METHODS OF SELF-GOVERNMENT 207 
 
 the voter registers his vote by operating a set of levers. 
 The vote is registered and counted at one time by the 
 machine, thus reducing the chance of fraud. 
 
 Where the people are divided into parties, it is of course 
 the opinions and policies of the victorious party that will 
 be carried out by the government. The de- ^ . . 
 feated party or parties must yield to the victors, minority 
 We often say that in a democratic form of gov- ^^® 
 ernment the majority rules. But where there are more 
 than two political parties, as is usually the case in the 
 United States, no one of the parties may include a ma- 
 jority of the people; the two or more defeated parties 
 may together include many more people than the one vic- 
 torious party. In such cases, which are very common, it 
 is a minority that rules, and the majority that has to yield. 
 But whether it is the representatives of the majority or of 
 the minority that administer the government, they should 
 not forget that while they are in power they should govern 
 as nearly as possible in the interest of a// the people. 
 The defeated parties should always have a means of ex- 
 pressing their views in the councils of government, and 
 their views should be given every possible consideration. 
 
 One plan to secure this result is that of p7'oportional 
 representation in legislative bodies, such as state legisla- 
 tures and city councils. By this plan several „ _^. 
 
 •' J f Proportional 
 
 representatives are elected from each election representa- 
 district, and these are divided proportionally *^°" 
 among the parties. Thus, if the parties are of equal 
 strength in a given district, they will have an equal num- 
 ber of representatives ; if one is twice as strong as another, 
 it will have twice as many representatives as the other. 
 The important thing is that each political group secures 
 fair representation irr the legislative body. 
 
208 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 Another plan by which to secure elections that are in 
 closer accord with the will of the majority of voters is that 
 Preferential 0^ preferential voting. This plan, which has 
 voting been adopted in some localities, is used where 
 
 one of several candidates is to be elected to a single ad- 
 ministrative office. It is somewhat complicated in detail, 
 and in fact there are various methods by which the plan 
 is carried out. In general, however, it is a plan by which 
 each voter, in addition to indicating his first choice for the 
 office, may mark the other candidates in the order of his 
 preference ; so that, if it proves that his first choice cannot 
 be elected, his second choice may be taken into account ; 
 or, if that fails, his third choice, and so on. 
 
 Besides these devices to give the people greater control 
 over the choice of their representatives, there are still 
 others by which these representatives may be 
 more completely controlled after they are elected. 
 One of these is known as the re call. This is a method by 
 which the people may remove an elective official from 
 office before his term expires. If a number of citizens 
 believe that an official is not properly fulfilling the obliga- 
 tions of his office, a petition signed by a specified number 
 of voters will necessitate an election to determine whether 
 the official shall remain in office or be supplanted by 
 another. Elective officials are thus made more directly re- 
 sponsible to the people for their acts. The recall has been 
 used in a good many western communities io\ the removal 
 of mayors, city councilmen, school directors, and others. 
 
 The people are also acquiring a more direct control 
 over the making of the laws. They always had the right, 
 except in Delaware, to vote on proposed amendments to 
 the state constitutions; and by the town meeting plan 
 (see page 218; they have themselves made laws to regulate 
 
CHANGING METHODS OF SELF-GOVERNMENT 209 
 
 local affairs. But in recent years a number of states and 
 a great many local communities have extended the direct 
 action of the people in law-making by means of the initia- 
 tive and the referendum. 
 
 The initiative is the right of the voters to initiate, or 
 start, legislation. By means of it a specified number of 
 voters may themselves, by petition, propose a ^^.. .. 
 law ; and if the legislature does not act upon it, and 
 it must be submitted to the people for their vote ^^^^^^^^^""^ 
 at the next election. On the other hand, if the legislature 
 passes a law that is not pleasing to a considerable number 
 of the people, a petition signed by a specified number of 
 voters will require the law to be referred to the people for 
 their approval or rejection. This is the referendum. 
 The object of the initiative and the referendurn is to force 
 legislative bodies to act in accordance with the will of the 
 people whom they represent ; or, if they do not do so, to 
 overrule them. 
 
 These means of direct law-making are now in use in 
 many localities, and are spreading. The chief arguments 
 against them are that our state governments Arguments 
 were intended to be representative and not for and 
 direct, and that the people as a whole are not direct 
 sufficiently informed to vote intelligently upon legislation 
 important laws. In reply to this it is said that it is not 
 expected that the people will exercise the power of law- 
 making except in cases where the legislative bodies fail 
 to represent them faithfully, and that the legislatures will 
 be more considerate of the will of the people in view of 
 the power possessed by the latter to overrule them. It is 
 said, further, that in a democratic form of government 
 the people ought to be informed regarding important 
 public questions with which their legislatures are deaHng, 
 
210 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 and that this is more likely to be the case if they know 
 that they may be called upon to deal with these questions 
 directly at any time. In order to provide every possible 
 means for inteUigent action by the people, it is the practice 
 in some states where the initiative and referendum prevail, 
 to circulate printed copies of proposed laws with a state- 
 ment of all important arguments on both sides. 
 
 By far the greater number of the offices of government 
 are filled by appointment and not by election. These ap- 
 The civil pointive places constitute the civil service, 
 service There are about three hundred thousand such 
 
 offices or positions under the national government, and prob- 
 ably as many more under the state and local governments. 
 It is necessary that some of the more important of these 
 offices should be filled by men who will sympathize with 
 the poHcy of the government as indicated by the party in 
 power, as in the positions of the cabinet officers who are 
 advisors with the President and carry out his policy. 
 There are, however, some offices in which party feeling 
 should not be allowed to enter at all, as in the case of 
 judges of our courts. Their business is to interpret the 
 law and to render justice, which is always the same under 
 any party. There are many thousands of other offices, or 
 government positions, in which a man's party beliefs would 
 make no difference in the performance of his duty, as in 
 the case of postmen and mail clerks. 
 
 It early became the practice of a victorious party to dis- 
 miss many members of the defeated party who were hold- 
 The spoils i^& government positions, and to fill their places 
 system with its Own members. This plan began in the 
 
 national government under Andrew Jackson, and is known 
 as the spoils system, because it was founded on the princi- 
 ple that "to the victors belong the spoils." 
 
CHANGING METHODS OF SELF-GOVERNMENT 211 
 
 The spoils system brought with it a train of evils. The 
 changes made in the civil service with each change of ad- 
 ministration were injurious to the efficiency of oovem- 
 the service. The worst evil was the habit it ment offices 
 
 are posts 
 
 cultivated of looking upon the offices of govern- of service, 
 ment as booty, to be sought for, and even fought not a reward 
 for, as rewards for party service. The man who works 
 for a party merely for what he can get out of it in the 
 shape of a salaried office is not a safe man for the people 
 to put their confidence in as their representative in gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 A great deal has been done in the last few years to de- 
 stroy the spoils system of making appointments to office. 
 In 1883 a civil service law was passed, and a 
 Civil Service Commission created by Congress, system in 
 for the purpose of improving conditions. By *^® ^y^'^ 
 this act a merit system of making appointments 
 was introduced. By the merit system, candidates for the 
 civil service must pass a competitive examination to show 
 fitness, and when appointed, they hold office during good 
 behavior. At first this system was applied to only a few 
 of the offices, but the number of offices in which it oper- 
 ates has steadily increased, until to-day more than half of 
 the national offices are subject to it. The merit system 
 of appointment has been adopted also in some states and 
 cities. 
 
 One of the most promising of the changes that are 
 taking place in our methods of self-government is to be 
 seen in the increasing effort to fill all positions j^gg^jfo,. 
 in the government service with persons who business 
 are trained in the kind of work they are to ™®* ° ^ 
 perform, and are capable of applying good business 
 methods to the public business. Although dishonesty and 
 
212 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 corruption have been too frequent, a far more prevalent 
 cause of bad government has been the simple lack of 
 business methods and good management. 
 
 Various agencies are now at work studying the w^ork 
 and methods of the many departments and offices of 
 government with a view to discovering how they may be 
 conducted more economically and more efficiently. In 
 some of our cities there are "bureaus of municipal re- 
 search "' for this purpose. Their attention has been 
 directed chiefly to the study of the methods of city gov- 
 ernment,, but they are now extending their activities to 
 include county, state, and national governments. Largely 
 through the influence of such private agencies, govern- 
 ments themselves are beginning to provide means for 
 self-study. Thus, the department of education in New 
 York City has created a bureau of investigation to work 
 constantly for more effective methods of attending to the 
 enormous business of the public schools of that city. The 
 federal government has a commission to study and im- 
 prove its methods of keeping accounts and handling its 
 routine business. 
 
 In some foreign countries the public service offers 
 
 careers for which young men go into training, as they 
 
 would o-o into training for the practice of law. 
 
 Public ser- * o i ' 
 
 vice as a or medicine, or business. In our country the 
 career feeUng has seemed to prevail that not only 
 
 has every citizen a rigJit to hold office, but that he is 
 competent to do so if he has sufficient influence to 
 secure an election or an appointment. This idea is 
 changing, and the time is apparently coming when, in this 
 country also, the pubHc service will offer an honorable 
 career to be prepared for by systematic training, or by ex- 
 perience in similar kinds of work, or both. A number of 
 
CHANGING METHODS OF SELF-GOVERNMENT 213 
 
 our universities now have departments to provide such 
 training for young men, and other agencies with a similar 
 purpose are growing up. Trained service in all depart- 
 ments of the public business cannot be expected, however, 
 unless there is a public demand for it. The people them- 
 selves must recognize the need for it and insist upon 
 having it. 
 
 This chapter has shown how the voters, who have been 
 inclined to throw all responsibility for government upon 
 their representatives, are taking upon themselves Regoonsi- 
 more and more direct responsibility. In like biiityofthe 
 manner, citizens who cannot vote are inclined ^^^'^^^^^ 
 to throw all responsibility upon those who can. There 
 are many ways in which the non-voting citizen may help 
 to improve the methods of government, but chief among 
 these is by keeping thoroughly informed regarding the 
 community needs, how they may best be met, and how 
 government actually does meet them, or fails to meet them. 
 One reason for the need of information on the part of 
 non-voters is that they have many opportunities to work 
 with private organizations in the interest of public needs, 
 such as the public health, public safety, education, and 
 so on, and through such organizations to bring direct 
 pressure to bear upon government. Another reason is 
 that many of these non-voters may soon have the power 
 to vote, and should be prepared to exercise the power 
 effectively. A third reason, and perhaps the most im- 
 portant, is that an employee is stimulated to do his best 
 work when he knows that his employer is interested in 
 and thoroughly understands his work. Lack of interest on 
 the part of the employer breeds lack of interest and incom- 
 petency on the part of the employee. The best reason 
 the citizen has for knowing about his government is be- 
 
214 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 cause of the effect that his possession of that knowledge 
 has upon those who administer his business in government. 
 Perhaps the chief defects of our system of self-govern- 
 ment may be summarized as those which prevent the citizen 
 
 from reallv having a voice in his own govern- 
 Conditions ' ^ ... , , . 
 
 are getting ment, and those which prevent the choice of 
 better, not j^g^ most Competent and most trustw^orthy to 
 hold office and administer our affairs. These 
 defects were not anticipated when our governments were 
 first formed, but have developed with the increasing com- 
 plexity of our communities until they have in some cases 
 become acute and cause patriotic citizens some anxiety. 
 We must not, however, get a wrong impression of the 
 situation. Any plan, however excellent, is bound to mis- 
 carry at times when it is in the hands of imperfect human 
 beings. It must not be supposed that our plan of govern- 
 ment is wrong because it is sometimes wrongly used. 
 Neither must it be supposed that it is wrongly used in the 
 hands of all officers. Instead, we have great reason to be 
 hopeful that the defects in our government will disappear. 
 We can feel assured that the great majority of the people 
 will do right when they see the right, and that there are 
 to-day many honest and patriotic leaders who are earnestly 
 striving to give the people the best that government can 
 secure. Conditions are not getting worse, but better. If 
 we see more corruption to-day than formerly, it is rather 
 because we are opening our eyes, and are striving more 
 earnestly to uproot the evils. 
 
 FOR INVESTIGATION 
 
 1. Discuss in class the question Avhether we are a democracy or 
 an oligarchy. 
 
 2. Why is holding office a duty? Why is it a privilege? 
 
CHANGING METHODS OF SELF-GOVERNMENT 21 5 
 
 3. How are jurymen selected? What will debar a man from serv- 
 ing on a jury ? What would you consider a good excuse for an ordinary 
 business man's not serving when called on? 
 
 4. Are the primaries in your community well attended? Try to 
 find out the reasons for non-attendance from some of the men of your 
 acquaintance. 
 
 5. Is there any organization in your community that tries to inform 
 the people of the records and character of the candidates for nomina- 
 tion and election? Why might it be difficult to get reliable informa- 
 tion in regard to these matters? 
 
 6. Have any laws been passed recently in your state for the reform 
 of the primaries? What are the main features of these new laws? 
 
 7. Study those parts of Washington's Farewell Address that deal 
 with political parties. Discuss carefully his meaning. 
 
 8. Investigate the methods of conducting primaries in the worst 
 districts of large cities. Where are they held? How are they man- 
 aged? Are similar methods used anywhere in your own city? 
 
 9. What per cent of the qualified voters in your city (or county) 
 voted at the last election? 
 
 10. How many names to be voted for were on the county ticket of 
 the party you favor at the last election ? On the city ticket ? On the 
 state ticket? 
 
 11. What do men of your acquaintance think of the desirability of 
 a short ballot in your community? Give their arguments. 
 
 12. If proportional representation exists in your community or state, 
 discuss it in detail. Also, preferential voting, the recall, the initiative 
 and the referendum. 
 
 13. Report on the application of the spoils system under Jackson's 
 administration. 
 
 14. Report on the history of civil service reform. 
 
 15. Is the merit system of appointment used in your state? 
 
 16. Is the merit system of appointment used in your city govern- 
 ment? How does it work? 
 
 17. Are voting machines used in your community? How do they 
 work? 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Bryce, "The American Commonwealth," vol. II, chapters LXIII^ 
 LXV, LXVII, LXVIII; LXXXVIII, LXXXIX ; XCVII. XCVIII. 
 
 Roosevelt, "Essays on Practical Politics," "American Ideals and 
 Other Essays." Also, "What Americanism Means," Forum, 17 : 196- 
 206. 
 
2l6 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 Allen, William H. : •• \Vo:rian"s Part in Government." (Dodd. 
 Mead & Co.. 191 1.) 
 
 The magazine ^//^, published quarterly at 1520 Chestnut Street. 
 Philadelphia, is devoted to the " promotion of improvements in govern- 
 ment, especially of those methods that will result in a more perfect 
 democracy. ■■ It explains and gives the current record of such subjects 
 as the initiative and referendum, the recall, direct primaries, propor- 
 tional representation, etc. The January number. 191 3. is particularly 
 good. 
 
 The American Proportional Representation League (Secretar}-. C. G. 
 Hoag. Haverford. Pa.) publishes pamphlets relating to this subject. 
 They are rather technical. 
 
 The National Short Ballot Organization. 3S3 Fourth Avenue. New 
 York, issues numerous publications. 
 
 The Legislative Reference Bureau. Monrpelier. Vt.. in 1914 issued 
 a pamphlet on Direct Primaries. It contains a tabulation of argu- 
 ments both for and against. 
 
 Bureaus of Municipal Research in New York. Philadelphia. Cincin- 
 nati, and other cities, issue useful publications on emciency in city gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 For civil ser^-ice reform see : 
 
 Fifteenth Annual Report of the U. S. Civil Service Commission, pp. 489-502, 
 for an account of the growth of civil service reform. Also later reports. 
 
 Roosevelt, " An Object Lesson in Civil Service Reform," Atlantic Monthly, (rj : 
 252-257 ; " Present Status of Civil Service Reform," Atlantic Monthly, 75 : 239-246 ; 
 "Six Years of Civil Service ^^iorm^" Scribner s Magazine, 18: 238-247 (also in 
 " American Ideals and Other Essays "). 
 
 The spoils system under Jackson, McMaster. •• History of the People 
 of the L'nited States." vol. V. pp. 523-536. 
 
 Ballot Reform. Johnson's Encyclopedia. 
 
 Electoral Reform. New International Encyclopedia. 
 
 Elections. Encyclopedia Americana. 
 
 See also Readers" Guide to Periodical Literature on the various 
 topics of the chapter. 
 
CHAPTER XXI 
 
 THE GOVERNMENT OF RURAL COMMUNITIES: TOWN- 
 SHIP AND COUNTY 
 
 The English colonists who settled in America were 
 familiar with forms of both national and local government 
 in England. Their removal to America did not at first 
 change their national government in any way, for the 
 EngUsh government remained theirs. To meet their local 
 needs, on the other hand, it was necessary to establish some 
 form of local government in this country. In doing so, it 
 was natural that they should imitate the forms with which 
 they had been familiar in England. 
 
 In the early times of English history the smallest politi- 
 cal division of the land was the tozvn, which, in those days, 
 consisted of a palisaded village with surrounding 
 farm and pasture land; it was governed by a township 
 meeting of the men of the town, or town meeting. ^^ ^°wn 
 In the troublous course of early English history, 
 these towns lost their right of direct self-government. 
 Meanwhile another division of the land had appeared for 
 purposes of church government. This was t\\Q parish, which 
 was under the control of the parish priest. The parish 
 usually coincided in area with the older town. The people 
 of the parish met in a vestiy meeting, to assess the church 
 rates for church expenses and the care of the poor. As 
 the powers of the town meeting declined, the vestry meeting 
 gradually assumed them, until it became really the same 
 thing as the older town meeting. 
 
 217 
 
2i8 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 When the Puritans left England because of restrictions 
 
 on their religious liberty, they went in congregations ; and 
 
 the ^"^'tien they settled in Massachusetts, they settled 
 
 township in little palisaded communities around the church. 
 
 system was u^^^qj. these Conditions it was natural that the 
 
 adopted in 
 
 New Eng- New England colonists should adopt the town, 
 ^^^ or parish, form of government with which they 
 
 were famihar. Each little community, including the village 
 and the surrounding farms, was called a town, or township, 
 The town ^^^ ^"^'^s governed by a meeting of all the freemen 
 meeting (landholders) who belonged to the church. This 
 meeting was called the tozi'u meeting. It originally met in 
 the church, but afterward in the toivn house. It levied 
 taxes for church purposes, to provide for the poor, and 
 to pay the expenses of government. It provided for a 
 school. It authorized the construction and repair of roads 
 and bridges. The laws enacted by the town meeting were 
 called by-laws, which means town laws- 
 
 For the execution of the by-laws it was necessar}^ for 
 the town meeting to elect officers. First of all, there were 
 Town from three to nine selectmen, the number vary- 
 
 officers ing with the size of the township. They had 
 
 general supervision over all community business. They 
 represented the town when the town meeting was not in 
 session, and called the town meeting when necessary. The 
 toum clerk kept the records of the business of the town. 
 The toivn treasurer received the taxes of the people, and 
 paid the expenses of the community. There were tax 
 assessors, who determined the amount of tax each citizen 
 must pay, and overseers of the poor. The constable served 
 warrants issued by the selectmen, arrested criminals, and 
 sometimes collected the taxes. Each town had also a 
 school committee. 
 
TOWNSHIP AND COUNTY 219 
 
 In England, at the time when America was colonized, 
 the parish was only a part of the local government. 
 There was also the shirey or county. The county origin of 
 included a number of parishes, or townships, the county 
 Over the county there was a government which at one 
 time was composed of representatives from the townships 
 and cities, but which afterward consisted of a number of 
 justices of the peace appointed by the king. These justices 
 constituted the court of quarter sessions, meeting every 
 quarter of the year to hold court. They were both a judi- 
 cial body, trying cases at law, and an administrative body, 
 managing the affairs of the county. 
 
 The colonists of Virginia did not come Hke the Pilgrims 
 for religious freedom, or like the later settlers of Massa- 
 chusetts for political freedom. They came in ^j^^ county 
 search of wealth. Virginia is a rich farming system in 
 country, in which the cultivation of tobacco in ^^8^* 
 great plantations proved to be the most profitable industry. 
 The colonists scattered themselves along the rivers, as 
 planters, instead of living in compact communities like the 
 New England colonists. When they organized themselves 
 for local government, therefore, they adopted the English 
 plan of county government, instead of the township plan. 
 The whole colony was divided into counties, over each of 
 which was placed a county court, consisting of eight justices 
 of the peace. These justices were appointed by the 
 governor of the colony, as in England they were appointed 
 by the king, but they could themselves fill vacancies in 
 their number. The county court was primarily a judicial 
 body, trying cases at law, and meeting for the purpose 
 about once a month at a designated point called the county 
 seat. It had also administrative powers, as in England. 
 It appointed highway surveyors and constables. It levied 
 
220 
 
 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 taxes for the maintenance of roads and bridges, and for 
 other expenses of government. In each county there was 
 a sheriff, appointed by the colonial governor. His chief 
 duties were to execute the judgments of the court, and to 
 serve as treasurer and tax collector. Another important 
 officer was the county lieutenant, who had command of the 
 militia. 
 
 mm.'''^ 
 
 p^aiittiH 
 
 Comrrigfa, 1906, by Bttrcnt PubUsTiing Co. 
 
 Court House, Dex^-er, Colo. 
 
 Thus we find two forms of local government in the colo- 
 nies. Both were brought from England, but each was 
 Two forms adapted to the peculiar conditions in which the 
 
 of local colonists found themselves. The township sys- 
 govem- ^ -' 
 
 ment tem prevailed throughout New England, where 
 
 it is still the unit of the political organization. The town 
 meeting may still be found in many small communities, 
 
TOWNSHIP AND COUNTY 221 
 
 although it has necessarily been abandoned for the repre- 
 sentative system in the larger communities. The county 
 system prevailed, with some variations, throughout the 
 Southern colonies, where the conditions of life were very 
 much aUke, and it is to-day the unit of the political organi- 
 zation throughout the Southern states. 
 
 New York and Pennsylvania, lying between New Eng- 
 land and the Southern colonies, were influenced in their 
 forms of local government by both sections, jhe mixed 
 They developed both township and county, type 
 In New York the township predominated, and it was organ- 
 ized very much as in New England. The townships, how- 
 ever, were grouped into counties, and each township in a 
 county elected each year a member of the county board of 
 supervisors. In Pennsylvania, also, there were both town- 
 ship and county, but the latter predominated over the town- 
 ship. The county officers in Pennsylvania were all elected 
 by the people of the county, instead of being appointed by 
 the governor as in Virginia. 
 
 Throughout the West the mixed form of township-county 
 government prevails, sometimes the township, sometimes 
 the county, predominating. The influence of the township 
 is especially strong in the Northwest, where there The influ- 
 is a large New England population. In Michi- the town 
 gan, northern lUinois, and other parts of the meeting 
 Northwest, the town meeting still manages the affairs 
 of the township. The influence of the town meeting in 
 developing a strong citizenship has been very great. All 
 voters have the right to attend and to take part in the 
 discussion and settlement of affairs. Experience shows 
 that, as a rule, they take advantage of their right. Others 
 besides voters often attend in order to listen to the discus- 
 sions. The town meeting thus becomes a school of instruc- 
 
222 
 
 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 tion in public matters. Nowhere else do we find such 
 
 general interest in public questions as in the parts of the 
 
 CopyrigU, 1906, by Letroii Fxiblishing Co. 
 
 Court House, Detroit, Mich. 
 
 country where the town meeting prevails. It encourages 
 healthy, active citizenship. 
 
 The county system of representative government is more 
 
TOWNSHIP AND COUNTY 223 
 
 practicable throughout the West than the township with 
 government by town meeting. The country is ^j^^ town- 
 almost wholly agricultural and the population is ship in the 
 widely scattered. On the other hand, the exist- ^®^* 
 ence of the congressional townships surveyed by the na- 
 tional government to aid in the settlement of the land (see 
 page 49), suggested that they be adopted as civil town- 
 ships for purposes of local government. Everywhere 
 throughout the West, therefore, we find both township and 
 county governments with varying relations between them. 
 Even in the South the counties are tending to break up into 
 smaller divisions for some purposes of local government, 
 especially in connection with school administration. The 
 principle of local self-government is strong among the peo- 
 ple, and they prefer the smaller township to the county as 
 the unit of government. Except in the Northwest, how- 
 ever, the government of the township is now representative. 
 It is in the hands of township trustees, who correspond to 
 the earlier selectmen ; the clerk, who keeps the records ; 
 the tax assessors and collectors ; the justice of the peace, 
 who presides over the township court for the trial of minor 
 cases ; the school trustees ; the overseers of the poor ; and 
 numerous minor officers. At the present time the most im- 
 portant matters under the control of the township govern- 
 ment are the schools, the roads, and the poor. 
 
 The main governing body of the county is the board of 
 county commissioners, or supervisors. They administer 
 the affairs of the county : they fix the rate of tax- xhe West- 
 ation ; appropriate money for the building and ^^ county 
 repairing of public buildings, such as the courthouse and 
 jail, and for the construction of roads and bridges; and ap- 
 point subordinate officials. Every county has its court, 
 which is of higher grade than the township justice court, and 
 
224 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 is held at the county seat. The commands of the court 
 are carried out by the sheriff, who also maintains order in 
 the county and usually has charge of the county jail and 
 its inmates. There are various other officers, among whom 
 are the county treasurer, the tax assessors and collectors, 
 the superintendent of schools, the clerk, the coroner, and 
 the surveyor. 
 
 In those states where the township has the chief impor- 
 tance in local government, the county exists for little more 
 than judicial purposes. In other states the county govern- 
 ment has many of the powers which the township govern- 
 ment exercises elsewhere. There seems to be a growing 
 tendency to centralize the administration of many local 
 affairs in the county government, or at least to give the 
 county government supervision over the affairs of the 
 townships. This is seen in the administration of the schools 
 and of roads. This supervision secures greater uniformity 
 and efficiency than would be the case if each township had 
 exclusive control over these matters. 
 
 The government of rural communities seems a compara- 
 tively simple matter. The pressing . problems of city and 
 Importance national government have thrown it into the 
 
 of local background. But it has an importance that de- 
 
 government 1.1. 1 ■ r 
 
 mands the mterest and attention of every citizen. 
 In the first place, the township and county have always 
 been the units of local self-government. No matter how 
 isolated a farmer and his family may be, these governments 
 provide him with a direct means of cooperating with others 
 for the satisfaction of his immediate wants and the protec- 
 tion of his rights. Besides, upon the excellence of these 
 local means of self-government depends in large measure 
 the success or failure of the general governments of state 
 and nation. 
 
TOWNSHIP AND COUNTY 225 
 
 In the second place, these forms of local government 
 have acquired new importance because of the very fact of 
 the growth of cities and the increasing com- Adaptation 
 plexity of community life. They were origi- to local 
 nally adapted to the peculiar needs of rural 
 communities and small towns. To-day, however, many 
 counties contain large city populations. Some, in fact, 
 are occupied wholly by large cities, as in the case of New 
 York City and Chicago. We have seen how the old form 
 of township government by town-meeting has had to give 
 way before increasing population. But in spite of the 
 great changes in conditions through the transformation of 
 rural into urban, or partly urban, communities, the form 
 of county government has remained almost unchanged. 
 
 Where cities have grown up within counties their gov- 
 ernments overlap and duplicate, in many ways, the county 
 governments. This often results in conflict of q-^^^^^ ^^^^ 
 authority, wastefulness, and inefficiency. Den- counties 
 ver has solved the difficulty by consolidating ®^®^*p 
 city and county by providing for a single board of five 
 commissioners at the head of both city and county govern- 
 ments, and making city and county officers subordinate to 
 this board. In Alameda County, California, where a part 
 of the county is distinctly rural and another part made up 
 of a group of cities, it is proposed to have a county board 
 of which the mayors of the cities will be members, and 
 to consolidate some of the county and city offices. 
 
 Another feature of county government which is con- 
 sidered weak, especially where the population is large, is 
 the large number of elective officers. In Cali- short ballot 
 fornia, for example, there were formerly elected ^° counties 
 in each county every four years five commissioners, a 
 sheriff, a county superintendent of schools, a coroner, a 
 
226 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 public administrator, a county clerk, a district attorney, an 
 auditor, a treasurer, a tax collector, an assessor, a recorder 
 and a surveyor, besides a number of constables and justices 
 of the peace. Each of these officers, being elected by the 
 people, would feel independent of all the others, so that 
 instead of perfect cooperation, there might be lack of har- 
 mony and unity in the administration of the county busi- 
 ness. Besides this, since many of the offices thus filled by 
 election are comparatively obscure, the people do not take 
 great interest in them. Some of the office holders are 
 often wholly unknown to many of the voters. The result 
 is likely to be an inferior type of officials. The remedy 
 proposed for this, and already in practice in some states, is 
 the short ballot (see page 203). The present law in Los 
 Angeles County, California, for example, provides for the 
 election of not more than three officers in any one year, 
 while most of the offices are filled by appointment. 
 
 The county is an administrative division of the state. 
 That is, an important part of the work of its government 
 Home rule ^^ ^^ administer the laws of the state within its 
 for counties boundaries. For this reason there must be 
 some uniformity among all the counties and some control 
 over them by the state government. On the other hand, 
 there are many matters of purely local concern that come 
 under the jurisdiction of the county government. Where 
 there are such differences among the counties as exist in 
 most of the states, many believe that better results would 
 be obtained in matters of purely local interest if a larger 
 degree of home rule were allowed. Again California has 
 taken the lead in this matter by enacting a state law which 
 allows to each county the right to adopt its own charter, or 
 form of local government, a right which the cities of that 
 state have enjoyed for some time past. 
 
TOWNSHIP AND COUNTY 22/ 
 
 In these and other ways county government is being 
 modified, especially in the West, to meet the changing 
 conditions of community life. 
 
 FOR INVESTIGATION 
 
 1. Is the township or the county the more important division for 
 local rural government in your state ? Can you explain why ? 
 
 2. Are town meetings ever held in your state ? If so, have you 
 ever attended one ? Describe the meeting. 
 
 3. What are your township officers ? Make a list of them, and 
 state their duties. 
 
 4. How are the various township officers chosen ? 
 
 5. Is there any law-making, or legislative, body in your township .'* 
 If so, with what kinds of things do its laws deal ? 
 
 6. How are the laws enforced in your township ? 
 
 7. Are there any courts in your township ? If so, what are they ? 
 What kinds of cases do they try ? 
 
 8. Make a list of your county officers. State their duties. 
 
 9. How are the county officers chosen ? 
 
 10. What legislative body is there in your county ? 
 
 11. What executive officers are there? 
 
 12. Do the county legislative officers have any executive powers ? 
 
 13. Are there any county courts in your county ? What kinds of 
 cases do they try ? 
 
 14. What buildings belong to your county and township ? What 
 are their uses ? 
 
 15. Make a map of your county, showing townships. Notice the 
 shape of the townships and the county. Do their boundaries follow 
 the lines of the government survey ? Explain any irregularities in the 
 shape of the townships. Locate the county seat. 
 
 16. Find out how many of your township and county officers your 
 father now knows by name. Compare notes in class on this point. 
 Does the result show great interest in township and county government 
 or not ? 
 
 17. Can you find cases in your community in which the duties of 
 various local officers duplicate each other ? 
 
 18. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of applying the short 
 ballot to your own county. Also the desirability of a larger degree of 
 home rule for your county. 
 
228 THE COMMUNITY AXD THE CITIZEN 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Hart "Actual Government," chapter X. 
 Forman. *• Advanced Civics,"' chapters XXVI-XXVIII. 
 Br\-ce. •• The American Commonwealth," vol. I, chapters XLVIII, 
 XLIX (abridged edition, chapters XLVII, XLVIII). 
 Fiske. •• Ci\-il Government-" chapters II-IV. 
 '•New England Town Meeting of To-day/* Outlook, 'j^ : 405-409 
 
 (1903)- 
 
 '•Description of a Town Meeting." Outlook. 32 : 561-565 (1906). 
 
 '• Town Meetings for Cities." Xation. 32 : 434 (1906). 
 
 ••Brookline and Her Government by Direct Legislation." Arena, 
 34:39-91 (1905)- 
 
 .Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science^ 
 vol. XLVII, May. 1914: "County Government." The most compre- 
 hensive study of county government yet published. Part I deals with 
 " T\'pes of count}- government " ; Part II with •• T\-pical problems of 
 county government "' ; Part III with " Plans for the reorganization of 
 count}- government." 
 
 The New York Short Ballot Association (381 Fourth Ave.) has is- 
 sued in pamphlet form the proceedings of the 1913 and 1914 meetings 
 of the Conference for the Study and Reform of County Government. 
 
CHAPTER XXII 
 THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CITY 
 
 The growth of cities in the United States has been very 
 rapid. In 1790, when the first census was taken, there 
 were in the United States only six cities with R^pjjj 
 a population of 8000 or more. The largest, growth of 
 Philadelphia, had but 28,500 people, and all to- "*^^^ 
 gether the six cities contained 132,000 population. In 
 1 9 10 there were yjZ cities of 8000 population or more, 
 comprising a total of 35,726,720 people. New York at 
 the last census had four and three-quarters million, while 
 Chicago, which was founded only in 1830, had consider- 
 ably more than two milUon population. In 1790 but 3.3 
 per cent of the total population of the country lived in 
 cities ; to-day, cities contain about 40 per cent of the total 
 population. 
 
 Cities have brought with them serious problems of com- 
 munity Hfe and of government. Where so many people 
 are crowded together, there are many conflict- proijiemg of 
 ing interests. Each person is more dependent city govern- 
 on others for his well-being than is the case in °^^"* 
 rural communities. The mixed character of the population 
 found in most large cities also presents problems difficult 
 of solution (see chapter VII). Other problems are found 
 in the distribution of the population, involving the question 
 of transportation and that of the crowded tenement dis- 
 tricts. Still other difficulties arise from the rapid growth of 
 cities to a size originally unexpected. In the early days of 
 Chicago, for example, men had no idea that it would ever 
 
 229 
 
230 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 be a great city. Care is not taken, under such circum- 
 stances, to plan these young cities for the accommodation 
 of future crowds. As it is, American cities are constantly 
 being made over, often resulting in an unsymmetrical ap- 
 pearance and perhaps in great inconvenience. These and 
 other problems did not attract much attention until after 
 the Civil War ; since then city government has become 
 one of the greatest problems before the American people. 
 Cities, like counties and townships, receive their right of 
 self-government from the state. Their form of govern- 
 ment and the powers they may exercise are pre- 
 ceive their scribed in a charter granted by the legislature, 
 "^^^°^ iust as some of the colonies received charters 
 
 self-govern- -' 
 
 ment from from the king. The city does not always have 
 the state qy^u the right of ratifying the charter. Since 
 the charters are often long and detailed, and since the 
 
 legislature usually holds the right to change them at will, 
 the amount of self-government left to the city may be very 
 limited. This control over the details of the business of 
 Control by cities by state legislatures is considered one of 
 legislature the chief obstacles to good city government. 
 Legislators from all parts of the state, many of them from 
 rural districts, cannot know the peculiar needs of the city 
 so well as the people of the city themselves. Besides, it 
 is much easier for scheming politicians and corrupt cor- 
 porations to exercise an influence over a few legislators 
 than over the citizens of the city. 
 
 This interference by state legislatures has been checked 
 somewhat by the provision in some states for a general form 
 Tendency of charter for all cities of about the same size. 
 seW-gov-^^^ The legislature cannot, then, modify the charter 
 emment of one city without similarly modifying the 
 charters of all cities of the same class, and this is likely to 
 
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CITY 
 
 231 
 
 arouse opposition. On the other hand, this plan may 
 make it difficult for a city to have its charter changed when 
 it wants to do so, because of the possible opposition to 
 such changes on the part of other'cities in the same class. 
 
 Copyright, 1906, by Detroit Publishing Co. 
 
 City Hall, Boston, Mass. 
 
 In a number of states, as in CaHfornia, cities are allowed 
 by the state to draft their own form of government, which, 
 after having been ratified by the voters of the city, is sub- 
 mitted to the legislature for approval. This principle of 
 home rule for cities is spreading at the present time. 
 
232 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 The form of government for cities in the United States 
 has undergone a good many changes, and at the present 
 time varies to a considerable extent in different cities. As 
 in the case of state and national governments, city govern- 
 ments exercise legislative, executive and judicial powers, 
 but the separation of these powers (see page 185) has not 
 always been clearly marked. 
 
 In the form of city government that has been most 
 common in recent years the legislative power is vested in 
 The city ^ ^ity council. Its members are elected by the 
 council people, the city being divided into ivards, from 
 
 each of which one or more representatives are chosen. 
 In some cases the council consists of two chambers, an 
 upper chamber, or board of aldermen, and a lower chamber, 
 or com'inoji couiiciL The upper chamber is always the 
 smaller. The term of office of councilmen is short, usually 
 one or two years. Their salaries generally are small. 
 For the transaction of business the council is organized 
 into committees, such as the committee on streets, on 
 public buildings, and on finance. The mayor ordinarily 
 presides over the meetings of the council, and sometimes 
 has the power to I'eto its acts. 
 
 There was a time when practically all of the powers of 
 government were held by the council. It had administra- 
 tive, as well as law-making, powers. The business of the 
 fire department, the police, the streets, was managed by its 
 committees, or by officers appointed by the council. There 
 was a mayor, elected by the people, but he had very little 
 power. He was little more than a presiding officer for the 
 council. He was often a magistrate with judicial powers. 
 
 This form of government proved unsatisfactory. There 
 were several objections to it. One was the difficulty of 
 fixing responsibihty. It also resulted in a lack of unity 
 
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CITY 233 
 
 in government, since the various committees were not 
 always harmonious. Furthermore, the elective council 
 members were frequently incompetent to direct _ 
 the business of the various city departments, government 
 These defects resulted in an important change ^^ council 
 by which the powers of the council were greatly reduced, 
 while those of the mayor were correspondingly increased. 
 The council had never had wide legislative powers, since 
 they extended only to matters of local concern not regu- 
 lated by state law. Its most important legislative power 
 is that of controlling taxation and expenditures for city 
 purposes. In some cities even this power was restricted 
 by a special board of estimate with large powers over the 
 city's finances, as in the City of New York. Another im- 
 portant power of the council is that of granting franchises 
 (see page 54). The council was stripped entirely of its ad- 
 ministrative powers. The mayor became the real executive 
 head of the city. He is elected by popular vote Executive, 
 in all cities, for a term varying from one to The mayor 
 five years. His salary also varies from a very small sum 
 in many cities to ;^ 15,000 in New York City. 
 
 The work of administering the business of a large city 
 is so great and so complex that it has to be subdivided. 
 Hence there are various administrative depart- ^^^-^ 
 ments under the supervisioii of chiefs or boards, tive depart- 
 Perhaps the most important of these is the ™®^*^ 
 department that manages the money affairs of the city. 
 There is always a treasurer, who has the care of the city's 
 funds and who makes payments when authorized by the 
 proper authorities. In some cities there is also a controller, 
 who is the real director of the finance department. We 
 have heard before of the health department, usually man- 
 aged by a board (see page 60); the fire department (page 
 
234 
 
 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 72) and Xh^ police dtpartment {^^2.gQ ^6), both of which are 
 sometimes united mider the supervision of a board of 
 safety ; the sirtct department {^?igQ 115) and the building 
 department, which are also sometimes combined under a 
 board of public luorks. The street-cleajmig department 
 (page 63) is often separate from the street department, 
 
 CovvrigM, 1906, h 
 
 City Hall, Louisville, Ky. 
 
 which looks after the construction and repairing of the 
 streets. The department of edncativn is under the man- 
 agement of a board of school commissiojiers (page 144). 
 These are only a few of the administrative branches found 
 in our various cities, and each one of these is subdivided 
 into several divisions or bureaus. Under them is a large 
 number of subordinate officers and employees. 
 
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CITY 235 
 
 In America there has always been a fear of giving 
 any one man too much power. It was this that led, at 
 one time, to placing the government in the 
 hands of the council. It has also led to the tionof 
 election by popular vote, and for short terms, powers in 
 of many of the administrative officers, in the 
 belief that by so doing the people could keep their hands 
 directly on the administration of the city's business. In 
 the complexity of the affairs of a city, and with the numer- 
 ous officers necessary to manage them, it is impossible for 
 the people to hold every officer responsible to themselves, 
 or even to know them. When anything goes wrong, it 
 has been found almost impossible to fix the responsibility 
 on any one. In handling the vast sums of money neces- 
 sary in city government, and in the granting of franchises 
 and the letting of contracts, there is abundant opportunity 
 for things to go wrong. Therefore the tendency has been, 
 in our best governed cities, to give the mayor full power to 
 appoint his subordinates, as well as to remove them, at 
 least in the case of the more responsible positions, and 
 then to hold him responsible for the acts of his appointees. 
 
 City government has suffered greatly from the spoils 
 system (page 210). When a new mayor is elected, he 
 usually appoints new boards and heads of 
 departments, and these, in turn, too frequently parties and 
 remove subordinates in their departments to "*y govern- 
 make way for personal or political friends. 
 One of the chief causes for this is the part that the na- 
 tional political parties take in city elections. National po- 
 Htical questions have no place in city elections. Cities 
 have local self-government in order to manage their local 
 business, such as paving streets, granting franchises, pro- 
 tecting property and health. These are purely business 
 
236 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 matters that demand business ability and honesty on the 
 part of those who manage them, and have no relation to 
 the great national issues that di\ide the parties against 
 each other. The national parties retain their hold on cit)^ 
 affairs partly to prevent party spirit and interest from 
 flagging in the period ber^'een national elections, and 
 partlv to have at their disposal the vast number of city 
 offices as rewards for faithful part}- workers in the com- 
 munitv. The result of this is that not only the responsible 
 positions at the head of administrative departments, but 
 minor positions, such as those of policemen and of clerks 
 in the ch." :fhces, are too often filled with men who have 
 some claim on the party in power, but very little on the 
 confidence of the people. 
 
 One means of remo\Tng cities from partisan control is 
 bv holding city elections at a different time from state and 
 Civil service national elections, in the hope of avoiding con- 
 refonn fusion between local and national questions. 
 
 More important than this is the introduction of the merit 
 svstem in the appointment of cit}' officials and emplo3^ees 
 (see page 2 1 1 ). Good city government cannot be expected 
 until those who carry it on hold their positions solely on 
 the ground of efficienc}^ and faithfulness to the trust re- 
 posed in them. 
 
 Two forms of government very different from that 
 alreadv described have recently been introduced in many 
 ^ . . ciries. One of these is the commissioji form. 
 
 Commission -^ 
 
 form of Bv this plan the government is placed wholly in 
 
 government ^^^ hands of a commission of from three to nine 
 men (most often five) who are elected by the people at 
 large. One member of the commission is designated as 
 mayor, but he has no powers different from those of the 
 other members. He presides over the meetings of the 
 
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CITY 237 
 
 commission, and on public occasions acts as the official 
 head of the city. The commission as a whole acts as a 
 legislative body and decides on the policy to be followed 
 by the government. Each member of the commission is 
 placed at the head of one of the main departments of the 
 city government. Thus there is a commissioner of public 
 works, a commissioner of finance, a commissioner of public 
 safety, and so on. 
 
 This form of city government was first adopted in Gal- 
 veston, Texas, after the city had been devastated by storm 
 and flood, and when the crisis demanded a simple, but 
 energetic and efficient, business management. Since then 
 it has spread widely, having been adopted with slight vari- 
 ations by hundreds of cities in many states. 
 
 Some of the advantages of the commission plan are said 
 
 to be : (i) that it prevents the concentration of too much 
 
 power in the hands of one man, the mayor; ., 
 
 ^ ' -^ ' Advantages 
 
 (2) that it supplants the large council with the of commis- 
 small commission, which makes it easier for the ®^°^^°^™ 
 people to hold their legislative body responsible for its 
 acts ; (3) that it fixes the responsibility for the man- 
 agement of each department of government upon one 
 man ; (4) that it facilitates the transaction of the city's 
 business. Under the old plan of government there are 
 often many delays in getting business through the council, 
 with its numerous committees, and through the various 
 administrative offices. Under the commission form each 
 commissioner is on duty all the time. The several commis- 
 sioners may hold a joint meeting at any time as the occasion 
 demands ; the old council meets but once a week, at night. 
 Under the commission form of government the principle 
 of the short ballot is applied (see page 203). It is also usu- 
 ally accompanied by the initiative, the referendum, and the 
 
238 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 recall, which are additional means for holding the mem- 
 bers of the commission and their subordinates responsible 
 directly to the people (see page 208). 
 
 The chief objections to the commission plan are two. 
 It is said by many to be unwise to combine legislative and 
 
 ^^. . administrative powers in one body. It is further 
 
 Objections ^ 
 
 to commis- urged that the commission plan tends to break 
 sion form ^^ ^^^ ^•^^^. government into three, five, or more 
 parts, without sufficient provision for unit}\ These objec- 
 tions are said to be overcome, in large measure, by the 
 most recent form of city government now in operation in 
 a few cities. This is the city-majiager plan. 
 
 The citv-manager plan of government is Hke the com- 
 mission plan in that there is a commission, or small coun- 
 cil, of three or five men (rarelv more). But it 
 
 City-man- ^ 
 
 ager plan differs from the commission plan in that the 
 
 of govern- commission appoints a " citv manager " to 
 mem ^^ .' . . 
 
 whom is given full power to admmister, or man- 
 age, the cit}''s business in all its departments, and to ap- 
 point his own subordinates. The commission becomes 
 wholly a legislative bodv, determines what the policy of 
 the government shall be, appoints the manager, and holds 
 him responsible for the conduct of the city's affairs. It 
 may also remove the manager from office at any time. 
 The people, on the other hand, hold the commission re- 
 sponsible for the manager's acts, and usually have the 
 power of recall over its members. The relation between 
 the commission and the manager is like that between a 
 board of directors in a business organization and the man- 
 ager or superintendent whom they choose : or Uke that 
 between a board of education and the superintendent of 
 schools. In fact, the commission becomes a board of di- 
 rectors for the city, and the city manager is their expert 
 superintendent. 
 
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CITY 
 
 239 
 
 The position of city manager requires large ability and 
 thorough training. Therefore, in most cases, the council 
 is given authority to seek its manager wherever Expert man- 
 he may be found throughout the country, and agement 
 the salary is large enough to attract competent men. 
 When the city of Sumter, S. C, which was the first city to 
 adopt the city-manager plan, sought a manager, it adver- 
 tised widely throughout the country. One hundred and 
 fifty replies to the advertisement were received, mostly 
 from trained civil engineers, and from this Hst the com- 
 mission made its choice. 
 
 The city-manager plan of government has spread from 
 Sumter, S. C, to a number of other cities, especially in 
 Ohio. It may still be said to be an experiment, 
 but it seems to be growing in favor. The chief of city- 
 advantages claimed for it are that it applies to manager 
 
 1 . . 1 r 1 1 . plan 
 
 city government the principles of good business 
 
 management ; that it simplifies and unifies the transaction 
 of the city's business ; that it places city government in 
 the hands of experts; that it fixes responsibiUty in one 
 place ; that it avoids the confusion between legislative and 
 executive powers that is said to be a fault of the commis- 
 sion plan ; and that it gives the people full control over 
 their city government. 
 
 For the exercise of the judicial powers of government 
 cities have courts. There are police courts before which 
 are brought persons arrested by the police for 
 minor offenses ; there are higher criminal courts 
 for the trial of more serious cases ; and there are civil 
 courts for the settlement of disputes over property rights. 
 In many cities there are, in addition, special courts of vari- 
 ous kinds, such as juvenile courts for the trial of juvenile 
 offenders (see page 178). In some of the large cities there 
 
240 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 are night courts, to provide immediate trial for the large 
 number of persons arrested at night. The judges of the 
 various courts are sometimes appointed by the mavor, 
 sometimes elected by the people. 
 
 A great deal depends on the efifectiveness ^ith which 
 the courts are conducted. It is of course important to all 
 Importance Concerned that impartial justice be administered 
 of courts ^j^ every case. Further, a wise judge mav do 
 much to turn offenders away from paths of crime, while 
 an unwise or unscrupulous judge may harden or embitter 
 those brought before him. The police courts also have 
 much to do with the efficiency of the police department. 
 The poHce can hardly be expected to be diligent in bring- 
 ing offenders to trial if there is any doubt about receiWng 
 the full support of the courts. It is highly important that 
 the citizen should look carefullv after the character and 
 fitness of the judges, and the methods b}' which justice is 
 administered. 
 
 FOR mVESTIGATION 
 
 1. What causes have led to the rapid growth of American cities ? 
 
 2. Investigate your city charter with respect to the following points : 
 By whom was it drafted ? Did the people of the city have any voice 
 in determining what the charter should contain ? Has it ever been 
 changed, and if so. how? Is it a special charter for your city alone, or 
 is it a general charter, hke that of other cities of the same size .'* 
 
 3. Investigate your city councU with respect to the following points : 
 Has it one or two chambers ? How are its members chosen ? How 
 many members from each ward? What is their term of office? What 
 are the qualifications for councilmen? What is their salary? Where 
 and how often do they meet? Who presides at its meetings? What 
 are the important committees of the council ? 
 
 4. How is the mayor of your cit}- chosen ? What is his salary- ? His 
 term of office? Is the mayor of your cit}- often reelected for a second 
 or third term? 
 
 5 . Does the mayor in your city have large appointing powers ? Does 
 he have full power of removal from office ? Is he held responsible for 
 
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE CITY 241 
 
 the acts of the various administrative departments ? Does he have the 
 veto power over the acts of the council? 
 
 6. Make a list of the administrative departments of your city govern- 
 ment. Report on the organization of each department. How are the 
 heads of the various departments chosen ? What are the duties of each 
 department ? 
 
 7. Do any of these administrative departments have legislative 
 powers? Does the council have any executive powers? 
 
 8. Ascertain about how many persons are employed by the city 
 government. In what departments do you find the largest force of 
 employees? 
 
 9. Does the merit system of appointment prevail in your city? If 
 so, to what extent? 
 
 ID. Describe the commission form of city government; the city- 
 manager plan ; compare the two. 
 
 II. Discuss in class the reasons for the many changes in the forms 
 of city government. ^ 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Hart, '^Actual Government," chapters XI, XII. 
 
 Forman, ''Advanced Civics," chapter XXIX. 
 
 Bryce, '' The American Commonwealth," vol. II, chapters L-LII 
 (abridged edition, chapters XLIX-LI). 
 
 Goodnow, "City Government in the United States," "Municipal 
 Problems." 
 
 Beard, "American City Government" (Century Company, 191 2). 
 
 Bru^re, "The New City Government" (Appleton, 1912). 
 
 Woodruff, "City Government by Commission" (Appleton, 191 2). 
 
 "The City Manager Plan of Municipal Government," a pamphlet 
 issued by the National Short Ballot Association, New York, 1913. 
 
 Wilcox, " The American City." 
 
 Fairlie, " Municipal Administration." 
 
 Howe, " The City, the Hope of Democracy." 
 
 On state control of cities, see : 
 
 Beard, " American City Government, pp. 31-51. 
 
 Goodnow, " City Government in the United States, chapters V, VI. 
 
 Wilcox, " The American City," chapter XI. 
 
 Goodnow, " Municipal Problems," chapter IV. 
 
 On national parties and city government, see : 
 Goodnow, " Municipal Problems," chapter VIII. 
 
 See Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature for recent magazine 
 articles. 
 
CHAPTER XXIII 
 
 THE GOVERNMENT OF THE STATE 
 
 Each state in the Union has a written constitution. 
 This constitution is the fundamental law of the state, and 
 State con- gi^'^s to the government its form and powers. 
 stitutions It is a law made by the people themselves, is 
 superior to laws made by the legislature, and cannot 
 be changed in any way except by the people themselves. 
 The constitutions of the original thirteen states were 
 adopted when these states declared their independence 
 from England, and took the place of the colonial charters 
 which had been granted by the king. They were a sub- 
 stitution of self-government for government by the king. 
 The other states adopted their constitutions when they 
 entered the Union. Each state constitution was framed 
 bv a convention of delegates chosen by the people for this 
 purpose, and was ratified, in most cases, by a vote of the 
 people. 
 
 The constitution provides for its own amendment and 
 re\'ision if defects appear, or if conditions change to such 
 ^^ . an extent that its provisions are not adequate, 
 
 ment and Am^endment of the constitution consists merely 
 revision ^ changing some of its pro\'isions ; re\4sion is 
 a recasting of the whole constitution. Both processes re- 
 quire the consent of the voters of the state. Amendments 
 are usually enacted by the legislature and submitted to the 
 vote of the people at the polls. Revision usually takes 
 
 242 
 
• THE GOVERNMENT OF THE STATE 243 
 
 place by means of a convention of delegates elected by the 
 people for the purpose. The revised constitution is nearly 
 always submitted to the vote of the people. In some 
 states the constitution requires the legislature to give the 
 people an opportunity to revise the constitution at stated 
 intervals, say every ten or twenty years. 
 
 The constitution thus represents the supreme will of the 
 people, and is intended to prevent any encroachment on 
 their rights and liberties either by themselves or j,^^ consti- 
 by the government which the constitution creates, tution repre- 
 One of the most important parts of every state gupfej^^ 
 constitution, therefore, is the dz// of rights, which win of the 
 is a detailed statement of the rights which must P®°P® 
 not be infringed on by the government. In almost every 
 state, the bill of rights occupies a prominent place in the 
 first part of the constitution. 
 
 The main part of each constitution contains the plan of 
 government. Although the governments of the states 
 differ in details to meet the peculiar conditions q^^^^^ lan 
 of each, the general plan is the same in all. of govern- 
 The federal Constitution guarantees to each °^®°* 
 state a republican form of government (Art. IV, sec. 4); 
 that is, a form of self-government without the domination 
 of a king. In each state the government is divided into 
 legislative, executive, and judicial branches, with a separa- 
 tion of powers much more complete than is usual in cities 
 (page 232). 
 
 In all the states, at the present time, the legislature con- 
 sists of two chambers, or houses. The upper chamber, or 
 senate^ is usually from one third to one half the xhe legis- 
 size of the lower chamber, or house of represent- Mature 
 atives. In the two-chambered legislature we have an- 
 other illustration of the system of checks and balances ; 
 
244 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN ' 
 
 for every bilL or proposed measure, must pass each house 
 separately before it can become a law. The people have 
 always been afraid of the law-making power, and have 
 hedged it around with restrictions and pro\isions to make 
 Checks on hast}" law-making difficult. For this reason, not 
 ^^^" only must the law pass each house separately, 
 power but in everv state but one the sfovernor is sdven 
 
 a check on the legislature in his I'tto power. A bill to 
 become a law must be signed by the governor. If he dis- 
 approves of the bill, he may prevent its passage by vetoing 
 it, or recording his vote against it. However, the legisla- 
 ture may overcome the governor's veto by again passing 
 the bill, usually by a two-thirds majorit}'. 
 
 The members of the legislature are chosen bv papular 
 vote. In many of the states the legislature meets but once 
 in two years, and its sessions are Umited to a period of from 
 forty to ninety days, both of which pro\dsions are intended 
 to prevent too much law-making. The lieutenant governor 
 usually presides over the senate, while the house of repre- 
 sentatives elects a speaker to preside. The speaker and 
 the president of the senate have the power of appointing 
 the committees in the two houses, by which most of the 
 business of law-making is done. 
 
 The h=-^-:r.::.ki:-.r power of the legislature extends to any 
 subject v.h.arever. except as it is Hmited by the Constitution 
 Restrictions ' Art. I. sec. lo), the laws, and the treaties of the 
 
 iTt^e'bf " ^'"^-^^ -^^^^5' ^^ by ^^^ constitution of the 
 the people State. The earlier state constitutions were short, 
 and contained few restrictions on the power of the legisla- 
 ture. But partly through the love of the people for direct 
 self-government, and partly because of a growing fear of 
 the power of legislatures, the tendencv has been to insert 
 more details in the constitutions of the newer states, and 
 
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE STATE 
 
 245 
 
 to leave less to the discretion of the legislatures. The 
 initiative and the referendum, which have been introduced 
 in a number of the states (see page 209), serve as a further 
 means by which the people have undertaken to curb the 
 power of the legislature. 
 
 Indiana State House. 
 
 A great many influences are brought to bear on state 
 legislatures, which determine more or less completely the 
 character of the laws passed. Legislation is influence on 
 often dictated by a political boss (see page 205), legislation 
 who may, in turn, be the representative of private interests. 
 Citizens and corporations who have special interests which 
 they wish the legislature to favor go, or send their repre- 
 sentatives, to the legislative halls and committee rooms, and 
 try to bring influences to bear on the legislators to secure 
 the passage of the desired laws. This is known as lobby- 
 ing. 
 
246 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 Legislatures watch for every expression of public opin- 
 ion on questions that come before them. The opinion of 
 Public the people expressed through the newspapers, 
 
 opinion by pubUc meetings, or by personal letters, has a 
 
 great influence. This is one of the strongest safeguards of 
 self-government. Law-makers seldom dare to meet the dis- 
 approval of the people when it is clearly and strongly ex- 
 pressed. From this it is evident that the responsibility of 
 the citizen for his own self-government does not end when 
 he elects his representative to the legislature. He must 
 have opinions of his own on public questions, and must 
 make them known. 
 
 As in city governments, the executive branch of state 
 government is divided and subdivided into numerous de- 
 The execu- partments, bureaus, and commissions. The 
 ti^® chief executive officer is the governor, who is 
 
 elected by the people, and whose term of office varies 
 from one to four years. His chief duty, in theory, is to 
 see that the laws of the state are faithfully executed. In 
 fact, however, the governor does not have the power to 
 enforce the laws that we should expect him to have. As 
 we have seen (page 185), counties and townships and even 
 cities are administrative divisions of the state government, 
 and the enforcement of state laws is largely in the hands 
 of local officers. Over these local officers the governor 
 usually has no authorit}'. He cannot remove them in case 
 they fail to enforce the laws. Only in extreme cases, such as 
 riot, or other serious disturbance, which the local authorities 
 prove incapable of handling, may the governor intervene 
 with the state militia, of which he is the commander-in-chief. 
 
 Still further, the governor is only one of the executive 
 officers of the state. Among the most important of the 
 other executive officers are the treasurer ; the auditor (or 
 
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE STATE 247 
 
 comptroller^, who manages the financial affairs of the state, 
 and instructs the treasurer what moneys to pay out ; the 
 secretary of state, who keeps the records of the ^j^^ , , 
 state ; the attorjiey-generalj who is the legal ad- of depart- 
 visor of the executive heads, and represents the ^^^ ^ 
 state in court ; and the superintendent of schools. These 
 officers do not constitute a governor's cabmet, as the similar 
 officers in the national government do for the President 
 (see page 259). They are not appointed by him, as a rule, 
 nor are they, removable by him. They may belong to dif- 
 ferent parties. They are elected, in most cases, directly by 
 the people, and the governor has no authority over them. 
 This was intended to give the people more direct „ 
 control over the executive business of the state, responsibil- 
 and to prevent the governor from assuming too **^ 
 much power. In reality it weakens the executive, for it 
 divides responsibility. 
 
 On the other hand, the governor has considerable in- 
 fluence over legislation. Not only has he the veto power, 
 already mentioned, but he may recommend, in r^^^ ^^^^.^ 
 formal messages to the legislature, legislation of the gov- 
 that he thinks should be enacted. He frequently ^™°^ 
 goes about the state making speeches for or against pro- 
 posed legislation, thus creating a public opinion which the 
 legislature fears to disregard. The governor may also call 
 special sessions of the legislature' to force consideration of 
 measures that have not been attended to in the regular 
 sessions. 
 
 Among the powers of the governor is that of pardoning 
 criminals ; but even this power is in some states transferred 
 to a board of pardons. He also has the power of appoint- 
 ment to many state positions, as in the case of heads of ad- 
 ministrative bureaus and state institutions, such as forestry 
 
248 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 bureaus, and institutions for the blind, deaf, and insane ; 
 and members of special commissions and boards, such as 
 railway commissions and boards of health and charities. 
 The approval of the legislature is usually required in the 
 governor's appointments. 
 
 Questions are constantly arising as to the meaning of 
 
 the law, or how it applies to a particular case. To decide 
 
 such questions the state constitution provides a 
 
 The courts ^ ^ . . ....... 
 
 system of courts, constitutmg the judicial branch 
 of government. They are the stronghold of the citizen 
 against injustice. 
 
 The most numerous courts are the justices' courts, at 
 least one of which is to be found in every community, 
 Justices' easily accessible to the people. They are the 
 courts lowest grade of state courts, before which are 
 
 tried pettv offenses against law and order and trifling dis- 
 putes over property. The judges who preside over these 
 courts are ca.\lQd jitstices of the peace. In cities there are 
 other courts of the same class, known as police courts, which 
 are made necessary by the great number of misdemeanors 
 committed in city life. 
 
 Next above the justices' courts are the district, or cir- 
 cuit, courts. They are called district courts because the 
 District State is divided into judicial districts (see page 
 
 courts ^-^^ each of which has a single court of this 
 
 grade. Thev are called circuit courts because the presid- 
 ing judge holds the court first in one county of the dis- 
 trict, and then in another, until the circuit of the counties 
 is completed. 
 
 It is before the circuit or district courts that the ma- 
 jority of cases of importance are brought for trial. Many 
 cases first tried before a justice's court are appealed to the 
 district court for a second trial. This is because, in the first 
 
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE STATE 249 
 
 place, district judges are more able and better trained men 
 than the justices of the peace; and because, in the second 
 place, 2. jury trial may always be had in the district court. 
 The Constitution of the United State provides that every 
 man shall have the right to trial by jury in all criminal 
 cases, and in civil cases involving a sum of more than 
 ^20 (Amendments VI and VII). 
 
 In large cities there are often criminal courts, and other 
 special courts, to meet the needs of city life, and to relieve 
 the district courts of a portion of the work that ^^^ ^^^ 
 would otherwise come before them. In some county 
 states there is also a county court for each county, *^°"'"*^ 
 besides /;'^^<^/r, chancery, and other courts, for the trial of 
 special classes of cases. 
 
 Each state has one supreme court, which usually holds 
 its sessions at the state capital, although for convenience 
 it sometimes holds sessions in other cities. It supreme 
 consists of several judges, who are presided ^^^^^ 
 over by a chief justice. The work of this court is almost 
 altogether appellate ; that is, the cases tried before it are 
 usually appealed to it from the lower courts. There are, 
 however, certain classes of cases that come before the 
 supreme court for first trial, such as cases in which the 
 official action of state officers is in question. 
 
 In the first constitutions of the original thirteen states 
 it was provided that the judges should be appointed by 
 the governor or chosen by the legislature. As xheaoooint- 
 the movement toward a more democratic govern- ment of 
 ment grew, the states began to provide for the ^" ^^^ 
 election of their judges by the people. In most of the 
 states, at the present time, the judges are so chosen, 
 though in some they are appointed by the governor and in 
 others by the legislature. The election, of the judges by 
 
2 50 THE COM.MUXITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 the people, at the same time with other state officers, tends 
 to make their selection a matter of party politics. This is 
 especially true when they are elected for short terms, as is 
 usually the case. The courts should be entirely removed 
 from partisan disputes, and this is best accomplished by 
 a life tenure of office, as is the case in the federal courts. 
 
 It has been proposed to give the people a certain con- 
 trol over the judges, as over executive officers, by applying 
 RecaU of ^^le principle of the recall ; only in this case it 
 decisions jg ^ot a recall of the judge himself, but of his 
 decision, that is proposed. For example, if a judge should 
 declare a law unconstitutional, a number of voters might, 
 by petition, require the question to be voted on at an elec- 
 tion. If a majority of the voters agreed with the judge, 
 his decision would stand ; otherwise it would not. It is 
 said by the friends of this idea that if the people make 
 the constitution, they should have the final right of declar- 
 ing what they intended it to miean. The recall of judicial 
 decisions is so far permitted in but one state, Colorado. 
 
 FOR mVZSTIGATION 
 
 1. Report on the first constitutional convention of your state. 
 
 2. Has 3-our state constitution ever been revised ? How many 
 times ? How was it done ? 
 
 3. How many amendments have been made to your state constitu- 
 tion ? What is the method of amendment provided in your constitu- 
 tion ? 
 
 4. Describe the organization of the legislature. How often does it 
 meet ? How long are its sessions ? 
 
 5. What restrictions are placed on the legislature by Art. I. sec 10. 
 of the federal Constitution ? 
 
 6. Is the legislature in your state positively forbidden to do certain 
 things by the state constitution ? What are they ? 
 
 7. What different courts exist in your state ? 
 
 8. How are iur\-men selected ? 
 
 9. If you live in a large city, what special cit}- courts exist there ? 
 
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE STATE 25 1 
 
 10. How are the judges chosen in your state ? What is their term 
 of office ? 
 
 11. Debate the question, " The judges of the state courts should be 
 appointed by the governor for life." 
 
 12. What are the executive departments in your state ? How are 
 their heads chosen ? 
 
 13. Does the governor of your state have the pardoning power, or 
 is there a board of pardons ? Is the pardoning power often exercised ? 
 
 14. Does the governor of your state often exercise the veto power ? 
 How may a bill be passed over his veto ? 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Hart, "Actual Government," chapters VI-IX. 
 Forman, "Advanced Civics," chapters XXII-XXIV. 
 Bryce, "The American Commonwealth," vol. II, part II. 
 Beard, "American Citizenship," chaps. IX, XV. 
 Copies of the state constitution should be available. 
 
CHAPTER XXIV 
 
 THE GOVERNMENT OF THE NATION 
 
 The American colonists sought their independence be- 
 cause of the despotism of king and parhament, and they 
 had instilled in them a fear and hatred of a 
 nes^s'of the powerful centralized government. When they 
 govern- declared their independence, therefore, it was as 
 the^Axticfes thirteen states, independent of each other as 
 of Confeder- ^yell as of England. They did create a central 
 government under the Articles of Confedera- 
 tion ; but this government was only for purposes of com- 
 mon defense. It had no power to tax the people ; it had 
 no executive authority to compel them to do its bidding. 
 The experience of the people under the Confederation 
 taught them that there were common interests among the 
 states that were not being protected, and conflicting inter- 
 ests that were rapidly leading to disunion and anarchy 
 (page lOO). They discovered the truth that no government 
 is even worse than a despotic government. 
 
 A convention of leading men was therefore called in 
 1787 for the purpose of amending the weak points of the 
 The consti- ^^^icles of Confederation. These Articles pro- 
 tutionai vided that no amendment could be made without 
 convention ^^ unanimous consent of the states ; and this 
 could not be obtained from the jealous and quarreling 
 states. In this extremity the wise leaders of the conven- 
 tion determined to frame an entirely new constitution, 
 
 2:;2 
 
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE NATION 253 
 
 totally changing the form of government, and to submit it 
 to the people for their acceptance or rejection. This they 
 did ; and after the greatest difficulty the new Constitution 
 was ratified by the people of a sufficient number of states 
 to make it binding on them. In due time it was ratified 
 by all of the original thirteen states. 
 
 The Constitution prescribes, in Article V, the methods 
 by which it may be amended. These methods are suffi- 
 ciently difficult to prevent frequent or hasty Method of 
 changes in the fundamental law, but not so amendment 
 difficult as to prohibit changes when it is clearly the will 
 of the people that they be made. Amendments may be 
 proposed either by Congress, when two thirds of both 
 houses deem it necessary ; or by a national convention 
 called for the purpose by Congress on the request of the leg- 
 islatures of two thirds of the states. When amendments 
 have been proposed by either of these methods they must 
 be ratified by at least three fourths of the states acting 
 through their legislatures or through state conventions, as 
 Congress may indicate. Seventeen amendments to the 
 Constitution have been made since its adoption. 
 
 The first great problem that the constitutional conven- 
 tion had to solve was the creation of a government strong 
 enough to protect the common interests of all Distribution 
 the states, while not so powerful as to destroy °^ powers 
 their independence. This problem was solved by the 
 carefully adjusted distribution of powers referred to on 
 page 183. First, there were CQ,rt3.m powers gra?ited exclu- 
 sively to the federal government, such as to make war and 
 peace, to make treaties and alliances, to send and receive 
 ambassadors, to regulate foreign and interstate commerce, 
 to coin money, and some others. Second, there were 
 certain povuei's to be exercised concjtrrently by both state 
 
2 54 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 and national governments, such as the power of taxation 
 and of borrowing money. Third, there v;qtq pozvers denied 
 to the federal government {^^^ Art. I, sec. 9; Amendments 
 I-VIII). Fourth, there were poivcrs denied to the states 
 (Art. I, sec. 10). Fifth, all ''powers not delegated to the 
 United States by the Constitution nor prohibited by it to 
 the states are reserved to the states respectively or to the 
 people "" ( Amendment X ). 
 
 In the general plan of the national government the 
 convention was influenced by the plan of the state gov- 
 ernments. Provision was therefore made for a legislative, 
 an executive, and a judicial branch, with the same separa- 
 tion of powers that is found in the states. 
 
 The question at once arose as to the basis of represen- 
 tation in the Congress, which was to consist of t^vo houses. 
 Representa- Some of the delegates, representing the smaller 
 tion in states, believed that all the states should have 
 
 ongres,s q^^ representation, thus keeping prominent the 
 idea that the Union was a mere league of states. Dele- 
 gates from the larger states, on the other hand, arguing 
 that the states together constituted a single nation, believed 
 that the several states should be represented in proportion 
 to their population. The contest was settled by a compro- 
 mise, according to which each state was to have two 
 representatives in the Senate, and proportional represen- 
 tation in the House of Representatives. According to 
 the apportionment following the census of 1910. there is 
 one representative for every 212,407 people, making a 
 total of 435 members in the House of Representatives. 
 
 The members of the House of Representatives are elected 
 by direct vote of the people, one from each of the congres- 
 sional districts into which each state is divided. The 
 number of concTessional districts in each state is deter- 
 
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE NATION 255 
 
 mined by the population of the state at the most recent 
 census. The members of the Senate are considered as 
 representing their states, rather than the people, xhe Senate 
 It was orisfinally provided that they should be and the 
 
 1,1 1., /AT X House of 
 
 elected by the state legislatures (Art. 1, sec. 3), Represent- 
 but by the seventeenth amendment to the Con- stives 
 stitution they will hereafter be elected by vote of the people. 
 A higher age qualification was fixed for membership in the 
 Senate than in the House (Art. I, sec. 2, clause 2 ; sec. 3, 
 clause 3). The term of office of senators is six years, while 
 that of representatives is only two. The term of office of 
 only one third of the senators expires at the same time, so 
 that at least two thirds of the Senate is always experienced, 
 while the House may be almost entirely made over at any 
 election. These and other causes have made the Senate 
 a more dignified and conservative body than the House of 
 Representatives. 
 
 The greater conservatism of the Senate was intended, in 
 part, as a check on the impetuosity of the direct representa- 
 tives of the people, and, in part, to fit it for its 
 
 , . ^1 r- Powers of 
 
 special executive duties. 1 he Senate must con- the Senate 
 
 firm all appointments made by the President, and the 
 
 House 
 and must, by a two thirds vote, ratify all treaties 
 
 made by the President before they can go into effect (Art. 
 n, sec. 2). The Senate moves more slowly in its delibera- 
 tions than the House, takes more time for debate, and 
 exercises a steadying influence on the lower and more 
 numerous body. On the other hand, the House serves as 
 a check on the Senate and has certain powers not held by 
 the latter. All bills for raising revenue must originate in 
 the House, although the Senate may suggest amendments 
 to them (Art. I, sec. 7). All other bills may originate in 
 either house, but must pass each house separately. The 
 
256 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 House has the sole power of impeachment ; but the Senate 
 must act as the court to try the impeachment (Art. I, sec. 2, 
 clause 5 ; sec. 3, clause 6). Six judges, one President, and 
 one Secretar}^ of War have been impeached by the House 
 of Representatives in our history, but only in the cases of 
 three of the judges did the Senate convict. 
 
 Both houses of Congress are organized into a large 
 number of committees, by which most of the work of 
 ^ .^ leo;islation is done. Every bill proposed in either 
 
 Committees ^ j ir r 
 
 and the house is referred to its appropriate committee 
 
 spe er £^^ consideration. A large proportion of these 
 bills never come out of committee at all. Those that are 
 reported back to Congress are usually passed or not in 
 accordance with the recommendation of the committees. 
 Until recently the committees of the House of Represent- 
 atives were appointed by the Speaker, who is the presid- 
 ing officer of the House, elected by it, and of course 
 representing the majority. This control over the com- 
 mittees gave the Speaker great power over legislation. 
 At present, however, the committees of the House are 
 elected by it, a majority of each committee representing 
 the majority party of the House. By this and other 
 means the power of the Speaker has been materially 
 reduced. The committees of the Senate are elected by 
 that body. 
 
 One of the chief defects of the government under the 
 Articles of Confederation was the lack of a strong execu- 
 The execu- ^^^'^- ^^^^ ^^^ memory of the despotism of the 
 tive king caused opposition, in the convention of 
 
 1787, to the estabhshment of a single executive head. Ex- 
 perience in the state governments, however, had shown that 
 a single executive head was not dangerous if his powers 
 were properly limited and checked. The result was that 
 
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE NATION 257 
 
 the executive branch of the national government was made 
 to consist of a President, with a short term of four years, 
 who shall be removable from office by impeachment if he 
 ventures to assume powers not conferred on him. A Vice- 
 President also was created, who, however, has no executive 
 powers except in the event of the President's death, when 
 he assumes that office. He is presiding officer over the 
 Senate, but he has no vote in legislation except in case of 
 a tie. The President and the Vice-President are elected 
 by the peculiar electoral system described on page 197 
 (Constitution, Art. II, sec. i, and Amendment XII). This 
 method, originally intended to remove the choice from the 
 control of the masses, fails to do so, and is now a mere 
 form because of the development of the party system of 
 making nominations. 
 
 Although in the states the executive power is divided 
 among the governor and other officers (see page 246), in 
 the national government it is concentrated com- ^ ^ 
 pletely in the hands of the President. The tion of exec- 
 heads of the executive departments y constituting "*^^® power 
 the President's cabinet, are appointed by the President 
 with the advice and consent of the Senate (Art. II, sec. 2, 
 clause 2) and are removable by him. They are responsible 
 to him alone, and carry oiit the policy of government dic- 
 tated by him. If anything goes wrong in any of the execu- 
 tive departments, the people hold the President responsible 
 for it, and may show their disapproval at the next election. 
 
 The President's power to make appointments, like his 
 power to make treaties with foreign nations, is jj^^ power 
 limited by requiring the advice and consent of the of the Presi- 
 Senate. On the other hand, the President has ^^* 
 a check on legislation in his veto power, although Congress 
 may pass a law over the President's veto by a two thirds 
 
2 58 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 vote. The veto power of the President was intended to 
 prevent Congress from going beyond the powers granted 
 to it in the Constitution. It has often been exercised, how- 
 ever, merely because the President disapproved the meas- 
 ure enacted by Congress. The President has exercised 
 the veto power much more in recent years than formerly. 
 Congress very rarely passes a law over the President's 
 veto. The President has some further influence in legisla- 
 tion by his power to call special sessions of Congress and 
 through his messages to Congress, in which he suggests 
 questions that, in his opinion, demand legislative action. 
 
 In the appointment of the subordinate officers and em- 
 ployees of the civil service, Congress, and especially the 
 Encroach- Senate, is accused of encroaching on the powers 
 'f^^'i,'"'. of the President. The latter, in seeking for 
 
 the Presi- '^ 
 
 dent's ap- suitable persons to fill the thousands of places 
 
 pointing ^ j^- disposal in all parts of the countrv, has 
 power by r r ^ ' 
 
 Congress naturally come to depend largely on the senators 
 and representatives from the different sections for informa- 
 tion regarding the qualifications of the candidates. Be- 
 cause of this, the members of Congress have, in the course 
 of time, assumed the right to make nominations for these 
 offices, and expect the President to accept their suggestions. 
 The President has often been forced to accede to the wishes 
 of congressmen in the matter of appointment by their refusal 
 to enact legislation that he wishes unless he does accede. 
 
 In this way the Congress has, in a measure, taken upon 
 itself some of the powers that belong to the President. 
 Generally speaking, this has lowered the efficiency of the 
 civil service by encouraging the spoils system. This evil 
 has, in part, been checked by the introduction of the merit 
 system of appointment to a large proportion of the offices 
 in the civil ser\dce (see page 211). 
 
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE NATION 259 
 
 The President's cabinet is made up of the heads of the 
 ten executive departments — State, the Treasury, War, 
 the Navy, Justice, Post Office, the Interior, Agriculture, 
 Commerce, and Labor. 
 
 Through the Department of State relations are main- 
 tained between the United States and foreign powers. 
 The Secretary of State is in constant communi- Department 
 cation with the ambassadors, ministers, consuls, ^^ state 
 and other representatives of our government in foreign 
 countries, and with the similar representatives of foreign 
 governments in this country. . He is also the channel of 
 communication between the President of the United States 
 and the governors of the several states. Through him the 
 rights of American citizens in foreign countries are looked 
 after. The Secretary of State is the first in rank among 
 the cabinet members, and would by law succeed to the 
 Presidency in case of the death or removal of both the 
 President and the Vice-President. 
 
 The Secretary of the Treasury is the financial manager 
 of the national government. Besides having charge of the 
 planning and collection of the revenues, the coin- Treasury 
 age and printing of money, and other financial Department 
 matters, he also controls the construction and maintenance 
 of public buildings and administers the life-saving service 
 and the public health service of the national government. 
 
 The Secretary of War has control, under the President, 
 of the military establishment of the nation. He also ad- 
 ministers river and harbor improvements and war 
 the prevention of obstruction to navigation. Department 
 He has direction of the Bureau of Insular Affairs, which 
 supervises the civil government of Porto Rico and the 
 Philippines. 
 
 The Attorney-General is the head of the Department of 
 
26o THE CO.ALAIUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 Justice. He is the chief law officer of the government, 
 Department representing it in court either personally or 
 of Justice through subordinates, and giving legal advice to 
 the President and the heads of the other departments. 
 
 The Postmaster General directs the Post Office Depart- 
 Post Office rnent. Besides administering the regular postal 
 Department service in all its branches, he also has charge 
 of the newly established postal savings system. 
 
 The Secretary of the Navy superintends all matters per- 
 Ifavy taining to the "construction, manning, equip- 
 
 Department nient, and employment of vessels of war." 
 
 The Secretary of the Interior has under his administra- 
 tion a wide variety of matters pertaining to the internal 
 Department ^^^^^^^^ of the nation. Through many bureaus 
 of the and divisions of the department he has charge 
 
 Intenor ^£ ^^iq public lands, the care of the national 
 
 parks, the giving of patents for inventions, the pension- 
 ing of old soldiers, Indian affairs, education, the reclama- 
 tion ser\'ice, the geological survey, the improvement of 
 methods of mining and the safety of miners, certain mat- 
 ters pertaining to the territories of the United States, and 
 the supervision of certain hospitals and charitable institu- 
 tions in the District of Columbia. 
 
 The Secretary of Agriculture promotes, through the 
 
 various divisions of his department, the general agricul- 
 
 ^ _^ ^ tural interests of the countrv. In his depart- 
 Department - ^ 
 
 of Agri- ment are bureaus of animal industry, of plant 
 
 culture industry, of soils, of chemistry, of entomology 
 
 (for the study of insects in their relations to agriculture), 
 and of biology (for the study of animals and birds in the 
 same relations). He also administers the weather bureau 
 and the forest service and assists in the development of 
 good roads through the office of public roads. 
 
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE NATION 26 1 
 
 The Secretary of Commerce has charge of the depart- 
 ment whose business is to promote the commercial inter- 
 ests of the nation. The Bureau of Foreign and department 
 Domestic Commerce aids in the development ofCom- 
 of the manufacturing industries and in finding °^®^^® 
 markets for them. It collects information regarding the 
 trade conditions at home and abroad. The Department of 
 Commerce also includes the Bureau of Corporations, the 
 Census Bureau, and the Bureaus of Lighthouses, of Navi- 
 gation, and of Fisheries. 
 
 The Secretary of Labor is the head of the most recently 
 established executive department, and is charged with the 
 duty of " fostering, promoting, and developing Department 
 the welfare of the wage earners of the United °^ ^^^^^ 
 States, improving their working conditions, and advancing 
 their opportunities for profitable employment." Among 
 the important bureaus of this department are the Bureaus 
 of Immigration and of Naturalization, and the Children's 
 Bureau, recently established to " investigate and report 
 upon all matters pertaining to the welfare of children and 
 child Ufe among all classes of our people." 
 
 This brief description of these executive departments 
 will serve to suggest the great variety of ways in which 
 the national government is looking after the common wel- 
 fare, the common interests of the national community, 
 touching the lives of all of us at many points. 
 
 The Constitution provides for a system of federal courts 
 entirely distinct from the state courts. It says, " The judi- 
 cial power of the United States shall be vested The judi- 
 in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior "^y 
 courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and 
 estabhsh " (Art. Ill, sec. i). The number of judges in 
 the Supreme Court is determined by Congress, and at 
 
262 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 present is nine. They meet at Washington and are pre- 
 sided over by one of their number, who is designated as 
 the Chief Justice. In addition to the Supreme Court, there 
 are nine circuit courts of appeals, each circuit including 
 several states; and seventy-nine district courts. There is 
 also a coui-t of claims, before which are brought claims 
 against the government : and a coiij-t of customs appeals. 
 The judges of all the federal courts are appointed by the 
 President and hold office '''' during good beha\-ior" (Art. 
 Ill, sec. I). 
 
 The powers of the federal courts are stated in the Con- 
 stitution (x\rt. Ill, sec. 2). In general, they may be said 
 Powers of ^^ include cases of a national or interstate char- 
 the federal acter. A case nrst brought to trial before a 
 
 courts 1 111-^ 
 
 State court may be appealed to the Supreme 
 
 Court of the United States when the Constitution, the 
 
 laws, or the treaties of the United States are involved. 
 
 Its decisions are final over those of the state courts. It is 
 
 the final authority ("under the people themselves) in the 
 
 interpretation of the Constitution. It may declare null 
 
 and void an act of Congress or any state law which, in its 
 
 opinion, is contrary to the pro\*isions of the Constitution. 
 
 It might seem that the Supreme Court thus has power 
 
 which might make it despotic, and give it control over the 
 
 other branches of the government; but it has no means of 
 
 enforcing a despotic judgment That must be done by the 
 
 executive. If the court should attempt to push its authoritv 
 
 too far, it would find itself in conflict with both Congress 
 
 and the executive. At the elections the people would show 
 
 whether they supported the court or the other branches 
 
 of government. And, finally, Congress has the weapon of 
 
 impeachment by which offending judges may be removed. 
 
 The Supreme Court has excited the admiration of the 
 
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE NATION 263 
 
 world, not only because of its purpose as defender of the 
 Constitution, but because of the ability and integrity its 
 judges have shown in performing their duty. It has 
 always, with one or two possible exceptions, shown a 
 strong disposition to render its opinions in accordance 
 with the intentions of the Constitution, and thus to be 
 strictly representative of the people. 
 
 Besides the thirteen original states which were united 
 under the Constitution in the beginning, the United States 
 at that time included territorial domains extend- 
 
 1 1 n/r--''T-.- T 1 "^^6 terri- 
 
 nig westward to the Mississippi River. In the tories of the 
 course of events our nation expanded by the United 
 acquisition of new territory until it reached 
 the Pacific Ocean. This domain had to be governed. For 
 this purpose Congress organized it into /^m/^r/^i- under the 
 direct control of the federal government, but granting to 
 them limited powers of self-government through legisla- 
 tures of their own. To these territories Congress held out 
 the promise of statehood, when their population and other 
 conditions should warrant it, on exactly equal terms with 
 the original thirteen states. To-day our national flag con- 
 tains forty-eight stars, and no part of continental United 
 States (exclusive of Alaska) remains under a territorial 
 form of government. 
 
 The territorial expansion of the United States has con- 
 tinued, however, beyond its natural continental boundaries. 
 Alaska was purchased in 1867. As a result of Territorial 
 the Spanish war Porto Rico and the Philippine expansion 
 Islands came into our possession. Hawaii was annexed 
 about the same time, and a number of small islands in the 
 Pacific have been acquired as naval stations. All of these 
 territories and possessions are under the control of the 
 federal government. 
 
264 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEX 
 
 Alaska and Hawaii are regularly organized territories, 
 just as Arizona and New Mexico were before they were 
 Alaska and recently admitted as states. The government of 
 Hawaii each consists of a governor, appointed by the 
 
 President -^ith the advice and consent of the Senate ; a 
 legislature of two houses, whose members are elected by 
 the people of the territory ; and courts, whose judges are 
 appointed by the President. The people of each territory 
 also elect a delegate to Congress, with the right to take 
 part in its debates but not to vote. Congress has power to 
 admit these territories to statehood. . 
 
 The Philippines, Porto Rico, and the other islands be- 
 longing to the United States are possessions rather than 
 territories. They are more completely controlled by the 
 federal government than Alaska and Hawaii. 
 
 At the head of the general government of the Philip- 
 pines is the Philippine Commnssion, which consists of a 
 ThePhmp- Governor-General and eight commissioners, all 
 pine Islands gf whom are appointed by the President with 
 the advice and consent of the Senate. Five members of the 
 Commission are heads of executive departments, as wxll 
 as having legislative powers. The other four members 
 have only legislative powers. 
 
 The Commission also constitutes the upper house of the 
 legislature, the low^er house consisting of members elected 
 by the people of the various districts into which the civiUzed 
 portion of the islands is di\ided. For the unci\dlized por- 
 tion of the islands the Commission of nine is the sole legis- 
 lative body. 
 
 There is also a system of courts. The judges of the 
 Supreme Court of the islands are appointed by the Presi- 
 dent, while those of the lower courts are appointed by the 
 Governor-General with the approval of the Commission. 
 
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE NATION 265 
 
 The Philippines also have two resident commissioners to 
 the United States, with seats in the House of Representa- 
 tives but without the right to vote. 
 
 The Philippines are divided into a number of provinces, 
 each of which is governed by a provincial board of three 
 members. Each province consists of a number of " mu- 
 nicipalities," each with its own local government. 
 
 It has been the policy of the federal government to 
 give to the Philippine Islands, as also to Porto Rico, as 
 large a degree of self-government as possible, «, ,, 
 and to educate the people for it as rapidly as ment in the 
 may be. The municipalities are almost wholly ^ ippmes 
 self-governing, with supervision only of their financial 
 affairs and of the police. Of the three members of the 
 provincial boards two are elected by the people, and the 
 third (the treasurer), while appointed by the Governor- 
 General, is often a Filipino. In the general government, 
 five of the nine members of the Commission have been 
 Filipinos, and the lower house of the legislature is elected 
 by the people. All of the justices of the peace and many 
 of the higher judges' are natives. In 19 12 nearly 6000 
 Filipinos competed in the examinations for civil service 
 positions, and two thirds of these positions were held by 
 them. 
 
 In appointing the first Philippine Commission President 
 McKinley said, " The commission should bear in mind that 
 the government which they are establishing is Rggyitsof 
 designed not for our satisfaction . . . but for American 
 the happiness, peace, and prosperity of the Phil- ^ ® 
 ippine Islands." A great deal of money has been expended 
 in carrying out this policy. Most notable, perhaps, of all 
 the work done by our government in the PhiUppines is that 
 by which such dread diseases as cholera, smallpox, and the 
 
266 THE COMMUNITY .IXD THE CITIZEN 
 
 bubonic plague have been fought and largely stamped out. 
 In addition to this an educational system has been estab- 
 lished, roads and other means of communication improved, 
 and steps taken to conserve the rich natural resources of 
 the islands. 
 
 The government of Porto Rico is very similar in its 
 plan to that of the Philippines, consisting of a governor, 
 appointed by the President ; a legislature of two 
 houses, — an upper house of eleven members ap- 
 pointed by the President, five of whom must be natives, and 
 a lower house elected by the people ; and a system of 
 courts. There are also self-governing municipahties, and a 
 resident commissioner to the United States. The federal 
 government supen'ises the government of Porto Rico and 
 of the Philippines through the Bureau of Insular Affairs 
 in the War Department. 
 
 Whether the Philippines and Porto Rico shall be allowed 
 to pass into the stage of territorial government with the 
 promise of future statehood, or shall be trained in self- 
 government until they shall be granted more or less com- 
 plete independence of the United States, is one of the 
 questions for the future to answer. Each course has its 
 advocates. 
 
 Our smaller insular possessions, such as Guam and the 
 Samoan Islands, are merely naval stations and are governed 
 bv the naval commandants stationed there. The District 
 of Columbia, including \\'ashington, the seat of the federal 
 government, is governed wholly by Congress as its legisla- 
 ture, and by executive and judicial officers appointed by the 
 President. Its people have absolutely no powers of self- 
 ofovernment. 
 
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE NATION 267 
 
 FOR INVESTIGATION 
 
 1. Report on the story of the Constitutional Convention of 1787. 
 Also on the ratification of the Constitution by the states. 
 
 2. Study the organization of Congress as provided in the Constitu- 
 tion. 
 
 3. Report on the powers of the speaker of the House of Representa- 
 tives. 
 
 4. Why should bills for the raising of revenue originate in the 
 House ? 
 
 5. Make a list of the powers of the President as contained in the 
 Constitution. 
 
 6. What are the several executive departments ? What are their 
 duties? Who are the members of the cabinet at the present time? 
 
 7. Study the powers of the federal courts as given in the Constitu- 
 tion. 
 
 8. Make as complete a list as possible of the different checks and 
 balances provided in the organization of the federal government. 
 
 9. Report on the work accomplished in the Philippine Islands 
 under the American government. Also in Porto Rico. 
 
 10. Debate the question, ''The Philippine Islands should ultimately 
 be granted their independence." 
 
 11. Report on the importance of Alaska as a part of the United 
 States. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Beard, "American Citizenship,*' chapters VIII, XV. 
 
 Haskin, "The American Government." The several chapters give 
 popular descriptions of the work of the various branches and depart- 
 ments of the federal government. 
 
 Hart, "Actual Government," chapters XIII-XVII. 
 
 Forman, "Advanced Civics," chapters XVI-XXI. 
 -Bryce, "The American Commonwealth," vol. I, part I. 
 
 Fiske, " The Critical Period of American History," chapters VI, VII 
 (the framing and ratification of the Constitution). 
 
 "The Territory of Alaska, General Information Regarding," Gov- 
 ernment Printing Office. 
 
 "The Philippine Islands," issued by the Bureau of Insular Aftairs, 
 War Department. Government Printing Office. 
 
 Report of the Philippine Commission, 1913. Government Printing 
 Office. 
 
 Register of Porto Rico for 191 1, and the Report of the Governor of 
 Porto Rico, 1913. Government Printing Office. 
 
CHAPTER XXV 
 HOW THE EXPENSES OF GOVERNMENT ARE MET 
 
 All this machinen- of government, and all the work 
 that it does for the people, costs the people a great deal. 
 The thousands of citizens who are employed in conduct- 
 ing the affairs of government must be paid for their 
 services — although there are some offices to which no 
 salaries are attached. There must be office buildings 
 for the transaction of pubHc business, such as post offices, 
 capitol buildings, and courthouses. Schoolhouses, parks, 
 hospitals, and prisons must be paid for. Materials must 
 be bought and workmen employed to build na^-ies, to 
 construct roads and bridges, to pave streets and lay 
 sewers, and to do the many other things that govern- 
 ment does for us. Occasionally, some great emergency 
 arises, like a war, which demands enormous sums of 
 money. 
 
 The cost of the national government each year is much 
 
 more than the cost of all the state governments together ; 
 
 , ^ but the cost of our local governments throughout 
 
 The cost of ^ ^ 
 
 govern- the country is, each year, more than that of 
 ^^^^ the national and state governments together. 
 
 This may be surprising; but it is due to the costhness 
 of pa\'ing streets, maintaining pohce and fire departments 
 and the public schools, and of making the many improve- 
 ments necessitated by the rapid growth of our cities. 
 The immense cost of our governments is beyond our 
 powers of imagination. It may be roughly stated as 
 
 268 
 
THE EXPENSES OF GOVERNMENT 269 
 
 about $2,000,000,000. It may help you to understand 
 this enormous sum of money if you will calculate how long 
 it would take a man to count it, supposing that he works 
 constantly eight hours a day, and counts $ i every sec- 
 ond, or $60 a minute. 
 
 This great sum of money must be raised each year. 
 The people of each local community — township, county, 
 or city — must pay the expense of their local government; 
 the people of the whole state unite in paying the expense 
 of the state government; and the people of the nation 
 contribute to the expenses of the national government. 
 They do this chiefly by paying taxes. 
 
 Taxes are a contribution that the people are required by 
 the government to pay to meet the cost of the government. 
 The people have never enjoyed paying taxes. The gov- 
 ernment seems to put its hand into their pockets and 
 take what belongs to them. Taxation has often seemed 
 an act of oppression, and it may become so when it is im- 
 posed on the people without their consent, and when it is for 
 purposes other than their own welfare. Very jaxationis 
 light taxes imposed on the American colonists notoppres- 
 by the English government without their consent ^^*^^ 
 seemed oppressive to them and led to the Revolution. 
 Taxation by our government should not be an act of op- 
 pression, because the people, being self-governing, are sup- 
 posed to tax themselves ; and because, in the second place, 
 the taxes are supposed to be spent for the benefit of the 
 people themselves. It is only just that a person shall pay 
 for what he gets. He has no more right to complain 
 about paying for the protection and benefit that he receives 
 from the government than he has to complain about pay- 
 ing the carpenter for building his house — provided, of 
 course, that the government performs efficiently and eco- 
 
2/0 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 nomically the work expected of it. It is true that taxation, 
 even in our country at the present time, may sometimes be 
 unwise, and may weigh unjustly upon some of the people 
 for reasons that will be mentioned later in the chapter ; but 
 as a rule, the amount that each person has to pay to the 
 government in taxes is insignificant in proportion to the 
 great benefit that he receives. 
 
 The American colonies objected to taxation by the Eng- 
 lish government because they had no voice in the matter. 
 Each colony believed that it should have the right to levy 
 its own taxes through its representatives in the 
 seif-taxa- colonial legislature. After they had won their 
 federS^^^^ independence they still objected to giving up 
 govern- the right of self-taxation even to the central 
 °^®^* government of the Confederation. When the 
 
 Congress needed money, even to carry on the war for in- 
 dependence, it could only ask the states for it, and had no 
 power to demand it or to collect it. The taxing power rested 
 with the state legislatures, composed of the representa- 
 tives of the people. This lack of power on the part of 
 the central government caused great confusion and distress 
 both during and after the Revolution, because the states 
 were jealous of each other, and their interests conflicted 
 to such an extent that they could not always be depended 
 on to provide the money necessary for the common in- 
 terests of all. It soon became apparent that, if the new 
 nation were to continue to exist, it would be necessary for 
 the central government to have the power to tax/^r cej'tain 
 purposes. This was one of the chief reasons for framing 
 a new Constitution, creating a Congress which was to have 
 power " to lay and collect taxes . . . to pay the debts a7td 
 provide for tJie common defense and general zvelfare of the 
 United States" (Art. I, sec. 3, clause i). But the Consti- 
 
THE EXPENSES OF GOVERNMENT 2/1 
 
 tution was careful to provide that " all bills for raising 
 revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives," 
 which is the branch of Congress most closely representa- 
 tive of the people (Art. I, sec. 7). For all other mat- 
 ters not of national importance the taxing power rests 
 with the representatives of the people in the state legis- 
 latures and in the local legislative bodies, such as the city 
 council and the board of county commissioners. 
 
 Taxation may be direct or indirect. Direct taxes are 
 those which are paid directly and finally by the person 
 against whom the government assesses them, direct and 
 A tax on land, or on household furniture, is indirect 
 intended to be borne by the person who owns ^^'°^ 
 the land or the furniture. Indirect taxes, on the other 
 hand, may be transferred from one person to another. A 
 tax on imported goods may be levied against the importer. 
 But he adds the amount of the tax to the price of the 
 goods when he sells them to dealers. The dealers, in turn, 
 add the amount of the tax to the price which they receive 
 from the people who buy the goods. When you buy silk 
 that has been imported from France, you indirectly pay 
 a small part of the tax that was originally assessed against 
 the importer. A tax on houses and land, which is usually 
 considered a direct tax, may become indirect if the owner 
 rents his property ; for he may make the rent high enough 
 to cover the tax, which thus falls on the renter. 
 
 Almost all of the taxes levied and collected by the state 
 and local governments are direct taxes, and con- j^j^g^.^ ^^xa- 
 sist chiefly of taxes on property, which is divided tion by 
 into real estate, consisting of land and buildings, and^iocai 
 and personal property, including furniture, govern- 
 jewelry, money, and other forms of movable 
 property. In the payment of the tax on property it is 
 
2/2 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 intended that each taxpayer shall pay in proportion to the 
 amount of his property. The man who owns twice as 
 much property as another should pay twice as much tax. 
 Anything else would be unjust. 
 
 In order to know how much tax a citizen must pay, it is 
 
 first of all necessary to know how much money will be 
 
 needed to run the government for a year. This is 
 
 nary esti- determined beforehand by the heads of the vari- 
 
 mate of Q^g departments of the government, who make 
 
 expenses , ^ , 
 
 an estmiate of the amount of money needed. 
 A man usually considers it good business management of 
 his private affairs when he comes out at the end of the 
 year with a surplus on hand, something saved above his 
 expenses. Not so with the government. It is a sign of 
 good business management of the affairs of government 
 when the treasury is practically empty at the end of the 
 year. That is to say, it is not considered good manage- 
 ment to levy more taxes than are actually needed. A good 
 government will make the burden of taxation just as light 
 as possible, and yet cover all expenses so that there will be 
 no deficit at the end of the year. • 
 
 The second thing to be found out, in determining the 
 amount of tax each citizen must pay, is the value of all the 
 The assess- property in the community in which the tax is to 
 ment ^g levied. This is called assessing the value of 
 
 the property. The assessment is made by officers known 
 as assessors, who are sometimes elected by the people and 
 sometimes appointed. There is an assessor for each local 
 division of the state, as for the county, or township, or city. 
 The assessor and his assistants visit and inspect the prop- 
 erty of each citizen in the district, question the owner, and 
 assess a value on the property. The sum of the individual 
 assessments makes the total assessment for the district; 
 
THE EXPENSES OF GOVERNMENT 273 
 
 and the sum of the valuations of all the districts makes the 
 valuation for the entire state. 
 
 Knowing the amount of money to be expended by the 
 government, and also the value of all the property in the 
 community, it is now possible to find the rate of xhe rate of 
 taxation — that is, the percentage of his prop- taxation 
 erty that each citizen must pay. This is done by dividing 
 the total expenditures for the year by the total assessment. 
 Thus, if the necessary expenditures amount to ^100,000 
 and the total assessment amounts to $10,000,000, the rate 
 of taxation is found by dividing 100,000 by 10,000,000, 
 which gives one hundredth, or one per cent. Each tax- 
 payer, therefore, would have to pay one per cent of the 
 assessed value of his property. A property owner in a 
 city must pay a certain rate of tax toward the expenses of 
 the city government, another rate toward the expenses 
 of the state government. He pays his entire tax into the 
 treasury of the city or of the county, where it is divided 
 into the shares belonging to the city, the county, and the 
 state. 
 
 It is not easy to secure a perfectly just tax. In the first 
 place, it is not easy to estimate the real worth of a man's 
 property, even when it can all be seen. One EquaUza- 
 man's property may be assessed too high, and tio^ 
 another man's too low. In order to correct such inequali- 
 ties there is often a board of equalization, before which 
 complaints may be brought, and by which corrections are 
 made. Sometimes the county commissioners act in this 
 capacity. In the assessment of the state taxes also there 
 may be great inequalities among the different counties, due 
 to the varying accuracy of the different assessors. There 
 is usually a state board of equalization to adjust these 
 differences. 
 
274 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 Such inequalities in taxation as those just mentioned 
 are unfortunate, but they are accidental and can usually be 
 corrected. There are other inequalities due to 
 tali^°^°m- dishonest and unpatriotic attempts on the part 
 jury to of some citizens to avoid their fair share of 
 
 mui^*^" taxation. It is not easy to avoid paying taxes 
 on buildings and land, because these forms of 
 property cannot be hidden ; but there are many forms of 
 personal property that can easily be kept out of sight, and 
 it is usually those who can best afford to pay who have the 
 most of this kind of property. There seems to be a feel- 
 ing among a great many people that it is justifiable to " get 
 ahead of the government" by avoiding the taxes for which 
 it asks. In reality the people who avoid paying their just 
 taxes defraud, not the government, but their fellow-citizens 
 and neighbors. In their attempt to get something for 
 nothing, they shift the burden of taxation on others, who 
 are, in many cases, less able to pay than they. The smaller 
 the amount of property assessed throughout the commu- 
 nity, the higher the rate of taxation that each citizen has 
 to pay. Those who withhold their property from assess- 
 ment not only shirk their responsibility, but also increase 
 the burden of the other members of the community. 
 
 State and local governments impose other forms of taxes 
 than the general property tax. In some states there is a 
 s eciai ^^^^' °^ capitation tax, which is a tax on the per- 
 forms of son and not on the property. It varies from 
 taxation ^^^ ^^ ^^^^ dollars. In some states there is an 
 income tax, levied, not on the amount of property a man 
 has, but on the income he receives. Some states have an 
 inheritance tax, levied on property received by inheri- 
 tance. There is a corporation tax, levied on corporations 
 doins: business in the state. In addition to these forms 
 
THE EXPENSES OF GOVERNMENT 
 
 275 
 
 of taxation, there are revenues derived by state and lo- 
 cal governments from various kinds of licenses, fees, and 
 special assessments. Men who conduct certain Licenses 
 kinds of business must pay the government of *^d fees 
 state or locality a license fee, as in the case of peddlers, 
 saloon keepers, and pawnbrokers. Such licenses are in- 
 tended, usually, to restrict such businesses as well as to 
 secure a revenue. In most cities a license fee must be 
 paid on all vehicles, including bicycles. When sewers are 
 laid or roads built, they are often paid for, in part at least, 
 by special assessments against the property owners most 
 directly benefited. Finally, there are fines collected in 
 the courts, which are turned into the public revenues. 
 These special taxes and fees are often devoted to special 
 purposes, as when the license fees on vehicles are used to 
 keep up the roads and pavements, or when saloon licenses 
 are used for the benefit of the schools. 
 
 Some kinds of property may be exempt from taxation ; 
 that is, no tax is levied against them. For example, pub- 
 He school buildings and property are exempt. 
 Church property, the property of colleges, public 
 hospitals, public buildings such as courthouses, charitable 
 institutions, and other forms of property of a pubHc char- 
 acter, used for the public benefit and not for profit, are 
 exempt from taxation. 
 
 While the state and local governments derive most of 
 their revenues from direct taxation, the national gov- 
 ernment derives most of its revenues from in- indirect tax- 
 direct taxation. The Constitution permits Con- ationbythe 
 
 , , , T 1 . ,. national 
 
 gress to levy both direct and mdirect taxes. govern- 
 Direct taxes have been levied by the national ™®°* 
 government several times in our history, but they have 
 been objected to in the past for two reasons. In the 
 
2/6 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 first place, the Constitution provides that direct taxes 
 " shall be apportioned among the several states . . . 
 according to their respective numbers." That is, if the 
 national government should decide to levy a tax on land, 
 it would first determine how much of a tax is needed al- 
 together, and would then call on the states to pay their 
 share in proportion to their population. A state having 
 twice the population of another would also pay twice the 
 tax of the other. In practice it has been found very diffi- 
 cult to apportion a tax in this way, and do it justly. 
 Another reason why the national government prefers to 
 Direct fed- employ indirect, rather than direct, taxation is 
 erai tazes because indirect taxes can be collected so much 
 more easily than direct taxes, and without attracting the 
 attention of the people so much. The people prefer local 
 self-taxation, and might feel more antagonistic to a tax 
 collector representing the far-away central authority. In 
 191 3, however, the sixteenth amendment to the Constitu- 
 tion became effective, which gives Congress power to levy 
 a direct tax on incomes of corporations and private per- 
 sons. Unmarried persons with an income of less than 
 S3000, and married couples with an income of less than 
 S4000, are exempt from this tax. 
 
 The national government raises most of its money by 
 means of import duties and excise taxes. Import duties. 
 Imports and ^-^ already explained, are taxes on imported 
 excises goods, paid at first by the importer, but finally 
 
 by the people in all parts of the country w^ho use the goods. 
 This form of taxation is very little felt by the people, and 
 yet ver}" large sums of money are raised by means of it. 
 The excise is a tax le\'ied on goods manufactured in this 
 countr}\ This form of taxation was once very unpopular, 
 because it seemed a restriction on the industry of the 
 
THE EXPExNSES OF GOVERNMENT 277 
 
 country by the national government. The chief manu- 
 factures taxed in this way are alcohoHc liquors and tobacco 
 in its various forms. This tax also, though at first paid by 
 the manufacturers, is distributed among the people who 
 use the articles. 
 
 For the collection of import duties all imported goods 
 are required to pass through customs houses at important 
 cities, mostly on the borders of the country, but Collection 
 sometimes in the interior, where the goods are of duties 
 inspected by customs officers and the taxis collected. For 
 the collection of excise taxes the country is divided into 
 internal revenue districts^ in each of which is a revenue 
 collector with assistants, who visit distilleries, breweries, 
 and tobacco factories to collect the tax. 
 
 Additional revenue is obtained by the national govern- 
 ment through the sale of public lands and the receipts of 
 the postal service. 
 
 In time of war, or to pay for great permanent improve- 
 ments like the Panama Canal, or to meet a deficit in the 
 treasury, it becomes necessary to borrow large Borrowing 
 sums of money. Borrowing under such circum- money 
 stances is justifiable for two reasons. First, because an 
 increase in the taxes cannot be secured quickly enough to 
 meet the emergency. In the second place, it is just that 
 the expense of a great war or of a permanent improvement 
 should be distributed over a considerable length of time, 
 because future generations are affected by it as much as 
 the present. The money is borrowed, therefore, and is 
 paid back by taxation during a long period of years. The 
 usual method of borrowing is by the sale of government 
 bonds, which are bought by individuals and financial insti- 
 tutions, and upon which the government pays interest. It 
 is then necessary for the government to lay aside a fund 
 
2/8 THE COMMUNITY AND THE CITIZEN 
 
 from its revenues during a period of years to pay off its 
 indebtedness. 
 
 There has never been, in the national finances, the same 
 careful adjustment between receipts and expenditures that 
 we now find, for example, in many of our city governments. 
 The revenues are a more or less uncertain quantity, because 
 it cannot be told in advance with accuracy what the im- 
 ports will amount to, nor what the incomes of corporations 
 and individuals will be. Unexpected deficits and surpluses 
 appear in the treasury. Appropriations are often made 
 recklesslv bv Congress, sometimes resulting in insufficient 
 funds for important work, sometimes in extravagant ex- 
 penditures for purposes of little general value. There is 
 need for improvement in the business methods of the 
 national government that will result at once in greater 
 economy and greater efificiency. 
 
 FOR INVESTIGATION 
 
 1 . Tr}' to find out. from printed reports of the treasurer, what the 
 annual expense of yaur city (or county or township) is. Make a list 
 of some of the more important items of expense, such as salaries, build- 
 ings, streets, etc. 
 
 2. Find out what the rate of taxation is for your city ; for your 
 county : for your state. 
 
 3. How is the expense of the public schools met in your commu- 
 nity ? 
 
 4. Is there a tax on vehicles in your community? To what use is 
 this money put? 
 
 5. What kinds of business are conducted in your community under 
 license? What is the amount of the saloon license? To w'hat use is 
 the revenue from this source put? 
 
 6. Obtain a tax list from the office of the assessor and note the 
 items listed. 
 
 7. How is the expense of constructing a sewer met in your com- 
 munity? Of paving a street? 
 
 8. Is there any limit to the amount of taxes that your city council 
 (or county commissioners) may levy ? 
 
THE EXPENSES OF GOVERNMENT 279 
 
 9. Does your city charter limit the amount that your city may 
 borrow? Does the state constitution limit the amount that can be bor- 
 rowed by the state? If so, why? 
 
 10. To whom, and at what times, are the taxes paid in your com- 
 munity ? 
 
 11. Report on the practice of "log-roUing"' in Congress. What 
 are its effects? 
 
 12. What is meant by the " single tax"? What are the arguments 
 for it? 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Hart, "Actual Government," chapters XXI-XXII. 
 Forman, "Advanced Civics," chapters XXXV-XXXIX. 
 Fiske, "Civil Government," chapter I. 
 Wilcox, "The American City," chapters XH, XIH. 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF 
 AMERICA 
 
 Preamble 
 
 We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect 
 union, estabHsh justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the 
 common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the bless- 
 ings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish 
 this Constitution for the United States of America. 
 
 ARTICLE I 
 
 Section I 
 
 All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress 
 of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of 
 Representatives. 
 
 Section II 
 
 1. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members 
 chosen every second year by the people of the several States, and the 
 electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors 
 of the most numerous branch of the State legislature. 
 
 2. No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained 
 to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the 
 United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of 
 that State in which he shall be chosen. 
 
 3. Representatives [and direct taxes] ^ shall be apportioned among the 
 several States which may be included within this Union, according to 
 their respective numbers, [which shall be determined by adding to the 
 whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a 
 term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other 
 
 1 Modified by Amendment XVI. 
 V 281 
 
282 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 persons.] ^ The actual enumeration shall be made within three years 
 after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within 
 every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by 
 law direct. The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for 
 every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one Represen- 
 tative ; [and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New 
 Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three, Massachusetts eight, 
 Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five. New 
 York six, New Jersey four. Pennsylvania eight. Delaware one. Mary- 
 land six, Virginia ten. North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and 
 Georgia three.] ^ 
 
 4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, 
 the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such 
 vacancies. 
 
 5. The House of Representatives shaU choose their Speaker and 
 other ofiicers, and shall have the sole power of impeachment. 
 
 Section III 
 
 1. [The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two 
 Senators fi-om each State, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six 
 years : and each Senator shall have one vote.]- 
 
 2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the 
 first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three 
 classes. The seats of the Senators of the first class shall be vacated 
 at the expiration of the second year : of the second class, at the expira- 
 tion of the fourth year, and of the third class, at the expiration of the 
 sixth year, so that one third may be chosen even,- second year ; and if 
 vacancies happen by resignation or otherwise during the recess of the 
 legislature of any State, the executive thereof may make temporary aj> 
 pointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then 
 fill such vacancies. 
 
 3. No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the 
 age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, 
 and v.-ho shall not. when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for 
 which he shall be chosen. 
 
 4. The Vice-President of the United States shall be President of the 
 Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 
 
 5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a President 
 
 1 The clauses in brackets have been superseded by Amendments XIII and XIV. 
 
 2 Superseded bv Amendment XVII. 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 283 
 
 pro tempore in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exer- 
 cise the office of President of the United States. 
 
 6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. 
 When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. 
 When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice 
 shall preside: and no person shall be convicted without the concur- 
 rence of two-thirds of the members present. 
 
 7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than 
 to removal from office, and disquahfication to hold and enjoy any office 
 of honor, trust, or profit under the United States ; but the party con- 
 victed shall, nevertheless, be liable and subject to indictment, trial, 
 judgment, and punishment, according to law. 
 
 Section IV 
 
 1. The times, places, and manner of holding elections for Senators 
 and Representatives shall be prescribed in each State by the legislature 
 thereof; but the Congress may at any time by law make or alter such 
 regulations, except as to the places of choosing Senators. 
 
 2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and 
 such meetings shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they 
 shall by law appoint a different day. 
 
 Section V 
 
 1. Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and 
 qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall con- 
 stitute a quorum XQ do business ; but a smaller number may adjourn 
 from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of 
 absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties, as each 
 house may provide. 
 
 2. Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its 
 members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two 
 thirds, expel a member. 
 
 3. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time 
 to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judg- 
 ment require secrecy, and the yeas and nays of the members of either 
 house on any question shall, at the desire of one fifth of those present, 
 be entered on the journal. 
 
 4. Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall without the 
 consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other 
 place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting. 
 
284 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Section VI 
 
 1. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a compensation 
 for their services, to be ascertained by law and paid out of the Treasury 
 of the United States. They shall, in all cases except treason, felony, 
 and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their atten- 
 dance at the session of their respective houses, and in going to and 
 returning from the same ; and for any speech or debate in either house 
 they shall not be questioned in any other place. 
 
 2. No Senator or Representative shall, during the time for which 
 he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of 
 the United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments 
 whereof shall have been increased during such time ; and no person 
 holding any office under the United States shall be a member of 
 either house during his continuance in office. 
 
 Section VII 
 
 1. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Repre- 
 sentatives : but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments as 
 on other bills. 
 
 2. Ever}- bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives 
 and the Senate shall, before it become a law, be presented to the Presi- 
 dent of the United States ; if he approve he shall sign it, but if not he 
 shall return it, with his objections, to that house in which it shall have 
 originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal and 
 proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration two thirds of 
 that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with 
 the objections, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be recon- 
 sidered, and if approved by two thirds of that house it shall become a 
 law. But in all such cases the votes of both houses shall be determined 
 by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against 
 the bill shall be entered on the journal of each house respectively. If 
 any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays 
 excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall 
 be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress 
 by their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not 
 be a law. 
 
 3. Ever}' order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the 
 Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a 
 question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 285 
 
 United States; and before the same shall take eflfect, shall be approved 
 by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of 
 the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and 
 limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. 
 
 Section VIII 
 
 The Congress shall have power : 
 
 1. To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the 
 debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the 
 United States; but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform 
 throughout the United States ; 
 
 2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States ; 
 
 3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the several 
 States, and with the Indian tribes ; 
 
 4. To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws 
 on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States ; 
 
 5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, 
 and fix the standard of weights and measures ; 
 
 6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and 
 current coin of the United States ; 
 
 7. To establish post-offices and post-roads ; 
 
 8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts by securing for 
 limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their re- 
 spective writings and discoveries ; 
 
 9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court; 
 
 10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high 
 seas and offenses against the law of nations ; 
 
 11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make 
 rules concerning captures on land and water ; 
 
 12. To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to 
 that use shall be for a longer term than two years ; 
 
 13. To provide and maintain a navy ; 
 
 14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and 
 
 naval forces ; , 1 r ^1 
 
 15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws ot tne 
 Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions ; 
 
 16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, 
 and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service 
 of the United States, reserving to the States respectively the appoint- 
 
286 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 ment of the officers, and the authority of iraining the militia according 
 to the disciphne prescribed by Congress ; 
 
 17. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever over 
 such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may. by cession of 
 particular States and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of 
 Government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over 
 all places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the State in 
 which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, 
 dockyards, and other needful buildings : and 
 
 18. To make all laws which shaU be necessan.- and proper for carr\-- 
 ing into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested 
 by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any 
 department or officer thereof. 
 
 Section IX 
 
 1 . [The migration or importation of such persons as any of the States 
 now existing shall think proper to admit shall not be prohibited by the 
 Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but 
 a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten 
 dollars for each person.] ^ 
 
 2. The privilege of the vrrit of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, 
 unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may 
 require it. 
 
 3. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. 
 
 4. No capitation [or other direct] - tax shall be laid, unless in pro- 
 portion to the census or enumeration herein before directed to be taken. 
 
 5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State. 
 
 6. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or 
 revenue to the ports of one State over those of another ; nor shall 
 vessels bound to or from one State be obliged to enter, clear, or pay 
 duties in another. 
 
 7. No money shaU be drawn from the Treasury- but in consequence 
 of appropriations made by law : and a regular statement and account 
 of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shaU be published 
 from time to time. 
 
 8 . No title of nobility shaU be granted by the United States ; and 
 no person holding any office of profit or trust under them shaU, without 
 the consent of 'the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, 
 or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign State. 
 
 1 A temporary clause no longer in force. 2 Modified by Amendment X\'I, 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 287 
 
 Section X 
 
 1. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; 
 grant letters of marque and reprisal ; coin money ; emit bills of credit ; 
 make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts ; 
 pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the obliga- 
 tion of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. 
 
 2. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any im- 
 posts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely 
 necessary for executing its inspection laws ; and the net produce of all 
 duties and imposts, laid by any State on imports or exports, shall be 
 for the use of the Treasury of the United States ; and all such laws 
 shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. 
 
 3. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any duty 
 of tonnage, keep troops or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any 
 agreement or compact with another State or with a foreign power, or 
 engage in war, unless actually invaded or in such imminent danger as 
 will not admit of delay. 
 
 ARTICLE II 
 
 Section I 
 
 1. The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United 
 States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four 
 years, and together with the Vice-President, chosen for the same term, 
 be elected as follows : 
 
 2. Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof 
 may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of Senators 
 and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress ; 
 but no Senator or Representative, or person holding an office of trust 
 or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. 
 
 3. [The electors shall meet in their respective States and vote by 
 ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant 
 of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a list of all 
 the persons voted for, and of the number of votes for each ; which list 
 they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the govern- 
 ment of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. 
 The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and 
 House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall 
 then be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes 
 shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole 
 
288 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 number of electors appointed; and if there be more than one who 
 have such majority, and have an equal number of votes, then the House 
 of Representatives shall immediately choose by ballot one of them for 
 President ; and if no person have a majority, then from the five highest 
 on the list the said House shall in like manner choose the President. 
 But in choosing the President the votes shall be taken by States, the 
 representation from each State having one vote ; a quorum for this pur- 
 pose shall consist of a member or members from two thirds of the 
 States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a. choice. 
 In every case, after the choice of the President, the person having the 
 greatest number of votes of the electors shall be the Vice-President. 
 But if there should remain two or more who have equal votes, the 
 Senate shall choose from them by ballot the Vice-President.] ^ 
 
 4. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors 
 and the day on which they shall give their votes, which day shall be 
 the same throughout the United States. 
 
 5. No person except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the United 
 States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible 
 to the office of President ; neither shall any person be eligible to that 
 office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and 
 been fourteen years a resident within the United States. 
 
 6. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his 
 death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of 
 the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President, and the 
 Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resigna- 
 tion, or inability, both of the President and Vice-President, declaring 
 what officer shall then act as President, and such officer shall act ac- 
 cordingly until the disabihty be removed or a President shall be elected. 
 
 7. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a 
 compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during 
 the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not 
 receive within that period any other emolument from the United States 
 or any of them. 
 
 8. Before he enter on the execution of his office he shall take the 
 following oath or affirmation : 
 
 " I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office 
 of President of the United States, and will to the best of my ability 
 preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States." 
 
 1 Superseded by Amendment XII. 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 289 
 
 Section II 
 
 1. The President shall be Commander-in-chief of the Army and 
 Navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several States 
 when called into the actual service of the United States; he may 
 require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the 
 executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their 
 respective offices, and he shall have power to grant reprieves and 
 pardons for offenses against the United States, except in cases of 
 impeachment. 
 
 2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the 
 Senate, to make treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present 
 concur ; and he shall nominate, and, by and with the advice and consent 
 of the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and 
 consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the 
 United States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided 
 for, and which shall be established by law ; but the Congress may by 
 law vest the appointment of such inferior officers, as they think proper, 
 in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of depart- 
 ments. 
 
 3. The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may 
 happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions 
 which shall expire at the end of their next session. 
 
 Section III 
 
 He shall from time to time give to the Congress information of the 
 state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such measures 
 as he shall judge necessary and expedient ; he may, on extraordinary 
 occasions, convene both houses, or either of them, and in case of dis- 
 agreement between them with respect to the time of adjournment, he 
 may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper ; he shall re- 
 ceive ambassadors and other public ministers ; he shall take care that 
 the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers of 
 the United States. 
 
 Section IV 
 
 The President, Vice-President and all civil officers of the United 
 States shall be removed from office on impeachment for and conviction 
 of treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. 
 
290 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 ARTICLE III 
 Section I 
 
 The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one Su- 
 preme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time 
 to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the supreme and 
 inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good beha^-ior. and shall, 
 at stated times, receive for their sendees a compensation which shall 
 not be diminished during their continuance in office. 
 
 Section II 
 
 1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, 
 arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States,, and 
 treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authorit}' ; to all 
 cases affecting ambassadors, other pubHc ministers, and consuls ; to 
 all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; to controversies to 
 which the United States shall be a party ; to controversies between two 
 or more States ; between a State and citizens of another State ; be- 
 tween citizens of different States ; between citizens of the same State 
 claiming lands under grants of different States, and between a State, 
 or the citizens thereof, and foreign States, citizens, or subjects. 
 
 2. In all cases, affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and 
 consuls, and those in which -a State shall be party, the Supreme Court 
 shall have original jurisdiction. In aU the other cases before mentioned, 
 the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and 
 fact, with such exceptions and under such regulations as the Congress 
 shaU make. 
 
 3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be 
 by jur}- : and such trial shaU be held in the State where the said crimes 
 shall have been committed : but when not committed within any State, 
 the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law 
 have directed. 
 
 Section III 
 
 1. Treason against the United States shall consist only in le^-ying war 
 against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and com- 
 fort. No person shall be con\ncted of treason unless on the testimony 
 of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. 
 
 2. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of 
 treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood or 
 forfeiture except during the life of the person attained. 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 291 
 
 ARTICLE IV 
 
 Section I 
 
 Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the public acts, 
 records, and judicial proceedings of every other State. And the Con- 
 gress may by general laws prescribe the manner in which such acts, 
 records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. 
 
 Section II 
 
 1. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges and 
 immunities of citizens in the several States. 
 
 2. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other 
 crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, shall, 
 on demand of the executive authority of the State from which he fled, 
 be delivered up, to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the 
 crime. 
 
 3. [No person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws 
 thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or reg- 
 ulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be 
 delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may 
 be due.] ^ 
 
 Section III 
 
 1. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union ; 
 but no new State shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of 
 any other State ; nor any State be formed by the junction of two or 
 more States or parts of States, without the consent of the legislatures 
 of the States concerned as well as of the Congress. 
 
 2. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all need- 
 ful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property be- 
 longing to the United States ; and nothing in this Constitution shall 
 be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States or of 
 any particular State. 
 
 Section IV 
 The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a 
 republican form of government, and shall protect each of them against 
 invasion, and on application of the legislature, or of the executive (when 
 the legislature cannot be convened), against domestic violence. 
 
 1 Superseded by Amendment XIII. 
 
292 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 ARTICLE V 
 
 The Congress, whenever two thirds of both houses shall deem it 
 necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the 
 application of the legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall 
 call a convention for proposing amendments, which in either case shall 
 be vaKd to all intents and purposes as part of this Constitution, when 
 ratified by the legislatures of three fourths of the several States, 
 or by conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other 
 mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress, provided 
 that [no amendment which may be made prior to the year one thou- 
 sand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and 
 fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article ; and that] i no 
 State, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the 
 Senate. 
 
 ARTICLE VI 
 
 1. All debts contracted and engagements entered into,, before the 
 adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United 
 States under this Constitution as under the Confederation. 
 
 2. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall 
 be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or which shall be 
 made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme 
 law of the land ; and the judges in every State s'hall be bound thereby, 
 anything in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary not- 
 withstanding. 
 
 3. The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the 
 members of the several State legislatures, and all executive and judicial 
 officers both of the United States and of the several States, shall be 
 bound by oath or affirmation to support this Constitution ; but no reli- 
 gious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public 
 trust under the United States. 
 
 ARTICLE VH 
 The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall be sufficient 
 
 for the establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratify- 
 ing the same. 
 
 Done in convention by the unanimous consent of the States present, 
 the seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord one 
 
 1 Temporary in its nature. 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 293 
 
 thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the Independ- 
 ence of the United States of America the twelfth. In witness 
 whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our names. 
 George Washington, President, and Deputy from Virginia. 
 New Hampshire — John Langdon, Nicholas Gilman. 
 Massachusetts — Nathaniel Gorham, Rufus King. 
 Connecticut — William Samuel Johnson, Roger Sherman. 
 New York — Alexander Hamilton. 
 New Jersey — William Livingston, David Brearley, William Paterson, 
 
 Jonathan Dayton. 
 Pennsylvania — Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Mifflin, Robert Morris, 
 
 George Clymer, Thomas Fitzsimons, Jared Ingersoll, James Wilson, 
 
 Gouverneur Morris. 
 Delaware — George Read, Gunning Bedford, Jr., John Dickinson, 
 
 Richard Bassett, Jacob Broom. 
 Maryland — James McHenry, Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer, Daniel 
 
 Carroll. 
 Virginia — John Blair, James Madison, Jr. 
 North Carolina — William Blount, Richard Dobbs Spaight, Hugh 
 
 Williamson. 
 South Carolina — John Rutledge, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, 
 
 Charles Pinckney, Pierce Butler. 
 Georgia — William Few, Abraham Baldwin. 
 
 Attest : William Jackson, Secretary, 
 
 ARTICLES 
 in addition to and amendment of the Constitution of the United 
 States of America, proposed by Congress and ratified by the Legisla- 
 tures of the several States, pursuant to the Fifth Article of the Consti- 
 tution. 
 
 ARTICLE I 
 Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, 
 or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of 
 speech or of the press ; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, 
 and to petition the government for a redress of grievances. 
 
 ARTICLE II 
 A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free 
 State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be 
 infringed. 
 
294 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 ARTICLE III 
 
 No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house without 
 the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be 
 prescribed by law. 
 
 ARTICLE IV 
 
 The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, 
 and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be vio- 
 lated, and no warrants shall issue but upon probable cause, supported 
 by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be 
 searched and the persons or things to be seized. 
 
 ARTICLE V 
 
 No persons shall be held to answer for a capital or other^vise infa- 
 mous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, ex- 
 cept in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when 
 in actual service in time of war or public danger ; nor shall any person 
 be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of hfe or 
 limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness 
 against himself, nor be deprived of life, hberty or property, without due 
 process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use with- 
 out just compensation. 
 
 ARTICLE VI 
 
 In all criminal prosecutions the accused shall enjoy the right to a 
 speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district 
 wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have 
 been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature 
 and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses against 
 him, to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, 
 and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense. 
 
 ARTICLE VII 
 In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed 
 twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact 
 tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United 
 States, than according to the rules of the common law. 
 
 ARTICLE VIII 
 Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor 
 cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 295 
 
 ARTICLE IX 
 The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights shall not be 
 construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. 
 
 ARTICLE X 
 The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, 
 nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively 
 or to the people. 
 
 ARTICLE XI 
 The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to 
 extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against 
 one of the United States by citizens of another State, or by citizens or 
 subjects of any foreign State. 
 
 ARTICLE XII 
 I. The electors shall meet in their respective States and vote by 
 ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall 
 not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves ; they shall 
 name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct 
 ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make 
 distinct lists of all persons voted for as President and of all persons 
 voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each ; which 
 lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the 
 government of the United States, directed to the President of the 
 Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in presence of the Senate 
 and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes 
 shall then be counted. The person having the greatest number of 
 votes for President shall be the President, if such number be a majority 
 of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have such 
 majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceed- 
 ing three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Rep- 
 resentatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But 
 in choosing the President the votes shall be taken by States, the rep- 
 resentation from each State having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose 
 shall consist of a member or members from two thirds of the States, 
 and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. And 
 if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever 
 the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of 
 March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, 
 
296 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the 
 President. 
 
 2. The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President 
 shall be the Vice-President if such number be a majorit\- of the whole 
 number of electors appointed ; and if no person have a majority, then 
 from the two highest numbers on the list the Senate shall choose the 
 Vice-President ; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two thirds of 
 the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall 
 be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to 
 the office of President shall be ehgible to that of Vice-President of the 
 United States. 
 
 ARTICLE XIII 
 
 Section i. Neither slaven,- nor involuntary servitude, except as a 
 punishment for crime whereof the part}' shall have been duly convicted, 
 shall exist within the United States or any place subject to their 
 jurisdiction. 
 
 Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by 
 appropriate legislation. 
 
 ARTICLE XIV 
 
 Section i . All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and 
 subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and 
 of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any 
 law which shall abridge the pri^dleges or immunities of citizens of the 
 United States ; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, 
 or property, without due process of law ; nor deny to any person within 
 its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. 
 
 Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several 
 States according to their respective numbers, coimting the whole num- 
 ber of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when 
 the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President 
 and Vice-President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, 
 the executive and judicial officers of a State, or the members of the 
 legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such 
 State, being twenty-one years of age. and citizens of the United States, 
 or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other 
 crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the pro- 
 portion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole 
 number of male dtizehs twenty-one years of age in such State. 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 297 
 
 Section 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Con- 
 gress, or elector of President and Vice-President, or hold any office, civil 
 or military, under the United States or under any State, who, having 
 previously taken an oath as a member of Congress, or as an officer of 
 the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an 
 executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution 
 of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion 
 against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But 
 Congress may, by a vote of two thirds of each house, remove such dis- 
 ability. 
 
 Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, 
 authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and 
 bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not 
 be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall as- 
 sume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or 
 rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or eman- 
 cipation of any slave ; but all such debts, obligations, and claims shall 
 be held illegal and void. 
 
 Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appro- 
 priate legislation, the provisions of this article. 
 
 ARTICLE XV 
 
 Section i. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall 
 not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on 
 account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 
 
 Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article 
 by appropriate legislation. 
 
 ARTICLE XVI 
 
 The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, 
 from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several 
 States, and without regard to any census or enumeration. 
 
 ARTICLE XVII 
 
 The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators 
 from each State, elected by the people thereof, for six years ; and each 
 Senator shall have one vote. The electors in each State shall have the 
 
298 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 qualifications required for electors of the most numerous branch of the 
 State legislature. 
 
 When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in the 
 Senate, the executive authority of the State shall issue writs of election 
 to fill such vacancies : Provided. That the legislature of any State may 
 empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments until 
 the people fill the vacancies by election as the legislature may direct. 
 
 This amendment shall not be so construed as to aftect the election 
 or term of any Senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the 
 Constitution. 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 299 
 
 OWNERSHIP OF HOMES IN CITIES HAVING, IN 1910, 
 100,000 INHABITANTS OR MORE 
 
 Cities 
 
 Albany, N. Y. 
 Atlanta, Ga. 
 
 Birmingham, Ala. 
 
 Boston, Mass. . . 
 
 Bridgeport, Conn. 
 
 Buffalo, N. Y. . . 
 
 Cambridge, Mass. 
 
 Chicago, 111. . . 
 
 Cincinnati, Ohio . 
 
 Cleveland, Ohio 
 
 Columbus, Ohio . 
 
 Dayton, Ohio . . 
 
 Denver, Col. . . 
 
 Detroit, Mich. 
 
 Fall River, Mass. . 
 
 Grand Rapids, Mich. 
 
 Indianapolis, Ind. 
 
 Jersey City, N. J. 
 
 Kansas City, Mo. . 
 
 Los Angeles, Cal. . 
 
 Louisville, Ky. . . 
 
 Lowell, Mass. . . 
 
 Memphis, Tenn. . 
 
 Milwaukee, Wis. . 
 
 Minneapolis, Minn. 
 
 Nashville, Tenn. . , 
 
 New Haven, Conn. , 
 
 New Orleans, La. 
 
 New York, N. Y. . , 
 Manhattan Borough 
 Bronx Borough 
 
 Owned 
 
 6,338 
 
 8,580 
 38,400 
 
 8,910 
 23,496 
 
 4,671 
 30,592 
 
 4,282 
 
 121,447 
 19.965 
 
 43473 
 14,862 
 10,596 
 
 17774 
 40,471 
 
 4,317 
 12,599 
 19,036 
 11,209 
 20,711 
 
 34,159 
 
 13,603 
 
 4,848 
 
 7,541 
 28,824 
 
 24,539 
 7,879 
 7,326 
 
 16,273 
 117,740 
 
 14,103 
 12,071 
 
 Rented 
 
 17,189 
 26,213 
 75.381 
 21,115 
 114,312 
 16,504 
 
 58,745 
 18,378 
 342,472 
 66,153 
 80,005 
 26,787 
 17,244 
 31,342 
 57,831 
 19,926 
 13,690 
 38,702 
 
 44,394 
 36,537 
 42,202 
 37,621 
 16,761 
 22,363 
 50,352 
 
 36,195 
 17,868 
 
 21,394 
 
 54,113 
 
 884,616 
 
 468,g27 
 80,114 
 
 Per cent Owned 
 
 26.9 
 24.7 
 
 33-7 
 29.7 
 17. 1 
 22.1 
 34.2 
 18.9 
 26.2 
 23.2 
 55-2 
 35-7 
 38.1 
 36.2 
 41.2 
 17.8 
 
 47-9 
 33-0 
 20.2 
 36.2 
 
 44-7 
 26.6 
 22.4 
 25.2 
 
 36.4 
 40.4 
 30.6 
 25.5 
 23.1 
 11.7 
 2.9 
 1 3-1 
 
300 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 OWNERSHIP OF HOMES IN CITIES HAVING. IN 1910, 
 100,000 INHABITANTS OR ^lO^Y.— Continued 
 
 Cities 
 
 Owned 
 
 Rented 
 
 Per cent Owned 
 
 New York. N.Y.- 
 Brooklyn Boroi 
 Queens Boroiig 
 Richmond Bon 
 
 Newark, N. J. . 
 
 Oakland, Cal. . 
 
 Omaha, Neb. 
 
 Paterson. N. J. 
 
 PhHadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Pittsburgh. Pa. 
 
 Portland, Ore. . 
 
 Pro\-idence, R. I. 
 
 Richmond, Va. 
 
 Rochester, N. Y. 
 
 St. Louis, Mo. . 
 
 St. Paul, :\Iinn. 
 
 San Francisco. Cal 
 
 Scranton. Pa. . 
 
 Seattle, Wash. . 
 
 Spokane. Wash. 
 
 Syracuse. N. Y. 
 
 Toledo, Ohio . 
 
 Washington. D. C 
 
 Worcester, Mass. 
 
 -Cc 
 igh 
 h 
 nig 
 
 rnti 
 
 nuea 
 
 1 
 
 63,842 
 21,176 
 
 6,548 
 I5.II9 
 16,870 
 10,095 
 
 6,538 
 83,262 
 29.983 
 18,509 
 10,071 
 
 6,255 
 19.321 
 37.761 
 16,665 
 27.500 
 
 9.7II 
 22,167 
 11,165 
 12,202 
 17,170 
 17.375 
 
 7-431 
 
 284,739 
 40,020 
 10,816 
 
 60,473 
 19.263 
 15,269 
 20,714 
 229,354 
 77,288 
 
 21.495 
 38,276 
 19,801 
 26,525 
 
 113,515 
 23,826 
 
 55,946 
 16,116 
 
 27,245 
 10,610 
 
 18,547 
 21,609 
 
 51.607 
 23.057 
 
 18.3 
 
 34-6 
 
 37-7 
 20.0 
 46.7 
 
 39.8 
 
 24.0 
 26.6 
 28.0 
 
 46.3 
 20.8 
 24.0 
 42.1 
 25.0 
 41.2 
 33-0 
 37.6 
 449 
 51-3 
 39-7 
 44-3 
 25.2 
 24.4. 
 
 IMMIGRATION BY DECADES. 1821 TO 1913 
 
 1821 to 1830 . . 
 
 • . 143,439 
 
 1871 to 1880 . . . 
 
 2.812,191 
 
 1831 to 1840 . . 
 
 • • 599,125 
 
 1881 to 1890 . . . 
 
 5,246.613 
 
 1841 to 1850 . . 
 
 • • 1.713-251 
 
 1891 to 1900 . . . 
 
 3,687,564 
 
 1851 to i860 . . 
 
 . .2.598.214 
 
 1901 to 1910 . . . 
 
 8.795,386 
 
 1861 to 1870 . . 
 
 • • 2,314.824 
 
 191 1 to 1913 (3 years) 
 
 3,090,912 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 301 
 
 IMMIGRATION AND EMIGRATION FOR THE YEAR 
 ENDING JUNE 30, 1913 
 
 Countries 
 
 Austria 
 
 Hungary 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Bulgaria, Servia, and Montenegro . . 
 
 Denmark 
 
 France, including Corsica 
 
 German Empire 
 
 Greece 
 
 Italy, including Sicily and Sardinia . 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 Norway 
 
 Portugal, including Cape Verde and 
 Azores Islands ........ 
 
 Roumania 
 
 Russian Empire and Finland . . 
 Spain, including Canary and Balearic 
 
 Islands 
 
 Sweden . . . . 
 
 Switzerland 
 
 Turkey in Europe 
 
 United Kingdom : 
 
 England 
 
 Ireland . 
 
 Scotland ......... 
 
 Wales 
 
 Other Europe 
 
 Total Europe . . . . . . 
 
 China 
 
 Japan 
 
 India 
 
 Turkey in Asia 
 
 Other Asia 
 
 Total Asia 
 
 Immigrant Aliens 
 A dmitted 
 
 161,525 
 
 133,236 
 
 8,043 
 
 1,988 
 
 7,016 
 
 I0074 
 
 24,270 
 
 311-393 
 
 7A7^ 
 
 9,525 
 
 16,204 
 
 2,502 
 
 340,461 
 
 7,610 
 18,872 
 
 4,361 
 15,093 
 
 48,016 
 
 30,829 
 
 16,105 
 
 3'- 1 78 
 
 411 
 
 1,216,251 
 
 2,338 
 9,251 
 
 193 
 
 27,187 
 
 1,051 
 
 40,020 
 
 Emigrant Aliens 
 Departed 
 
 32,691 
 903 
 
 9739 
 649 
 
 3,905 
 
 5,294 
 
 31,017 
 
 91,696 
 
 640 
 
 1,854 
 
 2,083 
 
 345 
 30,489 
 
 2,316 
 
 2,316 
 
 507 
 
 4,992 
 
 6,582 
 
 3,322 
 
 2,379 
 
 177 
 
 16 
 
 265,149 
 
 2,426 
 778 
 240 
 
 1,404 
 107 
 
 4,955 
 
302 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 IMMIGRATION AND EMIGRATION FOR THE YEAR 
 ENDING JUNE 30. 1913 — Co?itmued 
 
 C::rr. 
 
 zrits 
 
 
 Immigrant Aliens 
 
 Ad?ni:tcd 
 
 Emigrant A'.icis 
 Departed 
 
 Africa 
 
 Australia. Tasmania, and New 
 Pacific islands (not specified) 
 British x^orth Amerif^^ 
 
 Zealand 
 
 1-539 
 1.3S4 
 
 125 
 
 8 1,002 
 
 1,674 
 
 12.994 
 
 4.828 
 
 14.312 
 
 24 
 
 220 
 
 704 
 
 29 
 
 5^-433 
 
 Central America 
 
 
 
 Mexico .... 
 South America 
 
 . . . . 
 
 . . . 
 
 1,051 
 1472 
 
 I r 
 
 We'^t Indies 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Grand total 
 
 1.-374,153 
 
 331,120 
 
 
 
 
 IMMIGRATION AND EMIGRATION BY STATES FOR 
 YEAR ENDING TUNE 30. 1913 
 
 States 
 
 Alabama . . . . 
 
 Alaska 
 
 Arizona . . . . 
 Arkansas . . . . 
 California . . . . 
 Colorado . . . . 
 Connecticut . . . 
 Delaware . . . . 
 District of Columbia 
 
 Florida 
 
 Georgia . . . . 
 Hawaii . . . . 
 
 Idaho 
 
 lUinois 
 
 Inimi([rafit Aliens 
 
 Emigrafit Aliens 
 
 A.djnittid 
 
 Departed 
 
 1.266 
 
 401 
 
 829 
 
 107 
 
 4.227 
 
 648 
 
 408 
 
 61 
 
 35-235 
 
 8,568 
 
 6.443 
 
 1742 
 
 40.934 
 
 6,796 
 
 2,208 
 
 260 
 
 1,882 
 
 3S8 
 
 5,758 
 
 2,746 
 
 852 
 
 I7T 
 
 7,719 
 
 1-3 
 
 1.887 
 
 409 
 
 123.936 
 
 -^l-m 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 303 
 
 IMMIGRATION AND EMIGRATION BY STATES FOR 
 YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, i^i-^ — Coiitimied 
 
 States 
 
 Indiana . . . . 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kansas . . . . 
 Kentucky . 
 
 Louisiana . . . 
 
 Maine . . . . 
 
 Maryland . . . 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Michigan . . , 
 
 Minnesota . . . 
 
 Mississippi . . 
 
 Missouri . . . 
 
 Montana . . , 
 
 Nebraska . . . 
 
 Nevada . . . . 
 
 New Hampshire . 
 
 New Jersey . . 
 
 New Mexico . , 
 New York . . 
 
 North Carolina . 
 North Dakota 
 
 Ohio . . . . 
 
 Oklahoma . . . 
 
 Oregon . . . . 
 
 Pennsylvania . . 
 Philippine Islands 
 
 Porto Rico . . 
 
 Rhode Island . . 
 
 South Carolina . 
 
 South Dakota . . 
 
 Tennessee . . . 
 
 Texas . . . . 
 
 Utah . . . . 
 
 Im m igra nt A lie n s 
 
 Emigrant Aliens 
 
 Admitted 
 
 Departed 
 
 15,099 
 
 4,055 
 
 9.524 
 
 1,464 
 
 4,034 
 
 633 
 
 818 
 
 187 
 
 1,912 
 
 490 
 
 7^361 
 
 734 
 
 9432 
 
 1,238 
 
 1 15773 
 
 18,356 
 
 68,997 
 
 8,045 
 
 21,762 
 
 3,066 
 
 443 
 
 50 
 
 13,002 
 
 3-587 
 
 6,558 
 
 990 
 
 7,016 
 
 739 
 
 1,082 
 
 418 
 
 8,922 
 
 1,732 
 
 70,152 
 
 13,378 
 
 830 
 
 277 
 
 376,011 
 
 88,937 
 
 450 
 
 83 
 
 4,853 
 
 240 
 
 72,902 
 
 13,985 
 
 1,121 
 
 247 
 
 5,590 
 
 1,422 
 
 215,375 
 
 47,389 
 
 17 
 
 2 
 
 984 
 
 883 
 
 15470 
 
 2,762 
 
 286 
 
 55 
 
 1,818 
 
 210 
 
 887 
 
 143 
 
 12,240 
 
 901 
 
 3^63 
 
 1,384 
 
304 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 LMMIGRATION AND EMIGRATION BY STATES FOR 
 YEAR ENDING JUNE 30. i^i^— Continued 
 
 States 
 
 Vermont .... 
 Virginia .... 
 Washington . 
 West Virginia . . 
 Wisconsin .... 
 Wyoming .... 
 Unknown .... 
 
 Total . . . 
 
 Im77iigra7it Aliens Emigrant Aliens 
 A dm itted Depa rted 
 
 4.064 
 
 580 
 
 2,006 
 
 438 
 
 20,460 
 
 2.967 
 
 12,037 
 
 3,668 
 
 26,646 
 
 4,241 
 
 1,272 
 
 529 
 
 
 52,059 
 
 1,374.153 
 
 331,120 
 
INDEX 
 
 Accident, protection against, 32; 
 injury by, 79. 
 
 Accidents, prevention of, 78-80; 
 industrial, 80. 
 
 Administrative departments, of cities, 
 233, 234; of the state, 246, 
 247 ; of the national government, 
 259-261. 
 
 Administrative duties of local gov- 
 ernments, 185, 226. 
 
 Advertisements, 162. 
 
 Agriculture, Department of, 104, 128, 
 260. 
 
 Alaska, 49, 263, 264. 
 
 Aliens, 43, 189. 
 
 Amendment, of state constitutions, 
 242 ; of United States Constitu- 
 tion, 253 ; of Articles of Confedera- 
 tion, 252. 
 
 American Museum of Safety, 79. 
 
 Americans, making of, 36-45. 
 
 Andre, 18. 
 
 Appointment of ofificers, 198, 210, 
 211, 226, 235; of federal judges, 
 262 ; governor's power of, 247, 
 249; President's power of, 257, 
 258. 
 
 Apportionment, 254. 
 
 Arbor Day, 162. 
 
 Architecture, 165. 
 
 Arizona, 264. 
 
 Army, 81, 82; health work of, 67. 
 
 Art, 154. 
 
 Articles of Confederation, 252, 256. 
 
 Assemblage, freedom of, 147, 148. 
 
 Assessment, 272. 
 
 Assessments, special, 275. 
 
 Assessors, 272. 
 
 Assimilation of immigration, 42. 
 
 Asylums, 174. 
 
 Attorney General, state, 247 ; United 
 
 States, 259. 
 Auditor, state, 246. 
 Australian ballot, 206. 
 
 Ballot, short, 203 ; Australian, 206 ; 
 secrecy of the, 206 ; scratching, 
 
 193- 
 
 Banking system, national, loi. 
 
 Banks, savings, 127; postal savings, 
 126. 
 
 Beauty, desire for, 17; in the pioneer 
 home, 24; what the community 
 does for, 152-166. 
 
 Berkeley, Governor, 135. 
 
 Bill, legislative, 244; of rights, 243. 
 
 Billboards, 162. 
 
 Bird life, protection of, 131. 
 
 Bonds, government, 277. 
 
 Borrowing money, 277. 
 
 Boss, political, 205, 245. 
 
 Boston, 10, 107, 118, 163. 
 
 Boulevards, 163. 
 
 Builders of the nation, 93. 
 
 Building, ordinances, 74; depart- 
 ment, 234. 
 
 Buildings, construction of, 73. 
 
 Bureaus of municipal research, 212. 
 
 Business life, 88-96; regulation of, 
 77, 78, 98-104; waste in, 124. 
 
 By-laws, 218. 
 
 By-products, 124. 
 
 Cabinet, 247, 257, 259-261. 
 California, 225, 226, 231. 
 Campaign, election, 194. 
 
 305 
 
3o6 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Canals. 112, 113. 
 
 Capitation tax {see Poll Tax). 
 
 Caucus, 192. 
 
 Census bureau, 261. 
 
 Charity, 175, 176; organization, 176. 
 
 Charter, cit}-, 185, 230, 231 ; colonial, 
 242. 
 
 Checks and balances, 1S7, 243, 
 
 Chemistry, bureau of, 104. 
 
 Chicago, 12, 60, 65, 7s, 74, 118, 132. 
 
 Child labor, 2,3^ 99- 
 
 Children, as citizens, 43. 
 
 Children's bureau, 261. 
 
 Chinese, exclusion of, 41. 
 
 Church, the, 19, 169, 170, 171, 175. 
 
 Cincinnati, 73. 
 
 Circuit courts, 248. 
 
 Cities, geographical conditions of 
 growth, 10; home life in, 30, 31; 
 foreigners in, 38, 42 ; subdi^-isions 
 of, 51 ; exercise right of eminent 
 domain, 53 ; health in, 59, 60, 63- 
 65 ; fire protection in, 72, 73 ; 
 pohce in, 76 ; street Kghting in, 77 ; 
 transportation in, 11 5-1 18; edu- 
 cation in, 144, 145; beaut)^ in, 
 155-166; charit}- in, 174-176; 
 primarj^ districts of, 192; merit 
 sj-stem in, 211, 236; growth of, 
 229; problems of, 229; self-gov- 
 ernment of, 230; relation of, to 
 the state, 230; government of, 
 229-240. 
 
 Citizens, naturalized, 42. 
 
 Citizenship, 9 ; the family a school of, 
 28; of women, 28; qualities of 
 good, 28; good, 9, 65, 74, 88, 92, 
 94; schools train for, 137-141. 
 
 City, gover nm ent of the, 229-241. 
 
 City council, 2^2, 233. 
 
 Cit}" manager plan, 238, 239. 
 
 Ci^*ic center, 14S. 
 
 Ci\"ic improvement associations, 166. 
 
 Civil ser^-ice, 210, 258; commission, 
 211; reform in cities, 236. 
 
 Cleanhness, 62, 63. 
 
 ; Cleveland. 155. 157. 
 j Climate, 11. 
 Coast sur\-ey, 112. 
 i Colleges, 147. 
 Colonial charters, 242. 
 Colonies,- 107, 136, 169, 170, 220, 221, 
 
 270. 
 Colomsts, 3, 98, 135, 169, 182, 187, 
 
 217, 218, 219, 252, 269. 
 Colonize, 48. 
 Colon}', in the West, 3 ; Virginia, 12, 
 
 135, 219; Massachusetts Bay, 36. 
 Colorado, 80, 82, 250. 
 Columbus. 18. 
 Co mm erce, 101-103 ; department of, 
 
 104, 261 ; bureau of foreign and 
 
 domestic, 261. 
 Commission form of government. 
 
 236-238. 
 Committees, party, 196; legislative, 
 
 244,256. 
 Communication, 3 ; transportation 
 
 and, 107-122. 
 Communities, kinds of, 7 ; growth of, 
 
 7; permanence of, 47 ; dependence 
 
 on each other, 65. 
 Community, the beginning of, 1-5 ; 
 
 site of, I, 2, 10-14; nature of, 7-9; 
 
 definition of, 7; school-, 139; 
 
 membership in, 8, 9. 
 Companionship, 17, 25. 
 Comptroller, state, 247. 
 Confederation, the, 100, 252; 
 
 Articles of (see Articles). 
 Confidence, 95, 96. 
 Congress, organization and powers, 
 
 254-256, 258.^ 
 Congressional districts, 254. 
 Connecticut, 136. 
 Consen-ation of natural resources, 
 
 127-131. 
 Constables, 76, 218, 226. 
 Constitution, of the United States, 
 
 20, 42, 75, 76, 98, 99, 100, no, 119, 
 
 148, 171, 179, 180, 182, 183, 184, 
 
 197, 243, 249, 252, 253, 254, 255, 
 
INDEX 
 
 307 
 
 256, 257, 258, 261, 262, 270, 280- 
 297 ; its framing and ratification, 
 182, 253; amendment of, 253; 
 interpretation of, 184. 
 
 Constitutions, state, 99, 171, 189, 190, 
 208, 242, 243, 244; amendment of , 
 242. 
 
 Consuls, 102. 
 
 Convention, constitutional, 252, 253; 
 nominating, 192. 
 
 Corporation tax, 274. 
 
 Corporations, growth of, 103 ; con- 
 trol of, 102, 103 ; domination by, 
 206; bureau of, 103, 261. 
 
 Country, advantages of life in, 59. 
 
 County, in the West, 223, 224; 
 government of the, 219-227; as 
 state administrative division, 246 ; 
 courts, 249; supervisors, 221. 
 
 Courts, city, 239, 240. 
 
 Courts, federal, 261-263 > supreme, 
 261 ; circuit, 262 ; district, 262 ; 
 of claims, 262 ; of customs appeals, 
 262. 
 
 Courts, state, 77, 248-250; justices', 
 248; police, 77, 248; district, 
 248; circuit, 248; criminal, 249; 
 county, 249 ; probate, 249 ; chan- 
 cery, 249; supreme, 249. 
 
 Credit, 95. 
 
 Crime, 177, 180; regulation by state, 
 179; by federal government, 179; 
 prevention of, 178. 
 
 Criminal courts, 249. 
 
 Criminals, 31, 173, 177. 
 
 Cuba, 67. 
 
 Defectives, 173, 174. 
 
 Defects in self-government, 214. 
 
 Defense, national, 81-83. 
 
 Delinquents, 173. 
 
 Democratic, 188. 
 
 Dependence of the citizen on the 
 
 community, 88-92, 
 Dependents, 173, 174-176. 
 Desires, 16-20; combinations of , 18; 
 
 conflict of, 19 ; provided for by the 
 family, 25 ; by the community, 
 58. 
 
 Disease, protection against, 24; 
 occupational, 32. 
 
 Distribution of powers, 253. 
 
 District courts, 248. 
 
 District of Columbia, 266. 
 
 Division of labor, 89, 90; geographi- 
 cal, 90, 91. 
 
 Division of powers, 182-186. 
 
 Domain, eminent, 53 ; national, 48. 
 
 Domestic science, 1 24. 
 
 Education, 3, 135-148; in the 
 pioneer family, 24 ; a duty, 141 ; 
 department of, 234 ; United States 
 Bureau of, 146; commissioner of, 
 146. 
 
 Efficiency engineering, 125. 
 
 Election, 195; indirect, 197; of 
 the President, 197. 
 
 Elections, 195; primary, 192; fre- 
 quency of, 196. 
 
 Electors, presidential, 197. 
 
 Electric railways, 114. 
 
 Eminent domain, 53. 
 
 Employee, responsibility of the, 91- 
 94; and employer, 91. 
 
 Employer, relation to employee, 91. 
 
 Employer's liability laws, 80. 
 
 Equalization, boards of, 273. 
 
 Erie canal, 112, 113. 
 
 Estimate, boards of, 233. 
 
 Exchange of goods, 23. 
 
 Excise taxes, 276. 
 
 Executive powers, 185 ; in cities, 233 ; 
 of the state, 246-248 ; of the 
 national gov^ernment, 256-258; 
 departments, 259-261. 
 
 Exemptions, 275. 
 
 Families, i, 2, 22. 
 
 Family, 4, 22-26; services of, 22; 
 responsibility of, 26 ; a training 
 school for citizens, 28; unites 
 
3o8 
 
 INDEX 
 
 people and land, 48; protects 
 
 health, 58 ; education in, 136. 
 Federal government, 183; nation. 
 
 183. 
 Fees, 275. 
 Fire, loss from, 71 ; protection 
 
 against, 71-75 ; danger from, 31 ; 
 
 department. 2^7, : waste from, 131 ; 
 
 insurance, 74. 
 Fisheries, bureau of, 131, 261. 
 Floods, protection against, 85 ; waste 
 
 from, 129; prevention of , 129. 
 Food, impure, 103 ; and drugs act, 
 
 103. 
 Foreign commerce, regulation of, 
 
 loi, 102. 
 Foreigners, 36-45 ; in cities, 38 ; 
 
 distribution of, 37, 38 (see 
 
 I mm i grants. Immigration) . 
 Forest service, 129. 
 Forestr}-, 129; bureau of , 1 5 3 . 
 Forests, national, 51. 
 Franchises. 54, 116, 233. 
 Franklin, Benjamin, 71, 76^. 77. 
 Freedom, ind!\-idual, 99; of speech, 
 
 press, and assemblage, 147, 14S. 
 Free trade, loi. 
 
 Gardens. 156, 157. 
 
 Geographical conditions, i, 2, 10-14. 
 
 Government, 5, 19, 25, 26, 31, 53, 54, 
 68, 75, 93, 98, 104, 127, 131, 132: 
 135, 137, 140, 153, 154, 169, 170, 
 171, 172, 174, 175, 181-199, 200- 
 216, 26S-279. 
 
 Government, local, 13, 32, 52, 54,55, 
 59, 60, 63, 64, 72, 73, 74, 76-78, 80, 
 85, 99, 108, 109, no. III, 115, 116, 
 118, 130, 143, 144, 145, 158, 162, 
 182, 184, 185, 186, 188, 196, 209, 
 210, 217-228, 229-241, 246, 268, 
 269, 271, 273, 274, 275. 
 
 Government, national, 13, 39, 40, 41. 
 42, 45, 48, 49, 54, 55, 66, 67, 79, 
 81—85, 95, 99, 100-104, no, 112, 
 113, 119, 120, 126, 127-129, 131, 
 
 137, 146, 153, 179, 182, 183, 184, 
 j 186, 196, 223, 235, 252-267, 268, 
 I 270, 275-278. 
 
 i Government, purpose of, 19, 20, 104, 
 181 ; cost of, 268 ; ownership of 
 raHwaj's, 118; ownership of tele- 
 graph, 119, 120; waste in, 131, 
 j 132; threefold character of, 182. 
 I Government, state, 32, 42, 53, 55, 66, 
 j 80, 81, 85, 99, 100, 104, III, 112, 
 113, 114, 141, 143, 145, 146, 153, 
 171, 174, 178, 182, 183, 184, 186, 
 188, 189, 196, 209, 210, 226, 230, 
 242-251, 259, 263, 268, 271, 273, 
 274, 275. 
 Governor, the, 246, 
 Great lakes, 112, 113. 
 Guam, 266. 
 
 Hamilton, Alexander, loi. 
 
 Harmony, means to secure, 19. 
 
 Hawaii, 263, 264. 
 
 Health, 3, 11; desire for. 16. 58; in 
 the pioneer family, 2^: in slimas, 
 30, 31; protection of, 58-70; 
 dangers to, 58, 59; board of, 60; 
 commissioner of, 60; policeman, 
 60; state control of, 66; state 
 board of, 66; national control of, 
 66; department of, 2;^;^. 
 
 High schools, 142. 
 
 Highways, state control of, no, in. 
 
 Hoarding, 125. 
 
 Home, making of a, 23; and the 
 commimit}-, 28-35; owning a, 29; 
 ownership (table), 298; life, 
 dangers to, 30; laws protecting 
 the, 32; beaut>' in the, 154. 
 
 Home gardening association, 156, 
 
 157- 
 Home rule in cities. 231 ; in counties, 
 
 226. 
 Homes, citv- of, 2. 22, 30; desire to 
 
 own, 48 ; of workingmen, 94. 
 Homestead act, 43, 48. 
 Hospitals, 64. 
 
INDEX 
 
 309 
 
 Idaho, 189. 
 
 Illinois, 5,37. 
 
 Immigrant, contribution of the, 40. 
 
 Immigrants, reasons for coming, 36, 
 39; number of, 36, 299 (tables), 
 distribution of, 37, 38, 42; ex- 
 cluded, 40, 41 ; in cities, 42 ; 
 assimilation of, 42, 44; medical 
 inspection of, 66. 
 
 Immigration, character of, 39 ; com- 
 mission, 41 ; restriction of, 41, 42 ; 
 bureau of, 42, 261 ; tables, 299- 
 303 (see Foreigners, Immigrants). 
 
 Impeachment, 256, 257. 
 
 Import duties, loi, 276. 
 
 Income tax, 274, 276. 
 
 Indiana, 38, 108. 
 
 Indianapolis, 61, 62. 
 
 Indians, 18, 24, 47; schools for, 
 146. 
 
 Industrial organization, 90. 
 
 Inheritance tax, 274. 
 
 Initiative, 209, 245. 
 
 Insular affairs, bureau of, 259, 266. 
 
 Insurance, fire, 74; life, 127. 
 
 Interests, 2, 3, 7. 
 
 Interior, department of, 260. 
 
 Internal revenue districts, 277. 
 
 Interstate commerce, regulation of, 
 
 102, 103 ; act, 102 ; commission, 
 
 103, 114. 
 
 Interurban electric railways, 114. 
 Investment, 126. 
 Irrigation, 51. 
 
 Jackson, Andrew, 210. 
 
 Jefferson, Thomas, loi. 
 
 Judges, appointment of, — state, 
 
 249 ; federal, 262. 
 Judicial branch of government, 185; 
 
 of cities, 239; of states, 248-250; 
 
 of the nation, 260, 261 ; districts, 
 
 55,248. 
 Judiciary, 261. 
 
 Jury service, 202 ; trial by, 75, 249. 
 Justice, department of, 259, 260. 
 
 Justices' courts, 248; of the peace, 
 
 248. 
 Juvenile courts, 178. 
 
 Kansas, 189. 
 
 Knowledge, desire for, 17, 135-151. 
 
 Labor, department of, 104, 261 ; 
 unions, 92, 99, 
 
 Land, 3, 47-57; divisions of, 47, 54; 
 occupation of, 48 ; open to settle- 
 ment, 49 ; survey of, 49-5 1 ; 
 pubUc, 51 ; given to railroads, 48, 
 114; reclamation of , 1 28. 
 
 Law, in the family, 25 ; lax enforce- 
 ment of, 63, 78, 79, 
 
 Law breakers, 75. 
 
 Law-making power, 244. 
 
 Lawrenceburg, 82, 83, 84. 
 
 Laws, common, 7 ; as a means to 
 secure harmony, 19; protecting 
 the home, 32. 
 
 Legislation, direct, 208-210; gov- 
 ernor'^ power over, 247 ; Presi- 
 dent's power over, 257. 
 
 Legislative branch of government, 
 185; in cities, 232, 237, 238; in 
 states, 243-246; in the national 
 government, 254-256. 
 
 Legislature, 243-246. 
 
 Libraries, 147. 
 
 Licenses, 275. 
 
 Lieutenant governor, 244. 
 
 Life, desire for, 16 ; well rounded, 18 ; 
 protection of, 71-87; insurance, 
 127; saving service, 84. 
 
 Lighthouses, 84; bureau of, 261. 
 
 Liquor traffic, 78. 
 
 Livingstone, 17. 
 
 Lobbying, 245. 
 
 Local government (see Government) . 
 
 Louisville, 11. 
 
 Lynching, 75, 76. 
 
 Machine, party, 205 ; voting, 206. 
 Majority rule, 207. 
 
310 
 
 INDEX 
 
 IManiand, 170. 
 
 ^Massachusetts, colony, 36; educa- 
 tion in, 135, 136. 
 
 Mayor, 232, 233, 235. 
 
 ^lembership in the conununit}^, 8. 
 
 ^lerit svstem, 211; in cities, 236, 
 25S. ' 
 
 ^Messages, President's, 258. 
 
 ]\Iilitar}- schools, 146. 
 
 Mihtia, 80, 81. 
 
 INIilwaukee, 130. 
 
 Klines, bureau of, 131. 
 
 IMinneapohs, 11. 
 
 ^Minnesota, 37. 
 
 ^Minority rule, 207. 
 
 !Mints, loi. 
 
 Money, 4, 23, 100, loi, 277. 
 
 Xation, government of the, 252-267 
 (see Government) ; builders of the, 
 
 93- 
 
 National government (see Govern- 
 ment). 
 
 National guard, 80. 
 
 NationaHty, bond of, 4, 36. 
 
 Natural resources, conservation of, 
 127. 
 
 Naturalization, 42; bureau, 261. 
 
 Naval schools, 146. 
 
 Na^■igation, bureau of, 261. 
 
 Na^y, 81, 83, 84; department of, 260. 
 
 New England, 13 ; schools in, 136. 
 
 New Jersey, in, 189. 
 
 New Mexico, 264. 
 
 New Orleans, 66. 
 
 Newspaper, 119. 
 
 New York City, 38, 72, 74, 76, 79, 
 117, 118, 130, 203, 212, 233. 
 
 Niagara FaUs, 129. 
 
 Noise, 158. 
 
 No min ations, 190-194. 
 
 Northwest Territor>^, 171. 
 
 Obedience, 28, 198. 
 Occupations, 3, 23, 24, 25, 90. 
 Office, duty of taking, 201. 
 
 Ohio, 80, 239. 
 Oklahoma, 137. 
 Ordinance of 1787, 137, 171. 
 Ordinances, building, 74, 
 Oregon, 189. 
 
 Panama, 67. 
 
 Panama canal, 113. 
 
 Parcel post, 119. 
 
 Pardons, board of, 247, 
 
 Parish, 217. 
 
 Parks, 2>2: 64, 153, 163, 166. 
 
 Participation by children in school 
 
 government, 140. 
 Parties, poHtical, 190; organization 
 
 of, 195, 196; and city government, 
 
 Party spirit, 204, 205. 
 
 Patriotism, 93, 96, 202. 
 
 Pavements, 158. 
 
 Pawn shops, 78. 
 
 Peace movement, 83, 84. 
 
 Pean,-, 17. 
 
 Perm, William, 198. 
 
 Pennsylvania, 37. 
 
 Permanence, a necessit}- in com- 
 mimit}' life, 47. 
 
 Philadelphia, 11, 71, 72, 77, 130, 132, 
 229. 
 
 Philippines, 67, 259, 263, 264, 265, 
 266. 
 
 Pioneer life, 4; family, 22-26, 89, 
 
 Piracy, 179. 
 I Pittsburg, 10. 
 
 Playgrounds, 31, 32, 64. 
 j Ph-mouth, 36. 
 
 Poles, telegraph and telephone, 162. 
 
 Police, 76, 77;- courts, 248; de- 
 partment, 234. 
 
 Polls, 194, 195, 206. 
 
 PoU tax, 274. 
 
 Poor relief, 175. 
 
 Porto Rico, 259, 263, 264, 266. 
 
 Postal sa\"Tngs system, 126. 
 
 Postal service, 119. 
 
 Postmaster General, 120. 
 
INDEX 
 
 311 
 
 Post Office Department, 120, 260. 
 Poverty, 175. 
 
 Preamble to the Constitution, 20, 182. 
 Preferential primaries, 194; voting, 
 
 208. 
 President, naturalized citizens may 
 
 not become, 43; and the mihtia, 
 
 81; nomination of, 191, 192; 
 
 election of, 197; powers of, 257. 
 Press, freedom of, 147. 
 Primaries, 203, 204; direct, 193, 
 
 194; preferential, 194. 
 Primary elections, 191,192; districts, 
 
 192, 
 Probation officers, 178. 
 Property, protection of, 71-87; 
 
 rights, 52, 98. 
 Proportional representation, 207. 
 Protection, in the pioneer family, 24 ; 
 
 of life and property, 71-87; of 
 
 health, 58-69. 
 Public opinion, 246. 
 Public schools, 137-145 ; cost of, 137 ; 
 
 train for citizenship, 137-141. 
 Pubhc service, as a career, 211-213. 
 Public works, board of, 234. 
 Punishment, 177. 
 Pure food laws, 67, 103. 
 Puritans, 170, 218. 
 
 Quarantine, 64, 66. 
 Quebec, 11. 
 
 Radio-communication, 120. 
 
 Railroads, lands given to, 48. 
 
 Railway commissions, 114. 
 
 Railways, 112, 113, 114; govern- 
 ment ownership of, 118. 
 
 Recall, the, 208 ; of judicial decisions, 
 250. 
 
 Reclamation, of land, 128; service, 
 
 SI. 
 Referendum, 209, 245. 
 Registration, 195. 
 Religion, 3, 17, 25, 169, 170; attitude 
 
 of government toward, 172. 
 
 Religious desire, 169. 
 
 Representation, basis of, 254. 
 
 Representative government, 182. 
 
 Representatives, chosen from local 
 districts, 187, 188; House of — 
 state, 243, national, 254-256. 
 
 Republican form of government, 243. 
 
 Resources, natural, i, 2, 11; conser- 
 vation of, 1 27-131. 
 
 ResponsibiHty, sense of personal, 198 ; 
 of the citizen, 88, 94, 95, 124, 132, 
 158, 201, 213, 274; of the state 
 executive, 247 ; of the President, 
 257- 
 
 Revenue, bills for raising, 255; 
 districts, 277. 
 
 Revision of Constitutions, 242, 
 
 Revolutionary War, 48, 49, 98, 100, 
 
 137- 
 
 Righteousness, desire for, 17. 
 
 Rings, poHtical, 205. 
 
 River and harbor bill, 112. 
 
 Rivers as highways, iii, 112. 
 
 Road, the national, no. 
 
 Roads, lack of, 23 ; state control of, 
 99 ; importance of, 108 ; methods 
 of building, 108, 109 (see High- 
 ways). 
 
 Rural communities, 114; govern- 
 ment of, 217-227; schools, 143, 
 144; free mail dehvery, 119. 
 
 Safety, board of, 234. 
 
 Saint Louis, 65, 73. 
 
 Samoan Islands, 266. 
 
 San Francisco, 10, 75, 82. 
 
 Saving, waste and, 123-134; by in- 
 vestment, 125; by children, 126; 
 by life insurance, 127. 
 
 Savings, postal, 126. 
 
 School, the public, its purpose, 19 ; 
 influence on immigrants, 44; 
 school city, 140; attendance, 141; 
 as a civic center, 148. 
 
 Schools, organization of, 143-145 ; 
 private and parochial, 146 ; medi- 
 
312 
 
 INDEX 
 
 cal inspection in, 6$ ; adjust- 
 
 ting to pupils' needs, 142. 
 Scientific management, 125. 
 Selectmen, 21S. j 
 
 Self-government, 98, 99, 1S1-214; : 
 
 direct and representative, 182; 
 
 changing methods of, 200-214; '. 
 
 restricted, 200, 201 ; in insular I 
 
 possessions, 265 ; in schools, 140. I 
 Senate, state. :_;: national. 254- 
 
 256.' 
 Senators, eleciion 01, 197, 255. 
 Separation of powers, 185, 187, 
 
 243.-254. _ 
 Settlement in the West, 1-5, 7, 10, 
 
 16, 17, 22, 30, 47, 59, 60, 107, 169. 
 Sewers, 60-62. 
 Sheriff, 76, 220, 224, 225. 
 Short ballot, 203, 225, 226. 
 Site of a community-, i, 2, 10-14, 
 
 107. 
 Slimis, 30. 
 Smoke, 6^. 164. 
 Social life, 3, 25. 
 Soil, con3er\-ation of, 128. 
 Soils, bureau of, 128. 
 South Carolina, 239. 
 Spain, war with, 263. 
 Speaker, 244, 256. 
 Speech, free, 147. 
 Spoils system, 210, 211, 258, 
 State (see Govern tueut) ; department 
 
 of, 259; gove rnm ent of the, 242- 
 
 251- 
 
 State universities, 146. 
 
 Steamboat, 112. 
 
 Street, cleaning, 63 ; lighting, 77 ; 
 blocking of, 116; its importance, 
 115-117; appearance of, 157-163; 
 department, 234. 
 
 Suffrage, 188-190; woman, 189, 190. 
 
 Superintendent, of schools — count}', 
 143- cit}-, 144, state, 145. 
 
 Supreme court — state, 249, fed- 
 eral, 261. 
 
 Sur\-ey of public lands, 49. 
 
 Tariff, loi, 102. 
 
 Taxation, 268-279. ~ 
 
 Taxes, 100, 202. 
 
 Telegraph, 119. 
 
 Telephone, 114, 119. 
 
 Tenements, 30-32. 
 
 Terms of office, 196. 
 
 Territories, 263-266. 
 
 Texas, 237. 
 
 Town meeting, 147, 148, 182, 217, 
 
 218, 221, 222. 
 Township, 50, 22^; government of, 
 
 217, 218; as state administrative 
 
 di^^sion, 246. 
 Transp>ortation, 3 2 ; and commimi- 
 
 cation, 107-120. 
 Treason, 1 79. 
 Treasurer, state, 246. 
 Treasury-, department of the, 259. 
 Treaties, 257. 
 
 Trees, protection of, 160-162. 
 Trial by jur\-, 75. 180. 
 Trusts, 1C3. 
 Turnpikes, no. 
 
 Utah, 189. 
 
 Vestr\-, 217. 
 
 Veto, 187, 232, 244, 257, 258. 
 
 Vice-President, 43, 197, 257. 
 
 Vigilance committees, 75, 76. 
 
 Virginia, 12, 13, 135, 219. 
 
 Voting, independent, 193 ; duty of, 
 
 202 ; preferential, 208 ; machine, 
 
 206. 
 
 War, Department of, 259. 
 
 Washington, George, 190; farewell 
 address of, 204. 
 
 Washington, D.C., 146, 147. 
 
 Waste, and sa\Tng, 123-134; in the 
 household, 123, 125; in business, 
 124; of natural resources, 127- 
 131; of water, 130; b}* fire, 131; 
 in government, 131, 132. 
 
 Water, supply, 60-62, 73, 130; 
 
INDEX 
 
 313 
 
 conservation of, 129, 
 
 power, 129; 
 
 130. 
 Wealth, 3, 23 ; desire for, 15, 
 Weather bureau, 260. 
 Weights and measures, loi. 
 West, settlement of the, no. 
 West Virginia, 37. 
 Wireless telegraphy, 120. 
 
 Woman suffrage, 189, 190. 
 
 Women, citizenship of, 28; naturali- 
 zation of, 43 ; managers of the 
 household, 124. 
 
 Wyoming, 189. 
 
 Yellowstone Park, 153. 
 Yosemite, the, 153. 
 
.IBRARv OF CONGRESS 
 
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