Class Book GoipghtN?^\L2^ CQEffilGHT DEPOSIE > m I— I Q <1 P I— 1 Q (if o CQ Oi o o CO pq ^^ O O O Q < a Eh GREAT EVENTS OF A GREAT NATION FROM THE Earliest Discoveries to the Present Time INCLUDING A COMPLETE ACCOUNT OF THE NORSEMEN ; THE MOUND-BUILDERS VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS; HARDSHIPS OF EARLY SETTLERS; FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS; THE STORY OF CANADA, MEXICO AND SOUTH AMERICA The Struggle for Liberty in the Revolution I HE SECOND WAR WITH ENGLAND; PROGRESS AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNITED STATES; THE GREAT CIVIL WAR AND TH£ LATEST EVENTS IN AMERICAN HISTORY TOGETHER WITH A GRAPHIC ACCOUNT OF CUBA AND HAWAII / BY HENRY DAVENPORT NORTHROP Author of " Story of the New World,'' "War iu Cuba," "Gem Cyclopedia," Etc., Etc. SUPERBLY EMBELLISHED WITH PHOTOTYPE AND WOOD ENGRAVINGS NATIONAL PUBLISHING CO., 239, 241 AND 243 AMERICAN ST, //\i^'' Qr-'^^t-Of "'«Sj. -y PHILADELPHIA, PA. (( '^^ -? 2 5 18§f* 2nd COW, ^^7' 1898. ^ TWO COPIES RECEIVED. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1S98, by J. R. JONES, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. All Rights R.escrTcd. 4349 -lyei PREFACE. AYS the old Roman, Cicero: "Not to know what has been trans- acted in former times, is to be always a child. If no use is made of the labors of past ages, the world must remain always in the infancy of knowledge.'' The same thought is well stated by an old Hnglish author : " History makes a young man to be old, without wrinkles or gray hairs, and gives him the experience of age, without the infirmities thereof." This is not placing too high a value upon history, as will be admitted by all intelligent persons. And what history can be more important and valuable than that of America? The very name awakens a thrill of patri- otic emotion. Her story is the most captivating ever written, and is an exhaustless source of instruction and entertainment. It should be familiar to both old and young, and may become so by a perusal of the compre- hensive volume prefaced by these lines. This work contains a full account of the Norsemen, the earliest dis- coverers of the Western world, and of the Mound-builders, the earliest in- habitants. It then takes up the story of Columbus — his long years of waiting and disappointment ; his successful appeal at last to the King and Queen of Spain ; his tempestuous voyage, attended by dangers of the deep and mutiny on board; his heroic courage, his splendid reception on his return, and then the dark days and sorrowful death of the great discoverer. It treats of the settlement of America, and narrates the fascinating story of Captain John Smith and Pocahontas ; the attempts of the Indians to destroy the Colonies ; the disasters and sufferings encountered by the settlers. It details the persecutions of the Puritans in England, and their flight to Holland ; the storm-tossed " Mayflower " voyaging to the " wild New England coast ;" King Philip's war ; the history of witchcraft in Massachusetts — that strange craze which resulted in the death of many innocent persons ; the colonization of Connecticut ; William Penn and the Quakers ; settlement of the Carolinas and Georgia. Step by step the book traces the growth of the Colonies, their hardships and dangers, and the frightful massacres by the Red Men. It gives a vivid picture of the heroism and sacrifices which laid the foundations of our Great Republic. vi PREFACE, A graphic account is given of that terrible ordeal through which the settlers passed, the French and Indian war, also of the uprising of an op- pressed people ; their heroic struggle for independence ; exciting scenes and progress of the war ; sufferings of the American army ; darkest da3^s of the conflict and final victory. Washington and his compeers stand out in bold relief and majestic proportions, as seen in the light of history. The war of 1812 with Great Britain and the Mexican war at a later period are fully related, and the growth of the nation is traced from small beginnings to its commanding position among the great and influential nations of the world. Then comes a stirring account of the great Civil War ; the attack on Fort Sumter ; the country aroused ; troops hurrying to the Capital ; opening events of the war in Virginia; bloodshed in Missouri; campaign in Ken- tucky and capture of Vicksburg ; battles of South Mountain, Antietam, and Gettysburg; Sheridan's raid; Sherman's great march to the sea; terrible battles in the Wilderness ; Grant before Richmond ; surrender of Lee's army and end of the great conflict. The history of this great struggle is the most wonderful narrative ever penned. It is the story of the sublimest heroism ever witnessed, of the most thrilling adventure, of the loftiest patriotism, and of the most inflexible courage and determination. It is a story that should ever remain fresh in the minds of the American people, and its glowing details should be trans- mitted by them to future generations with patriotic fidelity. All the events of our subsequent history are narrated, from the assas- sination of President Lincoln down to the present time, including the ad- ministrations of Grant, Hayes, Garfield, Cleveland, Harrison and McKinley. Not the least interesting part of this work is the account it furnishes of Alaska, the history of that vast territory, its natural characteristics, its scenes of grandeur as well as desolation, its native inhabitants and their traits, and the discovery of gold at Klondike. This is followed by a most entertaining and instructive description of Mexico, that land of wonders, whose romantic history has an absorbing interest. The volume is also enriched with a concise history of Cuba, its great struggle for freedom, its past attempts to throw off the Spanish yoke, and the scenes of bloodshed and ravages of war which have reduced the Queen of the Antilles to poverty and desolation. The volume closes with very interesting information concerning Hawaii and the countries of South America. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. PAGE The Northmen ^^ CHAPTER II. The Famous Mound-Builders 25 CHAPTER III. Discovery of America by Columbus 30 CHAPTER IV. Adventures of De Soto and Others 44 CHAPTER V. Story of Sir Walter Raleigh 52 CHAPTER VI. Captain John Smith and Pocahontas 59 CHAPTER VII. Story of the Virginia Colony 69 CHAPTER VIII. The Settlement of Maryland "^3 CHAPTER IX. The Landing of the Pilgrims > "^"^ CHAPTER X. King Philip's War ' 90 vii ^iii CONTENTS. CHAPTER XI. PAGE The Growing Nation 98 CHAPTER xn. Pennsylvania and its Founder 107 CHAPTER XHI. Witchcraft in New England 112 CHAPTER XIV. Colonies on the Southern Coast 118 CHAPTER XV. Story of Captain Kidd 124 CHAPTER XVI. The French and Indian War 130 CHAPTER XVII. The Story of Canada and Quebec 139 CHAPTER XVIII. Beginning of the American Revolution 152 CHAPTER XIX. Progress of the War 163 CHAPTER XX. The Americans Resolved to be Free I'^S CHAPTER XXI. The Struggle for Liberty 189 CHAPTER XXII. Battles and Sieges 201 CONTENTS. ix CHAPTER XXIII. PAGE Close of the War 218 CHAPTER XXIV. The New Republic 229' CHAPTER XXV. Outbreak of the Great Civil War 261 CHAPTER XXVI. Campaigns of McClellan and Lee 275' CHAPTER XXVII. Important Union Successes 289 CHAPTER XXVIII. Campaigns of Sherman and Grant 302 CHAPTER XXIX. Battles on Land and Sea 317 CHAPTER XXX. Surrender of the Confederate Army 327 CHAPTER XXXI. Assassination of President Lincoln 337 CHAPTER XXXII. Administration of President Grant 347 CHAPTER XXXIIL Assassination of President Garfield 356 CHAPTER XXXIV. Administration of Grover Cleveland 370 X CONTENTS CHAPTER XXXV. age Administration of President Harrison 380 CHAPTER XXXVI. President Cleveland's Second Term . 390 CHAPTER XXXVn. Inauguration of President McKinley 398 CHAPTER XXXVHI. Alaska and Its Gold- Fields 405 CHAPTER XXXIX. Mexico and the Mexicans 416 CHAPTER XL. Cuba and Her Struggles for Freedom 436 CHAPTER XLI. Story of Hawaii 463 CHAPTER XLII. Countries of South America 475 A., fft', ' 1 ^ 11 * /■/J,. / /J., V V v-'i " " ' N ,, o \v " '•■ V I. ,, '* \ N I I I. \ / .^• /• .' / '• w -rs »»—'■*'•*■ i.:c^j UNITED STATES Soir of yiOn. M 100 uo «uo tto ado WV^ ♦« fr-.m Ur.-n> .•i>"B»r .i«^ 1 z LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE Lief Eric — A Norse Sea-King 19 Remarkable Mounds at Marietta, Ohio, 26 Christopher Columbus, 31 Columbus at the Monastery of La Rabida, 32 Landing of Columbus on the Island of San Salvador, .... 36 Columbus Receiving Natives on Board his Ship, 39 Natives Astonished at an Eclipse of the Sun, 42 Ferdinand De Soto, 47 Spaniards Descending the Mississippi, 48 Sir Martin Frobisher, 50 Sir Walter Raleigh, 53 Murder of White's Assistant by the Indians, 56 Captain John Smith, 59 Pocahontas, 61 Captain Smith's Fight with an Indian Chief, 63 Flight of the Indians after the Massacre, 66 The Attack on the Doeg Wigwam, 70 Cecil, Lord Baltimore, 74 Mock Suns, Seen by Early Explorers, 75 The "Mayflower" in Plymouth Harbor, 81 Treaty between Plymouth Colony and Massasoit, 83 Types of North American Indians, 86 John Winthrop, 89 King Philip, 90 Attack of the Indians on Brookfield, 93 Indian Weapons, 96 The Charter Oak, 101 Hendrick Hudson, 102 Peter Stuyvesant, 105 XI xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE William Penn, 108 The Rev. Cotton Mather, . 114 General Oglethorpe, 119 John Wesley, 122 Digging for Captain Kidd's Treasures, 126 Executing Negroes in New York, 128 Benjamin Franklin, 134 Disastrous Defeat of General Braddock, 137 General Montcalm, 139 William Pitt, Earl of Chatham, 141 General James Wolfe, 143 Washington Planting the Flag on Fort Duquesne, .... 144 Death of General Wolfe before Quebec, 148 Attack on the Fort at Presque Isle, 150 Colonel Barre, 153 John Hancock, 155 Samuel Adams, 157 Throwing the Tea Overboard in Boston Harbor, 159 Death of Captain Davis at Lexington Bridge, 161 Capture of Ticonderoga by Ethan Allen, 164 General Burgoyne, 166 Battle of Bunker Hill, 167 Bunker Hill Monument, 169 Medal in Honor of the Recapture of Boston, 173 Sergeant Jasper at Fort Moultrie, 174 Signers of the Declaration of Independence, 177 Old Independence Bell, 178 Rattlesnake Flag, 179 Flag and Shield, 180 American Marksman in a Tree, 181 Washington Crossing the Delaware, 185 The Marquis De Lafayette, 19C> General Burgoyne Addressing the Indians, . . . . . ■> 191 General Horatio Gates, , , . 193 Benedict Arnold at the Battle of Saratoga, . . . . - 196 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xiii PAGE Attack on Chew's House, .198 General Anthony Wayne, 199 Seal of the United States, 202 Death of Count Pulaski, 204 An American Rifleman, 206 John Paul Jones, 207 Medal in Honor of Paul Jones, 208 Daniel Boone, 209 Tarleton's Lieutenant and the Farmer, 211 Benedict Arnold, . 214 Major Andre, 215 Escape of Benedict Arnold, 216 Lord Cornwallis, 219 Continental Bills, 221 Surrender of Lord Cornwallis, 224 Attack on the Block House, 226 George Washington, 229 Indian Child in Cradle, 230 John Adams, 231 Thomas Jefferson, 233 James Madison, 234 A Pioneer Hero's Fight with the Savages, 236 Capture of the "Guerriere" by the "Constitution," .... 238 The "Wasp" Boarding the "Frolic'," 239 Perry's Victory on Lake Erie 240 James Monroe, 242 John Quincy Adams, 243 Henry Clay, 244 Andrew Jackson, 245 Daniel Webster, 247 Martin Van Buren, 248 William Henry Harrison, 249 John Tyler, 250 Professor Morse, 251 General Sam Houston, 252 xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS, PAGE The Anti-Rent Riot, 253 James K. Polk, 255 Lieutenant Grant going for Ammunition at Monterey, . . . 256 Zachary Taylor, 257 Millard Fillmore, 258 Franklin Pierce, 260 James Buchanan, 262 Abraham Lincoln, 263 Jefferson Davis, 264 General Joseph E. Johnston, 265 General George B. McClellan, 267 Iron-clad Gunboat, 271 General W. T. Sherman, 273 General T. J. (Stonewall) Jackson, 277 Commodore David G. Farragut, 280 General Robert E. Lee, 284 Battle of Chancellorsville, 292 General George G. Meade, 293 General Pickett's Charge at Gettysburg, 295 LONGSTREET'S ARRIVAL AT BrAGG'S HEADQUARTERS, 298 Wounding of General Longstreet, 308 Battle of Cold Harbor, 311 Death of General Polk, 314 Sinking of the "Alabama" by the "Kearsage," 321 General Philip H. Sheridan, 322 Sheridan's Cavalry Charge at Cedar Creek, 324 The Peace Commissioners, 328 Gallant Defence of Fort Gregg, 330 Surrender of General Lee to General Grant, 334 The Grave of President Lincoln, 341 Capture of Booth, Assassin of President Lincoln, .... 343 Andrew Johnson, . . . 345 Ulysses S. Grant, 347 The Burning of Chicago, , . 349 Horace Greeley, 350 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XV PAGE Attack by Modocs on the Peace Commissioners, ..... 352 Centenniai. Medal, 353 Main Building of the Centennial Exhibition, 354 Rutherford B. Hayes, . . . , 357 James A. Garfield, 358 James G. Blaine, 360 The Assassination of James A. Garfield, 361 Chester A. Arthur, 366 The Brooklyn Suspension Bridge, 368 Grover Cleveland, 370 Administering the Oath to President Cleveland, 371 Cottage in which Grant Died at Mt. McGregor, .... 372 Death of General Grant, 373 General Grant's Temporary Tomb, 374 Levi P. Morton, 378 Benjamin Harrison, . 380 Sitting-Bull in his War-Dress, 384 United States Battleship "Illinois," 394 William McKinley, 398 Map op Alaska, 406 Fernando Cortez, 419 Slaughter of Native Mexicans by the Spaniards, 422 Emperor Maximilian, . 433 Emperor Maximilian Shot by Mexican Troops, 434 City and Harbor of Havana, 438 General Weyler's Trocha across Cuba, 450 Terrible Eruption of Mauna Loa, 466 The Grand Mauna I^oa in Action, 468 FULL-PAGE PHOTOTYPE ILLUSTRATIONS, Columbus before Ferdinand and Isabella. The Landing of Columbus. The Landing of Roger Williams. General Pepperell at the Siege of Louisburg. Patrick Henry. Patrick Henry Addressing the Virginia Convention. Battle of Bennington. Carpenter's Hall, Philadelphia. George Washington. Putnam's Escape at Horse Neck. Washington Crossing the Delaware. Washington Reviewing the Army. General Harrison and Tecumseh. CoaiMODORE Perry at the Battle of Lake Brie. Decatur's Conflict with the Algerine Pirates at Tripoli. Henry Clay. Ulysses S. Grant. Capture of New Orleans — Fleet Passing Forts on the Mississippi. General George G. Meade. Battle of Gettysburg. Washington Monument, Fairmount Park, Unveiled by President McKinley, May 15, 1897. Thomas A. Edison. Lafayette Memorial. General Andrew Jackson. General Winfield Scott. Lincoln Emancipation Statue. Garfield Memorial. General George H. Thomas. Admiral David G. Farragut. Rear Admiral Dupont. United States Cruiser " Baltimore." United States Cruiser "San Francisco." United States Cruiser " Newark." United States Cruiser "Columbia." United States Cruiser ' ' Petrel." United States Cruiser " Yorktown." United States Cruiser "Philadelphia." United States Cruiser '• Chicago." CHAPTER I. THE NORTHMEN. ^T is now pretty generally admitted by intelligent historians, that America was discovered and colonized by the Northmen, some five hundred years before the time of Columbus. A recent American writer remarks that " the Northmen, at the time when the discovery is supposed to have been made, were the greatest navigators in Europe. During the two or three centuries preceding their discovery of America, they had spread themselves over all the islands of the British Archipelago, and had finall}^ seated one of their princes, the great Canute, upon the throne of England. At about the same time, they conquered one of the finest portions of France, to which they gave their name of Normandy. " When the Saxon blood temporarily regained the ascendancy in England, one of their chieftains, as if to vindicate the honor of the stock, crossed the channel from Normandy, crushed by a single decisive blow the feeble array of his competitor, at the battle of Hastings, and secured to himself and his posterity the British sceptre. Not content with these conquests, the Northmen entered the Mediterranean, took possession of Sicily and the northern coasts of Italy and Greece, and for a time gave law from the thrones of Jerusalem and Constantinople." Among the achievements of the earlier history of the Northmen, were the colonization of Iceland, in the year 875, and that of Greenland, in the 3^ear 986. The leader of the colony which settled in the latter region was Eric Raiida^ or the Red. He established his residence at a place which he called Brattalid. He bestowed upon the country the attractive name of Greenland — as a lure to emigrants, and his principal companions gave their names to their respective places of residence. The colonization of Greenland by the Northmen was the event that led immediately to the discovery of America. Even before this time it was in no way improbable that some of their ships navigating between Norway, the British Archipelago and Iceland, all which countries were then in their 2 17 18 THE NORTHMEN. possession, should be driven out of their course by strong easterly winds as far as the coast of America. Some such accidents are, in fact, alluded to by the Icelandic writers, and others may have happened without leaving any trace in history. But when the Northmen had extended their settlements to a point so near the American coast as Greenland, occurrences of this kind became almost matters of course. We find, accordingly, that the year succeeding their establishment in that country, is the one assigned by the Icelandic writers to the discovery of America. The account of the latter event as. given by these writers is briefly as follows : The Colony that Settled in Greenland in 986. Among the companions of Eric Rauda, or the Red — the leader of the colony which settled in Greenland — was Heriulf, whose name is still attached to the southern promontory of Greenland, called by the English, Cape Farewell. Heriulf had a son named Biarne, who is represented in Icelandic- chronicles as a young man of great merit. He had early engaged in commercial enterprises which had been attended with success. It was his. practice to pass his winters alternately in foreign parts and at home with his father. In pursuance of this habit, he had passed the winter of the year, when his father emigrated to Greenland in Norway, and on returning home the next summer found him gone. He determined at once to follow,, and, having obtained the assent of his crew, set sail without discharging his. cargo, though unacquainted with the course. After losing sight of land they met wath northerly winds and fogs, and. were driven about many days and nights without knowing where they were. When the fog cleared away they made sail, and the same day saw land. The coast was low and sandy, rising gradually into hills covered with wood. As it did not correspond with the description given of that of Greenland,, they left it to larboard and steered a northerly course. After another day's, sail they made land a second time. It was low and woody, as before. They now put to sea again, and, after sailing three and a half days with a southwest wind, made land a third time. It proved to be a bold shore surrounded with ice, and on further exploration they discovered it to be an island. Once more leaving the land behind them, and pursuing their way to the north, after two days' and two nights' sail they made the southern, cape of Greenland, where Biarne found his father. THE NORTHMEN. 19 The discoveries of Biarne naturally became a subject of much conver- sation in Greenland. At length Leif, a son of Eric the Red, the leader and chief of the colony, determined to undertake another voyage in the same direction. He accordingly purchased Biarne's ship, and engaged a crew of thirty-five men, including a German named Tyrker, who had lived from his youth in Eric's family. The date of Liel's voyage is assigned to the year 1000. On leaving Greenland, he first made the land, which had been last seen by Biarne, and found it as described by him, a barren coast, rising into lofty mountains covered with ice and snow ; the space between them and the shore being a naked rock, entirely destitute of herbage. They now put to sea a third time with a north-easterly wind, and, after two days' sail, once more made land. There was an island near the coast, upon which they landed : the weather was pleasant, and the grass covered with dew, which, on tasting it, they found of a singular sweetness. They sailed westward, through a strait which separated the island from a promontory projecting northerly from the shore, and finally reached a place where a river, issuing from a lake above, fell into the sea. Here Leif determined to establish his colony, and having trans- ported his effects, in boats, from the ship to the shore of the lake, he erected wooden huts for the temporary accommodation of his men. Afterwards, when they had made up their minds to stay, they built larger houses, and called the settlement Leit's Budir or Booths. When the work of building was finished, Leif divided his men into two parties, one of which regularly kept watch at home, while the other explored the coun- try, but not so far as to be away more than a day at a time. Leif him- self alternately accompanied each of the parties. The chronicle here inter- rupts the narrative, to remark that Leif was a tall and robust man, uncommonly dignified in his personal appearance, and very prudent and judicious in the management of his affairs. LEIF ERIC — A NORSE SEA-KING. 20 THE NORTHMEN. One evening, on the return of the exploring party, it appeared that the German, Tyrker, was missing. Leif was much alarmed at this, and set forth with twelve men in search of him; but had not proceeded far when he met him returning. He gave as a reason for his delay that he had been gathering grapes, of which he had found a great abundance. This was a fruit unknown to the Northmen, but with which and its uses Tyrker, as a German, was acquainted. In consequence of this discovery, Leif gave to the country the name of Wineland, to which his countrymen seem to have subsequently added the epithet Good^ as it is generally men- tioned in the chronicles, under the name of Wineland the Good. The men now employed themselves alternately in gathering grapes and in cut- ting wood, with which they loaded the ship. The river abounded with fish, and particularly salmon of a large size. Leif Eric Returns to Greenland. On the shortest day of the year, according to the chronicle, the sun rose at half-past seven o'clock in the morning, and set at half-past four in the evening. This occurs about the latitude of Cape Cod, so that if the record can be depended on, there is no doubt of the identity of Wineland with Massachusetts and Rhode Island. It is proper to add, however, that the meaning of this passage is a matter of dispute among the learned. The following spring, Leif set sail, with his cargo of wood, and arrived safely in Greenland, having on his way rescued fifteen shipwrecked mari- ners, from a rock near the coast. His father Brie died the same year, and Leif took no further share in the exploration of the new-found territory. The numerous discoveries of Leif, of course, increased the interest that had been excited in Greenland by those of Biame. Some time in the following year, 1001, Thorwald, a brother of Leif, determined to explore still farther the new-found region, and borrowing Leif s ship for the purpose, set sail upon the expedition. He arrived, without any particular adventure, at Leit's Booths, where he passed the winter, employing his company chiefly in fishing. In the spring, Thorwald despatched a party of men in the boat, to explore the country to the southwest. They found it beautiful and well wooded, with but little interval between the woods and the sea, which abounded in islands and shallows. They saw no traces of human habitation, excepting a wooden shed upon one of the islands. The party returned in the autumn to Leif s Booths. THE NORTHMEN. 21 In the following spring (1002), Thorwald sailed eastward in tHe ship, and finally doubled a cape, upon which he was afterwards shipwrecked. To this cape he gave the name of Keel Cape. It is supposed by the Danish Society to be Cape Cod, which in fact bears some resemblance, in the general outline, to the keel of a ship. After repairing his vessel, Thorwald pursued his course to the west, until he reached a promontory covered with wood, which he thought so beautiful that he determined to make it the seat of his settlement. At this place the Northmen found three canoes, each having on board three of the natives. A skirmish ensued, in which eight of the natives were killed : the ninth escaped, and soon after returned with an accession of force. Leader of the Expedition Mortally Wounded. Another engagement then took place, which terminated in the retire- ment of the natives. In the course of it, however, Thorwald, the leader of the expedition, received a mortal wound under the arm from an arrow. He summoned his followers around him, and inquired whether any of them were wounded, to which they all replied in the negative. " As for me," continued Thorwald, " I have received a wound under the arm from an arrow, and I feel that it will be mortal. I advise you to prepare imme- diately for your return; but ye shall first carry my body to the promon- tory which I thought so beautiful, and where I had determined to fix my residence. It may be that it was a prophetic word which fell from my lips, about my abiding there for a season. There shall ye bury me, and ye shall plant a cross at my head, and another at my feet, and ye shall call the name of the place Krossanes — Cape Cross — through all future time." Thorwald died, as he anticipated, of his wound, and was buried by his companions in the manner which he had directed. On the return of the expedition to Greenland, Thorstein, a third son of Eric, determined to proceed to Wineland, and bring back his brother's body. He accordingly fitted out the same ship, with a crew of twenty-five men ; taking also with him his wife Gudrida. This voyage proved an unsuccessful one. They were tossed about all summer without knowing where they were, until at the opening of the winter they finally reached Greenland. In the course of the following year (1006), there arrived in Greenland two ships from Iceland, one of which was commanded by Thorfinn, who was very significantly called Karlsefne^ that is, a man of promise. He 22 THE NORTHMEN. was a wealthy and powerful person of illustrious lineage, being descended from Norwegian, Danish, Swedish, Scotch and Irish ancestors; some of whom were kings, or of royal descent. He was accompanied by Snorre Thorbrandson, also a person of distinction in Iceland. They remained in Greenland through the year, and kept the festival of Yule, or Christmas, at Brattalid, the residence of Eric, who was now dead. During the winter, Thorfinn became enamored of Gudrida, the widow of Thorstein, and obtained the consent of Leif to marry her. Expedition of Thorfinn from Greenland. The discovery and exploration of the new-found region of Winelmid the Good were still the principal subjects of conversation in the family. Thorfinn was strongly urged by his wife, and other friends, to undertake a voyage in that direction, which he finally determined to do. Accordingly, the following spring (1007), he fitted out an expedition, composed of three ships, carrying a hundred and forty men. He took the command himself of one of the vessels, on board of which he was accompanied by his wife Gudrida and his friend Snorre. One of the other ships was commanded by Biarne Grimolfson, of Breidefiord, and Thorhall Gamlason, of Austfiord, in Iceland. The third belonged to Thorwald, who had married a daughter of Eric. With this little fleet, about equal in force to that with which Columbus made his first voyage, Thorfinn set sail from Greenland. After landing at Helluland and Markland, he proceeded on a south- west course, having the land on his right, until he came to Keel Cape. This Cape is described in the chronicle of his voyage as consisting of unexplored deserts, skirted by a long, sandy shore. Here the navigators remained a few days, and made some slight exploration of the country ; in the course of which they found grapes and wheat growing wild. They then continued their course, until they came to a frith or inlet at the entrance of which was an island. They found the island frequented by such an immense number of birds, that it was hardly possible to walk, without treading upon their eggs. Here Thorfinn landed, and fixed his residence for the winter. The following spring Thorhall set forth with eight of the men, in search of Wineland, but was driven by westerly gales across the ocean, upon the coast of Ireland, where they were made slaves. Thorfinn with the rest of the company took the other direction, to the southwest, and soon reached Leif's Booths, which THE NORTHMEN. 23 were situated, as has been seen, on the shore of a lake that discharged its waters into the ocean, through a river. Thorfinn gave to the lake the name of Hop — equivalent to haven or bay. He found wheat growing wild on the low grounds, and vines on the hills. Friendly Visits from the Natives. The Northmen erected additional dwelling-houses at a little distance from the bay, and passed the winter at this place. The climate appeared to them, as it had to Leif and his company, extremely mild. No snow fell, and the cattle were kept out at pasture through the winter. Early in the spring the settlement was visited by the natives in canoes, who carried on a friendly intercourse with the Northmen, exchanging furs for milk-soup and cloth. About this time Gudrida, the wife of Thorfinn, gave birth to a son, who was named Snorre. At the opening of the following winter the natives appeared again, in greater numbers, and with hostile intentions. A skirmish ensued, in w^hich some of the Northmen were killed, but in which the natives were finally repulsed, not without the active interference of the Northern women, and particularly Freydisa. The hostile disposition shown by the natives, seems to have satisfied the Northmen that the country, not- withstanding its natural advantages, would be an uncomfortable residence. They accordingly determined to abandon the idea of a settlement, and prepare for returning to Greenland. The following Spring (1011), after a three years' abode, they took their departure from Wineland, and having taken on board some of the natives, arrived safely in Greenland. Such are the principal particulars given in the chronicles of the most important expedition which was ever fitted out by the Northmen for the exploration of the new-found region. It appears to have resulted in the abandonment, by those who were engaged in it, of the plan of establishing a colony, on account of the ferocious character of the natives. On his return to Greenland, Thorfinn engaged in trading expeditions to Norway, and in 1015 purchased an estate in Iceland, where he passed the remainder of his life. His son, Snorre, who was bom in Wineland, suc- ceeded him in the estate and became a person of high consideration in the country. On the marriage of Snorre, his mother, Gudrida, made a pilgrimage to Rome, and after her return retired to a convent for the rest of her life. A numerous and illustrious progeny descended from Thorfinn, through 24 THE NORTHMEN. his American born son, Snorre, among whom may be mentioned Bishop* Thorlak (a grandson of Snorre, by his daughter Elfrida), who was the author of the oldest work on the ecclesiastical law of Iceland, published in 1123. To him we are probably indebted for the accounts of the voyages of his ancestors to Wineland. The record of the several generations of this remarkable family has been continued unbroken up to the present day. Disastrous End of an Expedition. Subsequently to the great expedition of Thorfinn, there are very few particulars mentioned in the Icelandic writers respecting the new-found regions. These appear to have been pretty soon virtually abandoned, and finally almost forgotten. The same year, however (1011), in which Thorfinn returned, Freydisa, who had accompanied him, fitted out a single ship, in which she sailed herself, in company with two Norwegians, Helge and Finnboge, recently arrived in Greenland, a crew of about thirty-five men and a number of women. She returned the next year, without having attempted a settlement, and her companions are represented as having destroyed eack other in private quarrels. In 1026 an Icelander named Gudleif embarked for Dublin. The vessel being driven out of her course, came near what is supposed to be the American shore, where the crew were seized by the natives and carried into the interior. Here they were accosted by a venerable chief, who addressed them in their own language, and inquired after several persons in Iceland. He refused to tell his name; but as he sent a present of a gold ring to Thurida, the sister of Snorre Gode, and a sword to her son,, he was supposed to be Biorne the Bard, who had been her lover, who had left Iceland in the year 998. After this period we have but few and scattered notices of the colony of the Northmen in America. The conquests of this enterprising people in the southern parts of Europe are sufficient to account for their abandon- ment, not only of the colony on the shores of Rhode Island and Massa- chusetts, but of the larger and older colony of Greenland. It suited their warlike propensities better to make descents on the shores of England, France and Italy, than to cultivate their distant colonies on the compara- tively inhospitable shores of North America. CHAPTER 11. THE FAMOUS MOUND-BUILDERS. )HAT North America was at some remote period occupied by a- more civilized and powerful race than the Indians, found by the first explorers, is very certain. But who they were, what was their history, or what the cause of their extinction, are among the profoundest mysteries of the past. Traces as dis- tinct as those which mark the various physical changes which the conti- nent has undergone, exist to show that these primitive inhabitants were both numerous and far advanced in civilization; but this is all that we know concerning them. In various parts of the country, and especially in the valley of the Mississippi, large mounds and other structures of earth and stone, but chiefly of earth, remain to show the magnitude of the works constructed by these people, to whom the name "Mound-Builders" is generally ap- plied. Some of these earthworks embrace as much as fifteen or sixteen miles of embankment. Indeed, their size, as well as their form and ar- rangement, is one of their most remarkable characteristics. As no domestic animals existed in this country at that period, these works must have been constructed by bringing the earth used in them by hand; a fact which shows that the primitive population was a large one. The construction of the works proves that they had considerable engineer- ing skill. The square, the circle, the ellipse, and the octagon are all used in these structures, being all combined in a single system of works in some places. The proportions are always perfect. The square is always a true square, and the circle a true circle. Many implements and ornaments of copper, silver and precious stones — such as axes, chisels, knives, bracelets, beads, and pieces of thread and cloth, and well-shaped vases of pottery have been found in these mounds, and show the extent of the civilization of the " Mound-Builders " and their knowledge of the arts. In the region of Lake Superior are found old copper mines worked by 25 '26 THE FAMOUS MOUND-BUILDERS. these ancient people. In one of these mines there was discovered an im- mense block of copper weighing nearly six tons. It had been left in the process of removal to the top of the mine, nearly thirty feet above, and was supported on logs of wood which were partly petrified. The stone and copper tools used by the miners were discovered lying about as they had been left by their owners ages before. At the mouth of this mine are piles of earth thrown out in digging it, and out of these embankments trees are growing which are nearly four hundred years old. REMARKABLE MOUNDS AT MARIETTA, OHIO. The following interesting account of the mounds and their builders is from the pen of Mr. J. H. Beadle, who has made a special study of this subject: A people for whom we have no name, vaguely included under the general term of Mound-Builders, have left evidences of extensive works in the vicinity of the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers and their tributaries. These are of three kinds : mounds, square and circular inclosures, and raised embankments of various forms. Of mounds the following are most important and best known : One at Grave Creek, West Virginia, seventy feet high and one thousand feet in circumference at the base ; one near Miamisburg, Ohio, sixty-eight feet high and eighty hundred and fifty-two feet in circumference; the great truncated pyramid at Cahokia, Illinois, seven hundred feet long, five hundred wide, and ninety in height ; the im- THE FAMOUS MOUND-BUILDERS. 27 mense square mound, with face of one hundred and eighty feet, at Marietta, Ohio ; and some hundreds of inferior mounds from sixty to thirty feet in height, in different States, from Wisconsin to the mouth of the Mississippi. Unlike all the mounds in Mexico and Central and South America, those in our country have no trace of buildings on them. Why? Until I visited Arizona I had no answer. There the solution was easy. In those regions stone was abundant, and timber was scarce; here the reverse was the case. Our predecessors built of wood, the others of stone ; the works of the latter remain to this day, while wooden buildings would leave no trace after one or two centuries, if indeed they were not burnt by the savages as soon as abandoned. Great Number of Mounds in Ohio. Of the second class the best known are: the square fortification at Cedar Bank, Scioto River, Ohio, with face of 800 feet, inclosing a mound 245 feet long by 150 broad; the works four miles north of Chillicothe, Ohio, a square and a circular fortification inclosing twenty acres each ; the graded way near Piketon, Ohio; about a hundred mounds and inclosures in Ross County, Ohio; the pyramid at Seltzertown, Mississippi, 600 feet long and 40 feet high, and a vast number of mounds, inclosures, squares and pyramids on the upper lakes, and scattered through the Southern and Western States. Every State in this great region contains these structures. By far the greatest division is in Central and South America; and here we find ourselves at the point where our ancient civilization reached its height, among works which are the astonishment of explorers and per- plexity of scholars. Yucatan is a vast field for antiquarian research, dotted from one end to the other with the ruins of cities, temples and palaces. But in the great forest which covers the northern half of Guatemala, the southern half of Yucatan, and parts of other States, covering an area larger than Ohio, is to be found the key to our ancient history. Within a few years past cities have been discovered which must have contained a popu- lation of a quarter of a million, in an advanced condition of civilization ; and yet, owing to the jealousy of the natives and the indifference of modern scholars, next to nothing is known, and few scientific researches have been made upon this intensely interesting subject. In my limited space I con- fine this inquiry to the remains in our own country. From what we see in the West and South, the following conclusions are evident: 28 THE FAMOUS MOUND-BUILDERS 1. The Mound Builders constituted a considerable population, under one government. No wandering and feeble tribes could have erected such works ; and the extent of the works, evidently many years in erection, as well as their completeness and scientific exactness, show the controlling energy of one directing central power, which alone can account for their uniform character. 2. They were an agricultural people. The barbarous state requires many times as large an area for the same number of people as the civilized state ; and the savage condition a much larger. The State of Ohio will support an agricultural population of many millions ; yet it never contained fifty thousand savages. It is easily proven that that portion of the United States east of the Mississippi never contained half a million Indians. It follows, also, that a very large portion of the country around their works must have been cleared of timber and in cultivated fields. Forest Trees which are the Growth of Centuries. 3. They left our country a long time ago. Nature does not give a forest growth at once to abandoned fields ; a preparatory growth of shrubs and softer timber comes first. But forest trees have been found upon the summit of their mounds, which show, by annual rings and other signs, at least six hundred years of growth. There could be no better proof of their great antiquity. Their works are never found upon the lowest terrace of the formation on the rivers ; though many signs indicate that they built some as nearly on a level with the streams as possible. Their " covered ways," leading down to water, now terminate on the second terrace above. It is demon- strable that of the various terraces — " second bottoms " — on our streams^ the lowest was longest in forming. From these and many other signs, it is proved that the last of the Mound Builders left the Ohio valley at least a thousand years ago. 4. They occupied the country, at least the southern part of it, where their population was densest, a very long time. This is shown by the extent of their works, the evidences of their working the copper-mines of the Superior region, and many other proofs. The best judges estimate that nearly a thousand years elapsed from the time of their entrance till their departure from the Mississippi valley. 5. At the south they were at peace ; but as they advanced northward, THE FAMOUS MOUND-BUILDERS. 29 they came more and more into contact with the wild tribes, before whom they finally retired— again towards the south. These facts are clearly proved by the increase of fortifications northward, and broad flat mounds, suitable only for building, southward. So much for proof; and, connecting these with other proofs, the latest antiquarians are of the opinion that the Toltecs— the civilized race preced- ing the Aztecs — were our Mound-Builders. Immense Forest in Central America. When we pass to the more southern ruins the proofs of great an- tiquity, large population and long occupation are vastly increased. Some •of them have been alluded to. The great forest of Guatemala and Yucatan is nearly as large as Ohio and Indiana combined, and could easily have sustained a civilized population of ten millions. The Aztecs, whom the Spaniards found, were the last of at least three civilized races, and much inferior to the Toltecs immediately preceding them. Their history indicates that they were merely one of the original races, who overthrew and mingled with the Toltecs, adopting part of their religion and civilization.^ The Peruvian Incas, found by Pizarro, seemed to have been the second in the series of races. But civilization is not spontaneous ; it must have required nearly a thousand years for the first of the three dynasties to have de- veloped art and learning far enough to erect the buildings we find. Thus we have the series : A thousand years since the Mound Builders left our country; a previous thousand years of settlement and occupation, and a thousand years for the precedent civilization to develop. Or, begin- ning in Mexico, etc. : a thousand years of Spaniard and Aztec ; a previous thousand years for Toltec migration and settlement, and a thousand years before that for the Colhuas to develop, flourish and decline. This carries us back to the time when the same course of events was inaugurated on the Eastern Continent. We know that it has required so long to produce all we see in Europe and Asia; all reasoning, by analogy, goes to show that at least as long a time has been required to produce equally great evidences in America. CHAPTER HI. DISCOVERY OF AMERICA BY COLUMBUS. ■OLUMBUS, notwitlistanding the discovery of America by the Northmen, deserves as much credit for his noble enterprise, as though the continent had never been previously visited by any European. He was probably ignorant of what had been done by the Northmen, or if he acquired any knowledge of their discoveries, it is not probable that he would ever imagine there was any connection between the inhospitable countries which they described and the luxuriant Indies which he sought. Christopher Columbus was born at Genoa in 1441. It has been asserted that his origin was humble. This is of the least possible consequence, or it would not be difficult to produce evidence that he was well descended. He studied awhile at Pavia, but quitted the university at an early period to follow a maritime life. Between thirty and forty years were spent in voyages to various parts of the world, during which geometry, astronomy and cosmography occupied much of his attention. At length he settled at Lisbon, where he married the orphan daughter of Palestrello, an Italian navigator. From a long and close application to the study of geography and navigation, Columbus had obtained a knowledge of the true figure of the earth, much superior to the general notions of the age in which he lived. In order that the globe might be properly balanced, and the lands and seas proportioned to each other, he accordingly w^as led to conceive that another continent Avas necessary. Other reasons induced him to believe that this continent was connected with the East Indies. As early as the year 1474, he communicated his ingenious theory to Paul, a physician of Florence, eminent for his knowledge of geography. He warmly approved it, and encouraged Columbus in an undertaking so laudable, and which promised so much benefit to the world. Having fully satisfied himself with respect to the truth of his system, he became impatient to reduce it to practice. The first step towards this was to secure the patronage of some of the European powers. Accordingly 30 DISCOVERY OF AMERICA BY COLUMBUS. 31? lie laid his scheme before the senate of Genoa, making his native country- the first offer of his services. They rejected his proposals. He next applied to John II. king of Portugal, a monarch of an enter- prising genius, and no incompetent judge of naval affairs. The king listened to him in the most gracious manner, and referred the consideration of his plan to a number of eminent scholars, whom he was accustomed to consult in matters of this kind. These men, from mean and interested views, started innumerable objections, and asked many questions, on purpose to betray Columbus into a full explanation of his system. Having done this, they advised the king to despatch a vessel, secretly, to attempt the proposed dis- covery, by following exactly the course which Columbus had pointed out. Columbus, after years of waiting, abandoned the hope of obtaining a noble assistance, and applied to Henry VII. of England, from whom he re- ceived a decided refusal. Quitting Lisbon in 1484, Columbus went to Spain, intending to lay his plans be- fore Ferdinand and Isabella, the sov- ereigns of that country. He could scarcely have chosen a more unpro- pitious time. He was told by the Christopher columbus. sovereigns that on account of the Moorish war in which they were then engaged they were too much occupied to treat with him, but would consider his project at some future time when they would be better prepared to decide upon its merits. He accepted this answer as a refusal, and prepared to go to France to ask the assistance of the king of that country, from whom he had received a friendly letter. Traveling on foot he stopped at the monastery of Santa Maria de Rabida, near Palos, to visit the Prior Juan Perez de Marchena, who had befriended him when he first came to Spain. The prior, learning his intention to quit Spain, persuaded him to remain until one more effort could be made to enlist the government in his plans. Leaving Columbus at the convent, Juan Perez, who had formerly been the queen's confessor, 32 COLUMBUS AT THE MONASTERY OF LA RABIDA. DISCOVERY OF AMERICA BY COLUMBUS. 33 mounted liis mule and set off for the Spanish camp before Granada. He was readily granted an interview by Queen Isabella, and he urged the suit of Columbus with all the force of eloquence and reasoning of which he was master, and finally was successful. On the 3d of August, 1492, Columbus left Spain in the impressive presence of a large crowd of spectators, who united their supplications to heaven for his success. He steered directly for the Canary Islands, where he arrived and refitted, as well as he could, his crazy and ill-appointed fleet. Hence he sailed, September 6th, a due western course into an unknown ocean. Columbus now found a thousand unforeseen hardships to encounter, which demanded all his judgment, fortitude, and address to sur- mount. Besides the difficulties, unavoidable from the nature of his under- taking, he had to struggle with those which arose from the ignorance and timidity of the people under his command. The Sailors Filled with Terror. On the 14th of September he was astonished to find that the magnetic needle in their compass did not point exactly to the polar star, but varied towards the west ; and as they proceeded, this variation increased. This new phenomenon, which is now familiar, though the cause remains one of the secrets of nature, filled the companions of Columbus with terror. Nature itself seemed to have sustained a change ; and the only guide they had left, to point them to a safe retreat from an unbounded and trackless ocean, was about to fail them. Columbus, with no less quickness than ingenuity, assigned a reason for this appearance, which, though it did not satisfy himself, seemed so plausible to his companions, that it dispelled their fears, or silenced their murmurs. The sailors, discontented and alarmed, several times mutinied, and once proposed to throw their admiral overboard. Columbus was now fully sensible of his perilous situation. He had observed, with great uneasiness, the fatal operation of ignorance and of fear in producing disaffection among his crew ; and saw that it was now ready to burst out into open mutiny. He retained, however, perfect presence of mind. He affected to seem ignorant of their machinations. Notwithstand- ing the agitation and solicitude of his own mind, he appeared with a cheer- ful countenance ; like a man satisfied with the progress which he had made, and confident of success. Sometimes he employed all the arts of insinuation to soothe his men. 3 COLUMBUS ADDRESSING HIS MEN DURING THE MUTINY ON BOARD HIS SHIP. 34 DISCOVERY OF AMERICA BY COLUMBUS. 35 On otlier occasions lie assumed a tone of authority, and threatened them with vengeance from their sovereign, if, by their dastardly behavior, they should defeat this noble effort to promote the glory of God, and to exalt the Spanish name above that of every other nation. Even with sediti- ous sailors, the words of a man whom they had been accustomed to rever- ence were weighty and persuasive ; and not only restrained them from those violent excesses which they meditated, but prevailed with them to accompany their admiral for some time longer. As they proceeded, the indications of approaching land seemed to be more certain. Colurabus in Danger from Mutiny. Columbus, in imitation of the Portuguese navigators, who had been fifuided in several of their discoveries by the motion of birds, altered his course from due west towards that quarter whither they pointed their flight. But after holding on for several da3^s in this new direction without any bet- ter success than formerly, having seen no object during thirty days but the sea and the sky, the hopes of his companions subsided faster than they had risen ; their fears revived with additional force ; impatience, rage and despair appeared in every countenance. All sense of subordination was lost. The officers, who had hitherto concurred with Columbus in opinion, and supported his authority, now took part with the private men: they assembled tumultuously on the deck, expostulated with their com- mander, mingled threats with their expostulations, and required him in- stantly to tack about and to return to Europe. Columbus perceived that it would be of no avail to have recourse to any of his former arts, which, having been tried so often, had lost their effect ; and that it was impossi- ble to rekindle any zeal for the success of the expedition among men in whose breasts fear had extinguished every generous sentiment. He saw that it was no less vain to think of employing either gentle or severe measures, to quell a mutiny so general and so violent. It was necessary, on all these accounts, to soothe passions which he could no longer command, and to give way to a torrent too impetuous to be checked. He promised solemnly to his men that he would comply with their requests, provided they would accompany him, and obey his commands for three days longer; and if, during that time, land were not discovered, he would then abandon the enterprise, and direct his course back to Spain. Enraged as the sailors were, and impatient to turn their faces again towards DISCOVERY OF AMERICA BY COLUMBUS. 37 their native country, this proposition did not appear to them unreasonable. Nor did Columbus hazard much in confining himself to a term so short. The presages of discovering land were now so numerous and promising, that he deemed them infallible. For some days the sounding line reached the bottom, and the soil which it brought up indicated land to be at no great distance. The flocks of birds increased, and were composed not only of sea-fowl, but of such land birds as could not be supposed to fly far from the shore. The crew of the Pinta observed a cane floating which seemed to be newly cut, and likewise a piece of timber artificially carved. The sailors aboard the Nigna took up the branch of a tree with red berries per- fectly fresh. The clouds around the setting sun assumed a new appear- ance ; the air was more mild and warm ; and, during night, the wind became unequal and variable. Welcome News that Land is Discovered. From all these symptoms, Columbus was so confident of being near land that, on the evening of the 11th of October, after public prayers for success, he ordered the sails to be furled, and the ships to lie by, keeping strict watch, lest they should be driven ashore in the night. During this interval of suspense and expectation no man shut his eyes. About two hours before midnight Columbus, standing on the forecastle,, observed a light at a distance, and privately pointed it out to Pedro Gut- tierez, a page of the queen's wardrobe. Guttierez perceived it, and calling to Salcedo, comptroller of the fleet, all three saw it in motion, as if it were carried from place to place. At 2 o'clock next morning Roderic Triana discovered land, and the joyful sound of Land! land ! was heard from the Pinta, which kept always ahead of the other ships. But having been deceived so often by fallacious appearances, every man was now become slow of belief, and waited, in all the anguish of uncertainty and impatience, for the return of day. As soon as morning dawned, all doubts and fears were dispelled. From every ship an island was seen about two leagues to the north, whose flat and verdant fields, well stored with wood and watered with many rivulets, presented the aspect of a delightful country. The crew of the Pinta instantly began the Te Deinn^ as a hymn of thanksgiving to God ; and were joined by those of the other ships, with tears of joy and transports of congratulation. 38 DISCOVERY OF AMERICA BY COLUMBUS. This office of gratitude to heaven was followed by an act of justice to their commander. They threw themselves at the feet of Columbus with feelings of self-condemnation mingled with reverence. They implored him to pardon their ignorance, incredulity and insolence, which had created him so much unnecessary disquiet, and had so often obstructed the prosecution of his well-concerted plan ; and passing, in the warmth of their admiration, from one extreme to another, they now pronounced the man whom they had so lately reviled and threatened, to be a person inspired by Heaven with sagacity and fortitude more than human, in order to accomplish a design so far beyond the ideas and conception of all former ages. Astonishment of the People on Shore. As soon as the sun arose all their boats were manned and armed. They rowed towards the island with their colors displayed, with warlike music, and other martial pomp. As they approached the coast they saw it covered with a multitude of people, whom the novelty of the spectacle had drawn together, whose attitudes and gestures expressed wonder and astonishment at the strange objects they saw. Columbus was the first European who set foot in the New World which he had discovered. He landed in a rich dress and with a naked sword in his hand. His men followed ; and, kneeling down, they all kissed the ground which they had so long desired to see. They next erected a crucifix, and, prostrating themselves before it, returned thanks to God for conducting their voyage to such a happy issue. The island was one of the Bahama islands, to which he gave the name of San Salvador., and took possession of it in the name of their Catholic Majesties. In this first voyage he discovered several other of the Lucayo or Bahama Islands, with those of Cuba and Hispaniola. The natives con- sidered the Spaniards as divinities, and the discharge of the artillery as their thunder; they fell prostrate at the sound. He afterwards touched at several of the islands in the same cluster, inquiring everywhere for gold, which he thought was the only object of commerce worth his attention. In steering southward he discovered the islands of Cuba and Hispaniola, inhabited by a humane and hospitable people. Before embarking for Spain, Columbus took on board some of the products of the new world to convince the people on the other side of the ocean that he had made a great and important discover3\ He captured some COLUMBUS RECEIVING NATIVES ON BOARD HIS SHIP. 39 40 DISCOVERY OF AMERICA BY COLUMBUS. of the birds and animals, and also induced several of the natives to accom- pany him. The latter were ornamented with feathers, necklaces, etc. On his return he was overtaken by a storm, which had nearly proved fatal to his ships and their crews. At a crisis when all was given up for lost, Columbus had presence of mind enough to retire into his cabin, and to write upon parchment a short account of his voyage ; this he wrapped in an oiled cloth, which he enclosed in a cake of wax, put it into a tight cask, and threw it into the sea, in hopes that some fortunate accident might preserve a deposit of so much importance to the world. Columbus Welcomed by the Court and People. He arrived at Palos in Spain, whence he had sailed the year before, on the 15tli of March, 1493. He was welcomed with all the acclamations which the populace are ever ready to bestow on great and glorious characters ; and the court received him with marks of the greatest respect. A second expedition, consisting of seventeen ships and fifteen hundred men, was now fitted out, and sailed from Cadiz under the command of Co- lumbus on the 25th of September, 1493. On this voyage he discovered Jamaica and many of the Caribbee Islands. In 1498 Columbus made a third voyage, and in this expedition he discovered the mainland of the American Continent near the mouth of the Orinoco, and explored the coast of the provinces, since called Para and Cumana. He was not aware of the true nature of his discover}^, but supposed that the South American coast was a part of a large island belonging to Cathay or Farther India. In the meantime gold had been discovered in Hayti, and crowds of adventurers were drawn hither from Spain. They inflicted great hardships upon the natives, and when Columbus arrived he found the affairs of the colony in a most deplorable state. The sovereigns at length sent over a commissioner named Bobadilla to investigate the affairs of the colonj^ He was a narrow-minded, incompetent man, and instead of investigating the charges against the admiral, arrested him, and sent him back to Spain in irons. When the officers of the ship which bore him back home wished to remove his fetters, he refused to allow them to do so, saying, "I will wear them as a memento of the gratitude of princes." The news of this outrage filled the people of Spain with honest indignation. "All seemed to feel it as a national dishonor," says Prescott, "that such indignities should be heaped DISCOVERY OF AMERICA BY COLUMBUS. 41 upon the man, wlio, whatever might be his indiscretions, had done so much for Spain, and for the civilized world." Queen Isabella at once ordered his fetters to be struck off, and he was summoned to court, reinstated in all his honors, and treated with the highest consideration. Isabella gained from the king a promise to aid her in doing justice to the admiral, and in punishing his enemies ; but Ferdinand, who could never bear to do a generous or noble act, evaded his promise, and the admiral failed to receive his just recompense. Shipwrecked on the Coast of Jamaica. In 1504 Columbus sailed on his fourth voyage; his object this time being to find a passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean, by which he might reach India. He explored the Gulf of Honduras, and saw the continent of North America, but was compelled by the mutiny of his crew and by severe storms to abandon his attempt and return to the north- ward. He was shipwrecked on the coast of Jamaica, where he remained more than a year. Returning to Spain in November, 1505, he found his best friend. Queen Isabella, on her death-bed. The enemies whom his great success had raised up for him were numerous and powerful, while he was now old and broken in health. He vainly sought from Ferdinand a faithful execution of the original compact between them ; but though he received fair words and promises in abundance from the king, Ferdinand steadily refused to comply with the just demands of the admiral. On the last voyage of Columbus the Spaniards were so harsh and unjust to the Indians that they refused to bring in the supplies on which it may be said the lives of the visitors depended. Columbus led them to do so by appealing to their superstition. He foretold an eclipse of the sun, which, proving true, they were so terrified that they hastened to do his will. In addition to these trials, Columbus suffered very much from the diseases that had rooted themselves in his system. At last relief vessels arrived, and he set sail for Spain, landing, after a tempestous voyage, at Seville, September 7, 1504. Disease was making rapid inroads on the brave old navigator, who had undergone such vicissitudes of fortune. He had overcome obstacles that would have crushed ordinary men ; he had quelled mutinies and faced perils innumerable by land and sea; but he could not beat off the attacks 42 DISCOVERY OF AMERICA BY COLUMBUS. which came with increasing years. When he reached Seville he was too ill to go to court, and his son Diego was sent forward to attend to his interests. The feeble admiral was treated kindly and with great honor. In May, 1505, he was removed to the court at Segovia, and thence to Valladolid, growing steadily weaker in body all the time. ": ' '"^f^f"'^ ' fill'; ilflfl III' ' "I i"''W'|'Jj NATIVES ASTONISHED BY THE ECI.IPSE OF THE SUN. The last document- ary note of Columbus is in a final codicil to his will, made at Valladolid, May 19, 1506. This he wrote and signed with his own hand. The next day he passed away. He was quietly buried at Valladolid; but, some DISCOVERY OF AMERICA BY COLUMBUS. 43 time later, his bones were removed to tlie Carthusian monastery of Las Cuevas, Seville, where the remains of his son Diego were also subsequently laid. In 1536 the bodies of father and son were exhumed and taken across the ocean to San Domingo (Hispaniola), \vhere they were buried in the cathedral. There they remained until 1 795-1 796, when, on the cession of the island to the French, the ashes were again exhumed, and with great state and ceremony, transferred to the cathedral of Havana, where they now remain. This male issue of Columbus ended with the third genera- tion, and the estates and titles were transferred by marriage to the scion of the house of Braganca. Columbus lived to experience the ingratitude of the sovereigns whom he had so faithfully served. They sought to deprive him of the reward they had promised ; and it was only by a long and expensive lawsuit that his son succeeded at last in establishing his rights and founding a noble family, whose descendants are still among the highest grandees of Spain. Story of Columbus and the Egg. Columbus's readiness and address are well illustrated by the following anecdote : " Soon after Columbus's return from his first voyage, a splendid entertainment was proposed, to which he was invited, again to recount the particulars of his voyage in a more familiar and detailed manner than he had done before. There were many of the courtiers who secretly envied the good fortune of Columbus, and tried to disparge his success, by hint- ing that anybody might have done the same thing — that there was nothing very marvellous in discovering a western world — that if he had not done it, somebody else would ; that the thing was, after all, by no means difficult. " Upon this Columbus took up an ^gg^ and civilly asked those present if they could make it stand on either of its ends. The courtiers tried, and tried, and tried again without success ; and, after a while, were forced to give up the point. * You see,' said Columbus, ' it is impossible.' Colum- bus then gave the ^gg a slight blow on one end, so as just to break in the shell. The ^gg stood immediately. ' There,' said he, ' it is possible after all ; but I found out the way to do it, which none of you could.' The queen laughed heartily, and declared that Columbus was the victor." CHAPTKR IV. ADVENTURES OF DE SOTO AND OTHERS. )FTHR the discovery of the Western world by Columbus, the principal European nations who made discoveries were the English, the French, the Spanish and the Dutch. It was under the reign of the politic, though cruel, Henry VII. of England, that the shores of the United States were explored. The names of the Cabots should be remembered by American citizens with that of Columbus, for they equally form connecting links between our history and that of Europe. John Cabot, a native of Venice, had, with his family, settled in England. He and his renowned son, Sebastian, were men of great learning, enterprise and ability. By a com- mission of Henry VII., dated March 5th, 1496 (the oldest American state paper of England), they had authority to discover any heathen countries not before known to Christians. They, defraying the expenses of the voy- age, were to possess these countries as the king's lieutenants, paying him one-fifth of all gains. They sailed from England in May, 1497, and in June discovered the Island of Newfoundland, which they called Prima Vista. Steering north- ward, they made the first discovery of the continent on the coast of Lab- rador. On their return they pursued a southerly direction to an uncertain distance. Sebastian Cabot sailed a second time — reached Labrador, thence turning southerl}^, and became the discoverer of the coast of the United States, along which he proceeded as far as the southern latitude of Maryland. It is much to be regretted that so few particulars remain on record of these two voyages, which form so fundamental a portion of our history. Smitten by the common passion of the sovereigns of Europe for American discovery, Francis L, of France, turned aside alike from his elegant and his warlike pursuits, and one year before his defeat at Pavia he found for his service another Italian discoverer. This was John Verra- zani, a Florentine, who reached the continent in the latitude of Wilmington, 44 ADVENTURES OF DE SOTO AND OTHERS. 45 North Carolina. He then sailed fifty leagues south, but finding no con- venient harbor, he returned and cast anchor ; being the first European who had afiforded the astonished natives the spectacle of the white race. They were received with rude, but fearless hospitality. The French looked with wonder upon the wild costume of the natives, made of the skins of animals, and set off by necklaces of coral and gar- lands of feathers. As they again sailed northward along the coast, their senses were regaled by the verdure of the forests, and the perfume of the flowers which they scented from the shores. At a fine harbor, supposed to be that of Newport in Rhode Island, Verrazani remained fifteen days, and there found " the goodliest people he had seen." From thence he followed the northeastern shore of New Eng- land, finding the inhabitants jealous and hostile. From the peninsula of Nova Scotia he returned to France, and wrote a narrative of his voyage, which is the earliest original account of the coast of the United States. Discovery of Canada. James Cartier was, however, the mariner to whose discoveries the French trace the extensive empire which they possessed in North America. Cartier, after a prosperous voyage of twenty days, made Cape Bonavista, the most easterly point of Newfoundland. Sailing around the northeastern extremity of the island, he encountered severe weather and icy seas. Then, stretching to the southwest, he discovered on St. Lawrence's day, the noble gulf which bears the name of that saint. In Jul}^ he entered a bay which, from the heats of the rapidly changing season, he named Des Chaleurs. Coasting thence to the small bay of Gaspe, he there landed and reared a cross, upon which he hung a shield bearing the arms of France, in token that the country was thenceforth a part of its domain. Boisterous weather soon obliged him to return. In 1535 he sailed on a second voyage, entered the Gulf of St. Lawrence, proceeded up the river to which he gave the same name, and anchored at an island, which, abounding in grapes, he named Bacchus Isle, now the Isle of Orleans. He continued his voyage to the island of Hochelaga ; when mounting on an eminence where his spirit was gladdened by the actual view of a beautiful region he had before seen in vision, he gave it the name of Mont Real. It was then the resort of native tribes, whose language proved them to be Hurons. 46 ADVENTURES OF DE SOTO AND OTHERS. He returned to the isle Bacchus, built a fort, and there suffered not only the unwonted rigors of winter, but the attacks of the scurvy, a terrible malady, to which many of his company fell victims. He returned in the spring with dreary accounts of the country, which, however, he named New France. It was also called Canada, but at what time, or whether from any significance in the word, is not known. Fort Built on the Site of Quebec. France now possessed a country in the New World, through which flowed a river, more majestic than any in Europe. To hold sway over so extensive a region, though a wilderness, seemed to Francis De La Roque, of Roberval, more honorable than to govern a small and cultured domain in Picardy; and he obtained from the king full authority to rule, as viceroy, the vast territory around the bay and river of St. Lawrence. Cartier was necessary to him, and received the title of chief pilot and captain-general of the enterprise. The prisons were thrown open to find persons willing to become their colonists. Nothing good could be expected from such beginnings. Cartier sailed up the St. Lawrence, built a fort near the site of Quebec, and there spent a winter, in which he had occasion to hang one of his company, put several in irons, and "whip divers women as well as men." In the spring he took them back to France, just as Roberval arrived with supplies and fresh emigrants. By him, however, nothing permanent was effected ; and after a year, he abandoned his viceroyalty, and, cured, at least for a time, of his inordinate ambition, he returned to Picardy. Coligni, the distinguished high admiral of France, sent out, under the command of John Ribault, well known as a brave and pious Protestant, two ships laden with conscientious Huguenots, or Protestants, many of whom were of the best families in France. They made land in the delightful clime of St. Augustine; and on the 1st of May discovered the St. John, which they called the river of May. Sailing along the coast northeasterly, they at length fixed on Port Royal entrance. There they built a fort, and in honor of the king of France, called it Carolina, a name which is pre- served in the appellation of two of our States. Ribault left there a colony, and returned to France. The commander of the fort provoked a mutiny, and was slain. The colonists longed for home. They put to sea without suitable provisions, ADVENTURES OF DE SOTO AND OTHERS. 47 and, forlorn and famishing, were found by a British vessel and were carried by it to England. The persevering Coligni soon after sent out another colony under Laudonniere, a seaman of worth and intelligence. Upon the banks of the river of May, with psalms of thanksgiving, they made their dwelling-place and erected another fort, called also Carolina. The next 3^ear Ribault arrived with vessels containing emigrants and supplies ; and, taking the command, the colony seemed happily planted. To bring together the discoveries of the same nation, we go back fifty years in the order of time. It is impossible at this day to conceive how much our knowledge of the geography of the earth has diminished the marvellous, so rife in the times of which we treat. Won- derful discoveries were continually ex- pected, for such had already been made, and human hope is ever in advance of reality. John Ponce de Leon, a Spanish soldier who had once voyaged with Columbus, had received an impression common in those times, that there existed in the New World Fernando de soto. a fountain whose waters had power to arrest disease, and give immortal youth. The aged Ponce set forth to seek it, and to conquer a kingdom. He searched among the Bahama Islands, then steered to the northwest. On Easter Sunday, called by the Spaniards Pascua Florida, and a little north of the latitude of St. Augustine, he discovered what he deemed a land of flowers, so brilliant were the forest trees. The fountain of life was not there ; but Ponce took possession of the country in the name of the Spanish king, and called it Florida. The part of South Carolina in the vicinity of the Combahee River was soon after visited by a Spaniard, Vasquez De Ayllon. The country was named Chicora, and the river, the Jordan. De Ayllon had two ships. He invited the natives to visit them, and while the unsuspecting throngs stood upon his deck, he hoisted sail, and in a moment they became miser- 48 ADVENTURES OF DE SOTO AND OTHERS. able slaves, torn from their families, and condemned to ceaseless toil. De Ayllon obtained afterwards a commission to conquer the country, but the hostility of the natives could not be overcome, and numbers of Spaniards perished in the fruitless attempt. By an unsuccessful effort of the Spaniards under the adventurer Nar- vaez, to conquer Florida, and the adjoining country, an army of three hun- dred Spanish, partly mounted cavaliers, wasted away till but four or five returned; and those not until after incredible wanderings and hardships. SPANIARDS DESCENDING THE MISSISSIPPI AFTER THE DEATH OF DE SOTO. They, however, insisted that Florida was the richest country in the world ; and Ferdinand De Soto, already famous as the companion of Pizarro, the cruel conqueror of Peru, and ambitious to be in conquest equally great, listening to the marvelous tales of the wanderers, obtained a commission from Charles V. to conquer Florida at his own cost. His reputation gave him followers ; and with high hopes he sailed to Cuba, of which he had been made Governor ; and there adding to his armament, he landed in 1539 at Espirito Santo in Florida, with six hundred soldiers ; an army ADVENTURES OF DE SOTO AND OTHERS. 49 far greater in numbers and mucli better appointed than that with which Cortez conquered Mexico. He expected to find mines and cities of gold ; and being from time to time deluded by the natives, he pursued these shadows, which ever fled as he approached. He went north, crossed the Alleghany Mountains, then marched southerly to Mobile, where he fought a bloody battle with the people of a walled city containing several thousand inhabitants. At Pensacola he met ships from Cuba, with supplies for his exhausted army ; and too proud to be wise, he still pursued a phantom, rather than retrace a false step. The hope of the precious metals still lured him on, and he now bent his course to the northwest, and in latitude thirty-four degrees discovered the majestic Mississippi. He continued west until he reached the Wachita, when, becoming at length dispirited, he turned homewards his course, descended that stream to its junction with the Red River, and thence down its current ; and where the Red mingles its waters with the Alississippi, there he died ; and his body, inclosed in a hollow oak, was committed to the broad stream, from the discovery of which he derives his unenviable fame. The Oldest City in America. The officer who succeeded him in command, conducted the poor remains of the army down the Mississippi, seeking a place, where, no longer perpetually watched by concealed savage foes, he might once more " sleep out his full sleep." When the news reached Spain that Florida had been colonized by French Huguenots, Philip II, found in Pedro Melendez de Aviles a fit agent of his own bigoted spirit ; and he gave him the double commission to take possession of that country, and to destroy the heretics. More than five hundred persons accompanied Melendez, among whom were men with their families, soldiers, mechanics and priests. Coming upon the coast south of the settlement, he discovered the harbor of St. Augustine on the day of that saint ; and here was now laid the foundation of the city of that name, the oldest by more than forty years, of any within the limits of our Republic. The French had received from Melendez the terrible notice that he had come to destroy every person who was not a Catholic. Ribault, supposing that the Spaniards would make the attack by sea, embarked to meet them. A tremendous storm drove him from his track, and shipwrecked his whole 4 or 50 ADVENTURES OF DE SOTO AND OTHERS. fleet The Spaniards, meantime, crossed the forest and attacked by land Unprepared and surprised, the defenseless fort soon surrendered; when cruel bigotry performed her murderous work upon ail-without distinction of age sex. The shipwrecked mariners were afterwards found, feeble and exhausted upon the shore. Melendez in- vited them to come to him and trust to his compassion ; they came — and he slew them I When the news of this cruel massa- cre crossed the At- lantic, a cr}' of ven- geance reached the French monarch, for the blood of nine hundred butchered subjects, but it was unheeded. Yet so deep was the feeling among the people of France, that three 3'ears afterwards, in- dividuals headed by the gallant chevalier Gouges, made a de- scent on the settle- ment of Florida and put to death two hundred Spaniards. The Spanish colony was thus checked, but it was not destroyed ; and it proved to be the first permanent settlement made by Europeans upon the shores of our Republic. Though England had made no effort to colonize America during the long period we have been considering, she never abandoned her claims to THE RENO^VNED EXPLORER, SIR MARTIN FROBISHER. ADVENTURES OF DE SOTO AND OTHERS. 51 that region, claims which were based upon the discoveries and explorations of John and Sebastian Cabot. The voyages of her fishermen to Newfound- land kept the country fresh in the minds of the sea-faring Englishmen, and from time to time voyages were made to the American coast for the purpose of trading with the savages. Under Elizabeth, who pursued the wise policy of fostering her navy, a race of hardy and daring sailors grew up in England, and carried the flag of their country into every sea. A Cargo of Worthless Dirt. In this reign Martin Frobisher with two small ships made a voyage to the frozen regions of Labrador in search of the northwest passage. He failed to find it, but penetrated farther north than any European had yet gone, A. D. 1576. His second voyage was made the next year, and was undertaken in the hope of finding gold, as one of the stones he had brought home on his first cruise had been pronounced by the refiners of London to contain the precious metal. The fleet did not advance as far north as Frobisher had done on his first attempt, as a large mass of yellow earth was found which was believed to contain gold. The ships were loaded with this, and all sail was made for home, only to find on reaching England that their cargo was but a heap of worthless dirt. A third voyage with fifteen ships was attempted in 1578, but no gold was found, and the extreme northern latitudes were ascertained to be too bleak for colonization. The idea of discovering gold in America seems to have been constantly in the mind of the various discoverers who, at this period, commanded ex- peditions. High hopes were entertained of finding untold wealth in the new world, and when such attempts failed, evil reports were naturally carried back by the disappointed adventurers. CHAPTER V. STORY OF SIR WALTER RALEIGH. )HH history of Hnglisli colonization in America begins witli two remarkable men, Sir Humphrey Gilbert and his brother-in-law, Sir Walter Raleigh. The English monarchy claiming the country, in virtue of the discover}^ of Sebastian Cabot, Queen Elizabeth, the reigning sovereign, gave to Sir Humphrey Gil- bert, in 1578, by an open or patent letter, " all such remote, heathen and barbarous lands," as he should discover in North America, and of which he should take possession ; these lands not having been before occupied by any other Christian power. She vested in him and his heirs the full right of property in the soil, and also the complete right of jurisdiction over those countries, and the seas adjoining them; declaring that all who settle there should enjoy the privileges of free citizens and natives of England ; and finally, she pro- hibited all persons from attempting to settle within two hundred leagues of any place which Sir Humphrc}^, or his associates, should have occupied for the space of six 3^ears. For these privileges the patentee was to acknowledge the authority of the crown of England as supreme, and pay to the sovereign one-fifth of all the gold and silver which should be obtained from these countries. In the first attempt made by Gilbert to plant a colou}^, he put to sea, but was obliged to return. In the second, he reached St. John's, in New- foundland, where he took possession of the country for his sovereign by raising a pillar inscribed with the British arms. He next sought means to secure to the English the fisheries on the banks, which were now so valuable as to be contested by different European nations. From thence he sailed southwesterly, till he reached the latitude of the mouth of the Kennebec. Here the largest of his three vessels struck, and all her crew perished. Gilbert now finding it impossible to proceed, set his face towards Eng- land, keeping in the smallest of his remaining vessels, a barge of only ten tons ; for his generous heart refused to put any to a peril he was himself 52 STORY OF SIR WALTER RALEIGH. 53 unwilling to sliare. The passage was storni}^, but liis pious mind found comfort in the reflection which, as he sat reading in the stern of his barge, he uttered to his companions in the larger vessel : "we are as near heaven at sea, as on land ;" and he might have added, in the words of that book which was doubtless in his hand, " Ye shall seek me in the morning, but I shall not be ;" for in the night the lights of his little bark suddenly vanished, and he was heard of no more. The bold and energetic Raleigh, who had in France been a pupil of Coligni, pursued with unabated ardor the great career in which Gilbert had wasted his fortune, and lost his life. From his courtly demeanor and brilliant genius. Sir Walter had made himself a favorite with the stately Queen, and he readil}^ gained from her a patent, with privileges no less ample than those which she had granted to his brother. Raleigh had learned from the unsuc- cessful emigrants of France the superior mildness and fertility of the south, and thither he dispatched two vessels under Philip Amidas and Arthur Barlow. They approached the shore at Pamlico Sound, and, according to their florid descriptions, were regaled with " the delicate smell of the flowers " far off at sea ; and on landing in Ocracok, or Roanoke Island, they found the grapes so abundant on the coast, that the surges of the sea often washed over them. The natives were as kindly as their climate and soil. The king's son, Granganimo, came with fifty of his Dcople and received them with dis- tinguished courtesy. He invited them to his dwelling at twenty miles distance on the coast ; but when they went it chanced he was not at home. His wife came out to meet them, and with a hospitality which no instance of civilized life can surpass, she ordered some of her people to draw their boat ashore to preserve it, and others to bring the Englishmen on their backs through the surf. Then, conducting her guests to her home, she had a fire kindled, that they might dry their clothes, which were wet with SIR WALTER RALEIGH. 54 STORY OF SIR WALTER RALEIGH. rain ; while in anotHer room she spread a plentiful repast of fish, venison, esculent roots, melons and fruits. As they were eating, several Indians, armed with bows and arrows, entered. She chid them, and sent them away, lest her visitors should suffer from alarm. When the navigators returned to England, and made to Elizabeth their report of this delightful region, she was induced to give it the name of Virginia, as a memorial that the happy discovery had been made under a virgin queen. The name soon became general throughout the coast. Raleigh now found many adventurers ready to embark in his project; and in 1585 he fitted out a squadron of seven ships, under the command of Sir Richard Grenville, who followed the course of Amidas and Barlow, and touched at the same islands ; in one of which he cruelly burned a village, because he suspected an Indian of having stolen a silver cup. He then left a colony under Captain Lane at the island of Roanoke. The colonists, reduced to great distress for want of provisions, the next year were carried to England by Sir Francis Drake, who was returning from a successful expedition against the Spaniards in the West Indies. A Crew that was never Heard From. Soon after their departure they were sought by a ship which had been sent by Raleigh with supplies, and afterwards by Sir Richard Grenville. He, not finding them, most unwisely left fifteen of his crew to keep posses- sion of the island, and then returned to England. Of this small number nothing was afterwards heard. Probably they were destroyed by the injured and revengeful savages. The account of Virginia furnished by the colonists to Sir Walter Raleigh was such as to encourage that enterprising speculator to make another attempt. The faults of the previous expedition were now apparent, and could be guarded against. It was true that the Indians were not to be relied on, and that their hostility had resulted in a very serious disaster; but the country itself was a prize worth winning. Raleigh, therefore, determined on an effort of a more elaborate character. This time the male emigrants should be accompanied by their wives and children, and a real colony, not merely a settlement of explorers, should be formed. To the community thus about to be created, Sir Walter granted a charter of incorporation, and at the same time established a municipal government for a contemplated city, which was to be called after the great adventurer himself. STORY OF SIR WALTER RALEIGH. 55 The governor was to be one John White, and under him were placed '•.welve assistants. The fleet of transport ships consisted of three vessels, all fitted out at the charge of Raleigh, for the queen declined to bear any portion of the expense. Implements of husbandry were supplied to the emigrants ; and when the ships set sail from Portsmouth, on the 2Gth of April, 1587, it might well have seemed that fortunate days were in store for the part3\ The}^ arrived off the coast of North Carolina in July, and, on reaching Roanoke Island, made search for the fifteen men left there the 3^ear before by Sir Richard Grenville. But all was desolate and solitary. A few human bones lay scattered about, and, at the north end of the island, the fort erected b}^ Lane w^as found levelled with the earth. The dwelling-houses of his men were still standing ; but the lower rooms were overgrown with melons, already springing up in rank luxuriance under the enchantment of that exquisite climate; and deer were couched within, feeding on the fruit which there were no hands to gather. Killed by Arrows and Clubs. This was far from an encouraging commencement ; but the colonists set to work repairing the houses and building new ones. They had not been there many days when one of the twelve assistants of Governor White was slain b}^ a party of savages who came over to Roanoke, and, hiding themselves among the tall reeds on the shore, transfixed the poor Englishman (who was alone, and two miles away from his comrades) with sixteen arrows, and then beat in his head with clubs. Captain White returned to England to solicit supplies for the colony. Before he departed, his daughter, Mrs. Dare, gave birth to a female infant, the first child of English parents born in America. The infant was baptized by the name of Virginia. The attempts made by Raleigh for the relief of this colony were unremitted, but unsuccessful ; for at this time the Spanish Armada threatened to overwhelm England itself; and three years elapsed before he could procure the means of sending Captain White to their relief. It was then too late. Not one remained ; nor, though repeatedly sought, has any clue to their fate ever been found. Appalled and in danger of perishing himself. White returned, without leaving one English settler on the shores of America. In consequence of the unfortunate issue of these attempts, Raleigh was easily induced to assign his right of property, together with all the privi- leges contained in his patent, to a company of merchants in London. This 56 MURDER OF WHITE'S ASSISTANT BY THE INDIANS. STORY OF SIR WALTER RALEIGH. 57 company, satisfied with a paltry traffic with the natives, made no attempt to take possession of the country. In 1602 Bartholomew Gosnold, with thirty-two men, sailed from Fal- mouth, and steering due west, he was the first English commander who reached the country by this shorter and more direct course. He approached the coast near Nahant, but failing to find a good harbor, he bore to the south, discovered and gave name to Cape Cod, which was the first ground in New England ever trod by Englishmen. Thence sailing round Nan- tucket, he discovered and named Martha's Vineyard, entered Buzzard's Ba}^, and, finding a fertile island, he gave it, in honor of the Queen, the name of Elizabeth. Near its western shore, on an islet in a lake, he built a fort and storehouse, and prepared to leave there a small colony. But the natives became hostile, and his intended settlers would not remain. Having freighted his vessel, mostly with sassafras root, then much esteemed in pharmacy, he hoisted sail and reached England with all his men, after a passage of five weeks, the shortest then known. Expedition Sent to America by Prance. France, wasted by her wars, had for fifty years neglected her claims to territory on the western continent. At length she sent out an expedition, and attempted to plant a colony. This expedition discovered and named the rivers St. John and St. Croix, and sailed along the coast as far as Cape Cod. The English becoming alarmed at this encroachment on territor}^ which they claimed, James I., the successor of Elizabeth, divided that portion of North America which lies between the 34th and 45th degree of North lati- tude into two districts nearly equal ; granting the southern part, or first colony of Virginia, included between the 34th and 41st degrees, to a com- pany of merchants called the London Company ; and the northern or second colony of Virginia, included between the S8th and 45th degrees, to another corporation, called the Plymouth Company. The king authorized these companies to make settlements, provided they were not within one hundred miles of each other, and vested them with a right of land along the coast, fifty miles each way, and extending into the interior one hundred miles from the place of settlement. The London and Plymouth companies prepared to take possession of the lands which had been assigned to them. The first vessel fitted out by the Plymouth Company, in 1606, was taken by the Spaniards. In 1607 58 STORY OF SIR WALTER RALEIGH. they sent out Admiral Raleigh Gilbert, with a hundred planters, under Capt. George Popham, their president. They landed at the mouth of Ken- nebec river, where they built and fortified a storehouse ; but in two or three months the ships returned to England, leaving only forty-five men. The sufferings of the colony, under Capt. Popham, were, through the winter, very severe. They lost their storehouse by fire, and their president by death, and the next year returned to England, considering the country " a cold, barren, mountainous desert," where, in the quaint language of that period, they declared " they found nothing but extreme extremities." This was the first and only attempt to settle this part of the country till 1620. Thus, after a period of one hundred and ten years, from the time of Cabot's discoveries, and twenty-four years after Raleigh planted the first colony, there was not, in 1507, an Englishman settled in America. The wilderness was not inviting to those who had been accustomed to a country long settled and furnishing all the conveniences and luxuries of civilized life. The American savages were not always to be depended upon and on account of some real or fancied injury were ready to take revenge on the unprotected settlers. It was but natural that the imigrants should feel the separation from their former home and friends. These causes all operated to retard the settlement of the new country. Still, America was not destined to long remain a territory unoccupied by Europeans. " Westward the course of empire took its way." CHAPTER VI. CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH AND POCAHONTAS. )N 1607 the London Company sent out Captain Christopher Newport, with three ships and one hundred and five men, among whom was the navigator, Gosnold, and Captain John Smith, the Father of Virginia. He was already celebrated for his daring and chivalrous exploits, to which he was led by the love of adventure and of glory, and by a desire to serve both God and man. In boyhood he fought for freedom in Holland; and thence traveled over France, Egypt and Italy. In Hungary he bravely met the Turks in bat- tle, and was promoted to com- mand. In presence of the ladies particularly, he ever showed him- self a brave knight, and was often conqueror in single combats. He was repeatedl}^ taken prisoner, and alread}^, both in Turke}^ and in Russia, had been rescued from destruction by female benevolence. '^X^^W^ ' ^' ''11\11\MM1I111I1B^^^ The fleet sailed by the West Indies, and being driven north of Roanoke by a storm, an accidental discovery was thus made of the ^^^'^^^^ J^^^ ^^"^- entrance of the Chesapeake Bay, the boundaries of which were now named Capes Charles and Henr}^, in honor of the king's sons. Stretching at once into the noble bay, the adventurers sailed up the Powhatan river, to which they gave the name of the James, and upon its banks, fifty miles from its mouth, they fixed their residence, and raised a few huts. The place was called Jamestown, an appellation which it still retains ; and though it has 59 60 CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH AND POCAHONTAS. never risen to wealth or distinction, and is now only discernible by a few falling ruins, still it was the first of the English settlements in the New World; and hence has all the honor among the American states that antiquity can confer and is regarded with unusual interest. Rights Denied to the Settlers. The colony was under charter government, the instrument having been drawn up by James himself. It did not give to the proprietors the power to govern the people who should settle the country, but the right of jurisdiction was reserved to the king. To the colonies no assurance was given, but the vague promise that they should continue to be Englishmen. Religion was established by law, according to the forms and doctrines of the church of England. There was, for the present, no division of property ; and, for five years, all labor was to be for the benefit of the joint stock. The government \vas to be administered b}^ a council nominated by the king, but to reside in the colony. As soon as the emigrants landed, the king's commission, according to his direction, was opened ; the council was organized, and a governor elected. The}^ chose Edward Wingfield, their worst man ; while Smith, their best, was, from envy, to be excluded even from a seat in the council, although he was one whom the king had nominated. Gathering misfortunes, however, and the kindly influence of their good clergyman, Robert Hunt, reversed this sentence, and made the colonists glad to submit to the man whose talents and zeal for the settle- ment marked him as their natural head. The neighboring Indians soon annoyed the colony b}^ their petty hostilities. Their provisions failed, and the scanty allowance to which they were reduced, as well as the influence of a climate to which they were not accustomed, gave rise to disease, so that the number of the colonists rapidly diminished. Sometimes four or five died in a day, and there was not enough of the well to give decent burial to the dead. Fifty perished before winter, among whom was the excellent Gosnold. The energy and cheerful activity of Smith threw the only light which glanced upon the dark picture. He so managed as to awe the natives, and at the same time to conciliate and obtain from them supplies of food ; while, among the emigrants he encouraged the faint-hearted and put in fear the rebellious. Winter at length came, and with it relief from diseases of climate, and plentiful sup- plies of wild fowl and game. CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH AND POCAHONTAS. 61 The London company, with, au ignorance of geography, which even then was surprising, had given directions that some of the streams flowing from the northwest should be followed up in order to find a passage to the South Sea. Smith was superior to the company in intelligence, but he knew the duties of a subordinate, and he therefore prepared to explore the head waters of the Chickahominy, which answered as nearl}^ as possible to their description. Powhatan, the chief or emperor of the savage confederacy inhabiting or wandering about the waters of the James and its tributaries, had been visited by the colonists early after their arrival. His imperial residence consisted of twelve wigwams near the site of Rich- mond. Next to him in power was his brother, Opechacanough, who was chief of the Pamunkies on the Chickahominy. Smith embarked in a barge on that river, and when he had ascended as far as possible in this manner, he left it, with the order that his party should not land till his return ; and with four attend- ants he pursued his objects twenty miles farther up the river. The Indians had watched his move- ments, and when the men left in the barge, disobeying his order, had landed, pocahontas. they fell upon them, took them prisoners, and obliged them to discover the track of their captain. He, in pursuit of game, soon found himself hunted by swarms of savage archers. In this extremity he bound to his breast, as a shield, an Indian j'-outh who was with him ; and then shot three Indians, wounded others and kept the whole part}" at bay. Attempting to retreat to his canoe while yet watching his foe, suddenly he sank to his middle in an oozy creek. The savages dared not even then touch him, till, perishing with cold, he laid down his arms and surrendered. They carried him to a fire, near which some of his men had been killed. By his Indian guide and interpreter he then called for their chief. Opechacanough appeared, and Smith politely presented to him his jDocket compass. The Indians were confounded at the motions of the fly-needle. 62 CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH AND POCAHONTAS. which, on account of the mysterious glass, they could see, but could not touch. He told them wonderful stories of its virtues, and proceeded, as he himself relates, "by the globe-like figure of that jewel, to instruct them, concerning the roundness of the earth, and how the sun did chase the night round about the world continually," by which his auditors were filled with profound amazement. Their minds seemed to labor with the greatness of the thought, that a being so superior was in their power ; and they vacillated in their opinion whether or not it was best to put him to death ; and as often changed their conduct. They took him to Powhatan, thence led him round from one wondering tribe to another, until, at the residence of Opechacanough, these superstitious dwellers of the forest employed their sorcerers or powows for three days to practice incantations, in order to learn, from the invisible world, whether their prisoner wished them well or ill. Smith's Life Saved by Pocahontas. The decision of his fate was finally referred to Powhatan. At his residence that majestic savage received him in state, but he condemned him to die. His warriors were around, and his women sitting near him. All were painted with gaudy colors and adorned with feathers. The queen of Apamattuck brought the captive water to wash in, and another Indian queen feathers to serve as a towel. Others gave him food, as for a feast. Then two stones were brought and laid before the chief, and two savages stood with uplifted war-clubs. Smith was dragged to the spot, and his head placed upon the stones. Pocahontas, his daughter, of tender age, rushed forward, and with cries and tears begged of Powhatan to spare him. He refused. The devoted girl then ran and knelt beside the victim, and laid her young head upon his. Then the stern savage relented, and Smith was saved. It cannot be doubted that the extraordinary boldness and audacity of Smith often prevented disasters by striking a panic into the savages. One day towards the latter end of 1608, he and fifteen others went to Pamunkey, with a view to obtaining supplies of Opechacanough, from whom he had been led to expect some assistance. The savages appeared with a warlike array, but with so poor a stock of provisions that it was not worth having. Smith, suspecting treachery, addressed his followers first, and, having obtained their promise to stand fast even in the greatest danger, challenged CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH AND POCAHONTAS. 63 the chieftain and his companions to fight him and his men openly ; the quantity of corn, and the Englishmen an equal value in copper; the conqueror to take all. He was an- swered by fair speeches, but it was found that the wigwam was beset by armed men, with their bows ready prepared for shooting. CAPTAIN smith's FIGHT WITH AN INDIAN CHIEF. Angered at the manifest intention of the savages, Smith seized Opechacanough by the long lock which Indians wear in front of their 64 CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH AND POCAHONTAS. heads, presented a pistol to his breast, and dragged him out into the midst of his armed followers, whom he reproached with their design, daring them to shoot him, and vowing to exterminate the whole tribe if one of his men were hurt. At the same time he professed his friendly intentions, if he were allowed to trade peacefully for their commodities. This produced the desired effect, and good-will was again established for the time being. Smith having now learned much of the Indians, their country, modes of warfare, dispositions and language, and having also by his great address and honorable bearing, won their affection and confidence, his visit to the chief jDroved, under divine Providence, a means of establishing the colony. During his absence, however, there had been disorder and misrule ; and when he returned to Jamestown he found only thirty-eight person remaining. The spirits of the people were broken; and all, filled wit^ despondency, were anxious to leave a country so inhospitable. He prevailed upon them, however, partly by force and partly by persuasion, to remain till the next year, when Newport arriving from England with some supplies and one hundred and twent}^ emigrants, hope again revived. A Powerful Indian Tribe. During the 3^ear 1G08 Captain Smith explored the Chesapeake Bay to its head, discovered its fine streams, and gained new information concerning the native productions and inhabitants of the country. In an excursion which he made up the Rappahannock, he had a skirmish with the Manna- hoacks, a tribe descended from the Delawares, and took prisoner a brother of one of their chiefs. From him he first heard of the Iroquois, Avho, the Indian told him, "dwelt on a great water to the north, had a great many boats, and so many men that they waged war with all the rest of the world." Immediately on his return he was chosen president of the council. He found the recent emigrants "goldsmiths and gentlemen." But he promptly gave them their choice, to labor for six hours a da}^ or have nothing to eat. He represented to the council in England that they should send laborers ; that the search of gold should be abandoned, and that "nothing should be expected except by labor." Pocahontas repeatedly saved the life of Smith, and preserved this earliest English settlement from destruction. In the various fortunes of the colony, she was its unchanging friend, often coming with her attendants to bring baskets of provisions in times of scarcity, and sometimes giving CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH AND POCAHONTAS. 65 notice of hostile designs. On one occasion, when Captain Smith, with a considerable escort, had visited her father, and was to be feasted, she came privately, and told him that a great number of Indians would be sent to bring in his food, and would, if possible, such was the plot, murder him and his company at table, with their own arms. Otherwise it was intended to kill them in the night. Smith was penetrated with gratitude, that she had again saved him, and wished to give her some testimonial. She turned away with tears, saying it would but betray her, and she was suspected already. Famine and Death in the Colony. At length a calamity deprived the colony of its father. An accidental explosion of gunpowder so injured Smith that no medical skill there .was adequate to the treatment of his case ; and, delegating his authority to George Percy, brother to the Barl of Northumberland, he returned to England. After his departure all subordination and industry ceased among the colonists. The Indians, ever on the watch, harassed them with hostilities, and withheld their customary supplies. Their stores were soon exhaused. The domestic animals, which had been sent to breed in the country, were taken and devoured : and, in the extremity of their distress, the}^ even perpetrated, in two instances, the act of feeding on human flesh. Smith left four hundred and ninety persons. In six months anarchy and vice had reduced the number to sixt}^, and those so feeble and forlorn that in ten days more they must all have perished. In the meantime Sir Thomas Gates and his companions, who had been wrecked on the rocks of Bermuda, had found there the means to construct a vessel ; and now approaching Jamestown, they anticipated a happy meeting with their friends. How were their hearts smitten as thej^ beheld the meagre spectres of famine and death which met them! They were obliged to yield to the universal cr}^, desert the settlement, and re-embark with the whole colon3^ They departed in the morning, and, falling down the stream with the tide, they descry at evening, near the river's mouth, three ships, and Lord Delaware, their paternal governor, arrives, supplies their wants, and turns their hearts to the pious and consoling thought that God had delivered them. And then this residue returned, a chastened and a better people. Thus Providence prevented a dissolute band from becoming the founders of our first settled State, and gave a better seed. 66 CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH AND POCAHONTAS. The colony again became comparatively flourisliing, but in Marcli, 1611, the governor's health unfortunately declined, and he was obliged to FLIGHT OF THE INDIANS AFTER THE MASSACRE. leave the country. On the departure of Lord Delaware, Percy was again at the head of the administration, until the arrival of Sir Thomas Dale, ie May. Dale had received from the company power to rule with martial law. CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH AND POCAHONTAS. 67 which he exercised, but with such moderation, that good order and industry prevailed. The state of the colon}^, however, was not flourishing, and Dale immediately wrote to England for aid. In less than four months, Sir Thomas Gates arrived, with six ships and three hundred emigrants. After Captain Smith's departure. Captain Argall, at the head of a foraging party, learned that Pocahontas was for a season with the family of Japazaws, the chief of the Potomacs. Him, Argall bribed, with a kettle of shining copper, to betray the Indian princess, whom for interested motives he wished to make prisoner. Japazaws concerted with his wife that she should appear to be seized with an invincible desire to visit Argall's vessel lying in the river. He was to affect anger, and threaten, but at length so far to relent as to engage to take her to the vessel if her friend Pocahontas would accompany her. The plot succeeded, and thus the English, by the goodness of her heart, ensnared and made prisoner their benefactress. The Indian Maiden Wedded. When she was taken to Jamestown an unceremonious message was sent to Powhatan, that he must ransom her with certain men and articles, which he was accused with having taken. To this the dignified old chieftain made no reply for three months. In the meantime an English youth of the colony, John Rolfe, wooed the Indian maiden, and obtained her consent to marriage, the connection proving a bond of union during the life of Powhatan. Pocahontas received Christian baptism under the name of Rebecca ; after w^hich she went with her husband to England, where special attention was paid her by the king and queen, at the instigation of Smith. She had been told that he was dead, and when he came to see her she turned awa}^, and for a time could not or would not speak. He kindly soothed her, and at length she addressed him as her father, and endearingly recalled the scenes of their early acquaintance. Having given birth to a son, she was about to return, when she sickened and died, at the age of twenty-two. Her son survived and reared an offspring, which being perpetuated in some of the best families of Virginia, they boast their descent from one who ranks high, not merely on the roll of savages and of women, but of humanity itself On the twenty-second of March, 1622, a general attack was made by the savages upon all the settlements of the colony. On the previous night the plot had been revealed to a converted Indian named Chauco, who at once hastened to Jamestown and gave warning of the danger. The alarm €8 CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH AND POCAHONTAS, spread rapidly to the nearest settlements, but those at a distance could not be reached in time to avert their fate. Those settlements which had been warned were able to offer a successful resistance to their assailants, and some of those which were surprised beat off the Indians ; but the number of victims, men, women and children, who fell this day amounted to three hundred and forty-seven. All these were slain, and their fate would have been shared by the whole colony but for the warning of the friendly Indian. The effect upon the colony was appalling. The distant plantations had been destroyed by the savages, and out of eighty settlements eight alone survived. These, and especially Jamestown, were crowded beyond their capacity with fugitives who had fled to them for shelter. Sickness soon began to prevail, the public works were discontinued, and private industry was greatly diminished. A gloom rested over the entire colony, and the population fell off. At the end of two years after the massacre, the number of inhabitants had been reduced to two thousand. Much sympathy was manifested for the suffering colonists by the people of England. The city of London sent them liberal assistance, and private individuals subscribed to their need. King James was aroused into an affection of generous sympathy, and sent over to the colony a supply of muskets which had been condemned as worthless in England. The whites recovered from their gloom, and on their part began to form plans for the extermination of their foes. During the next ten years expeditions were sent against the Indians at frequent intervals. The object kept sternly in view was to either destroy the savages altogether, or force them back from the seaboard into the interior. As late as 1630 it was ordered by the General Assembly that no peace should be made with the Indians. CHAPTER VII. STORY OF THE VIRGINIA COLONY. »N 1644, the aged Opechacanougli once more struck for tlie inlitrit- ance of his forests, by another attempt to cut off, simultaneously, the scattered colonial population. Scarcely had the warfare begun, and the English aroused to resistance, when the Indians were struck with panic and fled. The Virginians pursed them vigor- ously and killed three hundred. The chief was taken prisoner, then inhumanly wounded. His proud spirit suffered from his being kept as a public spectacle, and he welcomed relief by death. Charles I. had perished on the scaffold ; and the powerful mind of Cromwell led the policy of England. To promote her commercial j^ros- perit}^, he continued, and perfected a system of colonial oppression in respect to trade, by the celebrated " Navigation Act." By this the colonies were not allowed to find a market for themselves, and sell their produce to the highest bidder, but were obliged to carry it direct to the mother coun- try. The English merchants bought it at their own price ; and thus the}^, and not the colonist, made the profit on the fruits of his industry. At the same time the act prohibited any but English vessels from conveying merchandise to the colonies ; thus compelling them to obtain their supplies of the English merchant, of course at such prices as he chose to fix upon his goods. Even free traffic among the colonists was prohibited. Charles II. was restored in 1660. Berkeley, after various changes, v/as at the moment exercising the office of Governor under the authority of the Assembly of Virginia, by whom he had been elected. The fires of rejoicing were kindled in the province, and Berkeley changed his style, and issued his mandates in the name of Charles. The monarch afterwards confirmed him in his office. Berkeley was accused of favoring the Indians for the sake of the monopoly in the beaver-trade, and the settlers resolved that if he would not protect them, they would protect themselves. They went sullenly to their homes^ and awaited what they knew was certain to come. 69 70 THE ATTACK ON THE DOEG WIGWAM. STORY OF THE VIRGINIA COLONY. 71 Some months later, several persons on their way to church came upon a mortally-wounded settler in front of his own door, while a friendly Indian lay dead a few feet away. The neighbor lived long enough to say that some Doeg warriors were the cause of their deaths. The alarm quickly spread, and in a brief while thirty men had taken the trail and were in hot pursuit. Crossing the river twenty miles above the trail forked, and the pursuers divided into two parties. Bloody Conflicts with the Indians. One of these speedily came upon a Doeg wigwam, and here the pur- suers killed eleven of the Indians. It is more than likely they were the murderers. Almost at the same time the other party discovered a wigwam and opened fire, without waiting to ask questions. After killing fourteen it was found they were not Doegs, but Susquehannocks. However, the settlers concluded they had avenged the death of their neighbor and went home. The surrounding tribes were roused to fury. The peril was so immi- nent that Virginia and Maryland sent out a force of a thousand men under Major Thomas Truman, of Maryland, and Colonel John Washington, of Virginia, great-grandfather of George Washington. They surrounded a strong fort on the Piscatawa}'-, in which the Susquehannocks had taken refuge, with their women and children. Before opening fire, six of the chiefs were called out for a conference. They denied that any of their tribe had harmed the whites, sajang that the Senecas, who had fled northward, were the offenders. Major Truman was satisfied and assured them they should suffer no harm. The Virginians thought the major was too credulous. The next day, when the mutilated bodies of a settler and his family, that had recently been murdered, were brought into camp, the infuriated soldiers seized five of the chiefs who had come out for another conference, and put them to death. This piece of treachery filled the authorities in Maryland and Virginia with indignation. Truman was tried by the Maryland legislature, and found guilty of causing the death of the five Indians contrary to the laws of God and of nations. When Washington took his seat in the Virginia assembly at Jamestown, Governor Berkeley in his opening address pointedly rebuked him. This was the only punishment Washington received, and the records do not show what was done with Truman, when found guilt}^ Again the Indians were aroused to deeds of atrocity. Thej^ assailed 72 STORY OF THE VIRGINIA COLONY. the settlers along the Rappahannock, James and York rivers, with the fury of wild beasts, killing more than fifty during the following winter. The people awoke in their might. They desired to organize for self- defense, and in a peremptory manner demanded for their leader Nathaniel Bacon, a popular young lawyer. Berkeley refused to grant him a commis- sion. New murders occurring. Bacon assumed command, and with his followers departed for the Indian war. Instigated by the aristocracy, Berke- ley declared him and his adherents rebels. The People Again Aroused, The people, in a fresh insurrection, required of the governor the election of a new house of burgesses ; and he was forced to submit. Bacon having returned from his expedition, was elected a member for Henrico county. Popular liberty now prevailed, and laws were passed with which Berkeley was highly displeased. Bacon, fearing treachery, withdrew to the countr}^ The people rallied around him, and he returned to Jamestown at the head of five hundred armed men. Berkeley met them, and, baring his breast, exclaimed, " a fair mark, shoot." Bacon declared that he had come only for a commission, their lives being in danger from the savages. The commission was issued, and Bacon again departed for the Indian warfare. Berkeley in the meantime withdrew to the seashore, and there collecting numbers of seamen and loyalists, he came up the river with a fleet, landed his army at Jamestown, and again proclaimed Bacon and his party rebels and traitors. Bacon having quelled the Indians, only a small band of his followers remained in arms. With these he hastened to Jamestown, and Berkeley fled at his approach. In order that its few dwellings should no more shelter their oppressors, the inhabitants set them on fire, the owners of the best houses applying the match with their own hands. Then leaving that endeared and now desolated spot. Bacon pursued the royalists to the Rap- pahannock, where the Virginians, hitherto of Berkeley's party, deserted and joined his standard. His enemies were at his mercy ; but his exposure to the night air had induced disease, and he died. The party of Bacon, now without a leader, broke into fragments, and the royalists were again in the ascendant. As the principal adherents of Bacon, hunted and made prisoners, were one by one brought before Berkeley, he adjudged them, with insulting taunts, to instant and ignominious death. CHAPTER VIII. THE SETTLEMENT OF MARYLAND. )0 go back a little in our history, previous to the events narrated in the preceding chapter, Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, and the hero of his age, formed, in 1627, the project of sending to America a colony of his subjects from Sweden and Finland. About ten years afterwards, in 1638, they came over headed by Peter Minuets, and settled at Christiana Creek, on the west side of the Delaware, calling that river Swedeland stream, and the countr}^. New Sweden. Though this was the first effectual settlement, 3^et the Dutch had, in 1629, purchased of the natives a tract of land extending from Cape Henlopen to the mouth of the Delaware river. A small colony conducted by De Vries came from Holland, and settled near Lewiston. They perished by the savages ; but the Dutch continiiing to claim the country, dissensions arose between them and the Swedish emigrants. In 1631 William Clayborne obtained from Charles I. a license to traffic in those parts of America for which there was not already a patent granted. Clayborne planted a small colony on Kent island, in Chesapeake Bay, opposite to the spot where Annapolis now stands. George Calvert, afterwards Lord Baltimore, had represented, in the English Parliament, his native district of Yorkshire. The favor of the monarch and the principal ministers had been manifested by influential appointments at court ; but these he resigned to make a public profession of the Roman Catholic faith. To enjoy his religion unmolested, he wished to emigrate to some vacant tract in America. He had fixed on Virginia as a desirable location, and accordingly made a visit to that colon3\ The people there would not encourage a settlement, unless an oath was taken, to which he could not in conscience subscribe. Finding he must seek an asylum elsewhere, he explored the country to the north, and then returned to England. The Queen, Henrietta Maria, daughter to Henry IV. of France, gave to the territory the name of ^laryland, and Lord Baltimore obtained it by a royal patent. 73 74 THE SETTLEMENT OF MARYLAND. He died in London in 1632, before his patent passed to a legal form; but bis son, Cecil Calvert, tbe second Lord Baltimore, by tbe influence of Sir Robert Cecil, obtained the grant intended for his father. By this patent he held the country from the Potomac to the 40th degree of north latitude ; and thus, by a mere act of the crown, what had long before been granted to Vir- ginia was now taken away ; as what was now granted was subsequently given to Penn, to the extent of a de- gree. Hence long and ob- stinate altercations ensued. Lord Baltimore appoint- ed as governor his brother, Leonard Calvert, who, with two hundred emigrants, sailed for America near the close of 1633, and ar- rived at the Potomac early in 1634. Here they pur- chased of the natives Ya- maco, one of their settle- ments, to which was given the name of St. Mary. Calvert thus secured by a pacific course comfortable habitations, some improved CECIL, LOUD BALTIMORE. I^^^^jg^ ^^^ ^1^^ friendship of the natives. Other circumstances served to increase the prosperity of the colony. The country was pleasant, great religious freedom existed, and a liberal charter had been granted, which allowed the proprietor, aided by the freemen, to pass laws, without reserving to the crown the right of rejecting them. Emigrants accordingly soon flocked to the province from the other colonies and from England. Thus had the earliest settlers of this beautiful portion of our country established themselves, without the sufferings endured by the pioneers of THE SETTLEMENT OF MARYLAND. 75 iormer settlements. The proprietary government, generally so detrimental, proved here a nursing mother. Lord Baltimore expended for the colonists, within a few years, forty thousand pounds ; and they, " out of desire to return some testimony of gratitude," voted in their assembly "such a sub- sidy as the low and poor estate of the colony could bear." Lord Baltimore invited the Puritans of Massachusetts, of whom we shall read later, to emigrate to Maryland, offering them "free liberty of MOCK SUNS, SEEN BY EARLY EXPLORERS. religion." They rejected this, as they did a similar proposition from Crom- well, to remove to the West Indies. The restless, intriguing Clayborne, the evil genius of Maryland, had been constantly on the alert to establish a claim to the country, and to subvert the government of the good proprietary. In his traffic with the natives he had learned their dispositions, and he wrought them to jealous hostility. In Bngland the authority of the long Parliament now superseded that of the king, and those who derived their authority from him ; and of this, not only Clayborne, but other disorderly subjects of Lord Baltimore, were inclined to take undue advantage. Thus the fair dawn of this rising settlement w^as early overcast. 76 THE SETTLEMENT OF MARYLAND. In 1621 Sir Francis Wyatt arrived as governor, bringing from the company in England a more perfect and permanent constitution for the colony. The power of making laws was vested in the general assembly. No regulations, however, could be enforced until they had received the sanction of the general court of the company in England. At the same time the orders of the company were not binding upon the colony, without the sanction of their assembly. These liberal concessions not only gratified the settlers, but encouraged emigration ; and a large number accordingly accompanied Governor Wyatt to the province. This year cotton was first planted in Virginia, and "the plentiful coming up of the seed," was regarded by the planters with curiosity and interest. Butchering Men and Women. Opechacanough, the brother and successor of Powhatan, had determined to extirpate the whites, and regain the country for its savage lords. For this purpose he formed a conspiracy to massacre all the English ; and during four j^ears he was, with impenetrable secrecy, concerting his plan. To each tribe its station was allotted, and the part it was to act prescribed. On the 22d of March, 1622, at midday, they rushed upon the English in all their settlements, and butchered men, women, and children, without pity or remorse. In one hour nearly a fourth part of the whole colony was cut off. The slaughter would have been universal, if compassion, or a sense of duty, had not moved a converted Indian to whom the secret was communi- cated, to reveal it to his master on the night before the massacre. This was done in time to save Jamestown and the adjacent settlements. A bloody war ensued. The English, by their arms and discipline, were more than a match for the Indians, and they retaliated in such a manner as left the colonists for a long time free from savage molestation. They also received considerable accessions of lands by appropriating those of the conquered natives. CHAPTER IX. THE LANDING OF THE PILGRIMS. )N 1592 a law was passed requiring all persons to attend the established worship, under penalty of banishment, and if they returned, of death. Among those who could not conscientiously comply with these exactions were John Robinson and his congre- gation, of the sect of Separatists, in the north of England. To enjoy their religion, the pastor and his whole flock determined to exile themselves to Holland. But this was a diffict^lt undertaking. Once the}^ embarked with their families and goods at Boston, in Lincolnshire. But the treacherous captain had plotted with i^nglish officers, who camj on board the vessel, took their effects, searched the persons of the whole company for money, and then, in presence of a gazing multitude, led them on shore and to prison. They were soon released, except seven of the principal men, who were detained and brought to trial, but at length freed. Again they bargained with a Dutch shipmaster at Hull, who was to take them in from a common hard by. At the time appointed the women and children sailed to the place of rendezvous in a small bark, and the men came by land. The bark had grounded; but the Dutch captain sent his boat and took the men from the strand. But, in the meantime, the authorities of Hull had notice; and the Dutch commander, at the sight of a large armed compan}^, having a fair wind, with oaths " hoisted anchor and away," though the Pilgrims even wept, thus to leave their wives and children. Behold these desolate women, the mothers of a future nation, their husbands forcibly carried off to sea, while on land an armed multitude are approaching! They are taken, and dragged from one magistrate to another, while their children, cold and hungry and affrighted, are weeping and Clinging around them. But their piteous condition and Christian demeanor softened at length the hearts of their persecutors, and even gained friends to their cause The men, in the meantime, encountered one of the most terrific sea- storms ever known, continuing fourteen days, during seven of which they 77 iS THE LANDING OF THE PHGRIMS. saw neither sun, moon or stars. At length they all arrived in Holland. They settled at first in Amsterdam. They did not, however, find cause to be satisfied, and they removed to Leyden. Here, by hard labor and frugal honesty, they lived highly respected ; but after a few years they experienced evils which made them think of another removal. Not only were their own toils constant and severe, but they were obliged to employ their children, so that these were necessarily deprived of education. And the health of the young often fell a sacrifice to the length of time and confined positions in which they labored. Some died, and some became deformed. Choosing the Wilderness for a Home. Their morals also were likely to suffer from the habitual profanation of the Sabbath, which they must necessarily witness, and especially from contact with a disbanded soldiery, at this time residing at Leyden. The Pilgrims had heard of America, and in its wilderness they believed they might serve God unmolested, and found a church, where not only the oppressed in England, but unborn generations, might enjoy a pure worship. The Dutch wished them to colonize under their government. But they loved their country, though she had shaken them from her lap ; and they sent agents to England to procure, by the influence of Sir Edwin Sandys, a patent under the Virginia Company. By the aid of Sandys the petitioners obtained the patent. But they needed money. To provide this their agents formed a stock company, jointly, with some men of business in London, of whom Mr. Thomas Weston was the principal ; they to furnish the capital, the emigrants to pledge their labor for seven years, at ten pounds per man ; and the profits of the enterprise, all houses, lands, gardens and fields, to be divided at the end of that time among the stockholders, according to their respective shares. They then prepared two small vessels, the Mayflower and the Speed- well ; but these would hold only a part of the company, and it was decided that the younger and more active should go, while the older, among whom was the pastor, should remain. If they were successful they were to send for those behind ; if unsuccessful to return, though poor, to them. Previous to their separation this memorable church worshipped together for the last time, on an appointed day, when they humbled themselves by fasting, and '* sought of the Lord a right way for themselves and their THE LANDING OF THE PHGRIMS. 79 children." When tliey must no longer tarry, their brethren accompanied them from Leyden to the shore of Delft-Haven. Here the venerable pastor knelt with his departing flock around him ; and the wanderers, while tears rolled down their cheeks, heard for the last time, his beloved voice in exhortation and in prayer for them. " But they knew they were Pilgrims, and lifted up their eyes to heaven, their dearest country, and quieted their spirits." From Delft-Haven they sailed to Southampton in England. Among the leaders of the party was Elder Brewster, who at this time was fifty-six, but sound in body as in spirit. Of the seven who were taken at Boston, it was Brewster who was most severely dealt with. John Carver was near his age, beloved and trusted, as he was good and wise. William Bradford was strong, bold and enduring ; but withal, a meek and prudent Christian. Next these, in honor, superior in native endowments, as in estate and family descent, was Edward Winslow. He was at this time twenty-six. Bradford was thirty-two. Allerton and Hopkins were also lead- ing men. Miles Standish had been an of&cer in an army, sent by Eliza- beth to aid the Dutch against the Spaniards ; and he, as was the case with Winslow, falling in with Robinson's people about three j^ears before their removal from Holland, accompanied them to America. Last Look of their Native Land. After remaining in Southampton a fortnight, the Pilgrims put to sea. But misfortunes befalling they returned, left the Speedwell, and finally, to the number of one hundred, they set sail from Plymouth, in the solitar}^ Mayflower. On the 6th of September they took their last, sad look of their native shore. After a storm}'- and perilous passage they made land on the 9th of November, at Cape Cod. The mouth of the Hudson had been selected as the place of their settlement, and they accordingly steered southerly ; but soon falling in with dangerous breakers, and all, especially the women, being impatient to leave the ship, they determined to return and settle on or near the Cape. The next day they turned the point of that singular projection, and entered the harbor now called ProvincetoAvn. They fell on their knees to thank the kind Power who had preserved them amidst so many dangers, and then " they did," says Cotton Alather, " as the light of nature itself directed them, immediately, in the harbor sign an instrument as the foundation of their future and needful govern- ment ;" solemnly combining themselves in a civil body politic, to enact all 80 THE LANDING OF THE PHGRIMS. such, ordinances, and frame all such constitutions and offices, as from time to time should be thought most meet and convenient for the general good ; all which they bound themselves to obey. This simple, but august compact, was the first of a series by which the fetters of a vast system of political oppression have been broken. Upon some parts of the old continent that system still remains, building upon the fiction that sovereigns own the world and its inhabitants, having derived all from God, and that the people are to have only such a measure of personal freedom and such possessions as kings may choose to bestow. Here was assumed for the first time the grand principle of a voluntary confederacy of independent men, instituting government for the good, not of the governors, but of the governed. First Encounter with the Savages. There were the same number of persons on board the Mayflower as had left England; but one, a servant, had died, and one, a male child, Peregrine White, was born on the passage. Carver was immediately chosen governor, and Standish captain. No comfortable home or smiling friends awaited the Pilgrims. They who went on shore waded through the cold surf to a homeless desert. But a place to settle must be found, and no time was to be lost. The shallop unfortunately needed repairs, and in the meantime a party set out to make discoveries by land. They found " a little corn and many graves ;" and in a second excursion the}'- encountered the chilling blasts of a November snow-storm, which laid in some the foundation of mortal disease. The country was wooded, and tolerably stocked with game. When the shallop was finished Carver, Bradford and Winslow, with a party of eighteen, manned the feeble bark and set forth. Steering along the western shore of Cape Cod they made, in three days, the inner circuit of the bay. " It was," says one of the number, " very cold, for the water froze our clothes, and made them manj'- times like coats of iron." They landed occasionally to explore; and at night, inclosed with only a slight barricade of boughs, they stretched themselves upon the hard ground. On the second morning, as their devotions closed, they received a shower of Indian arrows, when, sallying out, they discharged their guns, and the savages fled. Again the}^ offered prayers with thanksgiving; and proceeding on their way, their shallop was nearly wrecked by a wintry THE LANDING OF THE PILGRIMS. 81 storm of terrible violence. After unspeakable dangers, they slieltered themselves under the lee of a small island, where, amidst darkness and rain, they land, and with dif&culty make a fire. In the morning they find themselves at the entrance of a harbor. The next day was the Sabbath. They rested and kept it holy, though all that was dear to them depended on their promptness. The next day, the 22d of December, a day ever to be observed in the annals of New :— :: _ _ , - England, the Pil- grims landed on the rock of Ply- mouth. Finding the harbor good, springs abundant, and the land pro- mising for tillage, they decided to settle here, and named the place from that which they last left in England. In a few days they brought the May- flower to the har- bor, and began building, having first divided the whole community into nineteen fam- ilies, and assigned them contiguous '^^^ " Mayflower" in Plymouth harbor. lots, of size according to that of the family, about eight feet front and fift}^ deep to each person. Each man was to build his own house. Besides this, the company were to make a building of twenty feet square, as a common receptacle. This was soonest completed, but was unfortunately destroyed by fire. 82 THE LANDING OF THE PHGRIMS. Their liuts went up but slowly, for though their hearts were strong, yet their hands had grov/n feeble through fatigue, hardship and scanty fare, and many were wasting with consumptions. Daily some yielded to sickness, and daily some sunk to the grave. Before spring half of their number, among whom were the governor and his wife, lay buried on the shore. Yet they never repined, or repented of the step they had taken ; and when, in April, the Mayflower left them, not one so much as spoke of returning to England ; but they rather confessed the continual mercies of a " wonder-working Providence," which had carried them through so many dangers, and was making them the honored instruments of so great a work. Welcome frora an Indian Chief. The Pilgrims had as yet seen but few of the natives, and those hostile, when Samoset, an Indian who had learned a little English at Penobscot, boldly entered their village, with a cheerful " Welcome Englishmen." He soon came again, with four others, among whom was Tisquantum, who had spread favorable reports of the English among his countrymen, and was afterwards of great service as an interpreter. They gave notice that Massasoit, the sachem of the Pokanokets, was hard by. Appearing on a hill, with a body of attendants, armed, and painted with gaudy colors, the chief desired that some one should be sent to confer with him, Edward Winslow, famed for the sweetness of his disposition and behavior, as well as for talents, courage and efficiency, was wisely chosen. Captain Standish found means (for neither civil or military organization had been neglected) to make a martial show, with drums and trumpets, which gave the savages wonderful delight. The sachem, on coming into the village, was so well pleased with the attentions paid him, that he acknowledged the authority of the King of England, and entered into an alliance, offensive and defensive, with the colonists, which remained inviolate for more than fifty years. In July, Edward Winslow and Stephen Hopkins went on an embassy to Massasoit, at Montaup. Their object was to negotiate a traffic in furs, and to preserve amity with the natives. Much to his delight they gave the sachem a red coat, from Governor Bradford, who had succeeded Carver. They hinted that his subjects were somewhat too free with their presence at Plymouth, though himself and his particular friends should always be welcome. They mentioned that on their first arrival they had found a THE LANDING OF THE PILGRIMS^ 83 small quantity of buried com, whicli iu their necessity they had appro- priated, but they now wished to discover and remunerate the owners ; and finally, they requested that the Pokanokets would sell their furs to the colony. Massosoit gathered his council. " Am I not," said he, " commander of the country? Is not such a town mine? — and such an one? — going on to the number of thirty — and finally, should not all bring their furs to him if he wished it?" The Sannops ejaculated a hearty affirmative to each successive proposition, and the matter was happily adjusted. The trade thus secured to the colony proved of great conse- quence. The ship For- tune arrived in November, and brought over as many as thirty- five persons to join the settlers. The corn which they had found in their excur- sions from Cape Cod providential- ly saved them ; for they had planted it, and the crop was their dependence, scanty though it proved, for their second winter. Massasoit feared the Narragansetts, and was doubtless on that account desirous of cultivating the friendship of the English. Canonicus, the old hereditary chieftain of that confederac}^, perhaps offended at this intimacy, or regarding the whites as intruders, meditated a war against them ; which he openly intimated by sending to Governor Bradford a bunch of arrows tied with the skin of a rattlesnake. Bradford stuffed the skin with powder and ball and sent it back ; and nothing more was heard, at that time, of war. News came to Plymouth that Massosoit was sick. Accompanied by TREATY BETWEEN PLYMOUTH COLONY AND MASSASOIT. 84 THE LANDING OF THE PILGRIMS. " one Master Jolin Hampden," believed by some to be the celebrated Kng- lisbman of that name, then on a visit to the colony, Winslow taking suit- able articles, went to Montaup. He found the Indians bewailing, and prac- ticing their noisy powows or incantations around the sightless chieftain. Affectionately he extended his hand and exclaimed. " Art thou Winsnow ?" (He could not articulate the liquid 1.) " Art thou Winsnow ? But, O, Winsnow! I shall never see thee more." Winslow administered cordials, and he recovered. He then revealed a conspiracy which the Indians had formed and requested him to join. " But now," said he, " I know that the English love me." He was very grateful for their kindness. The Conspirators Put to Death. Agreeably to Massasoit's advice, that a bold stroke should be struck, and the heads of the plot taken off, the intrepid Standish, with a party of only eight, went into the hostile country, attacked a house where the prin- cipal conspirators had met, and put them to death. In justice to the Indians, it should be stated that they were provoked to this conspiracy by the lawless aggressions of " Master Weston's men." These were a colony of sixt}^ Englishmen, sent over in June, 1622, by Thomas Weston. Though hospitably received at Plymouth they stole the young corn from the stalk, and thus brought want and distress upon the settlers the ensuing winter and spring. They then made a short-lived and pernicious settlement at Weymouth. The Pilgrims had been more alarmed at this Indian con- spiracy, on account of the horrible news from Virginia, of the great Indian massacre there. Notwithstanding all the hardships — all the wisdom and constancy, of the colonists, the partners of the concern in London complained of small returns ; and even had the meanness to send a vessel to rival them in their trade with the Indians. Winslow went to England and negotiated a purchase for himself and seven of his associates in the colony, by which the property was vested in them ; and they sold out to the colony at large, for the consideration of a monopoly of the trade with the Indians for six years. New Pljnnouth now began to flourish. For the land being divided, each man labored for himself and his family, and not for the public, or for distant usurers. Their government was a pure democracy, resembling that now exercised in a town meeting. Each male inhabitant had a vote; the THE LANDING OF THE PILGRIMS. 85 Governor had two. At first some delicacy was felt, as they had no charter, being north of the bounds of the Virginia company, but at length they proceeded to the exercise of all the powers of self-government. After the establishment of the Grand Council of Plymouth, of which mention will soon be made, they received from it a charter, by which they exercised these rights, under the authority of England. Numbers of their brethren of the church at lycyden came over within the first few years to join the settlement; and Winslow relates that the people of Plymouth gave a thousand pounds to assist them to emigrate. But the good Robinson was not permitted to enter the land of his hopes and affections. He died in Leyden, 1625, to the great grief of the Pil- grims, who had kept their church without a pastor, Elder Brewster offici- ating, in hopes, until they heard of his death, again to enjoy his ministra- tions. A part of his family came to America. Character of the Pilgrims. Ten years after its first settlement New Plymouth had three hundred inhabitants ; and had no other colony followed, there is every reason to believe they would have sustained themselves. Their history forms a striking contrast with that of colonies where men were sent by others to labor in distant lands, or induced by worldly motives to enlist under ambitious leaders. Like the Captain of their Salvation, the Pilgrims were self-devoted. No man took from them, but the}'- voluntarily laid down what pertained to this life, in the cheerful and assured hope of a better. Faithful- ness they regarded as their concern; reward, as that of their Heavenly Master. In December, 1620, the same month in which the Pilgrims arrived on the American coast, James I. issued a charter to the Duke of Lenox, the Marquisses of Buckingham and Hamilton, the Earls of Arundel and Warwick, Sir Ferdinando Gorges, and thirty-four associates, styling them the "Grand Council of Plymouth, for planting and governing New England in America " This patent granted them the territory between the " fortieth and forty-eighth degrees of north latitude, and extending throughout the main land from sea to sea." This territor}^, which had been previously called North Virginia, now received the name of New England, by royal authority. From this patent were derived all the subsequent grants under which the New England colonies were settled. But either from sinister motives, sheer ignorance of the geography of the country, or reckless disregard to ^^^^^VVKwi^Wv^^v^ ^^ TYPES OF NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 86 THE LANDING OF THE PILGRIMS. 87 consequences, the affairs of this corporation were transacted in a manner so confused that endless dispute and difi&culties were occasioned. Sir Ferdinando Gorges had been an of&cer in the navy of Elizabeth, and a companion of Sir Walter Raleigh. Various circumstances had bent his mind strongly to the ambition of founding a colony in America. Per- haps he imagined it would become a principality or a dukedom. He was hence the prime mover in getting up the Grand Council of Plymouth, and was made its president. Similar motives actuated Captain Mason, and he became its secretary. They were simply indulging in delusions. More Colonists Arrive from England. Mason procured from the Grand Council the absurd grant of "all the land from the river of Naumkeag (Salem), round Cape Ann to the mouth of the Merrimack, and all the country lying between the two rivers, and all islands within three miles of the coast." The district was to be called Mariana. The next year Gorges and Mason jointly obtained of the council another patent of " all the lands between the Merrimack and Kennebec Rivers, extending back to the Great Lakes, and river of Canada." This tract received the name of Lacaonia. Under this grant some feeble settle- ments were made at the mouth of the Piscataqua, and as far up the river as the present town of Dover. The persecution of the Puritans continued unabated during the reign of James I., the successor of Blizabeth, and many of the ablest divines of England, obliged to feel the rigor of the law or violate their consciences, were wandering in foreign lands or meditating a removal. Among the latter was Mr. White, a minister of Dorchester, in the south of England — a Puritan, though not a Separatist. Having learned what godly quietness his brethren of New Plymouth enjoyed, he turned his e3^es in that direction, and pro- jected another colony to America. Encouraged by him, as early as 1624, a few persons established themselves, first at Cape Ann, and afterwards on the site of Salem. Their representations of the country, together with the solicitation of White, induced several gentlemen of Dorchester to purchase of the Grand Council of Plymouth, in 1628, a patent "of that part of New England which lies between three miles north of the Merrimack River and three miles to south of the Charles River, and extending from the Atlantic 88 THE LANDING OF THE PILGRIMS. to the South Sea." Thus the avaricious council covered by a second grant lands which they had already some time previously conveyed by a former one to Mason. John Endicott, a rugged Puritan, was the leader; and in Salem began the " wilderness-work for the colony of Massachusetts." He brought over his family, and other emigrants to the number of one hundred. Roger Conant and two others, from New Plymouth, had selected for him this spot, then called Naumkeag, for their settlement, and Conant was there to give to Endicott and his party such welcome to the New World as the desert forest could afford. The next year the proprietors obtained of King Charles a charter, confirming the patent of the Council of Plymouth, and conveying to them powers of government. They were incorporated by the name of the " Governor and Company of Massachusetts Bay in New England." The first general court of the company was held in England, when they fixed upon a form of government for the colony, and appointed Endicott governor. About three hundred persons sailed for America during this year, a part of whom joined Mr. Endicott at Salem, and the remainder, exploring the coast for a better station, laid the foundation of Charlestown. John Winthrop Chosen Governor. In the meantime other pious Puritans, with similar views to those of White, were meditating similar projects in other and opposite parts of England. The pious family of the Earl of Lincoln, in the Northeast, regarded the religious enterprise with enthusiastic admiration ; as did also John Winthrop, a native of the county of Suffolk, and others of rank and fortune. A more extensive emigration was now thought of than had been before attempted. But an objection arose; the colony was to be governed by a council residing in England. To obviate this hindrance, the company agreed to form a council of those who should emigrate, and who might hold their sessions thereafter in the new settlement. On the election, the excellent John Winthrop was chosen governor. He had afterwards for his eulogy a praise beyond that of any other person in the colony. " He was," say they, " unto us as a mother, parent-like distributing his goods, and gladly bearing our infirmities, yet did he ever maintain the figure and honor of his place with the spirit of a true gentle- man." The company had determined to colonize only their " best." Eight THE LANDING OF THE PILGRIMS. 89 hundred accompanied Winthrop, and, during the season, seventeen vessels were employed, bringing over, in all, fifteen hundred persons. Winthrop and his friends found no luxurious table spread for them in the wilderness ; but they freely imparted the stores which they brought to the famished and enfeebled sufferers whom they met. Regarding Salem as sufficiently peopled, the newly- arrived located themselves without delay beyond its limits. Their first care, wherever they went, was to provide for the ministration of the gospel. In August Charles- town had a church, at the head of which was the ardent, eccen- tric and benevolent Wilson — ever ready to encourage the despond- ing, either in poetry or prose. Dorchester soon after had a church, gathered by Mr. Warham, who afterwards emigrated to Windsor, Connecticut. Boston, Roxbury, Lynn and Watertown followed in their order; so that, at the end of two years, Massachusetts enjoyed the exceedingly rare dis- JOHN WINTHROP tinction at that time of having seven churches, supplied with devout and learned ministers. Unused, as many of this company of settlers were, to aught but plent}?- and ease, the hardships before them, though borne with a willing mind, were too much for the body, especially in the case of women. Many died, though in the joy and peace of believing. Among these was the beloved Arbella Johnson, of the noble house of Lincoln. Her husband, Isaac John- son, the principal of the emigrants in respect to wealth, felt her loss so severely that he soon followed her to the grave. He made a liberal bequest to the colony, and died " in sweet peace." CHAPTER X. KING PHILIP'S WAR. ,HIIvIP was the younger of the two sons of Massasoit. He had become embittered against the English by circumstances attend- ing the death of his brother, which he ascribed to them ; and though he was thus left sole chieftain of the Pokanokets, yet he deeply felt his loss, and bitterly resented it. The extension of the whites had now alarmed the savage nations. They remembered that their ancestors had reigned sole lords of the forest. Now their hunting-grounds were abridged; and the deer, the bear, and other animals on which they depended for subsistence, were frightened away by the hum of civilization. The new race, whom their fathers re- ceived when a poor and feeble band, were now gradually spreading themselves over the land, and assuming to be its sover- eigns. Nothing remained to the native savage but to be driven by degrees from the occupations and possessions of his forefathers, or to arouse, and by a mighty effort extirpate the intruders. This was the spirit which, emanating from Philip, spread itself throughout the various Indian tribes. The Narragansetts, so long friendly, were now under the rule of Conanchet, the son of Mianto- nomoh, and doubtless he remembered the benefactions which his father had bestowed upon the whites, and their refusal to hear his last plea for mercy. Philip had not proceeded farther than to work upon the minds of the Indians by secret machinations, when Sausaman, one of the natives whom Eliot, the famous missionary to the Indians, had instructed in Christianity 90 KING PHILIP. KING PHILIP'S WAR. 91 gave to the Hnglisli intimations of his designs. Sausaman was soon after murdered. On investigation, the Plymouth court found that the murder was committed by three of Philip's most intimate friends, and forthwith they caused them to be executed. The savages no longer delayed; but, on the 20th of June, Philip's warriors began by attacking Swansey, in New Plymouth. The colonists appeared in defense of the town, and the Indians fled. Receiving fresh troops from Boston, the united English force marched into the Indian towns, which on their approach were deserted. But the route of the savages was marked by the ruin of buildings which had been burned, and by the heads and hands of the English, which were fixed upon poles by the wayside. The troops finding that they could not overtake them returned to Swansey. Reward Offered for the Capture of King Philip. The commissioners of the colonies meeting at Boston were unanimous in deciding that the war must be prosecuted with vigor, and each colony furnished means, according to its ability. Of the thousand men which they determined to send immediately into the field, Massachusetts was to furnish five hundred and twenty-seven, Connecticut three hundred and fifteen, and Plymouth one hundred and fifty-eight. Subsequently the commissioners voted to raise double this number. The army was sent from Swansey into the country of the Narragansetts, and negotiating, sword in hand, with that confederac}^, on the 15th of July, a treaty of peace was concluded. The commissioners, among other stipula- tions, agreed to give forty coats to any of the Narragansetts who should bring Philip alive, twenty for his head, and two for each of his subjects, delivered as prisoners. The Indian king retreated with his warriors to a swamp at Pocasset, near Alontaup. There, on the 18th, the colonists attacked them, but gained no decisive advantage. Philip then made his headquarters with the Nipmucks ; but by the spirit of his destructive movements, he seemed to be everywhere present. In August it was clear that the Nipmuck Indians, living on the northern tributaries of the Thames, were making ready to go upon the war-path, and Captain Edward Hutchinson and twenty troopers were sent to hold a con- ference with the savages. When near Brookfield they fell into ambush and eight were killed and four wounded, Captain Hutchinson being among the latter. The survivors managed to reach Brookfield and give the alarm. 92 KING PHILIPS WAR, Bvery one in the little village knew what was coming, and the inhabitants, numbering less than a hundred, ran pell-mell into the only house which was strong enough to offer any chance of defence. The men had barely time enough to catch up their guns, sling the strings of their powder-horns and bullet-pouches over their necks, when several hundred Indians rushed into the village like a cyclone. Their ear-splitting screeches filled the air, and the dusk}^ warriors were seen dashing hither and thither, many with a musket in one hand and a blazing torch in the other. The gleaming knife and tomahawk thrust in the girdle at the waist, and the hideously painted faces caused many a mother to shudder and press her infant to her breast, while the fathers compressed their lips, raised the flints of their muskets, and took careful aim. Savage Attack and Heroic Defense. Every house was fired except the one in which the settlers had taken refuge. Whenever an Indian attempted to steal up to that with a torch he was riddled with rifle-balls. No more thrilling incident can be found in the early history of our country than the attack and defence of this single house at Brookfield. The first volley which the Indians poured into the structure mortally wounded one of the men. Another, who ventured near enough to be seized, was flung to the earth, his head cut off and kicked about for a foot-ball. When tired of this horrible sport the head was stuck on a pole and set up in front of his own house. Twice a skilled messenger started out in quest of help, but the Indians were too watchful, and he was barely able to get back in time to save his own life. The night which followed was dreadful beyond description. The savages were on the alert, darting hither and thither, firing at every open- ing that could be detected between the logs, and continuing their efforts to destroy the structure by means of firebrands, tied to the ends of long poles. The defenders, crowded together so there was barely room to move about^ were equally vigilant. While the tired children slept the mothers peered through the crevices and gave their husbands what help they could. Sometimes in the gloom a flickering torch revealed the warrior, creeping stealthily among the ruins of the building, and a sturdy rifleman sent a ball through his bod3^ The savage would leap high in the air with one piercing death-shriek, and that was the end of him. ATTACK OF THE INDIANS ON BROOKFIELD. 91 94 KING PHILIPS WAR. Finding siicli attempts too dangerous the Indians wrapped tlieir arrows with burning tow, and huinched them against the building, but provi- dentially the little twists of flame died out witliout communicating to the wood. The dense darkness was relieved after midnight by the full moon, which, however, disclosed an alarming fact : the Nipmucks had heaped a a large quantity of combustible stuff at one corner of the building to which they set fire. Under cover of the marksmen, a number of settlers dashed out and scattered the burning material. This was twice repeated. During the excitement one of the defenders reached the woods witliout detection and started on a desperate journey to obtain help. He had a long way to travel to obtain assistance, and the fate of the defenders was likely to be settled before it could reach them. Air Filled with Flaming Arrows. The attack continued without abatement all that day and the succeed- ing night. At times the air was filled with flaming arrows, many of which, curving high overhead, came down with such force on the roof that they stuck fast, and the smell of burning wood warned those Avithin of their danger. Holes were hurriedly chopped through the roof and water dashed on the fire — this being repeated again and again until it seemed that one party must tire out and stop. On the third day it looked to the brave defenders as though all hope was ended. A Avagon was piled high with flax, hemp, ha}^, dry wood and other inflammable material ; set fire, and then with long poles the savages shoved it against the building. When the choking smoke poured through the crevices between the logs, and the crackling flames began communi- cating, the defenders were in despair ; but, at that terrible moment, a vio- lent shower of rain came down, and not onl}^ quenched the flames but made it impossible to rekindle them. During the same da}-, ]\Iajor Simon Willard, of Boston, and about fifty men, learning of the sore strait of the Brookfield people, made all haste thither. The IMajor, who was fully seventy years old, was on his march west, and had to travel thirt}^ miles over a bad road to reach the imperiled settlers. He and his soldiers did it in gallant style. The sun was setting when they dashed into the town, and without a minute's hesitation they went at the Indians right and left. In the course of a few hours not KING PHILIP'S WAR. 95 a live warrior was in the neighborhood. The number killed by the Major's party, added to those who had fallen by the bullets of the defenders, was eighty. Intending to collect a magazine and garrison at Hadley, Captain Lathrop, with a corps of the choicest young men, selected from the vicinity of Boston, was sent to transport a quantity of corn from Deeriield to that place. They were suddenly attacked by the Indians, and, though they fought with great bravery, they were almost all cut off. The brook, by which they fought, flowed red, and to this day is called " Bloody Brook." In October the Springfield Indians, who had previously been friendly, con- certed with the hostile tribes, and set fire to that town. While its flames were raging they attacked Hadley. The Colonists in Great Danger. Dreadful beyond description was now the condition of the colonists. The object of the Indians was totally to exterminate them, and aimed equally at the lives of the armed and the defenseless. They were with- held by no restraints of religion, and their customs of war led them to the most shocking barbarities. The previous state of peace and security, in the course of which the whites had spread themselves over a large extent of country, and mingled their dwellings with those of the Indians, rendered their situation more perilous. The Indians, thus acquainted with their haunts and habits, ambushed the private path, rushed with the dreadful war-whoop upon the worshiping assembly, and during the silence of mid- night set fire to the lonely dwelling, and butchered its inhabitants. When the father of the family was to go forth in the morning he knew he might meet his death-shot, as he opened his door, from some foe concealed behind his fences or in his barn; or he might go, and return to find his children murdered during his absence. When the mother lay down at night, with her infant cradled on her arm, she knew that before morning it might be plucked from her bosom, and its brains dashed out before her eyes. Such were ever the consequences of savage warfare ; but at no time during the settlement of the country were they so extensively felt as during the year through which this war continued. Conanchet again manifested hostility. In violation of the treaty, he not only received Philip's warriors, but aided their operations against the English. On the 18th of December one thousand troops were collected 9g KING PI 1 1 LI rS WAR. from the different colonies. Captain Cliurcli commanded the division from Massachusetts, Major Treat that from Connecticut, and Josiah Winslow, of Plymouth, 'was in supreme command. After a stormy night passed in the open air, they waded through the snow sixteen miles, and about one o'clock on the afternoon of the 19 til they arrived near the enemy's fortress. It was on a rising ground in the midst of a swamp, and was so well fortified with palisades and thick hedges that only by crossing a log which lay over a ravine, could it be ap- proached. The snow was deep, but the footsteps of the whites were providentially di- rected to this en- trance, and though commanded by a INDIAN WEAPONS. block-liousc forti- fied and manned, the officers led the men directly across the narrow and dangerous bridge. The first were killed, but others pressed on, and the fort was entered. • Conanchet and his warriors fought with desperation, and forced the English to retire; but they continued the fight, defeated the savages, and KING PHILIP'S WAR. 97 again entering the fort they set fire to the Indian dwellings. One thousand warriors were killed ; three hundred, and as many women and cliildren, were made prisoners. About six hundred of their wigwams were burnt, and many helpless sufferers perished in the flames. The wretched remains of the tribe took shelter in the recesses of a cedar swamp, covering themselves with boughs, or burrowing in the ground, and feeding on acorns or nuts, dug out with their hands from the snow. Many who escaped a sudden, thus died a lingering death. Conanchet was made prisoner in April, and was offered his freedom if he would enter into a treaty of peace. The chieftain indignantly refused, and was put to death. An Enemy to the Last. In the midst of these reverses Philip remained unshaken in his enmity. His chief men, as also his wife and family, were killed or made prisoners ; and while he wept at these domestic bereavements, with a bitterness that evinced the finest feelings of human nature, so averse was he to submission that he even shot one of his men who proposed it. After being driven from swamp to swamp, he was at last shot near Montaup b}^ the brother of the Indian whom he had thus killed. Of the scattered parties which remained, many were captured. vSome sought refuge at the nortli. These afterwards served as guides to those parties of hostile French and Indians who came down and desolated the provinces. In this dreadful contest New England lost six hundred inhabitants. Fourteen towns had been destroyed, and a heavy debt incurred. Yet the colonies had received no assistance from England, and they asked none. The humane Irish sent the sufferers some relief. If Philip's war was to the whites disastrous, to the savage tribes it was ruinous. The Pokanokets and the Narragansetts henceforth disappear from history. 7 CHAPTER XI. THE GROWING NATION. OGER WILLIAMS was a Puritan minister, who had been driven from England by those persecutions for opinion, which, like the confusion of languages at Babel, drove men asunder, and peopled the earth. When Williams arrived in Massachusetts, he proclaimed, that the only business of the human legislator is with the actions of man as they affect his fellow-man ; but as for the thoughts and feelings of his mind, and the acts or omissions of his life, as respects religious worship, the only lawgiver is God ; and the only human tribunal, a man's own conscience. Hence he condemned as unjust the church-membership restriction of the right of suffrage, all laws to compel attendance on devotional exercises, and all taxation to support public worship. Great was the astonishment caused, and the disturbance made, by what was called this " ill egg of toleration." Williams, the eloquent young divine, frank and affectionate, had, however, won the hearts of the people of Salem, arid they invited him to settle with them as their pastor. The general court forbade it. Wil- liams withdrew to Plymouth, where he remained as pastor for two years, and then returned to Salem, where he was again gladly received by the people. The court punished the town for this offense by withholding a tract of land to which they had a claim. Williams wrote to the churches, endeavoring to show the injustice of this proceeding ; whereupon the court ordered, that until ample apology was made for the letter, Salem should be disfranchised. Then all, even his wife, yielded to the clamor against him ; but he declared to the court before whom he was arraigned, that he was ready to be bound, or if need were, to attest with his life, his devo- tion to his principles. The court pronounced against him the sentence of exile. Winter was approaching and he obtained permission to remain till spring. The affec- tions of his people revived, and throngs collected to hear the beloved voice, soon to cease from among them. The authorities became alarmed, and sent a vessel to convey him to England ; but he had disappeared. 98 THE GROWING NATION. 99 Now a wanderer in the wilderness, he had not, npon many a stormy night, either " food, or fire, or company," or better hedging tlian the hol- low of a tree. At last, a few followers having joined him, lie fixed at Seckonk, since Rehoboth, within the limits of the colony of Plymonth. Winslow was now Governor there; and he felt himself obliged to com- nuinicate to Williams that his remaining wonld breed disturbance between the colonies ; and he added his advice to that privately conveyed to Wil- liams by a letter from Winthrop " to steer his course to Narragansett Bay." Generosity of an Indian Chief. Williams now threw himself upon the mercy of Canonicus. At first the sachem was ungracious. The Hnglish, he said, had sought to kill him, and had sent the plague among his people. But Williams won upon him by degrees, and he extended his hospitality to him and his suffering com- pany. Pie would not, he said, sell his huid, but he freely gave to Wil- liams, whose neighborhood he now coveted, and who was fivored 1)y his nephew, Miantonomoh, all the neck of land between the Pawtucket and Moshasuck Rivers, " that his people might sit down in peace and enjoy it forever." Thither they went, and with pious thanksgiving named the goodly place Providence. The Dutch and Hnglish both claimed to be the original discoverers of Connecticut River, but the former had probably the juster claim. The natives along its valley were kept in fear by the more warlike Pequods on the east, and the terrible Mohawks in the west ; and hence they desired the presence of the English as defenders. As early as 1G31, Wahquima- cut, one of their sachems, being pressed by the Pequods, went to Boston and afterwards to Plymouth, earnestly requesting that an English colony might be sent to his country, which he truly described as a delightful region. Governor Winthrop declined his proposal ; but Edward Winslow, then Governor of Plymouth, favored the project, and visited and ex- amined the valley. The Plymouth people had been, some time previously, advised by the Dutch to settle on Connecticut River ; and they now determined to pursue the enterprise. They fixed on the site of Windsor, as the place to erect a trading-house. But delays occurred, and the Dutch having repented of their former moderation, and now anxious to secure the territory for them- selves, erected a small trading fort, called the house of Good Hope, on a 100 THE GROWING NATION. point of land in Sukeag, since Hartford, at the junction of the Little river with the Connecticut. How firmly the little state had become established in a short time is shown from the shock which it now met and repelled. The Pequods were endeavoring to unite the Indian tribes in a plot to exterminate the English, especially those of this colony, named from its river, Connecticut. A general court was called on the last of May, at Hartford. Thirty persons had already been killed, and the evidence was conclusive that the savages designed a general massacre. The court, therefore, righteously declared war. The quota of troops from the three towns now settled, shows the rapid progress of the settlement. Hartford was to furnish ninety men, Windsor forty-two, and Wethersfield eighteen, making one hundred and fifty. John Mason was chosen captain. The troops embarked at Hartford, sailed down the river, and along the coast to Narragansett Bay. Miantonomoh furnished them two hundred warriors, Uncas sixty. There were actually embodied of the English only seventy-seven, of whom twenty, commanded by Captain Underbill, were from Massachusetts. Terrible Slaughter of the Natives. Guided by a Pequod deserter, they reached Mystic, one of the two forts of Sassacus, at dawn of da}^ Their Indian allies showed signs of fear, and Mason, arranging them at a distance around the fort, advanced with his own little army. If they fell there was no second force to defend their state, their wives and helpless children. As they approach a dog barks, and an Indian sentinel cries out, " Owannox, Owannox!" the English, the English! They leap within the fort. The Indians fight desperately, and victory is doubtful. Mason then seizes and throws a flaming brand, shouting, "we must burn them." The light materials of their wigwams were instantly in a blaze. Hemmed in, as the Indians now were, escape was impossible ; and six hundred, all who were within the fort, of every sex and age, in one hour perished. Three hundred Pequods, issuing from the other and royal fortress of Sassacus, pursued Mason with infuriated rage, as he retreated to the Pequod River, where he embarked on his vessels, which he met there. Two of the English were killed, and twenty wounded. The subjects of Sassacus now reproached him as the author of their misfortunes ; and, to escape destruction, he with his chief captains fled to THE GROWING NATION. 101 the Mohawks; but he was afterwards slain by a revengeful subject. Three hundred of his warriors, having burned his remaining fort, fled along the sea-coast. Massachusetts had raised a body of men to aid in the war, which on account of the theological disturbance, arrived too late for the battle. These, under Captain Patrick, now joined with forty men under Mason, pursued the fugitive savages, traced them to a swamp in Fairfield, and there fought and defeated them. The prowess of the English had thus put the natives in fear, and a long peace ensued. All the churches in New England commemorated this deliverance by keeping a day of common and devout thanksgiving. Charles II. died in 1685, and was succeeded by the Duke of York, under the title of James 11. He declared that there should be no free governments in his dominions ; and accord- ingly ordered writs to be issued against the charters of the colonies of Connecticut and Rhode Island. These colonies presented letters and addresses, which, containing ex- pressions of humble duty, the king con- strued them into an actual surrender of their charters ; and, affecting to believe that all impediments to the royal will were removed, he proceeded to establish a tem- porary government over New England. Sir Joseph Dudley was appointed president in same year he was succeeded by Sir Edmund Andros, as governor-general, in whom, with a council, was vested all the powers of government. Sir Edmund began his career with the most flattering professions of his regard to the public safety and happiness. It was, however, well observed, that " Nero concealed his tyrannical disposition more years than Sir Edmund did months." He assumed control over the press, and appointed the detested Randolph, licenser. Soon after the arrival of Andros, he sent to Connecticut, demanding the surrender of her charter. This being refused, in 1687, he came with a guard to Hartford, during the session of the general assembly, and in person required its delivery. After debating until evening, the charter was produced, and laid on the table where the assembly were sitting. The lights were extinguished, and one of the members privately conveyed it away, and hid 1686 THE CHARTER OAK. but in December of the 102 THE GROWING NATION. it in a cavity of a large oak tree. The candles were officiously religHted, but the charter was gone ; and no discovery could be made of it, or at that time, of the person who carried it away. The government of the colony was, however, surrendered to Andros. It is time now to give some account of the settlement of New York, the greatest State in the Union in population and wealth. It contains the finest river for navigation, possesses the commercial capital, and holds a position which alone connects New England with the South and West. In 1609 occurred the discovery of the Hudson river, which has proved the finest for navigation of any in America, and under cir- cumstances which, giving to two nations claims to its waters and their adjoining country, became the occasion of subsequent wars. Hendrick Hudson, the discoverer, was an Englishman by birth, but in the service of the Dutch East India Company. The next year the Dutch sent ships to this river to open a trade with the natives, but the Court of England disowned their claim to the country. The Dutch, however, followed up their good fortune, and soon erected forts Orange and Manhattan, near the sites of Albany and New York. Holland was one of those kingdoms which the early Fathers of New England were wont to say, " the Lord had sifted for good seed to sow the wilderness." It was just after this nation had succeeded in its struggle against the bloody tyranny of Philip II. of Spain, and established an independent federal government, that Henry Hudson, in the service of the Dutch East India Company, as already stated, sailed from the Texel for the purpose of discovering a northwest passage to India ; but being unsuccessful, he coasted along the shores of Newfoundland, proceeded south as far as Delaware and Chesapeake Bays, then returning northward he became the discoverer of the noble river which bears his name. HENDRICK HUDSON. THE GROWING NATION. 103 In 1G14 a company of mercliants having received permission from the State's General, fitted out a squadron of several ships, and sent them to trade to the country which Hudson had discovered. A rude fort was con- structed on Manhattan Island. One of the captains of the squadron, Adrian Blok, sailed through the East river and determined the insulated position of Long Island. He probably entered Connecticut river, and it is fully believed that he examined the coast as far as Cape Cod. Fort Built by the Traders. The next year the adventurers sailed up the Hudson, and on a little island, just below the present position of Albany, they built a small fort, naming it Fort Orange. But no families had emigrated. The Dutch were then merely traders. Afterwards they changed their location, and fixed where Albany now stands, Holland was torn by factions. Grotius, the most enlightened of her sons, was sentenced to imprisonment for life, and the disciples of his school were now ready to emigrate. To promote trade, the " West India Company " was formed, with full powers. The willing settlers were sent over. Cot- tages clustered around Manhattan fort, now called New Amsterdam, and Peter Minuets was made its first governor. Many settlements were now made, and a great part of the best land was soon appropriated. The Indian chiefs conveyed to the excellent Van Renselaer the tract around Fort Orange to the mouth of the Mohawk, and the College of Nineteen gave a patent. Six years afterwards the grant was extended twelve miles further to the south. De Vries conducted from Holland a colony which settled Lewistown, near the Delaware ; a small fort called Nassau having been previously erected by the Dutch. In consequence of disagreements among the company in Holland, Peter Minuets returned, having been superseded by Walter Van Twiller. Minuets became the leader of a colony of Swedes. The Dutch were now curtailed of the territory which they claimed on Connecticut river by the settlement of Hooker and others, and also by the subjects of Gustavus Adolphus, led by Minuets, of that on the banks of the Delaware. Difficulties also arose with the savages. Governor Keift, who had succeeded Van Twiller, had an inconsiderable quarrel with the Man- hattan Indians. Notwithstanding, when the Mohawks came down upon them, they collected in groups, and begged him to shelter and assist 104 THE GROWING NATION. them. Instead of this, the barbarous Keift sciit his troops, and at night murdered thcni all — men, women and helpless babes — to the number of a hundred. Indian vengeance awoke, as well it might, and its tokens spread quickly from tribe to tribe. No English family within reach of the Algonquins was safe. The Dutch villages were in flames around, and the people fleeing to Holland. Near New York the family of Anne Hutchinson, and many others, were massacred; and in New England all was jeopardy and alarm. The Dutch troops defended themselves, having placed at their head Captain Underhill, who had been expelled from Massachusetts. At this time is supposed to have occurred a bloody battle at vStrickland's Plain, in Greenwich, Connec- ticut, of which, however, the details seem strangely lost. Tomahawk Buried under the Tree of Peace. The Mohawks, who were friendly to the Dutch, at length interfered, and the congregated Indian sachems met in council with the whites, on the ground of the battery in New York. *■' The tree of peace was planted and the tomahawk buried beneath its shade." Keift, execrated by all the colo- nies, was remanded to Holland; and, on his return, perished by ship- wreck on the coast of Wales. Peter Stuyvesant had succeeded to his office before his departure. He went to Plartford, and there entered into negotia- tions. The Dutch claims to Connecticut were relinquished, and Long Island was divided between the two parties. The Dutch had built fort Casimir on the site of Newcastle, in Dela- ware. The Swedes conceiving this to be an encroachment on their terri- tory. Rising, their Governor, by an unworthy stratagem, made himself its master. In 1G55, Stuyvesant, acting by orders received from Holland, em- barked at New Amsterdam with six hundred men, and sailing up the Dela- ware he subjugated the Swedes. New Sweden was heard of no more; but the settlers were secured in their rights of private property, and their descendants are among the best of our citizens. Many emigrants now came to New Netherlands, from among the oppressed, the discontented, and the enterprising of other colonies and of European nations. At length the inhabitants sought a share of jxjlitical power. They assembled, and by their delegates demanded that no laws should be passed, except with the consent of the people. Stuyvesant very unceremoniously let them know that he was not to be directed " by a few < »— t -J) D O •J Till'. CROW INC N.rnoyr. 105 ignorant subjects;" and lie forlliwiUi dissoKcd llic assenibly. Tlie '' Nine- teen " highly ap])n)ve(l liis eoiirse; ;m(l charged liiiii not " lo allow the people to indnlge sueli visionary dreams, as that taxes shonld not he im- ])osed without their consent." Hut popular liln-rty, thongh checked here, prevailed in the .-idiMining provinces ; and they c.)Mse(pu'nlly grew more rapidl}^ and crowded u})on the Dutch. The In- dians made war Tipon some of their vil- lages, especially that orivsopus,now King- ston; and New Neth- erlands could not ob- tain aid from Hol- land. 'The vStates Oeneral had given the whole concern into the hands of the Nineteen, they to pay all expenses; and this council re- fused to make need- ful advances. In the meantime, Charles II. had g r a n ted to his brother James, then im':ti".k s'rcvvivSAxr, oovkknok oi-" nkw vcjkk. Duke of York and Albany, the territcjry from the l>:iiik.s of the Coimecti- cnt to those of the Delaware. vSir Robert Nichols, a confidential offic-er of his househcdd, was dispatched with a flec-t to take possession. Nichols brought over commissioners to New I^iigland, and landed them at Boston. Taking in from Lcmg Island the ycnmger Winthrop, now Cjr>vernor of Connecticut, he sailed to New Amsterdam, and suddenly demanded of the astonished Stuyvesant to gi\'e nj) the ])lace. Winthrop advised him to df> 106 THE GROWING NATION. so, but tlie faithful Dutcliman replied that a tame surrender " would be reproved in the fatherland;" and he would have defended his post if he could. But the body of the people preferred the English rule to that of the Dutch, the privileges of Englishmen having been promised them. Nichols therefore entered, took possession in the name of his master, and called the place New York. A part of the English fleet, under Sir George Carteret, sailed up the Hudson to Fort Orange, which surrendered and was named Albau}-. The Dutch fort on the Delaware was also taken by the English. The rights of property were respected, and a treaty was made with the Five Nations. The whole line of coast from Acadia to Florida, was now in posses- sion of the English. But there was destined to be a long struggle between the European nations for the mastery of the new world. There was as much rivalry as could have been expected at a time when the vast resources of the new country were quite unknown and the difficulties of ocean naviga- tion were so great. Most of the towns that now teem wdth population, were, in the first place, trading stations and forts. These became centres of industry and traffic, and as the country grew older such centres of population became rallying points for the settlers. Our history shows that these early settle- ments nearly all suffered during the wars with the Indians which broke out from time to time, and were carried on with savage barbarit3^ The strong hold the English obtained in America continued, and their settlements increased in number on almost every part of the coast. Even at this early period, there was a stir in the old world, and westward the course of empire was taking its wa3\ The growth of the colonies fluctuated according to circumstances, but there was a steady movement of industrious, thrifty, resolute people toward the American wilderness. I CHAPTER XII. PENNSYLVANIA AND ITS FOUNDER. ^HB great and good man, to wlioin Penns34vaiiia owes its origin, was the son of Vice Admiral Sir William Penn, and was born in London in 1644. He was regarded as a cliild of great promise. At eleven 3^ears of age, being, as lie relates, at Oxford School, he was suddenl}^ surprised " with an inward comfort, and an external glory in the belief of God, and his communion with his soul." Nothing, through a long life, ever shook his faith in the reality of this divinely communicated " inner light." At fifteen he entered Oxford College ; but though an excellent scholar — his religious sensibilities having been farther excited by the preaching of Thomas Loe, a Quaker, he was led to some irregularities as a student, involving a contempt of the authority, which caused his expulsion. His father, disappointed in the ambitious hopes which the uncommon talents of his son had raised, used ever}^ means, not excepting fatherly chastise- ment, to cure him of what he considered his whimsical obstinacy. All his efforts failing, he turned him from his door. But a generous nature, with the persuasions of his wife, soon made him relent, and restore his son to his favor. William was next sent to travel in France and Italy, where he spent two years. He returned with an elegant polish of manners, which delighted his father. But the admiral soon found that, wherever his religion was concerned, his son had the same peculiar views, and the same unbend ing spirit as before. His father next sent him to Ireland, in hopes that the splendid court of his friend, the Earl of Ormond, now Lord Lieutenant of that kingdom, would make him a man of the world. Having the agency of his father's large estates in Ireland, William applied himself to business with so much ability that his father was delighted with his success. But he again heard the preacher, Thomas Loe, and became a decided member of the Quaker Societ}', and as such he was persecuted and imprisoned. His father hear- 107 J0» PENNSYLVANIA AND ITS FOUNDER. ing of this, recalled liim to England. Mortified at liis oddities, but proud of his talents, the impassioned father entreats and beseeches, — even with tears. The affectionate son struggles between his love for his earthly and that for his Heavenly Parent, and decides that he must, at whatever cost, be in subjection to the Father of his spirit. The admiral is willing to endure much, and finally proposes to com- promise, and allow his son's peculiarities, provided he will consent partiall}/ to waive the Quaker custom of wearing the hat in every human presence, and uncover his head before the King, the Duke of York and himself Penii reflected that his spiritual strength and comfort depended upon obedience to his inward monitor. Christianity taught that the outward act should never belie the heart; and "hat-wor- ship " he believed could not otherwise be practiced. He therefore refused his father's proffer, and was again excluded from the shelter of his roof Penn now became a preacher and an author, and was ere long cast into prison for his violation of the severe laws respecting public worship; and though released by his father's medi- ation, he was soon re-committed. His fearless eloquence on one occasion, gained the jury to his cause. He was accused before the Mayor and Recorder of London of holding a private meeting with his brethren for religious worship ; and though the court directed, threatened, and kept the jury two days without " meat, drink, fire or tobacco," these twelve bold jurors would not find a bill against the prisoner. For this the court fined them, and cast them into prison for their fine. Such was the spirit of the times. Admiral Penn, when his health failed, recalled his beloved son. He gave a charge on his death-bed to his friend, the Duke of York, who accepted the of&ce, to watch the fate of William, and, as far as possible, shield him from the evils to which his peculiar tenets must expose him. WILLIAM PENN. PENNSYLVANIA AND ITS FOUNDER. 109 Soon after his father's death Peun is again in prison. But notwithstanding this, we soon find him allying himself in marriage to a family of high respectability, and to a woman of extraordinary intelligence, beauty, and goodness. That he had now the public confidence also appears from the trust reposed in him by the assignees of Edward Billinge, while the high order of his talents was manifested by liis legislation for the two Jerseys. His thoughts were by this turned to America; and the suflferings of his dear persecuted brethren led him to plans of colonizing there, which he proceeded to put into operation. His father had left claims to the amount of sixteen thousand pounds against the crown ; and Penn, finding that there was a tract yet ungranted, north of Lord Baltimore's patent, solicited and obtained of Charles II. a charter of the country, "which was bounded on the east by the river Delaware, extending westward through five degrees of longitude, and stretching from twelve miles northward of New- castle to the forty-third degree of latitude, and was limited on the south by a circle of twelve miles drawn around Newcastle, to the beginning of the fortieth degree of north latitude." It was called by the king Pennsylvania. A Council to Establish Peace. Soon after the date of this grant, two other conveyances were made to Penn by the Duke of York ; one of which embraced the present state of Delaware, and was called the "Territories." The other was a release from the Duke of any claims to Pennsylvania. Directions had been given to Colonel Markham, who preceded Penn, that the natives shold be treated kindly and fairly; and accordingly no land had been entered upon but by their consent. They had also been notified that Penn, to whom they gave the name of Onas, was to kindle a council fire at a certain time, in order to meet and establish with them a treaty of perpetual peace. On the morning of the appointed day, under a huge elm at Shackamaxon, now a suburb of Philadelphia, William Penn, majestic in person, beautiful in countenance, graceful, though plain in manner and attire, his only ornament being a sash of pale blue, stood and held in his hand the roll of peace. Sending around his loving glance, he sees "far as his eyes can carry" among the trees of the forest, its painted and plumed children gathering towards him. The chiefs came forward and half encircle him. The principal sachem puts upon his own head a horned chaplet, the symbol of his power. 110 PENNSYLVANIA AND ITS FOUNDER. At once every warrior lays down his bow and t. mahawk, and seats himself upon the ground. The grand chief then announces to Onas that the nations are ready to hear his words, believing him to be an angel sent to them by the Great Spirit. Penn gave them instructions, and solemnly appealed to the Almighty, who knew his inmost thoughts, that it was the ardent desire of his heart to do them good. "He would not call them brothers or children, but they should be to him and his, as half of the same body." The chiefs then gave their pledge for themselves, and for their tribes, " to live in love with him and his children, as long as the sun and moon should endure." The treaty was then executed, the chiefs marking down the emblems of their several tribes. The purchases of Markham were confirmed and others made. The City of Philadelphia Founded. After this Penn went to a villa which his nephew had built for his residence, opposite the site of Burlington, and called Pennsbury. Here he gave directions for laying out towns and counties, and in conjunction with the surveyor. Holme, drew the plan of his capital, and in the spirit of " brotherly love," named it Philadelphia. Vessels came fast with new settlers, until twenty-two bearing two thousand persons, had arrived. Some came so late in the fall, that they could not be provided with house-room in the rude dwellings of the new city ; and " the caves " were dug in the banks of the river to receive them. Providence fed them by flocks of pigeons and the fish of the rivers ; and the Indians, regarding them as the children of Onas, hunted to bring them game, Penn had left beyond the ocean his beloved family. Letters from England spoke of the sufferings of his Quaker brethren, and he believed that he might exercise an influence there to check persecution. He embarked on the fourth of August, and wrote on board the ship an affec- tionate adieu to his province, which he sent on shore before he sailed. He said, " And thou, Philadelphia, virgin of the province ! my soul prays for thee, that, faithful to the God of thy mercies, in the life of righteousness, thou mayest be preserved unto the end !" After William Penn's arrival in England he became one of the most influential persons in the kingdom ; for when the Duke of York was made king, under the title of James 11. , he manifested for him much confidence and affection. The influence thus possessed at court was never used for PENNSYLVANIA AND ITS FOUNDER. Ill selfish purposes, but mainly to obtain benefits for distressed Quakers, and laws in favor of general toleration. When James became an exile in France, Penn was suspected, by his successor, of holding with him a treasonable correspondence, and upon vague charges to this effect he was a number of times imprisoned. In 1692 the government of Pennsylvania was taken from him, and Fletcher, governor of New York, appointed by the crown to rule his province. After strict scrutiny, the conduct of Penn was found to be irreproachable, and in 1694 he was restored to the favor of the king, and reinstated in his govern- ment ; but not immediately returning to Pennsylvania, he appointed the worthy Thomas Lloyd his deputy-governor. The Duke's Claims Adjudged to be Oppressive. Sir Edmund Andros, when governor of New York, under pretence of the claims of the Duke of York, usurped the government both in East and West Jersey, and laid a tax upon all goods imported, and upon the pro- perty of all who came to settle in the country. Penn received complaints of these abuses, and with such strength of argument opposed the claims of the duke that the commissioners to whom the case was referred adjudged the duties to be illegal and oppressive; in consequence of which, in 1680, they were removed, and the proprietors reinstated in the government. Edward Byllinge was appointed their governor, and the next 3^ear, 1681, he sum- moned the first General Assembly held in West Jersey. In 1682 the people, by the advice of Penn, amended their government. Contrary to the wishes of the proprietor, the next 3^ear they proceeded to elect their own governor. CHAPTER XIII. WITCHCRAFT IN NEW ENGLAND. I )HH story of witchcraft in the Massachusetts colony is one of the most singular ever recorded. In 1688 a case occurred which excited general interest, and was the beginning of one of the saddest periods in the history of New England. The daughter of John Goodwin, a child of thirteen years, accused the daughter of an Irish laundress of stealing some linen. The mother of the laundress, a friendless emigrant, succeeded in disproving the charge, and abused the girl soundly for making a false accusation. Soon after this the accuser was seized with a fit, and pretended to be bewitched in order to be revenged upon the poor Irish woman. Her younger sister and two of her brothers followed her example. They pre- tended to be dumb, then deaf, then blind, and then all three at once. Nevertheless their appetite was good, and they slept soundly at night. The youngest of these little impostors was less than five years old. It was at once given out that the Goodwin children were bewitched, and no one suspected or hinted at the fraud. They would bark like dogs and mew like cats, and a physician who was called in to treat them solemnl}^ de- clared that they were possessed by devils. A conference of the four ministers of Boston, and one from Charles- town, was held at Goodwin's house, where they observed a day of fasting and prayer. As a result of their efforts the youngest child, a boy of less than five years, was delivered of his evil spirit. The ministers now had no doubt that the children had been bewitched, and as the little ones accused the Irish woman of their misfortune, she was arrested, tried for witchcraft, convicted and hanged, notwithstanding that many persons thought the poor creature a lunatic. Among the ministers who had investigated this case and had procured the execution of the woman was Cotton Mather, the son of Increase Mather, then president of Harvard College. He was a young man who had but recently entered the ministry, and was regarded as one of the most learned 112 WITCHCRAFT IN NEW ENGLAND. 113 and gifted preachers in the colony. He was withal a man of overweening vanity and fnll of ambition. He conld not bear contradiction, and was devoted to the maintenance of the political power of the clergy. He was snperstitious by nature, and was firmly convinced of the reality of Avitchcraft. He had become deeply interested in the case of the Goodwin children, and in order to study it more deeply took the eldest girl to his house, where he could observe and experiment upon her devil at his leisure. She was a cunning creature, and soon found that it was to her interest to humor the young pastor in his views, and she played upon his weakness with a shrewdness and skill which were remarkable in one so young, and exhibit the credulity of the investigator in a most pitiable light. Mather carried on his experiments M-ith a diligence which would have seemed ludicrous had its object been less baneful to the community. He read the Bible, and prayed aloud in the presence of the girl, who w^ould pretend to be thrown into a fit by the pious exercise. At the same time she read the Book of Common Prayer, or Quaker or Popish treatises, with- out any interruption from her familiar spirits. The minister then tested the proficiency of the devil in languages, by reading aloud passages of the Bible in Hebrew, Greek and Latin, which the girl professed to understand. Concluded that all Devils are not Alike. When he tried her with an Indian dialect, however, she could not comprehend him. By other experiments, designed to ascertain if the spirits could read the thoughts of others, Mather came to the sage conclusion that " all devils are not alike sagacious." The girl flattered his vanity, and lulled his suspicion of fraud by telling him that his own person was especially protected against the evil spirits by the power of God, and that the devils did not dare to enter his study. In 1692 a new case of witchcraft occurred in Salem village, now the town of Danvers. The minister of this place was Samuel Parris, betweer whom and a number of his people there had for some time existed dissen • sions of such a bitter nature that the attention of the general court had been directed to them. In February, 1692, the daughter and niece of Parris, the former a child of nine years, and the latter of less than twelve, gave signs of being bewitched. Parris at once recognized the opportunity which was thus offered him for vengeance upon his enemies, and deliberately availed himself of it. 114 WITCHCRAFT IN NEW ENGLAND. He demanded of the children the names of the persons who had bewitched them, and then proceeded to accuse those whom he succeeded in inducing the girls to denounce. The first victim was Rebecca Nurse. She was known in the community as a woman of exemplary Christian character; but she was one of the most resolute opponents of Parris. Upon his accusation she was arrested and imprisoned. The next Sunday Parris preached a sermon from the text, "Have I not chosen you twelve, and one of you is a devil." As his remarks were directed against Mistress Nurse, Sarah Cloyce, her sister, at once left the church. This in itself was a serious of- fence in those days, and Parris took ad- vantage of it to ac- cuse the offender of witchcraft, and she was seen to join THE REV. COTTON MATHER. her sister in prison. Mather, who deemed his credit at stake, lent his active aid to the prosecution of these unfortunate people, and had the vanity to declare that he regarded the efforts of " the evil angels upon the country as a particular defiance unto himself" Parris scattered his accusations right and left, becoming both informer and witness against those whom he meant to destroy for their opposition to him. WITCHCRAFT IN NEW ENGLAND. 115 In a few weeks nearly one hundred persons were in prison upon the charge of witchcraft. Abigail Williams, Parris's niece, aided her uncle with her tales, which the least examination would have shown to be absurd. George Burroughs, one of the ministers of Salem, had long been regarded by Parris as a rival, and he now openly expressed his disbelief in witchcraft, and his disapproval of the measures against those charged with that offence. This boldness sealed his doom. He was accused by Parris and committed to prison "with the rest of the witches." "The gallows was to be set up, not for those who professed themselves witches, but for those who rebuked the delusion." Governor Bradstreet, who had been chosen by the people, was unwilling to proceed to extreme measures against the accused, as he had no faith in the evidence against them. The arrival of the royal governor and the new charter in Boston in May, 1692, placed Cotton Mather and his fellow-prosecu- tors in a position to carry out their bloody designs. The General Court alone had authority to apJ)oint special courts, but Governor Phipps did not hesitate to appoint one himself for the trial of the accused persons at Salem, and this illegal tribunal, with Stoughton as its chief judge, met at Salem on the 2d of June. In this court, Parris acted as prosecutor, keeping back some witnesses, and pushing others forward, as suited his plans. A Woman Suspected and Hanged. The first victim of the court was Bridget Bishop, " a poor, friendless old woman." Parris, who had examined her at the time of her commitment, was the principal witness against her. Deliverance Hobbs being also accused, a natural infirmity of her body was taken as a proof of her guilt, and she was hanged, protesting her innocence. Rebecca Nurse was at first acquitted of the charges against her, but the court refused to receive the verdict of the jury, and Parris was determined that the woman against whom he had preached and prayed should not escape him, and the jury were induced to convict her, and she was hanged. John Willard, who had been compelled, by his duty as a constable, to arrest the accused, now refused to serve in this capacity any longer, as he had become convinced of the hypocrisy of the insti- gators of the persecution. He was immediately denounced, tried and hanged. When George Burroughs, the minister, was placed on trial, the witnesses produced against him pretended to be dumb. " Who hinders these witnesses from giving their testimonies ? " asked Stoughton, the chief judge. " I 116 WITCHCRAFT IN NEW ENGLAND. suppose the devil," replied BuiToui^h;3, contemptuously. "How comes the devil/' cried Stoughton, cxultingly, " so loath to have any testimony borne against you ? " The words of the prisoner were regarded as a confession, and his reu irkr jle bodily strength was made an evidence of his guilt. He was •convic' .1 fiud sentenced to be hanged. He was executed on the 19th of Augusi., wich four others. As he ascended the scaffold, Burroughs made an appeal to the people assembled to witness the execution, and effectually vindi- cated hiaisclf from the absurd charges against him, and repeated the Lord's prayei. which was regarded as a test of innocence. The spectators seemed about to interfere in favor of the victim. A Reign of Terror in the Colony. Cotton Mather, who was present on horseback, now exerted himself to complete the judicial murder. He harangued the people, insisted on the guilt of Burroughs, reminding them that the devil could sometimes assume the form of an angel of light, and even descended to the falsehood of declaring that Burroughs was no true minister, as his ordination Avas not valid. His appeal was sucsessful, and the execution was completed. Giles Cory, an old man over eighty years of age, seeing that no denial of guilt availed anything, refused to plead, and was prrssrd to dratJi^ in accordance with an old English law, long obsolete, which was revived to meet his case. Samuel Wardwell confessed his guilt, and escaped the gallows. Overcome with shame for his cowardice, he retracted his confes- sion, and was hanged for denying witchcraft. A reign of terror prevailed in Salem ; the prisons were full, and no one could feel sure how long he would escape accusation and arrest. Many persons confessed their guilt to save their lives. Children accused their parents, parents their children, and husbands and wives each other of the most impossible offences, in the hope of escaping the persecution themselves. Hale, the minister of Beverley, was a zealous advocate of the persecution, until the bitter cup was presented to his own lips by the accusation of his wife. Many persons were obliged to fly the colony, and the magistrates, conscious that they w^ere exceeding their powers, did not demand their surrender. We have mentioned only some of the principal cases to show the character of the persecution, as our limits forbid the relation of all. The total number hanged was twenty ; fifty-five were tortured or terrified into WITCHCRAFT IN NEW ENGLAND. 117 confessions of gnilt. The accusations were at first lodged against persons of humble station, but at length reached the higher classes. Stoughton's court, having hanged twenty of its victims, adjourned about the last of September, 101)2, until November, and on the eighteenth of October the general court met. The indignation of the people had been gathering force, and men were determined to put a stop to the judicial murders and tortures which had disgraced them so long. Remonstrances were at once presented to the assembly against " the doings of the witch tribunals,'' the people of Andover leading the way in this effort. The assembly abolished the special court, and established a tribunal by public law. The Dreadful Mistake is Acknowledged. The danger was now over. It was no longer possible to procure a conviction for witchcraft. The indignant people of Salem village at once drove the wretched Parris and his family from the place. Noyes, the minister of Salem, who had been active in the per.secutions, was compelled to ask the forgiveness of the people, after a public confession of his error. The devotion of the rest of his life to works of charity won him the pardon he sought. Sewall, one of the judges, struck with horror at the part he had played in the persecution, made an open and frank confession of his error, and implored the forgiveness of his fellow-citizens. His sincerity was so evident that he soon regained the favor he had lost. vStoughton passed the remainder of his life in proud and haughty disregard of the opinion of his fellow-men, scorning to make any acknowledgment of error, and evincing no remorse for his cruelties. As for the prime mover of the delusion, the Rev. Cotton Mather, nothing could induce him to admit that he could by any possibility have been in error ; not even the recollection of the sorrow he had brought upon some of the best people in the colony could shake his impenetrable self- conceit or humble him. When it was plain to him that he was the object of the indignation of all good men in New England, he had the hardihood to endeavor to persuade them that after all he had not been specially active in the sad affair. CHAPTER XIV. COLONIES ON THE SOUTHERN COAST. )FTER Charles II. was restored to the throne of England his rapacious courtiers, taking advantage of his improvident good nature, obtained for their services real or pretended, from him who had little else to give, large tracts of American territory. Nor was that monarch, as we have already seen, at all scrupu- lous when a favorite was to be gratified, if what he gave had before been granted, or if it belonged to other nations. ^ But settlers were wanted, and to procure these, various inducements were held out. Two settlements had already been formed. One of these, near the Sound, called, from the title given to the restorer of Charles II., Albemarle, was begun at an early day by enterprising planters from Vir- ginia ; and enjoying entire liberty, it had been augmented from that and other colonies, whenever : 3ligious or political oppression had scattered their people. The other colony was to the south of this, on Cape Fear or Clarendon River; and had been originally made by a little band of adventurers from New England. They, as well as the former colony, had purchased their land of the natives — they had occupied it, and they claimed, as a law of nature, the right of self-government. In the meantime, a number of planters from Barbadoes, desiring to re-establish themselves in independ- ence, purchased lands of the sachems, and settled on Cape Fear River, near the territory of the New Englanders. The two parties united. In 1667 they were in danger of famine, and Massachusetts sent them relief William Sayle, the first proprietary governor of Carolina, brought over a colony, with which he founded old Charleston. Dying in 1671 his colony was annexed to that of Governor Yeamens. In 1680 the city was removed to the point of land between the two rivers, which received, in compliment to Lord Shaftsbury, the names of Ashley and Cooper. The foundation of the present capital of the south was laid, and the name of the king per- petuated in that of Charleston. 118 J COLONIES ON THE SOUTHERN COAST. 119 During the year 1690 King William sent out a large body of French. Protestants, who had been compelled to leave their country by the arbitrary measures of Louis XIV. To a part of these, lands were allotted in Vir- ginia on James River, and others settled in Carolina on the banks of the Santee, and in Charleston. They introduced the culture of the vine, and were among the most useful settlers of the province. About 1723 a new colony was projected in England. The country between the Savannah and Altamaha rivers, although within the limits of the Carolina grant, was still unoc. cupied by European settlers. The patriotic deemed it important that this region should be planted by a British colony, otherwise, it was feared, it would be seized by the Spaniards from Florida, or the French from the Mississippi. At the same time, a spirit of philanthropy was abroad in England, to notice the distresses of the poor, especi- ally those shut up in prisons, and to provide for their relief. Actuated by these generous considerations, a number of gentle- men in England, of whom James Oglethorpe was the most zealous, formed a project to settle this tract by such of the suffering poor as might be willing to seek, in the new world, the means of subsistence. To this company, the territory between the Savannah and Altamaha, now, in honor of the king, denominated Georgia, was granted ; and with its settlement was completed that of the thirteen veteran colonies, which fought the War of the Revolution, and whose emblematic stars and stripes still decorate the banner of American Independence. Oglethorpe, having prepared for the settlement of Georgia, by the assistance of a corporation, consisting of twenty-one persons, who were called " Trustees for settling and establishing the colony of Georgia," embarked in November, 1732, with one hundred and sixteen emigrants for America. GENERAL OGLETHORPE. 120 COLON n:s on tiih south i-rn coast. They arrived at Charleston in January, IT^I). Governor Johnson, sensible of the importance of having a barrier between liis people and the Southern Indians, gave llieni all the aid in his power, and accompanied them to the place of their destination. This was Yamacraw Bluff, since called Savannah, which they reached on the 1st of February, and Ogle- thorpe immediately commenced a fort. His next care was to propitiate the Indians. The tribe settled at Yamacraw was ctmsiderable. The Creeks, at this period, could muster li,5()i) warriors; the Cherokees, l'»,()0() ; the Choctaws, 5,000; and the Chick- asaws, TOO; amounting in the whole to 1 l,liOO. Aware, that without the friendship of these nations, his colony could not even exist, much less prosper, Oglethorpe summoned a general meeting of the chiefs, fifty of whom met him in council at Savannah. By means of an interpreter, he made them the most friendly professions, which they reciprocated ; and these amicable dispositions passed into a solemn treaty. Idle and Vicious Emigrants. Soon after these occurrences, (Georgia was increased by five or six hun- dred emigrants ; but most of them were idle, and many of them vicious. In 1 T-U'*, Oglethorpe erected three fi)rts, one on the Savannah, at Augusta ; another called Frederica, in the vicinity of the Scotch settlement, on the island of St. Simons; and a third, named Fort William, on Cumberland island. The Spaniards remonstrated, and insisted on the evacuation of the country as far as the thirty-third degree of north latitude. Oglethorpe about this time returned to England. That nation being determined to maintain their claim to the disputed territory, appointed him commander-in-chief of the British forces in Carolina and Georgia, and sent him back with a regiment of six hundred men. On his arrival in Amei'ica, he established his headquarters at Frederica. About this time, a number of slaves near Charleston, influenced by the Spaniards, rose in a body, armed themselves by forcing open a magazine at Stono, and, thence proceeding south twelve miles, they killed all the whites they met, and compelled the negroes to join them. At length, becoming intoxicated, they were attacked and overcome by the men of a worshipping assembly, who, according to law, went armed. Most of them were put to death. In May, 1742, a fleet was sent from Havana, from which in June, COLONIES ON THE SOUTHERN COAST. 121 debarked 2000 Spanish troops at St. Simons. Oglethorpe, with his wonted energy, had collected troops and posted himself at Prederica. He was not in sufficient force openly to attack the enemy, but was himself attacked by a party of Spaniards. His troops, particularly the Highlanders under Captain Mcintosh, fought bravely, repulsed, and slew two hundred of the enemy at " the Bloody Marsh." Oglethorpe, on being informed of a division in their camp, next deter- mined on a surprise, and marched his army during the night within two miles of their entrenchments, when a French soldier of his party discharged his musket and ran into their lines. Discovery defeated every hope of success, and Oglethorpe returned to his camp. He then adroitly planned to make the Spaniards believe that the deserter was a spy, and was giving them information to mislead them. He wrote him a letter, urging him to give the Spanish such an account of the situation of his army as should induce them to attack him, or would, at any rate, serve to detain them in their own camp until the succors which he expected should arrive. The Panic-Stricken Spaniards Flee. This letter, as Oglethorpe had contrived, fell into the hands of the Spanish, who, having loaded the deserter with irons, were deliberating upon its contents, when they perceived off the coast some ships of war, which South Carolina had sent to Oglethorpe without his knowledge. Panic- struck, the Spaniards embarked, and left the coast in such haste that their artillery, provisions, and military stores fell into the hands of the Georgians. Georgia, in its early settlement, was distinguished by the peculiar humanity in which it was founded. The chivalric Oglethorpe "sought not himself, but others ;" and for ten years he gave his disinterested services, without claiming so much as a cottage or a farm. Though a brave warrior, compassion was the leading trait of his mind. Hence the imprisoned debtors of England, the unfortunate adherents of the Scottish Stewarts, and those holy persecuted men, the missionary Moravians of Germany, each found in him a father. His mercy was also extended to the African ; and he would not, at first, allow a slave in his colon}^ The refusal of Oglethorpe to allow the Georgians to possess slaves, when the adjoining colonies carried on their plantations by their labor, was greatly injurious to its pecuniary prosperity; and at length even the pious Moravians, a party of whom were, for a time, in Georgia, agreed that if tlieir 122 COLONIES ON THE SOUTHERN COAST. salvation was regarded, it was, under the circumstances, proper to own and employ them. This opinion at length prevailed, it being also justified by the ardent and eloquent Whitfield, who, with the two Wesleys, the three founders of the sect of Methodists, sympathized with Oglethorpe in his benevolence; and each spent some time in America, assisting him in his enterprise. Whit- field founded, near Savannah, a house for orphans. In 1752 the trustees, wearied with a trou- blesome and profit- less charge, resigned their ofiice, and Georgia became a royal province. Louisiana, after havincfbeen for four- teen 3' ears under a compau}^ of avari- cious speculators formed at Paris, re- verted to the French crown ; and Bien- ville was appointed as governor. The Chickasaws were the dread of the Ivouisianians. They had incited the Natchez to commit JOHN WESLKY. cruel murders upon the whites, which had ended in the entire destruction of that peculiar nation ; the Great Sun himself, with four hundred of his subjects, having been sold into slavery. The Chickasaws occupied a large and beautiful tract east of the Mississippi, and on the head of the Tombigbee. This they would not allow the French to occupy, but maintained their own independence. COLONIES ON THE SOUTHERN COAST. 123 It was concerted in France that a force under Bienville should ascend the Tombigbee to meet an army collected from the region of the Illinois, under the young and valorous d'Artaguette. At the time appointed the ardent young warrior with his small army was in the country of the hostile savages; but the laggards from the south had not seasonably arrived. After a brave effort to subdue the Chickasaws, he was overcome. Bienville at length arrived, but the Indians, aware of his approach, and aided by Bnglish traders, received their army in such a manner that they threw their artillery into the Tombigbee, and, crest-fallen, returned down its stream. The Chicka- saws compelled the brave d'Artaguette to witness the torture and death of his companions, one of whom was the same Vincennes who had given his name to the capital of Illinois. The young warrior was then dismissed to go and relate to the whites the deeds of the Chickasaws. Four years afterwards a larger French and Indian force, aided by troops from Canada, invaded the country of the Chickasaws; but sickness wasted them, and at length Bienville, who led them, was glad to treat with the Indians on their own terms. CHAPTER XV. STORY OF CAPTAIN KIDD. )E must now return to the lii.stor\' of the province of New York, of which the Earl of Bellamont became governor in 1G98. He found, on taking charge of affairs, great irregularities which had grown up under the administration of Fletcher, his imme- diate predecessor. The navigation laws were not enforced, and piracy prevailed to an alarming extent. To the suppression of this great evil the governor, during his rule of three years, devoted his utmost energy. He had entered upon this work, however, before he was governor. Captain William Kidd — sometimes, but wrongl}-, called Robert — was a daring privateersman in time of war, whose services under the English govern- ment attracted much favorable mention. Lord Bellamont was persuaded that Kidd was the best man that could be selected to send against the pirates, and a company was formed in London for the equipment of a ship, the "Adventure Galley," to be placed under Kidd's command. Six thousand pounds were subscribed by a number of gentlemen, among whom were Bellamont and several noblemen in England. The king was to receive one-tenth part of the treasure which might be taken, and not more than one-fourth of the prizes were to go to the crew. The royal commission under which Kidd sailed authorized him to cruise against the French, and to seize certain notorious pirates who were |j mentioned by name. Unable fully to man his ship in the Thames, he sailed for New York, where he soon increased the number to one hundred and fifty. Among them were many characters gathered from the most desperate criminals in the provinces. Leaving New York in February, 1697, he headed for the coast of Madagascar, where the pirates were very numerous. It was a five months' voyage thither, and he cruised almost as long after reaching that latitude without taking a prize. Disgusted with his failure, he made for the west coast of Hindoostan, where no better fortune attended him. He finally turned pirate himself, and it is not impossible that such was his purpose when he disobeyed orders by sailing for Madagascar^ 124 S7VRV OF C ATTAIN KIDD. 125 Much romance has been written about this famous rover of the seas. Few particulars of his voyages and cx2:)loits arc known with certainty, Ijut no doubt he was a thorough scoundrel, who, placing himself on good terms with the other pirates in those distant waters, plundered right and left, whenever opportunity presented. lie was cruel to the last degree, and, when he landed, as he frequently did, he l)urned houses and murdered innocent people. He acquired enormous gains, so nmch so tliat it is said even the common sailors l)ecame wealthy. Having gained all the riches he wanted, he had the hardihood to set sail for Boston, believing he could bribe or deceive his former friends as to his guilt. Orders Given to Arrest the Pirate. But news having reached London that Kidd had become a pirate, orders were sent to the Bnglish colonies to use all efforts to arrest him. Before this could be done, he had burned his ship and dispersed his men. He decei\'ed Lord Bellamont for a time, but he was finally arrested and sent to Loudon, where he was hanged in 1701. Ever since the death of this famous pirate, stories have been told of the riches which he buried at different points along the Atlantic coast. You would be astonithed if you could learn how many pensons have searched for those hidden trearures, which have never yet been, and are not likely to be, brought to light, since there is no reason to believe that the free- booter ever hid any part of his surplus wealth. The increase of the number of proprietors in West Jersc}^ had intro- duced great confusion into that province, disputes constantly arising not only among the settlers, but between the proprietors themselves ; so that for three years it might be said that West Jersey had no regular authority whatever. On this account, in 1008, the proprietors surrendered the right of government to the crown. Queen Anne united it with the east province, and New Jersey, as the whole was now called, was to be ruled jointly with New York by a royal governor, having a separate council and assembly of representatives. The Queen appointed, as governor of the two provinces, the worthless Lord Cornbury, who, as well as herself, was a grandchild of Lord Claren- o o < I— I W CD I — ' CO CO H p Q <; M o I— I E-f ''\l[ ^ ,..^- THE NEW REPUBLIC. 245 The Home of the Jacksons was broken up and pillaged by the Tories, and the mother and her two sons became wanderers. The sons were shortly after made prisoners by the Tories, and the day after his capture Andrew Jackson was ordered by a British officer to clean his boots. He indignantly refused, and the officer struck him with the flat of his sword. The boys were at length exchanged, through the exer- tions of their lov- ing mother. Both had contracted the small-pox during their captivity, and the elder son soon died of his disease. Not long after- wards, Mrs. Jack- son, with a few other ladies, went to Charleston to minister to the wants of the Amer- ican prisoners of war, confined there by the British. A fever was raging among these un fortunates at the time, and Mrs. Jackson was soon numbered among its victims. Thus, ANDREW JACKSON. at the age of fifteen, Andrew Jackson was left alone in the world without a relative. Though young in years, he had been greatly matured in character by his trials. Even at this early age he was generous to a fault to his friends, and immovable in his resolutions when once formed. A few years later he removed to Tennessee, then a Territory, and, t 246 THE NEW REPUBLIC. upon the admission of the State into the Union, was elected as her first representative in Congress, His brilliant victory over the British at New Orleans made him one of the most noted men of the day, and his prompt and decisive measures against the Spaniards in Florida, during Mr. Monroe's administration, greatly added to his reputation. General Jackson Elected President. During the administration of John Adams, General Jackson occupied a seat in the United States Senate, and gave a cordial support to the prin- ciples of Mr. Jefferson. Resigning his seat in the Senate before the close of his term, he was elected one of the judges of the Supreme Court of Tennessee. The election of Genera"*. Jackson to the Presidency was regarded with some anxiety, for though his merits as a soldier were conceded, it was feared by many that his known imperiousness of will and his inflexi- bility of purpose would seriously disqualify him for the delicate duties of the Presidency. Nature had made him a ruler, however, and his adminis- tration was marked by the fearless energy that characterized every act of his life, and was on the whole successful and satisfactory to the great majority of his countrymen. The tariff question now engaged the attention of the country once more. The manufacturing interests were still struggling against foreign competition, and it was the opinion of the Hastern and Middle States that the general government should protect them by the imposition of high duties upon products of foreign countries imported into the Union. The south was almost a unit in its opposition to a high tariff. Being, as we have said, an agricultural section, its interests demanded a free market, and it wished to avail itself of the privilege of purchasing where it could buy cheapest. The south and the west were the markets of the east, and the interests of that section demanded the exclusion of foreign competition in supplying these markets. In July, 1827, a convention of manufacturers was held at Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, and a memorial was adopted praying Congress to increase the duties on foreign goods to an extent which would protect American industry. When Congress met in December, 1827, the protective policy was the most important topic of the day. It was warmly discussed in Congress and throughout the country. The interests of New England were championed by the matchless eloquence of Daniel Webster, who claimed THE NEW REPUBLIC. 'Z4:7 that, as the adoption of the protective policy by the governmeut had forced New England to turn her energies to manufacturers, the government was bound to protect her against competition. After a very able and exhaustive discussion the tariff bill was passed by the House on the fifteenth of April, 1828, and was approved by the President a little later. It was termed by its opponents the " Bill of Abominations." The Presidential election was held in the fall of 1836. General Jackson having declined to be a candidate for a third term, the Democratic party supported Martin Van Buren for President, and Richard M. Johnson, of Kentucky, for Vice-President. Mr. Van Buren was elected by a large majority ; but the electors having failed to make a choice of a candidate for Vice-President, that task devolved upon the Senate, which elected Colonel Richard M. Johnson by a majority of seven- teen votes. Martin Van Buren, the new President, entered upon the duties of his office on the 4th of March, 1837. He was in his fifty-fifth year, and had occupied man}'- dis- tinguished positions in public life. He had represented the State of daniel webster. New York in the Senate of the United States, and had been governor of that State. He had been minister to England, had been made Secretary of State at the commencement of General Jackson's first term, and had been elected Vice-President of the United States at the period of Jackson's re-election. The extraordinary prosperit}^ which had prevailed throughout the nation during the last year of Jackson's term came to a sudden end almost imme- diately after the inauguration of Mr. Van Buren. For some time past a reckless spirit of speculation had engrossed the nation, and had led to excessive banking and the issuing of paper money to an extent far beyond the necessities of the countr3\ The distress of the country was verv great. Hundreds of thpusands of 248 THE NEW REPUBLIC. laborers were thrown out of employment, and business of all kinds was much depressed. The government, which a few months before had been out of debt and in possession of a surplus of forty millions, now found itself unable to provide funds for its ordinary expenses. The President was com- pelled to summon an extra session of Congress, that met on the 4th of Sep- tember, 1837. The President in his message attributed the confused con- dition of the coun- try to the exces- sive issues of bank- notes, the great fire in New York in 1835, and the reck- less speculations of the people for sev- eral years past. He suggested no spe- cial legislation for the relief of these troubles, as he re- garded such a course as beyond the con- stitutional author- ity of the general government. In- deed, the govern- ment could do but little to restore public confidence; that was the task of the people themselves, and it was not accomplished for several years. On the 4th of March, 1841, William Henry Harrison was inaugurated President of the United States at Washington, in the presence of an immense concourse of citizens from all parts of the Union. He was in his sixty- ninth year, and had spent forty years of his life in the public service. His MARTIN VAN BUREN. THE NEW REPUBLIC. 249 services during the Indian hostilities which preceded the War of 1812-15, and his exploits during that war, have been related. He had served as governor of Indiana Territory, and had been both a member of Congress and a senator of the United States. He was a man of pure life and earnest character, and the certainty of a change of policy in the measures of the federal government had caused the people of the country to look forward to his administration with hope and confidence. He began by calling to seats in his cabinet men of promi- nence and ability. At the head of the cabinet he placed Daniel Webster, as Secretary of State. The President issued a proclamation convening Congress in special session on the 31st of May, 1841. He was not destined to fulfil the hopes of his friends, however. He was suddenly seized with pneumonia, and died on the 4th of April, 1841 — just one month after his inauguration. It was the first time that a president of the United States had died in office, and a gloom was cast over the nation by the sad event. The mourning of the people was sincere, for in General Harrison the nation lost a faithful, upright and able citizen. He had spent forty years in prominent public positions, and had dis- charged every duty confided to him with william henry harrison. marked ability and integrity, and at last went to his grave a poor man. "Brave old Cincinnatus ! lie left but his plow." Upon the assembling of Congress, that bod}^, "out of consideration of his expenses in removing to the seat of government, and the limited means he had left behind," appropriated the equivalent of one year's presidential salary — twenty-five thousand dollars — to Mrs. Harrison. According to the terms of the constitution, upon the death of General Harrison, the office of president of the United States devolved upon the vice-president, John Tyler, of Virginia Mr. Tyler was not in the city of Washington at the time of the death of his predecessor, but repaired to that city without loss of time, upon being notified of the need of his presence, and on the 6th of April took the oath of office before Judge Cranch, 250 THE NEW REPUBLIC. chief justice of tlie District of Columbia. Mr. Tyler was in his fifty-second year, and had served as governor of Virginia, and as representative and senator in Congress from that state. On the 9th of April President Tyler issued an address to the people of the United States, in which there was no indication of a departure from the policy announced in the inaugural of General Harrison. He retained the cab- inet ministers of his predecessor in their respective positions. In 1842 a series of disturbances oc- curred in the state of Illinois, which were but the fore- runners of a more serious embarrass- ment to the general government at a still later period. A new religious sect had sprung up some years before in the western part of New York. The}?- called themselves Mor- mons, and were founded by a most remarkable man by the name of Joseph JOHN TYLER. Smith, who pro- fessed to have a new revelation from God, written on plates of gold. Among the articles of the Mormon faith is one which teaches the doctrine of a plurality of wives. Feeling that the east was not favorable to their growth, the Mormons at an early day removed to the west. They settled at first in Missouri, but so exasperated the people of that state by their conduct that they were soon driven out of Missouri- THE NEW REPUBLIC. 251 They settled in Illinois, and founded a city which they called Nauvoo, and built a temple. Their numbers increased rapidly from emigration from nearly every country in Europe. The new-comers were mainly persons of low position and without education. Conscious of their strength they raised troops, and set the authority of the State of Illinois at defiance. The State endeavored to reduce them to obedience, and their conduct, as in Missouri, turned the people against them. Several conflicts ensued between the Mor- mons and the authorities. In one of these Joe Smith, the prophet, and his brother, were seized and put in jail, and while lying there were mur- dered by the mob in July, 1844. This brought matters to a crisis, and the people of Illinois determined to drive the Mormons across the Missis- sippi. Nauvoo was attacked in 1845, and the Mormons were compelled to leave the State. In 1846 the}^ bent their steps westward, and after a long and painful journey across the plains, reached the valley of Salt Lake, and established a settlement there. Out of this settlement grew the Territory of Utah. In 1844 occurred one of the most important events in the history of the world. In 1832 Samuel F. B. Morse, a native of Alassachusetts, invented the electric telegraph. He spent some years in perfecting his in- vention, and in 1838 applied to Congress for a small appropriation to as- sist him in building a line of wire to demonstrate the usefulness of his discovery. He was obliged to wait five years for a favorable answer, and it was not until he had given up all hope of receiving aid from Congress that that bod}^, on the last day of the session of 1843, appropriated the sum of thirty thousand dollars to construct a telegraph line between Wash- ing City and Baltimore, a distance of forty miles. The line was com- pleted in 1844, and was successfully operated by Professor Morse. This was the first line established in the world. In the thirty-one years which have elapsed since then the use of the telegraph has become general PROFESSOR MORSE. 252 THE NEW REPUBLIC. throughout the civilized world, and in the United States alone there are more than sixty thousand miles of telegraph lines in operation at the present time. In the fall of 1844 the Presidential election took place. The leading political question of the day was the annexation of Texas. It was advocated by the administration of President Tyler and by the Democratic party. This party also made the claim of the United States to Oregon one of the leading issues of the campaign. Its candidates were James K. Polk, of Tennessee, and George M. Dallas, of Pennsylvania. The Whig party gave their support to Henry Clay, of Kentucky, and Theodore Fre- linghuysen, of New Jersey, and op- posed the annexation of Texas. During this campaign, which was one of unusual excitement, the Anti-slavery party made its appear- ance for the first time as a distinct political organization, and nominated James G. Birney as its candidate for the Presidency. The result of the campaign was a decisive victory for the Democrats. This success was generally regarded GENERAL SAM HOUSTON. as au emphatic expression of the popular will respecting the Texas and Oregon questions. Mr. Birney did not receive a single electoral vote, and of the popular vote only sixty-four thousand six hundred and fifty-three ballots were cast for him. One of the leading men in Texas at this time, and in fact for many years, was General Sam Houston, whose popularity assured him the most eminent positions both as governor of his adopted state and senator at Washington. He commanded the Texan army in a revolt against Mexico and gained a brilliant victory. An alarming tendency to anarchy was experienced in the anti-rent disturbances in the State of New York in 1844. In the early history of this State certain settlers received patents of considerable portions of land — m o P < O CO I— I COMMODORE PERRY AT THE BATTLE ON LAKE ERIE, THE ANTI-RENT RIOT IN COLUMBIA COUNTY, NEW YORK. 253 254 THE NEW REPUBLIC. Q)i which that of Van Reusselaer was the most extensive — comprehending the greater part of Albany and Rensselaer Counties. These lands were divided into farms containing from 160 to 100 acres, and leased in per- petuity, on the following conditions : The tenant must each year pay to the landlord a quantity of wheat, from 22^ bushels to 10, with four fat fowls and a day's service with horses and wagon. If the tenant sold his lease, the landlord was entitled to one-quarter of the purchase-money. In process of time the tenants began to consider these legal conditions as anti-republican — a relic of feudal tyranny. The excellent Stephen Van Rensselaer, who came into possession of the patent in 1785, had, in the kindness of his nature, omitted to exact his legal rights ; and $200,000 back rent had accrued — which he, dying in 1840, appropriated by will. The tenants murmured when called on to pay it, and sheriffs, in attempting to execute legal precepts, were forcibly resisted. An ineffectual attempt to put down these disorders was made on the part of the State authorities by a military movement, called in derision " the Heldeberg war." Mounted Bands Disguised as Indians. In the summer of 1844 the anti-rent disturbances broke out with great violence in the eastern towns of Rensselaer, and on the Livingston manor, in Columbia County. Extensive associations were formed by the anti- renters to resist the laws. They kept armed and mounted bands, disguised as Indians, scouring the country; and the traveler as he met them, issuing from some dark w-ood, with their hideous masks and gaudy calicoes, was required, on penalty of insult, to say, " Down with the rent." These law- less rangers forcibly entered houses, took men from their homes, and tarred and feathered or otherwise maltreated them. In Rensselaer County, at noonday, a man was killed where about fifty " Indians " were present — some of w'hom were afterwards arraigned, when they swore that they knew nothing of the murder. Sometimes 1,000 of these disguised anarchists were assembled in one body. Similar disturbances occurred in Delaware County. At length Steele, a deputy-sheriff, was murdered in the execution of his official duty, and his murderers were apprehended. Meanwhile Silas Wright was chosen governor of the State. Much doc^ his country owe him for the wisdom and firmness of the measures by which public order was restored. On the 27th of August he proclaimed the County of Delaware in a state of insurrection. Resolute men were THE NEW REPUBLIC. 255 made sheriffs, and competent military aid afforded them. Iveading anti- renters were taken, brought to trial, and imprisoned. The murderers of Steele were condemned to death — but their punishment was commuted to that of perpetual confinement. On the 27th of January, 1847, Governor Young, the successor of Mr. Wright, by his proclamation, released from the State's prison the whole number of eighteen, who had been committed for anti-rent offences. The inauguration of James K. Polk as President of the United States took place on the fourth of March, 1845. He had served the country as governor of the State of Tennessee, and for fourteen years had been a member of the House of Represen- tatives in Congress from that State, and had been several times chosen speaker of that body. His cabinet was selected from the first men of his party. In 1845 the government of the United States sent an ambassador to Mexico to settle the boundaries, and arrange any difficulties that existed between the two countries; but, on his arrival, the Mexican government refused to receive him. In the meantime the American army had been ordered to march to the Rio Grande, and in 1846 hostilities commenced between the two countries. Mexico claimed that the limits of Texas properly ended at the Neuces river, while the Texans insisted that their boundary was the Rio Grande. Thus the region between these two rivers became a debatable land, claimed by both parties, and a source of great and immediate danger. It M^as evident that Mexico was about to occup}^ this region with her troops, and the legislature of Texas, alarmed by the threatening attitude of that country, called upon the United States government to protect its territor}^ The President at once sent General Zachary Taylor with a force of fifteen hundred regular troops, called the " army of occupation," to "take position in the country between the Neuces and the Rio Grande, and to repel any invasion of the Texan territor}'." JAMES K. POLK. 256 THE NEW REPUBLIC. General Taylor accordingly took position at Corpus Cliristi, at the mouth of the Neuces, in September, 1845, and remained there until the sjDring of 184G. At the same time a squadron of war vessels under Com- modore Conner was despatched to the Gulf to cooperate with General Taylor. Both of these officers " were ordered to commit no act of hostility against Mexico unless she declared M^ar, or was herself the aggressor by striking the first blow." In the war that followed, the Americans were successful in every LIEUTENANT GRANT GOING FOR AMMUNITION AT MONTEREY. engagement. They took possession of all their chief cities and towns, and even their strong fortress at Vera Cruz. They conquered several provinces north and east of the capital, and on the 23d of August, 1847, they took possession of the City of Mexico. Their armies were then spread over the country to occupy the principal cities. In Ma}', 1848, peace was declared, and the American troops were withdrawn from the country. It was at the battle of Monterey, that one of our great generals in the Civil War first exhibited those daring qualities that afterward gave him fame. General Grant, then an unknown young lieutenant, was in the battle, and distinguished himself on account of " gallant and meritorious services." THE NEW REPUBLIC. 257 Several times during the battle lie demonstrated his superior judgment and courage, not more in the fierce charge, than in volunteering to make a dangerous ride under fire, in search of ammunition. The 4th of March, 1849, fell on Sunday, and the inauguration of General Taylor as President of the United States took place on Monday, the 5th of March. The new Presi- dent was a native of Virginia, but had removed with his parents to Kentucky at an early age, and had grown up to manhood on the fron_ tiers of that State. In 1808, at the age of twenty-four, he was commissioned a lieutenant in the army by President Jefferson, and had spent forty years in the military service of the country. His exploits in the Flor- ida war, and the war with Mexico, have been related. His zachary tayi^or. brilliant victories in Mexico had made him the most popular man in the United States, and had won him the high office of the Presidency. He was without political experience, but he was a man of pure and stainless integrity, of great firmness, a sincere patriot, and possessed of strong, good sense. He had received a majority of the electoral votes of both the Northern and Southern States, and was free from party or sectional ties of any kind. 17 258 THE NEW REPUBLIC. On the 29tli of January, 1850, Henry Clay introduced into the Senate a series of resolutions, designed to settle all the points in dispute by a general compromise. The resolutions was referred to a committee of thir- teen, of which Mr. Clay was made chair- man. In due time the committee re- ported a bill, known as the *' Omnibus Bill," from its em- bracing in one meas- ure all Mr. Clay's propositions. It pro- vided for the admis- sion of California as a free State; the organization of the Territories of Utah and New Tvlexico, without reference to slavery; the adjust- ment of the bound- ary between Texas and New Mexico, by paying to the former ten millions of dollars; the aboli- tion of the slave trade in the District of Columbia ; and the enactment by the return to their MILLARD FILLMORE. Congress of a more stringent and effective law for masters of fugitive slaves. The Omnibus bill was warmly opposed in Congress, and in the country at large. The debate in the Senate brought out the views of the leading statesmen of the country. Senator Jefferson Davis declared the bill m no sense a compromise, because it was unequal in its provisions. The THE NEW REPUBLIC. 259 South, he declared, gained nothing by this measure, as the Constitution already required the rendition of fugitive slaves. He proposed, therefore, that the Missouri Compromise line should be extended to the Pacific, *' with the specific recognition of the right to hold slaves in the territory below that line." Mr. Clay replied to this that " no earthly power could induce him to vote for a specific measure for the introduction of slavery where it had not existed, either north or south of that line. I am unwilling that the pos- terity of the present inhabitants of California and New Mexico should reproach us for doing just what we reproach Great Britain for doing to us. If the citizens of those Territories come here with constitutions establishing slavery, I am for admitting them into the Union ; but then it will be their own work, and not ours, and their posterity will have to reproach them, and not us." Mr. Calhoun was too ill to take part in the debate in person, but he prepared a speech of great ability, which was read for him in the Senate by Senator Mason, of Virginia. He declared that the Union could be pre- served only by maintaining an equal number of free and slave States, in order that the representation of the two sections of the country might be equal in the Senate of the United States. Great Union Speech by Webster. Mr. Webster also took part in the debate, and on this occasion delivered what is known as his " great Union speech of the 7th of March," which occupied three days in its delivery. He expressed substantially the same views as those advocated by Mr. Clay. His speech created a profound sensation throughout the country, and did much to secure the final accept- ance of the compromise measures. A few months later. President Taylor was suddenly stricken down with a fever, which, in a few days, terminated fatally. He died on the 9th of July, 1850, amid the grief of the whole country, which felt that it had lost a faithful and upright chief magistrate. Though the successful candidate of one political party, his administration had received the earnest support of the best men of the country, without regard to party, and his death was a national calamity. He had held office only sixteen months, but had shown himself equal to his difficult and delicate position. He was sixty-six years old at the time of his death. By the terms of the 260 THE NEW REPUBLIC. Constitution, the office of President devolved upon Millard Fillmore, Vice- President of tlie United States. President Pierce took the oath of office at the capitol at Washington on the 4th of March, 1853, in the presence of an immense throng. He was in his forty-ninth year, and had won an enviable name by his previous services to the country. He was a native of New Hampshire, and had represented that State for ^bur years in the Lower House of Congress, and for nearly a full term in the Senate of the United States. He had also served with distinction during the Mexican war, as a brigadier-general. In February, 1854, the American mer- chant steamer " Black Warrior " was seized by the Spanish authorities at Havana, on the pretext that she had evaded or violated some uncertain revenue law, and the ship and her cargo were declared confiscated. This action of the Havana officials was regarded in the United States as unjust, and aroused a great deal of feeling against the Spaniards, and gave a sudden impetus to the national sentiment in favor of the acquisition of Cuba. The affair of the " Black Warrior " was satisfactorily settled by the Spanish government. While the feeling aroused by the affair was at its height a conference of some of the American ministers in Europe, including Mr. Buchanan, minister to England, Mr. Mason, minister to France, and Mr. Soule, min- ister to Spain, and some others, was held at Ostend, in Belgium, and a circular was adopted recommending the acquisition of Cuba by the United States. This measure attracted much attention, and elicited considerable European criticism of the alleged ambitious designs of the United States. Mr. Soule, on his return to Madrid, was stopped at Calais by order of the emperor of the French, who had personal reasons for disliking him. The emperor, however, reconsidered his action, and allowed Soule to pass through France to the Spanish frontier. FRANKLIN PIERCE. CHAPTER XXV. OUTBREAK OF THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. )AMES BUCHANAN, the fifteenth President of the United States, was inaugurated at Washington on the 4th of March, 1857. He was in his sixty-sixth year, and was a statesman of great accom- plishments and ripe experience. He was born in Pennsylvania in 1791, and was by profession a lawyer. He had served his state in Congress as a representative and a senator, had been minister to Russia under President Jackson, and had been a member of the cabinet of President Polk as secretary of state. During the four year previous to his election to the presidency he had resided abroad as the minister of the United States to Great Britain, and in that capacity had greatly added to his reputation as a statesman. During the whole of Mr. Buchanan's administration the question of slavery in the territories continued to engross the minds of the people. In Kansas, which had not yet been admitted as a state into the Union, there sprang up a bitter warfare between the party favoring slavery and the party opposed to it. John Brown, an eccentric yet sincere and earnest opponent of slavery, took part in the struggle, and afterwards attempted, with a small band of followers, to strike a death-blow at slavery in West Virginia. He seized the United States arsenal at Harper's Ferry, and gave orders for the arrest of prominent citizens. He was apprehended, tried on the charge of having committed treasonable acts, and was executed. His band of followers was dispersed, yet such was his heroism, and so deep an impression did his self-sacrificing spirit make upon a multitude of people at the north that thousands were animated by his example, and the well-known song begin- ning, "John Brown's body lies mouldering in the ground," was sung as a war-cry by the Union army. The anti-slavery party in Kansas finally triumphed, and the territory was admitted into the Union as a free state. The people of the south, with a resolve quite unanimous, determined to sever their connection with 261 262 OUTBREAK OF THh GREAT CIVIL WAR, tlie other states and form an independent Confederacy. South Carolina was the first state to take this serious step, which was the forerunner of one of the greatest conflicts known in history. Virginia was the last of the Southern States to secede, and this was done contrary to the wishes of many of her people. Previous to this, in the election of 1860, Abraham Lin- coln, the nominee of the Republican par- ty, had been chosen President of the United States, an act that gave offence to the South. Mr. Lin- coln was born in Kentucky, in 1809, of poor but honest parents. His father removed in 1817 to Indiana. The lad accompanied him, and, young as he was, aided in build- ing the log cabin which sheltered the family ; and after- wards, on their re- moval to Illinois, by helping to split the JAMES BUCHANAN. rails which fenced the farm, he obtained the title of " Rail-Splitter," which, though meant to be opprobrious, he regarded as most honorable. When President of the United States he carried a cane manufactured from one of those very rails, by which his honest and faithful industry had aided his indigent parents. His mother had early taught him to read the Bible, and imbued his OUTBREAK OF THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. 2G3 mind with its holy morality. She also taught him to write, and to com- municate his thoughts by writing. Everything was done that the poverty of the family allowed, to assist him in gaining from common schools an imperfect education. Among his few books were two biographies of Wash- ington and one of Henry Clay. At the age of nineteen he was intrusted with the care of a flat-boat, in which he made a voyage to New Orleans. He boldly chose the law as his profession, though with very imperfect means of learning its principles ; but in the beginning of his practice he had a case in which he proved the innocence of a widow's son, who would otherwise have been condemned and im- prisoned. By this he gained friends and reputation. Following the examples of Washing- ton and Henry Clay, he ever took great interest in the political movements of his country, and he was put forward to vari- ous of&ces of trust, first, in the State, and then to a seat in the House of Represen- tatives in Congress ; and he was, at the time of his great dispute with Douglas, a rival candidate with him for a seat in the United States Senate. His innate sense of right, which he never weakened or debased, either as a lawyer or a politician, by speaking in favor of what he knew to be wrong, was his guide in making political as well as other dis- Abraham Lincoln. tinctions ; so that in debate his mind was never distracted by being divided against itself. The whole man went one way. His illustrations were always at hand, from a ready memory stored with abundant facts, which were often amusing, as seen through his love of the ludicrous. Hence his great success when the State became the arena of his remark- able dispute with Douglas, who was already famous as a speaker. Mr. Lincoln, guarded by troops, was inaugurated President on the 4th of March, 1861. In his inaugural address he tried to convince the South that they had, in the Constitution of the United States, a remedy for all their grievances, his earnest desire being to prevent the flow of blood. 264 OUTBREAK OF THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. Soon after the secession of the Southern States they organized a gov- ernment, and made choice of Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, as President, and Alexander H. Stephens, of Georgia, as Vice-President. South Carolina had, on the 14th of January, 1861, declared in her Legislature that any attempt to reinforce Fort Sumter would be regarded as a declaration of war. April 11th, Governor Pickens, in a note to Major Robert Anderson, commanding Fort Sumter, ordered him to deliver up the fort. Anderson answered that he had no power to comply. The navy-yards at Brooklyn received orders to have vessels in readi- ness to send supplies to the beleaguered Fort Sumter, in Charleston harbor. Sup- plies were sent by the " Star of the West," but did not arrive in season, the vessel having retreated from the harbor after being fired upon. These were, in reality, the first hostile shots from the South on the national flag, though the attack on Fort Sumter is regarded as the beginning of the war. The attack was conducted by Gen. G. T. Beauregard, favorably known in con- nection with the Mexican war, now ap- pointed to the chief command of the Con- federate forces. The assault was opened at four o'clock of April 12th, when was fired the first gun of the terrible civil war which ensued. The fort was sur- rendered on the afternoon of the 13th, after Anderson and his brave band of seventy men had fought for thirty-four hours, exposed to death by shot, shell and conflagration. Major Anderson reports that he " marched out on the 14th with colors flying and drums beating, bringing away company and private property, and saluting our flag with fifty guns." The men carried away the flag they had defended. That same day and hour, four years afterwards, that memorable flag was restored, and again waved over the shattered remains of Fort Sumter. The lightning of the telegraph flashed the news over the country that the flag was dishonored and the life of the nation threatened. Mr. Lin- JEFFERSON DAVIS. OUTBREAK OF THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. 265 coin, nerving himself to the terrible emergency, immediately issued a proclamation, in which he called for 75,000 troops, and convened Congress to meet on the 4th of July. There was a great uprising in the North and troops were hurried forward to Washington. The troops collected in the vicinity of Washington had surrounded the city with fortifications. Security was felt, and the cry " On to Richmond " began. General Scott had allowed himself to be misguided by it, and unwisely to sanction an onward movement, the command of which he gave to General Irwin McDowell, and which resulted in the disastrous battle of Manassas, or Bull Run. This was the name of a small af- fluent of the Ocoquan River. On this, thirty-seven miles from Alex- andria, and near the important point of Manassas Junction (so called from the meeting of railroads), the Con- federates, anticipating the move- ment, had been for some time pre- paring their battle-ground. They had so arranged their army that when the Union force should ap- pear they might be lured to a cer- tain fortified position on the stream. General Joseph E. Johnston, who had commanded a force of sev- general Joseph e. johnston. eral thousands at Harper's Ferry, after burning the bridge across the Poto- mac, removed his troops to Winchester, where was the able officer General Thomas J. Jackson, with his brigade, and a corps of cavalry. General Scott had, in the meantime, sent General Patterson, with an ample force, to keep General Johnston from leaving the valley of Virginia ; but having Manas- sas in view, Johnston, after amusing Patterson with a skirmish at " Fall- ing Waters," eluded him, and escaped with his force through a gap in the mountain, in time to turn the fortunes of the day at Manassas. General McDowell moved from Washington on the 16th of July, 1861. On the 18th, the army passed through Centreville, their enemy luring 266 OUTBREAK OF THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. them on as he quietly retired before them. A conflict in advance of the final battle, however, occurred, in which the losses of the combatants were eighty-three Union and sixty-eight Confederate. General Beauregard, who commanded the Confederates, wished to delay the final action, to give the necessary time for Johnston to join him from the valley, and General McDowell was obliged to defer the battle one day to receive provisions. On the morning of the 21st the attack, which was to have been made at six o'clock, was delayed for two or three hours. "There is Jackson, standing like a stone wall." Johnston had, meanwhile, arrived with a part of his force. His encoun- ter with Colonel Ambrose Burnside was the opening of the fight. It was at first a hotly- contested field, and such as did no discredit on either side to American valor and military skill. The advantage at first was on the side of the Unionists. Sherman, since so well known, was here distin- guished. But while flushed with well-grounded hopes of victory, the Union- ists were suddenly assaulted with a fresh body of nearl}^ 3,000 troops arrived by the railroad from the West, under General E. K. Smith, with cavalry under Jackson. The Confederate General Bee called to him, " Gen- eral, they are beating us back." Then turning to his men he exclaimed, " Look, there is Jackson, standing like a stone Avail," The troops rallied, and though Bee was killed, the day was won for the Confederates. The Unionists could not, by the utmost efforts of their of&cers, be rallied, and their retreat became at length a panic-stricken rout. The day when the telegraph sent throughout the North the unex- pected news of this defeat, is yet known as "dark Monday;" the darkest day of the war. A pursuit was not ordered, though President Davis him- self was, at the close of the battle, on the ground. Jackson said : " Give me 10,000 men and I will take Washington ;" and probably he could then have done so ; for he possessed a genius for war perhaps greater than any other developed by the American conflict. Ball's Bluff, an eminence on the upper Potomac, opposite Harrison's Island, became known as the scene of a disastrous conflict. About 2,000 of the Union army, under command of Col. B. Baker, of California, were employed by General Stone, of Massachusetts, in connection with other forces, to reconnoitre, and learn the position of the Confederates under General Evans, extending along the Virginia side of the Potomac. By a OUTBREAK OF THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. 267 skilfully concealed and superior force, Evans furiously assaulted Baker's command, wliicli bravely stood firm till their gallant commander fell. They were then forced in wild disorder to the stream, where no adequate means had been provided for them to cross. One crazy scow was soon filled and swamped, and the men, with others, were shot as they were swimming to the further shore. Seeing escape was hopeless, 500 gave themselves up as prisoners. Lieutenant-Gen- eral Scott, on ac- count of lameness and other infirmi- ties, requested, in a note to the Sec- retary of War, to be relieved of his high command, and now onerous duties. With every demon- stration of respect from the President, and a special Cab- inet council, his request was com- plied with. Gen. G. GENERAL GEORGE B. McCLELLAN. B. McClellaU waS thereupon appointed to succeed him as commander-in-chief of the armies of the United States. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant, now in command at Cairo, made a demonstration on Belmont, in Missouri, a landing-place on the Mississippi River, opposite to Columbus, Ky., and the headquarters of the Secession force opposed to Cairo. In Belmont, which was connected by a ferry with Columbus, was 268 OUTBREAK OF THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. a camp, wliicli Grant took with its munitions ; having at the time drawn off the attention of the Confederates by a feigned attack on Columbus^ which he had ordered from Paducah. Before Grant had withdrawn his men, however, superior forces under General Polk and General Pillow attacked them; and, though in the desperate fighting which ensued, their valor won them honor, they could not claim the victory. An important expedition left Hampton Roads on the 29tli of October, under Commodore Dupont, with a fleet of sixty ships, bearing a land-force of 10,000, under the command of Gen. W. T. Sherman. Their destination was Port Royal and Hilton Head, on the coast of South Carolina. On the 7tli of November they attacked the two new forts, Walker and Beauregard, commanding the entrance of Port Royal; and here the ships, by skillful firing and manoeuvring, in four hours performed an extraordinary feat, proving that moving water-craft can defeat and silence stationary forts. On landing, forty-three heavy cannon were seized, but the garrison escaped. The adjoining sea-islands, so fruitful in the best of cotton, were thus com- manded by the Unionists, who encouraged the negroes to remain and cultivate them. Beaufort was soon after occupied. Immense Army in the Field. At the assembling of Congress early in December, the reports of the Secretaries showed that the government had in service 682,000 soldiers, and 22,000 seamen and marines. These had mostly been raised by voluntary enlistment, excited by large bounties and high pa}^ ; but the expense was appalling. A popular loan system was ingeniously devised by the able Secretary of the Treasury, Salmon P. Chase. The entire force of the Confederates at this time was estimated at 350,000. Their funds were raised by loans from enthusiastic friends, and by Confederate bills representing money, and at first answering its purpose ; but, like the Continental money of the Revolution, continually dimin- ishing in value. Gen. George H. Thomas, encountered, near Mill Springs, in South- eastern Kentucky, the Confederate Generals ZoUikoffer and Crittenden, and gained a victory ; for which he received the thanks of the President, — com- municated by Edwin M. Stanton, now Secretary of War, in place of Simon Cameron, resigned. In this battle General ZoUikoffer was killed. On the 2d of February, General Grant sailed from Cairo, with Com- OUTBREAK OF THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. 269 modore Foote commanding a fleet of gunboats and transports. Entering the Tennessee River at Paducah, they proceeded to Fort Henry, near the southern border of Kentucky, which, after a short, but earnest, resistance, was evacuated and taken. The expedition proceeded as far as Florence, at the foot of the muscle-shoals, in Alabama. This unexpected appearance of the old Union flag was hailed by the loyalists, not unfrequently, with tears of joy. Twelve miles east, on the Cumberland River, lay the formidable fortress of Fort Donelson, garrisoned by 15,000 men, which Grant resolved to attack. The gunboats were to co-operate on their return from Florence. Grant, meantime, marched across the country, and, at the head of 15,000 troops, proceeded to invest the stronghold. Unfortunately, a brave, but premature, attack was made on the works by a portion of the army under Gen. Lewis Wallace. On the arrival of the gunboats, Foote at once ran his iron-clad steamers close to the batteries, from which, however, they received so deadly a fire, that his flag-ship and ten others were disabled. He withdrew with the loss of fifty- four men killed and wounded. Capture of Fort Donelson. The attack by water having failed. Grant besieged the fort, hoping the further co-operation of the boats. General Floyd, commander of the garrison, attempted now to retreat to Nashville ; but was attacked by Grant's army, and, after a bloody battle, with severe loss on both sides. Fort Donelson was surrendered. Floyd and Pillow having fled with a brigade up the river, the formalities of surrender were enacted by General Buckner, the third in command. Nashville was now open to the Unionists, and was occupied by them within a week. Columbus, after the fall of the forts, was abandoned by the Confed- erates, after first moving what they could of their guns and munitions further down the river, to Island No. 10, a few miles above New Madrid. On the 3d of March, a body of Union cavalry entered Columbus, and hoisted the national flag. On the 12th of January, there sailed from Hampton Roads, under Commodore Goldsborough, a fleet of 100 vessels of all classes, bearing land forces under General Burnside : they were destined to take Roanoke Island, on the coast of North Carolina. This spot, lying between Albemarle and Pamlico Sounds, commanded their seashore, and had been strongly fortified 270 OUTBREAK OF THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. witH two new forts, bearing forty-three guns, and garrisoned by 3,000 men. The invaders made their entrance into the inner waters at Hatteras Inlet, the same as in the former expedition; but a storm of terrible length and violence delayed them, and it was not until the 3d of February that the attack on the forts could be begun. Colonel Shaw, their commandant, resisted bravely till the evening of the 5th, when he surrendered. A small fleet of gunboats, under Commodore Lynch, had aided the forts, but now withdrew to Elizabeth City, to which place the Union vessels pursued them : they were all destroyed but two, which escaped up the Dismal Swamp Canal. In an attack on Fort Blanchard, Colonel Russell, of Con- necticut, was killed; and, on the Confederate side, Capt. O. J. Wise, son of the ex-governor of Virginia, lost his life. Bloody Battle of Pea Ridge. In Missouri, after Fremont and Hunter had retired, General Halleck, who succeeded in command, had by judicious military operations driven Price across the State line into Arkansas. General Curtiss co-operated — while Price was joined by Generals Van Dorn and McCulloch, the former in command of a Confederate force said now to be 30,000 strong. Here the bloody battle of Pea Ridge occurred, lasting two days. On the first day the Confederates had the advantage; but on the second the valor and conduct of the German General Sigel turned the fortunes of the field. The Confederates were defeated, and two Generals, McCulloch and Mcintosh, were killed. On the same day as the battle of Pea Ridge occurred the wonderful afiair of the ram '' Alerrimac." In no particular did the American war attract attention throughout the civilized world more than in the changes in naval warfare brought about by the iron-coating of vessels, making them impenetrable to shot. The Confederates had thus iron-plated the sides, and made roof-like the top of the old U. S. steam frigate " Merrimac," and had fastened to the bow an immense iron prong. Its destructive powers were appreciated. The Union Navy Department, as well as several patriotic individuals, encouraged Mr. Ericsson, a Swede, in a plan which he had invented of a steam water-craft to meet this ram " Merrimac.'' On the morning of March 8 it was seen advancing upon the Union fleet in Hampton Roads. Regardless of terrific broadsides, the ram steered directly up to the frigate "Cumberland," struck her with the OUTBREAK OF THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. 271 iron prong, and beat a large hole in her side. She sank, and half her crew were lost. The "Merrimac" next sought the frigate "Congress," which struck her colors, and at night was burned. Another frigate, the "Minnesota," had run aground, and the "Merrimac" rested. Amazement and dread sat on every countenance ; was the whole navy to be thus destroyed ? The next morning — so had Providence ordered — the little Ericsson battery, called a "Monitor," appeared, commanded by Lieutenant Worden. IRON-CLAD GUNBOAT. She seemed like a small raft, with a revolving turret, in which were two enormous guns. As the "Merrimac" approached to assault the "Minne- sota," this little craft closed with her in a deadly conflict which lasted several hours. The "Merrimac" was finally obliged to succumb, and drew off totally disabled, never again to renew the conflict. In abandoning Columbus, the Confederates had made a stand at Island No. 10, in the Mississippi River, four miles above New Madrid. To take this island General Pope was sent by General Halleck with a land force, to co-operate with Commodore Foote with a fleet of gunboats, prepared at 272 OUTBREAK OF THE GREAT CIVIL WAR Cairo for this purpose. A memorable event occurred in the capture of this island; this was the cutting of a channel twelve miles long, through a part of which Colonel Bissell, of the engineer corps, had to employ his men in sawing off large trees four feet under water. Through this channel a part of the army of General Pope were moved to New Madrid, and thus the island, invested from above and below, was besieged for three weeks. Commodore Foote then determined, despite a hostile fleet, on running the gunboats past the forts on the island. The iron-clad steamer "Caron- delet,'' Captain Walke, was selected, and in a thunder-storm on the night of the 5th of April she accomplished the perilous success. The remainder of the fleet followed on the succeeding night, and debarked a land force. The Confederates at once, and without a conflict, evacuated the island. General W. D. McCall surrendered 5,000 soldiers, a great quantity of ammunition, tents, horses, etc., with more than 200 cannon. Surrender of Memphis. Some of their vessels the Confederates sank, but the larger part fell down the river to their next fortified point, which was Fort Pillow. There occurred severe naval fighting under Commodore Davis, to whom Foote had given over the command; but it was evacuated finally on the 4th of June. On the 5tli Commodore T)avis assaulted the Confederate fleet in the harbor of Memphis, and after a fierce battle (there being iron-clad rams) victory remained with the Unionists, and Memphis, the largest city on the Mississippi between St. Louis and New Orleans, was now surrendered to the naval power of the Union. The Confederate army in the Southwest was under the command of General Beauregard and General A. S. Johnston, and was encamped at Corinth, in Mississippi, near the Tennessee line. General Grant, intending to attack as soon as reinforcements under General Buell should arrive, had arranged his army at Pittsburg Landing, in Tennessee, on the west side of the Tennessee River, and twenty miles from Corinth. The three divisions of his army under Sherman, McClernand and Prentiss, were the most advanced. To attack this army before it was reinforced, Beauregard and Johnston had urged forward their forces in three divisions, under Generals Hardee, Bragg and Polk. Leaving Corinth on the 4th, they had hoped to arrive on the 5th, but were delayed until early on the morning of the 6th. Their OUTBREAK OF THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. 273 attack was so spirited, and so little expected, that at first tHe advanced Union divisions were thrown into great confusion. The soldiers were driven from their camps, and some, never having been in battle, fled like cowards. The officers made desperate efforts to rally the fugitives, and to form and direct regiments that stood firm. Sherman was twice wounded, and had three horses killed under him. The Confederates, on their side, fought with great bravery, and were managed with much skill. Johnston fell, and the sole command now devolved upon Beauregard. The Unionists, on the first day of this great battle, were driven a mile and a half from their camps on the high ground, where the small church of Shiloh stood, to the low banks of the river. Here Colonel Webster had found cannon sufficient for a powerful bat- tery, and when the Confederates had formed for a final general w. t. sherman. effort, he opened it upon them with prodigious effect. At the same time two gunboats, lying in the river, had, by putting into the mouth of a small stream, found a gap through which they could reach them with shells, and thus, just at night, they were obliged to fall back to the camps. 18 274 OUTBREAK OF THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. Thus the Union army were preserved from destruction, and, knowing that help was near, they rested on the bloody field, confident of regaining their losses the next day. The army of General Buell had, by General Grant, been hurried on, and arriving on the opposite bank of the Ten- nessee, they were ferried over that river during the dark and rainy night, and were ready at morning to aid those who the day before had fought so desperately. History makes mention of few battles fought on both sides with more courage and military skill than brother Americans here displayed in destroying each other. Success fluctuated, but finally the Unionists regained their lost guns and camps, and the Confederates retired, but they did so without confusion and in good order. Great Losses of both Armies. General Beauregard, during the night, drew off the remains of his army, and directed his course to Corinth. He sent to General Grant for permission to bury his dead, and also that some who had lost friends might be allowed to seek for them. General Grant replied that he had already caused all who had fallen to be buried. Strewn upon the bloody field had lain 10,000 dead, and twice that number wounded, a destruction far exceeding that of any other battle ever before fought within the limits of Republican America. General Halleck now arrived. By his rank he superseded in command both Grant and Buell. He moved his army nearer to Corinth, and General Grant urged, though vainly, an immediate attack. On the 29th of April General Beauregard, not feeling strong enough to meet so large a force, aban- doned his encampment, taking away all his guns, and removing or destroying his munitions. On the 23d of July General Halleck (General McClellan's com- mand being confined to the Army of the Potomac) was made General-in-chief, and ordered to Washington, the army being sent in different directions. CHAPTER XXVI. CAMPAIGNS OF McCLELLAN AND LEE. )E go back in the order of time. The attention of republican America was now fixed on the main Union army concentrated near Washington, and to be employed against Richmond by McClellan. This army was kept back inactive till the middle of March, in order, says General IMcClellan, to be disciplined^ formed, and instructed, and a formidable artillery to be created ; and, while other armies were first to move and accomplish certain results, this one might then give the death-blow to the rebellion. Previous to this period. General McClellan had ordered movements, as commander-in-chief, extending over the whole country. Afterwards his command was cut down to the army of the Potomac ; and parts of that army, which were to co-operate with him, were directed to other objects. Concerning no other officer of the war has the country been so divided in its opinion. It was on the 17th of March, 1862, that McClellan began embarking from Alexandria the main portion of his army, amounting to 85,000 men, in transports, for Fortress Monroe, where they debarked about the 1st of April. On the 4tli he received an astounding report from the War Depart- ment at Washington, that parts of the army whose co-operation, under General Banks and McDowell, he was to have received by a direct route as he approached Richmond, were to be diverted to other objects. He obtained, however, an increase of his force of 11,000 men, sent by General Franklin from McDowell's corps, and he made such representations at Washington, that he continued to advance with the strong hope that the original plan of the campaign might yet be carried out. General Joseph E. Johnston was in command of the Confederate military operations; but the engineering skill of General Robert E. Lee had planned their great system of defence. General McClellan marched twenty miles to besiege Yorktown, in a violent rain over a miry road. The siege was memorable for the military skill displayed on both 275 276 CAMPAIGNS OF McCLELLAN AND LEE. sides. At length, when McClellan was about to storm the works, the Confederates abandoned their stronghold, and on the night of the 4th of May silently withdrew. Gloucester, on the opposite side of York River, fell with Yorktown, and its guns and munitions also helped to increase the ' stores of the Unionists. General McClellan, on the morning of the 5th, ordered forward in pursuit cavalry and horse artillery, under General Stoneman. This led to the battle of Williamsburg. The pursuing party encountered a severe attack amidst rain and mire, and fought with determined bravery — Stoneman being relieved b}' Hooker, and he, after hours of fighting, by Kearney. Hancock had meantime flanked the Confederates, when they withdrew and evacuated Williamsburg, their policy being to delay the advance of their enemy, and thus gain time to perfect the defences of Richmond. Military Operations at Norfolk. Meantime General Wool, having obtained, during a visit of President Lincoln to him at Fortress Monroe, his consent for capturing Norfolk, marched to the assault at the head of 5000 men; but when he arrived at the fortified camp of General Huger, the Confederate commander, he found it had been evacuated. Citizens of Norfolk surrendered the city to General Wool. Huger had taken away or destroyed all the guns and munitions possible. The dreaded ^' Merrimac " still lay at Craney Island; but the next day after General Wool's arrival, her commander blew her up. A naval expedition was now set. on foot by Commodore Goldsborough, to go up the James River, and co-operate with General McClellan, The vessels, among which was the ^'Monitor," assaulted Fort Darling, seven miles from Richmond; but, after an unsuccessful engagement, the attempt failed. General McClellan advanced; and, on the 15th of May, his army was at the White House, a point where the Pamunky branch of the York River is intersected by a railroad from West Point to Richmond, it being under- stood that his supplies were to be sent to the White House by the way of the Potomac, Chesapeake Bay, and James River. The confidence in the co-operation of McDowell, wdtli which McClellan had undertaken the capture of Richmond, had been shaken, but was renewed; and he went forward, confidently expecting his arrival from the North, his headquarters being at Fredericksburg. Learning that a Confederate force ^'k ^^ -^jyy^?^ ©ilwl, iSpii^'. tf. fca E i^ Ej iL. CAMPAIGNS OF McCLELLAN AND LEE. 277 was at Hanover Court House, tlirougli which McDowell must pass, McClellan, on the 27th, detached a force under General Fitz-John Porter, when, after a march of fourteen miles, and a spirited engagement, the Confederates were driven from the field, and the way for the expected advance opened ; and McClellan 's last orders at night were, that McDow- ell's signals were to be listened for, and without a mo- ment's delay re- ported to him. But those signals were never made. General Mc- Dowell, much to his discontent, was recalled by Presi- dent Lincoln to guard Washing- ton, which was threatened by the Confederates, led by Stonewall Jack- son, who, in the Valley of the Shen- andoah, had over- come the Union forces under Gen- erals Milroy, Fre- mont, and Banks, general t. j. (stonewall) jackson. in sanguinary battles fought at Front Royal, Kernestown, and Winchester. On the 25th of May, General McClellan began crossing his army over the Chickahominy, at Bottom's Bridge, ten miles from Richmond. But a violent storm so raised the river as to destroy his new bridges before his army had completely crossed them. As the storm cleared away, on the 29th, the Confederates discovered that the army was thus divided by the ■278 CAMPAIGNS OF McCLELLAN AND LEE. river; and, taking advantage of this, they attacked, on the 31st, at noon, with great fury. Some of the front ranks, seized with panic, fled, while their officers vainly sought to rally them ; but other and firmer spirits taking their places, the day was recovered, and closed with almost the whole field in posses- sion of the Unionists. The Confederates, trusting to regain the battle, renewed it the next morning ; but McClellan's army were now prepared, and the fight resulted in a Union victory. The carnage had been great on both sides. Joseph K. Johnston was carried from, the field severely wounded, and General Robert E. Lee was appointed to succeed him. Severe Engagements in Virginia. General (Stonewall) Jackson, the hero of the Valley, pursued Banks to the Potomac, and entered Harper's Ferry. His advance, so sudden and unexpected, had spread consternation. The President, as we have seen, recalled McDowell to the defence of Washington, thus defeating the plans of McClellan. The Secretary of War called on Northern Governors for troops. Jackson received, at Harper's Ferry, intelligence that Shields, sent by McDowell from Fredericksburg, and Fremont coming from the South iDranch of the Potomac, were moving to form a junction at Strasburg, in his rear; but Jackson, with his wonted celerity, had passed Strasburg before Fremont and Shields arrived. They pursued him along the passes of the mountains, but could not "bring him to a stand, his rear being guarded by cavalry, commanded by that wonderful cavalry officer. Colonel Ashby, who died fighting, near Har- risonburg, before Jackson reached Port Republic. Here Jackson determined to make a stand, believing that the two pursuing armies were so situated that they might be fought separately, and defeated in detail; and in the ■event so it proved. A sanguinary battle was fought on the 8th and 9th of June, in which the Unionists were defeated. Jackson, with his remaining army, backed through a mountain pass, and joined Lee at Richmond. He liad received from him an order, which his messenger delivered, directed to Stonewall Jackson, somewhere. After the first battle of Fair Oaks, McClellan had occupied his army for more than three weeks in constructing intrenchments, which extended twelve miles east and northeast of Richmond, on both sides of the Chicka- hominy, the nearest point being five miles distant. CAMPAIGNS OF McCLELLAN AND LEE. 279 On tlie other hand, Lee and his assistants had intrenched Richmond by all the improved methods of modern art. McClellan was meantime urging on Mr. Lincoln and General Halleck, who had been called to Washington as commander-in-chief, the necessity of more troops to enable him to take Richmond. The Confederate leader was watching him. He sent General Stuart, his able cavalry commander, who rode quite around McClellan's camp, and had discovered one unguarded point. Lee had meantime found means to summon Stonewall Jackson from the valley, and was now fully ready to commence the memorable seven days fighting. This was begun on the 26th of June, at "Fair Oaks" or "Seven Pines," the two adjoining stations nearest the city. McClellan pushed his left wing towards Richmond, and after a day's hard fighting, succeeded in gaining a mile. In the meantime Stone- wall Jackson had been sent by Lee with a strong force to penetrate the centre of the Union army at the unguarded point, and thus, by a flank movement, divide the right wing from the left. Severe Fighting and Dreadful Carnage. General Lee co-operated by attacking the left wing in front. This was on the 27th, at Mechanicsville. Meantime, three miles east, Jackson, after a detour, had made a fearful attack. McClellan prevented the capture of his whole left wing by immediately ordering his forces to retreat from Mechanicsville. Severe was the fighting, and dreadful the carnage. The Confederates were victorious, but they did not accomplish their purpose of dividing the army, though they caused McClellan to abandon his fortifica- tions on the left bank of the Chickahominy, and cut him off from his base of supplies. Anticipating that such might be the case, he had prepared for the •emergency, and so succeeded in masking his intentions that the Confed- erates found little spoil at the White House ; the stores and munitions having been brought in wagons to his camp, or embarked in transports to be sent up the James River, to which McClellan now directed the march of his army. He succeeded in safely conducting his long train of supplies, and finally saving his hard-pressed and diminished army — marching by night and fighting by day. At Malvern Hill was the last battle, and it was one of the most sanguinary of the war. From the 2Gth of June to the 1st of July, inclusive, 280 CAMPAIGNS OF McCLELLAN AND LEE. the army of the Potomac lost 15,249 men. The army embarked at Harrison's Landing, on James River, and was at length removed by water to the vicinity of Alexandria. New Orleans was then the second city in the United States in a com- mercial and mili- tary view — the most important in the Confeder- acy. Plans for its capture were early set on foot. Captain David G. Farragut, of the navy, was select- ed to prepare for the expedition and command the naval force, with General B.F.But- ler to lead the land arm}^. Cap- tain Farragut was a native of Ten- nessee, and at the age of fourteen years had distin- guished himself as a midshipman on board the frig- ate Essex, Com- modore Porter, COMMODORE DAVID G. FARRAGUT. iu the bloodicst naval battle in the last war with England. At the opening of the Civil War he left his home in Norfolk, Va , took his family to New York, and hastened to Washington to offer his services to his country. Captain Farragut sailed from Hampton Roads February 3d, with a fleet of forty-six vessels (including mortar-boats, under Commodore Porter), the CAMPAIGNS OF McCLELLAN AND LEE. 281 whole bearing three hundred guns of different descriptions. As a prelimi- nary measure, General Butler had already sent Brigadier-General John W. Phelps, of Vermont, to occupy Ship Island, lying off the southern coast of the Mississippi. The fleet arrived at Ship Island the 20th of February, and after making a reconnoissance, Captain Farragut decided to enter the Mississippi through its mouths, or "passes," knowing that after ascending twenty-five miles he would find on opposite sides of the river the two strong forts, Jackson (the stronger), and Fort Philip, seventy-five miles from the city of New Orleans. The Confederate Fleet Captured by Farragut. On entering the river, the bars at the mouth detained the fleet, but they were all passed by the 5th of April. The Confederate fleet, long sheltered under the guns of the forts, was commanded by Commodore G. N. Hollins, and consisted of thirteen gunboats, and two powerful iron-clad steamers. A formidable chain was also extended from one fort to the other. So confident were the newspapers of the city in the sufficiency of their defences, that they published, "Our only fear is that our Northern invaders will not appear." On the 18th of April, the bombardment opened, the mortar vessels taking the lead, and each throwing a shell once in ten minutes. Thej^ were answered by the 225 guns of the forts, and the fire of the Confederate fleet. Five ships, cotton loaded, were sent down from New Orleans to mingle with, and set fire to the Union fleet. They did no harm. The bombard- ment of the forts continued five days. Then Commodore Farragut succeeded in breaking the boom, or chain, across the river. After a fierce conflict with the Confederate fleet, in which one of the Federal ships, the "Varuna," Captain Boggs, sunk or disabled five Confed- erate vessels, and was then run ashore in a sinking condition. Captain Farragut destroyed or captured the Confederate fleet. The forts were passed, and Commodore Porter was left, with the transports and a part of the fleet, to reduce them. They were silenced, and were surrendered on the 27th of April. Captain Farragut next proceeded, with nine vessels, to New Orleans, meeting burning vessels loaded with cotton, and other evidences of the destruction to which the Confederates had subjected their propert}"-, rather than that it should fall into Union hands. 282 CAMPAIGNS OF McCLELLAN AND LEE. On the 26tli Captain Farragut addressed a letter to Mayor Monroe, requesting him, since General Lovell, the military commander, had disap- peared, to see that no flag but that of the United States should be permitted to fly in the presence of the fleet; and he particularly requested the mayor to see that there be no firing upon women and children for expressing pleasure at witnessing the old flag. Mayor Monroe answered him, " that the city was his 'by brutal force;' but as to his hoisting any flag not of their own adoption or allegiance, there lives not a man in our midst whose hand and heart would not be paralyzed at the mere thought of such an act." Insult to United States Offlcers. Captain Farragut, in answer, said, that not only was the flag of Ivouisiana still flying, but those officers whom he had sent to hoist the flag of the United States over the mint were grossly insulted, and he therefore requests that women and children be removed previous to his vindicating the honor of his government by shelling the city. The mayor refused, and the captain happily did not fulfil his threat. He left the command to General Butler, who landed on the 1st of May. Farragut was afterwards promoted to the rank of Commodore. The results of the expedition were the opening of the Mississippi to Natchez, the capture of New Orleans and Baton Rouge, and the occupation of a large part of the State of Louisiana. The troops operating in Northern Virginia under Generals McDowell, Fremont, and Banks, were all combined in one army under Major-General Pope. He took the field on July 14tli, his forces being stationed at Cul- pepper and Fredericksburg. The withdrawal of General McClellan's army from the Peninsula had left General Lee to direct all his forces against General Pope. By the 1st of August the Confederates were in motion, marching northward — intending to invade Maryland, and capture Washington and Baltimore. The plan of the campaign was to fall upon and crush the forces of General Pope before any part of General McClellan's army could be brought to his support. The first conflict occurred at Cedar Mountain, where General Banks met and repulsed the advance of General Lee. General Pope, however, being unable to check the superior force brought against him, retired behind the' Rapidan. Here he was attacked, but maintained his position, and compelled General Lee to move higher up, and seek a pass through the Bull Run CAMPAIGNS OF McCLELLAN AND LEE. 283 mountains. In the meantime, Stuart's cavalry got into Pope's rear, and captured several trains, and made many prisoners. Before General Lee could strike General Pope, a part of McClellan's army had arrived, and a severe battle was fought on the plains of Manassas, and another at Chan- tilly, in both of which General Pope was defeated. In the latter the Union Generals Stevens and Kearney were killed. The army was drawn into the defences at Washington. General Pope's losses in this campaign were estimated at 15,000 to 20,000. The way was now open to General Lee either to attack Washington or invade Maryland. He chose the latter, and crossed the Potomac near Point of Rocks. He advanced as far as Frederick, where, on the 8th, he issued an address to the people, inviting them to join his standard. The Battle of Antietam. When General McClellan arrived in Washington he was within General Pope's department, and without a command. By direction of the President he was ordered to assume command of all the troops for the defence of the capital. He took measures immediately to check General Lee. By the 9th of September his army was within sixteen miles of Frederick, and so posted to command all the lower fords of the Potomac. As soon as Lee heard of the approach of McClellan he withdrew from Frederick, and took a strong position at South Mountain. At the same time he dispatched Stonewall Jackson with 25,000 men to capture Harper's Ferry, and after- wards to rejoin him. General McClellan overtook Lee at South Mountain, and at once assaulted his position. The battle raged all the afternoon, when the Con- federates were driven from their ground, and retreated to a position behind Antietam Creek. The Federal army occupied the battle-ground. The Federal forces at Harper's Ferry numbered 13,000, commanded by Colonel Miles. The place was not fortified, and was not, perhaps, defensible. Colonel Miles surrendered, without any effort at defence or escape. The consequences were disastrous. If he had held the place even for a day or two he would have prevented the junction of Jackson and Lee at Antietam. General McClellan pushed on his troops in pursuit of Lee, and attacked him at Antietam. The battle began early in the morning, and raged all day. Attack and defence were obstinate on both sides; the ground was alternately lost and won, and nightfall left both armies on the field of 284 CAMPAIGNS OF McCLELLAN AND LEE. battle, apparently ready to resume the contest in the morning. General McClellan being the attacking party, and having won some points of the Confederate position, had the advantage. But he did not deem it prudent to renew the attack the next day, and during the night General Lee abandoned the field, recrossed the Potomac, and gave up all hopes of remaining in ]\Iaryland. The Confederate loss in this campaign is sup- posed to have reached thirty thousand. The Union losses, including the surrender at Harper's Ferry, must have been much larger. General McClellan, after the battle of Antietam, lay encamped on the north bank of the Potomac, in the vicinity of Sharpsburgh and Har- per's Ferry, until September 26th, when the cavalry under Pleasan- ton, with General Burnside's corps, crossed into Virginia. While so en- camped the Confederate General Stuart again appeared at Chambers- burg with 1,800 cavalry, and, making the entire circuit of McClellan's army, re-entered Virginia at Con- rad's Ferry, six miles below the mouth of the Monocacy. He burned government store-houses and ma- chine shops, and carried off 1,000 horses. All attempts to intercept him failed. The delay of McClellan dissatisfied the Government. The army was in good condition and good spirits, and was steadily advancing and pressing the Confederates before it. On the 7th General McClellan was ordered to turn over his command to General Burnside, and await further orders at Trenton, New Jersey. General Burnside did not seek the command. He had refused it twice, and expressed the opinion which many held, that McClellan ought to be retained. He accepted only under peremptory orders from his superiors. He took command November 10, and moved the army rapidly towards Fredericksburg. He had hoped to cross and occupy the heights around the city before General Lee could reach them. The pontoons, by GENERAL ROBERT E. LEE. CAMPAIGNS OF McCLELLAN AND LEE. 285 which he expected to cross the river, did not leave Alexandria until two days after he had arrived at Falmouth, nor until Lee had occupied the heights of Fredericksburg. During the 11th and 12th General Burnside threw bridges over the river, and his army crossed and occupied the city. The next day was spent in disposing his forces for an attack upon Lee's position, which extended in a semicircle from Point Royal to a point six miles above the city, and consisted of two rows of batteries, one a mile in rear of the other, and both overlooking the city. On the morning of the 13th General Burnside ordered the assault. His left wing was commanded by General Franklin, who endeavored to take a batter}^, but was repulsed. He then attempted to turn the right of Lee's position, and gained nearly a mile, which was the onl}^ success of the da3\ Driven Back by a Storm of Shot and Shell. General Sumner on the right, and General Hooker in the centre, made three attempts to scale the heights, but so deadly was the storm of shot and shell that the}^ did not reach the first line of the Confederate position. The Federal dead and wounded lay where they fell, and could not be brought off. General Burnside ordered his army to recross the river on the night of the 15th, which was done without molestation from Lee. It was a bloody and fruitless battle, if battle it can be called, when one army, secure in its intrenchments, deliberately shoots down another, led out into the open field helpless and shelterless. The Confederate loss was very small, while the Union loss was 1,138 killed, 9,105 wounded, and 2,078 missing, a total of 12,321. General Burn- side retained command until January 26, 1863, when at his own request, he was relieved, and General Joseph Hooker was appointed to succeed him. After the battle of Shiloh, General Beauregard retired to his strong position at Corinth. General Halleck prepared to attack him by regular siege approaches. The Confederates did not wait for an assault, but, keeping up a show of strength in front, quietly withdrew, with nearly all their material, into Alabama and Georgia. General Halleck returned to St. Louis, leaving General Buell in command. The war was transferred to Middle Tennessee and Kentucky, and the Federal army was rapidly marched there, to meet the advances of General Kirby Smith and General Bragg from Chattanooga, northward, threatening Nashville and Louisville. 286 CAMPAIGNS OF McCLELLAN AND LEE. Smith drove before him small detachments of Unionists through Cumber- land Gap. Sharp encounters occurred between the cavalry of the two armies, but Bragg's march could not be checked. Buell fell back from Murfreesborough and from Nashville, reaching Louisville September 25th. Buell advised the evacuation of Nashville, but the military governor, Andrew Johnson, remonstrated so strongly against it, that it was decided to hold it. Bragg, detaching a force to attempt Nashville, pushed on towards Louisville, occupying Mumfordsville Septem- ber 17th. While Buell was collecting his troops at Louisville, an order came from Washington that Major-General George H. Thomas should supersede Buell, but, by his advice. General Buell was retained, with General Thomas second in command. Generals Price and Van Dorn, having crossed the Mississippi, at the head of a large force, too late to join Beauregard, advanced against Corinth, Miss., where General Rosecrans was stationed. A sharp battle was fought at luka, September 19th. General Price attempted to storm the Federal works without success. During the night he withdrew. Joining Van Dorn, their united forces fell upon Corinth October 4th ; after a fierce conflict of three hours, the Confederates were repulsed. In the two battles Rosecrans lost 2,600 men. He captured 2,268 soldiers, 3,000 stand of small arms, and many guns. He estimated the Confederate loss at 8,800 men. Furious Onset on the Union Lines. On the 1st of October, Buell resumed operations, moving one division of his army towards Frankfort, and the other three towards Bardstown. On the morning of the 8th, the Confederates were found strongly posted at Perrysville, and a brisk engagement occurred, the contest being for pos- session of a commanding position, covering some pools of water, for which the Federal army had been suff"ering three days. During the day, Bragg made a furious onset on the Federal lines, and at first gained a decided advantage, but, re-enforcements coming up, the Confederates were repulsed, and driven back through the town to their first position. Darkness ter- minated the conflict. Only two divisions of the Federal army had been engaged. The arrival of a third induced General Bragg to retreat, which he did during the night, in good order. Among the Union killed were Generals Terrell and Jackson. The Confederate loss is not known. General Buell pursued Bragg as far as Bowling Green and Glasgow, CAMPAIGNS OF McCLELLAN AND LEE. 287 Kentucky, where he remained until the 27th, when he was superseded by Gen. William S. Rosecrans. Bragg had concentrated his army at Mur- freesborough, having in his advance captured an immense booty, consisting of cattle, clothing, bacon, grain, and arms, which he took safely off in his retreat. Rosecrans reached Nashville November 7th, and remained there until December 26th, the time being actively spent in repairing the railroad to Louisville, and in bringing forward supplies. Bragg having sent a large cavalry force into Tennessee, and another into Kentucky, the occasion was seized to attack him. Forward Movement of Rosecrans. The movement began December 2Gth, and by the 30th, the army was con- centrated in the vicinity of Stone River. McCook commanded the right wing, Thomas the centre, and Crittenden the left. The plan was to turn the Confed- erate right, but Bragg began the fight by an early and furious onslaught upon the right of Rosecrans. The Union forces were driven from their position, and were only saved from defeat by the strenuous exertions of their general, who rallied them late in the day, and, forming a new line, repulsed the Confederates. The next day was spent in feeling each other's lines. On the morning of January 2d, Bragg opened a heavy fire of artillery upon Rosecrans' centre. It was soon silenced by a return fire, and, for a time, the combat ceased. Rosecrans pushed a division across Stone River, taking a strong posi- tion. About three o'clock p.m., the Confederates fell upon it, and drove it back, pursuing closely. But a terrible fire of artiller}^, followed by a charge of infantry, drove them in disorder across the river. Darkness and a chill winter rain closed the day, and prevented pursuit. The rain fell all the next day. On the night of the 3d, General Bragg evacuated Murfrees- borough, and General Rosecrans entered it on the 5th. Rosecrans had 43,400 men, of whom he lost 1,533 killed, 7,245 wounded, and 2,800 missing a total of 11,578. Bragg's army was estimated at 02,490, and his total loss at 14,560. An Indian massacre in Minnesota added to the horrors of the Civil War. The first disturbance, August 17th, was by four drunken Indians, near Red Wood, who, after an altercation with each other, killed several white men. The next day, between 250 and 300 Indians, led by their chief, Little Crow, attacked the agency at Little Medicine, and slaughtered 288 CAMPAIGNS OF McCLELLAN AND LEE. all the whites. Then they spread themselves throughout all the western part of the State and into Dakota, burning and plundering isolated and defenceless farm-houses, murdering men, women, and children, thus renewing all the atrocities that marked the Indian wars of our early history. Colonel Schley held them in check, until at length General Pope was sent with a sufficient force, and, in a sharp battle at Wood Lake, utterly defeated them. Five hundred were taken prisoners, and sentenced to be hung. By the President's order only thirty-eight were hung, and the rest, after a long imprisonment, were set at liberty. It is estimated that from 20,000 to 30,000 persons were driven from their homes, and that 500 lost their lives. Thousands of women and children were made dependent upon charity. In raising the means the excellent Bisho|) Whipple was very active. Depredations by Confederate Cruisers. A few cruisers, sailing under the Confederate flag during the war, inflicted great damage upon commerce. Every facility was afforded in Great Britain, and in her colonial ports, for building, victualling, arming, equipping and repairing these vessels. The " Oreto " was built in Liver- pool, sailed to Nassau xA.ugust, 1862, w^as there detained awhile, and then delivered to Captain Maffit, and subsequent!}' appeared as the " Florida," sailing from Mobile. The " Alabama," built at Birkenhead, sailed from the Mersey June 29, 18G1, under Captain Semmes. The "Shenandoah," built at Glasgow in 1863, sailed from Liverpool to Madeira, and there received her crew and armament from the British brig " Laurel," and started on a cruise to the Arctic Ocean to destroy American whaling ves- sels. The British Government either could not, or would not, prevent these violations of neutrality. Our Government gave England notice that indemnity would be claimed for the damage done by such vessels. The Emperor Napoleon, in 1862, proposed to Great Britain and to Russia to unite with him in a joint effort at mediation between the United States and the Confederates. Those powers declining he undertook it alone. He proposed that the two parties should appoint commissioners to deliber- ate upon and discuss the matters in difference, and endeavor to come to a peaceable solution. The President's reply respectfully declined the emperor's good of&ce, and informed him that the Confederate States could, at any time, terminate the war by laying down their arms and resuming their old relations in the Union. CHAPTER XXVII. IMPORTANT UNION SUCCESSES. HE operations of 1862 had given to the Union possession of the whole valley of the Mississippi from Cairo to Memphis, and from New Orleans to Baton Rouge. The Confederates still held Vicksburg and Port Hudson, with the intermediate coun- try. The campaign against Vicksburg began in November. General Grant was maturing his plans for a movement, and had already given orders for the forces at Memphis and Helena, in Arkansas, under General Sherman, and those at Cairo, under General McClernand, to descend the river to Vicksburg ; while he himself intended to march against the Confederates in the States of Mississippi, to the north and east. But the cowardly surrender of Holly Springs, his base of supplies, by Colonel Murphy, to General Van Dorn, with all the army stores of food, clothing, ammunition, etc., compelled General Grant to fall back, and suspend the land movement. General Sherman, meantime, moved down the Mississippi to the mouth of the Yazoo River, and prepared to attack the defences of Vicksburg and the important post of Haines' Bluff, in its vicinity. The assault was made ; but the strength of the positions, the desperate defence of the Confederates, and the failure of General Grant to co-operate, induced General Sherman to suspend his attack and withdraw his forces to Milliken's Bend, twelve miles up the Mississippi River. While remaining here an expedition was sent up the Arkansas River, under General McClernand, which captured Arkansas Post, taking about 5,000 prisoners. Other small places on the White River were also taken. During January Grant moved his army from Memphis down to Young's Point, on the west bank of the river, a few miles north of Vicksburg. The whole of February and March were spent in preparing means to get below Vicksburg with the army. On the night of April 16th he attempted to run the gunboats and transports past the batteries of Vicksburg, and march the army by land. This perilous undertaking was successfully 19 289 290 IMPORTANT UNION SUCCESSES. accomplished. One transport was struck, set on fire, and abandoned by the crew. Six more followed, one of which was sunk ; but the others went through with slight injury. A part of the army had already reached the bank of the river, and were taken on board the transports down to Grand Gulf, which was shelled by the gunboats, but proved too strong to be captured by them. The troops were again landed, and marched to a point below ; while the gun- boats and transports ran the batteries of Grand Gulf, and the troops crossed the river below, at Bruinsburg. The next day the army moved down to Port Gibson, and, defeating the Confederate troops that opposed them, Grand Gulf was evacuated, and possession taken by Commodore Porter. The Capture of Vicksburg. When General Grant, in the prosecution of his original plan, at length moved east and north from the river, he took only five days' provisions. By the 19tli of May he had fouglit five battles and one skirmish, and had occupied Jackson, the capital of Mississippi, driving General Joseph John- ston into the interior, and General Pemberton, with about 30,000 men into Vicksburg. While he was closing in and around Vicksburg, Commodore Porter ascended the Yazoo River; and, just as the advance of Sherman's army made its appearance at Snyder's Bluff, Commodore Porter captured Haines' Bluff just below Vicksburg, whose fourteen forts, with all their armament, fell into his hands ; and the place was made thereafter the base of supplies for Grant's army. General assaults were twice made upon Vicksburg, but without suc- cess. Grant not having troops enough completely to invest it ; but, draw- ing re-enforcements from the army of the Ohio, General Grant was thus enabled to complete the investment, and he then commenced a regular siege. x\fter the 26th of May firing was continued night and day. A hat was once held above a port-hole, and in two minutes was pierced with fifteen balls by the Union sharpshooters. For the first five days of the siege the garrison had full rations ; but each person was afterwards re- duced to fourteen and a quarter ounces of food daily. It was on the 4th of July, the nation's birthday, that the important event of Pemberton's final surrender occurred. The indomitable courage and perseverance shown by Grant had its influence upon the whole war; not merely in the opening of the Missis- IMPORTANT UNION SUCCESSES. 291 sippi, but as it manifested to iVmerica and to the world that the Union had in this officer a master mind, with a genius for war ; and this mani- festation was made after the Confederates had lost Stonewall Jackson. Grant reported that during the campaign the Confederates had lost 37,000 in prisoners, and 10,000 killed and wounded. His own loss was 1,234 killed, 7,095 wounded, 557 missing. In order to aid General Grant, by destroying the communications of General Johnston with the Hast, an important expedition had been organ- ized at Memphis, which, under General Grierson, marched southward through the heart of Mississippi. In his course he destroyed the Memphis and New Orleans Railroad, with many bridges, and property to a great amount. General Grierson's march terminated at Baton Rouge. Battle of Ohancellorsville. The Mississippi was now open from its source to its mouth, and the Confederacy practically cut in twain. After the repulse of Burnside, General Lee remained at Fredericksburg, while General Hooker occupied the opposite bank of the river at Falmouth. Late in April General Hooker crossed the Rappahannock by Kelly's ford, twenty-live miles above Fredericksburg, and by the 30th had reached Chancellorsville, a few miles southwest of that place. Before moving his army, he had sent a strong cavalry force under General Stoneman to cut the railroad in Lee's rear, so as to prevent his receiving reinforcements from Richmond. Stoneman rode within a few miles of Richmond, destroyed many miles of railroad, much government property, arrived at Gloucester Point in safety, and embarked for Washington. When news of this success reached Hooker, the bloody battle of Chancellorsville had been lost and won. On the 2d of May, the left wing of Lee's army, led by Stonewall Jackson, made a powerful attack upon Hooker's right, and after heroic deeds of valor on both sides, victory rested with the Confederates. Stonewall Jackson, to whose skill in ordering the battle this success was owing, fell mortally wounded; and so universally was he respected and admired, that the news of his death sent a thrill through both armies, and throughout the nation. The Union loss was 11,000, among them General Whipple. The loss of the Confederates is unknown. On the night of the 5th, Hooker recrossed the Rappahannock in a heavy rain storm. General Lee was encouraged by his victory to make another invasion ^-^jii:^ '^-'. BAWLS Olf CHANCELLORSVILLE. JACKSON'S ATTfACK ON THE RIGHT WING. 292 IMPORTANT UNION SUCCESSES. 293 of Maryland and Pennsylvania. His army numbered more than 100,000. He advanced by the Shenandoah valley, surprised and captured Winchester and Martinsburg, with their stores, and his march to Chambersburg was unchecked by any serious opposition. General Hooker, however had early divined Lee's purpose and had prepared for it by sending his sick, his wounded, and his mil- itary stores to Wash- ington. His army had been weakened by the return home of volun- teers whose term of enlistment had ex- pired, and he could expect no re-enforce- ments from the east. Yet Hooker had so disposed his retreat- ing arni}^ as to deter Lee from an attack, and also to cover Washington. When Lee had reached Chambersburg, Hook- er was at and near Frederick, Md. Lee's march had been rapid, and Hooker had kept pace with him. An order of President Lincoln, made at the general george g. meade. request of General Hooker, now placed General George G. Meade at the head of the army of the Potomac. This change of commander at such a critical moment was a hazardous experiment; and that no evil consequences resulted is an evidence that General Hooker had conducted his operations with skill, and had brought his army to a high state of discipline. 294 IMPORTANT UNION SUCCESSES. Both armies were marcliing for the same point — the village of Gettys- burg in Pennsylvania, upon which many important roads converged. The army that should first occupy the town would have the advantage of choosing its position. General Reynolds, of the Union army, first passed through the village, and encountered the advance of his enemy on the heights north of the town. A brisk engagement followed, which ended by the withdrawal of the Union forces to Cemetery Hill, south of the village. During the night both armies were placed in position for the struggle of the next day. At noon General Lee began the attack, and hurled his masses with great fury and persistence upon the Federal lines. Battle of Gettysburg. The battle raged all the afternoon and until 9 o'clock in the evening. The Confederate General Longstreet had gained and held a piece of ground from which General Lee thought the position, on the crest of Cemetery Hill could be successfully assailed. Early the next morning General Lee renewed the attack. The contest was kept up along the whole line, but the design of Lee was to" conceal his real object, which was the Cemetery Hill, the key to Meade's position. All the forenoon was occupied in arranging his batteries to bring a concentric fire upon this hill. At 1 o'clock, at a given signal, one hundred and fifty guns opened a simultaneous fire, and within five minutes the crest of the hill was swept entirely bare. This rain of iron hail fell incessantly for three hours. General Howard, who com- manded the hill, had withdrawn behind the crest, and for two hours scarcely replied to the storm. General Lee, supposing the Federal guns silenced, ordered his columns to scale the hill. As they approach, a terrible fire of grape, shell, and canister, is opened upon them from forty guns. They press forward, charging over the rifle-pits, and up to the muzzles of the guns. A scorch- ing fire of infantry is now poured into their thinned and broken ranks^ They reel, they fall back. A regiment throws down its arms and sur- renders. All along the field, smaller detachments do the same ; and the escaped are seen flying, a disordered mass, over the plain. The celebrated charge of the Confederate General Pickett was one of the most daring exploits of the war. He was driven back with great loss. The battle was ended ; and during the night the combatants, tired and exhausted, slept. The morning of the 4th was spent by both armies in burying the 295 296 IMPORTANT UNION SUCCESSES. dead, and caring for the wounded. In tlie afternoon it rained heavily. During the night, Lee began his retreat, and by the 11th was at Williams- port, near the Potomac. On the night of the 13th, he succeeded in taking his army over the Potomac at Falling Waters and Williamsport. The Federal loss at Gettysburg was 2,834 killed, 13,790 wounded, 6,643 missing. The Confederate loss was larger — 4,500 being buried on the field by the Union soldiers, and 40,121 were taken prisoners, 26,500 of whom were wounded. Nearly one-half of Lee's army was destroyed or taken. General Meade continued his pursuit until July 25th, when Lee had retired south of the Rapidan, and Meade was near Warrenton. The two armies occupied nearly the same quarters that they had two months before, and so remained all winter. The famous Confederate John Morgan was sent on a raid into Indiana and Ohio this year, to create diversions in favor of Lee, and prevent re-en- forcements being forwarded to Generals Grant and Hooker. He passed, in June, from Tennessee, near Burksville, on the Cumberland River, up through Kentucky to Brandenburg, on the Ohio, and then crossed into Indiana, with a force of about 4,500 cavalry. He marched through Cin- cinnati, made a detour a little north of that city, and pursued his way to Pomero}^, where he expected to cross, at Buffington's Island, into Kentucky. Pursuit and Capture of General Morgan. Here he was overtaken by General Hobson, and his force partly dis- persed and captured. He was taken prisoner with 500 men, by Colonel Shackelford, five days after, near New Lisbon. He had caused great alarm, and done much damage on his route, by the destruction of bridges, rail- roads, and other property, and by taking horses and levying on the inhab- tants for food and forage. This raid was part of the general plan of which Lee's invasion of Pennsylvania was the great feature, to transfer the war to the North. It is probable that aid was expected from the disaffected people in the Middle and Western States, whose numbers and influence were greately over-estimated at the South. There was practically no party ; there was only a small and contemptible faction, who would have made peace at the price of a divided Union, and a dissevered country. During the summer of 1863, the Confederate cruisers "Alabama" and " Florida '' inflicted great damage upon American commerce. They at first IMPORTANT UNION SUCCESSES. 297 cruised in the West Indies, and had little difficulty in escaping the Federal war vessels by retiring, when hard pressed, into neutral ports. The "Florida" was captured October 7th, in the neutral port of Brazil, by Captain Collins, of the "Wachusett." The " Vanderbilt," given to the government by Captain Vanderbilt, one of the swiftest and strongest steamers in the navy, made an unavailing chase after the "Alabama" across the Atlantic to Cape Town, and then through the Indian Ocean. Strategic Operations in Tennessee. The winter of 1863 was spent by the opposing armies in Tennessee in recruiting and preparing for the summer campaign. The only military operations were mutual raids to interrupt each other's communications, cut off and destroy trains and supplies. From January to June the Union army, under General Rosecrans, lay at Murfreesboro. Supplies were brought forward, and a large fortified depot was established. A cavalry force was also organized and equipped. Bragg's army, meantime, occupied a line on the north of Duck River, with his main base at Chattanooga, and a depot at Tullahoma. On the 23d of June Rosecrans began the campaign, and, by a series of strategetic move- ments, turned Bragg's position, and compelled him to abandon Tullahoma, which he did on the 30th. By the 5th of July Middle Tennessee was in possession of Rosecrans, and Bragg had crossed the Tennessee River at various points, fortifying himself in Chattanooga. This important result was obtained without any severe battle, and with but few slight skirmishes, in which Rosecrans lost 85 killed, 4G2 wounded, and 13 missing He captured 1,634 prisoners. The next object was to capture Chattanooga, which commanded the route towards Atlanta and Georgia. The railroads between the Tennessee River and Nashville were first repaired, and were in condition for use July 25th, when Sheridan's division occupied Stevenson and Bridgeport. Between the 16th and 29th of August the army had crossed the Tennessee Mountains, and by the 4th of September had passed the Tennessee River. Passing the Sand Mountains and Lookout Mountain, on the 18th of Sep- tember, the army was concentrated near Crawfish Springs, in the valley of the Chickamauga. Meanwhile Bragg had retreated to La Fayette, Georgia, where, being reinforced by Longstreet's division from A^irginia, he again moved towards Chattanooga. It was near midnight when Longstreet 298 IMPORTANT UNION SUCCESSES. reached Bragg's headquarters. He was placed in command of the left wing. A new disposition of the forces was made, and it was ordered that the action should commence at daybreak on the morrow, which was Sunday. .X\ \\^' 4^^ LONGSTREET'S ARRIVAL AT BRAGG'S HEADQUARTERS. On the morning of the 19th began the battle of Chickamauga, by an attack led by General Thomas upon Bragg's right. The battle became general along the whole line, and lasted all day, without material advantage to either side, darkness closing the contest. The next morning Bragg renewed the fight by an overwhelming assault upon the Union centre, com- manded by Davis and Sheridan, piercing the line and cutting the army in twain. The right wing was driven in confusion from the field, and retreated IMPORTANT UNION SUCCESSES. 299 in great haste to Chattanooga, General Rosecrans being carried along with the other fugitives. The left wing, under General Thomas, maintained its ground, repulsed every assault, held its position until night, and then withdrew in good order to Rossville. Remaining there all the next day, General Thomas at night marched to Chattanooga. His skill and conduct saved the army. On the night of September oOth Bragg dispatched Wheeler's cavalry across the Tennessee River, above Chattanooga, with directions to cut Rosecrans' communications. Wheeler was closely followed by Generals McCook and Mitchell, who defeated him in two actions, and drove him out of Tennessee before he could do any damage to the railroads. The Federal Armies United. After the battle of Chickamauga, the three departments of the Ohio, the Cumberland, and the Tennessee were combined, and named the Mili- tar}'^ Division of the Mississippi, General Grant assuming command. The Army of the Cumberland was at Chattanooga ; the Army of the Ohio, under General Burnside, was at Knoxville ; General W. T. Sherman, with Blair's division of the Army of the Mississippi, was on his march from Memphis to re-enforce Rosecrans ; and Hooker's corps, from the Army of the Potomac, was on the way to Chattanooga. General Thomas, who had succeeded General Rosecrans in the command of the Army of the Cumber- land, ordered Hooker to occup}^ Bridgeport. General Grant, arriving at Chat- tanooga October 23, approved and executed the plans of General Thomas. Bragg's army was strongly posted on the heights around and below Chattanooga, and unless he could be dislodged that place was untenable. A series of movements, planned by General Thomas, wrested from Bragg the positions that commanded the river, and opened it as a channel of sup- plies, which had previously been brought in wagons sixty miles across the mountains. Earl}^ in November, and while Grant was concentrating his forces, Bragg weakened his army by detaching Longstreet to attack Burn- side at Knoxville. November 16, General Sherman reached Bridgeport, and November 23, crossing the river, fortified himself on Missionary Ridge. Grant now ordered the attack upon Bragg's position. It was begun by General Thomas, who drove the Confederates from their front line, interposing one of his corps between them and the river. The same morning Hooker scaled the 300 IMPORTANT UNION SUCCESSES. western slope of Lookout Mountain, drove the Confederates from their rifle-pits, capturing many prisoners, with small loss. The next morning he took possession of the top of the mountain, and swept across Lookout val- ley to Rossville. His march was for hours among the clouds that enveloped the mountains, hiding the army from view, their course being indicated by the report and echoes of their guns. At the same time General Sherman assailed Bragg's right, gaining and holding a line close to his rifle-pits. General Thomas also assaulted Bragg's centre, his troops nimbly climbing the steep sides of Missionar}^ Ridge, carrying the summit, and dashing irresistibly through and over the Con- federate works. Bragg, believing the heights impregnable, delayed his own retreat until the Unionists were close upon him, and in his haste he could not save his personal effects. By midnight his army was in full retreat, leaving on the field thousands of small arms, and a large part of his artillery. Hasty Retreat of General Longstreet. General Grant, without delay, ordered Sherman, with a strong body of men, to the relief of Burnside, now sorely pressed by Longstreet. The city had been furiously assailed by the best division of Lee's army of Northern Virginia, and had been gallantly and successfully defended. The approach of Sherman caused Longstreet to raise the siege, and retreat towards Vir- ginia. Sherman's advance entered Knoxville on the night of December 3, and he arrived on the 16th. Remaining a few days to advise with Burn- side about the pursuit of Longstreet, and leaving Granger's corps at Knoxville, with the rest of his division he returned by slow marches to Chattanooga. General Grant's loss in the campaign was 757 killed, 4529 wounded, and 330 missing. He captured 239 ofi&cers, 5903 privates, 40 guns, and 7000 small arms. The Confederate loss is not known, but it must have been at least equal to Grant's. In March, 1863, Congress passed an act requiring an enrolment of all the able-bodied male citizens of the United States. The whole country was divided into districts, for each of which a provost-marshal was appointed, subordinate to a provost-marshal-general at Washington. The enrolment was rapidly completed, amidst some excitement and dissatisfaction. The result showed that the number of men, between the ages of eighteen and forty-five years, liable to military duty, and not in the army, was 3,113,305. IMPORTANT UNION SUCCESSES. 301 The draft was ordered to be made in July. One-fifth of the number enrolled was assumed as the quota of each district. iVs the day approached for the drawing to begin threats were publicly made of forcible opposition. In many of the large cities combinations to resist were secretly formed. The draft, however, was made, and in most places without opposition. But in New York city, on the second day, the office of one of the provost- marslials was assailed and demolished by a mob, A fearful riot followed, which raged for four days. Many houses and stores were sacked and TDurned. The fury of the mob was directed against prominent Union men, soldiers and citizens, many of whom were brutally murdered. Armories, gun-stores and rifle-factories were plundered. Great Destruction of Life and Property. The negroes were especially the objects of the fiendish hate and assault of the mob. They were knocked down, robbed and killed, without pity. The Colored Orphan Asylum was entered, its inmates thrust into the streets, and the building fired. Property valued at three or four millions of dollars was destroyed. Governor Seymour visited the city, and by public speech and private influence strove to save the city from violence. But reason and persuasion failed. Martial law was proclaimed, and the United States troops, under the direction of General Wool, aided by the admirable police of the city, finally suppressed the riot. It is said that more than a thousand lives were lost. A similar riot occurred in the city of Troy. In Boston, Portsmouth, and other places, the mob spirit was promptly •quelled. This, and subsequent drafts, were completed without a recur- rence of violence. CHAPTER XXVIII. CAMPAIGNS OF SHERMAN AND GRANT. HE close of the year 1863 left the Federal government in pos- session of the Mississippi River, and also of all the important ports on the Atlantic coast and Gulf of Mexico, except Wil- ^ mington, Charleston, and Mobile. The Confederacy still had two large armies, under two able commanders. Lee, in Vir- ginia and North Carolina, at the head of 150,000, and Johnston, in Georgia, at the head of 60,000. The United States had, probably, twice that number in the field, besides those in forts and garrisons. The clash of arms ceased during the beginning of the winter. The lull was broken by expeditions preparator}^ to the final struggle. General Sherman, February 3d, marched from Vicksburg, with 30,000 men, to Mer- idian, reaching the place on the 15th. Here he expected to be joined by a cavalry force of 7,000, under Gen, W. F. Smith, who set out from Mem- phis on the 11th. But General Smith was met and checked by superior forces, under Forrest, and fell back to Memphis. General Sherman occupied Meridian for a week, and then returned, February 26, to Vicksburg, having destroyed 200 miles of railroad, with cars and connections, sixty-seven bridges, thousands of bales of cotton, and millions of bushels of corn. This destruction of communications and prop- erty crippled the Confederates, and had a damaging effect upon all their operations for the year. General Johnston sent a force from Dalton to oppose the march of Sherman, supposing his object to be Mobile. To counteract this movement, General Grant ordered General Palmer to advance towards Dalton, and threaten an attack upon Johnston. The army moved forward within two miles of Dalton, but, after some slight skirmishes, withdrew to Ringgold. General Schofield, who had superseded General Bumside in Hast Ten- nessee, moved against General Longstreet, who had wintered there. Long- street retreated into Virginia, rejoining Lee. An expedition designing to occupy Florida, consisting of twenty 302 CAMPAIGNS OF SHERMAN AND GRANT. 303 steamers and eight schooners, with 5,000 men, nnder General Gillmore, sailed from Hilton Head. The army began its march immediately, under General Seymour, and by the 15th, after slight skirmishing, reached Baldwin. Continuing the march, on the l^Oth they encountered General Finnegan, at Olustee ; and, after suffering a disastrous defeat, returned to Jacksonville. A formidable expedition for the capture of vShreveport, on the Red River, and the occupation of Western Louisiana, was organized under General Banks, at New Orleans. A large fleet under Rear-Admiral Porter, consisting of three monitors, seven iron-clads, and ten other vessels, was collected at the mouth of Red river. March 12th, the expedition began the ascent of the river. On the 11th, Fort De Russy was captured. The Confederate forces, under Gen. Dick Taylor, were defeated in two encounters, on the 21st, at Hender.son Hill, and the 28th, at Cane river. On the morning of April Gth, the whole army, whicli had been concentrated at Alexandria and Grand Ecore, moved from the latter place, and engaged the Confederates at Pleasant Hill, very soon succeeding in driving them in disorder from the field. Heavy Losses of the Union Army. On the morning of the 8th, the advance of General Banks, consisting of about 8,000 men, reached Sabine Cross Roads ; while General Franklin, with the Nineteenth Corps, was in camp nine miles in the rear, and Gen- eral Smith, with half of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Corps, was twent}" miles in the rear. Gen. Dick Taylor fell with his whole force upon General Banks, and, before General Franklin could come to his aid, defeated him, with a loss of 2,000 men, and the whole of his transportation train. Banks retreated during the night to Pleasant Hill, followed by Taylor, and a second battle ensued, in which the Confederates were driven from the field. But Banks' victor}- was barren, and his losses so great, that the next morning, leaving his dead unburied, he began his retreat towards Alexandria, where he arrived April 27th. Here he was detained until May 14th. The water in the river was so low that the gunboats could not descend the falls, until Lieutenant-Colonel Baile}' suggested the construction of wing-dams on each side of the river, leaving a channel fifty feet wide in the middle. His suggestion was carried into effect, under his own super- 304 CAMPAIGNS OF SHERMAN AND GRANT. intendence : the fleet passed safely over the falls, and reached the mouth ■of Red River, May 16th. The army returned to New Orleans, and the fleet to its station on the Mississippi. The expedition was a disastrous failure, with the loss of 3,000 men, 20 pieces of artillery, 1,200 horses and mules, and immense quantities of army stores. General Steele left his station at Little Rock, Ark., March 23d, to co-operate with General Banks. He reached Arkadelphia the 28th. April 16th, he was joined by General Thayer, who had marched from Fort Smith. After several severe skirmishes, in which he was successful, he •occupied Camden, where he remained until the 26th. In the meantime, liaving heard of the defeat and retreat of General Banks, he retraced his steps, reaching Little Rock, May 2d. April 19th, a Confederate force under General Hoke, aided by the ram "Albemarle," attacked Plymouth, N. C, commanded by Gen. H. W. Wessels, carried the place by assault, and captured the entire garrison and armament. The gunboat " Smithfield " was almost immediately sunk, and the "Miami" considerably disabled. Frightful Slaughter of Negro Troops. During the months of March and April, the Confederate General Porrest entered Kentucky, captured Union City and its garrison, and, March 24th, attacked Paducah, but was repulsed by Colonel Hicks. On the morning of April 13th, Forrest attacked Fort Pillow, Tenn., garrisoned by a detachment of Tennessee cavalry and by the first regiment of Ala- l)ama colored troops, under Major Booth. The garrison refused to surrender, and fought bravely until 3 o'clock in the afternoon ; when, the fort being carried by assault, the men threw down their arms, but, being of the negro race, they were massacred without mercy. The guerilla John Morgan entered Kentucky, through Pound Gap, in the latter part of May, with two or three thousand men. After his capture in Ohio, he had escaped from prison. He attacked Cynthiana June 11th, and captured the garrison. On the 12th, he was met by General Bur- bridge, routed with loss, and driven out of the State. This dreaded raider was subsequently killed at Greenville, Tenn., while attempting to escape in the night, from a house which was surrounded by Union troops under the command of General Gillem. The army of the Potomac had lain on the north side of the Rapidan CAMPAIGNS OF SHERMAN AND GRANT. 305 from December, 18G3, until May, 18G4. The army of General Lee was encamped on the south side of the same river. The first important move- ment in the spring was the expedition under General Kilpatrick, who left Stevensburg February 28th with about 8,000 men, and crossed the Rapidan at Germania and Ely's Ford, about sixty miles from Richmond. He struck the Virginia Central railroad at Frederickshall, and tore it up for several miles. He then detached Colonel Dahlgren towards the James River Canal, and moved himself to Ashland. The detachment under Colonel Dahlgren was misled by a negro guide, and, failing to rejoin Kilpatrick at Ashland, was defeated in a skirmish with Lieutenant-Colonel Pollard. Colonel Dahlgren was killed, and sixty of his men captured. Kilpatrick went within six miles of Richmond. Unable to approach nearer, he moved down the peninsula, effecting a junction with General Butler at Tunstall's Station, on the York River railroad. Promotion of General Grant. Congress, February 29th, passed an act reviving the grade of Lieuten- ant-General. The President approved the act, and immediatel}^ sent to the Senate the name of Ulysses S. Grant, whose nomination was confirmed March 3d. General Grant coming to Washington, his commission was presented to him by President Lincoln, in the presence of the Cabinet and other distinguished persons. His first order, assuming command of the armies of the United States, was issued from his headquarters at Nashville. By direction of the President he assigned the military division of the Mississippi, composed of the Departments of the Ohio, the Tennessee, the Cumberland, and the Arkansas, to Major-General W. T. Sherman; and the army of the Tennessee was placed under the direct command of Major- General J. B. McPherson. November 25th, in the night, a number of fires were set in the city of New York, simultaneously, in different places. They were clearly the work of incendiaries. The police subsequently arrested Robert Kennedy, in the cars near Detroit. He was tried and convicted of setting fire to Barnum's Museum, Lovejoy's Hotel, Tammany Hall and the New England House. He said he had five accomplices, who each set fire to their board- ing-houses. They all stayed in the city the next day, and then escaped to Canada. He further stated that he and his accomplices were hired to burn the city of New York by Confederate agents in Canada. The reason 20 306 CAMPAIGNS OF SHERMAN AND GRANT. assigned in justification of the crime was the desolation of the Shenandoah Valley by General Sheridan. October 19th a raid from Canada upon St. Albans, Vermont, was made by a party, twenty or thirty in number, claiming to be in the Confederate service. They robbed the St. Albans' Bank of fifty thousand dollars, stole horses enough to mount the party, fired upon unarmed citizens, and set fire to a hotel. Some of them were arrested in Canada and brought to trial, but were discharged unpunished. The Canadian government, how- ever, refunded a part of the money. This was the only successful raid among many planned by Confederates in Canada, aided and encouraged by sj^mpathizing friends. General Grant, whose labors had hitherto been done in the West, left Nashville a fortnight after being made Commander-in-chief, and established his headquarters with the Army of the Potomac. Soldiers Calmly Preparing for Death. Between the battle of Gettysburg, July 3, 1863, and the close of the year. General Meade had followed Lee, until the latter took post on a strong line south of the Rapidan, a few miles east of Gordons ville. The campaign had been one of manoeuvres, by which each had sought to gain some position where he could fight his antagonist at a disadvantage. At one time Meade crossed the Rapidan, near a small stream called Mine Run, and drew up his troops in order of battle. The soldiers, who knew the strength cf Lee's position, conscious of the desperate and hopeless task before them, calmly prepared for death. Each one wrote on a slip of paper his name, his company, regiment and residence, and pinned it to his clothes, so that his dead body might be recognized by his friends. Meade did not put them to the test. He recrossed the Rapidan to his camp, and thus the two armies confronted each other all winter. Both were strongly reinforced, and improved in drill and discipline. Longstreet was recalled by Lee from East Tennessee,, and his corps was encamped near Gordonsville. Lee also summoned to his aid all the troops that could be spared from the Carolinas. On the Union side the army of the Potomac was increased to nearly 100,000, and Burnside's corps, transferred from East Tennessee, was held in reserve. Meade's army was composed of three corps: the Second, Fifth and Sixth, commanded respectively by Generals Hancock, Warren and Sedg- CAMPAIGNS OF SHERMAN AND GRANT. 307 wick. General Sheridan commanded the cavalry; General H. J. Hunt was chief of artillery; Major Duane, chief engineer, and General Ingalls, quartermaster. Although Grant had supreme direction, all orders were issued by Meade. As co-operative movements, General Butler, with 30,000 men, was at Fortress Monroe, ready to threaten Richmond by the James river; and General Sigel, with 17,000 men, was in West Virginia — one column in the Shenandoah Valley, and another, under General Crook, in the Valley of the Kanawha. The army of the Potomac moved on the night of the od of May. The right column, under Warren and Sedgwick, crossed at Germania Ford^ and the left, under Hancock, at Ely's Ford, six miles below. During the 4th the army crossed the river, and at night encamped on the battle- field of Chancellorsville. Clever Tactics of Lee and Longstreet. General Lee did not oppose the crossing. His right was turned. His force, consisting of three corps, extended from Somerville Ford to Gordons- ville — Longstreet's corps near the latter place. Hill's in the vicinity of Orange Court-house, and Kwell's to the right and along the Rapidan. On the morning of the 5th General Meade put his forces in motion, intending to place himself between the Confederate army and Gordonsville, But General Lee, to foil this plan, marched his army rapidly to the east, on the Orange and Frederick plank-road and turnpike, and assailed Meade in the Wilderness. The country so called is a region where mining operations had been carried on, and the original forest having been cleared away, the land was rocky and uneven, overspread with a thick growth of low, scraggy pines and scrub-oaks. Cavalry could not penetrate it, and artillery could not be dragged over it. It was just such a field as that on which Braddock had been lured to destruction. It was a battle of musketry only, and onl}^ Indian tactics prevailed. Before noon Longstreet fell upon Hancock's left with such fierceness that it was forced to the Brock road, which Longstreet determined to seize. Should he succeed in doing so Grant would be forced to retreat to the Rapidan under circumstances as disastrous as his predecessors, who had invariably fallen back from before Lee. 308 CAMPAIGNS OF SHERMAN AND GRANT. This success of Loiigstreet in making this hiighly important movement was prevented b}^ a remarkable accident. He spurred for- ward to lead the movement. At that rioment some Confederate troops mis- took him and his escort for Union cavalry, and fired a volley at them. Longstreet waved his hand ' and shouted to them to stop firing. They did so, WOUNDING OF GENERAL LONGSTREET BY HIS OWN MEN. but not until a ^ bullet passed through his throat, coming out > at the shoulder. He fell from his horse, and was believed to be dead. Such a calamit}' spread dismay for a time in the Confederate ranks, and prevented the success of the movement. CAMPAIGNS OF SHERMAN AND GRANT. 309 Lee expected, by his sudden aud fierce onset, in a place where cavalry and artillery were useless, aud his sharpshooters were at home, to drive Grant back over the Rapidan. Grant hoped to destroy Lee's army by the weight of his superior masses. Both failed. The Civil War here presented the melancholy spectacle of 15,000 Union and 8000 Confederate dead. The Union General Wadsworth was killed, and Generals Seymour and Shaler taken prisoners. General Longstreet was badly wounded, and disabled for the rest of the campaign. Battle of Spottsylvania Court-House. General Grant, on the 7th, directed his army to move to Spottsylvania Court-house, and turn Lee's right. General Meade set the army early in motion, hoping to plant it between Lee and Richmond. The Confederate general was first on the ground, and intrenched. For twelve days the armies faced each other, Lee acting on the defensive. All attempts to break through his lines failed. One was attended with partial success. General Hancock, before daylight, carried the first line of Lee's works in the centre, taking 4000 prisoners and twenty guns. The ground thus gained was held, although General Lee in his endeavor to recapture it, kept up the contest until midnight, a continuous battle of twenty hours. It was the fiercest and bloodiest struggle of the campaign. General Grant afterwards made repeated attempts to find a weak point in Lee's lines, but they were impregnable. Here General Sheridan was detached with his three divisions of cavalry, numbering 12,000 men, with thirty-two pieces of field artillery, under Generals Gregg, Merritt, and Wilson, besides those left with the army for picket and orderly duty, upon an expedition to the Confederate rear. The raid was designed to cut Lee's communications, by destroying in part the railroads between him and Richmond, to threaten, and, if practicable, seize that city, and to open communications with the army of the James. General Sheridan succeeded in burning Beaver Dam and Ashland Stations, with an immense accumulation of supplies, and in tearing up more than twent}^ miles of railroad. Near Beaver Dam he overtook and recap- tured nearly 400 Union prisoners, including Colonels Phelps and Tally. He proceeded towards Richmond, met and defeated the Confederate cavalry at Yellow Tavern, eight miles north of the city, in a sharp combat, which resulted in the death of General J. E. B. Stuart. 310 CAMPAIGNS OF SHERMAN AND GRANT. Sheridan pushed on, carried the first line of the defences of Richmond, again encountered the Confederate cavalry, reinforced b}- the Home Guards and other infantry, strongly intrenched, and after foiling a desperate effort to entrap his command, succeeded b}^ hard fighting in forcing the passage at Meadow Bridge, and withdrawing to the north side of the Chickahominy. Thence proceeding through Mechanicsville, he again met and defeated the Confederates, and then pushed on to Haxall's Landing, on the James river, where he communicated with General Butler at Bermuda Hun- dred. Here he embarked his force on transports, and rejoined the Army of the Potomac. On the same day that Meade crossed the Rapidan, General Butler embarked his troops on board of transports at Fortress IMonroe, and sailed up the James river, convoyed by a fleet of gunboats. The next day he effected a landing at City Point and Port Powhatan, but disembarked his main body at Bermuda Hundred, a neck of land lying between the Appo- mattox and James rivers, ten miles north of Petersburg, and twenty miles south of Richmond. General Beauregard quickly drew all available forces from the south, foiled Butler\s attempts upon Petersburg and Richmond, attacked him on the 16th, and drove him within his lines between the forks of the two rivers, and, intrenching in his front, covered the railroad and both cities. General Beauregard then reinforced Lee, who also was now joined by the troops under Breckinridge, from Tennessee. Union Troops Headed toward Richmoncl. General Sigel, advancing up the Shenandoah, was defeated at New Market, May 15, when he was superseded by General Hunter, who in his turn defeated the Confederates at Piedmont. Hunter marched to Lynch- iDurg, but finding the place too strongly defended, he turned back by a route through West Virginia, bringing his command safely through. The twelve days' conflict at Spottsylvania was ended by another turn- ing movement, which began by the march of Hancock's corps towards Richmond. The point aimed at was the line of the North Anna river. The two armies were soon in motion, and moving on parallel lines, the whole object of Lee being to interpose himself continually between Grant and Richmond. Grant crossed the North Anna river, but Lee still was able to intrench himself in an unassailable position, and again Grant, by a flank movement, reached Cold Harbor, once more to be confronted by Lee, CAMPAIGNS OF SHERMAN AND GRANT. 311 in a position in advance of the Chickahominy, covering the Virginia Cen- tral, and the Fredericksburg and Richmond railroads. An attack was made at five o'clock in the evening on Lee's lines by the Sixth Corps, and the troops under General William F. Smith, just arrived from General Butler's army. The attack was successful, and the ground gained held against repeated assaults. An attack was made along the whole line, and within twenty minutes more than ten thousand men BATTLE OF COLD HARBOR. fell before they could reach the Confederate lines. Some hours later General Meade ordered a second advance, and the men unanimously refused to obey. General Grant, June 14, transferred his army south of the James river. He then ordered General Butler to send General Smith, during the night, against Petersburg. The movement was not prompt, and General Smith, instead of marching into Petersburg, which was then undefended, rested over-night The next morning it was too late. All that could be done was to carry the outer works. A good position was gained, and the army pro- ceeded to envelop Petersburg towards the Southside railroad, as far as pos- sible, without attacking fortifications. As early as the 7th of June, General Sheridan had been sent on a 312 CAMPAIGNS OF SHERMAN AND GRANT. raid towards Gordonsville, there to effect a junction, if possible, with Gen- eral Hunter, and destroy the Virginia Central railroad. General Sheridan reached Trevilian Station, where he encountered and defeated a body of cavalry, and destroyed about twelve miles of railroad. Hearing nothing of General Hunter he turned back, and on the 25th crossed the James river at Powhatan and rejoined the army. Between the 22d and 30th of June, Generals Wilson and Kauiz made a cavalry raid against the railroads, south of Richmond. General Wilson reached Burkesville Station, and destroyed twenty-five miles of the Danville railroad. The Southside road and the Weldon road were both damaged. The expedition then returned, but with the loss of its artillery. A Regiment and Battery Blown Up. For some weeks in July the Ninth Army Corps had been engaged in digging a mine under one of the Confederate forts. Before springing the mine a demonstration was made on the north side of the James river against the New Market road, to induce the sending of troops away from the Petersburg defences. On the morning of the 30th, between four and five o'clock, the mine was sprung, blowing up a battery and most of a regi- ment. The advance of the assaulting column, formed of the Ninth Corps, took possession of the crater made by the explosion. Not being properly supported they were driven back with great slaughter. The failure to take the fort, the capture of which was certain to compel the evacuation of Peters- burg, was a bitter disappointment to General Grant and the nation. The occupation of the Weldon railroad, the completion of a railroad from City Point to the Weldon railroad, facilitating the transit of troops, arms, and supplies through the Union lines, the capture of Fort Harrison, north of the James river, and a futile attempt to extend the Federal lines to the Southside railroad, were the most important events in the siege of Petersburg and Richmond until the final grand advance. Here we break the current of our narrative and turn our attention to the movements of General Sherman. It was on the 14th of March that General Sherman took command of the Department of the Mississippi. He had three armies encamped in and around Chattanooga — the Army of the Cumberland, General Thomas commanding, 60,773 men ; the Army of the Tennessee, General McPherson commanding, 24,465 men ; and the Army of the Ohio, General Schofield commanding, 13,559 men. The whole was CAMPAIGNS OF SHERMAN AND GRANT. 313 composed of 88,188 infantry, G149 cavalry, and 44G0 artillery; or, 98,797 men and 254 guns. To supply this army there was but a single line of railroad from Louisville, Kentucky, through Nashville to Chattanooga. By the first of May the depots at Nashville and Chattanooga were well filled with supplies of provisions and military stores, and everything in readiness for an onward march. The Confederates lay in and about Dalton, thirty-eight miles south of Chattanooga. Their force was estimated at 50,000 infantry and 10,000 cavalry, mostly veterans, under the command of General Joseph B. Johnston, an able general, second only, and by some deemed superior, to General Lee in military skill and capacity. What he lacked in numbers was made up in the rugged and defensible character of the country. His position at Dalton was well fortified, and the hundred miles to Atlanta was the most impracticable region over which an aggressive march was ever undertaken. Retreat of General Johnston. General Sherman began his movement May Gth. He found the position at Buzzard's Roost too strong to be assaulted. General McPherson was sent through Snake Gap to turn it, while Generals Thomas and Schofield threatened it in front and on the north. The movement was successful. General Johnston, finding his retreat likely to be cut off, fell back to his fortified position at Resaca. Here he was attacked, and a heavy battle ensued May 15th. During the night Johnston retreated. His rear-guard was overtaken and attacked at Adairsville. Severe skirmishing ensued. He continued his retreat until the 19th, when he crossed the Etowah river. While these operations were going on General Jefferson C. Davis' division of Thomas' army was sent to Rome, which, with its forts and artillery, its valuable mills and foundries, was captured and destroyed. After resting a few days. General Sherman put his army in motion for Dallas, with a view to turn the difficult pass of Alatoona. On the 25th General Hooker had a severe battle v.-itli a part of Hood's and Hardee's corps, driving them back to New Hope Church. Of several encounters, at and near Dallas, the most important was a desperate assault upon McPherson, which met with a bloody repulse. On the 4tli of June Johnston retreated to the strong positions of Pine, Kenesaw and Lost mountains. For several days there was incessant skir- mishing. In the meantime the Federal army was reinforced by General 314 CAMPAIGNS OF SHERMAN AND GRANT. Blair, with two divisions of the Seventeenth Army Corps.; and the Con- federate army by the Georgia militia and accessions of cavalry. On the I4th the warrior-bishop, Leonidas Polk, was killed by an explodii shell while standing with "^^^ Johnston and Hardee on %=^ the crest of Pine Moun- '^ ' tain On the "^"^ 28th Generals ^//iL- Thomas and INIcPherson made a determined assault on Johnston's works, but were re- pulsed with terrible slaughter. Defeated in his direct attack, General vSherman again moved his army by the right, and turned John- ston's position, compelling him to aban- don Kenesaw and retreat, July 3d, across the Chattahoochee. Both armies rested in comparative quiet, the time being occupied by General Sherman in manoeuvres and movements for the purpose of crossing the Chattahoochee DEATH OF GENERAL POLK. CAMPAIGNS OF SHERMAN AND GRANT. 315 and turuing Johnston's position, which had been carefully chosen, and strongly fortified, as the last defence of Atlanta. On the 17th General Sherman had crossed the Chattahoochee, and by the 20th had forced Johnston into his intrenchments in front of Atlanta, and here General Johnston was, by order of President Davis, superseded in command by General J. B. Hood. General Hood immediately assumed the offensive, and made, during the latter part of Jul}-, several desperate assaults upon General Sherman's lines. The most determined attack was on July 22, during which the brave and accomplished General JMcPherson was killed. Hood was defeated in every attempt, and his arni}^ suffered losses which could not be repaired. The Confederate loss in this battle, the bloodiest in the campaign, was about 12,000 killed, wounded and prisoners, while that of the Federals was 3,722. General Logan succeeded General McPherson in command, until superseded by Major-General Howard. Three Expeditions Sent Forward. During the month of August General Sherman partially invested Atlanta. In the meantime three expeditions, under Generals McCook, Garrard and Stoneman, were made to cut the railroads south of Atlanta. The first was successful ; the others failed. General Rousseau had pre- viously made a successful raid upon the Atlanta and Montgomer}^ railroad, and its branches near Opelika. About the same time, also, the Confederate General Wheeler left Atlanta with a large force of cavalr}^, intending to cut General Sherman's communications in the rear. He crossed the rail- road near Dalton, passed into Kast Tennessee, and then went to McMinn- ville, Murfreesboro, and Franklin, and finally into Alabama. The damage done by him was repaired in a few days. General Sherman becoming convinced that he could not completely invest Atlanta, decided to move round Hood's left flank upon the Mont- gomery and Macon railroad, and thus draw him from his fortifications. Hood was compelled to abandon Atlanta, and being defeated at Rough and Ready, at Jonesboro and Lovejoy's, he retreated south. On the 2d General Slocum entered the city, and General Sherman, desisting from the pursuit 'of Hood, returned and encamped around it on the 8th. While General Sherman was marching and fighting his way towards Atlanta the single line of railroad from Nashville, by which alone he 316 CAMPAIGNS OF SHERMAN AND GRANT. could receive supplies, had to be guarded the whole distance. The Con- federate General Forrest, in Northern Mississippi, was meditating an attack upon it, to cut off Sherman's retreat should he meet with a serious reverse. General Sherman, therefore, directed General Washburne to send General Sturgis, with the forces in West Tennessee, to operate against Forrest. On the morning of the 10th of June General Sturgis met Forrest near Guutown, Mississippi, was badly beaten, and retreated in utter con- fusion hotly pursued, to Memphis. But the conflict defeated Forrest's designs against Sherman. The movements of General Sherman were in keeping with the plan to divide the Confederacy, and break it up. Already the Union armies held a strong position in the central part of those States which were try- ing to sever themselves from the Union. General Sherman's plan was to cut the Confederacy in twain. While military operations were going on farther north, and on the coast, he resolved to strike at vital points. Possessed of great energy and military skill, his plans were formed with a far end in view, and he pushed for- ward, bravely determined to accomplish his purpose. Already the forces of the South were becoming weak, although not yet ready to give up the fight. Enthusiasm could not make up for lack of numbers. Men might be willing to starve, and even lay down their lives, but this was no surety that they could obtain the victory. CHAPTER XXIX. BATTLES ON LAND AND SEA. >)IIvIMINGTON, North Carolina, was the only seaport town on •^/ the coast that the United States fleet had been unable to blockade with any degree of success. The entrance to the city is by Cape Fear river, whose outlet is such that the navy could not effectually close it against blockade-runners, which were daily passing in and out with supplies from abroad, and exports of cotton and other products. The number of vessels that ran the blockade in fifteen months, from October 1, I860, to December 31, 1804, was o97. English capitalists had invested in the trade more than sixty millions of dollars. Fifty cruisers stationed on the coast could not guard the entrance, although they made sixty-five captures of steamers, whose value was more than thirteen millions of dollars. In the summer of 1864, it was determined to make an effort to capture the town. Its main defences were Fort Caswell, situated on the north end of Oak Island, on the south side of the river; and Fort Johnson, near Smithville, on the mainland ; and Fort Fisher, on the southern point of the mainland, on the south side of the river, commanding both the channel of the river and that of New Inlet. It was a stronor fort, and orarrisoned by 2,o00 men. The naval part of the expedition was assembled in Hamp- ton Roads, and was ready to sail early in the fall. It consisted of the iron-clads " Ironsides," " Monadnock," " Canonicus," and " Mahopac ; " the frigates "Minnesota," "Colorado," ''Wabash;" and several gunboats and vessels of smaller size, and a fleet of transports. The expedition got off on the loth : the troops on board numbered 6,500. It was intended by General Grant that General Weitzel should command them. But General Butler, through whom, as the superior officer, the instructions to Weitzel were given, put the instructions in his pocket, and went himself. General Grant did not dream that Butler would take command, and thought that if he went, it would be merely to see the 317 318 BATTLES ON LAND AND SEA. explosion of a boat laden with powder, which he had prepared at great expense and delay, as if fancying that the mud walls of Fort Fisher would fall at the noise, as the walls of Jericho did at the sound of Joshua's trumpets. The fleet arrived off New Inlet on the 15th, but a storm delayed the attack until the 24th. The powder boat was exploded the same morning, with so little effect that the Confederates did not know the object of it until they were informed by the Northern newspapers. At one o'clock the bombardment began, and in an hour and fifteen minutes the fort ceased to fire in return. The fire was kept up for five hours. The fleet suffered no injury, except by the explosion of its own guns, by which about forty men were killed, and others were wounded. The Works too Strong to be Taken. The next day the bombardment was renewed, and a landing of part of the force was made; but General Weitzel, after a survey of the work, reported that it would be " butchery to order an assault." This opinion coincided with that of General Butler, who ordered the troops to re-embark^ and return to Fortress Monroe. Rear-Admiral Porter, who commanded the fleet, did not agree with General Butler, and so wrote to the Navy Department. He remained off New Inlet two days, and then went to Beaufort, and waited in the confident expectation that General Grant would order a second attack. Accordingly, on the 30th of December, General Grant wrote to Admiral Porter to hold on, and he would send a force, and make another attempt to take the place. The same troops were ordered back, with, the addition of a brigade of 1,500 men, and Gen. A. H. Terry was selected for the command. The expedition sailed January Cth, and arrived at Beaufort on the 8th. Here it was detained by rough weather until the 12th. The next day the troops were all landed. The fleet opened fire upon the fort, and kept it up continuously for two days. The assault was made at 3 p. m. January 15, by the army on the land face, and by a body of sailors and marines on the northeast bastion. The latter failed, but the army was more successful. By 5 o'clock nine traverses, being half the land front, were carried by hand-to-hand fighting. By & o'clock two more were carried, and an hour later the occupation of the. fort was complete. BATTLES ON LAND AND SEA. 319 The garrison retreated to Federal Point, where, their retreat being cut off, they surrendered unconditionally, to the number of 2083 ; the rest were killed and M^ounded. The Union loss, of both army and fleet, was about 900. The fall of Fort Fisher was followed by that of Fort Caswell, and the forts at Smith's Island, Smithville, and Reeve's Point, and the city of Wilmington. The Confederate gunboats "Tallahassee" and "Chickamauga"' were also destroyed. The city of Mobile was defended by three forts at the entrance of Mobile Bay, forts Morgan and Gaines, on opposite sides of the channel, the latter on Dauphin Island, and the former at the end of a long sandy reach of the mainland. These forts kept the blockading fleet out of the bay. Admiral Farragut, who commanded the Gulf Squadron, reconnoitered the approaches to the bay early in the year, and offered, with the assistance of two or three iron-clads and a few thousand soldiers to gain full possession of the bay. In the latter part of July four monitors were added to his squadron, and General Granger was prepared to co-operate with the troops. • The Whole Fleet in Motion. On the evening of August 4th the monitors and wooden vessels were all assembled off the bar of Mobile Bay, and the next morning, before six o'clock, the whole fleet moved up the bay. The wooden ships had each an iron-clad lashed to the side next to Fort Morgan, for the double purpose of protection, and that if either should be disabled her partner might tow her along. The four monitors also moved between the ships and the fort, at the distance of about two hundred yards from the latter. Admiral Farragut, lashed to the topmast of his flagship, the Hartford, led the attack, and opened such a terrible and continuous fire upon the fort that the gunners were driven from their guns, and all the fleet passed the forts with very little damage, except to the monitor Tecumseh, which was struck by a torpedo, staving a hole in her side, when she filled and sank, carrying down her brave commander, T. A. M. Craven, and all her crew but four ofiicers and seventeen men. Soon after eight o'clock a desperate battle began with the Confederate fleet, consisting of the "Selma," "Morgan," and "Gaines," and the iron-clad ram "Tennessee," the most formidable ship ever constructed by the Confederates, and commanded by Admiral Buchanan, who had formerly commanded the Merrimac. After a contest of two hours with the whole 320 BATTLES ON LAND AND SEA. Federal fleet, tlie ram surrendered. Admiral Buchanan lost a leg, and twelve of his crew were killed and wounded. Two hundred and eighty prisoners were taken. Admiral Farragut lost fifty-two killed and one hundred and seventy wounded, besides those drowned in the "Tecumseli." The forts were immediately invested. Gaines surrendered on the 7th, and Morgan on the 23d. Fort Powell was blown up and abandoned. The number of prisoners captured was 14G4. Henceforth Mobile Bay was closed to external commerce. Early in June the "Alabama," Captain Semmes, after a successful cruise in the Southern Atlantic and Indian oceans against American merchant- men, returned, and put into the harbor of Cherbourg. The United States steamer "Kearsarge," Captain John A. Winslow, lying then at Flushing, immediately sailed for Cherbourg, to watch the Alabama. Captain Semmes repaired and refitted his ship, and twenty minutes past 10 o'clock Sunday morning, June 19th, sailed out of the harbor to fight the "Kearsarge.'' He 'was accompanied by the French ironclad "Couronne," and an English yacht, the "Deer-hound," owned by a Mr. Lancaster. The Famous Cruiser Goes Down. The two vessels were nearly equal in size and armament, the "Ala- bama" being larger by 120 tons, and having eight guns to the " Kearsarge's " seven. The latter had the more powerful engines. The crew of the "Kearsarge" was twenty-two officers and one hundred and forty men. It is not known M-hat number of men the "Alabama" had. This naval combat was not between two American ships. The "Ala- bama" was a British ship, built in England, her armament and all her •outfit English. Her crew were nearly all British sailors, her second lieutenant, Armstrong, being a relative of the inventor of the Armstrong gun. There Avas nothing American about her, except her name, and her captain, and a part of her officers. Before leaving Cherbourg, her guns were manned by trained and skilful artillerists, who were transferred from the British practice-ship "Excellent." After a short engagement the "Alabama" was sunk. The crew jumped into the sea. The " Kearsarge" picked up sixty-nine, of whom seventeen were wounded. Twelve were taken to France by two pilot-boats. The "Deer-hound" picked up forty-two, including Captain Semmes, and took them to England. How many were killed and M-ounded cannot be known. BATTLES ON LAND AND SEA. 321 The conduct of Captain Senimes, who, after striking his flag, threw his sword into the sea, and allowed himself to be carried off to England has been severely censured in the United States. The constitution and laws required a new election of President in I8G4. SINKING OF THE "ALABAMA" BY THE " KEARSARGE. It could not be postponed. Could it be peaceably held in the midst of war? Could the canvass for the rival candidates be conducted without riot and bloodshed amid the clash of arms? The statesmen of the old world asked these questions. But the people of the United States, with no more than the ordinary agitation of the political elements, went through the canvass and elected a president and vice-president. The friends of ]\Ir. Lincoln proposed him as a candidate for re-election, and for the second time he was chosen president. The year 1SG4 was crowded with events, and we must go back a little 21 322 BATTLES ON LAND AND SEA. in the order of time. In June, General Lee ascertaining that, in consequence of Hunter's slow retreat through the mountains of West Virginia, Mary- land was open to another invasion, and Washington exposed, ordered Gen- eral Early with 12,000 men to descend the Shenandoah Valley and threaten Washington. Early reached Martinsburg on July 3d, and four days later he occupied Frederick, Maryland. The only force to oppose him was a small ^ ,^^.^ division of the Sixth ^^"^ \v^M4^^ Army Corps, and suck t^^»i scattered bands as Gen, " "I I Lewis Wallace could collect together at Bal- timore. He met Early at a crossing of the Monocacy on the 8th^ and although beaten ^ he gained considerable time for the lOtli Army Corps, under General Wright, and the re- mainder of the Sixth Corps, to arrive. He advanced on Washing- ton, but was repulsed GENERAL PHILIP H. SHERIDAN. by General Wright and compelled to retreat back to the Shenandoah Valley again. When General Grant, however, ordered the return of the Nineteenth and Sixth Corps to Petersburg, Early was again re-enforced, and enter- ing Maryland, a flying column sacked and burnt the city of Chambers- burg, Pennsylvania. General Lee, by sending a large force into the Shenandoah Valley, expected to induce Grant to detach from his army so large a body of men as to weaken his hold upon the investing lines of Petersburg and Richmond. BATTLES ON LAND AND SEA. 323 But the hero of Vicksburg would not relax a grasp once made. He determined rather to destroy the Confederate force in the Shenandoah Val- ley. He formed a new military department, and gave the command to General P. H. Sheridan. General Early was encamped near Winchester, on the west bank of Opequan creek, and General Sheridan on the east side, near Berrysville. General Sheridan took command August 7, and the next six weeks were spent in organizing his army. General Grant paid him a visit August 15, and after consultation ordered him to attack Harly. This he did on the 19tli, inflicting a severe defeat. Early rallied his broken forces and made a stand at Fisher's Hill, where he was again attacked and defeated. He then retired beyond the passes of the Blue Ridge. Sheridan pushed his pursuit as far as Staun- ton, and then retiring, laid waste the valley by the destruction of all barns, grain, forage, farming implements and mills. Early being again re-enforced took the offensive. The Union forces were posted at Cedar Creek. Gen- eral Sheridan had gene to Washington, leaving the command to General Wright. By a night march Early surprised the Union camp, before day- light of October 19. A complete rout ensued, and the whole Union army retired in confusion and disorder as far as Middletown, where General Wright succeeded in arresting the flight and reforming his lines. Sheridan Suddenly Appears upon the Field. It was now ten o'clock a.m. At this moment General Sheridan dashed upon the field, and immediately ordered a counter-attack, which drove Early in confusion beyond Cedar Creek, the Union forces recovering their camps, recapturing all they had lost, and taking many prisoners. Early then abandoned the valley, and joined Lee at Richmond. With this cam- paign ended all military operations in the Shenandoah Valley. The Sixth Corps and two divisions of cavalry were returned to Grant at Petersburg. Sherman, with the consent of General Grant, undertook to march from Atlanta to the sea. Having collected his forces, he began by destroying the railroad from Atlanta to Dal ton. Atlanta the prize so fiercely fought for, and won at such a sacrifice of life and treasure, was burnt and aban- doned. He divided his army into two divisions, the right under General Howard, and the left under General Slocum. He took with him only small provision and ammunition trains, intending to forage and subsist upon the country. 324 BATTLES ON LAND AND SEA. Two lines of railroad connect Atlanta with the seaboard, one by Augusta through South Carolina to Charleston, 308 miles ; the other through Macon and Millen to Savannah, 29o miles. Between these two roads, from forty to one hundred miles apart, General Sherman marched. SHERIDAN'S CAVALRY CHARGE AT CEDAR CREEK. liis wings overlapping them. Two hundred miles of railroad were destroyed, the rails were heated and twisted, every tie, bridge, tank, wood-shed, and depot was burnt, and every culvert was blown up. All the cotton discovered was burned, about fifteen thousand bales. All the cattle, horses, mules, hogs, and poultry were taken, and either BATTLES ON LAND AND SEA. 325 consumed on the way, or brought to Savannah. Eight or ten thousand slaves followed the army. It was forbidden to burn and pillage houses, but this was done to some extent b}^ stragglers. A tornado's path burnt by fire could not have been more destructive. The Carolinas and Virginia were severed from Alabama and Mississippi, and Hood and Lee could not again support each other. On the 11th of December, a dispatch from General Howard was received by General Foster, in command on the coast. On the 12th, Fort McAllister, which had resisted three assaults of the monitors in 1863, was taken by assault by General Hazen. Preparations were made to besiege Savannah, but General Hardee withdrew from it during the night of the 20th, and it was occupied by Sherman the next day. His own losses on. the march had been less than fifteen hundred men. Many Towns Captured. Anticipating General Sherman's arrival at Savannah, General Grant, December Gth, had issued orders to have his army put upon transports, and brought to the aid of General Meade. But, after learning the defeat of Hood by Thomas, the order M-as countermanded, and he was directed to resume his march from Savannah, through the Carolinas, to Goldsboro, N. C. He was read}^, and began his movement January 15th. The spring rains had caused such an overflow of the rivers, that all the low grounds and swamps were submerged, and no real progress was made until the middle of February. He captured Columbia, S. C, February 17th, and March 12th he reached Fayetteville, N. C, when he opened communication with General Schofield, by way of Cape Fear river. On the 15th he resumed his march, and on the same day encountered and defeated a part of Johnston's forces at Averysboro. On the 18th, General Slocum, who led the advance, was attacked at Bentonville by Johnston's arni}^, and driven back three miles, with the loss of three guns. General Slocum, learning that Johnston's whole army was in front, intrenched himself, and awaited re-enforcements. But, before their arrival, and on the night of the 21st, Johnston retreated to Smithfield, leaving his dead and wounded on the field. General Sherman had up to this time skilfully interposed his superior forces between the inferior forces of Johnston on the hills, and Hardee on the coast, and prevented their junction until he could unite with Schofield and 326 BATTLES ON LAND AND SEA. Terry, the former from Newbern, and the latter from Wilmington. This junction was effected on the 22d at Goldsboro, where the army lay during tlie month of March. The results of this campaign were the evacuation of Charleston on the 18th of February, and its occupation by General Gilmore on the 21st. As he marched northward, the whole coast, with all its forts, docks, and property, from Savannah to Newbern, fell into possession of the Federal troops and fleets. Sheridan lay in winter-quarters at Winchester until February 27th, when, with 10,000 cavalry, he set out for an overland journey to join Grant or Sherman, his instructions directing him to cross the James river, strike the Southside railroad at Farmville, destroy it, and seek Sherman at Raleigh. But after scattering Early's small infantry force at Staunton, and destroying the railroad from Charlottesville to Lynchburg, and the James River Canal from New Market to Duiguidsville, he learned that the bridges across the James had been burned by the Confederates. He, there- fore, took another route, marched through Virginia to the White House, and thence across the peninsula to Jones' Landing, and joined the army before Petersburg. 1 CHAPTER XXX. SURRENDER OF THE CONFEDERATE ARMY. |HK circle of destruction was now drawing closer and closer around the citadel of the Confederacy. Sherman was coming up from the South, and Stoneman was ready to co-operate with him, having crossed the mountains of Tennessee into North Caro- lina, destroying railroads, bridges, depots of supplies, and cap- turing Salisbury. The leaders of the Confederacy were now anxious to bring the war to a close. Three commissioners, among whom were Alexander H. Stephens, Vice-President of the Confederacy, and Senator Hunter, were charged with power to arrange with Union agents the terms on which peace could be concluded. The preliminary discussions resulted in nothing, and finally President Lincoln and Secretary Seward went to Fortress Monroe to con- tinue the negotiations. As before, the conference brought no results, Mr. Lincoln insisting that the only terms of peace were for those who had originated the war to lay down their arms, Lee saw the painful necessity of abandoning Richmond and uniting with the Southern army under Johnston. He could, at the head of the combined forces, maintain the contest for some time, and negotiate for favorable terms of peace. His best line of retreat was along the south bank of the Appomattox to Burkesville, and thence to Danville. Before he could set out it was necessary to weaken Grant's line on the left, near Hatcher's Run. This could be done most effectually by an assault upon some point near and east of Petersburg. In pursuit of this plan, on the morning of March 25, Fort Steadman was surprised by a night attack and taken, but could not be held. A counter-assault not only drove the Confederates out of the fort, but gained for the Union troops the strongly intrenched picket- line, within a few steps from the Confederate works. The attack upon Fort Steadman cost Lee 2500 men killed and wounded, and 1900 men taken prisoners. The Union loss was less than 2000. 327 328 THE PEACE COMMISSIONERS. SURRENDER OF THE CONFEDERATE ARMY. 329 General Grant, prior to this affair, had issued orders for a general movement of the whole army. He had been apprehensive for weeks, every night when he retired to rest, that before he should awake next morning Lee would be gone. General Ord, at the head of four divisions of the Army of the James, moved out to Hatcher's Run. Other divisions, under Warren, Humphreys, Wright and Parke, followed the next day ; while Sheridan, with his cavalry, held the extreme left of the line at Dinwiddie Court-house. A heavy rain for two da3\s dela3^ed the attack. Lee had divined the object of his antagonist, and marshalled all his available forces to resist the shock upon his right. The contest opened with a fierce attack by Lee upon Warren, which was resisted with great bravery. The Main Works Assaulted and Carried. The battle raged furiously all the morning, but Warren held his ground, and finally drove Lee back to his lines on the White Oak road. Foiled here, Lee turned his attention to Sheridan, who, by a bold push, had gained Five Forks, about eight miles north of Dinwiddie. Two divisions of infantrj^, under Pickett and Bushrod Johnson, forced Sheridan's cavalrj^ back towards Dinwiddie. He dismounted his men, and deployed them as infantry, and so maintained his ground till night. IMcKenzie's cavalry and the whole Fifth Corps were, during the night, ordered to join Sheridan. In the morning he took the offensive, hurled the Confederates back to Five Forks, assaulted and carried the main works, and captured about five thousand prisoners. There were now left only two strong works in the hands of the Con- federates. These were Forts Alexander and Gregg. Fort Alexander was close to the Federal line, and it was overrun and captured with a hurrah. This left only Fort Gregg, and for a time the fate of the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia depended on that ; for, if it could not be held until Lee had time to take a new position, his arni}^ was doomed. Its garrison numbered two hundred and fifty. General Ord immediately sent Gibbons' division to storm Fort Gregg.. It charged in fine order, but within fifty yards received such a murderous volley that it fell back. This repulse was so admirably made that the thousands of Confederates who were watching broke into ringing cheers. A second charge was made, and then a third; but the fourth prevailed. The Union troops swept over and into the works, and found that, out of 330 SURRENDER OF THE CONFEDERATE ARMY. the two hundred and fifty comprising the garrison, only thirty were nnhurt. All the rest were killed or wounded, This decided the day. But Gen. Grant, ^ :fB«Kto4&i.ai^^ fearing that Lee would abandon his lines ^" GALLANT DEFENSE OF FORT GREGG. ^^0 and fall upon Sheridan with all his force, ordered a general bombardment of Peters- , t)urg, which was continued until four o clock m the morning, when an assault was made on the outer works It was successful at all points. General Wright, with the Sixth Corps, ^>1, SURRENDER OF THE CONFEDERATE ARMY. 331 pierced completely through, and reached the Appomattox river, thus sepa- rating Ivce's right wing from his centre and left. The broken columns were pursued by General Miles to Sutherland Station, and made prisoners or dispersed. The Union troops now closed around Petersburg. Lee still tenaciously held his inner works, and even made two desperate attempts to retake some of the lost ground, in one of which — the last blow struck by the Army of Northern Virginia — fell General A. P. Hill, who had borne a distinguished part in all its campaigns. Richmond was no longer tenable, and there was but one line of retreat for Lee — by the Appomattox westward to Burkesville and the Danville line. The Fifth Corps of the Union Army was encamped at Sutherland Station, on the Southside railroad, two miles west of Petersburg; and Sheridan's cavalry had bivouacked at Ford's, ten miles further west. Lse Telegraphs to Jefferson Davis. At ten o'clock in the forenoon of Sunday Lee telegraphed to Jefferson Davis that he must evacuate Richmond. The message found him in church, from which his sudden withdrawal made known the fatal tidings to the people. During the day President Davis and all the State officers, with the papers and coin belonging to the Confederate government, departed on a train for Danville. During the night the troops were quietly withdrawn from Petersburg and Richmond and all the fortified lines, and before morn- ing were sixteen miles on their way westward. When the rear-guard crossed the James to leave Richmond General Kwell gave the foolish order to set fire to the Avarehouses containing the government tobacco, and soon all the business portion of the city was wrapped in flames. By the light of the blazing buildings, and the sound of exploding sbells. General Weitzel was informed of the event, and in the gray dawn of Monday morning forty troopers entered Richmond and planted their colors on the capitol. But General Grant did not enter the deserted cit}-. Knowing that the strength of the Confederate government was concentrated in Lee's army he bent all his energies to the pursuit. To cut off Lee, by striking the Richmond and Danville railroad before he could reach Burkesville, was liis first object. For this purpose Sheridan pushed on with all speed, fol- lowed by the Fifth and Sixth Corps, along the South side railroad. Before Lee left Richmond he had sent orders to Danville to tranship 332 SURRENDER OF THE CONFEDERATE ARMY. stores and rations for his army to Amelia Courthouse. When he arrived at that place, April 4th, he learned that the train had passed on to Rich- mond, leaving his army without provisions. He also learned, before he was ready to move, that General Sheridan had already reached Jettersville, seven miles west. He then turned towards Lynchburg. But General Ord, who had occupied Burkesville on the 6th, sent forward a small force under General Read to Farmville, where this gallant officer met and attacked the head of Lee's column, and by the sacrifice of his own life and the loss of most of his heroic baud, detained Lee until General Ord came up with his whole army. General Sheridan and the Sixth and Second Corps were crowding upon Lee's rear, and the same day Hwell's Corps and nearly the whole wagon-train of the army were captured near Deatonsville. The Confederates in Full Retreat. The next day, the 7th, Lee crossed the Appomattox near Farmville, and ordered the bridges to be burned behind him. So vigorous, however, was the pursuit that General Humphreys was in time to save the wagon- bridge, and all but four spans of the railroad-bridge. The Union troops crossed immediately. But during the night Lee marched towards Appo- mattox Courthouse, hoping to reach Appomattox Station on the Lynchburg railroad. It was his only hope of escape. In the meantime General Grant had, on the Tth, demanded, in a letter to General Lee, the surrender of his army. Lee courteously asked what terms would be granted. Grant replied that the only conditions would be that the men and officers should be disqualified from ever again taking up arms against the United States. Lee declined to surrender, but proposed to meet Grant to confer upon the restoration of peace. To this suggestion Grant replied that he had no authority to treat on the subject of peace. Grant's last letter was dated the 9th, and before it reached Lee the time for parley had gone by. Sheridan, by a rapid march of thirty miles on the 8th, had reached Appomattox Station in the evening, just as Lee's vanguard arrived. Four trains of cars from Lynchburg, with supplies for Lee's army, were approach- ing. Sheridan threw a force in rear of the trains, captured them, and then attacking the vanguard, drove it back to Appomattox Court-house. Lee could now escape only by breaking through vSheridan's lines. This he attempted in the morning. He ordered his remnant of an army — eight SURRENDER OF THE CONFEDERATE ARMY. 333 or ten thousand men — in battle array, to cut their way through at all hazards. The attack was begun with zeal and impetuosity, and the Federal cavalry gave way; but, just at this moment, General Sheridan, wdio had been to Appomattox Station to hurry up the Army of the James, came upon the field. He directed his troopers to fall back gradually, resisting slightly, to give time for the infantr^^ to conic up and form into line. No sooner did the Confederates see the line of advancing bayonets than the}'- began to give ground. Sheridan then gave the order to mount, and placing his cavalr}^ on the left flank, was about to charge on the trains and the unarmed and confused mass, w^hen a white flag emerged from the Confed- erate lines, bearing a letter from Lee to Grant, requesting a suspension of hostilities and an interview. B^idently, a matter of importance was on hand. Liberal Terms of Surrender. In an old farm-house the two generals met, and on a plain deal table drew up the form of agreement by which the Army of Northern Virginia ceased to exist. The terms of surrender were liberal. Nothing was exacted to humiliate the discomfited foe. Three days afterwards the Confederates marched to a designated place, near Appomattox Court-house, stacked their arms, and laid down their accoutrements. The number of armed men was 8000, and the unarmed about 20,000. Paroles were then accepted, and the men then dispersed to their several homes. The Union troops slowly retraced their steps to Richmond. Having put his arm}^ in camp at Goldsboro, General Sherman made a flying visit to City Point, where he had an interview with General Grant, who disclosed his plans, and directed Sherman to return to Goldsboro, and move against Raleigh as soon as April 10th. The stirring news of Grant's success reached him while still at Goldsboro. He immediately set his columns in motion, occupied Raleigh April 13th, and the next day entered into correspondence with General Johnston, which resulted in a suspension of hostilities, and a memorandum, or basis for peace, subject to the approval of the President. The agreement did not arrive at Washington until President Lincoln was succeeded by Mr. Johnson, who disapproved it, and dispatched General Grant with instruction to General Sherman to terminate the truce, and SURRENDER OF THE CONFEDERATE ARMY. 335 commence operations against Johnston. The Confederate general made no fnrther resistance ; but agreed to surrender on the same terms accorded to General Lee. The Confederate troops grounded their arms, accepted paroles, and dispersed to their homes, while Sherman's soldiers continued their march through Richmond to Washington, where, after a grand review, they were honorably dismissed to their several states. The Confederates, after the capture of the forts at the mouth of Mobile Bay, still held the city of Mobile. On the 20th of March General Canby moved against the city. The troops collected at the forts sailed up the bay. A force under Major-General Steele marched from Pensacola. Spanish Fort was occupied by the combined forces on the 8tli of April, and Fort Blakely carried by assault on the 9th. Two days later the city was evacuated, and on the 12th General Canby took possession. Closing Scenes of the War. The last wasteful raid of the war was that of General Wilson, who, with 12,500 mounted men, marched from Chickasaw, Alabama, to Macon, Georgia. On the 1st of April he encountered General Forrest at Hbenezer Church, and defeated him. On the 2d he took by assault the fortified city of Selma, destroyed the armory, arsenal, naval foundry, machine shops, vast quantities of stores, and captured 3000 prisoners. On the 4tli he destoyed Tallahassee. On the 14tli he reached Montgomery. On the 16th he cap- tured Columbus and West Point, destroying and taking an immense amount of property. On the 20th he took possession of Macon, Georgia, with sixty field guns, 1200 militia, and five generals, surrendered by General Howell Cobb. On the 4th of May General Dick Taylor surrendered to General Canby all the remaining Confederate forces east of the Mississippi. An army sufficient to overcome General Kirby Smith in Texas was organized, and immediately put in motion for Texas, with General Sheridan placed in command. General Smith, not waiting for an attack, surrendered all the Confederate troops in Texas to General Canby on the 26th of May; but exhibited the bad faith of first disbanding most of his army, and per- mitting an indiscriminate plunder of public property. This was the closing act of the war. When the Confederate president left Richmond, April 2d, he went to Danville, Virginia, and there, on the 5th, issued a proclamation, in which there is a mingled tone of confidence and defiance, based upon his expecta- 336 SURRENDER OF THE CONFEDERATE ARMY. tion that General Lee would escape from Grant, and unite his army with that of General Johnston. But the surrender of both those generals dashed Jiis hopes to the ground. With a small body of cavalry as an escort, he attempted to thread his way through tha Federal lines, reach the coast of Florida, and escape on some vessel. He got as far as Irwinsville, Georgia, Avhen he was overtaken by a squadron of the Fourth Michigan cavalry, and captured, May llth, with his family. He was removed to Fortress Monroe, where he was finally paroled, as were the Confederate troops. The United States government magnanimously declined to condemn and execute any of the officers or men who had been engaged in the attempt to set up an independent government. The terms of the surrender were arranged on the 9th of April. On the 12th the Army of Northern Virginia formed in divisions for the last time, and marching to a designated spot near Appomattox Court-house, laid -down its arms, and disbanded. About seventy-five hundred men with arms, and abont eighteen thousand unarmed stragglers, took part in the surrender. The Federal troops treated their vanquished opponents with true soldierly l5:indness, and carefully refrained from everything which might seem to insult the valor that had won their earnest admiration. CHAPTER XXXI. ASSASSINATION OF PRESIDENT LINCOLN. N the 4th of March, 1865, Mr. Lincoln was sworn into office for a second term, before Chief-Justice Chase. Plis inaugural ' address was pervaded by a deep religious feeling. He took a hopeful view of the future, but ventured upon no promises or predictions. The fate of the nation is in the hands of God, who governs the world according to His own purposes. The address con- cludes as follows : " With malice towards none, with charity for all, with firmness in the right, as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in ; to bind up the nation's wounds ; to care for him who shall have borne the battle, and for his widow and his orphan ; to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace among ourselves, and with all nations." On the 8tli of March, he rescinded an order which required passports from all persons entering the United States from Canada. This order had been issued December 17, 1861, in consequence of the gathering of many Confederates in Canada, their threatened raids into the country, and the facility with which spies and hostile persons could cross the frontier, travel from place to place, avoid detection, and escape apprehension. In the progress of the war, large numbers of soldiers had deserted, and subjected themselves to court-martial, and the penalty of death. Mr. Lincoln, in compliance with an act of Congress, also issued a proclamation giving them sixty days in which to return, otherwise they would be con- sidered as having forfeited their rights of citizenship, and be forever incapable of exercising any rights of citizenship He knew that General Grant was intending to move against Richmond, and went to City Point to be present at what both thought would be the final and successful struggle. He went into Richmond the day after its occupation b}^ the Union troops. He there had an interview with Judge Campbell, who urged him to permit the assembling of the Virginia Legis- lature. On the 6th day of April, he wrote to General Weitzel, directing 22 337 338 ASSASSINATION OF PRESIDENT LINCOLN. him to permit them to meet, and sit until they might attempt some act hostile to the United States. He subsequently recalled his permission. The President returned to Washington, and on the evening of the 11th of April, the Presidential mansion and all the other public buildings in Washington were illuminated, in honor of the surrender of General Lee and his army. To the people, who assembled to congratulate him, he made the last address that fell from his lips, in which he briefly discussed the subject of the restoration of the States to the Union. He dwelt prin- cipally upon the State government in Louisiana in 1863, and defended his conduct. But he said that he was not inseparately wedded to any plan. He added : "So great peculiarities pertain to each State, and such important and sudden changes occur in the same State ; and, withal, so new and unprecedented is the whole case, that an exclusive and inflexible plan would surely become a new entanglement." United States Authority Re-established. He did not think it wise to discuss the question whether the seceded States, so called, were in or out of the Union. He thought it a pernicious abstraction. He said : " We all agree that the seceded States, so called, are out of their political relation with the Union, and that the sole object of the government, civil and militar}^, in regard to those States, is again to get them into that proper practical relation. I believe that it is not only possible, but in fact easier, to do this without deciding, or even con- sidering, whether these States have ever been out of the Union, than with it. Finding themselves safely at home, it would be utterly immaterial whether they had ever been abroad." Believing the war to be substantially ended, proclamation was made closing all the Southern ports, and claiming to exercise over them the same authority as over other ports of the United States, and declaring that ships of war belonging to foreign nations would receive in ports of the United States the same treatment which was given in their ports to cruisers of the United States. Orders were issued to stop recruiting for the army and navy, to make no more contracts for supplies, and no more purchases of war material. Mr. Lincoln naturally felt the elation which follows success. It was apparent in his gait, in his face, in his talk. The events of the last month lifted a burden from his mind, and inspired him with new. life. ASSASSINATION OF PRESIDENT LINCOLN 339 The cares and perplexities, tlie labors and responsibilities of office had borne heavily upon him. That his election had been made the occasion of secession and rebellion; that his whole term of four years had been one of civil war; that thousands of his fellow-citizens had fallen in the fratricidal contest, had sorely afflicted his generous and placable spirit. His tall form, that had bent slightly before the storm, was now again erect. The sadness that had settled upon his countenance was dispersed by the sun- rise of peace. If he had pushed the war resolutely and sternly, if he had refused to listen to any proposition that looked to a broken Union and disrupted ter- ritory, it was from a conviction of duty and with a determination to trans- mit to his successor the constitution unimpaired and the country undi- minished. His triumph was certain and his ambition satisfied. The war had not embittered his feelings. He loved his friends, and did not hate his enemies. He did not speak of crime and punishment ; his thoughts dwelt upon reconciliation and forgiveness. It was his intention to temper justice with mercy, and to spend his second term in healing the wounds that had been given and received during the first. The Victim, of a Foul Conspiracy. His life had been threatened in anonymous letters. He had been often warned to beware of assassination ; but he could never be persuaded to harbor the suspicions, nor take the precautions of a tyrant. His house was unguarded, his person was unattended, and he went from place to place, to public offices and private houses, to the church, to the theatre, like any citizen. He showed neither fear nor distrust. He was accessible and affable to all. And yet this good man, whose heart at the time was going out in mercy and kindness to his enemies, was the victim of a foul conspiracy. The conspirators only waited for the place and occasion. Mr. Lincoln, oppressed with the cares of state, had occasionally sought relief in recrea- tion in the theatre. He had been invited, and consented to attend Ford's theatre on the evening of the 14th of April. While he was seated in a private box, wich his family and friends around him, absorbed in the mimic representation of the stage, the assassin stealthily entered the box, fastened the door with a board previously pre- pared for the purpose, so that he could not be followed, and with a Der- 340 ASSASSINATION OF PRESIDENT LINCOLN. ringer pistol shot his unconscious victim behind the ear, the ball penetrat- ing the brain. Mr. Lincohi's head fell back upon the chair, and his body remained motionless. He was removed to a house near by and attended by surgeons. The wound was mortal. He did not speak after it, but sank gradually until twenty-two minutes after seven o'clock in the morn- ing, when he expired. The bod}^ was embalmed and lay in state in the Green Room of the Presidential mansion, inclosed in a splendid coffin, and within a grand cata- falque, until the 19th of April. The funeral was observed on that day, and it was set apart throughout the country as a da}^ of mourning. The body was removed to the Rotunda of the Capitol, and for two days lay in state, and was visited by more than twent3'-five thousand people. The next day it was placed on the car prepared for it, and borne to Springfield, 111,, by the same route over which Mr. Lincoln came on his wa}'' to Washing- ton to enter upon his office. Demonstrations of Profound Sorrow. Everywhere on the route the funeral cortege was received with demon- strations of respect and grief. The engines and cars on all the railroads were hung with crape ; churches were draped in mourning ; the buildings on all the principal streets in every village and cit}^ were festooned in black ; nearly all citizens of both sexes wore some funeral emblem. Every- Avhere the national flag waved at half-mast. Wherever the cortege stopped thousands thronged to obtain a last look at the face of the dead. The nation was profoundly grieved. No man, whether monarch, statesman, martyr or public benefactor, was ever}^ more widely or sincerely mourned, and by none was his sudden death more deepl}'- lamented and regretted than b}^ those who had stood towards him for four years in the attitude of enemies. The funeral train arrived in Springfield, 111., on the 3d of May. The corpse was carried to the State House and placed in the Hall of Repre- sentatives. The people came into the city from every direction, and more than seventy-five thousand persons passed into the hall, gazed a moment at the familiar features, and went weeping awa5^ The next morning the coffin was finally closed at ten o'clock and the body, followed by the pro- cession, under the charge of Major-General Hooker, was carried to Oak Ridge Cemetery and deposited in the tomb. ASSASSINATION OF PRESIDENT LINCOLN. 341 The assassination of President Lincoln called forth letters of grief and condolence from all foreign countries. Queen Victoria wrote a letter of sympathy to Mrs. Lincoln. The ruler of every nation of Europe expressed his horror at the deed. China, Japan and Siam sent words of condolence. Nor was the grief of Europe expressed alone in the courtly customary ^ v-1 verbiage of di- plomacy. The people were af- flicted and in- tensely stirred. They regarded Mr. Lincoln as the representa- tive of their class, and had broadly studied his character andwatchedhis career. His suc- cess had always claimed their admiration, and his wisdom and ofoodness had won their love. His life would be an ever-liv- THE GRAVE OF PRESIDENT LINCOLN. ingdcuialof the rights of legitimacy, and the divinity of kings, the claim of many centuries. Even in the South, which had made the election of Abraham Lincoln the occasion of the dissolution of the Union, the unaffected and manly virtues of this simply great man had conquered the people, who had come to regard him as their best and truest friend. His death was sincerely lamented there, and in the lamentation of the South, Abraham Lincoln had his proudest triumph. His death was a crushing misfortune to the whole country. He was the only man capable of carrying out a policy of generous conciliation towards the South, and 342 ASSASSINATION OF PRESIDENT LINCOLN. he liad resolved upon such a course. He was sincerely desirous to heal the wounds of the war as soon as possible, and was strong enough to put down all opposition to his policy. His untimely death, as well as the manner of it, threw back the settlement of our national troubles fully five years. As he leaped from the president's box to the stage the assassin's foot caught in an American flag with which the box was draped, and he fell heavily, breaking his leg. He managed to escape, however. It was imme- diately ascertained that the assassin was John Wilkes Booth, a younger son of the famous actor, Junius Brutus Booth. Almost at the same time that the President was shot another assassin, one Payne, alias Powell, entered the residence of Secretary Seward. Proceeding to the chamber where the Secretary was confined to a sick bed, he attacked the two attendants of the invalid and his son, Frederick W. Seward, and injured them severely, and then attempted to cut Mr. Seward's throat. He succeeded in gashing the face of his intended victim, but fled before further harm could be done. Why the Plot Failed. Booth, who most probably was insane, had drawn quite a number of persons into a conspiracy, which had for its object the murder of the President and Vice-President, Secretaries Seward and Stanton, and Chief Justice Chase. The plot failed through unexpected movements of some of the intended victims and the cowardice of some of the conspirators. Booth and a young man named Harold fled into lower Maryland, from which they crossed the Potomac into Virginia. They were pursued by the government detectives and a squadron of cavalry, and were tracked to a barn in Caro- line County, Virginia, between Bowling Green and Port Royal. Here they were surrounded on the 26th of April. Harold surrendered himself, but Booth, refusing to yield, was shot by Sergeant Boston Corbett, and died a few hours later, after sufiering intensely. His accomplices were arrested, and were brought to trial before a military commission at Wash- ington. Payne or Powell, Atzerot, Harold, and Mrs. Surratt were condemned to death, and were hanged on the 7th of July, 1865, for complicity in the plot. Dr. Mudd, O'Laughlin, and Arnold were imprisoned in the Dry Tortugas for life, and Spangler for six years. What Booth expected to accomplish by his horrible deed yet remains a mystery. It is now generally believed that he was insane ; rendered so ASSASSINATION OF PRESIDENT LINCOLN. 343 perhaps by his dissipated habits — and in this state of mind had conceived the idea that Mr. Lincohi was a t^^rant, and as snch ought to be put to death. He had no accomplices in the South, and his bloody deed was regarded with horror by the southern people. CAPTURE OF BOOTH, THE ASSASSIN OF PRESIDENT LINCOLN. We must now return to Sherman's army, which we left resting at Goldsboro. Johnston's army was in the vicinity of Raleigh, and after the fall of Richmond was joined by ]\Ir. Davis and the various officers of the Confederate government. On the 10th of April Sherman advanced from 344 ASSASSINATION OF PRESIDENT LINCOLN. Goldsboro towards Jolinson's position, and steadily pressed tlie Confederate army back. On the loth Sherman entered Raleigh. Being convinced that further resistance was hopeless, and having learned of the surrender of General Lee's army. General Johnston now opened negotiations with General Sherman for the surrender of his army to the Federal commander. The result of these negotiations was an agreement signed by the two commanders on the 18th of April. As this agreement provided for the restoration of the States of the Confederacy to their lost places in the Union, it was disapproved by the Federal government, and Sherman was ordered to resume hostilities. General Johnston was at once notified by General Sherman of this order, and on the 2Gth of April entered into an agreement with him b}^ which he surrendered to General Sherman all the Confederate forces under his command on terms similar to those granted to General Lee by General Grant. The Last to Surrender. The example of Generals Lee and Johnston was followed by the other Confederate commanders throughout the South. The last to surrender was General E. Kirby Smith, in Texas, on the 2Gth of May. On the 29th of May President Johnson issued a proclamation announcing the close of the war, and offering amnesty to all who had participated in it on the Con- federate side, with the exception of fourteen specified classes. Upon the surrender of Johnston's army Mr. Davis and the members of his former cabinet endeavored to make their way to the coast of Florida, from which they hoped to be able to reach the West Indies. Some of them succeeded in doing so; but Mr. Davis was captured at Irwinsville,, Georgia, on the 10th of May, and was sent as a prisoner to Fortress Mon- roe, where he was held in confinement until May, 1867. The civil war was over. It had cost the countr}^ one million men in the killed and crippled for life of the two armies. In money the North and South had expended probably $5,000,000,000. The exact amount will never be known, as the Confederate debt perished with that government. Upon the death of Mr. Lincoln, Andrew Johnson, the Vice-President,, by the terms of the Constitution, became President of the United States. He took the oath of ofiice on the 15th of April, and at once entered upon the discharge of his duties. His first act was to retain all the members of the cabinet appointed by Mr. Lincoln. ASSASS/NATIOX OF PRESIDENT LINCOLN, 345 I Mr. Johnson was a native of North Carolina, having been born in Raleigh on the 29th of December, 1808. At the age of ten he was bound as an apprentice to a tailor of that city. He was at this time unable to read or write. Some years later, being determined to acquire an education, he learned the al- phabet from a fel- low-workman, and a friend taught him spelling. He was soon able to read, and pursued his studies stead- ily, working ten or twelve hours a day at his trade, and studying two or three more. In 1826 he removed to Greenville, Ten- nessee, carrying with him his mo- ther, who was de- pendent upon him for support. Upon attaining manhood he mar- ried, and continued his studies under the direction of his wife, support- ing his family in Andrew johnson. the meantime by his trade. He was subsequently chosen alderman of his town, and, with this election, entered upon his political career. Studying law he abandoned tailoring, and devoted himself to legal pursuits and politics. He was successively chosen mayor, member of the legislature, presidential elector, and State senator. He was twice elected governor of Tennessee, and three times a senator of the United States from that State. 346 ASSASSINATION OF PRESIDENT LINCOLN. Upon the secession of Tennessee from the Union he refused to relinquish his seat in the Senate, and remained faithful to the cause of the Union throughout the war, winning considerable reputation during the struggle by his sei'vices in behalf of the national cause. He was an earnest, honest-hearted man, who sincerely desired to do his duty to the country. His mistakes were due to his temperament, and proceeded from no desire to serve his own interests or those of au}^ party. In his public life he was incorruptible. A man of ardent nature, strong convictions and indomitable will, it was not possible that he should avoid errors, or fail to stir tip a warm and determined opposition to his policy. Soldiers Return to their Homes. The first duty devolving upon the new administration was the dis- iDanding of the army, which, at the close of the war, numbered over a million men. It was prophesied by foreign nations, and feared by many persons at home, that the sudden return of such a large body of men to the pursuits of civil life would be attended with serious evils, but both the Union and Confederate soldiers went back quietly and readily to their old avocations. Thus did these citizen-soldiers give to the world a splendid exhibition of the triumph of law and order in a free countrj^, and a proof of the stability of our institutions. On the 29th of March, 1867, a treaty was concluded between the United States and Russia, by which the latter power sold to the United States, for the sum of seven million two hundred thousand dollars, all of the region in the extreme northwestern part of the American continent known as Russian America. The treaty was ratified by the Senate on the 9th of April. The new territory added to the area of the United States a district of about five hundred and seventy-seven thousand three hundred and ninety square miles. In the same year a treaty was negotiated with China, through an embassy from that country, which visited the United States under the charge of Anson Burlingame, formerly the American Minister to China. It was the first instance in which that exclusive nation had ever sought to negotiate a treaty of commerce and friendship with a foreign nation. Liberty of conscience to Americans in China, protection of their prop- erty and persons, and important commercial privileges were secured by this treaty. CHAPTER XXXII. ADMINISTRATION OF PRESIDENT GRANT. )N the fall of 1SG8, the Presidential election was held. The Repub- lican party nominated General Ulysses S. Grant, the commanding- general of the army, for the Presidenc}^, and Schuyler Colfax, of Indiana, for the Vice-Presidenc3\ The Democratic party nomi- nated Horatio Seymour, of New York, for the Presidency, and Frank P. Blair, of Missouri, for the Vice-Presidency. The election resulted in the choice of General Grant, by a popular vote of 2,985,031, to 2,648,830 votes cast for Mr. Sej'-mour. In the electoral college. Grant received two hundred and seventeen votes, and Seymour seventy-seven. The States of Virginia, Mississippi and Texas were not allowed to take part in this election, being still out of the Union. General Grant, the eighteenth President of the United States, was inaugurated at Washington with imposing ceremonies, on the 4th of March, I8G9. He was born at V Mount Pleasant, Ohio, on the 27th of April, 1822. His father was a tanner, and wished him to follow his trade, but the boy had more ambitious hopes, and, at the age of seventeen, a friend secured for him an appointment as a cadet at West Point, where he was educated. Upon graduating, he entered the army. Two years later he was sent to Mexico, and served through the war with that countr}?^ with distinction. He was specially noticed by his commanders, and was promoted for gallant conduct. 347 ULYSSES S. GRANT. 348 ADMINISTRATION OF PRESIDENT GRANT. Soon after the close of the war, he resigned his commission, and remained in civil life and obscurity until the breaking out of the Civil War, when he volunteered his services, and was commissioned by Gov- ernor Yates, colonel of the Twenty-first Illinois regiment. He was soon made a brigadier-general, and fought his first battle at Belmont. His sub- sequent career has already been related in these pages. In February, 18G9, the two houses of Congress adopted the fifteenth amendment to the Constitution of the United States, and submitted it to the various States for ratification by them. It was in the following words : " The right of the citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States, or any State, on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude." A Great Railroad Across the Continent. The next important event of this year was the opening of the Pacific railroad, from the Missouri river to the Pacific Ocean. The eastern division of this road is known as the Union Pacific railway, and was begun at Omaha, Neb., in December, 18G3, and carried westward. But little progress was made in the work until 18G5, when it was pushed rapidly forward. The western division, known as the CentrrJ Pacific railway, was begun at San Francisco, near about the same time, and carried eastward across the Sierra Nevada. The two roads unite at Ogden, near Salt Lake City, in Utah, and the union was accomplished on the lOtli of ]\Iay, 1869, on which day the last rail was laid. The Union Pacific railway, from Omaha to Ogden, is one thousand and thirty-two miles in length ; the Cen- tral Pacific, from Ogden to San Francisco, eight hundred and eight-two miles ; niakine a total line of nineteen hundred and fourteen miles, and constituting bjr far the most important railway enterprise in the world. B}'- the completion of this great road, to the construction of which the general government contributed liberally in money and lands, Portland, Me., and San Francisco, the extremes of the continent, are brought within a week's travel. The long and difficult journey across the plains has been dispensed with, and the traveller may now pass over this once terrible and dangerous route with speed and safety, enjoying all the while the highest comforts of the most advanced civilization. On the night of Sunday, October 8, 1871, a fire broke out in the city of Chicago, and raged with tremendous violence for two days, laying the I ADMINISTRATION OF PRESIDENT GRANT 349 ;gTeater part of the city in ashes. It was the most destructive conflagra- tion of modern times. The total area of the city burned over was two thousand one hundred and twenty-four acres, or very nearly three and one- third square miles. The number of buildings destroyed was seventeen thousand four hundred and fifty. About two hundred and fifty persons died from various causes during the conflagration, and ninety-eight thou- sand persons were rendered homeless by it. The entire business quarter THE BURNING OF CHICAGO. was destroyed. The actual loss will never be known. As far as it can be ascertained, it ^vas about one hundred and ninet3^-six millions of dollars. Almost simultaneous with this disaster extensive forest fires swept over the woods of Wisconsin, JMinnesota and IVIichigan. Whole villages were destroyed by the flames, which travelled with such speed that it was often impossible for the fleetest horse to escape from them. Over fifteen hun- dred people perished in Wisconsin alone. These terrible calamities aroused the generous S3^mpath3^ of the rest of 350 ADMINISTRATION OF PRESIDENT GRANT. tlie country, and aid in money, clothing and the necessities of life was liberally extended to the sufferers in Chicago and the other afflicted com- munities. The telegraph flashed the news across the Atlantic, and in an almost incredibly short time liberal contributions in money came pour- ing in from England and continental Europe, and even from the far-off cities of India. In the fall of 1872 the Presidential election occurred. The canvass ,,--^- was marked by the most in- tense partisan bitterness. The Republican party renominated General Grant for the Presi- dency, and supported Henry Wilson for the Vice-Presidency. The measures of the admini- stration had arrayed a large number of Republicans against it. These now organized them- selves as the Iviberal Republican part}', and nominated Horace Greeley, of New York, for the / Presidency, and B. Gratz Brown, of Missouri, for the Vice-Presi- denc}^ The Democratic party made no nominations, and its convention endorsed the candi- dates of the Liberal Republican party. The election resulted in the triumph of the Republican candidates by overwhelming majorities^ The elections were scarcely over, when the country was saddened by the death of Horace Greeley. He had been one of the founders of the Republican party, and had been closely identified with the political history of the country for over thirty years. He was the " Founder of the New York Tribune^'' and had done good service with his journal in behalf of the cause he believed to be founded in right. He was a man of simple and child-like character, utterly unaffected, and generous to a fault. In his manner and dress he was eccentric, but nature had made him a true gentleman at heart. His intellectual ability HORACE GREELEY. ADMINISTRATION OF PRESIDENT GRANT. 351 was conceded by all. His experience in pnblic life, and liis natnral dis- position, induced him to favor a policy of conciliation in the settlement of the reconstruction question, and, influenced by these convictions, he signed the bail-bond of Jefferson Davis, and secured the release of the fallen leader of the South from his imprisonment. This act cost him a large part of his popularity in the North. He accepted the Presidential nomination of the Liberal party, in the belief that his election would aid in bringing about a better state of feeling between the North and the South. He was attacked by his political opponents with a bitterness which caused him much suffering, and many of his old friends deserted him, and joined in the warfare upon him. Just before the close of the canvass, his wife, to whom he was tenderl}'- attached, died, and his grief for her, and the excitement and sorrow caused him by the political contest, broke down his firmness and unsettled his mind. He was conveyed by his friends to a private asylum, where he died on the 29tli of November, 1872, in the sixty-second 3^ear of his age. Destructive Fire in Boston. On the 9th of November, 1872, a fire occurred in Boston, and burned until late on the 10th, sweeping over an area of sixty-five acres in the centre of the wholesale trade of the city, and destroying property to the amount of seventy-eight million dollars. As this fire was confined to the business quarter of the city, comparatively few persons were deprived of their homes. On the 4th of March, 1873, President Grant was inaugurated a second time, at Washington, with great pomp. Twelve thousand troops took part in the procession, which escorted him to the capitol. Early in 1873, a troublesome war began with the Modoc Indian tribe, on the Pacific coast. These Indians had been removed by the government from their old homes in California to reservations in the northern part of Oregon. They at length became dissatisfied with their new location, which they declared was unable to afford them a support, and began a series of depredations upon the settlements of the whites, which soon drew upon them the vengeance of the Federal government. Troops were sent against them, but they retreated to their fastnesses in the lava beds, where they maintained a successful resistance for several months. The government at length reinforced the troops operating against 352 ADMINISTRATION OF PRESIDENT GRANT. them, aud General Canby, commanding the department of the Pacific assnmed the immediate command of the troops in the field. At the same time a commission was appointed by the government to endeavor to settle ^, - the qnarrel with the Indians peaceablv. This commission held several con- ferences witli Captain Jack, the W ATTACK P>Y MODOCS ON THE PEACE COMMISSIONERS. head cliief of the Modocs, and the other Indian leaders, but accomplished nothing. At length the commissioners and General Canby agreed to meet the Indians in the lava beds, a short distance in advance of the lines of the troops. They went unarmed and without an escort. While the conference was in progress, the Indians suddenly rose upon the commissioners, and killed all ADMINISTRATION OF PRESIDENT GRANT. 353 but one, who managed to escape with severe wounds. General Canb}^ was shot down at the same time, and died instantly. The Indians at once fled to their strongholds amid the rocks. The troops, infuriated by the murder of their commander, closed in upon them from all sides, and shut them in the lava beds. Their position was one which a handful of men might defend against an army, and they held it with a desperate determination. They were dislodged finally by the shells of the American guns, and such as were not killed were captured. Captain Jack and his associates in the murder of General Canby and the commissioners were tried by court-martial and sentenced to death. They were hanged in the presence of their countrymen and of the troops on the 3d of October, 1873. The year 1875 completed the period of ^^^^^^^^ ^^ centennial medal. one hundred years from the opening of the revolution, and the events of 1775 were cele- brated with appropriate commemorative cere- monies in the places where they occurred. The centennial anniversary of the battles at Lexington and Concord was celebrated at those places on the 19th of April, with great rejoicings. On the 17th of June the centen- \ uial of Bunker Hill was celebrated at Charles- town. Vast crowds were present from all parts of the country. One of the most gratifying features of the celebration was the presence and hearty Reverse of centennl^l medal. participation in the ceremonies of a large number of troops from the Southern States. Nearly all of these had served in the Confederate army, and their presence in the metropolis of New Kngland was an emphatic proof that the Union has indeed been restored. The memory of the common glorj^ won by the fathers of the republic has alread}^ done miich to heal the wounds and obliterate the scars of the civil war. May the good work go on. 23 C.^4 ADMINISTRAl rON OF PRESIDENT GRANT. 355 As early as 1872 measures were set on foot for the proper observance of the one hundredth anniversary of the independence of the United States. It was resolved to commemorate the close of the first century of the republic by an international exhibition, to be held at Philadelphia in 1876, in which all the nations of the world were invited to participate. Preparations were at once set on foot for the great celebration. The Europeans governments with great cordiality responded to the invitations extended to them b}^ the government of the United States, and on the 10th of Ma}-, 187C, the International Centennial Exhibition was opened with the most imposing ceremonies, in the presence of an immense concourse of citizens from all parts of the Union, and of the President of the United States and the Emperor of Brazil. The exhibition remained open from May 10th to November 10th, 1876, and was visited by several million people from the various States of the Union, from Canada, South America and Europe. It was one of the grandest and most notable events of the century, and illustrated our country's progress. The exhibition was held in the city of Philadelphia, which, as it was the nation's birthplace, was the most appropriate site for the centennial commemoration. Alultitudes of people visited Independence Hall, Carpen- ter's Hall, and other objects of interest associated with the country's history. The year witnessed a great revival of the patriotic spirit, as well as showing the vast and rapid strides made by the republic in every department of science and industry during the century. The exhibition was also service- able in extending our commercial relations with foreign countries and opening markets for American products. CHAPTER XXXIII. ASSASSINATION OF PRESIDENT GARFIELD. UTHERFORD B. HAYES, the nineteenth President of the United States, was publicly inaugurated at Washington on Monday, March 5th, 1877. As the 4th of March fell on Sun- day, the President-elect simply took the oath of office on that day. The inaugural ceremonies were carried out on the 5tli at the Capitol with the usual pomp and parade, and in the presence of an enormous multitude of citizens and visiting military organizations from all parts of the country. After the customary reception by the Senate, the new President was escorted to the eastern portico of the Capitol, where he delivered his inaugural address to the assembled multitude, after which the oath of office was publicly administered to him by Chief Justice Waite. The new President was a native of Ohio, having been born at Dela- ware, in that State, ou the 4tli of October, 1822. He graduated at Kenyon College, Gambler, Ohio, and obtained his professional education at the Cambridge Law School. He began the practice of the law at Cincinnati in 1856. Pie was shortly afterwards made City Solicitor, which office he held until the beginning of the civil war in 18G1. Soou after the opening of the war he enlisted in A\e Twenty-third Ohio Volunteers, with which regiment he served as major, lieutenant- colonel and colonel. He led his regiment, which formed a part of General Reno's division, at the battle of South Mountain, in September, 1862, and and was severely wounded in the arm in that engagement. In the fall of 1862 he was made colonel of the regiment, and iu 1864 was promoted to the rank of brigadier-general of volunteers "for gallant and meritorious services in the battles of Winchester, Fisher's Hill and Cedar Creek," and was bre vetted major-general " for gallant and distin- guished services during the campaigns of 1864 iu West Virginia, and particularly in the battles of Fisher's Hill and Cedar Creek." At the time of this last promotion he was in command of a division. He served until the close of the war, receiving four wounds and having five horses 356 1 o < m w B o ASSASSnVAT/O.V OF PRESWENr GARFIELD. 357 shot under him during his military career. In the fall of 1SG4 he was elected to Congress, and was returned a second time in 186G. In 1867, before the expiration of his Congressional term, he was elected Governor of Ohio, and was re-elected to that office in 1869, being each time the candidate of the Republican party. In 1870 General Hayes was again elected to Congress, and in 1874 was nom- inated for a third term as Governor of Ohio. His op- ponent was Gov- ernor William Al- len, one of the most popular of the Democratic leaders of Ohio. General Hayes w^as elected by a handsome major- ity. In March, 1877, he resigned this office to en- ter upon his new duties as Presi- dent of the United States. President Hayes, iu his letter accepting the nomination of his part}^ for the Presi- dency, declared that if elected he would earnestly and faithfully seek to do justice to the States of the South, and reform the civil service of the country by ridding it of corrupt men, and requiring a faithful discharge RUTHEliFORD B. HAYES. 358 ASSASSINATION OF PRESIDENT GARFIELD. of duty at the hands of every public officer. Immediately upon his inau- guration he set to work to make good his promises. He selected his cabi- net from among the ablest men in the country, making ability, and not partisan service, the test of the fitness of the persons selected. In the summer of 1880 the various political parties of the country met it convention to nominate candidates for the Presidency and Vice-Presi- dency of the United States. The Republican Convention met at Chicago on the 2d of June, and nomi- nated James A. Garfield, of Ohio, for President, and Chester A. Arthur, of New York, for Vice- President. The Democratic Con- vention met in Cincinnati, on the 22d of June, and nominated Win- field Scott Hancock, of Pennsyl- vania, for President, and Wil- liam H. English, of Indiana, for Vice-President. The Greenback Convention met at Chicago, on the 9th of June, and nominated James A. Weaver, of Iowa, for President, and B. J. Chambers, of Texas, for Vice-President. The election was held on the 2d of November and resulted in the choice of General James A, JAMES A. GARFIELD. Garfield, who received 214 elec- toral votes to 155 electoral votes cast for General Hancock. The popu- lar vote cast was as follows : Garfield, 4,437,345 ; Hancock, 4,435,015 ; Weaver, 305,931. On the second Wednesday in February, 1881, the two Houses of Con- gress met in joint-session in the hall of the House of Representatives, for the purpose of counting the electoral vote. The certificates of the electoral colleges of the various States having been opened and read, with the result mentioned above, the Vice-President announced that James A. Gerfield had been dul}^ elected President of the United States, and Chester A. Arthur Vice-President, for the term of four 3^ears, from the 4th of March, 1881. ASSASSINATION OF PRESIDENT GARFIELD. 353 The result of the election was cordially accepted by the country, and the nation began to look forward to a new era of prosperity and happiness. On Friday, March 4, 1881, the inauguration ceremonies took place upon a scale of unusual magnificence, and were participated in by numer- ous military and civic organizations, and by thousands of citizens from all parts of the country. .After the new Vice-President had taken the oath of office, President-elect Garfield was formally received by the Senate, and escorted to the eastern portico of the capitol, where, in the presence of an immense multitude of citizens and soldiery, he delivered an able and elo- quent inaugural address, and took the oath of office at the hands of Chief-Justice Waite. The new President had been long and favorably known to his coun- trymen. He was in his fiftieth year, and in vigorous health. A man of commanding presence, he was dignified and courteous in his demeanor, accessible to the humblest citizen, and deservedly popular with men of all parties. Born a poor boy, without influential friends, he had by his own effiDrts secured a thorough collegiate education, and had carefully fitted him- self for the arduous duties he was now called upon to discharge. Promoted to the Rank of Major- General. Kntering the army at the outbreak of the civil war, he had won a brilliant reputation as a soldier, and had been promoted to the rank of major-general of volunteers. Elected to Congress from Ohio, in 1862, he bad entered the House of Representatives in December, 1863, and had seen almost eighteen years of constant service in that body, in which he had long ranked as one of the most brilliant and trusted leaders of the Repub- lican party. Early in 1880 he had been chosen a United States Senator from Ohio, but had been prevented from taking his seat in the Senate by his election to the Presidency. Immediately after his inauguration he sent to the Senate for confirma- tion the names of the members of his cabinet. They were chosen from among the leading members of the conservative portion of the Republican party, and were headed by James G. Blaine, of Maine, as secretary of state. They were at once confirmed by the Senate, and the new administration embarked upon its short-lived career. Very soon after entering upon his duties President Garfield found that the Executive chair was by no means a bed of roses. The Republican 360 ASSASSINATION OF PRESIDENT GARFIELD. party soon divided into two sections, one known as the " conservative," supporting the administration, and the other known as the " stalwarts," opposing it. A bitter partisan quarrel sprang up between these two wings of the party, and prolonged the Executive session of the senate until late in June. The quarrel was the fiercest over the appointment of a new col- lector for the port of New York, and culminated in the resignation of their seats in the senate by Senators Conkling and Piatt, of New York, on the sixteenth of May. The resignation of these gentlemen was based upon the ground that the President had nominated Judge Robertson to be collector of the port of New York, without consulting or yielding to the wishes of the Senators from that State, the said Senators in effect claiming the right to determine what appointments should or should not be made by the President in their State. The President, on his part, insisted upon his right to nominate to of&ce any man whom he should deem worthy of the trust. The struggle was in reality a contest for the independence of the Executive in the mat- ter of public appointments, and President Gar- field was warmly supported by the great mass of the nation, without regard to party. JAMES G. BLAINE. j^g^ therefore, pursued with unshaken firm- ness the policy he had determined upon. After the resignation of Sen- ators Conkling and Piatt, the nomination of Judge Robertson was confirmed by the Senate. As the time wore on. President Garfield gained steadily in the esteem of his countrymen. His purpose to give to the nation a fair and just administration of the government was every day more apparent, and his high and noble qualities became more conspicuous. Men began to feel that the Executive chair was occupied by a President capable of conceiving a pure and noble standard of duty, and possessed of the firmness and strength of will necessary to carry it into execution. The country was prosperous, and there was every reason to expect a continuance of the general happiness. Soon after the opening of President Garfield's administration, the Post- ASSASSINATION OF PRESIDENT GARFIELD. 361 master-General discovered that certain contracts for carrying the mails on what are known as "The Star Routes," were fraudulent, and that the persons interested in them were defrauding the government of large sums of money. The President, Postmaster-General and Attorney-General, sus- tained by the other members of the Cabinet, without exception, thereupon resolved to bring the guilty parties to justice. The latter, being men of wealth and position, bitterly resented the course of the government, and violently denounced it. Nevertheless, the THE ASSASSINATION OF JAMES A. GARFIELD. President caused measures looking to the punishment of the accused parties to be begun, and only the unexpected adjournment of the grand jury and court prevented a formal indictment from being brought against them. Before other measures could be taken, the attention of the entire nation was occupied by an event of graver importance. While these matters were still in progress, President Garfield began preparations for a brief pleasure trip to Long Branch, where Mrs. Garfield was recovering from a severe illness ; intending from that point to visit New England, and be present at the commencement exercises of his ahna ■362 ASSASSINATION OF PRESIDENT GARFIELD. mater^ Williams' College, iu Massachusetts. He was to be accompanied by a distinguished part}', including several members of the Cabinet. On the morning of the 2d of July, the party proceeded to the Balti- more and Potomac depot, where they were to take the cars, in advance of the President, who arrived soon after, in company with Secretary Blaine, vv^ho came simply to see him off, and say good-bye. They left the Presi- dent's carriage together, and sauntered arm-in-arm through the depot towards the cars. In passing through the ladies' waiting-room, the President was fired at twice by a man named Charles J. Guiteau. The first shot inflicted a slight wound in the President's right arm, and the second a terrible wound in the right side of his back, between the hip and the kidney. The Presi- dent fell heavily to the floor, and the assassin was secured as he was seeking to make his escape from the building, and was conveyed to a police station, from which he was subsequently taken to prison. Hastily Removed to the White House. The President lay helpless upon the floor of the waiting-room, the blood flowing copiously from both his wounds. As soon as those near him recovered from the dismay into which the tragedy had thrown them, he was placed upon a mattress, physicians were summoned, and he was con- veyed to an upper room in the depot. He bore his sufferings with great firmness, and from the first displayed a cool courage that won the warm admiration of the country. The surgeons summoned were soon at hand, and found that the President's injuries were very critical. It was decided to remove him to the Executive Mansion, and he was carried down the stairs, placed in an army ambulance and driven rapidly to the White House. Arriving there he was conveyed to his wife's chamber, overlooking the Potomac, and placed in bed. Two attempts were made by the surgeons to find the ball — one at the depot, and one at the White House after his arrival there — but both were unsuccessful. Grave fears were entertained by the surgeons for the President's life, and Mrs. Garfield was summoned by telegraph from Long Branch. She arrived during the evening. The news of the attempt upon the President's life spread rapidly throughout the Union, and was everywhere received with horror and indig- nation. During the afternoon his condition became more alarming, and bulletins were issued by the surgeons in charge at frequent intervals, ASSASSINATION OF PRESIDENT GARFIELD. 363 giving the latest news of the state of the illustrious sufferer. These were telegraphed to all parts of the country, and were watched with eager impatience by vast crowds of citizens wherever they were posted. The sympathy of the whole nation went out warmly towards the wounded President and his afflicted family; and from the governments and nations of Europe messages of inquiry and sympathy were constantly received through the Atlantic cable. During the entire period of the President's illness the official bulletins were issued three times each day, and the nation was thus kept informed of his condition. Courageous and Cheerful under Suffering. The best medical and surgical skill of the country was employed in the effort to save the President's life, and throughout the whole period of his illness he never lost his calm courage, but displayed a firmness and cheerfulness that astonished his attendants, and encouraged them to hope for a favorable result. The afternoon of the 2d of July wore anxiously away, no signs of a reaction being manifested, but after the arrival of Mrs. Garfield, in the evening, the President began to rally slightly. The night was passed in anxious suspense. On the morning of the 3d the President was calm and cheerful, though he fully realized the gravity of his situation. He told Dr. Bliss, the surgeon in charge of his case, that he wished to know exactly what his chances for life were ; that, while he desired to live, he was prepared to die, and did not fear to learn the worst. Dr. Bliss replied that, though his injuries were formidable, he had, in his judgment, a chance for his life. "Well, Doctor," exclaimed the sufferer, with a cheerful smile, 'Sve'll take that chance." The day passed away without any event of importance, and the anxi- ous nation, as well as the President's attendants, drew some hope from the fact he continued " to hold his own." The popular anxiety and sympathy were strikingly manifested on the Fourth of July, the anniversary of the National Independence, in the listless and careless manner in which the day was celebrated. The people were too much engrossed with their anxiety to take part in any demonstration of joy. The two months following the wounding of President Garfield dragged wearily away, the patient at times showing symptoms of marked improve- anent, and at others experiencing dangerous relapses. The nation alternated 364 ASSASSINATION OF PRESIDENT GARFIELD. between hope and despair, and was kept all the while in a most painful suspense. The surgeons in charge, however, recognized tlie true char- acter of the wound from the first, and while they hoped for a recovery, could not conceal from themselves the fact that such a result would be almost miraculous. The President's sufferings were very great during this period, and were increased by the intense heat of the season and the unhealthy surround- ings of the White House. Yet he bore them all with unshaken firmness and unalterable cheerfulness. Dr. Bliss, his chief surgeon, writes of him during this period : " The time which passed until the 23d of July, when the first rigor occurred, was chiefly remarkable for the quiet, cool deter- mination of the sufferer. Quite ready for, and evidently expecting the worst, his demeanor was that of the man whose great intellect and wonder- ful will enabled him to give the most intelligent aid to the physician. Apparently indifferent as to result, so far as it should affect him alone, he still watched every symptom, even making inquiry after each examination as to the temperature, pulse and respiration, and every measure of relief adopted, with evidently firm determination to live for others if possible." Conveyed to Long Branch by Special Trair Towards the last of August the surgeons in attendance upon the Presi- dent resolved to remove him from the White House to a more healthful locality. The removal was a risk, but not so great a risk as to permit him to remain in the malarious atmosphere which surrounded the Execu- tive Mansion, and which was rapidly destroying the little strength left him. It was decided to convey him to Long Branch, in the hope that the pure and bracing air of the sea would enable him to regain some of his lost vitality. Accordingly, on the Gth of September, the President, accompanied by his family, his surgeons and attendants, was conveyed to Long Branch in a train specially prepared for the purpose. The journey was made quickly and successfully, and after reaching Long Branch the President seemed to rally. For the first few days after his arrival at the seashore his symp- toms were so much better that renewed hope sprang up in the hearts of his countrymen. It was only for a brief period, however. On the 16th of September there was a marked change for the worse, with unmistakable evidences of increasing weakness in mind and body. o < o t— I m o m I— I ID O I • I i I— I t3 P5 O CQ ASSASSINATION OF PRESIDENT GARFIELD. 365 On the 17tli the President sank still lower, and in the forenoon was seized with a severe rigor. On the evening of the 18th another alarming rigor occurred, followed by other grave symptoms. From this time the President continued to grow worse. On the morning of the 19th he was attacked with another severe rigor, but after that had passed away ap- peared more comfortable, and his attendants were more hopeful of a quiet night for him. Towards nine o'clock in the evening he fell into a quiet sleep, from which he awakened, shortly after ten o'clock, in great pain. General Swaim, who was watching b}^ him, alarmed by the President's symptoms, hastily summoned the family, and the surgeons. The President was uncon- scious when the})' arrived, and continued to sink rapidly. Efforts were made to revive him with stimulants, but in vain, and at thirty-five minutes after ten o'clock, the brave struggle was brought to an end, and the soul of James A. Garfield passed into eternit3^ The Country Shocked by the President's Death. The sad news of the death of President Garfield was at once tele- graphed to New York, and by eleven o'clock the whole country was aware that its Chief Magistrate was dead. Bells were tolled in every city, town, and village of the Union, and everywhere citizens draped their houses in mourning. Such a display of national sorrow had never been witnessed before. The news of the death of President Garfield was at once transmitted by telegraph to Vice-President Arthur, by the members of the Cabinet present at Long Branch, and he was advised by them to take the oath of office as President without delay. Accordingly, Justices Brady and Don- ahoe, of the Supreme Court of New York, were at once summoned by the Vice-President, and, at a little after two o'clock on the morning of the 20th of September, he took the oath of office as President of the United States before them at his private residence in New York. On the 20th of September, arrangements were made for removing the body of the late President to Washington City, and on the same day an autopsy was held upon the bodj^ by the surgeons who had been in attend- ance upon the President, assisted b}^ several others. The autopsy revealed the fact that the wound had been fatal from the first. On the morning of the 21st, funeral ceremonies were held in the cottage at Long Branch, 366 ASSASSLYATION OF PRESIDENT GARFIELD. in which the President died, and at ten o'clock the remains were placed on board of a special train, and conveyed to Washington, and accompanied by the family and friends of the dead President, and by President Arthur and a number of distinguished personages. Washington was reached at 4.35 in the afternoon, and the body was escorted by a detachment of military and Knights Templar to the Capitol, and laid in state until the 23d. During the 22d and 2od, it was visited by over one hundred thousand persons. On the afternoon of the 23d, the public funeral services were held in the rotunda of the Capitol, after which the body was escorted to the Baltimore and Potomac depot, and con- veyed to Cleveland, Ohio, by a special train. Cleveland was reached the next day, and the remains were laid in state in a structure especially prepared for them, until the morning of the 26th, when they were buried, with the most imposing ceremonies, in Lake View Cemetery, in the suburbs of that city. Busi- P ness was suspended, and me- morial services were held during the day in all parts of the United States. On the 22d of Septem- CHESTER A. ARTHUR. ^cr. President Arthur again took the oath of office, this time at the hands of the Chief-Justice of the United States, and was quietly inaugurated in the Vice-President's room, in the Capitol, delivering, upon this occasion, a brief inaugural address. Soon after the attempt upon the life of President Garfield, a popular subscription was set on foot to provide a fund for the support of his family in the event of his death. The movement was successful, and over ^330,000 were raised, and invested in United States bonds, for the benefit of the widow and children of the " Martyred President." ASSASSINATION OF PRESIDENT GARFIELD. 367 President Arthur entered quietly upon the duties of his administration, and his first acts were satisfactory to a majority of his countrymen. As he had been the leader of " the Stalwart " section of the Republican part}^, it was felt by the members of the Cabinet of the late President that he should be free to choose his own advisers. Therefore, immediately upon his accession to the Executive chair, Mr. Blaine and his colleagues tendered him their resignations. They were requested, however, by the new Presi- dent to retain their offices until he could find suitable successors to them. To this they agreed, but before the year was out several important changes had been made in the Cabinet. The principal of these were the substi- tution of Frederick T. Frelinghuysen, of New Jersey, for Mr. Blaine, as Secretary of State, and the appointment of Judge Charles J. Folger to the Treasury Department. President Garfield's Assassin Brought to Trial. One of the first acts of the new administration was to cause the indictment of Charles J. Guiteau for the murder of President Garfield. The grand jury of the District of Columbia met on the 3d of October, 1881, and promptly found a true bill against Guiteau, who was arraigned in the Criminal Court of the District on the lltli of October. After some delay, the trial of the assassin began on the 14th of November. The first three days were consumed in selecting a jur}^, and then the trial began in earnest. It ended on the 25th of January, 1882, in the conviction of Guiteau for the murder of the late President. The prisoner was defended by able counsel, and was allowed many privileges never before granted to persons on trial for so grave an offence. The plea upon which the defence was based was insanity, but the evidence entirely destroyed this assumption, and the verdict of the jury was received throughout the country as just and proper. An effort was made by Guiteau's counsel to obtain a new trial for him, but this was denied by the court, and on the 4th of February Guiteau was sentenced to be hanged, on the 30th of June, 1882. The counsel for the prisoner still continued his efforts to secure a new trial, but these being unsuccessful in each and every instance, his only resource was an appeal to the clemency of the Executive. The President declined, however, to interfere with the sentence. During the interval between his sentence and his execution, Guiteau was confined in the jail of the District of Columbia, at Washington. His 368 ASSASSINATION OF PRESIDENT GARFIELD. conduct during this interval was in keeping with that which had marked his trial — vain, egotistical, and blasphemous. To the last the prisoner was confident that President Arthur would interfere in his behalf. THE BROOKLYN SUSPENSION BRIDGE. The execution took place in the District jail on the 30th of June, 1882, and was witnessed by about two hundred people, nearly all representatives ASSASSINATION OF PRESIDENT GARFIELD. 369 of the press. Guiteau displayed more firmness than had been expected of him. He walked to the gallows without making the violent scene which had been anticipated by many, and ascended it with a firm step. Upon the scaffold, however, he displayed considerable emotion, which he quickly subdued. His religious adviser offered a short prayer, and Guiteau read a. selection from the Holy Scriptures. Execution of the Murderer. Then he read a prayer, strangely at variance with his religious profes- sions, in which he called down the curse of the Almighty upon all who had been engaged in his trial and execution, and upon the nation at large, and denounced President Arthur as a coward and an ingrate. Finall}^ he chanted a poem which he had written during the morning. At the close of this singular recital the trap fell, precisely at forty-three minutes past twelve o'clock, and the great crime against the American people was avenged. Guiteau's neck was broken by the fall, and his d'^'^th was painless. He died without a struggle, and with scarce a tremor. On the 27th of October, 1882, the two-hundredtn anniversary of the landing of William Penn was celebrated at Philadelphia. The exercises included public addresses, a military display, and an industrial parade. In addition to these there were various historic devices and tableaux, illus- trating events in the early history of Pennsylvania. It was estimated that upwards of four hundred thousand persons attended the celebration. One of the notable events of 1883 was the opening of the great Suspension Bridge over the Bast river, between New York City and Brooklyn. Work commenced January 3, 1870, and the bridge was opened to the public May 24, 1883. The total cost was $15,500,000. The total length from New York to Brooklyn is 5,989 feet, and the length of the main span is l,595i feet. The height of the towers is 276§ feet. The height of the floor of the bridge at the centre, above high-water mark, is 135 feet. The height of the floor of the bridge at the piers is 118 feet. The caisson for the New York pier was sunk 78 feet, and that for the Brooklyn pier 45i feet below the bed of the river. Each cable is 151 inches in diameter, and is made up of 5,000 wires, each k inch in diameter. The anchorages are 930 feet from the towers, and weigh 120,000,000 pounds each. The cables are capable of sustaining 49,200 tons. The weight of the central span is 6,742 tons. 24 CHAPTER XXXIV. ADMINISTRATION OF GROVER CLEVELAND. HH twenty-secoud President of the United States was Hon, Grover Cleveland. Mr. Cleveland was a native of New Jersey, and was born in Caldwell, Essex County, March 18, 1837. He came from sturdy New England stock, many of his ancestors having held honorable positions in their respective localities. President Cleveland, after teach- ing two or three years, studied law in Buffalo, was admitted to the bar, became sheriff of the count}^, mayor of the city, and, having received the nomi- nation for governor of New York, was elected by a large majority. This was followed by his nomination in the Dem- ocratic Convention of 1884, and his election in the following November to the Presidency. Naturally the departure of the Republican administration, and the return of the Demo- cratic part}^ to power after twenty-four years of exile from the highest seats in the councils of the Republic awakened a profound interest. As the 4th of March, 1885,, approached, eyes were turned towards Washington, and multitudes went up to the Capitol as to a Mecca. Washington itself, accustomed to civic displays, exciting events and magnificent parades, was more than usually awakened, and an interest was exhibited in the inauguration which over- shadowed all other concerns. The representatives of the press throughout the country were there in full force to record the event and depict the scene in its imposing aspects. 370 GROVER CLEVELAND. 372 ADMINISTRATION OF G ROVER CLEVELAND. The ceremonies incident upon the inauguration presented a pageant exceeding, in civic and military display, any such preceding occasion in the history of the government. There were in attendance more than one hundred thousand visitors, and the city in its profuse decorations was a bewildering maze of bright colors. Among the significant allegorical designs was a great floral ladder reaching to the roof of a business house en Pennsylvania Avenue, which bore upon its rungs the words, " Sheriff," *' ]\Iayor," " Governor," " President," thus graphically symbolizing the life- work of the President-elect. The inaugural of President Cleveland began as follows : " In the pres- ence of this vast assemblage of my countrymen I am about to supplement and seal by the oath which I shall take the manifestation of the will of a great and free peo- ple. In the exercise of their power and right of self- government they have com- mitted to one of their fel- low-citizens a supreme and sacred trust, and he here con- secrates himself to their ser- COTTAGE IN WHICH GRANT DIED AT MT. m'GREGOR. vicC." On the 4th of ^larch, the day of President Cleveland's inauguration, ex-President Graut was placed on the retired list of the army. For some months previous to this there were ominous rumors respecting the state of liis health. The great general who had led the Federal forces in the last part of the civil war, and who hr.d gained a military reputation second to that of no commander of modern times ; who had also been lifted to the highest position in the gift of a grateful people, and had served eight years in the White Plouse as our chief executive, was reported to be in his last illness. The sympathy of the entire country was profoundly stirred by this announcement. ^ledical skill of the highest order was summoned ; daily bulletins of the condition of the illustrious patient were issued ; hope was exDressed that his life might be spared for many years, a hope which soon w 03 !=> P5 o OJ 1 ADMINISTRATION OF G ROVER CLEVELAND. 37$ proved to be unfounded ; and although his labors in the preparation of his " Memoirs " continued, it became evident that he was sustained more by will-power than by any increasing strength, and that very soon he would be compelled to lay down his pen as he had already laid down his sword. DEATH OF GENERAI, GRANT. In the summer of 1885 he was removed to Mount McGregor, in the northern part of the State of New York, in the hope that he would be invigorated by the mountain air. Disease, however, had progressed so far that his death became inevitable, and this occurred on the 23d of July, at eight o'clock A. M. Demonstrations of sorrow attended his obsequies. A special train bore his remains from Mount McGregor to the city of New York, where the funeral services and the interment were to take place. On the 6tli of August he was laid in state in the City Hall, and vast crowds of people came to take their last look. On August Sth the funeral took place, which was an extraordinary^ pageantry. It was attended by celebrities from all parts of the land. All that statesmen, members of Con- 374 ADMINISTRATION OF G ROVER CLEVELAND. gress, Governors of States, Judges of Supreme Courts and persons in the highest walks of professional and mercantile life could do to give honor to the illustrious dead was rendered on this occasion. The Grand Arni}-, of which General Grant had been the leader, was full}/- represented. A procession numbering from fifty to sixty thousand men followed the hearse from the City Hall to the mauseleum erected on GKNARAL, grant's TEMPORARY TOMB, RIVERSIDE PARK, NEW YORK. the banks of the Hudson, which was to contain the remains of the illus- trious dead. The closing scenes of the life of General Grant were as impressive as his previous illness had been painful, and fitted to awaken public sympathy. Thus was laid in the tomb another of the renowned sons of the Republic who had done much to add to her fame and brighten her glory. It was not long after this that another death occurred which added to the afdiction caused b}-- that of ex-President Grant. On the 29th of October General George B. AlcClellan died at his residence at Orange Mountain, I ADMINISTRATION OF GROVER CLEVELAND. 375 N. J. General McClellan's name comes out conspicuously in the history of our country since 1860. In the early part of the war he was commander of the Army of the Potomac. Having been displaced, the part that he occupied in the war was not afterward prominent. He was widely known, however, in political life, and was invested with several offices, one of which was the governorship of New Jersey. His funeral took place in the city of New York on the 2d of November. In December both houses of Congress passed a bill granting a pension to President Grant's widow. This was thought to be an act of justice in consideration of the services rendered to the nation by her distinguished husband — a measure which was heartily approved by the people at large, and which was another evidence of the fact that, notwithstanding the old saying that " Republics are ungrateful," ours is not to be so classed. Evils Threatening the Country. In the early part of December, Congress reassembled at Washington, and President Cleveland submitted his annual message. In this message the matter of silver coinage was given a prominent place, and in connection with it the existing condition of the laboring classes throughout the country was discussed. The President expressed the gravest anxiety for the pros- perity of the country, unless measures should be taken b}^ Congress to remedy the existing evils. Another important recommendation had refer- ence to the Indians. It was maintained that the present laws and regula- tions for their control should be prudently administered, while at the same time it was stated that there was a lack of fixed purpose or policy on this subject. The President took the ground that the Indians were within the care of the government, and their rights should be protected from invasion by the most solemn obligations. It was stated that there was a general con- currence in the proposition that the ultimate object of their treatment should be their civilization and citizenship, and it was urged that measures to this end should be pressed forward as speedily as possible. The passage of a law was recommended which should authorize the appointment of six commissioners to carry out the preceding recommendations. These were the most important matters which were submitted by President Cleve- land in his message. Agitations upon the labor question continued throughout the country; 376 ADMINISTRATION OF G ROVER CLEVELAND. organizations were rapidly formed, conventions were held, leading agitators inflamed the laboring classes, and the subject assumed such grave propor- tions that on the 22d of April, 1886, President Cleveland sent a special message to Congress. The object was to recommend such measures as would tend to quiet the labor agitation, and at the same time guard the interests of capital. The next event of importance, although occurring in Chicago, very soon assumed a national aspect. On the 4th of May a riot occurred in that city, instigated by a company of revolutionary spirits, who have been denominated "Anarchists." After having held secret and public meetings for a long time, which were promoted and reported by one or two journals edited by the leaders in the movement, an open outbreak occurred on the above date. While a public meeting was being held, and speeches were being made of a revolutionary description, the police attempted to disperse the crowd. At that instant dynamite bombs were thrown, and seven police- men were killed, and eighty-three ofiicers and citizens we^-e wounded Execution of Anarchists at Chicago. A number of arrests followed, and on the 20tli of August, after a pro- tracted trial, seven anarchists were convicted of murder, and sentenced to be executed. Able counsel defended them, and managed their trial in such a w^ay as to indicate that they were as much in sjnnpathy with the meas- ures proposed by the anarchists, as they were with the maintenance of law and order. On the 7th of October a new trial was refused, and on the 9th formal sentence of execution was pronounced. Four were executed on November 11, 1887, one committed suicide in prison, two were sentenced to imprisonment for life, and one to fifteen years in the penitentiary. On the 31st of August, 1880, the city of Charleston, South Carolina, was visited by a severe earthquake. Nearly seven thousand buildings were totally destroyed, or seriously injured. About one hundred lives were lost, and so great \vas the work of destruction that more than one-half of the city had to be rebuilt. This calamity threw a gloom over the entire country ; prompt aid was offered the suflferers, and the people of the stricken city began at once to repair their desolated homes. On Thursday, October 28, 1886, the great statue of Liberty Enlighten- ing the World was unveiled on Bcdloe's Island, in New York Harbor. This massive work was conceived and executed by M. Auguste F. Bar- ADMINISTRATION OF GROVER CLEVELAND. 377 tholdi, of Paris, France, and was presented by the French nation to the people of the United States. The first steps towards its construction were taken in 1874, when the French-American Union was established, a ban- quet given, and an appeal made to the people of France. In 187G M. Bartholdi had begun his great work, and with extended right arm of the statue — the first part that was completed — came to America, and placed it, with the torch, in the Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia, whence it was subsequently removed to Madison Square, New York. In February, 1877, Congress set apart Bedloe's Island for the statue, and a committee was chosen, with William M. Evarts at its head, to make preparations for receiving the great work. Description of the Statue. The statue weighs 450,000 pounds, or 225 tons. The bronze alone weighs 200,000 pounds. Forty persons can stand comfortably in the head, and the torch will hold twelve people. The total number of steps in the temporary staircase, which leads from the base of the foundation to the top of the torch is 403 feet. From the ground to the top of the pedestal, 195 steps. The number of steps in the statue from the pedestal to the head is 154, and the ladder leading up through the extended right arm to the torch has 51 rounds. The cost of the statue was estimated at |250,00(); the cost of the pedestal and the erection of the statue, $o50,000. Total cost of the work completed and in place, |G00,000. In September, of 1887, the centennial anniversary of the adoption and promulgation of the United States Constitution was celebrated in Philadel- phia. The celebration occupied the three days — Thursday, Friday and Saturday, September 15th, IGth and 17th. On the 15th there was a grand industrial display under the general direction of Colonel A. Loudon Snowden, which was seven hours in passing a giv^en point, and was by far the largest exhibition of the sort ever made in America. On Friday, the 10th, there was a military parade, composed of United States regular troops. United States marines, Girard College cadets, and companies of State militia from over half the States in the Union. Fifteen thousand men were in line, the governors of States riding at the head of their several State troops, the whole under the command of Lieutenant- General Philip H. Sheridan. It was reviewed by the President of the United ■378 ADMINISTRATION OF GROVER CLEVELAND. •States. Stands had been erected along Broad street from Wharton to Dauphin streets, and on Market and Chestnut streets from Broad to Fifth streets, and they were filled with tier upon tier of enthusiastic thousands, the whole forming one of the grandest military spectacles of the centur3^ On Saturday there were public exercises in Independence Square, at at which President Cleveland presided, the opening and closing prayers being made by Bishop Potter, of New York, and Cardinal Gibbons, of Baltimore, respectively. There were addresses by President Cleveland and President Kasson, of the Constitu- tional Celebration Committee, and the oration was given by Associate Justice Samuel F. Aliller, of the United States Supreme Court. At St. Louis, June 5th, 1888, the Democratic National Convention was held for the purpose of nomi- nating candidates for the offices of President and Vice-President. Presi- dent Grover Cleveland, of New York, was unanimously nominated for the office of President of the United States, and Allen G. Thurman, of Ohio, for the office of Vice-Presi- dent; after which the convention adjourned on June 7th. The meet- ings of the convention were attended by scenes of excitement and enthu- siasm, which indicated complete harmony in the Democratic party, resolute determination to make the approaching campaign one of great vigor, and hope of success at the general election to be held in November. The Republican National Convention, held at Chicago from the 19th to the 25th of June, 1888, nominated the Hon. Benjamin Harrison, of Indiana, for the office of President. Previous to the assembling of the convention, and even during its early sessions, Mr. Harrison was not so prominently named for the nomi- nation as several others. Sherman, of Ohio; Gresham, of Illinois; Alger, of Michigan, and that distinguished leader of the Republican party, James G. Blaine, had their respective enthusiastic following. The nomination LEVI P. MORTON. ADMINISTRATION OF GROVER CLEVELAND. 379 Avas given to Mr. Harrison after a long and patient effort to secure the best man for the high honor of leading the Republican hosts. When the convention, on the eighth ballot, declared in favor of Har- rison, the decision was hailed with universal delight. Although the friends of other candidates had worked with great zeal to secure the prize for their favorites, there was a hearty acquiescence in the final decision, the choice was made unanimous, the building shook with hearty plaudits, great waves of excitement swept over the vast audience, and the scene was one never to be forgotten by those who witnessed it. At once all differ- ences among the delegates were harmonized, and they prepared to push the canvass with vigor up to the day of decision in November. Hon. Levi P. Morton, of New York, was nominated for the office of Vice-President. On the sixth of November the election was held, which resulted in a victory for the Republican party, the States voting as they did at the election four years before, with the exception of New York and Indiana which gave their votes to Benjamin Harrison. CHAPTER XXXV. ADMINISTRATION OF PRESIDENT HARRISON. )HERE was an imposing demonstration at Washington on the occasion of President Harrison's inauguration, March 4, 1889. A vast concourse of people assembled from all parts of the country, and the civic and military display surpassed all pagean- tries ever before witnessed at the capital. President Harrison's inaugural address, while recommending some im- portant measures, was regarded as conservative in its tone, and served to inspire confidence in the new administration. The address traced the neces- sary growth of tariff legisla- tion. This legislation was adopted in the early history of the nation. " Societi<^3 for the promotion of home manufactures and for encouraging the use of domes- tics in the dress of the people were organized in many of the States. The revival at the end of the century of the same pa- triotic interest in the preserva- tion and development of domes- tic industries, and the defence of our working people against injurious foreign competition, BENJAMIN HARRISON. is au iucidcut worthy of atten- tion. It is not a departure, but a return that we have witnessed. The protective policy had then its opponents. The argument was made, as now, that its benefits inured to particular classes or sections." Continuing, the President said : "I look hopefully to the continuance of our protective system and to the consequent development of manufac- 380 Eh K CD o CO ADMINISTRATION OF PRESIDENT HARRISON 381 turing and mining enterprises in the States hitherto wholly given to agri- culture, as a potent influence in the perfect unification of our people. The men who have invested their capital in these enterprises, the farmers who have felt the benefit of their neighborhood, and the men who work in shop or field will not fail to find and to defend a community of interest." Evils Attending Trusts. The President gave some timely suggestions respecting the formation of trusts and the evils which are likely to attend them. Among other things he said : " The evil example of permitting individuals, corporations or communities to nullify the laws because they cross some selfish or local interest or prejudice is full of danger, not only to the nation at large, but much more to those who use this pernicious expedient to escape their just obligations or to obtain an unjust advantage over others. They will pres- ently themselves be compelled to appeal to the law for protection and those who would use the law as a defence must not deny that use of it to others. " If our great corporations would more scrupulously observe their legal limitations and duties they would have less cause to complain of the unlaw- ful limitations of their rights or of violent interference with their opera- tions. The community that by concert, open or secret, among its citizens denies to a portion of its members their plain rights under the law, has severed the only safe bond of social order and prosperity. The evil works, from a bad centre, both ways. It demoralizes those who practice it, and destroys the faith of those who suffer by it in the efficiency of the law as a safe protector. The man in whose breast that faith has been darkened is naturally the subject of dangerous uncanny suggestions. Those who use unlawful methods, if moved b}^ no higher motive than the selfishness that prompted them, may well stop to inquire what is to be the end of this." The President also recommended that our naturalization laws be so amended as to exclude the worst class of immigrants. " We should not cease to be hospitable to immigration, but we should cease to be careless as to the character of it." The address recommended that care be exercised to maintain friendly relations with the other nations of the globe, but not at the expense of our own interests. A strong navy for the protection of the United States was urged as a prime consideration, with such appropriations as would be needed to build 382 ADMINISTRATION OF PRESIDENT HARRISON. and equip a fleet of war vessels capable of defending our coasts and upholding the dignity of our flag. The reform of the civil service, the admission of new States, the freedom of the ballot, and the safeguards needed to give ef&ciency to our election laws, were topics discussed b}^ the address in a timely, patriotic manner. On the advent of summer, June 1st, the country was horror-stricken by the announcement that a terrible calamity had overtaken the inhabitants of Johnstown, Pennsylvania, and the neighboring villages on the preceding day. Instantly the whole land was stirred by the startling news of this great disaster. Its appalling magnitude, its dreadful suddenness, its scenes of terror and agony, the fate of thousands swept to instant death by a flood as frightful as that of the cataract of Niagara, awakened the profoundest horror. No calamity in the history of modern times so appalled the entire civilized world. The Appalling Calamity at Johnstown. The South Forks dam, situated a few miles above the city of Johns- town, suddenly gave way, precipitating an immense body of water into the valley below. The impetuous torrent swept downward with frightful velocity, overturning trees, carrying with it barns, houses, fences and vast accumula- tions of debris. People fled in terror to save their lives, but were overtaken by the rushing torrent. The destruction to life and property was appalling. The greatest damage occurred at Johnstown, a large part of the dwellings being swept away, transforming a flourishing manufacturing town of twelve thousand persons into a scene of utter desolation. The story of this great disaster is replete with thrilling incidents, narrow escapes from death, the rending asunder of families, the loss of husbands, wives and children, and in many instances the obliteration of entire households. It was estimated that upwards of four thousand persons perished. Profound S3anpathy throughout the world was awakened for the surviving sufferers, and immense sums of money and contributions of clothing were sent to the scene of the disaster. One of the most important measures enacted during President Harri- son's administration was the McKinley tariff bill. After a lengthy discussion the bill was passed by a party vote, the Republican party being pledged to the principle of protection. The act went into effect October 1, 1890, and in its practical workings was closely watched and universally discussed. ADMINISTRATION OF PRESIDENT HARRISON 383^ A remarkable political revolution swept over the country in the autumn of 1890, which was considered largely due to the enactment of the McKinley tarijSf bill. In the Fifty-first Congress the House of Representatives con- tained one hundred and seventy-six Republicans and one hundred and fifty-five Democrats. In the Fifty second Congress there were eighty-eight Republicans and two hundred and thirty-five Democrats. In the autumn of 1890 troubles broke out afresh at the Indian agen- cies. The several tribes were seized with a peculiar craze, and began to perform the "ghost dance," which was supposed to indicate their belief in a coming Messiah who was about to appear. Peculiar Belief of the Indians. It seems impossible to trace the exact origin of the Indian faith. An Indian from the upper Columbia river, named Smohalla, preached the doc- trine of an Indian Messiah about the year 1880. This Indian taught that there would be an upheaval of nature, which would destroy the white man and restore to the Indian his ancestral remains, and that the dust of countless dead Indians would spring to life, and would surround without one word of warning each pale face, who would be swept from the face of the earth. None of the deadly weapons of civilization or skill in their use would avail, and the blood of eighty millions of whites would atone for the wrongs done to the red race. Within a few months the belief in this new religion spread from tribe to tribe with marvellous rapidity. Runners traversed thousands of miles to reach distant tribes and bear the glad tidings. The Arrapahoes, the Shosliones, the great Sioux tribes, the Cheyennes, both north and south, and many other tribes, were taught the faith; and the "ghost-dance," the religious ceremony of the creed, was danced by all these tribes. Possessed by these superstitious notions, these extraordinary beliefs,, the powerful tribe of Sioux began and continued to perform their fantastic ghost-dances. Sitting-Bull, the old deadly foe of the white men, took advantage of the craze to inflame the anger of his people, and prepare for deeds of blood. The disquietude among the Sioux Indians resulting from Sitting-Bull's prophecy that a new Messiah was soon to appear to restore to the Indians- the land taken from them by the pale-faces, and to bring back the buffalo,, assumed such proportions that, on the 14th of November, the Interior 384 ADMINISTRATION OF PRESIDENT HARRISON. Department transferred the control of the Indians of North Dakota, under orders of the Presi- dent, to the War De- partment, and Gen- eral Miles, command- ing the Department of the Missouri, was placed in control. Troops were or- dered to be sent for- ward, and it was ex- pected that within a very short time there would be 3,000 regu- lars massed in North Dakota. Sitting-Bull had about 3,000 war- riors, and it was the intention of the War Department to over- awe the Indians by bringing an equal force of United States soldiers against them. The Indian hos- tility to those of their number who were friendly to the United States Gov- ernment showed itself in the attempted as- sassination of Ameri- M can Horse. This In- ■ dian was a prominent SITTING-BULL IN HIS WAR-DRESS. g-^^^^ ^|^i^f^ ^^^ ^ friend of the United States. He was so regarded for years, and was always | inclined to be peaceable and loyal. To nothing but the turbulen^^, hostile ADMINISTRATION OF PRESIDENT HARRISON. 385 and disaffected spirit of the Indians can be attributed the attempt to murder him. They were seemingly angry because American Horse opposed the turbulent spirit manifested by the Indians. On the 7th of December some of the hostile chiefs from the Bad Lands appeared at the Pine Ridge agency to hold a conference with General Brooke. They came bearing a flag of truce and armed with Winchester and Springfield rifles. The entrance of the novel procession created great excitement. First came the chiefs, who were Turning Bear, Big Turkey, High Pine, Big Bad Horse and Bull Dog, who was one of the leaders in the Custer massacre. Next came Two Strike, the head chief, seated in a buggy with Father Jule, a priest who induced the chiefs to take this step. Surrounding these was a body-guard of four young warriors. Great Pow-Wov^. All the Indians were decorated with war-paint and feathers, while many wore ghost-dance leggings and the ghost-dance shirt dangling at their saddles. The war-like cavalcade proceeded at once to General Brooke's spacious headquarters in the agency residence. At a given signal all leaped to the ground, hitched their ponies, and, guided by Father Jule, entered the general's apartments, where the council was held, lasting about two hours. At the beginning of the pow-wow. General Brooke explained that the Great Father, through him, asked them to come in and have a talk regarding the situation. A great deal of misunderstanding and trouble had arisen by the reports taken to and fro between the camps by irre- sponsible parties, and it was, therefore, considered very necessary that they have a talk face to face. Through him, he said, the Great Father wanted to tell them if they would come in near the agency, where he (General Brooke) could see them often, and not be compelled to depend on hearsay, that he would give them plenty to eat, and would employ many of their young men as scouts, etc. The soldiers did not come there to fight, but to protect the settlers and keep peace. He hoped they, the Indians, were all in favor of peace, as the Great Father did not want war. As to the feeling over the change in the boundary line between Pine Ridge and Rosebud Agency, he said that and many other things v/ould be settled satisfactorily, after they had shown a disposition to come in, as asked by the Great Father. Wounded 25 386 ADMINISTRATION OF PRESIDENT HARRISON. Knee was suggested as a place that would prove satisfactory to tlie Great Father to have them live. The representatives of the hostiles listened with contracted brows, sidelong glances at one another and low grunts. When the general had concluded his remarks, Turning Bear came forward, and spoke in reply. He proved a most entertaining person. Simmered down to a few words, Turning Bear gave expression to the following ideas : Shrewd Objections to the Plan. It would be a bad thing for them to come nearer the agency, because there was no water or grass for their horses here. He could not under- stand how their young men could be employed as scouts, if there was no enemy to be watched. They would be glad to be employed, and get paid for it. They might come in, but, as the old men and old women have no horses, and as their people have nothing generally to pull their wagons, it would take them a long time to come. If they should come they would want the Great Father to send horses and wagons to the Bad Lands camp, and bring in great quantities of beef, etc., they had there, and take it anywhere to a new camp that might be agreed on. In conclusion, t]ie speaker hoped that they would be given something to eat before they started back. To this the general replied that they should be given food. As for horses and wagons being sent after the beef, the general said that and other things would be considered, after they had acceded to the Great Father's request to move into the agency. Any reference whatever to the wholesale devastation and depredation, thieving and burning of buildings, etc., was studiously avoided on both sides. After the pow-wow was over, the band was conducted to the quarter-master's department, and there given a big feast. The squaws living at the agency came out in gala-day feathers, and gave a squaw-dance. The conference amounted to nothing, and the trouble was no nearer a settlement than before. The next news received was of a startling character. It was known that General Miles considered Sitting-Bull the chief instigator of the hostilities on the part of the Indians, yet no public notice had been given of his intention to have the crafty old warrior arrested. The Indian police, however, employed on the Pine Ridge reservation, were ordered to make the arrest. The chief was taken, and, in the melee which followed an ADMINISTRATION OF PRESIDENT HARRISON. 387 attempt to rescue liim, He was shot, together with his son and six braves, while four of his captors were slain. The following is a detailed account of the engagement: On the morning of December 15th, 1890, there was a desperate fight at the camp of the hostile Indians, forty miles northwest of Standing-Rock Agency, and before it could be quelled Sitting Bull, his son. Crow Foot, and six other Indians were killed, besides four of the Indian police, while quite a number on both sides were wounded. The fight was the result of an attempt to arrest Sitting Bull in order to prevent his departure for the Bad Lands. Sharp Battle with the Red-skins. The Indian police were ordered early in the morning to proceed to the camp and arrest the wily old chief, who it was known had arranged to make an early start for the Bad Lands, where he would be almost abso- lutely safe from arrest. The police were followed by a troop of cavalry in command of Captain Fechet and a company of infantry under Colonel Drum. When the police reached Sitting Bull's camp on the Grand River, they found arrangements being made for the departure of the band, and without waiting for the soldiers to come up, at once placed the old chief under arrest and started back with him to the agency. Scarcely had the officers gotten under waj^ when the friends of the old Indian rallied to his rescue. They announced their determination to retake him, and a terrible fight ensued. The police were surrounded, and, though greatly outnumbered, they fought like demons and succeeded in holding their own against the redskins until the cavalry, attracted by the firing, came up on a quick run and succeeded in compelling the Indians either to fly or surrender. The fighting was of the hand-to-hand description, and is said to have been exceedingl}^ savage. One of the Indian police jumped on Sitting Bull's horse as soon as he saw the old man fall and rode back for the infantr}^, which arrived on the scene shortly after the cavalry had relieved the overmatched police. Then the Indians began to break away, and probably one hundred of the braves deserted their families and fled west, up the Grand river. When the smoke of the battle had cleared away it was found that Sitting Bull was dead, as also was his son. Crow Foot, and six braves. Four of the policemen, whose names could not be learned, were also dead, and 588 ADMINISTRATION OF PRESIDENT HARRISON. three of tliem badly wounded. A number of the Indians were badly injured, but managed to escape on their ponies. Captain Wallace, com- jmanding Troop K, of the Seventh Cavalry, was killed, and Lieutenant Carlington of the same regiment was shot in the arm. After the death of Sitting Bull his warriors saw the hopelessness of continuing the strife and surrendered on the 22d of December, to the United States troops. On the 7th of June, 1892, the Republican Convention met at Minne- apolis. The nomination of President Harrison had been considered a foregone conclusion up to June 4th, when the country was startled by the news that Secretary Blaine had resigned from President Harrison's Cabinet. A letter writter by Mr. Blaine in the preceding February announced that under no consideration would he consent to be a candidate for the Presi- dency. This letter was very generally accepted in good faith, and there was a general conviction that Mr. Blaine was entirely out of the race. Mr. Blaine's Unexpected Action. It was known, however, that for some time before the Convention assembled, persistent efforts had been made by enemies of the administration to induce Mr. Blaine to reconsider his letter of February, and allow his name to be used at Mineapolis ; and when he suddenly resigned from the Cabinet by a curt letter, and his resignation was accepted by President Harrison in a letter equally brief and barren of all complimentary expres- sions, it was commonly believed that the "Plumed Knight" had decided to seek the nomination. There was consequently great excitement preceding the organization of the Convention and during its progress. It became evident at once that there would be a hard contest between the two leading candidates. The States at their Conventions had strongly indorsed the administration of President Harrison, and many of the delegates had been instructed to vote for his renomination in the National Convention. His friends, after they recovered from the iirst shock which followed the announcement of Mr. Blaine's resignation, rallied bravely, and remained firm to the end. Minneapolis was the scene of animated discussions and unique popular demonstrations. The loud huzzahs for Blaine showed that he had a strong hold upon the popular heart; but the thoughtful mass of delegates who -were to decide the question remained true to the President, and worked diligently and wisely to secure his nomination. LAFAYETTE MEMORIAL. GENERAL ANDREW JACKSON. GENERAL WINFIELD SCOTT. LINCOLN EMANCIPATION STATUE. MONUMENTS AT WASHINGTON, D. C. GARFIELD MEMORIAL. GENERAL GEORGE H. THOMAS. ADMIRAL DAVID G. FARRAGUT. REAR ADMIUAL DL'luNT. MONUMENTS AT WASHINGTON, D. C. ADMINISTRATION OF PRESIDENT HARRISON. 389- The brilliant eloquence of Chauncey M. Depew, of New York, awakened an unparalleled scene of enthusiasm as he placed Mr. Harrison in nomina- tion before the Convention. Mr. Blaine was nominated by Senator Wolcott, of Colorado. Mr. Harrison was chosen by the Convention as the nominee of the Republican party for the presidency. The National Democratic Convention of 1892 was held in Chicago, June 21st to June 23d. It was conceded before the convention assembled that ex-President Cleveland would again receive the nomination for the Presidency, which prediction received verification on the first ballot. The national election on November 8th resulted in the success of the Democratic party by a large majority. The official returns showed that Cleveland and Stevenson obtained two hundred and seventy-eight electors^ or fifty-five more than a majority of the Electoral College. Death in High Places. The death of Hon. James G. Blaine occurred at his residence in Wash- ington on January 27, 1893. From 1862 he served fourteen years in Con- gress as Representative from Maine, and during the last three terms he was Speaker of the House. In the Republican nominations for the Presi- dency in 1876 and 1880 he was defeated by Hayes and Garfield. Ap- pointed United States Senator in 1876 he served till 1881, and acted as Secretary of State under Garfield, but resigned after Garfield's assassina- tion. He was the Republican candidate for the Presidency in 1884, but was defeated by Cleveland. On the 4th of March, 1888, he received the portfolio of Secretary of State in President Harrison's Cabinet. In the long and intricate controversy with Great Britain respecting the Behring Sea fisheries, Mr. Blaine vigorously maintained the rights of the United States and showed himself a master of diplomacy. By his speeches and writings he was known as an advocate of protection to American industries, and he made this one of the leading issues in the presidential campaign of 1884. To his ability as a statesman was added the charm of varied accom- plishments, a commanding personal appearance, great controversial power, and those eminent gifts which distinguish the persuasive orator and suc- cessful leader. Always intensely American in his convictions and sympa- thies, his conduct of the State Department at Washington, aimed to main- tain our national prerogatives, and to extend our influence. CHAPTER XXXVI. PRESIDENT CLEVELAND'S SECOND TERM. N THE 4th of March, 1893, Grover Cleveland entered for the second time upon his duties as President of the United States. The ceremonies of inauguration drew visitors to Washington from all parts of the country, and were of the usual imposing character. Congress was called together in extraordinary session August 7th, and received a message from President Cleveland. . The main object of the mes- sage was to recommend the immediate repeal of what was known as the Sherman law, relating to the purchase of silver by the government for coin- age. The session was preceded by a period of great financial depression, the closing of many manufacturing establishments and a general disturb- ance of the industrial and business interests of the country. A bill for the repeal of the obnoxious law was introduced into the House of Representa- tives by Hon. William L. Wilson, of West Virginia, and after brief dis- cussion was promptly passed by a large majority, August 28th. The bill then went to the Senate, where a protracted struggle ensued, attended at times by bitter personalities, and by "filibustering" on the part of the minority, thereby preventing the majority from declaring its expressed will. At length the bill passed the Senate, October 30t.h, by a vote of forty-three to thirty-two. The second session of the Fifty- third Congress began on the first Mon- day of December, 1893. The most important business was the passage of the Tariff bill. The new Tariff bill derived its name from Mr. Wilson, Chairman of the Ways and Means Committee. Preliminary work was begun upon the bill by the Ways and Means Committee of the House in October, 1893, during the extra session called by the President for the repeal of the Sherman Silver act. It was reported to the House on December 19, and on January 8, 1894, it began to be dis- cussed in that body. It passed the House February 1, by a vote of two hun- dred and four to one hundred and forty, having been modified in onl}^ one 390 PRESIDENT CLEVELAND S SECOND TERM. 391 important feature — sugar being made free of duty. On the 2d of February it was reported to the Senate and at once referred to the Finance Committee^ Promptly on receiving tlie Wilson bill, the Finance Committee gave over its task to a sub-committee, consisting of Mills, Jones and Vest, who completed a bill on tariff-reform lines, making a few changes in the Wilson bill. This was reported to the full committee on February 26th. Thereupon, Mr. Gorman called together the Democratic caucus to instruct the sub-committee to go to work again, and reconstruct the bill so that it would suit the Protectionist Democratic Senators. Important Alterations in the Tariff Bill. The sub-committee made a new bill, " amending " the Wilson bill in several hundred particulars, and altering its character in a protectionist sense. It was reported to the Senate on March 20th, but was still unsat- isfactory. On May 5th, Mr. Gorman called another caucus to secure unanimity, after which, on May 8th, some four hundred new amend- ments were reported. " The Senate bill " had assumed its final form. On July 3d it passed the Senate, and on the 7th — the House rejecting the 634 Senate amend- ments in gross — consideration of points of disagreement between the two Houses was begun in the conference committee. The Senate conferees presented an ultimatum — " the Senate bill as it is or no tariff legislation." The House conferees demanded free raw materials, and no protection for sugar, but in vain. On July 19th, Mr. Wilson reported the continued disagreement to the House, at the same time making public the Pres- ident's letter insisting on free raw materials. In the Senate, Mr. Gorman replied in a defiant speech, full of personal flings. After a week of sensations. Senator Hill's proposal to recede from the amendments putting a duty on ore and coal was voted down, and the bill sent back to conference. After some further dickering by the " compro- misers," and an attempt on the part of Mr. Hill to kill the bill in the Senate, the House became alarmed at the supposed prospect of failure of all tariff legislation, and on August 13th passed the Senate bill. On the same day the House passed four bills, putting sugar, coal, ore and barbed wire on the free list, but they were not acted on by the Senate. The President neither signed nor vetoed the Tariff bill, and it became a law without his signature, taking effect August 28, 1894. 392 PRESIDENT CLEVELAND'S SECOND TERM. Early in 1891 active preparations were commenced for the appropriate celebration of the fonr hundredth anniversary of the discovery of America by Columbus. As the centennial anniversary of American independence in 187G had been commemorated by an International Exposition at Phila- delphia, in which nearly all the civilized nations of the earth participated, it was resolved to celebrate the discovery of the New World by an exhi- bition of grander proportions, as the only suitable method of giving dignity to the great occasion. The whole country became interested in the project, and it was advocated with unanimity by the newspaper press. A hot rivalry at once sprang up between a number of cities, each of which was eager to obtain the honor of furnishing a site for the World's Fair. The friendly strife finally narrowed itself down to New York and Chicago, but the dif&culty of obtaining a convenient site for the exhibition operated strongly as a barrier against the former city. Site for the World's Fair. The act of Congress, which definitely selected Chicago as the city in which the Exposition should be held, and which fixed the dates of the celebration to be held in 1892, and the formal opening and closing of the Exposition in 1893, was approved by the President of the United States, April 25, 1890. Jackson Park, where the Exposition buildings were located, is beautifully situated on Lake Michigan, having a lake frontage of two miles, and embraces 586 acres. The ground was prepared for a system of lagoons and canals from 100 to 300 feet wide, which, with the broad, grassy terraces leading down to them, passed the principal buildings, enclosed a wooded island 1,800 feet long, and formed a circuit of three miles, navigable by pleasure boats. These canals, which were crossed by many bridges, connected with the lake at two points: one at the southern limit of the improved portion of the park, and the other more than half a mile farther south, at the great main court of the Exposition. At this point, extending eastward into the lake 1,200 feet, were piers which afforded a landing-place for the lake steamers, and enclosed a harbor for the picturesque little pleasure boats of all epochs and all nations. This harbor was bounded on the east, far out in the lake, by the long columned facade of the Casino, in whose free spaces crowds of men and PRESIDENT CLEVELAND' S SECOND TERM. 393 women, protected by its ceiling of gay ownings, looked east to the lake and west to the long vista between the main edifices as far as the gilded dome of the Administration Building. The first notable object in this vista was the colossal statue of Liberty rising out of the lagoon at the point where it enters the land, protected by moles, which carried sculptured columns emblematic of the thirteen original States of our Union. Beyond this, beyond the first of many bridges, was a broad basin from which grassy terraces and broad walks led, on the north, to the south eleva- tion of the Main Building, and on the south to the Agricultural Building. The Dedication Ceremonies. The grounds and buildings were so nearly ready that the dedication ceremonies were held in October, 1892. The celebration in New York extended over several days, ending on the 12th of October, and consisted of a magnificent military and naval parade. Vast numbers of people flocked to the metropolis from surrounding towns, and even distant locali- ties, and participated in the festivities. The greatest celebration, however, was in Chicago, occupying several days, and attended by multitudes of people. Vice-President Morton was present, also the governors of a number of the States, together with distinguished persons from all parts of the country, including President Harrison's Cabinet, army and navy officers, and members of Congress. On Monday, the 1st day of May, 1893, in the presence of 300,000 people, Grover Cleveland, President of the United States, surrounded by the members of his Cabinet, by a distinguished representation from lands across the seas, and a mighty throng of American citizens, pressed the electric button which set in motion the miles of shafting, the innumerable engines and machines, and the labyrinth of belting and gearing which which made up the machinery of the World's Columbian Exposition. At the same moment a National salute pealed forth from the gun, the "Andrew Johnson," lying off the Exposition grounds, in Lake Michigan; 700 flags released from their "stops" at a concerted signal swung loose, and streamed out under the sky in scarlet, j^ellow and blue. Over in Machinery Hall a great roar arose, and the turrets of the build- ing shook as the wheels began to turn, and a greater volume of sound arose from the throats of a concourse of people who thus acclaimed the opening of the grandest achievement of American pluck, enterprise and generosity. :v.)i PRESIDENT CLEVELAND'S SECOND TERJL 395 From the center of the platform proper there radiated a special stand, and npon this were chairs for President Cleveland, Vice-President Stevenson, the Dnke of X'eragna and liis party, and the hii^her National and U)cal officers of the Fair. Imniediatelv in the rear were the sections assigned to the members of the Diplomatic Corps, while io their right and left the gnests of the occasion were arranged; behind these were placed the orchestra. In front oi' all, occnpying the tw^) wings on the right and left of the speakers' stands, was provision for some -"tOO representatives of tlie jn-ess, who represented nearly every civili/.ed nation on tlie fice oi' the globe. Prayer was offered by Rev. \\\ li. Milbnrn. 1). D., Chaplain of the United States Senate, after which a poem, written by Mr. W. A. Croffntt, was read. Then followed addresses by the Hon. George R. Davis, Director- General of tlie Exposition, and Presiilent Cleveland. Opening of the Great Exposition. As the President was ccniclnding the final sentence of his address his eyes wandered to the table that was close at his left hand, l^pon this was the bntton, the pressure npon which was to start the machinery and make the opening of the Exposition an accomplished fact. It was an onlinary form of Victor telegraph ke}', snch as in nse in most telegraph offices, except that it was of gold instead of steel, and a bntton of ivorv instead of rubber. It rested upon a pedestal upholstered in navy blue and goldeu yellow plush, and on the sides of the lower tier, in silver letters, were the significant dates, 1 11^1^ and 1891). As the last words fell from the Presi- dent's lips he pressed his finger upon the button. This was the signal for a demonstration difficult of imagination, and infiniteU' more so of description. At one and the same instant the audience burst into a thundering shout; the orchestra pealed for the strains of the Hallelujah Chorus; the wheels of the great F)llis engine in IMacliiner}' Hall commenced to revolve; the electric fountains in the lagoon threw their torrents towards the sky ; a Wood of water gushed fa^m the McMonnies Fountain and rolled back again into the basin; the thnnder of artillery came fnnn the vessels in the lake; the chimes in Manufac- turers' Hall and on the German Building rang ont a merrv jKnil, and, overhead, the flags at the tops of the poles in front of llie i)latf)rm fell apart and revealed two gilded models of the ships in which Columbus first sailed to American shores. 39G PRESIDENT CLEVELAND' S SECOND TERM. At the same moment also hundreds of flags of all nations and all colors were unfurled within sight of the platform. The largest was a great " Old Glor}^," which fell into graceful folds from the top of the centre staff in front of the stand. The roof of the Manufacturers' Building was gorgeous in red gonfalons, while the Agricultural Building was dressed in ensigns of orange and white. It was a wonderful scene of transformation, and amid it all cannon continued to thunder and the crowd to cheer. It was fully ten minutes before the demonstration subsided. Then the band played '' America " and the exercises were at an end. The Columbian Exposition was open to the nations of the world. It was precisely the hour of noon when President Cleveland touched the button and thus declared the open- ing an accomplished fact. The Last Day of the Fair. The oflicial time for closing the Fair was October 30th. Six months before it M'as opened with splendid pageantry, and a thousand bright new banners were unfurled, while a hundred thousand spectators cheered. On the closing day the weather-stained banners were pulled down almost in silence. Those that represented foreign countries were not raised again. Only the American flag floated afterwards over the buildings. A public meeting was held at 4.30 in Festival Hall. Several addresses were deliv- ered and resolutions were passed, but there was no ceremony by Exposition officials. At 5 o'clock there was a little puff of smoke from the United States steamer " Michigan," which lay at anchor off the grounds. Twenty more peals followed. All the flags had been at half-mast ; but when the twenty-first gun was fired they were pulled simultaneously to the flagstaff's peak, and, after fluttering there for a moment, as if in farewell, they went down for the last time, and the official announcement was made that the World's Columbian Exposition as an international affair was at an end. Taps were sounded, and the Innes Band played "The Star-spangled Banner." This was a spontaneous demonstration, and for the first time the people cheered. The following are the official figures for the paid admissions to the Fair: May, 1,050,037 ; June, 2,675,113 ; July, 2,760,263 ; August, 3,515,493; September, 4,659,871 ; October, 6,816,435 ; making 21,477,212. The total admissions on passes were 2,052,188, making a grand total of 23,529,400. After every debt of the World's Fair was paid there remained $1,000,000 THOMAS A. EDISON 1 w Q M W IX M Q W M > w pL. Q 2 < . I— I -^ f^ Ah H "^ O H o o H O w PRESIDENT CLEVELAND'S SECOND TERM. 397 to be distributed among tbe stockholders. The treasurer made this pleasant announcement on the closing day. The Exposition Company paid out $30,558,849.01, or three times the amount the managers expected to spend when they commenced building the Fair. The gate receipts during the Exposition period proper were a little over $10,000,000. Up to the last day $3,300,000 had been collected from concessionaries. The returns from those who held concession privileges was one of the big surprises of the Fair. Nobod}^ was reckless enough to predict that that sum would be realized. The Paris Exposition received but $80,000 from that source, while in 1876 the Centennial Exposition managers received $1,200,000. The events during Mr. Cleveland's second term of ofi&ce included two issues of bonds to maintain the gold reserve. Another issue was provided for and the subscription was opened in New York, February 20, 1895. Sub- scriptions for $60,000,000 were made in a few minutes. On April 8, 1895, the United States Supreme Court delivered a deci- sion respecting the Income Tax law, which declared that the Federal Gov- ernment had no authority to collect a tax on incomes derived from State, county and municipal bonds. A message sent to Congress by President Cleveland concerning the dispute between Great Britain and Venezuela, regarding the boundary line between Venezuela and British Guinea, awakened great interest throughout the country, and led to the formation of a commission for investigation. Bids for $100,000,000 of four per cent, bonds were opened at the Treas- ury Department, Thursday, February 6, 1896. There were nearly 4700 distinct offers, aggregating nearly $700,000,000. This was very substantial testimony to the confidence reposed by the people at large in the financial stability of our Government. CHAPTER XXXVII. INAUGURATION OF PRESIDENT McKINLEY. )N the beginning of 1 896 a remarkable interest was shown by the press and the people throughout the country in the pending Presidential campaign. There was a stir in the nation like that in the forest which precedes the coming storm. Radical differ- ences of opinion existed upon the monetar}^ question, and it was evident that these would find expression in the national conventions which were soon to be held. On the one hand the majority of the Republican party were prepared to maintain the gold standard. As time ad- vanced it became evident that a large part of the Democratic party had adopted the cause of free silver, although President Cleveland, Secretary Carlisle, and many other influential party leaders were opposed to the free coinage of silver at the ratio of 16 to 1. The wave of discussion rose higher and higher and the country was filled with clamor. Among all classes of citizens national questions were largely discussed, and the heat and fervor of the pending campaign were such as had not been witnessed sines the days of the Civil War. The eleventh Republican National Convention met at St. Louis on June 16th, and nominated as the candidates of the Republican part}^ Hon. Wm. McKinley, of Ohio, for President, and Hon. Garret A. Hobart, of New Jer- sey for Vice-President. The Convention was an unusually harmonious one, 398 I WILLIAM McKINLEY. INAUGURATION OF PRESIDENT McKINLEY. 399 choosing its platform without debate, excepting for the protests of the advo- cates of a plank for the free coinage of silver, who were voted down by a large majority. Twenty-one silver advocates under the lead of Senator Teller, of Colo- rado, thereupon " bolted " from the Convention, and severed their allegiance from the Republican party. The scene in the Convention was impressive when Senator Teller, under deep emotion, made a farewell address to the representatives of the party of which he had so long been a conspicuous member, and, followed by twenty of the delegates, left the hall. Nomination of McKinley and Hobart. Both Mr. McKinley and Mr. Hobart were nominated on the first ballot long before the roll call of the States was finished, and the enthu- siasm for McKinley was intense. For some time before the holding of the Convention, it was plain that Mr. McKinley would be the choice of the Republicans, the rising tide in his favor engulfing all opposition. He was nominated amidst the acclamations of the vast majority of his party. The platform pledged renewed allegiance to the principle of protection • declared in favor of the gold standard ; demanded reciprocity ; reasserted the Monroe doctrine ; expressed sympathy for suffering Cuba ; demanded that the immigration laws be rigidly enforced ; renewed the party's decla- rations in favor of civil service ; insisted upon the right of trial by jury for criminals, in opposition to lynchings, and recommended arbitration for the settlement of the differences which may arise between employers and employed engaged in interstate commerce. The nominations and the plat- form were favorably received, and were at once heartily ratified by public meetings, and the formation of political clubs. The Democratic National Convention met at Chicago on July 8th, and nominated for President, Hon. William J. Bryan, of Nebraska, and for Vice-President, Hon. Arthur Sewall, of Maine. The remarkable feature of the Convention was the strength of the supporters of free coinage of silver, who constituted over two-thirds of the delegates, and represented chiefly Southern and Western States. This turn in the Convention was quite unexpected to many, and suddenly revealed a strong sentiment in favor of free silver in many parts of the country. Mr. Bryan's nomination was largely due to a speech he made in the Convention, which received the hearty applause of many of the delegates. 400 INAUGURATION OF PRESIDENT McKINLEY. The silver question tlius became the prime issue of tlie national cam- paign, and large contingents from botli the old parties abandoned former political ties, and enrolled themselves on the one side or the other of the monetary question. The populous Eastern States were the strongholds of the gold standard of currency, and scarcely a doubt was entertained that the movement looking towards free coinage of silver by the United States with- out waiting for an international agreement could not prevail. The success of the silver advocates in the Democratic Convention, however, gave the cause of the white metal a great impetus, and roused the people of the nation to study the currency question with more earnestness and thought than they had ever done before. A campaigix of education was carried on, in which the arguments for and against free coinage of silver were widely circulated and discussed. The Country Divided on the Silver Question. The Democratic platform denounced the gold standard ; opposed the issue of bonds in time of peace ; declared in favor of an income tax and tariff for revenue only ; recommended that the Federal government have more control over railroads ; denounced the arbitrary interference by Fed- eral authorities in local affairs, and expressed opposition to a third term. The divided state of public sentiment on the silver question appeared strikingly in the Convention of the Prohibition party, which was held in Pittsburg, May 2d. A large number of delegates were present, representing all parts of the country. The silver question was thrust into the delibera- tions of the Convention, and created great excitement. Many of the dele- gates wanted Prohibition, without any other issue; many others wanted Prohibition and free silver. The Convention was rent in twain ; the seceders met and formed a new party, and the outcome was a complete disruption of that very considerable body of citizens who consider legisla- tion on the Temperance question the first duty of the nation. Hon. Joshua Levering, of Maryland, was nominated by the Prohibi- 1 tionists for President, and Hon. Hale Johnson, of Illinois, for Vice-Presi ■ dent. The National party nominated Hon. Joseph E. Bentley, of Nebraska for President, and Hon. J. H. Southgate, of North Carolina, for Vice-Pres- ident. Neither of these parties acted any conspicuous part in the campaign, as the financial question overshadowed all others, affecting, as it did, every individual in the nation. INAUGURATION OF PRESIDENT McKINLEY. 401 A number of influential Democrats expressed a strong opposition to the action of the Democratic Convention at Chicago, and resolved that some movement should be inaugurated to save the party, if possible, from being entirely captured by the advocates of free silver. The sound-money dele- gates in the convention, under the leadership of Senator Hill, of New York, entered a strong protest against the rule of the majority. This, however, was without avail, and during the latter part of the convention those who favored the gold standard took no part in the proceedings. Convention of Old-line Democrats. It was felt by many of the old-line Democrats that something should be done to preserve the party name and its time-honored principles. A call was issued for a convention to be held at Indianapolis, September 2d. The delegates were among the most influential and conservative of the Democratic party, and were thoroughly in earnest. A platform was adopted, denouncing free-silver coinage, and advocating the gold standard. Strong denunciations were hurled at the Populistic notions and ideas so prevalent in many of the States. The first paragraph of the platform was as follows : "This convention has assembled to uphold the principles upon which depend the honor and welfare of the American people, in order that Demo- crats throughout the Union may unite their patriotic efforts to avert disaster to their country and ruin from their party. The Democratic party is pledged to equal and exact justice to all men of every creed and con- dition ; to the largest freedom of the individual consistent with good government ; to the preservation of the Federal Government in its Consti- tutional vigor, and to the support of the States in all their just rights; to economy in public expenditures, to the maintenance of the public credit and sound money, and it is opposed to paternalism and to all class legislation. The declarations of the Chicago Convention attack individual freedom, the right of private contract, the independence of the judiciary and the authority of the President to enforce Federal laws." Hon. John M. Palmer, of Illinois, was nominated for President, and Hon. Simon B. Buckner, of Kentucky, for Vice-President. The}^ made an active canvass through the country, but failed to unite the Democratic forces to any great extent, as it was conceded from the outset that there was no possibility of their election. The campaign throughout was one of unexampled activity, the eminent 26 402 INAUGURATION OF PRESIDENT McKINLEY. leaders of all parties entering tlie contest with great spirit. All the influences and resources of the press and of men in public life were brought to bear upon the great issues involved, which, it was admitted by all, affected the integrity of the nation, if not its very existence. Result of the Election. In the election of November, Mr. McKinley received 7,101,401 of the popular vote; Mr. Bryan, 6,470,656; Mr. Palmer, 132,056, and Mr. Levering, 130,560. Of the Electoral College, Mr. McKinley received 271 votes, and Mr. Bryan 176. On the 4th of March, 1897, Mr. McKinley was inaugurated President with imposing ceremonies, and Mr. Hobart was inducted into the office of Vice-President. A multitude of people from all parts of the country assembled in Washington, and nothing occurred to mar the success of the inauguration. Mr. McKinley entered upon the duties of his office with the best wishes, not only of his party, but of all classes of his fellow-country- men. His cabinet was constituted as follows : Secretary of State, John Sherman, of Ohio ; Secretary of the Treasury, Lyman J. Gage, of Illinois ; Secretary of War, Russell A. Alger, of Michigan ; Attorney-General, Joseph McKenna, of California; Postmaster-General, James A. Gary, of Maryland; Secretary of the Navy, John D. Long, of Massachusetts ; Secretary of the Interior, Cornelius N. Bliss, of New York; Secretary of Agriculture, James Wilson, of Iowa. Mr. McKinley immediately called an extra session of Congress, which assembled on March 15th, for the express purpose of revising the tariff, providing a revenue sufficient for the wants of the Government, and placing the finances of the nation upon a sound basis. Hon. Thomas B. Reed, of Maine, was re-elected Speaker of the House. President McKinley sent a message to Congress, in which he said: "Regretting the necessity which has required me to call you together, I feel that your assembling in extraordinary session is indispensable because of the condition in which we find the revenues of the government. It is conceded that its current expenditures are greater than its receipts, and that such a condition has existed for now more than three years. With unlimited means at our command, we are presenting the remarkable spectacle of 1| increasing our public debt by borrowing money to meet the ordinary out- lays incident upon even an economical and prudent administration of the I INAUGURATION OF PRESIDENT McKINLEY. 403 government. An examination of the subject discloses this fact in every detail and leads inevitably to the conclusion that the condition of the revenue which allows it is unjustifiable, and should be corrected. " Congress should promptly correct the existing condition. Ample revenues must be supplied not only for the ordinary expenses of the government, but for the prompt payment of liberal pensions and the liquidation of the principal and interest of the public debts. In raising revenue duties should be so levied upon foreign products as to preserve the home market, so far as possible, to our own producers; to revive and increase manufactories; to relieve and encourage agriculture; to increase our domestic and foreign commerce; to aid and develop mining and build- ing, and to render to labor in ever}^ field of useful occupation the liberal wages and adequate rewards to which skill and industry are justly entitled. " The necessity of the passage of a tariff law which shall provide ample revenue need not be further urged. The imperative demand of the hour is the prompt enactment of such a measure, and to this object I earnestly recommend that Congress shall make every endeavor. Before other business is transacted let us first provide sufficient revenue to faith- fully administer the government without the contracting of further debt, or the continued disturbance of our finances." Enactment of a Nevsr Tariff Bill. Congress entered at once upon the discussion of the Dingley tariff bill, which had been in preparation for several months by the Ways and Means Committee. The most important provisions of the bill related to the duties on wool, sugar, tobacco and liquors. The bill had a double object, namely, to provide sufficient revenue for the current expenses of the government; and, in addition to this, to protect our American industries from the disastrous effects of foreign competition, which was possible mainly through the cheap labor system of Europe. The disposition of the American people was friendly to a wise and conservative revision of the tariff" laws. In the House of Representatives the Tariff Bill made rapid progress. There was a disposition on the part of all the members to act promptly upon the measure, and relieve the country of suspense. It was universally felt that uncertainty regarding the Tariff" was a fruitful source of business depression, and should be removed at the earliest possible moment. When the Tariff" Bill had been passed by the House it was sent to 404 INAUGURATION OF PRESIDENT McKINLEY. the Senate. Here there was more delay, and longer time was required for discussing some of the main features of the bill. Several members, also, had pet projects which they wished to enact into law, and embodied these in the form of amendments to the bill; but so great was the pressure of public opinion, and so great the necessity of speedy legislation, that the measure passed the Senate in much less time than any similar measure had ever done before. Both Houses of Congress finally agreed, and the new Tariff Bill was passed on the 24tli of July, 1897, and was signed by President McKinley on the same day. The President immediately sent a message to Congress, recommending the appointment of a Commission to consider the currency question, and ascertain what changes, if any, should be made. The House was disposed to consider the President's recommendation at once, but the Senate imme- diately adjourned without taking any action. The disposition of the Presi- dent to do all he could to place the finances of the Government on a sound hasis, and allay the agitation arising from the discussion of the silver question, was shown by the appointment of a Commission to confer with the Governments of Europe with a view to an agreement respecting the coinage of silver. The Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria occurring in June awakened interest throughout the country. Our Government was represented on this occasion by Hon. Whitelaw Reid, who was appointed as special ambassador to convey the greetings and congratulations of the United States to the Queen of Great Britain and Ireland. Upon the enactment of the Tariff Bill there were many signs through- out the country of returning prosperity, and the great centres of trade felt the impulse of new life. Simultaneously came reports of satisfactory crops throughout all the agricultural districts, and it was felt that the serious business depression which had lasted for several years had come to an end. CHAPTER XXXVIII. ALASKA AND ITS GOLD-FIELDS. )HK nortli-west coast of America was discovered and explored by a Russian expedition under Bering in 1741 ; and, at subsequent periods, settlements were made by the Russians at various places, chiefly for the prosecution of the fur trade. In 1799, the territory was granted to a Russo-American fur company by the Emperor, Paul VIII., and in 1839 the charter of the company was renewed. New Archangel, in the island of Sitka, was the principal settle- ment, but the company had about forty stations. They exported annually 25,000 skins of the seal, sea-otter, beaver, etc., besides about 20,000 sea-horse teeth. The privileges of the company expired in 1863, and in 1867 the whole Russian possessions in America were ceded to the United States, for a money payment of $7,200,000. The treaty was signed on the 30th of March, and ratified on the 20th of June, 1867 ; and on the 9th of October, following, the possession of the country was formally made over to a mili- tary force of the United States at New Archangel. It still remains in the military keeping of the United States, under a territorial governor. It has, however, been constituted a revenue district, with Sitka as the port of entry. Since Alaska was ceded to the United States, considerable information has been collected as to the resources of the less sterile parts of the country ; but the central and northern parts of this region are only known as the inhospitable home of some wandering tribes of Indians and Esqui- maux. Portions of Alaska have also been recently explored by the employees of the Russo-American Telegraph Company, in surveying a route for a line of telegraph, which was designed to cross from America to Asia, near Bering Strait — a project which was abandoned, after an expenditure of $3,000,000, on communication with Europe having been secured by the Atlantic cable. The climate of the south-western coast of Alaska is tolerably mild, considering its high latitude. The great warm current of the Pacific, 405 406 ALASKA AND ITS GOLD-FIELDS. sweeping in a north-easterly circuit from tHe Hast Indies Islands, and cor- responding very much in character and effects to the Gulf Stream of the Atlantic, washes its shores ; and, while it modifies the temperature, also causes an excessive rainfall. At Sitka the mean temperature is 42'' 9', and the average rainfall about eighty inches. AUEU sIandS PA C/F/C OCEAN MAP OF 5ITKA9>-^^ •AND ITS- GOLD FIELDS Alaska will never have any great agricultural value. From the great amount of rain, and the want of heat, cereals grow, but will not ripen, and vegetables do not thrive. Native grasses and berries grow plentifully, but the chief wealth of the country is in its vast forests, in the furs of its wild animals, in the fish with which its rivers and seas abound, and in its rich deposits of gold. The forests, rising from the coast, and covering the mountains to a height of 2,000 feet, consist of a very durable yellow cedar, ALASKA AND ITS GOLD-FIELDS. 407 spruce, larch, and fir of great size, and also cypress and hemlock. The wild animals include the elk, the deer, and various species of bear, and also many fur-bearing animals, such as the wolf and fox, the beaver, ermine, martin, otter and squirrel. Near the coast and islands, there are innumerable fur-bearing seals which are caught in great numbers by the settlers ; but, from the rigor of the climate, and the arduous nature of the work, the trapping of the animals of the interior is left to the Indians. The salmon abounds in the rivers, and there are great banks along the shores, the favorite haunt of cod and other fish. Coal and iron are among the most important minerals, but the value of the deposits remains to be ascertained. In 1896 and 1897, the reports concerning discoveries of rich deposits of gold in the northern part of Alaska created much interest throughout the country, and a large number of persons set out for the gold-fields, in the hope of securing a sudden fortune. Immense Territory of Alaska. Alaska has an area of 580,107 square miles. It is therefore about one-fifth the size of the United States, or nearly equal to the combined areas of the New England, Middle and Southern States east of the Mississippi River. Of the interior of this vast area we are practically ignorant. Three or four reconnoissances have been made by officers of the army through portions of the territory, and the courses of several of its great navigable rivers have thus been determined. These expeditions, however, were inade- quately prepared for the work of exploration ; the journeys were neces- sarily made in very great haste, and were confined to the rivers. No sys- tematic exploration of the interior has ever been attempted by the gov- ernment, and the topography, resources and capabilities of Alaska are practically unknown. The Eskimo (or Innuit) inhabit the coast line west of the 141st meri- Ciian, excepting the northern part of Cook's Inlet, that portion of the Alaskan peninsula west of the 157th meridian, and the Shumagin and Aleutian groups of islands. Recent investigators believe that their migra- tion to Alaska occurred at the time of general tribal migration resulting in the settlement on Greenland. This opinion is strengthened by the fact that all the Eskimo tribes, whether on the Alaskan coast, the eastern coast or in Greenland, use the same kind of skin-covered canoes. 408 ALASKA AND ITS GOLD-FIELDS. The Aleuts inhabit the northern coast of the Alaskan peninsula, from Cape Stroganof westward, and its southern coast from Pavlof Bay westward, the Shumagin Islands, and the whole group known as the Aleutian chain, extending from the Shumagins in the east to the island of Attoo in the west. As to their origin there are various opinions. Some believe they have a common origin with the people of Kamtchatka ; others, however, urge that they could not have migrated from Asia, owing to lack of facilities, and must have descended from the earliest nations of America. They are divided into two tribes, Oonalashkans and Atkhas, speaking different dialects. They wear ornaments in the nose and upper lip. Their weapons consist of barbed darts, lances, spears, harpoons and arrows. They also carry a sharp stone knife, ten or twelve inches long. Their household utensils are made of stone, wood and bone, mats and baskets neatly woven of grass and tree-roots, bone needles, thread and cord of sinews, etc. They are very hospitable, and fond of dancing and pantomimics. Curious Traditions among the Natives. The Aleuts have a tradition that in olden times the climate of their country was clearer and warmer, and the winds moderate ; that their fore- fathers came from their original dwelling-place in the west — a great land called Aliashka^ or Continent; that in that early country peace and pros- perity prevailed ; but that in the progress of time dissensions arose, result- ing in war, separation and divergent emigration. They also say that in their old country there was a very great flood sent upon the people, because of their disregard of sacred customs. An able and learned Russian priest (Veniaminof ) says : " The Aleuts consider as their relatives the Kenaitze, Chugarch, Yaku- tats and Kolosh ; but the Kolosh do not acknowledge this. In substantia- tion of their claim the Aleuts say that one prominent individual, the father of a numerous family, was from necessity compelled to leave his village on Oonalashka; in one summer he collected all his family and relatives, and departed to the northern side of the Aliashka, with the intention to travel and to search for a better and richer country. " He landed at first at one of the Aglemute villages ; but the Agle- mutes looked upon them as enemies, and in a general attack put them to flight. Finding it inconvenient or impossible to settle near the seacoast, the Aleuts proceeded to the headwaters of some large river, and, having ALASKA AND ITS GOLD-FIELDS. 409 selected a convenient spot, settled down for good. Their descendants made peace with the natives of the country and increased ; but with their increase came a greater change in their former customs, appearing principally in the greater inclination to war and hunt. " After the lapse of considerable time a quarrel ensued between the de- scendants of the original Oonalashkans and the Creoles or half-breeds, finally resulting in a war. Their village was situated on both sides of the stream, one-half opposite the other. They had adopted the habit, for the sake of accustoming themselves to war, of making sham attacks, one upon the other, shooting spears and arrows without points ; but during one of these sham attacks some one placed a head upon his arrow, and hit an enemy in the eye. The attack was at once changed from sham to reality ; but as the Creoles outnumbered the Oonalashkans the latter were defeated and compelled to move farther eastward, and passed from river to river, finally emerging upon the shores of the gulf of Kenai, where they finally settled down. " The present Kenaitze are their descendants. The Creoles left behind rapidly increased, and divisions of them moved to the northeastward, and finally became the founders of the Chugarchs, Yakutats and Kolosh." Remains of Ancient Dwellings. In their traditions the Aleuts maintain that in former times the sea- shore along the whole group of islands was more deeply indented. In some localities this is even yet perceptible. The grandfathers of the pres- ent Aleuts in their youth heard from their grandfathers that they found on elevated spots, and often far distant from the sea, signs of former dwellings, such as whale-ribs and large logs of drift-wood. Between these places and the shore-line they also found small pebbles tied with whalebone fiber, such as are now used for sinkers, fish-lines and nets. From these indications the Aleuts came to the conclusion that at one time these elevated positions, showing the remains of dwelling-places, were on the sea-shore, and over the places where the sinkers were found the sea once extended. But all this was subsequent to the flood. With regard to the volcanoes the Aleuts believe that in olden times all the " fire mountains " on Oonalashka and Ounimak islands quarreled among themselves as to which had the largest bodj^ of fire within, and after a prolonged dispute, in which not one would yield to the others, they 410 ALASKA AND ITS GOLD-FIELDS. concluded to settle the dispute by a trial of strength. Immediately a ter- rible conflict ensued, lasting for many days, the mountains throwing fire and rocks at each other. The smaller peaks could not withstand the larger ones, and recognizing their weakness, bowed down and went out forever. Fables Concerning Volcanoes. The conflict continued until but two craters remained, one on Oona- lashka — Makushin (Ayak), and the other on Cunimak — Recheshnaia (Ismak). These, having vanquished all the others, engaged in a single- handed conflict, with the most disastrous consequences to their surround- ings. Fire, rock and ashes were thrown in such quantities that all animals inhabiting the neighborhood perished, and the air became heavy. The Ounimak crater finally could not keep up with its rival, and, see- ing destruction impending, gathered all its strength, jumped up with a bound and collapsed. The Makushin volcano, being victor and but little injured, and seeing no more enemies around him, gradually calmed down, and now only smokes occasionally. Sitka is the capital of Alaska, but Juneau, although but ten years old, is to-day the largest town. It is situated about 80 miles northeast of the capital, opposite Douglas Island, at the foot of a range of shel- tering mountains, which rise abruptly two thousand feet from the end of every street. These streets seem to follow the gulches or ravines. At present Juneau is simply a mining camp, founded in 1880 by Joseph Juneau and Richard Harris; but it is destined to become the most import- ant commercial point upon the entire coast. This is owing to the prox- imity of the precious metal, the "Silver Bow Basin" gold placer mines lying immediately back of the town, while in front, but three miles away, on Douglas Island, is the famous Treadwell mine. It is believed several other good "claims" exist in the immediate neighborhood which have not yet been developed. The town contains a number of shops, where a system of barter is carried on between the Indian hunter and the white trader. Upon arriving in town with the skins the red man visits every shop and trader before he parts with his goods, and finally disposes of his skins to the highest bid- der. He receives in payment a number of blue or red tickets, which are taken by the storekeeper in exchange for such commodities as he may require to carry back to his Innuit home. ALASKA AND ITS GOLD-FIELDS. 411 All native villages on the Alaskan coast are built directly on the beach, not only because the Indians look to the sea for a living, but to make homes inland means such labor of felling trees and clearing the ground as only the white race undertakes. In the genuine Alaskan lodge there is no window, but one door, and no second story. In the center of the floor on the ground is a fire-place, around which, at a distance of several feet, runs a continuous platform, which constitutes the sleeping apartments. Occasionally the room is divided by curtains. The ground beneath the platform constitutes kitchen and reception- room. The head of the house sits opposite the door, his family and friends on either side, while slaves, if there be any, sit with their backs to the door. In front of many of the houses stand one or more large poles, carved from top to bottom, generally representing bears, whales, eagles, ravens or wolves. These are the genealogical trees of the natives, of which they are very proud, and tell the family history. Alaska's Traffic in Purs. The chief industry of Alaska is the seal-fur trade, which is described elsewhere. In addition to this there is considerable traf&c in sea-otter, land- otter, and other furs, and in fish, and a small production of minerals and timber. Notwithstanding efforts made by the United States government for the preservation of the fur-bearing animals in Alaska, the supply (excepting the fur-seals which are adequately protected) is continually decreasing, and may ultimately become extinct. On the other hand, the fisheries of Alaska are annually increasing in importance, and are destined to become the staple industry of the future. The catch of salmon is already assuming large proportions, and the number of canneries is rapidly increasing. The largest fishing-port is at Killisnoo, and at this port alone 300,000 gallons of herring oil are shipped annually. The large shipments of dog-fish oil and whale oil form no inconsiderable part of the commerce of the country. In minerals, there is on Douglas Island a mountain of gold-ore, but of low grade. The cost of securing the ore is, however, very small. There is no descending into the bowels of the earth with hydraulic machines. The miners chip away in broad daylight, with ore enough in sight to last a score or more of years, and within a stone's throw of the mountain is the mill which receives and reduces the ore. The summit and part of one 412 ALASKA AND ITS GOLD-FIELDS. side of the mountain have already been eaten up. The present annual production is nearly $1,000,000. The only important breeding grounds of the fur-seals at present are the Pribyloff (or Pribylov) Islands, lying in the heart of Bering Sea, about 192 miles north of Oonalashka, 200 miles south of Matthews, and about 200 miles westward of Cape Newenham, on the main land. Two of these islands, St. George and St. Paul, by reason of their temperature, surface, and facilities for landing, are specially adapted for the perfect life and reproduction of these valuable fur-bearing animals. They are located in the Japan Ocean current, and hence the normal temperature is much warmer than that of the surrounding seas. These islands are also so enveloped by dense fogs as to furnish a com- paratively secure hiding-place for the seals. St. Paul is about 13 miles long and 6 miles in its greatest width. It has a superficial area of 21,120 acres, with a shore line of 42 miles, over 16 of which are adapted for the passage of the seals. St. George is about 10 miles long, and over 4 miles in width, and contains about 27 square miles. Islands Populated with Seals. During the short summer the fur-seals seek these islands in immense numbers to rest for two or three months on land, on a hard, smooth sur- face, with a cooling, moist atmosphere, which they must have during their breeding season. They find here the admirably adapted grounds of basaltic rock, and of volcanic cement, slopes of gradual ascent from the sea fur- nishing a quiet resting-place for millions of this intelligent species. The islands of St. Paul and St. George in Alaska are the only known breeding-grounds of the fur-seal. From early spring until late autumn fur- seals are found in all that part of the North Pacific inclosed by the Alaska coast from latitude 54 deg. 40 min. to Mount St. Elias, and thence west- ward along Prince William Sound to the east side of Kenai peninsula, and along the Alaska peninsula, and its continuation, the Aleutian chain of islands. In Bering Sea the fur-seal has not been seen north of latitude 58 deg. In the spring only are they found in large numbers in the vicinity of the Straits of Fuca, and along the coast of Vancouver and Queen Charlotte Islands. During the general migration to and from the breeding-grounds several of the passes through the Aleutian chain are crowded with adults in the ALASKA AND ITS GOLD-FIELDS. 413 spring, and young seals in the autumn. After leaving their breeding- grounds they scatter over the broad Pacific to localities where elevated submarine plateaus furnish them with abundant feeding-grounds (of fish), until the instinct of reproduction calls them from all directions to the islands named above. The sea-otter seems to make its home chiefly on a line parallel with the Japanese current, from the coast of Japan along the Kurile Island to the coast of Kamtchatka, and thence westward along the Aleutian chain, the southern side of the Alaskan peninsula, the estuaries of Cook's Inlet and Prince William's Sound, and thence eastward along the Alaskan coast, the Alexander Archipelago, British Columbia, and the States of Washing- ton and Oregon. Sea-otters are most abundant from the island of Ounimak northeasterly along the Alaskan peninsula. Valuable Fur-bearing Animals. The land-otter is one of the most widely distributed of fur-bearing animals, ranking in this respect next to the common fox. The skin, how- ever, is much more valuable, and is used in the manufacture of an imita- tion seal-skin. In Alaska the land-otter is found on the whole coast from the southern boundary to the northern shore of Norton Sound, also on most of the islands, and along the whole coast of the Yukon as far as known. The beaver, the brown bear, the mink, the cross, blue, and white fox, the marten, and a few other fur-bearing animals are also found in many parts of Alaska, and some of them widely distributed and in immense numbers of the several districts. And now a general word about the Yukon river and its tributaries. What the Amazon is to South America, the Mississippi to the central portion of the United States, the Yukon is to Alaska. It is a great inland highway, which will make it possible for the explorer to penetrate the mysterious fastnesses of that still unknown region. The Yukon has its source in the Rocky Mountains of British Columbia, and the Coast Range Mountains in South-eastern Alaska, about 125 miles from the city of Juneau, which is the present metropolis of Alaska. But it is only known as the Yukon river at the point where the Pelly river, the branch that heads in British Columbia, meets with the Lewis river, which heads in South-eastern Alaska. This point of confluence is at Fort Selkirk, in the Northwest Territory, about 125 miles south-east 414 ALASKA AND ITS GOLD-FIELDS. 3 of the Klondike. The Yukon proper is 2,044 miles in length. From Fort Selkirk it flows north-w^est 400 miles, just touching the Arctic circle! thence southward for a distance of 1,G00 miles, where it empties into Bering Sea. It drains more than 600,000 square miles of territory, and discharges one-third more water into Bering Sea than does the Missis- sippi into the Gulf of Mexico. At its mouth it is sixty miles wide. About 1,500 miles inland it widens out from one to ten miles. A thousand islands send the channel in as many different directions. Only natives, who are thoroughly familiar with the river, are entrusted with the piloting of boats up the stream during the season of low water. Even at the season of high water, it is still so shallow as not to be nav- igable anywhere by sea-going vessels, but only by flat-bottomed boats, with a carrying capacity of four to five hundred tons. An Imraense River of Ice. A further fact must be borne in mind. The Yukon river is abso- lutely closed to travel save during the summer months, In the winter the Frost King asserts his dominion, and locks up all approaches with impen- etrable ice, and the summer is of the briefest. It endures only for ten or twelve weeks, from about the middle of June to the early part of Sep- tember. Then an unending panorama of extraordinary picturesqueness is unfolded to the voyager. The banks are fringed with flowers, carpeted with all-pervading moss or tundra. Birds, countless in numbers, and of infinite variety in plumage, sing out a welcome from every tree top. Pitch your tent where you will in midsummer, a bed of roses, a clump of poppies, and a bunch of blue bells will adorn your camping. But high above this paradise of almost tropical exuberance, giant glaciers sleep in the summit of the mountain wall, which rises up from a bed of roses. By September everything is changed. The bed of roses has disappeared before the icy breath of the Winter King, which sends the thermometer down to eighty degrees below freezing point. The birds fly to the south-land, the white man to his cabin, the Indian to his hut, and the bear to his sleeping chamber in the mountains. Every stream becomes a sheet of ice, mountain and valley alike are covered with snow. The part of the basin of the Yukon in which gold in greater or less quantities has actually been found lies partl}^ in Alaska and partly in ALASKA AND ITS GOLD-FIELDS. 415 British territory. It covers an area of some 50,000 square miles. But so far tlie infinitely richest spot lies some one hundred miles west of the American boundary, in the region drained by the Klondike and its tribu- taries. This is some three hundred miles by river from Circle City, which marks the extreme limit beyond which even flat bottom boats cannot find a navigable passage. We have described some of the beauties of the Yukon basin in the summer season, but this radiant picture has its obverse side. In the first place the heat is as terrible as the cold in winter. It frequently mounts up to 120 in the shade. Horseflies, gnats and mosquitoes add to the discomforts of living throughout the entire length of the Yukon Valley. The horsefly is larger and more poignantly assertive than the insect which we know by that name. In dressing or undressing it has an impertinent habit of detecting any bare spot in the body and biting out a piece of flesh, leaving a wound which a few days later looks like an incipient boil. Schwatka reports that one of his party so bitten was completely disabled for a week. " At the moment of infliction," he adds, " it was hard to believe that one was not disabled for life." The mosquitoes, according to the same authorit}^, are equally distress- ing. They are especially fond of cattle, but without any reciprocity of affection. " According to the general terms of the survival of the fittest and the growth of muscles most used to the detriment of others," says the lieutenant in an unusual burst of humor, " a band of cattle inhabiting this district in the far future would be all tail and no body, unless the mos- quitoes should experience a change of numbers." CHAPTER XXXIX. MEXICO AND THE MEXICANS. BT us suppose tliat we enter a sHip at New York and sail to tlie soutH, along tlie eastern coast of the United States. After passing between Florida and Cuba Ave sliall enter the Gulf of Mexico, and after a voyage of about five weeks shall reach Vera Cruz, in Mexico. We shall see nothing very interesting at Vera Cruz except the strong fortress of San Juan de Ulloa ; so we will set out immediately for the city of Mexico. We shall find it situated on a vast plain, spreading to the north for many hundred miles, and elevated six or seven thousand feet above the level of the sea. It occupies a delightful valley, surrounded by mountains, whose tops are always covered with snow, and some of which occasionally send forth vol- umes of fire and smoke. We shall be delighted with the city of Mexico at first; for in many respects it is one of the most charming places in the world. Being so high, it is visited, at all seasons of the year, with fresh breezes, like those of spring. The gardens are full of delicious fruits and fragrant flowers. There are groves of lemon and orange trees ; melons of every kind abound; and the whole face of nature is covered with the most luxuriant vegeta- tion. The forests are thronged with birds of bright plumage ; the hills are adorned with wild flowers of surpassing beauty ; and the very air is filled with fragrance, which comes from the meadows and groves. In the city is a large church, called the Cathedral. On entering this church you will be amazed at the splendor of its interior. The altar is surrounded by a railing of solid silver; and there is a lamp of the same metal, so large that three men get into it when it is to be cleaned. It is enriched with lions' heads and other ornaments of pure gold. There are also in this Cathedral many statues of saints made of silver and ornamented witli precious stones. Many other buildings in Mexico are lofty and spa- cious, and, being built of stone, have a magnificent appearance. There are many splendid palaces, surrounded with fountains, fragrant groves and beau- 416 I MEXICO AND THE MEXICANS, 417 tiful gardens. We sliall observe that tlie people have a sallow complexion, with black hair and black eyes. This country has many objects of interest — some natural, some artifi- cial. Of the latter are the antiquarian relics of an earlier civilized race, and also of the Aztecs, who conquered them, many centuries before they were themselves conquered by the Spaniards. Some of these Aztec monu- ments are now included in the territory of the United States ; and on the south bank of the river Gila, there are ruins of a city covering three miles square, called Casa Grande, or Great House, from a vast square building, set east and west, whose walls are of immense thickness. Fragments of pottery strew the surrounding plain. Among the most interesting natural objects are the lofty peaks of Orizaba and Popocatapetl. Government of the Country. The country of Mexico is divided into provinces, which are united under a general government, and have a national constitution similar to ours. But there are frequent disturbances in the country, and every thing seems to be in rather an unsettled state. Before we leave Mexico, we should, if possible, go and see the silver mines. These are among the richest in the world, and yield several millions of dollars every year. As they lie among the mountains, at a considerable distance, we must again hire some mules, and obtain a guide. As we proceed on our journey we shall meet with a great many of the native Indians, who bear a strong resemblance to the savages of our country. Most of them are partly civilized, and some of them live in villages, quietly pur- suing the various occupations of life. But when, at last, we reach the mines, we shall, perhaps, hardly have the courage to go into them. They are vast pits dug in the earth, some of them having a depth of more than a thousand feet. In these deep and dark caverns the miners are constantly occupied in digging the ore, which is taken from the mines, and afterwards the pure silver is separated from the dross. If any of our young readers are tired of the sea, they may return to the United States by way of Santa Fe. They must travel on mules, or on foot, eleven hundred miles in a northerly direction, from the city of Alexico, have trusty guides, and be well armed. They will sometimes proceed, for days together, over vast plains ; and perhaps one of the first things they see will be a wild, tawny, bright-eyed man, on a small but spirited horse, 27 418 MEXICO AND THE MEXICANS. careering at full speed after a lierd of cattle, or cHasing its frightened and scattered individuals. Strong, and active, and expert, he pulls one, and another, and another, down to the ground with his lasso, hamstrings them, disentangles his lasso, and then chases another victim. When he has brought down enough, he butchers and skins them, and after the skins, which are called hides, are dried, he brings them to the trading-house, or hurls them down some one of the rocky precipices which line the coast, upon the sandy beach below. Here they are gathered up by the crews of the vessels at anchor, a short distance off, and carried aboard in boats. They will often meet with Indians in their journey, some of them living in villages, and some roving through the wilderness. They will occasionally see cougars and fierce animals called jaguars. They will also meet with many wild animals and strange birds and towns filled with people, some of whom are white, some black, some red. After meeting with many adventures, my young friends will reach Santa Fe. A Mixed Population. Mexico is a vast country, containing twelve millions of inhabitants. Some of these are white, like the people of the United States, and are descended from Spanish emigrants, who settled in the country many years ago. There are negroes, also, who were originally slaves brought from Africa. A large part of the population are Indians, whose fathers once possessed the country, as the Indians possessed the land in the United States, before the Europeans came and took it from them. A little more than three hundred years ago, Mexico was inhabited only by Indians. But they were not savages, living in the woods, and subsisting upon wild beasts ; on the contrary, they had large towns, splendid buildings, and an established government. The king resided at the City of Mexico, then called Tenuchtitlan. It was a magnificent city, filled with temples, towers, and palaces. It sur_ passed everything else of the kind, that then existed in America, in rich, ness and grandeur. It was in the year 1519 that the Spaniards first heard of this great kingdom. Expecting to get a great deal of gold and silver, they determined to send some men to conquer it. Accordingly, six hundred soldiers, commanded by Fernando Cortez, set out for Mexico^ Firearms were not then in general use, so that only thirteen of the men MEXICO AND THE MEXICANS. 419 had muskets. The rest were variously armed with crossbows, swords, and spears. They had, however, ten small field-pieces, and sixteen horses, the first of these animals ever seen by the natives. They went in eleven small vessels, and soon reached the coast of Mexico. They entered the mouth of a river, but the Indians came in multi- tudes to the shore, to oppose their landing. Cortez tried to make peace with them, but they refused to listen, and hurled a shower of stones and arrows upon the fleet. The vessels were soon ranged in a circle, and, the cannon being loaded, they were dis- charged among the crowd. The Indians were utterly astonished at the thunder and the smoke, and frightened by the havoc which the cannon made among the people. They, therefore, ran away, and shut themselves up in a fortified town, called Tabasco. Cortez landed his men, and proceeded to the town. This was surrounded with stakes, and the Indians defended it as well as they could. But they were soon over- come, and, flying to the forests, the Spaniards entered the place in triumph. But the next day, Cortez was informed that about forty thou- Fernando cortez. sand natives were coming against him. He, therefore, left the town, placed his men in good situation, and waited for the attack. At length the}?- came, seeming as countless as the trees of the forest. The greater part of them were almost naked. Some were armed with bows and arrows ; some with spears ; some with clubs ; some with wooden swords ; and others with slings, by means of which they could hurl large stones with great force. They had martial music, produced by flutes made of reeds and by large shells, and drums formed of the trunks of trees. On they came, the little band of Spaniards waiting for them in silence. With a terrible cry, the Indians rushed upon them. Then the cannon opened their mouths, and poured their deadly shot upon the multitude. 420 MEXICO AND THE MEXICANS. Many of them were slain ; but the Indians bravely stood their ground, and showered upon the Spaniards such a cloud of arrows as to darken the air. The ranks of the latter were at length broken, and they were on the point of being defeated. At this critical moment, Cortez, who was stationed in the woods near by, sallied out upon the Indians with a small troop of horse. Now, the Indians had never seen a horse before, and believing each trooper with his horse to be some horrible monster, they were struck with superstitious dread, and, turning from the fight, ran away like a flock of sheep. Eight hundred of their number lay dead on the field of battle, while the Span- iards lost only two men. Cortez and the Chiefs Form a Treaty of Peace. Cortez had taken some prisoners, but he treated them kindly, and dis- missed them, having given them some presents. They went away very much pleased, and told their countrymen what had passed. The Indians now dismissed their fears, and some of them brought the Spaniards pro- visions. After this, the chief sent to Cortez, requesting peace, and a treaty was accordingly entered into between him and the Spanish leader. Then the chief came, with some of his principal men, to see Cortez, who received them graciously. While they were talking together, one of the horses neighed. The Mexicans were in great fear, and asked what those terrible people, with long necks and long tails, would have. Cortez told them they were angry because the Mexicans fought the Spaniards. They then ran, and got some quilts for the horses to lie upon, and some chickens for them to eat, and promised to behave better in future. After this, Cortez entered into his vessels, and sailed to a place nearer the City of Mexico. Here he landed his troops, and the people, not being suspicious, assisted him. By and by, some of the Mexican warriors paid him a visit. They were magnificently dressed, and gave the Spaniards a high idea of the riches of the country. After a while, messengers came from Montezuma, the king, inquiring why Cortez and his soldiers came. Cortez replied that he could only deliver his answer to the king him- self, and requested permission to go to his capital. The king would not consent to this, but he sent to Cortez some very magnificent presents. Among these were bracelets, necklaces, and other trinkets, wrought in solid gold, with the utmost skill and elegance ; boxes filled with precious MEXICO AND THE MEXICANS 421 stones, pearls and gold dust ; and two large orbs, one of massy gold, repre- senting the sun ; and the other of silver, representing the moon. Cortez received the presents, but still insisted upon going to see the king. But another messenger came from Montezuma, forbidding him to come. Cortez treated him in a haughty manner, and he was offended ; he therefore, with all the Mexican people, immediately left the Spaniards. Cortez was astonished at this ; but, after a while, he was invited with his men to go and see a cacique or chief, who lived at no great distance. Accordingly they set out, and after marching a few days, came in sight of the town where the cacique lived. At first the soldiers thought the walls of the city were made of silver, for they had a white and shining appearance. But when they came nearer them, it appeared that they were only plas- tered with lime. i At length the Spaniards entered the town, and were graciously received by the chief. But what was their surprise to find him so fat and bulky that he could neither stand up nor walk alone ! They could hardly help laughing aloud in his presence. They soon discovered, however, that he was a very intelligent man. He treated them kindl}^, and the people of the town supplied them abundantly with all sorts of delicious fruits. False and Treacherous to Both Sides. Cortez now found that several powerful chiefs hated Montezuma, and were anxious to throw off his yoke. Accordingly, he encouraged them to rebel, and promised to assist them. At the same time he secretly sent word to Montezuma, professing to be his friend, and declaring his intention to be devoted to his interests. Thus false and treacherous to both parties, he pursued his own selfish schemes. His determination was to dethrone the king, overturn the government, and become master of the empire. With this view he began to found a Spanish colony at Vera Cruz, the place at which, you will recollect, we landed in our imaginary voyage to Mexico. But Montezuma was still afraid of Cortez, and he therefore sent two of his princes to him with presents of immense value, and a message beg- ging him to depart from the countr}^ To this the Spanish leader replied that he had been commanded by his king to march to the capital, and deliver to the emperor himself a message of the utmost importance, and that no danger whatever could deter him, or his men, from executing this high commission. The princes, struck with admiration of the bold character I SI.AUGHTER OF NATIVE MEXICANS BY THE SPANIARDS. 422 MEXICO AND THE MEXICANS. 423 of Cortez, returned to Montezuma, and gave him a full account of what they had seen. About this time some of the Spanish soldiers had become weary of their toils, and foreseeing the dangers to which they would be exposed, determined to seize the ships, and return to Cuba. Cortez discovered the plot, and, by his artful management, diverted the men from their purpose. He was very eloquent, and he addressed the soldiers, setting before them in glowing colors his splendid schemes and the immense wealth they would all realize should they be successful. Excited by this speech, the soldiers ran to the vessels and destroyed them, thus putting it out of their power to leave the country. This was exactly what Cortez desired, for he knew that the soldiers, having no means of retreat, would fight desperately. Fierce Battles with the Indians. Cortez now set out with his troops, accompanied by six hundred Indian allies, for the purpose of proceeding to Tenuchtitlan. After having marched two or three days they reached the Cordilleras. Here was a district lying among the mountains called Tlascala. It was inhabited by a nation of brave Indians, who had thrown off the authority of Montezuma, and lived in independence. Cortez sent messengers to make peace with them, but the bold mountaineers would not make peace. They gathered their warriors together, and six thousand of them went against the Spaniards, k. dreadful battle followed, but the Indians were defeated. Three more battles were fought; thousands of the Indians were killed; and, finally, the Tlascalans sued for peace. Peace was accordingly made, and Cortez, being invited to the city of Tlascala, the capital, went there with his army. The people received them joyfully. The streets were thronged with men, women, and children, who rent the air with shouts and acclamations, intermingled with the noise of drums, fifes, and other instruments. Young girls strewed their path with flowers, and the priests walked before the soldiers with burning incense. At length the Spaniards, whom the people called gods, were conducted to a large building, where everything was provided for their comfort and pleasure. After a little while Cortez set out with six thousand Tlascalan warriors to pursue his march towards the capital of Mexico. He was soon met by messengers from Montezuma, requesting him to come by way of Cholula. Accordingly the army marched to that city. But it was soon discovered 424 MEXICO AND THE MEXICANS. that a plot Had been formed to destroy Cortez and his army ; tlie chiefs of Cholula were therefore seized, and the town given up to plunder. For two whole days the six hundred Spanish soldiers and the six thousand Tlasca- lans went through the city slaughtering men, women, and children. Tears and cries obtained no mercy. The houses and streets were everywhere stained with blood ; and finally a large temple to which hundreds of the inhabitants had fled for safety, was set on fire, and all the miserable people in it were consumed. Such was the awful vengeance of Cortez towards his enemies ! Strange as it may seem, Cortez had the address to make friends of the people of Cholula who had escaped the massacre. They became his allies, and he marched on towards Tenuchtitlan. After proceeding several days, he reached a large city, called Tezcuco. The chief received him kindly, and everywhere the people manifested a desire to be released from the harsh government of Montezuma. Leaving this place the army proceeded, and after crossing some mountains, a beautiful valley of great extent was pre- sented to their view. In the midst was a vast lake resembling a sea, and villages, cities, and hamlets seemed to rise out of its very bosom. First Sight of the Beautiful City. Among these, Tenuchtitlan, the capital, could be distinguished by the prodigious number of its temples and towers. When the Spaniards first looked upon this scene they could scarcely believe their senses. The fertile valley, encircled by mountains, whose tops were covered with snow; the rich groves of fruit trees, the blue lake, and the cities glittering with gold and silver, seemed more like a beautiful dream than a reality. At length the army descended into the valle}^, approached the lake, and, crossing one of the bridges, were about to enter the town. Here they were met by about a thousand people of distinction, dressed in mantles of cotton cloth, with bunches of feathers on their heads. These advanced in silence, each, in passing, saluting Cortez with the most profound respect. Then came two hundred of the king's attendants, richly dressed; and finally Montezuma himself appeared, in a car of gold, borne on the shoulders of four men. Some other men held a canopy of green feathers over him, and three chiefs, bearing golden wands, walked at the head of the company. When these raised their wands the people covered their faces, as if the}^ were not worthy of beholding the august person of their king. MEXICO AND THE MEXICANS. 425 Cortez and the king now approacHed each other, the ground being covered with carpets, so that Montezuma's feet might not be soiled by touching the earth. They met and saluted each other with profound respect. Montezuma was about forty years old, and was dressed in a fine cotton robe, profusely ornamented with gold and silver. On his head he wore a crown of gold. After some ceremonies the king entered the city, and the army fol- lowed. The city consisted of about twenty thousand houses, with many magnificent temples and palaces, far surpassing in grandeur anything that had been supposed to exist in America. A large palace was assigned to Cortez and his troops, and they were abundantly furnished with all the provision they wanted. Here Montezuma visited Cortez, and treated him in the most gracious manner. They Worshipped a Multitude of Idols. We must now tell our readers that the Mexicans knew nothing of the Bible, and had never heard of Jesus Christ. They had many absurd notions of religion, and paid their worship to a multitude of idols. They erected splendid temples in honor of these gods, and entertained for them the most profound reverence. Multitudes of priests attended the temples, and sacrificed thousands of human beings to their deities. These con- sisted chiefly of prisoners taken in war. Their captives were generallj^ pre- served, that their blood might be shed by the priests in honor of the gods. Now, Cortez was professedly a Christian, and these things shocked him ver}^ much. He could make war upon a defenceless people, slay them by thousands, plot the destruction of their government, and pursue his schemes by falsehood, treachery and violence; but the sacrifice of human victims to idols appeared to him very wicked and absurd. It may seem to us very strange that the Mexicans could imagine the horrid practices of their religion were right; but it is still more strange that Cortez could believe his conduct was agreeable to the peaceful doctrines of Christianity. Montezuma supposed that the strangers would be very much gratified to see the Mexican temples. So he went with them, showed them the idols, and explained everj^thing. After Cortez had seen it all he told the king that the Mexican religion was false and wicked. He also told him something about the Christian religion. Montezuma was very much shocked, and he told Cortez that he must not speak irreverently of the Mexican gods. 426 MEXICO AND THE MEXICANS. The king was evidently angry, and lie began secretly to take measures for killing the Spaniards. But nothing escaped the vigilance of Cortez. He quickly discovered the plot, and resorted to a very bold measure for defeating it. He went, with about thirty of his bravest men, to the palace of the king. They were admitted and received by Montezuma with appa- rent friendship. After some conversation Cortez told the king he must go with him to his quarters. The monarch was enraged, but Cortez was firm, and finding it in vain to resist, the king yielded, and was carried a pris- oner to the palace which the Spanish soldiers occupied. Montezuma Compelled to Submit. Thus the sovereign of this vast empire was placed in the power of the bold and artful Cortez. The latter now began to take measures to humble the spirit of Montezuma by assuming a haughty air; and in one instance he went so far as to put chains upon him. At length the subdued captive summoned his chiefs, and, while the tears flowed from his eyes, acknowledged himself a vassal of the King of Spain, and promised to pay him a vast sum of money every year. Cortez now became very arrogant, and resolved to destroy the images in the Mexican temples. He therefore went to one of them for this purpose, but he found the priests and the people deter- mined to resist what they deemed a very impious design. Cortez perceived that it would be imprudent to proceed further, and accordingly abandoned his intention to destroy the temples. He was now called to encounter new and unexpected difficulties. Mon- tezuma had messengers in all parts of the kingdom, who immediately came and informed him if anything remarkable happened. One day some of these arrived from the coast with pictures of eighteen European vessels that had just come there. Cortez soon learned that the Governor of Cuba, having become jealous of him, had sent a thousand men in these ships to make him a prisoner or kill him. Cortez did not hesitate as to what he should do; he left a hundred and fifty men at the city of Tenuchtitlan to preserve order, and set out with about two hundred and fifty to meet the Spaniards, who were com- manded by Narvaez. He attacked them by night, and after a desperate struggle obtained a complete victory. Narvaez was wounded, and he, with eight hundred of his men, fell into the hands of Cortez. He now proposed to the prisoners to become his soldiers, and to this MEXICO AND THE MEXICANS. 427 they agreed. Thus an event which seemed to threaten his destruction resulted in adding eight hundred Spanish soldiers to his little army. But now messengers came in haste from the capital and informed Cortez that the inhabitants had risen, and made an attack upon the soldiers he had left, and that, if he did not hasten back, they would all be slain. He therefore lost no time, but marched with the greatest expedition, and at length re-entered the city. He immediately took possession of his former quarters, where he found Montezuma still remaining in the care of his troops. They had been fiercely assaulted by the people, who were now greatly excited against the Spaniards. A Storm of Arrows and Javelins. A few days after this four hundred of the soldiers were surrounded in the streets, and a violent attack was made upon them by thousands of the inhabitants. Stones were hurled from the roofs of the houses, and innumer- able arrows and javelins filled the air like a storm of hail. The Spaniards hewed their way through crowds of the enemy, and regained their quarters, leaving heaps of the slain Indians in the streets. But the spirit of vengeance was now thoroughly roused in the Mexi- cans, and, heedless of the dreadful slaughter which was made by the can- non and muskets, they gathered in immense numbers, and came like a rolling torrent against the castle of the enemy. Cortez and his troops, who were never unprepared, received the shock with the utmost firmness. They had planted their cannon in such a manner that at every discharge many of the natives were cut down. But they were not intimidated. They rushed to the very gates of the castle, and climbed on each other's shoulders in the attempt to scale the walls. They came up to the very mouths of the cannon and points of the muskets. As the foremost were shot down others filled their places. The air rang with their terrible shouts, and the thunder of the cannon was drowned by the uproar of their drums, fifes and horns. Thus, for a whole day, the assault continued. At night the Mexicans withdrew, for their religion did not allow them to continue the battle after sundown. But the next morning the fight was renewed, and throughout the whole day it did not cease for a moment. Thus for several days the siege continued, during which thousands of the Mexicans were killed, and one-third part of the city was laid in ruins. 428 MEXICO AND THE MEXICANS. At length Montezuma, who was still with Cortez, appeared upon the walls, dressed in a robe sparkling with jewels. When the people saw him they were all silent, and bowed to the earth in the deepest reverence. Then Montezuma spoke to them. He told them the Spaniards were his friends and begged them to throw down their arms, and go home in peace. The people heard this with indignation. At first a gentle murmur was heard among the multitude like a breeze sweeping over a forest. But it grew deeper and louder, and at length the angry shout of the people burst forth like a rushing tempest. Then a thousand arrows flew from the bow strings of the Mexicans, and the wounded monarch fell senseless to the ground. He was now taken into the castle, and by and by his senses returned. But oppressed with shame and indignation he grew frantic ; tore open his wounds, upbraided Cortez for his perfidy, rejected with scorn and loathing the attempts that were made to convert him to the Christian religion, and at length found a release from his sufferings in death. A New King Renews the Conflict. When the Mexicans saw their monarch fall they were struck with amazement, and fearing the immediate vengeance of Heaven, abandoned the siege and returned home. But after his death a new king was elected, and the attack was renewed. On the top of the high temple, which overlooked the Spanish castle, they collected a great many stones and beams to hurl down upon their enemies. Cortez went to this temple, with some of his bravest men, to drive away the Mexicans. An awful struggle followed. The two parties met in the upper part of the building, and the Mexicans, consisting of chiefs and men of rank, fought like tigers. They would neither fly nor surrender ; preferring death to submission, some of them leaped from the lofty pinnacle of the temple to the earth, and were crushed in the fall. Two noble youths approached Cortez, and seizing him, dragged him to the edge of the pinnacle. Then, holding fast to his limbs, they leaped over the railing, intending to drag him after them. But Cortez was a strong man, and knowing his great danger, held fast to the railing, while the two Mexicans, forced to quit their hold, swung from the pinnacle, and were dashed in pieces upon the earth below. Cortez now returned to his quarters, and finding it dangerous for him to remain in the city, secretly determined to retreat. In a dark and rainy MEXICO AND THE MEXICANS. 429 night lie set out with his army, hoping to escape unperceived. They were crossing the lake, when, being on a narrow part of the causeway, they were suddenl}^ attacked by thousands of the Mexicans, who covered the water with their boats. A dreadful scene followed : fighting in the thick dark- ness they could not distinguish friends from foes. Multitudes of the Indians were slain, and, forming a bridge of their bodies, Cortez and a part of his army escaped to the shore. But two hundred of the Spanish troops were killed, with two thousand of their Tlascalan allies. Some prisoners and all the cannon and baggage fell into the hands of the Mexicans. The Capital Besieged. This dreadful event is still remembered in Mexico, and the night on which it occurred is called the " night of desolation." Cortez and his little band now retreated to the city of Tlascala, cutting their wajr^ with desper- ate bravery, through the thousands of enemies that opposed them. Here they remained some time, when, having received a reinforcement of several hundred Spanish soldiers, Cortez marched back to Tezcuco, resolved, if pos- sible, to take the capital. With immense labor, timber was brought from a distance ; several vessels were built and launched on the lake, and the siege began. We must now tell our readers that Quetlevaca, the brother of Monte- zuma, who had been made king at his death, was not now living. He died of the small-pox, which the Spaniards brought into the country, and Guati- mozin, a young man of high courage, was now king in his stead. He had put the city in the best state of defence ; so that, although the Spaniards attacked it bravely, they were, day after day, and week after week, repulsed by the Mexicans. Weary of the protracted siege, Cortez and his troops one day made a fierce assault, and, with incredible valor, burst into the city; cutting down those who opposed them, and trampling the dead and dying beneath their feet, they rushed on to the centre of the city. But there they were opposed with such bravery, that after a while they gave way, and were driven back. Cortez himself was seized by three Mexicans, who were dragging him away, when two of his officers came to his relief. These were both killed in the struggle which followed, but Cortez escaped. At length, night came, and the Spaniards, being unable to retreat across the lake, were obliged to stay in the city. In the night, the great 430 MEXICO AND THE MEXICANS. temple was lighted up, and, by the glare, they could see their companions, who had been taken prisoners, sacrificed to the god of war. They could see them obliged to dance before the hideous idol, and could hear their screams, when the torture was inflicted upon them. The next day Cortez left the city, and soon, being reinforced by more than one hundred thousand Indians, he made an attack at three points. After the most obstinate fighting, and great slaughter, the town was cap- tured, and Guatimozin himself, in an attempt to escape, was taken, and carried a prisoner to Cortez. He besought the Spaniards to treat his wife and children with kindness, but for himself he betrayed neither fear nor anxiety. With an air of dignity, he addressed Cortez, and said, " I have done what I could to save my country, but my efforts have been unsuc- cessful. I have now no desire to live, for my life is worthless to me and my people. I pray you to take that weapon by your side, plunge it in my breast, and release me from an existence that is now a burden." The Whole Country Conquered. At this speech, the wife of Guatimozin burst into an agony of tears, and Cortez, who was very much affected by the scene, retired, that the unhappy captives might indulge their grief without restraint. The Mexicans, now that their king was taken, made no further resist- ance. Not only the capital, but the whole country, fell into the hands of the conquerors. But the soldiers of Cortez did not find a great deal of gold and silver in the city; and, being greatly disappointed, they became very angry. They suspected that Gautimozin had caused his treasures to be concealed, and, therefore, required of Cortez, that he and his first minister should be tortured, in order to make them tell where they had secreted their gold, silver, and precious stones. Cortez consented, and Guatimozin and his minister were stretched on live coals by the infuriated Spaniards. Unable longer to endure his dread- ful agony, the minister uttered a shriek, and turned his eye upon Guati- mozin, as if asking permission to disclose the secret desired by the Spaniards. To this the king replied, calmly, "Am I on a bed of roses?" This rebuke silenced the minister, and he said no more, patiently enduring his anguish till he was released by death. Finding that the resolution of Guatimozin could not be shaken by torture, the Spaniards ceased from their cruel endeavors. MEXICO AND THE MEXICANS. 431 Cortez now sent his officers to various parts of the kingdom, and the inhabitants thoroughout the country were soon forced to submit. The empire was divided into provinces, and placed under Spanish governors. These, being destitute of humanity, governed with a degree of cruelty too shocking to relate. The blood of the poor Mexicans flowed like water, to satisfy the avarice of the invaders. Hundreds of them were burnt alive, and wives and children were often compelled to witness the burning of their husbands and fathers at the stake. There is not, in the record of human actions, a page of history more stained with the foulest of crimes, than that which relates to the conduct of Cortez and his generals, after the conquest of Mexico. Cortez was soon appointed governor of Mexico, which was called by the Spaniards New Spain. He began to rebuild the capital, which now received the appellation of Mexico. But his enemies sent home to Spain unfavorable reports of his conduct. He, therefore, went back to his native country, where he was received by the king with great respect. But he was deprived of his government, and, from this time, fortune seemed to desert him. He went again to America, and made some discoveries on the western coast. Finally, he returned to Spain, where, being treated with total neglect, he died in obscurity, at the age of sixty-two. The Downfall of the Conqueror. Such was the fate of Cortez, one of the most extraordinary men the world has ever produced. The story of his deeds seem like a romantic dream. We cannot fail to admire his talents and perseverance ; but his cruelty, injustice, and treachery entitle him to everlasting infamy. Mexico, from this time, continued to be a dependency of Spain. The government was arbitrary and oppressive. The Indians, of whom there were many millions when the country was conquered, rapidly diminished, and, in the course of time, became the mere slaves and tools of the Span- iards, who settled in the country. Thus centuries passed by, till, at length, the oppression of the Spanish government became intolerable. In 1808, the people rebelled, and, in 1820, after a struggle of twelve years, Spain acknowledged their independence. In 1824, a new Constitution was formed, but it was abolished in 1836. For many years after this the history of Mexico was a record of merely chronic disorder and civil war. Within that period the country 432 MEXICO AND THE MEXICANS. liad fifty-two presidents or dictators, another emperor, and a regency ; and in nearly every case the change of administration was brought about with violence, a respectable portion of these great men being ultimately shot by some opposing faction. In 1836 Texas secured its independence, for which it had struggled for several years, and which Mexico was compelled to recognize in 1845. In that year Texas was incorporated with the United States ; but its western boundary was not settled, which led to the breaking out of war between our own country and Mexico. The war was continued with great energy by both parties until 1848, when peace was finally concluded after several bloody engagements had been fought, and the city of Mexico had been stormed and taken by the Americans under General Scott. Outcome of the Mexican War. In the Mexican campaign General Zachary Taylor became prominent on account of his military successes. He was considered an able general, a devoted patriot, and, what was of great importance to his political party, an available candidate for the presidency. He was nominated for this high office and elected, but, as already stated, did not live long to enjoy his honors. As a result of this war Mexico was compelled to cede half a million square miles to her powerful neighbor. After the fall of President Santa Anna in 1855, down to 1867, great confusion prevailed. In 1858 Benito Juarez became president, but his claims were contested by General Miria- mon, and the country was plunged into civil war. The acts of wanton aggression and flagrant injustice perpetrated on foreigners in Mexico during this period of internal disorder, by which they were robbed of pay- ments which were due them, could not fail to draw upon the Mexican government the serious remonstrance of those European powers whose subjects had just cause of complaint; and the result was to bring a fleet of English, French and Spanish ships into the Mexican Gulf for the pur- pose of enforcing satisfaction. In 1861 the Spaniards disembarked a force at Vera Cruz, and this step was soon followed by the arrival before that city of the allied fleet. Preparations to advance at once upon the capital alarmed the provisional government, and brought about an armistice, with a view of negotiating a treaty for the future regulation of commercial intercourse between Mexico and the great European powers. This treaty was drawn up MEXICO AND THE MEXICANS. 433 and ratified by the different commanders, but not confirmed on tbe part of France, and consequently the French troops retained occupation of the Mexican territory after the English and Spaniards had declined to join in further hostile demonstrations. EMPEROR MAXIMILIAN. Discovering that France was seeking to use the expedition to destroy the independence of Mexico, England and Spain settled their claims with the republic by the convention of Solidad, on the 4th of March, 1862, and withdrew their forces. The French, however, continued the war, and after a hard struggle, during which the Mexicans fought gallantly for their country, Mexico was 28 434 MEXICO AND THE MEXICANS. 1 conquered, and early in June, 18G3, the Frencli army entered the capital. The Emperor of the French now proceeded to overthrow the republic, it being his intention to replace it with an empire which should be dependent upon France. An election was held, and, under the intimidation of the EMPEROR MAXIMILIAN SHOT BY MEXICAN TROOPS. French, resulted in a majority in favor of the abolition of the republic, and the erection of the empire. Through the same influence the Mexicans chose Maximilian, archduke of Austria, Emperor of Mexico, and in an evil hour for himself that amiable and high-souled prince accepted the crown. MEXICO AND THE MEXICANS. 435 The government of the United States had viewed the interference of France in Mexican affairs with marked displeasure; but being too much engaged in its efforts to bring the civil war to a successful close to under- take any new difficulty, simply entered its protest against the action of France. The civil war having been brought to a close, however, it took a bolder stand, and demanded of the French Emperor the withdrawal cf his troops from Mexico. The action of the government was sustained by the great mass of the American people, and it was believed by many that foreign war would be a sure and speedy way of bringing about the res- toration of the Union. The Emperor Napoleon hesitated for a while, but finally acceded to the American demand. The French troops were recalled at the close of the year 1866, and the Emperor Maximilian was left to face the Mexican people alone. They at once rose against him, defeated his forces and took him prisoner. On the 19th of June, 1867, he was shot by order of the Mexican government, in spite of the efforts of the United States to save him. Thus ended the hope of reviving the political dominion of France on the American continent. On the death of Juarez, in 1872, the chief justice, Lerdo de Tejada,, assumed the presidency, in which, after a revolution, he was succeeded in 1876 by Porfirio Diaz, one of the ablest of Mexican rulers. He was re-elected in 1884, and repeatedly afterward, having proved his ability to administer the affairs of the nation to the satisfaction of the people at large. Under him the position of the republic, with regard both to security and the development of its resources, has steadily improved. CHAPTER XL. CUBA AND HER STRUGGLE FOR FREEDOM. )UBA, the finest and largest of tlie West India Islands, was discovered by Columbus himself, on the 28th day of October, 1492, and was named by him Juana, in honor of Prince John, the son of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, the sovereigns of Aragon and Castile. Upon the death of Ferdinand, the Island was called Fernandina. It afterwards received the name of Santiago, as a mark of reverence for the patron saint of Spain, and still later, the inhabitants, to illustrate their piety, gave it that of Ave Maria, in honor of the Holy Virgin. Notwithstanding these several titles, the island is still principally known by its original Indian name of Cuba ; a name which it bore when the great navigator first landed on its shores, and which in all probability it is destined to retain. Since the beginning of the present century Cuba has been the scene of revolutions or uprisings of one kind or another. The direct aim of most, if not all, of these has been to free the island from Spanish control. The city-armed natives, joined by bands of stragglers and aided by filibus- ters, have struggled without organization against drilled, uniformed and comparatively well-equipped regular troops representing Spain. For a long time insurrection was the term applied to these uprisings. At first and, indeed, until recently, it may be doubted if these uprisings had the genuine sympathy of the Cubans as a body. And, consequently, they were foredoomed to be failures. But the history of these struggles is replete with brave deeds and exhibitions of personal courage and strategy that would do credit to a body of men familiar with the science of warfare and accustomed to facing danger on the battle-field. The Spanish colonies, Cuba excepted, gained their independence in 1820-21. Bolivar was their successful leader, and when he had freed the other provinces of Spain he turned his attention particularly to Cuba. But for a time his project failed; some revolutionists allege that it was the refusal of the United States to countenance such efforts which prevented 43G CUBA AND HER STRUGGLE FOR FREEDOM. 437 their success. Be that as it ma}', tlie efforts of the islanders to throw off the Spanish yoke came to nothing material. But Bolivar and his fellow- conspirators were determined and sought by every means in their power to stir up rebellion in the island. Commissioners were sent to Cuba to create sentiment favorable to revolution. They were soon seized by the Spanish authorities and executed. Bolivar's plan came to a dismal end. Revolution was in the blood of many of the Cubans, however, and not many years later it had manifestation. From 1848 to 1854 small and ill- planned uprisings took place. Certain elements in the Southern States assisted in encouraging these insurrections. There was for some time in Southern circles a project looking to the annexation of Cuba and its division into four States, each of which, of course, would have been entitled to representation in Congress, giving the South, perhaps, eight Senators and sixteen Representatives, and so throwing the balance of power here into the hands of the slavery advocates. Uprising of Patriots Led by Lopez. The most important of these movements was that headed by Narciso Lopez, who had served in the Spanish army as a general of division, but who, on going to Cuba, espoused the cause of the revolutionists. He, with Crittenden, the Kentuckian, with a force of some four hundred Americans and two hundred Cubans, set out from New Orleans, landing at Cardenas, on the north coast of Cuba, and captured it by assault. The victory was a hollow one, for the time had been ill-advised and the country did not rise. Finding themselves without support and seeing that without aid from the Cubans they must be captured or driven into the sea, the invaders returned to Key West. The Cubans on that occasion regarded the move- ment as one solely in the interest of slavery, and believed its projectors inspired by mercenary motives. But Lopez was not to be cast down by one failure. He made a second attempt and landed at Bahia Honda. There he encountered a force of Spanish troops, under General Henna, and put them to rout. The Span- ish commander was killed, and for the time the star of Lopez was in the ascendant. Still the country did not rise. Lopez, in the western end of the island, where Spanish troops were strongest and the revolutionary spirit weakest, soon found himself surrounded and overpowered. Crittenden, who 438 CUBA AND HER STRUGGLE FOR FREEDOM. was to have joined liim, remained on the coast, and finally attempted to escape, by taking to the open sea in boats. He was captured, with fifty of his men, and all were put to death in Havana. The execution was marked by atrocities, the news of which rang through the civilized world, making the flesh creep. The forces of Lopez, overpowered by Spanish troops, were dispersed with ease. The commander himself was garroted. CITY AND HARBOR OF HAVANA. The island was quiet for a time then, but not for long. Other attempts to raise the country, up to 1854, were those of Pinto, a Spaniard of revolutionist tendencies ; Bstrampes and Aguero, the last-named of whom freed all his slaves before he raised the rebel standard. He was the first out-spoken abolitionist in Cuba. He and the other leaders were captured, after a brief struggle, and executed. There were some unimportant risings after that, but none of note until after the American Civil War. This conflict abolished slavery. Then the Southern States had no further object in meddling with Cuba. The CUBA AND HER STRUGGLE FOR FREEDOM. 439 filibustering movements died out. It remained for Cuba to attempt to work out its own salvation. In 18G8 came the bour which thousands of patriots hailed as the dawn of deliverance ; for on October 10th, of that year, Cespedes raised the five-barred flag at Yara. He was a lawyer, and logical above all things ; so to begin with he freed his two hundred slaves, and they followed him to battle to a man. The entire eastern end of the island rose against the Spaniards at the call of Cespedes, but the men were without arms or dis- cipline. Their spirit was unquestioned, but they were of little utility against well-armed and disciplined forces. Flocking to the Standard of the Insurgents. Their leaders were Maximo Gomez, Marmol and Figueredo. The centre of the island, called Camaguey, flocked to the standard of the Marquis de Lucia and the Agramontes in November, and as enthusiasm and confidence came with numbers the beginning of 1889 saw Las Villas in rebellion with 14,000 men, among whom there were not more than 100 armed with effec- tive firearms. To oppose these unarmed and undisciplined enthusiasts there were 15,000 regulars. The western end of the island proved cold, but even there small up- risings were fomented. Thc}^ were put down without di£&cult3\ Aid from without was not wanting. In December, 1868, General Quesada landed with the first expedition from Nassau, bringing the first consignment of arms and munitions of war. The revolutionist cause prospered, and on April 10, 1869, a new government was constituted and a House of Assem- bly established. Cespedes was President of the provisional government, and Quesada commander-in-chief of the forces. The government, which had little beyond its name, issued a proclama- tion giving freedom to all the negroes in the island — a matter which gave great offence to the Spaniards, even those of liberal tendencies. Ten years of desultory warfare followed ; the revolutionists held the centre of the island and the mountains, but were unable to obtain any standing in the seaports, as their flag was not recognized there by the great powers, although it was duly saluted from time to time by the South American Republics. The United States did not recognize the revolutiov ists, despite the efforts of General Rawlings and Senator Sherman to that c Every effort was made to send arms to the insurgents. There w( 440 CUBA AND HER STRUGGLE FOR FREEDOM. continual attempts at blockade running. Some of these expeditions evaded capture, but others were taken by Spanish troops and the leaders were promptly executed ; the most notable was that of the " Virginius," under Captain Fry. The "Virginius" put out from Kingston, Jamaica. The capture of the " Virginius " and the summary execution of Ameri- can citizens by the Spanish authorities so excited this nation at the time that war with Spain seemed certain. This was one of the most notable incidents in Cuban history, at least in point of American interest. Had the popular voice been heeded at that time a peaceful solution of the difB.culty would have been impossible. Feeling ran so high through- out the country that public meetings were held all over the country denouncing the execution as a butchery, and warlike preparations were begun in many cities. In some cases ships were prepared to go to sea in anticipation of an immediate declaration of war. Story of the Ill-fated " Virginius." The voyage of the " Virginius " was begun in November of 1873. The steamer was pursued by the Spanish warship " Tornado," and cap- tured within sight of the Morant Point Light-house, at the east end of Jamaica. She was towed at once into Santiago de Cuba, despite the fact that she was flying the Stars and Stripes and was in British waters. Fifty-three of her men were shot in a public square in Santiago, in some instances after they had been given a trial lasting only ten minutes. Among them was Captain Joseph Fry, who commanded the ship ; Bar- nade Varona, W. A. C. Ryan, Jesus del Sol and Pedro Cespedes. There was no United States cruiser within reach of Santiago, but the British man-of-war " Niobe " arrived in time to prevent further slaughter of Ameri- can and English subjects. Her commander. Sir Lambon Lorraine, acted with quickness and determination. " Shoot another Englishman or Ameri- can," he said, " and the ' Niobe ' will bombard the city." Then the slaughter ceased. Both the United States and England protested through their representatives, and sent men-of-war to protect the other prisoners. The survivors were delivered up to the rescuing ships and brought to New York, and the "Virginius," with a hole in her bottom, sank off Frying Pan Shoals. The return of the survivors, and an accurate knowledge of the details of the shooting, only served to fan into fierce blaze the fire of popular CUBA AND HER STRUGGLE FOR FREEDOM. 441 indignation. The general voice was for war with Spain, and General Sickles, then American Minister in Madrid, had already asked to be recalled, and was preparing to leave the capital. Finally, however, the matter was adjusted diplomatically. The Spanish Government paid an indemnity for the American subjects shot with General Ryan and Thomas Ryan, and the war cloud blew over. But in Cuba the revolutionists continued their fight for supremacy. For five years — until 1878 — they strove against terrible odds in the centre of the island and in the mountains. At last they saw that the lack of arms and supplies, and of money to purchase either, had made the struggle a hopeless one, and they decided to make peace. Deceptive Promises made by Spain. A treaty was signed, by which Spain granted the native Cubans cer- tain liberties, promised to reform their administration in some measure, and recognized the freedom of all the slaves who had fought in the Cuban army. It had been a long and desperate fight. Quesada had been suc- ceeded as general-in-chief by General Thomas Jordan, formerly General Beauregard's chief of staff, and a West Pointer. He lent much strength to the cause, but abandoned it as hopeless after a year's campaigning in the face of overwhelming odds, and with a few arms and scant supplies. After him came Agramonte, but he died in a year, and then, when the rebel cause seemed to be prospering, General Gomez took command. He invaded the western part of the island, and almost reached Matanzas, but he, too, saw that he could not gain ground with unarmed men, and withdrew his forces. That was in 1876, and from that time the revolution waned until the treaty of El Zanjon in February, 1878. Still there was not entire quiet. In the east end of Cuba General Maceo refused to recognize the treaty, and continued to fight for eleven months, only to fail in the end and be driven from Cuban soil. The treat}^ concessions were by no means liberal enough to maintain order for any length of time. In 1889 General Garcia tried again. He had been captured in Cuba in 1875, and sent to a fortress in Spain. He shot himself while in prison, but the bullet failed, and when he recovered he made his escape and reached the United States. Here he conferred with Jose Marti, President of the Cuban revolution- ary party, 1895-96, and they planned another expedition to Cuba. They 442 CUBA AND HER STRUGGLE FOR FREEDOM. landed and held their ground for six months, only to find that the country was not ripe for revolt. The Cubans, weary of continual turmoil and bloodshed, longed for quiet. At last Garcia was captured and sent once more to Spain. From this time dates the Autonomist party, started by a group of men who maintained that experience would not justify further attempts to gain freedom for Cuba by force of arms, and that the island's hope lay in peaceful measures alone. The party gained a footing very rapidly ; indeed, its existence and doctrine had much to do with the failure of General Garcia. The Spirit of Liberty Breaks Forth Again. Despite the efforts of the peace party, however, there were revolutionist leaders who were ready to try again. In 1884 Generals Gomez and Maceo visited the United States and Central America, with a view of preparing for another invasion. The movement was bitterly opposed by the Home- rule party in Cuba, and was abandoned. Small and ill-advised attempts at revolution followed from time to time after that, notably those headed by Ivimbana Sanchez, Benitez and Aguero. The Home-rulers, in the meantime, were attempting to get what con- cessions they could from Spain by peaceful means. In 1890 they became restless again. The peace policy did not prosper. Cuba was growing uneasy again. The concessions, small and unsatisfactory at all times, began to be regarded as sops, which Spain distributed to maintain peace. They gave no promise of more liberal treatment in future. Men began to say that the native Cubans were cheated at the polls, and in time their representatives went to the Cortes no more. For fourteen years the Home-rulers, led by such men as Govin Mon- ture, Figueroa, Fernandez, De Castro and Siberga, had made most vigorous fights at the poles, and, notwithstanding Conservative frauds, had sent their best orators to the Si^anish Parliament. It was to no purpose. The Home-rulers spoke to empty benches in Spain, and no party there recog- nized them. They succeeded, nevertheless, in forcing the Conservatives in Cuba to modify their policy, and aided manfully to complete the emanci- pation of the negro, following the Cuban Constitution, which declared that " all men are free." With the Economic party, they forced the govern- ment to celebrate the Spanish- American treaty, without which the fate of the island was sealed. CUBA AND HER STRUGGLE FOR FREEDOM. 443 The Conservatives divided into two groups, one leaning toward union with the Cubans on economic questions, and hoping secretly for the annexation of Cuba by the United States. They were demoralized by the refusals of the Liberals from the polls, the Autonomists having declared that unless the obnoxious suffrage laws, which gave the Spaniards a sure majority at the polls, and disfranchised the Cuban rural population, were abolished, they would never go to Parliament again. The Spanish Liberals really formed the Economist party, to obtain commercial concession, and secure a treaty with the United States, and by joining hands with the Cubans, they forced Spain's hand in the matter. But this, like the other efforts to restore quiet and content, proved a failure. The Cubans complained that in return for the treatj^, and its benefits to the island, Spain imposed new taxes, which more than counter- balanced all the good that had been done. Representatives were sent to the Spanish Parliament again, the Home-rule contingent demanding, as of old, electoral reform suf&cient to guarantee just representation. Preparations for the Coming Conflict. It was then that the Cuban Revolutionary party began to gain prom- inence — the party which drew the sword in 1895 — and asserted boldly that peaceful measures, looking to freedom and equalit}^, had failed, and that Cuba must take up arms again, and drive the Spanish soldiers into the sea. Such talk was dangerous on Cuban soil. Leaders of the party, who were not already in exile, left Cuba, and began to plan from the out- side, to raise money, to stir up the native population by secret agents — in a word, to prepare the island for one grand united effort to be free. While this sentiment was being nursed at home and outside of Cuba, the Peace party was still at work on its own lines. In 1894 the reform wing of the Spaniards joined the Cubans in their fight against the Spanish Conservatives. They secured some reforms, but these, the Cubans sa3^ are a mere farce, as the proposition now being passed upon is the establish- ment of a council in Cuba, in which the Spanish element will predominate. This council was to consist of thirty members, of which fifteen were to be appointed by the crown, and the remainder elected. The method of electing, the Cubans contend, would insure a majority for the Spaniards, and, in any event the council might be dissolved at pleasure by the Captain- General, Callejas. The Cubans want universal suffrage and have been 444 CUBA AND HER STRUGGLE FOR FREEDOM. unable to secure it, as the Spaniards Have insisted upon them having certain property qualifications. On the 14tli of March, 1895, Marti and Gomez, the Cuban exiles, with a handful of companions, landed at Baracoa, on the eastern coast of Cuba, and proclaimed the republic. The effect of this bold move was instanta- neous. The news spread from end to end of the island, and although the friends of Cuba thought the moment ill-timed, hundreds of sympathizers flocked to the patriot standard. Like a prairie fire before a brisk breeze, the single spark of insurrection fired the dry tinder of the oppressed Cubans, and the rebellion grew in volume as it flew westward. This is not Spain's first experience of the temper of her colony. For the past seventy years conspiracy, insurrection, rebellion, and red war have followed one another in endless progression. A few words will suffice to explain the cause leading up to the conflict of 1895-96. Early History of Cuba. Cuba became a possession of Spain by the right of discovery on Colum- bus' second voyage. He named it Juana, after the son of Ferdinand and Isabella, and it has successively been known as Juana, Fernandina, Santiago, Ave Maria and Cuba, the latter being the native name of the Queen of the Antilles. It was colonized by Spain, and its early history is a series of sacks and ravages by Buropean foes. Not until the rule of Captain- General Las Casas, beginning 1790, did prosperity begin. Under his guidance agriculture and commerce flourished, and the con- dition of the native population was ameliorated. The effect of his sagacious rule was felt for over thirty years, and when Napoleon deposed the royal family of Spain, every member of the Cabildo took oath to preserve the island for their monarchy, and, going even further, they declared war against the French conqueror. This much to show the instinctive feeling of the colony toward the mother country. Spanish coffers were empty with the restoration of the Bourbons in the person of Ferdinand VII., and Spain's mistress looked with hungry eyes upon the rich island with her 1800 miles of seacoast, gemmed with pros- perous ports and her plantations of indigo, sugar, tobacco and fruit. It was Fortunata's purse wherein Spain might dip her fingers and forever find it full to overflowing. With this discovery came oppressive taxation. With the gradual impoverishment of Spain came added demands. Then the CUBA AND HER STRUGGLE FOR FREEDOM. 445 deprivation of all civil, political and religious liberty and the exclusion of" Cubans from all public stations, and in order to enforce this the Cubans were taxed to support a standing army and navy — their gaolers. With their oppression came their desire for liberty. In 1829 the Black Eagle conspiracy arose. The purpose of this was to throw off the Spanish yoke. It was suppressed, but was followed in 1840 by an insurrection of the colored population. After smouldering and blazing for awhile the fires of insurrection were smothered only to break out eight years later in a genuine conspiracy of the Cubans under the leadership of Narciso Lopez. This rebellion was quelled and Lopez fled. In 1850 he landed in Cuba with 600 men from the United States. He made a third attempt in 1851, and together with most of his companions, was captured and executed by the Spanish authorities. Oppression Resulting from Heavy Taxes. The Reformist party, which sprang up at this time, succeeded in getting an inquiry of the abuses at Madrid, with the result, however, of increased taxation. In 1868 the Advance party in Cuba rose in the district of Bayamo, and on October 10, 1868, signed a declaration of independence at Manzanillo. Their first successes were so great that almost all the Spanish- American republics recognized the insurgents as belligerents. After a war of ten years, that was confined to the mountainous regions east of the town of Puerto Principe, the rebellion was put down. To confine it to that locality the Spanish troops built a great fortified trench, known as La Trocha, across the entire width of the island, in the western portion of the State of Puerto Principe. It was here that Captain-General Campos drew up his forces last summer to prevent the eastward march of the insurgents, who were now heavily reinforced. All during the summer of 1895 the insurgent leaders were organizing their forces and receiving supplies of arms and ammunition. The people were flocking to the standard of revolt, and during October, 1895, Gomez and Maceo, with ease, penetrated the lines of the Spanish captain-general, crossing La Trocha, and causing the regular troops to fall back to a line iust east of Romedios ; the insurgents still pushing on, this was followed by a retreat of Campos to Santa Clara, in the province of Santa Clara, still further west. Gomez and Maceo were now in supreme authority, for Marti died just 446 CUBA AND HER STRUGGLE FOR FREEDOM. as the command started west. This blow to the insurgent cause was more than offset by the character of the people among which they found them- selves. Of all the provinces of Cuba, Santa Clara is the most outspoken and loyal to the cause of liberty ; the ranks of Gomez and Maceo were increased by thousands of volunteers of an intelligence and physical strength superior even to those of Santiago. Horses were procured in abundance, and the bulk of the insurgent army was formed into a speedy and well-equipped cavalry ; they were armed with rifles, and carried with them an abundance of ammunition. Terrible Weapon of the Insurgents. Kach man also carried a machete, which is a long, heavily-weighted iron knife, used by the sugar planters to cut the cane, and by all travelers to open up paths through the heavy tropical underbrush ; they are terrible weapons in the hands of the Cubans, and the Spanish troops fear them more than the rifles. The insurgents took no supply train with them. A stray pig or fowl supplied them with supper, while an ox meant dinner for a company. Thus prepared they turned their faces toward the setting sun and Havana. All this while Campos, the Spanish general, was " concentrating," according to the official dispatches. In other words he was drawing dead lines across the island at points where he announced that he would bring the insurgents to a pitched battle. Each successive dead-line was further west than the one preceding it. And each time the insurgents slipped by the troops, leaving a harried country behind them. Railroads, bridges and roads were destroyed ; plantations burned and store-houses empty. The troops, under the spur of necessity, followed as rapidly as possible, leaving the insurgents in possession of the country to the east. In this way not only did the Cubans make this remarkable march westward, but they garrisoned it. In Santiago the insurgents kept the Spanish forces in the fortified cities, and in a short time two large expedi- tions successfully landed at that end of the island. One, armed with can- non, fired upon and crippled the " Nueva Espana," of the Spanish navy, while such leaders as Rabi, Martinez and Aguirre were fighting as valiantly there as Gomez and Maceo in the province of Matanzas. Similar reports came from Puerto Principe and Santa Clara, showing that the insurgents had complete control of the interior of these provinces. CUBA AND HER STRUGGLE FOR FREEDOM. 447 But Campos claimed that it was his plan to get the insurgents between his forces and Havana and crush them as a nut is crushed in a nut-cracker. Then came decisive attacks by the insurgents. Campos was driven from pillar to post, changing his headquarters from Santa Clara to Cien- fuegos, from Cienfuegos to Palmillas, from Palmillas to Colon, from Colon to Jovellanos, from Jovellanos to Limonare, from Limonare to Guanabana, and from Guanabana to Havana, where he was feted as a conqueror by the Spanish authorities, and where he received telegrams of congratulation from the Queen Regent of Spain and her Prime Minister. The Insurgent General Threatens Havana. Just prior to this noisy welcome, namely on December 24, 1895, Gen- eral Maximo Gomez, at the head of 12,000 men, by a feint, turned the flank of the Spanish commander at Colon, and passing the sleepy old seaport of Matanzas, marched straight on to a point only fifty miles from Havana, Campos with all his 80,000 picked Spanish troops, to the contrary notwith- standing. Christmas and New Year's passed and the insurgents were still there, marching and countermarching in three columns, holding Spain at bay, and waiting for additional supplies of ammunition and arms be- fore pushing on. The grave question now was what the insurgents would do ? Havana was in an agony of suspense and preparing for a siege. The loyalt}^ of the citizens was questionable, as well as that of the Grande Civil, or local militia. Campos and all his troops seemed unable to cope with the situa- tion. It was believed that should the insurgents push on and take Havana the defeat of Spain and the liberty of Cuba would arrive. The next move on the part of Spain was to recall General Campos^ his campaign in Cuba having proved a failure. He was replaced by Gen- eral Weyler, whose tyrannous policy and barbarous cruelties, when pre- viously commanding the Spanish forces in the island, are well known. The steamer " Alfonso XIII." arrived at Havana February lOth^ 1896, having on board General Valeriano Weyler, the new Captain- General of Cuba; Nicolau, Marquis of Tenerifife; and Generals Enrique^ Barges, Ferderico Ochando, Miguel Melquiso, Marinues Ahumada, Luis Castelloi, Sanchez Bernal and Juan Arolas, the latter being the hero of Jolo, Philippine Islands. The entire city was brilliantly decorated in honor of the occasion^ 448 CUBA AND HER STRUGGLE FOR FREEDOM. and the bay was a splendid sight, all the warships and merchant craft present being decorated with bunting. The wharves were crowded with people at an early hour, and all the steamers and tugs were loaded with sightseers. The Chamber of Commerce, the Bourse, all the big commer- cial houses and government departments, the Canarian Association, Gen- eral Weyler's countrymen and others, crowded upon the chartered steamers or about the landing-place. The troops and volunteers were turned out to a man, together with the fire department and police, and for a long time no such brilliant display had been witnessed in Havana. Among the high military officers present were Generals Suarez Valdez, Pando, Marin and Navarro, Admiral Yanas and staff. Colonel Castanedo, Major Moriano and many others. Welcome to the New Captain-General. General Weyler was welcomed by the City Council on board the ^' Alfonso XIII." He was presented with an address of welcome and assurance of loyalty. At 11 o'clock the Captain-General came ashore and was received by General Marin and staff. The streets were packed with people, who displayed the greatest enthusiasm. In fact, rarely has a dis- tinguished person been received so warmly as was General Weyler when he landed. There is no doubt that considerable real enthusiasm was manifested, in addition to the greetings which would naturally be bestowed npon the representative of Spain. The advent of Weyler produced no perceptible change in the situation. The insurgents continued to land arms and ammunition secretly, and to carry on their peculiar mode of warfare. No great battles were fought, and in the majority of the skirmishes the Spanish troops were successful, it being apparently the policy of the rebels to worry and harass their enemy instead of coming to open conflict. It was the history of Cuban insurrection repeated — a work of devastation, a scattered warfare, an attempt by Spanish troops to rout or capture the insurgents, yet without success. Spain maintained a large army in Cuba which seemed to be incapable of bringing order out of confusion. The most important events affecting the Cuban cause in 1897 were the deaths of the famous Cuban Generals, Jose and Antonio Maceo, both of whom were killed in battle. Each was a tower of strength to the cause of independence in Cuba, and with their death it was believed in Spanish CUBA AND HER STRUGGLE FOR FREEDOM. 449 circles tHat a fatal blow had been struck to tlie cause of the independence of the island. It is not surprising that there was great joy both in Havana and Madrid when it was reported that Antonio Maceo had fallen on the field of battle. The report was, however received with reserve, as this was the sixth time in which he had been reported killed. His ability to rise from death appeared to be like that of the fabled Phoenix, which sprang from its own ashes, and spread its wings with renewed youth and vigor. Soon the question agitated two continents: "Is Maceo really dead?" It was finally admitted that the great leader had come to an untimely death. Rejoicing over Maceo's Death. General Weyler, who was absent from Havana when Maceo's death was reported, immediately returned, arriving at half-past five in the after- noon. He rode into the city on horseback, accompanied by two squadrons of cavalry. His coming had been made known to the public, and large crowds gathered to welcome him. He was given a popular ovation from the time he reached the city limits until he arrived at the palace. At some places along the route, girls strewed flowers in his pathway, and he was in other ways treated as a popular hero. The peculiar methods of warfare adopted by the Cuban insurgents led General Weyler to construct his famous barricade, known as the trocha. It has not been the plan of the Cuban army ever to risk a great battle against the immense army of Spain, for the reason that they were much fewer in number, and, for a long time, were but poorly equipped with arms and ammunition. Still, with their cavalry and scattered bands, they were able to occupy a large part of the island, and even to threaten the city of Havana. General Weyler's plan was to construct a trocha, extending from a point on the north coast to the southern coast, thus dividing a small part of the island from the remainder. The western section, known as the Province of Pinar del Rio, could then, it was thought, be pacified, and the insurgents driven out. It would be impossible for them to pass the trocha, and they could be pursued and captured. The reader will be interested in a description of this formidable barricade. The trocha is a cleared space, 150 to 200 yards wide, which stretches through what is apparently an impassable jungle for fifty miles. The 29 450 CUBA AND HER STRUGGLE FOR FREEDOM. trees, whicli liave been cut down in clearing this passage-way, have been piled up at each side of the cleared space, and laid in parallel rows, form- ing a barrier of tree trunks and roots and branches higher than a man's head. It would take a man some time to pick his way over these barriers, and a horse could no more do it than it could cross a jam of floating logs in a river. The object was to make the obstacles insurmountable to the GENERAL WEYLER's TROCHA ACROSS THE ISLAND OF CUBA. insurgent cavalry, and to armed bodies of infantry, presenting an effectual check upon the transportation of artillery, and in fact upon all their offensive movements. Between the fallen trees lies the single track of the military railroad, and on one side of that are the line of forts, and a few feet beyond them a maze of barbed wire. Beyond the barbed wire again is the other barrier of fallen trees, and the jungle. In its unfinished state, this is not an insurmountable barricade. Gomez crossed it by daylight with 600 men, and with but the loss of twenty-seven killed, and as many wounded. Where it has been completed, it is almost impossible to cross it, except at the sacrifice of a great loss of life. CUBA AND HER STRUGGLE FOR FREEDOM. 451 The forls are of three kinds. They are best described as the forts, the block-houses and the little forts. A big fort consists of two stories, with a cellar below, and a watch-tower above. It is made of stone and adobe, and it is painted a glaring white. One of these is placed at intervals of every half mile along the trocha, and on a clear day the sentry in the watch- tower of each can see the three forts on either side. Midway between the big forts, at a distance of a quarter of a mile from each, is a block-house of two stories, with the upper story of wood, overhanging the lower foundation of mud. These are placed at right angles to the railroad, instead of facing it, as do the forts. Between each block-house and each fort are three little forts of mud and planks, surrounded by a ditch. They look something like a farmer's ice-house, as we see them at home, and they are about as hot inside as the other is cold. They hold five men, and are within hailing distance of one another. Back of them are three rows of stout wooden stakes, with barbed wire stretching from one row to the other, interlacing and crossing and running in and out above and below, like an intricate cats' cradle of wire. Barbed Fences and Strong Forts. One can judge how closely knit it is by the fact that to every twelve yards of posts there are four hundred and fifty yards of barbed fencing. The forts are most completely equipped in their way, and twelve men in the jungle would find it quite easy to keep twelve men securely imprisoned in one of them for an indefinite length of time. The walls are about twelve feet high with a cellar below and a vault above the cellar. The roof of the vault forms a platform, around which the four walls rise to the height of a man's shoulder. There are loopholes for rifles in the sides of the vault and where the platform joins the walls. These latter allow the men in the fort to fire down almost directly upon the head of any one w^ho might rush up close to the wall of the fort, and where, without these holes in the floor, it would be impossible to fire on him except by leaning far over the rampart. Above the platform is an iron or zinc roof, supported by iron pillars, and in the centre of this is the watch-tower. The only approach to the fort is by a movable ladder, which hangs over the side like the gangway of a ship of war, and which can be raised by those on the inside by means of a rope suspended over a wheel in the roof. The opening in the wall at 452 CUBA AND HER STRUGGLE FOR FREEDOM. the liead of the ladder is closed at the time of an attack by an iron plat- form, to which the ladder leads, and which also can be raised by a pulley. The Spanish hope to have calcium lights in the watch-towers of the forts with sufficient power to throw a search-light over a quarter of a mile, or to the next block-house, and so light the trocha by night as well as day. With their immense army it would not be difficult to do this. A Forraidable Barrier. As a further protection against the insurgents the Spaniards have distributed a number of bombs along the trocha. These are placed at those points in the trocha where the jungle is less thickly grown, and where the insurgents might be expected to pass. Each bomb is fitted with an explosive cap, and five or six wares are attached to this and staked down on the ground. Any one stumbling over one of these wires explodes the bomb, and throws a charge of broken iron to a distance of fifty feet. This, in brief, w^as General Weyler's scheme for preventing the insurgents roaming at will from one end of the Island to the other; but to make the plan effective he would have to construct several trochas, which would be an almost impossible task. The length of time required for constructing the trocha, and the necessity of watching it at every point, has led military officers to doubt whether the barricade does not cost more than it is ^vorth. Much excitement ^vas caused throughout the United States by Weyler's imprisonment of American citizens, alleging that they were giving aid and encouragement to the Cuban forces. One of the prisoners, whose case excited universal interest, was Dr. Ricardo Ruiz, who, it was reported, had been murdered in a dungeon at Guanabacoa. He was for five years a resident of Philadelphia, having come from Cuba in 1875, at the time ^hen the former war was rendering the Island a place almost uninhabita- "ble, bringing with him letters of introduction from well-known parties in Cuba. After having practiced his profession of dentistry for two years in Philadelphia he returned to Cuba, but previous to this, after five years' residence in the United States, he secured naturalization papers and became an American citizen. He settled in Guanabacoa, and married a lady to whom he had been engaged before leaving the Island. All accounts go to show that he was a man of peaceable disposition. He was arrested and confined in prison on suspicion of sympathizing CUBA AND HER STRUGGLE FOR FREEDOM. 453 with the insurgents, where he remained two years, when his death was reported. It was claimed by his friends that he had died from violence, and that his imprisonment was illegal, as he had never had an impartial trial. These reports created indignation in the United States, which the Spanish authorities endeavored to allay by affirming that an examination after death showed that Dr. Ruiz died from natural causes. Early in May, 1897, President McKinley sent Hon. W. J. Calhoun, of Illinois, as a special commissioner to Cuba, who was charged primarily with helping Consul-General Lee to investigate the circumstances surround- ing the death of Dr. Albert Ruiz in a Spanish prison. The Spanish gov- ernment was represented by Dr. Congosto, Spanish Consul at Philadelphia. Seeking the Cause of Death. Ruiz died, according to the surgeons, from congestion of the brain, caused by a blow or blows. When General Lee and Mr. Calhoun visited the jail in Guanabacoa, they were shown the cell in which the Spanish say that Ruiz died. The guard explained to General Lee and Air. Cal- houn that he heard thumping on the inside of the door, and when he opened it and went in, Ruiz was running at the heavy door, and butting it with his head. Ruiz had only one wound on the top of his head. Had he butted this door, as the jailor says he did, his scalp must necessarily have been lacerated in several places. The American representatives decided that they would not ask a single question of the guards if they are called, feeling it absurd to waste time on them under the circumstances. Dr. Congosto was told plainly that the testimony of these men would not be received in any court in the United States, unless they were prisoners, and chose to speak in their own defence. The Americans asked for the official record of the arrest of Ruiz, and the charges made against him. Dr. Congosto said that the record was in Madrid. It was not furnished. The Spanish and American officials came to no agreement concerning the cause of death. Almost immediately came a report that another American citizen had been sentenced to imprisonment for life, and that, too, in direct violation of our treaty wath Spain, which has been in operation for a hundred years, and, therefore, has all the sanction of time-honored precedent. This treaty specifies the tribunal before which a person charged with treason shall be tried, and it was maintained that the provisions of the compact had been 454 CUBA AND HER STRUGGLE FOR FREEDOM. unjustly set aside through, the operation of martial law, by which General Weyler was attempting to govern Cuba. The Committee on Foreign Relations in the United States Senate passed a resolution demanding the immediate release of Julio Sanguilly, who had been sentenced to life imprisonment. Hot words were uttered on the floor of the Senate, and much bitter feeling was engendered in the debate, which followed the introduction of the resolution. Notwithstanding the request from the State Department to suspend action in the case for a few days, the Senators took the question in their own hands, and proceeded to act. A multitude of eager listeners were present. Animated Debate in the United States Senate. Senator Daniel, of Virginia, took the floor in behalf of the adoption of the resolution. He said : " Two years ago yesterday Julio Sanguilly, an American citizen, was thrown into prison. Two years have gone by, and this government has done practically nothing for this citizen. Great Britain Avould have released him as soon as one of her battleships could reach Havana. He has been brutally treated and condemned on unsworn testi- mony before military tribunals ; this country and all civilization having been disgraced by the treatment meted out to this unfortunate man. Every citizen of this country would have patriotically applauded the President if he had sent a fleet of American battleships and compelled the release of this American citizen, whose country has been insulted by the treatment accorded to him and to our representative in Cuba." Senator Gray, of Delaware, said he was informed that Sanguilly's coun- sel had withdrawn his appeal to Madrid in order to facilitate his release. Thereupon, with increased force and manifestly increased anger, Senator Daniel said : " If that is true it is a humiliation to the United States that one of her citizens has been compelled by sickness and poverty, and delay on the part of this government, to withdraw his appeal for justice in order to secure his release from prison. It means that he has concluded that the United States has abandoned her citizen, her legal child, and that he des- pairs of justice. His appeal should not be withdrawn. The people of this country should compel his unconditional release." It was at this point that Senator Frye, of Maine, electrified the Senate by saying : "If Sanguilly's counsel has withdrawn the appeal of his client, he has done an unjust act which is inexcusable. For, by that withdrawal, CUBA AND HER STRUGGLE FOR FREEDOM. 456 he leaves Sanguilly a convicted criminal, liable to imprisonment for life, and surrenders for Sanguilly and for his family all claims for damages against Spain. He surrenders all that Spain has contended for. Here we are contending that Sanguilly has been unjustly treated, and that all inter- national law has been violated in his case when his discouraged counsel withdraws his appeal for justice. If I had my way a ship of war would start immediately to Havana and deliver him." The outbreak in the galleries was such as has not been paralleled in years. They were filled with Daughters of the American Revolution, and they would not be quieted. Messengers and doorkeepers warned tliem, and finally had to force some of them into their seats that order might be restored. Their strong sympathy for Cuba was much in evidence. Order for the Prisoner's Release. Later in the day it was announced that the government at Madrid, concluding that discretion was sometimes better than valor, had ordered General Weyler to release Sanguilly. This had a tendency to somewhat allay the excitement, yet a very uneasy feeling and excited state of the public mind was apparent, which a breath might inflame into a wild burst of indignation. General Sanguilly soon arrived at Key West. He was made a cripple by the former war, and he now appeared to be in an enfeebled condition. Before he descended the gang-plank he was lifted up on the shoulders of friends and conveyed to a carriage. In reply to a request for a speech, he said he was too fatigued after a rough sea voyage, but thanked his country- men for the hearty welcome accorded, which he did not take for himself, but, he said, as an evidence of the loyalty to the cause dear to the heart of every Cuban. On March 1st the President transmitted to Congress important dispatches from Consul-General Lee, including telegrams relating to the case of Charles Scott. These awakened unusual interest in the Senate. On February 20th Mr. Lee telegraphed as follows to the State Department : " Charles Scott, a citizen of the United States, arrested at Regla, No charge given. He has been without communication in jail at Havana 264 hours. I cannot stand another Ruiz murder, and have demanded his release. How many war vessels at Kej'- West or within reach, and will they be ordered here at once if necessary to sustain demand ? " 456 CUBA AND HER STRUGGLE FOR FREEDOM. On the 23d General Lee said in a cable message: "Situation simple. Experience at Guanabacoa made it my duty to demand, before too late, tliat another American who has been incommunicado (without communica- tion with friends) 264 hours, be released from said incommunicado, and did so in courteous terms. If you support it and Scott is so released, the trouble will terminate. If you do not I must depart. All others arrested with Scott have been put in communication. Why should the only Ameri- can in the lot not be? He has been incommunicado now 338 hours." Later on the same day, the 23d of February, Mr. Lee wired: "Demand complied with. Scott released from incommunicado to-day, on demand, after fourteen days' solitary confinement in cell five feet by eleven, damp, water on bottom of cell. Not allowed anything to sleep on or chair. Was charged with having Cuban postage stamps in the house. Scott says he went always twelve hours without water; once two days. He was an employee of the American Gas Company." General Lee's determination to see that every American citizen in Cuba should have his rights fully protected, met with a hearty response from all classes of the American people. The Cuban General Rivera. The veteran, who succeeded General Antonio Maceo in the command of the Cuban forces in the province of Pinar del Rio, was General Ruiz Rivera, and was born in Puerto Rico in 1847. General Rivera was the son of a wealthy Spanish family; his father was a Spanish colonel. Young Rivera was sent to Spain to be educated as a lawyer. When the revolu- tion of 18G8 broke out he was studying law in Barcelona; he gave up his college career and sailed for Cuba. Rivera fought valiantly ; he displayed at the head of his troops remark- able ability. When the ten years were ended, in 1878, he stood out with Maceo in his refusal to accept the terms of the treaty. He left the island without surrendering, and before going he handed his machete to Colonel Figueredo, his faithful friend, with this injunction: "This is my true weapon. If I ever return to Cuba to fight for her freedom, you shall return it to me. If you ever fight with it, and are forced to surrender or leave the fields of Cuba, break it in twain and bury it. Let it never fall into the hands of the enemy." Rivera saw the war renewed sixteen years after; as soon as he was CUBA AND HER STRUGGLE FOR FREEDOM. 457 called to his post he left Honduras, where he was prosperous in business ; he took an expedition to Maceo, which materially strengthened the patriots in the west. His long experience and his splendid qualifications made him conspicuous. He was a man of great personal magnetism, and a natural successor to his life-long companion, General Antonio Maceo. It was the fate of General Rivera soon to be captured, the story of which is dramatic. General Hernandez Velasco left San Cristobal under secret orders at noon March 18th, with the Castillo Reina battalion and two field pieces and pitched his camp amid the Brujito Hills. The insurgents attacked the regulars from the very outset of the advance. The Spanish column marched upon Perico Pozo, where General Ruiz Rivera awaited them in a strongly entrenched position. The result of the engagement that ensued was the defeat of the insurgents and the capture of General Rivera. Rivera opened fire immediately on seeing the head of the column. Colonel Jose Roco advanced with the extreme vanguard, Major Sanchez Bernal leading another division under the protection of artillery, which shelled the trenches held by Rivera, who was already wounded in the thigh. Capture of the Insurgent Leader. One company of the cavalry galloped forward, capturing the trenches and seizing as prisoners five men who lay severely mutilated by the shells. Colonel Bacallao, on learning that Rivera had been wounded, hurried to the trenches, and begged the soldiers not to kill him. Rivera and Colonel Bacallao were taken into the presence of General Velasco, who shook hands with Rivera and introduced him to the officers of his staff, giving instruc- tions that the first thing to be done was to give him surgical relief. Lieutenant Terry and Colonel Bacallao were also wounded in a fight at the same place on March 15th. The Castillo battalion secured important documents as well as the arms and money of General Ruiz Rivera. The money consisted mostly of American gold coin. A number of splendid watches were left with General Velasco. The villagers of San Cristobal, who went out to receive the small column of Spanish troops, enthusiastically cheered the victors. General Rivera, who remained quietly in prison, eulogized the escort of Spanish soldiers. He said the troops treated him with the greatest consideration. He also said the families of the insurgents in the camp of the Cubans were in a critical situation. They suffered greatly from 458 CUBA AND HER STRUGGLE FOR FREEDOM. hunger, aud were compelled to go out in search of vegetables whenever it was possible to avoid the Spanish troops. The insurgents were well supplied with meat, but had no spices. General Rivera would say nothing concerning the war or Cuban politi- cal matters. When asked his name by General Velasco, Rivera replied, and made the following request: "Give me the honors of war, and stretch out to me your hand." Rivera afterwards conversed with some of the chief of&cers, and offered them tips for services rendered. Velasco, noticing this, said: "Soldiers need not money, but honor, which they have." One of the shells exploded in the insurgent camp, wounding many members of Rivera's staff. Rivera himself received a Mauser ball, which caused three serious wounds in the thigh. The moment the Spanish infantry entered the trenches Colonel Bacallao raised General Rivera on his shoulders as if to carry him off. After his capture General Rivera, speaking of the Spanish soldiers, said: "They have treated me very care- fully." He complained much of the pain of his wounds. Congratulations from the Queen of Spain. Captain-General Weyler received the news of Rivera's capture at Cien- fuegos, where the intelligence was loudly cheered. The Captain-General was described as " satisfied " with the result, and received cablegrams of congratulations from the Spanish Minister of War and the Spanish Premier, who congratulated him in the name of the Queen of Spain. Lieutenant Henry Terry died from his wounds. He was a naturalized American. The long-standing case of Cuba again came to the front in the United States on May 17th. President McKinley gave the first indication of his policy by a special message asking Congress to appropriate $50,000 for the relief of suffering Americans in Cuba. The President's message read thus: " Official information from our Consuls in Cuba establishes the fact that a large number of American citizens in the island are in a state of desti- tution, suffering for want of food and medicines. This applies particularly to the rural districts of the central and eastern parts. "The agricultural classes have been forced from their farms into the nearest towns, where they are without work or money. The local authori- ties of the several towns, however kindly disposed, are unable to relieve the needs of their own people, and are altogether powerless to help our citizens. The latest report of Consul-General Lee estimates that 600 to CUBA AND HER STRUGGLE FOR FREEDOM. ■ 459 800 are without means of support. I have assured him that provision would be made at once to relieve them. To that end I recommend that Congress make an appropriation of not less than $50,000, to be immediately available for use under the direction of the Secretary of State. "It is desirable that a part of the sum which may be appropriated by Congress should, in the discretion of the Secretary of State, also be used for the transportation of American citizens who, desiring to return to the United States, are without means to do so.'' Two phases of the subject were presented. First came the question of relief to destitute and starving Americans in Cuba. This was presented in the President's message as soon as the session opened. Immediately following the reading of the message, Mr. Davis, Chairman of the Com- mittee on Foreign Relations, presented a favorable report on the joint resolution originally introduced by Mr. Gallinger, appropriating $50,000 for the relief of American citizens in Cuba. There was only one brief speech — from Mr. Gallinger — and then the resolution went through by unanimous vote, there being no response to the call for nays. It took exactly eighteen minutes for the reading of the message, the presentation of the committee report, the brief speech and the final passage of the resolution. Spirited Speeches on the Cuban Question. The second phase of the Cuban subject came tip in the Senate when the Morgan resolution, declaring that a state of war exists in Cuba, was taken up. Mr. Wellington, the new Senator from Maryland, came forward for his initial speech in the Senate, making a vigorous protest against the resolution, on the ground that it threatened war with Spain. He said the first duty of Congress was to pass the tariff bill. The senator condemned "jingoism," and gave his endorsement to President Cleveland's conservatism on the Cuban question. Senator Daniel, of Virginia, said the Senator from Maryland (Wel- lington) had " taken a shot at creation " while presumably discussing the pending resolution. He had gone into the tariff, currency, the late and the present administrations in their various ramifications. Mr. Daniel asserted that the Maryland Senator entirely misapprehended the resolution in declaring that it involved hostility to Spain. In sarcastic tones Mr. Daniel referred to Mr. Wellington's statement, that some debt of gratitude existed, because Spain had produced Christopher Columbus. " It were 460 CUBA AND HER STRUGGLE FOR FREEDOM. better had there been no Columbus," said Mr. Daniel, " if America was to continue a savagery that prevailed here before the country was discovered." The Senator then took up the legal questions involved in the recognition of belligerency. After concluding his legal argument on the powers of Congress and the President, Mr. Daniel branched to the general subject of Cuba, and again aroused the keenest attention by his vigorous words. The diplomacy of Spain had succeeded for two and one-half years, he said, in blinding American diplomacy in the belief that war did not exist in Cuba. But the world knew that war existed there, high-handed, red-handed, bloody, cruel war. It is a war in which Spain employs more troops than England employed in seeking to put down the American Revolution. No Act of Hostility toward Spain. And yet. Senators were met with the statement that a recognition of a state of war in Cuba would be inimical to Spain. He denied that the recognition of an existing fact could be construed as a hostile act, but, in any event, the fact should be recognized, and the great influence of the United States thrown toward the cause of civilized and Christian usage. It might subject some American vessels to search, but this would be a small matter compared with the results achieved. It might give Spain a right to blockade Cuba, but in that Spain would suffer more than the United States. " It is said this means war," continued Mr. Daniel. " I deny it. If Spain should declare war against us, because we recognized the belliger- ency of her former subjects, who had carried on a war for two and one-half years, she would have an unjust cause of complaint and war against us, and we will have a just cause of complaint and war against her. I do not wish to see the American people involved in war. I look upon war as one of the greatest calamities that can befall a people. But it is a greater calamity for the high public spirit of a great nation to be so deadened that it can look upon murder and arson and pillage with indif- ference, and for the public spirit of that nation to be so dead as to delay one instant in doing an act of justice because of fear of war." During the debate. Senator Mason, of Illinois, made a bold, patriotic and eloquent speech, denouncing Spanish atrocities in Cuba. The inhuman barbarities inflicted upon innocent people, the savage attacks made upon CUBA AND HER STRUGGLE FOR FREEDOM. 461 them, and their expulsion from their own homes, condemned to suffering and starvation, were depicted in burning language. Among other things, he said : " Here is the proof in the communication of the President, stating that 800 citizens of the United States have been driven from their homes, and are destitute. Who forced them there ? Was it the insurgents ? Then, there is war in Cuba. Was it the Spaniards ? Then, if there is no war, there ought to be, and with us. Eight hundred Americans driven from home starving, and still some Senators say it is not much of a war." Excitement in the Senate Chamber. Again and again the galleries broke into loud applause, as the sturdy Senator expressed in eloquent terms the feeling of the American people. The excitement was at white heat ; handkerchiefs waved ; cheers burst forth that could not be repressed. Senator Foraker, of Ohio, produced an unpublished letter of Secretary Olne}'-, addressed to the Spanish Government in April, 1896, in which the President offered to Spain the mediation of the United States to brmg the war to a close, which was firmly refused b}^ the Spanish Government, who stated, through their minister at Washington, that there was no effectual way to pacify the Cubans, except upon the condition that the}^ should first submit to the mother country. Mr. Foraker's speech was delivered with much warmth and earnestness. Several of his well-rounded periods, in which sympathy was expressed with the struggling Cubans, and in which the cruelties and barbarities of the Spanish military forces were denounced, called forth demonstrations from the galleries. The Morgan resolution declared : " That a condition of public war exists between the Government of Spain and the Government proclaimed, and for some time maintained by force of arms, by the people of Cuba, and that the United States of America shall maintain a strict neutrality between the contending parties, according to each all the rights of belligerents in the ports and territory of the United States." The resolution received in its favor the votes of 18 Republicans, 19 Democrats, and 4 Populists ; 12 Republicans and 2 Democrats voted against it — a total vote of 41 to 14. Meanwhile the struggle in Cuba went on with varying success. The efforts of the Spanish army of 200,000 men were unequal to the subjuga- 462 CUBA AND HER STRUGGLE FOR FREEDOM. tion of tlie insurgents. On July 28, 1897, Havana's outposts were again attacked by a large body of insurgents, who, before the Spanish troops could be gathered to resist, had swept through the suburbs, carrying all before them. They used rapid-firing guns and a large quantity of dyna- mite. There was an inclination among the Spanish ofiicials in Havana to deny the fact that Cubans had invaded the forts and swept into Havana limits, yet the path left by the insurgents through the suburbs southeast of the city could be plainly traced. At the first sounds of firing the Spanish soldiers in the city and suburbs sprang to arms. They proceeded hurriedly to the southeastern part of the city, from where the rattle of musketry, followed by the boom of heavy guns or dynamite, could be heard plainly all over Havana. Then the sound of firing increased, and finally, after a few hours, died away, showing that the insurgents had retired. Several wounded Spanish soldiers were brought into Havana and removed to hospitals after the engagement, and it was reported that several were killed. The reticence of Spanish officials prevented any knowledge of the result of the attack becoming general. It is a fact, however, that great damage was done by the insurgents on their bold raid, and that a con- siderable quantity of dynamite was used. There was great excitement in Havana during the attack. Hundreds, aroused by the heavy firing, poured into the streets, and the word passed along, " The rebels have attacked the city !" created almost a panic in some quarters. This attack on Havana was not unexpected. For weeks past the rebels had been within sight of the capital, and had practically moved without interference. Captain-General Weyler left Havana for Matanzas, and the belief was expressed that the knowledge by the insurgents of this intention on his part led to the attack. CHAPTER XLI. STORY OF HAWAII )HH Hawaiian Islands, the most important group in tlie North Pacific, were discovered early by the Spaniards, according to tradition, and were rediscovered by Captain Cook in 1778. He was received by the natives with many demonstrations of aston- ishment and delight ; and offerings and prayers were presented to him by their priest in one of the temples ; and though in the following year he was killed by a native when he landed at Hawaii, his bones were preserved by the priest and continued to receive offerings and homage from the people until the abolition of idolatry. At the time of Cook's visit each island had its chief. On the death of the chief who ruled Hawaii at that time there succeeded one named Kamehameha, who appears to have been a man of quick perception and great force of character. When Vancouver visited the island in 1792, this chief being desirous of possessing a vessel on the European model, the keel of one was laid down for him. Ten or twelve years later IMr. Turn- bull found him with twenty vessels of from twenty-five to fifty tons, Avhich traded amongst the islands, and he afterward purchased others from for- eigners. Having encouraged a warlike spirit in his people and introduced firearms, Kamehameha attacked and overcame the chiefs of the other islands one after another, until he finally became the undisputed master of the whole group. He encouraged trade with foreigners, and derived from its profits a large increase of revenue as well as the means of consolidating his power. He died in 1819 and was succeeded by his son, a mild and well-disposed prince, but destitute of his father's energy. One of the first acts of Kame- hameha II. was to abolish idolatry throughout the islands. Some disturb- ances were caused thereby, but the insurgents were defeated and the peace of the islands continued for a long time. In 1820 missionaries arrived from America and commenced their labors at Honolulu. A short time afterwards the British Government presented a 463 464 STORY OF HAWAII. small schooner to the king, and this afforded an opportunity for the Rev. William Ellis, the well-known English missionary, to visit Honolulu, along with a number of Christian natives from the Society Islands. Finding the language of the two groups nearly the same, Mr. Ellis, who had spent several j^ears in the southern islands, was able to assist the American mis- sionaries in reducing the Hawaiian language to a written form. In 1824 the king and queen of these islands paid a visit to England and both died there of measles. For many years the Hawaiians have continued to advance steadily in intelligence, resources and civilization, but their progress has been at times interrupted by the conduct of the officers of foreign powers. On one occa- sion a British officer went so far as to take possession of Oahu and estab- lish a commission for its government ; and French officers abrogated the laws, dictated treaties, and by force of arms established the Roman Catholic religion in the country. The act of the British officer was disavowed by his superiors as soon as known ; and these outrages led to a representa- tion on the part of the native sovereign to the governments of Great Britain, France and the United States of America, and the independence of the islands was guaranteed by these powers in 1844. Kalakaua became the reigning monarch and was elected king by ballot in 1874. A New Ruler of Hawaii. King Kalakaua died in San Francisco, January 20, 1891. His visit to this country was on account of his health. He was a great traveler. He came to this country in 1876, and visited most of the principal cities. It was his travels and extravagance which caused the financial troubles that led to a change in the form of government. Princess Liliuokalani succeeded her brother and became Queen of the Hawaiians. She proved herself to be an erratic and self-willed ruler, and was constantly at variance with her legislators and advisors. Early in February, 1893, the question of the annexation of Hawaii was brought to the attention of Congress, accompanied with news of a revolution in the islands. On January 15th the Queen tried to get the Cabinet to sign a new constitution that disfranchised all foreigners and put the whole government in the hands of the native politicians. The ministers refused, and when threatened by the Queen, fled for their lives. They returned later and induced the Queen to postpone her stratagem. There was a STORY OF HAWAII, 465 public meeting iu front of the palace. The Queen announced the failure of her plans, and a native orator demanded the liv^es of the ministers. Karly in the evening citizens met and formed a committee of public safety. On January 16tli the United States steamship "Boston" landed three hundred men fully armed. They marched to the ofi&ce of the Consul General of the United States. The marines were sent to the American Legation, while the sailors, with two Gatling guns, camped for a time on private grounds. The committee of public safety rapidly completed its organization, and made arrangements for the proclamation of a provisional government and its protection by armed force. Proposed Treaty of Annexation. Commissioners soon arrived in Washington to conduct negotiations with our government with a view of forming a protectorate of the islands or annexing them them to the United States. A treaty of annexation was concluded between Secretary of State Foster, and the commissioners, and on January 21st was transmitted to the United States Senate. No action with a view to annexation was taken by Congress. The treaty was withdrawn by President Cleveland when he came into his second term of office, but was again sent to the Senate by President McKinley soon after his inaugu- ration, on March 4, 1897. The physical aspects of the islands are rugged, uneven, and in many places barren and rocky. Many craters of extinct volcanoes are found in several of the group. The form of the volcano named Mauna Loa, in the island of Hawaii, is a flattened dome, and this is its most remarkable feature. The idea of a volcano is so generally connected with the figure of a cone, that the mind at once conceives of a lofty sugar loaf ejecting fire, red-hot stones, and flowing lavas. But in place of slender walls around a deep crater, which the shaking of an eruption may tumble in, the summit of the Hawaiian volcano is nearly a plane, in which the crater, though six miles in circuit, is like a small quarry hole, the ancient orifice being not less than twenty-four miles in circumference. A violent eruption of Mauna Loa took place in the 3^ear 1843, which is thus described by the Rev. Titus Coan : "On the lOtli of January, just at the dawn of day, we discovered a rapid disgorgement of liquid fire from near the summit of Mauna Loa, at an elevation of about fourteen thousand 30 4G6 STORY OF HAWAII. feet above the sea. This eruption increased from day to day for several weeks, pouring out vast floods of fiery lava, which spread down the side of the mountain, and flowed in broad rivers, throwing a terrific glare upon the heavens, and filling those lofty mountainous regions with a sheen of light. This spectacle continued till the molten flood had progressed twenty or thirty miles down the side of the mountain, with an average breadth of TERRIBLE ERUPTION OF THE HAWAIIAN VOLCANO MAUNA LOA. one and a half miles, and across a high plain which stretches between the bases of Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea. After many weeks another missionary and myself penetrated through a deep forest, stretching between Hilo and the mountain, and reached the molten stream, which we followed to the top of the mountain, and found its source in a vast crater, amidst eternal snow. Down the sides of the moun- tain the lava had now ceased to flow upon the surface ; but it had formed for itself a subterranean duct, at the depth of fifty or one hundred feet. This duct was vitrified, and down this fearful channel a river of fire was rushing at the rate of fifteen or twenty miles an hour, from the summit to STORY OF HAWAII. 467 the foot of the mountain. This subterranean stream we saw distinctly- through several large apertures in the side of the mountain, while the burning flood rushed fearfully beneath our feet. " Our visit was attended with peril and inconceivable fatigue, but we never regretted having made it, and we returned deeply affected with the majesty, the sublimity, the power, and the love of that God who ' looketh on the earth and it trembleth, who toucheth the hills and they smoke; whose presence melteth the hills, and whose look causeth the mountains to flow down.' " What an impressive sight this must have been ! A Volcano with Two Craters. Manna Loa presents the curious feature of having two distinct and seemingly unconnected craters — one on the summit of the mountain, and another on its flanks, at a much lower level. This last is named Kirauea, and is perhaps the most remarkable volcanic crater in the world. It was visited by Mr. Ellis, a missionary to those parts, who has given an account of it in his missionary tour. The approach to it lies over a vast tract completely covered with old lava; and Mr. Ellis describes his visit to it in the following terms : '* The tract of lava resembles in appearance an inland sea, bounded by distant mountains. Once it had certainly been in a fluid state, but appeared as if it had become suddenly petrified, or turned into a glassy stone, while its agitated billows were rolling to and fro. Not only were the large swells and hollows distinctly marked, but in many places the surface of those billows was covered by a smaller ripple, like that observed on the surface of the sea at the springing up of a breeze, or the passing currents of air, which produce what the sailors call a cat's paw. After walking some distance over the ground, which in several places sounded hollow under our feet, we at length came to the edge of the great crater, where a spectacle sublime, and even appalling, presented itself before us. " Immediately before us yawned an immense gulf, in the form of a crescent, about two miles in length, from north-east to south-west ; nearly a mile in width, and apparently 800 feet deep. The bottom was covered with lava, and the south-western and northern parts of it were one vast flood of burning matter, in a state of terrific ebullition, rolling to and fro its fiery surges and flaming billows. Fifty-one conical islands, of varied form and size, containing as many craters, rise either round the edge, or 468 STORY OF HAWAII. from the surface of the burning lake ; twenty-two constantly emitted columns of grey smoke, or pyramids of brilliant flame ; and several of these at the same time vomited from their ignited mouths streams of lava, which rolled in blazing torrents down their black indented sides into the boiling mass below." This great crater was also visited by Messrs. Dana and Wilkes, of the United States' exploring expedition. They describe the light from the glowing lava to be so intense as to form rainbows on the passing rain- THE GRAND MAUNA LOA IN ACTION. clouds. The lava appears almost as liquid as water, and its surface is agitated by waves resembling those of the sea, and breaking, like them, upon the shore formed by the bordering terraces of solid lava. Sometimes they rise to a height of between sixty and seventy feet. The lava, thus tossed into the air, cools in its descent, and falls solidified on the surface of the molten lake, like pieces of broken ice. One peculiarity of this volcano is its tendency to throw out its lava in jets to an enormous height. The lava seems to be first forced up in the interior of the mountain, nearly to the top of the great crater; but, instead of overflowing its brim, it opens a passage through the sides of STORY OF HAWAII. 469 the coue at a considerably lower elevation, so that the pressure of the liquid in the interior forces it from the orifice in a jet, whose height is in proportion to that of the inner column. The lava-jets thrown up from Manna Loa, during a great eruption in 1852, are estimated to have reached a height of 500 feet — those of some later eruptions double that height. The lava, as it ascends, is described as being white-hot ; but, in its descent, it acquires a blood-red tint, and it comes down with a fearful noise. The quantities of lava ejected during some of the recent eruptions have been enormous. One stream is described as having traveled fifty miles, with an average breadth of three miles. A great stream, which burst forth from the side of the mountain in 1855, reached a distance of sixty miles from its source — burning its way through the forests, and advancing at the rate of about a mile in a fortnight, leaving a trail of devastation to mark its course. A Mountain of Fire Belching Flames. In 1859 this volcano was again in vigorous action, throwing up inter- mitting jets of lava to the estimated height of 800 or 1,000 feet. From this great fiery fountain, the lava flowed down in numerous streams, spreading over a width of five or six miles. One stream, probably formed by the junction of several smaller, attained a height of from twenty to twenty-five feet, and a breadth of about an eighth of a mile. Great stones were also thrown up along with the jet of lava, and the volume of smoke, composed probably of fine volcanic dust, is said to have risen to the height of 10,000 feet. An eruption, described as having been of still greater violence, took place in 1865, characterized by similar phenomena, particularly the throw- ing up of jets of lava. This fiery fountain is said to have continued to play without intermission for twenty days and nights, varying only as respects the height to which the jet arose, which is said to have ranged between 100 and 1,000 feet, the mean diameter of the jet being about 100 feet. This eruption was accompanied by explosions so loud as to have been heard at a distance of forty miles. A cone of about 300 feet in height, and about a mile in circumference, was accumulated round the orifice whence the jet ascended. It was composed of solid matters ejected with the lava, and it continued to glow like a furnace, notwithstanding its exposure to the air. The current of lava on this occasion flowed to a dis- 470 STORY OF HAWAII. tauce of thirty-five miles, burning its way through the forests, and filling the air with smoke and flames from the ignited timber. The glare, from the glowing lava and the burning trees together, was discernible by night at a distance of 200 miles from the island. In the early part of 1887 Mauna Loa was again in action, presenting startling spectacles similar to those just described. It is literally a mountain of fire, roaring and thundering, and belching out lurid flames and immense rivers of lava. This is one of the amazing phenomena which have so long rendered the group of the Hawaiian Islands an object of surpassing interest to the whole civilized world. Here we find one of the great breathing places of the inside world, that tremendous furnace upon which we live. What gigantic forces, what red hot, burning materials, what awful abysses of flame and fury this world of ours holds in its deep, mysterious and unknown recesses ! A Strange Superstition of Olden Times. In olden times the Hawaiians believed that in the terrible abode of Mauna Loa dwelt their great goddess " Pel ," who sported with her attend- ant demons among the sulphurous waves. There is a curious deposit found in the crevices of the vast lava-hill below the crater, which is still called "Pele's hair." It is of a yellowish-brown color, like coarse spun glass. During an eruption, when the fire-fountains play to a great height, and the lava is thrown about in all directions, the wind catches it and blows it out in long thin threads, which stick to projecting points, and thus this curious-looking substance is formed. There have been many terrible earthquakes in Hawaii, some of which are remembered by the present inhabitants. In 1868 a series of earthquakes began in the month of March, becoming more frequent and startling from day to day, till, as one lady aptly expressed it, the island quivered like the lid of a boiling pot nearly all the time between the heavier shocks. The trembling was like that of a ship struck by a heavy wave. This state of things lasted for a week, and then came the climax on a lovely April day. The crust of the earth rose and sank like the sea in a storm ; rocks were rent, mountains fell, buildings and their contents were shattered, trees swayed like reeds, animals were scared, and ran about demented; men thought that the judgment had come. The earth opened in thousands of places, the roads in Hilo cracked open, horses and their riders and people STORY OF HAWAII. 471 afoot were thrown violently to the ground ; it seemed as if the rocky ribs of the mountains and the granite walls and pillars of the earth were breaking up. At Kilauea the shocks were as frequent as the ticking of a watch. In Kau, south of Hilo, there were three hundred shocks in one day. An avalanche of red earth burst from the mountain-side, throwing rocks high into the air, swallowing up houses, trees, men and animals; and traveling three miles in as many minutes, burying a hamlet with thirty-one inhabitants and five hundred cattle. The people of the valleys fled to the mountains, which themselves were splitting in all directions ; and collecting on an elevated spot, with the earth reeling under them, they spent the night in prayer and singing. Looking towards the shore, they saw it sink, and at the same moment a wave, whose height was estimated at from forty to sixty feet, hurled itself upon the coast and receded five times, destroying whole villages, and even strong stone houses with a touch, engulfing forever forty-six people who had lingered too near the shore. Boiling Fountains of Lava. After this awful day the earthquakes still continued, and people putting their ears to the ground fancied they could hear the imprisoned lava sea rushing below. After traveling under ground for twenty miles, it burst forth with tremendous force. Four huge fountains boiled up, throwing crim- son lava, and rocks weighing many tons, to a height of one thousand feet. A gentleman, who was near the spot at the time, described the scene in these words: "From these great fountains to the sea flowed a rapid stream of red lava, rolling, rushing, and tumbling, like a swollen river, bearing along in its current large rocks that made the lava foam as it dashed down the precipice, and through the valley into the sea, surging and roaring throughout its length like a cataract, with a power and force perfectly indescribable. It was nothing less than a river of fire, eight hundred feet wide, and twenty deep, with a speed varying from ten to twenty-five miles an hour.'' These descriptions are terrible enough. Considering the awful nature of the volcanic eruptions and earthquakes in Hawaii, however, the destruc- tion of human life does not seem to have been so great as one would have feared would be the case. There were many marvelous escapes from impending death. 472 STORY OF HAWAII. It was at Hawaii that our great navigator, Captain Cook, met with his death — a circumstance as much deplored by the Sandwich Islanders of the present day as by his own countrymen. To Captain Cook is accorded the honor of having discovered these islands, but there are native traditions of much earlier white visitors, and there is no doubt that Spanish navigators landed there in the sixteenth century. However, our first authentic informa- tion about them was brought by Captain Cook, who, with his two ships, the "Resolution" and "Discovery," approached the two most westerly of the islands in January, 1778. Great was the amazement of the first natives who went to examine the ships at what they saw. In those days English seamen used to wear cocked hats; these the Sandwich Islanders thought were a part of their heads, and they described the visitors as having heads "horned like the moon." They stated, moreover, that they had fires burning at their mouths — no doubt meaning cigars — and that they took anything they wanted out of their bodies : such was the general idea conveyed by the civilized institution of pockets. The Natives Thought their Visitors were Gods. All these circumstances, combined with the strange language of the new-comers and the firing of some guns, made the natives come to the conclusion that their visitors were certainly gods. There was a belief in the islands at that time that a certain much-honored god called " Lono " had sailed away in a fit of jealousy and a triangular canoe, having first prophesied that he would return in after times on an island bearing cocoa- nut trees, swine and dogs. Captain Cook's ships, so much larger than their own canoes and with tall masts, now appeared to the natives like floating islands with trees on them, and they made sure that " Lono " was returning to his own country. When Captain Cook landed they came to the conclusion that he must be the great god himself They prostrated themselves before him, and brought everything they could collect in the way of food as offerings. Captain Cook does not seem to have discouraged the idea that he was a god. He felt that it insured the safety of himself and his crew, and for a fortnight the ships remained at the islands, all living in clover. Then they sailed away. Early the following year they returned, and Captain Cook landed, con- STORY OF HAWAII. 473 fident of another welcome on the western side of Hawaii. Here, his fame having spread from island to island, he was again received with divine honors, all the offerings the natives were accustomed to make to their gods being brought to him. The king visited him, and threw over him his own cloak, and presented him with pigs and fruit, concluding the interview by changing names with him — a ceremony which was considered the greatest possible sign of friendship and respect. For a time all went well, as before, but gradually doubts of the divine origin of the visitors began to rise in the native mind. One of them died and was buried : this showed him to be only mortal like themselves. They began to grudge the supplies for the ships which they had to produce. A quarrel arose between the natives and the seamen, and some of the latter were pelted with stones. Soon after this the ships set sail ; they were becalmed within sight of land for a day, and the king sent on board a parting present of pigs and vegetables. Captain Cook Assassinated, All might now have been well, but unhappily the ships encountered a heavy gale, and put back a week later into the Bay of Kealakeakua for repairs, and this time the welcome received by the Hnglishmen was not nearly as warm as before. Soon some thefts were committed by natives visiting the ships, who could no longer resist stealing pieces of iron, for which the Pacific islanders in those days craved far more than for gold. Then some shots were fired from the " Discovery " at a canoe. This quar- rel was nominally made up, but soon after one of the " Discovery's " cut- ters moored to a buoy was stolen by a chief. Captain Cook was determined that this boat should be restored, and, trusting to the veneration in which he was held, he went on shore, with the intention of bringing the king back with him and keeping him as a hostage till the stolen property, so valuable to him, should be given back. The king, it appears, would have consented to this plan, and walked to the shore with Captain Cook ; but the islanders would not submit to what the}^ considered not only a great indignity, but a great risk. They surrounded the king, and protested against his going on board the ships. His wife, too, entreated him to stay. While the king hesitated there came a cry that the foreigners had fired at a canoe and killed a chief. Then the natives began to arm them- 474 STORY OF HAWAII, selves with, clubs, stones and spears. The king sat down, and Captain Cook walked towards his boat. As he walked a native attacked him with a spear, and Captain Cook turned and shot him with his double-barreled gun. Stones were then thrown, and the sailors in the boat, seeing this, fired on the people. Captain Cook tried to stop this, but the noise was so great that he could not make himself understood ; and meanwhile a chief approached from behind and stabbed him in the back. Captain Cook fell into the water and never spoke again. This is the English account of the death of the great navigator, as handed down from Captain King, his companion. The native account differs little from it, except in stating that the warrior- chief who attacked Captain Cook had no intention of killing him, still believing him to be the god " Lono " and immortal, but that, being struck, he gave a cry or groan, which dispelled the belief in his divinity, and the chief therefore killed him. The remains of Captain Cook were subsequently restored to his friends, and he was buried at sea — with what sad and awe-stricken feelings one can well imagine — and the exploring ships sailed away from the bay without the guiding spirit which had brought them there. The work of the great navigator was done, and he lay at rest in the bosom of the mighty ocean whose mysteries he had so long loved to unravel. The fame of his adven- tures has filled the world. For nearly a hundred years after Captain Cook's death the spot where he fell was only marked by a cocoa-nut stump set up on a bed of stones and broken lava, on which different visitors fixed sheets of copper with simple inscriptions recording the event. Within the last few years, how- ever, a more suitable monument has been erected by some of his fel- low-countrymen. CHAPTER XLII. COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA. ;OUTH AMERICA is a peninsula of triangular form. Its greatest length, from north to south, is 4,500 miles; its greatest breadth, 3,200, and it covers an area of 6,500,000 square miles, about three-fourths of which lie between the tropics, and the other fourth in the temperate zone. The con- tinent is noted for its rivers, forests, mountains, minerals and arable soil. Venezuela. Columbus on his first voyage discovered the Paria coast on the 31st of July, 1498. The next year the whole Venezuelan coast was skirted by Ojeda and Amerigo Vespucci, and the name "Little Venice" was given to an Indian village built on piles (as is common) on the shores of Lake Maracaybo; this is the origin of "Venezuela," the name now of the whole country. In 1527 the territory of Coro was pledged b}^ Charles V. to the Welsers of Augsburg, whose governors and adventurers had eyes and thoughts only for gold and the fabled El Dorado. In 1558 the Crown resumed possession; Caracas was founded in 1567, and in 1578 became the seat of government. During the 17th century the attentions of the Crown were limited to extracting as much revenue from the colony as possible, while the people entered earnestly on agriculture and stock- raising in pursuit of a livelihood. But the next century saw the beginning of troubles. The government insisted on all trade being carried on with Spain alone, and ultimately with only one city — first Seville, then till 1778, Cadiz. Legitimate com- merce dwindled away, and smuggling by the Dutch and English alone interfered to keep down the enormous prices of European goods. The first revolt occurred in 1749; other outbreaks kept the land in a ferment, until in 1810 the revolution began which ended with the independence of the country, and the withdrawal of the royal forces in 1821. 475 476 COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA. From 1870 to 1877 the "Illustrious American," General Guzman Blanco, was first dictator and then president, and did much to rescue the country from its embarrassments. Joaquin Crespo is the present ruler. There has never been any agreement between Great Britain and Venezuela as to the boundary line between the latter country and British Guiana. The Venezuelan Government represented to ours at Washington that Great Britain was disposed to make encroachments and claim territory that did not by right belong to her. In December, 1895, President Cleveland sent a strong message to Congress on this subject, in which he took occasion to assert in very plain terms the Monroe Doctrine. The message was received with great favor, and a commission of investigation was appointed by Congress. For a time there was loud talk of war between Great Britain and the United States, but wiser counsels prevailed, and Great Britain furnished the commission with all information in its possession which could be of service in reach- ing a just and equitable conclusion, satisfactory to all parties. Brazil. Along the sea coast and banks of some of the rivers, besides some extensive tracts in Minas-Geraes, the country has been brought under cul- tivation ; but by far the greater portion of the surface remains in a state of nature. The dense forests furnish almost every variety of useful and ornamental timber, more than one hundred species of palms, logwood, mahogany, Brazil and numerous other dye-woods, with sassafras, sarsa- parilla, ipecacuanha, and a great variety of other drugs. Cocoa is an indi- genous product ; maize, sugar, coifee, cotton, rice, wheat and tobacco, have been introduced by European culture. The animal as well as the vegetable products here present the greatest diversity. The diamond mines of Minas-Geraes are at present the most productive known. Other gems, and large quantities of gold, besides silver, copper, iron and platinum, are among the mineral riches of the same province. Manufactures in Brazil are confined to cotton-weaving, tanning, and the production of goods of primary necessity. Brazil was discovered on the 26th of January, 1500, by the Spaniards under Pinzon, one of the companions of Columbus. In the same year the Portuguese fitted out an expedition to follow up the successful discoveries of Vasco de Gama in the East, and finally took possession of the country COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA. 477 iu 1640. In 1808 the royal family of Portugal Avas expelled by the French and took refuge in Brazil, and the first act of Dom Joao VI., was to open Brazilian ports to foreign commerce. Other wise and liberal measures greatly stimulated the growth of the country. In 1822 he was succeeded by his son, who was proclaimed and crowned Emperor as Dom Pedro I. His reign, however, was not a fortunate one. Vexed with the opposition he encountered he abdicated in 1831 in favor of his eldest son Dom Pedro II. After a brief government by regencies, Dom Pedro II. was crowned in 1840. He proved to be a wise and liberal ruler and was popular with his people until the revolutionary disturbances of 1895, when he fled to Europe, where he soon afterward died. The population of Brazil is 14,000,000, and a good deal of enterprise is shown in developing the re- sources of the country and fostering foreign trade. Peru. Peru is, for the most part, of igneous formation and contains a number of active volcanoes, that of Omati being the principal. Earthquakes are frequent and violent. Lying off the coast near Callao are the Chincha Islands, which, with those of Guadafe and Macabo, jdeld guano in vast quantities. Agriculture is much neglected, although the land is productive of excellent coffee, cocoa, cotton ; besides drugs, tobacco, pimento, dyestuffs, etc. The chief articles of exports are, after guano, gold, silver, wine, sugar, quinine, wool, etc. When Pizarro, at the head of a small band of Spanish adventurers, first landed on the shores of Peru, 1532, he found it governed by sovereigns called Incas, who were looked up to by their subjects with awe and venera- tion ; and the inhabitants were distinguished for their mild and polished manners. But the avarice of their European conquerors led to scenes of blood and desolation ; the last Inca, Atahualpa, was put to death, and the Peruvians became the victims of the most unheard-of cruelties. After being for nearly three centuries a Spanish viceroyalty, Peru, in 1821, along with the rest of Hispano- America, achieved its independence. In 1864 the Spaniards seized the Chincha Islands until Peru should make reparation for injuries inflicted upon Spanish subjects, and held them till 1866, when Peru agreed to pay an indemnity of 60,000,000 reals. This treaty was not ratified, and an alliance entered into with Chili. After war for nearly three years, peace was restored in 1869 by the intervention of 478 COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA. the United States. In 1881 war broke out between Peru and Chili, result- ing in the defeat of Peru, and the occupation of portions of the country by the Chilean army. On June 3, 1886, General Caceres, who had gallantly defended his country against the Chilians from first to last, became Constitutional Presi- dent of Peru. His policy was retrenchment and the protection of the Indian population. Payment of interest of the foreign debt had become impossible. General Caceres served his term of office, and was peacefully succeeded as President, on August 10, 1890, by Colonel Don Remijio Morales Bermudez. Peru is thus slowly recovering from the disastrous effects of a great calamit3^ The natural resources of the country are being developed, a greater interest is taken in public affairs, and with a more stable govern- ment, supported by the popular will, there is reason to predict a bright future for Peru. Chili. The backbone of this country is found in the Great Cordillerras of the Andes, here attaining an average height of 14,000 feet, many of whose peaks are volcanic, notably that of Aconcagua (the highest Andean summit), which has an altitude of 23,910 feet above the sea. The coast-line presents steep and rocky shores, broken into by some excellent harbors. The rivers and lagoons are so small as to be undeserving of mention. Climate healthy, taken, as a whole ; a scarcity of rain is, however, often felt. Earth- quakes are of common occurrence ; the last great shock doing much damage in 1868. Chili is one bed of metals : silver, gold, lead, and iron are found largely and worked ; copper, however, is the principal resource of the national wealth, and is mined by Englishmen on an immense scale. Sulphur, anti- mony, zinc, manganese, alum, nitre, salt, coal, are other mineral items which influence a large exportation. The soil is of varying fertility, fattening most towards the south and the foothills of the Andes. Many hard woods are made useful instead of iron, and the fruits of the temperate zone thrive excellently. The Chilenos have thriven greatly since their emancipation from Spanish rule : the bulk of commercial transactions is carried on with Great Britain. Valparaiso is the chief port, Santiago is the capital ; Valdivia, Concep- cion, and Talca are among the largest and finest towns. The government is formed on the constitution of 1833, and consists of three departments — COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA. 479 the executive, legislative and judicial. The first is in the hands of a presi- dent, whose tenure of office is five years ; the legislative consists of a Senate and Chamber of Deputies. The state religion is the Roman Catholic; other religions are tolerated, but their public exercise is not allowed. Chili, before the Spanish irruption, belonged to the Incas of Peru ; in 1535-1540 its whole extent, excepting only Araucania, was conquered by the lieuten- ants of Pizarro. It thenceforward became a Spanish colony, until 1817, when, after a seven years' war with Spain, the victory of Maypii, gained by General San Martin, secured the independence of the country. At present Chili is the most flourishing of all the Hispaoo-American republics. The temperature of Chili is remarkably even and pleasant, and always cool at nights. In the south it is dry for about eight months in the year, and rainy the other four. Vines grow well on the hillsides, and are a source of large income. The Andes are almost everywhere visible, covered with perpetual snow. There are many volcanic peaks, mostly extinct. Chili is subject to frequent shocks of earthquake, and occasionally to destructive tornadoes. The railway system of Chili is well developed, and in the northern provinces there are several mineral railwaj^s belonging to English companies. The Constitution of Chili is republican, and based upon that of the United States. United States of Colombia. Formerly known as New Granada, the United States of Colombia is one of the most progressive of the South American Republics. It lies in the extreme northwest angle of the continent. On the north is the Carib- bean Sea; on the northeast and east, Venezuela; on the southeast and south, Brazil and Ecuador; and on the west, the Pacific and Costa Rica. Its extreme length from north to south is 1,000 miles, and the extreme breadth from east to west, 760 ; on the Isthmus of Panama, however, the breadth is but 28 miles. It has an area estimated at from 480,000 to 520,000 square miles. The population by the last census was 2,880,633. Of these, rather less than a million are whites, and about an equal number have a large admixture of Indian blood. The remainder are civilized Indians, mulattoes, savage Indians, and the various crosses between whites, Indians and negroes. The form of government established by the constitution of 1863 resembles in many respects that of the United States. The president is 480 COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA. elected for two years. The Senate consists of three members from each of the States, and the Lower House of Delegates from the several States, each , sending a member for every 50,000 inhabitants. Each State has its own legislative and executive officer. Central America. Under the head of Central America the countries embraced are the Republics of Guatemala, San Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica. They declared their independence September 21, 1821, and separated from the Mexican confederation July 21, 1823. The States made a treaty of iinion between themselves March 21, 1847. There has been among them since much anarchy and bloodshed, aggrav^ated greatly by the irrup- tion of American filibusters under Kenny and Walker, 1854-5. In January, 1863, a war began between Guatemala (afterward joined by Nicaragua) and San Salvador (afterward supported by Honduras). The latter were defeated at Santa Rosa June 16th, and San Salvador was taken October 26th ; the President of San Salvador, Barrios, fled, and Carrera, the dictator of Guatemala, became predominant over the confederacy. General Barrios, President of Guatemala, attempts the union of the five States, himself to be dictator, opposed by all except Honduras, February. He is defeated and killed in a prolonged battle at Chalchuapa, April 2d ; peace with the States signed April 16th, 1885. If