Glass _ . 
 
 Book Jy\f lb 
 

HAND-BOOK 
 
 THE GREEK DRAMA, 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 (ORIGIN OF THE GREEK DRAMA. — IMITATION. — RELIGIOUS 
 FEELINGS. NATIONAL CHARACTER. — ERA IN NATIONAL 
 
 | RELIGION. — ANTHROPOMORPHISM. — CONNECTION OF 
 GRECIAN ART WITH RELIGION. 
 
 What was the origin of the Grecian drama ? and 
 how came it to attain to such perfection in Greece 
 alone out of the whole ancient world, and in Athens 
 alone among all the states of Greece ? What was 
 it in its earliest stage of existence ? By what steps 
 was it fostered and developed into maturity ? What 
 was its true meaning and spirit ? what its influence 
 upon that nation by which it was so tenderly nur- 
 tured ? What, in a word, is the history of its rise and 
 decay? These are subjects of deep and living in- 
 terest alike to the historian, the philosopher, and the 
 poet ; and it is to questions such as these that we 
 purpose to give some answer in the following pages. 
 First, then, as to its origin. It is at once clear 
 
2 HAND BOOK OF TIIE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 that we cannot for one moment admit, with Hase 
 and other writers, that the mere " love of amuse- 
 ment and spectacle " * is a principle of sufficient 
 depth and strength to have given birth to the 
 Grecian drama. The same, too, may be said of that 
 innate "love of imitation"! to which so many phi 
 losophical minds, from Plato J down to Copleston§ in/ 
 our own day, have been content to refer it. Nor, 1 ] 
 again, even if we take a wider view of the term 
 {jLi/uLrjaLs, and consider it as equivalent to the t€ love 
 of expression " in its broadest sense, as Aristotle || 
 and almost all other authors have done, can we 
 think that an adequate solution is furnished to our 
 question. So neither can we assent to those who 
 would regard the ancient drama as devised for the 
 special purpose of " moulding the national mind to 
 - religion and morality, by purifying and elevating j 
 the passions, to which it appeals so forcibly, or who, I 
 
 * Hase's Ancient Greeks, ch. xx. 
 
 f " If a love of imitation and a delight in disguising the real 
 person under a mask were the basis upon which this style of poetry 
 was raised, the drama would have been as natural and as universal 
 among men as these qualities are common to their nature." — 
 Miiller, Lit. of Gr., ch. xxi. 
 
 J Plato, Rep. iii. p. 273. § Praelect. Academ., iv. 
 
 || Poet., ch. i. : eiroiroua 8^ kol\ rj rijs rpaycodlas iroir)ois y ert 5e 
 Ku/JLtofiia ical didvpa/uLfioTroiriTiKT] .... iraaai rvyxdvovaiv oticrcu /xt/^o'eis 
 -rb avvoXov. What Aristotle meant by the word pa/m-hcreis here, will 
 be best understood by comparing the expression in chap, xxiii., 
 irepl fihp ovv r?]s TpaycpSias Kal rrjs iv r<fi irparTeiv fiiimrjaeoDS. The term 
 pLi/uelo-da:, in this sense, is correctly rendered by the annotators 
 " imitando exprimere." Donaldson, however, understands the term 
 as equivalent to fiction as opposed to actual facts. Compare Twin- 
 ing's Dissertation, pp. 27. 37. 
 
ITS ORIGIN. 3 
 
 vith Schlegel, would resolve it into "a feeling of the 
 lignity of human nature excited by the fortunes of 
 the great models exhibited to us/' or to our ability 
 " to trace a higher order of things impressed upon 
 the ordinary current of events and secretly revealed 
 in them." Still less can it be held that a mere " love 
 of strong emotions excited in the breast " * is an 
 adequate cause of tragic pleasure." 
 
 It is clear, to those who know anything of the 
 human heart and human passions, and have also 
 studied the religious character of ancient Greece, 
 that it is to some far more primary and elementary 
 principle of man's moral nature that we must look, 
 if we would find that which in reality gave life and 
 being to the drama of the Greeks. 
 
 The truth, then, is that, as in fact no historical 
 origin can be assigned to the drama in ancient times, 
 we are forced to refer it to some inherent principle of 
 the human mind. The reader will already have 
 anticipated our meaning, when we say that it is the 
 religion of ancient Greece, as modified by the con- 
 stitutional tendencies of the national and especially 
 the Athenian mind, which furnishes the only satis- 
 factory answer to our inquiry. 
 
 The prominent feature of religion, as it appears in 
 the earliest period of a nation's existence, is, as 
 Wachsmiith calls it, a "striving after objectivity," — 
 a restless desire to portray the abstract and unseen 
 
 * See M'Dermott's " Philosophical Enquiry it) to the Source of 
 Pleasure derived from Tragic Representations," 1S24. 
 
 B 2 
 
 iA 
 
4 HAND-BOOK OF TIIE GHEEK DRAMA. 
 
 in concrete and visible shapes and forms. Now thi 
 strong principle is especially characteristic of th 
 more rude and uneducated ages of both national and 
 individual existence. And the first idea which 
 powerfully seizes upon the mind at such periods, is 
 the idea of Deity, as recognised in his attributes of 
 power, goodness, and wisdom, and in the outward 
 manifestations of the natural world. 
 
 Now, if this, as a matter of fact, be true of nations 
 in general, it will be found to hold good in a still 
 more striking degree of the Hellenic nation. From 
 the earliest times their "singular impatience of pure 
 thought,"* their love of marvel and of fiction, to- 
 gether with their lofty aspirations after the beautiful 
 and the true, and the keenness of their religious 
 susceptibilities, have marked out their race from the 
 rest of mankind as religious and poetical in the very 
 highest decree. Their intense love of the fine arts 
 lent a very powerful assistance to their efforts to 
 realise the unseen world ; and from being; thus con- 
 nected with the all-absorbing theme of religion, the 
 fine arts, in their turn, received an impetus in 
 Greece which was unknown elsewhere. To the 
 religious principle, then, is to be ascribed the early 
 progress which was made by them in poetry, in 
 painting, in architecture, and in music, as being 
 so many obvious methods in which their yearning 
 after the unseen Deity found its natural outward 
 expression. Here, then, in that same principle 
 
 * Donaldson's Theatre of Greek's, ch. i. ta 
 
ITS ORIGIN. 5 
 
 which peopled every wood, and fountain, and hill of 
 Hellas with beings more than mortal, in the in- 
 fluence of a polytheistic religion upon the Hellenic 
 mind, — here do we find the key that unlocks to us 
 the origin and antiquity of the Grecian drama. 
 Their wide-spread anthropomorphism *, their love of 
 representing the unseen Deity under the human 
 form, though with features and proportions of ideal 
 beauty, was the true parent of the drama. Hence 
 came the earliest efforts of the Greeks in archi- 
 tecture, poetry, and music, as necessary to supply 
 the personal Deity with a worthy temple, and to 
 celebrate his praises in befitting strains. Hence 
 Strabo says that " the whole province of poetry is 
 the praise of the Gods ; " f and hence the word hymn 
 (vfjbvos) has retained even down to our own days 
 that distinctive meaning which points out its original 
 connection with religious worship. 
 
 Poetry, then, at first, was the mere organ, or 
 rather the handmaid, of religion. But of what kind 
 of religion ? " We shall see. In every nation \ the 
 religious mind passes through several successive 
 stages. At first, the innate idea of a God predomi- 
 
 * See Coleridge on the Greek Classical Poets, p. 15. (ed. 1834) : 
 " The Greeks and Italians, from the earliest times to this hour, have, 
 as nations, been contradistinguished from the northern tribes by a 
 more sensuous conception of the Divinity, and by a craving after a 
 visible and tangible representation of Him on earth." 
 
 f Strabo, x. p. 468. 
 
 % We speak, of course, only of heathen nations. Where a revelation 
 has been vouchsafed by God, a very different order of things is to 
 be discerned. 
 
 b3 
 
6 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 nates ; next he is worshipped in his works, that is, in 
 the visible objects of nature; polytheism is the next 
 stage in the religious development of the national 
 belief; then, as intelligence advances, and as the 
 laws of nature begin to be understood, the mind 
 ascends from a worship of the objects of nature to the 
 worship of those powers which direct its course : and 
 the step from the worship of powers of a material 
 kind to that of powers of a spiritual kind is easy 
 and obvious. "In the earlier periods of Grecian 
 polytheism, the former worship prevailed ; the latter 
 at a subsequent period. The early deities of Hel- 
 lenic worship are the children of earth, and sky, and 
 ocean. In a word, the Saturnian gods of the elder 
 mythology are the deified powers of nature $ while 
 in the mythology of the later poets and philosophers, 
 it is spiritual power that rules the world from the 
 top of Olympus, and the inferior deities are the 
 spiritual faculties of man personified and embellished. 
 . . . . Anthropomorphism takes the place of 
 a deification of nature ; the popular gods are invested 
 with personality, and have a common origin with 
 their worshippers ; they are born, bred, and nursed 
 like men, but immortal still. They preside over 
 each department of nature, and each province of 
 art. Dis rules over the abodes of the departed, 
 Posidon over the ocean, Zeus over the land and sky. 
 One divinity wakes into life the olive and the corn ; 
 another has charge of the vine. One guides the day, 
 from his chariot with golden wheels ; a sister deity 
 walks in brightness through the sky by night. A 
 
ITS ORIGIN. 7 
 
 fountain in the shade, a brook leaping down the 
 hills ; a sequestered vale fringed with trees, a lonely 
 mountain walled in with savage rocks, — each is the 
 residence of a god. The arts, too, have their patron 
 deities. Phoebus Apollo inspires the poet and the 
 artist ; the Muses, daughters of Memory and Zeus, 
 fire the bosom from the golden urn of truths Ares 
 has power in war ; a divinity presides over agricul- 
 ture, the work of the weaver, the flocks of the shep- 
 herd, and every art of life." * Every nation, city, 
 and family, has its peculiar god — its Zeus, its 
 Athena, or its Hera; but all are not of equal might, 
 and One is king over all, though subject himself to 
 the supreme power of unalterable Destiny or Fate."| 
 This, then, it would seem, is the stage of national 
 existence and religious belief during which a nation's 
 poetry is exclusively devoted to the service of re- 
 ligion. And it was precisely during this period in 
 Grecian history that the drama rose into importance 
 and flourished most vigorously ; just as it is from the 
 era of the sophists and of the school of irreligious 
 freethinkers who broke up the system of national 
 faith at Athens, in order to introduce deities of a 
 more subtle and philosophic kind, J that we may date 
 the decay and downfal of Grecian religion and 
 Grecian poetry alike. 
 
 * Parker on Religion, ch. v. 
 
 f Herod, i. 91. rty TTeKpwfxiviqv fiolpav a^vvarov icrn a-irocpvyisiv koX 
 6e$. See Baehr's remarks on this subject, Comment. 12. ; and com- 
 pare Msch. Prom. Vinct. 515—518. (Dind.) 
 
 i See the chapter on Euripides, below. 
 
 b4 
 
b HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 We have already mentioned the sister arts of 
 music, architecture, and painting, as constituting, 
 together with poetry, the handmaids of religion in 
 Greece. We have also seen how closely religion 
 was interwoven with the very life of the Greek. 
 But, in any inquiry into the origin of the Grecian 
 drama, it would be scarcely fair to take no notice of 
 another cause which concurred to produce it. We 
 mean, of course, the social character of the national 
 mind, and especially its gay and joyous disposition, 
 its power of sympathy, and the exquisiteness of its 
 taste for refined and intellectual pleasure. These 
 found their fullest development and satisfaction in 
 the splendour of those religious festivals which 
 brought the nation together at stated periods of the 
 year. " Gay and brilliant as the over-arching skies, 
 the Greeks, from the first dawn of civilisation, had 
 loved to meet together for festal enjoyment — the 
 dance, the song, the games. Nature, prodigal in 
 all things to these her darling children, had implanted 
 in them so exquisite a taste and so great mental 
 activity, that the intellectual occupation and excite- 
 ment which give durability and soul to pleasure 
 were indispensable even amidst the throng and 
 tumult of their gayest assemblies. Joyousness was 
 acceptable to the gods; and joyous sports charac- 
 terised all the festivals which the gods had instituted 
 while on earth, in their tender sympathy with human 
 enjoyment. The god being propitiated by prayer 
 and sacrifice, man rested from his labours, and the 
 
ITS ORIGIN. 9 
 
 holiday was kept with gaiety and animation." * 
 There was an ioprrj, which was celebrated with the 
 song and the dance ; and even when this rude and 
 primitive form of the festival was raised into the 
 greater solemnity of a religious spectacle, these more 
 dignified and refined assemblies still retained their 
 characteristic gaiety and cheerfulness. And especially 
 was this the case with the susceptible Athenians, in 
 whose breasts the religious element and the sense of 
 the beautiful prevailed with so much greater vigour 
 than in those of their Dorian brethren, thus leading 
 them proportionably to consecrate to the love and 
 worship of God the best and fairest productions of 
 art and genius. It was doubtless in a spirit, not of 
 reproof, but of refined sympathy, that St. Paul, at a 
 far later period of history than that to which we 
 now refer, alluded to the religious tendencies of the 
 Athenian mind, when he spoke to the assembly on 
 the Hill of Marsf ; and it was this peculiar feature of 
 the national character which developed the drama at 
 Athens to an extent unknown in the other cities of 
 Greece. 
 
 * Hase's Ancient Greeks, ch. viii. 
 
 t Acts xyii. And compare the remarks of Conybeare and 
 Howson, Life and Epistles of St. Paul, vol. i. p. 406. and note. 
 
10 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 CHAR II. 
 
 EPIC, LYRIC, AND DRAMATIC POETRY OF GREECE. THE 
 
 RHAPSODISTS ORIGIN OF THE LATTER FROM THE 
 
 WORSHIP OF BACCHUS.- — DORIC FORM OF TRAGEDY. — 
 
 WORSHIP OF APOLLO. THE DITHYRAMB. WORSHIP 
 
 OF BACCHUS. — LYRICAL DRAMA. 
 
 The highest energies of the Grecian mind, as we 
 have said, were devoted to the worship of the gods 
 from the very earliest times. At first, doubtless, 
 this worship consisted, as Miiller remarks *, " chiefly 
 in mute motions of the body and symbolical gestures, 
 and in broken ejaculations expressive of the inward 
 feelings of the worshippers." The first outpourings 
 of poetry were simple songs, which supplied these 
 same excited feelings with a more appropriate form 
 of expression. Songs, relating to the various seasons 
 of the year at which each festival occurred, gave a 
 natural expression to the religious feelings which 
 these seasons called forth, — the periods of the harvest 
 and the vintage being celebrated by songs of joy and 
 gladness, while the rites of Demeter and Cora, and 
 possibly of Dionysus, falling in the winter, as 
 naturally suggested, in a worship mainly directed to 
 the phenomena of outward nature, the song of 
 wailing and lamentation for the departed brightness 
 
 * Literature of Ancient Greece, ch. iii. 
 
EARLY GREEK POETRY. 11 
 
 and splendour of summer days. These, at first, 
 were sung wildly and irregularly, as also were the 
 glad hymengeal, and the paean of Apollo, and the 
 mournful threnos, and the dirge called by the name 
 of Linus. It is uncertain how far they were extem- 
 porised, and how far they consisted of a traditional 
 form of words. One form of expression, which the 
 worship of the gods more especially employed, was 
 that of the dance ; and the chorus, of which we shall 
 hear so much hereafter, so far from having anything 
 to do with music, was originally the level space set 
 apart in towns for sacred dances and other public 
 festivities.* By a common figure of speech, the 
 term was afterwards applied to the body of youths 
 and maidens who, hand in hand, performed their 
 graceful and expressive dance round the citharist. 
 The latter, seated in the midst, sang some lay of the 
 gods or heroes, accompanying himself upon the cithara 
 or phorminx, and was said u to begin the song 
 and the dance," f because the chorus danced in concert 
 with his measures, regulating their gestures and 
 motions in accordance with the subject of the song. 
 A choral dance of this kind, such, for instance, as 
 that described by Homer as worked by Vulcan upon 
 the shield of Achilles, was in fact a kind of hypor- 
 cheme ; that is, one in which the action described by 
 
 * XopSs is, etymologically, the same word as x^P 0S > Hence the 
 Homeric expression Xgiclivgiv x°P^, to level or prepare a place for 
 dancing ; and x°P° v ^ e l^vai, to join the dance : and hence cities 
 having spacious squares are called evpvxopoi. 
 
 f fjLoXirijs Qapxtw, Horn. II. r/viii. 606. 
 
 u 
 
10 
 
 12 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 the song was at the same time outwardly expressed 
 with mimic gestures by certain individuals, who came 
 forward for that purpose from the body of the chorus. 
 This description of choral dance, though probably in 
 early times it was very generally in use, never occurs 
 in later periods, except in connection with the worship 
 of Apollo ; and to it we shall have occasion to return 
 hereafter. 
 
 We have mentioned the citharist, and the lays 
 which he sang at the festivals of the gods when 
 seated in the midst of the choral troop, as affording 
 the earliest vestiges of the choral element of the Greek 
 drama. To trace the rise of the other element, the 
 dialogue, our readers must now transfer themselves 
 in mind from the worship of the gods to the feasts 
 in the halls of the nobles of the Homeric times. 
 They will remember, especially in the Odyssey, 
 frequent mention being made of the 6slo$ aoihos, or 
 " divine minstrel," who so often charmed the ear of the 
 banqueters by the singing, or rather the recitation, of 
 lays of gods or heroes. " Though possessing less 
 authority than the priests .... still, as servants of 
 the Muses, and dedicated to their pure and innocent 
 worship, the minstrels were held in peculiar esteem*, 
 and always held an important post at every festal 
 banquet ; for the song and the dance were the chief 
 
 * Thus Ulysses, at the massacre of the suitors, respects the 
 person of Phemius their aoiBSs (Odyss. viii. 479. and xxii. 
 344.); and it was to his faithful minstrel that Agamemnon en- 
 trusted his wife during his expedition against Troy. (Odyss. iiL 
 267.) 
 
EARLY GREEK POETRY. 13 
 
 ornaments of the feast, and were reckoned the highest 
 pleasure by the nobles of the Homeric age." * The 
 songs or lays which they sang were the first rudi- 
 ments of the epos, the connection of which with the 
 tragic dialogue we shall afterwards have occasion to 
 explain. 
 
 The connection, then, between epic poetry and 
 the banquets of the nobles, was of very ancient date 
 in Greece ; and, from being made so much a part of 
 their social life, the epos lasted down to a period 
 much more recent than the Trojan war, and only 
 perished with the downfal of the ancient monar- 
 chies. The spirit of epic poetry was strictly monar- 
 chical, and wholly opposed to the enthusiastic spirit 
 of civil freedom which in aftertimes became the 
 master principle of the Hellenic mind. f* It is clear," 
 observes Miiller, " that the Homeric poems were 
 intended for the especial gratification of princes, not 
 of republican communities .... and though Homer 
 flourished some centuries later than the heroic age, 
 which appeared to him like some distant and mar- 
 vellous world, from which the race of man had 
 degenerated both in bodily strength and courage, 
 yet the constitutions of the different states had not 
 undergone any essential alteration, and the royal 
 families, which are celebrated in the Iliad and the 
 Odyssey, still ruled in Greece and in the colonies of 
 Asia Minor. To these princes the minstrels naturally 
 turned, for the purpose of making them acquainted 
 
 * Miiller, Literature of Greece, ch. iv. 
 
10 
 
 14 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 with the renown of their forefathers ; and whilst the 
 pride of these descendants of heroes was flattered, 
 epic poetry became the instrument of the most 
 various instruction, and was adapted exclusively to 
 the nobles of that age." * 
 
 But the recital of epic poetry was customary, at 
 least as early as the time of Homer, not only at the 
 feasts of the nobles, but also at those poetical con- 
 tests which formed part of the proceedings at public 
 festivals. Those who entered these poetical contests 
 were called rhapsodists (patytpBol), f a term which 
 seems gradually to have superseded the Homeric 
 name of bards (aoihoi). As the term itself denotes, 
 these rhapsodists recited continuous portions of their 
 epic lays with an even and continuous flow, though 
 probably in a sonorous recitative approaching to a 
 high-pitched chaunt, with some simple and expressive 
 modulations of the voice, and without any musical 
 accompaniment. J The poems which these rhapso- 
 dists recited were doubtless partly their own, and 
 partly borrowed from traditional sources; but in 
 either case, as the use of letters had not yet been in- 
 
 * Miiller, Literature of Greece, ch. iv. f Ibid. 
 
 X The phorminx was used in the introduction (avafioXii), and 
 merely served to give to the voice the necessary pitch. ** In the 
 present day," says Miiller, " the heroic lays of the Servians, who 
 have most faithfully retained their original character, are delivered 
 in an elevated tone of voice by wandering minstrels, after a few in- 
 troductory notes, for which the gurla, a stringed instrument of the 
 simplest construction, is employed." — Lit. of Greece, ch. iv. This 
 description is identical with that which a great noble of the Homeric 
 age in Greece wolild give of a rhapsodical recitation of his own 
 day. 
 
RHAPS0D1STS. — CHORUS. 15^ 
 
 troduced, they must have been entirely lecited from 
 memory. It is almost needless to add that their 
 recitation, from first to last, was chaunted in hexa- 
 meter verse, since that was the only regular form 
 assumed by poetry, whether of the epic or of the 
 lyric school, until at least the 7th century B.C. 
 
 But while the lays of bards and rhapsodists were 
 thus cheering the festive halls of princes and nobles, 
 and laying the foundation of the tragic dialogue, a 
 parallel development was taking place in the lyric 
 chorus ; and of this it is time to take notice. We 
 have already shown that the dance, and not singing 
 or music, was the province of the chorus, and that 
 the latter was always connected, from the earliest 
 3S, with the worship of the gods, and especially of 
 Apollo. Now, at all events in historic times, Apollo 
 was the distinctive god of the Dorian race ; and ac- 
 cordingly it was in the Doric states of Greece that 
 the chorus first assumed a position of importance. 
 Apollo was at the same time also the god of music 
 and the god of war. The leading feature of a Dorian 
 state was its military organisation. To this end 
 every separate portion of the system was made to 
 contribute ; to it all education and every civil insti- 
 tution were referred ; and accordingly we find that, 
 among the Dorians, the chorus too was intimately 
 connected with it. " The Dorians' chorus was com- 
 posed of the same persons who formed their battle 
 array. The best dancers and the best fighters were 
 called by the same name (irpyTjJesi); the back rows in 
 each were called the light-armed (yfrLXels); and the 
 
16 IIAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 figures of the dance were called by the same name as 
 the evolutions of the army." * This Doric chorus, 
 then, whose motions in honour of Apollo were ac- 
 companied by the lyre, was the parent of the choral 
 element of the Grecian drama. But its style and 
 expression was not always uniform and unvaried. 
 On the contrary, it employed three different kinds of 
 choral dance, each of which was expressive of a dif- 
 ferent feeling, namely, the Pyrrhic, the Gymno- 
 pcedic, and the Ilyporcheme. Of these the two former 
 were, originally at least, more of a gymnastic than 
 of a mimetic or expressive character, while the 
 latter, as its name implies, was a dance expressing, 
 by appropriate gestures, the words of the poem to 
 which it was an accompaniment. When, however, 
 the worship of Dionysus was introduced at a later 
 period, a mimic spirit was infused into the two former 
 dances also ; and thus eventually the rapid motions 
 of the Pyrrhic, the staid and stately gymnopaedic, 
 and the vivid hyporcheme, were developed respec- 
 tively into the three corresponding dances of scenic 
 poetry, the satiric, the stately Emmeleia of tragedy, 
 and the comic. 
 
 But if the chorus was originally devoted to the 
 worship of Apollo, how are we to account for its 
 connection in later times with that of the Dionysus 
 or Bacchus of Athens and the Ionian race ? We 
 shall see. The Dorians, when they conquered any 
 country, introduced the worship of their own gods, 
 
 * Diet, of Greek and Roman Antiq., Art. " Chorus." See also 
 Mailer's Dorians, iii 12. § 10., iv. 6. § 4. 
 
WORSHIP OF BACCHUS. 17 
 
 but endeavoured at the same time to unite it with 
 the religion which they found established in their 
 settlements. Thus, even Apollo was not originally 
 one of the Dorian gods, but a deity of the Achaean 
 race, on whose settlements in Laconia they had 
 seized. And just as they naturalised Apollo by 
 identifying him with one of their ancestral deities, 
 so also they acted in the case of Dionysus. And as 
 at Sparta they adored Apollo and a sister deity of a 
 cognate name*, just so the ancient Pelasgi in Greece 
 and Italy worshipped two equivalent deities under 
 the titles of Helios and Selene f, while their de- 
 scendants, at a more recent period, adored the very 
 same powers of nature under the names of Dionysus 
 or Bacchus, and Deo or Demeter. The former of 
 these was the sun-god, the latter the moon : viewed 
 in another light, the former was the god of fertility 
 and generation, and hence of th^ vine ; the latter 
 represented the fertile earth, from w T hich the vine 
 sprang up. By a further stretch of poetical inven- 
 tion, the sphere of his influence was enlarged, not 
 only in heaven and on earth, but also in the lower 
 w r orld ; hence comes the double, and apparently con- 
 flicting, character of his worship, which we shall 
 hereafter have to notice. " Bacchus, the bright and 
 merry god, is also the superintendent of the black 
 Orphic rites. The god of life, he is also the god of 
 
 * Probably Apella ; see Mailer's Dorians, ii. ch. 9. § 2. and notes. 
 
 + "HAios and 2eAV'/? are connected, like v\f] and Sylva ; Sol and 
 (Se) Luna are the same words under another form. — Donaldson, 
 Greek Theatre, p. 14. note. 
 
HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 death. The god of light, he is also the ruling power 
 in the nether regions."* 
 
 Such being the double character of Dionysus him- 
 self, it is not surprising to find that his worship ex- 
 hibited a similar double form. As the god of light 
 and life, he was worshipped with mirth and revelry, 
 while as an infernal deity his sufferings were loudly 
 and impressively bewailed. The worship of such a 
 deity must of necessity have been one of mimic ex- 
 pression ; and so, " if the sun and the ever-revolving 
 lights of heaven were fit emblems and suggestions of 
 a heavenly deity, the circling dance of Sileni and 
 satyrs round the blazing altar was an obvious copy 
 of the original symbols, and an equally apt repre- 
 sentation below. The Sileni, or deities of the running 
 streams, were the appropriate companions of the 
 god, as types of the productive and life-giving ele- 
 ment of water, while the satyrs were grotesque 
 representations of the original worshippers of the 
 god himself, dressed up fantastically in the skin of 
 the goat, which they had sacrificed upon his altar as 
 a welcome offering. 
 
 Such, then, was the elementary worship of Diony- 
 sus or Bacchus ; and when we remember that the 
 dances of Bacchus, as well as those of Apollo, were 
 military f, and to some extent gymnastic \ , we see at 
 once ho\f readily the two separate pairs of deities 
 became united at Sparta, and how the worship of 
 the one became to some extent merged in that of 
 
 * Donaldson, Greek Theatre, ch. ii. p. 15. 
 
 f Strabo, p. 466. + Paus. iii. 13. 7, 
 
 
CHORAL SONG. THE DITHYRAMB. 19 
 
 the other. The choral poetry used in the worship 
 of Dionysus among the Ionian race was called the 
 dithyramb. It was a wild and enthusiastic strain, 
 of a melancholy cast, as may be guessed from the 
 fact that it was accompanied by the flute ; and the 
 subject of it, according to the consent of the best 
 authorities * , was invariably the birth and misfor- 
 tunes of the infant Bacchus. This choral song the 
 Dorians seized on as a connecting link between the 
 two religions, when they adopted the worship of the 
 Ionian Dionysus. 
 
 It is with this mysterious dithyramb, of which 
 we know so little, that the earliest efforts of tragedy 
 are connected. Arion, who so far improved the 
 former that he is even said to have been its author, 
 is called by the father of history tc the inventor of 
 the tragic style." f This expression itself is certainly 
 vague and undefined enough ; the best solution, pro- 
 bably, is that suggested by Dr. Donaldson, who sug- 
 gests that by the rpayuco9 rpoiros is meant the in- 
 troduction of satyrs (called o-drvpoL, rlrvpot, and 
 rpdyoL) into the dithyramb ; a step which brought it 
 nearer to the confines of tragedy. An approximation 
 to it was also made by the lyric drama, which took 
 the sufferings of Bacchus as its theme, and was 
 danced by the cyclic chorus, though it was accom- 
 panied by the lyre instead of the flute, and substi- 
 tuted staid measures and regular action for the wild 
 
 ^o 1 - 
 
 * Plato, de Leg. iii. 700. B. : Aiopvaov yivecis . . . diQvpa^os 
 Xeyd/ueuos. 
 
 "f Herod, i. 23. : rpayiKov rpo-rrov evpsTTjs. 
 
 C 2 
 
 j 
 
20 HAND-BOOK OF TnE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 and impressive movements of the elder Bacchic 
 poetry. After a time the subject of Bacchus was 
 dropped, and the lays of other heroes were intro- 
 duced in its stead, so that in course of time the di- 
 thyramb and the lyric drama may be supposed to 
 have coalesced. 
 
 How, then, did this lyrical drama differ from 
 tragedy itself? As we learn from Athenseus*, it 
 had no regular actors (v7ro/cpLral) 9 as distinct from 
 the chorus. But if so, then why was it called a 
 drama ? Because it was mimetic, and contained the 
 first rudiments of action. A comparison of certain 
 passages of Homer satisfactorily shows us that the 
 leader or exarchus of this chorus held a very marked 
 and important post, and that he not only led off the 
 dance itself, but began the song or lamentation with 
 which it was accompanied. The exarchus of the 
 dithyramb, too, recited the ode in the first person ; 
 the chorus danced round the blazing altar to the tune 
 of his song ; and before the song began, he played a 
 voluntary or prelude, called ^pool/mov or ^ypolfjuov^ — 
 the very same term which was applied to his leading 
 dance as exarchus. We are now in a position to 
 understand the remark of Aristotle f, and of Plato 
 too, that tragedy was at first autoschediastic (t. e. 
 that it employed extempore effusions), and that it 
 was commenced by those who led off the dithyramb ; 
 the coryphaeus or exarchus relating short fables in 
 gesture or language, or in both, by way of prelude, 
 
 * xiv. p. 630. C. f Poet. ch. iv. 
 
LYRICAL DRAMA. 21 
 
 and afterwards accompanying the song with corre- 
 sponding mimicry. This prelude, it may be here 
 observed, returns, though in an altered form, at a 
 more advanced period of dramatic art, in the pro- 
 logues of explanatory narrative addressed* to the 
 spectators in the dramas of Euripides.* 
 
 * See below, ch. viii. 
 
 C3 
 
■21 IIAND-liOOK OF TIIE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 RISE OF TROCHAIC AND IAMBIC POETRY. — UNION OF 
 DORIAN CHORAL POETRY AND TIIE DITHYRAMB. — RISE 
 
 OF TIIE DIALOGUE., GNOMIC POETS. THE CHORAL 
 
 ELEMENT AND THE DIALOGUE UNITED BY THESPIS. 
 
 TVe have already mentioned the monarchical ten- 
 dency of the Homeric poems, and their accommodation 
 to that political state of things which lingered in 
 Greece, as a tradition of the old heroic times, so late 
 as the commencement of the 7th century. The 
 republican movement of this period, extending alike 
 over Ionian and Dorian nations, not only deprived 
 the ancient princes and royal families of their here- 
 ditary privileges, but also exercised a very marked 
 influence on the character of the national poetry. But 
 another feature should also be mentioned : " Of all 
 the forms in which poetry can appear," says M tiller, 
 " the Homeric poems possess in the highest degree 
 what in modern times would be called objectivity; 
 that is, a complete abandonment of the mind to the 
 object, without any intervening consciousness of the 
 situation or circumstances of the subject or, in other 
 words, of the individual himself." * This feature was 
 henceforth to be reversed in Greece. The ancient 
 epic was far from being in favour w T ith those who 
 
 * Literature of Greece, ch. iv. 
 
EPIC AND IAMBIC POETRY. 23 
 
 yearned for liberty, as having a tendency to keep the 
 mind too steadily fixed in contemplation of the former 
 generation of heroes. Cotemporary, therefore, with 
 the first movements of republicanism, the poet, who 
 in the epos was completely lost in his lofty subject, 
 comes forth before the people as a man, with thoughts 
 and objects of his own ; and gives a free vent to the 
 struggling emotions of his soul in poetry of a different 
 kind, more suited to the events of everyday life. 
 
 This style of poetry was that which is known as 
 iambic. It was originated by an Ionian poet, and 
 among citizens of a state just rejoicing in the dawn 
 of liberty. While the livelier and tenderer emotions 
 of the heart found their fit expression in the elegy, 
 which sprang into being about the same period, the 
 more vigorous feelings of indignant invective were 
 wedded by Archilochus * of Paros to the iambic 
 metre, as combining together in the best proportions 
 the gravity of poetic diction with the plain lan- 
 guage of common life. Henceforth, as might be ex- 
 pected, the iambic measure prevailed, f But though 
 the epos as a living style had passed away, still the 
 exclusive sway which it had exercised over the 
 Hellenic mind in early times w r as never wholly 
 effaced, so that even in the works of the tragedians 
 of the 5th century we can trace an epic and 
 Homeric tone. The dramatic poets still continued 
 
 * " Archilochum Pario rabies armavit iambo," — Hor. Acs Poet. 
 
 t It was a modification of the trochaic. See Arist. Poet ch. iv. : 
 Ae^ews 5e yzvo/j.ei'ris avrr) 7) (pvcris to oiKelov fxirpov evpe' fxaKuna yap 
 KeKTLicbv t&v (j.4rpcoi/ to laixgelov sctti. 
 
 C 4 
 
 1 
 
24 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 to dcvclope the characters of the Iliad and the 
 Odyssey, though they put into their mouths a more 
 homely and sententious style, and lowered them from 
 lofty ideals and poetical conceptions into real and 
 energising personages.* 
 
 The subject of lyric poetry as such scarcely falls 
 within the scope of our inquiry ; one or two obser- 
 vations upon it, however, are necessary here. It 
 would seem to have been characterised by a deeper 
 and more impassioned feeling and more impetuous 
 tone, than the iambic poetry of Archilochus and his 
 followers ; and its effect was heightened by the addi- 
 tion of the dance, and by appropriate vocal and 
 instrumental music. The lyric poetry of the iEolian 
 tribes was almost entirely subjective : it expressed 
 the thoughts and feelings of a single mind ; and it 
 was recited by a single individual, who accompanied 
 himself upon the lyre. But among the Dorian 
 tribes the case was far different. At an early period, 
 as we said above, it was wedded to the chorus, and 
 is, therefore, always known as choral, not as lyric 
 poetry. Instead of the individual character of the 
 iEolian lyric poetry, the choral poetry of the Dorians 
 allied itself with objects of public and general in- 
 terest, such as religious festivals, the celebration of 
 the gods or heroes of Greece, or of such citizens as 
 had gained high renown among their countrymen for 
 
 * Thus the Agamemnon of JEschylus and the Ajax of Sophocles 
 are very different characters from what they respectively appear in 
 Homer. 
 
LYKIC POETKY. RISE OF DIALOGUE. 25 
 
 noble deeds and virtuous conduct. As we have 
 already shown, it was consecrated from a very early 
 period to the worship of Apollo; but at a later 
 period, when the traditional lays of antiquity ceased 
 to delight, and the people in the ardour of their 
 enthusiasm demanded new songs more completely 
 expressive of their human feelings, the Dorian poetry 
 assumed a double form ; and the union of the sacred 
 song and dance, which we described at length in a 
 former chapter, became divorced from the school of 
 Alcman, Stesichorus, and Simonides. With this 
 latter school we have no concern; and we must 
 content ourselves, therefore, with referring such of 
 our readers as wish for further information to the 
 very full and satisfactory account of it which is 
 given by Miiller in his " Literature of Greece," 
 chap. 14., and also in his "Dorians," b. iv. ch. 7. 
 
 Meantime the Dorian choral poetry, as we showed 
 in the previous chapter, united the worship of 
 Dionysus with that of Apollo, and employed the 
 dithyramb as its chief medium of expression. The 
 leader of the dithyramb came by degrees not only 
 to recite a prelude, but to maintain with the rest of 
 the chorus a rude kind of dialogue. This, probably, 
 at first was but an extempore effusion of wit, either 
 grave or sportive, according to the twofold character 
 of the god himself, to which we have already 
 alluded. Such were the rudiments of the dialogue 
 in its earliest infancy. 
 
 In order, however, to ascertain the actual steps by 
 which it grew into its full proportions, and became 
 
26 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 such as we meet with it in the existing works of the 
 Greek tragedians, we must for a time return to the 
 payfrcp&ol, of whom mention was made in the preceding 
 chapter. 
 
 Before the heroic ages had fairly passed away, 
 the warlike lays of Homer, sung at festivals by 
 the rhapsodists, were succeeded in their turn by the 
 gnomic and didactic poetry of Hesiod — a nearer 
 approach to the subjects of every-day life. As the 
 moral sentiment increased, w^e cannot doubt that the 
 musical accompaniment was gradually laid aside ; 
 and when this was done, no step was easier than to 
 exchange the lofty hexameter, as was done in the 
 time of Archilochus, for a metre better adapted to 
 the expression of maxims and apophthegms. The 
 metre adopted was at first the trochaic; but afterwards 
 this was superseded by the iambic*, as being far 
 better adapted to action and feeling than its pre- 
 decessor, of which it was, in fact, a very simple 
 variation. Like the old hexameters, these trochaic 
 and iambic verses were written for recitation ; and 
 we are told by Athenaeusf that they were recited 
 in public, and acted also. As the profession of a 
 rhapsode was popular and profitable, the numbers of 
 the body increased ; and when many of them were 
 present at a time, it was an obvious improvement to 
 assign to several rhapsodes the several portions of 
 one poem, so that the whole poem was often recited 
 
 * This metre is called by Aristotle (Poet. ch. iv.) irdi'Toov ixd\i<T7a 
 AgktlkSv. See note above, p. 23. 
 f xiv. p. 620. C. 
 
GNOMIC POETRY. THE DITHYRAMB. 27 
 
 at a single feast. Here was a still nearer approxi- 
 mation to the tragic dialogue ; for, in the case of an 
 epic poem like the Iliad, " if one rhapsode recited 
 the speech of Achilles, in the first book, and another 
 that of Agamemnon, we may be sure that they per- 
 formed their parts with all the action of stage- 
 players."* 
 
 That the verses of the gnomic poets were the in- 
 termediate step between the school of Hesiod and of 
 the tragedians themselves, and afforded a model to 
 the iambic writers of the succeeding age, is a fact 
 which is established by the paraphrases of Theognis, 
 Archilochus, and others, quoted by Donaldson and 
 other writers as occurring in JEschylus and Sopho- 
 cles. The same sentiments are frequently repeated, 
 and often in almost the self-same words. The ex- 
 archus or leader of the dithyramb, as is clear from 
 Aristotle f, employed the trochaic tetrameter as the 
 vehicle of his speech ; he was, therefore, to all 
 intents and purposes a rhapsode, and fell short of 
 being a real actor {yiroicpiTYis) in the strictest sense 
 only from carrying on no regular dialogue. Now it 
 is observed by Aristotle, that " tragedy arose from 
 the exarchi of the dithyramb." % But the dithyramb 
 contained in it the twofold elements of recitation and 
 of gnomic poetry, which had long been approaching 
 the form of a regular dialogue, and readily united 
 with the Dionysian goat-song, which had already 
 
 * Donaldson Greek Theatre, p. 33., ed. 1836. 
 
 f See Poet. ch. vi. 
 
 J airb toov i^apxoproov rbp BiOvpa/xSov. — Poet. eh. iv. 
 
28 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA, 
 
 assumed, as wc have shown above, the form of a lyric 
 tragedy. " The two parts were ripe for a more 
 intimate connection ; each of them had within itself 
 the seeds of an unborn drama, and they only needed 
 blending in order to be complete." * 
 
 Thespis, of the Attic demus of Icarius, is the 
 person who is traditionally reported to have united 
 these two elements together. It is possible, indeed, 
 that the name of Thespis may not, after all, denote 
 a real personage, as it is the usual Homeric epithet 
 of the bard f , and may, therefore, only point to the 
 aoedic or rhapsodic origin of tragedy. But if this be 
 not the case, in other words, if Thespis really lived, 
 it is to him that all antiquity ascribes the important 
 office. His birth-place was an ancient seat of the 
 worship of Dionysus ; and he was one of the Dia- 
 crians who supported the faction of Pisistratus. 
 The Diacrians had succeeded to the religious and 
 political ties of the caste of ^Egicores, or old Pelas- 
 gian goat-herds, w T ho worshipped their patron deity 
 Dionysus with the sacrifice of goats. The .ZEgicores, 
 at an early period, were reduced to a condition of 
 vassalage by their Ionian conquerors; but in the 
 course of time, as the spirit of freedom increased, 
 they gained the full privileges of citizens. Emanci- 
 pated from political degradation, they naturally as- 
 cribed their delivery to their patron deity Dionysus 
 or Bacchus, and worshipped him under the title of 
 
 * Donaldson, Greek Theatre, p. 35. No argument could be more 
 conclusive. t S*°' 7rLl ' aotiSv. 
 
UNION OF BACCHIC WORSHIP AND RHAPSODES. 29 
 
 Eleutherus.* From that day forth the god became 
 the object of peculiar honour among the Athenian 
 commons; it was therefore both politically and 
 religiously the interest of Pisistratus to foster the 
 Bacchic worship. Now the dithyramb and the Dorian 
 choral worship had been introduced into Attica at 
 an earlier period by command of the Delphic oracle f ; 
 and the recitation of epic poems was of old an esta- 
 blished custom at Brauron in Attica, where, at the 
 noisy and mirthful festival of the Brauronia |, rhap- 
 sodes came forward in succession, and recited verses 
 in honour of Bacchus. 
 
 Hence, then, we can see how easily and naturally 
 the w r orship of Bacchus, with its Dorian accompani- 
 ment of choral dance and song, allied itself with the 
 rhapsodic recitations in Attica. The political cir- 
 cumstances connected with the ascendancy of Pisis- 
 tratus doubtless gave a powerful impetus to both 
 elements, and especially to the latter ; and Thespis, 
 who was both an actor and a rhapsodist, is the person 
 whose name (as we said above) has come down to us 
 as the author of the important union of the twofold 
 element. Appearing himself as an actor, he could 
 scarcely have confined himself to mere narration; the 
 majestic simplicity and heroic grandeur of the old 
 epic style was now a bygone thing; the iambic 
 metre demanded something more homely, more phi- 
 losophic, more true to nature. Accordingly, what 
 
 * The same as Liber, the Free-er. 
 
 f See Pausan. i. 2. 5. 
 
 % Arist. Pax, 874. and Schol. 
 
30 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 more obvious than to address his speeches to the 
 chorus, of which he was the leader, and which, by 
 means of its coryphaei, could sustain a sort of dialogue 
 with him? It is possible that these speeches may 
 have been at first extemporised, as is distinctly 
 asserted by Aristotle*, when we consider the rude 
 nature of the company who were gathered at the 
 festival to be amused as well as to be instructed, and 
 the ready wit of the Ionian race in matters which 
 lay so near to the national heart; but it is almost 
 certain that these offhand effusions must speedily 
 have given way to something of a more fixed and 
 settled form, and that the dialogue before long must 
 have been composed and committed to memory.f 
 
 * Poet. ch. iv. 
 
 t A further question, with respect to the plays of Thespis, has 
 been started in modern times, as to whether their real character was 
 satiric or not. The former opinion has been maintained by no less 
 an authority than that of Bentley himself, who gives it as his opinion 
 that the plays of Thespis were all of a ludicrous kind, and that 
 Phrynichus and iEschylus were the first introducers of grave and 
 lofty subjects on the stage. But the voice of antiquity is decidedly 
 against such an opinion, so far as it can be ascertained ; and the 
 arguments adduced in its refutation by Dr. Donaldson are complete. 
 
EARLIEST GREEK TRAGEDIANS. 31 
 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 THE EARLIEST GREEK TRAGEDIANS. THESPIS — CHCERILUS. 
 
 PRATINAS. PHRYNICHUS. THE SATYRIC DRAMA. 
 
 It is now time that we should say something con- 
 cerning those tragedians at Athens whose early- 
 efforts paved the way for the tragedy of JEschylus 
 and Sophocles. It is agreed on all hands, as we 
 said in the last chapter, that Thespis was the first 
 who was acknowledged as a tragedian at Athens. 
 We may not, indeed, be able to go so far as to assert 
 with Horace, that tragedy before his time was ab- 
 solutely " unknown," any more than we can accept 
 as true the account which states that the poems or 
 plays of Thespis were carried about the country in 
 rustic waggons*,- — a fact which, however true it may 
 be of the earliest efforts of comedy, as we shall 
 hereafter see, is incompatible with the ascertained 
 origin of tragedy, and with the dances executed by 
 the dithyrambic chorus round the altar of Bacchus. 
 But we cannot reject the unanimous testimony of 
 both Greek and Latin authorities, who are explicit 
 
 " Ignotum tragical genus invenisse camoenae 
 Dicitur, et plaustris vexisse poemata Thespis, 
 Quae canerent agerentque peruncti fsecibus ora." 
 
 Ars Poet. 1. 275. 
 The emendation of Bentley, who purposes to read "qui" for 
 " qua?,' 1 is worth consideration. 
 
32 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 in stating that Thespis of Icarius, the Diacrian 
 partisan and supporter of Pisistratus, first caused 
 tragedy to become a drama properly so called; 
 although we have on the other side even the great 
 name of Bentley, who argues, in his Dissertations* on 
 the letters of Phalaris, that some efforts were made 
 in the tragic art before his time. 
 
 In the first place the Arundel marble, whose 
 antiquity carries us up to the year B.C. 260, declares 
 that Thespis was the first f who gave being to 
 tragedy. Next, the epigram of Dioscorides ex- 
 pressly asserts of tragedy, that it was the device of 
 Thespis $; and another ancient epigram is preserved, 
 which runs as follows : — 
 
 Seams 6'5e, rpayLK^u ts aveirXaae irpooros aoiSrjv, 
 KW/J.i}Tais veaphs KaivoTOfxcav %a/?iras. 
 
 From this we learn not only that Thespis was the 
 earliest tragedian, but also that tragedy in his day 
 was a new entertainment to the people. To these 
 testimonies we may add that of Plutarch §, who says 
 that " Thespis and his school began to call tragedy 
 into existence." And if further evidence be needed, 
 we have that of Clemens of Alexandria to the same 
 
 * pp. 165—180. 
 
 f 1. 465. : 'A9' ou ©eairis 6 ttoltittjs .... Trpcoros t>s Kai ec$i5a£e. 
 The word irp&Tos is not in the printed edition ; but it is legible on the 
 marble. 
 
 J 0eV7ri5os €vpefjia tovto. The epigram is printed at length at the 
 commencement of Stanley's edition of iEschylus. 
 
 § apx°l x ^ V(j0l/ r ^ p ir€ P l © ecr7n * / ^77 t)]v Tparycc'Sia.v Kiveiv. — Plut. 
 Vit Solon. 
 
THESPIS THE FIRST TRAGIC POET. 33 
 
 effect, who calls him the "deviser of tragedy/'* 
 and of Athenaeus, who manifestly alludes to Thespis 
 when he states that tragedy " had its origin in the 
 Icarian dance/' f and in mentioning the early tragic 
 poets, thus enumerates them, "Thespis, Pratinas, 
 Cratinus (Carcinus?), and Phrynichus," and adds, 
 that they were called dancers (op^aTi/col), " because 
 of the great use which they made of dancing in 
 their choruses.''^ Now, it is obvious to remark that, 
 if Athenaeus had known of any earlier tragedian, he 
 would have mentioned him. Suidas, moreover, 
 distinctly asserts § that " Phrynichus was the scholar 
 of Thespis, who first introduced tragedy ; " and it is 
 admitted by Bentley — and with great force, we think 
 — that it is incredible that the belief of his first in- 
 venting tragedy should so universally have obtained 
 in the ancient world, if the tragedies of any earlier 
 author had been extant. 
 
 Having established this point, the next step is to 
 consider in what sense we can allow Thespis to have 
 been the first tragedian, or, in other words, what is 
 the precise extent to which he altered and improved 
 upon the traditionary form as it came into his hands. 
 Even Plato himself admits that tragedy in some 
 sense is of a far more ancient date than the sixth 
 century B.C. " Tragedy," he says, " has of old 
 been located here, and began not, as men imagine, 
 
 * Strom, i. : iirevoriae rpayMav. 
 
 t p. 40. 
 
 % p- 22. id. Compare the words of Aristotle, Poet ch. 5. 
 
 § In voce ©eV7ns. 
 
 D 
 
34 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 from Phrynichus and Thcspis ; but, if you will con- 
 sider it, you will find it to have been an invention of 
 this city, and at a very early date." * In the earlier 
 chapters of this volume we have endeavoured to 
 show the limitations under which we can accept this 
 statement as true ; and we have already stated that 
 it was under Thespis that a union took place between 
 the two elements of Greek tragedy, and that the 
 dramatic form began to develope itself. The follow- 
 ing are the steps which would seem to have been 
 made by him in advance of his predecessors. Up to 
 this time the different coryphaei had at most kept ' 
 up an extempore dialogue among themselves; but 
 Thespis, we are told, introduced an actor for the 
 purpose of relieving the chorus. f This actor J was 
 called v7roKpLTi]9, because he answered (virefcpi- 
 vsto) or corresponded with the songs of the chorus. 
 The invention of masks, too (though assigned by 
 
 * Plato, Minos, chap. xvi. 321. : — rj 8e Tpaycpfiia £<ttI iraAaibv eV- 
 6d$e, ovx cos otovrcu airb QeamSos ap^a/mevri, ov5e airb $pvvixov, dAA* €t 
 &4\€i* evvorjcrai, ira^u iraAcubv avrb evprjaets ~bu rrjade rrjs irdAews euprjfia. 
 
 f varepov Be &4ains eVcc vnoKpir^jp i^evpev, vnep rov dtavwrraveaOai 
 rbv x°?° v - — Diog. Laert Plat. lxvi. It is probable that this single 
 actor was, in many instances, no other than himself. At all events, 
 Plutarch, in his "Life of Solon" (ch. xxix. ), states that the latter 
 " saw Thespis himself performing as an actor, as was the custom 
 with the ancient poets." The reader will do well to compare with 
 this passage the assertion of Aristotle, Rhet. iii. 1. See also 
 Livy, vii. 2. 
 
 J Some writers, considering the leader of the chorus himself as an 
 actor, speak of two viroKpirai in the time of Thespis ; and conse- 
 quently state that iEschylus introduced a third actor, instead of a 
 second. (Themistius, Orat. xxvi. p. 382., ed. Dindorf.) 
 
THESPIS IMPROVES TRAGEDY. 35 
 
 Horace* to .ZEschylus), is generally attributed to 
 Thespis ; and, as Mtiller remarks, the importance of 
 this improvement in tragic art can scarcely be over- 
 estimated, since it enabled the actor to sustain in 
 succession a variety of parts, and so substituted 
 something of regular plot and action for the mere 
 monologue or story spoken by the actor in the cha- 
 racter of a herald or a messenger.")* It is also as- 
 serted, though it is uncertain with what amount of 
 truth, that he invented the prologue and the prjais^ 
 and first admitted female characters on the stage §, 
 and committed his tragedies to writing. || It is pro- 
 bable that he used both trochaic and iambic metre. 
 The names or titles of five of his plays have been 
 preserved by Suidas and other writers..). Some ex- 
 tracts from the supposed remains of Thespis are pre- 
 served in the pages of Plutarch and Clemens Alexan- 
 drinus; but it has been satisfactorily shown that 
 they are all forgeries. It is quite certain, however, 
 in spite of these improvements, that under Thespis 
 
 * " personce pallseque repertor honestse 
 
 ./Eschylus.' Ars Poet. 1. 278. 
 
 f The mask itself was of linen. 
 
 % Themistius, p. 316. : — Qtawis 8e irpoXoyov re /cat ffivLV e£eupei/. 
 
 § Suidas distinctly says : — ©iairis irpwros yvvauteiov Trpoacoirov 
 eiaiiyayev. 
 
 || Donatus expressly asserts that this was the ease. (JDe Comoed. 
 et Tragced. ; Gronovii Thesaurus, viii. p. 1387.) 
 
 \. According to Themistius (Orat. p. 382.), they are as follows i 
 — " The Alcestis ; *' " The Funeral Games of Pelias ; " " Phorbas ; " 
 *« The Priests ; " and " The Youths." To this Suidas adds, that 
 of their construction nothing is known, except that each seems to 
 have commenced with a prologue. 
 
 D 2 
 
36 HAND-BOOK OF TTIE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 the choral element strongly preponderated over the 
 dialogue*, and, in consequence, we can understand 
 the meaning of the name given by Athenseus to the 
 early dramatists. In support of its appropriateness, 
 we may here remark that, while all traces of his 
 plays were forgotten, so far as concerns the plot and 
 style, long before the age of Aristotle and Plato, 
 the name of Thespis stands associated with some 
 alterations in the choral dances, which once were 
 deemed important, and that his choral songs and 
 figures were so well known as to have passed into a 
 proverb in the days of Aristophanes, f 
 
 Bentley places the date of the earliest performance 
 of Thespis about the year 535 or 536 B.C., ten years 
 
 * It is observable that, according to Aristotle, one main point of 
 the alterations introduced by iEschylus is the diminution of the 
 province belonging to the choral element (Ta rod x°P°v 7/Aarrwcrej>. 
 — Arist. Poet. ch. iv.). 
 
 f Bentley, as is well known, was of opinion that the plays of 
 Thespis were satirical and ludicrous, not of a tragic kind. But he 
 brought forward no argument in support of his theory. The evi- 
 dence on the other side is abundant. In addition to the testimonies 
 already adduced in this chapter to the tragic character of Thespis, 
 the mere forgeries of Heraclides Ponticus are overwhelming proof 
 of the serious character of his various plays ; for, as Donaldson 
 remarks, " if his contemporaries had really believed that Thespis 
 wrote nothing but ludicrous plays, a scholar of Aristotle would 
 hardly have attempted to impose upon the public with a set of plays 
 altogether different in style and title from those of the author on 
 whom he wished to pass them off." A further argument may be 
 derived from the fact related by Suidas, that Sophocles wrote upon 
 the chorus in opposition to Chcerilus and Thespis ; which "would 
 seem to go far to prove that their performances could not have been 
 so very different from his. 
 
THESPIS. — CHGERILUS. 37 
 
 before the birth of iEschylus ; and it is most pro- 
 bable that his career extended over a quarter of a 
 century at the least. Donaldson remarks that " of 
 course there could be no theatrical contests in the 
 days of Thespis." (Plutarch, " Solon," xxix.) But in 
 spite of so high an authority, we believe that, although 
 what he states may be true of the earlier days of 
 Thespis, still towards the end of his career tragic 
 contests were introduced at Athens, and that Thespis 
 himself in all probability contended for the prize, 
 not only with Choerilus, but also with Phrynichus, 
 who is called his disciple. But we are anticipating. 
 The next name to that of Thespis, according to 
 the usually received order, is that of Choerilus. But 
 if we are left comparatively in the dark with respect 
 to Thespis, this is still more the case with his suc- 
 cessor. According to Suidas, he commenced ex- 
 hibiting tragedies in the year 523 B.C.; and he is 
 said to have contended for the prize in B.C. 499, 
 with Pratinas and -ZEschylus. He is called a tragic 
 poet ; and it is probable that we are to understand 
 the word as true of him in its stricter and more 
 primitive sense, since he is mentioned as having espe- 
 cially excelled in the satyric drama.* From this we 
 may infer, that up to the period of Choerilus tragedy 
 had not quite departed from its original form, and 
 that the chorus was still satyric or tragic in the 
 proper sense of the word. But of the satyric drama 
 we shall come to speak in its proper place. Choerilus 
 
 * In the anonymous verse, — 
 
 7)vina fihu fia<TiAevs i)V XoipiXos iv ^ZarvpoKTU 
 D 3 
 
 1 
 
38 IIAXP-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 is said to have been the author of 150 plays; but not 
 oven a fragment of his writings has been preserved. 
 Pausanias * mentions the name of one of his dramas 
 called the Alope, in which Cercyon and Triptolemus 
 are introduced ; and hence we should be inclined to 
 suppose that his writings partook of the mythical as 
 well as of the satyric character ; and he is said to 
 have introduced some improvements in the dress of 
 the actors on the stage. His name, we may here 
 remark, is generally mentioned by ancient authors 
 with some degree of contempt ; but some modern 
 writers have claimed for him, as probably his due, a 
 higher rank, since he is mentioned by Alexis f in 
 company with Orpheus, Homer, Hesiod, and Epi- 
 charmus. 
 
 The name of Phrynichus, which follows next in 
 order, brings us once more within the region of well 
 ascertained facts. The date of his birth and death 
 are unknown; but it is a well established fact that 
 he contended for the tragic prize successfully in 511 
 B.C., and again, after an interval of thirty-five years, 
 in 476 B.C. (when Themistocles was his choragusj), 
 with a play called the Phcenissce. In this play, which 
 is generally thought to have been the source whence 
 JEschylus borrowed his idea of the Persse, he cele- 
 brated the exploits of Athens in the Persian war. 
 The chorus was composed, as the name of the play 
 denotes, of Phasnician women from Sidon and its 
 coasts, who had been sent to the Persian court ; and 
 
 * i. 14. § 3. f Athen. iv. p. 164. C. % .See below, ch. v 
 
PHRYNICHUS. 39 
 
 another part of it was formed of noble Persians, who 
 in the king's absence consulted about the affairs of 
 the kingdom, — a feature which possibly accounts for 
 the title of Xuvdcotcoi, or the " Councillors," under 
 which it appears to be enumerated by Suidas.* In 
 the interval, however, Phrynichus had exhibited a 
 tragedy the results of which have immortalised his 
 name in the pages of Herodotus. During the Ionian 
 revolt, the city of Miletus had been taken by the 
 Persians, B. C. 494 ; and Phrynichus chose as the 
 subject of a tragedy the capture of that city, and the 
 calamities consequent upon its fall. Miletus was a 
 colony and ally of Athens; and so tender were the 
 ties of friendship between the mother city and her 
 colony, that when Phrynichus exhibited his MiXrJTov 
 aXoocrts, Herodotus | informs us that " the whole 
 theatre was moved to tears, and that the Athenian 
 
 * With respect to this play, Muller says : " At the beginning of 
 this drama, a royal eunuch and carpet-spreader (arp(ary]s) came 
 forward, prepared seats for the high council, and announced its 
 meeting. The weighty cares of these aged men, and the passionate 
 laments of the Phoenician damsels, who had been deprived of their 
 fathers or their brothers by the sea-fight, doubtless made a contrast 
 in which one of the main charms of the drama consisted. The 
 chorus of Phoenician women, at its entrance upon the stage, sung a 
 choral song commencing with the words Iz.iS&viov &<ttv \nr6vres, or 
 Kal 2i5w^os irpoXnrovTa vaov, as we learn from the scholiast on 
 Aristoph. Vesp. 220." It should be observed that iEschylus himself 
 would seem to allude (Ran. 1299.) to a supposition that he borrowed 
 from Phrynichus his idea of some tragedy or other : — 
 
 %va /J.7] rbu abrhv $pvptx<? 
 Ktiliwva Movaccv Upbv o(pQeif]V dpeirwu. 
 f vi. 21. 
 
 d 4 
 
40 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 people sentenced him to pay a fine of the amount of 
 a thousand drachmae, for having reminded them too 
 keenly of their own misfortunes." " A remarkable 
 judgment," observes Miiller*, " of the Athenians con- 
 cerning the proper work of poetry, by which they 
 manifestly expected to be raised into a higher world, 
 and not to be reminded of the miseries of the present 
 life." The tears which Phrynichus drew from his au- 
 dience when he exhibited the play above mentioned, 
 would alone show that, if he did not soar into sub- 
 limity, he had w r ell studied another branch of the poet's 
 art, and had made a successful appeal to the feeling of 
 pity in the breasts of his countrymen. But if we 
 wish to form anything like a correct notion of the 
 popular opinion at Athens at a later time with re- 
 gard to Phrynichus, we should naturally turn to those 
 passages of the comic poets which contain any allu- 
 sion to his name or writings ; and fortunately in this 
 respect w r e have abundant evidence of the character 
 of his works. Aristophanes frequently brings for- 
 ward his name, and it is always in connection with 
 sweet, tender, and plaintive subjects ; and he men- 
 tions him in such way that we cannot but feel that 
 even during the Peloponnesian war his melodies re- 
 mained fixed in the hearts of the elder people. f That 
 
 * Literature of Greece, chap. vi. note. 
 
 f Thus, in the Vespse, 269., we are told of the old dicast 
 Philocleon : 
 
 Tiyeir av atiwv $pvvixou* Kal yap iariu ai>7)p 
 
 And Agathon in the Thesmoph. 164. speaks generally of the beauty 
 of his dramas. 
 
PHRYNICHUS. 41 
 
 lie was plain and simple to a fault, is clear from a 
 passage in the Range, and the comment of the scho- 
 liast upon it: — "The very dicasts themselves, in ' The 
 Wasps, trill plaintive songs, those sweet old honied 
 songs of Phrynichus and the Sidonians."* And 
 Phrynichus is compared to a bee " feeding on the 
 fruit of ambrosial melodies, and uttering the sweet- 
 ness of song." f From all this it is clear that, while 
 he fell short of JEschylus in grandeur, and of Sopho- 
 cles in art, he had a beauty and a grace of his own 
 which was not lost upon his countrymen, and which 
 makes us regret that, out of the fifteen or seventeen % 
 tragedies ascribed to him, no fragments remain from 
 which we can form an independent judgment on his 
 merits. It is generally asserted, as we said above, 
 that he was the first who admitted female parts upon 
 the stage ; but these, according to the habits of the 
 ancients, could only be acted by men. Like Thespis, 
 he had only one actor, at all events in the early part 
 of his career, before the innovations of his great fol- 
 lower and rival, of whom we shall speak in another 
 chapter. Some of his characters, to judge from the 
 words of Euripides in the Range of Aristophanes §, 
 
 * apxaioijL€\7)cri$o>i'0(ppvi'ix'hp aTa ' — v. 219. 
 
 t Aves, 748. 
 
 J Donaldson agrees with the majority of authors in considering 
 that several of these tragedies are the works of two other dramatists 
 of the same name, and who have heen confounded with the cotem- 
 porary of Choerilus and iEschylus. Bentley, however, has argued 
 very forcibly on the other side, that this supposition is untenable, 
 and that there was ouly one tragic poet of this name. 
 
 § Line 912, 
 
42 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 would appear to have been mutes upon the stage, 
 such as Niobe for instance; and there need have 
 been nothing ridiculous in such an arrangement, but 
 on the contrary, much that was in strict keeping 
 with what we conceive to have been the leading 
 feature in Phrynichus as a dramatist. But the ob- 
 servation of Miiller is doubtless true, when he re- 
 marks that in all probability his chief merit lay in 
 dancing* and lyric compositions, and that, if his works 
 were extant at the present day, we should feel in- 
 clined to rank him rather among the lyric poets of 
 the ^Eolian school than among the dramatists of 
 Athens. 
 
 In treating of Choerilus, we have already men- 
 tioned the satvric drama as the branch of dramatic 
 art in which he most excelled. But the complete 
 separation of the satyric drama from tragedy in its 
 more usual acceptation, was effected by Pratinas, a 
 Phliasian, who came forward at Athens, about the 
 year jb. c. 500, as a rival of Choerilus and JEschylus. 
 His preference for the satyric drama probably arose 
 from the connection of his native Phlius with Co- 
 
 * Plutarch (Symp. iii. 9.) has preserved part of an epigram said 
 to have been written by Phrynichus himself, in which he thus com- 
 memorates the fruitfulness of his fancy in devising figure dances : 
 
 aX'hl xa ' Ta & opxnws t6(Tol fxoi irSpev, ftao* inl irdurca 
 Kiffiara iroie7rai x e ^ aTi V H o\oi\. 
 
 Compare Arist. Vesp. 1523 — 5.: 
 
 raxvv 7ro5a KvuXoaogelre, 
 Kal rb fypui/ixewv 
 cKKcLKTiadru) ris. 
 
PRATINAS. — SATYRIC DRAMA. 43 
 
 rinth and Sicyon, where the tragedy of Arion and 
 Epigenes had introduced a chorus of satyrs. We 
 know but little of Pratinas, except what we learn 
 from Suidas, namely, that he composed fifty dramas, 
 of which no less than thirty-two were satyrical, and 
 that his fellow-citizens at Phlius honoured him with 
 a monument in their market place as a composer of 
 satyric dramas second only to .ZEschylus. We are 
 also informed that he wrote lyric poems of a hypor- 
 chematic kind.* In connection with his name we 
 may also mention that on one occasion, when he was 
 acting at Athens, his wooden stage broke down, and 
 that in consequence of this accident the Athenians 
 were induced to build a theatre of stone. 
 
 Such is the scanty amount of information that we 
 possess concerning the four Greek tragedians whose 
 names have come down to us as having flourished 
 prior to the days of -ZEschylus. But before we close 
 the present chapter, it will be necessary to add a 
 few remarks on the satyric drama, with which the 
 names of two out of them are so intimately asso- 
 ciated. 
 
 The term aarvpos or rirvpos — for the two 
 words are etymologically the same — was identical 
 in meaning with rpdyo9 y a goat, and was applied 
 from the very earliest times to the worshippers of 
 Bacchus, who danced in the cyclic chorus around the 
 altar of the wine-god, clad in rude and grotesque 
 dresses of the skins of goats, which probably they 
 
 * See Muller, Lit. of Greece, ch. xii. § 10. 
 
44 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 had sacrificed upon the altar ; thus representing the 
 bands of Silcni and other fabulous divinities which 
 the old poetic traditions had assigned to Bacchus as 
 his customary train of attendants. Such, as we have 
 already seen above *, was the original form which the 
 worship of Dionysus assumed among the Ionian 
 peasantry. But, as tragedy in its more usual accep- 
 tation (to borrow the words of Miillerf) " constantly 
 inclined to heroic fables in preference to subjects 
 connected with Dionysus, and as the rude style of 
 the old Bacchic sports yielded to a more dignified and 
 serious mode of composition, the chorus of satyrs 
 was no longer an appropriate accompaniment. But 
 it was the custom in Greece to retain and cultivate 
 all the earlier forms of poetry which had anything 
 peculiar and characteristic, together with the newer 
 varieties formed from them. Accordingly, in the 
 course of time, a separate satyric drama was deve- 
 loped in addition to tragedy, and, for the most part, 
 three tragedies and one satyric drama at the conclu- 
 sion were represented together, forming a connected 
 whole. This satyric drama was not a comedy, but, 
 as an ancient author aptly describes it, a playful 
 tragedy. Its subjects were taken from the same 
 class of adventures of Bacchus and the heroes as in 
 tragedy ; but they were so treated in connection 
 with rude objects of outward nature, that the pre- 
 sence and participation of rustic petulant satyrs 
 seemed quite appropriate. Accordingly, all scenes 
 
 * Page 18. f Literature of Greece, ch. vi. 
 
SATYRIC DRAMA. 45 
 
 from free untamed nature — adventures of a striking 
 character, where strange monsters and savage ty- 
 rants of mythology are overcome by valour or stra- 
 tagem — belong to this class; and in such scenes as 
 these the satyrs could express various feelings of 
 terror and delight, disgust and desire, with all the 
 openness and unreserve which belong to their cha- 
 racter. All mythical subjects and characters were 
 not, therefore, suited to the satyric drama. The 
 character best suited to this drama seems to have 
 been the powerful hero Hercules, an eater and 
 drinker and boon companion, who, when he is in 
 good humour, allows himself to be amused by the 
 petulant sports of satyrs and other similar elves. 9 ' 
 
 But we shall hereafter have cause to say more con- 
 cerning the satyric drama, when we come to examine 
 in detail the plays of Euripides, and more especially 
 his Alcestis and his Cyclops. 
 
16 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 CHAP. V. 
 
 TIME AND PLACE. — THE FESTIVALS OF BACCHUS. — THE 
 THEATRE. — THE POET. ACTORS. AUDIENCE. 
 
 The student of antiquity, and especially of the 
 ancient drama, cannot be too often reminded that, 
 if he would form to himself an adequate estimate of 
 theatrical representations at Athens, or catch any- 
 thing of their spirit and meaning, he must cast aside 
 all the associations of modern habits and customs, 
 and throw himself into the circumstances under 
 which the Grecian dramas were performed. Our 
 theatres are places of amusement, or at the best of 
 instruction ; they are open night after night for 
 dramatical performances ; and our plays are, or aim 
 at being, close representations of the actual manners 
 of daily life — of human life as agitated by the actual 
 passions of human nature, and corresponding as 
 accurately as possible to the original in all its 
 features. But it was not so at Athens. From the 
 very earliest times, as we have already seen, the 
 Grecian drama was connected with the rites of the 
 national religion; and it must be remembered that 
 this connection lasted throughout the whole period 
 of its existence. " The theatrical representations at 
 Athens, even in the days of Sophocles and Aristo- 
 phanes, were constituent parts of a religious festival; 
 
IDEA OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 47 
 
 the theatre in which they were 'performed was sacred 
 to Bacchus, and the worship of the god was always 
 as much regarded as the amusement of the sovereign 
 people."* Moreover, instead of adhering to ordi- 
 nary life, the Grecian drama aimed at departing as 
 far as possible from it : its character is in the highest 
 degree ideal. The very artistic costume f adopted 
 by the actors and the chorus, was as far as possible 
 removed from that worn by Athenian citizens of the 
 day : though stiff and conventional, still it was 
 heroic, and therefore ideal, and tended in no small 
 degree to assist the illusion produced by other 
 means to which we shall hereafter allude. The 
 actors of tragedy wore long dresses reaching down to 
 the ground, (irsifkoi, aroXal Troh^pzis), over which 
 were thrown upper garments of purple and various 
 colours of brilliant hues, with gay trimmings and 
 ornaments of gold ; in fact their costume w T as the ordi- 
 nary dress worn at the Bacchic festivals by those who 
 took part in the processions and choral dances. And 
 further, as tragedy and in fact all dramatic exhibi- 
 tions were performed only at the Dionysian festivals, 
 the whole appearance of the theatre retained a 
 Bacchic colouring, " it appeared in the character of 
 a Bacchic solemnity and diversion ; and the extra- 
 ordinary excitement of all minds at these festivals, 
 by raising them above the tone of every-day life, 
 gave both to the tragic and the comic muse unwonted 
 energy and fire." f 
 
 * Donaldson, Greek Theatre, ch. ii. § 1. 
 f Miiller, Lit. of Greece, ch. xxii. § l 9j 
 
48 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 It is a matter still of dispute, whether the Athe- 
 nian festivals of Bacchus (Atovvaca *), were three 
 or four in number. Bos, in his u Antiquities of 
 Greece/'f admits only two; but he is certainly mis- 
 taken. Miiller admits three, the Lenasa, and the 
 greater and lesser DionysiaJ, all of which festivals 
 were observed with greater pomp and solemnity at 
 Athens than in any other part of Greece.§ To 
 these three Dionysian festivals Donaldson adds a 
 fourth, which was known as the Anthesteria, 
 and which is called by Thucydides himself the 
 
 * Hesych. in Aiovwia. These festivals were often called opyia 
 and Ba/cx^a. See Aristoph. Ranse, 360. 
 
 f Part I. ch. xvi. 
 
 J The Ayvcua (also known as ra Kifxvcua, or ra, iv Aijxvais) were so 
 called from being held in a part of the city near the Acropolis, 
 where was a sacred ir€pi§o\os or enclosure sacred to Bacchus, and 
 containing a Krjvds or winepress associated with his worship from 
 very early times. The Ta kclt aypovs, as their name imports, were 
 celebrated in every Srj/nos and village of Attica, in a more humble 
 and rustic way. They are alluded to by Dicseopolis in Aristophanes' 
 " Acharnians," line 202. : #£o> ra kclt ay povs elo-ikv Awvwia. 
 The greater Dionysia, ra acm/ca, or ra eV oVt€/, called also Ta 
 /ueyaAa, or simply Ta Aiovvcria, were celebrated in the spring, at the 
 time when the allies were in Athens for the purpose of paying their 
 <p6pos. This assertion is supported by a passage in the " Acharnians," 
 1. 477. &c, and the scholiast ad loc, as well as by the reproach of 
 ^Eschines against Demosthenes, to the effect that he was too vain to 
 be content with having the crown proclaimed at any other festival 
 except the Great Dionysia, when all Greece was present. {Adv. 
 Ctesiph.) \ 
 
 § For example, as we learn from Suidas, the years at Athens were 
 numbered by them ; the chief archon had the management of them 
 (diariOevai Aiouvaia, Pollux, viii. p.m. 440.); and the priest of 
 Bacchus was honoured with the first seat at the public shows. 
 (Schol. Aristoph. Ran. 299.) 
 
 i 
 
! 
 i 
 
 RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS. 49 
 
 greater festival of Bacchus.* But both he and Mill- 
 ler are agreed in assigning the dramatic exhibitions 
 to the three feasts originally mentioned, all of which 
 were celebrated in the winter or early spring. From 
 the extant Didascalia, or registers of the victories 
 of the lyric and dramatic poets as teachers (S/Saovca- 
 \ol) of their respective choruses f, Muller argues 
 that at Athens new tragedies were exhibited at 
 the Lensea and the greater Dionysia, the latter 
 of which, he adds, was a most brilliant festival, at 
 which the allies of Athens and many foreigners also 
 were present. 1 Old tragedies also, he considers, 
 were acted at the Lenaea; and none but old ones 
 were acted at the lesser or rural Dionysia. To this 
 Donaldson adds that comedies also were exhibited 
 at the great Dionysia and the Lensean festival ; and 
 he is inclined to believe that no actual representa- 
 tions of dramas took place at the Anthesteria, 
 although probably the tragedians may have then 
 
 * ii. 15. Others consider that Thucydides refers in this passage 
 to the Lencea. 
 
 f See below, near the end of this chapter. 
 
 \ This is clear from the words of the vdfxos quoted by Demo- 
 sthenes (contr. Midiam, p. 517.): v iirl A7]vai(a tto/jlit}], kcu ol rpa- 
 yoiSol /cat ol Kco/J.qidol } kcu rots iv aarei £yiovvo~ioLS rj irojj.Trrjy kcu ol ircudes 
 kcu 6 k&plos, kcu ol K(ti/j.a)dol koI ol rpayySoi. The fact that none but 
 new dramas were allowed to appear at the greater Dionysia would 
 seem to be inferred in the words of the same orator (de Corona, p. 
 264.), avayopevo-cu rov arecpapou ev rq> Sedrpcp Aiovvaiois, Tpaycpduh 
 naivots. Donaldson adds a note informing us that " this custom 
 continued down to the times of Julius Csesar, when a similar decree 
 was passed in favour of Hyrcanus, the high priest and ethnarch of 
 the Jews," referring to Josephus, Ant Jud. xiv. 8. 
 
 E 
 
50 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 read to a select audience the tragedies which they 
 had composed for the great festival of the follow- 
 ing month. We may here remark that, although 
 the rural Dionysia were celebrated with dramatic 
 performances, it was only at the Lenaea and 
 greater Dionysia that prizes were contested by the 
 poets. 
 
 We will suppose ourselves, then, suddenly trans- 
 ported to the streets of Athens as they appeared 
 some three and twenty centuries backward in the 
 world's history. It is early spring ; and the feast of 
 the greater Dionysia is being celebrated. * The 
 allies from a hundred subject cities are in Athens. 
 Besides these, there are metoecs and other strangers 
 in hundreds and thousands : rough mountaineers 
 from Arcadia, sturdy seamen from Rhodes and 
 Crete, the dark swarthy faces of Egyptians, and the 
 more polished and wealthy merchants from Cyprus 
 and Phoenicia. The city is beside itself with joy ; 
 and its inhabitants are vying with each other in 
 doing honour to the fabled victories and the more 
 tangible bounties of Dionysus. There is silence 
 indeed in the law courts and the prisons ; for how 
 shall prisoners not be freed by the god whom the 
 people worships under the title of Eleutherius ? But 
 in the streets there is nothing to be heard but the 
 Bacchic song, or to be seen save the Bacchic revelry 
 of the Thiasus ; the gift of the wine-god is freely 
 
 * A graphic and spirited picture of Athens during a Dionysian 
 festival, may be found in Mr. J. T. Wheeler's Biography of Hero- 
 dotus, vol. ii. ch. 29. (Longmans, 1856.) 
 
THE DIONYSIA AT ATHENS. 51 
 
 drunk, and inspires his votaries with proportionate 
 enthusiasm. It is an ancient carnival outdone in 
 the madness of its boisterous and extravagant merri- 
 ment. There is the phallic procession, headed by a 
 citizen who carries the thyrsus, and who, with his 
 attendant train of revellers, has assumed the goat- 
 skin of the ancient satyrs, and has daubed his face 
 and arms with green and red juices, or painted them 
 with stripes of soot and vermilion. Behind him 
 walk in stately order some comely maidens of noble 
 birth, who, with heads erect, bear aloft the mystic 
 basket of sacred figs, while a Xucvofyopos carries the 
 image of the god himself, and a motley crowd of 
 male and female maskers, Bacchae, and Thyades, close 
 the procession with the boisterous music of flutes, 
 cymbals, and drums.* And again in the great public 
 procession of the day, where the noblest of foreigners 
 and citizens are collected, the god is represented by 
 the most beautiful of the slave population, dressed 
 out in the most expensive and fantastic of theatrical 
 array sf, and the joyous crowd, with frantic cries of 
 triumph and exultation, attend the principal train to 
 the Temple of Bacchus. 
 
 But it is towards the south-eastern side of the hill^ 
 which is crowned by the Acropolis, that the crowds 
 are flocking thickest from every quarter of the city. 
 The theatre of Bacchus is the great centre of attrac- 
 
 * Bockh's Essay, Philol. Mus. vol. ii. 
 
 t Plutarch, Nic. 3., relates that, on one occasion, a beautiful 
 slave belonging to Nicias represented Dionysus. Compare Athe- 
 nseus, v. p. 200. 
 
 E 2 
 
52 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 tion. It is no common building that can find space 
 for so many thousand people ; and it is no ordinary 
 scenic performance that is presently to add a high 
 intellectual treat to the more sensual enjoyments of 
 the festival. A new tragedy, upon an old heroic 
 story of thrilling interest, of Pallas Athena, or of the 
 old Mycenian kings of " Pelops' line," has gained 
 the tragic prize; its praises have been highly sounded 
 for some weeks in private ; and now it is about to 
 be displayed for the first time. The choragus has 
 munificently furnished his costly contingents ; the 
 poet has chosen the best actors of the city, and has 
 decked them in the most gorgeous of tragic attire ; 
 and, above all, the author himself is the popular 
 favourite of the day. The people, too, during 
 their much Joved feast, have succeeded in breaking 
 the chains that bound them to their common daily 
 life ; with their keen poetic and religious feelings 
 excited to the utmost, they have passed into an ideal 
 and imaginary world; and so with breathless ea- 
 gerness, and with their expectations raised to the 
 highest pitch, 30,000 of their number enter the 
 theatre, and seat themselves, and await the opening 
 of the drama. 
 
 Such in few words, is a true picture of the scene 
 which must have been witnessed at Athens upon 
 each return of the greater Dionysia. We have 
 stated the time at which this feast was celebrated ; 
 we therefore now go on to add some account of the 
 place in which these tragic displays were exhibited. In 
 other words, we proceed next to a description of the 
 
AN ANCIENT THEATRE. 53 
 
 theatre of Bacchus at Athens, the most perfect 
 theatre of antiquity, and the model upon which 
 those in the other cities of Greece and Italy were 
 generally formed, though with more or less of strict 
 resemblance in detail. 
 
 I. In perusing the following pages the student, 
 we repeat, must dismiss from his mind altogether 
 the idea of a modern theatre. An open-air exhibi- 
 tion, attended by many thousands of spectators, 
 and bearing the character of a great religious festival, 
 is without any exact parallel in modern times. But 
 as far as regards the general aspect of the building, 
 and the whole assemblage, we may imagine them to 
 have presented somewhat the same appearance as 
 the crowded galleries rising, round the circus of an 
 Andalusian or Grallician bull-fight in the middle 
 ages. The old wooden scaffolding erected within 
 the Lenaeon, or enclosure sacred to Bacchus, having 
 fallen down in the year 500 B.C., the Athenians 
 commenced building that magnificent theatre of stone 
 which it took 120 years to complete, although at 
 an earlier period the work had proceeded far enough 
 to admit of the performance of the great Attic 
 dramas. The Theatre of Bacchus was built into the 
 south-eastern side of the hill on the summit of which 
 stood the Acropolis. From the foot of this eminence 
 rose tier above tier a semicircular range of benches, 
 capable of accommodating some 50,000 people. The 
 lowest of these tiers was twelve feet above the level 
 of the ground ; and this, with the one or two next 
 above it, was appropriated to the use of the principal 
 
 E 3 
 
54 IIAXD-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 people of the city, and for that reason was called the 
 fiovXevTLfcov. The body of the citizens were ar- 
 ranged according to their tribes ; and the young men 
 had a space set apart for themselves, entitled the 
 ifalfiiKov* The passages which separated the different 
 tiers were denominated Sia^cofjLara, and the compart- 
 ments formed by these and the staircases, which 
 would cut them at right angles, Ksptcthss. The shape 
 of Ihe large open space which intervened between 
 the spectators and the stage with its appurtenances, 
 and which was called the orchestra, will be readily 
 understood, by conceiving the private boxes of an 
 English theatre to be removed, and the ground which 
 they now occupy, as well as the pit, with a single 
 exception, to be left entirely vacant.f This whole 
 space was called the orchestra; the two wings or 
 horns, on either side, were called irapohoi, while the 
 space which lay exactly between these, in front 
 of the semicircular portion, and which , would cor- 
 respond to the place occupied in our theatres by the 
 stalls and orchestra, was styled the hpofjuos-. Just at 
 the central point of the whole, halfway between 
 either extremity of the amphitheatre, stood the 
 thymele or representative of the old altar round 
 which the chorus had danced, and where they now 
 sat or stood during the progress of the drama : these 
 were the only occupants of the orchestra. Imme- 
 diately facing the thymele, and at the same height 
 
 * Aristoph. Aves, 794., Schol. 
 
 f For the benefit of those to whom the interior of an English 
 theatre may not be familiar, we have added the subjoined figure. 
 
THEATRE OF BACCHUS. 
 
 55 
 
 PLAN OF THE THEATRE OF BACCHUS. 
 
 A. Lower Portico. 
 
 B. Upper or third Portico. 
 
 C. The Scene. 
 
 D. The Prosceniiim. 
 
 E. The Hyposcenium. 
 
 F. The Thymele. 
 
 G. The Parascenium. 
 H. The Orchestra. 
 I. The Setts. 
 K. The Staircases. 
 L. Periactae. 
 M. The Bouleuticon. 
 
 from the ground as the lowest tier of the benches 
 composing the amphitheatre, was the front portion of 
 the stage, projecting a little from the rest, and called 
 the Xoystov : this was where the principal part of the 
 dialogue was carried on. The Xoyslov itself was 
 built of wood ; but the front and sides were adorned 
 with columns and statues, which were called ra vtto- 
 
56 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 a/ojvia. Next behind the \oys2ov was the stage proper, 
 or 7rpoaKJ]vtov 9 so called from being in front of the 
 (TK71V7], and built of stone. At the back of this stood 
 the aK7]vij * or scene, a stationary edifice of stonework 
 representing a palace, with three entrances to the 
 stage, of which the middle one, intended for the 
 principal characters, was called fiacriXzios. The other 
 two are called by Vitruvius hospitales, as supposed 
 to lead to the apartments of the King's guests. If 
 an actor entered the Xoyslov from the side near 
 Athens, he was supposed to belong to the city in 
 which the scene was laid ; if from the other side, he 
 was supposed to be a stranger. These contrivances 
 were necessary to a people who knew nothing of 
 playbills. The sides of the proscenium consisted, 
 like the back, of stationary stone buildings, having 
 passages communicating with the rest of the theatre, 
 but not intended for the entrance of actors. f Behind 
 
 * If we remember the exact meaning of this word we shall 
 appreciate the beauty of Virgil's expression — 
 
 " Turn silvis scena coruscis 
 Desuper." 2En. i. line 164. 
 
 f There is a passage in the oration of Demosthenes against 
 Miflias which has given rise to much difficulty on this subject : 
 tovs x°P^y°^ s (Tvvriyev in 4fi4, {Zo&v, aweiAcov, d/j.vvovai TrapearriKcbs 
 ro7s Kpn-cus, ra irapaffKrivia. (ppaTToov, TrpoarjXcov, 18iwtt]s &v f t<x hi](x6cna 
 kclkcl Ka\ Trpdy/xara afxvO-qrd /j.ol Trapexw SitTeXeaej/. Wolfe, in his 
 "Analecta Literaria" has a long dissertation on this subject, in which 
 he endeavours to prove that Vitruvius was mistaken in supposing 
 that the irapa(TKr)VLa were the sides of the proscenium. It appears 
 to us sufficient to consider that there were two kinds ofrrapaaK-npia and 
 fTKrjvai, — the permanent buildings of stone, and also the wooden 
 
 >r, 
 
A GREEK THEATRE : PARTS ; MACHINERY. 57 
 
 the cncrjvrj and TrapaaKrjvia were the dressing-rooms 
 of the actors, and what we should now call property 
 rooms, containing the machinery, dresses, &c* The 
 entrances to the theatre (stcrohoi) were at the sides of 
 the irdpohoi, and all round the outside was a space 
 covered with turf, planted with trees, and encircled 
 with a portico, where the chorus used to rehearse. 
 There was a similar portico outside the top of the 
 amphitheatre; in both of these the audience took 
 shelter in case of a sudden storm, and they also served 
 as places in which slaves waited for their masters 
 during the performances. 
 
 II. The machinery of the Attic theatre consisted 
 principally of the ecclyclema and periactas. We 
 must remember that with them the chief object of 
 scenery always was represented in the <t/ct]V7] or back- 
 ground, while the openings into the distance lay on 
 each side. The machinery for changing these was 
 such as we have mentioned. The periacta3 were tri- 
 angular pieces of woodwork revolving upon a pivot, 
 which were used for changes in the side scenery, and 
 of course stood in front of and concealed the stone 
 buildings of the parascenia. These must, in some 
 
 slides which were used when it was necessary to depart from the 
 ordinary scene of the outside of a royal house. The meaning of 
 the words (ppdrrcoy and irpocr^Xcav then becomes perfectly clear, and 
 we see no necessity for plunging any farther into the perplexing 
 though learned controversy which Wolfe has started. 
 
 * See Miiller, Lit. of Greece, vol i. p. 301. note. The account above 
 given seems the most simple and intelligible ; it is surely im- 
 probable that these rooms should have been situated between the 
 parascenia and the stage, as Donaldson represents them. 
 
58 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 respects, have been more convenient than our own 
 system of slides. The eccyclema was not in such 
 frequent use. It was only required on those occa- 
 sions when some extraordinary effect was to be pro- 
 duced. Usually it w T as employed to bring to view 
 the interior of a house ; for the aicr)vr} itself never re- 
 presented anything but the outside, — a plan which 
 was strictly in accordance with the Greek habit of 
 living in the open air. The eccyclema itself was a 
 movable scene, generally a house, which was placed 
 behind the central entrance or fiacriXuov in the <r/cr]vrj. 
 This entrance was closed either by curtains or folding- 
 doors; and at a given signal these were thrown 
 open, and the eccyclema wheeled forwards. In shape 
 it was concave ; and thus the necessary effect was 
 produced. Among the scenes supposed by Mliller 
 to have been represented in this manner are that in 
 the Agamemnon of iEschylus in which Clytem- 
 nestra with the bloody sword stands over the bodies 
 of Agamemnon and Cassandra; that in the Choe- 
 phoroe in which Orestes is seen on exactly the same 
 spot, after the slaughter of ^Egisthus and Clytem- 
 nestra ; and that in the Ajax of Sophocles, in which 
 the hero stands among the animals which he has slain 
 in his frenzy, and contemplates the effects of his 
 madness. * 
 
 It must, of course, be borne in mind, that there 
 w r ere many Greek plays, in the representation of 
 
 * Other instances may be found in the Electra of Sophocles, line 
 1450, and the Antigone, line 1293, et seq. 
 
THE ACTORS AND AUDIENCE. 59 
 
 which both the scena and parascenia were useless. 
 In Sophocles alone, the GEdipus Coloneus, the Ajax, 
 and the Philoctetes would require something different 
 from the outside of a city mansion. Still, as this 
 latter was the rule in their scenery, they kept the 
 stationary G/ciqvr) which we have described, and appear 
 to have used wooden slides like our own, which 
 formed a sort of false back and sides to the prosce- 
 nium, when it was necessary to effect any such 
 change.* 
 
 III. We now proceed to our consideration of the 
 actors and the audience. The state in which the 
 dram:: had been left by Thespis has been already 
 described. He had introduced a single actor (vTroxpL- 
 T7]sf) 9 for the purpose, it is said, of resting the chorus; 
 but it was yet uncertain whether the chorus or the 
 dialogue should become the leading feature of Greek 
 tragedy. This question was set at rest by -ZEschylus, 
 who introduced a second actor; and it was then 
 probably that the names of 7rpcoraycovicrT7]9 and Ssu- 
 T6paya)VLcrTr}9 were first conferred. In such of his 
 
 * Various other contrivances were in use for special purposes ; 
 such as the &eo\oye?ov, the al&pcu, the A«?X az/ ^ repavos, fipovrelov, and 
 K€pavyo§povre?ov, tuaucvkXiov, &c, which the student will find ex- 
 plained in the " Dictionary of Grecian and Roman Antiquities." 
 
 f On the derivation of the word viroKpir^s, the reader may 
 compare Eustathius ad Iliad. H. 407. : 9 I<rr4ov 5e kcu on ovk o?8ej> 
 0/J.7)pos r\\v Ae'£tj/ rod airoKpivaadai, cas Kal iu a\A.ois <pa,vsLrai, a\X' avr' 
 avrov rep viroKpiuaaOai Ke'xpjrar cpaal 5e Kal rov irapa ro7s dpafj.ariKo?s 
 v-rroKpirT]]/ ovrco \4yecrdcu, 5ia rb irpbs rbv x°P 0J/ viroKpipeorOcu. The term 
 therefore originated with the introduction by Thespis of an actor 
 to take part with the chorus. 
 
60 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 tragedies as were acted by two characters only, viz., 
 the * Prometheus,' the 'Persae,' the 'Septem contra 
 Thebas,' and the * Supplices,' the parts of the prota- 
 gonist and deuteragonist are not substantially different 
 from those assigned them after a third actor had been 
 added. The first is what we call " the hero " of the 
 piece; the second is a sort of foil, who is to call 
 out the expression of his various emotions. In the 
 ' Prometheus Vinctus/ Oceanus, Io, and Hermes 
 assume this character in turn ; but there is also a 
 third and invisible power in the background, who 
 causes the sufferings of the protagonist; and it is 
 the personification of this power which is attributed 
 to Sophocles. He added the rpLraycovLcrTrjs to the 
 other two ; and Athenian tragedy was complete. 
 
 The costume and general bearing of the actors, as 
 we have already observed, was splendid and im- 
 posing.* " Almost all the actors in a tragedy wore 
 
 * " If we desire to form a lively and true conception of the pro- 
 cedure of an ancient Tragedy on the stage, we must first divest 
 ourselves entirely of those ideas of the characters in the Grecian 
 Mythology, which we derive from ancient works of art, and which, 
 from natural reasons, are continually floating before our imagina- 
 tion. There is not the least comparison to be drawn between the 
 scenic and the plastic costume of the ancient gods and heroes ; for, 
 as the statements of the old grammarians and ancient works of art 
 (especially the mosaics in the Vatican) sufficiently prove, there was 
 but one general <ttoAt7, or costume, for tragedy. This was nothing 
 more than an improvement on the gay and brilliant (tzolklXcl or kvdiva) 
 apparel worn in processions at the Dionysian festivals ; and but 
 slight alterations were needed to adapt it to the different dramatic 
 characters. The following parts of dress are universally reckoned 
 in the costume : long x iT & v * s of various gay colours, falling in 
 
TRAGIC COSTUME. 61 
 
 long striped garments reaching to the ground, over 
 which were thrown upper garments of purple or some 
 other brilliant colour, with all sorts of gay trimmings 
 and gold ornaments — the ordinary dress at Bacchic 
 festal processions and choral dances." To elevate 
 the performer's stature, the cothurnus was composed 
 of several soles of considerable thickness ; and the 
 principal reason for not employing actresses was the 
 belief that they would not possess sufficient dignity 
 for the parts of goddesses and heroines. But that 
 portion of the actor's costume on which the greatest 
 attention was lavished was the mask (oyfcos). This 
 was made of bronze or copper ; and there were no 
 less than 26 different kinds of masks in use. It is 
 generally conjectured that they were formed with the 
 view of giving greater power to the voice ; and their 
 Latin term persona (per-sono), seems to favour this 
 hypothesis. The mask was connected with a periwig 
 (7T7)viK7i, favdftr)), which covered the head, and so 
 left only one passage for the voice to escape from : 
 
 ample folds down to the feet ; very broad embroidered girdles 
 (^/j.a(Txa\icrT7Jpes) sitting on the breast ; upper robes, frequently of 
 purple, with gold borders and other such-like decorations ; the 
 cothurnus, and the head-dress (tfy/cos). As in the Dionysian cere- 
 monies, so also in tragedy, there was but little distinction between 
 the male and female apparel. In speaking of heroes, the tragedians 
 very often call their dress ireirAos, a garb never worn at that period 
 by males in common life. In the ancient mosaics, one is continually 
 in danger of confounding heroes with heroines, unless where the 
 old equestrian chlamydes are thrown over the long bright-coloured 
 tunics, or weapons added, or masks characterised by some marked 
 difference." — Muller, Eumen. p. 100. 
 
62 ITAND-BOOK OF THE GE EEK DRAMA. 
 
 this was termed the os rotundum. The wis was col- 
 lected into a foretop, which was the ojkos proper, 
 and thought by Donaldson to have been derived 
 from the old Athenian top-knot (KpcoftvXov).* This, 
 like the cothurnus, was intended to add to the actor's 
 stature. Opinions differ as to the exact degree of 
 resemblance which the mask bore to real life ; it was 
 formed, however, of the very finest material, and 
 coloured with great care, so that doubtless, at the 
 great distance which separated the audience, the il- 
 lusion was sufficient. But we must remember that in 
 the tragedy, where gods and heroes or, if not heroes, 
 still men meliorzs cevi, men of larger stature and 
 more godlike aspect than their descendants, figured 
 as the principal characters, no strict similitude to the 
 human faces around them was desirable. Neither, in 
 the majority of cases, was the play of the passions 
 necessary to be delineated ; for, in the first place, 
 these exalted beings were not supposed to be subject 
 to those rapid fluctuations of feeling which distin- 
 guish ordinary mortals ; and in the second place there 
 would generally be some one dominant emotion 
 throughout the tragedy, which would necessitate the 
 same expression of countenance to the last. This 
 could not have been successful in a smaller theatre, 
 where decidedly we should require that the tempo- 
 rary sadness of QEdipus in the first scenes of the 
 Tyrannus should be differently displayed from the 
 overpowering horror which he subsequently elis- 
 
 * See Thucydides, i. 6.: T€TTiywv ivepcrti KpuiovKov avufiotifxsvoi. 
 
DRESS, MASKS, ETC., OF ACTORS. 63 
 
 covers at the revelations of the herdsman. But in 
 the vast theatre of Bacchus, the same general ex- 
 pression of gloom and grief would doubtless suf- 
 fice throughout. All that exquisite acting which 
 we can imagine in Garrick, Kemble, or Siddons, 
 as confidence gradually gave way to doubt, doubt 
 to certainty, and certainty to despair, was of course 
 wholly lost to an Athenian audience. It should be 
 added, that their idea of the tragic drama did not 
 extend to the representation of these emotions ; and 
 when they punished Phrynichus for his Capture of 
 Miletus, as we have already remarked, they very 
 plainly declared that tragedy must not seek for its 
 materials in the ordinary world around us. They 
 witnessed the plays of Sophocles and .iEschylus with 
 much the same feelings as we peruse " Paradise 
 Lost," which, if dramatised, would certainly depend 
 very little on the finer accomplishments of the his- 
 trionic art. There were, of course, certain cases in 
 which a change of masks between the acts was abso- 
 lutely necessary, as in the mutilation of CEdipus in 
 the play aforesaid ; but this, as will be readily seen, 
 scarcely forms an exception to the custom which we 
 have described. 
 
 The pay of an actor at Athens was often very 
 high indeed, and was generally defrayed by the 
 state. T\us, for example, Polus, who acted the 
 characters of Sophocles, sometimes earned a talent, 
 (or nearly 500/.) in two days. When this was the 
 case, as we may suppose, the profession was held in 
 no dishonour. Sophocles himself, who acted as well 
 
64 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 aa wrote, was a man of rank, and was entrusted 
 with the command of a military expedition ; and 
 Aristodemus, another performer, was sent on a public 
 embassy. 
 
 IV. Our remarks on the character of Athenian 
 acting, lead us by a natural transition to the subject of 
 the chorus. The chprus, as its position might perhaps 
 indicate, was the interpreter between the actors and 
 the audience. In their countenance would doubtless 
 be manifested the livelier expressions of fear, hope, 
 and indignation — they would in fact, supply the 
 more purely human element. Perhaps, for the sake 
 of an illustration, it would not be going too far to 
 consider the play itself as partaking somewhat of a 
 panoramic character, and the chorus in the light of 
 the lecturer. If this comparison be thought un- 
 dignified, we can only reply that, if it aids the reader 
 to form a true conception of the subject, the good 
 names of Sophocles and iEschylus will not suffer 
 any injury. But however this may be, if we consider 
 the question from this point of view, w T e gain, it is 
 probable, a clearer insight into the real necessity of 
 the chorus, than by regarding more exclusively its 
 religious and traditional features. The truth, as it 
 seems to us, is that an Athenian tragedy would have 
 been unsupportable without the addition of the choral 
 element. 
 
 The origin of the chorus, as mentioned in an 
 earlier chapter, was partly military, and is to be 
 sought in the old Doric military discipline, of which 
 a kind of statelv war dance " to the sound of flutes 
 
ORIGIN OF THE CHORUS. 65 
 
 and soft recorders/' was an important element. This 
 will explain the manner of its entrance on the 
 stage, and the nature of the first choral song. In 
 the military marches of the Greeks, the anapaestic 
 metre was generally used ; and the parodos, or first 
 song sung by the chorus as it marched in at the side 
 entrance, from which its name was derived, was gene- 
 rally if not always written in anaplastics. The subse- 
 quent clustering of the chorus round the thymele,and 
 the introduction of the lyric element, denotes the other 
 source from which the chorus derived its existence — 
 i.e. religion, or the Bacchic worship; while the songs 
 which they uttered from this position, called stasima, 
 bore a nearer resemblance to the poetry of Stesi- 
 chorus, Pindar, and Simonides. All that part of the 
 play which preceded the parodos was called the pro- 
 logue; all between the parodos and the last stasimon, 
 episodia ; all after the last stasimon, the exodus. 
 The parodos and the stasima were confined to the 
 full chorus ; but there was also a kind of choral lyric 
 song common both to the chorus and the actors • 
 this was known by the name of ko/jl/jlo? {jplanctus\ and 
 was always devoted to lamentation. In the Persse 
 and the Choephoroe, the 'coramos' occupies a large 
 portion of the entire tragedy. 
 
 V. A very few words on the subject of the audience 
 mast close the present chapter. Originally there was 
 no charge for admission, but subsequently two obols 
 were fixed upon as the price. To such an extent, 
 however, did the Athenians carry the worship of art, 
 ihat they very soon adopted the practice of paying 
 
 F 
 
66 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 for the admission of the poorer citizens out of a 
 public fund. It is probable, though not certain, that 
 women were admitted to witness theatrical represen- 
 tations.* 
 
 VI. The expense of theatrical representations was 
 defrayed by the state. | The xoprjyla was one of the 
 regular liturgies which devolved upon each tribe in 
 turn. This was the Athenian method of levying 
 rates and taxes; and this x°PVJ^ a corresponded in 
 principle with what a theatre rate would be among 
 us. The tribe chose one of themselves to be its 
 %opri<y6si and on him devolved the selection of its 
 chorus and the superintendence of their instruction 
 in their songs and dances. When however the %o- 
 pr)y6s was once named, he was left, within certain 
 limits, to his own discretion as to the style in which 
 his play was to be brought out. A citizen who gave 
 great satisfaction to the people was frequently re- 
 warded with a tripod ; and the office of choragus be- 
 came in time a very common opportunity of courting 
 the popular favour. The course pursued in order to 
 exhibit a play, was as follows : — The poet who had a 
 play ready for representation applied to one of the 
 archons. If it was at the Lensea, to the archon /3a- 
 crtXevs, if at the Dionysia, to the chief archon ; and 
 s 
 
 b * Compare Plato, Gorg. p. 502., where he describes a tragedy as 
 
 | p7)TopiK7)v riva irpbs h^ixovro iovtop oiou iraiSovf re dfiov /cat yvvaiKai' KaX 
 
 avBpccv Ka\ dovhoov kclI itevOepvi' 
 
 f This expense eventually became so heavy, that Athens is said 
 ^ to have spent more money on scenic representations than on all her 
 
EXHIBITION OF A PLAY. 67 
 
 if his play was approved a chorus was assigned to him. 
 This was called x°P° v ^ovat 9 and the phrase ulti- 
 mately became a general term for the approval or 
 acceptance of a play. The poet was said %opov ciItslv. 
 He also had assigned to him three actors, whom he 
 taught himself. Hence the exhibitor of a play was 
 said hihaaicsLv, literally, to teach * ; and a play was 
 said to be taught, ScBdcr/ceaOau 
 
 * Thus Horace, Ars Poet. 1. 288.: 
 
 " Vel qui prsetextas, vel qui docuere togatas." 
 
 J?2 
 
IIAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 AESCHYLUS. 
 
 " The immense influence which scenic exhibitions 
 and dramatic literature have exercised on the minds 
 and manners of mankind, is a sufficient reason for 
 profoundly venerating the author and originator of it. 
 For so we may justly style the poet who, out of the 
 uncouth banterings of a religious festivity, created 
 the majestic and soul inspiring art which has softened 
 the sternest hearts, and claimed for its votaries the 
 proudest intellects. The drama is the manifestation 
 of the invisible mind of man, the mirror in which, 
 while we think that we are looking at others, we un- 
 expectedly see ourselves reflected. To possess in 
 our own native literature the greatest dramatist the 
 world has perhaps ever seen, should in itself be an 
 inducement to study one of kindred genius and 
 scarcely less exalted sentiments." * Such are the 
 concluding words of an essay on >ZEschylus, contained 
 in the preface to a lately published volume of the 
 •' Bibliotheca Classica," a source of which we may, 
 once for all, acknowledge that we have copiously 
 led ourselves in the following remarks. 
 
 Preface to Paley's iEschylus, re-edited with an English com- 
 mentary for the Bibliotheca Classica, by Professor G. Long. 
 
LIFE OF JESCHYLUS. 89 
 
 According to the testimony of ancient writers 
 iEschylus was born of noble parents in the deme of 
 Eleusis, in Attica, in the fourth year of the 63rd 
 Olympiad, b. c. 525. He was a contemporary of 
 Pindar, and fought at the battles of Marathon, Sala- 
 mis, and Platsea, and thus acquired that taste for, 
 and technical knowledge of, military matters, so con- 
 spicuous in many of his plays. His first appearance 
 as a tragedian was in B.C. 499, when he contended 
 with Choerilus and Pratinas, but did not obtain the 
 prize. He first carried off that honour B.C. 484, 
 Fourteen years afterwards he was defeated by a poet 
 who then represented for the first time, and whose 
 future celebrity was perhaps scarcely foreseen, — the 
 author of the GEdipus Tyrannus and the Antigone, 
 About this time he exchanged Athens for Sicily, 
 but for what reason is uncertain. Some say it was 
 from disgust at being beaten by a young and unknown 
 writer like Sophocles ; others, that it was from his 
 defeat by Simonides in the elegy on those who died 
 at Marathon. This first disappointment may certainly 
 have rankled in his mind, and have reached to posi- 
 tive disgust at a second failure in his own special 
 province ; though it is hardly likely that his defeat by 
 Simonides alone would have caused his retirement 
 from Athens. Another reason which has been as- 
 signed, was his having so terrified the people of 
 Athens by the tragic effect of his chorus in the Eu- 
 menides, that infants died of fright, and women mis- 
 carried. Be this, however, as it may, he seems to 
 have spent six or seven years in Sicily, and to have 
 
 F3 
 
70 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 contracted a certain Sicilian taint * in his language. 
 Having returned to Athens for a short time, he 
 quitted it again about B.C. 458, and finally died in 
 Sicily B.C. 456, in the sixty-ninth year of his age. 
 His second voluntary exile has been attributed to 
 the offence given to the democratic party by the 
 lofty, monarchical, and aristocratic tone of his later 
 tragedies. It is very possible that the charge of 
 impiety which is alleged to have been preferred 
 against him before the Areopagus, if the story is 
 worthy of credit, may have proceeded from this feel- 
 ing. It is said that he was acquitted in consequence 
 of the intercession of his brothers. 
 
 Of the extant plays of -ZEschylus, it is doubtful 
 which was first represented. It is difficult to get 
 over the express testimony of Aristophanes in favour 
 of the Septem contra Thebas (Ran. 1026.) and Din- 
 dorf adopts this order in deference to his authority. 
 Bockh, however, and with him Paley and Miil- 
 ler, prefer to follow the opinion of the scholiast on 
 the same passage, that the Persae was his earliest 
 effort, and his Septem contra Thebas the second. f 
 But at all events only a year intervened between the 
 
 * According to Athenseus, Eustathius, and Macrobius. The 
 words fiovvis and Kapfiava, which occur in the Supplices, supposed to 
 be the first play published by iEschylus after his return, are still 
 sub judice ; see Donaldson's New Cratylus, p. 659., where fiovvis 
 is connected with £o0s, /3<£Aa£, fiwfi6s ■ other words, however, such 
 as 7T€5aopos, irMpaios, ixaavoov, k.t.a., are less doubtful. See also 
 ]><>ckh, de Trayicis Gratis, cap. viii. 
 
 f ol 5e Ile'pcrcu irporepov uo~i SeSiScry/AcVoi, elra ol eVra 4tt\ 0r]§as. — 
 Schol. 
 
THE PERS.E. 71 
 
 two plays, the one appearing B.C. 493, the other 
 B.C. 492. 
 
 Following the order adopted by Mr. Paley, we 
 shall begin with the Persas. Here again commen- 
 tators are greatly at issue. Some think that this 
 play was one of a trilogy of which the Phineus was 
 the first and the GJaucus (whether " Ponteus or 
 " Potnieus," is again disputed) the third. Others 
 prefer to believe it a disconnected play, alleging that 
 there is no proof that JEschylus invariably wrote in 
 trilogies. It is also a matter of dispute whether the 
 main object of the play is the evocation of Darius* 
 or the celebration of the defeat of the Persians. We 
 confess that we incline to the simpler view in each 
 of these cases. At all events in the latter, we think 
 it is the mere wantonness of learning not to accept 
 the triumph of Greece as the real design of the play.* 
 " The Persge was probably composed in rivalry 
 rather than in imitation of the Phoenissse of Phry- 
 nichus, which had gained the prize. There can be 
 little doubt that the poet's detailed account of the 
 battle is circumstantially correct, even more so (as 
 Blakesley with great reason argues) than the later 
 and probably popularised narrative of Herodotus. It 
 is the earliest specimen of Greek history we possess, 
 though a history in verse. It is said that this play 
 was acted a second time at Syracuse, at the instance 
 of Hiero ; and indeed, from the very nature of the 
 subject — the only one among extant Greek tragedies 
 
 * Miiller, Lit. Anc. Gr. chap.xxiii. 4. 
 
 f4 
 
72 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 which is not borrowed from heroic myths — it is not 
 unlikely that it was repeatedly re-acted {dvsSiSdxOv)' 
 This tradition, indeed, has been discountenanced by 
 modern critics ; yet there are good grounds for sus- 
 picion that it has been to some extent remodelled 
 (piacrKZvaaOsv or avaa/cevao-Ozv) and some passages 
 interpolated by a later hand ; and hence, perhaps, 
 we may explain the absence of a passage extant in 
 the time of Aristophanes (Ran. 1028.), and of certain 
 words quoted by ancient authors as from the Persa? 
 of .ZEschylus, vtto^vXos and vrjpiTorpocpovs (schol. on 
 Hermogenes and Athen. iii. p. 80. B.). The chorus 
 consisted of twelve Persian elders. The tomb of 
 Darius was represented by the thymele in the or- 
 chestra, as may be inferred from v. 682, where Darius 
 says to the chorus 
 
 UytieTs 5e ^prju^r' eyyvs ecrrorres T&(pov, 
 
 Nor is v. 660. opposed to this, s\6' g7r' aicpov 
 Kopv/juffov o^Oov, for though the ghost must have 
 appeared on the stage, the invocation is consistent 
 with the Greek idea that the spirit hovered over 
 the tomb. The speech of Atossa, at line 610., 
 though highly coloured with Eastern imagery, ap- 
 pears to describe Grecian rather than Persian rites. 
 It is closely imitated by Euripides, Iph. Taur. 165."* 
 The next play in order of chronology is the 
 Septem contra Thebas, supposed to be the centre of 
 n trilogy, of which the (Edipus and the Eleusinians 
 would be the first and third. This is, perhaps, the 
 
 * Sec Paley, quoted above. 
 
SEPTEM CONTRA THEBAS, PROMETHEUS. 73 
 
 least poetical of all the plays of ^Eschylus ; but in 
 dramatic merit, though not equal to the Orestea, 
 where the form of tragedy had become fully deve- 
 loped, it is superior to either the Persse or the Pro- 
 metheus Vinctus. That this play should have been 
 so great a favourite with the ancients is curious; for, 
 though a spirit-stirring melodrama, it is undoubtedly 
 the most bombastic of the author's works, while the plot 
 is the simplest. The determination of Eteocles is the 
 turning point of the whole; and this is artfully man- 
 aged. The political opinions of JEschylus are thought 
 by Miiller to be exhibited in this play by the character 
 of Amphiaraus*, the sp/cos acrcfraXss being intended 
 by the poet to ridicule the fortification of Athens, 
 the favourite scheme of Themistocles. " The chorus 
 consists of Theban maidens, who act as mourners to 
 the suicide brothers. Eteocles enters upon the stage 
 alone, and addresses a body of Thebans (either in the 
 orchestra, or as mutes on the stage), who represent 
 the citizens ; they perhaps form the secondary 
 chorus according to Miiller's theory. There are but 
 two actors to the piece. 5 ' (Paley.) 
 
 The Prometheus Vinctus appeared about the year 
 470 B.C., though the exact date is very uncertain* 
 This date is supposed to be ascertained from a 
 passing allusion f to the recent eruption of Mount 
 
 * S. c. T. 588. They peeped out, according to him, in the Persas 
 in lines 347. etseq. 
 
 f K0pv(f>cus 8' ev cwpcus iKpayfjaovrai irore 
 
 ttotuuoI Trvphs odirTOVTes aypiais yvdBois 
 ttjs KdkKiKa.p'Kov 2iKeAias Xzvpovs yvau 
 
74 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 ./Etna. But as that took place as far back as the 
 year 479 B.C., it is not very much to the point, as 
 these lines might just as well have been written 
 fourteen or fifteen years afterwards as seven or eight. 
 The earlier date is, however, the more probable one 
 of the two, as after B.C. 468 iEschylus was in Sicily, 
 and we happen to know that the first play which he 
 published on his return to Athens was the Supplices. 
 The Prometheus is truly a sublime and magnificent 
 drama. The remarkable resemblance which the legend 
 of Prometheus most obviously bears to the central 
 doctrine of divine revelation has been only slightly 
 glanced at by Mr. Paley, and is not mentioned in 
 Muller's otherwise admirable critique. Prometheus 
 fell through the pursuit of knowledge; he is in 
 bondage, as man is in bondage to sin ; the agonies 
 which he endures bear no fanciful resemblance to 
 the stings of the human conscience when goaded 
 by remorse ; and he knows that one born from the 
 descendants of his fellow-sufferer Io shall deliver 
 him. The condition of his release is the death of 
 an immortal, announced to him by Hermes in the 
 following striking; words : — 
 
 Toiovde /uloxQov rep/j-a fii) ri TrpoaSSKa, 
 
 irp\v Ixv Oeciov ris Sidboxos rooy awu irovoov 
 
 (pavy, 6e\r}(T?i r €ls apavyrjrov (xoKe'iv 
 
 'hihr]v l Kvecpcuar a}x<p\ Taprdpov fidOr}. 1047-50. 
 
 " The legend," says Mr. Paley, " which formed the 
 subject of the Prometheus, probably belongs to the 
 most ancient traditions of the human race ; but 
 whether mystical and allegorical, or connected in its 
 
PROMETHEUS, SUPPLICES. 75 
 
 origin with primeval revelation concerning the cre- 
 ation of man, must remain undecided. There is 
 much to to be said in favour of the latter opinion. " 
 The other two plays which made up the trilogy on 
 this subject, were the Upo/jirjOavs irvpfyopos, and the 
 Ilpofir}6ev9 \vo/jl£vos, the latter of which may be sup- 
 posed to have cleared up the difficulty which meets 
 us in every page of the. Prometheus Vinetus, we 
 mean the position of Zav9 as a fierce, revengeful, 
 and inexorable tyrant. The school of theology to 
 which ^Eschylus belonged, recognised in the empire 
 of Zeus the commencement of a happier era, the 
 reign of mildness and mercy, and, if we may say so 
 without profanity, of " peace on earth and goodwill 
 towards men," with which the plot of the Prometheus 
 Vinctus seems strangely at variance. " We must 
 suppose that, at the end of the piece, the power and 
 majesty of Zeus, and the profound wisdom of his 
 decrees, are so gloriously manifested that the pride 
 of Prometheus is entirely broken. 5 '* Hermann, it 
 may be remarked, entirely refutes the opinion of 
 Miiller, that a third actor appears in the opening 
 scene of this drama. Prometheus himself was repre- 
 sented by a huge effigy, while the person addressed 
 as /3/a in verse 12. is a mere mute, f 
 
 We now come to the Supplices, one of a trilogy 
 entitled the Dana'is, of which the other two plays 
 were the iEgyptii and the Dana'ides. The trial and 
 acquittal of the women for the murder of their hus- 
 
 * Miiller, Lit. of Anc. Greece, ch. 23. t Paley. 
 
76 IIAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 bands formed the subject of this trilogy. We have 
 already stated that the Supplices was written after the 
 return of -ZEschylus from his first visit to Sicily; and 
 we are probably not wrong in fixing the date some- 
 where between 465 and 460 B.C. Miiller supposes 
 that various expressions in it bear reference to the 
 alliance with Argos, and impending war with Egypt, 
 Egypt, B.C. 461.* But this system of determining 
 dates is very apt to mislead. Of the play itself there 
 is little to be said. Whether the chorus consisted of 
 twelve suppliants or of fifty, is not very material. 
 They fail to excite our sympathy in the slightest 
 degree, though the songs put into their mouths are 
 many of them uncommonly beautiful, and the speech 
 of Danaus (1. 957) is perhaps as truly poetical as any- 
 thing which -ZEschylus has written. 
 
 The grand trilogy of the Orestea now remains for 
 us to notice. Of all that has been written on this 
 subject, probably M tiller's dissertation is the best ; 
 but the deep philosophical speculations of both 
 Miiller and Schlegel would be out of place here. 
 We shall content ourselves with a few brief remarks 
 on the various characters portrayed. There is a 
 wide difference between the Homeric and .ZEschy- 
 laean Agamemnon. The former provokes our hatred, 
 the latter our contempt. The pride, injustice, and 
 intolerable arrogance of the one, stand in marked 
 contrast to the weak-minded and almost childish 
 exultation of the other. Though we detest his 
 
 * See Thuc. 1. i. 102. 104. 
 
THE ORESTEAN TRILOGY, 77 
 
 murderers, we are not shocked at his death; for he has 
 previously forfeited our sympathies by the sacrifice 
 of Iphigenia. And though a cloud of gloom and 
 horror and despair presses heavily upon us through- 
 out the entire piece, there is no one individual in 
 whose fate we feel much interested, except perhaps 
 Cassandra. This is a peculiarity shared to some 
 extent by Sophocles, but almost wholly thrown off 
 by Euripides. The characters in the Orestean tri- 
 logy are entirely subservient to the myth ; our 
 real interest is in speculating on what the gods 
 will ultimately determine to be the destiny of the 
 criminals. It is the principle to which we look, and 
 not the individual. All this, which is of course the 
 reverse of modern tragedy, is signally conspicuous 
 in the trilogy before us, and especially in the two 
 first plays. In the Eumenides a ray of cheerfulness 
 ^and humanity breaks in at the last ; and from the 
 solemn constitution of the Areopagus, an Athenian 
 ought to have returned home with emotions of 
 pride and joy. Unfortunately, however, both for 
 .zEschylus and his country, such were not the 
 emotions raised by the spectacle. At the time when 
 this trilogy was exhibited, the democratic party was 
 uppermost at Athens ; the Areopagus, with its an- 
 cient privileges, was hateful to them. In spite of 
 the efforts of iEschylus, the ancient jurisdiction of 
 that court in questions of homicide was taken away 
 from it much about the same time*, and the poet 
 
 * This fact has been strenuously denied by other writers. See 
 Drake's Eumenides, Introduction, part ii. 
 
78 IIAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 went a second time into Sicily, where, as we have 
 before stated, he died at Gela, in the year B.C. 456. 
 Each of the three plays which together compose the 
 Orestea, is much more complete as a tragedy than 
 any of his other works: the third actor has been 
 introduced; and the plot is more regularly con- 
 structed. " Though only the secondary character 
 (in the Agamemnon), the chief interest centres in 
 Clytemnestra. Subtle, proud, daring, resolute, and 
 an accomplished hypocrite, she disguises a long 
 cherished hatred of her lord — resulting from the sacri- 
 fice of their daughter at Aulis — under the guise of a 
 love-sick affection. The murder being perpetrated, 
 she throws off the mask, and not only avows but 
 glories in the deed, as an act of just retribution. 
 With all this she is not the abandoned and shameless 
 adulteress, but the deeply injured wife and mother ; 
 not the merely vindictive and ferocious homicide, 
 but the sophist who can justify, and the moralist 
 who can reason on her conduct." (Paley.) This, 
 however, seems rather too favourable a picture in 
 the opinion of other writers. Orestes is very much 
 a passive instrument in the hands of destiny. He 
 displays, as Paley truly observes, very little vindic- 
 tiveness towards his mother, and puts her to death 
 solely in deference to the peremptory commands of 
 Apollo.* There is something unpleasantly masculine 
 in the character of Electra. She takes, too much 
 after her mother Clytemnestra ; and we cannot but 
 suspect that under the same circumstances she would 
 have acted in the same way. The Furies themselves 
 
DOCTKINES OF ^SCHYLUS. 79 
 
 probably typify what we at present denominate 
 superstition, the unreasoning conscience which will 
 frequently torment a man who has committed the 
 most innocent and even laudable homicide. By the 
 equality of votes at the trial, is signified, says Mliller 5 
 "that the duty of revenge and the guilt of matricide 
 are equally balanced^ and that stern justice has no 
 alternative : but the gods of Olympus being of the 
 nature of man, and acquainted and entrusted with 
 the personal condition of individuals, can find and 
 supply a refuge for the unfortunate who are so by 
 no immediate guilt of their own." 
 
 (The difficulty of ^Eschylus as a writer is of a 
 wholly different kind from what we experience in 
 Sophocles or Euripides. With these the principal 
 difficulties with which we have to contend are those 
 of construction ; in JEschylus the construction is 
 usually simple. But there are several causes which 
 conspire to make him on the whole the most obscure 
 of extant writers. The first of these is the mystic / 
 character of his religious belief. -ZEschylus was aj 
 Pythagorean, and it is quite impossible for the un- 
 initiated to enter fully into the spirit of much that 
 he says on the subject of God, human nature, and 
 fate. Secondly, he was by nature what we should 
 now, perhaps, call a lover of the marvellous. He 
 was a genuine believer in apparitions, prophecies, 
 and omens ; and he loves to speak of these in the 
 vague and shadowy language which their nature 
 seems to demand, but which, as Paley says, is not 
 conducive to the formation of a lucid style. In the 
 
J 
 
 80 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 jfthird place is to be mentioned his love of figurative 
 language — in which he surpasses all his contempo- 
 raries except Pindar — and his attachment to equi- 
 voques, which has been noticed both by Miiller and 
 Paley, such as Sept. c. Th. 930. and 950. Fourthly, 
 he is difficult (and this of course is the great diffi- 
 culty to young students) from grammatical careless- 
 ness. " Nominatives standing alone without their 
 verbs, clauses cut short by aposiopesis, the frequent 
 use of particles which have a force depending en- 
 tirely on something to be mentally supplied, and 
 anomalous constructions and unusual meanings of 
 words, are also frequent causes of perplexity." 
 I Fifthly, no doubt his grandiloquence and inflated 
 epithets, though not a direct source of difficulty, are 
 an indirect one, by fatiguing the mind and forcing it 
 to stand constantly on the alert to discover some- 
 thing more than is really meant. But the general 
 style of .zEschylus, w r e mean his syntax, is peculiarly 
 simple, and rather epic than dramatic, as any one 
 may see who reads the purely narrative speeches in 
 the Prometheus Yinctus, the Septem contra The- 
 bas, and the Persge. 
 
 The general tenor of .ZEschylus's poetry is well 
 contrasted with that of Sophocles in the following 
 passage : " We might almost call JEschylus the 
 poet of the gods, Sophocles the poet of mankind. 
 The one deeply studied the laws of divine action ; 
 the other sounded the depths of the human heart. 
 To reconcile the old law of inexorable justice w T ith 
 the newer law of mercy, seems to have been the 
 
CHARACTER OF ^SCHYLUS. 81 
 
 leading idea of iEschylus. To improve humanity 
 by holding up to admiration the finer qualities of 
 justice, fortitude under affliction, sympathy with 
 distress, firmness in duty, and generally all practical 
 goodness, was the cherished object of Sophocles." * 
 
 * Paley. 
 
 G 
 
82 
 
 HANDBOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 CHAP. VII. 
 
 SOPHOCLES. 
 
 Sophocles, the son of Sophilus, was born at the 
 Attic dermis or village of Colonus, in 01. 71. 2., B. C. 
 495. At the age of fifteen, he was selected, on 
 account of his personal beauty, to be exarchus of 
 the chorus which sang the poem in honour of the 
 battle of Salamis. In his twenty-seventh year, he 
 made his first appearance as a tragedian, becoming 
 a competitor for the tragic prize with the established 
 head of Athenian literature, ^Eschylus. The young 
 poet won the prize, by the award, as it is said, of 
 Cimon, with the play of the Triptolemus — a piece 
 in which the Eleusinian hero is celebrated as pro- 
 moting the cultivation of corn, and humanising the 
 manners of even the wildest barbarians. Twenty- 
 eight years after this event, Sophocles brought out 
 the Antigone, the earliest of his extant plays ; and 
 in consequence of the general admiration which it 
 excited, he was elected one of the ten Strategi, with 
 Pericles and Thucydides, for the ensuing year — a 
 curious manner, as it would seem to us, of rewarding 
 « terary eminence. In this capacity, Sophocles aided 
 in carrying on the war against Samos, B. C. 440, 
 431); and it was on this occasion that he made the 
 acqu aintance of Herodotus, who was then living at 
 
SOPHOCLES, HIS LIFE AND PLAYS. 83 
 
 Samos. The whole number of plays attributed to 
 Sophocles is not less than 130. Bockh, however, 
 reduces these to between 70 and 80, while Miiller 
 thinks it possible that as many as 113 may be 
 genuine. With this question we have little to do ; 
 for we undoubtedly possess the best of those which 
 he wrote. Of the remainder of his life, extending 
 as it did over thirty-four years, we know very little. 
 In 413 b. C. he was appointed one of the 7rp6/3ov\ot 9 
 or board constituted immediately after the Syra- 
 cusan expedition to devise expedients for meeting 
 the existing emergencies. Two years after this, he 
 gave in his adhesion to the plans of Periander for 
 establishing the Council of 400 — a policy which, 
 according to Aristotle, he defended on the ground 
 of expediency.* The story related in Cicero De Se~ 
 nectute concerning his reading the CEdipus Colo- 
 neus to his judges, is said to be a fabrication. He 
 died in the beginning of the year 405 B. c. 
 
 The chronological order of his extant plays is 
 stated by Miiller as follows: — Antigone, Electra, 
 Trachiniae, CEdipus Rex, Ajax, Philoctetes, CEdi- 
 pus Coloneus. Of these, the first and the last are, 
 perhaps, the most general favourites. Yet there is 
 something in the classic delineation of the female 
 character by Sophocles, which is never wholly sa- 
 tisfactory : either it wants softness, or it wants 
 nobility. Chrysothemis and Ismene, Electra and 
 Antigone, are all instances of this truth. Such a 
 
 * ov yap fy tWa, fe\riw. (See Arist. Rhet. iii. 18.) 
 G 2 
 
84 HANDBOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 conception as Shakspeare's Queen Catharine seems 
 to have been impossible to the Grecian dramatists. 
 The nearest approach to that union of tenderness 
 and strength which modern readers desiderate, is to 
 be found in Iphigenia. For this reason, though the 
 Antigone possesses rare and peculiar merits, we 
 cannot help thinking it better suited to an Athenian 
 than to an English audience. The description of 
 Creon at the end of the play is, indeed, one of the 
 very happiest efforts of dramatic art ; but his long 
 conversations with Antigone partake something of 
 the character of scolding, and prevent us from feeling 
 all that love and sympathy for his heroine which the 
 poet intended to excite. 
 
 In excellence of plot the Electra is surpassed only 
 by the OEdipus Tyrannus. There is, perhaps, a little 
 too much resemblance in the machinery which brings 
 about the premature exultation of Clytemnestra, and 
 the premature exultation of Jocasta; but the art 
 is almost equally admirable in both. It has been 
 finely observed by Miiller, that a trait is introduced 
 in the character of the former which would never 
 have occurred to the mind of ^Eschylus, namely, the 
 outburst of maternal tenderness when she first hears 
 of the supposed death of Orestes, and which takes 
 precedence of every other feeling in her bosom. The 
 discovery of the lock of hair by Chrysothemis, and 
 the damp which Electra throws upon her sudden joy, 
 is skilfully narrated ; while the ultimate irapiirsTZLa 
 of the play, turning as it does on recognition of 
 brother and sister, is one of those few scenes in which 
 
ELECTRA, TRACHINLE, CEDIPUS. 85 
 
 Sophocles has drawn upon that deep fund of pathos 
 which he evidently possessed. In fact, viewing it in 
 the pathetic light, we know not whether we should 
 not be justified in placing the Electra at the head of 
 his extant tragedies. 
 
 The Trachini^. is confessedly an inferior produc- 
 tion. " The play of the Trachinian women/' says 
 Schlegel, " seems to me so far inferior in value to 
 the other extant plays of Sophocles, that I wished to 
 find something to favour the conjecture that this 
 tragedy was composed in the age indeed, and in the 
 school of Sophocles, but bj his son lophon, and was 
 by mistake attributed to the father. There are 
 several suspicious circumstances, not only in its 
 structure and its plan, but even in the style of 
 writing : different critics have already remarked that 
 the uncalled-for soliloquy of Dejanira at the com- 
 mencement has not the character of the Sophoclean 
 prologues. Even if, in the general structure, the 
 maxims of this poet are observed, it is but a super- 
 ficial observance ; the profound mind of Sophocles is 
 missing. But as the genuineness of the poem seems 
 never to have been called in question by the ancients, 
 and since, moreover, Cicero confidently quotes the 
 sufferings of Hercules from this drama* as from a 
 work of Sophocles, we must, perhaps, content our- 
 selves with saying that the tragedian has in this one 
 instance remained below his usual elevation." 
 
 The QEdipus Tyrannus is one of the grandest 
 
 * Tusc. Disp. b. ii. ch. viii, 
 G 3 
 

 86 HANDBOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 exemplifications in all literature of the vulgar pro- 
 verb, that pride goes before a fall : — 
 
 " Tolluntur in altum, 
 Ut lapsu graviore ruant," 
 
 might have been said by Claudian with almost as much 
 truth of (Edipus as of Rufinus ; but the pride of 
 (Edipus is the pride of a noble nature, which abhors 
 trickery and meanness, and which shrinks not one 
 moment from encountering the awful curses invoked 
 by itself. The utter impossibility of his being him- 
 self the guilty person, which so clearly sustains 
 the mind of CEdipus throughout the play, is tho- 
 roughly in accordance with human nature in its most 
 generous aspect. But this \ery sentiment is but 
 too frequently the cause of the most fatal blunders 
 in our judgment of others ; and it is quite in keeping 
 with the known character of Sophocles, that the 
 rebuke of this thoughtless though high-minded con- 
 fidence should have been one of the objects which 
 he proposed to himself in this play. It is not the 
 self-sufficiency of the Pharisee which is here intended 
 to be exposed, but rather that half haughty, half 
 good-natured conviction of immunity from error, 
 which frequently characterises good men. 
 
 In this play the TrepLirsraia and dvayvcopto-fjibs or 
 avcvyvcopicns of Aristotle are perfectly managed. The 
 part of the herdsman is one of the most felicitous 
 devices which fiction has yet contrived; and one 
 of the greatest of English critics* has ranked the 
 
 * S. T. Coleridge, Literary Remains. 
 
AJAX, PHILOCTETES. 87 
 
 plot of the QEdipus Tyrannus among the three best 
 with which he was acquainted. It is remarkable, 
 however, that Sophocles did not obtain the prize 
 with this drama, being beaten by one Philocles,* 
 
 In the Ajax, Sophocles has approached much 
 nearer to the ideal of chivalry than any other hea- 
 then writer; nearer we say, for even here he has 
 not reached it. The good knight would have chosen 
 to die in his harness on some well fought field ; nor 
 would the reflection that he was thereby benefiting 
 his enemies have been deemed worth a moment's 
 consideration. This is a defect in that otherwise 
 glorious speech commencing at line 430., which we 
 must always deplore. Independent of this deficiency, 
 the Ajax is one of the sublimest compositions of 
 antiquity. 
 
 In his Philoctetes, Sophocles has attempted a very 
 different species of composition. The interest is very 
 little dependent on diversity of incident, but consists 
 almost entirely in development of character. Neo- 
 ptolemus, at first persuaded by the consummate art 
 of Ulysses, and then reappearing in his natural 
 character and refusing to be a party to the deceit, 
 is the central figure of the picture, while on either 
 side Philoctetes, with his touching patience and 
 simple anxiety (in which every reader shares) about 
 his vow, and Ulysses, with his calm, cold, sophistical 
 reasoning, make up as finely contrasted a group as the 
 imagination can require. I This, it is to be remarked, 
 
 * Bockh, de Trag. Grsec. cap. xi. 
 G 4 
 
88 HANDBOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 is the only one of the extant plays of Sophocles in 
 which the nrspLirirsia is effected by the deus ex ma- 
 china, or intervention of a god. 
 
 We now come to the crowning labour of the poet'? 
 life — the serene and stately drama of the (Edipus at 
 Colonus. As we have above stated, the story of his 
 having read this piece to his judges, to refute a charge 
 of insanity brought against him by his own son Io- 
 phon, is now generally considered to be a fiction of 
 antiquity.* But at all events we do not and cannot 
 wonder at the effect attributed to the drama itself: 
 a more cheerful and happy tone runs through the 
 whole play than in the Eumenides of -ZEschylus. 
 Even the opening lines would seem scarcely intended 
 to excite our commiseration ; there is a placidity 
 about them which rather challenges our envy, 
 while the reply of Antigone to her father's first 
 question as to what was the character of the spot 
 at which they had arrived f , at once sheds a pleasant 
 hue over the scene, and leads us to anticipate a 
 happy event. The action of Pallas in the older play 
 is here assigned to Theseus, than whom Attic genius 
 never created a more gallant and noble character. 
 The Furies, we must remember, had already been 
 appeased; and their grove is pictured in that im- 
 mortal song, which no man, comparatively ignorant 
 
 * Theatre of the Greeks, p. 75. 
 
 f X^P 0S & o5' Upbs, cos ad<f>* elicdtfcu., fipvoov 
 
 h&(pv7)s, iXaiaSj auLireX&u, irvKvdirTtpOL 5' 
 
 eaco kolt olvtuu eutXTO/xoDo-' arfi6vts. 
 
 (Ed. Col. 16. 
 
(EDIPUS COLONEUS. 89 
 
 of the language, can read without rapture. The 
 whole play from first to last is calm and quiet. The 
 aged king who had rushed forth frantically from the 
 scene of his accursed pollution, has regained his 
 peace of mind, and his self-respect ; he is tended by 
 the most affectionate of daughters ; and he prepares 
 joyfully to lay down his life under pircumstances 
 from which lasting welfare shall accrue to the people 
 who have deceived him. 
 
 Such is the character of the last production of the 
 last great poet of Greece. In the estimation of his 
 contemporaries, Sophocles ranked high ; he was 
 styled " the Attic bee." And the opinion put for- 
 ward by Valcknaer relative to Plato's disparagement 
 of him seems to have been satisfactorily refuted by 
 Bockh.* His development of tragedy, by the addition 
 of the third actor, has been already noticed ; and it 
 must, we think, be admitted that his style is an im- 
 provement on that of his predecessor. Muller indeed, 
 professes to think it nearer to the style of prose than 
 that of iEschylus : it is certainly much more artificial ; 
 yet it would seem better suited, notwithstanding, to 
 the requirements of the drama in its improved stage. 
 The dialogue of Sophocles is on the whole more 
 pleasing than that of iEschylus, and his metrical 
 flow more varied and ingenious. It is to be observed 
 that he was the first extant writer who introduced 
 the practice of cutting off a vowel at the end of an 
 iambic line — in imitation, it is said, of the poet 
 
 * De Trag. Grsec. x.. ad Plat. Legg. p. 182. 
 

 90 HANDBOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 Callias; and according to Hermann, the GEdipus 
 Tyrannus was the first in which this elision appeared.* 
 But in the Electra and Antigone, both of which are 
 said to be prior to the CEdipus, we do find lines 
 of this description.! Bockh thinks this a reason for 
 assuming that the Electra was of later date than the 
 CEdipus, and that Sophocles brought out a second 
 edition of the Antigone. The most numerous in- 
 stances occur in the former — no less than five — 
 which is a kind of evidence that our author was then 
 pleased with a novelty which he afterwards partially 
 discarded. But the argument is not worth much. 
 
 * " Earn elisionem, Athenseo auctore, abjudicare debemus ab 
 omnibus tragicorum fabulis, quae ante Sophoclis (Edipurn edita* 
 sunt. " — Elisio. Doct. Met. pp. 1 6. et seq. 
 w f El. 1017., Ant. 1031. 
 
EURIPIDES. 91 
 
 CHAP. VIII. 
 
 EURIPIDES. 
 
 Euripides, the son of Menarchus and Clito, of the 
 demus of Phyle in the Acropid tribe, was born in 
 the year B.C. 485. The traditions about the mean- 
 ness of his birth are now generally exploded, though 
 we cannot help fancying that there must have been 
 some foundation for the taunts of Aristophanes ; and 
 yet it is said that while a boy, he was appointed to 
 an office for which noble blood was indispensable ; 
 also he was taught rhetoric by Prodicus, who was 
 considered to take none but aristocratic pupils. His 
 first play, the Peliades, was acted B. c. 455 ; and he 
 first gained the tragic prize B.C. 441. From this 
 period he continued to exhibit plays down to the year 
 408 B. c, when he quitted Athens for the court of 
 Archelaus king of Macedon : it was there that he 
 died two years afterwards, B. c. 406, being, as some 
 say, torn in pieces by the king's dogs. Scandal has 
 been busy with the name of Euripides ; but the in- 
 dustry of modern scholars has been successful in 
 refuting the majority of those silly stories which 
 entertained their grandfathers. In Hartung's "Eu- 
 ripides restitutus," and in Keble's " Prselectiones 
 Academicae," will be found a very sufficient rebuttal 
 both of his having hated women too much, and of 
 
92 HANDBOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 his having been excessive in his love for them. , Of 
 the actual daily life of Euripides we know but little : 
 that he was a diligent disciple of Anaxagoras is 
 generally agreed ; he is said also to have been a great 
 book collector, and to have first introduced a manu- 
 script of Heraclitus to the notice of Socrates. 
 
 It does not fall within the scope of our present 
 work to subject each of his plays to very accurate 
 criticism. Euripides is styled by Aristotle the 
 most tragic (rpayLfccbraTos) of poets * ; and although 
 
 * Poet. 26.: — Kal 6 Evpnrifiris, el Kal ra izXXa fx)] ev olKovofxe?, aXXa, 
 TpayiKcoTarSs ye rccu ttoitit&v (paiverai. The following is the opinion 
 of Quintilian, Inst. Orat. x. 1. : — " Tragoedias primus in lucem 
 protulit iEschylus, sublimis et gravis, et grandiloquus ssepe usque 
 ad vitium, sed rudis in plerisque et incompositus ; propter quod 
 eorrectas ejus fabulas in certamen deferre posterioribus poetis 
 Athenienses permisere, suntque eo modo multi coronati. Sed longe 
 clarius illustraverunt hoe opus Sophocles atque Euripides, quorum 
 in dispari dicendi via, uter sit poeta melior, inter plurimos quaeritur. 
 Idque ego sane, quoniam ad prsesentem materiam nihil pertinet, in- 
 judicatum relinquo. Illud quidem nemo non fateatur necesse est, 
 iis qui se ad agendum comparent, utiliorem longe Euripidem fore. 
 Namque is et in sermone (quod ipsum reprehendunt, quibus gravitas 
 et cothurnus et sonus Sophoclis videtur esse sublimior) magis ac- 
 cedit oratorio generi ; et sententiis densus, et in iis, qua3 a sapien- 
 tibus tradita sunt, paene ipsis par; et in dicendo et respondendo, 
 cuilibet eorum, qui fuerunt in foro diserti, comparandus. In affec* 
 tibus vero cum omnibus mirus, turn in iis qui miseratione constant, 
 facile prsecipuus." 
 
 Compare with the above the following passage from Longinus 
 XV. 3.: — "Eoti fieu ovv (pLXonovcoTaTos 6 Evpnrtdris, dvo ravTl irddr] t 
 /.capias re Kal epcoras, eKTpaycpdrjO'ai, Kav tovtols, cos ovk old' e'l tktlv 
 erepois, eirirvx^raros ' ov \x\\v ah\a Kal tous dXXais eirirideadai (pavra- 
 aiais ovk 6.roXp.os. "WKicrrd ye rot fxeyaXo(\)VT]s cou, '6fxcos r)]V avrbs 
 axjTOv (pvaiv ev tcoXXoIs yeveadai rpayiKrju Trpoar)vdyKao~e, 
 
CHARACTER OF EURIPIDES. 93 
 
 it may be to a certain extent questionable how far 
 this epithet be a just one, yet there can be no doubt 
 that it points to a peculiarity which it is in vain for 
 his detractors to gainsay. " He has approached 
 nearer to the fountain of tears/' says Keble, ?* than 
 any other tragedian." This, as the testimony of 
 one by no means disposed to flatter Euripides, must 
 be held to be conclusive. 
 
 Critics differ very widely as to the comparative 
 merit of the extant dramas ; on the whole we believe 
 we may safely follow the judgment of the author of 
 the " Prselectiones " in considering the Medea 5 the 
 Hecuba, and the Alcestis, as his three most striking 
 and accomplished performances. The Hippolytus, 
 the two Iphigenias, and the Troades, have all been 
 pronounced by competent judges as excellent. It is 
 a controversy into which we are not careful to 
 enter. The plays of Euripides present so few dis- 
 tinct salient points that their merits and their defects 
 are much alike throughout. 
 
 We must never forget that Euripides was an inti- 
 mate friend of Socrates; it is therefore idle to 
 suppose that he belonged in reality to the school of 
 the Sophists. If we remember that he was a pupil 
 of Anaxagoras, we shall scarcely be willing to 
 suppose that he doubted the immortality of the soul. 
 But Euripides lived in an era in which simple faith 
 was out of fashion. The old Greek world, during 
 its summer of civilisation and literature, is to be 
 measured by generations instead of by centuries. 
 Changes, which in modern times are effected in 300 
 
94 IIANDBOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 years, were then effected in thirty ; and it is scarcely 
 too much to say, that there was at least as much dif- 
 ference between ^Eschylus and Euripides as between 
 Shakspeare and Coleridge. In the days of Euri- 
 pides men were beginning to look at every question 
 through the medium of metaphysics. He seems to 
 a certain extent to have caught the jargon without 
 the deeper meaning ; but, at the same time, he had 
 his own peculiar views on the subject of the dealings 
 of God with man. He appears to have thought that 
 whatever was was right; but that, at the same 
 time, it was totally impossible to fathom the ways of 
 the Deity. This theory would s<*em to show itself 
 in many of those half-sneering, half-desponding 
 apophthegms, for which Euripides is famous. He 
 felt to the full the significance of the well-known 
 lines, — 
 
 " In parts superior, what advantage lies ? 
 Say, for you can, what is it to be wise ? 
 'Tis but to know how little can be known, 
 To see all others' faults, and feel our own." 
 
 Surely the spirit of this is the very spirit of Euripides. 
 Unfortunately, however, the mind which has once 
 drifted away from the sure anchorage of traditional 
 and hereditary religion, is but too prone to fall into 
 worse errors than even the disparagement of intel- 
 lectual exertions. Such a man is ever apt to sur- 
 render himself to the illusions of a heated imagination, 
 and, having deserted the wisdom of ages, is driven to 
 lay heavier stress upon the wisdom of the moralist. 
 
I 
 
 HIS RELIGIOUS OPINIONS. 95 
 
 Thus Euripides, too, only shows himself the advocate 
 of expediency : — 
 
 7) y\oo(T<r % d/JLc&jJLOK, aWa (pprjv ava>juiOTOS» Hipp. 
 
 Such are the class of expressions which earned him 
 an evil reputation among the more earnest-minded of 
 his contemporaries, and which alone, perhaps, enabled 
 Aristophanes to assail him with effect.* He appears, 
 indeed, to have been in that state of mind, which 
 kicks against the pricks of theological difficulties, and 
 seeks refuge from their hardness, now in a kind of 
 elegant pantheism, and now in downright reproaches 
 against the divine injustice. 
 
 aperij (T<= vino), ^vrjrbs &v, &€hv fj.£ya.v, 
 
 afAaQris ris el &ebs, $j 5i/ccuos ovk %<pvs. Here. F. 346. 
 
 If, however, we couple sayings like this with the 
 humble and pious tone which Euripides has assumed 
 in the Bacchas, it will, perhaps, after all, remain a 
 doubtful question, how far they were the ebullitions 
 of deliberate atheism, and how far an enunciation of 
 the popular belief in gods " passionate, revengeful, 
 and unjust," which characterised the popular theo- 
 logy of Athens. 
 
 Valcknaer and Hartung have laboured with con- 
 siderable success to prove that Euripides had nothing 
 in common with the sophists and demagogues of the 
 period, whom, on the contrary, he always took every 
 
 * Hartung, cap. iv. ad. init. We cannot agree with Hartung that 
 the gibes of Aristophanes did Euripides no harm whatsoever, 
 
96 HANDBOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 opportunity of chastising. And indeed there are 
 a great variety of passages to be collected from his 
 works, which would have been anything but flattering 
 to the Athenian democracy ; e. g. 
 
 whs Trphs avfipbs 
 
 efe'Sv S'iktis. Suppl. 412. 
 
 'Ayd/ie/uu/ov ....... ehai (ro<poi, Hec. 1169. 
 
 oV/jloi KoafJLovcri. Ion. 832. 
 
 ij iroKXa cro<p6s. Med. 579. 
 
 Euripides, notwithstanding his defects, was the most 
 universally admired of the ancient poets. Cicero was 
 one of his most devoted adherents, and, it is said, was 
 reading the Medea at the moment of his death. It 
 is impossible, therefore, to doubt that many of his 
 faults have been exaggerated, and many of his pe- 
 culiarities misunderstood. His leading deformities 
 have been reduced by Mr. Keble to four : — first, 
 his oratorical frigidity ; secondly, his scepticism ; 
 thirdly, his hatred of women; and, fourthly, the 
 weakness of his choral parts. On the second of these 
 heads we have already said sufficient. On. the third 
 we can only refer our readers to the afore-mentioned 
 writer Hartung, and the author of the critique now 
 under observation, while the fourth we prefer to 
 reserve to a future page. To the first we propose 
 to devote a few observations. " Shakspeare," says 
 Keble, " gives to his characters attributes, which 
 are propria; Euripides those which are communia: 
 that is to say, the grief of Medea and Iphigenia, 
 
CHARACTER OF EURIPIDES. 97 
 
 though beautifully described, is still not different 
 from the grief of any other women in the same cir- 
 cumstances." This is a very fine observation ; but we 
 are half inclined to doubt whether it may not be 
 turned against himself. To illustrate what he means 
 by oratorical frigidity, he compares the speech of 
 Jason on hearing that he is deprived of his children, 
 with that of Macduff, the latter of which he has 
 translated into most elegant Latin. 
 
 Now it appears to us that Jason would naturally 
 express himself in a different manner from Macduff. 
 In the first place, the relations between Jason and 
 Medea, and Macduff and Lady Macduff, were com- 
 pletely unlike. There was nothing at all domestic 
 and innocent about the former. It is quite natural 
 that a man who has formed a vicious connexion, 
 should moralise in a certain artificial manner on 
 its dissolution, or on its consequences. In fact, 
 he would be the imperfect artist who should in- 
 troduce the passionate lover of a Medea, lament- 
 ing after* the same fashion as an ancient British 
 chieftain. 
 
 It is also to be observed, that to whatever extent 
 the highly educated critic may object to this same 
 oratorical frigidity, it is by no means an obstacle to 
 great and enduring popularity. No ancient poet has 
 written so many quotable things as Euripides ; and 
 we find that among modern poets also, this is one 
 great source of lasting reputation. Many of our most 
 familiar English quotations are derived from second and 
 third rate productions. Witness Addison's " Cato," 
 
 H 
 
98 HANDBOOK OP THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 Pope's " Essay on Man" (which, however great its 
 merits, is scarcely great as a poem), and very many 
 dramas of the 18th century. The sort of popularity 
 which Euripides obtained is obtainable by any one 
 who writes for the masses. He " sought," says 
 Keble, "to bring poetry down to common life, as 
 Socrates did philosophy ;" but he sought it in a totally 
 different manner. Socrates sought to state deep 
 truths in a homely manner; Euripides, to state 
 homely truths in an apparently deep manner. This 
 latter is the secret of his popularity : common-place 
 thoughts, put tersely and epigram matically, are what 
 attract the vulgar; and Euripides has given us these 
 sort of apophthegms on every conceivable subject 
 interesting to humanity — birth, death, and mar- 
 riage, — heaven, earth, and Hades — politics, poetry, 
 and law, — on one and all of these subjects, some 
 semi-philosophic observation is dropped by Euri- 
 pides. Every young Athenian who declined the 
 labour of investigating the mysterious utterances 
 of iEschylus, or found no attraction in the deep 
 calm of Sophocles, could still quote to his compa- 
 nions such passages as this, 
 
 ris olfiev el rb £t]u /LteV eari kqltQolvzlv 
 rb KarQavelv 5e (fiv ; 
 
 or again, 
 
 robs &eobs %x° iV TLS & u 
 <pi\ovs, api(TT7)v fiavTLiciju e^o* $6/j.ois, 
 
 or else, 
 
 . KaK&s £tjv Kpeivaov v) bavuv KaAais ; 
 
THE THREE TRAGEDIANS COMPARED. 99 
 
 or, in nobler terms, 
 
 itacri yap 
 
 ce Ek\7] on. Koivbu fM erewer, ovx't- croi fxovg. 
 
 These are but a thousandth part of those neatly put 
 platitudes which would have naturally rendered 
 Euripides a favourite in an age when writing was 
 unknown, and when memory alone was depended on. 
 A careful comparison of the merits of the three 
 tragedians has been given us by Benloew, in which 
 we think the palm is with justice awarded to So- 
 phocles. In regard to the chorus, it is clearly shown 
 that in this poet only does it occupy the position 
 which the idea of the Greek drama requires, while in 
 JEschylus there is still too much of the dithyrambic 
 element remaining, and Euripides manifests in his 
 monodies a disposition to return to it.* In Sophocles 
 the chorus occupies its true place. It neither causes 
 the action, nor shares in it (crvvaycovL&i,), but merely 
 gives a kind of summary of each act, with a running 
 commentary upon it. The canlica soluta were 
 divided by grammarians into avofjuotoarpo^a and 
 TrapofioLocFTpo^a, and even in Sophocles this had at- 
 tained a distinct form and shape, under the name of 
 hyporchemata (Trach. 205., cf. 693., Philoct. 394. 
 827.); but there is a wide difference between these 
 choruses and those of the same kind in Euripides, 
 
 * " Atque velut a dithyrambo initium ceperat tragoedia, in dithy- 
 rambo etiam conquievisse videtur, quippe quum Monodise, ilia re- 
 ceptions tragoedise lumina, ssp-pe sine antistropharum responsione 
 (awo\€\vfievai) proferantur." — Keble. 
 
 H 2 
 
 iLof.C a 
 

 100 HANDBOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 the former being of a tumultuous and sweetly 
 musical character, the latter what would be called 
 tyvoo/jLiKci, or, in modern phrase, prosaic and sententious. 
 In the matter of metre the same superiority is justly 
 claimed by Sophocles. In his choruses ^Eschylus 
 inclines too much to the use of the dochmiac, Euri- 
 pides of the glyconic. The latter foot is scarcely 
 ever to be found in JEschylus, and was judiciously 
 introduced by Sophocles to temper the severity of his 
 predecessor; but Euripides runs riot in it. In the 
 iambic metre there is perhaps room for greater 
 difference of opinion ; we certainly prefer the easy 
 and varied flow of Sophocles to the grand monotony 
 of JEschylus ; but we are not certain that we prefer 
 the versification of the former to that of Euripides : 
 the sesquipedalia verba of the one are at all events 
 infinitely more tiresome than the short syllables of the 
 latter; but there are certain definite irregularities 
 in his verse, which are as unpleasing to the ear as 
 antagonistic to the rules of the Greek language — such 
 as the anapasst in the first foot not confined to a 
 single word, and the frequent transgressions of the 
 ordinary rules of quantity*, a3 also the use of abnor- 
 mal compounds, as also SvcrdprjaKG), aTaSioSpa/jbov/Jiaty 
 evvaaexfia), k.t.X. 
 
 In the matter of dialect, JEschylus is more fertile 
 in Ionicisms, owing to the more epic style of his 
 poetry ; Euripides, on the contrary, is more apt to 
 fall into Doricisms, especially in his monodies. 
 
 * We may instance yevva, Hec. 160.; ifiXov, Supp. 1101.; Tra- 
 \ai6v, Elect 479. 
 
THE ALCESTIS. 101 
 
 In the construction of his sentences, iEschylus is 
 much the most simple of the three. He loves short 
 sentences, and makes no display of dialectic. In his 
 dialogues, many of his speeches have more the air of 
 soliloquies than of an address to another person. His 
 want of art is marked by the recurrence of such ex- 
 pressions as rjfco) teal Karsp^o/xat^ /c.r.X.* : Euripides, on 
 the contrary, is full of oratorical rotundity and dif- 
 fuseness. . Sophocles is, in some sense, a medium 
 between these two. If we were to seek to express 
 his peculiarity in one word, we should say he was 
 compressive ; that is to say, he endeavours to throw 
 as much meaning into what he says as he possibly 
 can— every word he uses is pregnant with more than 
 meets the eye. In this way he sought to exercise 
 the intellect of his audience. f The ancients com- 
 pared Sophocles to the sweetness and strength of 
 good wine : — 
 
 ov y\v£is, ou5' vttSxvtos, aAAa Upd/jLvios. 
 
 The first in point of time of the extant plays of 
 Euripides is the Alcestis (b.c. 438.). It is said to 
 have been originally a satyric drama added to a 
 trilogy of tragedies, $ Upon this hypothesis, the far- 
 cical elements which it contains become perfectly 
 
 * The reader, however, should hear iEschylus in his own defence, 
 by referring to Aristoph. Range. 1. 1128. et seq. 
 
 f Marks of this intention are to be found in his constant use of 
 crasis and the elision of the final syllable of a verse, by which 
 means he avoided the use of many little words, which to Euripides 
 was rather welcome than otherwise. 
 
 % See above, p. 43. note. 
 
 H 3 
 
102 HANDBOOK OF TIIE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 xitelligible, and the behaviour of Hercules natural 
 and appropriate. The shortness of the drama and the 
 simplicity of the plan, which requires only two 
 actors, would convince us that it was not one of the 
 regular tragedies. 
 
 In 431. B.C. was exhibited the Medea, which in 
 the opinion of many is the best of all the poet's per- 
 formances. The character of Medea herself is very 
 finely drawn ; and though the murder of the children 
 is perhaps in excess of the legitimate bounds of 
 tragedy, yet Medea's language is interspersed with 
 so much that is touching and natural, that we are 
 less shocked than might be expected : 
 
 <pev, (j>€v, ri TrpojyeXare fx oiA/j.acru', reKPa ; 
 
 The mother is here shown not one whit less strongly 
 than the incensed enchantress ; and it is the union 
 of these two characters which constitutes the great 
 interest of the play. 
 
 The Hippolytus, one of the best plays of Euripides, 
 was brought out B. c. 428. The passion of Phaedra 
 for her stepson is just one of those monstrous sub- 
 jects, the adoption of which betokens the decline of 
 the drama in any country. The play, however, is as 
 good as it was possible to be under these circum- 
 stances. The character of Hippolytus himself is 
 beautiful in the extreme ; and his destruction through 
 the anger of Venus, whom he had despised, inculcates 
 a high moral lesson. 
 
 The Hecuba is a play which exhibits many of the 
 best and many of the worst characteristics of Euri- 
 
HERACLID^ SUPPLICES. 103 
 
 pides's poetry. It is full of elegant tenderness ; but 
 the characters are not well sustained, and the action 
 is faulty. The sacrifice of Polyxena and the murder 
 of Polydorus would have sufficed separately for the 
 catastrophe of the piece, w T hereas they are here drawn 
 in together, and seem to point to a second symptom 
 of decline which was now beginning to show itself 
 in Euripides, namely, the multiplicity of incidents 
 which he crowded into his dramas. The Hecuba 
 was exhibited somewhere about the year 424 B.C. 
 
 The only interest of the Heracleidas is to be found 
 in its political bearing. " The generosity of the 
 Athenians to the Heracleidas is celebrated in order 
 to charge with ingratitude their descendants, the 
 Dorians of the Peloponnese, who were most bitter 
 enemies to Athens; and the oracle which Eurystheus 
 makes known at the end of the play, that his corpse 
 should be a protection to the land of Attica against 
 the descendants of the Heracleidae when they should 
 invade Attica as enemies, was obviously designed to 
 strengthen the confidence of the less enlightened 
 portion of the audience in regard to the issue of this 
 struggle. The drama was probably brought out at 
 the time when the Argives stood at the head of the 
 Peloponnesian alliance, and it was thought probable 
 that they would join the Spartans and Boeotians in 
 their march against Athens, about Olymp. 89. 3. 
 B.C. 421."* 
 
 In the Suppliants, brought out B.C. 420, we have 
 
 * Miiller. 
 H 4 
 
104 HANDBOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 the first evidence of another downward tendency, 
 that, namely, of relying for success upon scenic effect 
 rather than histrionic or dramatic excellence. The 
 burning of the dead bodies and the immolation of 
 Evadne were probably conducted with great pomp 
 and with all the resources of the theatre. There is 
 supposed to be a political allusion in this play also, 
 to the battle of Delium between Athens and Thebes, 
 B.C. 424, when the latter refused to give up the dead 
 bodies for sepulture. 
 
 The Ion is one of the few plays of Euripides re- 
 markable for the excellence of plot. Creusa, the 
 daughter of Erectheus, King of Athens, and wife of 
 Xuthus, had before her marriage become mother of 
 Ion by Apollo. The boy was separated from his 
 mother, entrusted to the care of an old woman, and 
 brought up as a priest of Diana. Apollo, wishing to 
 secure to him the sovereignty of Athens, persuades 
 Xuthus, by means of an ambiguous oracle, that he is- 
 his own natural son, begotten before his marriage 
 with Creusa. The latter, enraged at the discovery, 
 and also at the design of making a bastard king of 
 Athens, endeavours to poison him. A recognition, 
 however, is brought about between mother and son, 
 by means of the old nurse ; and Xuthus, continuing 
 in his delusion, receives Ion with joy, and the piece 
 terminates happily. Ion is clearly an exception to 
 the general tenor of Euripides's plays. Aristotle 
 called him the most tragic of poets, not, indeed, 
 meaning what we should mean by such an expression, 
 but that his plays came nearer to his own definition 
 
HEKCULES FUKENS, ANDROMACHE. 105 
 
 of tragedy than any others.* His dictum is that a 
 tragedy terminates unhappily ; and many critics seem 
 to have given themselves unnecessary trouble in ex- 
 plaining why Aristotle spoke thus of Euripides, from 
 not observing that he is only referring to the pre- 
 ceding context. We should never lose sight of the 
 fact that the ancients treated their subjects in the 
 most strictly scientific way. Every sentence depends 
 more or less on what has gone before ; and a word 
 that has once been used in a technical sense is used 
 so throughout the treatise : in the passage quoted^ 
 the word "tragic" has only the technical signification 
 given above ; and we should doubt indeed whether 
 in classical Greek it ever bore any other. 
 
 The Hercules Furens is characterised by the same 
 faults as the Hecuba, namely, the double action, in 
 the rescue of the children of Hercules from Lycus, 
 and in their subsequent murder. The goddess of 
 madness was represented on the stage in this piece, 
 
 * See Poetics, ii. 12. The meaning of Aristotle here is well 
 drawn out in an article in the Classical Museum, No. 1. ; we shall 
 give the substance of it as briefly as possible. If we couple the words 
 in Aristotle's famous definition of tragedy, viz. Si e'Ae'ov kcu <po6ou 
 Trepaivovaa rrju rojv roiovrcav TraOrj/idrcoi/ K&Qapcriv, with the two fol- 
 lowing — & &s 5' dirAuu zWzlv (po€epd iariu oaa ety' erepwu yiyvojuLeva fj 
 lieKkovra iAeetvd eari' (lib. ii. 5. 12.); and not robs 6fj,oiovs iAeovo-iv 
 Kara TiXiKiav, Kara tfOr], Kara e|eis, Kara a^iw/aara, Kara yiut) * eV iradL 
 yap rovrois, fiaWov (paiverai Kal abr§ au virdp^ai. "OAoos yap /cat evrav- 
 $a Set Aa§e?v on '6aa i<p>* avroov (poSovvrai ravr £tt' olAAcov yiyvofxeva 
 iAeovaiv (lib. ii. 8. 13.) — translating (po§os, '*fear " and not terror, and 
 KaOapais, " pleasurable relief from," we shall easily understand 
 Aristotle's critique on Euripides. Neither of his predecessors 
 wrote in a manner so nearly touching ourselves. 
 
106 HANDBOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 and must have produced a surprising effect. The 
 date of the Hercules Furens is about 420 b. C. 
 
 The subject of the Andromache is well chosen. 
 The widow of Hector, as the slave and concubine of 
 Neoptolemus in Epirus, might have been worked up 
 into a most interesting and affecting picture ; yet it 
 is not an interesting play. The incidents are nume- 
 rous without being complicated ; and the moral, if 
 there be one, but faintly brought out. The misery 
 caused by Hermione, doubtless, pervades the whole 
 piece ; but it is nevertheless scarcely the prominent 
 feature. In its political bearing it is a direct attack 
 upon the Spartans, and seems to contain allusions to 
 the circumstances narrated by Thucydides (lib. v. 
 45.). The date of this play is about 418 B.C. 
 
 The Troades, which was brought out B.C. 415, is 
 totally deficient in dramatic interest, but was a mag- 
 nificent spectacle. Some have classed it with the 
 very best efforts of Euripides ; and that it contains 
 some of his very best poetry will hardly be denied 
 by any one. 
 
 The Electra, the worst of all the poet's productions, 
 was brought out about the year 413 B.C. The sub- 
 ject is the same as that of the Choephoroe of ^Eschy- 
 lus and the Electra of Sophocles. Schlegel gives us 
 an excellent critique of the three plays, though he 
 has hardly pointed out with sufficient distinctness 
 the remarkable superiority of Sophocles, whose dis- 
 tinctive excellence as an artist is nowhere so clearly 
 manifested. Euripides has failed entirely. The cha- 
 racters of iEgisthus and Clytemnestra are totally 
 
OKESTES, PHCENISSiE, BACCH^E. 107 
 
 spoiled, and the tragic element completely eliminated. 
 Was Euripides oppressed by a consciousness of in- 
 feriority to his two great predecessors ? It is the 
 only excuse that can be made for him. 
 
 The Helena is founded on an old legend handed 
 down by Stesichorus, that the Helen who crossed to 
 Troy was an siScoKov of the true Helen, who had never 
 left Greece. In Euripides she is supposed to have 
 got no further than Egypt, and to be persecuted there 
 by the addresses of the young king, from whom she 
 is at length rescued by Menelaus. The Helena was 
 exhibited B.C. 412. 
 
 The Orestes and the Phoenissse are rather dull 
 plays. The first was produced about the year 408 B. a, 
 the second a very little while after. The subject of 
 the former is the punishment of Orestes for matri- 
 cide, by a decree of the Argive senate. Menelaus, 
 who ought to have rescued him, deserts him ; 
 Helen, whom he threatens to slay, is taken up to 
 Heaven ; and Hermione, whom he seeks to kill in 
 her place, is given to him as wife by the Dioscuri, 
 who promise to deliver Orestes from the matricidal 
 curse. The PhcenissiB is full of incident, but palls 
 from its sameness and the absence of anything like 
 plot. The opening scene is fine ; but we care little 
 for the character of Antigone in the hands of 
 Euripides. 
 
 The Bacchge, a play not represented till after the 
 author's death, is one of his most interesting works, 
 from the fact that it seems to betoken a change in the 
 religious sentiments of Euripides. The subject of 
 
108 HANDBOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 the play is the punishment of Pantheus ; and the 
 poet takes occasion to utter many reflections on the 
 folly of those who would be overwise in their own 
 conceit, and deride what they cannot understand. 
 The subject, probably, occurred to his mind during 
 his residence in Macedonia, where the worship of 
 Bacchus was prevalent. 
 
 Schlegel and Muller differ as to the authenticity 
 of the Rhesus; but the question has been so well 
 argued by Valcknaer, that little doubt remains on 
 the subject. The Rhesus is not only wholly unlike 
 Euripides; but it also bears a curious resemblance to 
 the style of Sophocles, which would seem to imply 
 that it is the work of some late imitator of the latter 
 poet. Scaliger has ventured, though dubiously, to 
 ascribe it to Sophocles himself, principally on the 
 ground of the resemblance of the prologue to those 
 of the Ajax, Antigone, and the two CEdipi. This 
 is, however, probably an erroneous view. It is 
 entirely free from the peculiarities of Euripides — 
 to Tpaytfcbv, to yvco/jLLfcbv, to aKpifies, to <y\a(f)vpbi>, to 
 itcXsysLV KOtva /ecu Stj/jlcvSt].* 
 
 We have purposely reserved to the last our 
 remarks on the two Iphigenise, which are in 
 many respects the most beautiful productions of 
 Euripides. The Iphigenia in Tauris was brought 
 out somewhere about the year 411 B.C. In this 
 play, Iphigenia is the priestess of the Tauric Artemis, 
 to whom the barbarous inhabitants of that region 
 
 * Valcknaer. 
 
IPHIGENIA IN TAURIS. 109 
 
 sacrificed all strangers thrown upon their coast. The 
 recognition here between the brother and sister is 
 so contrived as to be surprising without being un- 
 natural ; and the deceit of Thoas is, according to the 
 Greek view, not at all unjustifiable. The following 
 remarks of Miiller on this drama are so good that 
 we quote them in their integrity : ■ — 
 
 " The poet, too, has taken care not to spoil the 
 pleasure with which we contemplate this noble 
 picture, by representing Iphigenia as a priestess who 
 slays human victims on the altar. Her duty is only 
 to consecrate the victims by sprinkling them with 
 water outside the temple ; others take them into the 
 temple and put them to death.* Fate, too, has con- 
 trived that hitherto no Greek has been driven to this 
 coast.f When she flies, however, a symbolical repre- 
 sentation is substituted for the rites of an actual 
 sacrifice f , whereby the humanity of the Greeks 
 triumphs over the religious fanaticism of the bar- 
 barians. Still more attractive and touching is the 
 connexion of Orestes and Pylades, whose friendship 
 is exalted in this more than in any other play. The 
 scene in which the two friends strive which of them 
 shall be sacrificed as a victim and which shall return 
 home, is very affecting, without any design on the 
 part of the poet to call forth the tears of the 
 spectators. According to our ideas, it must be con- 
 fessed, Pylades yields too soon to the pressing en- 
 treaties of his friend, partly because the arguments of 
 
 * V. 625. fol. f V- 26 °- foL t V. 1471. fol. 
 
 / 
 
110 HANDBOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA, 
 
 Orestes actually convince him, partly because, as 
 having more faith in the Delphic Apollo, he still 
 retains a hope that the oracle of the god will in the 
 end deliver them both ; whereas we desire, even in 
 such cases, an enthusiastic resignation of all thoughts 
 to the one iden, in which no thought can arise except 
 the deliverance of our friend. The feelings of the 
 people of antiquity, however, were made of sterner 
 stuff; their hardihood and simplicity of character 
 would not allow them to be so easily thrown off their 
 balance, and while t}iey preserved the truth of friend- 
 ship, they could keep their eyes open for all the other 
 duties and advantages of life." * 
 
 The Iphigenia in Aulis was not acted till after the 
 poet's death. The progress of the story and the 
 denouement are admirable. The resolution of Achil- 
 les forbids all idea of using compulsion towards his 
 betrothed ; and the whole expedition is at a stand- 
 still till at length Iphigenia announces herself as 
 a voluntary victim — the noblest deus ex machind 
 which ancient tragedy can boast. Her character 
 has been objected to on the ground of inconsistency : 
 her lamentations are too rapidly succeeded, it is said, 
 by her resignation ; the woman too quickly becomes 
 the heroine — ovSsv soi/csv rj Usrsvovo-a rfj varspa. 
 We cannot agree in the justice of this criticism. If 
 it is not unnatural for the same person to lament at 
 first, and to be resigned afterwards, neither is the 
 rapidity with which the change takes place unnatural. 
 
 * Lit Ant. Greece, vol. i. pp. 376, 377 
 
IPHIGENIA IN AULIS, CYCLOPS. Ill 
 
 Indeed, there are many instances on record of con- 
 demned persons, who, as long as there was the very- 
 slightest chance of escape, have spared no solicitation, 
 and have given way to humiliating anguish, but 
 who have nevertheless, when the conviction of their 
 doom became certain, risen from the ground, as it 
 were, in a moment, thrown off all appearance of 
 terror, and assumed the cheerfulness of martyrs. 
 Such appears to be the character of Iphigenia in 
 Aulis, — in our opinion the nearest approach to a 
 modern heroine to be found in classic poetry. 
 
 In the Cyclops, Euripides has given us the only 
 extant specimen of the genuine satyric drama. This 
 drama, as we have said above, was usually a kind of 
 facetious epilogue to the tragic trilogy.* The chorus 
 consisted of satyrs ; and the adventures of the hero 
 were always those susceptible of laughable treatment. 
 The subject of the Cyclops is the story of Poly- 
 phemus. 
 
 * But see note on p. 101. 
 
112 HANDBOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 CHAP. IX. 
 
 RISE OF COMEDY. — ARISTOPHANES. 
 
 The origin of comedy is radically the same as that 
 of tragedy. But while the latter took its rise from 
 the more urbane and polished element of the Bacchic 
 worship, the former sprang from the rural remains of 
 the old and more homely ritual. This was in Greece 
 undoubtedly the more ancient of the two, and, as 
 more exclusively connected with the generative and 
 fertilising attributes of the gods, lingered longest 
 among the villages and woods, and in the hearts of 
 the agricultural population. The Phallic processions, 
 and the rural celebration of the vintage, contained 
 the elements from which sprung the graceful produc- 
 tions of Aristophanes and Menander. Although, 
 however, the sources from which comedy arose were 
 more indigenous than those which gave birth to 
 tragedy ; yet there is no doubt that the embodiment 
 of the former in any permanent shape was posterior 
 to that of tragedy. The honour of being the first 
 inventor of comedy is usually supposed to lie between 
 Susarion and Epicharmus. The truth, however, 
 seems to be, that the latter was the first author of 
 written pieces, and therefore must technically be ad- 
 mitted to be the first comic dramatist. The date of 
 his birth is uncertain — it was probably about the 
 
EPICHARMUS AND HIS SCHOOL. 113 
 
 year 520 or 530 B.C. ; and he was more than ninety 
 when he died. The comedies of Epicharmus were 
 parodies of sacred subjects, and partly also political. 
 Plautus's play of the Menaschmi is said to be founded 
 on one of the dramas of Epicharmus. Phormis and 
 Dinolochus are the other two writers of the Sicilian 
 school whose reputation has been preserved by their 
 contemporaries. The first Attic comedian was Chi- 
 onides. The titles of three of his plays have come 
 down to us ; these were the "Hpcoss^ the Hspacu rj 
 'Aaavpiot, and the Htco^oL A contemporary of 
 Chionides was Magnes, from whom Aristophanes 
 borrowed the titles of two of his plays, the Frogs 
 and the Birds, and of whom he speaks in a compli- 
 mentary manner in the Knights.* Cratinus was 
 born at Athens about the year 519 B.C., and died in 
 422 B.C., having more than once been a successful 
 competitor against Aristophanes and Eupolis. Crates, 
 Phrynichus, and Rermippus lived about the same 
 time. The first was originally an actor in the 
 plays of Cratinus, but afterwards turned author. 
 Aristophanes speaks very highly of him in the 
 Clouds.f 
 
 Phrynichus was a man of inferior ability. He 
 is ridiculed by Hermippus and Aristophanes. Her- 
 mippus was a great opponent of Pericles; he 
 prosecuted Aspasia for impiety. Eupolis was the im~ ' 
 mediate predecessor of Aristophanes, and, with Cra- 
 tinus, seems to have been looked upon as the leading 
 
 * Line 518. f Line 537. % Hor. i. Sat. 4. l, 2. 
 
 I 
 
114 HANDBOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 man of the prse-Aristophanic period. J His comedies 
 are very virulent ; but as he was a warm admirer of 
 Pericles, no harm came to him during that states- 
 man's lifetime. The time and manner of his death 
 are doubtful ; and there is probably no truth in the 
 story that he was thrown overboard by the order of 
 Alcibiades on his way to Sicily in 415 B.C. 
 
 It is a very common though by no means a uni- 
 versal opinion, that Aristophanes is on the whole the 
 greatest of Athenian dramatists. To this opinion 
 we ourselves subscribe. The fact is, that ancient 
 tragedy was in want of many materials which con- 
 tribute to the formation of a complete idea of hu- 
 manity. To love, it was a stranger * ; in its treat- 
 ment of the relations between heaven and earth, God 
 and man, it was hampered by a cumbrous mytho- 
 logy t* the traditions of which it was as dangerous to 
 neglect as it was difficult to dispose properly. There 
 are marks of what might have been done. We see 
 the outline not filled up ; the elements, but not their 
 combination. J With comedy, however, this was not 
 the case. With the position of woman in society it- 
 could deal readily. Audacious reflections on the 
 gods, which would have ruined a tragedian, were not 
 only permitted but loudly applauded when issuing 
 from the comic mask. The reason of this is very 
 simple. Where the popular creed still retains a firm 
 
 * A modern writer would not have missed the fine situation 
 afforded by Antigone and Hamion. The love of Euripides is the 
 navvios ipuos of Aristotle. 
 
 f Edinb. Rev. No. 58. \ Ibid. 
 
ARISTOPHANES. 115 
 
 hold on the minds of the multitude, such displays are 
 not dangerous or perhaps irreverent. The religious 
 spectacles of the middle ages are an instance of this 
 point. Thus we see that Aristophanes stood on a 
 vantage ground as compared with his tragic contem- 
 poraries ; and if we assent to the claim which has 
 been advanced in his favour, we are not so much ex- 
 alting his genius as simply doing justice to his 
 opportunities. 
 
 Aristophanes, the son of Philippus, was born at 
 Athens in the year 444 B. c. Of the rank and sta- 
 tion of his father we know nothing ; but they are 
 presumed to have been respectable. He brought out 
 his first play, the Banqueters, B.C. 427, the following 
 year the Babylonians, and the year following that 
 the Acharnians. In 424 he brought out the Knights, 
 and the' next year the Clouds, which obtained neither 
 the first nor second prize. In 422 he exhibited the 
 Wasps, in 419 the Peace, and in 414 the Birds. 
 The Lysistrata and the Thesmophoriazusge were per- 
 formed in the year 411 ; the Plutus in 408, and the 
 Ecclesiazusse in 392. The date of the Progs is un- 
 certain. The two last plays which Aristophanes 
 wrote were called the JEolosicon and the Cocalus. 
 The latter, it is said, approached so nearly to the 
 standard of the new comedy, that Philemon was able 
 to bring it again on the stage with very few varia- 
 tions. Aristophanes died somewhere about the year 
 380 B.C. 
 
 Aristophanes was a thorough conservative of the 
 old school. He hated all change, without taking the 
 
 I 2 
 
116 HANDBOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 trouble to discriminate between what was needless 
 and what was necessary for the constitution. The 
 evil done daily by the sophists and demagogues was 
 so vast and so apparent, that there is certainly some 
 excuse for the comedian, if he acted on the belief 
 which is best expressed by the words " noscitur a 
 sociis" and waged an uncompromising war with So- 
 crates and Euripides, whom he identified with the 
 doctrines of the sophists to the fullest extent. Pos- 
 terity has rectified the error in one case and his own 
 contemporaries in the other. " The taunts of Ari- 
 stophanes," says Hartung, t€ in no way affected the 
 poet's popularity : " and while later ages endorsed 
 with gladness his fiercest invectives against Cleon, 
 they have never ceased to venerate and to love the 
 name of Socrates. There seem to have been three 
 principal evils against which the mind of Aristo- 
 phanes was violently excited; and we shall notice 
 his comedies according to their bearing on each of 
 these three objects of his hostility. 
 
 Aristophanes, as we have remarked, was essentially 
 a conservative, and he regarded the Peloponnesian 
 war as essentially opposed to his party views ; he 
 detested it therefore on this political ground. But 
 the war was also hateful to him as affording oppor- 
 tunities of eminence to the demagogues of that day, 
 who possessed all the ambition of Pericles, whom 
 they professed to imitate, without his ability. Iso- 
 crates called Pericles u the greatest of the dema- 
 gogues," not so much intending to reproach him as 
 to show that he had initiated a policy which, though 
 
HIS POLITICAL OPINIONS. 117 
 
 perhaps capable of glorious results in his own hands, 
 became, after his death, the readiest means in the 
 hand of the charlatan for deluding the people. It 
 was this trade of political charlatanism that was 
 odious to Aristophanes ; nor should we be doing him 
 justice if we supposed that he did not anticipate 
 many of those disasters which the war brought upon 
 Athens, or understand that the policy of Cimon 
 and Aristides was the one best adapted to her truest 
 interests. The new hegemony which Pericles ad- 
 vocated could only be maintained by force, and by a 
 vast drain upon the national resources. The old 
 one, founded as it was on respect for Athenian mo- 
 deration and justice, would be less costly and more 
 permanent, and one for which the allies would always 
 be willing to fight against the aggressive ambition 
 of Sparta. The present English policy of colonial 
 self-government, combined with the established prin- 
 ciple of non-interference on the continent, would 
 very adequately represent the system which it was 
 the design of Aristophanes to restore. With this 
 object he wrote the Acharnians; a play which in 
 point of literary merit stands considerably above the 
 average in the list of his extant performances. This 
 play was exhibited in the year 425 ; and in the suc- 
 ceeding year he followed up the blow by a direct at- 
 tack on Cleon, who at that time was the leading 
 man of the ultra war party at Athens. The Knights 
 is perhaps the most famous play of Aristophanes ; 
 yet, as Schlegel well observes, it is doubtful how far 
 it is the best. " It may be," says he, " that the 
 
 i 3 
 
118 HANDBOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 thought of the too actual danger in which he stood 
 gave the poet a more earnest tone than was suitable 
 to a comedian, or that the persecution which he had 
 already undergone from Cleon provoked him to vent 
 his wrath in a manner too Archilochian. It is 
 only after the storm of sarcastic abuse has somewhat 
 spent itself, that droller scenes follow ; and droll they 
 are in a hio-h decree, where the two demagogues, 
 the dealer in leather (fivpaoSsTrri]?), i.e. Cleon, and 
 the sausage seller (aXXavTOTraArjs), by adulation, by 
 oracle-quoting, and by dainty tit-bits, vie with each 
 other in currying favour with the old dotard Deinus, 
 that is, the personified people ; and the play ends 
 with an almost touchingly joyous triumph, where 
 the scene changes from the Pnyx, the place of the 
 popular assemblies, to the majestic Propylsea, and 
 Demus, wondrously restored to second youth, comes 
 forward in the garb of the old Athenians, and along 
 with his youthful vigour has recovered the old feel- 
 ing of the days of Marathon." Cleon, who had just 
 returned from his expedition to Sphacteria, Wets at 
 this time so important a personage in the state, that 
 no actor could be found to represent the character, 
 which Aristophanes was obliged accordingly to as- 
 sume himself, merely painting his face instead of 
 wearing a mask. 
 
 The next in chronological order is the Clouds, in 
 our opinion decidedly the poet's master-piece. The 
 device by which Strepsiades is made to repent of 
 dabbling in sophistry, is a triumph of comic in- 
 genuity ; and a better " silly old man " than himself 
 
THE KNIGHTS, THE CLOUDS. 119 
 
 was never placed upon the stage. The wit is in- 
 imitable, flowing in an exuberant stream, and never 
 strained or unnatural. We know not if we should 
 be far wron^r in classing the Clouds and the 
 " Merry Wives of Windsor " together, as the two 
 very best comedies which the world has ever seen. 
 It is very well known that the design of the Clouds 
 was to ridicule Socrate3 as the chief of the sophists. 
 Modern opinions have been much divided on this 
 subject. Some have thought that the latter deserved 
 all the censure of the poet, and even more than he 
 received ; others maintain that Aristophan-^ 
 blinded by prejudice, and knew not of what he was 
 writing. Of toe two views there is probably more 
 truth in the latter than in the former ; yet we cannot 
 go so far a3 the author of a recent life of Aristopha- 
 nes * and pay a tribute to his honesty at the expense 
 of his greatness. One fact is certain, that common 
 sense was the distinguishing quality of the mind of 
 Aristophanes. He saw that things at Athens were 
 in a bad way, and he knew they had once been 
 better. A set of men had arisen who pretended to 
 regenerate the people by means of a novel education. 
 Xow, whatever it was that these men taught fa 
 question which it is out of our province to disease . 
 it is very clear that they did the Athenians very 
 little good. Day by day the latter were growing 
 more irritable, capricious, covetous, and tricky; was 
 it not natural that any practical man of the world 
 
 * See Biographical Dictionary. 
 I 4 
 
120 HANDBOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 would connect this deterioration with the teaching 
 of the school of the sophists? and when Socrates 
 
 came, living the same manner of life as they, perplex- 
 ing the minds of simple people with a novel style of 
 questions, and generally seeming to attach great 
 importance to words,, it was equally natural that 
 Aristophanes should have connected him with the 
 sophists. The comic poet was not the man to make 
 deep and sifting inquiries, any more than such 
 a man as Pliny inquired into the alleged facts of 
 Christianity, Had circumstances brought him into 
 close intimacy with Socrates, we have not a doubt 
 that the comedian would have found in him a kindred 
 spirit : but seeing him only from a distance, and 
 knowing him only as the friend of Euripides, it is 
 not surprising if he classed the whole tribe together 
 as impostors and pretenders, differing only in degree. 
 As to Socrates himself, if we may trust the assertion 
 of Xeuophon, we know that so far from corrupting 
 the youth of the city, he very soon got rid of such 
 pupils as Alcibiades, Critias, and Theramenes — they 
 left him when they found out that he taught austere 
 morality and rigid self-control — while, in regard to 
 the physical speculations so ridiculed in the Clouds, 
 the Socrates of Xenophon was so notoriously averse 
 to those profound researches into the ficrscopa — or 5 
 in other words, into the universe, the heavenly 
 bodies, and atmospherical phenomena, which engross 
 the master of subtleties in the Clouds — that he pro- 
 nounced them to be a proof of mental aberration in all 
 who, like Anaxagoras, were perpetually brooding on 
 
 . 
 
RELIGIOUS OPINIONS. — WASPS, PEACE. 121 
 
 such topics ! It is clear, then, that the poet fa 
 
 -taken and misrepresented the philosopher; but it 
 is not so clear that he misrepresented him because he 
 was prejudiced, and because he was narrow-mind 
 He did it because he was careless, neither seeing nor 
 hearing anything in these men that should lead him 
 to modify the opinions which be had always held* 
 It waa the misfortune of his position that he could 
 not discover his mistake ; but he was one of that 
 class who are the last to be reached by any novel 
 doctrine, not, we repeat, on account of their bigotry, 
 but purely from their love of ease, r~:ablished order, 
 and social refinement. 
 
 In his play of the Wasps* Aristophanes exposed 
 the Athenian love of litigation. This, too, of course, 
 
 g a fine field for an attack upon the sophists : the 
 aged dicast, who holds the prominent part, is 
 excellent : but the play as a whole is scarcely equal 
 in merit to the majority of those preserved to 
 
 either is the Peace by any means equal to the 
 Achamians, or the Knights. The subject, of 
 course, is substantially the same as that of : 
 former ; but the plot is not equally well sustained. 
 The commencement promises fair; but after the 
 
 "less of peace has been drawn up out of the well 
 the action halts, and the sacrifices are spun out to too 
 great a length. 
 
 In the Birds, however, brought out B.C. 414, 
 Aristophanes shines forth again in the full splendom 
 of his comic genius. SchlegeL's view of this play 
 i t. that it is just a '*' harmless hocus pocus, with a 
 
122 HANDBOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 hit at everything," has not recommended itself to 
 subsequent scholars; and for this there are two 
 reasons. In the first place the old comedy was never 
 merely literary ; this is a fact that cannot be borne 
 in mind too constantly. It was mainly, indeed, a 
 political engine ; and this circumstance alone would 
 lead us to doubt any theory which claims for so 
 elaborate an effort as the Birds a purely imaginative 
 character. The second reason is to be found in the 
 play itself; the characters and action fit so closely 
 to those of certain politicians of the day, that it 
 surprises us how the truth should have escaped the 
 notice of Schlegel. In the previous year, b. c. 415, 
 the Sicilian expedition had started, and Euripides 
 had written the trilogy of which the Troades formed 
 a part, in order to encourage the hopes of his coun- 
 trymen. It was this delusive dream of universal 
 conquest that the Birds was intended to ridicule. 
 In Peistheterus, we have a union of Alcibiades and 
 the Leontine ambassador Gorgias; in Eulepides we 
 see the sanguine Athenian citizen. The birds are 
 the gaping Athenian multitude, easily persuaded by 
 a couple of designing adventurers to build castles in 
 the air.* The elegance and brilliancy of this play 
 
 * We are here speaking only of the opinion of Aristophanes. 
 Had, however, Alcibiades been permitted to conduct the Sicilian 
 expedition from beginning to end, it was " on the cards," we think, 
 for Athens to have become mistress of the world. On the other 
 hand, we must consider that Aristophanes knew the character of 
 his countrymen, and felt that they had not the qualities requisite 
 for conducting such an enterprise to a successful issue. But the 
 
THE BIEDS. 123 
 
 have been universally celebrated ; it is a sort of aerial 
 fairy temple, sparkling with the brightness of an un- 
 clouded sun. The choruses are rich in poetic 
 beauty, especially the short one commencing 
 
 which is conceived in the very spirit of Ariel's 
 " Where the bee sucks," — and which, with a very 
 little change, could be turned into a translation 
 of it. 
 
 The Lysistrata, the Thesmophoriazusae, and the 
 Ecclesiazusse, are not generally read ; and we need 
 say but little respecting them. The first specified 
 represents the desire of the Athenian women for 
 peace, and the wretchedness occasioned by the 
 breaking up of homes and severance of domestic ties 
 which war produces ; the women effect their object by 
 force, i. e. by possessing themselves of the Athenian 
 
 material resources of Athens were not, we think, unequal to the 
 task. (Cf. Arnold's Borne.) 
 
 * We venture to lay before our readers the following Latin 
 translation of this chorus : — 
 
 Oh jure felix alituum genus, 
 Quos bruma nunquam veste jubet tegi, 
 Nee fervor iracunda solis 
 Tela procul jacientis urit. 
 Quin ipse multo flore virentibus 
 Pratis, et amplis in foliis cubo, 
 Quum carmen argutum susurrat 
 Sole furens medio cicada. 
 Brumam cavatis sub specubus traho ; 
 Ludoque nymphas inter oreadas, 
 Myrtique depascor corymbos 
 Virgineos, charitumque flores. 
 
124 HANDBOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 acropolis. In the next, by stealing into the assem- 
 bly, disguised as men, they carry a vote ordaining a 
 community of goods and wives. The Thesmopho- 
 riazusa3 is written in ridicule of the misogyny of 
 Euripides, and is wonderfully clever and cutting. 
 
 The Frogs, by far the most interesting of the 
 plays of Aristophanes in a literary point of view, 
 represents a dramatic contest between Euripides and 
 ^Eschylus, which is decided in favour of the latter, 
 who determines that Sophocles shall be his successor 
 on the tragic throne. 
 
 Aristophanes was as great a conservative in poetry 
 as in politics, and probably felt as indignant at what 
 he would call the musical nonsense of Euripides as 
 any sturdy writer of our own times at the vagaries 
 of the so-called spasmodic school. Hence the comedy 
 of the Frogs, in which the poetry and the morals of 
 Euripides are ridiculed together. He is defeated in 
 a dramatic contest with .ZEschylus ; and when he 
 appeals to Bacchus, who had sworn to take Euripides 
 back to earth with him, he is answered in the spirit 
 of his own maxim, " I have sworn certainly ; but I 
 find I prefer JEschylus." The chorus consists of the 
 shades of the initiated ; and the odes which they 
 sing, though sometimes parodies of Euripides, are 
 uncommonly poetical. 
 
 The Plutus, like the Ecclesiazusae, is intended to 
 ridicule Plato's Eepublic, and the new love of 
 Dorian institutions, which sprang up at Athens 
 after the Peloponnesian war. The unfair distribu- 
 tion of wealth is its leading topic ; and in tone it 
 
PLUTUS. — THE CHORUS* 125 
 
 approaches much nearer to the middle comedy than 
 the old. 
 
 The chorus was essential to the old comedy, as in 
 some respects representing the public ; it can by no 
 means be explained as a chance relic from the local 
 origin of the elder comedy : a weightier reason might 
 be found even in the circumstance that it serves to 
 complete the parody on the tragic form ; at the same 
 time it contributes to the expression of festal mirth, 
 of which comedy was the most unrestrained effusion, 
 for at all national and religious festivals of the 
 Greeks choral odes were performed, accompanied 
 with dances. The comic chorus at times transforms 
 itself into such a voice of -public rejoicing; for in- 
 stance, when the women, who are solemnising the 
 Thesmophoria, in the piece thence named, in the 
 midst of the maddest revelry strike up their melodious 
 hymn, just as at the real festival, in honour of all its 
 presiding deities. There is, however, one special 
 deviation from the tragic model, — that there are 
 often several different choruses, who come off and 
 on the stage without any relation to each other.* 
 
 The parabasis is the poet's own address to his 
 audience, partaking something of the character of 
 the modern prologue, but differing in proportion to 
 the different nature of the comedy. It has nothing 
 to do with the action of the play, but is a lively, 
 forcible, and direct exposition of the idea of which 
 the play is but, as it were, an allegory. This shows 
 sufficiently that the old comedy was not primarily of 
 
 * Schlegel. 
 
126 HANDBOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 a literary character : there is earnestness about the 
 parabasis — a provision that the play shall not be 
 misunderstood — which would be quite unnecessary 
 had the object been merely to amuse. So much was 
 this the case, that the discontinuance of the parabasis 
 is the distinct line of demarcation between the old 
 and middle comedy. 
 
DECLINE OF GREEK DRAMA. 12? 
 
 CHAR X. 
 
 DECLINE OF GREEK DRAMA (TRAGEDY AND COMEDY). — 
 MENANDER. — PHILEMON. — ALEXIS. 
 
 Of the tragedians who succeeded Euripides there is 
 little that is worth relating. When faith in the old 
 mythology was dead, and when interest in the old 
 traditions was lost, when the Upca/jbt/cal Tvyai had 
 become little more to the Athenians than they are to 
 us, their materials r or tragedy were exhausted. 
 The tragic delineation of merely human passion was 
 impossible where women were eliminated from so- 
 ciety. Yet the tenderness and anguish of love was 
 the only element capable of supplying the place of 
 the awful, the sublime, and the supernatural. Tra- 
 gedy, therefore, may be said to have completely 
 vanished with Euripides. Of the names that remain, 
 not one appears to have approached within a very 
 considerable distance of the three great ones. Some 
 of their more immediate successors and contempo- 
 raries appear to have possessed a share of dramatic 
 genius, as some of them more than once carried off 
 the tragic prize ; but none of them possessed suffi- 
 cient force of character to keep their reputation 
 afloat, and the best of them seem to have attained 
 little beyond the art of pleasing by pretty images 
 and harmonious versification. Agathon is the best 
 known of the number. He was a personal friend of 
 
128 HANDBOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA, 
 
 Aristophanes, who praises him in the Frogs*, but 
 seems to have been an effeminate and delicate man, 
 and to have composed poetry of a very similar de- 
 scription. Xenocles, though abused by Aristophanes 
 (Thesm. 169.), gained the tragic prize against Euri- 
 pides, B.C. 415 ; and Euphorion, the son of iEschylus, 
 was on one occasion victorious over Sophocles. The 
 Alexandrian dramatists were mere rhetoricians. 
 There were sevenof them, known as the Pleiades, — 
 Homer, Positheus, Lycophron, Alexander, CEan- 
 tides, Sosiphanes, and Philiseus. 
 
 We have already seen that the characteristic feature 
 of the ancient comedy, as it prevailed at Athens in 
 the time of the Peloponnesian war, in the hands of 
 Eupolis, Cratinus, and Aristophanes, was the free- 
 dom and licence with which it criticised and fre- 
 quently held up to popular ridicule and scorn the 
 character and conduct of such public men as gave a 
 handle to the poet's criticism. In this freedom, we 
 think, with Horace f , lay its great merit and interest, 
 At Athens, in the 8th century B.C., the comic poet 
 fulfilled that part which in our day and country falls 
 to the lot of the public press, — the censorship of the 
 
 * 'AyaBbs itol7]T7]S Kal iroQtivbs rdls <pl\ois. 1. 84. 
 
 f " Eupolis, atque Cratinus, Aristophanesque poetse, 
 
 Atque alii quorum comoedia prisca virorum est, 
 
 Si quis erat dignus describi ... 
 
 multa cum libertate notabant. 
 Hoc stabant, hoc sunt imitandiP 
 
 Hon. Sat. i. 4. 1- 
 
MIDDLE COMEDY. 129 
 
 administration both at home and abroad. Upon the 
 whole, this showed a healthy state of popular feeling ; 
 and we cannot but learn with regret that, at a later 
 period, a law was passed which forbade the poet any 
 longer to make living characters the subjects of his 
 comedies. 
 
 All attacks upon living characters ceased with what 
 is called the old comedy. The writers of the middle 
 sort contented themselves with venting their raillery 
 upon the works of their dramatic predecessors. The 
 period of the middle comedy is usually said to extend 
 from about 400 b. C. to 300 B. c, that is to say, down 
 to the conquest of Greece by Macedon. It is easy 
 to see why this should have been the case. The 
 period between the termination of the Peloponnesian 
 war and the complete subjugation of Athens, was a 
 transition state, in which, though much of her old 
 exuberant spirit was gone, men had not yet quietly 
 settled down into a recognition of the fact. The 
 old feeling would be constantly endeavouring to 
 reassert itself; and the reader must therefore re- 
 member that these three kinds of comedy melt very 
 gradually into one another, and that Aristophanes 
 wrote plays belonging in reality to the middle 
 comedy, and Alexis and others such as approached 
 very near to the licence of the old. Philemon, again, 
 is sometimes said to belong to the new comedy, and 
 sometimes to the middle ; but, on the whole, there is 
 doubtless sufficient difference between the three 
 schools to justify the distinction. Athenseus reckons 
 thirty -nine writers of the middle comedy ; but if we 
 
 K 
 
130 IIANDBOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 exclude Philemon, no one of them seems to have, at- 
 tained any very distinguishing excellence. Both the 
 chorus and the parabasis disappeared with the old 
 comedy. Of the six writers commemorated by Cum- 
 berland as belonging to the new comedy, Menander 
 and Philemon are the only two that deserve any 
 lengthened notice. It may be interesting to know 
 that Diphilus was born at Sinope ; and we may as 
 well add, that the last of all — the last poet of that 
 wonderful Attic literature — was Posidippus, the year 
 of whose death is not known, but who began to exhibit 
 in the year 289 B.C. 
 
 The new comedy was the comedy of manner, and 
 differed in no material respect from that of Moliere, 
 Congreve, and Sheridan. Philemon, according to 
 Strabo, was born at Soli, in Cilicia, about the year 
 360 B.C. ; he first began to exhibit plays in 310. 
 He was some years older than Menander, and was no 
 unworthy rival of that poet, though more frequently 
 successful in his competition with him than critics 
 seem to think he ought to have been. Apuleius 
 says that, though his frequent triumphs over Me- 
 nander are not to the credit of Athenian literature, 
 yet he had a great deal to commend him. " Reperias 
 tamen apud ipsum multos sales, argumenta lepide 
 inflexa, agnatos lucide explicatos, personas rebus 
 competentes, sententias vitas congruentes, joca non 
 infra soccum, seria non usque ad cothurnum." Gellius 
 also tells us that Menander used to ask him whether 
 he did not blush at his own victories? The frag- 
 ments of Philemon are, in general, of a sentimental 
 
NEW COMEDY. — MENANDER. 131 
 
 and tender cast ; and though they enforce sound and 
 strict morality, yet no one instance occurs of that 
 gloomy misanthropy, that harsh and dogmatising 
 spirit, which too often marks the beauties of his more 
 illustrious rival. Philemon is an instance that the 
 writers of the new school did not always abstain from 
 satire on their contemporaries. He is reported by 
 Plutarch to have taken great pains to circulate a 
 comedy containing very severe reflections on Magas, 
 tyrant of Cyrene, for which, when driven thither by 
 a storm, he was presented by Magas with a set of 
 child's playthings, having previously been touched on 
 the throat by a soldier's naked sword, as a hint of 
 what he might expect if he did not change his tone. 
 He died at a great age, about the year 262 B.C. 
 
 Menander, the son of Diopeithes, was born at 
 Athens in the year B.C. 341. His father was one 
 of the last asserters of Athenian freedom ; and it was 
 in his defence that Demosthenes made one of his 
 best speeches — that on the Chersonese. He was a 
 nephew of the comic poet Alexis, and a pupil of 
 Theophrastus the favourite pupil of Aristotle, from 
 whom, possibly, he derived his love of philosophising. 
 The remains of Menander, however, are not suffi- 
 ciently copious to enable us to judge with much 
 precision of his distinguishing excellencies. We 
 shall probably not be far wrong in supposing him to 
 have partaken to a large extent of the Horatian rj6o$, 
 tempered by a considerable dash of the tender sen- 
 timent of Tibullus. Comedy, in his hands, was 
 comedy rather as dealing with every-day incidents 
 
 K 2 
 
132 HANDBOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 | 
 
 and ordinary men, than as being either laughable or 
 witty. Abundant wit and abundant materials for 
 laughter his plays of course contained ; but such was 
 hardly an essential or necessary feature in them. Of 
 his fragments that remain, many passages are in- 
 tensely gloomy and full of despondency, and lead 
 us to see that the gay and handsome youth, the 
 lover of Glycera and the " unguento delibutus " of 
 Phaedrus, in no way differed from that class which 
 is to be found in all nations at the corresponding 
 period of their civilisation, — a class of men too 
 thoughtful and poetical really to enjoy the life of a 
 voluptuary, though, nevertheless, that life is almost 
 the only one which their temperaments can permit 
 them to follow under existing circumstances. This 
 was scarcely the character of Horace ; but, if we 
 are not greatly mistaken, this was the character of 
 Menander. 
 
 Menander is said to have been drowned in the 
 Piraeus in the fifty-second year of his age ; and, as 
 has been well said, we may fairly imagine " that as 
 great a blank has been created by the subduction of 
 Menander, as would have been caused if Horace 
 were altogether erased from Latin letters, or if he 
 lived but in his Odes and, in a few passages ill 
 chosen from his better works, in here and there a 
 moral line or a few lifeless passages of his Satires 
 and his Epistles." 
 
Aristotle's treatise on poetry. 133 
 
 CHAP. XI. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF ARISTOTLE^ TREATISE ON POETRY. 
 
 Chap. I. 
 
 There are different kinds of poetry ; but all agree 
 in one point, that they are imitations, or rather 
 expressions (juu/jirjcrsis). 
 
 They differ in (1.) the means, (2.) the objects, and 
 (3.) the manner of their imitation. 
 
 (1.) The means. These are rhythm, words, and 
 harmony. 
 
 Dancing imitates by rhythm alone; epic poetry 
 by words : some kinds of poetry, however, employ 
 all three means. 
 
 Applicability of the terms iroifiv and iroirjrrjs : it is 
 not the metre, but the expression, that constitutes a 
 poet. 
 
 Chap. II. 
 
 (2.) The objects. These are either virtuous or 
 vicious characters ; and we may imitate by represent- 
 ing persons as either (1.) such as they are, or (2.) 
 better than they are, or (3.; worse than they are. 
 
 Tragedy adopts the second, and comedy the third, 
 of these methods. 
 
 K3 
 
134 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 Chap. III. 
 
 (3.) The wanner. This may be either (1.) by as- 
 suming the character intended to be expressed, or 
 (2.) by narrating his words. 
 
 Tragedy and comedy agree in adopting the former 
 manner. Epic and other styles of poetry adopt the 
 second manner. 
 
 Origin of the term Spa^a from &pav, the Dorian 
 word corresponding to Trpdrrsiv. An argument hence 
 derived in favour of the Doric origin of the drama. 
 The same inference drawn from the term /cco/at}, which 
 corresponded to the Attic S^oy. 
 
 Chap. IV. 
 
 Imitation or expression natural to man. Pleasure 
 derived from the sight of sculpture and painting. 
 
 Poetry first arose from spontaneous efforts (avro- 
 a^sSiaarLKT)). 
 
 Good men imitated noble characters; bad men ? 
 inferior ones. 
 
 The ancient poets, accordingly, were writers of 
 epic (i. e. heroic) or of iambic («. e. satyric) verse. 
 
 Homer the first writer in both styles ; his Margites. 
 
 In course of time the epic writers developed into 
 tragedians, the iambic into comic writers. 
 
 Both tragedy and comedy at first extempo- 
 raneous. 
 
 Tragedy arose from the dithyramb ; comedy from 
 the Phallic verses. 
 
Aristotle's treatise on poetry. 135 
 
 Tragedy reached its full growth under iEschylus. 
 His improvements. Those of Sophocles. 
 
 Gradual exchange of the trochaic for iambic 
 verse in tragedy : character of the latter. 
 
 Chap. V. 
 
 Comedy imitates the bad, yet not as bad, but as 
 ridiculous. 
 
 Its early stages not known, neither who invented 
 masks. 
 
 Similarity between epic and tragic style ; their 
 points in common, and points of distinction. 
 
 Tragedy embraces everything to be found in the 
 epic. 
 
 Chap. VI. 
 
 Tragedy defined as " the expression of a virtuous 
 and complete action in pleasing language, employing 
 imitation of several kinds, not narrated but acted, 
 and purifying the passions by fear and pity. 
 It must employ rhythm, harmony, and melody. 
 It must also employ (1.) ornament (oyfni), (2.) music 
 (/msKottouo), (3.) diction (\s^ts\ (4.) plot (/jlvOos), (5.) 
 manners {f}0rj) ; and (6.) sentiment (Scdvota). 
 Of these, 
 
 Diction and music are the means, 
 Ornament is the manner, of imitation. 
 
 Plot, manners, and sentiment 
 are the objects 
 
 K4 
 
136 HAND-BOOK OP THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 Some poets use all these six parts of tragedy. 
 
 The plot is the most important. 
 
 Tragedy is an expression of certain actions and 
 characters. 
 
 The plot is worked out by revolutions (7rspi7r£T6icu) 
 and discoveries (avayvco ptosis). 
 
 Manners next in importance ; sentiments next ; 
 diction next. 
 
 The other five parts are embellishments. Of these 
 music is the highest, scenic decoration the lowest. 
 
 Chap. VII. 
 
 Tragedy is the expression of a complete action. 
 
 It must be a dramatic whole, and must have a 
 beginning, middle, and end. 
 
 Beauty analysed, is magnitude combined with 
 order. Its length should be such as to be easily 
 grasped (zvgvvotttov). 
 
 It should, then, be of such a length as to afford 
 time and space for a natural transition from good to 
 bad fortune, or vice versa. 
 
 Chap. VIII. 
 
 Dramatic unity. 
 
 Unity not produced by taking the many actions of 
 one character {e.g. Hercules going through his twelve 
 labours, or the history of Ulysses). 
 
 It is produced by taking one act, and making that 
 the centre, and everything else subservient to it. 
 
 _ 
 
aristotle's treatise on poetry. 137 
 
 Chap. IX. 
 
 Poetry does not differ from history, by the acci- 
 dent of being written in verse or in prose ; but its 
 real difference consists in relating what might have 
 happened, not what has actually happened. 
 
 Hence poetry more universal and philosophic, as 
 relating to classes of characters, not to individuals. 
 
 The traditional fables, therefore, which relate only 
 what has been done, not to be too closely adhered to. 
 
 The fable most important. It should not be full 
 of episodes. 
 
 The terrible an essential element in tragedy : de- 
 finition of it. 
 
 Chap. X. 
 
 Plots are either simple or compound. 
 
 Simple, where the event happens without revolu- 
 tion or discovery. 
 
 Complex, where it happens with revolution or 
 discovery, or both. 
 
 The event, however, should follow easily and 
 naturally. 
 
 Chap. XL 
 
 The event of a plot is either a revolution {irspiiri- 
 tslo) or recognition (avayvcopLcris). 
 
 The union of the two methods is best, as in the 
 CEdipus Rex. 
 
 Various kinds of recognitions. 
 
133 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 All the above will excite the tragic feelings of 
 pity and fear. 
 
 [A third requisite of a plot is disaster (7ra0os).] 
 
 Chap. XII. 
 
 A tragedy ought to have (1.) Prologue, (2.) Epi- 
 sode, (3.) Exode, (4.) Chorus. 
 
 The choral songs divided into the Parodos, Stasi- 
 mon, and Commos. 
 
 Chap. XIII. 
 
 It is essential to a plot that it should not be 
 simple, but should contain some vicissitudes or revo- 
 lutions. 
 
 The moral effect of such revolutions : the good 
 should not fall into ill fortune, nor the bad rise into 
 prosperity. 
 
 The hero should be one of the ordinary stamp of 
 mortals, in order to affect the spectator more nearly. 
 
 A simple plot preferable to a double one. 
 
 Tragedy should have a happy event, though this 
 is less popular than the contrary. 
 
 Chap. XIV. 
 
 Fear and pity not excited by the monstrous, but 
 by combination of circumstances natural but not 
 commonplace. 
 
Aristotle's treatise on poetry. 139 
 
 E. g. neither fear nor pity is excited when one 
 enemy kills another, but when a father kills a son, or 
 a son his mother, &c. 
 
 Apposite examples. 
 
 The poet should adopt received stories, and invent 
 his plot suitably to them. 
 
 An act may be done either knowingly or in igno- 
 rance ; a third, and the best, plot is when the act is 
 intended, but where it is set aside by some discovery 
 in time. 
 
 Chap. XV. 
 
 The manners* in a tragedy should be (1.) good, 
 (2.) expressive of intention (irpoaipzo-is), (3.) suited to 
 the characters, (4.) similar and uniform. 
 
 The action should follow according to necessity or 
 probability. 
 
 The solution (kvais) of the plot should arise out of 
 the story itself, not ab extra. 
 
 Tragedy compared with painting. 
 
 Chap. XVI. 
 
 Recognitions f should be natural, arising out of the 
 circumstances. Others arise from external marks, 
 or artificial tokens, or from remembrance, or by in- 
 ference, true or mistaken. 
 
 The natural are the best. 
 
 • See above, chap. v. t ^ ee above, chap. xi. 
 
140 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 Chap. XVII. 
 
 The poet's work is to realise ideas to his spec- 
 tators. 
 
 In order to do so he must himself feel deeply, and 
 sketch out his plot. 
 
 His episodes should be suitable, and not too long. 
 
 Chap. XVIII. 
 
 Every tragedy must have a combination (Bsats) as 
 well as an unravelling (Xvo-is). 
 
 Four kinds of tragedy : the complicated, the 
 pathetic, the moral, and the supernatural. 
 
 The poet should be ready with each of these kinds. 
 
 The Iliad contrasted with a drama ; other ex- 
 amples. 
 
 Business of the chorus to sympathise with the 
 players. 
 
 Chap. XIX. 
 
 As to speech and sentiments, enough is said in the 
 "Rhetoric."* 
 
 The poet should be acquainted with these subjects. 
 
 Chap. XX. 
 
 The parts of speech enumerated and explained. 
 Letters, syllables, cases, and sentences. 
 What is a complete sentence ? 
 
 * See Aristotle's Rhetoric, part iii. 
 
Aristotle's treatise on poetry. 141 
 
 Chap. XXI. 
 
 Nouns, simple and compound, proper and foreign, 
 metaphorical and invented, extended, contracted, 
 and altered. 
 
 Examples. 
 
 Metaphors of four kinds : — 
 
 1. From genus to species; 2. From species to genus; 
 3. From species to species ; 4. from analogy. 
 
 Chap. XXII. 
 
 Clearness and freedom from meanness the merit 
 of diction. 
 
 Metaphors, foreign, and extended words, keep style 
 from meanness. 
 
 Expressions of the poets criticised. 
 
 The great point is to employ metaphor well. 
 
 Chap. XXIII. 
 
 Narrative (i. e. epic) poetry, like dramatic, should 
 have a unity of its own. 
 
 Homer judicious in not taking for his subject the 
 history of the whole Trojan war, but in selecting 
 one part and introducing episodes. 
 
 Chap. XXIV. 
 
 Epic poetry has the same parts as tragedy, except 
 music and scenery.* 
 
 ■* See above, chap. vL 
 
142 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 The Iliad and Odyssey compared. 
 
 The epic capable of greater extension than tragedy ; 
 the heroic metre suitable to epic. 
 
 Homer has done well in not speaking in his own 
 person. 
 
 The wonderful is suited to tragedy ; the impro- 
 bable to epic. 
 
 Precepts relating to poetic probability. 
 
 The diction should be more laboured in the tamer 
 parts of the poem. 
 
 Chap. XXV. 
 
 How to solve objections of critics. 
 
 Error is twofold, accidental and essential. 
 
 The poet must not invent things impossible in 
 fact. 
 
 Some objections removed by looking closely into 
 the diction, metaphors, accent, punctuation, &c. 
 
 Chap. XXVI. 
 
 It is said that epic is superior to tragic repre- 
 sentation. 
 
 This accusation, however, relates less to the poet 
 than to the actor. 
 
 Tragedy is superior to epic poetry in many ways, 
 especially in the following points : — 
 
 1. It has every element which epic has, and others 
 besides, while the converse is not true. 2. It has 
 more perfect and concentrated unity. 
 
 
RHYTHM. 143 
 
 CHAR XII. 
 
 RHYTHM, — QUANTITY. — TRAGIC VERSE. TRAGIC DIA- 
 LECT AND PHRASEOLOGY. 
 
 I. Ehythm. 
 
 1. Rhythm is the regular succession of parts of 
 time ; and these are technically called Times. 
 
 2. A stronger Time is called Arsis (raising), a 
 weaker Time Thesis (lowering). 
 
 3. A syllable in Arsis is said to have upon it an 
 Ictus or stress of pronunciation, which may be 
 marked thus, 
 
 Of man's first disobedience and the fruit. 
 
 4. Rhythms which, begin with Arsis are said to 
 be in a descending scale : as, 
 
 Ruin seize thee, ruthless king. 
 ravra \ioi SiTrXrj' [jLspiiJLv afypdaros ecrrtv iv <f>psvL 
 
 5. Rhythms which begin with Thesis are said to 
 be in an ascending scale : as, 
 
 The curfew tolls the knell of parting day. 
 
 rjfcoo' vstcpoov fcsv6 ] fjbO) va koX ctkotov' iTvkas'. 
 
 * The contents of this Chapter are derived, with a few alterations, 
 from the Preface to Dr. Kennedy's Selection from the Greek Verses 
 of Shrewsbury School. 
 
144 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 II. Quantity. 
 
 1. A short syllable (~) is considered as equal to 
 one Time. 
 
 2. A long syllable (-) = (y^) = two Times. 
 
 The rules of the quantity of syllables in Greek 
 must be learnt from Prosody. Much assistance is 
 afforded in Greek, as compared with Latin, by the 
 existence of long and short vowels. 
 
 III. Feet. 
 
 1. Certain limited successions of syllables in 
 Arsis and Thesis are called Feet. Feet contain 
 from two to four syllables. The foot of two 
 Times (~~) is called a Pyrrhic. 
 
 2. The Feet with which we are more especially 
 concerned, are those of three and four Times, which 
 are, 
 
 (a) Of three Times Iambus 
 
 Trochee 
 Tribrach ^^ 
 
 (b) Of four Times Spondee — 
 
 Dactyl -w 
 Anapaest w- 
 
 The following foot of five Times, (-^-) is called a 
 Gretic. 
 
 IV. Iambic Ehythm. 
 
 1. The Iambic is an ascending Rhythm, and the 
 converse of the Trochaic, which is descending. 
 
 2. Iambic (and Trochaic) Rhythms may be mea- 
 
TRAGIC IAkBIC VERSE. 145 
 
 sured either by single Feet, or by kiirohicu, Dipo- 
 dies (Double-feet). Each SuroBla is called a Metre 
 
 3. A poetical Rhythm is called a Verse. 
 
 4. A Verse of — 
 
 2 Feet or 1 Metre, is called a Monometer. 
 4 „ or 2 Metres, „ Dimeter. 
 6 „ or 3 „ „ Trimeter. 
 
 8 „ or 4 „ „ Tetrameter. 
 
 Note. — 1. An Acatalectic Rhythm is one which 
 has its Metres complete in their number of syllables. 
 2. A Catalectic Rhythm wants one syllable to com- 
 plete its Metres. 3. A Brachycatalectic Rhythm 
 wants two syllables to complete its Metres. 4. An 
 Hypercatalectic Rhythm has one syllable beyond its 
 complete Metres. 
 
 V. Tragic Iambic Verse. 
 
 1. The Verse chiefly used in the Dialogue of 
 Greek Tragedy, as measured by Metres, is called 
 Tragic Iambic Trimeter Acatalectic : — or, as 
 measured by Feet, Iambic Senarius, having three 
 perfect metres, or six feet. 
 
 2. In its pure form it consists of six Iambi : — 
 
 6 ira}al kKsl\vo9 Oi8 l c7rovs | KaXov^fis vos. \ 
 
 (N.B. The last syllable of the verse is always 
 regarded as long.) 
 
 3. But, in order to give more strength, weight, 
 and variety to the Rhythm, the Tragic poets ad- 
 
 L 
 
14G HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 mitted a long instead of a short syllable in the first 
 syllable of each Metre ; in other words* a Spondee 
 may be substituted for an Iambus in the 1st, 3rd, 
 and 5th Feet: as, 
 
 «\V da^dXzi\a rrjvh dvop\6cd(Tdv [ 7rbXlv.\ 
 
 4. The Iambus (^-) may be resolved in any place 
 except the last Foot, into a Tribrach (^~), but care 
 must be taken not to make the Verse weak or 
 inharmonious by admitting too large a number of 
 short syllables. Examples : 
 
 Xlfjbsva} 8s Nav^irXlefibv SK\7rXrjp6)v x 7rXarfj.\ 
 o 7a/) 1 [JLdicdpi\ds kovh} 6vsl\8l£oo ] TV%ds.\ 
 dos fjLSV { Xe<yov\atv brc ] 0sois\ s^OlaWos onv.\ 
 7rp09 ol/c ] cv ev\8vvbvWd$ svd\Xldi> 1 irXdrrjv.] 
 rolav\rd /jlsv j rd& scrWlv d/jb\(j)bTspd l /j,evslv.\ 
 
 Note — 1. The Tribrach in the 5th foot is not 
 very frequent. 
 
 2. Not more than one, or at most two Tribrachs 
 should be admitted into the same verse. 
 
 5. The Spondee (-— ) in the 1st and 3rd Feet 
 may be resolved into a Dactyl (-^) : as, 
 
 aspl ] 7r6Td\ral kcu) rtvsl | ravrrjy 1 8lfcrjv.\ 
 ovto$ { <j)VTSv\si HaXo^ira rov | 8* v Arpsvs [ scf>v.\ 
 
 6. The Spondee in the 1st Foot may be resolved 
 into an Anapaest (^-) : as, 
 
 lfcsTSv ] bfisv I crs TrdyWss ol\8s 7rpda ] rpb7rol.\ 
 
OESURA. 147 
 
 7. When a Proper Name occurs which could not 
 otherwise find a place in the Verse, an Anapaest is 
 allowed in any Foot excepting the last : as, 
 
 Msv£\d ] bs aya\ywv~^p { fMovriv \ ^irapTrjs? aTro.\ 
 
 VI. C^SURA. 
 
 1. By Caesura in Verse we understand the pause 
 occasioned by the close of a Word before the close 
 of a Foot. 
 
 Note. — 1. The pause occasioned by the close 
 of a Word and Foot at the same time is called. 
 Diuresis. 
 
 2. Hence in Iambic Verse, a Caesura can only 
 occur after a syllable in Thesis. 
 
 3. There are two principal Caesuras of the Iambic 
 Trimeter: viz., 
 
 (a) The Penthemimeral, after the Thesis of the 
 3rd Foot : as, 
 
 c5 TEKva KaS/iou |j rod irakai via rpocprj. 
 
 (b) The Hephthemimeral, after the Thesis of the 
 4th Foot : as, 
 
 IfCTrjpioLS icXahoiGiv || shears fi(JbivoL. 
 
 Note. — Elision after the Thesis does not destroy 
 the Caesura. 
 
 4. One or other of these Caesuras is considered 
 generally essential to the perfection of the Tragic 
 Senarius. Verses without Caesura sometimes occur , 
 
 L 2 
 
148 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 
 and may be justified by various reasons ; but they 
 should be avoided by a young composer. 
 
 5. The Caesura may, however, be sometimes neg- 
 lected without inelegance in cases where before the 
 Thesis of the 4th Foot a syllable is elided, which, 
 had it not been elided, would itself have formed that 
 Thesis. This is called Quasi-caesura ; as, 
 
 &> GTE/jL/uLara ^rjvaa || s7r£K\(oa£v 6sd. 
 
 Note. — The 3rd and 4th Feet are never united 
 in one word by the Tragic Poets. 
 
 6. If there be a Caesura after the Thesis of the 
 5th Foot, or in other words, if the verse end with a 
 Cretic, the Tragic Poets avoid a Spondee in that 
 place. Hence such rhythms as the following must 
 be avoided : — 
 
 d>9 Srj SsSrjyfjLcu rrjv i/Jbavrov /capSiav. 
 
 7. To the foregoing Rule there are two principal 
 exceptions*: viz., 
 
 (a) When the Thesis of the 5th Foot is formed 
 by a monosyllable capable of beginning a sentence ; 
 
 (b) When the Arsis of the 5th Foot is formed by 
 a monosyllable incapable of beginning a sentence. 
 
 Hence the following rhythms are admissible : 
 
 (a) ovfc ovSsv vycs? src Xsyco twv opylcov* 
 KaXXtarov r/fjuap elaiSsiv i/c j(si[jbaTOs, 
 
 * This is generally known as " Porson's Pause : " the reader will 
 do well to consult the canons which he has laid down upon the 
 subject, in his Preface to the Hecuba. 
 
TRAGIC IAMBIC TRIMETER. 
 
 149 
 
 7rsccr6/jbsO' orav &s /xr) koXcos ov nrslaofjuau 
 firjTpoKTOVOvvTas Kvpia S' r/S' rj/xspa. 
 
 (J) a\\' 0)9 TayiGTa iralhss v\xsl$ fjbsv fiddpcov. 
 olov ts pot raoS* s(tt1 9 QvtjtoZs jap <yspa. 
 si fjLOL Xiyois rrjv oyfnv sliroiyt! civ tots. 
 tt<o$ $>r)$ riif sliras pJuQov avOls /jlol fypaaov. 
 
 Note. — Although we do not treat in this place 
 of Trochaic Rhythms, it may be noticed that, if we 
 prefix a Cretic or its equivalent to the tragic Senarius, 
 there results the Trochaic Verse used in Tragedy, 
 viz. Tetrameter Catalectic ; as, 
 
 Ssvpo $rj I cr/csyfrai, psff rjfJLWv fxrjTsp o)s rcaX&s \iyco. 
 top c E\svt]9 J TiaravTas oXsdpov 7]vtvv ripiraasv Hap is. 
 
 VII. Scheme op Tragic Iambic Trimeter 
 acatalecticj measured by metres and 
 Feet. 
 
 Metre 1st. 
 
 2nd. 
 
 3rd. 
 
 Foot 1st. 
 
 2nd. 
 
 3rd. 
 
 4th. 
 
 5th. 
 
 6th. 
 
 \y — 
 
 w — 
 
 v/ * ~" 
 
 w ; — 
 
 w — 
 
 w — 
 
 W \J\J 
 
 
 
 o3 
 
 
 
 — ww 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 WW — 
 
 
 to 
 
 £ 
 
 8 
 
 £ 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 L 3 
 
150 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 YIII. Rules for the Management of 
 Rhythm. 
 
 Avoid (www) after (www) or (-^). 
 
 Avoid more than two Feet of three syllables in 
 the same Verse. 
 
 Avoid the frequency of Feet of three syllables in 
 consecutive Verses. 
 
 Avoid generally a Diseresis* with stop after the 
 3rd Foot. 
 
 Use sparingly a Diaeresis with stop after the 2nd 
 Foot. 
 
 Use sparingly a Diaeresis with stop after the 5th 
 Foot. 
 
 Avoid generally a Caesura with stop after the 
 Thesis of the 5th Foot. 
 
 IX. Principal Rules of Tragic Prosody. 
 
 1. The Ionic i may be added to Datives Plural in 
 oi9 and ai,9 9 as Xoyotau 
 
 2. The v s(J)s\kvgti/c6v may be added before con- 
 sonants as well as before vowels, for the sake of 
 metre, as slirsv rdSs. 
 
 3. Hiatus of vowels is not allowable, excepting 
 (sometimes) in the words av and t/, as sv cadi, ti 
 ovv. 
 
 4. Elision of diphthongs does not take place, but 
 only that of short vowels. Except oi^ 6)9 for 
 
 OtflOi 6)9. 
 
 * See above, vi. 1. note. 
 
 
 
 j 
 
ELISION, CRASIS, ETC. 151 
 
 Obs. 1. Final i of the Dative Case is not elided; 
 nor of ri 9 ore, Trspt. 
 
 Obs. 2. The article is never elided, but under- 
 goes Crasis, as tclOXcl. 
 
 5. Prodelission (the elision or aborption of a 
 short vowel beginning a word, after a long vowel or 
 diphthong ending the word before it) is frequent in 
 Tragedy, as firf '£ for firj i% — fioXas 'yco for fjuoXco 
 eyco — oiov Wpdcf>7}9 for otov irpd^>r]9 — fxov *(j)sXr}9 for 
 /jlov d^sXrjs — t^XO 9( Y a @d f° r T ^XV dyaOfj, &c. &c. 
 The limits which separate Prodelision from Crasis 
 are not very accurately definable. 
 
 6. Crasis is the coalition of two words into one, 
 when the former ends and the latter begins with a 
 vowel or diphthong. 
 
 The general laws of Crasis are, with some excep- 
 tions, the same as those of contraction given in Greek 
 Grammars. 
 
 7. The principal Crases of Greek Tragedy are as 
 follows : — 
 
 (a) Crasis of the Article, 
 o and a into a, as 6 dvrjp = avrjp s to aXXo = raXXo. 
 o and s into ou, as 6 stti/SovXsvcdp == ov7ri{3ovXevcov 9 to 
 
 iy/cdo/MOV = TOVytcdojJUOV. 
 o and 7] into rj, as to rj/jiSTspov = drjjuLSTspov. 
 o and i into ot, as to Ijioltlov = Ooi/jlcitiov. 
 o and o into ou, as to ovoua = tovvoucl. 
 o and ac into ai or a, as to alfxa = Oalfjua^ to clitiov = 
 
 TCLTIOV. 
 
 o and av into av } as o clvtos = civtos, to clvto == 
 
 TaUTO. 
 
 L 4 
 
152 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 and 01 into co, as 6 olfypos = wtypos. 
 
 i] and a into a, as ?) dpsrr/ = dpeTrj, rf) dpsrfj = 
 
 rapsTj). 
 i) and 5 into 77, as 77 sv as (3 sea = rjvaifisia, rfj lp% = 
 
 oy and a into a, as rov dvhpos — Tai'Spos', tou clvtov = 
 
 • TauVou. 
 01/ and s or into ov, as rov sfxov = tov/jlov, tov 
 
 OV£l8oV9 = TOVVslSoVS. 
 
 ou and 77 into 77, as tou rfklov = OrfXiov. 
 
 ov and ou into ou, as tou ovpavov = rovpavov. 
 
 ay and a into to, as w ava% = &val~. 
 
 a) and a into a, as tw dva/crt = TavcucTi, tw aurw = 
 
 ravrw. 
 ft) and s or o into ft), as tg3 JyU/cS = too jaw, tg3 ovstpco = 
 
 Tft)Z>£tJoft). 
 
 « and 6 into ft), as toj Ijiarlcp = dcpfiarlcp. 
 ai or 06 and a into a, as or avSpss = avSpes, ai dpsral 
 = apsrai, ol avrol = avroL 
 
 01 and s into ou, as ol s/jlol = ov/jloi, 6 sv = ou^. 
 at and £ into at, as at sKfcXrjalat = alfCfcXTjalai. 
 
 a and a, 5, or at into a, as ra aWa = rdXXa, rd 
 
 avrd = ravrdy rd sic = rate, ra aiayjpa = 
 
 Tjio-xpd. 
 a and 0, ft), ot, or ou into ft), as ra oirXa = 6&irXa, rd 
 
 covia = TftVta, Ta olt,vpd = TQ)£vpd, rd ovpdvia 
 
 = roopdvia. 
 Obs. The Crasis of the Article with srspos is 
 peculiar : — 
 
 Sing. drepo9 } drspa, Oarspov, Bdrspov, Bdrspw, 
 Odrspa. Plur. arspot, arspcu, Odrspa. 
 
CRASIS, ETC. 153 
 
 (b) Crasis of kcll : — 
 
 Before a, ai 9 av 9 zi 9 sv, i, rj 9 ol 9 ov 9 v 9 (o 9 the crasis 
 of teal is formed by striking out cll 9 as KayaQb$ 9 
 Kal<jyyvr] 9 kclvtos, ksls 9 ksv0vs 9 xjlXscos, r xf) 9 %ol 9 kov, 
 j(yiTsp 9 %&tlvl. But teal slra — Kara. 
 kcll and s into kcl (or %a) 9 as kclI stl = kcltl 9 kcll 
 
 srspos = xarspos. 
 kcli and o into kco (or %(#), as /eal o£u = kg)%v 9 kcl\ oaa 
 
 = %&cra. 
 . (c) The few instances of Crasis which occur 
 in other words besides the above, follow for the most 
 part the rules already given : as, 
 
 iyoD 618a = iya>Sa 9 rot apa = rapa 9 rot av = rav 9 /jlol 
 iari = /jlovcttL 
 
 7. Synecphonesis (or the metrical coalition of two 
 syllables in different words without a formal crasis) 
 sometimes occurs in Tragedy. The principal instances 
 
 are, rj ov 9 jjurj ov 9 sttbI ov 9 /jltj elhsvaL 9 iyoo oxj 9 
 
 iy<o slfu. Here the beginner should adopt only such 
 examples as rest on positive authority, and venture 
 but rarely on analogies of his own drawing. 
 
 8. Synizesis (or the metrical coalition of two syl- 
 lables in the same word without a formal contraction) 
 sometimes occurs : for instance 
 
 so>, as ttoXscos, 'AfjLfadpBcos, vol: as Bvolv. 
 
 But the most frequent example is the word 6sos 9 
 which may be used as a monosyllable in any of its 
 cases. 
 
 9. A short vowel becomes long before — 
 
154 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 (a) a double consonant ; 
 
 (b) two mute consonants ; 
 
 (c) two liquid consonants; 
 
 (d) {Jfi, (3v, y[M y yi/, $v ; 
 
 (e) a combined with any other consonant. 
 
 10. A short vowel is common before 
 
 /3X, /3p, 7X5 Jpy S//,, Spy 6\ 6 fly 6v, Qp, Kk, KfJL, kv 9 
 
 Kpy 7rX, 7T/JL, TTV, TTp, t\, TJUL, TV, Tp, <f)k, (pfJb, <pV, 
 
 <pp. But a short vowel at the end of a word is 
 seldom made long before any of these positions ex- 
 cepting /3X, 7X5 and $p. 
 
 11. A short vowel in Arsis at the end of a word 
 may be lengthened by an initial p : as, 
 
 £1$ I S/jLS I pSTTOV. 
 
 12. The interjections fad, alai and ehv, sometimes 
 occur extra metrum. 
 
 13. TLtoXls may be used for 7roXts to lengthen a 
 preceding short vowel. 
 
 14. I is common in \iav 9 lao/mai, larpos, opvis, 
 long in ofas, ocjilv, kovls. kovlv. 
 
 15. Ot is common in itolsco, rocoaSs, toiovtos, olos. 
 
 16. The final a may be lengthened in accus. of 
 words in em, as fiaatXsd. 
 
 17. f HyL6t^ vplv, may shorten the 1 by being written 
 as oxytone instead of perispomenon, as rjfuv, vjjliv. 
 
 X. Dialect and Phraseology. 
 
 1. The Tragic dialogue exhibits a measured and 
 severe dignity of style, equally removed from the 
 
 ^ 
 
TRAGIC DIALECT AND PHRASEOLOGY. 155 
 
 colloquial looseness of Comedy and the daring ex- 
 cursiveness of Lyric poetry. Among many features 
 common to a good prose style, it also contains 
 numerous forms and phrases of a purely poetic 
 character. 
 
 2. The Dialect is the Middle Attic, like that of 
 Thueydides, The Augment must therefore be always 
 kept, the forms in acr preferred to those in tt 9 and 
 the contracted forms only, with few exceptions, must 
 be used. 
 
 3. Nevertheless some Ionic or Epic forms are used 
 in Tragedy, as %slvo9, jjlovvos, aid, Spytcss, ^soraos 9 
 %6rj, spos, ovvofia, jovvara, Sovpt, iroWo?, slXiaaco, 
 sive/ca, ovvsfca, the uncontracted forms voo9, phOpov, 
 svpoos, and the gen. sos for sco9, as 7roXso9. 
 
 4. And some Doric forms : as ' K6dva, Sapo?, s/ean, 
 tcvvayos, iroBayo^ Xo^ayo9, 67raSo9, icdpavov, apaps, 
 yd/no po9, yairoTos. Also the .ZEolic forms irzhapcrios, 
 
 7TsSdop09 } 7rs8ai%fjLL09, {l(l(TGCQV. 
 
 5. Note the following forms, as belonging to 
 Tragedy : — 
 
 (a) sco9 for aos, as Xsco9 for Xao9, vsco9 for vao9 9 
 lXsco9 for iXao9, MsvsXs(09 for MsvsXao9. 
 
 (b) NaOs. Gen. vao9, vr}09, or vsd)9. Dat. vat or 
 vrjL Ace. vavv, vr\a or via. Plur. Norn. 
 vas9, vr]S9, or vai)9. Gen* vaoov, vrjoov or vs&v. 
 Dat. vavcrL Ace. vr)a9, vsa9, or vav9. 
 
 (c) fedpa. Gen. Kparo9. Dat. xparL Ace. to 
 or tov fcpara, or to /capa. Plur. Nom. tedpa. 
 Gen. fcparwv. Ace. Kapa or Kpara9» 
 
 (d) yovv. Gen. <yovaro9. Plur. Nom. yovaTa 
 
156 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 and youvara. Gen. yovdrcov, yovvdrcov, and 
 ryovvcov. • 
 
 (e) 'AttoWcov. Ace. 'AiroWcova and 'AitqWg), 
 (/) y, Aprj9. Gen. "Apso*. Dat. "Apei. Ace. 
 
 if Aprjv and "Ap?;. 
 (^) Sopu. Gen. 8opo9. Dat. Sop/. Ion. 8ovpl. 
 
 (A) %£^p. Gen. x Si P° s or X £ P° 9 > & c# 
 (z) zw, cr^>f, him, her, or them ; kbIvos for £/ea- 
 z/os; crf^fv for <7o0; otov, 6tg) 9 otols for 
 
 OVTLV09 9 &tlVl 9 019TKTI. 
 
 (k) si for rj in the 2nd Persons Sing. Pres. and 
 Fut. Mid. and Pass. — as Bovksi for ftovXrj, 
 otyei for oyfry, 
 
 (I) rjaOa for r/9 9 from sl/xL 
 
 (m) -ovtcov for -sreocrav, in 3rd Pers. Plur. Im- 
 perat. Pres. Act. ; -aOcov for -a6(oaav in 3rd 
 Pers. Plur. Imper. Pres. Mid. and Pass. — 
 as <ye\(bvTcov for yskdr(oaav 9 acfxupslcOav for 
 acjxupelaOcocrav. 
 
 (n) soifca, Plur. solj/ulsv, si^aat. 
 
 (0) ol8a 9 ol8a,9 9 and olo-0a, ol8s 9 carov 9 icr/iev, 
 liars, caaai, — ca0t 9 sl8sirjv 9 sl8a> 9 si8spai 9 el8d)9. 
 — f}8rj or y8scv 9 fj8sc9 or fj8rja6a 9 J]8sl or 
 fj8siv 9 rjarov 9 fjGTr]v 9 f)8sifizv or r}a/jLev 9 fjars 9 
 rj8s(rap or rjcrav. Fut. scco/icu* 
 
 (p) Attic Futures in w contracted from v acrc», 
 fo-ft), oaco (if the antepenultima is also short) 
 as o"%s8a) (a^s8a9 9 a^s8a 9 &c.) /ca\cb (icaksfc, 
 tca\sl) 9 6/jbo) (d/jLovjuLat). And in ico from 
 Futures in icrco, as oIktlco 9 sl9 9 ei 9 &c. 
 
 (?) &v f° r °"^^ ^ ^ or s ^ 9 9 zero) for glVfi), m for 
 hv 9 8ial 9 viral for 8cd 9 virb. 
 
TRAGIC PHRASEOLOGY. 157 
 
 (r) £v6i>9 and sv0v, i^sXP LS an( ^ l Jb *XP l '> ^XP L9 an( ^ 
 cuyjpi^ avOis and avri9. 
 6. The Rules of Attic Syntax are given in the 
 Greek Grammars. The following constructions 
 should be noted as peculiarly Tragic : — 
 
 (a) Genitive. — -1. With svsko, understood, as ra- 
 Xaiva TrjaSs avfjbfyopas. 
 
 2. After adverbs, as ttov 777s 1 : ttol yvcbfirj?: 
 ovtq) 6pdaov9. 
 
 3. After verbs of obtaining, as Tvy%dvco, /cvpco, 
 avrdco, d/covco, k\vq}. 
 
 Obs. But if a thing and person are expressed, 
 then accusative of thing and genitive of 
 person. 
 
 (b) Accusative. — 1. Cognate, as svSsiv vitvov, 
 KapmTZiv sSpas. 
 
 2. In apposition to sentence, as — 
 
 sOvasv avrov Tralha, sttcdSov ©prjtclcov arj/judrcov. 
 fcrevco as, ttolvcls tov irarpos. 
 
 (e) Gender.— A female speaking of herself in 
 the Plural Number uses the Masculine 
 Gender, as 
 
 7rdrsp cf)povovvTco9 7rpo9 cf>povovvra9 svps7T£L9. 
 
 (d) Adjectives. — 1. Often used adverbially. 
 
 Verbals in rso9 and T09 very frequently. 
 
 2. Compounded with a privative govern a 
 
 genitive, as d\v7ro9 aT7}9 } d^avaT09 sy%ov9 9 
 
 and are used by Oxymoron with the sub- 
 
158 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 stantives from which they are derived, to 
 reverse the idea which would otherwise 
 be suggested, as fiios afiicoros, v\x£vaio$ 
 avvfjusvcuosy /Jbovcra a/ubovaos. 
 
 3. Limit a substantive used metaphorically, as — 
 
 CLLST09, 7TT7JV09 KVCDV. 
 
 4. Are used proleptically ( = ware slvai) as — 
 sv(j)7]fiov, co TaXcura, /colfirjaov arofia. 
 
 5. With Article, for a Substantive, as to gvvstov 
 
 for avvscn?, to acocppov for acocppoavvT]. 
 
 6. Superlative doubled, as TTpcoTcaTO?, 'scr^aT 
 
 sa^oiTcov — ifkslaTov s^OtaTOs. 
 
 (e) Pronouns. — 
 
 1. 68s for adverb; 68' el/xl, 'here I am.' avrjp 
 
 68s, < V 
 
 2. TVs some one, = many a one, some person or 
 
 thing of importance, some considerable 
 part. 
 
 3. Avto9 clvtop, frequently in juxta-position. 
 
 4. Olos or oios ts = tolovtos &gts 'able to.' 
 
 5. Mr] irpos as Oscbv understanding \iaaofiaL. 
 
 6. fir) avys, understanding an Imperative Mood. 
 
 7. Tai>nz, * in this way.' /ecu Tama, ' and 
 
 that too.' 
 
 '(/) Verb.— 
 
 1. Verb of sense governing object of another 
 
 sense, as ktvttov 8s8opiea. 
 
 2. Middle Future in Passive Sense, as Xegofiai, 
 
 TlfirjGSTCLL. 
 
 
TRAGIC PHRASEOLOGY. 159 
 
 3. Imperative and Interrogative combined : olaff 
 
 o Spaaov ; olaff cos iroirjaov ; 
 
 4. Infinitive, in prayers to deities, with ellipse 
 
 of zvypiiai) as, Osol iroklrac [irj /jle SovXscas 
 
 5. Infinitive after adjectives, as fcakbs iSelv. 
 
 6. Infinitive with to for wars. 
 
 7. Infinitive used elliptically after cos, wairep, as 
 
 co$ sirsiKaoai — &cnrsp slfcdcrac. 
 
 8. Participle for Infinitive after oXSa, SsUvv/jll^ 
 
 fyaivofjLai, and other verbs, as oov Seltjco 
 
 (foiXoS. 
 
 9. Participle in periphrasis with TV^ydvoo, Kvpsoo. 
 
 10. Aorist Participle with s%co for Perfect, as 
 
 TTTrfeas £%a>. 
 
 11. sirrjvsaa, sSsccra, stckavaa, air zttt vera, oXSa, 
 
 syvco/ca, SsSoptca, irscjovfca, used in a Present 
 signification. 
 
 12. Participles absolute, as in the following 
 
 phrases : — 
 
 COS OVKST OVTCOV (TCOV TStCVCOV <j)p6vTt%S Slfj. 
 COS TOLVVV OVTCOV TGOvSs CTol fjL(l0£LV irdpCL. 
 
 (g) Prepositions. — 
 
 Note the following phrases : — dficjol rdpfisi,, 
 irspl </>o/3&), 6 in terror ; ' — dv0' &v, ' where- 
 fore ; ' — cos air ofJufxaTcov, ' as far as sight can 
 judge ; ' — Si aicovos, 6 for ever ; ' — Sea Ta^ovs, 
 * quickly ; ' — Sea airovSrjs, ( zealously, 
 eagerly ; ' — Si opyfjs, c angrily ; ' — Sid tsXovs, 
 \ finally ; ' — Si fydpas Uvai tivI, s to quarrel 
 
160 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 with any one ; ' — Sia BUr/s Uvea, tlvl, c to 
 go to law with any one/ &c. &c. ; — sis 
 X*i>p as s\6slv rivi, * to come to blows ; ' els 
 fcacpuv, els hsov, ' in needful time ; ' — sis 
 airaj; * once for all/ — i% dsXirrcoVy ' unex- 
 pectedly ; ' — etc tcovSs, < under these circum- 
 stances ; ' — if; ov, ' from the time when ; ' — 
 i£ iaov, * equally ; ' — sic filas, 6 violently ; ' 
 
 — sk Sepias, i on the right hand ; ' — i £ 
 clttotttov, 'at an invisible distance ; ' — rvcjxkbs 
 sk BsSopKoros, c blind j after having had eye- 
 sight/ &c. &c. ; — iv Ssovti, is Ssov, * at a 
 needful moment ; ' — sv vficv, ' in your 
 power ; ' — iv ra^si, * speedily ; ' — iv ofiixaa^ 
 6 before your eyes ; ' — sv hetvcp y € at a fearful 
 moment ; ' — iv (adverbial) §s, ' and among 
 them ; ' — iirl %vpov tv^s, iirl afxiKpas 
 poirrjs, * in imminent hazard ; ' — iir s%sip- 
 ryacrfjLspoLs, c when the deed is done ; ' — Jtt' 
 apyvpq), iirl tcspSscri, c for a bribe ; ' — i$> 
 vpZv, € in your power ; ' — iir oi/cov, ' home- 
 ward ; ' — to sir* ifis, c as far as in me lies ; 
 
 — tear rjfJLCLp, i daily ; ' — kclt apOpcoirov, 
 * suitably to a man ; ' — irap iXirlSa, rrapa 
 \6yov, c contrary to expectation ; ' — nrap 
 ov&sv? ' of no account : ' — 7rpbs Oecov, * in 
 heaven's name; ' — 7rpbs toviols, € moreover; 
 
 — Tipbs Tavra, ' wherefore ; ' — Trpbs opyrjv, 
 ( angrily ; ' — irpbs rjSovtfv, ( agreeably ;' — 
 irpbs fiiav. * forcibly ; ' — irapbv, 6 when it is 
 in one's power ; ' — r xps<ov 9 ' when one ought.' 
 
FIGURES OF SPEECH. 161 
 
 (A) The use of Conjunctions and other Particles 
 forms too large a subject to be here introduced, but 
 should be carefully noted and imitated by the be- 
 ginner, with the aid of the " Indices in Tragicos 
 Graecos." He will find that very few sentences in 
 Tragedy begin without some connecting particle or 
 particles ; and by diligent observation he will discover 
 the shades of meaning in which they are severally 
 used, and learn where and how to introduce them in 
 his own compositions. 
 
 XL The following Figures of Speech are in 
 frequent use : • — 
 
 1. Pleonasm. — avOts av — avdts av irakiv — 
 
 8K0VTSS OV/C aKOVTSS — yvcora kovk dyvcora 
 
 — av 6(p6a\fjuols opcov, &c. 
 
 2. Ellipsis. — Yidpts yap ovts avvrsXr}? 7roXc9 
 
 — TraTpos rs Kairb fjbrjrpo?. 
 
 3. Periphrasis. — a. Verb with Object instead 
 
 of a bare Verb, as ybviq^v sj^stv for fjLSfjLvr)- 
 g9cll 3 GirovhrjV dsaOcu for <T7rsv8siv 9 fJbd^rjv 
 iroizlaQai for jud^so-BaL, &c. &c. 
 b. Substantives: as Bprjvwv oSvpfiol — rfkiov 
 kvkKos — <yr}9 nrshov — ovpavo v dvarnvyal — 
 reiyiayv TrzpiirTvyal — TTvpycov (TTS(f)dvcDjbLa 
 
 — & kKslvov avrdSs\<j)oy y Yo-fJbr)vr]$ Kapa — 
 'AataTidos yrjs ayfuia — irpodumov svysvh 
 Ts/cvcov — irarpbs Kapa — to fjLrjTpbs ovofia 
 
 — ^vvai[xov ojbL/jLa — cvbs fiiyiarov XP^l^^ 
 &c. &c. 
 
 M 
 
162 hand-book of the greek drama. 
 
 4. Epexegesis, Anacoluthon, Attraction, 
 Hendiadys, Zeugma, are also very fre- 
 quently used. The student should note 
 examples of these in the course of his own 
 reading, and arrange them in his note book 
 for use. Analogy may be studied, but it 
 should be cautiously applied. 
 
 XII. Chorus. 
 
 (a) The Dialect employed in the Chorus by the 
 
 Greek Tragedians is Doric* 
 (J) The Metres employed are various; among 
 them are the following : — 
 1. Anapaestic. — {a) This originally consisted 
 of nothing but Anapaests ( v ^~) ; but gradu- 
 ally the Spondee and Dactyl came to be 
 admitted as its equivalents, (b) It generally 
 occurs in systems, each verse consisting of 
 four feet or two metres : as 
 
 y/cco ]| Sokcxfj? |j rspfia ks\\sv6ov || 
 Stafist\y}rdfjLSV09 || 7rpo9 as Upo\/jir]0sv || 
 
 (c) Unlike other systems of verse, it avoids 
 Caesura as much as possible : each foot may 
 consist of a separate word : 
 
 SsafjLols | oXvtols \ ay p lots | nreKdcras | 
 
 (d) In this system, what is called Synapheia 
 
 * The reason for this dialect being used in the chorus may be 
 found above, Chap. II. page 16. 
 
 
 J 
 
ANAPAESTIC SYSTEM. 163 
 
 prevails throughout: in other words, the 
 quantity of the last syllable in each line is 
 affected by the word which commences the 
 next ; as the final a is long before air in the 
 following, — 
 
 ah ap8\[M)V i/Jbol [j /cat (piXo\ri]Td j 
 
 <T7T£v8g)V — 
 
 And again on the same principle, the final 
 syllable is elided in the following, — 
 
 irarpos *£l\icsavov j| SspxOrjr j Jcr/Sso"^' j 
 
 r/ 
 Oi(p 
 
 (e) Each system (generally) ends with a verse 
 shorter by one syllable, generally termed a 
 Versus Parcemiacus, from so frequently 
 containing a irapot^la^ proverb or moral 
 sentiment. To this verse is frequently 
 prefixed a monometer, as 
 
 irpiv av if; j aypioov || Ssct/jlcov J yaXdcrr) jj 
 
 woivas | ts Ttveiv |[ {Monometer?) 
 TriaS* al\iclas || s9s\rj\ary m (Versus Par 'cemiacus.) 
 
 Obs. 1. A monometer may occur anywhere 
 in the system. 
 
 Obs. 2. The final syllable of the Versus 
 Parcemiacus is not subject to the above 
 rule relating to Synapheia. 
 
 Obs. 3. In the Anapsestic system, an Ana- 
 paest can never follow a Dactyl. 
 
164 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 XIII. Trochaic Metres. 
 
 The Trochaic metre of most frequent occurrence is 
 the Tetrameter Catalectic. As has already been 
 said, it may conveniently be considered as consisting 
 of a Cretic, or its equivalent, prefixed to a Trimeter 
 Iambic. 
 
 Odaabv rj fi | lyjpr\v ^po^aivEiv^ UofjLrjy St aareos' 
 oo9 vlv cke\tev(tc0 /jle aooacu* to <ye Sltccuov coS* £%££* 
 iSlov rj I kolvov 7roXirai9 ETTL^spoov sy/cXrjfid ti. 
 
 Obs. 1. But this Trochaic Senarius admits no 
 Anapsest even in the first place, and it must have 
 the Penthemimeral Caesura. Indeed the break there 
 is as decisive as if the verse were divided into two 
 lines ; so that not only a compound word cannot be 
 broken, but not even an article or a preposition is 
 suffered to terminate the fourth foot. Thus the 
 following verse is incorrect : 
 
 Tavrd pot 8t7rXr) /jLspijJLV a \ fypacTTOS egtlv sv <j>ps<Ti : 
 
 For which we read, 
 
 Tavrd fioi pbiptfiv a^paaros \ egtlv ev <bpzalv SiTrXrj* 
 
 Obs. 2. The rule respecting the pause is also 
 scrupulously observed: for instance in Eur. Hel. 
 1648. Ol7T£p rj hi/cr) ksXsvsl \£ ■ dXX? dcj^LaraaB* | 
 ifCTToScov. (Porson reads dcpiaraa.) 
 
 * The following line of Sophocles Hermann considers to be 
 excused by a change of person, the csesura being affected by the 
 pause in the recitation (Phil. 1402.): 
 
 N. €t doKu, (Tre(x^^y» *. & ywcuov elprjKws tiros. 
 
TROCHAIC METRES. 
 
 165 
 
 Obs. 3. Anapaests are admissible only in the even 
 places. 
 
 The following is a scale of this metre : * 
 
 3. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 
 5. 
 
 6. 
 
 7. 
 
 —\s 
 
 — v> 
 
 — V> 
 
 — **/ 
 
 _w 
 
 *-v^ 
 
 — v-» 
 
 
 v/\^— 
 
 
 v^«-/— 
 
 
 yy^ — 
 
 
 8. 
 
 As the Tragic Trimeter Iambic admits Anapaests 
 in proper names, so the Tragic Tetrameter Trochaic 
 is supposed to admit Dactyls in similar circum- 
 stances, and for the same reason, in every foot but 
 the fourth and last. Only two instances, however, 
 are to be found, viz. Eur. Iph. 882. and 1352. : 
 
 si? dp* [ Icf)cy8\vsLav ( EXsvr]9 vogtos av irs7rpcDfjLsvo9 : 
 
 7TaVTS9 "'EiXXfJVSS' (T TpCLTOS Bs | MujO/uSojvO)^ OVTOC 
 
 irapr\v. 
 
 In the construction of Trochaics, if the first clipodia 
 is contained in whole words, the second foot must be 
 a Trochee : thus 
 
 <j>avspo9 ovtco2 ] s^sXeyxOsl? $siko9 cos strjs (f)vaiv 
 
 is an objectionable verse: so also in Eur. Iph. A. 
 1340. For 
 
 * " The later tragedy was negligent about rhythm in general 
 and even admitted disyllabic words into a tribrach. Eur. Orest. 
 736.: 
 
 Xpovios* aAA' ofxcas rdx^ra \ Kcuchs i(p\ccpd9rj (pi\ois. 
 
 The more ancient did not indulge themselves in this licence, except 
 in prepositions and certain other words closely connected, as — 
 5*a KctKwv, — 6 Be rowcrZe" — Hermann on Metres, p. 27. 
 
 M 3 
 
166 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 Tiva Ss (psvysLS | tskvov ; ^A^cXKsa tov8' ISslv al<j)(i- 
 vofiai, 
 
 we must read, 
 
 ti 8s, tskvov, favysis; *A%CKksa, k. t.X. 
 
 There are other varieties of Trochaic verse : 
 
 1. Monom. Acat. or Basis Trochaica: 
 
 aCTTs\vdKT09. 
 
 „ Hypercat. or Penthem : 
 
 re itot av\aaTs\\vsl$. Hec. 183. 
 
 2. Dim. Brachycat. or Ithy phallic : 
 
 &a,KTv\\oi$ s\\Xicrcrs. Orest. 1431. 
 „ Catal. or Hephthem. : 
 
 
 roov d\irop6rj\Twv ttg\\19. 
 
 Eur. Hec. 894. 
 
 (So in Horace : Non e|bur, nej,que aurejum.) 
 Dim. Hypercat. : 
 
 as s\yrjfi 6 \\ Tofcjras TIa\\pl9. Orest. 1408. 
 
 3. Trim. Brachycat. : 
 
 eo ts\kvov, ts\kvov ra\\alvd$ || fidrpb?. 
 
 Hec. 688* 
 
 „ Catal. : 
 
 KaT6a\vsly kcl\kcs <t a\iroKTsl\vsl 7rb\o~l$. 
 
 Orest. 1467. 
 
DACTYLIC METRES. 167 
 
 Trim. Acatalect. : 
 
 sl0 y d\sX\al\\d rdl'xpppco \\ cttos 7rs\\sia9. 
 
 Soph. (Ed. C. 1081. 
 
 kcCI /ca\crZyvrj\\Tdv 7rv\/cpoaTl\\fCTGov ofrdhbv. 
 
 1092. 
 Trim. Hypercat. : 
 
 rj\6ov\fis $b\\fjL0vs, lv\ av0* s\\fcdcrTa aol Xs||yco. 
 
 Eur. Or. 1397. 
 
 Obs. Bentley (on Cic. Tusc. iii. 12.) affirms that 
 this metre is unknown to tragedy and comedy 
 Gaisford thinks that the above are legitimate in- 
 stances. 
 
 XIV. Dactylic Metre. 
 
 In Dactylic verse one foot constitutes a metre. 
 
 1. Monom. Hypercat. : 
 
 OlSi7rb\\Bd. 
 
 2. Dim. Cat. on two syllables (called Adonic) : 
 
 rolcrS* bjjbb || (f)oop6v. .-ZEsch. Ag. 166. 
 
 This verse concludes the Sapphic Stanza, as 
 Kisit Apollo. 
 Dim. Acat. : 
 
 ri9 S' sirl\rvixBlbs : ov Bala\\rjv6pd : 
 rdvBs <yv\\vcuKGQV* 
 
 3. Trim. Catal. on one syllable : 
 
 ~ApTEfiL\\$ds ts 6l\\d9. Hec. 462. 
 rdv Zevs \\ dfic^LTTvWpp. 471. 
 
 M 4 
 
168 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 As Hor. Od. iv. 7. : 
 
 arbori|busque co|mse. 
 
 Trim. Catal. on two syllables : 
 
 ttoWu yap \\ oqgt d/cd\\/Jbdvrb9 
 
 rj Nbrov || rj Hups ||<z rls 
 
 svpsl || Kv/jLara || ttovtoo. Soph. Trach. 110. 
 
 „ Acat. 
 
 Zev%b/jLcu || dp pari || ttooXovs. Hec. 467. 
 
 4. Tetram. Catal. arc 0/ze syllable. 
 
 co 7rb\v\\fc\avTS <pc\\\olal 0a\\v6ov. 
 
 JEsch. Pers. 680. 
 
 „ Acat. with a Cretic at the end : 
 
 V7rv b8v\\vds a8a\\r}9 9 virvk || 8' aXyscov. 
 
 Soph. Phil. 826. 
 
 This is admissible only in single verses. In a 
 system of this kind the final syllable is not common: * 
 
 ad 8' epifr || ov/c epl? || M ^>o||^&> cpbvbs 
 Ol&L7rb\\8d Sbfjbbv \\ ooXhas || tcpdvOsl? 
 alfidrl || SsFi/ftJ || alfjudrl \\ Xvypoo* 
 
 Eur. Phoen. 1510. 
 
 Sometimes a verse of a different kind is subjoined 
 to a Dactylic system : 
 
 afyOlrbv || aKdjid || raj> a7ro||Tpi/ih-a£, 
 ZWoy&£||i/0)j> apo || rpwv eTOS || fZs ero$, 
 Z7T7ra|ft) ryeJi/fZ 7rb\Xsv6uv. Soph. An tig. 338. 
 
 * See above, Synapheia in Anapaestic Verse. 
 
DACTYLIC METRES. 169 
 
 The following is an instance of the Dactylic 
 Tetrameter in Horace : 
 
 Certus e|nim pro[misit Apollo. 
 
 Tetram. Hypercat. : 
 
 ovS* V7T0 |] irdp6evl\d$ rbv v\iro (3Ks(^d\pols. 
 
 Eur. Phoen. 1501. 
 
 5. Pentam. Acat. : 
 
 vacrdl &* || al Ka,Ta\7rp6ov dXt\ov 7rspl\\/c\vaToi. 
 
 iEsch. Pers. 883. 
 
 6. Hexam. Acat : 
 
 f 7rpo9 as <ys\\ vsiaSbs, || go cj>c\o$, do 8oKi\\/JL6oTciTb9 \\ 
 
 avTo/jLai, || d/jb(j)t'7Ti\\TVOvcra to \\ abv ybvv \\ Kcii 
 %5/oa || Ssckatdv. Eur. Suppl. 277. 288. 
 
 See Soph, El. 134. 150. 
 
 firjSs to || irdp9svl\\dp iTTSpbv || ovpsl\\ov Tspds || 
 "s\0slv. Eur. Phoen. 819. 
 
 Obs. 1. The Dactylic Hexameter is the metre of 
 Homer and the other epic poets : and being scarcely 
 used in the dramatic writers, needs not explanation 
 here. 
 
 Obs. 2. The Greek Elegiac Pentameter is similar 
 to the Latin, but admits a trisyllable word at the 
 end : as 
 
 dvfiov ottottvsIovt | oXkc/jLov sv Koviy. 
 
170 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 It is only once used in tragedy, viz. in Eur. 
 Andr. 103. sqq. 
 
 7. Logacedic* — This appellation is given to verses 
 which commence with Dactyls and end in Trochees, 
 and is given to them, as Hermann remarks, because 
 they appear to hold a middle station betw T een song 
 and common speech. 
 
 /jltjts ird\rpcobv l\\/colr ss \ ol/cbv. Hec. 938. 
 
 SKTOTTl I] 0$ (Tv\6£t9 O \ TTUVTCOV. Soph. GEd. C. 
 
 119. See iEsch. Prom. 138. 157. 173. 193. 
 rjcrOa cf)v\\Ta\iJLl\d$ Bva\aldov. 151. 
 do 7rb\fc, | co <ysvs\\d rd\Xalvd' | vvv as 
 fxolpd Kad\dfispi\\d (p6c\vsl 9 (f)6l\vsL 
 
 Electr. 1413, 1414. 
 
 s\6 S7TC | KOVpOV S WfAols <j)l\\olal | TTaVTCOS. 
 
 Eur. Or. 1293. 
 
 Obs. 1. Spondees, instead of Dactyls, are not 
 supposed to be admissible : otherwise we might 
 refer to this description of verse, Hec. 900., — 
 
 Krjkio* | olKTpbrd\rdv Ksfyptoaal : 
 
 and also 455. 463. 466. 475. 629. 
 
 The following verse, in which a Dactyl stands 
 combined with three Trochees, frequently occurs in 
 the tragedians : 
 
 Bfj^lOvfibv spco709 av6b$. .ZEsch. Ag. 720. 
 
 XV. Ionic a Majore. (-- w) 
 
 An Ionic verse a majore admits a Trochaic Syzygy 
 
IONIC A MAJORE. 171 
 
 promiscuously with its proper foot ; the second 
 Paeon in the first place; also a Molossus in the 
 second place of a Trimeter whole or catalectic. 
 Resolutions of the long syllable are allowed in all 
 possible varieties. 
 
 Monom. Hypercat. or Penthem. : 
 
 TTTooacrovGi /jLvfyoov* Hec. 1048. 
 
 Dim. Brachycat. : 
 
 kolI cG0(f)p6va || 7ra)kols. Phoen. 182, 
 
 „ Catal. : 
 
 rj TidXkdhbs || sv irokfu. Hec. 465. 
 
 }j xxcat. • 
 
 Sdcfrvd 0' cs\\povs dvsa^s. 458. 
 
 „ Hypercat. : 
 
 vvv S' ovtos d\\vslral arvys \\p(p. 
 
 Soph. Aj. 1232. 
 Trim. Brachycat. : 
 
 olKTpdv /3lb\\Tdv s%ovadv || olicois. Hec. 456. 
 X at p\ zvTvylla S' clvtos blpUXus. Or. 348. 
 
 Trim. Acat. : 
 
 rdv ovO vttvos || alpsl 7r6^' 6 || Trdvrb^rjpoos. 
 
 Soph. Ant. 614. 
 
 But this may be Choriambic, according to Hermann. 
 If the three remaining Pseons, or the second 
 

 172 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 Pcoon in any place but the first, or if an Iambic 
 Syzygy or an Epitrite be found in the same verse 
 with an Ionic foot, the verse is then termed JEpionic. 
 
 XVI. Ionic a Minore. (w~ ) 
 
 An Ionic verse a minore admits an Iambic Syzygy 
 promiscuously ; and begins sometimes with the third 
 Paeon; sometimes with a Molossus, which is ad- 
 mitted in the odd places. Resolutions of the long 
 syllable are also allowed. 
 
 Monom. Hypercat. or Penthem. : 
 
 fjusTCsds fjid\\ rpb$. Hec. 185. 
 
 Dim. Catal. or Hephthem. : 
 
 sXdrds dicp\oKb[Jbols. Phoen. 1531. 
 
 , . xLcat* « 
 
 TrdpaKklvova || sirsKpavsv. .ZEsch. Ag. 721. 
 „ Hypercat. : 
 
 $ls$l(j)p£v\\crs MvprlXov \\ cpovbv. Eur. Or. 984. 
 Trim. Acat. : 
 
 fjubvaS alco \\ va hla%ov\<ra top asl. 
 
 Phcen. 1537. 
 
 The choruses in the Bacchae of Euripides ar< 
 principally in this metre. 
 
 This metre is once used by Horace, in Od. iii. 12., 
 
 Miserarum est, &c. 
 
 An Epionic verse a minore is constituted by inter 
 
 • 
 
CHORIAMBIC METRES. 173 
 
 mixing with the Ionic foot a Trochaic Syzygy, an 
 Epitrite, the second or fourth Pseon, or the third 
 Paeon in any place but the first. 
 
 XVII. Choriambic Metre. 
 
 A Choriambic verse sometimes begins with an 
 Iambic Syzygy; as, 
 
 7T£<f)plfca rdv || a)\ealol\Kov. ^3Esch. S. c. Th. 717. 
 
 and generally ends with one, either complete or 
 Catalectic. It also sometimes ends with a Trochaic 
 Syzygy : 
 
 flfjVES ajTJWpCOS XPOVO) SlJ || VCLGTa.9. 
 
 Soph. Ant. 608. 
 a vrbSal || rcrol Oavooat 
 KoixQovla || kovIs wlfj. JEsch. S. c.Th. 733, 734.* 
 
 Monom. : 
 
 do fiol sjvo. Eur. Hec. 1039. 
 
 „ Hypercat. or Penthem. : 
 
 tcivBs 'yvvaZ\\fcooy. 1053. 
 
 Dim. Brachycat. : 
 
 aXtb$ av\\yd%sl. 634. 
 
 „ Catal. or Hephthem. : 
 
 TropOfiov al%\\co ToKds. 1088. 
 
 * The verses corresponding to these in the antistrophe are— • 
 TrapfiaaXav \\ ookvttoZvov 
 aiwva 5' is || rplrou fieyef. 
 
t 
 
 174 IIAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 Dim. Acat. : 
 
 dfi(f)l K:\a80i9 || s%6/jLsvd. Phoen. 1532. 
 
 1. " The Catalectic Dimeter, which consists o 
 one Logaoedic order, occurs sometimes among the 
 dramatic poets, repeated in systems, resolutions 
 being rarely admitted, as in Euripides, Bacch. 105. : 
 
 3) ^s/xsXas rpcxfcol ®fj- 
 fiai, <TT£(f)avov<j6s /cccraa>. 
 ftp vers, fipvsTS '^Xorjpa 
 afjLikcuct, KcCXXacapTTcp. 
 
 "(So in Horace : Lydia die | per omnes |.) 
 " Systems of Acatalectic Dimeters are concluded 
 with this verse. JSsch. S. c. Th. 924. 
 
 ee Sal6cf)pcov, ov (frtkoya- 
 6r)$> stv/jlcos 8aKpv%scov 
 itc fypsvos, a fckaio/jLsvas 
 
 fJLOV [JbLVvOsi 
 
 TOLvSs SVOLV CLVCLKTOIV" 
 
 See Hermann on Metres : p. 91. 
 Dim. Hypercat. : 
 
 tclv 6 jjisyds || fivOos as%\zl. Soph. Aj. 226. 
 2. Trim. Brachycat. : 
 
 iroXibv a<fiav£9 \\ alOspo? £lh\\d)\bv. 
 
 Eur. Ph. 1559. 
 5, -Zxcat. • 
 
 vvv Tsksaai |j Tas irspi6v\\/xovs tcarapas. 
 JSsch. S. c. Th. 721. 
 
CHOKIAMBIC METRES. 175 
 
 " The latter form only of tragedy appears to have 
 used resolved feet, as Eur. Iph. A. 1036. : 
 
 "tw ap i/fjbsval\o9 Sia Xcotov Ai/3vos' 
 /jLsra ts cj)cX6^6\pov KiOdpas" — Hermann. 
 
 3. Tetram. Catal. : 
 
 a vkbras || fjbol $Tkbv d%\\0o9, to Ss yrj \\pas aid. 
 
 Here. F. 639. 
 
 " Chorlamblc verses are found beginning with an 
 Anacrusis, i. e. a time or times extra metruin, and 
 forming a kind of introduction or prelude to the 
 syllables which the Ictus afterwards begins. iEsch. 
 S. c. Th. 313.: 
 
 vit [ avBpbs 'A^atoO 6s60sv 
 7Tsp6o/jLEvav arlficos. 
 
 Soph. Antig. 606. : 
 
 TCLV ] OV& V7TV09 atpSL 7TO#' 6 TTaVTOjrfpCdS. 
 
 4. A verse composed of an Amphibrachys and 
 Choriambus is common. iEsch. Ag. 725.: 
 
 mo par a Aids %kvXov. 
 
 Obs. Horace has put a Trochaic Dipodia before 
 Choriainbi, and has chosen to make the last syllable 
 of it always long, whereas it is probable that among 
 the Greeks it was doubtful. Od. i. 8. : 
 
 Te deos ojro, Sybarin cur properas amando. 
 
 The most in use are Choriambics with a base, 
 which the ignorance of ancient metricians ranked 
 
176 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 among Antispastic verses. The shortest of these 
 verses has one Choriambus. ^Esch. Suppl. 42. : 
 
 VVV Iv | 7TOLOv6flOC9. 
 
 Next is the Hypercatalectic, which is called 
 Pherecratean. -ZEsch. S. c. Th. 282. : 
 
 rol /JLSV ] <yap 7T0TL 7rvp\<yov9. 
 
 Tol S' £7T | a/JL(l)lf36\0L\(TLV 
 
 ld7r\rovai ttoX^tclls 
 ^sp/xdS' | otcpi6so\aav. 
 
 (So Horace : Grato Pyrrha sub antro.) 
 
 Then the Gly conic, which has a Logaoedic order: 
 Cui flavam religas comam. 
 See Soph. Ant. 100. 
 
 Another kind has a Trochee or Spondee sub- 
 joined to a Choriambus. iEsch. Eum. 1038. : 
 
 The most in use is the Hypercatalectic Dimeter. 
 Soph. Aj. 628. : 
 
 ovS* olfc\rpas <yoov 6p\vido9 arjfiovs, 
 
 Sophocles has used the Brachycatalectic Trimeter 
 in Antig. 951. : 
 
 aXX? a | fjuotptSla | tls Bvvacrts [ hstvd. 
 
 Choriambic systems, too, are found beginning 
 with a base. .iEsch. Suppl. 61. : 
 
 ho%d\ a£L tls dfcov\(ov oira tcls 
 
 Trjpsias 
 
 fjLrjTtSos oltc\rpas dXo^ov : 
 
CHORIAMBIC METRES. 177 
 
 where the Molossus in the proper name is to be 
 remarked, to which a Choriambus answers in the 
 Antistrophe. So also in Soph. El. 123. 139., where 
 the last syllable of the Choriambus is resolved : 
 
 rdfcscs J e5S' a/copSTOv j olfjicoydv. 
 
 av- 
 ardasi9 ovrs yoocs, ovrs \trah. 
 
 In the same play Molossi are made to answer to 
 each other (472. 488.): 
 
 si fir) | *y<o 7rapd(f)pmv \ /judvTLS s<fivv | teal yvd>jJLa$. 
 rfeu j fcal irokvirovs | teal nrdkir^sip | d Sslvols. 
 
 This is done (ib. v. 129. 145.) in verses also without 
 a base : 
 
 5) ysvsdXa ysvvalcov. 
 
 VrjTTlOS OS T(i)V ollCTp5)$. 
 
 Sophocles has used the Trimeter Hypercatalectic 
 (Phil. 681.): 
 
 aXKov I S' ovTiv sycoy | olSa kKvcov^ | ov$ saihov | 
 [jLoipq. 
 
 Horace uses many Choriambics with a base, always 
 putting a Spondee in the latter, and making a 
 Caesura at the end of each Choriambus except the 
 last : 
 
 Maece|nas, atavis | edite rejgibus. 
 
 Nullam, Vare, sacra vite prius severis arborem. 
 
 Once only, and that in a compound word, he has 
 neglected the Caesura (i. 18. 16.): 
 
 N 
 
178 HANDBOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 Arcanique fides prodiga, perlucidior vitro. 
 Alca3us was careless of such matters : 
 
 /jl7]Bsv aWo cf>vTSvarj9 irporspov SevSpeov afjuirsXci).* 
 
 And Catullus has followed him, Carm xxx."— -Her" 
 mann on Metres, p. 93. f 
 
 The following is termed the Choriambus Poly- 
 schematistus : 
 
 OlhliroZd | fipbrdov oi)8e\va fjLa,Kapi\%(o. 
 
 Soph. CEd. T. 1195. 
 
 A Glyconeus Poly schematistus contains a Chori- 
 ambus in the second foot : 
 
 "AXs^avhpos | slXarivdv. Hec. 630. 
 
 TC TOVS CLV(o\9sV (ppOVLfJLQ)- 
 TCLT0V9 0l(o\v0V9 EabpGO- 
 
 fisvoi rpbcfrds \ KrjSb/jLsvovs 
 
 d(j> gov rs j3\da\TQ)(rlv, d^> gov t . as.t.X. 
 
 Soph. El. 1058. 
 Kal fibTijpd? | lirnrbvbfjbovs. Aj. 232. 
 ovSsv sXksl\7rsl y^vsds. Ant. 585. 
 ay Xi7rapb%oo\vov Ovydrsp. Phoen. 178. 
 okWpiov /3lb\rdv nrpbady&s. Med. 989. 
 
 XVIII. Antispastic Metre. 
 
 An Antispast is composed of an Iambus and a 
 Trochee (w- | -J). To lessen the labour of composi- 
 
 * So also Theocritus, who employs this metre in the twenty- 
 eighth Idyllium. 
 
 f See Bentley on Hor. Od. iv. 8. 17. 
 
 - 
 
CHORIAMBIC METKES. 179 
 
 tion, in the first part of the foot any variety of the 
 Iambus, in the second any variety of the Trochee, is 
 admitted. Hence we get the following kinds of 
 Antispast : 
 
 1. 2. 
 
 Instead of an Antispast, an Iambic or Trochaic 
 Syzygy is occasionally used. 
 
 The second foot of the Iambic Syzygy also admits 
 a Dactyl : 
 
 Antisp. Monom. : 
 
 9 t ' r/rr 
 
 co iroTVL tipa' 
 
 S) QbC "AnroKkov. JEsch. S. c. Th. 141. 147. 
 
 „ Dim. Brachycat. : 
 
 tfjbol xpfjv %v{jL\\<j)6pdv. Hec. 627. 
 
 „ Dim. Acat. : 
 
 vbfjbbv avofjiov, ol\a rls %ov0a* 
 tc S' S7rl(j)b^a Bva\(j)aToj xXdyya. 
 
 JEsch. Ag. 1111. 1121. 
 
 „ Dim. Hypercat. : 
 
 sfiol XPV V 'JTrj^ovdv <yevs\(j6al. 
 
 Eur. Hec. 628. 
 Takalv ovks\tI <t' efifiaTBv^Gw. i^Ol. 
 
 N 2 
 
180 HANDBOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 Antisp. Trim. Brachycat. : 
 
 Takaivai ra\\\alval /copal \\ Qpvydtiv. 1046. 
 
 „ Trim. Catal. or H end ecasy liable : 
 
 aOvpaol S' oZ || a vlv 8pdfJLov\\Ts ftdjcjfai. 
 
 Eur. Or. 1502. 
 
 " Euripides appears to have used a Trimeter in the 
 Here. Fur. 919., followed by a verse composed of 
 two Dochmii : 
 
 Xsye, Ttvd rpbirov | scrvrb OsbOsv sirl fieXdOpd Kt- 
 -/cc rdSs, rXrj/jbbvds \ ts 7ral8oov Ti)%as." 
 — Hermann. 
 
 XIX. Dochmiac Verses. 
 
 A Dochmius consists of an Antispast and a long 
 syllable (^ — ^-) ; therefore a simple Dochmiac is the 
 same as an Antispastic Monom. Hypercat. : 
 
 6 scop rj Osdv* 
 
 A pure Dimeter Dochmiac is not of frequent 
 occurrence : the fourth of the following lines is one : 
 
 aklfisvbv tIs oos \\ 69 dvrXdv irscrodv 
 Xsjtflbs sKTTsafj || cpiXds Kaphlds 
 t fjbepads ftldv \\ to yap virsyyvov 
 Sited Kcil 6soi\\o~lv ov %vfjL7rtTVsl. 
 
 Hec. 1010—1013. 
 
 * According to Hermann there are forty-eight varieties. 
 
 «NM 
 
DOCHMIACS. 181 
 
 Other varieties of the Dimeter Dochmiac may be 
 found in the chorus in JEsch. S. c. Th. 79. ed. 
 Blomf. — 
 
 psl ttoXvs coSs \sgo9 |] irpoSpbpLbs hnroras. 
 d/jbd^srou Sl/cdv j| vSdrbs bpbrvTrov. 
 aXsvcrdrs j3ba \\ S' virsp rsl^scov. 
 res ape pvasrai, |) res dp* sirapicsarsl ; 
 ttsttXcov tcai crrscjysoop [) ttot el purj vvv, dp, — cj)L 
 
 (TV T ~Ap7]2, (j)SV, (f)£V, || ILdSpLOV 'sTTCDVVpLOV. 
 
 sv rs fid^als (Jbdfcalp || dvdaad irpb ttoXzws. 
 coo rsXslol || TsXslal rs yds ' — 
 
 with an Iambic Syzygy. 
 
 Also in Eurip. Hec. 681. 684. 688. 689. 690. 
 693. 702. 703. 707. 708. 709. 
 
 The Dimeters do not always consist of separate 
 Dochmii. ^Esch. Prom. 590., S. c. Th. 479. : 
 
 V7rb Ss K7]p67r\aa\\ro9 6to/3sl S6va%. 
 0)9 S' virspav^a 6d\\^ovacv sttl tttoXu. 
 
 The following verses are also referred to the 
 dochmiac system by Hermann de Metr. 1. n. c. xxi. 
 in which the final long syllable is resolved into two 
 short (Eur. Or. 149.) : 
 
 KarajSy f<drdys 9 irpbalff* || drpspbds, drpsfids Wl* 
 Xbybv dirbSbsy scj> b re || %psbs spuoXsrs irors, 
 yjpbvld yap irscroov || 68' avvd^srau 
 
 Also these, in the second of which a short syllable 
 stands in place of the long, by the force of the pause 
 on the vocative (Here. Fur. 870.): 
 
 N 3 
 
182 IIANDBOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 Orbrbroly aT£vd^\\bv aTTOKslpsral 
 Zoz> av6bs> iroklsj || 6 Aids Efcybvos. 
 
 A Dochmiac is sometimes connected with a Cretie, 
 either pure or resolved : 
 
 iTTTairvXbv I £ Sbs iirippvov. 
 
 JEsch. S. c. Th. 151. 
 rdaSi 7rvp\yb(fiv\afC£s irbXlv. 154. 
 Ik£to T£piMovlbv || £ttI irdybv. Prom. 1.17. 
 
 XX. Phonic Metre. 
 
 A Paeonic verse admits any foot of the same time 
 as a Paeon, viz., a Cretic, a Bacchius, or a Tribrach 
 and Pyrrhic jointly ; a Palimbacchius or third Paeon 
 is not often found. The construction of the verse is 
 most perfect when each metre ends with a word. 
 
 Dim. Brachycat. : 
 
 bfibydjibs |j Kvpfu Phoen. 137. 
 „ Catal. : 
 
 %akfcb8sTa \\ T £/Ji{3b\a» 113. 
 
 ,, x\.cat. • 
 
 Biol'xofiW 9 || oiybfiWa. Orest. 179. 
 Bpb/jbdSis <d || irrspbcftbpoL 311. 
 
 „ Hypercat. : 
 
 mapc %1/jlovvt\\lo12 b%£\\Tol9. Orest. 779» 
 0£O)V v£/jL£\\ai$ £ls E\S||raj/. 1356. 
 
PCEONIC METRE. 183 
 
 Trim. Brachycat. : 
 
 Phoen. 146. 
 
 „ Catal. : 
 
 fiakolfii XP°\ V( P <f>vyaha \ flsXsbv. 169. 
 
 „ Acat. : 
 
 to Bs KaXws j fcrdfisvbv, co [ fjisya valcov 
 (7TO}ubv 3 Bv\Bbs dvsBrjv j Bbfibv avBpbs. 
 
 XXL Versus Prosodiacus. 
 
 This appellation is given to a verse in which 
 Choriambics are mixed with Ionics or Paeons. 
 
 Dim. Acat. : 
 
 a Bs Xlvbv j rfKaKara. Eur. Or. 1429. 
 vrjfjbdrd ff l\srb 7rsB<p. 1431. 
 
 „ Hypercat. : 
 
 libXirav 8' cutto, \ kcCL ybpbiroVfiv. Hec. 905. 
 fxaarov V7rsp\rsXkdpT sai\Bcdv. Or. 832. 
 
 Trim. Catal. : 
 
 \dlvs0l9 | ^Ajjbfyibvbs | opydvoi?. 114. 
 
 „ Hypercat. : 
 
 jMsydXd Bs \ rls Bvvd/us j Bf d\darb\pcdv. 
 
 Or. 1562. 
 
 sr 4 
 
184 HANDBOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA, 
 
 XXII. Cretic Verses. 
 
 Dimeter Cretics are very much used both by 
 tragedians and comedians, and commonly conjoined 
 in systems, so that the last syllable of the verses is 
 neither doubtful, nor admits an Hiatus, and may be 
 resolved. In these systems a Monometer too is 
 assumed. .iEsch. Suppl. 425. : 
 
 <t>pOVTl(TOV, 
 
 koX yevov \ iravhtKcos 
 
 svasftrjs | irp6%evo$ m 
 
 rav (frvydSa \ /jltj 7rpoSo3s, 
 
 TCLV SKCL0SV \ EfcfioXafc 
 
 hvaOiois | op/JLEvav. 
 See also Eur. Orest. 1415. 
 
 XXIII. Versus Asynarteti. 
 
 Verses in which dissimilar species are united are 
 so called. 
 
 Hec. 1080. : 
 
 Sslva, hfiva || irsirdvOaiAsV) 
 
 Troch. Syz. + Iam. Syz. 
 Hec. 457. : 
 
 sv0c 7rpft5r6 1| yovos re (j)ol\vl^ 9 
 
 Troch. Syz. + lam. Penthem. 
 
 A verse of this kind in which a Trochaic is 
 followed by an Iambic Syzygy, or vice versa, is 
 termed Periodicus. 
 
ASYNAKTE LINES. 185 
 
 Eur. Or. 1404.: 
 
 alXlvbv, aCKLvbv || dpydv Odvdrov, 
 
 Dact. Dim. + Anap. Monom. 
 Or. 824. : 
 
 rj fjLarpd/crbvbv \\ al/Jba %zlpl Beadal, 
 
 Dact. Dim. + Troch. Ithyphallic. 
 Hec. 915. : 
 
 sirli'ajjbvlbv d)9 \\ Trscroip! ss svvdv, 
 
 Anap. Monom. + Iamb. Penth. 
 Or. 960. : 
 
 (TTpdrrjXdTwv \\ "E\XdSb9 iror ovrolv 3 
 
 Iamb. Monom. -f Troch. Ithyph. 
 Phcen. 1033.: 
 
 v 8a9, e(3as, || do TTTspovaac yd? \b%£v/jLa, 
 
 Iamb. Monom. + Troch. Dim. 
 V Hec. 1083. : 
 
 al0sp y dfJL7rTd\\fjLsvbs ovpdvlbv, 
 
 Troch. Monom. + Anap. Monom. 
 Phoen. 1525. : 
 
 rj tgov irdpoWsv \\svysvsTav sTspo9 9 
 
 Iamb. Penth. + Dact. Penth., called also lambe- 
 legus. 
 
 Obs. 1. The following are instances of Asynartete 
 verses from Horace. Od. i. 4. : 
 
186 HANDBOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 Solvitur acris hyems grata vice || veris et Favoni, 
 
 of which the first part is a Dactylic Tetrameter, the 
 last a Trochaic Dimeter Brachycatalectic. 
 Epode xi. : 
 
 Scribere versiculos || amore perculsum gravi, 
 
 Dact. Trim. Cat. + Iamb. Dim. 
 
 Obs. 2. In these verses the final syllable of the 
 Dactylic part is common, and elision is sometimes 
 neglected : 
 
 v. 6. Inachia furere || silvis, &c. 
 10. Arguit, et latere || petitus, &c. 
 14. Fervidiore mero || arcana, &c. 
 24. Vincere mollitia || amor, &c. 
 
 Epod. 13. : 
 
 Occasionem de die : dumque virent genua, 
 
 lam. Dim. + Dact. Trim. Cat., the reverse of the 
 former metre. The same licence also occurs in this : 
 
 v, 10. Levare diris pectora || sollicitudinibus. 
 
 Archilochus is said to have been the inventor of 
 Asynartete verses. 
 
 
I 
 
 COMIC METRES. 187 
 
 COMIC METRES. 
 
 The Comic Senarius admits Anapaests into every- 
 place but the sixth, and a Dactyl into the fifth ; but 
 here likewise a Tribrach or Dactyl immediately 
 before an Anapaest is inadmissible. Caesuras are 
 neglected, and a Spondee is admitted into the fifth 
 place without scruple. 
 
 Respecting the Comic Tetrameter Catalectic, 
 Porson gives the following rules : that the fourth 
 foot must be an Iambus or Tribrach l ; that the 
 sixth foot admits an Anapaest 2 ; but that the foot 
 preceding the Catalectic syllable must be an Iambus, 
 unless in the case of a proper name, when an Ana- 
 paest is allowed 3 , — in this case the same licence is 
 allowed in the fourth foot. 4 
 
 7rp(OTi(TTa fjisv yap sva | ys Tiva 1 1 Kadeiaav syKaXvtyas. 
 ov% rjrrov rj vvv ol \a\ovvrs9 9 rj\\L0co$ 2 | yap r}a6a. 
 iyivsTO lAsXaviTTiras iroi&v, Qaihpas rs, Ur)\vs\6- 
 
 irrjv 3 ] $s. 
 tcov vvv yvvaifccbv Tir^vakoir^v^^ \ Qalhpas S' aira^a* 
 
 iraaas. 
 
 Others are of opinion that in this kind of verse 
 the comic poets admit Anapaests more willingly and 
 frequently into the first, third, and fifth places, than 
 into the second, fourth, and sixth ; but that Porson 
 is mistaken in restricting altogether to the case of 
 proper names the use of Anapaests in the fourth 
 place. 
 
188 HANDBOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 The Cassura generally takes place at the end of 
 the fourth foot. 
 
 A writer in the Edinburgh Review states that 
 u Aristophanes occasionally introduces a very elegant 
 species of verse, which we are willing to mention in 
 this place because it differs from the Tetrameter 
 Iambic only in having a Cretic or Paeon in the 
 room of the third dipodia, and because it is fre- 
 quently corrupted into a Tetrameter Iambic by the 
 insertion of a syllable after the first Hemistich. In 
 technical language, it is an Asynartete, composed of 
 a Dimeter Iambic and an Ithyphallic. It is called 
 ^vpiirihsLov rscraapsa/catSs/caavXka^ov by Hephae- 
 stion, ch. 15., who has given the following specimen 
 of it: 
 
 f Epos cuvvfc liriroras | s^skajx^zv aarrip. 
 
 Twenty-five of these verses occur together in the 
 Wasps of Aristophanes, beginning with v. 248." 
 —Edin. Rev. No. 37. p. 89. 
 
 In Dimeter Iambics, with the exception of the 
 Catalectic dipodia, the comic poets appear to admit 
 Anapaests into every place, but more frequently into 
 the first and third than into the second and fourth. 
 The quantity of the final syllable of each Dimeter, 
 as in Anapaestics, is not common. Like the tragic, 
 the comic Tetrameter Trochaic may be considered 
 as a common Trimeter Iambic, with a Cretic or 
 Paeon prefixed ; but this Trochaic Senarius admits, 
 although rarely, a Dactyl in the fifth place, and a 
 Spondee subject to no restrictions. The verse is 
 
COMIC METRES. 189 
 
 divided, as in tragedy, into two hemistichs, by a 
 Caesura after the fourth foot. The comedians agree 
 with the tragedians in excluding Dactyls except in 
 proper names. In three verses Aristophanes has 
 twice introduced a proper name by means of a 
 Choriambus (-^-), and once by an Ionic a minore 
 (^ — ) in the place of the regular Trochaic dipodia. 
 
 Ach. 220.: 
 
 Kcu irdkam J AatcparcSfj | to ctksXos ftapvvsrcu. 
 
 Equ. 327..- 
 
 UpCOTOS COV\ 6 8' | ''iTTTToBa/HOV | XslftsTaL 0S(DfJLSVOS« 
 
 Pac. 1154.: 
 
 Mvppivas cuttjctop if; A.la\)(lvaZov tgov \ Kapirl/JLcov. 
 
 The laws respecting Dimeter Anapaestics are in 
 general accurately observed by comic writers. 
 Aristophanes in two or three instances has neglected 
 the rule of making each dipodia end with a word. 
 Vesp. 750. : 
 
 "W 6 KT}pV% (j)7](TL' TtS CL'\}r7](f>t\(7T09 \ aVMJTCLCrdto. 
 
 The Anapaestic measure peculiar to Aristophanes 
 consists of two Dimeters, one catalectic to the 
 other. 
 
 'A\V r}hrj xprjv re Xsysiv rj/Jids \ crocfrov & VL/crjosTB 
 
 TTJvSL 
 
 In the three first places, besides an Anapaest and 
 Spondee, a Dactyl is used ; so also in the fifth, but 
 not in the fourth or sixth. Caesuras are accurately 
 
190 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 observed, subject to the same restrictions as in the 
 tragic Trochaic, even so far that it must not take 
 place after a preposition or an article. The Pro- 
 celeusmatic is excluded. A Dactyl immediately 
 before an Anapaest is unlawful ; so also when pre- 
 fixed to an Ionic a minore (^ — ) in the end of a 
 verse, as in these examples : 
 
 Arist. PL 510.: 
 
 Et yap 6 UXovtos fiXsyfrsts ttoXlv, BcavslfMScs r 
 lctov iavrov. 
 
 (Read BcavsLfMSisv r Xaov avrov») 
 
 Av. 491.: 
 
 <tkvt7]9, ftakavrjs, akfynafLOifiol, TopvevraamSoXvpo- 
 
 (Read TopvsvT6\vpao-'7r(,8o7rr)yoL) 
 
 The rule of making each dipodia end with a word 
 is sometimes violated ; yet in this case, supposing 
 the second foot a Dactyl, and the third a Spondee, 
 the last syllable of the Dactyl cannot commence a 
 word, whose quantity is either an Iambus or Bac- 
 chius (^ — ). Hence in Aristoph. Eccl. 518. : 
 
 'SiVfjLftovXoKTiv dirdaais vjuv, k. t. X. 
 
 Brunck reads, 
 
 SvfiftovXoccTLV iraaais vpZv, k. t. X. 
 
 The most frequent licence is that in which a long 
 vowel or a diphthong is shortened before a vowel ; 
 as, Aristoph. PI. 528. : 
 
COMIC METRES. 191 
 
 ovt iv Sdrnatv • tl9 jap vfyalvuv iOskrjcret, ftpvaiov 
 
 OVTOS. 
 
 But Aristophanes rarely lengthens a vowel before 
 a mute and a liquid, except when he introduces a 
 passage from Homer or other authors, or in the case 
 of a proper name. 
 
 Thus the words of Homer are cited, in Nub. 402. : 
 
 Kal *2iOvviov aicpov 'AOrjvioyp. 
 
 and Vesp. 652. : 
 
 'ATap S) TTCLTSp T/fASTSpS KpOViST], 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 POKSON'S CANONS.* 
 
 From the " Classical Journal," vol. xxxi. p. 136. 
 
 1. The tragic writers never use pp for p<r, nor tt for crc. Thus 
 they never said Xeppovrjcriav for Xepaovrja-iay, nor TrpdrTou for irpdacroo, 
 nor 7\ttov for fjcrow. — Hec. 8. 
 
 2. In systems of anapaests they neither always use, nor always 
 discard, the Doric dialect. — Hec. 100. 
 
 3. They are partial to the introduction of the particle toi in 
 gnomes, or general reflections. — Hec. 228. 
 
 4. The forms Svva, dduva, and the 2nd pers. sing. pres. indie, from 
 verbs in a/j.ai are more Attic than dvprj, &c. — Hec. 253. 
 
 5. Dawes has too hastily asserted that no syllable can he made 
 short by a scenic poet, in which the consonants {S\, y\, y^ yv, 5,u, 
 8v, concur. This rule, though generally true, is sometimes violated 
 by iEschylus, Sophocles, and Aristophanes, but never by Euripides. 
 — Hec. 298. 
 
 6. The Homeric 7/5e is sometimes found in the tragic writers, 
 contrary to the assertion of Valcknaer, Phcen. 1683. See Hec. 323. 
 
 * The careful student will regard these Canons, and those which 
 follow merely as heads for observation. It is a useful plan, espe- 
 cially with reference to self-improvement in composition, to mark 
 down under their separate rules such examples as occur in reading 
 through any of the plays of the Greek tragedians. A collection of 
 these examples, made by the student for himself, during the course 
 of his own reading, will be invaluable. 
 
 O 
 
194 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 7. The tragic writers loved the harsh and antiquated forms of 
 words — they therefore preferred the 1st to the 2nd aorist passive ; 
 and the 2nd aorist pass, is consequently very seldom used: airrjWd' 
 y-qv sometimes occurs. — Hec. 335. Phcen. 986. 
 
 8. The participle &v is seldom found in conjunction with another 
 participle. Homer has ^-niGTa^v6v -irep i6ura, II. T. 80. [Herod, vii. 
 143. elprj/jLevov Uv.~]~^Hec. 358. 
 
 9. "Onus and ottoos /jltj is generally joined with the 2nd person of 
 the fut. tense, sometimes with the third, seldom with the first: opareop 
 earl, or some expression of the same kind, may be conceived as un- 
 derstood in this idiom, as, 
 
 6no7a k'ktctos dpvbs, ottccs t^ctS' Qojjlcli. — Hec. 398. 
 
 10. Te jueV rot. These three particles are very frequently met with 
 together in Sophocles and Euripides, y4 roi n never. — Hec. 598. 
 
 11. NeKpbs in the masculine gender is always used for the Latin 
 cadaver. — Hec. 665. 
 
 12. The accusative singular of Attic nouns in eus have the last 
 syllable long. There are three exceptions to this rule in Euripides, 
 Hec. 870., Electr. 599. 763. A vowel cannot be elided unless it be 
 short.— Hec. 870. 
 
 13. Uov denotes rest, -not motion: ira is used in both senses. Thus 
 irov ardcrci, tto'i 5e fiavsi. Phil. 833 Hec. 1062. 
 
 14. Instead of ^'Se^ez/, ijfeiTe, -pSeaav, the Attics used the contracted 
 forms ya/nev, rjorre, ycrav. — Hec. 1094. 
 
 15. Several verbal adjectives, as vttotttos, TrKTrhs, ^fxirrbs, aju^i- 
 ttXtjktos, and some others, are found with an active as well as passive 
 signification. — Hec. 1117. 
 
 16. The ancient Attic writers never used the neuter plural with 
 a verb plural, except in the case of animals. — Hec. 1141. 
 
 17. The particle ^ giving the sense of the imperative accompa- 
 nies the 1st or 2nd aorists subjunctive, and the present imperative, 
 but never the present subjunctive, or 2nd aorist imperative. There 
 are some few instances of ^h with the first aorist imperative. The 
 Attic writers said, 
 
 fit) ULtfjctyr) — yd] Ka/xr)s not fxrj p.efx(pr) 
 
 fx)] (XtfKpOV nOt jU$? KdfJLr A 
 
 Sometimes jut? fie^ai. — Hec. 1166. 
 
 
 
porson's CANONS. 195 
 
 18. The first syllable of \'aos in the tragic and comic writers is 
 always short: in composition it is sometimes long. — Orest. 9. 
 
 19. The Attic writers preserved some Tonic and some Doric forms 
 in their dialect: thus they always said, 3 A9dva, dapbs, fjcari, Kvvcuyos, 
 irofiaybs, Koxaybs, £eva,ybs, 07ra5bs, and not J Adr]ur) f dripos, &c. Also 
 IJ.ovvos y ^li/os, sometimes, instead of jjlovos, £eVos. But though they 
 had the form Kvvayhs and 'AOdva, they used Kvprjyeryjs and 'AQ-qvaia. 
 — Orest 26. 
 
 20. The tragic writers, though they sometimes make long by 
 position syllables short by nature, yet prefer to keep them short, so 
 that three examples will be found where they are short, for one where 
 they are long. This kind of licence is more frequent in uncom- 
 pounded words, as reia/ov, narphs, than in others. A syllable is much 
 more rarely lengthened in a compound word, if it falls on the 
 junction itself, as in iroXvxpvaos, Andr. 2. They were equally sparing 
 in lengthening the augments, as in eVe'/cAwo-ey, KeKArjaOai. The licence 
 is still more uncommon in the case of a preposition and a verb, as 
 a7roT/307roi, Phosn. 595. But where a word ends with a short syllable, 
 followed by a word beginning with two consonants, such that the 
 short syllable may continue short, there is no instance of undoubted 
 authority where it does not remain so. Therefore, where such lines 
 occur as 
 
 irapBevov, ijj.fj re ixrjTpl irapedccKe rp4<p€LV, 
 
 the v €(p€AKv(TTLKbv must be inserted. — Orest. 64. 
 
 21. In the formula of adjuration, viz. npos with a genitive case 
 the article with the noun is seldom omitted by the comic, and never 
 expressed by the tragic writers. — Orest. 92. 
 
 22. Adjectives, such as fxavias, iddos, are of three genders, though 
 they are less frequently used in the neuter : fiavidaiv Avaa-q/iacrL, dpo- 
 lidvi pAecpdpois. — Orest. 264. 
 
 23. Te/coDcra is never used by Euripides absolutely for fir]rr}p. — 
 Orest. 285. 
 
 24. The active verb is often found instead of the middle, the per- 
 sonal pronoun being understood : as, 
 
 kcu vvv avaKaXvirr, £> Ka<riyv7)T0V ndpa, 
 
 and now uncover, sc. yourself. — Orest. 288. 
 
 25. The tragic writers used the form in -atpw, not in -a'u/ca. Thus 
 
 O 2 
 
196 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 they said lxfkdpu % not exfycuVa>. They also said <VxcuVa>, not \<rxvo.iv(a* 
 — Orest 292. 
 
 26. Oeoy, in the nominative and accusative singular, is not unfre- 
 quently a monosyllable, and very often in the other cases : &(tt€os is 
 also sometimes found as a dissyllable. — Orest. 393. 
 
 27. The Attic writers made the penult of comparatives in icovlong: 
 the other dialects had it short. — Orest. 499. 
 
 28. The iota of the dative singular is but rarely elided. — Orest 
 584. 
 
 29. When the discourse is hastily turned from one person to 
 another, the noun is placed first, then the pronoun, and then the 
 particle, as, 
 
 Mej/eAae, crol dh rdBe Xeyw. — Orest. 614. 
 
 30. The different governments and usages of 8e? and XPV : — 
 Homer only once used Se?, and then an infinitive mood is sub- 
 joined. II. I. 337. He very frequently uses XP^I w ^ tn an infin., and 
 with an accusative of the person and genitive of the thing : as also 
 Xpecb with the accusative and genitive. Euripides has once imitated 
 this form : — 
 
 aAAa rls XP*' ia °"' tf 10 " 5 — Hec. 962„ : fe 
 
 The Greeks in common said 5e? croi rouSe. iEschylus seems first 
 to have altered this, by using the ace. of the person and gen. of the 
 thing, avrbv yap ere 5e? Upojx-qQeas {Prom. 86.); in this he was followed 
 by Euripides. 
 
 The Attic poets never use xph with a genitive : thus, '6tov xpb, 8e? 
 Aeyeiv is wrong, and should be altered to orov 5ei, XP^I Ae^etv. — 
 Orest. 659. 
 
 31. The enclitic copulative re in the ancient Greek writers never 
 follows a preposition, unless that preposition commences the member 
 of a sentence. Thus they said, 
 
 %v Te 7roAeoi- apxeus 
 or eV tt6\e6$ re apxeus, 
 but not 7roAeos %v t' apxous. — Orest 887. 
 
 32. Verbs denoting motion take after them an accusative of the 
 instrument or member which is chiefly used : as, ttS irdtf iinfcas 
 
porson's canons. 197 
 
 (Hec. 1071.) where 7^5* is put for 7rJ5a, rather than for nodi See 
 above, 28. and Or est 1427. 
 
 33. The tragic writers seldom prefix the article to proper 
 names, except for emphasis, or at the beginning of a sentence. — 
 Phoen. 145. 
 
 34. The tragic writers do not admit of an hiatus after ri. Thus 
 they did not say Kayw ri ov dpccu, nor did they ask a question simply 
 by oTTo?os t wherever the question is asked, biroios must by written 6 
 iroTos, not oiroTos. — Phoen. 892. 
 
 35. Avrbs is frequently used absolutely for fxSuos : and yet avrbs 
 fiows is not a tautologous expression. — Phoeh, 1245. 
 
 36. The article forms a crasis with a word beginning with alpha 
 only when the alpha is short. Thus, no tragic writer would say T&0Aa 
 for tcl ad\a, because the penult of ad\ov is long, the word being con- 
 tracted from feQXov.— Phoen. 1277. 
 
 37. The noun avia or avir] generally has its second syllable long, 
 but sometimes short, as in four instances adduced by Ruhnken, 
 Epist. Crit. ii. p. 276. The verb aviaoo or avi&fy, in the epic poets, 
 generally produces the second syllable. Aristophanes has the second 
 syllable of c^ew thrice short, and once long. The second syllable of 
 dviapbs is always short in Euripides and Aristophanes, and long in 
 Sophocles: Antig. 316. But the third syllable is always long. — 
 Phoen. 1334. 
 
 38. Kal nccs, and irus Kal, have very different meanings: Kal iroos 
 is used in asking a question which implies an objection or contra- 
 diction to the preceding remark, as, Kal ir&s yivon av rSvBe dvo-iro- 
 TfjLcvTepa ; where Creon's question is an implied affirmation that the 
 messenger's previous remark was not true. But irws Kal asks some 
 additional information : as, 
 
 tt£s Kal ireirpaKrai 5j7ttux&>v iraiScav <p6vos\ 
 
 In this latter sense Kal follows the interrogatives ris, ireds, iro?, irov, 
 7ro7os. Sometimes between the interrogative and Kal, 5e is inserted, 
 —Phoen. 1373. 
 
 39. 'Us is never used for eis or irpbs, except in case of persons. 
 Homer has the first instance of this Atticism. Od. P. 218. 
 
 'Q.s aUl rbv 6/j.o?oy ay el ®ebs cos rbv d/uoTou. — Phoen. 1415. 
 
 40. The copulative kcI never forms a crasis with ev, except in 
 
 o 3 
 
198 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 words compounded with ev : it never makes a crasis with aei. — 
 Ph(r?i. 1422. 
 
 41. No iambic tetrameter occurs in the tragic writers which 
 divides a spondee in the fifth foot so that koI forms the second part 
 of the foot. Thus, there is no line like 
 
 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 
 
 Kal 777s (pi\7]s uxQoiai Kpvcpdco kcu rdcpco. — Phoen. 1464. 
 
 42. 'AAAa ixrjv, koI /xV, oboe /j.t}v, ov ^r, are frequently found in a 
 sentence, with the addition of the particle ye, but never except 
 where another word is interposed, thus : 
 
 ov ix)]v av y* 7]/j.as robs t€k6vtcls rjd4(Tw. — Eur. Phcen. 1638. 
 
 43. The quantity of the penult of av^p is nowhere long, except 
 where it makes avepos in the genitive case ; and as the tragic writers 
 do not use the form avepos in iambic, trochaic, or anapaestic verse, 
 the penult of av7]p is in these metres always short. — Phcen. 1670. 
 
 44. Porson prefers to adscribe, rather than subscribe the iota; 
 a practice which was either universally adopted, or the iota entirely 
 omitted in the more ancient MSS. The subscription of the iota 
 does not seem to have been earlier than the 13th century. — Med. 6. 
 
 45. Porson writes %vu instead of aw, both in and out of compo- 
 sition, where the metre and smoothness of numbers will permit, but, 
 in iambic metre, not so as to introduce a spondee where there might 
 be an iambus. — Med. 11. 
 
 46. The tragic writers in iambic, trochaic, or legitimate ana- 
 paestic verse, never admit irepl before a vowel, either in the same or 
 different words. In the choral odes they rarely admit a verb or 
 substantive of this kind of composition — very rarely an adjective or 
 adverb.— Med. 284. 
 
 47. The distinction between oiddaKco and diddcrKOfjiai is this: — 
 The master oiMaKei (teaches) the boy ; 
 
 The father 5i5dcr/ceTcu, causes his son to be taught ; though this 
 distinction is not always observed by the poets. — Med. 297. 
 
 48. There are several nouns which in the singular are only masc. 
 or feminine, but in the plural are neuter : as, oicppos, oi(ppa ; kvkXos, 
 KVK\a ; Ke\ev6os, Ke\ev6a ; dea/jibs, o€0~/j.a ; u7tos, air a. — Med. 494. 
 
 49. A vowel at the end of a verse cannot be elided unless a long 
 
I 
 
 porson's canons. 199 
 
 syllable precedes. — Med. 510. (But Virgil elides the final a in 
 horrida, Georg. 2.) 
 
 50. Medirjixi in the active voice governs an accusative; in the 
 middle, a genitive case. In the line 
 
 "AyovaLV ov ixsQeV av e/c yaias i(A€, 
 
 the pronoun efi4 is the accusative after the participle &yovai, not 
 after /U60e?o. 
 
 When two verbs governing different cases refer equally to the 
 same noun, the Greeks, in order to avoid an inharmonious repetition 
 of the proper name or pronoun, give it only once, governed by one 
 of the verbs, and omit it with the other. — Med. 734. 
 
 51. The tragic writers never use the form in v<a for that in vfxi — 
 (thus they do not say o/jluvw, but ofipvfii) ; the writers of the old 
 comedy use it very seldom — those of the middle, oftener — those of 
 the new, very often. — Med. 744. 
 
 52. "Kyios and ayvhs are sometimes interchanged in the earlier 
 editions ; but ay to s is very rarely used by the Attic — never by the 
 tragic writers. — Med. 750. 
 
 53. All compound adjectives ending in os were anciently declined 
 with three terminations, as diropdrjTos, aTropd-qrr], anopd-qrou : and 
 after the feminine forms had gradually become obsolete, the poets 
 and Attic writers recalled them, either for the sake of ornament or 
 of variety. — Med. 822. 
 
 54. From aeipu the ancients formed the future aiipca, or aepa* — by 
 contraction alpoo or apa>, the penult being long. But when they 
 contracted aeipco itself into a'ipa>, then they had a new future, apco — 
 the penult being short. — Med. 848. ft 
 
 55. The future form fxe^v^croiiai (found in Homer, II. X. 390.), is 
 always used by the tragic writers — the form nvqaQ-qaOfxai is never 
 used : the same remark is true of KeKh^aofxai and KK^B-hao^ai. But 
 
 /3\?]0^(7o^at and ^^X-fjaofiai are met with indiscriminately Med. 
 
 929. 
 
 56. The nominative forms, cijUjSAobif/ and anfiXwirbs, yopycbty and 
 yopycairbs, (p\oyu\p and (pXoycoirbsy ad/m^s and ^fMTjros, &£v| and a£vyos, 
 ve6(v^ and vcS&yos, empas and evKparbs, and such others, are both 
 Attic— Med. 1363. 
 
 57. In words joined by a crasis, the iota ought never to be added, 
 
 o 4 
 
200 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 unless ical forms a crasis with a diphthong*, as Kara for Kal elra. — 
 Pre/, iv. 
 
 58. 'Ael, curbs, KAdw, kolo, are to be written without a diphthong 
 — not aiel, aierbs, &c. — Ibid. 
 
 59. The second persons singular of the present and future middle 
 and passive, end in e* not v, which latter termination belongs to the 
 subjunctive. Thus, tvtttojulcu, tvitth, tvtttstcu, and rvirrw/bLai, Tirrrrr} 
 T\nrT7)Tai. — Ibid. 
 
 60. The augment is not omitted by the Attics, except in the case 
 of XPW for eXpTJ"* fouya for fywya, KaOetyfirii', KaOevdov. They 
 sometimes admitted a double augment, as 7}vz<rx6i*W> cdpw, ij/neAAop 
 &c. — Pre/, xix. 
 
 61. 'EAeewbs is a word unknown to the Attics. As from deos is 
 formed deivbs, from /cAeos, KAewbs, so from eAeos is formed iAeivds. — 
 Pre/, viii. 
 
 62. Derivative and compound adjectives are generally, in Attic 
 Greek, of the same form in the masculine and feminine, as, 6 Kal fj 
 (piXotevos, airo^Aeirros. — Pref. ix. 
 
 63. The Attics said, oi£vs nol oi£vs, olfypbs not o:Qvp6s : as also, 
 ols, olarbs, OIkAtjs, OlAevs. — Pref. x. 
 
 64. Some Ionisms are used by the tragic writers, though spar- 
 ingly and rarely, as |eiVos, jjlovvos, yovvara, Kovpos, Sovpi. — Pref, 
 xiil 
 
 65. The first syllable of ael, l&ixai, larpbs, Aiav, and others, is 
 common. — Pref. xvii. 
 
 66. Te and ye can never form the second syllable of a trisyllabic 
 foot in the tragic Iambic senary, nor the first syllable of a trisyllabic 
 fooLin trochaic metre. — Pref. xvii. 
 
 Compounds from icepas do not admit a?, but either Kepas is re- 
 tained entire, which is the case before the labials /3 and <p ; or some- 
 times the last syllable of the old genitive Kepeos is dropped (/cepeaA/^s), 
 sometimes the last letter of the old nominative icepas. The Attics 
 therefore say Kepo^drns, KepoSeTos, KepovAKos, Kepocp6pos, Keporvnetv. 
 Of less frequent occurrence, yet genuine, are KepdafSoAos and Kepac- 
 
 * This canon is not expressed with the usual accuracy of the 
 learned Professor. When Kal forms the crasis with a diphthong 
 containing an iota, then the iota is added, otherwise not : thus, Kal 
 €Jra = Kdra. but Kal ov = kov. 
 
blomfield's canons. 201 
 
 <j>6pos. (Eur. Ph. 255.) Similarly in the compounds of Kp4as 9 the 
 Attics never say KpecoSaiaia, KpeaKoirelv, but always use the short 
 vowel — Pre/, ix. 
 
 No noun compounded of es-, as e<ro8os, is found in comic writers. 
 Very seldom indeed, and I doubt if in any but corrupt places, do 
 they use es before a vowel. — Pre/. Ix. 
 
 II. 
 
 CANONS AND EEMAEKS 
 
 By Dr. BLOMFIELD. 
 
 From the " Classical Journal," vol. xxxvii. p. 275., 
 vol. xxxix. p. 141. 
 
 Prometheus Vinctus. 
 
 1. The ancient Greek poets sometimes lengthened a privative, 
 and in aOdvaros always. 193. 
 
 2. 'Evindris, not evireiOris, is the proper form in the tragic writers. 
 It is formed from the second aorist, as evyevrjs, euo-TaA^s, evAafiris, 
 and many others. 341. 
 
 3. The Athenians were accustomed to estimate the nobility of a 
 family by the number of horses which it kept for the Olympic 
 games. 475. 
 
 4. Kviaa, Kpiaa, Kpiacuos, KovicraXos, not Kviao-a, &c. is the proper 
 orth/ graphy. It may be observed in general, that transcribers 
 doubled the sigma, wherever it was possible without offendiug 
 against quantity; as in Tldpmaos, Kaadvdpa, &c. See Gloss. 53. 
 505. 
 
 5. Avtos 7rpbs avrov, not irpbs avrbs atrov, 787. 
 
 6. The Attic writers preserved the terminations of numbers in 
 composition. Thus they said, irevT7)KovTd'ncLis, tt^vts^vos, &c. 878. 
 
 7. The ancients when they quoted a proverb, the author of which 
 
202 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 was unknown, used to say, Kara rovs o~o(povs, or coy Aey ovaiv ol o~o<pol. 
 913. 
 
 8. In the active voice, fj.e\€iu signifies curce esse, to be an object 
 of care ; in the middle voice only peAfoBai denotes curare, to take 
 care. Gloss. 3. 
 
 9. ^.rtpyco, cequo animo fero, to bear patiently [or rather to be 
 content with, to submit to] ; in which sense aya-ndoo is also used. 
 2t6^7cc sometimes, though seldom, governs a dative case. Gloss. 
 11. 
 
 10. Tidy os, a hill; from the old word irayca, pango, to build; 
 because in the first ages men were accustomed to build their huts 
 on the more elevated situations ; whence, more anciently, irdyos was 
 the same as the Latin pagus ; the first syllable of which is long, 
 being derived from the iEolic irdyw, sc 71-7770; : the first of irdyos is 
 now short, because the more recent Greeks formed it after their 
 usual manner from the 2nd aorist of irqyvvij.i. Gloss. 20. 
 
 11. The last syllable of irepa is always long. Gloss. 30. 
 
 12. Aiaropos, or Aidropos, perforating or perforated, according 
 as it is paroxyton, or proparoxyton ; it is used in both senses. 
 Gloss. 76. 
 
 13. Ku/cAos, a circle, an orb is sometimes put simply for the sun 
 Philoct. 815. Gloss. 91. 
 
 14. Mvpia signifies iroWa, and is a metaphor taken from fluids; 
 from fivpcc, to flow. Gloss. 94. 
 
 15. Taybs is one who arranges; a military word, from rdcro-w. 
 The first syllable is always long ; but of ray^j and its compounds, 
 short. Gloss. 96. 
 
 16. 'OS/U77, the ancient Attic form for oo-fx-f], Photius and Thomas 
 Magister call it Ionic ; which is also true, for the Ionic and ancient 
 Attic dialect were the same. Gloss. 115. 
 
 17. 'EKTr\7)o-(Tw, to drive out, is followed by an accusative either of 
 the person or the thing. Gloss. 136. 
 
 18. XaAc£o>, to loosen, is properly said of ship ropes. Gloss. 
 183. 
 
 19. ^Topecw, sterno, to spread, for which the Attics said arSpw/ja. 
 Hence the Latin word sterno. Gloss. 198. 
 
 20. A7}0€i/, scilicet: this particle, generally joined with ws and 
 a participle, adds somewhat of irony to the sentence in which it 
 occurs. Sometimes it is found without &s, as Trach. 382. 
 Gloss. 210. 
 
 — 
 
blomfield's canons. 203 
 
 21. Diminutives ending in vAos have something of blandishment 
 in them, as ai/mvAos from ai/j.cau t TjdvAos from ijSvs, /jukkvAos from 
 /jl'ikkos or fiiKpos, epwrvAos from epoos, bcrixvAos, alavAos, AlaxvAos, 
 Xpe/jivKos. The form seems to be JEolic, because it is preserved in 
 Latin ; as in the diminutives parvulus, tremulus, and especially 
 semulus, which is in fact nothing more than the Greek word al/xvAos. 
 All the words of this kind are paroxyton, and short in the penult. 
 Gloss. 214. 
 
 22. Adverbs, of whatever form, are not derived from the genitive, 
 as grammarians suppose, but from the dative case of nouns. The 
 greater part of those deduced from the dative plural end in cos (sc. ois); 
 some from the dative singular in ei or i. Those which were formed 
 from nouns ending in t] or a, were anciently written with ei, since 
 they were nothing else than datives, so written before the invention 
 of the letters 77 and 00. Thus from fioe, gen. fioes, dat. j8oe?, arose 
 avTofioei. But the dative of nouns ending in os was formerly thus 
 formed; oTkos, dat. oXkoi, a-rparbs, dat. o-rpaToi; therefore all adverbs 
 derived from words of this kind anciently ended in 01 ; which is 
 evident from the adverbs oVkoi, 7re5o?, dpfioT, ev5o?, which still retain 
 the old termination. Afterwards the was omitted, lest the adverb 
 should be confounded with the nominative plural. Thus from frfxaxos 
 is formed dfiaxl, n °t a^X 6 ^ from frvaros dvarl, from d^dxiTos 
 dfJLaxv T ^ from do-revatcTos darej/aKrl, &c. The ancient form was 
 frequently corrupted by transcribers', because they were not aware 
 that the final 1 is sometimes long and sometimes short : short, as 
 d/j,oyr)T? f Iliad A. 636.; fieyaAcoo-r'i, X 26.; fisAe'Cart, H. 409.; dcrTemKT?, 
 iEschyl. ap. Athen. vii. p. 303. C; dwpX, Aristoph. Eccles. 737., 
 Theocrit. x. 40., xxiv. 38.: long, as dvidpcorl, Iliad. O. 226 ; do-irovSi, 
 O. 476.; dvaifxooTl) P. 363.; dvovTTjri, X. 371.; juer adroiyl-i ¥• 358.; 
 iyKvrl, Archilochus, Etym. M. p. 311. 40. (yet the last syllable of 
 the same word is made short by Callimachus. Suid. v. i^xpv) *> 
 daraKTl, CE. C. 1646.; a/cpoj/vxv Meleager, Brunck, Anal. i. p. 10.; 
 dicAavTi, Callim. fr. ccccxviii. Gentile adverbs ending in n, as 
 Awpiarl fyvyiarl, &c, have the last syllable always short. Gloss. 
 216.* 
 
 * There is, however, a class of adverbs ending in a>s, as 5ia<£epoV- 
 tcos, irdvrtas, uvroas, d(T<paAoos, d\r)8<£s, &c. which seems more probably 
 formed from the genitive than the dat. plural. See Dunbar's 
 Article in the Class. Journ. vol. xiii. p. 75. 
 
2(H HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 23. Adjectives ending in us, when compounded with another word, 
 change the vs into 77 s, as /j.e\ajuL&ad7]s, irTepvyooKrjs, Kwodapays, &c. 
 Gloss. 1227. 
 
 24. 'AvTa/Atifionai, to requite, takes either a dative or a genitive 
 case. Gloss. 231. 
 
 25. N7?Aed>s is formed from dv7)\tu>s hy aphairesis, not from the 
 privative particle ^77, which is not a Greek word. So there is vrja-ris 
 and &vricrTis, vriyperos and dwnyperos, vtyepos and dvf]v€jj.os, vv\- 
 Kova-reu) and dvriKovvTzw, j/7]K€o-tov and dvr}Kzarov, 'N-qXeyrjs is used 
 for dvakeyris, vqirevOTis for ava-wtvQris, vqjJLepr^s for cVa/^epr^s (Hesych.), 
 by eliding a, and changing a into 77 Ionice. 'AvaKnros occurs 
 Theocr. vi. 36., for which there is vrjXnros Apoll. Rh. iii. 646. Gloss. 
 248. 
 
 26. Qaicos is the form used by the Attic poets : O&kos seems to be 
 Ionic. Gloss. 288. 
 
 27. MeTa in composition signifies change or alteration. Gloss. 
 317. 
 
 28. Z77AW (re, invidendum te puto ; I think you enviable. This is 
 a form of speaking which congratulates with some admiration. 
 Maimpifa is frequently, oA/3i£a> but seldom, used in this sense. See 
 Valckn. Theocr. Adoniaz. p. 415. Gloss. 338. 
 
 29. Ilapa in composition very frequently conveys the idea of 
 weakness or uselessness; as irap-fjopos and irapdrouos, Alcest. 400. 
 Gloss. 371. 
 
 30. "Ai's, orcus, the same as A'/Stjs, but with the soft breathing ; 
 the Attics said ai's, but AiStjs, olarbs, a'tcrcro), &c. Gloss. 442. 
 
 31. $vpoo, commisceo, to mingle; the more recent form is (pvpdca, 
 which occurs Theb. 48. Gloss. 459. 
 
 32. "Trrap, verurn somnium, a true dream : Horn. Od. T. 547. Ou/c 
 uvap, a\X' v-rrap iaBXbv, % koX TcreXeafieuou earai. Gloss. 495. 
 
 33. The first syllable of Xnrapeu is long, because it is formed from 
 \nrap7)s. Gloss. 529. 
 
 34. Attuo), pronunciOy to utter, has the penult common. It is 
 short. P. V. 613., Theb. 143., Pers. 123., Equit. 1023. It is long, 
 Hec. 156., and Eur. Suppl. 800. Gloss. 613. 
 
 35. Words compounded with ttAtVctuj, as olcrrpoirXril, are all 
 oxyton, except ftnrAaff. Gloss. 702. 
 
 36. Xpi/uurTGo, propinquo, to approach. The most ancient mode of 
 
blomfield's canons. 205 
 
 writing this word was Xp'urrw ; in which fx was afterwards inserted 
 for the sake of euphony. Gloss. 738. 
 
 37. 2vXd<a, spolio, to plunder, requires an accusative of the person 
 and an accusative or genitive (but more frequently an accusative) of 
 the thing. Gloss. 786. 
 
 38. Xdpiv deo-dcu, t16€(t6cu, and even Btivai, signifies to confer a 
 favor. Gloss. 807. 
 
 39. "Airvpos, ardentissimus. In some words a is intensive, and 
 is said by grammarians iwiraa-iv StjXovj/: so dMicpvTos for rroXv- 
 SdKpvros, in Soph. Trachin. 106., Antig. 881., a|uAo> uAr?, Homer, 
 II. A. 135., anvpos, in the sense of sine igne, is used Agam. 71. 
 Gloss. 905. 
 
 PERS.E. 
 
 1. The tragic writers made the first syllable of firos short; but in 
 laodeos they necessarily lengthened the iota, in order that the word 
 might be adapted to verse. The same thing took place in dBdvaros, 
 aKdjxcLTos, dirapd/ixvOos. They said Btrjcpopos, do"irid7i(p6pos, eXacprifiSXos, 
 and the like, rather than Oeocpopos, damdocpopos, iXacpofioXos, for the 
 same reason, viz., that the concurrence of four or more short sylla- 
 bles might be avoided. 81. 
 
 2. Kvdveou, according to Burney, is a trisyllable ; but since Khavov 
 is the name of a metal, Kvdveov is more correctly written kvclvovv. 
 Phrynichus, Xpty ovv Xiysiv XP V(T "> dpyvpa, Kvava, rbv 'ArriKL^opra. — 
 Xpvaovs Xeye* rb yap xpvveos 'laKbv, waavrws Ktti apyvpovs, x^A/cous, 
 kvwovs, koX ojjlolcl. The first syllable of tcvdveos is always long in 
 Homer ; as also in Soph. Antig. 966., Eurip. Androm. 856. 1003., 
 Tro. 1094. 83. 
 
 3. An inhabitant of Syria was called ^vpos ; an inhabitant of the 
 island of Syros (one of the Cyclades), 2vpios. 86. 
 
 4. It is uncertain whether the tragic writers used the present im- 
 perative of yiyvotiai. 176. 
 
 5. As often as ttoXvs is joined with an epithet, the particle teal 
 intervenes, though it adds nothing to the sense. This remark is 
 true of all the ancient Greek writers. 249. 
 
 6. The more ancient Attic forms were KeXeva-fxa, yyecarbs, KXavcrrbs, 
 7]fjLLKav(rTos, KaTaxv&fAaTa, Kpovcr/xa : in the more modern the sigma 
 was dropped. 403. 
 
206 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 7. Atya, tjs, is the more ancient, Styos, eos, the more modern form. 
 490. 
 
 8. The first syllable of aiw is short, Pers. 639., Agam. 55., CE. C. 
 1767., Hec. 178.; and long, Eumen. 841., CE. C. 304., Hec. 174., 
 Vesp. 516. 639. 
 
 9. The imperfect of iar6k\vfu is but seldom used by the tragic 
 writers. Soph. Electr. 1360.: aAA' i/ue Adyois cnrdbWvs. CE. R. 1454.: 
 'Lv e| eV-eiVwv, oi jx aircoWvrTjv, Qdvca. 658. 
 
 10. From <pdw is formed TTKpdaKco, as from 5ao> StSacr/cco, from /3aa> 
 fBifidcTKcv, which should be replaced in Homer for the anomalous word 
 pifidadu). But the iEolic form iricpava-Koo is more frequently found in 
 Homer. 668. 
 
 11. 'lOvvu, not zvOvvw, is the more ancient Homeric and poetic 
 word ; for the Attics used evdvva>, evdvvos, evdvv-n, &c, only in po- 
 litical affairs. That I6vs was the ancient Attic word is proved by the 
 compounds Wvrevrjs, IdvcpaWos, Idaycvrjs. 779. 
 
 12. The Greeks said 2aXojuivt5es and SaAa/xiwaSes, not 2aAa- 
 yLuz/75es; as also Xei/jLcwiSes and AeijuoovidSes; Kprjvides and KpqvidSes. 
 965. 
 
 13. 'Acpvebs, op ulentus, wealthy : the more common form is cupveios- 
 Gloss. 3. 
 
 14. neSoa-T^s, terra incedens, walking on the ground. This word 
 frequently occurs in Euripides. Compounds in <TTifir)s sometimes 
 have a passive signification; as TiXioaTifirjs, P. V. 816. acmffis, Theb* 
 857. Gloss. 132. 
 
 15. j Ej/ v/jl7u, penes te sunt, depend on you. The same meaning 
 obtains, CE. R. 314.: y Eu <ro\ yap iafxei/. See also Aj. Fl. 519., 
 Phceniss. 1265., Iph. A. 1379., Helen. 1441. Gloss. 177. 
 
 16. Aeiraduoy, averta ; Anglice, a poitrel or breast-band, which 
 performed the office of the collar with us. The word is formed from 
 Ae7ra£w, decortico, to strip off the bark. Photius makes XtivaSvov and 
 Aiao-xaAtcrT77p the same. Gloss. 196. 
 
 17. 2pa5a£o>, luctor, to struggle ; properly said of those who are 
 in the agonies of death. Gloss. 199. 
 
 18. 4>auAos and (pAavpos are used in the same sense; but cpavXos is 
 more frequently applied to persons, and <p\avpos to things. Their 
 derivations are different. That is properly called <p\avpov which is 
 light, and of no weight. From its parent word <£Aea> are derived 
 </>Aev//, (p\eos, <p\&wv, (bXdu, <p\iyo) } <p\va£ f (pAoLos, (pho7af5os 7 (p\va>, 
 
blomfield's canons. 207 
 
 <p\vapbs, (pXavpos ; all of which have a notion of lightness and empti- 
 ness. Gloss. 222. 
 
 19. 'A/A^v is, to scrape with the hand, sc. the sand, and to make 
 level, from ajua: hence ajxavpbv is, whatever is levelled with the 
 ground. Of the same family are oLfxaQos, arena, the sand ; and 
 a/jLadvveo, to erase, as letters written on the sand: likewise afxaXbv, 
 plane, and a/xaA5vVa>, to render plane ; and all of them perhaps ought 
 to be aspirated. Gloss. 288. 
 
 20. The ancients only used the plural form dva-fial, occasus, the 
 setting, sc. of the sun, or the West. On the contrary, Si/Vis was 
 always put in the singular. Gloss. 237. 
 
 2 1. The particle (a is nothing else but the iEolic form of dia, which 
 has an intensive force, like per in Latin. Thus Alcams said (dfyAov 
 for diddrjAov : Sappho, £aeAe K(rdfxa.v for hie\^dfxr]v. Therefore we 
 find (ddeos, (afievys, £d7r\ovTOS, {cnroTrjs, £arpe(pr]s, C a( P € yy : h s > Cdxpvaos 
 (axpyos. Gloss. 321. 
 
 22. "Ews, in the sense of donee, until, requires the aorist [indi- 
 cative]. Sometimes but seldom, it is followed by the aorist optative. 
 But when it signifies dum, quamdiu, whilst, as long as> it requires the 
 present or imperfect. Gloss. 423. 
 
 23. NofMifciv signifies to believe in the existence of. He who 
 believed in the gods was said absolutely Oeovs vo^Ii^iv or fjyeTo-dai. 
 Gloss. 504. 
 
 24. Ui/jLTrpr}fja, incendo, to burn. Perhaps the first /j. was in- 
 serted by the later Greeks ; and the ancients wrote TriirprjijLL and 
 iriirX-qfjn, according to the usual form of verbs in pa. 'EiwrnrpTj/u 
 occurs in Aristot. Hist. Anim. v. 1. as also frequently in He- 
 rodotus, — i/LLTrlirArj/iLi, Homer, II. $. oil. Nor is the quantity of the 
 syllable any objection. See Erfurdt, Soph. (E. R. p. 414. Gloss. 
 815. 
 
 25. In the Tragic writers the plural of ^inri^iov is used, not the 
 singular. Gloss. 828. 
 
 26. From the ancient word irvvw, the first syllable of which is 
 long (and its perf. pass, frequently occurs in Homer), is formed 
 irivva-Kca, in the same way that yivwvKv is formed from yv&w. Gloss. 
 835. 
 
 27. i Avix°[ JLal i sustineo, to bear or endure, is joined with a parti- 
 ciple. See Dr. Monk's Hipp. 354. Gloss. 843. 
 
208 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 Septem cojpka Thebas. 
 
 1. 'E7r), in the sense of contra, is sometimes used with a dative 
 case by iEschylus. See Sept. Theb. 711., Agam. 60., P. V. 1124., 
 though with the genitive more generally. 1. 
 
 2. The article is frequently used for the relative : robs for ots 
 Pers. 43., rovirep for o'tmep ibid. 780., t60w for ftdev ibid. 780., tV for 1 
 V Agam. 644. &c. 37. 
 
 3. The tragic writers used the Doric forms Kvvaybs, Kvvayioo, 
 Kvvayerris, Xox^yerris, efido/jLuyerris. 42. 
 
 4. Brunck and Schiitz prefer as more Attic irXeviJLwv instead of 
 irvevfioov, but the latter is the more recent Attic form. The gram- 
 marians indeed side with Brunck ; but then it is well known that 
 they derived their rules for the most part from iElian, Libanius, 
 Aristides, and other sophists, sometimes from Lucian, more rarely 
 from the historians or Plato, and very seldom indeed from the 
 scenic poets. 61. 
 
 5. The Ionic vnbs for mbs was not used in the iambic senarius. 
 62. 
 
 6. EvxofiaL is frequently omitted before an infinitive mood. See 
 Sept. Theb. 239., Choeph. 304., Eurip. Suppl. 3. 75. 
 
 7. T/o) has the first syllable common in Homer, but short in 
 JEschylus and Aristophanes. The first syllable of t'ktoo is always 
 long. 77. 
 
 8. The first syllable of v Apr}s is sometimes long, as in 125. 336. 
 465. 
 
 9. Adjectives compounded of nouns in os generally retain the 
 termination os : thus words compounded of \6yos, rpdxos &c. in 
 the tragic writers never end in as, that termination being more 
 modern and less agreeable to analogy. 109. 
 
 10. Some adjectives have the three terminations, eios, tos, ikos, 
 as 7-jrireioSj '{ttttios, IttttikSs ; SotAeios, Sovkios, SovMkos, &C. The 
 first of these three forms is used only on account of the metre. 
 116. 
 
 11. The last syllable of -nojvia is always short. 141. 
 
 12. The probable orthography of x v ^ a 1S KJ/ ^ a - From kv4w is 
 derived kvovs and Kvda, as from £e'«, povs and p6a ; from x €w > X°^ s 
 and x^ a - 142 « 
 
blomfield's canons. 209 
 
 13. Mr/ sometimes forms a crasis with el and els. 193. 
 
 14. The tragic writers never join 5e and re. 215?. 
 
 15. The words 'Xv roi are never construed except with the in- 
 dicative. 220. 
 
 16. Ovtl nowhere begins a sentence, unless /*??, nov, or irS>5 follows, 
 or when there is an interrogation, and then a word is always in- 
 terposed between them. The formula aAA.' ovtl is frequent at the 
 head of a sentence. 222. 
 
 17. Nuv is always an enclitic when it is subjoined to the particle 
 firj. 228. 
 
 18. 'AiroXeyoo is a word unheard of by the tragic writers. 259. 
 
 19. The Attics wrote difios and 8t?os, not dd'ios and 8S.os, as is clear 
 from the compounds STjiaAwros, dBrjos, and the verb Sydcc. Aaios, 
 however, is the proper orthography when it signifies ddAios. 264. 
 
 20. Ne'a? is a monosyllable. 316. 
 
 21. *D.s, in the sense of adeo ut, is only found with the infinitive. 
 361. 
 
 22. 'YirepKOTros, not virepKofxiros, is the form used by the tragic 
 writers ; for there is no passage in them where the metre requires 
 the latter form, some where it rejects it. A later age, as it seems, 
 inserted the /*. 387. 
 
 23. "Avoia and similar compounds very rarely produce the last 
 syllable ; in iEschylus never. 398. 
 
 24. "A fx^j Kpavoi 6e6s. In prayers of this kind the aorist is more 
 usual than the present. 422. 
 
 25. 'lets in the tragic writers has the first syllable common, but 
 oftener short. 489. 
 
 26. TV is never put for tovtco with a substantive. 505. 
 
 27. Eft?e yap is scarcely Greek. Utinam is expressed by el or el 
 yap, never by eWe yap. 563. 
 
 28. UoXeixapxos, not TloXefidpxas. That the Attics terminated 
 compounds of this kind by x°* may be inferred from the circum- 
 stance that their proper names were "linrapxos, Neapxos, KAeapxos. 
 828. 
 
 29. In the Attic poets probably fxeAeoi in the vocative is always a 
 dissyllable. 945. 
 
 30. Upayos is a more tragic word than irpayfxa. Gl. 2. 
 
 31. Words compounded of podos were favourites with iEschylus, 
 as iroXvppodos, raxvppodoSj eirippoQos, a\ippo9os, iraAippodos, &c. Gl. 7* 
 
210 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 32. From oXfxoi is derived olfjuofa, as from /uu, imvfa ; from <5, 
 &fa [from at at, aldfa ; from ot ct, olfa ; from e'AeAeD, i\e\i(w ; 
 from ototoi, drorvfa ; from au, atioo and aih-ew ; from cpeD, <p€vfa ; 
 from evol, eua^w]. Oi/j,wyi) is more frequently used than oi^y^a. 
 Gl. 8. 
 
 33. When 'EAAe/7ra> signifies d^ficio, absum, it requires a genitive ; 
 when it signifies omitto, it is followed by an accusative. Gl. 10. 
 
 34. Ylvpywixa is a fortification, or a collection of irvpyoi. : just 
 as x aiTU 'i ua ana TpiX a) / JL(l are a collection of x°" TC " and Tpt'x«. Gl. 
 30. 
 
 35. nai>a>Ae0pos has both an active and a passive signification. 
 GL 71. 
 
 36. The tragic writers use both Aabs and its Attic form Aeojs. 
 Gl. 80. | 
 
 37. 'AjuaxeTos is used but rarely for dfiaxos and a/xax^Tos. Gl. 
 85. 
 
 38. Avfteios, an epithet of Apollo, is derived from Au/07, diluculum, 
 whence the Latin lux. Gl. 133. 
 
 39. From the obsolete verb \t}kco are derived the perfect Ae'Ad/ca 
 and the second aor. sXanov. Gl. 141. 
 
 40. BpiOca sometimes, though rarely, has an active signification, 
 " to load." It is more generally used intransitively, " to be heavy." 
 Gl. 141. 
 
 41. The tragic writers frequently used nouns in as, as Aiflas-, a 
 heap or shower of stones ; vi<pas, a shower of snow ; <pv\\as, a, heap 
 of leaves, &c. Gl. 146. 
 
 42. 2x670?, sustineo, non admitto, is properly said of a ship 
 which is water-tight. Gl. 202. 
 
 43. "Ekt)\os is formed from the obsolete verb 6ko>, volo : as from 
 (Tiydu) or 0-170), <nyr\X6s ; from aiVxiW, a.lcrxv^rr)\6s ; from ftf/j, fyr}- 
 \6s ; from /3e/3aw, Pe$n\6s. Gl. 224. 
 
 44. 2aiVeu' is said of a dog who wags his tail and fawns : thence, 
 to flatter. Gl. 379. 
 
 45. The penult of aXvco is short in Homer, and long in other 
 Greek poets. In the Odyssey, I. 398., aAiW has the penult long, 
 which would lead to the supposition that the passage where it occurs 
 was not Homer's, though it is quoted by an old grammarian in 
 Kustath. II. Z. p. 654, 55. Gl. 387. 
 
 4U The Greeks used 6avaT7i(p6pos, AafjLTratirjtydpos, 6e(T(parriX6yos 1 
 
 _ 
 
BLOMFIELDS CANONS. 211 
 
 xQoviricpopos, and the like, instead of damrotyopos, &c. to avoid the 
 concurrence of four short syllables. Gl. 415. 
 
 47. ^H fityv, certe, is a formula of confirmation, used in case of an 
 oath. Gl. 527. 
 
 48. Words ending in rjo-rrjs are very rare. Gl. 641. 
 
 49. Sruyo?, odium, is frequently used by iEschylus, but very 
 seldom by others. Gl. 650. 
 
 50. Tpew is a Doric word, very seldom used by the tragic writers 
 except in the aorist. Gl. 790. 
 
 51. Words compounded of kotos were favorites with JEschylus. 
 Gl. 804. 
 
 52. 'OkoXvyfibs is a female cry or shriek. Gl. 825. 
 
 53. 'AAaAa{co strictly means, to raise the shout of triumph ; some- 
 times simply ejulo. Gl. 951. 
 
 54. 'AdeKrpebs nowhere occurs in the tragic writers except in the 
 choral odes. Add. 537. 
 
 Agamemnon. 
 
 1. KA.auo, Kaicc, &c. were the more ancient Attic forms, for 
 which, subsequent to the time of iEschylus, K\dw, kclco, &c. were 
 used. 17. 
 
 2. 'Ed\ooKa and TJAco/ca are both found in the best Greek writers ; 
 the former is more ancient, the latter more modern Attic. 29. 
 
 3. It is doubtful whether xpw a or XP l(T ^ a * s tne better form. 
 From xpioo (the first syllable being always long) was deduced 
 XpitfTb?, as from xpao^ucu, xp 7 1 (rT ^. But the substantive was xpV^ ; 
 so from xp' La> > XW a > from Kovtca, Kovifjux ; from fitivUa, fifyifia. 93. 
 
 4. Adjectives compounded of the dative Sooi, or dovpl, retained 
 the iota in composition, as dopiKrrjros, doupiaXcoTos, SopiXritrTOs, dovpi- 
 TreT^s, Bopipavrjs, dopidrjparos, dopiixapyos. But those which are formed 
 from the accusative retain the i>, as dupvcpopos, dopvaaoos, dopv^oos 
 dopvxpavos. 115. 
 
 5. Diminutives of animals terminate in iSeus. 117. 
 
 6. Toiovtov and roaovrov are the Attic forms of the neuter gender ; 
 tomvto and roo-ovro the Ionic. 306. 
 
 7. The Attics said hiQLKoveh rather than SiyKoveiv. 310. 
 
 8. Ev aefieiv deous and evaefielv els Otovs differ : the former sig- 
 nifies, duly to worship the gods ; the latter, to conduct oneself 
 
212 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 piously towards the gods : the latter cannot have an accusative after 
 it except with a preposition. 329. 
 
 9. The Attics used aAiV/cojuat in. the present, and adopted the 
 Other tenses from d\6w, whence also avaKow. Wherefore the opta- 
 tive should be written okyw, as Piyrjv, f>(pr)v, and the like. 331. 
 
 10. "Ows av does not precede the optative, except in the sense 
 of quo maxime modo. When onus signifies ut, it requires the sub- 
 junctive with, or the optative without av. 357. 
 
 11. "Htoi is not used by the tragic writers for sane, unless followed 
 by 5pa or av. 462. 
 
 12. In solemn appeals, such as Horn. II. E. 116., 
 
 Et' nore jnoi /cat irarpl <pi\a <ppoveovo~a TrapearTjs 
 Arjico iv Tro\€/j.q} } vvv avr ifie (j)l\ai f i A6'f]vn ) 
 
 €? Trore is more frequently used than d irov. 503. 
 
 13. Apocroi Kare^€Ka(ov, ejiire^ov vivos 
 'EadrijjLdTCtiV, ridevres evdrjpov Tpt^a. 
 
 Here the young scholar will remark that the masculine participle 
 riOevres agrees with the feminine noun dpoaoi ; of which anomaly 
 perhaps no other instance can be found in the Attic poets, except 
 in the case of animals. 544. 
 
 14. Ucos av with the optative frequently signifies utinam in Eu- 
 ripides, much more rarely in the other tragic writers, perhaps never 
 in iEschylus. 605. 
 
 15. Tap is frequently used in interrogative sentences, [and may be 
 translated by, what ?]. 613. 
 
 16. Atat, dTrat, and viral occur in the Greek poets for the more 
 common forms 5ta, cbrb, and vtto. 865. 
 
 17. (dvpalos is said of a person even in the feminine gender: dvpaia 
 of a thing in the same gender. 1022. 
 
 18. The penult is -k\t\Qw is short ; of tAt^iW, long. 1341. 
 
 19. The primary meaning of Bikt) was probably likeness, simili- 
 tude : whence Biicr]\ov, an image ; and biicnv, for /card Siktjv, instar, 
 like. Gl. 3. 
 
 20. Bods eirl yXuao-p is a well-known proverb, and said of those 
 who being bribed do not mention those things they ought to disclose, 
 and then applied to others who through dread or fear of punishment 
 dare not speak out freely. The origin of the proverb may probably 
 
blomfield's canons. 213 
 
 have been derived from the custom among the ancients of holding 
 in their mouths the coins which they received from the sale of their 
 wares. A similar phrase occurs in Soph. (Ed. C. 1051. xP v(r * a 
 K\els eVl yXcccro-a /3e/3aKei>. Gl. 35. 
 
 21. According as friendship, hospitality, an oath, [supplication,] 
 companionship, or purification, was referred to, Jupiter was invoked 
 by the title of (piAios, |eVios, or Scpiarios, optcios, \_lk€<tios^ eraipelos, or 
 KaOdpaios. Gl. 60. 
 
 22. Such expressions as eVrz 8' onr) vvv ecrri, are used where a 
 speaker alludes to an unpleasant subject, and thus briefly dismisses 
 it. Gl. 66. 
 
 23. It was the custom of the poets, when they made use of a 
 trope somewhat too bold, immediately to subjoin the epithet in order 
 to limit and define its meaning. In the P. V. 828. JEschylus calls 
 Tpviras, Zrjvbs kvvols ; but he corrects the metaphor in some degree by 
 adding aKpayets, " dogs indeed, but not barking dogs." Sept. Theb. 
 64., he calls an army kv/jlcl, but adds xep<ratov. Ibid. 82., dust is 
 called a messenger, but avavdos. Ibid. 856., he calls Charon's boat 
 devpida, but immediately adds rdv darifirj VoAAa^, to distinguish it 
 from the true Qeupis. Gl. 81. 
 
 24. The origin of fy, evo?, and similar exclamations, is not to be 
 sought in the Greek language, but in that of the nation to which 
 Greece owes its mythology, sc. the Egyptian. Gl. 144. 
 
 25. TLepa is the dative of the obsolete irepa, irepas, 7repa, irepav, 
 and hence the reason why the last syllable is long. Gl. 183. 
 
 26. 'Ai/fyojy, ywaiKeicbv, [TzapQevuov^ &c. were elliptic expressions 
 originally for dvdpoov, yvvaiKcjov, \jrapQtvoov] (OaAa/xos), whence the 
 genitive came into use for the nominative. Gl. 235. 
 
 27. The participle of the perfect passive is frequently used ac- 
 tively, as 7T67ri;(r i ueVos, rJKiafxevos, i^rjpTracr/jLevos, irecppayfiei/os, £kk€Kojjll- 
 (TfAevos, avaKeKO/j.KT/jL£vos, cnro8edeiy/iL<Ei/os, &c. Gl. 252. 
 
 28. "Apio-Tuv was the first meal which the ancients took in the 
 morning, and generally about the third hour. Philemon, however, 
 asserts that the meals were aKpaTi(r/j.a, Hpicnov, tan e pur pa, and de?irj/oy. 
 Gl. 322. 
 
 29. AoyxtfJ-os, ad hastam pertinens. Similar forms are exOipos, 
 
 iroivifJLOS, SoKl/LlOS, TTOfATTl/JLOS, Tp6(plfJLOS, Cipivdyi/iXOS, KoipTTllXOS, ^LOPL/ULOSt 
 
 TrapafiouL/xos, away cloy i[xos t ^Kkljuos, KaWifjioSy Kvdi/xos, oo(p4\ijjL05 
 aoiBL/j.os. Verbal adjectives in ijjlos are of a different class, as aAa>_ 
 
 p 3 
 
214 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 aifjLos, and have a certain middle signification between the active and 
 passive. Gl. 395. and Gl. 9. 
 
 30. 'Pi/x0a» celeriUr, is derived from fiijuirTcc, the Ionic form of 
 fi'nrTu ; whence (ttfxcpdKeos and ^L/jLcpapiuaTos, With the same variety, 
 the Ionians, i. e. the Hellenes, said xpfywrTcu for xpiVtco, and Aa/iif/ojuoi 
 for \i)\po/j.ai. GL 397. 
 
 31. In compounds from #pos, the Ionic form ovpos is retained in 
 £vvovpos f tinrcvpos, irpoaovpos, ri]\ovpbs, which is not the case in 
 bfxopos. Gl. 478. 
 
 32. 'Avaivo/j.ai, to deny, is joined with a participle of the person 
 speaking. Gl. 566. 
 
 33. Adjectives masculine are sometimes found with feminine sub- 
 stantives, as TvxV (Toorfyp, x^p 7rpaKTcop, -rreidcb 64\Krup. Gl. 647. 
 
 34. r4j/ed\ov is a word only used by the poets. Gl. 757. 
 
 35. It is doubtful whether the form x a ' lV(a m the present is found 
 in the more ancient Greek writers. Gl. 893. 
 
 36. " Solebant veteres ante cibum vi\paa9ai manus, et post cibum 
 airoj/tyacrdcu, teste Polluce, quern Stanleius advocavit." Gl. 1004. 
 
 37. 3(paye?ov, the vessel which received the blood of victims.* 
 Gl. 1060. 
 
 38. KeAo/uai, though frequent in Homer, seldom occurs in the 
 tragic writers. Gl. 1088. 
 
 39. 'EiroTrrevw, inspecto, is a word frequently used by iEschylus, 
 but not by the other tragic writers- Its proper signification, at least 
 in Attic Greek, is, to behold the mysteries. Gl. 1241. 
 
 40. EvfjLaprjs, facilis, is formed from an old word p-dpy, a hand ; 
 as from x € fy>, rf%«p4*« Gl. 1297. 
 
 41. UacrcroiJiai, vescor, in which sense it is used only in the aorist, 
 and joined with an accusative or genitive. The simple form was 
 7raa>, whence -nareo), and pasco : iraaaaBai, vesci, has the first syl- 
 lable short; -ncLvaaBai, possidere, has the first syllable Jong, Gl. 
 1380. 
 
 42. C/ Ea>s, when it signifies quamdiu, and is joined to the perfect, 
 or when with the present it signifies dum, does not take the particle 
 &v: as often as it means donee it requires &v and the subjunctive 
 mood, or the optative without av. Gl. 1410. 
 
 * It is used, however, sometimes for a victim. See Eur. Troad. 
 742. 
 
blomfield's canons. 215 
 
 43. The plural number [when used for the singular] increases 
 the force of the sentence, whether it be sarcasm or panegyric. Gl. 
 1414. 
 
 44. There is frequent mention of stoning in the ancient writers, 
 which species of punishment was employed by the people when 
 excited by sudden indignation, because stones always lay at hand. 
 Gl. 1606. 
 
 45. Moyeco is an Homeric word, less frequently used by the tragic 
 writers, with whom the more common word is (aoxOccc. The primi- 
 tive root was fi6<a (whence moveo, by an increase in the number of 
 syllables, arid the insertion of the digamma). Hence (Aoepbs, /mcophst 
 mobilis, (whence lojAOipos, iyx eaL f jiW P 0S > vAaKo/xoopos,*) /j-oyis, poyos^ 
 ftSxOos, &c. Gl. 1614. 
 
 46. Words ending in ir^s may be called locals; as SayiaTmjs, 
 X(*>pirr)s 9 kdpirrjs, eairepirrjs, &c. Gl. 1640. 941. 47. 
 
 Choephorge. 
 
 1. It may be doubted whether the future of avavGu occurs at all 
 in the Attic poets. 125. 
 
 2. "Oircos fib, with the future indicative and with the aorist sub- 
 junctive, is correct ; and therefore there can be no reason why both 
 forms should not be used in the same sentence. 260. 
 
 3. The first syllable of Saifa is common in iEschylus, after the 
 example of Homer. 390. 
 
 4. The particles kcl\ 5^ are perhaps never joined with the optative. 
 557. 
 
 5. The Greeks said, not iroWa 5ei*/&, but iroAAa kclI Seivd. 578. 
 
 6. If such forms as rts &v (ry/caAeVcuro ; (Agam. 989.), tis av ravra 
 irieoiTo; (S. c. Th. 1068.), t:s av ei/£arro ; (Agam. 1312.), &c. be right, 
 then ris \eyoi; cannot be correct, 586. 
 
 7. A short vowel before a mute with a liquid may be made long 
 in the choral metres. 597. 
 
 8. ^Kaaa is the more ancient, fJKaaa the more modern Attic* 
 623. 
 
 9. Eli*> • aKovca. The lengthening of a short syllable in this place 
 cannot be defended, unless, perhaps, it was the usual form of the 
 porter's answer: thy clkovw. 645. 
 
 p4 
 
216 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 10. When any one to a question ttcos so answers as to doubt of the 
 question, the reply is made by uncos. The same rule applies to tIs 
 7rt)?, and the like. 755. 
 
 11. The particles aAA' t) are used at the head of interrogative 
 sentences. 762. 
 
 12. The tragic writers always used irvArj in the plural. 866. 
 
 13. QiKtcit* Alyiadou /3ia. This is the only instance of the cir- 
 cumlocution jBfa nubs joined with an adjective masculine. [Most 
 probably a comma should be placed after (pi\rar\ and then there 
 will be no necessity to have recourse to the unusual form of speech.] 
 880. 
 
 14. Ou /nTj t with the future indicative, forbids, with the aorist sub- 
 junctive, denies. 882. 
 
 15. The Greeks did not use avrbv for ifxavrbu, though they said 
 avrovs for fffMS avrovs, 1001. 
 
 16. Ka.T€pxo{JLcti signifies to return, as an exile, into his country. 
 Gl. 3. 
 
 17. The Greeks, when they attained to the age of puberty, used to 
 cut off their hair, and consecrate it to Apollo Kovporp6(pos, and to 
 rivers. Theseus commenced the custom; for he consecrated to 
 Delian Apollo the hair which he cut. from the fore part of his head. 
 Gl. 6. 
 
 18. Tls is sometimes used for iras ris, unusquisque. Gl. 53. 
 
 19. 4>acr/cco, dictito, differs from (prj/ju, as jSac/cw from /Stj/jli, 5t- 
 opdo-Koo from Sp^iu, yiyuwaKoo from yvco/ju, [x<xcr/ca> from x ""?] an( ^ 
 the like The termination ctkoo denotes repetition of the action. 
 Gl. 87. 
 
 20. T(J|o in the plural almost always is put for a single bow in the 
 tragic writers. Gl. 155. 
 
 21. 'E/ceT sometimes signifies apud inferos. Gl. 353. 
 
 22. iEschylus was partial to words compounded of itd/wco, as 
 
 doplK/JL7]S, CLVOpOK/iLYlS, &c. Gl. 359. 
 
 23. Feminine nouns ending in rpia are derived from masculines 
 97s, as TroAz/uLLO-Tpia from Tro\€/j.Lari]s, ayvprpia from ayvprr)s, (paidpiwrpia 
 from (pat's pvvrris. Gl. 418. 
 
 24. Xaipav is construed with a participle of the verb expressive 
 of the action with which one is delighted. Gl. 442. 
 
 25. Ovdap, uber, peculiar to the other animals ; fxaarhs was applied 
 to women. Gl. 526. 
 
blomfield's canons. 217 
 
 26. c/ 07rAa denotes any kind of instruments. Gl. 537. 
 
 27. noSairbs, cujas, is formed from the ancient pronoun nbs and 
 the substantive Mn-os, the ground. Gl. 567. 
 
 28. Tliofiai. is the ancient future for Triaojxai from 7na?. Aristophanes 
 has Triercu, the first syllable being long, Eq. 1286. 1398. The more 
 recent form is iriovixai. Theocritus, vii. 69., has the first syllable of 
 wio/jLcu short. Gl. 570. 
 
 29. Kioo, vado, is an Homeric word, not used by Sophocles or 
 Euripides ; and from it is derived Kivita. Gl. 668. 
 
 30. 3 OirL(r66iros, pedissequa, for diricrdoirovs, as aeAAoVos, OlSiiros, 
 ttovAvitos, for deAAdirous, Oldtirovs, ttoXvttovs. Gl. 701. 
 
 31. The Attics said with the Dorics S^fju and ircii/fju for Snpav 
 and TT€Li/au : but this did not extend to the third person singular 
 of the present indicative [probably because there would have been 
 a confusion between the indicative and the subjunctive moods], Gl. 
 744. 
 
 32. "Az/a>, perficio, has the penult long in the present, and short in 
 the second aorist. Gl. 786. 
 
 33. Avocpepbs, tenebricosus. Except Sv6(pos, dvoiraXifa, and $vb\j/ 9 
 no Greek word begins with dv. Gl. 797. 
 
 34. Eustathius, on Horn. II. A. 467., 168., derives eAeyxos from eAelV 
 e7x°S because most subjects of dispute were decided by arms. This 
 etymology is much more probable than another given in the same 
 place, dirb tov i\au iyxos. For skeyxos, the grasping of the spear to 
 decide a dispute, was the same as the proof by battle with the Teu- 
 tonic nations ; and hence it signified any proof ; and, by an easy 
 transition, it denoted argument, reproof, insult. Gl. 838. 
 
 35. Of words ending in crrepTjs, some have a passive signification, 
 as iraTpoaTepjjs, 6/j.fA,aToarep7]S, ficoartpris, rjkioaTeprjs ; and some an 
 active, as dpyvpoxrr^pijs, ofx/jLarocrrep^s (Eum. 938.), f)\iocrT€p7is ((Ed. C. 
 314.). Gl. 989. and 247. 
 
 36. Names of winds ending in fas are formed from other names. 
 Gl. 1054. 
 
2 IS HAND -BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 III. 
 
 CANONS AND KE1IARKS 
 
 IN THE 
 
 " HIPPOLYTUS " AND "ALCESTIS" OF PROF. MONK. 
 From the " Classical Journal," vol. xxxvii. p. 124. 
 
 1. KetcArjiuai is frequently used by the tragic [and other] writers in 
 the sense of el/ii. Hipp. 2. 
 
 2. Upeafievoi) sometimes signifies TrpoTi/ndw, to honour or respect. 
 So Choeph. 486. rdude irpeafevato rdcpou. Hipp. 5., comp. JEsch. 
 Eum. 1. 
 
 3. ©770- e'cos ttcus, 'AfjLd&vos tSkos: this pleonasm, where in prose 
 we should have said Qrjorecas Kcd 'Afxd&vos irais or tokos, is not un- 
 common. See Blomfield's note Pr. V. 140. Hipp. 10. 
 
 4. ncuSet^a, as also Xox^v^a, jULiarj/j.a, and other neuter words of the 
 same class, are used for persons. Moreover, the plural form nai- 
 fcvfjLUTu denotes only one individual, sc. Hippolytus, as in Soph. 
 Philoct. 86. Tex^/^ara, one cup; Hec. 269. Trpoo-cpdy/jLara, one victim. 
 Hipp. II. 
 
 5. IlaAcu 7T poK 6 \f/ a a, ov ttovov ttoWov jug 8e?. TlpoKoif/aa' is here 
 a nominativus pendens. Of this solcecism, or archaism, instances 
 occur in iEsch. Suppl. 455., Choeph. 518., P. V. 209., OE. C. 1120., 
 Phcen. 290. See Kuster, Aristoph. Plut. 277. and Gregor. Corinth, 
 p. 33. Hipp. 23. 
 
 6. npoKOTTTca signifies to advance, and is taken metaphorically 
 from those who cut down wood and other obstacles in a road. 
 Hipp. 23. 
 
 7. The future of cuVe'a? is alp-fja-ca in Homer, and aivtcco in the 
 tragic writers. Hipp. 37. 
 
 8. "ApTefiiu ti/jlwv 6eav~\ Not 0eov, as Aldus edited and Valckenaer 
 preferred : 77 Bebs occurs frequently in the tragic writers in the sense 
 
 > 
 
monk's canons. 219 
 
 of a goddess, but never when joined with the name of the goddess, 
 as here. Hipp. 55. 
 
 9. 'A|foa> sometimes occurs in the sense of audeo, to dare, as in 
 Heracl. 950., Pers. 335. and elsewhere. Hipp. 74. 
 
 10. "Oorris in the singular is frequently followed by and referred to 
 a plural. See Antig. 718. 720., Androm. 180., Ran. 714,, Hec. 359, 
 360. Hipp. 78., comp. Horn. II. r. 279. 
 
 11. @av/j.d& signifies to pay homage to, or honor. Hipp. 105. 
 
 12. IToAAa x a ' l P €lv (ppdcrcu denotes to bid good bye to, to quit, 
 to reject, to discard. See Agam. 583., Acharn. 200. Hipp. 112. 
 
 13. 2,vyyvu>[Ar)v %x* lv signifies (1) to grant pardon, and (2) to 
 receive pardon or excuse. The former sense is the more frequent. 
 (1) See Eur.Suppl. 252., Orest. 653., Soph. Electr. 400. (2)Phoen. 
 1009., Soph. Trach. 328. Hipp. 116. 
 
 14. The penult of $dpos is generally short in the tragic writers, 
 but always long in Homer. iEschylus has it long, Choeph. 9. $dpea 
 is a dactyl in Iph. T. 1157. and Orest. 1434. Hipp. 125. 
 
 15. 'A-rrXaKeij/, cmXaKia, and air AdK-tyULa, should be always written in 
 tragic verse without jn, as is manifest from the fact that there are 
 many places in which the metre requires, none where it rejects these 
 forms. Hipp. 145. 
 
 16. The penult of y*paihs, deikaios, 'Uraios, &c. is sometimes short. 
 See Hipp. 170. and Comp. Gaisford's Hephsest. p. 216. 
 
 17. s ApeV/c&) in Attic Greek requires either a dative or accusative 
 case ; but the latter seems to be the more legitimate construction. 
 Moeris, p. 175. says, "Hpecre fxe, 'Am/ccos • tfpecre fioi, 'EAAtjv ikws, k<xI 
 KOiv&s. Hipp. 184. 
 
 18. The active voice of (rvvdirro} is sometimes used for the middle. 
 See Phoen. 714., Heracl. 811., Pers. 888. 
 
 19. $i\os in the poets has frequently the sense of £/jl6s, Hipp. 
 199. 
 
 20. Upoairokos signifies either a male or female attendant ; d/j.(pi- 
 vroXos only a female attendant. See Eustath. II. I\, p. 394, 31=-299, 1. 
 Hipp, 200. 
 
 21. TIcos av denotes, in almost all the tragedies of Euripides, 
 utinam, I wish, or, oh that ! but much more rarely in the other 
 tragic writers. See, however, (E. R. 765., Aj. Fl. 388. and Philoct. 
 794. Hipp. 208. 
 
 22. The iota at the end of the dative singular is very rarely 
 
220 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 elided by the tragic writers : perhaps there are not more than six 
 instances of such elision in all the remains of Greek tragedy. Hipp. 
 221., comp. Ale. 1137. 
 
 23. The last syllable of k\ltvs is short in the tragic writers, but 
 long in Homer. Hipp. 227. 
 
 24. TlapaKOTTTeiv <ppiuas signifies, to pervert the understanding; but 
 TrapaicoTTTeiv, as also irapairuieiis, is more frequently used in a neutral 
 sense, to be mad. 
 
 25. Ma?a is said of a grandmother, a midwife, a nurse. The last 
 sense is the more frequent meaning of it. Hipp. 243. 
 
 26. 'OWaa>, though used in Hipp. 247., does not occur in any 
 other passage in the Greek tragedies. 
 
 27. The last syllable of \iav f &ya.v t itepav, and euai/, is always long 
 in the Attic poets. Hipp. 264. 
 
 28. 'Opcc, fxeu . . . &a7)iJLa 8' f)/j.7v. The enallage or change from 
 the first person singular to that of the plural, and versa vice, is very 
 common in the Greek tragedies. Hipp. 268. 
 
 29. The neuter plural adjective is frequently used instead of the 
 singular, aar)/j.a for ^arj/xou, ^vyyvoxna (Hec. 1089., Phcen. 1008., 
 Med. 491. 701. &c.) for tfyy vwvrov. Hipp. 269. 
 
 30. "Arri in the tragic writers is said of any calamity, but es- 
 pecially of some severe dispensation of Providence. Hipp. 276. 
 
 31. The prepositive article, d, 7] t5, followed by fiev, 8e, yap, is 
 frequently used by the tragic writers in the sense of ouros and eKehos. 
 Even without these adjuncts, the article, though less frequently, 
 possesses this signification. Hipp. 280. 
 
 32. Both the forms irXavos and irKavy] occur in the tragic writers. 
 In -ZEschylus the feminine form generally, perhaps invariably, is 
 found, whereas Euripides always uses irxduos: from whence it may 
 be inferred, that the latter form prevailed after the time of iEschy- 
 lus. Hipp. 283. 
 
 33. Eleu is an exclamation employed where the sub'ect under 
 discussion is abandoned, and a new topic of conversation started. 
 Hipp. 297. 
 
 34. The verbs o75a, yiyvuHTKoo, iiavQavu, ala-OdvofjLai, &c. and their 
 compounds, are joined to participles of the present, perfect, and 
 future — seldom, and yet sometimes, to those of the aorist : as "ZvvoiSa 
 a6(pos &v. tadi duairoTfxos yeyus. See Trach. 741., Soph. Elect. 
 1200. Hipp. 304. 
 
monk's canons. 221 
 
 35. The tragic writers used the double forms, liririos and t-rnreios, 
 SouAio? and SouAeios, Ba/c%ios and Bdnxeios, napBevios and irapdiveios. 
 Hipp. 307. 1297. 
 
 36. "Epos and yeAos are the iEolic forms of the words "Epoos and 
 y€\cos. The former is frequently used by Homer (but only in the 
 nominative and accusative cases), and by Euripides five times ; in 
 other Attic writers it is doubtful whether epos occurs at all. Hipp. 
 337. 
 
 37. Tt irdo-xeis ; is an interrogation used by the Attic writers in 
 the sense of the English exclamation, what ails you? Hipp. 340. 
 
 38. The verb ayex^aBai is often joined to a participle, as Movos 
 yap, olda, crov kXvwv avi^rai. Pers. 835. See also Med. 38., Aj. 
 Fl. 411., Soph. Elect. 1028. and Valck. Phoen. 550. Hipp. 354. 
 
 39. 'AAA' o/jlws are words frequently employed by Euripides at the 
 end of an iambic senary, and often ridiculed by Aristophanes. 
 Hipp. 358. 
 
 40. The Greeks said vpiu <re Oavew, and irp\v av Bavfjs, but not 
 irph 'dv ere 6ave?v. Hipp. 365. (irpli/ av is always preceded by a 
 negative.) 
 
 41. In Attic Greek, instead of the dual feminine, the masculine is 
 used, especially in articles and participles. See Horn. II. 0. 455. 
 Hipp. 389. 
 
 42. The participle cos at the beginning of a sentence preceding an 
 optative mood signifies utinam, I wish, or, oh that ! See II. X 107. 
 Hipp. 409. 
 
 43. &av\os, [acltcuos, bptyavhs, areppbs, ytvvcuos, dtKaios, fieXeos, fipv- 
 X*°S and some other adjectives are declined 6 koI t) QavAos, &c. ; 
 and also (pavXos, y, ov. Phil. 437. 
 
 44. The interposition of the words noes SokcIs ; gives additional 
 spirit to a narrative. See Hec. 1150., Ran. 53., Eccles. 399. Hipp. 
 448. 
 
 45. ^.rzpysiv, in the sense of acquiescing, is frequently found — for 
 the most part with an accusative, sometimes with a dative case. 
 Hipp. 460. 
 
 46. "Avdpctiiros is used sometimes to denote a woman. See Theocr. 
 Adon. 106. and Valckenaer's note. Homo in Latin has the same 
 meaning. Hipp. 474. 
 
 47. Examples of (1) the double comparative, such as ^aXXop 
 aXyicw, and (2) of the double superlative, such as [xiyicrrov I'x&o-tos, 
 
222 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 are frequent in the tragic writers. See Hec. 381., Sept. Theb. 679., 
 jEsch. Suppl. 287., Med. 1320., Alcest. 802. Hipp. 487. 
 
 48. The forms eKAyaa, K\r}5es y KKydpov, for eKAeura, KAeTSey, K\elQpov t 
 are of the more recent Attic, and introduced into the writings of the 
 tragedians by grammarians. Hipp. 500. 
 
 49. A short vowel at the end of a preposition, preceding another 
 word commencing with the letters <pp, remains short ; but if that 
 other word begin with j3\, the short vowel is made long. Hipp. 
 513. 
 
 50. The prepositive article, 6, r) t rh, is frequently put for the rela- 
 tive, o?, % t>, not only in Homer, but in the writings of the three 
 tragedians. Hipp. 527. 
 
 51. ria)\os was said by the Greeks of either a young unmarried 
 man or woman. [The same remark applies to aKvfj.uos, /jloo-xos, and 
 other names of the young of animals.] Hipp. 547. 
 
 52. The participle of the present tense [as also the present tense 
 itself] denotes the attempt to effect the action contained in the verb. 
 Hipp. 592. 
 
 53. In solemn adjurations and appeals, such as S> irp6s ae yovarav, 
 the pronoun is always placed between the preposition and the noun 
 which it governs, and the verb on which the pronoun depends, 
 frvTofjiai, iKPovfjiai, i/ccTeJw, or some similar word, is frequently omitted. 
 Hipp. 603. 
 
 54. ra/uLppos seems to denote any relation by marriage ; but in the 
 tragic writers it generally signifies a son-in-law. Hipp. 631. 
 
 55. When the Greeks wished to express any thing future, on 
 which something else was contingent, then they prefixed the con- 
 junctions 'Iva, ws, o(ppa, &c. to the imperfect, aorist, or preterplu- 
 perfect tenses of the indicative mood, just as the case required. 
 This construction must be carefully distinguished from the usage of 
 ojs, :Va, &c. with the subjunctive and optative moods. They could 
 saj 7 XPV Trp6airo\oi> ob irepqv — %v ex^o - * . . . i. e. that they may be 
 able . . . They could say, ovic eloov irpSaitoXov irepav, — 'iv e%o^v 
 ... i.e. that they might be able . . . But it is a very different 
 thing to say, XP^ irpfoiroKovol irepav — 'tv elxou ... in which case 
 they would be able ... See (E. R. 1386. 1391., R V. 158. 774., 
 Choeph. 193., Iph. T. 354., Pax. 135., Eccles. 151. Hipp. 643. 
 
 56. y Es Te, signifying as long as, is construed with an indicative, 
 h re av with a subjunctive mood. Hipp. 655. 
 
monk's canons. 223 
 
 57. E* and av nowhere occur in the same member of a sentence, 
 much less when joined to the indicative mood. Hipp 679. 
 
 58. rioAAa irpdacretp is said of one who meddles with things not 
 concerning him. There is a similar signification in the words 
 iroXvirpdy/jLow, tt oXvirp ay fjLOVtiv, iroXvirpay/JLO(rvi/r] — 7T€pt(raa Trpdcrceiv. 
 Hipp. 785. 
 
 59. ®€copol were persons who went to consult the oracles of the 
 gods on any private or public affairs. Hipp. 792. 
 
 60. Ult94cos yrjpas is a periphrastic expression for " the aged 
 Pittheus." In designating persons, the tragic writers [and poets 
 generally] frequently employ circumlocutions, and those chiefly 
 which expressed some dignity or excellence, moral or personal. 
 Hipp. 794. 
 
 61. Those who received favourable responses from the oracle at 
 Delphi, used to return home crowned with laurel. See (Ed. R. 82. 
 Hipp. 806. 
 
 62. MdiuGTos is used by the poets for fteyiaros, as /xdao-cou is for 
 fjLet&v. Hipp. 820., comp. Blomfield on Prom. Vinct. 1, 
 
 63. — fle'Aet ri a-qixrivai viov; this euphemism, in which Kanhv is 
 understood, is very frequent in the tragic writers. Hipp. 860. 
 
 64. ^aivsiv is said of dogs, who wag their tails when they fawn 
 on men. Hence aaiveiv and npovcraiveiv signify to fawn on, to please, 
 to flatter. Hipp. 866. 
 
 65. Upbs in the sense of besides, with rovrois understood, occurs 
 frequently, as well in the tragic as in other writers. See Heracl. 
 642., Phoen. 619. 890., Pr. V. 73., Helen. 965. Hipp. 875. 
 
 66. 'AvrXeco and i^avrX4co are properly said of exhausting by 
 means of an dvrXos or pump ; and metaphorically, of completing 
 life. In the same sense the Latins used the derivative exanilare. 
 Hipp. 902. 
 
 67. Notre?*/ in the tragic writers, is frequently said of those who 
 labour under any evil, misfortune, or danger, [and may be rendered, 
 " to be distressed."] Hipp. 937. 
 
 68. KainiAevoo denotes, to be an innkeeper ; and thence, to derive 
 gain by fraudulent means. See Dr. Blomf. Sept. Theb. 551. 
 Hipp. 956, 7. 
 
 69. Ta (piXrara is frequently used by Euripides to designate a 
 parent, a husband, a wife, or children ; and in general may be trans- 
 lated, the dearest objects or connexions. Hipp. 969. 
 
22-1 IIAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 70. The Attics form the crasis of 6 avrbs, 6 avfy, 6 tf^af, 6 ctywp, 
 6 ayaObs, d ercpos, by avrbs, aV?;p, aVa£, a'7a>y, &C. Hipp. 1005. 
 
 71. "AOiktos has both (1) an active and (2) a passive signification: 
 
 (1) Not touching. See (E. C. 1521. (so also tyavaros, (E. R. 968.) 
 
 (2) Not to be touched; hallowed. See Iph. T. 790., Agam. 380. 
 The same remark will apply to &K\av(rros t aarevanros. Hipp. 1006. 
 
 72. OIksiv oIkov or Ufxov in the tragic writers signifies, to be the 
 master of a house or family. Hipp. 1014. 
 
 73. Xaipcov is said of one who is exempt from punishment, and 
 may be rendered, with impunity. KAdwv is opposed to it, and may, 
 in the second person, be rendered, to your cost. See (E. R. 363., 
 Antig. 759., Med. 399., Androm. 756. Hipp. 1089. 
 
 74. The Attics used the Doric form &pape, not &prips : as also, 
 besides the instances given by Porson, Orest. 26. (see Class. Journ, 
 No. lxi. p. 137.) they said datcos, and its compounds ; ydirovos, 
 yaTT€TT}s, ydiredov, yd/nupos, ydiroros, ydrofios, Kapavov and its com- 
 pounds. Hipp. 1093. 
 
 75. The futures (pev^o/aai and (pev^odfiai were both used by the 
 tragic writers. Hipp, 1096. 
 
 76. The ellipsis of the preposition ow is very common with the 
 Greek writers, and especially when the dative of the pronoun avrbs 
 is added. See II. 0. 24., A. 698., T. 481. Hipp. 1184. 
 
 77. The TEolic and Doric form %Kpv<pBtv for iKpvcpOrjaav is very 
 rarely used by the tragic writers. Hipp. 1242. 
 
 78. Xpeoov in the sense of fate or necessity is indeclinable, and 
 always requires the article in Euripides. Hipp. 1251. 
 
 79. The crasis in the words f) «5eW and fify eldevai are not un- 
 common in the tragic writers; as also those in rj ou, fir) ov; the 
 erases w avrbs, Iph. T. 1010., t) olxdneatf, Soph. Trach. 84., t) eu-ye- 
 veiav, Eur. Electr. 1104., are more unusual. Hipp. 1331. 
 
 80. Xaipoo sometimes takes after it an accusative of the thing for 
 which the rejoicing takes place. Hipp. 1335. The figure is called 
 an Oropism : the sense passes on mentally. 
 
 81. The Greeks frequently use the aorist in a sense little differing 
 from the present, as el-nov, Med. 274., u7re?7roy, Eur. Suppl. 1170., 
 Kar&Kreipa, Iph. A. 496. $V w l a > Med. 787., air47rrvo-a, Hipp. 610. 
 Hipp. 1403. 
 
 82. The present tenses, diyydveiv. epvyydveiv, (pvyyaveiv, Kiyxd- 
 veiVy Xayxdi'eiv, rvyxdvziv, Sdicvetv (contracted from dayicdveiv\ Aa^u- 
 
 __ 
 
monk's canons. 225 
 
 fZdveiv, [xavOdveiv, irwddueaOat. are derived from the aorists Oiyziv, 
 ipvyttv, 4>vy€?Uj Kixeiv, ^a-X^i rvxjeiv, §a.Keiv y AajSetV, fxaOeiv, nvde- 
 adaL, by the insertion of the letters v or /x. To these may he added 
 auddueiu from adelv. Hipp. ] 442. 
 
 83. Kat never forms a crasis with, nor suffers elision before, ^77. 
 Hipp. 1445. 
 
 84. The Greeks had four forms of the future with a passive sig- 
 nification : (1) ri(xr](ToiJLai, (2) fiefiArjorofAaL, (3) fiA7}6 77 a o fx a 1, (4) 
 aTcaWay 77 a* ojx at. The 4th form is not very frequent among the 
 tragic writers. To the 1st form the Attics seem to have been 
 partial : the following occur in the Greek tragedians : Ae£o,uc«, Ti/x-fi* 
 aofxcu, GTcpyaoixai, Krjpvl-oijLcu, aXooffonai, idcrofjuxi, /jao-f](TOjuaL, crrvyi]' 
 cro/xai, SrjAaxToiuLaL, fiovAevao/jLai, ivegopai, &pl;Ofxai, didd^ofxai, iirLTd^o/xai, 
 &c. Hipp. 1458. 
 
 85. ov §?> x ^^ 06 ^] Here evc-Ka is understood. The cause of 
 hatred is expressed by a genitive case without a preposition. 
 See Orest. 741., Here. F. 528. 1114. ; II. A. 429., n. 320., $. 457. 
 Alcest. 5. 
 
 86. An accusative case is frequently placed in apposition with the 
 meaning implied in the preceding sentence, as Orest. 1103. : 'EAtvrjv 
 Krdvwfxzv, Meve\€ca Avttyjv irittpdv. See Phoen. 351., Androm. 291., 
 Here. F. 59. 355. 427. Alcest. 7. 
 
 87. The preposition after verbs of motion to is frequently omitted. 
 Alcest. 8. 
 
 88. After verbs of rescuing, prohibiting, and denying, the nega- 
 tive jU7?, though generally expressed, is sometimes omitted; as %v 
 Qavuv £ppvcrdiAT]v, Alcest. 11. 
 
 89. The plural Tifial is used in the sense of attributes, preroga- 
 tives. Alcest. 30. 
 
 90. The ancient Greek writers never joined the particle av to 
 the indicative mood of either the present or perfect. Alcest. 48. 
 
 91. 'Upbs 9 in the sense of consecrated or sacred to, requires a 
 genitive case. Alcest. 75. 
 
 92. In anapaestic verse the penult of jxiXaBpov is always short. 
 Alcest. 77. 
 
 93. The interrogative iroQeu has the force of a negative. Alcest 
 95. 
 
 94. In sentences where two nouns joined by a copulative are 
 
 Q 
 
226 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 governed by the same preposition, the preposition is frequently 
 found with the latter noun ; — 
 
 MeAAcoy 5e Tre/xiveiv fi OlSlnov KXtivbs y6uos 
 Mavrela ae/jiva, Ao£iov r eV ecr^a/ras. — 
 
 Phoen. 290. See also Heracl. 755., (E. R. 736. 761., Soph. Electr. 
 780., Sept. Theb 1034. 
 
 95. The plural forms Koipavoi, &va.KT€s, /3amAe?s, rvpavvoi, in the 
 tragic writers, frequently express only one king, or the retinue of 
 one king. Alcest. 132. 
 
 96. There are many active verbs which have their futures of the 
 middle, and nowhere of the active form, at least among the Attic 
 writers: thus, olkovoo, (nyco, aicorrco, a5w, /3oa>, h^mp-ravo), 6vt}(Tkco } irtirrcoj 
 kAolgo, 7rAea>, 7iWa>, have the futures aKovaofiai, atyqaofiai, criwhvoixai, 
 qaropai, jSo^o/^at, auapr^do^a^ Qavovixai, ircaov/xai, Kkavao{xai t 7rAeu- 
 oofxeu, TrvevcrofjLcu. Alcest. 158. 
 
 97. Ou never forms a crasis with ovirore so as to make oviroTe. 
 Alcest. 199. 
 
 98. In the choral odes the sigma is sometimes doubled ; as, Med. 
 832, a(pvaaajx€vav 1 Eur. Suppl. 58. 'dcraov, Pers. 559. /3a/0i'5eo-<n, 
 (E. R. 1100. bpeaaifi&Ta. Trach. 636. jueWat/, Aj. Fl. 185. tovvov, 
 390. oAeVcras, Philoct. 1163. 7reAaa-aw. Sophocles uses the form 
 /jLeaaos twice in the iambic senary, viz., Antig. 1223. 1236. Alcest. 
 234. 
 
 99. It is very doubtful whether the Attic writers ever used pe£» 
 in the present tense. Alcest. 272. 
 
 100. ToAjua*/ and the aorist tAt)*/cu signify, to endure, in spite of 
 (1) danger, i. e. to have courage ; (2) shame, i. e. to have the im- 
 pudence ; (3) pride, i. e. to deign, condescend, submit ; (4) pain of 
 mind, i. e. to prevail on oneself; (5) pity , i.e. to have the cruelty. 
 Alcest. 285. The uses of posse are similar in Latin. 
 
 101. "05e ai/7]p, for £yw, is a well-known formula. The feminine 
 form v?5e and f/8e ywri, for iyw, occurs also in Agam. 1447. and 
 Trach. 305. Alcest. 341. 
 
 102. The tragic writers were partial to the use of vsoaaol for 
 children. See Androm. 442., Iph. A. 1248. Heracl. 240., Here. F. 
 224. 989. Alcest. 414. 
 
 103. Kitsi-nziv with an accusative signifies to renounce; with a 
 dative, to fail or faint. Alcest. 503. 
 
monk's canons. 227 
 
 104. With verbs of motion, the Greeks joined a future participle 
 denoting the object. Alcest. 520. 
 
 105. The tragic writers allowed the omission of the augment in 
 the choral odes. Alcest. 599. 
 
 106. Al6r]p is found both in the masculine and feminine gender. 
 Alcest. 610. 
 
 107. The penult of (pOivw and (p6dvo> is long in Homer, but always 
 short in the Attic writers. Alcest. 638. 
 
 108. The tragic writers were partial to compounds, such as 
 aldotypoov, aXKL<ppcDV, cnB^pScppoov, &c. Alcest. 678. 
 
 109. 0ebs is frequently said of the sun, and generally without the 
 article. See Orest. 1023., Eur. Suppl. 208., Med. 353. Alcest. 738. 
 
 110. The chorus very rarely quits the stage after its first en- 
 trance till the conclusion of the tragedy. A few instances, how- 
 ever, occur where it does : Alcest. 762., Aj. Fl. 814. and Eumen. 
 Alcest. 762. 
 
 111. The form olfias, for the common olcrda, is not very frequent 
 Alcest. 796. 
 
 112. \AAAa orov to fxr] (ppdaaL. This construction is expressive of 
 indignation or admiration. See Nub. 818., Aves. 5., Kan. 741. 
 Alcest. 848. 
 
 113. The following are instances of verbs transitive governing a 
 genitive case, /mtpos n being understood: Ale. 861., Hec. 614., Herod, 
 iii. 11. Alcest. 861. 
 
 114. Toov virb yaias, not ycuau: the accusative in such expressions 
 is then only used, when motion is denoted. Alcest. 921. 
 
 115. Several active verbs are used in a middle sense, the personal 
 pronoun being understood; as pityai y Cycl. 165.; Kpuirropra, Phoen. 
 1133. ; KpvTTTOvo-iv, Soph. El. 826. ; 7raAAa^, <E. R. 153.; /career;^, 
 <E. E. 782. Alcest. 922. 
 
 116. The Greeks said vlkSv ftdxyv, vacav ay&va, vinav ae6\ou. 
 Alcest. 1048. Cognate accusative. 
 
 117. Ei yap frequently occur in an optative signification ; but in 
 this usage there is a difference between the indicative and optative 
 moods. El yap dxov means, oh that I bad ! el yap exoi^i, oh that I 
 may have ! Alcest. 1091. 
 
 118. The quantity of the enclitic vw is sometimes long and 
 sometimes short both in the tragic and comic writers. Alcest 
 1096. 
 
 Q 2 
 
228 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 119. The ancients were accustomed to attribute heavy reverses 
 of fortune to the envy of the gods. See Pers. 367., Orest. 963., Eur. 
 Suppl. 347., Iph. A. 1049., Herod, iii. 40. Alcest. 1154. 
 
 IV. 
 
 OX THE SITE AND CONSTRUCTION OF THE 
 DIONTSIAC THEATRE AT ATHENS. 
 
 By T. CAMPBELL. 
 
 From the " New Monthly Magazine and Classical Journal," 
 
 No. 65. 
 
 It is now generally admitted, that the grand or Dionysiac theatre 
 of Athens stood on the south-eastern angle of the hill of the Acro- 
 polis ; and that Stuart was mistaken when he thought he had dis- 
 covered its ruins in those which are now judged to have belonged to 
 the Odeion of Herodes. That the former place was the site of the 
 Dionysiac theatre, is strongly attested by the choragic monuments 
 still existing in that quarter ; and a statue of Bacchus, which once 
 adorned a small temple in the vicinity of the theatre, is now placed 
 in the British Museum. The hollow in the slope of the hill still in- 
 dicates a place where the seats of the spectators must have been 
 excavated. It was the custom of the Greeks to build their theatres 
 on the side of a hill, not, as a refined speculator has imagined, for 
 the purpose of commanding a view of fine rural scenery, since the 
 height of the stage wall must have shut out the prospect beyond it 
 from one half of the spectators, but for saving the subconstruction 
 of seats, as the ground thus facilitated their being raised in ascending 
 semicircles. Though the seats, however, rose on a hollow slope, it 
 is impossible to imagine the orchestra, the dromos, and the stage, 
 with its flanking walls, to have been situated anywhere but on even 
 ground at the bottom. If we may believe Plato, the Dionysiac 
 
THEATRE OF DIONYSUS. 229 
 
 theatre could contain thirty thousand spectators, so that its diameter 
 could not have been much less than four hundred and fifty feet. It 
 is unnecessary to say, that, with such dimensions, it was uncovered 
 above ; nor had the Greeks recourse, like the Romans, to temporary 
 awnings. When showers came on, they had a double portico 
 behind the scenes, to which they could retire. That Eumenic por- 
 tico, as it was called, had an open walk in the midst of it, em- 
 bellished with trees or shrubbery, and was the rehearsal-ground of 
 the chorus. The day-light and open-air, instead of our covered and 
 candle-light, system of acting, were indispensable for exhibitions 
 intended to animate a whole people. 
 
 As only the scantiest vestiges of that mighty theatre remain, the 
 moderns have been obliged to compile their conceptions of it chiefly 
 from Vitruvius and Julius Pollux, and from the traces of other old 
 theatres which are supposed to have been built on the same model. 
 Among the works on this subject, I am not aware that Mr. Genelli's 
 has been surpassed by any other in elaborate research or in know- 
 ledge of architecture. I quote his name, however, wishing only to 
 refer generally to his authority, and not intending to descend mi- 
 nutely into his architectural disquisitions. 
 
 In sketching my conception of the Greek theatre, I shall begin 
 with its highest ground, or that which was farthest from the stage. 
 The entire outline of the building, as it lay on the hollow of a hill, 
 and on a portion of the plain ground below, must have been that of 
 a semicircle with its arch upwards, joined to a pretty broad paral- 
 lelogram at its basis. Between the apex of the semicircle and the 
 rocks of the Acropolis above it, it is scarcely conceivable but that 
 some communication was opened : yet it must have been very nar- 
 row, in order to prevent the escape of sound from below. The main 
 entrances to the theatre were at the opposite ends of the parallelo- 
 gram below the spectators' semicircle, or at the right and left ex- 
 tremities of the Dromos, or course, which ran in front of the stage 
 and its flanking walls. The spectators' or upper part of the theatre 
 was inclosed by a massive semicircular wall, and a portico within it, 
 which served as a station for the servants attending their masters to 
 the play, and also as another lounging -place for the spectators, in- 
 dependent of the garden portico behind the stage buildings, which 
 has been already mentioned. Inside of that wall and portico the 
 benches descended (for we suppose ourselves looking down on the 
 
 Q 3 
 
230 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 stage) in concentric semicircles, which diminished as they approached 
 and embraced the protruding crescent of the orchestra. The cur- 
 vature of the seat-rows thus inclined the faces of all the spectators 
 towards the centre of the hnilding, so that the terminating seats on 
 the right and left were duly opposite to each other, like those of 
 our boxes nearest the stage. The entire amphitheatre of seats was 
 divided into belts or stripes by passages sweeping round them in 
 profile, and again into wedge-like masses by flights of steps that 
 radiated upwards from the lowest to the highest benches. Twelve 
 feet lower than the lowest benches, yet still projecting into their 
 convexity, came the crescent of the flat orchestra, which was never 
 occupied by any spectators. In the middle of the basis-line of that 
 orchestral crescent was the Thymele, a slight square elevation with 
 steps, and a platform, which was the rallying point of the chorus. 
 Around this thymele the dances of the chorus described a small 
 circle, the one half of which was within the orchestral crescent 
 towards the spectators, the other behind the thymele, and stretching 
 nearly to the front stage. A part of the orchestra-ground therefore 
 entered into the dromos. After inclosing the spectators and the in- 
 terior orchestral crescent in one vast semicircle, the walls of the 
 theatre ceased to describe a curve, and ran on straight to join the 
 right and left extremities of the Paraskenia, or flanking buildings of 
 the stage ; of course they thus formed the two ends of the dromos, 
 and the continuity of their masonry was interrupted only by the two 
 grand and opposite entrances to the theatre. Those entrances, it is 
 clear from Vitruvius, were covered above. The stage-ground, with 
 its flanks, or paraskenia, formed a line as broad as the amphitheatre 
 of spectators ; but the stage itself was a trifle narrower than the or- 
 chestra, to which it was duly opposite. The level of the stage was 
 the same as that of the lowest benches, consequently as many feet 
 higher than the orchestra ; but the whole wall of the stage-ground 
 rose to the same height as the wall on the outside of the highest 
 benches. To return to the stage — it was connected with the or- 
 chestra by stairs ; for though the choral and stage-performers had 
 a generally distinct locality, it is evident that there was a connexion 
 in acting between the orchestra and the stage. The stage itself was 
 twofold. One stage, called the Logeion, projected beyond the para- 
 skenia, and, being meant merely for declamation, was constructed 
 of wood, the better to reverberate the voice. Behind it, there was a 
 
THEATRE OP DIONYSUS. 231 
 
 chasm for holding the roll of the curtain ; for that disguise, though 
 it was seldom used, was drawn upwards by the Greeks, and not 
 downwards, as by us. Immediately behind the Logeion lay the 
 Proskenion, or proper stage, which, having often heavy plastic 
 scenery to support, was made of stone. From the building behind 
 there were three entrances to the stage ; and the rank of the charac- 
 ters was marked by the door from which they entered, the central 
 and most superb one being allotted to royalty. A hall in the first 
 floor of the stage-house contained the actors, whilst they stood ready 
 to enter on their parts ; and their dressing-rooms lay at its extremi- 
 ties. The back of the stage, as has been just mentioned, was not a 
 mere wall, but a house of considerable height ; and in like manner 
 its flanks were buildings of several stories, in the apartments of 
 which, nearest to the stage, were kept the machines for moving its 
 scenery. But, as the building behind was insufficient of itself to 
 indicate the locality of the piece, there was a line of decorations in 
 front of it, which properly constituted the scene. Those decorations 
 were either plastic imitations of objects, chiefly in wood, or paintings 
 on canvass and boards. The under decorations were plastic, the 
 upper were flat pictures. The scenery, both on the sides and in 
 the middle, was shifted by machines, which are minutely discussed 
 by Genelli, but which it would be foreign to my purpose to describe. 
 In general, the Greek plays themselves show that there could not 
 have been many changes of scene, and that the curtain was seldom 
 necessary. But from the known fact, that the Greeks understood 
 perspective, and from their anxiety to impress the senses, we may 
 believe that the scenic effect of their stage was highly imposing. If 
 Genelli be right, they spared not even the introduction of natural 
 trees to adorn the landscape of (Edipus Coloneus. 
 
 Almost every device which is known to the modern stage was 
 practised by the Greeks ; and the dimensions, at least, of their 
 theatres were favorable to illusion. Their Theologeion, or place 
 of the conference of the gods, must have been an occasional scaffold 
 issuing from near the top of the stage-building, and surrounded with 
 a picture of clouds. Infernal spirits and phantoms ascended from 
 the Charonic steps at the extremity of the orchestra farthest from 
 the stage, and beneath the lowest seats of the spectators. By our 
 sceptical imaginations, the impressions made on a superstitious people 
 by such representations can be but faintly estimated ; yet even a 
 
 Q 4 
 
2i2 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 modern fancy must be torpid, that, in reading iEschylus, is not 
 electrified by the ghost of Olytivmnestra rushing in to awaken the 
 Eumenides ; and the grandeur of terror in spectral agency was cer- 
 tainly never made more perfect than where that poet invokes " the 
 slumbering Furies and the sleepless dead." 
 
 The audience themselves must have formed no unimposing ap- 
 pearance. Of the place for myriads, the foremost belonged to the 
 arehons, the senate, the generals, and the high -priesthood of the 
 state. Strangers were admitted during one of the festivals, and had 
 their allotted seats. The knights had their station apart ; and all 
 the free citizens arranged themselves according to their tribes. The 
 place for the youth was ealled the Ephebicon ; and the women had 
 distinct seats, though opinion, more than law, seems to have kept 
 the more respectable class of them from the theatre. 
 
 ON THE CHOBUS. 
 
 From " Francklin's Preface to Sophocles." 
 
 We come now to an essential* part of the ancient tragedy peculiar 
 to itself : whilst every other member of the building is universally 
 admired, and industriously copied by modern architects, this alone 
 hath been rejected and contemned as ungraceful and unnecessary. 
 The chorus gave the first hint to the formation of tragedy, and was, 
 as it were, the corner-stone of the whole edifice : as a religious 
 ceremony, it was considered by the multitude with a kind of su- 
 perstitious veneration ; it is not therefore improbable that the first 
 authors of the regular drama willingly gave way to popular pre- 
 judices, and for this, among many other reasons, incorporated it 
 
 * Aristotle ranks the chorus amongst what he calls parts of 
 quantity, and places it after the exode. 
 
THE TRAGIC CHORUS. 233 
 
 into the body of the tragedy : accordingly, we find the chorus of 
 iEschylus resuming its original office, reciting the praises of the 
 local deities, demi-gods, and heroes, taking the part of distressed 
 virtue, and abounding throughout in all those moral precepts, and 
 religious sentiments, by which the writings of the ancients are so 
 eminently and so honorably distinguished. 
 
 Various are the arguments that have from time to time been 
 produced by the zealous partisans of antiquity, in favour of the tragic 
 chorus, the principal of which I shall briefly recapitulate and lay 
 before my readers, begging leave, at the same time, to premise that, 
 whether a chorus is defensible with regard to the ancient theatre, 
 and whether it should be adopted by the modern, are two very dif- 
 ferent questions, though generally blended and confused by writers 
 on this subject ; the former may perhaps be easily .proved, though 
 the latter be left totally undetermined. The ancients thought it 
 highly improbable that any great, interesting, and important action 
 should be performed without witnesses ; their choruses were there- 
 fore composed of such* persons as most naturally might be supposed 
 present on the occasion; persons f whose situation might so far 
 interest them in the events of the fable, as to render their presence 
 useful and necessary ; and yet not so deeply concerned as to make 
 them incapable of performing that office to which they were more 
 particularly appointed, the giving proper advice, and making proper 
 reflections on every thing that occurred, in the course of the drama ; 
 
 * " A chorus, interposing and bearing a part in the progress of the 
 action, gives the representation that probability and striking resem- 
 blance of real life, which every man of sense perceives and feels the 
 want of on our stage ; a want which nothing but such an expedient 
 as the chorus can possibly relieve." 
 
 This is the remark of one of the most ingenious and judicious 
 critics which our own age, or perhaps any other, ever produced : 
 the reader will find it, with many others equally just, p. 118. of the 
 first volume of a commentary and notes on Horace's Art of Poetry, 
 and Epistle to Augustus. 
 
 f Thus in the Ajax of Sophocles the chorus is composed of the 
 men of Salamis, his countrymen and companions ; in the Electra, of 
 the principal ladies of Mycenae, her friends and attendants ; in the 
 Philoctetes, of the companions of Ulysses and Neoptolemus, the only 
 persons who could with any propriety be introduced. The rest of 
 this writer's plays, and his only, will stand the test of examination 
 by the rule here mentioned. 
 
234 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 for this purpose, a coryphaeus, or leader, superintended and directed 
 all the rest, spoke for the whole body in the dialogue part, and led 
 the songs and dances in the intermede. By the introduction of a 
 chorus, which bore a part in the action, the ancients avoided the 
 absurdity of monologues and soliloquies ; an error which the 
 moderns have imperceptibly and necessarily fallen into from their 
 omission of it ; they avoided also that miserable resource of dis- 
 tressed poets, the insipid and uninteresting race of confidants (a 
 refinement for which we are indebted to the French theatre), who 
 only appear to ask a foolish question, listen to the secrets of their 
 superiors, and laugh or cry as they are commanded. 
 
 But the great use and advantage of the chorus will best appear 
 when w r e come to consider it in its moral capacity. In that illus- 
 trious period which may be called the golden age of tragedy, the 
 stage was not only the principal, but almost the only vehicle of in- 
 struction. Philosophy applied to the liberal arts for their influence 
 and assistance ; she appeared in the theatre even before she dictated 
 in the academy; and Socrates is supposed to have delivered many of 
 his excellent precepts by the mouth of his favourite* poet : this 
 sufficiently accounts for the sententious and didactic part of the 
 ancient drama, for all that profusion of moral and religious senti- 
 ments which tires the patience and disgusts the delicacy of modern 
 readers : the critics of those times were of opinion (however they 
 may differ from our own in this particular) that the first and prin- 
 cipal characters of the piece were too deeply interested in their own 
 concerns, and too busy in the prosecution of their several designs 
 and purposes, to be at leisure to make moral or political reflections : 
 such, therefore, they very judiciously, for the most part, put into the 
 mouth of the chorus ; this, at the same timef, prevented the illite- 
 
 * Hence Euripides was called 6 M rrjs o-k^vtis (j>i\6(ro(pos, " the 
 philosopher of the theatre," " in iis," says Quintilian, " qua? a sapi- 
 entibus tradita sunt, ipsis pame par." With regard to Socrates, his 
 friendship with this poet is universally known ; iSSnei av/jLiroieTu Ev- 
 PittIBt], says Diogenes Laertius. The comic poets of that time did 
 not scruple to ascribe several of Euripides's plays to Socrates, as 
 they afterwards did those of Terence to Laelius and Scipio. 
 
 f Euripides being obliged to put some bold and impious senti- 
 ments into the mouth of a wicked character, the audience were 
 angry with the poet, and looked on him as the real villain whom his 
 actor represented : the story is told by Seneca. " Now if such an 
 
THE TRAGIC CHORUS. 235 
 
 rate and uu distinguishing part of the audience from mistaking the 
 characters, or drawing hasty and false conclusions from the incidents 
 and circumstances of the drama ; the poet by these means leading 
 them as it were insensibly into such sentiments and affections as he 
 had intended to excite, and a conviction of those moral and religious 
 truths which he meant to inculcate. 
 
 But the chorus had likewise another office *, which was to relieve 
 the spectator, during the pauses and intervals of the action, by an 
 ode or song adapted to the occasion, naturally arising from the in- 
 cidents f, and connected with the subject of the drama: here the 
 author generally gave a loose to his imagination, displayed his 
 poetical abilities, and sometimes, perhaps too often, wandered from 
 the scene of action into the regions of fancy : the audience notwith- 
 standing were pleased with this short relaxation and agreeable 
 variety ; soothed by the power of numbers, and the excellency of 
 the composition, they easily forgave the writer, and returned as it 
 were with double attention to his prosecution of the main subject : 
 
 audience," says the ingenious writer, whom I quoted above, " could 
 so easily misinterpret an attention to the truth of character into the 
 real doctrine of the poet, and this too when a chorus was at hand to 
 correct and disabuse their judgments, what must be the case when 
 the whole is left to the sagacity and penetration of the people ? " 
 
 * The office of the chorus is divided by Aristotle into three parts, 
 which he calls irdpohos, a-rdo-i/nov, and Ko/nfioi : the parados is the first 
 song of the chorus ; the stasimon is all that which the chorus sings 
 after it has taken possession of the stage and is incorporated into the 
 action ; and the commoi are those lamentations so frequent in the 
 Greek writers, which the chorus and the actors made together. See 
 the second scene of the second act of Ajax, in my translation ; Phi- 
 loctetes, act first, scene third ; the beginning of the (Edipus Coloneus, 
 together with many other parts of Sophocles's tragedies, where the 
 commoi are easily distinguishable from the regular songs of the 
 chorus. 
 
 f Neu quid medios intercinat actus 
 
 Quod non proposito conducat et hasreat apte. 
 
 Hor. A. P. 194. 
 
 This connexion with the subject of the drama, so essentially ne- 
 cessary to a good chorus, is not always to be found in the tragedies 
 of JEschylus and Euripides, ihe latter of which is greatly blamed by- 
 Aristotle for his carelessness in this important particular ; the correct 
 Sophocles alone hath strictly observed it. 
 
236 IIAND-IKX)K OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 to tli is part of the ancient chorus we are indebted for some of the 
 noblest flights of poetry, as well as the finest sentiments that adorn 
 the writings of the Greek tragedians. The number of persons com- 
 posing the chorus was probably at first indeterminate, varying 
 according to the circumstances and plot of the drama. JEschylus, 
 we are told, brought no less than fifty into his Eumenides, but was 
 obliged to reduce them to twelve* ; Sophocles was afterwards per- 
 mitted to add three ; a limitation which we have reason to imagine 
 became a rule to succeeding poets. 
 
 When the chorus consisted of fifteen, the persons composing it 
 ranged themselves in three rows of five each, or five rows of three, 
 and in this order advanced or retreated from the right hand to the 
 left, which is called strophe f, and then back from the left to the 
 right, which we call antistrophe ; after which they stood still in the 
 midst of the stage, and sung the epode. Some writers attribute the 
 original of these evolutions to a mysterious imitation of the motion 
 of the heavens, stars, and planets ; but the conjecture seems rather 
 whimsical. The dance, we may imagine (if so we may venture to 
 call it), was slow and solemn, or quick and lively, according to the 
 words, sentiments, and occasion ; and, in so spacious a theatre as 
 that of Athens, might admit of such grace and variety in its motions 
 as would render it extremely agreeable to the spectators : the petu- 
 lancy of modern criticism has frequently made bold to ridicule the 
 use of song and dance in ancient tragedy, not considering (as 
 Brumoy observes) that dancing is, in reality, only a more graceful 
 way of moving, and music but a more agreeable manner of expres- 
 sion ; nor, indeed, can any good reason be assigned why they should 
 not be admitted, if properly introduced and carefully managed, into 
 the most serious compositions. 
 
 The chorus continued on the stage during the whole representa- 
 
 * The number of the chorus in the Eumenides was only fifteen : 
 see Miiller on the origin of this error in his Dissertation prefixed to 
 that play, p. 53. 
 
 f It does not appear that the old tragedians confined themselves 
 to any strict rules with regard to the division of strophe, antistrophe, 
 and epode, as we find the choral songs consisting sometimes of a 
 strophe only, sometimes of strophe and antistrophe, without the 
 epode : the observing reader w r ill find many other irregularities of 
 this kind in a perusal of the Greek tragedies. 
 
THE TRAGIC CHORUS. 237 
 
 tion of the piece, unless when some very extraordinary* circum- 
 stance required their absence : this obliged the poet to a continuity 
 of action, as the chorus could not have any excuse for remaining on 
 the spot when the affair which called them together was at an end : 
 it preserved also the unity of time ; for if the poet, as Hedelin f ob- 
 serves, had comprehended in his play a week, a month, or a year, 
 how could the spectators be made to believe that the people, who 
 were before them, could have passed so long a time without eating, 
 drinking, or sleeping ? Thus we find that the chorus preserved all 
 the unities of action, time, and place ; that it prepared the incidents, 
 and inculcated the moral of the piece ; relieved and amused the 
 spectators, presided over and directed the music, made a part of the 
 decoration, and, in short, pervaded and animated the whole ; it ren- 
 dered the poem more regular, more probable, more pathetic, more 
 noble and magnificent ; it was indeed the great chain which held 
 together and strengthened the several parts of the drama, which 
 without it could only have exhibited a lifeless and uninteresting 
 scene of irregularity, darkness, and confusion. 
 
 * As in the Ajax of Sophocles, where the chorus leave the stage 
 in search of that hero, and by that means give him an opportunity 
 of killing himself in the very spot which they had quitted, and which 
 could not have been done with any propriety whilst they were 
 present, and able to prevent it : on these occasions the chorus fre- 
 quently divided itself into two parts, or semichoruses, and sang 
 alternately. 
 
 | See his "Whole Art of the Stage," page 129. of the English 
 translation. 
 
238 IIAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 VI. 
 
 ARISTOPHANES ; 
 
 HIS HISTORY, CHARACTER, AND WORKS. 
 
 From " Cumberland's Observer," No. 138. 
 
 Ut tempi am Charites, quod non labatur, haberent, 
 Invenere tuum pectus, Aristophanes. 
 
 J. Scaxiger. 
 
 This is a eulogy the more honorable to Aristophanes, as it fell 
 from Plato, the disciple of Socrates. If I were to collect all the 
 testimonies that are scattered through the works of the learned in 
 behalf of the author we are now about to review, I should fill my 
 pages with panegyric ; but this I am the less concerned to do, as 
 the reader has a part of him in possession, which, as it is near a 
 fourth of the whole man, he has more than the foot by which to 
 measure this Hercules. 
 
 Both the parentage and birth-place of Aristophanes are doubt- 
 ful : he was an adopted, not a natural citizen of Athens, and I in- 
 cline to think he was the son of Philippus, a native of iEgina, where 
 our poet had some patrimony. He was in person very tall, bony, 
 and robust ; and we have his own authority for his baldness ; but 
 whether this was as disgraceful at Athens, as it was amongst the 
 Romans, I have not been anxious to inquire. He was, in private 
 life, of a free, open, and companionable temper ; and his company 
 was sought after by the greatest characters of the age, with all pos- 
 sible avidity : Plato, and even Socrates, shared many social hours 
 with him : he was much the most popular character in Athens, as 
 the great demagogue Cleon experienced to his cost, not to mention 
 Socrates himself : every honor that could be paid to a poet was 
 publicly bestowed on Aristophanes by the Athenian people ; nor 
 did they confine their rewards to honorary prizes only, but decreed 
 him fines and pecuniary confiscations from those who ventured to 
 
ARISTOPHANES. 239 
 
 attack him with suits and prosecutions : Dionysius of Syracuse in 
 vain made overtures to him of the most flattering sort, at the time 
 "when iEschines and Aristippus, Socratic philosophers, were retained 
 in his court, when even Plato himself had solicited his notice by 
 three several visits to Syracuse, where he had not the good fortune 
 to render himself very agreeable. The fame of Aristophanes had 
 reached to the court of Persia ; and his praises were there sounded 
 by the great king himself, who considered him not only as the first 
 poet, but as the most conspicuous personage at Athens. I do not 
 find him marked with any other immorality than that of intempe- 
 rance with regard to wine, the fashionable excess of the time and in 
 some degree a kind of prerogative of his profession, a licentia 
 poetica : Athenseus the Deipnosophist says he was drunk when he 
 composed ; but this is a charge that will not pass upon any man who 
 is sober, and if we rejected it from Sophocles in the case of iEschy- 
 lus, we shall not receive it but with contempt from such an accuser 
 as Athenaeus. He was not happy in his domestic connexions. He 
 was blessed with a good constitution, and lived to turn above 
 seventy years, though the date of his death is not precisely laid 
 down. 
 
 Though he was resolute in opposing himself to the torrent of 
 vice and corruption which overspread the manners of his country, 
 yet he was far more temperate in his personal invective than his 
 contemporaries. He was too sensitive in his nature to undertake 
 the performance of his own parts in person, which was general with 
 all the comic poets of his time ; and he stood their raillery for not 
 venturing to tread the stage as they did. Amipsias and Aristony- 
 mus, both rival authors, charged him with availing himself of the 
 talents of other people, from consciousness of his own insufficiency. 
 Their raillery could not draw him out, till his favorite actor Calli- 
 stratus declined undertaking the part of Cleon, in his personal comedy 
 of The Knights, dreading the resentment of that powerful dema- 
 gogue, who was as unforgiving as he was imperious : in this 
 dilemma Aristophanes conquered his repugnance, and determined 
 upon presenting himself on the stage for the first time in his life. 
 He dressed himself in the character oi this formidable tribune ; and 
 having coloured his face with vermilion up to the hue of the brutal 
 person he was to resemble, he entered on the part in such a style of 
 energy and with such natural expression, that the effect was irre- 
 
240 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 sistible ; and the proud factious Oleon was stripped of his popularity, 
 and sentenced in a fine of five talents by the knight's decree, as 
 damages for the charge he had preferred against the author, touch- 
 ing his right of citizenship, which was awarded and secured to him 
 by the same instrument. 
 
 Such was Aristophanes in person, manners, and character : as 
 a poet I might refer the learned reader to his works, which speak 
 so ably for themselves : they are not only valuable as his remains ; 
 but when we consider them as the only remains which give us any 
 complete specimens of the Greek comedy, they become inestimable 
 through the misfortunes of all the rest. We receive them as trea- 
 sures thrown up from a wreck, or more properly as one passenger 
 escaped out of a fleet, whose narrative we listen to with the more 
 eagerness and curiosity, because it is from this alone we can gain 
 intelligence of the nature of the expedition, the quality of the arma- 
 ment, and the characters and talents of the commanders, who have 
 perished and gone down into the abyss together. 
 
 The comedies of Aristophanes are universally esteemed to be 
 the standard of Attic writing in its greatest purity : if any man 
 would wish to know the language as it was spoken by Pericles, he 
 must seek it in the scenes of Aristophanes where he is not using a 
 foreign or affected diction for the purpose of accommodating it to 
 some particular or extravagant character. The ancient authors, 
 both Greek and Roman, who had all the productions of the Athe- 
 nian stage before them, speak of him with such rapture and admi- 
 ration, as to give him a decided preference before all other comic 
 poets, with an exception, as I believe, of Plutarch only, who brings 
 him into comparison with Menander, and, after discussing their 
 different pretensions, decides peremptorily for Menander. 
 
 The drama of Aristophanes is of a mixed species ; sometimes 
 personal, at other times inclining to parody : he varies and accom- 
 modates his style to his subject and the speakers on the scene ; on 
 some occasions it is elevated, grave, sublime, and polished, to a 
 wonderful degree of brilliancy and beauty ; on others it sinks and 
 descends into humble dialogue, provincial rusticity, coarse naked 
 obscenity, and even puns and quibbles : the versatility of his genius 
 is admirable ; for he gives us every rank and description of men in 
 his scenes, and in every one is strictly characteristic. In some 
 passages, and frequently in his choruses, he starts out of the or- 
 
ABISTOPHANES. 241 
 
 dinary province of comedy into the loftiest flights of poetry, and in 
 these I doubt if iEschylus or Pindar have surpassed him : in senti- 
 ment and good sense he is not inferior to Euripides, and in the 
 acuteness of his criticisms equalled by none : in the general purport 
 of his moral he seldom, if ever, fails ; but he works occasionally 
 with unclean tools, and, like Juvenal in the lower ages, chastises 
 vice by an open exposure of its turpitude, offending the ear, whilst 
 he aims to mend the heart. This habit of plain speaking was the 
 fashion of the times he wrote in, and the audience demanded and 
 would have it. If we cannot entirely defend the indelicacy of his 
 muse, we cannot deny but that a great share of the blame rests 
 with the spectators : a dramatic poet cannot model his audience, 
 but in a certain degree must of necessity conform to their taste and 
 humour : it can be proved that Aristophanes himself laments the 
 hard task imposed upon him of gratifying the public at the expense 
 of decency ; but with the example of the poet Cratinus before his 
 eyes, who was driven from the stage because he scrupled to amuse 
 the public ear with tawdry jests, it is not to be wondered at, if an 
 author, emulous of applause, should fall in with the wishes of the 
 theatre, unbecoming as they were. 
 
 His wit is of various kinds : much is of a general and permanent 
 stamp ; much is local, personal, and untransferable to posterity : no 
 author still retains so many brilliant passages, yet none has suffered 
 such injury by the depredations of time : of his powers in ridicule 
 and humour, whether of character or dialogue, there might be no 
 end to instances : if Plautus gives us the model of Epicharmus, he 
 does not equal him ; and if Terence translates Menander, his 
 original does not approach him in these particulars : I doubt if the 
 sum total of wit and humour in all their stage-lackeys would toge- 
 ther balance the single character of Cario in the Plutus. His satire, 
 whether levelled against the vices and follies of the people at large, 
 against the corruption of the demagogues, the turpitude and chica- 
 nery of the philosophers, or the arrogant self-sufficiency of the tragic 
 poets, cuts with an edge that penetrates the character, and leaves 
 no shelter for either ignorance or criminality. 
 
 Aristophanes was author of above sixty comedies : the comedies 
 which remain are not edited according to the order of time in which 
 they were produced: there is reason to think that The Achar- 
 nians was the first of its author ; it was acted in the last year of 
 
 K 
 
242 HAND-BOOK OF THE GREEK DRAMA. 
 
 Olymp. lxxxv. when the edict was reversed which prohibited the 
 representation of comedies ; and it is said that Aristophanes brought 
 it out in the name of Callistratus the comedian. 
 
 It is generally supposed that we owe the remains of Aristo- 
 phanes to St. Chrysostom, who happily rescued this valuable though 
 small portion of his favourite author from his more scrupulous 
 Christian contemporaries, whose zeal was too fatally successful in 
 destroying every other comic author, out of a very numerous col- 
 lection, of which no one entire scene now remains. 
 
 THE END. 
 
 London : 
 
 Printed by Spottiswoode & Co,, 
 
 New-street-Square. 
 
COLLEGE AID SCHOOL BOORS. 
 
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 NEW WORKS IN GENERAL LITERATUI 
 
 
 IE 
 
 PUBLISHED BY 
 
 
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 39 Paternoster Row, London. 
 
 
 CLASSIFIED INDEX 
 
 
 Agriculture and Rural Affairs. 
 
 Morris's Life of Becket . 
 Mountain's (Col.) Memoirs . 
 
 17 
 
 . 17 
 
 Bayldon on "Valuing Bents, &c. . . 6 
 
 Parry's (Admiral) Memoirs . 
 Russell's Memoirs of Moore . 
 
 . 18 
 17 
 
 " on Road Legislation 
 
 
 b 
 
 *' (Dr.) Life of Mezzofanti . 
 
 . 20 
 
 Caird's Prairie Faiming 
 
 Cecil's Stud Farm . 
 
 Hoskyns's Talpa .... 
 
 Loudon's Agriculture 
 
 Low's Elements of Agriculture 
 
 Morton on Landed Estates 
 
 
 8 
 8 
 11 
 14 
 14 
 17 
 
 SchimmelPenninck's (Mrs.) Life . 
 Southey's Life of Wesley 
 Stephen's Ecclesiastical' Biography 
 Strickland's Queens of England . 
 Sydney Smith's Memoirs 
 Symonds's (Admiral) Memoirs 
 
 . 20 
 
 21 
 
 . 22 
 
 22 
 21 
 22 j 
 
 
 Taylor's Loyola .... 
 
 . 22 
 
 Arts, Manufactures, and Archi- 
 
 " Wesley .... 
 Uwins's Memoirs and Correspondence 
 
 22 
 23 ! 
 
 tecture. 
 
 Waterton's Autobiography and Essays 
 
 U 
 
 Brande's Dictionary of Science, &c. 
 " Organic Chemistry . 
 
 6 
 6 
 
 Books of General Utility. 
 
 
 Cresy's Civil Engineering 
 
 8 
 
 Acton's Bread-Book 
 
 5 1 
 
 Fairbairn's Information for Engineers 
 
 9 
 
 *• Cookery-Book 
 
 5 ! 
 
 Gwilt's Encyclopaedia of Architecture 
 
 10 
 
 Black's Treatise on Brewing . 
 
 6 ! 
 
 Harford's Plates from M. Angelo . 
 
 10 
 
 Cabinet Gazetteer .... 
 
 8 i 
 
 Humphreys's Parables Illuminated 
 
 12 
 
 " Lawyer ..... 
 
 "> ! 
 
 Jameson's Sacred and Legendary Art 
 
 13 
 
 Cust's Invalid's Own Book 
 
 9 , 
 
 " Commonplace-Book 
 
 13 
 
 Hints on Etiquette .... 
 
 11 i 
 
 Konig's Pictorial Life of Luther . 
 
 10 
 
 Hudson's Executor's Guide . 
 
 12 
 
 Loudon's Rural Architecture . 
 
 14 
 
 " on Making Wills 
 
 12 
 
 Mac Dougall's Campaigns of Hannibal 
 
 15 
 
 Kesteven's Domestic Medicine 
 
 13 
 
 *' Theory of War 
 
 15 
 
 Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopaedia 
 
 13 
 
 Moseley's Engineering . 
 
 17 
 
 Loudon's Lady's Country Companion 
 
 14 i 
 
 Piesse's Art of Perfumery 
 
 18 
 
 Maunder's Treasury of Knowledge 
 
 . 16 ! 
 
 Richaidson's Art of Horsemanship 
 
 . 19 
 
 " Biographical Treasury 
 
 16 ! 
 
 Scoffern on Projectiles, &c. . 
 
 20 
 
 " Geographical Treasury 
 
 16 j 
 
 Steam Engine, by the Artisan Club 
 
 6 
 
 " Scientific Treasury 
 
 15 
 
 Ure's Dictionary of Arts, &c. . 
 
 23 
 
 " Treasury of History 
 
 16 
 
 
 " Natural History . 
 
 16 j 
 
 Biography. 
 
 Piesse's Art of Peifumery 
 Pitt's How to Brew Good Beer 
 
 18 ! 
 
 18 ! 
 
 Arago's Lives of Scientific Men . . 5 
 
 Pocket and the Stud 
 
 ii ! 
 
 Baillie's Memoir of Bate 
 
 
 . 6 
 
 Pycroft's English Reading 
 
 in i 
 
 Brialmont's Wellington . . 
 
 
 6 
 
 Rich's Companion to Latin Dictionary 
 
 19 ! 
 
 Bunsen's Hippolytus 
 
 
 7 
 
 Richardson's Art of Horsemanship 
 
 19 1 
 
 Bunting's (Dr.) Life 
 
 
 7 
 
 Riddle's Latin Dictionaries . 
 
 19 j 
 
 Crosse's (Andrew) Memorials 
 
 
 8 
 
 Roget's English Thesaurus . 
 
 20 1 
 
 Gleig's Essays .... 
 
 
 10 
 
 Rowton's Debater 
 
 20 j 
 
 Green's Princesses of England 
 
 
 10 
 
 Short Whist 
 
 21 
 
 Harford's Life of Michael Angelo 
 
 
 10 
 
 Simpson's Handbook of Dining . 
 
 21 
 
 Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopaedia 
 
 
 13 
 
 Thomson's Interest Tables 
 
 22 
 
 Marshman's Life of Carey, Marshman 
 
 
 Webster's Domestic Economy 
 
 24 
 
 and Ward ..... 
 
 15 
 16 
 
 Willich's Popular Tables 
 Wilmot's Blackstone . 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 Maunder's Biographical Treasury 
 
CLASSIFIED INDEX TO CATALOGUE. 
 
 Botany and Gardening-. 
 
 Hassan's British Freshwater Alga 
 ritish Flora . 
 
 " Guide to Kcw Gardena . 
 Lindley's Introduction to Botany . 
 
 " Synopsis of the British Flora 
 
 " Theory of Horti< ulture . 
 Loudon's Hortua Britannicua 
 
 u Amati ui Gardener . 
 
 " Treea and Shrubs . 
 
 " Gardening 
 
 " Planta . 
 Pereira's Materia Medica 
 
 ■ Base Vmafieur'a Guide . 
 Watson's C\ bole Britannica 
 Wilson's British Mosses . 
 
 Chronology. 
 
 Brewer's Historical Atlas : . . .6 
 
 Bunsen's Ancient Egypt . . . 7 
 
 Haydn's Beatson's Index . . .11 
 
 Jaquemet's Two Chronologies . . 13 
 
 Commerce and Mercantile 
 Affairs. 
 
 Gilbart's Losic of Banking . . . 10 
 " Treatise on Banking . . 10 
 Lorimer's Youn? Master Mariner . . 14 
 M'Culloch's Commerce and Navigation 15 
 Thomson's Interest Tables . . .22 
 Tooke's History of Prices . .22 
 
 Criticism, History, and Memoirs. 
 
 Brewer's Historical Atlas 
 Bunsen's Ancient Egypt 
 
 " Hippolytus' 
 
 Chapman's Gustavus Adolphus 
 Connolly's Sappers and Miners 
 Conybeare and Howson's St. Paul 
 Crowe's History of France 
 Fischer's Francis Bacon . 
 Frazer's Letters during the Peninsular 
 
 and "Waterloo Campaigns . 
 
 Gleig's Essays 
 
 Gurney's Historical Sketches 
 Haywa'rd's Essays . 
 Herschel's Essays and Addresses . 
 Jeffrey's (Lord) Contributions 
 Kemb'ie's Anglo-Saxons . 
 Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopaedia 
 Macaulay's Critical and Hist. Essays 
 " History of England . 
 
 " Speeches 
 
 Mackintosh's Miscellaneous Works 
 " History of England . 
 
 M'Culloch's Geographical Dictionary 
 Maunder's Treasury of History 
 Merivale's History of Rome . 
 " Roman Republic . 
 Milner's Churcli History . 
 Moore's (Thomas) Memoirs, &c. . 
 Mures Greek Literature 
 Normanby's Year of Revolution . 
 
 Perry's Franks 
 
 Porter's Knights of Malta 
 R.aikes's Journal ... . . 
 Riddle's Latin Dictionaries . 
 Rogers's Essays from Edinb. Review 
 
 " (Sara.) Recollections 
 
 Roget's English Thesaurus . 
 SchimmelPenninck's Memoirs of Port 
 
 Royal 
 
 SchimmelPenninck'sPi inciples of Beauty 
 Schmitz's History of Greece . 
 
 Southey'6 Doctor 
 
 Stephen's Ecclesiastical Biography 
 
 " Lectures on French History . 
 
 Sydney Smith's Work--' .... 
 
 '"' Lectures 
 
 " Memoirs 
 
 Taylor's Loyola 22 
 
 " Wesley 22 
 
 Thirl wall's History of Greece . . . 22 
 
 Turner's Anglo-Saxons .... 23 
 
 Uwins's Memoirs and Letters . . 23 
 "Vehse's Austrian Court . . . .23 
 Wade's England's Greatness . . .23 
 
 Young's Christ of History . . . 24 
 
 Geography and Atlases. 
 
 Brewer's Historical Atlas ... 6 
 
 Butler's Geography and Atlases . 7 
 Cabinet Gazetteer ... .8 
 Johnston's General Gazetteer . .13 
 
 M'Culloch's Geographical Dictionary . 15 
 
 Maunder's Treasury of Geography . 16 
 
 Murray's Encyclopaedia of Geography . 17 
 
 Sharp's British Gazetteer . ' . 21 
 
 Juvenile Books. 
 
 Amy Herbert -, 20 
 
 Cleve Hall 20 
 
 Earl's Daughter (The) .... 20 
 
 Experience of Life 20 
 
 Gertrude 20 
 
 Howitt's Boy's Country Book . . 12 
 
 " (Mary) Children's Year . . 12 
 
 Ivors 20 
 
 Katharine Ashton 20 
 
 Laneton Parsonage .... 20 
 Margaret Percival ..... 20 
 Piesse's Chymical, Natural, and Phy- 
 sical Mag'ic 18 
 
 Pycroft's Collegian's Guidft . . .19 
 
 Medicine, Surgery, &c. 
 
 Brodie's Psychological Inquiries . 
 Bull's Hints to Mothers . 
 
 " Management of Children 
 
 " Work on Blindness 
 Copland's Dictionary of Medicine . 
 Cust's Invalid's Own Book 
 Holland's Mental Physiology . 
 
 " Medical Notes and Reflections 
 Kesteven's Domestic Medicine 
 Pereira's Materia Medica 
 Richardson's Cold-water Cure . 
 Spencer's Principles of Psychology 
 Todd's Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and 
 
 Physiology 
 
 Miscellaneous Literature. 
 
 Bacon's (Lord) Works .... 
 
 Defence of Eclipse of Faith . 
 
 De Fonblanque on Army Administration 
 
 Eclipse of Faith 
 
 Greathed's Letters from Delhi 
 Greyson's Select Correspondence . 
 Gurney's Evening Recreations 
 Hassall's Adulterations Detected, &c. . 
 Haydn's Book of Dignities 
 Holland's Mental Physiology 
 
CLASSIFIED INDEX 
 
 TO CATALOGUE. 
 
 3 
 
 Hooker's Kew Guide 
 
 11 
 
 Calvert's Wife's Manual . 
 
 8 
 
 Howitt's Rural Lite of England 
 
 12 
 
 Catz and Far lie's Moral Emblems 
 
 8 
 
 '• Visits to Remarkable Places 
 
 12 
 
 Cleve Hall .... 
 
 20 
 
 Jameson's Commonplace-Book 
 
 13 
 
 Conybeare and Howson's St. Paul 
 
 8 
 
 Jeffrey's (Lord) Essays . 
 
 13 
 
 Cotton's Instructions in Christianity 
 
 8 
 
 Last of the Old Squires . 
 
 18 
 
 Dale's Domestic Liturgy 
 
 9 
 
 Letters of a Betrothed 
 
 13 
 
 Defence of Eclipse of Faith . 
 
 9 
 
 Macaulay's Critical and Hist. Essays 
 
 14 
 
 Earl's Daughter (The) . 
 
 20 
 
 " Speeches 
 
 14 
 
 Eclipse of Faith 
 
 9 
 
 Mackintosh's Miscellaneous Works 
 
 15 
 
 Englishman's Greek Concordance 
 
 9 
 
 Martineau's Miscellanies 
 
 15 
 
 " Heb. & Chald. Concord. 
 
 9 
 
 Pycroft's English Reading 
 
 19 
 
 Experience (The) of Life 
 
 20 
 
 Rich's Companion to Latin Dictionary 
 
 19 
 
 Gertrude . 
 
 20 
 
 Riddle's Latin Dictionaries . 
 
 19 
 
 Harrison's Light of the Forge 
 
 10 
 
 Rowton's Debater 
 
 20 
 
 Home's Introduction to Scriptures 
 
 11 
 
 Sir Roger De Coverley 
 
 21 
 
 " Abridgment of ditto • 
 
 11 
 
 Smith's (Rev. Sydney) Works 
 
 21 
 
 Hue's Christianity in China . 
 
 12 
 
 Southey's Doctor, &c 
 
 21 
 
 Humphreys's Parables Illuminated 
 
 12 
 
 Spencer's Essays .... 
 
 21 
 
 Ivors, by the Author of Amy Herbert . 
 
 20 
 
 Stephen's Essays .... 
 
 22 
 
 Jameson's Saints and Martyrs 
 
 13 
 
 Stow's Training System . 
 
 22 
 
 " Monastic Legends 
 
 13 
 
 Thomson's Laws of Thought 
 
 22 
 
 " Legends of the Madonna 
 
 13 
 
 Trevelvan on the Native Languages o] 
 
 
 " on Female Employment . 
 
 12 
 
 India 
 
 22 
 
 Jeremy Taylor's Works . 
 
 13 
 
 Yonge's English-Greek Lexicon . 
 
 24 
 
 Katharine Ashton 
 
 20 
 
 " Latin Gradus 
 
 24 
 
 Konig's Pictorial Life of Luther 
 
 10 
 
 Zumpt's Latin Grammar 
 
 . 24 
 
 Laneton Parsonage 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 Letters to my Unknown Friends . 
 
 13 
 
 Natural History in general. 
 
 
 Lyra Germanica 
 
 Maguire's Rome 
 
 7 
 15 
 
 
 
 Margaret Percival 
 
 20 
 
 Agassiz on Classification 
 
 . 5 
 
 Marshman's Serampore Mission . 
 
 15 
 
 Catlow's Popular Conchology 
 
 . 8 
 
 Martineau's Christian Life 
 
 15 
 
 Ephemera's Book of the Salmon . 
 
 . 9 
 
 " Hymns . 
 " Studies of Christianity . 
 Merivale's Christian Records 
 
 15 
 
 Garratt's Marvels of Instinct . 
 
 . 10 
 
 15 
 
 Gosse's Natural History of Jamaica 
 
 . 10 
 
 16 
 
 Ivirby and Spence's Entomology . 
 
 . 13 
 
 Milner's Church of Christ 
 
 16 
 
 Lee's* Elements of Natural History 
 
 . 13 
 
 Moore on the Use of the Body 
 
 17 
 
 Maunder's Natural History . 
 
 . 16 
 
 " " Soul and Body . . 
 
 16 
 
 Morris's Anecdotes in Natural Histor 1 
 
 r " 
 
 " 's Man and his Motives 
 
 17 
 
 Quatrefages' Rambles of a Naturalist 
 
 . 19 
 
 Morning Clouds 
 
 17 
 
 Stcnehenge on the Dog . 
 
 . 22 
 
 Neale's Closing Scene . 
 
 17 
 
 Turton's Shells of the British Islands 
 
 . 23 
 
 Pattison's Earth and Word 
 
 18 
 
 Van der Hoeven's Handbook of Zoolog 
 
 f 23 
 
 Powell's Christianity without Judaism 
 
 19 
 
 Waterton's Essays on Natural History 
 
 . 24 
 
 „ Order of Nature . - 
 
 19 
 
 Youatt's The Dog 
 
 . 24 
 
 Readings for Lent .... 
 
 20 
 
 " The Horse 
 
 . 24 
 
 ' f Confirmation 
 Robinson's Lexicon to the Greek Tes- 
 
 20 
 
 One- Volume Encyclopedias 
 
 and 
 
 tament 
 
 Self-Examination for Confirmation 
 
 19 
 20 
 
 Dictionaries. 
 
 
 Sewell's History of the Early Church 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 Sinclair's Journey of Life 
 
 21 
 
 Blaine's Rural Sports ... 
 
 . 6 
 
 Smith's (Sydney) Moral Philosophy 
 
 21 
 
 Brande's Science, Literature, and Art 
 
 . 6 
 
 " (G.) Wesleyan Methodism 
 
 21 
 
 Copland's Dictionary of Medicine 
 
 . 8 
 
 " (J.) Shipwreck of St. Paul 
 
 21 
 
 Cresy's Civil Engineering 
 
 . 8 
 
 Southey's Life of Wesley 
 
 21 
 
 Gwilt's Architecture 
 
 . 10 
 
 Stephen's Ecclesiastical" Biography 
 
 22 
 
 Johnston's Geographical Dictionary 
 
 . 13 
 
 Taylor's Loyola 
 
 22 
 
 Loudon's Agriculture 
 
 . 14 
 
 " Wesley .... 
 
 22 
 
 " Rural Architecture 
 
 . 14 
 
 Theologia Germanica 
 
 7 
 
 " Gardening 
 
 . 14 
 
 Thumb Bible (The) . .. . 
 
 22 
 
 " Plants .... 
 
 . 14 
 
 Young's Christ of History 
 
 24 
 
 " Trees and Shrubs . 
 
 . 14 
 
 " Mystery .... 
 
 . 24 
 
 M'Culloch's Geographical Dictionary 
 
 . 15 
 
 
 
 " Dictionary of Commerce 
 
 . 15 
 
 
 
 Murray's Encyclopaedia of Geography 
 Sharp's British Gazetteer 
 "Ore's Dictionary of Arts, &c. . 
 
 . 17 
 
 
 
 . 21 
 . 23 
 
 Poetry and the Drama. 
 
 
 Webster's Domestic Economy 
 
 . 24 
 
 Aikin's (Dr.") British Poets . 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 Arnold's Merope .... 
 
 5 
 
 Religions and Moral Works. 
 
 
 " Poems .... 
 Baillie's (Joanna) Poetical Works . 
 
 5 
 
 Afternoon of Life .... 
 
 5 
 
 Calvert's Wife's Manual . 
 
 8 
 
 Amy Herbert 
 
 . 20 
 
 Goldsmith's Poems, illustrated 
 
 10 
 
 Bloomfield's Greek Testament 
 
 . 6 
 
 L. E. L,'s Poetical Works 
 
 14 
 
 Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress 
 1 
 
 • 7 
 
 Linwood's Anthologia Oxoniensis 
 
 14 
 
4 CLASSIFIED INDEX TO CATALOGUE. 
 
 Lyra Germanica 
 
 Macaulay'l Lavs of Ancient Rome 
 Mac Donald's within and Without 
 
 7 
 
 Stable Talk and Table Talk . 
 
 . 10 
 
 15 
 
 Stonehenge on the Dog 
 
 . 22 
 
 15 
 
 '* " Greyhound 
 
 . 22 
 
 " Poems 
 
 15 
 
 The Stud, for PracticalPurposes 
 
 . 11 
 
 Montgomery's Poetical Works 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 Moore's Poetical Works . 
 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 Selections illustrated) 
 " Lalla Uookh 
 
 
 17 
 17 
 
 Veterinary Medicine, &c. 
 
 
 u Irish Melodies . 
 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 ** National Melodies 
 
 
 17 
 
 Cecil's Stable Practice . 
 
 . 8 
 
 *' Sacred Songs [with Music 
 
 ) 
 
 17 
 
 " Stud Farm 
 
 . 8 
 
 " Songs and Ballads 
 
 
 17 
 
 Hunt's Horse and his Master 
 
 . 12 
 
 Shakspeare, Dy Bowdler . 
 
 
 20 
 
 Hunting-Field (The) 
 
 . 11 
 
 • Souther's Poetical Works 
 
 
 21 
 
 Miles's Horse-Shoeing . 
 
 . 16 
 
 Thomson's Seasons, illustrated 
 
 
 22 
 
 " on the Horse's Foot 
 
 . 16 
 
 
 
 Pocket and the Stud 
 
 . 11 
 
 
 
 Practical Horsemanship . 
 
 . 11 
 
 The Sciences in general and 
 
 Richardson's Horsemanship 
 Stable Talk and Table Talk . 
 
 . 19 
 . 10 
 
 Mathematics. 
 
 
 Stonehenge on the Dog . 
 Stud (The) .... 
 Youatt's The Dog . 
 
 . 22 
 
 . 11 
 
 
 
 . 24 
 
 Arago's Meteorological Essays 
 
 5 
 
 " The Horse 
 
 . 21 
 
 "~ Popular Astronomy . 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 Bourne on the Steam Engine 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 " 's Catechism of Steam-Engine 
 Boyd's Naval Cadet's Manual 
 
 6 
 6 
 
 Voyages and Travels. 
 
 
 Brande's Dictionary of Science, &c. 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 " Lectures on Organic Chemistr; 
 
 t 6 
 
 Baker's Wanderings in Ceylon 
 
 . 5 
 
 Conington's Chemical Analysis 
 
 8 
 
 Barth's African Travels . 
 
 . 5 
 
 Cresy's Civil Engineering 
 
 8 
 
 Burton's East Africa 
 
 . 7 
 
 De la Rive's Electricity . 
 
 9 
 
 tl Medina and Mecca . 
 
 . 7 
 
 Grove's Correlation of Physical Forces 
 
 10 
 
 Domenech's Deserts of North Am 
 
 erica 9 
 
 Herschel's Outlines of Astronomy . 
 
 11 
 
 " Texas and Mexico 
 
 . 9 
 
 Holland's Mental Physiology . 
 
 11 
 
 First Impressions of the New Woi 
 
 Id . 9 
 
 Humboldt's Aspects of Nature 
 
 12 
 
 Forester's Sardinia and Corsica 
 
 . 10 
 
 " Cosmos 
 
 12 
 
 Hinchliff's Travels in the Alps 
 
 . 11 
 
 Hunt on Light 
 
 12 
 
 Howitt's Art-Student in Munich 
 
 . 12 
 
 Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopaedia 
 
 13 
 
 " (W.> Victoria . 
 
 . 12 
 
 Marcet's (Mrs.) Conversations 
 
 IS 
 
 Hue's Chinese Empire 
 
 . 12 
 
 Morell's Elements of Psychology . 
 
 17 
 
 Hudson and Kennedy's Mont Blan 
 
 c . 12 
 
 Moseley's Engineering and Architecture 
 
 17 
 
 Humboldt's Aspects of Nature 
 
 . 12 
 
 Ogilvie's Master-Builder's Plan 
 
 18 
 
 Hutchinson's Western Africa 
 
 . 12 
 
 Owen's Lectures on Comp. Anatomy 
 
 18 
 
 Kane's Wanderings of an Artist 
 
 . 13 
 
 Pereira on Polarised Light 
 
 18 
 
 Lady's Tour round Monte Rosa 
 
 . 13 
 
 Peschel's Elements of Physics 
 
 18 
 
 M'Clure's North-West Passage 
 
 . 18 
 
 Phillips's Mineralogy 
 
 18 
 
 Mac Dougall's Voyage of the Reso 
 
 xite . 15 
 
 " Guide to Geology . 
 
 . 18 
 
 M in turn's New York to Delhi 
 
 . 16 
 
 Powell's Unity of Worlds 
 
 . 19 
 
 Mollhausen's Journey to the Pacifl 
 
 c . 16 
 
 " Christianity without Judaisrr 
 
 t 19 
 
 Osborn's Quedah 
 
 . 18 
 
 " Order of Nature 
 
 If) 
 
 Peaks, Passes, and Glaciers . 
 
 . JS 
 
 Smee's Electro-Metallurgy 
 
 . 21 
 
 Scherzer's Central America 
 
 . 20 
 
 Steam-Engine, by the Artisan Club 
 
 6 
 
 Senior's Journal in Turkey and G 
 
 reece 20 
 
 Webb's CelestialObjects for Commor 
 
 L 
 
 Snow's Tierra del Fuego . 
 
 21 
 
 Telescopes 
 
 24 
 
 Tennent's Ceylon . 
 
 ". 22 
 
 
 
 Von Tempsky's Mexico and Guate 
 
 mala 23 
 
 
 
 Wanderings in the Land of Ham 
 
 . 24 
 
 Rural Sports. 
 
 
 W r eld's Vacations in Ireland . 
 " Pyrenees, West and East 
 
 . 24 
 . 24 
 
 
 
 " United States and Canada 
 
 . 24 
 
 Baker's Rifle and Hound in Ceylon 
 
 . 5 
 
 
 
 Blaine's Dictionary of Sports . 
 
 . 6 
 
 
 
 Cecil's Stable Practice 
 
 " Stud Farm .... 
 
 8 
 8 
 
 Works of Fiction. 
 
 
 Davy's Fishing Excursions, 2 Series 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 Ephemera on Angling . 
 
 9 
 
 Connolly's Romance of the Ranks 
 
 . 8 
 
 ** Book of the Salmon 
 
 9 
 
 Cruikshank's Falstaff 
 
 . 9 
 
 Freeman and Salvin's Falconry 
 
 10 
 
 Howitt's Tallangetta 
 
 . 12 
 
 Hawker's Young Sportsman . 
 
 11 
 
 Mildred Norman 
 
 . 16 
 
 The Hunting-Field .... 
 
 11 
 
 Moore's Epicurean . 
 
 . 17 
 
 Idle's Hints on Shooting 
 
 . 12 
 
 Sewell's Ursula 
 
 . 20 
 
 Pocket and the Stud . . 
 
 11 
 
 Sir Roger De Coverley 
 
 . 21 
 
 Practical Horsemanship . 
 
 11 
 
 Sketches (The), Three Tales . 
 
 . 21 
 
 Pycroft's Cricket-Field . 
 
 19 
 
 Southey's Doctor, &c. 
 
 . 21 
 
 Richardson's Horsemanship . 
 
 19 
 
 Trollope's Barchester Towers . 
 
 . 23 
 
 Ronalds's Fly-Fisher's Entomology 
 
 20 
 
 " Warden 
 
 . . 23 
 
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