AGENCIES OF SUPERVISION 
 
 PREPARED BY 
 MAYBELL G. BUSH 
 
 ISSUED BY 
 
 C. P. CARY 
 State Superintendent 
 
 MADISON. WISCONSIN 
 1917 
 
1A 
 
 AGENCIES OF SUPERVISION 
 
 PREPARED BY 
 MAYBELL G. BUSH 
 
 SSUED BY 
 
 C. P. CARY 
 
 State Superintendent 
 
 MADISON, WISCONSIN 
 1917 
 
IV7 
 
 D. of D. 
 25 1913 
 
Nv 
 
 FOREWORD 
 
 This bulletin on supervision was prepared by Miss Bush of the 
 State Department as a contribution to the problem of school su- 
 pervision. It is my earnest hope that all persons in the state who 
 have supervisory work to do will study it with care and utilize to 
 the utmost extent the suggestions it contains. 
 
 General school supervision is an art in which few people are 
 proficient. The supervisor should be well-equipped with tech- 
 nical knowledge and should possess numerous kinds of skill, — 
 skill in reading ; skill in drawing ; skill in music ; skill in actual 
 teaching; skill in analyzing a situation; skill in dealing with 
 children ; skill in dealing w T ith teachers, and so on through a long 
 list. 
 
 A good teacher does not necessarily make a good supervisor. 
 There are many qualities required in a supervisor that are not 
 so essential for the classroom teacher. To be eminently success- 
 ful, the supervisor must possess a deeper insight into the prob- 
 lems involved in education than do those he is called upon to 
 supervise. The supervisor should dominate not by reason of the 
 authority given him but by reason of the fact that he has a larger 
 and richer personality and is possessed of an unusually whole- 
 some and sympathetic attitude toward the children, the teachers, 
 and the public. 
 
 The supervisor should understand the sociological bearings of 
 the work of the schoolroom, and should also understand the psy- 
 chology of children, including the stages of physical and mental 
 development through which they normally pass. 
 
 The writer says there has been no attempt in this bulletin to 
 give an exhaustive treatment of supervision. This is indeed true. 
 An exhaustive treatment of supervision, except on its purely for- 
 mal side, would require volumes. 
 
 There is developing in Wisconsin a consciousness of the needs 
 of more adequate supervision. I would suggest that teachers 
 
__4 — 
 
 who are confident they possess the ability and personal qualities 
 to develop into successful supervisors should seize the earliest op- 
 portunity to get the best training afforded in the United States 
 in the subject of school supervision. Such a course for the gen- 
 eral supervision of grade work would include educational sociol- 
 ogy, educational psychology, biology, history of education, prin- 
 ciples of education, special methods of various branches, observa- 
 tion of the best school work to be found, practice teaching, hy- 
 giene and sanitation, study of fatigue problems, the study of mod- 
 ern tests and measurements, and many more topics that might be 
 mentioned. 
 
 A heavy program, no doubt the reader will say. True ; it is. 
 But the work of supervision, if it is to be at all adequate, involves 
 extensive preparation. It is hot to be assumed, however, that 
 persons who find themselves in the position of supervisors, are 
 to be cast down by the fact that their shortcomings are painfully 
 evident to them. The country does not possess people who are 
 thoroughly trained for supervision in sufficient numbers to sup- 
 ply more than a small fraction of the supervisory needs of the 
 country. However, all supervisors should fully sense the re- 
 quirements of the position and work as rapidly as possible in 
 the direction of rendering efficient service. 
 
 The literature relating specifically to supervision is scant. 
 Charles A. McMurray's Handbook of Practice for Teachers, 
 (Macmillan Company), and Maxwell's recent little volume on 
 Observation of Teaching, (Houghton, Mifflin Co.), should be in 
 the hands of all supervisors. 
 
 The supervisor who takes his cue from the typical boss of a 
 construction gang on a railroad is doomed to prompt and igno- 
 minious failure. The supervisor has for his function to encour- 
 age, to inspire, to strengthen, and to lead, — not to drive. 
 
 C. P. Cary, 
 State Superintendent. 
 
AGENCIES OF SUPERVISION 
 
 Analytical Table of Contents 
 
 Page 
 I. Introduction 6-8 
 
 1. Nature of Supervision. 
 
 2. Need for Supervision. 
 
 3. Qualities of a supervisor. 
 
 4. Relation of administration to supervision. 
 
 II. Administrative activities 8-12 
 
 1. School organization. 
 
 2. Community work. 
 
 3. Leadership. 
 
 4. Businesslike management. 
 
 5. Unclassified activities. 
 
 III. Supervisory agencies 12-32 
 
 1. The course of study for the grades: 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 Language 
 
 Reading 
 
 Spelling 
 
 History and Civics 
 
 Geography 
 
 Hygiene 
 
 Music and Art 
 
 Nature Study 
 
 2. The daily program. 
 
 3. Grade and department meetings. 
 
 4. Demonstration teaching. 
 
 5. Rating and choosing of teachers. 
 
 6. Special studies of school conditions. 
 
 7. Standard tests and measurements. 
 
 8. Minor effective agencies. 
 
 Visiting days and periods. 
 School exhibits. 
 Teachers' associations. 
 Reading circle work. 
 Written criticisms. 
 
 9. Classroom visitation. 
 
 IV. Conclusion 32 
 
 V. Bibliography 32-33 
 
 1. The Curriculum. 
 
 2. Schoolroom Practice. 
 
 3. Principles of Education. 
 
 4. Surveys. 
 
I— INTRODUCTION 
 
 Nature of Supervision 
 
 "As is the teacher, so is the school," has become a maxim. No less 
 true is this, "As is the supervisor, so is the school system under his 
 jurisdiction." There is perhaps no executive position more replete 
 with opportunity for growth, for real service, or for the development 
 of a living, ever changing, and far-reaching institution than is the 
 position of superintendent or supervising principal of a school system, 
 either large or small. Yet this splendid opportunity is often lost, in 
 part, because of the fact that in some cases the principal or superin- 
 tendent does not realize that to a large degree the skill shown in his 
 school by the teachers in their classroom work is the real measure 
 of his worth to the community. Too often he is not conversant with 
 the agencies of true supervision. Sometimes he is overloaded with 
 classroom teaching and occasionally he is indifferent to the responsi- 
 bility he has assumed. 
 
 There is a science of supervision, just as there is a science of class- 
 room teaching, and certain necessary conditions must exist before suc- 
 cessful results can follow. Chief among these is the attitude which 
 must obtain between the supervisor and those supervised. A friendly 
 spirit is vital to all supervisory activities. A consciousness on the 
 part of all concerned that each is willing to acknowledge errors and is 
 anxious to grow and improve through constant study and effort is also 
 a fundamental requisite for constructive supervision. 
 
 Need for Supervision 
 
 Many people make the mistake of thinking that since provision has 
 been made for the professional training of teachers, the work of the 
 supervisor has been lessened. Just the opposite is true, however. 
 The so-called "trained" teacher is just beginning her training when she 
 leaves the normal school. She is helpless under the burden of strange 
 pupils, strange textbooks, and either a strange course of study or none 
 at all. She is also hampered by the lack of similarity between the 
 conditions under which she did practice teaching and the actual con- 
 ditions which she finds in the average school. She is, moreover, to a 
 greater extent aware of her weaknesses and failures than was her un- 
 trained predecessor, and consequently she craves more help, and is 
 capable of assimilating more professional aid. Expert supervision is 
 necessary to give her confidence and to give her the information needed 
 for the first few days without confusing her with a great amount of 
 detail which will so overwhelm her that she will become discouraged. 
 
This is a situation which faces practically every supervisor and suf- 
 fices to show the necessity for his being familiar with the details of 
 his course of study from the kindergarten through the high school. A 
 knowledge of the textbooks in use in each grade is also required. He 
 needs to know the places where things are kept, and the numbers and 
 conditions of various kinds of supplies. But most of all, the super- 
 visor must be informed regarding the scientifically determined stand- 
 ards of efficiency which should characterize the work of each grade. 
 
 The teacher of experience who enters a school system new to her 
 is also handicapped unless she is well supervised. Her standard's may 
 not be correct. She may lose time unless she is informed as to exactly 
 what is expected of her. All teachers need the constant stimulation 
 which results from a careful analysis of their efforts together with a 
 gripping incentive to grow in teaching strength. 
 
 Qualities of a Supervisor 
 
 The supervisor should at all times give evidence to his teachers that 
 his wider experience and training have given him "control" of a large 
 body of professional knowledge, made practical by experience and by a 
 certain degree of skill in teaching. Until teachers feel that their 
 supervisor has a broader outlook, a bigger grasp of educational prob- 
 lems, and a more thorough insight into the basic principles of teach- 
 ing than they have, he cannot render the best service. Until teachers 
 feel free to discuss their shortcomings with the supervisor from a 
 professional point of view, he can be of little help to them. 
 
 Enough has probably been stated to show that no one is in the full 
 sense a supervisor unless he can step into any classroom in his school 
 at any time and be in a position to grasp its needs. He must be 
 familiar with the subject matter to appreciate what is being done. It 
 is well if, before offering suggestions to any teacher, he can be sure 
 that he could have done more skillful work with the class than the 
 teacher was doing. At least, he must be able to see in detail the 
 various elements of strength and of weakness in each teacher's work 
 and to give her concrete suggestions for improvement when necessary. 
 It is gratifying to know that the ability to supervise intelligently and 
 constructively is within the reach of every supervisor. He can study 
 elementary and secondary education from the supervisory viewpoint. 
 He can master the agencies of supervision. He can, in most cases, do 
 much to create a feeling of friendliness and cooperation on the p?rt 
 of his teachers. It is the purpose of this pamphlet to suggest some of 
 the supervisory activities in which even the overworked principal may 
 engage which will raise the plane of the teaching in his school. 
 
 Relation of Supervision to Administration 
 
 Since teacher improvement is the fundamental purpose of super- 
 vision, the major part of the supervisor's activities must center about 
 
— 8 — 
 
 those features which directly involve the teaching service. But, inas- 
 much as other matters need the attention of the one in charge, it is 
 necessary for him to classify his duties under two heads, namely, ad- 
 ministrative functions and supervisory functions. Many principals 
 spend practically all of their time upon the administrative duties of 
 their position, often petty duties, forgetting that these but very in- 
 directly affect the process of teacher-making, which is the vital and 
 professional part of their work. 
 
 Administrative duties by their very nature urge themselves upon 
 the attention of the principal. Too frequently they engulf him and 
 eclipse the matter of supervision. This need not be the case, however, 
 because some effective supervision is being done by principals who have 
 only two or three periods daily for all of their work outside of the 
 classroom. Very often lack of system is responsible for the small 
 amount of time principals find available for teacher help. Much of 
 the work that some principals assume could be taken charge of by 
 other teachers, such as the signing of excuses, assembly room periods, 
 detailed clerical work relative to giving out of books, keeping of cer- 
 tain kinds of permanent school records, etc. These duties distributed 
 among the teachers give them a sense of responsibility and increase 
 their interest in and knowledge of the whole school. 
 
 The chart on page 9 indicates a fair estimate of the relative im- 
 portance of the administrative and supervisory phases of the super- 
 visor's work measured by its relation to the needs of the children in 
 the school. 
 
 II ADMINISTRATIVE ACTIVITIES 
 
 School Organization 
 
 Without doubt, the supervisor's most vital administrative duty con- 
 sists in the organization of classes and courses in accordance with the 
 community's needs and resources. This, however, should not be done 
 after school begins, and hence should not interfere with supervision. 
 It is true that the principal must oversee the care of the school prop- 
 erty, but timely instructions to the janitor will in a large measure 
 accomplish this. The school records must be accurate and complete. 
 However, a few hours of head work combined with a good filing sys- 
 tem and the assistance of the other teachers in the school will reduce 
 this work to its proper claim upon the principal's time. 
 
 Community Work 
 
 The welfare of his school requires participation in community activi- 
 ties and the earnest principal will organize a parent-teachers' associa- 
 tion with local leaders in almost any locality. It is necessary to make 
 
— 9 — 
 
 sure that the leaders chosen will plan meetings that are worth while. 
 The parents' meetings should attract and hold the entire community. 
 Such an association brings much good feeling and hearty cooperation 
 into the school, besides conveying directly to the patrons an under- 
 standing of its accomplishments and its needs. This activity, again, 
 encroaches but little on the time that could be used for supervision. 
 
 Leadership 
 
 Leadership is a necessary attribute of a successful school principal. 
 This implies certain dynamic qualities in his personal make-up, coupled 
 with dependable information and good judgment. In order to be a 
 worthy leader, it is necessary to devote some time each day to study 
 and to general reading. No matter how busy he is, the school principal 
 cannot afford to neglect this. His own growth depends upon it. He 
 must keep himself informed upon the world problems of the day and 
 he should discuss many of these topics at assembly periods in his 
 school. 
 
 The leadership of the principal, however, must be felt throughout 
 the town if the school is to fully serve its patrons. 
 
 One of the most effective ways of gaining the confidence of the com- 
 munity is through public addresses on constructive topics. The oppor- 
 tunity to appear before adults and to speak upon live topics is of un- 
 told value to the principal. His work compels him to associate with 
 immature minds much of the time. It is, however, quite a different 
 matter to face an audience composed of people who have had perhaps 
 a broader training than he has had, and to give them a real message. 
 There is doubtless no other one feature of his work that develops the 
 personality of the principal to a greater degree than does vital public 
 speaking. Besides this through his talks he can do much to shape 
 public opinion and to improve local conditions. 
 
 Businesslike Management 
 
 Much of the time given to administrative work within the school can 
 be saved by the increased use of a duplicator. Many directions, much 
 data, and general information, which all of the teachers need, can be 
 far more accurately and effectively conveyed in written form than by 
 frequent general meetings. In fact, general meetings a^e justified, 
 only when topics which vitally affect each and every teacher's work 
 are involved. Some of the administrative and supervisory helps made 
 with the duplicator are suggested by the following: 
 
 1. Circular letters giving information about special opportunities for 
 attending lecture courses or study classes. 
 
 2. Statements in detail regarding work to be specially stressed dur- 
 ing a given term or year. 
 
 3. Plans for schoolroom beautification. 
 
 4. Outlines of subjects to be discussed, with spaces for notes, to be 
 distributed at teachers' meetings. 
 
— 10— , 
 
 5. Complete lesson plans with subject matter included made by some 
 one teacher, thereby made available for use by all. 
 
 6. Lists of supplementary examples and problems in arithmetic to 
 facilitate the work of any given grade. 
 
 7. Suggestions in detail for adapting any part of the course of study 
 to class needs. 
 
 8. Lists of timely problems and topics as a basis for study of any 
 school subject in any grade. 
 
 9. Copies of appropriate poems for study by pupils. 
 
 10. Lists of suggestive subjects for live compositions. 
 
 11. Copies of some of the standard tests (thereby reducing expense). 
 
 12. Plans for civic and social school activities. 
 
 A general meeting is appropriate before the year's work begins, at 
 which time the principal takes charge and puts briefly before the 
 teachers a carefully thought out policy for the year and explains such 
 details of management as cannot be presented to the teachers in dupli- 
 cated sheets. The following information and facilities for work should 
 be given to the teachers, either orally or in writing before they begin 
 their duties in order that loss of efficiency, waste of time, misunder- 
 standings and consequent unpleasantness may be avoided. 
 
 1. Assignments to classes or grades. 
 
 2. Outlines for special subjects, etc. 
 
 3. Copies of the entire course of study for grades or H. S. 
 
 4. Copies of the elaborated course for specific grades or classes. 
 
 5. Copies of time allotment sheets for the making of the daily pro- 
 grams in grades. 
 
 6. Copies of one or two suggestive programs (those use successfully 
 in previous years). 
 
 7. Samples of each of the record cards, etc., in use in the school. 
 
 8. A list of the pupils properly belonging to each grade. 
 
 9. A list of the textbooks and reference books available for each 
 grade or class, with directions for obtaining these. 
 
 10. Copies of the schedule of the special teachers together with a 
 definite statement of the duties of the regular teacher while the special 
 teacher is in the room. 
 
 11. Directions for reports to health and attendance officers. 
 
 12. Plans in detail for playground, hall, or basement duties and 
 definite statements of the time before the sessions open that the teacher 
 is to be on duty. 
 
 13. Definite instructions as to management at recess and noon of 
 matters relating to discipline and dismissal. 
 
 14. Definite directions for plan books, progress books, etc. 
 
 15. Definite directions for sending out reports to parents. 
 
 16. Methods of grading pupils. For example, a fair estimate would 
 seem to be that not more than % of the rating should be based on for- 
 mal examinations, the other % being based on oral and written class 
 exercises. 
 
 Important as any of these administrative functions are, all told they 
 will not in themselves make a school in which a child can attam his 
 best development. These are the factors which affect the school ma- 
 chinery only. 
 
 School administration must be modern in plan. It must be kept up 
 
— 11 — 
 
 to standard throughout the year, but its importance must be esti- 
 mated from a viewpoint which takes into account not just the external 
 running of the school, but also considers the progress, the habits, and 
 the general welfare of every child in the system. This brings into 
 account the work of those who meet the boys and girls face to face 
 every day. Here indeed is the opportunity of the school supervisor. 
 His nobility of character, his faithfulness as a student, his power to 
 stimulate and his willingness to serve are on trial at all times before 
 a corps of active teachers and a mass of eager boys and girls. He can 
 hide his inability or his indifference behind his office walls while ap- 
 pearing to earn his salary, but this he cannot do when actively en- 
 gaged in the work which he is in duty bound to perform when he 
 accepts the position of principal or superintendent of a school sys- 
 tem. 
 
 Unclassified Activities 
 
 It is true that many other administrative functions, difficult to 
 classify, are vital to the success of the school. Many of these cannot 
 be slighted without serious loss resulting. Constant vigilance, how- 
 ever, must be maintained by the supervisor, lest he overestimate the 
 proportion of his time which he can afford to spend in this way. The 
 magnitude of his supervisory activities and the far-reaching effect of 
 time spent in supervision must be kept in mind. 
 
 Occasional inspection of his own work by use of a time card is help- 
 ful to the principal in enabling him to divide his time justly. It is 
 startling sometimes to see one's record of a day's work in terms of 
 really trivial occupations, time devoted to each, and cost to the system 
 of each activity. The time card for personal use inspires a more 
 profitable distribution of time and a corresponding increase in fruitful 
 accomplishment. 
 
 Ill SUPERVISORY AGENCIES 
 
 The Course of Study 
 
 The course of study, the supervisor, and the teachers are the three 
 factors which most vitally affect the school product, hence the super- 
 intendent or principal must carefully analyze and constantly improve 
 the school curriculum. Certain basic principles underly the making 
 of a curriculum. (These are ably discussed in the Teachers' College 
 Record of September, 1915, and in other references listed at the end 
 of the pamphlet.) Every school can base its course of study upon 
 these modern standards to the extent of making those concrete changes 
 in the present curriculum which are necessitated by present day 
 social and economic needs. It is possible to have a flexible curriculum 
 by keeping it in typewritten form so that modifications are easily made. 
 
— 12 — 
 
 It is not sufficient simply to enumerate the topics to be taught in his- 
 tory, for example, in a certain grade. The course of study should in- 
 dicate the method of approach to these topics, giving suggestive prob- 
 lems for study, outside readings, local associations, and the approxi- 
 mate amount of time to be spent upon each problem or topic. Some 
 of the needed changes in the average curriculum for the elementary 
 grades will be discussed under their subject heads. 
 
 Arithmetic. Arithmetic needs to be definitely changed from an ab- 
 stract science usable only in school to a utilitarian study. This can be 
 done by basing its practices on actual business transactions taken 
 from the pupils' home interests and experiences and by limiting it 
 principally to those topics which the average citizen will repeatedly 
 use. In primary grades, sense training through participation in life 
 situations should, to a marked degree, replace formal drills. But it 
 must be remembered that arithmetic is a tool with which pupils are 
 to work rapidly and skillfully. To obtain this skill requires effective 
 drill at the proper time and in the proper way. In all of the grades, 
 the time given to oral and mental arithmetic should exceed that 
 allotted to written problems. Much practice should be given in esti- 
 mating answers to problems whose conditions pupils can fully sense. 
 Differentiated practice to overcome the chronic faults of individual 
 pupils should be provided. Competition, time limits, and self-discov- 
 ery of personal needs should motivate all practice work. Principles 
 such as these need to be incorporated in the course of study to insure 
 effective teaching. 
 
 Dissatisfaction with the results of arithmetic teaching in the ele- 
 mentary schools is no new thing. Twenty-five years ago, a committee 
 from the City Superintendents' and Supervising Principals' Association 
 of the State of Wisconsin made recommendations for lessening the 
 amount of formal arithmetic work which was being required of chil- 
 dren. 
 
 While we may not today favor the complete omission of all of the 
 topics they suggested, yet the almost universal failure of pupils year 
 after year to grasp the real conditions underlying some topics usually 
 attempted amply justifies their omission at least until the high school 
 age is reached. Pupils then, being older, have had a greater oppor- 
 tunity to gain through experience the information which is absolutely 
 necessary to vitalize the work, and without which the blind effort is 
 really detrimental to the pupils. 
 
 Since some modern textbooks continue to incorporate these topics 
 in the text intended for 7th and 8th grades, either one of two courses 
 is open to the supervisor. He may suggest the use of only the first 
 two of a three-book series in the grades, or he may omit from the 
 course of study those topics usually found in the complete arithmetic 
 which experience has shown cannot be profitably studied by grade 
 pupils. 
 
 Language and Gram/mar. Language exercises should lead to the 
 attainment of the ability to express one's thoughts clearly, correctly, 
 
— 13 — 
 
 concisely, and with some degree of fluency. All language or so-called 
 grammar exercises that do not contribute directly to these ends by 
 affording practice in correct expression are useless. It has been proved 
 by the results of tests and by the testimony of instructors and students 
 of education of wide experience that language is the result of habit 
 and is only slightly influenced by the knowledge one has of grammar. 
 Pupils have been repeatedly found who excel in grammar but who are 
 very weak in their ability to use language successfully. Progressive 
 educators generally favor the idea that formal grammar need not be 
 taught below the high school, and that if taught it should occupy only 
 a minor part of the time given to English during the last two years. 
 The grammar taught should be taught through language needs and 
 should be limited to the simplest constructions possible. 
 
 The superintendent has it in his power to insist that not more than 
 three days per week in the 8th and not more than two in the 7th grade 
 be devoted to grammar. He can authorize his teachers to omit those 
 lessons in the text which cannot be justified by the course of study 
 which has been adopted. The use of the grammar text as a reference- 
 book and to summarize information gained through particular cases ^ 
 which come up in any spoken or written exercise is commendable. 
 Emphasis can be put upon the classification and correction of typical 
 errors of speech. To supplement the course of study, several different 
 texts can be provided for the use of the teacher which will suggest to 
 her language exercises which are vital to the needs of her class. 
 
 The daily programs can be made to read "Language" rather than 
 "Grammar" as an aid to changing the teacher's viewpoint, which is 
 one of the factors retarding the changes needed in language teaching 
 to satisfy present needs in our schools. Teachers like to teach gram- 
 mar. Language is much more difficult and the immediate results are 
 less gratifying. The subject of language needs to be carefully out- 
 lined in detail for the average teacher, in order to insure work being 
 done which will function in improved language habits in the com- 
 munity. 
 
 Reading. Reading is perhaps one of the subjects in which there is 
 less need for radical changes in the course of study than in the two 
 subjects previously discussed. The vital need in reading is more in 
 the field of method. Much valuable time is lost in the reading recita- 
 tion period, and much more is badly used. 
 
 More silent reading needs to be done than is now being accom- 
 plished. Rapid silent reading should be cultivated; it has been 
 neglected in our schools. The supervisor needs to insist upon a re- 
 vision of and increase in the list of supplementary reading material 
 available so that instead of reading one or two books in a year, pupils 
 in the primary classes will read many books, and those in the upper 
 grades will read proportionately more material but probably not a 
 greater number of books. In addition to this, several hundred pages 
 of silent reading should be done by all pupils each year. 
 
— 14 — 
 
 Recent studies show conclusively that pupils who read a wide range 
 of material quickly are better readers, retain more easily and enjoy 
 reading more than do pupils who read more slowly and who read less. 
 Nevertheless, pupils should also have practice in intensive reading or 
 real study of texts. The aims of reading need to be clearly under- 
 stood by both teachers and supervisors, and should be stated in the 
 course of study. 
 
 Spelling. Spelling is one of the subjects which has undergone much 
 change as a result of investigation as to our real need for spelling. 
 Ayres, Jones, Cook and O'Shea, Pryor, and others have shown us that 
 the kind of words we need to spell are not the ones we are spending 
 time on in school. Dr. B. R. Buckingham's investigation proved that 
 there is a difference in the ease with which words are learned, and 
 that the present methods used in learning to spell are not methods of 
 economy. Some suggestions for improving spelling teaching are as 
 follows: 
 
 1. Local spelling lists may often be profitably substituted in part for 
 the spelling book. . (Words taken from industries, business words, 
 geographical terms.) 
 
 2. Words taken from the other school studies need to be known. 
 
 3. Words listed by Ayres and by Jones, as among those most often 
 spelled today should be taught. 
 
 4. The best ways of learning to spell should be determined and 
 taught to pupils. 
 
 5. The personal list of words misspelled by each pupil should be his 
 spelling book. 
 
 6. Every written lesson should be a spelling lesson. 
 
 7. More time should be spent on intelligent and discriminating 
 study of spelling, and less on writing lists of words. 
 
 8. The real test of spelling is the ability to write on any ordinary 
 topic and spell accurately. Pupils should be graded on this basis and 
 not on marks obtained by writing a column of words just "crammed" 
 for the occasion. 
 
 9. Phonics as an aid to spelling (above grade one) should be empha- 
 sized. 
 
 10. Knowing how to spell words which are not in the speaking and 
 writing vocabulary of the child is generally useless information. 
 
 11. To have pupils form the habit of constant watchfulness of their 
 spelling is the most important aim of training in this subject. 
 
 History and Civics. Courses of study in these subjects vary greatly 
 in amount of material given, in the method of attack, and in the choice 
 of subject matter. Certain principles, however, are common to most 
 modern courses in civics and history. It is now generally agreed that 
 the study of civics must teach pupils the practices and uses of gov- 
 ernment through participation in real or make believe elections, legis- 
 latures, etc. It is also now recognized that civics and history teaching 
 must be vitalized by visits to the local courts, election booths, council 
 meetings, etc. The larger aims of civics and history teaching are the 
 establishment of right standards of citizenship, together with the 
 ability to use intelligently the instruments of democracy. These aims 
 
— 15 — 
 
 can be accomplished by studying the local public institutions, such as 
 the water supply, the fire protection, or the care of dependents. The 
 study of state institutions, e. g., the board of health, the industrial 
 commission, or the railroad commission is to be encouraged. It must 
 be understood that these agencies of government are to be studied by 
 visiting their offices, by reading their publications, by finding out just 
 what each is for, and by studying their functions in terms of local 
 problems. 
 
 Such topics as these form the basis of a live course of study in 
 civics. These rather than the formal phraseology of the constitution 
 help young people to form correct ideas regarding their duties as citi- 
 zens. A brief study of the constitution should be made; but by far 
 the greater part of the teaching of civics should concern itself with 
 the social problems of today. Those problems must be selected re- 
 garding which definite information is available and only those prob- 
 lems should be studied which can be comprehended by the pupils. 
 However, when taught in terms of local application, many of our gov- 
 ernmental institutions are within the understanding of grammar grade 
 pupils. The course of study should list a suitable range of topics and 
 suggest sources of necessary information regarding each. It may pro- 
 vide suggestive civic enterprises upon which pupils may engage for 
 school credit. 
 
 History, ancient, medieval, and modern, is taught in some elementary 
 schools. In others, only United States history is required. The pres- 
 ent tendency seems to favor more inspirational history in the grades, 
 giving the child a glimpse of the actions, feelings, and institutions of 
 the peoples of the world from earliest times up to the present. This 
 leaves the more intensive study of United States history for the high 
 school. This plan is of especial advantage to the pupil who leaves 
 school early. Four years of history, two of world history and two of 
 American history, is a satisfactory amount for the grades. This may 
 be begun in the third or fourth grade in biographical and story form 
 and be given in full year and half year courses. The part year courses 
 may be filled in with hygiene or with civics. 
 
 The course of study should state the purposes of history teaching. 
 It should specify definitely the material to be taught in terms of 
 specific topics and problems for each grade. It should include the con- 
 tact points with present day history, the local places of historical in- 
 terest and the relics obtainable. It may suggest people who are willing . 
 to be interviewed for first hand information. It should indicate the 
 outside readings available, together with such other helps as maps, 
 etc., needed to solve every problem. Such a course of study enables 
 the teacher to teach a living, vital history which makes for true na- 
 tional solidarity. It makes use of a variety of texts and other refer- 
 ence books and acquaints the pupils with present problems through 
 the use of historical facts rather than allowing them to recite words 
 the use of historical facts. It does not allow them to recite words 
 from one single text, words which in most cases have no mental pic- 
 tures or intelligent thought back of them. 
 
— 16 — 
 
 Geography. There is no school subject more rich in content than 
 is geography. Geographical knowledge is needed by everyone and 
 hence it is of interest to both young and old. 
 
 The course of study in -this subject often consists of page references 
 to a certain text. This is to be regretted, because geography is so 
 much bigger than any text and so mush more local than a text could 
 possibly be that it robs geography of its greatest value to the child — 
 opportunity for imagining, thinking, and doing — to limit the course to 
 any one text, no matter how good that text may be. 
 
 A stimulating course of study in geography must be based upon the 
 personal needs and present interests of the child. He must sense 
 things through actual experience and observation of the phenomena of 
 nature. Such questions as "Why is the grass wet when it has not 
 rained?" "Where did the bread I ate come from?" "What makes it 
 dark at night?" are common among young children. Experiment has 
 shown that geographical truths, being nature's facts and laws, are 
 easily understood by young pupils. The natural course of study, then, 
 is based upon topics vital to the child. These vary with every locality, 
 but each, when studied, helps the little thinker more nearly to under- 
 stand the great fundamental truths of the universe. 
 
 More than one text is needed to follow such a course as this. Con- 
 stant reference needs to be made to home conditions as a basis for in- 
 terpretation of foreign conditions. A suggestive list of concrete geo- 
 graphical problems having their origin in local needs and calling for 
 use of the generalized knowledge in the text as a means toward their 
 solution should be a part of the course of study. The use of such 
 problems fixes the facts of the text in the pupils' minds because they 
 actually use the facts to solve the problems, instead of just aimlessly 
 memorizing them. 
 
 Place geography may be taught successfully as a summary or review 
 exercise after the names have content for the pupils. When place 
 geography is taught by means of map sketching, it unifies ideas and 
 fixes associated places in a very effective way. 
 
 To secure unity of purpose, all of the principles governing good 
 geography teaching need to be determined and stated in the course of 
 study. Some of these have been suggested here. The major features 
 to be emphasized need to be definitely stated. Because of the breadth 
 of the subject, the course should exclude all material that is not geog- 
 raphy. 
 
 Hygiene. Most schools make some provision for hygiene, but in 
 only a few instances does the study effect any change in the habits 
 of life of the individuals who recite it so fluently. 
 
 The course of study can bring about a change. Instead of requiring 
 hygiene to be recited, it must specify right-living requirements. The 
 standards for passing from grade to grade in this subject must be 
 based upon bad habits conquered, good new habits formed, bad postures 
 corrected, deformities removed, demonstrations of first aid work, teeth 
 records, outdoor sleeping records, increased growth in proper propor- 
 tions, etc. 
 
— 17 — 
 
 The specifying of what is to be done in hygiene, rather than what 
 is to be talked about, will result in improved health, greater interest 
 in the subject, and much valuable knowledge made available for the 
 community. 
 
 Music and Art. The course of study in these subjects is often left 
 to the special teacher. This is unfortunate in that it tends to keep 
 these two arts from being a means of expression for the other school 
 subjects. Every effort should be made to bring each of the school 
 subjects within the scope of the music and art work. Especially can 
 the latter be made helpful to the literature work in the illustration of 
 poems; and to the geography teacher in the arranging of exhibits, 
 charts, etc. Booklet covers can be made for the history story and 
 posters tor the domestic science sale. Music fits into the history work 
 and into the reading at times. 
 
 There are many well correlated courses of study in music and art 
 available. With these as guides, any school could make a course 
 adapted to its needs. This would insure steady progress from grade 
 to grade, and make these subjects fulfill their real mission in the lives 
 of the pupils. 
 
 Nature Study. There is no subject more closely relatea to the in- 
 terests of the child than is nature study. Each grade should accom- 
 plish a definite amount of work in this subject. Practical courses of 
 study must vary with each type of locality, but every child is entitled 
 to such a training as will enable him to recognize and to know some- 
 thing about the life of the common birds, animals, insects, trees, plants, 
 and shrubs, of his community. He will be a better citizen because of 
 this knowledge. He can appreciate the beauties and wonders of nature 
 much more fully than will ever be possible without an acquaintance 
 with his surroundings. It is true that the work in geography is 
 closely allied with what is usually termed nature study, but often 
 the topics herein indicated are entirely omitted from the work given 
 under the title of geography. 
 
 Suggestive courses of study can be found in many of the curricula 
 issued for cities throughout the United States. It is to be hoped that 
 these will be studied and adapted to the needs of the individual school. 
 This subject should be given more emphasis than it is now receiving 
 in our schools. 
 
 The Daily Program 
 
 As soon as school opens, real supervision should begin. Probably, 
 the daily programs as submitted by various grade teachers will be one 
 of the features needing early attention. There has been much written 
 upon the subject of the school program, yet gross violations of good 
 practice are very common. Some of the matters to which the princi- 
 pal should give attention are the following: 
 
 1. Is the opening exercise period definitely provided for so that any- 
 one can see at a glance what is to be done at that time? 
 
 2. Are recreation periods provided at times following strenuous 
 thinking periods? 
 
18 
 
 3. Are motor subjects, such as drawing or penmanship, placed at 
 other times than at the beginning of the session? 
 
 4. Is all of the school time accounted for? 
 
 5. Is arithmetic as a regular subject omitted from the first grade 
 program? 
 
 6. Is provision made for sectioning of classes? (All classes number- 
 ing over 20 pupils can profitably be sectioned according to their ability, 
 at least in arithmetic and reading. Primary grades can often advan- 
 tageously work in three or more groups in reading and phonics.) 
 
 7. In primary grades, is phonics provided for at other than the 
 reading time on the program, sectioned to correspond to the .reading? 
 Is more time given to practice in reading than to word drills and 
 phonics? 
 
 8. Is language given at least a twenty-minute period for each group 
 of pupils in the primary grades? 
 
 9. Is penmanship or writing provided for on all programs? 
 
 10. Is due advantage taken of the fact that it is often better to teach 
 such subjects as history, civics, or physiology for half a year with an 
 adequate daily recitation period, than to carry too many subjects all 
 of the year with very brief recitation periods? 
 
 11. Is reading made available at least twice per day for all grades 
 from I through III? 
 
 12. Is there provision made for special help periods in each grade if 
 no teacher is provided for ungraded work? 
 
 13. Is good balance preserved between the particular needs of a 
 given grade and the time allotments? 
 
 14. Are study periods well distributed? 
 
 15. Are programs of different grades so planned that pupils may 
 recite some subjects in the grade below or above his own? 
 
 16. In classes having two or more grades in the room, does the pro- 
 gram provide for periods of sufficient length to be practical? If not, 
 cannot combinations in spelling, reading, etc., be made according to 
 ability, rather than to grade,— thereby lessening the number of classes? 
 
 17. Is the following allotment of time in general followed in each 
 daily program? (This time schedule was compiled from the results 
 of recently made studies of effective school programs.) 
 
 Median No. of 
 
 Subject Per cent of Time Minutes 
 
 Language Arts 35%-45% 120 
 
 Language, Spelling, Literature 
 
 Reading, Grammar, Writing 
 
 Mathematics ■ 10%-20% 45 
 
 Science 10%-14% 36 
 
 Hygiene, Agriculture 
 
 Geography, Nature 
 
 History and Civics 8%-12% 30 
 
 Art 6%-10% 24 
 
 Drawing, Music 
 Other Activities 10%-20% 45 
 
 Manual Training, Construction 
 
 Physical Culture, Dom. Science 
 
 General Exercises 
 
 A more detailed guide for program making is found in the follow- 
 ing table which was arranged by Dr. W. W. Theisen of the State De- 
 partment from H. S. Holmes' study in the Fourteenth Year Book, 
 Part I. These time allotments were approximated to the nearest five 
 minutes because Dr. Holmes' study was made on a yearly basis. 
 
19 
 
 AVERAGE AMOUNT OF TIME IN THE GRADES PER WEEKLY 
 
 ALLOTMENT TO EACH SUBJECT AS FOUND 
 
 IN 50 AMERICAN CITIES. 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 Beading 
 
 Language 
 
 Writing 
 
 Spelling 
 
 Geography 
 
 History 
 
 Science 
 
 Art. & Construction 
 Manual Training . . 
 
 Music 
 
 Physical Training .. 
 Opening Exercises . . 
 
 Recess 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 Total 
 
 95 
 410 
 116 
 
 10 
 
 85 
 
 25 
 40 
 55 
 150 
 65 
 
 70 
 
 70 
 
 60 
 
 135 
 
 120 
 
 150 
 365 
 
 120 
 95 
 100 
 
 10 
 50 
 
 65 
 
 a5 
 
 130 
 65 
 60 
 
 130 
 
 100 
 
 1,570 1,600 
 
 ! 
 
 in. 
 
 IV. 
 
 290 
 145 
 80 
 115 
 
 60 
 85 
 60 
 
 130 
 135 
 
 230 
 235 
 165 
 80 
 105 
 
 130 
 90 
 55 
 80 
 70 
 
 120 
 120 
 
 1,070 
 
 V. 
 
 VI. 
 
 VII. 
 
 225 
 
 225 
 
 215 
 
 195 
 
 180 
 
 1 51 1 
 
 180 
 
 185 
 
 210 
 
 i.j 
 
 75 
 
 60 
 
 95 
 
 90 
 
 80 
 
 160 
 
 165 
 
 150 
 
 105 
 
 110 
 
 140 
 
 5.) 
 
 60 
 
 70 
 
 75 
 
 75 
 
 75 
 
 75 
 
 85 
 
 110 
 
 70 
 
 7<) 
 
 70 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 50 
 
 
 50 
 
 115 
 
 110 
 
 llH» 
 
 120 
 
 120 
 
 120 
 
 1,655 
 
 1,660 
 
 1,660 
 
 VI II. 
 
 220 
 
 150 
 
 220 
 
 55 
 
 120 
 
 I8;j 
 90 
 75 
 
 115 
 
 70 
 60 
 
 50 
 10) 
 
 135 
 
 Total. 
 
 1,565 
 
 1,975 
 
 1,340 
 
 595 
 
 750 
 
 835 
 770 
 510 
 
 700 
 655 
 
 495 
 435 
 940 
 
 970 
 
 1,720 13,165 
 
 In the above schedule, reading includes phonics, literature, dramatics, 
 story-telling, memorization of poems, etc. Language includes, com- 
 position, grammar, word study, etc. Arithmetic includes algebra. 
 History includes civics. Science includes picture study, art, etc. 
 Manual training includes industrial training, handwork, etc. Physical 
 training includes athletics, gymnastics, folk dancing. 
 
 Only part of the 50 cities considered, reported any time devoted to 
 arithmetic in grade I. The average of 95 minutes was computed 
 from just those which reported any time given to arithmetic. If this 
 schedule is used as a guide in arranging daily programs, it is recom- 
 mended that the time allotted to arithmetic in grade I be used for other 
 activities and that first grade arithmetic be taught in connection with 
 other subjects. 
 
 Grade and Department Meetings 
 
 Most supervisors hold meetings of their teachers at frequent inter- 
 vals, but in the smaller schools these are often attended by all of the 
 teachers and therefore only topics of general interest are discussed. 
 These meetings also often deal with administrative rather than with 
 supervisory features of the school. 
 
 Teachers' meetings, rightly conducted, are one of the most vital 
 means of effective supervision. However, they must be as carefully 
 planned as would be any other important school function. The pur- 
 pose of the meeting must be definitely understood by all. The meeting 
 is in a sense a failure if each teacher does not go away from it better 
 equipped for her work than when she came. It is usually best to plan 
 meetings as aids to carrying out the year's policy which has been set 
 
— 20 
 
 forth at the first general meeting of the year. Various methods of 
 conducting these gatherings are successfully practiced. In some cases, 
 topics are presented by certain teachers, after which general discus- 
 sion follows. Another plan is to have the principal present the main 
 topic, after which questions may be asked by all present. Round table 
 discussions may occasionally be profitable if the subject of the meeting 
 is such that extemporaneous discussion will result in benefit to the 
 school. 
 
 Some of the subjects which are suitable for meetings of teachers 
 of the same grade or of the same department are given in the hope 
 that they may prove suggestive of what it is possible to accomplish in 
 such conferences. 
 
 1. Explanation of the basic principles governing the course of study 
 in each subject in the various grades. 
 
 2. Definite statements of the standards of accomplishment expected 
 in each subject in each grade. 
 
 3. Demonstration and discussion of effective methods for accom- 
 plishing desired ends (economical methods of conducting drill exer- 
 cises to meet the needs of the various individuals in the class; social- 
 ized recitations; problem method of teaching; group reading; topical 
 recitations; study recitation, etc.) 
 
 4. Comparison of results of two kinds of teaching to test which is 
 more beneficial. 
 
 5. Discussion of the findings and suggestive remedies for improving 
 the teaching of subjects tested by standard tests. 
 
 6. Presentation and discussion of previously well worked out plans 
 for individual promotions, promotions by subject, or semi-annual pro- 
 motions. 
 
 7. Presentation of plans for special help work. 
 
 8. Plans for avoiding waste of materials. 
 
 9. Instruction in the special subjects (music, art, manual training, 
 etc.,) when regular teachers are expected to assist in this work. 
 
 10. Examination of and study of how best to use the various text 
 and reference books. 
 
 11. Presentation of (perhaps with demonstration and discussion) the 
 various types of lessons with suggestions as to the most profitable use 
 of each type. 
 
 12. Reports on modern pedagogical books accompanied by the appli- 
 cation of their theories to local needs and problems. 
 
 13. Directions for giving simple physical examinations, with in- 
 structions for ministering to physical needs of pupils. 
 
 14. Reports of state and national meetings if the subjects reported 
 upon bear directly upon the work of the teachers present. 
 
 15. Suggestions from teachers for improvements in the course of 
 study, for new reference books, for better supervision or better work- 
 ing conditions. 
 
 16. Criteria for judging texts in regard to their value and the ar- 
 rangement of subject matter. 
 
 Demonstration Teaching 
 
 This agency of supervision is capable of much extension and cor- 
 responding benefit, not only to the observers, but to the demonstrating 
 teacher. The supervisor should be willing at any time to prepare and 
 
— 21 — 
 
 teach a lesson for his teachers to aid them in their efforts to improve. 
 Often the principal wishes to illustrate some method of procedure. 
 The most vital way possible is for the principal to teach a selected 
 group of pupils who will be able to lend themselves to the matter in 
 hand. He should do this at such a time that all of the teachers con- 
 cerned can be present. The type of teaching he wishes to emphasize 
 can be set forth directly and vividly. The small group of pupils 
 simplifies the machinery and enables the lesson to proceed rapidly. 
 The pupils can then be dismissed and the principles underlying this 
 lesson, and others of its type, freely discussed. 
 
 Nearly every experienced teacher does some one kind of teaching 
 very well. A very profitable supervisory measure consists in asking 
 a teacher to give a demonstration lesson in the subject in which she 
 excels. This has a two-fold result. It inspires the teacher to con- 
 tinue to improve in her specialty and it aids other teachers to get new 
 ideas. Impersonal discussion, relating the lesson to the psychological 
 truths upon which it was based should follow every demonstration. 
 
 By watching for each teacher's strongest features, considerable 
 variety and much stimulation results from this kind of supervision, 
 besides establishing valuable standards of teaching, 
 
 Another phase of demonstration work which insures improvement 
 in class work is the plan of having the teachers prepare lessons to 
 teach for the supervisor. He should be willing to go at the regular 
 class time, if possible, and remain for a discussion of the lesson. 
 This self-imposed attempt to improve service indicates a high type of 
 school spirit and should be encouraged until it becomes a regular prac- 
 tice in the school. 
 
 Rating and Choosing of Teachers 
 
 There was at one time some difference of opinion as to the wisdom 
 of rating teachers according to a scale made up of professionally de- 
 termined standards. It is now accepted, however, that this is the only 
 fair means for estimating teaching efficiency. The community judges 
 the teacher by what the pupils say and by her appearance, manner, 
 habits, etc. The school board is apt to consider her ability to dis- 
 cipline as the most important quality to be considered. Neither of 
 these estimates include all of the necessary qualities which must char- 
 acterize the satisfactory teacher. 
 
 The advantage of the established scale lies in the fact that it not 
 only serves as a measure for each of the now recognized qualities that 
 are vital to successful teaching, but it suggests to the teachers the 
 qualities which are not only desirable but are required. The chief 
 disadvantages in the use of a score card or scale consist in the dis- 
 agreement which prevails among authorities as to the comparative 
 values of the essential qualities that make for success in teaching, and 
 in the variations in the estimates put upon the elements of person- 
 
— 22 — 
 
 ality which more and more are coming to be regarded as the major 
 part of a teacher's equipment. 
 
 Educational qualifications can be definitely measured; physical fit- 
 ness can be accurately determined; but the native and acquired per- 
 sonal and social qualities are at present not satisfactorily reduced to 
 scale measurement. However, unsatisfactory as the present scales of 
 measurement are, they are vastly superior to hastily formed, personally 
 influenced, non-scientifically determined judgments of worth. Two 
 well-known scales for measuring teaching efficiency are E. C. Elliot's 
 "A Tentative Scheme for the Measurement of Teaching Efficiency" and 
 the score card used for establishing the "success grade" in Indiana, 
 published in the Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction in 
 Indiana, 1908. There are several other scales available which will 
 prove very helpful in aiding supervisors to form fair judgments. 
 
 It is true that any of these scales, because of the present unsettled 
 standards for determining true efficiency, are of necessity complicated. 
 However, a careful study of them is of value both to the teacher and 
 to the supervisor. 
 
 Since there is no standard which so stimulates attainment as does 
 one which is self-imposed, copies of various scientifically made scales 
 may be secured and the teachers asked to examine them. They may 
 select from these scales those standards which seem to them most 
 vital. At a meeting for the purpose, these simplified schemes made 
 by the teachers may be combined into a scale, suggested by the teachers 
 themselves, consisting of perhaps a dozen topics with their assigned 
 values. After these have been agreed upon, a copy should be given to 
 each teacher early in the year with the request that she mark her- 
 self conscientiously. Meantime, the principal should rate each teacher 
 on a similar sheet, and at a time convenient for both the teachers and 
 principal, each teacher should be requested to meet with the supervisor 
 in a private conference. Her estimate of herself may then be com- 
 pared with the ratings which her supervisor has given her. A free, 
 friendly discussion consisting of an analysis of the greatest weakness 
 revealed by the markings and constructive suggestions for its correc- 
 tion will naturally follow. The combined efforts of teacher and super- 
 visor should enable the teacher to correct her fault, and when she has 
 done this, her principal should tell her so and help her to attack and 
 conquer another element of inefficiency. This process requires some 
 time, but what could be more profitable than the intelligent, concen- 
 trated effort to overcome glaring faults by each member of a teaching 
 force? Later in the year another rating may be made and another 
 conference held, at which time a teacher should be told definitely 
 whether or not she is to be recommended for another year's service 
 and on what conditions. 
 
 The choosing of new teachers should also be upon a scientific plane. 
 If possible it is most satisfactory to see a teacher working in two or 
 three different situations before engaging her. The ratings given her 
 
— 23 — 
 
 by former supervisors are usually helpful in estimating fitness for a 
 given position. Almost without exception, the supervisor is the one 
 person in the school system whose experience and training have quali- 
 fied him to choose teachers, and much better results would follow in 
 our smaller schools if the school boards would recognize this fact. 
 The supervisor is responsible for the work of the teachers, therefore 
 he should select those who are to teach under his direction. 
 
 Special Studies of School Conditions 
 
 Every school has some characteristic weak places. Some features of 
 work may be generally poor, or in a certain building less satisfactory 
 work may be accomplished than in the rest of the system. Certain 
 social conditions may require a differentiated course of study for a 
 given locality. A dozen and ene local problems are peculiar to each 
 school system. Every efficient supervisor should single out one of 
 the major problems peculiar to his school and analyze it carefully. 
 He should then present it to the teachers concerned and together they 
 should work out the solution of the matter. It adds interest to regular 
 work, it reveals latent capabilities, and secures increased cooperation 
 to work out definite problems within the school system; and the wise 
 principal will keep something of this nature before his teachers at all 
 times. But he will also be careful not to have too many projects in 
 hand at any one time, lest interest be so divided as to be ineffective. 
 
 Among the special studies which have proved helpful are: (1) the 
 tabulating and graphing of teachers' marks, to determine whether or 
 not teachers use fair standards in estimating attainment; (2) studies 
 of the causes of nonpromotion to enable it to be lessened in the future; 
 
 (3) a study of retardation — its causes and remedies in a given school; 
 
 (4) inquiry into and adjustments to correct undue variation in ability 
 in any given grade; (5) experiment work with different methods of 
 teaching in parallel classes to determine the more effective plan; (6) 
 and social surveys to throw light on school needs. Many other prob- 
 lems of vital use to the local system will suggest themselves to those 
 principals who endeavor to employ scientific methods of supervision. 
 
 Standard Tests and Measurements 
 
 The use of standard tests and measurements as an effective means of 
 supervision is rapidly increasing in practice. This method of learning 
 the state of a given school is closely allied to "special studies of school 
 conditions" in that the tests often reveal local or general weaknesses 
 that were hitherto unsuspected. Very profitable problems for study 
 and correction are in this way brought to the attention of the super- 
 visor. It is now possible to test pupils in the fundamentals in prac- 
 tically every grade. Reasoning tests are also available. Individual 
 needs and capabilities of pupils are emphatically set forth by tests and 
 striking instances of poor grading and consequent loss of efficiency 
 
— 24 — 
 
 are indisputably evidenced by analyses of test results. A few of the 
 many specific supervisory uses of standard tests are given below. 
 
 1. They show how a given school system compares in performance 
 with the standard in each of the subjects tested. 
 
 2. The tests show the variation in ability found in different build- 
 ings in the same system. 
 
 3. Differing abilities of pupils in a given grade are vividly shown, 
 giving opportunity for resectioning and promoting classes according 
 to ability. 
 
 4. The comparative abilities of a given child in each subject can be 
 determined and used as a basis for more suitable grading of such a 
 child. 
 
 5. Pupils far above their grade in one or two subjects are indicated 
 and can be treated accordingly, being either allowed to omit those 
 subjects or to recite in higher classes. 
 
 6. The phenomenal pupils in any system are pointed out, and these 
 exceptional children can then be allowed to specialize in the subjects 
 in which they are so gifted. 
 
 7. The very slow pupils are revealed, also those who are weak in 
 only certain subjects or groups of subjects. Perhaps they should be 
 allowed to go on, omitting the studies for which they have no native 
 ability. 
 
 8. The careful analysis by each teacher of the types of errors made 
 by her pupils indicates in a very definite way the concrete exercises 
 which should constitute the practice given to the pupils. 
 
 9. Tests confirm estimates of supervisors as to comparative strength 
 and weaknesses of various teachers. 
 
 10. Teachers especially fitted to teach certain subjects in depart- 
 mental organizations are brought to notice by the excellence of their 
 results. 
 
 11. Analysis of their results by the teachers themselves affords the 
 best type of introspection, and the consequent self-set questioning at- 
 titude as to the causes of unexpected failures is the most stimulating 
 kind of training in service which a teacher can receive. Improvement 
 is almost sure to result from self-judgment of the merit of her own 
 work by the teacher. 
 
 12. Progress in ability from grade to grade is shown, and places 
 where greater stress needs to be put upon any subject are revealed. 
 
 13. Places in the system where certain subjects are under-stressed 
 and others are correspondingly over-stressed are plainly set forth by 
 test results. 
 
 14. Justification in results for praise or condemnation of any certain 
 method that has been extensively used by any teacher is found when 
 results of tests are tabulated and compared. 
 
 15. Standard tests tlirow light on the scientific phases of teaching 
 and enable the supervisor to form more accurate judgments of school 
 conditions. 
 
 16. Teachers are helped to broaden their standards for estimating 
 attainment in any subject. 
 
 17. Tests show to teachers certain elements constituting real mas- 
 tery of subjects which they have perhaps entirely overlooked in their 
 presentations. They thereby assist in rounding out teachers' ideas of 
 what constitutes effective instruction. 
 
 Every principal should incorporate some regular test work into his 
 supervision. He should then follow each test with a complete analysis 
 of results, with untiring inquiry into causes for failures, and with 
 forceful remedies for improving any unfavorable conditions revealed. 
 
— 25 — 
 
 Minor Effective Agencies of Supervision 
 
 Visiting Days and Visiting Periods. If it is found that a given 
 teacher fails to grasp the ideas which are necessary for her improve- 
 ment, a day or more spent in visiting the work of a stronger teacher 
 often proves to be the means which brings about the desired results. 
 To have a visiting day profitable, it is essential that the teacher who 
 visits should know exactly what she is looking for, and the demon- 
 strating teacher can be much more helpful if she has been informed as 
 to the particular type of work or method which she is supposed to 
 illustrate. A conference between the two teachers must follow the 
 visit and either an oral or written report of the day should be given to 
 the supervisor. It is also very helpful for successful teachers to visit 
 other successful teachers. 
 
 General visiting days in which teachers of one school visit those of 
 another are valuable in the way of stimulation and for comparison of 
 two systems, but as a rule they are not to be recommended as a 
 fruitful means of teacher improvement. A visiting day with a definite 
 purpose in mind, in which one or more teachers visit a school, know- 
 ing that they are expected to carry a real message back to those who 
 remained at home, is much more apt to result in appreciable improve- 
 ment in the special phase of work which occasioned the visit. 
 
 It is especially helpful to allow teachers in the same system to visit 
 grades above and below the one they are teaching. Often teachers 
 lose the continuity of the work if they continue in one grade for a 
 number of years. If the fourth grade teacher can visit the first, second 
 and third grades, she has more of an appreciation of the limitations of 
 her pupils. If she is privileged to visit the fifth and sixth grades, she 
 realizes something of the standards of work which she must attain. 
 In some schools, principals feel that the best results are secured by 
 changing the grades in which the teachers serve at least every three 
 years so as to prevent narrow teaching. 
 
 School boards should realize that money needs to be appropriated 
 to provide substitutes for teachers while they are visiting, and one or 
 two days per year per teacher thus provided for would, if skillfully 
 planned, result in no little improvement in teaching service. 
 
 School Exhibits. As a supervisory agency, school exhibits, enter- 
 tainments, etc., have a value worth considering. The unity of pur- 
 pose which such functions bring into play is good for the school. They 
 socialize the school work and afford concrete problems for teaching 
 activities. Great benefit to the teacher comes from the comparison 
 which she makes between the showing made by her grade and others 
 paralleling it. The best becomes contagious to all and a distinct ad- 
 vance in standards of accomplishment is sure to result from well- 
 managed exhibits. Perhaps the greatest value of the exhibit comes 
 through the brief interviews with parents which grow out of the 
 
— 26 — 
 
 effort of each parent to see what his or her child has for display. Con- 
 tact with the patrons always stimulates the work of the school, and 
 even the mere seeing of "Johnnie's mother" by his teacher helps her 
 to better understand him. The teachers see for themselves that the 
 fathers and mothers are vitally interested in the work of the schools 
 and a higher type of service is a natural consequence. 
 
 Teachers' Associations. The attendance upon associations, institutes, 
 and educational lectures is a vital means of teacher improvement. 
 The excuse, "I never hear anything which helps me in my work," 
 should not be accepted. Teachers sometimes are found who think only 
 in the concrete and unless a certain exercise or theory is especially 
 for their grade, they get nothing from it. "Canned pedagogy" per- 
 haps is a proper term for the sort of information which they consider 
 of value. This class of teachers needs to be roused to the realization 
 that school teaching is a "big business" and is not limited by the 
 needs of any one grade. They need to realize that they cannot be 
 worthy the name of teacher and confine their professional interest to 
 the concrete devices helpful for only their particular group of pupils. 
 
 The inspiration which comes from the gathering itself, the contact 
 with interests foreign to their own, the chance to see something be- 
 sides the walls of their schoolroom, the variety of interest necessi- 
 tated by the preparation for the trip, and the excitement of going 
 are any one of them worth the financial sacrifice necessary to at- 
 tend these meetings. Such attendance should be considered in rating 
 of teachers. 
 
 Reading Circle Work. Professional reading while in service is necs- 
 sary if one is to avoid deterioration. Its importance can scarcely be 
 overestimated. Many principals and supervisors in Wisconsin are em- 
 phasizing this means of improvement but more needs to be done. The 
 Wisconsin Teacher's Reading Circle Course carries with it definite 
 diploma recognition and it hardly seems too much to expect that 
 every principal in Wisconsin will see to it that either this course of 
 reading or one equally good shall be accomplished each year by the 
 teachers under his direction. Various plans are tried successfully. 
 In some cases, groups of teachers form circles, appointing a chairman, 
 and each purchasing one book which is read in part by each and re- 
 ported on at evening meetings of a semisocial nature. This plan re- 
 quires none of the time of the supervisor in preparation, unless he 
 become one of the regular group. However, he should attend one or 
 two of the meetings at least, to see that right mehods are being 
 followed in order that the work done can be recognized either in the 
 way suggested in the reading circle pamphlet or by some local arrange- 
 ment. This plan enables teachers to read books well suited to their 
 needs, and makes possible the formation of several groups in one sys- 
 tem. 
 
 Another method is to have the books chosen of general professional 
 value, and to have but one group, led by the principal, in which each 
 
— 27 — 
 
 member reports on various chapters. This plan, too, is effective in 
 that it unifies the teaching body, it enables the principal to guide his 
 teachers, and it makes possible the analysis of the theories set forth 
 from varied angles. It also allows the supervisor to suggest many 
 possibilities for concrete applications of helpful ideas read or reported 
 which have been revealed to him through his visits to the various 
 classrooms. 
 
 A third way of accomplishing the reading is to have the books owned 
 by the school and allow the teachers to read a given book independ- 
 ently and to work out in their classrooms any new ideas suggested by 
 the reading. As soon as any one is ready to report results, this is 
 done at a meeting for the purpose. 
 
 The importance of professional reading should be brought to the 
 attention of school boards when teachers are recommended for reap- 
 pointment. 
 
 Written Criticisms. It is sometimes helpful to teachers to receive 
 written suggestions after a visit by the supervisor. If this practice 
 is followed, the supervisor must write only such suggestions as can- 
 not be misunderstood and he must avoid such blanket expressions rs 
 "good recitation," "poor work," "see me," or the equally faulty plan 
 of writing only a reference to some part of the course of study or some 
 professional book. These fragmentary notes often create a spirit of 
 resentment or of undue elation on the part of the teacher which de- 
 feats the real purpose of class visitation. A brief, positive, concrete 
 suggestion such as, "Try to call on all of the pupils during each reci- 
 tation" or "Try giving half of the class written work while the other 
 half recite orally to keep each child busy all of the time," is about the 
 only type of written criticism that it is safe to leave with a teacher 
 without the opportunity of a conference to be sure that she under- 
 stands its meaning and its exact application to the lesson seen. 
 
 Classroom Visitation 
 
 By far the most dynamic and far-reaching agenc^ of supervision is 
 classroom visitation when it is followed by a well thought out discus- 
 sion with the teacher of the lesson observed. In no other w^v can 
 the supervisor so effectively improve instruction. 0>e visit followed 
 by an able analysis of needs and remedies which le°v°s a teacher con- 
 vinced of her strengths and weaknesses but filled with the d°sire to 
 improve and in possession of the necessary information to enable her 
 to work out right methods is worth a dozen superficial visits. 
 
 Successful classroom supervision is impossible unle?s an entirely 
 friendly relation exists between supervisor and supervised. There 
 must be no misunderstanding or lack of frankness if full benefit is to 
 be derived. Even adverse criticism, if perfectly friendly, is welcomed 
 by most teachers. 
 
 Anothpr requisite is that the supervisor be fullv informed regard- 
 ing the psychology of childhood and present day standards of wV»at 
 
— 28 — 
 
 constitutes good teaching. He must also know the principles under- 
 lying those standards. This knowledge the average supervisor is apt 
 to lack in some measure. It is imperative that he make every effort 
 to acquaint himself with these facts by studying recent surveys, books 
 on the curriculum, and on teaching practices by recognized authori- 
 ties. He must also practice professional classroom visitation at all 
 times. He should never allow himself to witness a single recitation 
 without analyzing it and judging of its merit. The habit of being 
 content with an impression that the lesson was good or poor is fatal 
 to constructive supervisory work. 
 
 Some of the questions he should ask in his judgment of a recitation 
 are suggested below. 
 
 Subject Matter: 
 
 1. Is the subject matter such that it can be of present use to the 
 pupils in their social or business life? Is it apt to be of use to them 
 in later life? 
 
 2. Is the subject matter being made the entire end in itself or are 
 methods of attack and habits of work being given due consideration? 
 
 3. Is material outside of the text being brought into the recitation? 
 
 4. Are ample means supplied for visual instruction? (Stereopticon — 
 specimens — pictures — etc. ) 
 
 5. Is the subject matter such that it challenges effort by the whole 
 class, or is it a part of the general knowledge of most of the pupils 
 and is it consequently regarded with indifference by some of the pupils? 
 
 Method: 
 
 1. Was the teacher's aim justifiable by modern standards? 
 
 2. Were all of the pupils engaged in a concrete problem whose solu- 
 tion satisfied a real need? 
 
 3. Were the methods those which naturally grew out of the subject 
 in hand? 
 
 4. Was the type of lesson the best one to secure the desired results? 
 
 5. Was memory work being permitted at the expense of thinking 
 and judging exercises? 
 
 6. Was any opportunity given for present or early use of the infor- 
 mation being acquired? 
 
 7. Was the motive strong enough to hold the pupils through the 
 entire period and to stimulate continued research and interest in the 
 problem? 
 
 8. Does the teacher realize that the only knowledge which can be de- 
 pended upon to function is that which is gained by actual experience? 
 
 9. Does she make use of this truth by using real games to teach ab- 
 stract arithmetic facts? 
 
 10. Does the teacher show good judgment in the choice of games, 
 so that too much time is not required to learn the game? 
 
 11. Does the type of game chosen bring all of the class into act ? vity? 
 
 12. Is the teacher accomplishing a creditable amount of work in a 
 given time? 
 
 13. In drill exercises, is the practice work given based upon the 
 previously determined needs of individual pupils? Are those pupils 
 conscious of their special needs and are they putting intelligent and 
 vigorous effort into their work with a definite end in view? 
 
 14. Is the work so planned that all of the pupils can answer some of 
 the questions, but are superior pupils also at times challenged to 
 their best effort? 
 
— 29 — 
 
 15. Are summaries employed often throughout the lesson to pre- 
 serve its unity? 
 
 16. Are children being enabled to sense new material by being con- 
 stantly required to apply it to ordinary every-day uses, and to find in 
 daily life concrete illustrations of abstractions found in books? 
 
 17. Are children's experiences and children's needs and problems 
 made the starting point of all teaching? 
 
 18. Is the assignment stimulating? Is it suited to the needs of both 
 strong and average pupils? Is it so made that it is fully understood 
 by each pupil? 
 
 19. Is the teacher asking too many questions and being content with 
 mere fact answers? 
 
 20. Are the pupils asking thought questions of each other and of the 
 teacher? 
 
 21. Do pupils evidence ability to recite intelligently, continuously, 
 and with ease upon some part of the lesson? 
 
 The Pupils: 
 
 1. Were all of the pupils being benefited? If not, why not? What 
 remedies? 
 
 2. Were the pupils given all possible opportunity for exercising 
 judgment? 
 
 3. Were they allowed to organize the material and act upon their 
 own initiative? 
 
 4. Were healthful surroundings provided for the pupils? (Seats, 
 lighting, ventilation, temperature, posture, distance from blackboard, 
 chart, etc.) 
 
 5. Were all of the pupils actively engaged and thinking during the 
 entire recitation? 
 
 When observing a recitation, it is usually best to face the class so 
 that their reactions can be seen. Notes should be taken inconspicu- 
 ously and one should appear sympathetic but should efface oneself as 
 much as possible from the consciousness of both pupils and teacher in 
 order that normal conditions may pervail. 
 
 One lesson unit is the least legitimate period for observation. After 
 the lesson is finished, its one or two strongest points should be deter- 
 mined and made note of. These, with its one greatest weakness, will 
 doubtless be sufficient material for one conference. The principal must 
 be sure that he has analyzed the situation correctly and that he can 
 support his position by reference to recognized authorities and by the 
 application of basic principles as tests of merit. His most difficult 
 task is now before him and the one which calls for the highest degree 
 of skill on his part. 
 
 He must formulate a method for convincing the teacher of her 
 needs in such a way that her reaction will be an intelligent realization 
 of her needs and a desire to make vigorous effort to increase her 
 teaching skill. Usually the best way to accomplish this is to show 
 generous appreciation of the lesson's strong points, acknowledging the 
 teacher's able grasp of those educational principles of which good use 
 was made. Then by skillfully put questions, get the teacher to dis- 
 cover and to admit the major weakness of her lesson resulting from 
 violations of certain principles of teaching. Self-condemnation by the 
 
— 30 — 
 
 teacher of her own methods of work is of vastly more value to her as 
 a means of growth than is the admitting of any number of faults, 
 after they are pointed out to her by someone else. 
 
 Throughout this process, the kindest and most professional spirit 
 must obtain. It is a diagnosis of an important case, and much de- 
 pends upon its accuracy, but it is purely impersonal and must be re- 
 garded as a means to a very much desired end — namely, increased 
 skill with its consequent satisfaction for the teacher. After the super- 
 visor and the teacher are on common ground, the supervisor has his 
 opportunity to help her to grow in efficiency. If possible, get her to 
 suggest better ways of doing what she had attempted. If she does not 
 suggest all of the possible means, give her helpful suggestions as to 
 just how to teach that kind of a lesson with a maximum amount of 
 benefit to the pupils. Give her some references to aid her in discov- 
 ering helpful basic principles to guide her in future situations. The 
 supervisor may ask the teacher to invite him to witness a subsequent 
 lesson carrying out the suggestions just given. 
 
 The conference should not close without the supervisor having con- 
 vinced the teacher of her needs and without his feeling sure that his 
 criticisms have been constructive and not destructive in their effect 
 upon her future performance. This is accomplished when the teacher 
 sees her lesson in perspective, viewed through the medium of modern 
 educational thought, and when she has ceased to worry over any petty 
 details of class procedure. Such matters as talking without permis- 
 sion, position of pupils, general disorder, or misspelled or mispro- 
 nounced words have no place in the analysis of a piece of teaching. 
 It is based upon infinitely bigger things and these should be taken 
 care of first. Later those minor details detracting from the artistry 
 of the performance may be mentioned to the teacher, always keeping 
 in mind that the general plan of the recitation is of the greatest im- 
 portance. Teachers who have presented a weak lesson should be en- 
 couraged to keep on trying until they conquer their particular diffi- 
 culty and generous praise should be accorded them when they attain 
 success. 
 
 The highest aim of the supervisor is reached when his teachers 
 analyze their own efforts and think intelligently about their work. 
 
 Every system contains some teachers who are less enthusiastic than 
 others and some who are less capable than others. It is impossible 
 in a large system to reach all with this intensive supervision. Good 
 results are obtained by working with the able teachers until they are 
 very strong. The others may then be helped by visiting these. 
 
 If teachers prove indifferent to helpful suggestion, two courses are 
 open to the supervisor. One is to teach for them, — actually showing 
 them what is expected, following this with patient, helpful suggestions. 
 If indifference continues, there seems only one other method to follow, 
 and that is to tell the teacher kindly but firmly of her fault, asking her 
 either to change her attitude or to resign from the system. 
 
— 31 — 
 
 The same methods which the supervisor wishes the teachers to use 
 with the pupils, he must use with them. He must not dictate unless 
 he finds the situation one demanding authoritative action — and this 
 will be a rare occurrence. If he values self-direction, exercise of judg- 
 ment, purposeful activity, and civic and social interests as aims of 
 education, he must use methods leading to those ends in all of his 
 supervision, for "as is the supervisor, so is the school system under his 
 direction." 
 
 IV CONCLUSION 
 
 There has been no attempt in this bulletin to give an exhaustive 
 treatment of supervision as a science; but instead, the aim has been 
 to point the way to some practical measures which any supervisor can 
 carry out. The possibilities of supervisory agencies as aids to the 
 educative process are as yet only touched upon by educators. Great 
 progress in the art of effective supervision will doubtless be made 
 in the next few years. This implies that the suggestions in this 
 pamphlet are but a step in the right direction even though they have 
 been gathered from the best supervisory practice of the present time. 
 Every enterprising supervisor must therefore be constantly alert, 
 watching for opportunities to improve upon present methods of super- 
 vision, for his is a position of rare opportunity for invaluable service 
 in this comparatively new field of educational thought. 
 
 V BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 The Curriculum : 
 
 McMurry. Principles Underlying the Making of School Curricula. 
 
 Teachers' College Record, September, 1915. 
 King. Education for Efficiency. 
 Flexner. The Modern School. 
 Klapper. Teaching of Arithmetic (p. 8-9). 
 Chubb. The Teaching of English. 
 Hinsdale. Teaching the Language Arts. 
 Hosic. An Elementary Course in English. 
 Betts. Elementary School Curriculum. 
 Dewey. Democracy and Education. 
 
 Schoolroom Practice: 
 
 Strayer. The Teaching Process. 
 
 Earhart. Types of Teaching. 
 
 Klapper. Teaching of Reading, Arithmetic, Language. 
 
 Hall and Hall. The Question as a Factor in Teaching. 
 
 McMurry. Elementary School Standards. 
 
 Dewey. Democracy and Education. 
 
 Wilson & Wilson. Motivation. 
 
 Hall-Quest. Supervised Study. 
 
— 32 
 
 Kendall & Myrick. Teaching Fundamental Branches. 
 
 Parker. Methods of Teaching in High School. 
 
 Strayer & Norsworthy. How to Teach. Sixteenth Year Book. 
 
 Part I. 
 Zimmers. Teaching Boys and Girls How to Study. 
 
 Principles of Education: 
 
 Thorndike. Principles of Teaching. 
 
 Dewey. How We Think. 
 
 McMurry. Study and Teaching How to Study. 
 
 Strayer & Thorndike. Educational Administration. 
 
 Dewey. Interest and Effort. 
 
 Dewey. Moral Principles in Education. 
 
 Bagley. Educative Process. 
 
 Terman. Measurement of Intelligence. 
 
 Betts. The Mind and Its Education. 
 
 McMurry. Handbook of Practice for Teachers. 
 
 Maxwell. Observation of Teaching. 
 
 Surveys: 
 
 Bobbitt. Denver Survey — Part II. 
 
 Smith, H. L. A Survey of a Public School System. Bloomington, 
 
 Ind. 
 Judd & Bobbitt. Grand Rapids Survey Report. 
 Strayer, Bachman, Cubberley, Bawden, Kelly. Butte Survey Report. 
 Cubberley, Van Sickle, Terman, Sears, Williams. Salt Lake Survey 
 
 Report. 
 State Department of Public Instruction. Janesville Survey Report. 
 
 (In press.)