£ FRENCH GRAMMAR; CONTAINING ALL THE RULES OF THE LANGUAGE, A NEW AND IMPROVED PLAN BY COUNT DE LAPORTE, INSTRUCTOR IN THE FRENCH LANGUAGE TN HARVARD UNIVERSITY. 5b e c o n tj 32 nit ion. BOSTON: WILLIAM D. TICKNOR & COMPANY MDCCCXLVII. -?G* A D<\ •VW Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1847, by COUNT DE LAPORTE, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts. Stereotyped by GEORGE A. CURTIS; NEW ENGLAND TYPE AND STEREOTYPE FOUNDRY. PREFACE. This second edition of our Grammar, when compared with the first, will be found a work entirely new, not in reference to rules, which cannot be altered, but as to the arrangement of matters. With a desire of shortening the work, we have suppressed a great number of illustrations, which, in fact, are better placed in a dictionary than in a grammar, whilst we j.ve dwelt at a greater length on some points of great diffi- culty, such as the use of the article, and that of the tenses and moods in the verbs. We have also added for each part of speech a series of questions so arranged as to embrace all the difficulties and details of the language. Those questions will be of great service both to pupils and teachers ; they will enable the former to ascertain what is the true bearing of the rules, and save much trouble to the latter. The plan we have adopted for the conjugation of verbs, after a little practice, will render this endless task comparatively easy; since, instead of loading the memory with the innumerable quantity of words which compose the great family of this part of speech, in its several moods, tenses and persons, it will only be necessary to remember the five primitive tenses, that is to say, seven words for each conjugation, in the regular verbs, and learn the termi- nations of the derivative tenses, which never vary. As to the irregular verbs, it will be seen that most of them are formed ■regularly from their primitive tenses, and therefore they present no difficulty; the others, it is true, require particular attention, but their number is very limited. The following questions should be asked by the teacher, for each group of irregular verbs, in each conjugation. I take the verb aller, to go, for an example. 1st. Is the verb aller, to go, regular or irregular ? 2d. Is it an active or a neuter verb ? Why is it neuter ? 3d. With what auxiliary is it conjugated ? 4th. What are its five primitive tenses, the present of the infinitive, the present and past participles, the three persons IV PREFACE. singular of the present of the indicative, and the preterite definite? 5th. Are all the derivative tenses of this verb regularly formed from the primitive ? 6th. Which are those which are irregularly formed ? The answer to the last question should be as follows : The third person plural of the present of the indicative is irregularly formed ; it is " Us vont" instead of " Us allent." Th.° future absolute, and the conditional present, are also irreguiar; they are "j'irai" &c, and " j Hrais" &c, instead of " j'allerai" &c, and " fallerais," &c. The second person singular of the imperative is " va," in- stead of" vais." Finally, the present of the subjunctive is irregular in its first, second, and third persons singular, and the third person plural, which are " que faille, que tu allies, quHl aille," and " quHls aillent" instead of " que falle, que tu alles, qu'il alle, and qiCils allent.'''' By following this method, the mind of the pupil remains strongly impressed with the irregularity of each verb, and the number of primitive ideas that he has to remember is reduced almost to nothing. We will remark, that each chapter having a distinct title, this grammar will be as practical for children as for those whose education is further advanced, the teacher being thus enabled to point out separately such parts as he thinks best adapted to the minds of his pupils. No exercises will be found in this grammar ; its size has prevented it ; but we have published another work, under the title of" Speaking Exercises" which will supply this deficiency. As to what regards pronunciation, we refer the student to our Reader, the success and practicability of which has greatly surpassed our most sanguine hopes. In presenting this book to the public, we must once more apologize for its faults of style. We have aimed to be clear and precise, and if we have succeeded in this point, we hope to be excused for deficiencies resulting from the disadvantages under which we have labored, as a foreigner. We should also thank the public for the kind and encouraging reception made to the first edition of this work, and we hope that the pains we have taken to render it more clear and practical will meet with the approbation of both scholars and teachers. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Page. Paragraph. Pronunciation, 1 2 Accentuation, 2 3 Punctuation, and other signs used in the French language, 2 4 Elision, 3 5 Of Genders, 4 6 to 16 Genders of nouns, mostly depending on their termination, . 8 17, IS A table of nouns which are masculine in one signification and feminine in another, ...... 10 19 Terminations showing the similarity of words in French and English, 12 20,21 Of the Article and its definition, ... 13 22, 23 Contraction of the article with the prepositions d and de, . 14 24 to 28 Definition of a definite noun, 15 29 w " an indefinite noun, ..... 17 30 Of the partitive words some and any either expressed or under- stood in English, 18 31 to 42 Of the use of the article with proper names, ... 23 43 " " " " with names of countries not preceded by a preposition, 24 44, 45 Of the use of the article with names of countries preceded by a preposition, 24 46 to 55 Of the use of the article with names of cities, . . 29 36 to 58 " " " " with names of rivers used without a preposition, ....... 30 59 Of the use of the article with names of rivers used with a preposition; 30 60 to 62 Of common nouns used sometimes with the article and some- times without it, 32 Of common nouns used as titles of chapters, books, docu- ments, &c, 32 63 to 68 Of directions, 33 69 Of expressions similar to : etre en prison or d la prison, etre en ville, a la ville, or dans la ville, .... 34 70, 71 A* VI CONTENTS. Page. Paragraph. Of cases in which a noun, being used as the complement of a verb, expresses with that verb but one idea, which, gen- erally, may be conveyed by one word, ... 35 72 Of the article with nouns used as apostrophes and interjections, 37 73, 76 " " " " employed in apposition, or adjectively, 37 74 " " " " " as the objects of nouns of sorts, kinds, or species, 37 75 Of the article with the pronouns mon, ton, son, notre, voire, leur, ce, nul, aucun, quelque, chaque, tout, (used for chaque,) certain, plusieurs, and tel, ..... 38 77 Of the article with proper names of deities, men and animals, 39 78 " " " some Italian and French proper names, 40 79 " " " nouns preceded by adverbs or expressions of quantity, 40 80 Of the article with names of measure, weight, and purchase, 41 81 " " " more and less, when used together in English to form a comparison, 42 82 Of the article used in forming a comparison in the superlative degree, 42 83 Of the use of the article with the adverbs more, less, and best, being sometimes variable and sometimes invariable, 43 84, 85 Of the repetition of the article, 43 86 <* " " " with nouns united by the con- junction or, ou, ....... 44 87 Of the repetition of the article with two adjectives united by the conjunction and, et, ... 44 88 Of the repetition of the article with two adjectives united by the conjunction or, ou, ...... 45 89 Of cases in which the sense of a sentence changes entirely by using or suppressing the article before a noun used as the complement of a verb, 45 90 Examples in which the article should not be used, 46 91 A table of the same nouns employed either with or without the article, according to their signification being either definite or indefinite, 47 Place of the article with the adjective tout, all, and the nouns monsieur, madame, monseigneur, &c., ... 50 92 Questions on the article, 50 Of the Noun, 52 93 Of Number in the substantive, 53 94 Of Gender " 53 95 Formation of the feminine in nouns, .... 55 96 " " " " ending with a mute e, 55 97 " « « « " in en, on, and et, 56 98 " « " " " in eur, 56 99 " " " " « in#, . . 57 100 CONTENTS. VII 61 102 to 124 62 125 62 126 63 127 to 131 64 132, 133 64 134 to 138 65 139 65 140 €6 66 66 Page. Paragraph. Of nouns which are either masculine or feminine, according to their number and signification, .... 57 101 Aigle, amour, automne, couple, delict, enfant, exemple ; foudre, gens, hymne, jujube, ceuvre, orge, orgue, Pdque, parallele, pendule,periode,personne, quelque chose, autre chose, reglisse, sentinelle, trompette, . . . . . 57 to A list of nouns which are used in either gender only on account of their different signification, .... Of Number in Nouns, Formation of the plural in nouns, .... " " " " ending in ant or ent, Of the nouns which have no plural, .... Of the plural in foreign nouns, " " proper names, " " " " representing two or more indi- viduals in the same family, Of the plural in proper names which have become common names, Of nouns which have no singular, ..... Of nouns of virtues and vices, and of those which represent ideas and sentiments in their abstract meaning, . . 67 Of compound nouns. Formation of their plural, . . 68 Of the formation of the plural in nouns composed of a noun and an adjective, 68 Of the formation of the plural in nouns composed of two nouns, 69 " " " " " " of two nouns separated by a preposition, ..... 69 Of the formation of the plural in nouns composed either of a verb, a preposition, or an adverb, and a noun, Of the formation of the plural in nouns composed of two inde- clinable words, ... ... Of the functions of the noun in language, Of number in nouns which are the objects of another noun, Of cases in which two nouns united by the preposition de express the idea of a thing formed either by extraction or composition, ....... Of cases in which two nouns being separated by the prepo- sition de, the first expresses an idea either of capacity or agglomeration, ....... Of nouns governed by the preposition de, but not immediately preceded by another noun, 76 Of nouns preceded, as determinative, by any preposition but de, 77 Remarks on the preceding chapters, .... 79 Questions on the noun, 81 Of the Adjective, 83 69 70 70 72 73 74 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 to 149 150 151 152 to 154 155 156, 157 15S 159 to 164 165 to 168 V11I CONTENTS. Page. Paragraph. Variation in the adjective, 84 170 Of the Gender in the adjective, 85 Formation of the feminine in adjectives ending with a mute e, 85 171 " " " " ending with a vowel which is not a mute c, 85 172 Formation of the feminine in adjectives ending in an, ien, on, 85 173 " " " " ending with a conso- nant which is neither m nor n, .... 86 174 Formation of the feminine in adjectives ending in c and d, 86 175 " " « « ending in/, . . 86 176 " " « « ending in g, . 86 177 " " " " ending in el, eil, ol, ul, as, os,ot, 87 178 Formation of the feminine in adjectives ending in eur, teur, erieur, 87 179 Formation of the feminine in adjectives ending in x, . . 88 180 Of adjectives having two terminations in the masculine, accord- ing as they are placed before a vowel or a consonant, 88 181 Of adjectives which are used only in the masculine or in the feminine, 89 182 Nouns and Adjectives of Number, . . 89 A table of cardinal, ordinal, and collective numbers, . . 89 183 Of numerical adjectives used in speaking of the dajs of the month, 90 184 Of the numerical adjective onze, eleven, ... 91 185 Of the formation of compound numbers, .... 91 186 Of the numerical adjective one, with the words hundred and thousand, 91 187 Of numerical adjectives used in poetry, music, games, &c. 91 188 Of distributive and proportional numbers, ... 91 189 Of Number in Adjectives, .... 92 190 Of the formation of the plural in the adjectives vingt and cent, 93 191 Of the numerical adjectives mille and mil, ... 93 192 Remarks on the formation of the plural in several adjectives 94 193 Of the Degrees of Signification in Adjectives, 95 194 Comparison of equality, 95 195 " " superiority and inferiority, . . . 96 196 Of the adverbs more and less used as adverbs of quantity, 96 197 Of the comparative adverbs better, worse, and less, . 96 198 Of the superlatives, absolute and relative, ... 97 199,200 Of the Place of Adjectives, .... 98 201 Of adjectives which are invariably placed after the noun, 98 202 Of adjectives which sometimes precede, and sometimes follow, the noun without changing their signification, . . 100 203 to 206 CONTENTS. IX Page. Paragraph. Of adjectives which change entirely their signification by being placed before or after certain nouns, . . 101 207 Of adjectives which are placed after the noun for the sake of euphony, 102 208 Of the place of two or more adjectives qualifying the same noun, 102 209 to 212 Of Adjectives considered in relation to other words, 103 213 Of the Agreement of Adjectives, . . 103 214 Of adjectives qualifying several nouns of the same gender, and united by the conjunction et, 103 215 Of adjectives qualifying several nouns of different genders, 104 216 " " " " " which are united by the conjunction et, 104 217 Of adjectives qualifying several nouns and relating only to the last, 104 218 Of adjectives preceded by several nouns separated by the conjunction ou, 105 219 Of adjectives qualifying sometimes the first, sometimes the second noun, when it is preceded by several nouns sep- arated by the preposition d e, .... 105 220 Of adjectives preceded by several nouns separated by any of the conjunctions ainsi que, aussi bien que, comme, avec, &c, 105 221 Exceptions to the rules relating to the agreement of adjectives, 1.06 Of the adjective feu, late, 106 222 " « mm, naked, 106 223 demi, half, ..... 106 224 Of the adjectives excepte, passe, suppose, vu, y compris, franc deport, 107 225 Of adjectives performing the parts of adverbs or nouns, 107 226 Of the compound adjectives new-born, dead-drunk, &c. 108 227 Of the gender of adjectives used with the word air, . 108 228 to 230 Of the agreement of adjectives used in the superlative degree, 109 231 Of adjectives as qualifying nouns of persons or things only, 110 232 Of adjectives which are not susceptible of comparison, . 110 233 Of Adjectives of Dimension, .... 110 234, 235 Of the Adjective with the Article, . . 112 236 to 241 Government of Adjectives, .... 214 242, 243 Of adjectives preceded by the verb to be, used impersonally, 114 244 A, un, repeated or not with two or several nouns united by the conjunction and, et, 115 245 .A, un, repeated or not before two or several nouns separated by the conjunction ou, or, 115 246 A, tin, repeated or not before two adjectives united by the con- junction and, pt. 115 247 X CONTENTS. Page. Paragraph. A, un, repeated or not before two adjectives separated by the conjunction ou, or, . . . . . . 116 248 Of a employed in English before a noun qualified or not by an adjective, as the attribute of the verb to be, . . 116 249,250 Of a before a noun or a proposition used in apposition in English, 117 251 Of a used in English after what, before a noun preceded or not by an adjective. 117 252 Of a placed in English before a noun expressing measure or weight, 117 253 Of a used in English before a noun expressing a period of time, 117 254 Of a used in English before a noun preceded or not by an adjective, in an interrogative or affirmative sentence used negatively, 118 255 Of the place of the adjective a, un, .... 118 256 Of cases in which a or one is not expressed in French, . 119 257 Of cases in which a may be expressed by the article the in French, . 119 258 Questions on the adjective, 119 Of the Pronoun. Its definition, .... 124 259 Of Personal Pronouns. Their definition, . . 125 260 Of the personal pronouns J, thou,he,$x.c, used as nominatives in sentences which are not interrogative, . . . 125 261 Of personal pronouns used as nominatives in interrogative sentences, 125 262 Of several cases in which personal pronouns used as nomina- tives are placed after the verb, although the sentence is not interrogative, 125 263 Of personal pronouns used as nominatives in sentences ex- pressing a strong feeling of wonder, admiration, indig- nation, &c, 126 264 Of the personal nominative pronouns I, thou, he, &c, used after the verb to be in English, or preceding the defective verbs will, shall, ivould, could, &c, or any others used in their stead, in answer to a question, . . . 127 265 Of the personal nominative pronouns I, thou, he, &c, followed by an adjective in English, 128 266 Of the personal nominative pronouns I, thou, he, &c, used in distributive sentences, ..... 128 267 Of the personal nominative pronouns I, thou, he, &c, used in exclamative sentences, or in an apostrophe, . . 128 26S Of the personal nominative pronouns 1, thou, he, &c, used after than and as in a comparison of equality, superiority, or inferiority, 129 269 CONTENTS. ' XI Page. Paragraph. Of the personal nominative pronouns I, thou, he, &c, followed by a relative pronoun, 129 270 How the personal nominative pronouns should be used in the construction of sentences, in order that no ambiguity should exist in reference to the noun to which those pro- nouns relate, 130 271 Of sevei"al nominative pronouns joined by the conjunction and, et, and used together as the nominatives of the verb fol- lowing, 131 272 Repetition of Personal Nominative Pronouns, 132 273 Of the repetition of the personal nominative pronouns of the first and second persons singular and plural, . 133 274 Of the repetition of the personal nominative pronouns of the third person singular and plural, .... 134 275 to 279 Of Personal Pronouns used objectively, . 135 280 Of personal pronouns used as direct objects of a verb, . 135 281, 282 « " " as indirect objects of a verb, 137 283 c< ee a ic a a a a gov- erning the preposition d, to, . . . . 137 284, 285 Of reflected verbs governing the preposition d, to, . 138 286 Of verbs which, being used in a certain signification, require the preposition d and the pronoun which it governs to be placed after them, 138 287 Of verbs which, governing the preposition a, have for then- objects more than one pronoun, or a pronoun and a noun, 140 288 Remarks on the use of objective pronouns with verbs govern- ing the preposition d in French, although this preposition is not expressed in English, 140 289 Of personal pronouns used as indirect objects of a verb with any preposition except the preposition a, to, . . 142 290 Of the personal pronouns him, her, and them, followed by a * relative pronoun preceded or not by a preposition, 143 291 to 294 Of Reflected Pronouns, ..... 143 295 -•' " " used with active verbs, and neuter verbs governing the preposition d, to, . 144 296, 297 ' )f reflected pronouns used with any other preposition than the preposition d, to, 144 298 Of active and neuter verbs which, being used emphatically, require the reflected pronouns, moi-meme, toi-meme, lui- meme, &c, to be placed after them, whether they are reflected or not, 145 299 Of the Reciprocal Pronouns each other and one another, 145 300 Of the reciprocal pronouns each other and one another, employed with active verbs, ...... 146 301 XII CONTENTS. Page. Paragraph. Of the reciprocal pronouns each other and one another , employed with neuter verbs governing (he preposition a, to, . 146 302 Of the reciprocal pronouns each other and one another, employed with neuter verbs governing any other preposition than ' the preposition a, to, . . . . . 146 303 Of the objective pronouns it and them, speaking of things, used as indirect objects of a verb, . . . 147 304, 305 Of the objective pronouns it and them, speaking of things, pre- ceded by the prepositions a and de in French, whatever may be the preposition used in English instead of to ando/, . . 147 306,307 Of the objective pronouns it and them, speaking of things, when they are preceded by any other preposition than de and d in French, Of the pronouns it and them, omitted in English in answering questions, but which should be expressed in French with the verbs of which they are the complement, Of the Expressions to it and there, omitted in English in answering questions, and which should be expressed in French with the verb of which they are the complement, Of the Pronouns itself and themselves, speaking of things, Of the pronouns one , s self, himself, and ourselves, used indefi- nitely, Repetition of personal objective pronouns, Of two Objective Pronouns governed by the same verb in all the tenses of that verb, except in the impera- tive mood used affirmatively, .... Of two objective pronouns used with a verb in the imperative mood employed affirmatively, Questions on the personal pronouns, Of Adjective Possessive Pronouns, . " " " " always joined to a noun, 161 334 Of the possessive adjective pronouns our, your, and their, sometimes used in the singular, sometimes used in the plural, in French, according to the meaning of the sen- tence, 163 335 Of the pronouns our and your, relating to one person alone, 163 335 (bis.) Of the agreement of the possessive adjective pronoun, . 164 336, 337 Repetition of the possessive adjective pronoun, . . 165 338 " " « " " with two nouns united by the conjunction et, and, . . . 165 339 Repetition of the possessive adjective pronoun with two nouns separated by the conjunction ou, or, . . 165 340 148 308 to 314 151 315 to 319 152 320 153 321 to 323 154 324, 325 155 326, 327 155 328 to 330 157 331, 332 157 161 333 166 341 166 342 166 343 CONTENTS. XIII Page. Paragraph. Repetition of the possessive adjective pronoun with two adjectives united by the conjunction et, and, Repetition of the possessive adjective pronoun with two adjectives separated by the conjunction ou, or, Of the possessive adjective pronouns of the first person singu- lar with the nouns father, mother, child, &c. Of the difference existing between the personal pronoun leur, meaning to them, and the possessive adjective pronoun leur, meaning their, ...... 167 344 Of the possessive adjective pronouns used in English before nouns expressing a part of the body, or anything belonging to our moral or physical constitution, . . . 167 345 Of cases in which the article the alone should be used in French, instead of the English possessive pronoun, before nouns the signification of which has been explained in the preceding chapter, 168 346 Of cases in which ambiguity would arise in a sentence by using the article the alone, instead of the English posses- sive pronoun, Of cases in which the possessive pronoun used in English should also be employed in French, Of cases in which a possessive pronoun, being used with a noun followed by a relative pronoun, is expressed in French by the article the, ..... Of the possessive adjective pronouns his and her, its and their, (applied to things,) Questions ou the possessive adjective pronouns, Of Possessive Pronouns which are never joined to a Noun, Of the iJiomatical expressions a, or that, friend of mine, of yaws, &c, Of the possessive pronouns mine, thine, his, &c, used with the verb to be, to express an idea of right, duty, or turn, Of the possessive pronouns mine, thine, his, &c, used with the verb to be, and conveying an idea of property, Of the English expressions of my own, of his own, &c. Questions on the possessive pronouns, Of Demonstrative Pronouns. Their definition, Of demonstrative pronouns always placed before a noun, " " which always follow a noun, " " which, relating to a noun used in a definite sense or preceded by the adjective a, always precede either a preposition or a relative pronoun, . Of demonstrative pronouns which, relating to nouns used defi- nitely or preceded by ihe adjective a, are never followed 168 347 169 348 to 351 171 352 171 353 to 353 173 174 359 to 362 177 363, S64 177 365 178 3G6 178 367 179 179 368 180 369, 370 181 371 181 372 to 380 XIY CONTENTS. Page. Paragraph. either by a noun, a preposition, or a relative pronoun, and signify in English this one or that one, . . 185 381 Of the demonstrative pronouns celui-ci and celui-ld, relating to one noun only, ...... 186 882 Of the demonstrative pronouns celui-ci and celui-ld, relating to no noun already expressed, .... 186 383 Of the demonstrative pronouns celui-ci and celui-ld, followed by a relative pronoun, 186 384, 385 Of the demonstrative pronouns this and that, relating to an idea already expressed, or to things alluded to in an indefinite manner, ...... 187 386 Of the Demonstrative Pronouns this, that, these, and those, and personal pronouns he, she, it, and they, used with the verb to be when this verb is followed either by a noun preceded by the or a in French, a personal pro- noun, or a verb, ...... 188 387, 388 Of the use of the pronoun ce with the verb to be in interrogative sentences, 189 389 Of the number of the verb to be, when, having the pronoun ce for its nominative, that verb is followed by several nouns in the singular, ....... 190 390, 391 Of the number of the verb to be, when, having the pronoun ce tor its nominative, it is separated by a preposition from a noun in the plural, or from a personal pronoun in the third person plural, 190 392 Of the expression si ce n'est, if it were not, followed by a plural noun, 191 393 Of the nominative pronouns he, she, it, and they , used with the verb to be when that verb is either followed by an adjec- tive, a noun used as an adjective, (that is to say, not pre- ceded by the or a,) or by an adverb of qualification, . 191 394 to 396 Of French idiomatical expressions in which ce is elegantly used with the verb to be, although it has no equivalent in English, 192- 397 Of the compound English pronoun what, employed for that which, when used at the beginning of a sentence the second proposition of which begins with the verb to be, 193 398 to 402 Of the pronoun ce used with the verb to be at the commence- ment of the second proposition of a sentence which does not begin with ce, 193 403 to 407 Of the pronoun ce used as the antecedent of a relative pronoun preceded or not by a preposition, and expressed in Eng- lish by what, 194 408 Ellipsis of the pronoun ce after the verb to be, or any other verb requiring that pronoun as its direct object, before the pronoun quoi, what, preceded by a proposition, 195 409 196 412 197 199 413 200 414 200 415, 416 200 417 to 419 201 420 to 426 203 427 CONTENTS. XV Page. Paragraph. Of the English pronoun which, used in answering a previous question, 195 410 Of the English pronoun which, used after a comma, in the second proposition of a sentence, .... 196 411 Of die pronoun which, used as a nominative at the head of an incidental proposition, and relating to several antecedents, requiring the verb following to be used in the plural in French, ........ Questions on the demonstrative pronouns, . Of Relative Pronouns. Their definition, . Of the relative pronoun who, ..... " " " that, " " " which, Of the compound relative pronouns of which, to which, at which, from which, through which, by which, with which, &c, Of the relative pronoun whom, " " preceded by the preposition of,de, . 204 428,429 Of the relative pronoun whom, preceded by any other prepo- sition than of, de, 204 430,431 Of the relative pronoun whose, 205 432, 433 Remarks on the proper use of the relative pronouns in French, 206 Of the relative pronoun qui not preceded by a preposition, 206 434 to 443 " " que, 209 444 to 449 " " le quel, la quelle, les quels, and les quelles, 210 450 to 452 " " dont, 211 453 to 457 " " quoi, 212 458,459 ** ou, . • . . . . 212 460 to 464 Questions on the relative pronouns, . . . 214 Of Absolute Pronouns. Their definition, . . 217 465 Of the absolute pronoun who, 217 466 to 468 " " " whom, 218 469 « " " whose, 218 470 to 472 " " " what, 219 473 " " " used in interrogative sentences, 219 474 to 481 " " " " used in exclamative sentences, 221 482 to 484 " " " " used in affirmative sentences, 221 485 « " « which, 222 486 to 491 " « « where, 224 492 Questions on the absolute pronouns, . . . 225 Of Indefinite Pronouns. Their definition, . . 226 493 Of indefinite pronouns which are never joined to a noun, 227 494 Of the indefinite English expressions they, one, a man, a woman, somebody, people, vie, you, I, &c, . . 227 495,496 XVI CONTENTS. Page. Paragraph. Of the pronoun on preceded either by et, ou, si, or que, 228 497 Of the repetition of the pronoun on, .... 229 498,499 Of the indefinite expressions some one, any one, somebody, anybody, one, a few, &c, 230 500, 501 Of the indefinite expressions whoever, whosoever, any person who, all those who, &c, 231 502 Of the indefinite expressions everybody, every one, each, each one, every, &c., 231 503 to 510 Of the indefinite expressions other people and others, . 234 511, 512 " •« " each other, one another, 235 513 to 515 " nobody, not one, none, no man, &c.,236 516 to 520 " " " nothing, not anything, anything, &c, . . 238 521 to 526 Of Indefinite Pronouns always joined to a Noun, 240 527 Of the indefinite expressions some and any, . . . 240 528 every and each, . . 240 529 to 532 " " " whatever, whatsoever, any, any whatever, &c.,- 241 533 Of the indefinite expressions certain, some, . . . 242 534 Questions on the first two classes of indefinite pronouns, 242 Of Indefinite Pronouns sometimes joined to a Noun, sometimes not, 244 535 Of the indefinite expressions no, none, not one, no man, no woman, &c, 245 536 to 543 Of the indefinite expression other, 247 544, 545 Of the indefinite expressions both and either, . . 247 546, 547 Of the indefinite expression neither, .... 248 548 to 552 Of the indefinite expressions same, self, and the adverb even, 249 553 to 555 Of the indefinite expression such, .... 251 556 to 559 Of the indefinite expressions several and many, . . 252 560 to 562 " " all, every, everything, although, very, however, he, 253 563 to 576 Of the Indefinite Pronouns always followed BY que, 255 Of the indefinite expressions whoever, whosoever, whomever, &c, 255 577 to 580 " " " irhatevcr, whatsoever, &c, 256 581 to 584 Of the indefinite expression however, used either before an adjective, a past participle, or a qnalificative adverb, 257 585 to 588 Of the indefinite expression although very, used either before an adjective, a past participle, or a qualificative adverb, 258 589 Of the indefinite expression such as, .... 259 590 Questions on the last two classes of indefinite pronouns, 259 Of the Verb. Its definition, .... 262 591, 592 Of numbers and persons in the verb, .... 263 593 to 596 CONTENTS. XVII Pag s. Of the tenses of the verb, ...... 264 Of the present, 265 Of the imperfect, 26S Of the preterite definite, 271 Of the preterite indefinite, ..... 274 Of the pluperfect, 278 Of the preterite anterior, ..... 280 Analysis of several sentences, showing how the pupils should reason to ascertain which of the past tenses they should use, 281 Of other ways of expressing the past by the verbs venir and aller, 284 Of the forms of verbs which relate to the past, . . 285 Of the future absolute, 285 Of another way of expressing the future ; the verb aller, 286 Of the future past, 286 Questions on the verb, its tenses, up to the future past, 287 Of Moods, 290 Of the indicative mood, 291 Of the conditional mood, 291 Of the imperative mood, . . ... • . 292 Of the subjunctive mood, and its present tense, . . 294 Of the imperfect of the subjunctive, .... 295 Of the preterite of the subjunctive, .... 295 Of the pluperfect of the subjunctive, .... 295 Of the infinitive mood, 296 Of the present participle, 296 Of the past participle, 296 Recapitulation of all the moods and tenses, . . 297 Of the different sorts of Verbs in reference to their Forms, 298 Of the different sorts of Verbs in reference to their Functions in the Language, . 299 Of auxiliary verbs, 299 " active verbs, 299 " passive verbs, 299 " neuter verbs, 300 " reflected verbs, 301 " reciprocal verbs, 302 " impersonal verbs, 302 Of Conjugations, 302 Of persons and numbers, ...... 303 Of different sorts of conjugations, . . . 303 Of Middle Verbs, 304 Paragraph. 597, 598 599 to 608 609 to 617 618 to 621 622 to 632 633 to 635 636, 637 638 639 640 641, 642 643 644 645, 646 647 648 to 650 651 to 654 655 656 657 658 659 660 661 662 663 664 665 666 667 668, 669 670 to 673 674 675 676 677 678 679 318 320 684 320 685 321 686 321 687 to 691 323 692 XVIII CONTENTS. Page. Paragraph. Of a Choice between the Auxiliary Verbs avoir and etre, 310 680 A list of neuter verbs which are always conjugated with etre, 310 681 A list of neuter verbs which are sometimes conjugated with avoir, sometimes with etre, either according to custom or to the meaning of the sentences in which they are used, 311 682 A list of neuter verbs which sometimes have an active meaning, 313 683 Questions on the moods, the several kinds of verbs, and their conjugations, the middle verbs, and a choice between the auxiliaries avoir and etre, Of the Subject of the Verb, .... Place of the subject of the verb, .... " " " " " in interrogative sentences when the nominative is a pronoun, Place of the subject of the verb in interrogative sentences when the nominative is a noun, .... Place of the subject of the verb in a sentence used as a quota- tion, ......... Place of the subject of the verb in a sentence beginning with a verb in the subjunctive mood, . . . . 323 693 Place of the subject of the verb when the verb is preceded by a relative pronoun which has for its antecedent the object of that verb, 323 694 Of the place of the subject of the verb in impersonal sentences, 324 695 Of the place of the subject of the verb in sentences beginning with any of the words tcl, ainsi, toujours, aussi, peut-etre, encore, en vain, vainement, clu moins and au moins, . 324 696 to 693 Agreement of the Verb with its Nominative in reference to Number, .... 325 Agreement of the verb with a single noun, . . . 325 699 Of the number of the verb when it has for its nominatives several nouns united by et or ni, . . . 326 700 Of the number of the verb when it has for its nominatives several nouns which have no conjunction between them, 326 701 Of the number of the verb when it has for its nominatives several nouns separated by the conjunction on, . 326 702 Of the number of the verb when, having for its nominatives several nouns, they are summed up by one of the words tout, rien, per sonne, &c., ..... 327 703 Of the number of the verb when it has for its nominatives several nouns qualified by one of the indefinite pronouns tout, chaque, quelque, aucun, &c, . . . . 327 704 Of the number of the verb when it has for its nominative either of the indefinite expressions Vun et Vaulre or ni Pun ni Vautre. 327 705 CONTENTS. XIX Page. Paragraph. Of the number of the verb whea it has for its nominatives several nouns the first two of which are separated by any of the expressions comme, ainsi que, de vicme que, avec, &c, S27 706 Of the number of the verb when it has several nominatives the first two of which are separated by any of the expres- sions plutCt (pie, plus que, moins que, non settlement, Sac, 823 707 Of the number of the verb when it has for its nominatives two verbs in the infinitive mood, 328 708 Of the number of the verb when it has for its nominative the expression plus d'un, ..... 329 709 Of the Agreement of the Verb with Collective Nouns, ........ 329 Of the number of the verb when it has for its nominative a collective noun taken in a general sense and preceded by the article the in French, 329 710 Of the number of the verb when it has for its nominative a collective noun taken in a partitive sense . . 329 711,712 Of the number of the verb when it has for its nominative an adverb of quantity, or a noun used without being preceded by the or a, either of them being followed by a noun in the plural, 330 713, 714 Of the number of the verb when preceded by the relative pronoun qui, 331 715, 716 Of the number of the verb when it has for its nominative the pronoun ce, 331 717 Of several cases in which the verb should be used in the plural, although its nominative is in the singular, . . 831 718 Questions on the agreement of the verb with its nominative in reference to number, 332 Of the Agreement of the Verb with its Nomina- tive in reference to Persons, . . . 334 719 Of the person in which the verb should be used when it has for its nominatives one or several nouns and one or more personal pronouns, or more than one pronoun only, 334 720, 721 Of the agreement of the verb in reference to persons, when it has the relative pronoun qui for its nominative, . 335 722 Of the relative pronoun qui preceded by an adjective, . 335 723 " " " " having for its antecedent an ad- jective used as a noun, that is to say, preceded by the article the, or the adjective a, 335 724 Of the relative pronoun qui having a noun for its antecedent, 336 725 Of the Object of Veres, 336 726 Of the Verb as an Oeject, .... 337 727 Of verbs governing, without a preposition, the infinitive which follows them, 338 728 XX CONTENTS. Page. Of verbs governing the preposition de before the infinitive which follows them, 338 Of verbs governing the preposition d before the infinitive which follows them, 340 Of verbs which, according to their signification, should be used without any preposition, or followed by d or de before an infinitive, 3-il Of verbs which should be followed either by de or a, according to euphony, ....... Of the Noun as the Object of a Verb, . Of two nouns or pronouns used as the indirect objects of a verb, 350 Of the nature of the object to be given to a verb, . Of a noun used as the object of two verbs, Of the form of the several objects to be given to a verb, Of the place of the object of a verb, .... Of the place of several objects of a verb in reference to one another, ........ Of active verbs used without any object being expressed after them, Of the relation existing between passive verbs and their objects Of Pronouns used as the Objects of a Verb, Questions on the objects of verbs, .... Of the Use of the several Moods, Of the use of the subjunctive mood, .... Of cases in which the meaning of the first verb requires that the second should be used in the subjunctive mood, Of the subjilhctive mood with the verb to hope, esperer, " " " in negative sentences, . " " " in interrogative sentences, " " " with impersonal verbs, " " " with the impersonal verb il est probable, Of the subjunctive mood with the impersonal verb il semble, " " " with the expressions on disait, on croirait, on aurait dit, &c, ..... Of the subjunctive mood with the verbs entendre, pretendre, dire, supposer, and se plaindrc, .... Of the subjunctive mood with the verbs ordonner, commander^ resoudre, arreter, exiger, decider, &c, . Of the subjunctive mood with the conjunction si, and with que, used instead of si, Of the subjunctive mood after conjunctions ending with que, " " " at the beginning of a sentence, . " ** " after a superlative relative, . Paragraph. 728 730 731 348 732 349 733 350 734 351 735 351 736 352 737 352 738 739 354 740 ,354 741 354 742 354 356 743 to 745 357 746 357 747 358 748 359 749, 750 360 751, 752 361 753 362 754 362 755 to 757 364 758 364 759 365 7G0 366 761 to 764 367 765 370 766, 767 370 768, 769 CONTENTS. XXI Page. Paragraph Of die subjunctive mood after the expressions le seul,V unique, le premier, and le dernier, ..... 372 770 Of the subjuncthe mood after a noun preceded either by the article le or the adjective un, and followed by a relative pronoun, ........ 373 771 Of the subjunctive mood after the indefinite pronouns qui que, quoi que, quel que, quelque que, and tout que, . . 374 772, 773 Of the subjunctive mood after que used to avoid the repe- tition of a preceding conjunction, . . . 375 774 Of conjunctions which sometimes govern the indicative and sometimes the subjunctive mood . . . 375 775 Of the subjunctive mood after the verbs se douter and s'attendre, 375 776 General remarks on the subjunctive mood, . 376 777 Of the Correspondence existing between the several tenses of the indicative mood with each other and with those of the conditional, 377 778 Of the Correspondence which should exist between the several tenses of the indicative and conditional moods, and those of the subjunctive, in order to express with the latter mood either a present, a past, a future, or a conditional, 379 779 Of the Present and Preterite of the Subjunc- tive Mood. — What tense of the subjunctive should be used when the verb which is to be employed in that mood is preceded by a present in the indicative, . . 379 780, 781 What tense of the subjunctive mood should be used when the verb which is to be employed in that mood is preceded by a future absolute in the indicative, . . . 380 782 Cannot the present and the preterite of the subjunctive be used when the first verb is in the preterite indefinite 1 . 381 783 to 785 Of the Imperfect and Pluperfect of the Sub- junctive Mood. — What tense of the subjunctive should be used when the verb which should be employed in that mood is preceded either by any of the past tenses or by one of the conditionals, ..... 381 7S6 What tense of the subjunctive should be used when, the first verb being in the present, the second expresses either a conditional present, an imperfect, or a conditional past, 382 787 What tense of the subjunctive should be used with any of the tenses of the indicative or conditional mood, when that verb expresses a fact which is always true, . 383 788 Questions on the indicative, conditional, imperative, and subjunctive moods, 384 Of the Infinitive Mood, 386 789 XXII CONTENTS. Page. Paraqrapr Can a verb be governed by another in the infinitive mood when that verb does not relate either to a noun or pro- noun already expressed in the sentence 1 . . 387 790 Can a verb always be governed by another in the infinitive mood when that verb has an antecedent already ex- pressed in the same sentence 1 387 791, 792 Remarks on the use of the infinitive mood, . . . 389 793,794 Of cases in which euphony requires that the indicative or subjunctive mood should be preferred to the infinitive, 390 795 Of the Present Participle, .... 391 796 Of the difference existing between a present participle and the same word used as an adjective, .... 391 797, 798 Observations, 392 799, 800 Of present participles which are never used as adjectives, 394 801 " " " whose corresponding adjectives, although having the same pronunciation, have a different orthogra- phy, 394 802 General indications serving as a guide in order to ascertain whether a word ending in ant is a present participle or not, 394 803 to 806 Of the Past Participle, 395 807 " " " used without any auxiliary, 395 808 " " " used with the verb etre, either in passive or neuter verbs, 396 809 Of die past participle used widi the verb avoir in active verbs, 396 810 to 812 " " « " « « " in neuter verbs, 39S 813 " " " used with the auxiliary verb etre in reflected verbs, 398 814 Of the past participle of verbs which are never used except in the reflected form, 399 815 Of the past participle of reflected verbs originating from neuter verbs, . .... 400 816, 817 Remarks and Illustrations on the Rules in re- gard to Past Participles, .... 401 818 Of the past participles of verbs which are either active or neuter, according to their signification, . . 402 819 Of the past participle followed by an adjective or another past participle, 404 820, 821 Of the past participle followed by the nominative of the verb, 405 822 " ' " " by an infinitive which is itself preceded by a preposition, .... 405 823 Of the past participle immediately followed by a verb in the present tense of the infinitive mood, . . . 406 824 to 826 Of the past participles which, being placed at the end of a sentence, have an infinitive understood after them, 409 827 Of the past participle of the verb /aire followed by an infinitive, 410 828 CONTENTS. XXIII Page. Paragraph. Of the past participle preceded and followed by que, . 410 829 « " " " by lui or lettr, used instead of le,la,les, . ... 411 ~ 830 Of the past participle preceded by le representing a member of a sentence, ....... 412 831 Of the past participle preceded by the pronoun en in sentences either affirmative, negative, or interrogative, when that prououn is not preceded by an adverb of quantity, . 412 832 Of die past participle preceded by the pronoun en in sentences expressing either interrogation or doubt, when that pro- noun is either preceded or followed by an adverb of quantity, 413 833 Of die past participle preceded by the pronoun en in affirma- tive and exclamative sentences, when that pronoun is preceded by an adverb of quantity, . . . 414 834 Of die past participle preceded by a noun which is itself preceded by an adverb of quantity followed by de , . 416 835 Of the past participle used with impersonal verbs, . 418 836 " " " preceded by several nouns separated either by a preposition or a conjunction, and agreeing only with one, ...... Of the past participle with the adverb lepeu, Of the past participles coute, valu, and pese, . of the reflected verbs se doutcr, s'aperce- voir, s'attaqver, s'emparer, s'abstenir, s'echapper, se batir, se louer, se demolir, and se vendre, . . . 420 841, 842 Questions on the infinitive mood, and the present and past participles, Of Prepositions, Classification of prepositions, ... A list of prepositions classified according to their object, Of prepositions considered in regard to their signification, " " having reference to place, . " " denoting order and arrangement, n " " union and connection, . " " " separation, • " " " opposition, .... " " " the end which the mind has in view, 432 " " " the cause and means which the mind has in view, ....... Of the prepositions de, a, and en, .... Of the difference existing between adverbs and prepositions, Of prepositions having the privilege of governing other prep- ositions, 417 837, 838 418 839 419 841 422 425 843 426 844 427 845 to 847 428 848 429 849 430 850 430 851 431 852 431 853 432 854 432 855 432 856 to 861 436 862 to 866 438 867 to 872 XXIV CONTENTS. Page. Paragraph. Remarks on the prepositions void and wild, pendant and du- rant, avant and devant, 440 873 to 875 Of nouns governed by two prepositions, . . . 441 876 Of the use of the article after prepositions, . . 441 877 to 880 Of the repetition of prepositions, 443 881,882 Of the place of prepositions, 443 883,884 Remarks, 444 885 Questions on prepositions, . 445 Of Adverbs, 446 886 to 888 Of the difference existing between an adverb and a preposition, 447 889 Of adjectives performing the functions of adverbs, . 448 890 Of adverbs performing the functions of nouns, . . 448 891 Of a few adverbs which, like prepositions, are sometimes followed by an object, ..... 449 892 Of the different sorts of adverbs, . . - . . . 449 893 Of the adverbs of the first class, that is to say, expressing either affirmation, doubt, or negation, . . . 450 894 to 896 Of the second class of adverbs, including the adverbs of manner, .... ... 450 897 to 905 Of the third class of adverbs; adverbs of order and rank, 453 906 Remarks on the adverb then, 453 907 to 910 Of adverbs of place and distance, 454 911,912 Of adverbs of time, 455 913 to 915 " " " quantity, 456 916, 917 " " « comparison, 457 918, 919 Of the place of the adverb in reference to the verb, . 457 920,921 " " of adverbs of arrangement, as well as those which designate time in a fixed and determinate manner, 458 922 Of the place of adverbs composed of one syllable when used with a verb in the present of the infinitive, . . 458 923 Of adverbs which are always placed before the verb, . 458 924 Of the place of adverbs in reference to adjectives, . 459 925 " " " " " to other adverbs, . 459 926, 927 Remarks on adverbs of quantity, .... 460 928 to 944 Further remark i on adverbs of quantity, . . . 467 945 to 955 Of the negative Adverb ne, . . . . 469 956 What is the place of the negative words 1 469 957 to 959 When is it that pas ought to be preferred to point, and vice versd ? 470 960 to 962 When is it that we may with elegance and propriety suppress either pas or point ? 471 963 Of cases in which pas or point ought to be sup- pressed, . 472 Of cases in which the negation is sufficiently expressed by CONTENTS. XXV words which restrict the signification of the verb in a manner either relative or absolute, .... Of cases in which the negation is accompanied by words expressing the smallest part of a whole. Of cases in which the negation is accompanied by the conjunc- tion nt, ........ . Of cases in which the signification of the verb is restricted by the words ne que, signifying generally but or only, Of cases in which a verb is preceded by que used instead of why, pourquoi, ....... Of cases in which a verb is preceded by d moins que, or si, having the meaning of unless, . Of cases in which either of the expressions il y a or depuis que are followed by a verb used either in the preterite indef- inite, the pluperfect, or the preterite anterior, Of cases in which a verb is preceded by a comparative either of superiority or inferiority, or by any of the following expressions, autre, autr entente peu, &c, . Of cases in which either of the verbs douter, desesperer, nier, disconvenir, empecker, prendre garde, craindre, and others of a similar nature, is employed in the first part of a sen- tence, Of cases in which the verb savoir? used negatively, means either to be unable? to be ignorant of, or not to know, Questions on the adverbs, Of Conjunctions, Of conjunctions considered in reference to their significat Of the use and different modes of employing the conjunction Of the object of conjunctions, Of conjunctions governing the infinitive mood, " " " the indicative mood, " the subjunctive mood, Place of conjunctions, Questions on conjunctions, Of Interjections, Questions on interjections, Grammatical Construction, Construction of affirmative sentences, " " interrogative sentences, " imperative sentences, Of inversions, Of ellipsis, Of pleonasm, Of syllepsis, ...... Page. Paragraph. 472 964, 965 473 966 473 967 474 968 474 969 475 970 475 475 971, 972 973, 974 476 975 to 978 477 979 478 481 980 ion, 482 983 que, 483 984 to 1002 487 1003 487 1004, 1005 488 1006, 1007 489 1008 489 1009 490 491 1010 to 1023 493 494 1024 494 1025 to 102S 495 1029 496 1030 497 1031 to 1036 499 1037, 1038 500 1039 to 10-11 502 10-12 XXVI CONTENTS. Page. Paragraph. Of Grammatical Discordances, . . 503 1043 Of discordances, » . 503 1044,1045 Of amphibologies, 504 1046 to 1049 Of Gallicisms, 505 1050 to 1054 Questions on grammatical construction, discordances, and Gallicisms, 507 Conjugation of Verbs, 510 " of the verb avoir, . . . 510 1055 " " " y avoir, (there to be,) . 514 1056 " " " tore, ..... 516 1057 " of the regular verbs, ... 520 1058 to 1077 Questions on the manner of conjugating regular verbs, 527 Conjugation of the verb aimer; first conjugation, . . 529 1078 Questions to be asked for the conjugation of any regular verb, 528 Remarks on the first conjugation, ..... 533 1079 Conjugation of the verbs ending in eter, eler, ger, eer, cer, yer, ier, 534 1080 to 1093 Questions on the verbs of the first conjugation, . 540 Conjugation of the verb finir; second conjugation, . . 540 1094,1095 Questions on the verbs of the second conjugation, . 545 Conjugation of the verb recevoir; third conjugation, . 545 1096 to 1098 Questions on the verbs of the third conjugation, . 550 Conjugation of the verb rendre; fourth conjugation, . . 550 1099 to 1102 Questions on the verbs of the fourth conjugation, . 556 Conjugation of the passive verbs, ..... 556 1103 " of pronominal verbs, .... 561 1104 of reflected verbs, 562 1105,1106 A list of verbs which are reflected in French, although they do not assume that form in English, . . . 563 1107 Questions on pronominal verbs, 564 Conjugation of the reflected verb s'aimer, . . . 565 1108 A LIST OF ALL THE IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS, ARRANGED IN ALPHABETIC ORDER, AND SHOWING THE PAGE WHERE THEY ARE CONJU- GATED. A. Page. Abattre, to pull down, to throw down, to feel, . like Battre, 594 S'abattre, e., to fall down, " 594 Absoudre, to absolve, Resoudre, 605 S'abstenir, e., to abstain, to refrain, .... Tenir, 584 Abstraire, to abstract, Traire, 606 Accourir, a., e., to run to, to hasten to, . . . Courir, 578 Accroire, to make one believe, ..... Croire, 596 Accroitre, a., e., to increase, to accrue, to augment, . Croitre, 597 S'accroitre, e., « « " . « 597 CONTENTS. XXVII Acceuillir, to welcome, Acquerir, to acquire, Adjoindre, to associate, to adjoin Admettre, to admit, . Aller, e., to go, . S'en aller, e., to go away, Apparaitre, a., e., to appear, Appartenir, to belong, Apprendre, to learn, Assaillir, to assault, Asseuir, S'asseoir, e c,, '• a > to sit down, o assoir, e, } Astreindre, to subject, . S'astreindre, e., to confine one's Atteindre, to overtake, to reach, Attraire, to allure, to entice, JLuemdre, to take out, to fetch out Avenir, e., to happen, to chance, Avoir, to have, Y avoir, there to be, I to sit down, self, Battre, to beat, to strike, Se battre, e., to fight, Boire, to drink, Bouillir, to boil, Braire, to bray, Bruiner, to drizzle, . Bruire, to roar, Ceindre, to gird, Choir, e., to fall, Circonscrire, to circumscribe, Circonvenir, to circumvent, . Cfore, to shut, to close, Combattre, to fight, Commettre, to commit, Comparaitre, to appear, Complaindre, to complain to, Complaire, to comply, . £e complaire, e., to delight, Comprendre, to understand, , Compromettre, to compromise, $e compromettre, c., to expose one's self, Page. Cueillir, 579 Acquerir, 576 Joindre, 599 Mettre, 600 Aller, 570 S'en aller, 571 Paraitre, 602 Tenir, ■584 Prendre. 603 Assaillir, 577 S'asseoir, 586 Assoir, 587 Joindre, 599 " 599 « 599 Traire, 606 Joindre, 599 Tenir, 584 Avoir, 510 Y avoir, 514 Battre, 594 " 594 Boire 595 Bouillir, 577 Traire, 606 Neiger, 576 Reduire, 604 Joindre, 599 Dechoir, 587 Ecrire, 598 Tenir, 584 Clore, 595 Battre, 594 Mettre, 600 Paraitre, 602 Joindre, 599 Plaire, 603 « 603 Prendre, 603 Mettre, 600 " 600 XXVIII CONTENTS. Conclure, to conclude, Conclure, Concuurir, to concur, Courir, Conduire, to conduct, Reduire, Confire, to preserve, Confire, Conjoindre, to conjoin, Joindre, Connaitre, to know, Paraitre, Conquerir, to conquer, . . . . • . Acquerir, Consentir, to consent, Sentir, Construire, to construct, to build, .... Reduire, Contenir, to contain, Tenir, Se contenir, e., to refrain, Contraindre, to constrain, Joindre, Contredire, Dire, Contrefaire, to counterfeit, Faire, Contrevenir, to infringe, Tenir, Convaincre, to convince, Vaincre, Convenir, a., e., to suit, to fit, . . . . . Tenir, Corrompre, to corrupt, ' . Rompre, Coudre, to sew, Coudre, Courir, to run, Courir, Couvrir, to cover, . . . . . . . Ouvrir, Craixdre, to fear, Joindre, Croire, to believe, Croire, Se croire, e., to rely upon one's own judgment, . . " Croitre, a., e., to grow, . .... Croitre, Cueillir, to gather, Cueillir, Cuire, to cook, to bake, Reduire, D. Debattre-, to debate, Battre, Se debattre, e., to struggle, ..... " Dechoir, a., e., to decay, Dechoir, Deconfire, to defeat totally, Confire, Deconstruire, to take to pieces, ..... Reduire, Decoudre, to rip, Coudre, Decouvrir, to discover, Ouvrir, Deoire, to describe, Ecrire, Decroitre, a., e., to decrease, ... . . Croitre, Dedire, to disown, .... . . Dire, Se dedire, e., to retract, .... . . " Deduire, to deduct, Reduire, Defaillir, to fail, to faint, Faillir, Defaire, to undo, to defeat, Faire, Se defaire, e., to part with, to get rid of, " Dejoindre, to disjoin, ...... Joindre, Dementir, to contradict, to belie, ..... Sentir, Pagb. 595 578 604 596 599 602 576 583 604 584 584 599 597 598 584 607 584 605 596 578 582 599 596 596 597 579 604 594 594 587 596 604 596 5S2 598 597 597 597 604 580 598 598 599 583 CONTENT? Se dementir, £., to belie one's self 5 . Demettre, e., to disjoint, .... Se demettre, e., to resign, Departir, to distribute, to share, /S*e departir, e., to depart, Depeindre, to describe, .... Deplaire, to displease, .... Se deplaire, e., to be displeased with, Depourvoir, to deprive, Desapprendre, to unlearn, Desservir, to clear a table, to do an ill office Deteindre, to discolor, .... Detenir, to detain, .... Detruire, to destroy, .... Se detruire, e., to kill one's self, . Devenir, e., to become, .... Devetir, e., to strip, to undress, Se devetir, e., to leave off part of one's clothes Dire, to say, to tell, Disconvenir, e., to deny, Discourir, to discourse, Disjoindre, to disjoin, Dispo.raitre, a., e., to Dissoudre, to dissolve, .... Se dissoudre, e., to dissolve, to be dissolved, Distraire, to distract, to divert, Dormir, to sleep, ..... XXIX E. S'ebatlre, e., to take one's pleasure, Echoir, e., to happen, to chance, to fall to, to injure Eclair er, to lighten, Eclore, e., to come to life, to hatch, to blossom, Econduire, to refuse, to discard in a polite manm Ecrire, to write, Elire, to elect, to choose, Emettre, to express, to set forth, Emoudre, to sharpen, . Emouvoir, to move, S'emouvoir, e., to be moved, Empreindre, to imprint, Enceindre, to enclose, . Enclore, to surround, Encourir, to incur, Endormir. to cause to sleep, C* Page. it 583 Mettre, 600 a 600 Sentir, 583 cc 583 Joindre, 599 Plaire, 603 a 603 Pourvoir, 59!) Prendre, 603 Servir, 5S3 Joindre, 599 Tenir, 584 Reduire, 604 « 604 Tenir, 584 Vetir, 585 « 585 Dire, 597 Tenir, 584 Courir, 578 Joindre, 599 Paraitre, 603 Resoudre, 605 (C 605 Traire, 606 Dormir, 579 Battre, 594 Dechoir, 587 Neiger, 576 Clore, 595 Reduire, 604 Ecrire, 598 Lire, 600 Mettre, 600 Moudre, 601 Mouvoir, 589 te 589 Joindre, 599 " 599 Clore, 595 Courir, 577 Dormir, 579 XXX CONTENTS. S'endormir, e., to fall asleep, Enduire, to plaster, Enfreindre, to transgress, S'enfuir, to run away, Enjoindre, to enjoin, S'enquerir, to inquire, S'entremettre, to interpose, Entreprendre, to undertake, Entretenir, to entertain, S'entretenir, e., to discourse with, Entrevoir, to glimpse at, S'entrevoir, e., to see each other, Entrouvrir, to open a little, . Envoy er, to send, S'eprendre, e., to be smitten, Equivaloir, to be equivalent, Eteindre, to extinguish, jESe secourir, e., to help one another, Seduire, to seduce, ... Sentir, to feel, to smell, (Seoi'r, to fit, to fit well, Servir, to serve, to be in use, Se servir, e., Sortir, a., e., to go out, Souffrir, to suffer, Soumettre, to submit, Se soumettre, e., to submit one's self, Sourire, to smile, .... Page. Joindre, 599 Sentir, 583 Prendre, 603 « 603 Reduire, 604 Acquerir, 576 Resoudre, 605 « 605 Sentir, 583 K 583 « 583 Tenir, 584 Joindre, 599 Neiger, 576 Tenir, 584 (C 584 Traire, 606 Valoir, 592 Tenir, 584 Vetir, 585 cc 585 Vivre, 607 Voir, 593 Rire, 605 cc 605 Rompre, 605 cc 605 Ouvrir, 582 Assaillir, 577 Faire, 598 Savoir, 591 Courir, 578 cc 578 Reduire, 604 Sentir, 583 Seoir, 591 Servir, 583 cc 583 Sentir, 583 Ouvrir, 582" Mettre, 600 Rire, 605 CONTENTS. Souscrire, to subscribe, Ecrire, Soustraire, to subtract, Traire, Se soustraire, e., to avoid, to escape, ... " Soutenir, to maintain, to support, ..... Tenir, Se soutenir, e., to stand up, " Se souvenir, e., to remember, " Subvenir, to assist, to relieve, " Suffire, to be sufficient, Confire, Suivre, to follow, ....... Suivre, S'ensuivre, e., to follow from, " Surcroitre, to grow out, Croitre, Surf aire, to exact, to ask too much, .... Faire, Surprendre, to surprise, ...... Prendre, Surseoir, to supersede, to put off, ..... Surseoir, Survenir, e., to befall, to happen, . ... Tenir, Survivre, to survive, ....... Vivre, T. Taire, to conceal, to keep secret, .... Plaire, Se taire, £., to keep silent, " Teindre, to dye, to color, ..... Joindre, Tenir, to hold, Tenir, Se tenir, e., to stand, " S'en tenir, e., to abide by, " Tonner, to thunder, ...... Neiger, Traduire, to translate, to bring to justice, . . . Reduire, Traire, to milk, Traire, Transcrire, to transcribe, Ecrire, Transmettre, to transmit, ..... Mettre, Tressaillir, to start up, ...... Assaillir, V. Vaincre, to vanquish, to conquer, .... Vaincre, Valoir, to be worth, ....... Valoir, Valoir mieux, to be better, " Venir, e., to come, ... .... Tenir, Vetir, to clothe, to dress, V6tir, Se vetir, e., to clothe one's self, " Vivre, to live, Vivre, Voir, to see, Voir, Se voir, e., to visit one another, .... " Vouloir, to be willing, ...... Vouloir, Page. 598 606 606 584 584 584 584 596 606 606 597 598 603 592 584 607 603 603 599 5S4 584 584 576 604 606 598 600 577 607 592 592 584 585 585 607 593 593 593 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 1. Grammar is the art of speaking and writing a language cor- rectly. To speak a language is to convey our thoughts in that language by means of articulate sounds. To write a language is to convey our thoughts in that language by means of signs or characters called letters. A French Grammar, written for the use of foreigners, ought not only to contain the rules of the French language, but to compare them with those of the foreign language in which it is to be studied, and to show clearly in what they differ or agree. In French, as well as in other languages, the rules are the result of philosophical reasoning and of usage. Language, however, even as spoken by the natives of the same country, differs in construction, idiom, and pronunciation, owing to the fact, that some are well educated, some are not ; hence a great difference between the language, as generally spoken, and that which is classical and conforms to the rules ; and the student of a foreign language ought not only to aim at acquiring such a knowledge of it as shall enable him to express his ideas intelligibly, but to write and speak it correctly. The study of Grammar is the means by which this point is to be gained. Words spoken or written are composed of syllables ; syllables are composed of letters. These letters, separately or grouped together, represent the sounds and written words of a language ; and form a collection which is called the Alphabet. The French language has no alphabet of its own ; that which is used comes from the Latin. 2. (See for the French Alphabet, and all that relates to Pronun- ciation, the French Reader, by Count De Laporte.) 1 FRENCH GRAMMAR. ACCENTUATION. 3. The five vowels receive modifications in their sound by the use of certain signs placed over them. These signs are called accents. We have in French three accents ; the acute, which is marked thus ('), the grave ( N ), and the circumflex ( A ). The acute accent (') is only used with the letter e, and gives it the sound of the English letter a in bale, as in bonte, goodness. The grave accent Q is used with the letters a, e, u. When used with the first and the last, a, u, it shows only some particular use of these two letters, and does not alter their pronunciation ; as in the words la, there, and ou, where. Without the accent, these words signify the, feminine and or. It gives to the letter e a more open sound than the acute accent, as in the words progrls, succes, progress, success, in which £ sounds as ai in fair, pair, or a in mare, snare. The circumflex accent is used with the five vowels, and gives them a broader sound than they have naturally, without changing the nature of that sound. This accent has been introduced into the language to show, that, formerly, the words over which it is seen were written with an s after the vowel which now receives the accent, as meme for mesmes, fumes for fusmes , fimes for fsmes, cote for coste, pate for paste. OF PUNCTUATION, AND OTHER SIGNS USED IN THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 4. The marks of Punctuation are similar in French and in English, as well as the other signs used in writing ; they are called by the following names : Comma, , virgule. Semicolon, ; point et virgule. Colon, : deux points. Period, . un point. Note of interrogation, 1 point oV interrogation. Note of admiration, or point d? admiration, ou exclamation, ! d' 'exclamation. The parenthesis, ( ) parenthese. The dash, — le trait de separation. A quotation, " " guillemets. Cedilla, (p), cedille, gives to the c the sound of 55. Diaeresis, ( •• ) trema, placed above the vowels e, i, u, to indicate that these vowels do not form a dipthong with the next vowel, bnt should be pronounced by themselves ; as, poeme, hair, Saul. ELISION. O The hyphen, (-) trait d'union; this sign is used to connect together, first, compound words, as, arc-en-ciel ; second, the personal pronouns nominative and the verb, when placed after the verb in interrogative sentences, as, aime-la, aimons-nous ; third, the objective pronouns and the verb in the imperative mood, as, ecoute-moi, parle- lui; fourth, it is also used, when, at the end of a line, a word being too long must be divided, and the latter part written in the next line. The apostrophe, (') V apostrophe, which is used to show the elision of a vowel when followed by another vowel, or by an h mute ; as, Vhomme, I'etude, le homme, la etude. This sign is employed merely for the sake of euphony. ELISION. 5. The apostrophe ('), as we have just stated, is placed between two words to show the suppression of the vowel ending the first word before another vowel or an h mute. This suppression is called elision, and causes the two words to be pronounced together, as if forming but one. The only vowels which suffer elision are, a, c, i. This last vowel, i, is suppressed only in one word, si, if, when this word comes before the personal pronouns nominative of the third persons singular and plural, il, Us; thus, instead of writing, Si il, for if he, or si Us, for if they, the letter i is suppressed in the word si, and we write, s'il, s'ils. The letters a, e, are suppressed in the following words, when the next word begins with a vowel or an h mute. la, me, te, de, que, parceque, quoique, puisque, jnsque, vu, que, desque, quelque, tntre. the, him, it, " her, " I, me, thee, V. m'. himself, nerself, itself, themselves, s 9 . this or that, it, c\ ' of, from, cliaux, faux. 1100 11 10 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 20 40 art, depart, champart, C rempart, &c. 1 art effort, port, fort, tort, &c. ( ort fer, ver, liver, &c. C er air, eclair, &c. 2 air tour, contour, four, &c. C our 900 bonheur, malheur, la- beur, honneur, deshon- neur, coeur, anticoeur, crevecoeur, choeur, chou- fleur, pleur, equateur, secteur, &c. f hart, part. ) mort, malemort. i cuiller, mer. > chair. ) cour, tour. aigreur, ampleur, ar- deur, blancheur, candeur, chaleur, chandeleur, cou- leur, clameur, douceur, douleur, epaisseur, erreur, faveur, defaveur, ferveur, fleur, passe-fleur, sans- fleur, fraicheur, frayeur, froideur, fureur, grand- eur, grosseur, hauteur, horreur, humeur, laideur, langueur, largeur, len- teur, liqueur, longueur, lourdeur, maigreur, moi- teur, noirceur, odeur, paleur, pesanteur, peur, primeur, profondeur, puan- teur, pudeur, impudeur, rigueur, raideur, rondeur, rougeur, rousseur, rumeur, saveur, senteur, soeur, souleur, splendeur, sueur, teneur, terreur, tiedeur, torpeur, touffeur, tumeur, valeur, non-valeur, vapeur, verdeur, vigueur, and mceurs. There are three old words, besides these ; basseur, tremeur, rancoeur, which are now obsolete, and complete the number, 76. 76 As this list of exceptions is pretty accurate, all nouns with the termination eur which are not found among the above exceptions, must be considered as being masculine. A TABLE OF NOUNS WHICH ARE MASCULINE IN ONE SIGNI- FICATION AND FEMININE IN ANOTHER. 19. As if it were not already difficult enough for a foreigner to learn the gender of the nouns of our language, he must know that there are certain of them that are sometimes masculine, and sometimes feminine, according to their signification, as follows : GENDERS. 11 Masculine. Feminine. assistant, helper aide aid, help, support eagle, a great genius aigle a Roman standard an angel ange a kind of thornback an alder-tree aune an ell, a sort of measure barb, a Barbary horse barbe beard bard, a poet barde a slice of bacon, horse armor redbreast berce cow parsnip a sort of privateer capre caper, an acid pickle an ornament to painting, a scroll cartouche cartridge a caravan, a hog coche a notch, a sow cornet, a standard-bearer cornette a woman's head-dress, when in dishabille a couple, a male and a female couple a brace, two of a sort a Croatian soldier cravate a neckcloth crape crepe a pancake an echo, the return of a sound echo Echo, a nymph ensign, a standard-bearer enseigne a sign-post example, model, instance exemple a copy for writing a gimblet, a piercer foret a wood, a forest a large tun foudre lightning, a thunderbolt keeper, -warden garde watch, hilt, nurse hoar-frost givre a serpent, in heraldry the rolls, the register greffe a graft gules in heraldry gueule the mouth of some beasts guide, director guide reins, for governing a horse sunflower heliotrope heliotrope, jasper iris, rainbow, iris of the eye iris spring crystal, proper name lacker, a kind of varnish laque lacca, gum lac a book livre a pound a lot of otter's hair loutre an otter the handle of a tool manche a sleeve, English Channel a laborer manoeuvre the working of a ship memoir, a bill memoire memory thanks merci pity, mercy fashion mood, mode mode a pier or mound mole mole, moon-calf mould, cast, form moule muscle, shell-fish a ship-boy mousse moss, a plant the philosopher's stone ceuvre action, an author's work office, business, prayers office pantry, larder, buttery ombre, a game at cards ombre shade, shadow the page of a prince page page, in a book a merry-andrew paillasse a straw bed a hand's breadth palme the branch of a palm-tree, vic- tory a dumb show pantomime pantomime easter, easter-day paque the passover a comparison paralleie a parallel line pendulum pendule a clock le Perche, a province of France perche a Pole, perch, a fish summit, highest pitch periode period, epoch anybody, nobody (pronoun) personne a person (a noun) spade, at cards pique a pike gnatsnapper, a bird pivoine peony, a flower a plane-tree plane plane, an instrument a stove, a canopy poele a frying-pan post, a military station poste the post for letters the laying of eggs pun to, at cards ponte 12 FRENCH GRAMMAR. purple color, purples (a disease) pourpre a pretence pretexte quadrille, at cards quadrille the calling back a hawk reclame rest, relaxation relache a glass coach remise a sort of pear-tree sans-peau satyr, a sylvan god satyre serpentarius serpentaire nap, slumber somme a smile souris a porter Suisse holder, book-keeper teneur a tour, turn, trick tour triumph triomphe trumpeter trompette space vague a vase, a vessel vase a hat of Vigonia wool vigogne a veil voile purple fish, purple dye pretext party of horse in a tournament a catch- word (in printing) harbor a coach-house, a remittance a sort of pear a satire, a lampoon snake-root, dragon's wort sum, load, name of a river a mouse Switzerland tenor, purport, content tower, rook at chess a trump trumpet a wave, surge the slime in ponds, lakes, &c. a vigon, a llama a sail TERMINATIONS SHOWING THE SIMILARITY OF WORDS IN FRENCH AND ENGLISH. 20. There are many words which are alike in both languages. These words are known by their terminations, as will be seen by the following list. Terminations. al as animal, cardinal, fatal, general, local, moral, &c ble " capable, fable, &c, Bible, eligible, &c, noble, double, soluble, &c. ace " face, grimace, grace, place, race, &c. ance " chance, complaisance, extravagance, ignorance, &c. ence " prudence, conference, continence, patience, &c. ice " artifice, auspice, edifice, orifice, &c. acle " miracle, obstacle, receptacle, spectacle, &c. ade " ambuscade, brigade, cavalca-de, parade, &c. age " age, adage, cage, image, page, &c. ege " college, privilege, siege, sortilege, &c. ge " vestige, sage, barge, charge, forge, &c. ule " globule, ridicule, formule, mule, pustule, &c. ile " bile, debile, agile, docile, facile, fragile, &c. ine " carabine, doctrine, heroine, machine, &c. ion " action, fraction, legion, opinion, passion, &c. ant " arrogant, constant, elegant, elephant, piquant, &c. ent " absent, accident, compliment, content, element, &c. 21. Many other English words require only a change of termi- nation ; as, gy ary gie as energy aire " military energie militaire ory cy ty ous or eous our, or ine ive I ARTICLE. oire as glory gloire ce " clemency cleinence te " beauty beaute eux " courageous courageux a " dangerous dangereux eur " favor, error faveur, erreur in " clandestine clandestin if " attentive attentif rie " fury furie die " perfidy perfidie 13 OF THE ARTICLE. 22. The definition of this word, Article, has been the subject of * long and spirited discussions among grammarians, who are, even to this day, far from agreeing with each other on the nature of its functions in language. We wish the public to understand, that our object in this grammar is, and will always be, to reach the intelligence of the greatest number, without pretensions to science or novelty. We are satisfied that new denominations, although more rational than those already in use, are of no benefit in practice, and serve only to confuse the minds of pupils ; therefore : Without entering into the details of the numerous systems contained in the most celebrated works on the French language, concerning the nature of this part of speech, we shall adopt the definition of Levizac, as conveying the clearest idea, and being in conformity with the notions generally adopted by scholars and teachers. " The article, being intended to express the direction of the mind towards the particular object which it has in view, is a word placed before common nouns, to designate that they are about to be taken in a definite sense." Such being the definition of the article, it is evident that there cannot exist what is generally called an indefinite article ; therefore the words a, an, will be hereafter classed among the adjectives. In English there is but one word to express the article ; it is the. It is used before nouns of either gender and number ; it has neither elision nor contraction. In French, on the contrary, the article agrees in number and gender with the noun which it precedes ; it admits of elision and contraction, as follows : 2 14 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Without elision. 23. Before a noun sing, raasc. beginning with a consonant, or an h aspirated, the is expressed by le " sing. fern. " '* la " plur. masc. or fem. " les With elision. Before a noun sing. masc. or fem. beginning with a vowel, or an h mute, the is expressed by V Examples. Without elision. With elision in the singular. Sing . Masc. the day le jour Sing. Masc. the bird l'oiseau Fem. the night la nuit " Fem. the soul Fame « Masc. the owl le hibou " Masc. the man l'homme cc Fem. the hatred la haine « Fem. the inn l'hotellerie -Plur. Masc. the days les jours Plur. Masc. the birds les oiseaux " Fem. the nights les nuits " Fem. the soul les ames " Masc. the owls les hiboux " Masc. the men les hommes cc Fem. the hatred les haines (plur.) « Fem. the inns les hotelleri CONTRACTION. 24. The contraction of the article takes place in the singular masculine, and in the plural masculine and feminine, before all nouns, when it is preceded by either of the prepositions of and to, de, a ; so that, 25. of the, (1.) before a noun sing. masc. beginning with a consonant or an h aspirated, is expressed by du (for de le.) " (2.) before a noun. sing. fem. beginning with a consonant, or an h aspirated, is expressed by de la. " (3.) before a noun masc. or fem. beginning with a vowel, or an h mute, is expressed by de V. (4.) befcnre a noun plur. is expressed by des (for de les.) (1.) before a noun sing. masc. beginning with a consonant, or h aspirated, is expressed by au (for a le.) (2.) before a noun sing. fem. beginning with a consonant, or an h aspirated, is expressed by a la. (3.) before a noun masc. or fem. beginning with. a vowel, or an k mute, is expressed by a I'. (4.) before a noun plural is expressed by aux (for d les.) Examples. to the, '. (1.) of the day sing . masc. beg. wi th cons. (de le) du jour (C owl " et " h asp. (de le) du hibou (2.) (( night " fem. cc cons. de la nuit CC hatred " a " h asp. de la haine (3.) CC bird « masc. cc a vowel (de le) de l'oiseau cc soul " .fem. cc a vowel (de la) de 1'a.me cc man " masc. cc h mute (de le) de l'homme " inn " fem. cc h mute (de la) de l'hotellerie ARTICLE. u (4.) of the days plur masc. beg. with cons. (de les) des jours ee nights cc fem. cc cons. cc des nuits « owls « masc. cc h asp. cc des hiboux " hatred cc fem. cc h asp. cc des haines cc birds " masc. " a vowel cc des oiseaux " souls cc fem. " a vowel cc des ames cc men cc masc. cc h mute « des hommes cc inns cc fem. " h mute " des hotelleries CIO to the day sing . masc. beg. with cons. (ale) au jour cc owl cc masc. cc h asp. (ale) au hibou (2.) cc night " fem. cc cons. (a la) a la nuit cc hatred cc fem. cc h asp. (a la) a la haine (3.) cc bird cc masc. " a vowel (ale) a l'oiseau cc soul cc fem. cc a vowel (a la) a l'ame cc man " masc. cc h mute (ale) a I'homme cc inn cc fem. cc h mute (a la) a l'hotellerie (4.) cc days plur masc. « cons. (a les) aux jours cc nights cc fem. cc cons. cc aux nuits " owls " masc. cc h asp. cc aux hiboux cc hatred cc fem. cc h asp. cc aux haines cc birds cc masc. cc a vowel cc aux oiseaux cc souls cc fem. " a vowel cc aux ames 68 men " masc. cc h mute « aux hommes cc inns cc fem. cc h mute cc aux hotelleries Now that we have explained the mechanism of the article, and have laid it down, as a principle, that the article is used before a noun taken definitely, agreeing with that noun in number and gender, let us explain what we understand by a noun taken definitely. 29. A common noun is definite when it signifies a whole species of persons or things, a distinct part of a whole species, or a single individual of a whole species ; that is to say, when it is used in reference to the extent of its signification. A common noun designates a whole species of persons or things, when it represents all the individuals named by that noun. Examples. Men are not wicked. Children are troublesome. Man ought to rule his passions. Les hommes ne sont pas mechants. Les enfants sont turbulents. L'homme devrait regler ses passions. In the first and last sentences, les hommes, Vhomme, designate the whole species of beings called men. In the second, children signifies the whole species of beings called children. These nouns are therefore used in reference to the whole extent of their signification. The common noun designates a distinct part of a whole species, when, by some qualification, it separates a certain class from the whole : as, 16 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Examples. Wicked men are to be feared. Les hommes mediants sont a craindre. Studious children are loved by their Les enfants studieux sont aimes de leurs masters. maitres. A weak man is governed by his IShomme faible est gouverne par ses passions. passions. In the first and last sentences we do not speak of all men, but of distinct classes of men ; those who are wicked, those who are weak ; and the extent of the signification of the nouns man and children embraces all wicked and weak men, and all studious children. The common noun designates a single individual of a whole species, when it presents to the mind the idea of a single object of that species ; as, Examples. The king is loved by his subjects. Le roi est aime de ses sujets. The man of whom you speak. L'homme dont vous parlez. In these sentences we speak only of one king, of one man, the one of whom yon speak ; and the extent of the signification of the nouns king and man is limited to one particular individual of each kind. The functions of the article, as a part of speech, being to designate the noun which it precedes in a definite manner, it is evident that, where a sentence contains several nouns, used as nominatives or objectives, it must be repeated before each of them ; thus we say, Examples. The horses, cattle, sheep, and mules, Les chevaux, les bestiaux, les brebis, et are in the pasture. les mules sont dans la prairie. I have bought the knives, the forks, J'ai achete les couteaux, les fourchettes, the glasses, and the decanter, of les verres, et la carafe dont nous avions which we were in need. besoin. This rule is not without exceptions, as will be seen when speaking of the repetition of the article. The article, being definite, cannot be placed before any other word but the common noun, or before words used as such, elliptically or idiomatically; which is sometimes the case with adjectives, verbs, adverbs, and prepositions ; as, Examples. (1.) The miser is poor among his L'avare est pauvre au milieu de ses riches. richesses. (2.) Eating is more necessary than Le manger est plus necessaire que le drinking. boire. (3) That man would know the how Cet homme voudrait savoir le povrqnoi and why of every thing et le comment de tout. AKT1CLE. 17 (4.) There are people who defend II y a des personnes que eoutiennent le the pro and con, without any motive pour et le contre, sans autre motif que but love of contradiction. celui de contredire. It is evident that in these examples, Vavare is used for the man who is a miser, le manger and le boire for food and drinks, pourquoi and comment for the motive, le pour et le contre for one side of the question and the other; those words, having changed their nature through an operation of the mind, which has made them common nouns, take the article in accordance with the general rule. 30. A common noun is indefinite, whenever, instead of being used in reference to the extent of its meaning, it is only employed for the sake of its material signification, representing an object as bearing a name which distinguishes it from other objects of a different kind, but not among those which belong to the same species ; thus, when I say, the road is lined with trees, the noun tree is indefinite, because if it enables me to ascertain, through its material signification, what the road is lined with, it does not show me what particular trees among the large family of trees have been used to line the road ; this sentence only signifies that the road is not lined with houses, fences, hedges, &c, but with a certain number of things called trees — but what trees ? If, instead of trees, I say, the road is lined with laurels, the noun laurel is as indefinite as the noun tree, because it still only represents to the mind the name of the things with which the road is lined, without reference to any particular laurels having been used for that purpose ; the noun laurel is therefore used for its material meaning, without any reference to the extent of it. If, instead of the noun laurel alone, I use the following expression, the road is lined with red laurels, the noun laurel thus qualified is quite as indefinite as the nouns laurel and tree in the preceding examples ; because if it shows that the road is lined not only with trees, but with laurels, and expresses that these laurels are red, it does not designate, among the family of red laurels, which is the distinct class which has been used to line the road ; it is still the mere name of a kind. If I say now, the road is lined with red laurels that I gave you, it would seem at first that the expression has assumed a definite character, but by analysing the sentence we soon discover that it is still as indefinite as the preceding one ; for if it shows that the road is lined with trees, that these trees are called laurels, that these laurels are red, and that these red laurels have been given by me, it does not state either that all the laurels which I gave have been used, 2* 18 FRENCH GRAMMAR. nor what distinct part of them has been employed ; thus the expression, red laurels that I gave you, is still but the name of the things the road is lined with and no more, and is therefore indefinite ; the preceding sentences should then be expressed without the article , as follows : La route est bordee d'arbres : La route est bordee de lauriers : La ' route est bordee de lauriers roses : La route est bordee de lauriers roses que je vous ai donnes. A common noun is always indefinite w T hen it is used to qualify a preceding noun, as : I have a watch of gold, J'ai une montre d'or. In this sentence, the noun gold qualifies watch, says what it is made of ; it shows that my watch is neither made of silver, brass, or any other metal but of that called gold, without attaching to this 7 noun any definite idea of individuality, distinction of class or that of a whole ; it is therefore indefinite, and does not require the use of the article. OF THE PARTITIVE WORDS SOME AND ANY EXPRESSED OR UNDERSTOOD. 31. Common nouns, instead of being used either in reference to the whole extent of their signification, or limited to designate a distinct class of individuals or things, or to point out a single individual or thing of a whole class, may be employed only to express an indefinite part of a whole ; they are then said to be used partitively. The words used in English to express this particular view of the mind are, some and any, which are thus called partitive words. The partitive word in French is the prepostion of, de, followed or not by the article the, according to the following rules : 32. (1.) If the sentence is affirmative, and the noun to be used in a partitive sense is not preceded by an adjective, some or any is expressed as of the should be, before the same noun, as follows ; Give me some bread. Donnez moi du (de Ie) pain. Give me some beer. Donnez moi de la bierre. Have you any water 1 Avez-vous de Z'eau 1 Have you any apples 1 Avez-vous des (de les) pommes 1 The reason for this rule is to be found in the definition of the article itself; for when I say, give me some bread, I mean, give me a part of the bread which you have or which is there, the noun bread is then limited in my mind, and therefore definite, and requires the article the to be used with the partitive preposition of Usage having ARTICLE. 19 suppressed the words a part and which you have, there remains the idiomatical expression, Give me of the bread. 33. (2.) If, the sentence being affirmative, the noun to be used in a partitive sense were preceded by an adjective, some or any should be expressed by the partitive preposition of, de, alone, without the article, as follows : Give me some good bread. Donnez moi de bon pain. Have you any good apples 1 Avez-vous de bonnes pommes'? But should the adjective follow the noun, instead of preceding it, the preceding rule does not stand good, and some or any are expressed by of the, as follows : Give me some white bread. Donnez moi du (de le) pain blanc. Have you any red apples \ Avez-vous des (de les) pommes rouges 1 Why this difference ? Is it because the expression good bread, bon pain, is indefinite, and white bread, pain blanc, definite, that the article the is used in the latter case and suppressed in the former 1 Not at all. The reason for this difference between these two expressions arises from the fact that words being used in a sentence only to obey the impulse of the mind, the order in which they are placed, or their omission is the consequence of that want. Thus, when I wish to say, give me some good bread, after having pronounced the first two words, give me, the idea which preoccupies my mind next, is that of goodness, represented by the adjective good, which, expressing a mere qualification, is by its nature indefinite, and I do not feel prompted to use the article the, which always announces a definite idea ; I say then, give me of good bread, thus making use of the partitive preposition of, which shows that I only want a part of the bread, and omitting the article the ; but when, on the contrary, the noun precedes the adjective, as in, Give me some white bread, {bread white, in French,) the first idea which strikes my mind after having pronounced the words give me, is that represented by the word bread, which, being a noun, is most generally definite, and therefore I feel prompted to use the sign which precedes all definite nouns, that is to say, the article the ; and I say, give me of the bread white. Such is, no doubt, the original cause of the introduction of this apparent discrepancy, which causes a Frenchman to say, Donnez moi de bon pain and donnez moi du pain blanc, and from this habit — adopted from the time of the origin of the language — has originated the rule mentioned above, which grammarians have recorded in their w T orks, and which has become a law in our language. 20 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Remarks. It sometimes happens that we wish to fix the attention on the noun, in order that it should become the predominant idea; then, in such cases, and against the preceding rule, the article the is used with the preposition of, dc, before the adjective which precedes the noun used in a partitive sense, as, This is real poetry : Void de la vraie poesie. This is sound philosophy : Voila de la bonne philosophic. We say, J'ai du meilleur pain, meaning, I have some of the best bread. J'ai de meilleur pain que vous, meaning, My bread is better than yours. Tirez de meilleur vin, meaning, Draw some better wine, and, Tirez du meilleur vin, meaning, Draw some of the best wine. The first and the last of these sentences express an idea in the superlative degree ; the two others are mere comparative and do not require the article. 34. (3.) If the sentence is negative, whatever may be the situation of the noun to be used in a partitive sense, whether preceded or fol- lowed by an adjective or employed without any, the partitive meaning is conveyed by the preposition of, de, alone, as follows : I have no (or not any) bread. Je n'ai pas de pain. Have you no (or have you not any) »■,-, , „ \ i J N avez-vous pas de pommes " I have no good bread. Je n'ai pas de bon pain. I have no white bread. Je n'ai pas depain blanc. In these sentences, the unqualified nouns pain and pommes, and the qualified noun bon pain, and pain blanc, are only used as the names of the substances so called, without any reference to the extent of their signification ; they are therefore indefinite, and employed without the article. Remark 1st. But if we wish to fix the attention upon the noun or to express strong opposition between two ideas, the article is used with the preposition, although the sentence is negative, as in, I will not write you useless letters, but Je ne vous ecrirai pas des lettres I will try to do useful things which inutiles — mais je tacherai de faire may perhaps please you. des choses utiles qui puissent vous amuser. I will not address you frivolous re- Je ne vous ferai point des reproches proaches. frivoles. Remark 2nd. When the sentence is negative and interrogative, the article is sometimes used and sometimes not ; as, Have you not some bread for your N 'avez-vous pas du pain pour dejeuner % breakfast 1 What do you complain De quoi vous plaignez vous 1 at! Have you no bread 1 I will give you N'avez-vous pas de pain 1 Je vais vous some. en donner. ARTICLE. 21 In the first case, although the sentence is negative, the meaning is affirmative : You have some bread, and I know it : in the other the sentence is dubitative : I do not know if you have any bread or not. We say according to the same principle : I have money, but it is not to spend it Je n'ai pas de l'argent pour le depenser foolishly. follement. 35. (4.) But if the noun preceded by an adjective, in an affirmative sentence, or used negatively, as in the preceding examples, should be rendered definite by some additional idea joined to it, as in the following expressions : Have you any more of the good bread Avez-vous encore du bon pain que vous which you baked yesterday 1 avez cuit hier 1 I have no more of the bread, or of the Je n' ai plus du pain or du bon pain que good bread which I baked yesterday. j 'ai cuit hier. The expressions pain and bon pain, employed affirmatively or negatively, representing no longer the vague and indefinite idea of the substance called bread or good bread; and their sense being particularized by the additional idea, which you or I have baked yesterday; they have become definite, and therefore require to be preceded by the article the. 36. (5.) It happens very often in English, that the partitive words some and any are used at the end of a sentence, as in the following : If you have any bread, give me some. Si vous avez du pain, donnez-m'en. Have you any cheese 1 No, I have Avez-vous du fromage 1 Non, je n'en not any. ai pas. The English expressions, give me some, and I have not any, are elliptical, and the nouns pain and fromage are understood after them. The repetition of these nouns would be disagreeable to the ear ; but as the sentence ought to be completed in French, this repetition is avoided, and the sense completed by using the personal objective pronouns it or them, preceded by the partitive preposition of; some and any are then omitted, and of it and of them expressed by the contracted pronoun en, placed immediately before the verb in all its tenses, except in the imperative mood, used affirmatively, in which case it follows it ; thus, give me some is changed into give me of it, and I have not any into I of it have not, and rendered as above. The proper use of the pronoun en instead of some or any is one of the greatest difficulties that beginners have to meet with, and requires a great deal of practice and attention from both pupils and teachers to be attended to properly. 22 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 37. Some few examples will be given now, to illustrate the difficulties attending the use of the partitive sense of nouns. If I say. Have you helped the lady to some wine? Yes, but she prefers water : meaning that she always prefers water to wine, there is no partitive idea attached to the noun water, and the sentence is rendered by, Avez-vous offert du vin a, Madame 1 Oui, mais elle pref&re Veau. But if the above sentence should signify that the lady, although she may be fond of wine, wishes then for some water, the sense of the expression becomes partitive, because the lady wants a part of the water which is there on the table, and the answer should be, Oui, mais elle pref&re de Veau. 38. If I should say to a gentleman, Will you take tea with me? I invite that person to sit at the table and partake of the whole meal called tea ; he may accept the offer, and not even taste the tea which is on the table ; there is then no partitive idea attached to the noun tea, and the sentence is expressed by, Voulez prendre le the avec moi 1 But if, while sitting at the table, I ask the gentleman, Will you take tea or coffee ? I offer him then a part of the tea or coffee which is on the table ; the sense becomes partitive, and requires to be expressed by, Prendrez-vous du the ou du cafe 1 39. If, addressing one of my neighbors at the table, I should inquire of him, Shall I help you to some sugar? I stand ready to help him myself out of the sugar bowl, and to give him a part of the sugar which is contained in it ; the sense is then partitive, and I should say, Vous offrerai-je du sucre 1 But if my intention only was to pass the sugar-bowl to him, the meaning would no longer be partitive, for it would then be the whole, the sugar and the bowl, I intend to offer ; and the sentence should be expressed by, Vous passerai-je le sucre 1 40. We deem what precedes to be sufficient to enable a foreigner to understand fully how to express the partitive meaning of a noun, whether it be definite or indefinite ; we should only mention now, that whenever this partitive meaning is to be imparted in French, it ought to be expressed, the partitive preposition of, with or without the article, never being understood, as it is too often the case in English ; as in the following : London and Paris are (some) fine Paris et Londres sont de belles villes. cities. London and Paris are (some) mag- Paris et Londres sont des villes mag- nificent cities. nifiques. Why do you lay (some) snares for me'? Pourquoi me tendez-vous des pieges 1 Why do you take (some) snuff 1 Pourquoi prenez-vous du tabac 1 ARTICLE. 23 41. When a common noun is composed of a noun and an adjective, these two words form a sense which is indivisible ; they are the equivalent to a single word, and consequently ought to be preceded by the article, although employed in a partitive sense ; as, des petits-inaitres. des petits-pates. des petites-maitresses. des petits-pois. But when the noun does not form an indivisible sense with the adjective by which it is preceded, the article is not used with the preposition of, de; as, We become as young children without Nous devenons comme de petits enfants pride, malice, and disguise. sans orgueil, sans malice, et sans deguisement. Des petits enfants would be incorrect, because the adjective petits and the noun enfants do not form an indivisible sense as in petits-pates and petits-pois. Remarks. Some writers have used the article before nouns used in a partitive sense and preceded by an adjective, when they do not form an inseparable sense ; as in, The other day he was asking ques- L 'autre jour il interrogeait des petits tions of tittle children. enfants. They drive before them asses and lis chassent devant eux des anes et des small horses. petits chevaux. We wish to meet with honest men* Nous voulons trouver des honnetes gens, because their society is the only parceque leur societe est la seule qui one which pleases us. nous plaise. In these cases the adjective and the noun are considered as forming a compound expression, having the character of a noun. 42. The partitive sense should not be mistaken for the general sense, for in this latter case the article must be used ; as, It is the opinion of ancient philosophers. C'est l'opinion des anciens philosophes This expression, des anciens philosophes, is not partitive, but signifies a whole. OF THE USE OF THE ARTICLE WITH PROPER NAMES. 43. The article being only introduced into the language to show that the noun which it precedes is considered by the mind in a definite point of view, it is clear that it should be dispensed with, 24 FRENCH GRAMMAR. when the noun to be used is so definite in its nature as to leave no doubt as to the particular thing or individual which that noun is intended to represent ; such is the case with proper names in general. Thus, in the following sentence, God is great, no sign is necessary to show what idea is represented by God, because with us French there is but one God ; Napoleon was a great general — there has been with us but one Napoleon, therefore the article the is not required to show what Napoleon we speak of. But this rule is subject to many ex- ceptions, and we will examine them separately. NAMES OF COUNTRIES USED WITHOUT A PREPOSITION. 44. Names of countries always take the article when used without being preceded by a preposition ; as, France is a beautiful country, La France est un beau pays, because, in such case, the mind referring to the whole extent of the country, the article is necessary to indicate this particular circumstance as it shows it in common nouns. 45. Exception. Countries which have the same names as their capitals, take no article, because, by a singular disposition of their mind, the French never think, when speaking of a city, how small or large that city is ; it is for them but a black spot on the map, having such a name, and by analogy, when this name of city is applied to a country, it retains its peculiarity, and therefore requires no article ; thus we say : Naples is a delightful country. Naples est un pays delicieux. Naples is a very fine city. Naples est une tres belle ville. NAMES OF COUNTRIES PRECEDED BY A PREPOSITION. 46. Whenever a name of a country is preceded by a preposition, it must be considered whether that name is used in reference to the extent of its signification or not, the extent of the signification of a name of country being that of its territory ; in the first place it takes the article, in the other it does not : thus, if we wish to say, Which do you prefer, the wines of France or Portugal ? it is evident that the ARTICLE. 25 mind does not refer to the extent of these two countries ; for no man has ever tasted the whole of the wines which grow in these two countries ; and besides, the greatest part of these wines not being fit to drink, they cannot be alluded to as a whole in such a question. France and Portugal are then only used as adjectives to designate the kind of wine spoken of, showing these wines as coming from the countries thus designated, and not from Germany, Italy, or any other country, without any reference to the extent of the territories of the former countries. The above sentence should then be expressed by, Que preferez-vous, les vins de France ou ceux de Portugal ? 47. But in the following sentence : The wines of France pay a tax of ten millions of dollars to the government, the mind alludes to the whole extent of France ; the proper name France is no longer used adjectively ; it is not intended to distinguish the wines of France from those of Spain or any other country, as in the preceding sentence, and it assumes the character of definiteness which requires the use of the article the, and we say : Les vins de la France paient uue taxe de dix millions de dollars au gouvernement. 48. If I wish to say that the Queen of England is expected at Paris ; although the Queen spoken of, is certainly the Queen of the whole country called England, the mind does not allude to the extent of that territory ; it only refers to the Queen as ruling over a country called England, and not France or Germany, without any allusion to the extent of that country ; it is then used adjectively, and requires no article. Thus we say, La Reine d'Angleterre est attendue a Paris. 49. In the following sentence, I have travelled in England, France and Germany, the person who speaks does not refer to the extent of these countries ; he does not mean to say that he has been all over Germany, France or England ; he only wishes to express that he has been in some parts of each ; they are then used as mere proper names, without any reference to the extent of their territories ; and this view of the mind not requiring that the article should be used before them, in is then rendered by the preposition en, which always conveys the idea of an indefinite character. Here it must be well understood, that it is not 3 26 FRENCH GRAMMAR. because in is expressed by en that the article is not used before the following noun, but it is the absence of the article which requires in to be thus rendered in French ; the preceding sentence is then thus expressed : J'ai voyage en Angleterre, en France et en Allemagne. The preposition en, in, as well as de, of, and ti, to, being always repeated before each noun. 50. But if the person who speaks wished to express that he has been all over England, France and Germany, these names of countries being then understood in reference to the whole extent of their signification, that is to say, of their territories, they should be preceded by the article the and in, expressed by dans, as : J'ai voyage dans toute la France, V Allemagne et V Angleterre. 51. To this general rule which requires that the article should not be used before names of countries, unless employed in reference to the extent of their territories, there is an exception, which is purely idiomatical, and based upon no principle ; it is a mere fact which habit has consecrated, and such as are found in every language and almost every branch of human knowledge. When speaking of coming from or going to far distant countries which the French seldom visit, the article the is used with the prepositions of, or from, de, and to, it, and dans, in, as follows : I will go to Peru, when you will return J'irai au (to the) Perou quand vous from China. reviendrez de la (from the) Chine. The two names of countries used in this sentence, are not certainly understood by the mind in reference to the extent of their signification, for a man cannot return at once from or go to a whole country ; but this discrepancy should be admitted, notwithstanding its being in opposition to the general principle, because usage has consecrated it. The following list contains the names of those countries to which this exception should be applied. 52. When speaking of coming or returning from the following countries we say . I return from, or this comes from : Je reviens, or cela vient : the India, or the Indies de Z'Inde, or des Indes the Indostan de Z'lndostan the Malabar du Malabar the China de la Chine the Nigritia de la Nigritie the Guinea de la Guinee ARTICLE. 27 the Congo the Cochin China the Peru the Tonquin the Thibet the Japan the Abyssinia the Mogul the Monomotapa the Caffraria the Zanguebar the Acadia the Guiana the Barbadoes the Jamaica the Martinico the Guadaloupe the Havana the Black Sea the Philippine Islands the Molucca Islands the Antilles Islands the East the Spitzberg the Greenland the Mexico the Paraguay the Chili the Brazil the Canada du Congo de la Cochin Chine du Perou du Tonquin du Thibet du Japon de Z'Abyssinie du Mogol du Monomotapa de la Cafrerie du Zanguebar de Z'Acadie de la Guiane de la Barbade de la Jama'ique de la Martinique de la Gouadeloupe de la Havane du Pont-Euxin des Philippines des Moluques des Antilles du Levant du Spitzberg du Groenland du Mexique du Paraguay du Chili du Bresil du Canada Besides these names of countries, the article, with the preposition of, or from, de, is also used with a great number of names of provinces, such as, Virginia, Maryland, &c. &c, Picardy, Anjou, &c. &c. ; but usage here is the only rule, and time and practice are the only means that can afford a foreigner the facility of overcoming this difficulty. 53. When speaking of going to a far distant country, the preposition to, ct, and the article are used before the following nouns : I am going to : the Indias (Plural) the Malabar the China the Congo the Cochin China the Peru the Tonquin the Thibet the Japan the Monomotapa the Zanguebar the Guiana the Barbadoes Je vais : aux Indes au Malabar d la Chine au Congo a la Cochin Chine au Perou au Tonquin au Thibet au Japon au Monomotapa d la Guiane d la Barbade 28 FRENCH GRAMMAR. the Jamaica d la Jama'ique the Martinico d la Martinique the Guadalupe d la Guadeloupe the Havana d la Havane the Black Sea au Pont-Euxin the Philippian Islands aux Philippines the Molucca Islands aux Moluques the Antille Islands aux Antilles the Spitzberg au Spitzberg the Greenland au Groenland the Mexico au Mexique the Paraguay au Paraguay the Chili au Chili the Brazil au Bresil the Canada au Canada 54. The following names of countries take the preposition in ) dans, and the article ; as, I am going to Je vais the India {singular) dans Z'Inde the Nigritia dans la Nigritie the Abyssinia dans Z'Abyssinie the Caffraria dans la Cafrerie the Acadia dans Z'Acadie the East dans le Levant. There are many names of provinces which grammatically take the preposition in, expressed by en without the article, or dans with the article. But as there are no fixed rules about them, we still refer to usage, which is the only guide in this matter. 55. From what has just been said, we may deduce the following rules : (1.) When speaking of a country we come from, if that country is far distant and but little visited by the French, the preposition from, de, is used with the article before the noun designating that country. (2.) If, on the contrary, the country is not far distant, as England, Italy, &c, the preposition from is rendered by de alone. (3.) If we are speaking of going to a far distant country, to is expressed in most cases by the preposition d and the article, and in a few instances by dans and the article. (4.) If the country we go to is not a far distant one, to is rendered by en, and no article is used ; as, I come from Peru and Mexico. Je viens du Perou et du Mexique. I return from England and Russia. Je reviens d'Angleterre et de Russie. I am going to Brazil and Canada. Je vais au Bresil et au Canada. I am going to Nigritia and Abyssinia. Je vais dans la Nigritie et dans Z'Abys- sinie. I will go to England and Spain. J'irai en Angleterre et en Espagne. ARTICLE. 29 OF NAMES OF CITIES. 56. As we have already remarked, names of cities, although spoken of as a whole, take no article, because the mind never refers to their extent ; but when used as common nouns, they follow the general rule ; thus we say : Paris, London and Madrid are (some) Paris, Londres et Madrid sont de beautiful cities. belles villes. Havre, New Orleans and New Grenada Le Havre, la Nouvelle Orleans el la are (some) commercial cities. Nouvelle Grenade sont des villes commerc antes. Havre is a common noun, and signifies harbor. On the spot where the city now is, was formerly a little chapel where people used to go and pray to God for the safety of those of their friends who were at sea. When the city was built, it was then called the Harbor of Grace; the common name harbor being thus made definite by this qualification, which distinguishes this particular one from any other, the use of the article became necessary, and the city was called, Le Havre de Grace. Orleans, as a proper name, designates a French city ; when the spot where New Orleans is now situated was first discovered by the French, very likely there were among the first settlers some men who came from that city ; they called the new one after their native place, and in order to distinguish them from one another, they called the new settlement the new city of Orleans, which in time was changed into, La Nouvelle Orleans. The name Orleans designating thus two things of the same kind, became a common noun, and being made definite by the qualification attached to its name, requires the use of the article. The same explanation applies to all similar cases. 57. The prepositions used before names of cities will be found in the following examples : Where do you live 1 I live in Paris. Ou demeurez-vous'? Je demeure d Paris. Where are you going 1 lam going to Ou allez-vous 1 Je vais a Paris. Paris. Where have you bought this carriage'? Ou avez-vous achete cette voiture 1 I bought it in Paris. Je l'ai achete a Paris. When you went to Italy, did you pass Quand vous allates en Italie, passates through Paris 1 vous par Pans. Where has this robber been caught 1 Oule voleur a-t-il ete pris 1 11 a ete pris He was caught in Paris. dans Paris. What would France be without Paris "? Que serait la France sans Paris ? These prepositions are the only ones which can embarrass foreigners ; the others, when used, are the same in both languages. 3* 30 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 58. Names of cities may become common nouns in the following manner : London is the Paris of England. Londres est le Paris de l'Angleterre. Paris, in this sentence, represents two things of the same kind, one belonging to England, the other to France; it acts, therefore, as a common noun, and being rendered definite by the expression of England, which distinguishes it from any other, it requires to be preceded by the article. OF NAMES OF RIVERS USED WITHOUT A PREPOSITION. 59. Names of rivers, when not preceded by a preposition, take the article, for two reasons : (1.) Because the common noun river being understood before them, its suppression, which is the result of an ellipse, does not change the nature of the expression. (2.) Besides, these names being then always used in reference to the whole extent of their signification, which is that of their course, they should take the article before them, as names of countries do in similar cases ; thus we say : The Mississippi is a large river. Le Mississipi est un grand fleuve ; which signifies that the whole extent, or course of the river Mississippi, is very large. This rule has no exception. OF NAMES OF RIVERS USED WITH A PREPOSITION. 60. When a name of a river is employed vwith a preposition, it is necessary to remark whether this name is used in reference to the extent of its meaning or not : in the first case it takes the article, in the second it does not ; for instance, in this sentence, Which water do you drink 1 I drink the water of the Seine, it is evident the noun Seine does not refer to the extent of the course of that river ; it only shows what kind of water you drink ; it is a ARTICLE. 31 mere qualification of the preceding noun water; it is therefore indefinite, and the above sentence is expressed by, De quelle eau buvez-vous 1 Je bois de l'eau de Seine. But if I say, I drink the water of the Seine because that of the Marne is muddy, it is clear that my mind refers to the whole course of these two rivers. The meaning of this sentence is : the whole course of the Marne being muddy, and the whole course of the Seine being clear, I drink the water of the latter in preference to that of the former. The article is then necessary to show this view of the mind, and the above sentence is thus expressed : Je bois de l'eau de la Seine parceque celle de la Marne est bourbeuse. 61. Although this is the rule, and may be applied with safety in most cases, usage requires that in sentences similar to the former of the two preceding examples, the article should be used, although the extent of the course of the river is not alluded to ; it would be against usage, for instance, to say, Je bois de l'eau de Mississippi, de Garonne, de Rhone, &c. The article the is here required by custom, and this sentence should be, Je bois de l'eau du Mississipi, de la Garonne, du Rhone, &c. The common noun river* is then understood before these several names of rivers, and requires the use of the article on account of the ellipse which is the result of its suppression. 62. We say, also, River water is soft, L'eau de riviere est douce, Sea water is salted, L'eau de mer est salee, without the article, because riviere and mer are used only to qualify water, without denning the extent of the signification of the word water ; but if we speak of the water which fills up the depths of the sea, as a quantity of water, then we say, The water of the sea, L'eau de la mer, because it signifies the whole of the water which fills up that part of the globe which is covered with water. 32 FRENCH GRAMMAR. OF COMMON NOUNS USED SOMETIMES WITH THE ARTICLE AND SOMETIMES WITHOUT IT. According to what has been said, paragraphs 30, 31, 32, 33 and 34, the article should not be used before common nouns, unless they are employed to express a whole species, a distinct class, or a single individual of a whole species, or a part of a whole, when that whole is understood by the mind in a definite sense. We will then establish the following rules. OF NOUNS USED AS TITLES OF CHAPTERS, BOOKS, DOCUMENTS, ETC. 63. When a noun is used as a title of a chapter, it is necessary to examine the nature of that noun and the sense in which it is used. (1.) When the noun used as a title is employed in its general and abstract meaning, whether in the singular or plural number, it takes the article ; as, Life, la vie. Vengeance, la vengeance. Love, l'amour. Reflection, la reflexion, &c. These nouns, thus preceded by the article, indicate that the chapters of which they are the title, will treat of the ideas, persons or things represented by these nouns in a general point of view, without reference to any particular instance of life, vengeance, love, &c. Used without the article, these nouns would indicate that the chapter of which they are the title will contain a particular instance of love, vengeance, life, reflection, &c. 64. (2.) Whenever a noun expressing an idea or a fact, is restricted in its meaning, as in, Life of a wise man, Vengeance of a woman, Love of a mother, Reflections of a hermit, &c, the article is generally dispensed with, although it is not a fault to use it, and the above expressions are rendered by, Vie (or la vie) d'un sage. Vengeance, (or la vengeance) d'une Amour (or l'amour) d'une mere, or yet femme, or yet une vengeance de femme. un amour de mere. Reflexions (or les reflexions) d'un hermite. (3.) If the noun used as a title is applied to persons, or things ARTICLE. 33 which have a material representation, as a book, a horse, a dog, &c, it is always and without exception preceded by the article ; as, The dog, le chien. The dog of Alexander, - le chien d' Alexandre Books, les livres. The book for little children, le livre des petita enfants, &c. 65. (4.) "When the noun used as a title does not represent an abstract idea, but a tiling which has no material representation, as, history, documents, judgment, memoirs, proclamation, &c, it is never preceded by the article ; as,. Ancient history, Histoire ancienne. Documents on the French revolution, Documents sur la revolution Francaise. Judgment of the robbers, Jugement, condamnation des voleurs. A proclamation of the king, Proclamation du Roi, &c. 66. (5.) Whenever the noun used as a title of chapter is an adjective used as a noun, the article precedes it invariably ; as, The converted, le converti. The friend, l'ami. The blind man, l'aveugle. The guilty man, le coupable, &c. 67. (6.) If the noun used as a title of a chapter is employed to designate in a particular manner a thing or a person among others of the same kind, it is then preceded by the adjective a, un; as, An affair of honor, Une affaire d'honneur. A bachelor's hall, Un menage de garcon. A marriage under Louis the XV., Un mariage sous Louis XV., &c. 68. (7.) If the name is used to announce that the subject of the chapter is about to be scientifically and completely treated, that name is preceded by the article and the preposition of, de; as, Of the weight of the atmosphere, De la pesanteur de l'air. Of chronical diseases, Des maladies chroniques, &c. But if the subject, although scientifically, is not completely treated, it is preceded by the article and the preposition on, sur ; as, On the composition of water, Sur la composition de l'eau. On the balloons, Sur les ballons. OF DIRECTIONS. 69. When giving the direction of a person, we may mention the name of the street without telling the number of the house where that person lives ; as, My father lives in Washington street, 34 FRENCH GRAMMAR. which means somewhere within the extent of that street, and the individual who receives such direction is compelled to go from one end of the street to the other to find the house ; the name street being then used in reference to the extent of its signification, which is the length of each of its sides, requires to be preceded by the article ; and the above sentence is rendered by, Mon pere demeure dans la rue Washington. But if the number is given, as well as the name of the street, as, My father lives in Washington street, No. 24, the mind refers no longer to the extent of the street ; the person spoken to sees the house at once, and the part of sentence, in Washington street, No. 24, stands as a sort of adverbial expression, as if the house being pointed with the finger, the person who speaks should say, My father lives there. In the is then suppressed, and the sentence is expressed by, Mon pere demeure rue Washington, numero vingt-quatre. Although this is the principle, usage allows that the first sentence should be rendered by, Mon pere demeure dans la rue Washington, or simply, rue Washington ; but dans la in the second sentence would be a fault. 70. If, speaking of a man, I say, He is in jail, the noun jail is not intended to indicate any particular jail ; it does not refer to the extent of the jail in which the man is kept ; the sentence indicates only the situation of the man spoken of as being a prisoner ; jail is therefore indefinite, and requires no article ; as a consequence, in is expressed by en, and the sentence rendered as follows : II est en prison. If, going to a gentleman's house, and inquiring for him, I am told, He is gone to the jail, the noun jail represents the idea of a particular jail which the person who speaks knows, and that I am supposed to know myself ; that noun is then definite ; it requires the use of the article, and the sentence is rendered by, II est alle a la prison. ARTICLE. 35 I go to the jail, inquire for the gentleman, and I am told, He is in the jail; this sentence signifies that the gentleman is to be found within the limits of the jail ; this name is then used in reference to the extent of its signification, which extent is that of the jail itself; it is definite, and the article should be used with the preposition in, which is then rendered by dans, and the sentence is expressed as follows : II est dans la prison. 71. According to the same principle, to be accidental!]/ in town, when we live in the country, expressing only the situation of the person spoken of, as to be in jail, is rendered by, Etre en ville. To be in town, meaning to have left the country and to live in town altogether, is rendered by, Etre a la ville. To be in town, meaning to be out of the house and within the limits of the town, is expressed by, A Etre dans la ville. If, speaking of a man, I say, He speaks as a sensible man and acts as a fool, the two expressions, as a sensible man and as a fool, are adverbial, qualify the verb to speak, and are therefore indefinite ; the genius of the language requiring that as a should be rendered by in, the preposition is expressed by en, and the sentence stands as follows : II parle en homme sense et agit en fou. OF CASES IN WHICH A NOUN, BEING USED AS THE COMPLE- MENT OF A VERB. EXPRESSES WITH THAT VERB BUT ONE IDEA, WHICH GENERALLY MAY BE CONVEYED BY ONE WORD. 72. When a noun is used with a verb and with that verb expresses but one idea, the article is dispensed with ; as in, Avoir 'faim, soif, dessein chaud, lV oid to be hungry, thirsty, warm, cold, &c. to intend compassion honte I coutume mal besoin envie, &c. to pity to be ashamed to be in the habit to have pain to want to wish, &c. 36 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Chercher fortune to seek fortune malheur, &c. to seek a quarrel „, . $ fortune Ccurir I risque to run after fortune to risk r raison to challenge Demander - vengeance to ask vengeance justice, pardon to ask for justice, pardon grace, &c. to supplicate prise to give one's enemy an advantage Donner jour parole to appoint a day to give word avis, caution, &c. to inform, to caution Echapper belle to make a narrow escape ( ' raison to hear reason Entendre 4 ' raillerie to take a joke well I ' malice to find out some wit in a throng f envie to raise envy reflexion to reflect Faire honte to disgrace one honneur to do honor peur to affright plaisir to do a pleasure Gagner gros to make large profits Mettre \ ordre (a ses affaire) ; fin, &c. to settle (one's business) to put a stop Parler ' raison ; Francais, Anglais, &c. to talk reason to speak French, English, &c. ' envie to envy Porter « bonheur to bring good luck . malheur to bring ill luck ' garde to take care patience to wait Prendre < medecine to take some medicine conge to take leave ^conseil, &c. to consult some body Rendre \ sei-vice to assist • visite to pay a visit Savoir vivre to know how to live Tenir parole to keep one's word But when the noun used with the verb as its complement, is qualified by an adjective, the adjective a, un, une, or the partitive word some, is most generally placed before that noun ; as in, To have a terrible fright. Avoir une terrible peur. I am extremely hungry. J'ai unefaim extreme. To reflect bitterly. Faire des reflexions ameres. This brought me an extraordinary good Ceci me porta un bonheur extraordi- luck. naire. But when the adjective which qualifies the noun is the word great, grand, most generally the adjective a, un, is suppressed, as : J'ai grand J aim ; I am very hungry. J'ai grand peur; I have a great fear. ARTICLE. 37 OF NOUNS EMPLOYED AS APOSTROPHES AND INTERJECTIONS. 73. When a noun is employed as an apostrophe or an interjection, the article the is dispensed with before that noun ; as, Courage, friend, defend yourself! Courage, ami, defendez-vous ! OF NOUNS EMPLOYED IN APPOSITION, OR ADJECTIVELY. 74. When nouns change their primary signification into a qualifi- cation, or are used by apposition, the article is dispensed with ; which may take place in different ways ; as, Are you surprised that Napoleon was Etes-vous surpris que Napoleon ait ete more than a man in some of his plus qu'homme dans plusieurs de ses acts 1 actes 1 We see with delight the vast fields Nous voyons avec delices les vastes covered with golden harvests, the campagnes couvertes de moissons rich gifts of Ceres. dorees, riches dons de Ceres. In the first sentence, the word homme is taken adjectively ; in the second, the phrase riches dons modifies moissons dorees, by apposition. When they are used, at the beginning of an incidental sentence, elliptically ; as, All the nations of the globe have a Touts les peuples de la terre ont une notion more or less clear of a Su- idee plus au moins juste d'un prerae Being; an evident proof that Etre Supreme; preuve evidente que original sin has not totally obscured le peche originel n'a pas tout-a-fait our understanding. obscurci notre jugement. The ellipsis here consists in the omission of the words which is, before evident proof; which, if expressed, would be followed by a, une. OF NOUNS USED AS THE OBJECTS OF NOUNS OF SORTS, KINDS OR SPECIES. 75. When a noun is used as the object of another noun expressing kind, sort, or species, it is preceded by the preposition of, de, and no article ; as in, Do you like this kind of peaches 1 Aimez-vous cette espece depeches ? I do not like thi3 style of drawing. Je n'aime pas ce genre de dessin. 4 38 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 76. Remarks. We must not mistake the above sentences for those in which taste and elegance alone cause the article to be suppressed, in order to give more rapidity and energy to the style ; as, Citizens, foreigners, enemies, people, Citoyens, etrangers, ennemis, peuples, kings, emperors, pity and respect rois, empereurs, le plaignent et le him. respectent. There are many idiomatical and proverbial expressions which are constructed without the article, and would sound badly by its addition ; but they prove nothing against the rule, and should be considered as the result of usage and habit only ; as, Poverty is no vice. Pauvrete n'est pas vice, (standing for la pauvrete n'est pas un vice.) In which usage has suppressed la and un. OF THE PRONOUNS MON, TON, SON, NOTRE, VOTRE, LEUR, CE, NUL, AUCUN, QUEL QUE, CHAQUE, TOUT, (USED FOR CHAQUE,) CERTAIN, PLUSIEURS AND TEL. 77. The article should not be placed before nouns preceded by the pronouns mon, ton, son, notre, voire, lew, ce, nul, aucun, quelque, chaque, tout, (used for chaque,) certain, plusieurs and tel ; nor before a cardinal number taken absolutely ; as, Twenty men fired at me. Vingt hommes firent feu sur moi. These pronouns and nouns of number exclude the article, because they all operate as the article would before the common nouns ; they designate them in a precise manner, and give them the definite character which these nouns have in the mind of him who speaks. But, if the cardinal numbers have a connection with what precedes or follows, they are no longer used in an absolute mode, and must be preceded by the article ; as, On the occasion of the miracle of the Dans le miracle de la multiplication des multiplication of loaves, the apostles pains, les Apotres dirent au Christ; said to (the) Christ; We have but Nous n'avons que cinq pains et deux Jive loaves and two fishes. Then poissons. Alors Jesus Christ prenant Jesus Christ, taking the five loaves les cinq pains et les deux poissons, les and the two fishes, blessed them, &c. benit. ARTICLE. 39 In the last part of this sentence, cinq pains and deux poissons are connected with what precedes, and must be preceded by the article ; whereas, in the first part they are not, and no article is used. Although the article the is never used with the possessive pronoun, and we cannot say, La madame, les mesdames, for the lady and the ladies, la mademoiselle, les mes demoiselles, for the young lady and the young ladies, we may very well say, le monsieur, for the gentleman. The reason for this rule is, that in the two first expressions, the nouns dame and demoiselle being sometimes used by themselves, the words madame and mademoiselle, although spelled in one word, present two distinct ideas, and signify my lady and my miss; it is therefore evident that the expressions the my lady and the my miss, cannot be used, whilst in the word monsieur, the two words mon and sieur being inseparable, because the word sieur is no longer in use, except in court, those two words do not represent the two English words, my sire, but only recall to the mind the idea represented by the noun gentleman, which being but one word, may very well be preceded by the article. MEN AND ANIMALS. 78. Proper names of deities, men and animals, do not take the article, if they are not taken in a limited sense ; as, God has made the world as it is. Dieu a fait le monde comme il est. Mars was the god of armies. Mars etait le dieu des armees. Pegasus was the horse of the Parnassus. Pegase etait le cheval du Parnasse. But when those nouns are restricted in their meaning, they become common nouns applied to one or several individuals, and are used definitely ; as, The God of Christians. Le Dieu des Chretiens. The Mars of the Iliad. Le Mars de lTliade. The Pegasus of Apollo. Le Pegase d'Apollon. In the first examples, the words Dieu, Mars, Pegase, are used only for the sake of their signification. In the last, on the contrary, they are used with regard to the extent of that signification ; hence, no article with the former, and the article with the latter. 40 FRENCH GRAMMAR. OF THE ARTICLE WITH SOME ITALIAN AND FRENCH PROPER NAMES. 79. Sometimes, in imitation of the Italians, the French join the article to the names of painters, poets, actors and actresses of that nation : but they do it only by an elliptical mode of expression ; there is always a common noun understood ; so we say, La Malaspine, for La Contcssa Malaspine. Le Tasse, " II poeta Tasso. Formerly, the same mode of expression was used with the name of some of our actresses with an idea of contempt or degredation ; it was then customary to say : Mrs. Lemaure sings like a nightingale. La Lemaure chante comme un rossignol. That is a trick played by Mrs. Gaussin. C'est un tour joue par La Gaussin. But now, among wellbred people, this mode of expression is no longer in use, and would show a want of education in those who should employ it. OF NOUNS PRECEDED BY AN ADVERB, OR AN EXPRESSION OF QUANTITY. 80. The article is seldom used before a noun afteran adverb or word of quantity, and that word of quantity is always itself followed by the preposition of, de; as, How many apples have you bought 1 Combien de pommes avez-vous achete 1 He has as much courage as yourself. II a autant de courage que vous. A multitude of persons were drowned. Une multitude de personnes furent noyees. Exceptions. Bien, as an adverb, la plupart, la multiplicity, are followed by the preposition of, and the article ; as, Many people have perished. Bien des gens ont peri. She is very kind. Elle a bien de la bonte. Most men have no opinion of their own. La plupart des hommes n'ont pas d'opinion a eux. Health yields to the number of remedies. La sante cede a la multiplicity des remedes. ARTICLE. 41 Plusieurs is followed by the noun without either preposition or article, when used as an adjective ; but when used as an adverb, it follows the general rule, and takes de after it ; as, Several of my friends. Plusieurs de mes amis. Several persons have told me. Plusieurs personnes m'on dit. Tout, followed by a noun used definitely, requires that noun to be preceded by the definite article ; as, Everybody says that you are good. Tout le monde dit que vous £tes bon. Remarks. Among the words of quantity are placed plus, moins, pas, point, jamais, which are followed by of, de, without the article; He has more money than I. II a plus <2 'argent que moi. He has less good qualities than vices. II a moins de qualites que de vices. He has no fortune. II n'a pas or point de fortune. He never has any money. II n'a jamais d'argent. It must be observed, that in the preceding sentences, where the article is not employed, the nouns which are deprived of it are only taken with regard to their signification, and not as to the extent of that signification ; but we say, with the article, How many of the apples you have Combien des pommes que vous avez bought have you still ? achetees, avez-vous encore 1 A great number of the persons who Un grand nombre des personnes qui se have been to sea have perished, sont mises en mer ont peri, He has many of the qualities and vices II a beaucoup des qualites et des vices of his father, &c, de son pere, because, in these sentences, the words pommes, personnes, qualitis, vices, are restricted by the propositions which follow them, and are consequently definite. OF THE ARTICLE, WITH NAMES OF MEASURE, WEIGHT AND PURCHASE. 81. In English, the adjective a or an is placed before nouns of measure, weight, and purchase ; but in French, the article le, la, or les is used in its stead ; as, Rye is sold for fifty cents a bushel. Le seigle se vend cinquante sols le boisaeaa. Sugar is worth ten cents a pound. Le 6ucre vaut dix sols la livre. 4* 42 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Cider costs one dollar a gallon. Le cidre eoute une gourde le gallon. It is more than thirty cents for the two C'est plus de trente sols les deux bou- bottles. teilles. Remark. When speaking of time, we say, He receives ten shillings a week. II recoit dix shellings par sernaine. It would be a fault to say, la semaine. OF THE EXPRESSIONS THE MORE AND THE LESS, WHEN USED TOGETHER IN ENGLISH TO FORM A COMPARISON. 82. The more I see your sister, the less I love her. When the adverbs more and less, preceded by the article, are repeated in English, to form a comparison, the article the is suppressed in French ; the above sentence should then be expressed as follows : Plus je vois votre soeur, mains je l'aime. The suppression of the article arises from the fact that this sentence expresses comparison in a comparative and not in a superlative degree ; for it signifies : When I see your sister more, I love her less. And we shall see, when speaking of the adjective, that the comparative does not admit of the article being ever placed before the comparative "adverbs more and less. OF THE ARTICLE THE USED IN FORMING A COMPARISON IN THE SUPERLATIVE DEGREE, 83. When the article the is used in English with the adverbs more and less, to form a comparison in the superlative degree, it is also expressed in French ; as, Your sister is the most handsome and Votre soeur est la plus belle et la plus amiable woman I know. aimable femme que je connaisse. It is seen by this sentence, that not only the article the is employed to form a superlative, but it is repeated before each adjective used in that degree of comparison. ARTICLE. 43 THE ARTICLE THE, WITH THE ADVERBS MORE, LESS AND BEST, IS SOMETIMES VARIABLE AND SOMETIMES INVARIABLE. 84. Of all the ladies who were at the De toutes les dames qui etaient au* funeral, your sister was the most funcrailles, votre soeur etait la plus distressed. aftligee. I have noticed that your sister never J'ai remarque que votre scaur ne cries, even when she is the most pleure jamais, meme quand elle est distressed. I e plus affligee. In the first sentence, there is a comparison established between the lady spoken of and others ; the words the lady are understood after the verb was, or the noun lady after the participle distressed, which compels the agreement of the article ; for the latter part of the sentence signifies : Your sister was the lady the most distressed, or the most distressed lady. In the second sentence, on the contrary, there is no comparison established between the lady spoken of and any other ; there is no feminine noun understood, which should compel the agreement of the article ; the expression the most signifies, in the highest degree : it modifies the participle distressed, which, having no number and no gender of its own, cannot transfer them to the article ; and the latter part of this sentence might be transposed ; as, When she is distressed the most, or in the highest degree. 85. Le plus, le moins, le mieux, the most, the less, the best, are always invariable when they relate to a verb or an adverb, because then they form an adverbial expression ; as, Racine and Boileau are the poets who Racine et Boileau sont les poetes qui write the best, who express them- ecrivent le mieux, qui s'expriment le selves the most nobly. plus noblement. Le mieux, le plus, refer to the verb ecrivent and to the adverb noblement, and not to Boileau and Racine. OF THE REPETITION OF THE ARTICLE. 86. The article is repeated or not before two or more plural nouns, united by the conjunction and, et; when it is repeated, the expression of the sentence is more energetic ; when it is suppressed, it is more rapid ; as in, 44 FRENCH GRAMMAR. The fathers and mothers of the children Les peres et les meres des enfants were at the head of the procession. ouvraient la marche. The devotion of fathers and mothers Le devouement des peres et meres pour for their children is natural. leurs enfants est naturel. But when two or several nouns are in the singular or are not in the same number, the article is always repeated ; as in, The father and mother of that child are Le pere et la mere de cet enfant sont dead. morts. The president and judges were of the Le president et les juges furent de la same opinion. meme opinion. OF THE REPETITION OF THE ARTICLE, WITH NOUNS UNITED BY THE CONJUNCTION OR, OU. 87. When two nouns are united by or, ou, and they represent objects of a different nature, the article is repeated before each ; as in, I will send you the brother or the sister Je vous enverrai le frere ou la sceur de of my wife. ma femme. But if the noun which follows the conjunction or, ou, is only the explanation of that which precedes it, the article is suppressed before the last ; as in, The deputies or representatives of the Les deputes ou representants du peuple people were elected for four years. etaient elus pour quatre ans. OF THE REPETITION OF THE ARTICLE, WITH TWO ADJECTIVES UNITED BY THE CONJUNCTION AND, ET. 88. When two adjectives serve to qualify the same noun, the article is not repeated before the second ; as in, How do you like the large and splendid Comment trouvez-vous le grand et mag- apartment that we have seen this nifique appartement que nous avons morning 1 vu ce matin 1 There is but one apartment spoken of. But if two adjectives, on account of their signification, cannot qualify the same noun, the sentence is then elliptical ; there is a noun understood, and the article should be repeated before each adjective ; as in, I have visited both the ancient and the J'ai visite Vancien et le nouveau con- new continent. tinent. There are two continents spoken of. ARTICLE. 45 We want red and white wine. Nous voulons du vin rouge et du vin blanc. Wine cannot be red and white ; there are two different kinds of wine spoken of. OF THE ARTICLE WITH TWO ADJECTIVES UNITED BY THE CON- JUNCTION OR, OU. 89. When a noun is preceded by two adjectives, united by or, ou, and expressing qualities of a different nature, the article is repeated before the second adjective ; as in, There are young people who stop II y a des jeunes gens qui ne grandissent growing after they are fourteen or plus apres la quatorzieme ou la gum- fifteen years old. zieme annee. Good or bad treatment cannot tame the Les bons ou les mauvais traitements ne ferocity of the tiger. peuvent adoucir la ferocite du tigre. But when the adjectives are placed after the noun, the repetition of the article is a matter of taste ; as in, The sincere or false remorse of the Les remords vrais ou faux du roi, king softened the fury of the people. adoucirent la fureur du peuple. Speaking of philosophers, we may say Les philosophes anciens ou modernes } ot equally well, for the modern or an- les philosophes anciens ou les mod cient philosophers. ernes. OF CASES IN WHICH THE SENSE OF A SENTENCE CHANGES ENTIRELY, BY USING OR SUPPRESSING THE ARTICLE BEFORE A NOUN USED AS THE COMPLEMENT OF A VERB. 90. The sense of some sentences changes sometimes entirely, on account of the use or suppression of the article, thus : Entendre la raillerie signifies to know how to rally, to jeer. Entendre raillerie signifies to know how to take a joke. Demander la raison d'une chose means to ask for the cause of a thing. Demander raison d'une chose is to demand satisfaction for an offence. Un homme de genie is a man of genius. Un homme du genie is a man who belongs to the corps of engineers. 46 FRENCH GRAMMAR. A FEW EXAMPLES IN WHICH THE ARTICLE IS NOT USED. 91. I will change these stones into Je changerai ces pierres en pains. loaves. The education of Rousseau must not be L'education de Rousseau ne doit pas taken as a model. etre prise pour modele. I will go to Rome. J'irai a Rome. He received me with open arms. II me recut d bras ouverts. He has arrived in safety at midnight. II est arrive d bon port a minuit. To live without bread, on a pound of Vivre sans pain, avec une livre depain t bread, on a little bread. d'un peu de pain. In all these sentences, the nouns are taken in reference to their signification alone, and therefore have no article before them ; as well as in the following : I have a knave of a brother. J'ai un coquin defrere. (Elliptical sentence, which means, — Which is of the species of a brother. Qui est de I'espece defrere.) An honest father. Un honnete homme de pere. (Elliptical sense, meaning, — An honest man, having the quality of a Un honnete homme ayant la qualite de father. pere.) These constructions, as well as all similar ones, are in conformity with the rules already laid down, by the means of the ellipsis. The following expressions, To act by feeling, Agir par sentiment, To speak with wit, Parler avec esprit, To make a graceful appearance, Representer avec gr&ce, To act with passion, Agir par colere, To act by spite, Agir par depit, To act by love, Agir par amour, are adverbial ; and the nouns, being used adjectively with the prepositions, are indefinite ; therefore, they admit of no article. In order to sum up all that has been said in reference to the use of the article, we will give now a table of the same nouns used with and without the article, according to the sense in which they are employed. ARTICLE. 47 A TABLE OF THE SAME WORDS EMPLOYED, With the article. The writings of Cicero are full of the soundest ideas. Les ecrits de Ciceron sont pleins des idees les plus saines. (Restrictive sense of the word ideas, used in reference to the extent of its signification.) Divest yourself of the prejudices of childhood. Defaites vous des prejuges de l'en- fance. (Individual sense, restrictive of the extent of the signification of the word prejuges applied to those of infancy only.) Enter into the details of the rules of a good grammar. Entrez dans les details des regies d'une bonne grammaire. (Individual sense, restricting the meaning of the word regies to those of a good grammar. Definite.) He affects circumlocutions. II cherche des detours. (Partitive sense without an adjective before the noun.) Avoid the air of affectation. Evitez l'air de /'affectation. (Individual sense, reducing the mean- ing of the word air to that of affec- tation alone. Definite.) He loads his memory with the verses of Virgil and the phrases of Cicero. II se charge la memoire des vers de Virgile et des phrases de Ciceron. (Individual sense, in which the words vers and phrases are limited to those of Virgil and Cicero. Defi- nite.) Essays supported by strong expressions. Discours soutenu par des expressions fortes. (Partitive sense, the adjective placed after the noun.) He has collected precrpts of morality. D a receuilli des preceptes pour la morale. (Partitive sense, individual.) Without the article. The writings of Cicero are full of sound ideas. Les ecrits de Ciceron sont pleins d'idees saines. (Indefinite sense of the words sound ideas, without reference to the ex- tent of their signification; then a mere qualification.) Have no prejudice with regard to this question. N'ayez point de prejuges sur cette question. (Sense vague and indefinite, of the word prejuges; no reference as to the extent of its meaning.) He enters into a long detail of frivolous rules. II entre dans un long detail de regies frivoles. (The words regies frivoles used ad- jectively to qualify details ', in- definite.) He affects long circumlocutions. II cherche de longs detours. (Partitive sense with an adjective before the noun.) Avoid all that has an air of affectation. Evitez tout ce qui a un air d 'affectation. (Indefinite sense, in which air means any air (vague) and affectation only qualifies that noun.) He loads his memory with insipid verses and phrases. II se charge la memoire de vers et de phrases insipides. (Vague and indefinite sentence, in which the words vers and phrases are used without any regard to the extent of their signification; they are insipid, but whose are they 1 Indefinite.) Essays supported by lively expressions. Discours soutenu par de vives expres- sions. (Partitive sense, the adjective placed before the noun.) A collection of precepts in morals. Receuil de preceptes de morale. (Sense of sort, qualifying collection in a vague and indefinite manner.) 48 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Make use ot the tokens we agreed upon. Servez vous des signes dont nous sommes convenus. (Positive, definite expression, signes meaning those we agreed upon and no others.) Learning has always been the object of the esteem, praise, and admiration of man. Le savoir a toujours ete l'objet de Z'estime, des louanges, et de /'admi- ration des hommes. (Definite, precise meaning of the words estime, louanges, admiration, confined to those of man.) The riches of the mind can only be acquired by study. Les richesses de t'esprit ne peuvent s'acquerir que par l'etude. (Definite meaning of the word mind , which is here personified, and modifies richesses so as to limit the extent of its signification.) The connexion of proofs makes them please and persuade. L'enchainement des preuves fait qu' elles plaisent et qu'elles persuadent. (Sense individual.) It is by meditation upon what we read that we acquire fresh knowledge. C'est par la meditation sur ce qu'on lit qu'on acquiert des connaissances nouvelles. (Partitive sense, in which the noun comes before the adjective.) The memory of facts is the most showy. La memoire des faits est la plus bril- lante. (Sense individual, definite.) The aim of good masters should be to cultivate the minds and reason of their pupils. Le but des bons maitres doit etre de cultiver l'esprit et la raison de leurs eleves. (Sense individual, which the two words bons ?naitres serve to ex- press.) The taste of mankind is liable to great changes. Le gout des hommes est sujet a bien des vicissitudes. (Sense individual; what is said of men in general being applicable to each man individually.) Let us use tokens to understand each other. Servons nous de signes pour nous en- tendre. (Vague and indefinite expression, by which the mind remains in doubt as to the signes to be used.) It is an object of praise, esteem, and admiration. C'est un objet de louange, d'estime, et ^'admiration. (Vague expression, which does not indicate the extent of the meaning of the words louange, estime, &c.) There is in Peru a prodigious abun- dance of useless riches. II y a au Perou une prodigieuse abon- dance de richesses inutiles. (Vague and indefinite meaning, in which richesses inutiles only quali- fies abondance, without regard to the extent of its signification.) There is in this book an admirable connexion of solid proofs. II y a dans ce livre un admirable en- chainement de preuves solides. (Sense of sort used adjectively.) It is by meditation that we acquire fresh knowledge. C'est par la meditation que l'on ac- quiert de nouvelles connaissances. (Partitive sense, in which the ad- jective comes before the noun.) He has only a memory of facts. II n'a qu'une memoire de faits. (Qualificative expression, indefinite.) He has an air of pedantry, that shocks you at first sight. II a un air de maitre qui choque au premier coup d'ceil. (Sense of qualification, indefinite.) Society of chosen men. Societe d'hommes choisis. (Adjective sense, hommes choi&is qualifying the word societe.) ARTICLE. 49 He has no need of die lessons you wish to give him. II n'a pas besom des lecons que vous voulez lui donner. (Individual sense. Definite.) Spain, France, England. JL'Espagne, la France, Z'Angleterre. (Definite.) The island of Japan. L'ile du Japon. (Name of a distant country, always used with die article.) He comes from China. II vient de la Chine. (Name of distant country, used with the article.) The extent of Persia. L'etendue de la Perse. (Name of a distant country, always preceded by the article.) He lives in Peru, Japan, China, East or West Indies, die United States, Brazil, &c. II vit au Perou, au Japon, a la Chine, aux Indes orientales, aux Indes oc- cidentals, aux Etats Unis, au Bresil, &c. (Names of distant countries, always used with the articles, even when expressing the place of residence.) The politeness of France. La politesse de la France. (Sense definite, meaning the polite- ness of the whole country called Fiance.) The circumference of Ireland. La circonference de /Trlande. The interests of Spain. Les interets de Z'Espagne. (Same meaning as above.) The discovery of the art of printing is attributed to Germany. La decouverte de Z'imprimerie est attri- bute d P Allemagne. (Imprimerie used in the whole extent of its signification; Allemagne, personified expression, definite.) He comes from the French Flanders. II vient de la Flandre Francaise. (Definite.) He has no need of lessons. II n'a pas besoin de lecons. (Adjective sense, lecons qualifying the word besoin. Indefinite.) The kingdoms of France, Spain, Eng- land. Les royaumes de France, rf'Espagne, d'Angleterre. (Qualificative.) The island of Corfou. L'ile de Corfu. (Noun of country, used without the article.) He comes from Italy. II vient dTtalie. (Noun of country not far off, used without the article.) He is in Persia. II est en Perse. (Noun of country, preceded by en.) He lives in Italy, in England, in Malta, in Paris, &c. II demeure en Italie, en Angleterre, d Malte, d Paris, &c. (Nouns of countries, always used without the article, expressing a place of residence.) The wines of France. Les vins de France. (Adjective expression, meaning only that the wines are French, and not Spanish, German, &c.) Irish linen. Toile d'Llande. Spanish wool. Laines ri'Espagne. (Same meaning as above.) The empire of Germany is divided into an infinity of small States. L'empire d 'Allemagne est divise en une infinite de petits etats. (Allemagne used to qualify empire ; petits etats used to qualify infinite; adjective meaning, indefinite.) He comes from Flanders. II vient de Flandre. (Indefinite, and one of those names of country which do not take the article, when preceded by ' coming from.') 50 FRENCH GRAMMAR. The water of the Rhine. Seine water. L'eau du Rhin. Ean de Seine. The water of the sea is blue. Salt-water fish. L'eau de la mer est bleue. Poisson de mer. (Definite expressions, in which the (Adjective expression, meaning that word eau is applied to the whole we do not mean the water of any amount of water contained in the other river than the Seine, and Rhine and the sea.) any other fish than those of the sea.) The God of the Christians is good and God is good and merciful. merciful. Le Dieu des Chretiens est bon et mise- Dieu est bon et misericordieux. ricordieux. The Jupiter of the pagans was the Jupiter was the greatest of gods. greatest of gods. Jupiter etait le plus grand des dieux. Le Jupiter des payens etait le plus (Nouns of divinity, used without grand des dieux. restriction, classed among proper (Nouns of divinity, used restrictively, names.) definite.) PLACE OF THE ARTICLE, WITH THE ADJECTIVE TOUT, ALL, AND THE NOUNS MONSIEUR, MADAME AND MONSEIGNEUR. 92. The article always precedes the noun, whether that noun is qualified by an adjective or not ; the adjective tout, all, is an exception ; it precedes the article and the noun which it qualifies ; as All men are not good. Tons les hommes ne sont pas bons. The nouns monsieur, madame, monseigneur, precede the article when they are placed before a title or a name expressing the profession of a man ; as, Monsieur le docteur; the doctor. Monseigneur Veveque; his reverence the Madame la ComtesseJ the Countess. Bishop. QUESTIONS. 22. What is the definition of the article 1 23. How is the article the expressed 1 24. 25, 26, 27, 28. How are of the and to the expressed 1 22. When is the article the used before a noun 1 29. Is not the article used before adjectives, pronouns, verbs, adverbs and prepositions 1 29, 30. What is the definition of the definite and indefinite signification of a noun 1 31. What is the partitive sense of a noun 1 When a noun is used in a partitive sense, how are some and any expressed in French 1 32. (1.) Before a noun in a sentence which is not negative 1 ARTICLE. 51 34, 35. (2.) Before a noun in a sentence which is negative 1 33 (3.) Before an adjective followed by a noun 1 33. Is not the article sometimes used in a partitive sentence before an adjective 1 State the exceptions to the general rule. 34. When a noun is used partitively in a sentence which is negative and interrogative, is not the article sometimes used, and in what case 1 40. When soirie or any are understood in English, should they be expressed in French "? 36. How are some or any expressed when used at the end of a sentence 1 37. What is the difference between the following expressions : Je prefere le en, and Je prefere du vin ? 38. Voulez-vous prendre du thi, and Voulez-vous prendre le the ? 39. Donnez-moi du sucre, and Donnez-moi le sucre ? 43. Is the article used before proper names 1 44, 45. Is the article used before names of countries used without a prepo- sition 1 What are the exceptions 1 46, 47, 48. In what sense is the article used or suppressed before names of countries used with a preposition 1 49, 50. What is the difference between the meaning of en and dans, used instead of in ? 51. Is the article used before names of far distant countries, and what prepo- sitions are used before those names, when speaking of coming from or going to those countries 1 52, 53, 54, 55. What are the names of the countries which take the article when speaking of going to or coming from those countries 1 56, 58. Do names of cities take the article 1 What are the exceptions 1 57. What are the prepositions used before names of cities 1 59. Do names of rivers, used without a preposition, take the article 1 60, 61. When used with a preposition, in what sense do they take the article 1 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68. When a noun is used as the title of a book, chapter or document, does it take the article 1 69. When giving the address of a person, are the article and the prepo- sition m, dans, always used before the name of the street 1 State when it should be used and when not. What is the difference between the following expressions 1 71. II est en ville. II est a la mile. II est dans la ville. 70. II est en prison. II est d la prison. II est dans la prison. 72. When a noun is used as the complement of a verb, and forms with that verb but one idea, is the article used before that noun 1 72. When die noun spoken of in the preceding question is qualified by an adjective, what is to be done 1 73. Is the article employed before nouns used to form an apostrophe or an interrogation 1 74. Is the article used before nouns used in apposition to others. 75. Is the article used before nouns preceded by a noun expressing sort, kind or species 1 76. Is not the article suppressed before nouns, in order to give more rapidity to the style 1 77. Is the article used with the possessive adjective pronouns mon, ton, &c, and the indefinite pronouns chacun, tout, plusieurs, &c. 77. Is the article used with the words monsieur, madame and mademoiselle ? 78. Is the article used before proper names of deities, men, animals, and is not the article used before some proper names of a foreign origin 1 79. What signification would the article give to the proper name of a female French artist 1 80. When a noun is preceded by an expression of quantity, is the article expressed before that noun 1 82. When the article the is used in English with the adverbs more or less y to form a comparative, is it expressed in French *? 52 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 83. When the article is used with the adverbs most or least, to form a com- parison in the superlative degree, is it expressed in French 1 84, 85. Whqa is the article the variable or invariable with the preceding adverbs 1 86. When two or more nouns are separated by the conjunction and, et, when is the article repeated before each noun 1 87. When two or more nouns are separated by the conjunction or, ou, when is the article repeated 1 88. When two or more adjectives are separated by the conjunction and, et, when is the article repeated 1 89. When two or more adjectives are separated by the conjunction or, ou, when is the article repeated 1 90. What is the difference between the following expressions : Entendre raillerie, or, la raillerie. Demander la raison d'une chose, or, raison d'une chose. Un homme de genie, or, du genie. 92. What is the place of the article 1 OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. OF THE NATURE OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 93. The Substantive is a word which represents a being, or an object, or an idea, or a feeling, whatever it may be, existing in reality, or only by the power of our mind. The substantive is also called Noun, because it is used to name the persons, things, ideas, or feelings which they represent. Examples. homme. cheval, poisson. are nouns representing beings which have the appearance of man, horse, and fish. Hope, esperance, Perfection, perfection, Happiness, bonheur, are nouns representing ideas and feelings through the operation of our minds. Tree, arbre, Table, table, Book, livre, are nouns representing objects so designated by the general agree- ment of society. SUBSTANTIVE. 53 There are two sorts of substantives. Those which are used to designate the whole of the species which they represent ; as, homme, cheval, esperance, arbre, are called Common Nouns, because they are common to all beings or things of the same kind. Those which are used only to designate a single individual or thing ; as, Alexandre, Virgile, Paris, Vienne. They are called Proper Nouns, because they belong to a single individual of the species which they represent, at least in the mind of the person who speaks. The substantive has two properties, Number and Gender. OF NUMBER IN THE SUBSTANTIVE. 94. Number is the property which the noun has to represent a unity or a plurality. Therefore, there are two numbers ; the Singular, which represents but a single individual or thing, &c. ; as, A man. un homme, A tree, un arbre, A hope, une esperance, and the Plural, which represents more than one individual or thing &c. ; ! as, Men, Two trees, Hopes, les hommes. deux arbres. les esperances Among nouns, the generality may be used in either number ; but there are some few which have no plural, and others which have no singular. We will speak of them hereafter. OF GENDER IN THE SUBSTANTIVE. 95. Gender is the property which a noun has to represent a dis- tinction between the two sexes. There are, consequently, two genders ; the Masculine, which belongs to man and the males among animals, and the Feminine, which belongs to females in general ; as, Man, homme, Lion, lion, are masculine, because they represent males. 5* 54 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Woman, fe, Mare, jument, are feminine, because they represent females. By imitation, the nouns which represent objects or ideas which are neither male nor female, have received one or the other of these two qualifications, and some of them are sometimes masculine and some- times feminine, according- to their signification. The distinction of the genders in those nouns is one of the greatest difficulties of the French language for foreigners. We have already, at the beginning of this Grammar, given a complete system for the classification of nouns ; but in most cases the exceptions are so numerous, that it is always prudent not to trust memory alone, and to consult a good dictionary. We see, then, that the nouns which are neuter in English have not the same qualification in French, which is deprived of such a gender. To mark the difference in sexes, males and females are sometimes called by different names ; as, Masculine. Feminine. Homme, man. Femme, woman. Cheval, horse. Jument, mare. Taureau, bull. Vache, cow. Sometimes the only distinction between them is in their termina- tion ; as, Masculine. Feminine. Lion, lion. Lionne, lioness, Chien, dog. Chienne, bitch. Chat, cat. Chatte, cat. This is the best designation, because it shows at once what we intend to speak of. But often we use the same word to express the male and female ; Partridge, perdrix. (male and female.) Eagle, aigle. St it Carp, carpe. (I it Pike, brocket. (C « This mode is quite an imperfection in the language ; but by con- sulting the article on genders, this difficulty is easily remedied. As to nouns which should be neuter in English, their gender is usually arbitrary ; so SUBSTANTIVE. Book, Livre, Table, Table, Hat, Chapeau, Song, Chanson, Glass, Verre, Lamp, Lampe, Courage, Courage, Anger, Colere, are masculine ; are feminine; although they have no connection with either sex. 55 FORMATION OF THE FEMININE IN NOUNS. 96. As there are a great quantity of words employed as nouns, which are used in either gender, it is necessary to show how they dif- fer, when they represent a masculine or feminine idea, thing or being. Masculine nouns ending with a consonant or with the vowels e, i and u, form their feminine termination by the addition of a mute e; as, Le serira, la serine ; a canary bird. Un idktf, une idio£e ; an idiot. Le bienvenw, la bienvenwe ; welcome. Un jardinier, une jardiniere ; a male or female gardener. The following nouns are an exception to this rule : Bachdier, a bachelor. Paysan, a peasant. Sot, a fool. Due, a duke. Juif, a Jew. Veuf, a widower. Mattel, a mortal. Bailli, a bailiff. Malin,& shrewd fellow. Quaker, a quaker. Abbe, an abbot. Favori, a favorite. Roi, a king, &c. Which make in the feminine : Bachellete, paysanne, sotte, duchesse, Juive, veuve, mortelle, Baillive, maligne, Quakeresse, abbesse, favorite, reine, &c. FORMATION OF THE FEMININE IN NOUNS ENDING WITH A MUTE E. 97. Masculine nouns ending with a mute e do not change their termination in the feminine ; as, Un esclave, une esclave J a male or fe- Un sauvage, une sauvage ', a male or male slave. female savage, &c. Un impie,uneimpie; an impious man or woman. Some few nouns, however, although ending with a mute e, form their feminine termination by changing e into esse ; as, 56 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Arte, anesse ; an ass. Pretre, pretresse ; a priest, a priestess. Tigre, tigresse; a tiger. Traitre, traitrcsse; a traitor, a traitress. Chanoine, chanoinesse J a canon, a can- Ivrogne, ivrognesse ; a drunkard, a oness. drunken woman. Prince, princesse ; a prince, a princess. Pauvre,pauvrcsse ; a pauper, a beggar- Negre, negresse J a negro, a negress. woman, &c. FORMATION OF THE FEMININE IN NOUNS ENDING IN EN, ON, ET. 98. Nouns ending in en, on and et in their masculine signification, form their feminine in doubling their last consonant and adding a mute e; as, Un Chretien, une Chretienne ; a Chris- Unfripon, une friponne ; a cheat. tian. Tin coquet, une coquette ; a beau, a co- XJn Indien, une Indienne ; an Indian. quette, &c. Exceptions : Compagnon, a companion ; Patron, a patron ; Indiseret, a telltale, make in the feminine, Compagne, patrone and patronesse, indiserdte. FORMATION OF THE FEMININE IN NOUNS ENDING IN EUR. 99. Masculine nouns ending in eur, and derived from present par- ticiples, form their feminine termination by changing eur into euse; as, Chanteur, chanteuse ; a singer, (from Connaisseur, connaisseuse j a connois- chanlant, present particle of chanter, seur, (from connaissant, present par- to sing.) ticiple of the verb connditre, to Boudeur, boudeuse ; one that pouts, know, &c.) (from boudant, present participle of bouder, to pout.) Many other nouns ending in eur in the masculine, form their feminine termination by changing eur into rice; as, Un bienfaiteur, a benefactor ; une bien- Un calomniateur , une calomniatrice } a faitrice, a benefactress. slanderer. Un protecteur, a protector ; une protcc- Un ambassadeur, an ambassador ; une trice, a patroness. ambassadrice, an ambassadress, &c. Finally, a few nouns change eur into eresse for the feminine ; as, SUBSTANTIVE. 57 Bailleur, bailleresse ; the lesser. Enchanteur, enchanteresse ; enchanter, Chasseur, chasseresse J hunter, huntress. enchantress. Deidn, devineresse ; a diviner, diviner- Pecheur, pecheresse J a sinner, male and ess. female. Vengeur, vengeresse ; an avenger. FORMATION OF THE FEMININE rN NOUNS ENDING IN X. 100. Masculine nouns ending in x, form their feminine termination by changing # into se; as, Epoux, epouse ', husband, wife. Tin malheureux , une malheureuse J a Tin paresseux, une paresseuse ; a lazy wretched man or woman, man or woman. OF NOUNS WHICH ARE EITHER MASCULINE OR FEMININE, ACCORDING TO THEm NUMBER AND SIGNIFICATION. 101. Nouns have generally but one gender; however, there are some which are sometimes masculine, sometimes feminine : this is the result of habit, men having applied to those nouns, sometimes a mas- culine, sometimes a faminine idea. We will examine successively those which are the most generally used in either gender. 102. Aigle, an eagle. Aigle, eagle, is masculine when it designates the male of the bird of prey of that name, and when, being used metaphorically, it signifies, a man of genius; there is also a kind of paper called grand aigle, that is to say, of the largest size. Aigle is feminine, if it designates the female of the bird of prey, and also when it signifies a military standard, or when used in speaking of coats of arms, constellations and emblems ; and also when it designates a kind of fish called V aigle marine. 103. Amour, love, Cupid. Amour, love, in the singular is always masculine, either in prose or in poetry ; it is also masculine in the plural when it signifies : (1.) All kinds of love. (2.) When it designates little Cupids which are used as emblems in the arts. 58 FEENCH GEAMMAE. Amour, in the plural, is feminine when it implies the idea of a passion ; as, Foolish inclinations, folles amours. First love, les premieres amours. 104. Automne, autumn. Automne, autumn, was formerly of either gender ; it is now always masculine, as well as the names of the other seasons. 105. Couple, couple. Couple is masculine when it designates two animated beings united by an act of their will, a feeling, or any other cause making them act in concert ; as, A happy couple, (speaking of man and Un couple de chevaux, a team of two wife,) un heureux couple. horses, &c. A couple of pigeons, un couple de pigeons, (a male and a female.) Couple is feminine when it only conveys the numerical idea of two persons or things of the same kind accidentally put together, without any idea of feeling, participation or common purpose between them ; as, A couple of pigeons, (meaning two A couple of horses, une couple de che- pigeons,) une couple de pigeons. vaux, (meaning only two horses, A couple of families, une couple de me- without the idea of their forming a nages. team.) 106. Delice, delight. Delice is masculine in the singular and feminine in the plural ; but for the sake of euphony we say, Un de mes plus grands delices, One of my greatest delights, with grands in the masculine, because it would be shocking to meet in the same proposition with two adjectives of different genders, relating to the same noun. 107. Enfant, child. Enfant is masculine when it designates a boy and feminine when it points out a girl. 108. Exemple, example, copy. Exemple is now used in the masculine, whether it signifies an example or a copy. SUBSTANTIVE. &V 109. Foudre, thunderbolt, vengeance, fury, &c. Foudre is feminine whenever it is used to designate a thunderbolt ; it is of either gender, if it signifies the weapon of Jupiter. It is still feminine when used for vengeance, Jury, &c. ; as, La foudre est dans ses yeux. Anger is in his looks. Foudres in the plural, used metaphorically, and signifying either pieces of cannon, celestial anger, or excommunication from the court of Rome, is of either gender. Foudre, applied to man, and signifying a great conqueror, a man who has gained many victories, is always masculine ; thus we say, This general was a thunderbolt of war. Ce general etait un foudre de guerre. Speaking of a great orator, we also say, C'est un foudre d'eloquence • 110. Gens, people, men. Gens, people. This word in the plural is masculine when fol- lowed by an adjective ; as, They are happy people. Ce sont des gens heureux. But it is feminine when preceded by' an adjective ; as, They are old people, Ce sont de vieilles gens. With tout, all, it is masculine, if that adjective is alone ; as, All honest people, Tous les gens de bien. When tout is followed by another adjective, gens is masculine, provided that adjective does not change its termination in the fem- inine ; as, All honest people, Tous les honnetes gens. But it is feminine when the adjective changes its termination ; as, All the old people, Toutes les vieilles gens. However, usage requires, in order to show its despotism, that the pronouns and adjectives which refer to that word should be in the masculine whenever they are placed after it ; as, Old people are troublesome ; thpy are Les vieilles gens sont ennuyeux ; Us ne good for nothing. sont bons a rien. 60 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 111. Hymne, hymn. Hymne is feminine when it designates a song in honor to God ; but it is masculine when it signifies a profane song in honor to pagan gods or heroes. 112. Jujube, jujube. Jujube is masculine when it designates the paste made of that fruit, and feminine when it signifies the fruit itself. 113. CEuvre, work. CEuvre is masculine when it designates a great work or enterprise ; it is still of the same gender when it is used to signify such a work as a picture, an engraving, a statue or a piece of music ; but it is feminine when it is an act, whatever it may be, or some production of the mind ; as, He does good deeds, II fait de bonnes cewvres. Colhplete works of Racine. (Euvres completes de Racine. 114. Orge, barley. Orge is feminine in the singular and plural ; the only two cases in which it is masculine are the following expressions : Pearl barley, orge perle. Peeled barley, orge monde. 115. 'Orgue, organ. Orgue is masculine in the singular and feminine in the plural ; but if preceded by un, de, one, of, it remains masculine in either number, for the sake of euphony ; as in, Voila un des plus beaux orgues cme je This is one of die most beautiful organs connaisse. I know. 117. Pdques or pdque, Easter day. Pdques, a holiday among the Christians, is written with an s, is not preceded by the article, and belongs to the masculine gender. Pdque, a holiday among the Jews, is written without an s; it takes the article, and is feminine. We also say in the plural, Palm Sunday, Pdques Fleuries, To receive the sacrament at Easter, Faire ses Pdques, pdques being feminine plural. 117. Parallele, parallel. Parallele is masculine when it signifies a comparison ; it is fem- inine when it designates a line as being parallel to another. SUBSTANTIVE. 61 118. Pendule, pendulum, clock. Pendule is masculine when it signifies pendulum, and feminine when it means a clock. 119. Periode, pitch, period. Periode, when meaning pitch, is masculine, and feminine when it signifies a period. 120. Personne, a person, nobody, anybody. Per sonne used as a noun is feminine, and masculine when employed as a pronoun. 121. Quelque chose, some thing. Quelque chose, when followed by a verb in the subjunctive mood, is feminine ; as in, Whatever may be the thing he has Quelque chose qu'il ait faite ou entre- done, or attempted to do, he has prise, il a echoue. been unsuccessful. In any other case, quelque chose is always masculine, on account of its vague and indefinite meaning ; as, Give me something pretty, Donnez-moi quelque chose de joli. I will give you something good, Je vous donnerai quelque chose de Ion. Autre chose is masculine, also, when it conveys an indefinite mean- ing ; as in, There is some other news, II y a autre chose de nouveau, but it is feminine when it has a definite meaning ; as in, This is another thing still more won- C'est une autre chose encore plus mer- derful. veilleuse. 122. Reglisse, liquorice. Reglisse, a plant, is feminine. Reglisse, a paste, is masculine. 123. Sentinelle, sentry. Sentinelle in prose is always feminine, but in poetry it is of either gender. 124. Trompette, trumpet. Trompette is masculine when it designates the individual who plays on that instrument, and feminine when it signifies the instrument itself. 62 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 125. Besides these nouns, which are the most conspicuous among those which are used in either gender, there are some more which we will indicate only by the change in their signification, according to gender. Masculine. Aide, aid de camp. Aide, a cook assistant, if a man ; but it is feminine if a woman. JBarde, a poet, among the ancient Celts. Bourgogne, Burgundy wine. Cartouche, a sort of ornament in paint- ing, sculpture, &c. Champagne, wine. Coche, a public coach, a barge to con- vey passengers. Cornette, a standard bearer. Crepe, a crape. Echo, an echo. Enseigne, an ensign, a standard bearer. Espace, extent between two points or space, speaking of time. Forct, a drill, a piercer. Guarde, a keeper, a warden. Guide > a guide. Livre, a book. Manche, a handle. Manoeuvre, a laborer. Memoire, a bill. Mode, the mood of a verb. Office, service, business, prayers. Page, a page at court. Aide, assistance. Aides, tones. Barde, a thin slice of pork. Bourgogne, a province of France. Cartouche, a cartridge. Champagne, a province of France. Coche, a notch, a sow. Cornette, a cavalry standard, a woman's morning head-dress. Crepe, a pancake. Echo, a nymph of that name. Enseigne, a sign of a shop. Espace, space, as used by printers. Foret, a forest. Garde, watch, hilt, a nurse. Guide, a rein for driving a horse. Livre, a pound. Manche, a sleeve, the French channel. Manoeuvre, a manoeuvre of soldiers, the working of a ship, when used figuratively, and meaning action. Memoire, memory. Mode, fashion. Office, pantry, larder. Page, a page in a book. OF NUMBER IN SUBSTANTIVES. 126. Number, in nouns, is the property which they have of denoting either one or several persons or things. In the first case they are said to be in the singular ; as, A man, a table, &c, un homme, une table, &c. In the second, they are said to be in the plural ; as, Men, tables, les hommes, les tables. Proper names, which present to the mind the idea of a single individual or thing, have, generally, no plural ; as, Washington, Napoleon, &c, London, Paris, &c. ; but we may use in the plural, proper names of persons, when we apply them to all persons who resemble those who had them ; thus we say, properly, SUBSTANTIVE. 63 Nature produces but few such men as La nature ne produit que raremeat des Washington, Napoleon. Washington*, des Napoleons. In such cases proper names become common. FORMATION OF THE PLURAL IN NOUNS. 127. There are nouns whose plural is similar to the singular ; they are those which end in the singular with s, z, x; so we say, L'avis, les avis; le choix, les choix; le The advice, the advices ; the choice, nez, les nez. the choices ; the nose, the noses. 128. Nouns ending in au, eau, eu, ceu, ieu, ou, form their plural by the addition of an x; as, Lejoyau, les joyaux; l'eau, les eaux; The jewel, the jewels; the water, the le jeu, les jeux ; le vceu, les vceux ; waters ; the play, the plays ; the vow, l'essieu, les esssieux; le chou, les the vows; the axle-tree, the axle- choux. trees; the cabbage, the cabbages. The nouns, nail, clou, hole, trou, male-cat, matou, cent, sou, take an 5 in the plural. 129. The nouns ending in al, ail, change their termination into aux in the plural ; as, Animal, animaux ; travail, travaux ; Animal, animals; work, works; lease, bail, baux. leases. But there are some of these terminations which only take an s in in the plural ; as, ball, bal, pale, pal, callosity, cal, treat, regal, place, local, carnival, carnaval, take an s in the plural ; as, bals, pals, cals, &c. ; and attire, attirail, capuchin, camail, detail, detail, fan, eventail, scarecrow, epouvantail, rudder, gouvernail, mall, mail, gate, portail, seraglio, serail, make in the plural, attirails, camails, &c. ; trave, travail, a machine to attach horses when shod, makes travails in the plural ; sheepfold, bercail, has no plural ; cattle, betail, also has none ; it is in the plural expressed by bestiaux, which has no singular. But, as I have already said, it is necessary to resort to a good dictionary. 130. Forefather, a'icul, heaven, del, eye, ceil, make their plurals thus, a'ieux, cieux, yeux ; but we say, des dels de lit, testers of a bed ; des aieuls, grandfather and grandmother; dels d'un tableau, the sky of a picture ; ovals, ceils de bceuf. 64 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 131. All nouns which are not included in any of the preceding classifications, form their plural by the addition of an s ; as, roads, chemins, tables, tables, merchants, marchands, laws, his, diamonds, diamants, accidents, accidents, &c. ORTHOGRAPHY OF NOUNS ENDING IN ANT, ENT. 132. The nouns ending in ant, ent, in the singular, must, in all possible cases, keep in the plural the t of the singular ; it would be absurd otherwise. Let us suppose that a foreigner finds, in writing, the word enfans, children; according to the rule, which says that the plural is formed from the singular by the addition of an 5, if that foreigner should use that word in the singular, he would commit a barbarism ; for in removing the s from the word enfans it remains enfan, which is no French word at all. We must then write, a diamond, un diamant, diamonds, des dia- mants; a present, un present, presents, des presents; a glove, un gant, gloves, des gants. We insist upon this rule, because a number of grammarians pretend that the t may be suppressed in words of more than one syllable, although they do keep it in monosyllables, without any reason whatever for not acting alike in both cases. The noun people, gens, the singular of which is very seldom used, is the only one that does not keep the t in the plural. 133. The adjective, all, tous, follows the same rule. These two exceptions are only the result of habit, the greatest tyrant in the construction of language. OF THE NOUNS WHICH HAVE NO PLURAL. 134. They are; First. The names of metals, in their general meaning ; as, gold, Vor, silver, V argent, iron, lefer, copper, le cuivre, &c. 135. Secondly. The nouns which designate ordinary virtues ; as, truth, lafoi, charity, la charite, sincerity, la sincerity. 136. Thirdly. Verbs in the infinitive used as nouns, and to which an adjective cannot be joined ; as, raising, le lever, retiring, le coucher, drinking, le boire, sleeping, le dormir, Sic. SUBSTANTIVE. 65 But those to which an adjective may be joined, have the two numbers ; as, dining, le diner, laughing-, le rire, &c. 137. Fourthly. Adjectives used as nouns, and which present to the mind only the idea of a metaphorical object ; as, the beautiful, le beau, the true, le vrai, the useful, Vutile, &c. 138. Fifthly. A series of words, as the following : Absinthium, absinthe. Glory, gloire. Frankincense, encens. Fame, renommee, Eucharisity, eucharistie. Purple, pour pre. Extreme-unction, extreme-onction. Thirst, soif. Esteem, estime. Sleep, sommeil. Hunger, faim. Rest, repos. Anger, courroux. OF FOREIGN NOUNS. 139. Among the nouns of foreign origin, there are only those which usage has made French that take the sign of the plural ; the following are the only ones which our best writers use with plural terminations. Des operas, Des impromptus, Des duos. Des echos. Des accessits, Des agendas, Des alineas, Des apartes. Des bravos, Des concertos, Des debets, Des quiproquos, Des zeros, Des quolibets, operas. impromptus. duetts. echoes. accessits. note-books. new paragraphs. words spoken aside. bravos. witty conceits. balances of account. mistakes. cyphers. quodlibets. Des deficits, Des examens, Des factums, Des imbroglios, Des incognitos, Des macaronis, Des magisters, Des panoramas, Des numeros, Des pensums, Des pianos, Des recipisses, Des exeats, Des satisfecits, deficits. examinations. memoirs. imbroglios. incognitos. macaronis. village school-masters. panoramas. numbers. tasks. pianos. receipts. passes to leave college. bills given to children to testify of their good conduct. All other nouns of foreign origin do not take the mark of the plural. OF THE FORMATION OF THE PLURAL IN PROPER NAMES. 140. When a proper name is used as such, it does not take the sign of the plural ; but it changes its termination if used as a common noun. 6* 66 FRENCH GRAMMAR. OF PROPER NAMES REPRESENTING TWO OR MORE INDIVIDUALS IN THE SAME FAMILY. 141. Proper names representing two or more individuals in the same family remain invariable ; as in, My father was acquainted with the two Mon pere etait lie avec les deux Ra- Racine and the two Corneille. cine et les deux Corneille. Spain is proud of having given birth to L'Espagne s'honore d'avoir produit les the two Seneque. deux Seneque. However, we write with the plural termination, Les Cesars, les Gracques, les Horaces, les Scipions, les Stuarts, les Guises, les Condis, les Bourbons, &c., either in imitation of the Latins, who used the plural in all cases, or because most of these words are rather used as titles or surnames than names. Some of them are even no longer used to designate individuals personally, but classes of individuals and families. OF PROPER NAMES WHICH HAVE BECOME COMMON NAMES. 142. I will examine the three tragedies of CEdipe with impartiality. More false than true Elzevirs are to be found in most libraries. J'examinerai les trois CEdipes avec une egale exactitude. On trouve plus de faux que de vrais Elzevirs dans la plupart des biblio- theques. In these two examples, CEdipes and Elzevirs are written in the plural, because they signify, in fact, tragedies of which the subject is called CEdipe, books which have been printed by Elzevir. We also say, Des Raphaels, des Poussins, &c, instead of, Pictures painted by Raphael, Poussin, &c, because these proper names are so often used that habit has changed them into common names. OF THE NOUNS WHICH HAVE NO SINGULAR. 143. Several nouns have no singular ; as, Ancestors, ancelres. Manners, Archives, archives. Tears, Coat of arms, armoiries. Matins, Espousals, accordailles. Vespers, Darkness Bushes, broussailles. Scissors, ciseaux. Rubbish, mceurs. pleurs, matines, vepres. tenebres. decombree SUBSTANTIVE. 67 OF NOUNS OF VIRTUES AND VICES, AND OF THOSE WHICH REPRESENT IDEAS AND SENTIMENTS IN THEffi ABSTRACT MEANING. 144. The nouns alluded to in the title of this chapter, have no plural in their abstract meaning ; but when they are used to designate the effects, acts or results which arise from the existence of any virtue, vice, idea or sentiment, they follow the general rule ; therefore, in the following sentences, Kindness is a disposition which cannot La bonte est une qualite qui ne saurait be too highly appreciated, etre trop appreciee, Beauty disappears, wit remains, La beaide passe, Vesprit reste, Man spends his life in looking for hap- L'homrae passe sa vie a chercher le piness, bonheur, Charity is agreeable to God and useful La charite est agreable a Dieu et utile to man, a l'homme, the nouns bonte, beaute, bonheur and charite, being used in their abstract meaning, as representing virtues or qualities but not the consequences of those qualities, have no plural ; but in the fol- lowing, Your family overwhelmed with acts Votre famille m'a comble de bontes, of kindness, There are beauties for all times and II y a des beavies de tous les temps et countries, de tous les pays, With how many trifling instances of De combien de petits bonheurs l'homme good luck is not the worldly man du monde n'est-il pas entoure 1 favored 1 This woman is a good Christian ; she Cette femme est bonne Chretienne; elle is very charitable, fait beaucoup de charites, the nouns bontes, beautes, bonheurs and charites no longer express mere qualities or abstract ideas ; they represent several acts of kindness, different kinds of beauty, instances of good luck and charity, and therefore, conveying an idea of individualities, they take the sign of the plural. Remark. If the above names of virtues, vices, &c, do not take the plural, it is because we consider as a whole what the mind cannot divide into several distinct individuals ; and besides, those names which the Latins had deified, have become in our language somewhat proper names, and if in poetry, and even in prose, we sometimes, in elevated style, employ the plural instead of the singular, it is in order to restore to these words something of the individuality which they had lost by their transformation. D» FRENCH GRAMMAR. OF COMPOUND NOUNS. Of the formation of their plural. The compound nouns that have not yet been introduce^ into the language as making a single word, that is to say, the distinct parts of which are still united by a hyphen, are written in the plural in the most irregular manner, and grammarians are far from agreeing about the rules which ought to regulate them ; but there is a general indication which finds its application in most cases, and may be taken as a sure guide. I mean the nature and particular sense of the words of which they are composed, and which show easily those that require either of the two numbers. Such is the general principle ; the application of which will be rendered easy by the assistance of the following rules : OF NOUNS FORMED OF A NOUN AND AN ADJECTIVE. 145. When a compound noun is formed of a substantive and an adjective, both take the plural ; as, A false-key, une fausse-cle. Some false keys, des fausses-cles. A freemason, unfranc-mapon. Freemasons, des francs-mapons. Exceptions. A blank, Un blanc-seing, Des blancseings. (Papers signed in blank.) A terra plain, Un terre-plein, Des terre-pleins. (Places full of earth.) A lighthorseman, Un chevau-leger, Des chevau-leger s. A grandmother, Une grand'-mere, Des grand' -meres. A solemn mass, Une grand'-messe. Des grand' -messes. In the two first examples, the sense does not allow the use of the plural for the words blanc and terre; in the third, a fantastic usage refuses to the noun the mark of the plural ; in fine, in the two last, the adjective remains unchanged, on account of euphony in pronunciation. When, in compound nouns, there is a word which is never used by itself, this word is considered as an adjective, and takes the plural ; as in, Wary-angle, Pie-grieche, Des pies-grieches. Were-wolf, Loup-garou, Des loups-garous . Gum-gutta, Gomme-gutte, Des gommes-guttes, &c. In these examples, the words grieche, garou, and gutte, are never used by themselves, and have no sense, unless they are joined to the above nouns. SUBSTANTIVE. 69 OF NOUNS FORMED OF TWO NOUNS. 146. When a compound noun is formed of two substantives placed in immediate contact with each other, both take the mark of the plural ; as. Country-town, Un chef-lieu, Des chefs-lieux. Wolf-dog, Un chien-loup, Des chiens-loups. Cauliflower, Un cbou-fleur, Des choux-fleurs , &c. It is evident that these locutions may be turned in this way : The towns which are chief towns, the dogs which are like wolves, the flowers which turn into cabbages, &c. Exceptions. Fig-pecker, Un bec-figues, Des bec-figues. (Birds whose beak pecks figs.) Painter's maul-stick, Un appui-main, Des appuis-main. (Sticks to lean the hand upon.) A hospital for the sick in Paris, Un hotel-dieu, Des hotels-dieu. (Places to worship God, or under the patronage of God.) A toothless man, Un breche-dents, Des breche-dents. (A man who has a breach in his teeth.) OF NOUNS FORMED OF TWO NOUNS SEPARATED BY A PREPOSITION. 147. When a noun is composed of two substantives united by a preposition, the first takes the mark of the plural ; as, A rainbow, Un arc-en-ciel, Des arcs-en-ciel. (Bows which are in the skies.) A master-piece, Un chef-d'ceuvre, Des chefs d'oeuvre. (Works which are chief ones as to their merits.) Exceptions. Nonsense, Un coq-a-1'ane, Des-coq-a-1'ane. (Discourses without sense, where one passes from the cock to the ass?) Temporary residence, Pied-a-terre, Des pied-a-terre. (Places where one puts only his foot on the ground.) Face to face, Tete-a-tete. Des tete-a-tete. (Interviews during which a person is alone with another.) In these sentences the meaning of the words cock, foot, head, does not allow them to be placed in the plural. OF NOUNS FORMED OF A VERB, A PREPOSITION, OR AN ADVERB, AND A NOUN. 148. When a substantive, in a compound noun, is joined to a verb, a preposition, or an adverb, the substantive alone takes the plural, if there is plurality in the meaning ; so we write with an s the following words : 70 FRENCH GRAMMAR. A counter-blow, Un contre-coup, Des contre-coups. (Blows in the counter-part.) Herald, Avant-coureur, Des avant coureurs. (Runners who run ahead.) The latter end of autumn, Arriere saison, Les arriere saisons. (Seasons which are behind-time.) 149. Bat we write without an s in the plural, because there is no plurality in the idea, the following words : Night-cap, Serre-t£te, Des serre-tete. (Caps that keep the head tight.) Alarm-clock, Reveille-matin, Des reveille-matin. (Clocks which waken in the morning.) Counter-poison, Contre-poison, Des contre-poison. (Remedies against poison.) Finally, we write with an 5, in the singular as well as in the plural, the following nouns, because there is always plurality in their signification : One or several towels, Un ou des essuye-mams. (One or several towels to wipe the hands.) One or several snuffers-bearers, Un ou des porte-mouchettes. (One or several instruments to hold the snuffers.) One or several toothpicks, Un ou des cure-dents. (One or several sticks to clean one's teeth.) One or several keys-bearers, Un ou des porte-cZes. (One or several men who carry the keys.) OF NOUNS FORMED OF TWO INDECLINABLE WORDS. 150. When a compound noun is formed only of words which never vary, as verbs, prepositions, adverbs, none of these words take the mark of the plural ; as, Servant-fees, Pour-boire, Des pour-boire. A man who never laughs, Un pince-sans-rire, Des pince-sans-rire. A skeleton-key, Un passe-partout, Des passe-partout. Although these five rules contain what is of general application in the language to compound nouns, it will always be well, when a doubt arises in the mind, to refer to a good dictionary, as the only sure guide in so complicated a matter. OF THE FUNCTIONS OF THE NOUN IN LANGUAGE. 151. After having described the substantive in its different phases, it remains now to show how to use it as a part of speech, what place it occupies, and what its functions are in the construction of sentences. SUBSTANTIVE. 71 The substantive has three functions in speech ; it is either subject, or object, or used in the shape of an apostrophe. It is a subject when it represents that which is spoken of, or performs the action of the verb ; when we say, The horse runs, Le cheval court, The horse does not fly, Le cheval ne vole pas, the noun horse is the subject, because, in the first sentence, we say, that it runs, and in the second, that it does not fly. It is to the subject that every thing refers in speech ; when we say, A man just and firm is not moved Un homme juste et ferme n'est ebranle either by the roaring of an irritated ni par les clameurs d'une populace multitude, or the threats of a proud irritee, ni par les menaces d'un fier tyrant ; if even the world was tyran ; quand meme le monde brise shaken to the centre, and reduced to s'ecroulerait, il en serait frappe, mais ruins, he would be struck but not non pas emu, disturbed by it, the adjectives just and firm modify the subject man, and the rest modifies a man just and firm. The substantive is used in the apostrophe, when it designates the thing or person to whom we speak ; as, Kings, be attentive. Rois, soyez attentifs. Earth, sea, and you, heavens, be sen- Terre, mer, et vous, cieux, soyez sen- sible to our claims. sibles a nos plaintes. The substantives, kings, earth, sea, heavens, are used in the form of an apostrophe. The substantive is an object, when it is under the control of another word ; in this case, it restrains the signification of that word. The substantive may be governed by another substantive, an adjective, a verb, or a preposition : The law of God. La hi de Dieu. Useful to man. Utile a Vhomme. To love one's neighbor. Aimer son prochain. At one's father's. Chez son pere. The word which governs is called governing; the word which is governed is called regimen or object. In French, a substantive cannot be the object of another substantive without the aid of a preposition, which is generally, of, de, but sometimes, to, a, for, pour, and others ; as, The difficulty of the enterprise. La difficulte de l'entreprise. The attention to one's business. L'attention d ses affaires. The taste for pleasure. Le gout pour le plaisir. 72 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Of two substantives, one governing-, the other governed, the one governing generally comes first. The beauty of feelings. The violence of passions. La beaute des sentiments. La violence des passions. We have used the word generally, because sometimes the privilege of inversion changes that order. Sometimes substantives change their nature into that of an ad- jective ; in this phrase of Bossuet, Tout etait Dieu, excepte Dieu lui- meme, All was God, except God himself, God, in the first part, is an adjective, and a noun in the second OF NUMBER IN THE NOUNS WHICH ARE OBJECTS OF ANOTHER NOUN. 152. Substantives immediately governed by another with the preposition The hand of woman. The act of a fool. A child's play. A horse's tail. A statue of marble. The hands of woman. The acts of a fool. A child's plays. Horses' tails. Statues of marble. Singulc Plural. line main de femme. Une action de fou. Un jeu d'enfant. Une queue de cheval. Une statue de marbre. Des mains de femme. Des actions de fou. Des jeux d'enfant. Des queues de cheval. Des statues de marbre. Here the substantives which follow the preposition modify the subject designated by the first one, which represents the principal idea; and the words, woman, fool, child, &c, used in a vague and indefinite sense, serve less to express the idea of the object which they represent, than to qualify the substantive with which they are united by the preposition of, de; in fact, a woman's voice is a feminine voice, the action of a fool is a foolish action, the play of a child is a childish play, &c. Rule. In all cases similar to the above, and where no peculiar reason requires the plural, the substantive employed as a regimen or object remains in the singular. Observation. Tn conformity with this rule we write, Stumps, Des troncs d'arbre, SUBSTANTIVE. 73 with arbre in the singular ; but speaking of trees to be planted again, we say, Sets of trees, Des pieds d'arbres, because here the words pieds d'arbres are taken for the trees them- selves. 153. However, it is customary, and the Academy approves of it, to write des pieds de girqflee, plants of gillyflower, des pieds de basilic, plants of basil, des pieds de marjolaine, plants of marjoram, because these plants, composed of several slips, do not present a distinct idea of individuality ; and, besides, we generally say, de la girqflee, some gillyflower, du basilic, some basil, &c. 154. Rule. When the substantive, used as an object, implies necessarily the idea of plurality, it must be used in the plural ; as, A forest of oaks. Une foret de chenes. A couple of horses. Une couple de chevaux. A merchant of engravings. Un marchand de gravures. Observations. A merchant or some merchants of Un marchand ou des marchands de vin. wine. A merchant of rich wines and liquors. Un marchand de vins fins et de liqueurs. In the first example we write vin in the singular, because this word is taken indefinitely, and does not imply the idea of plurality ; but in the last, vins is written with an s, because the mind is compelled to think of several sorts of wines and liquors. OF CASES IN WHICH TWO NOUNS, UNITED BY THE PREPOSITION OF, EXPRESS THE IDEA OF A THING FORMED BY EXTRACTION OR COM- POSITION. Singular. A jelly of apples. Une gelee de pomme. Syrup of lemon. Du sirop de limon. Olive oil. De l'huile d'olive. Plural. Stewed pears, pigeons. Une compote de poires, de pigeons. Marmalade of apricots. Une marmelade d'abricots. A dish of chesnuts. Un assiette de marrons. 155. Here the preposition and the noun which follows are no longer used only to modify the subject of the proposition, but they 7 74 FRENCH GRAMMAR. show how it is constituted, or composed, if we may say so, and we call this last noun determinative. Rule. The determinative remains in the singular when it concurs with the constitution of the subject by extraction, as apple, lemon, olive, in the foregoing examples ; but it is employed in the plural if the formation of the subject takes place by composition. Let us explain this rule. There is extraction, when the article which is employed to compose the subject, has changed its nature in the compound which it has been used to produce ; thus, when we make jelly, syrup, oil, we employ only a part of the apples, lemons, and olives ; and neither of those preparations keep the form, nor the appearance, of those fruits ; in these cases we think but little of the individuality of either fruit, and their names must remain in the singular. When, on the other hand, the article used to form the subject of the proposition remains entire, or nearly so, there is no extraction, but composition, the idea of individuality becomes striking, recalls to the mind that of plurality for the whole, and the determi- native must accordingly take the plural ; it is the case with the words poires, pigeons, abricots, marrons, which remain entire in the composition of the subject, and may be counted one by one ; in the marmelade, the individuals are not so distinct, it is true, but the apricots have not entirely changed their nature, as in a jelly, syrup, &c. OF CASES IN WHICH TWO NOUNS BEING SEPARATED BY THE PREPO- SITION OF, THE FIRST EXPRESSES AN IDEA OF CAPACITY OR AG- GLOMERATION. Singular. A barrel of vinegar. Un barril de vinaigre A bushel of wheat. Un boisseau de bled. A bouquet of jasmine. Un bouquet de jasmin. Plural. A barrel of olives. Un barril d'olives. A bushel of beans. Un boisseau de haricots. A bouquet of roses. Un bouquet de roses. 156. Rule. When the first substantive expresses an idea of capacity, or agglomeration, the second may be considered as being determinative, and always remains in the singular, if it specifies a thing which cannot be, or is not usually, counted ; in all other cases, it always takes the plural. The above examples leave no ambiguity about the application of this rule. SUBSTANTIVE. 75 157. Observations. The rules which we have just given are not strictly applicable, and it is necessary to examine carefully how the determinative must be understood. In the locution, A juice of herbs, unjus d'herbes, the determinative hcrbes is plural, although the juice is made by extraction, and the herbs have entirely changed their nature ; we are induced to do it, not only because several herbs enter into its formation, but because those herbs are of a different nature. On the other hand, we write, A porridge of beans, Une puree de haricots, A cullis of craw-fish, Un coulis d'ecreirisses, A pot of preserves, Un pot de confitures, because those words, beans, craw-fish, and preserves, in French, are most generally used in the plural ; for we do not say, I love the bean, the craw-fish, the pre- J'aime le haricot, Vecrevisse, la confiture, serve, but, Les haricots, les ecrevisses, Ies confitures. But we write, A porridge of potatoes, Un puree de pomme de terre. because we say, The potatoe is good, La pomme de terre est bonne. When a qualificative is joined to the determinative, it restricts and particularizes its meaning, and consequently disposes it to take the plural ; thus, although we think it should be written, I prefer to draw heads of women rather J'aime mieux dessiner des teles de than of men, femme que des tetes d'homme, we should employ the plural in two of the following sentences : Cannibals used to cut off the heads of Les cannibales coupaient les tetes men killed in battle- d , hom?nes tues sur le champ de bat- aille. There are two kinds of rights in law. II y a deux especes de droit. There are several breeds of horses. II y a plusieurs especes de chevaux. In the second example, the singular is used, because we wish to say . Law is divided into two classes : Le droit se divise en deux classes : public law, and private law. le droit public, et le droit priv6. 76 FRENCH GRAMMAR. In the last example, the plural is used, because we wish to say : There are horses of several breeds. 11 y a des chevaux de differentes especes. By taking the trouble to analyze the sentences which appear doubtful to the mind, it is easy to avoid committing any faults. OF NOUNS USED WITH THE PREPOSITION OF, DE, BUT NOT PRECEDED IMMEDIATELY BY ANOTHER NOUN. 158. Of, preceded by an adjective or a past participle ; as, Singular. A child full of good disposition. Un enfant plein de bonne volonte. A prince thirsting for fame. Un prince altere de renommee. A painter full of talent. Un peintre rempli de talent. Plural. A man full of vices. Un homme plein de defauts. An author craving applause. Un auteur insatiable de louanges. A young lady full of talents. Une jeune personne remplie de talents. The least reflection is sufficient to determine, in all cases similar to these, whether the singular or plural must be used. Bonne volonte is in the singular, because we do not say, Des bonnes volontes. Defauts is in the plural, because we would not say, A man full of vices, if he had only one vice. Gloire, taken in a general sense, is never used in the plural ; but it should be, if we had to express, He is craving for all sorts of glory, II est affame de tous les genres de gloires ; because here glory is particularized, and we understand there are several sorts of it. Louanges, praises, cannot possibly be in the singular, because one of them alone would not be enough for a craving man. Talent, in the painter's case, is singular, because we mean but one talent of an eminent order ; but in the other instance, we intend to say that the young lady possesses all the talents which are acquired by a complete education. SUBSTANTIVE. 77 OF SUBSTANTIVES PRECEDED, AS DETERMINATIVE, BY ANY PREPO- SITION BUT OF, DE. 159. Preposition d ; as, Singular. To travel on foot. Voyager a pied. A safe with a secret lock. Un coffre d secret. Plural. To jump with the feet close. Sauter d pieds joints. Horned cattle. Des betes d comes. To go on foot, to be on foot, a footman, Aller d pied, etre sur pied, valet de pied, are expressions which usage has consecrated in the singular, because the mode in which the word foot is used implies only a modification of the words aller, etre, valet, without the mind being troubled with the idea of the number of feet ; but in this phrase, Sauter tt pieds joints, the word joints, awaking naturally the idea of two feet, requires the plural. Secret is in the singular, because we think only of a lock which is a secret one; but comes is in the plural, because we mean animals that always have two horns. 160. Preposition en, in; as, Singular. Constant in love. Constant en amour. To fly from flower to flower. Voler defleur enfleur. I made a marmalade of them. Je les ai mis en marmelade. A house covered with slate. Une maison couverte en ardoise. Plural. Fertile in expedients. Fertile en expedients. To lie in. Etre en couches. They are cut to pieces. lis sont tailles en pieces. A gown trimmed with pearls. Une robe garnie enperles. Amour, in the plural, would be nonsense applied to constant. Fertile conveys the idea of more than one expedient, or else the sentence would have no sense. It is easily perceived when the plural must be used after a certain class of adjectives ; as, full, filled, craving, rich, abounding, and others similar to them. Defleur enfleur signifies, from one flower to another; it is clear that a fly, or butterfly, cannot leave two flowers at once. Les couches, of a woman, is an idiomatical expression in our language, referring to the time when she lies in ; but, if meaning the 78 FRENCH GRAMMAR. act of giving birth to a child, the singular may be used ; so we may A happy delivery. Une heureuse couche. She died after her delivery. Elle est morte d'une suite de couche, that is to say, on account of her delivery. Marmelade is in the singular, because there is but one preparation so called. Pieces is in the plural, because they have been cut into a great number of pieces. Ardoise is in the singular, because the slates which cover the house are taken as a whole, the mind not being occupied with the idea of plurality in regard to them Perles is in the plural, because the mind divides them, counts theirl, if we may say so, and is pleased by exaggerating their number. 161. The preposition par, hy ; as, Singular. I gave him my property by deed. Je lui donnai mon bien par contract. Plural. They divided themselves into troops II se divis^rent par troupes. There is but one contract, and there are several troops. 162. The preposition pour, for; as, Peter, shoemaker for men only. Pierre, cordonnier pour homme. Homme is used in the singular, because its meaning is vague and indefinite, and stands here as a mere qualification. 163. The preposition sans, without ; as, Singular. I am without bread or money. Je suis sans pain et sans argent. Plural. He is without shoes. II est sans soldiers. The words pain and argent have no plural in this acceptation ; besides, the preposition sans, meaning a complete exclusion, must generally be followed by the singular, unless we are compelled to think of several objects, as is the case in the other example ; (a man always wears two shoes.) SUBSTANTIVE. 79 164. The preposition sur, upon, on; as, Singular. To receive letter after letter. Recevoir lettre sur lettre. Plural. To begin anew. Recommencer sur de nouveaux frais. Lettre sur lettre, means, a letter after another letter ; it is an ex- pression similar to that of de fleur en fleur, from flower to flower. Freds has no singular ; that is the reason why we write, To travel at a great expense. Voyager a grands frais REMARKS ON THE PRECEDING CHAPTERS. 165. We have already said enough on this subject to enable the reader to ascertain with accuracy in what cases he must use the plural or the singular in locutions of this kind ; it is easily perceived that the singular is more generally employed than the other number, which must be rejected whenever the sense of the sentence does not convey the idea of plurality in a clear and distinct manner. But, in the mean time, particular care must be taken to study the real meaning of the sentence, as being the only sure guide in the case. There are, however, many instances, where either number may be employed indifferently. Let us try to explain still more explicitly what characterizes each number. General Rule. 166. If we speak of a species or of a kind taken generally, the singular must be used. If the mind refers more particularly to individuals, the plural must be used. If we say, During lent, Catholics live wholly upon Les Catholiques, pendant le careme, ne fish, se nourissent que de poisson, we use the singular for poisson, because we think only of the kind of food, without any reference to the number of fish. But if we say, Lobsters and crabs live only on fish, Les homards et les crabes ne vivent que de poissons, we represent to ourselves lobsters and crabs living upon a number of 80 FRENCH GRAMMAR. fishes ; the idea dwells upon the individuals of the fish tribe, and accordingly the plural is used. 167. In fine, there are cases in which the plural seems to give more force to the expression ; as, for instance, if we say, as a matter of fact only : Catacombs are filled with skulls and Les catacombs sont remplies de tetes dead bones. et d'os de mort. But, if we wish to move an audience, we should say, Think of the horrid picture which Figurez-vous l'affreux tableau qui strikes our eyes ; a valley covered frappe nos regards ; une vallee with skulls and dead bones. jonc!i< e de tetes et d'os de morts. The mind refers, in the first instance, to bones as those of a corpse ; while, in the other, it is struck by the horror of so many persons killed and having their bones left in the valley. 168. The Dictionary of the Academy should not be consulted for the explanation of this difficulty of our language ; because, being the result of the cooperation of many, it too often contains rules implying contradiction to one another. It is by common sense and reasoning, according to the rules we have laid down, that the student must be guided. We will add some few more illustrations, so as to leave as little doubt as possible on the subject. Singular. Fancies of a woman. Des caprices defemme. Heaps of grass. Des tas d'herbe. To fight with the fist. Se battre a coups de poing. Vessels loaded with linen. Des vaisseaux charges de toile. Some pots of basil, of butter. Des pots de basilic, de beurre. A merchant of feathers. Un marchand de plume. Merchants of straw, hay, cider. Des marchands de paille, de foin, de cidre. A merchant of music. Un marchand de musique. Merchants of wine, butter, fish, cod- Des marchands de vin, de beurre, de fish, orange-flower. poisson, de morue, de fleur d'oranger. Plural. Female boarding-house. Une pension de femmes. A heap of medicinal herbs. Un tas d'herbes medicinales. To scratch with the nails. Se battre a coups d'ongles. Vessels loaded with codfish. Des vaisseaux charges de morues. A pot of flowers, of pinks. Un pot defleurs, d' 'millets. A merchant of pens. Un marchand de plumes. A merchant of cloths from Elbeuf, Un marchand de drops d'Elbeuf, de Louviers, of white linen, of coarse Louviers, de toiles blanches, de toiles linen. communes. A merchant of engravings. Un marchand d'estampes. A merchant of rich wines, salt butter, Un marchand de vins fins, de beurres herrings, eels, carps, lobsters, flowers. sales, de harengs, d'anguilles, de carpes, de homards, defleurs. SUBSTANTIVE. Si In all the above examples of the singular, the second substantives are used in a general and indefinite sense, as mere qualificatives ; whereas, in the plural, these same words are taken in a sense of individuality. For instance, des caprices de femme, are caprices which arc attrib- uted to women in general ; but, une pension de femmes is composed of individuals, and the word femmes conveys the idea of plurality. Des marchands de plume are men who sell quantities of feathers to make beds ; we cannot have the idea of counting these feathers ; but un marchand de plumes is a man who sells pens to write with, and at once we see that we may buy one, two, or twenty of them ; the sense is individual, definite. Merchants of straw, hay, cider, are men who do not sell singly one, two straws, &c, but who sell, as a whole, straw, hay, &c, then the sense is indefinite, and does not admit of plurality ; but a merchant of trees, apricots, grapes, &c, always sells those articles by the piece, or, on account of their number, sells them by the quantity ; then the sense is individual ; you may buy an apricot, two trees, &c. We could not, without useless repetition, continue the analysis of the other examples, which has been previously given. We will terminate this review by mentioning once more, that in cases similar to those already noticed, the mind must decide the question, by giving to sentences their proper signification. QUESTIONS ABOUT THE NOUN. 93. What is the noun, and Avhat difference is there between a common noun and a proper noun % 94, 95. What are the number and the gender in nouns 1 96. What is the feminine termination of nouns ending in e, i, u, or with a consonant 1 97. What is the feminine termination of nouns ending with a mute e ? 98. What is the feminine termination of nouns ending in en, on, et ? 99. What is the feminine termination of nouns ending in eur ? 100. What is the feminine termination of nouns ending in x ? 101. Are there not some nouns which are either feminine or masculine according to their number and signification 1 102. In which case is aigle masculine or feminine "? 103. Of what gender is amour in the singular and plural 1 104. Of what gender is automne ? 105. When is the word couple masculine or feminine 1 106. 107, 108. Of what gender are the nouns, delice, enfant, and exemple ? 110. In what case is the word gens masculine or feminine 1 114. Of what gender is the noun orge ? 115. Is the noun orgue of the same gender in the singular and plural 1 82 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 116. In what case is p&que spelled with or without an s ? of what gender is if? 117, 118, 119. In what case are parallele, pendule and periode masculine or feminine 1 120. What is the gender of the word personne ? 121. What is the gender of the expressions quelque chose, autre chose ? 122. 123, 124. Of what gender are the nouns reglisse,sentinelle and trompette? {Remark. Ask the same questions about the nouns contained in the list, 125.) 127. How is the plural formed in nouns ending in s, x, z ? 128. How is the plural formed in nouns ending in au, eau, eu, ceu, ieu, ou ? 129. How is the plural formed in nouns ending in al, ail ? 130. Is there anything particular in the formation of the plural in the nouns a'ieul, del and ceil ? 131. How is the plural formed in nouns which do not belong to the preceding terminations 1 132. How is the plural formed in nouns ending in ent and ant ? 132, 133. What is the peculiarity in the formation of the plural in the words gent and tout ? 134. Do names of metals, used in their abstract meaning, take the plural % 135. Do names used to designate vices and virtues take the plural % 136. Do verbs used in the infinitive mood as nouns take the plural 1 137. Do adjectives used as nouns in their abstract meaning take the plural 1 139. Do nouns borrowed from foreign languages take the plural 1 (Recite those which do take it.) 140. Do proper nouns, used as such, take the plural 1 141. Do proper nouns designating two or more individuals of the same family take the plural % 142. When a proper noun has become a common noun, does it take the plural 1 138. 143. Are there not common nouns which have no plural at all, and others which have no singular % (Name some of them.) 144. Have the following words, bonte, beaute, charite, bonheur, and those of the same nature, the same signification in either number 1 145. How is the plural formed in compound nouns composed of a noun and an adjective 1 146. How is the plural formed in compound nouns composed of two nouns 1 147. How is the plural formed in compound nouns composed of two nouns, separated by a preposition % 148. How is the plural formed in compound nouns composed of a verb, a preposition, or an adverb, and a noun 1 149. How is the plural formed in compound nouns composed of two in- declinable words % 150. What are the functions of nouns in language 1 150. Can a noun be the object of another noun without the assistance of a preposition 1 150. Are not nouns used sometimes as adjectives 1 151, 152, 153. If two nouns are separated by the preposition de, when does the second take the sign of the plural % (Mention the general principle.) 154. When two nouns separated by of represent the idea of a thing formed by extraction or composition, does the second take the plural 1 155, 156. If the first of two nouns separated by a preposition expresses an idea of capacity or agglomeration, when does the second take the sign of the plural. 157. If a noun preceded by of is not immediately preceded by another noun, when does that noun take the sign of the plural 1 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163. Apply the same questions to nouns preceded by any other preposition, such as d, to, en, in, par, by, pour, for, sans, without, eur, on, upon, &c. ADJECTIVE. 83 165. When the second noun expresses a species or kind, in what number Bhould it be used 1 166. In order to give more force to the expression, is not the second noun sometimes used in the plural 1 OF THE ADJECTIVE. 169. The adjective is a word which is joined to a noun to qualify or modify it. — {Academy.) Thus the use of the adjective in speech, always supposes the presence of a substantive. When I say, A wise man, un homme sage, homme is a substantive, which, without the word sage, applies to any individual of the male race of man ; but as soon as this word sage is added to it, the idea represented by the two words, homme sage, does not designate any man, but one among them who has the quality of being wise; thus icise qualifies and modifies the substantive man, and accordingly is an adjective. We have already stated that nouns are sometimes used as adjectives, and adjectives as nouns. But it is proper to notice here, that this last transformation never takes place when we speak of living beings ; for being always, in this case, of the same gender as the noun they represent, they always suppose the apposition of this noun to them ; so that when employed, the sentence has the character of an ellipsis ; thus, when we say, for the Almighty, L'Eternel, Le Tout-puissant, the noun God is understood, and, God being masculine, the adjective can only be used in that gender. The wise (man,) Le sage. The select (men,) Les elus. Learned men, Les savants. A prude (woman,) Une prude. In these examples, the word man, homme, is understood in the first, hommes in the second and third, and femme in the last. Sometimes, it is true, these adjectives in similar cases are accom- panied by another adjective, which seems to modify them as it would a noun ; but if we analyze those expressions we shall discover that these qualificative adjectives act only as an adverb should, and, in fact, take the place of one ; 84 FRENCH GRAMMAR. A true wise (man,) Un vrai sage, means a man truly wise, un homme vraiment sage. A false devotee, Une fausse devote, means, a woman falsely religious, une femme faussement devote. Even when the adjective does not refer to a living being, if it designates an attribute, belonging to a class of things which may be expressed by a noun, it should be always considered as an adjective ; thus, The acids of the stomach, Les acides de l'estomac, The thick part of the blade, Le fort de l'epee, The purgatives, Les pwcgatifs, A perpendicular, Une perpendiculaire, signify, Les (sues) acides de l'estomac. Le (endroit) fort de l'epee. Les (remedes) purgatifs. Une (ligne) perpendiculaire. The adjective is, then, only taken as a noun when it expresses an idea which may, positively and actually, be applied to things of different species ; as in the following, What is true persuades. Le vrai persuade. What is honest must be preferred to L'honnete doit etre prefere a Vagreable what is agreeable and useful. et a Vutile. The first proposition is true when speaking of a narrative, a system, an argument, a gesture, a sadness, a desire, &c, but it does not designate any of these ideas in particular, and represents what is spoken of only as a thing, the nature of which is truth. The same construction may be applied in the second sentence when the subject spoken of is what is honest, agreeable and useful. VARIATION OF THE ADJECTIVES. 170. The nature of adjectives being, as we have already stated, to express the qualities of nouns, by identifying themselves with them, .they must both have the same characteristics, and always be of the same number and gender. ADJECTIVE. 85 Besides, the adjective may qualify the noun to which it is joined in a manner more or less extended ; this is what is called by gram- marians degrees of signification in the adjectives. We have, then, three distinct parts to consider in adjectives ; the gender, the number, the degrees of signification. OF THE GENDER IN THE ADJECTIVES. FORMATION OF THE FEMININE IN ADJECTIVES ENDING WITH A MUTE E. 171. All adjectives have for their termination in the masculine either an e mute, another vowel, or a consonant All adjectives in the feminine are ended with an e mute. Thus, those which end with an e mute in the masculine, do not change their termination in the feminine ; such are the following : Ridiculous, Ridicule. A ridiculous man, A ridiculous woman, Un homme ridicule. Une femme ridicule. Exceptions : Traitor, Devilish, Master, traitre, diable, maitre, traitresse. diablesse. maitresse. OF ADJECTIVES ENDING WITH A VOWEL WHICH IS NOT A MUTE E. 172. Adjectives which in the masculine end with any other vowel than an e mute, make their feminine by the addition of an e mute to the masculine termination. Enchante, enchantee. poYi,polie. bleu, bleue. Enchanted. polished. blue. There is but one exception to this rule, which is, Favorite, favori, favorite. OF ADJECTIVES ENDING IN AN, TEN, ON. 173. Adjectives ending in the masculine in an, ten, on, besides the addition of an e mute, double their last consonant in the feminine ; as, Christian, Chretien, Chretienne. Peasant, paysan, paysanne. Good, bon, bonrae. The Academy, in stating this rule, marks as exceptions : English, Anglican, Anglicane. .Mahometan, Mahometan, Mahometans 8 grand, dur, grande. dure. gris, savant, froid, fatal, grise. savante. froide. fatale. OO FRENCH GRAMMAR. Persian, Persan, Persane. Turkish government, Porte-Ottomane. Sultan, Sultan, Sultane, &c. Benign, benin, makes benigne. Cunning, malin, " maligne. OF ADJECTIVES ENDING WITH A CONSONANT WHICH IS NEITHER M OR N. 174. Adjectives ending in the masculine with any other consonant than m or n, make their feminine by the addition of an e mute to their last consonant ; as, Great, Hard, Gray, Learned, Cold, Fatal, But this rule has an immense number of exceptions. We will explain them one after another. OF ADJECTIVES ENDING IN C AND D. 175. Adjectives ending with the letter c make their feminine in two ways ; some add he to the masculine ; as, Frank, franc, francAe. White, blanc, blancAe. Dry, sec, sec/ie. Others make their feminine by changing c into que; as, Public, public, puhWque. Turk, turc, turque. Decayed, caduc, caduque. The adjective Greek, grec, makes its feminine by keeping the c and adding que; grecque. Raw, crud, makes crue. OF ADJECTIVES ENDING IN F . 176. Adjectives ending with f in the masculine, make their feminine by changing f into ve ; as, Brief, bref, bre^e. Quick, vif, vive. New, neuf, neu^e. Captive, captif, captive, &c. OF ADJECTIVES ENDING IN G. 177. Adjectives ending in g, make their plural by adding ue to the masculine ; as, Long, long. longtte. ADJECTIVE. 87 OF ADJECTIVES ENDING IN EL, EIL, OL, UL, AS, OS, OT. 178. Adjectives ending in el, eil, as, 61, ul, os, ot, make their feminine by doubling the last consonant and adding an e mute. Void, mil, nul/e. Natural, naturel, naturel/e. Rosy, vermeil, vermeilZe. Fat, gras, grusse. Big, gros, grosse. Neat, net, nette. Stupid, sot, sotte. The Academy says that the following adjectives make their feminine thus : Unpolished, mat, mate. Complete, complet, complete, &c Spaniard, espagnol, espagnole. Pious, devot, devote. Suspicious, suspect, suspected &c Fresh, frais, fraiche. Close, ras, rase. Dissolved, dissous, dissoute. Absolved, absous, absoute. Twin, jumeau, jumelle. These exceptions are certainly of a strange nature ; but habit and the Academy require them ; they must then be admitted. OF ADJECTIVES ENDING IN EVR, TEUR, ERIEUR. 179. Adjectives ending in eur have several modes of termination for the feminine. Those in eur derived from a present participle by changing ant into eur, make their feminine by changing eur into euse; Dancer, danseur, danseuse. Deceiver, Singer, trompeur, chanteur, trompeuse. chanteuse, &c Those ending in teur, unless they are derived from a present par- ticiple, as in the preceding examples, change eur into trice ; as, Accuser, accusateur, accusatn'ce. Conductor, conslucteur, conductrzce. Admirer, admirateur, admiratn'ce. Creator, createur, creatn'ce, &c. Exception. The following adjectives, although derived from present participles, make their plural in trice; as, Debtor, debiteur, debitn'ce. Executor, executeur, executn'ce. 88 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Inspector, Inventor, Prosecutor, Enchanteur, mspecteur, inventeur, persecuteur, enchanteur, inspectnce. inventnce. persecutn'ce. enchanteresse. Those ending in erieur make their feminine by adding an e mute to this termination ; as, Exterior, Superior, Anterior, exterieur, superieur, exterieure. superieure. We must add to this class the following Of age, Minor, Better, majeur, mineur, meilleur, majeure, mineure. meilleure. There is a great number of nouns with this termination that must not be mistaken for adjectives, and make their feminine terminations in different manners ; they are easily distinguished from adjectives by placing the word man, or woman, before them, and seeing if, thus accompanied, they are used in the language. A good dictionary is the best rule for such cases. There are also some adjectives terminating in eur, which have no feminine termination, and are used for either gender ; such as, (Lover of arts,) amateur, amateur. Author, auteur, auteur. Conqueror, vainqueur, vainqueur, &c. OP ADJECTIVES ENDING IN X. 180. Adjectives ending in x, change this letter into se, in the feminine ; as, Courageous, Generous, Happy, Exceptions Reddish, False, Sweet, Prefixed, courageux, genereux, heureux, roux, faux, doux, prefix, courageuse. genereuse. heureuse, &c. rousse. fausse. douce, prefixe. OF ADJECTIVES HAVING TWO TERMINATIONS IN THE MASCULINE, ACCORDING AS THEY ARE PLACED BEFORE A VOWEL OR A CONSONANT. 181. Five adjectives are entirely defective in their feminine termination, and, besides, change their masculine according to the ADJECTIVE. letter which begins the next word, whether it is a consonant or a vowel ; as, Foolish, Old, Beautiful, JN'ew, Soft, C before a consonant, or h aspirated, fou, \ " vowel, or h route, fol, C " consonant, or h aspirated, vieux, \ " vowel, or h mute, vieil, C " consonant, or h aspirated, beau, I " vowel, or h mute, bel, C " consonant, or h aspirated, nouveau, ( " vowel, or h mute, nouvel, C " consonant, or h aspirated, raou, l " vowel, or h mute, mol, I folle. i vieille. £ belle. ( nouvelle. ( molle. OF ADJECTIVES WHICH ARE USED ONLY IN THE MASCULINE OR IN THE FEMININE. 182. Some adjectives have no feminine ; as, Active, Foppish, Pale, Some have no masculine ; as, Mellow, dispos. fat. paillet, &c. blette, &c. NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES OF NU3IBER. Numbers are divided into five classes ; as, 1st. Cardinal. 2d. Ordinal. 3d. Collective. 4th 5th . Distributive. . Proportional. 3. A TABLE OF CARDINAL, ORDINAL, AND COLLECTIVE NUMBERS. Cardinal Numbers. Ordinal Numbers. Collective Nouns of Number. 1 un, m. une,/ 2 deux 3 trois premier deux-ieme, second trois-ieme first 2d 3d unite unit couple, paire couple trio trio 4 quatre 5 cinq 6 six 7 sept 8 huit quatr-ieme cinq-uieme six-ieme sept-ieme huit-ieme 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th deux-couple.^™^" s demi-douz- $ half a aine ( dozen huitaine eight 9 neuf neu-vieme 9th neuvaine \ ninedayg ( of praver 10 dix dix-ieme 10th dixaine \ half a ( score a dozen. 11 onze 12 douze 13 treize 14 quatorze onz ieme douz-ieme treiz-ieine quatorz-ieme 11th 12th 13th 14th douzaine 15 quinze quinz-ieme 15th quinzaine $ fortnight ( fifteen 90 FIIENCH GRAMMAR. 16 seize 17 dix-sept 18 dix-huit 19 dix-neuf 20 vingt 21 vingt-et-un 22 vingt-deux 30 trente 31 trente-et-un, &c. 40 quarante 41 quarante-et-un, &c. 50 cinquante 51 cinquante-et-un, &c 52 cinquante-deux 60 soixante 61 soixante-et-un, &c. 70 soixante-dix 71 soixante-et-onze 72 soixante-douze, &C. 80 quatre-vingts 81 quatre-vingt-un 90 quatre-vingt-dix 91 quatre-vingt-onze,&c 100 cent 101 cent-un, &c. 200 deux-cents seiz-teme dix-sept- i.£me dix-huit-ieme dix-neu-vi^me vingt-ieme vingl-et-uni£me vingt-deuzieme trentieme trente-et-unieme quaranti&ne quarante-et-unieme cinquantieme cinquante-et-uni£me cinquante-deuxieme, soixanti£me 16th 17th 18th 19th 20th 21st 22d 30th trentaine vingtame 31st 40th 41st 50th 51st 52d 60th a score & a half. quarantaine 2 scores A . (2 scores cinquantame \ &ahalf soixantaine three soixante-et-unieme 61st soixante-dixieme 70th Boixante-et-onzieme 71st soixante-douzieme 72d 80th quatre-vingtieme quatre-vingt-imieme 81st quatre-vingt-dixieme 90th .quatre-vingt-onzieme 91st centieme 100th centaine cent-unieme, &c. 101st deux-centi£me, &c. 200th quatre-vingt- $ four aine / scores 5 scores 1,000 mille 2,000 deux-mille, &c. 10,000 dix mille, 1,000,000 un million 1,000,000,000 un billion millieme deux-millieme 2,000th deux-milliers deux-centaines lOscorea 1 thou- sand two 1,000th un-millier dix-milli^tne millionieme billionieme 10,000th millionth billionth une-myriade 1 million 1 billion thousand a myriad 1 million 1 billion The formation of the ordinal adjective from the cardinal is so simple, that it requires no further explanation. OF NUMERICAL ADJECTIVES USED IN SPEAKING OF THE DAYS OF THE MONTH. 184. When, in French, we speak of the days of the month, instead of using the ordinal number, as is done in English, we employ the cardinal ; as, The eighth of April. Le huit Avril, or d'Avril. The 26th of the next month. Le vingt-six du mois prochain. But, however, when we speak of the first day of the month, we keep the ordinal number as in the English ; as, 5 Le premier Janvier. *Le ^' \ Le premier de Janvier, This exception does not extend any further ; to say, The second day of the month, Le second du mois, is not correct. ADJECTIVE. 91 OP THE NUMERICAL ADJECTIVE ONZE {ELEVEN.) 185. Although the number onze (eleven) begins with a vowel, the article singular, le, la, does not make an elision before it, and les is pronounced as if the word onze began with an h aspirated ; as, The eleventh of March. Le onze de Mars. The eleven apples were good. Les (h) onze porames etaient bonnes. OF THE FORMATION OF COMPOUND NUMBERS. 186. In the formation of some of the compound numbers, the word one is placed between the first and the last part ; as in, Twenty-one, vingt-et-un. Thirty-one, trente-et-un. Forty-one, quarante-et-un. Fifty-one, cinquante-et-un. Sixty-one, soixante-et-un. Seventy-one, soixante-et-onze. This rule does not extend to any other number, and it would be wrong to say, vingt-et-deux, trente-et-quatre, &c. This mode of counting in English, one and twenty, six and thirty, &c, is not used in French. OF THE NUMERICAL ADJECTIVE ONE, UN, WITH THE WORDS HUNDRED AND THOUSAND. 187. One, or a, placed before the words hundred and thousand, in English, are suppressed in French ; thus, one hundred, one thousand, are expressed by cent, mille. OF XCMERICAL ADJECTIVES USED IN POETRY, MUSIC, GAMES, &c. 188. There are, besides the numerical adjectives already mentioned above, many others used in poetry, music, games, &c. ; as, Distich, distique. Tiercet, tercet. Quatrain, &c. quatrain. Solo, solo. Duet, duo. Music in three parts, trio. Quartet, &c. quatuor, &c. Two number ones, (playing with dice,) beset. Two number sixes, " " sonnet, &c. Un millier is very often employed for one thousand weight. Quintal is only used in the sense of one hundred weight. OF DISTRIBUTIVE AND PROPORTIONAL NUMBERS. 189. The Distributive Numbers are those expressing the different parts of a whole ; as, The half, la moitie. The third, le tiers. 92 FRENCH GRAMMAR. The fourth, le quart. The fifth, le cinquieme, &c. The Proportional Numbers denote the progressive increase of things ; as, The double, le double. The treble, le triple. A hundred fold, le centuple, &c. OF NUMBER IN ADJECTIVES. 190. Adjectives agreeing in number, as well as in gender, with the nouns which they qualify, it becomes necessary now to examine what alterations they suffer in their termination when joined to a noun in the plural. General Rule. Adjectives, whatever may be their termination, form their plural by the addition of an s to the feminine and masculine ; as, Masculine. Feminine. Good. Bon, bons. Bonne, bonnes. This rule has no exceptions for the feminine termination ; as to the other, there are two cases in which this rule is not observed. 1st. Adjectives ending in s or x in the singular, do not change in the plural ; as, Big, gros, gros. Hideous, hideux, hideux. 2d. Adjectives ending in au and al make their plural by changing this termination into aux; as, Beautiful, beau, beaux. General, general, generaux. All cardinal numbers indicate the plural, except one, un; for it would be absurd if a word, which in all cases denotes a plurality, should be followed by a singular noun: thus, two, deux; ten, dix; twenty, vingt, &c, are always in the plural ; as, Two men, deux hommes. Ten years, dix ans. Twenty days, vingt joure, &c. ADJECTIVE. yj OF THE ADJECTIVES VINGT AND CENT. 191. The adjective quatre-vingts takes the plural termination in the word twenty, provided it is not followed by another number ; as, Eighty men, quatre-vingts hommes. Eighty-two men, quatre-vingt-deux hommes. The adjective hundred takes the plural in the same cases ; as, Two hundred days, deux cents jours. Two hundred and one days, deux cent un jours, &c. But these two adjectives do not take the plural when they are used instead of the ordinal adjectives, centieme and millieme; as, Charlemagne died in the year 800, Charlemagne mourut en l'an huit cent. This great calamity happened in the Ce grand malheur arriva en l'an cinq year 580. cent quatre-vingt. OF THE NUMERICAL ADJECTIVES MILLE AND MIL, ONE THOUSAND. 192. The adjective thousand, mitte, never takes the plural; as, Ten thousand men, dix mille hommes. One thousand men, mille hommes. The word thousand employed in dates is written mil, and means only ten hundred ; as, In 1830, en mil huit cent trente. Although this example is correct, it is more elegant to say for, In eighteen hundred and thirty, en dix-huit cent trente. The word mille, used as a noun, and meaning a mile, follows the rule of nouns and takes the plural ; as, A hundred miles, cent milles. Remark. It is to be remarked that in French the conjunction and, et, is never used in the formation of adjectives of number. We do not say, for two hundred and fifty, deux cent et cinquante, but deux cent cinquante; the reason for this rule is, that a numerical adjective, whatever may be the number of words of which it is composed, is but one qualificative, which does not admit therefore that and, et, which separates the adjective into parts, should convey the idea of several. The fact of et being used in the adjectives vingt-et-un, trentre-et-un, &c, is not a derogation to this rule, because in these cases et is only used for the sake of euphony, and is dropped as soon as it ceases 94 FRENCH GRAMMAR. being necessary to please the ear; thus we say, Quatrevingt-un, cent-un, &c. REMARKS ON THE FORMATION OF THE PLURAL IN SEVERAL ADJECTIVES. 193. The adjective, penitentiel, makes its plural, penitentiaux ; Penitential psalms, Les psaumes penitentiaux. Universal, universel, makes its plural universels, when employed as an adjective, but taken as a noun used in philosophical discussions, it is written universaux, {Academy, 1835) ; La these des universaux a fait dans les The thesis on universals has been in siecles passes un grand sujet de dis- past ages a great cause of dispute pute parmi les ecoles. among the schools. Adjectives ending in ant, ent, follow the general rule, keeping the t and adding an 5 in their plural : Caressing, caressant, caressants. Contented, content, contents. But when using the qualificatives in ant, we must ascertain if they are really qualificatives or present participles, for in this last case they neither take the plural nor feminine : Ces deux femmes, craignant "de le These two women, fearing to cause chagriner, l'ont perdu des sa jeun- him pain, have spoilt him from his esse. youth. The adjective, all, tout, is an exception to the preceding rule, because it drops the t in the plural : All men are equal. Tous les hommes sont egaux. The adjectives ending in the singular masculine in al are divided, with regard to the formation of their plural, into three categories. Most of them change al into aux. Some only add an s to the singular. Some, by being never joined to a masculine noun, have no plural in this gender, and then follow the general rule of feminine adjectives. 1st. Adjectives in al, making their plural aux : Annual, annal, annaux. (Not in use.) Archiepiscopal, archiepiscopal, archiepiscopaux (Academy.) Common banal, banaux. 5 (Most generally \ used in the fem.) Baptismal, baptismal, baptismaux. Biennial, biennal, biennaux. (Academy.) Brutal, brutal, brutaux. ADJECTIVE. 95 Pecuniary, bursal, bursaux. (Les teitsbursaux.) Capital, " capital, capitaux. And many others. (See the dictionaries.) Adjectives in al, making their plural by adding an 5 : Fatal, fatal, fatals. Final, final, finals. Glacial, (frozen,) glacial, glacials. Nasal, nasal, nasals. Naval, naval, navals. Theatrical, theatral, theatrals. Adjectives in al, having no plural in the masculine : Beneficial, beneficial. beneficiales. (Plural feminine.) Diagonal, diagonal, diagonales. Borial, boreal, boreales. Brumal, brumal, brumales. Crural, crural, crurales. And several others. (See the dictionaries.) OF THE DEGREES OF SIGNIFICATION OF THE ADJECTIVES. 194. There are three degrees of signification in the adjectives ; the positive, the comparative, and the superlative. The Positive is the adjective itself, expressing the quality of the noun without any increase or diminution ; as, Merit is modest, Le merite est modeste. Gold is precious, L'or est precieux. The Comparative is so called, because it expresses a comparison between two or several objects. If we compare persons or things together, some are either equal, superior, or inferior, to the others ; thus there are three sorts of comparatives — that of equality, that of superiority, and that of inferiority. COMPARISON OF EQUALITY. 195. The comparative of equality is formed by adding aussi, as, in affirmative sentences, and aussi or si in negative ones, before the adjective, and que, as, after it ; as, Gold is not so precious as diamond, L'or n'est pas aussi, or si, precieux que le diamant. I am as good as you, Je suis aussi bon que vous 96 FRENCH GRAMMAR. COMPARISON OF SUPERIORITY AND INFERIORITY. 196. The comparative of superiority is formed by placing plus, more, before the adjective, and que, than, after it ; as, Gold is more precious than silver. L'or est plus precieux que l'argent. In English the comparative of superiority is formed either by placing more before the adjective, or by adding er to the termination of the adjective ; but these two modes of expression must be ren- dered in the same manner in French ; as, Peter is richer than Paul. Pierre est plus riche que Paul. The comparative of inferiority is formed by prefixing moins, less, to the adjective, and placing que after it ; as, Silver is less precious than gold. L'argent est moins precieux que l'or. When several adjectives qualify the same noun, each one must be preceded by one of the adverbs, aussi, plus, moins, according to the nature of the comparison, and the last adjective followed by que; as, This woman is as beautiful, as good, Cette femme est aussi belle, aussi and as young as yourself. bonne, et aussi jeune que vous. This man is less beautiful, less good, Cet homme est moins beau, moins bon, and less young than yourself. et moins jeune que vous. This young lady is more handsome, Cette demoiselle est plus belle, plus more amiable, and younger than aimable, et plus jeune que vous. yourself. MORE OR LESS USED AS ADVERBS OF GIUANTITY. 197. When more or less, plus or moins, are used as adverbs of quantity and not of comparison, the conjunction than is expressed by de; as in, This book cost me more than two do!- Ce livre me coute plus de deux dollars. lars. You cannot buy this horse for less than Vous ne pouvez pas acheter ce cheval two hundred dollars. pour moins de cent dollars. Foreigners should pay attention to this rule. OF THE COMPARATIVE ADJECTIVES BETTER, WORSE, AND LESS. 198. There are three adjectives which are comparative by themselves : Better, meilleur, instead of plus bon. Worse, ph'e, " plus mauvais. Less, moindre, " plus petit. ADJECTIVE. 97 Beginners in the study of the French language being apt to confound these comparative adjectives with the comparative adverbs, mieux, pis, moins, because they are rendered in English by the same words, better, worse, less, it is necessary, by a comparison between the two sorts of words, to show the difference of their formation : Adjective, Meilleur, better, is the comparative of good, bon, and is used instead of plus bon, which is never used in French. Adverb, Mieux, better, is the comparative of well, bien, (adverb,) and is used instead of plus bien, which is never used in French. Adjective, Pire, worse, is the comparative of mauvais, bad, and is used instead of plus mauvais. (Both may be used in French.) Adverb, Pis, worse, is the comparative of mal, badly, and is used instead of plus mal. (Both may be used in French.) Adjective, Moindre, less, is the comparative of petit, less or smaller, and is used instead of plus petit. (Both may be used in French.) Adverb, Moins, less, is the comparative of peu, little, and is used instead of plus peu, which is never used. Examples. This fruit is good, but that is better. Ce fruit est bon, mais celui-ci est meilleur. I love you well, but I love him better. Je vous aime fo'en,mais je l'aime mieux. His health is bad, but it has been worse. Sa sahte est mauvaise, mais elle a ete pire. He used to speak badly, but he speaks II parlait mal, mais il parle pis que worse than ever. jamais, My income is small, but yours is less. Mon revenu est petit, mais le votre est moindre. I drink little, but you drink still less. Je bois peu, mais vous buvez encore moins. OF THE SUPERLATIVES, ABSOLUTE AND RELATIVE. 199. The adjective is in the superlative degree of comparison, when it expresses the quality of the noun in the highest degree, or in a very high degree ; hence there are two sorts of superlatives, the absolute and the relative. The superlative absolute is made by putting tres,fort, bien, very, before the adjective ; it is called absolute, because it expresses no relation to other objects ; as, Boston is a very fine city. Boston est une tres belle ville. The adverbs, extremely, extremement, infinitely, infiniment, are also the sign of the superlative absolute : This woman is extremely amiable. Cette femme est extremement aimable. This man is supremely happy. Cet homme est infiniment heureux. The superlative relative is formed by placing the article before the comparatives, plies, pis, moins, meilleur, pire, moindre; it is relative, 9 98 FRENCH GRAMMAR. because it expresses a relation to other objects ; the article must be of the same number and gender as the adjective. Paris is the finest of cities. Paris est la plus belle des villes. You are the smaller of the two. Vous etes le moins grand des deux. He is the worst of the family. II est le pire de la famille, &c. When several adjectives in either of the superlatives qualify a noun, the adverbs, plus, moins, fort, extrhnement, &c, must be repeated before every one of them, as well as the article, when the superlative is relative. 200. Remark. When the adjective used in the superlative relative is placed before the noun, the article the is used but once ; as in, Your sister is the most handsome Votre sceur est la plus belle femme que woman I have ever seen. j'ai jamais vue. But if the superlative should be placed before the noun, the article the should be used twice before the noun and in the superlative ; as, Your sister is the most accomplished Votre soeur est la femme la plus ac- woman I know. complie que je connaisse. OF THE PLACE OF ADJECTIVES. 201. There is no absolute rule in reference to the place of adjec- tives ; taste and euphony are the only guides, in many cases. Usage, however, has decided that some of them, on account of their origin or signification, should always follow or precede the nouns which they qualify ; whilst others acquire an entirely different meaning by being placed before or after them. We will, therefore, divide the adjectives into three classes : — (1.) Those which always follow the noun. (2.) Those which have a different meaning by being placed before and after the noun. (3.) Those of which the place is fixed by taste and euphony. OF ADJECTIVES WHICH ARE INVARIABLY PLACED AFTER THE NOUN. (1.) Adjectives derived from past participles ; as, An accomplished woman. CJne femme accomplie. A distinguished man. Un homme distingue. (2.) Adjectives expressing form, color, taste, flavor, and sound ; as, A round table. Une table ronde. A white house. Une maison blanche. ADJECTIVE. 99 Sweet wine. Du vin doux. An odoriferous flower. Une fleur odoriferante. A sonorous voice. Une voix sonore. (3.) Adjectives performing the part of nouns ; as, A royal palace, (a palace of a king.) Un palais royal. The paternal tenderness, (of a father.) La tendresse paternelle. A grammatical principle, (of a gram- Un principe grammatical. mar.) (4.) Adjectives expressing the point of view in which we consider things or persons ; as, A necessary, possible, or impossible Une chose necessaire, possible, impossible. thing. An absurd idea. Une idee absurde. A dangerous man. Un homme dangereux. A moi'tal disease. Une maladie mortelle. Mortel is sometimes placed before the noun, but then it signifies tedious, wearisome ; as, Three wearisome miles. Trois mortels milles. (5.) Adjectives which express the state or situation of persons and things, and those which refer to habits ; as, A quiet or peaceable man. Un homme tranquille, calme. An idle or drunken man. Un homme oisif, ivre. Thick or thin cloth. Du drap epais, ou mince. (6.) Adjectives which express an outward or accidental modifica- tion ; as, A blind or humpbacked man. Un homme aveugle ou bossu. A knotty stick. Un baton noueux. (7.) Adjectives merely distinguishing objects by genus, species, or sort ; as, A reasonable animal. Un animal raisonnable. A fruit-tree. Un arbre fruitier. A personal pronoun. Un pronom personnel. (8.) Adjectives designating countries ; as, The French army. L'armee Franpaise. The American coin. La monnaie Americaine. 100 FRENCH GRAMMAR. OP ADJECTIVES WHICH SOMETIMES PRECEDE AND SOMETIMES FOLLOW THE NOUN WITHOUT CHANGING THEIR SIGNIFICATION. 203. (1.) Adjectives derived from present participles, generally follow the noun, but a great number may be placed before it ; as, A fascinating woman, Une femme seduisante. An interesting book, Un livre attachant. A charming music, Une charmanle musique. A charming country-house, Une charmante maison de campagne. 204. (2.) Adjectives which by their meaning have some analogy with the noun which they qualify, are placed before the noun, and after it if that analogy does not exist ; as, A wise magistrate, Un sage magistral A wise man, Un homme sage. In the first expression, there is an analogy between wisdom and the character of the following noun, for a magistrate is supposed to be wise — he could not be a magistrate without being so ; but the word man does not necessarily imply the idea of wisdom, for there are many more fools than wise men ; hence the place of the adjective in either case. For the same reason, we may say, Good wine, De bon vin. A large tree. Un grand arbre. Bad bread, De mauvais pain. A small child, Un petit enfant. 205. Remark. In the language of passion, piety, and admiration, in poetry and metaphorical style, many of the adjectives which we have classed among those that should be placed after the noun, are elegantly placed before it ; as, An amiable object, Un aimable objet ; Tender looks, De tendres regards ; White hands, De blanches mains ; A wicked man, Un mediant homme ; although there is no necessary analogy between an object and amia- bleness, between looks and tenderness, and man and wickedness, &c. In speaking of a man, if we say, He is extremely miserable, II est dans une mis^re extreme, we merely intimate that his misery is great, without inferring any intention on our part to interest others in that distress, which would be the case if we should say, II est dans une extreme misere. ADJECTIVE. 101 206. Numerical adjectives are generally placed before the noun ; but when they are used to designate a person or a thing among others of the same name, by the rank which they occupy among them, they are placed after it when speaking of persons, and indifferently, before or after, when speaking of things ; as in, The disobedience of Adam was the first fault of our first parents, Louis the Twelfth and Louis the Eleventh were two French kings of a very different character, Volume first, Chapter tenth. La desobeissance d'Adam fut la premiere faute de nos premiers parens. Louis Onze et Louis Douze furent deux rois de France d'un caractere bieii different. Volume premier , or premier volume. Chapitre dix, or dixierne chapitre. When placed before the noun, ordinal adjectives are used ; placed after, we employ the cardinal, except for the numbers first and second. OF ADJECTIVES WHICH CHANGE ENTIRELY THEIR SIGNIFICATION BY BEING PLACED EEFORE OR AFTER CERTAIN NOUNS. 207. We shall not mention here all the adjectives which belong to this class, — good dictionaries give the necessary information on the subject ; we will only mention those which, exposing foreigners to disagreeable blunders, require their particular attention at an early period of their instruction. They are the following : Un grand homme, Un homme grand, Un petit homme, Un homme petit, Un bon homme, Un homme bon, Un brave homme, Un homme brave, Une certaine chose, Une chose certaine, D'une commune voix, Une voix commune, La derniere annee de la guerre, L'annee derniere, Une sage femme, Une femme sage, Une grosse femme, Une femme grosse, Un galant homme, L'n homme galant, Un gentil-homme, Un homme gentil, De nouveau vin, Du vin nouveau, Un pauvre auteur, Un auteur pauvre, 9* A great man. A tall man. A small man. A mean man. A simple-minded man. A good man. An honest man, A brave man. A certain thing. A positive tiling. Unanimously. A common voice. The last year of the war. Last year. A midwife. A wise woman. A big woman. A woman in a state of pregnancy. A man who has the character and man- ners of a gentleman. A man who is gallant with the ladies. A nobleman. A man who is pretty, gay, lively, &c. Some other kind of wine. Wine newly made. A poor writer. A writer who is not rich. 102 FRENCH GRAMMAR. C Un honnete homme, An honest man. \ Un homme honnete. A polite man. < Un mallionnete homme, A dishonest man. { Un homme mallionnete, A man of ill breeding. C Une mechante epigramme, A flat epigram. \ Une epigramme mechante, A wicked epigram. OF ADJECTIVES WHICH ARE PLACED AFTER THE NOUN FOR THE SAKE OF EUPHONY. 208. Adjectives ending in ic, ique, el, He, ul, ule, and esque, are, those of the first termination always, and the others most generally, placed after the noun on account of euphony ; as in, A public man, Un homme public. A public square, Une place publique. A splendid chateau, Un chateau magnifique. A trifle, Une chose futile. A credulous woman, Une femme credule. OF THE PLACE OF TWO OR MORE ADJECTIVES QUALIFYING THE SAME NOUN. 209. (1.) When two or several adjectives qualify a noun, and one of them belongs to the class of those which should always follow the noun, they are all placed after that which they qualify ; as in, She is a beautiful, amiable, and accom- C'est une femme belle, aimable, et ac- plished woman, complie. Accomplie, being derived from the past participle of the verb to accomplish, belongs to one of the classes mentioned above. An illustrious and classical author, Un auteur illustre et classique; because classique bears no necessary affinity to, nor is it necessarily in harmony with, the noun, inasmuch as it alludes rather to a class than to an individual. 210. (2.) But when both adjectives could individually be placed before the noun, it becomes a matter of taste and euphony, whether they precede or follow it ; as in, A brave and intrepid soldier, \ ^ n br ™ e * intr ^f e , s ? ld f ' or r ' I Un soldat brave et intrepide. A We and fine citv $ Une S rande et bdle ville > or A large and fane city, J Une ^ ^^ eJ . ^^ There is a natural analogy between the idea of a soldier and that of bravery and intrepidity, and between the idea of a city and that of splendor and size. 211. (3.) When two adjectives are used to indicate the external appearance of persons and things, and one of them may, on account ADJECTIVE. 103 of its meaning, be placed before the noun, that noun may be placed between the two ; as in, I placed my goods in a large open Je placai mes marchandises dans un basket. grand panier ouvert. He is a tall, thin man. C'est un grand homrae maigre. 212. Remark. It should be observed, that adjectives can never, as in English, be placed before a noun without being united by the con- junction and or neither, or, et or ni, ou ; but they may follow it when there are more than two, and the conjunction et placed before the last ; as in, Your sister is a pretty, amiable, rich, Votre sceur est une femme jolie, aim- generous, and well-bred woman. able, riche, genereuse, et bien nee. OF ADJECTIVES CONSIDERED IN REFERENCE TO THEIR RELATIONS WITH OTHER WORDS. 213. The relations of adjectives with other words are the fol- lowing : 1st. Agreement of adjectives with nouns. 2d. Use of adjectives with the article. 3d. Object of the adjective. OF THE AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES. 214. The adjective makes but one with the noun which it qualifies ; consequently, it must follow the inflection of the noun and agree with it in number and gender ; as, Good father. Bon pere. Good mother. Bonne mere. Exquisite wine. Excellents vins. Handsome women. Belles femmes. OF ADJECTIVES QUALIFYING SEVERAL NOUNS OF THE SAME GENDER, AND UNITED BY THE CONJUNCTION AND, ET. 215. Whenever an adjective is preceded or followed by several nouns of the same gender, and united by the conjunction and, et, it takes the plural, and is of the same gender as the nouns ; as in, The Arabs have their face and body Les Arabes ont le visage et le eorpt burnt bv the heat of the sun. brutes de Pardeur du soleil. 104 FRENCH GRAMMAR. But if the nouns should have some similarity in their signification, as they would then in fact represent but one idea, the adjective should be used in the singular and agree with the last ; as in, He received us with an insufferable II nous recut avec unfaste et un orgue.il ostentation and pride. insupportable. OF ADJECTIVES QUALIFYING SEVERAL NOUNS OF A DIFFERENT GENDER. 216. Whenever an adjective is used to qualify several nouns of a different gender, it is used in the plural number and masculine gender ; as in, The inhabitants of the Strait of Davis Les habitans du detrait de Davis man- eat their fish and meat raw. gent leur poisson (m.) et leur viande (f.) crus. Euphony sometimes requires that the feminine noun should be expressed first when the adjective has not the same termination in either gender ; thus we must say, The actor plays with perfect dignity Get acteur joue avec une noblesse et un and taste, gout parfaits, rather than, Cet acteur joue avec un gout et une noblesse parfaits ; because in this last sentence the feminine noun noblesse and the adjective par/ails, plural masculine, would form a dissonance dis- agreeable to the ear. OF ADJECTIVES QUALIFYING SEVERAL NOUNS WHICH ARE UNITED BY THE CONJUNCTION AND, ET. 217. When two or several nouns are synonymous in their meaning and one only is intended to be qualified by the adjective which follows them both, this adjective agrees with the last. His whole life has been spent in con- Toute sa vie n'a ete qu : un travail et une tinued labor and occupation. occupation continuelle. The same rule is applied whenever there is a gradation in the meaning of the several nouns qualified by the adjective ; as in, The knife, the headband, the fire, all is Le/er, le bandeau, la flamme, est toute ready. prete. OF ADJECTIVES PRECEDED BY TWO OR SEVERAL NOUNS, AND RELATING ONLY TO THE LAST. 218. When an adjective is preceded by several nouns, united or not by the conjunction and, et, and qualifies only the last, it should agree ADJECTIVE. 105 with this one and should not be used in the plural on account of those which precede it ; as in, A smile is a sign of benevolence, ap- Le sourire est une marque de bienveil- probation and internal satisfaction. lance, d'applaudissement et de satis- faction interieure. OF ADJECTIVES PRECEDED BY SEVERAL NOUNS, SEPARATED BY THE CON- JUNCTION OR, OU. 219. When an adjective is preceded by two nouns separated by the conjunction or, ou, it agrees with the last if it is intended to qualify only one of them ; as in, As Rome was no longer free, and could Rome n'etant plus libre et ne pouvant no more be sucb, it mattered but plus l'etre, qu'importait que Pompee little who would be its master, ou que Cesar fut maitre. whether Pompeius or Caesar. Maitre is in the singular, because there could be but one master in Rome. But if the adjective should at once qualify the two nouns, the agreement should take place with both : as in, Who is the father who would not Quel est le bon pere de famille qui ne mourn over his son and daughter gemisse de voir son jils ou sa fille being lost for the world. perdus pour la societe. Perdus is in the plural, because the mind refers to both as being lost. OF ADJECTIVES QUALIFYING SOMETIMES THE FIRST, SOMETIMES THE SECOND NOUN, WHEN IT IS PRECEDED BY SEVERAL NOUNS SEPARATED BY THE PREP- OSITION OF, DE. 220. When an adjective is preceded by two nouns separated by o/*, de, it agrees with the first or the last, according to the sense of the sentence ; as in, White silk stockings, Des bas de soie blancs. A skein of white silk, Un echeveau de soie blanche. In the first sentence, the mind does not think of the material which, being white, renders the stockings of that color, but of the stockings themselves, which strike the eyes as being white. In the second example, it is the material which occupies the mind, the skein being only the shape in which it is presented to the eye. OF ADJECTIVES PRECEDED BY SEVERAL NOUNS SEPARATED BY THE CONJUNC- TIONS AJNSI QOE, ACSSI BIEN QUE, AS WELL AS, COMME, AS, AVEC, WITH, Sec. 221. When an adjective is used with several nouns separated by the above conjunctions or any other having the same signification, it 106 FRENCH GRAMMAR. agrees only with the first of those nouns if the sentence expresses a comparison, and with all, if the sentence implies the idea of addition or simultaneousness ; as in, Truth as well as light is unalterable. La verite cornme la lumiere est inal- terable (comparison.) In Egypt, Asia and Greece, Bacchus Dans l'Egypte, dans l'Asie et dans la as well as Hercules was worshipped Grece, Bacchus ainsi qu'Hercule as a demi-god. etaient reconnus pour demi-Dieux (addition.) OF EXCEPTIONS TO THE RULES RELATING TO THE AGREEMENT OF THE ADJECTIVE. OF THE ADJECTIVE FEU, LATE. 222. The adjective feu, late, is invariable when placed before the article or adjective possessive pronoun, but it varies if placed after them ; as in, The late Queen. Feu la reine or lafeue reine. My late mother. Feu ma mere or mafeue mdre. OF THE ADJECTIVE NU, NAKED. 223. The adjective nu, naked, remains invariable when it precedes a noun, but it agrees with that noun when it follows it ; as in, He goes barefooted. II va nupieds or les pieds nus. But when the adjective nu is preceded by the article the used in the feminine, it agrees with the noun which it qualifies, although it is placed* before it ; as in, My father has kept for himself the title Mon pere s'est conserve la nue propriete to his lands and given the reveuue to de ses terres et en a abandonne his children. l'usu fruit a ses enfants. OF THE ADJECTIVE DEMI, HALF. 224. Whenever the adjective demi is placed before a noun, it forms with that noun a compound expression in which the two words are joined by a hyphen, and remains invariable ; but when placed after the noun, it agrees with that noun in gender but not in number, for two halves make one whole ; three halves make one whole and a half, &c. ; thus we say : One hour and a half, Une heure et demie. Half an hour, Une demi-heure. ADJECTIVE. 107 But if the word Jemi should be used as a noun in a sentence like the following, it should be used in the plural : This clock strikes the hours but not the Cette horloge sonne les heures, mais elle half-hours. ne sonne pas les demies. Demi, although an adjective, is sometimes used as an adverb, and then it never varies ; as in, Half-fool, half-dead, half-rotten, &c. De?ni-fou, demi-mort , demi-pourri, &c. OF THE ADJECTIVES EXCEPTE, EXCEPTED, PASSE, PAST, SUPPOSE, SUPPOSED, VU CONSIDEJUNO, Y COiUPRIS, HEBE INCLUDED, FRANC DE PORT, FREE OF POSTAGE, &c. 2-25. When the above expressions, or any of tne same nature, are placed before a noun, they act as prepositions, and remain invariable ; but they do vary when they follow it ; as in, All is well made in this house except Tout est bien fait dans cette maison the doors. excepte les portes. You will find here included a copy of Vous trouverez ci-inclus une copie de my last letter. ma dernier lettre. I recommend you the five letters here Je vous recommande les cinq lettres ci- included. incluses. You will receive this letter free of Vous recevrez cette lettre franche de postage. port. Vous recevrez franc de port la lettre ci-jointe. OF ADJECTIVES PERFORMING THE PARTS OF ADVERBS OR NOUNS. 226. When an adjective is used to modify the signification of a verb, it acts the part of an adverb and does not vary ; as in, This woman sings out of tune. Cette femme chantefaux. This rose smells good. Cette rose sent bon. If an adjective, used as such, acts the part of a noun, it never varies ; as. The moulting of the agate canary-birds La mue des serins agate (de couleur lasts longer than that of others. agate) est plus longue que celle des autres. When there are in a sentence two adjectives, the first of which is modified by the second, these two adjectives remain invariable ; as, These tissues are of a dark blue. Ces etoffes sont (d'un) bleu-fonce. His hair is of a light chestnut color. II a les cheveux (d'un) ch&tain-clair. 108 FRENCH GRAMMAR. But if the two adjectives, placed one after another, are both used to qualify the same noun, they must then agree with that noun ; as, The hair of that child was chestnut, Les cheveux de cette enfant etaient brown and fine. ch&tains, bruns et fins. OF THE COMPOUND ADJECTIVES NEW-BORN, DEAD-DRUNK, &c. 227. When in a compound adjective, the first is used adverbially, it remains invariable, and the second only changes ; as in, New-born animals want their mother Les animaux nouveau-nes n'ont besoin, only for a few months. de leurs meres que pendant quelques mois. Nouveau is used here instead of the adverb nouvellement, newly. It should be observed that nouveau cannot be used adverbially before an adjective relating to a feminine noun ; thus, we cannot say, Une fille nouveau-nee, but Une fille nouvellement nee, for, A new-born girl. But if the first adjective is not used adverbially, and serves as well as the second to qualify the noun already expressed, they both vary ; Have you seen the newly-married Avez-vous vu les nouveaux-maries ? couple *! OF THE GENDER OF ADJECTIVES USED WITH THE WORD AIR, APPEARANCE. 228. As it is sometimes difficult to ascertain the gender of the adjective which is used to qualify the word air, we will try to give some explanation on the subject. Grammarians differ on this difficulty ; we will therefore state here what we think to be consecrated by usage and the authority of good writers. Avoir Pair, to have the appearance, to appear, may be used in speaking of animated beings or things. 229. (1.) When this expression is applied to animated beings, the adjective which is preceded by the word air expresses either a moral faculty, a quality, a metaphysical distinction, or else it designates a form, a manner of being merely physical. ADJECTIVE. 109 In the first instance, as the adjective may always reasonably qualify the word air, it should agree with the noun ; so we say, She looks frivolous and absent. Elle a Pair leger et distrait. They look haughty, but at the same Elles ont Vair hautain, mais l'acceuil time they are familiar. familier. Do not have yourself painted in a rid- Ne vous fakes pas peindre en Amazone ; ing-dress ; you look too gentle for it. vous avez Vair trop doux. Parisian women do not appear awkward Les Parisiennes n'ont pas Vair gauche and embarrassed in their manners. et embarrasse. In the second instance, as a physical quality cannot be applied to the word air, the adjective which follows that noun should agree with the animated being spoken of; as in This lady seems to be well made. Cette dame a l'air bien faite. She looks pleased with what has just Elle a l'air contente de ce qu'on vient been said to her. de lui dire. 230. (2.) When avoir Fair is applied to things, there is no difficulty ; for the adjective cannot qualify the noun air, as inanimate beings can only have physical qualifications ; then we should say, This house looks as if it were strongly Cette maison a l'air solidement batie. built. This soup appears to be very good. Cette soupe a l'air tres bonne. In this latter case, the sentences are elliptical ; the verb to be is understood. Some grammarians pretend that the ellipsis is not allowed in such cases ; but usage has consecrated it, as well as many of our best writers ; and the sentence, Cette soupe a Vair bonne, is more generally used and more elegant than Cette soupe a Pair d'etre bonne. OF THE AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES USED IN THE SUPERLATIVE DEGREE. 231. An adjective, when used in the superlative degree, has lost nothing of its nature of a qualificative, since it expresses still a quality in a very or in the highest degree ; it therefore follows the general rule ; but it is sometimes the case that a superlative refers to a noun which is not expressed ; the sentence is then elliptical, and the mind supplying the noun understood, the adjective agrees with it ; as in, Winter is the dullest of seasons. L'hiver est (la saison) la plus triste dea saisons. Remark. Adjectives in the comparative or superlative degree in French, are most generally placed after the noun. 10 110 FRENCH GRAMMAR. OF ADJECTr^ES AS QUALIFYING NOUNS OF PERSONS OR THINGS ONLY. 232. There are adjectives which can only qualify nouns of persons ; such as, econome, saving ; inconsolable, inconsolable ; patriote, pat- riotic ; despote, despotic, &c. ; and others which can only be applied to things ; as, despotique, despotic ; tconomique, economical ; pardon- noble, excusable ; patriotique, patriotic, &c. Adjectives which are derived from the verbs, such as, pardonnoble, inconsolable, which come from pardonner, consoler, are applied to persons or things, inasmuch as these verbs have for their direct object a noun of person or thing ; therefore, as we do not say in French, Pardonner une personne, we cannot use the expression, Une personne pardonnoble ; but as we say, Pardonner une chose, we can say, Une chose pardonnoble. For the same reason, we cannot apply the adjective inconsolable to things, for persons and not things are to be consoled. But although this rule is applicable in most cases, there are a few exceptions which usage renders legitimate as the following : Un roi obei, a king who is obeyed ; une chose convenue, a thing agreed upon ; Un hat desespere, a hopeless situation ; although we cannot say, Obeir un roi, but d, un roi; Convenir une chose, but d'une chose; Desesperer une chose, but d'une chose. OF ADJECTIVES WHICH ARE NOT SUSCEPTIBLE OF COMPARISON. 233. Grammarians do not agree upon the adjectives which do not admit of the degrees of comparison ; the principle which should be admitted as a guide in this difficulty is, that when an adjective expresses a qualification in a very or in the highest degree, it is better not to use it in the comparative or superlative form ; such are the following : Charmant, charming ; mortel, mortal ; kernel, eternal ; supreme, supreme ; imrnortel, immortal, ; because a thing or person cannot be more or less charming, mortal, eternal, &c. OF ADJECTIVES OF DIMENSION. 234. There is a difference in the construction of French and English sentences when speaking of the dimensions of a thing, that requires the attention of foreigners. ADJECTIVE. Ill Instead of the verb to be, which is used in English, the verb to have is employed in French, and the preposition of is placed before the word which expresses the dimension ; as in, This room is twenty feet long. Cette chambre a vmgt pieds de longueur. The word which expresses the dimension may be a noun or an adjective ; the noun can always be used, but not so with the adjective ; for, speaking of depth and thickness, we would not say : This keel is ten feet deep. Ce puits a dix pieds de profond. This wall is three feet thick. Ce mur a trois pieds d'epais. We should use the nouns profondeur and epaisseur. When two dimensions are spoken of in the sentence, the prepo- sition sur, upon, is placed before the second proposition ; as in, This room is fifteen feet long and twelve Cette chambre a quinze pieds de Ion- feet wide. gueur sur douze de largeur. Finally, if the three dimensions are expressed, the conjunction and, et, is used before the last ; as in, This room is sixteen feet long, twelve Cette chambre a seize pieds delongueur feet wide and ten feet high. sur douze de largeur et dix de hauteur. 235. Sometimes the sentence is constructed in English without the verb to be being used ; as in, There is in this house a room twenty feet wide. Then the verb to have is not expressed in French, and the prepo- sition of is used twice, once before the numeral adjective, the second time before the word of dimension ; as, II y a dans cette maison une chambre de vingt pieds de longueur. The other dimensions should be expressed as above, with sur before the second and et before the last proposition. There is still another manner of expressing dimension in French, but as that we have just given is the most elegant and the most generally used, we deem it unnecessary to mention it. In comparative sentences, the English, to express a difference, turn their phrases in this way : She is taller than her sister by a whole head. 112 FRENCH GRAMMAR. But, Elle est plus grande que sa soeur de toute la tete, is the French construction, making use of de, of, instead of by. OF THE ADJECTIVE WITH THE ARTICLE. 236. Adjectives expressing only modes and qualities are not preceded by the article, except in a few instances, which will be explained hereafter ; thus we say, without an article, Men are often good or bad only for the Les hommes sent souvent bons ou maw- reason that they have received good vais par cela seul qu'ils ont recu de or bad examples. bons ou de mauvais exemples. But adjectives used as nouns are, like nouns, preceded by the article, if the case requires it ; as, Fools invent fashions and wise men Les fous inventent les modes et les conform to them. sages s'y conferment. 237. When a noun is accompanied by two adjectives expressing opposite qualifications, the article must be repeated before each adjective ; as, The old and the new-raised soldiers Les vieux et les nouveaux soldats sont are full of ardor. rernplis d'ardeur. A man who cares for bis reputation Un horame qui est jaloux de sa repu- ought to frequent good and avoid tation doit frequenter la bonne corn- bad company. pagnie etfuir la mauvaise. The reason of this is, that adjectives opposite in signification cannot at the same time modify the same substantive ; a soldier cannot be young and old at once, and company cannot be both good and bad. Then there is an ellipsis, in the two above examples, of the word soldier after old, and of the word company after good, and the existence of two nouns requires the use of the article before each, their meaning being definite. 238. But, if the qualifications expressed by the adjectives are similar, the noun being jointly modified by them, the ellipsis does not exist, and consequently the article is not repeated ; as, The wise and pious Fenelon. Le sage et vertueux Fenelon. There being but one individual who is wise and pious. ADJECTIVE. 113 When the qualifications, without being incompatible, are somewhat different, it is correct to repeat the article, although not indispensable ; as, The sensible and ingenious Fenelon. Le sensible et l'ingenieux Fenelon. Here one of the qualities belongs to the mind, the other to the heart ; but in general the ear must be consulted in cases similar to this, in preference to rules. 239. Before adjectives prefixed to proper names, either to express their qualities or to distinguish the person spoken of from those who might bear the same name, the article is used ; thus we say, The sublime Bossuet, Le sublime Bossuet. The virtuous Fenelon, Le vertueux Fenelon. The tender Racine, Le tendre Racine. Henry the Great, Henry le Grand. Louis the Fat, Louis le Gros. Louis the Beloved, Louis le Bien-aime. The adjective preceding the noun shows but a distinct quality, but, when following it, points out the noun as a particular one among others like it. The above examples demonstrate the truth of this remark. 240. When a superlative relative precedes a substantive, the article serves for both ; as, The ablest men sometimes commit the Les plus habiles gens font souvent les grossest blunders. plus grandes fautes. But if it follows the substantive, the article must be repeated : Les gens les plus habiles font souvent les fautes les plus grandes. When two or more superlatives modify a noun, the sign of the superlative, either relative or absolute, must be repeated before each adjective : as, It is equally the custom of the most C'est egalement la coutume des peuples barbarous and the most civilized les plus barbares et les plus civilises, people, and not, C'est egalement la coutume des peuples les plus barbares et civilises. 241. We have seen, by the preceding rules, that when the article is used with the adjective, it always precedes it ; but there is an exception. 10* 114 FRENCH GRAMMAR. The adjective, all, tout, when employed with the article, always precedes it ; thus we say, Everybody says that you are a rogue. Tout le monde dit que vous 6tes un coquin. REGIMEN OF ADJECTIVES 242. The regimen or object of an adjective may be a substantive or a verb preceded by a preposition. Some adjectives have no object, because they have in themselves a complete, determined, and fixed signification ; as, Courageous, courageux. Brave, brave. Wise, sage, &c. Some must have an object, because they ought to be restricted, to have a determined signification ; as, Able, capable. Ready, pret. Willing, dispose, &c. Some, in fine, sometimes have an object, sometimes not. They have an object when what we wish to express requires restriction. They have no object when employed by the mind in a general sense ; as, Sensible, sensible. Contented, content. Sorry, fache, &c. 243. Rule. We must not give an object to an adjective which should have none, and we must be careful not to give any which is not authorized by usage. The application of this rule presents some difficulty ; it depends principally upon habit, which can be acquired only by time, and with the aid of a good dictionary. OF ADJECTIVES PRECEDED BY THE VERB TO BE. ETRE, USED IMPERSONALLY. 244. Whenever an adjective is employed with the verb to be, etre, impersonally, it should be followed by the preposition of, de t ADJECTIVE. 115 although in other cases, that adjective might require another prepo- sition ; as in, It is difficult to learn French. II est difficile d'apprendre le Francais 1 It is pleasant to be acquainted with // est agreable de savoir les langues foreign languages. etrangeres. This language is difficult to leam. Cette langue est difficile d apprendre. This wine is pleasant to drink. Ce vin est agreable a boire. In the two first sentences, the adjectives difficile and agreable are used impersonally and take de after them ; in the two last, they are not, and require to be followed by the preposition ii, to. OF THE ADJECTIVES A, UN. A, UN, REPEATED OR NOT WITH TWO OR SEVERAL NOUNS UNITED BY THE CONJUNCTION AND, ET. 245. The adjective a, un, is repeated before each noun, as well as the article the, unless the nouns designate two qualifications which belong to a single individual ; as in, An Englishman, a Frenchman, an On recommit facilement un Anglais, un Italian, and a Spaniard, are easily Francais, tin Italien, etwnEspagnol, recognised by manners and features. a son style et aux traits de son visage. This young gentleman is the son of a Ce jeune homme est le fils d'un due et duke and peer. pair. A, UN, REPEATED OR NOT WITH TWO OR SEVERAL NOUNS SEPARATED BY THE CONJUNCTION OH, OU. 2-16. The adjective a, un, is repeated before each noun when separated by the conjunction or, ou, provided they have a different signification ; but it is not repeated if the second noun is but the explanation of the first, in which case, if the nouns were not of the same gender, the adjective should agree with the first ; as in, When I walk, I always hold a Virgil or Lorsque je me promene, j'ai toujours a Tacitus in my hand. un Virgile ou un Tacite d la main. In a well-regulated country, there ought Dans un pays bien organise, il ne doit to be but one chief or supreme magis- y avoir qu'un seul chef ou magistral trate. supreme. A, UN, REPEATED OR NOT BEFORE TWO ADJECTIVES UNITED BY THE CON- JUNCTION AND, ET. 247. A, un, is repeated before two adjectives united by and, et, whenever, on account of their signification, they cannot qualify the same noun, but it is not repeated if the two adjectives are used to qualify the same person or thing ; as in, 116 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 1 saw this morning a small and a large J'ai vu ce matin une petite et une house, which pleased me much. grande maison, qui me plaisent beau- coup. The life of a Christian is a long and La vie du Chretien est un long et pious pilgrimage. pieux pelerinage. A, UN, REPEATED OR NOT BEFORE TWO ADJECTIVES SEPARATED BY THE CONJUNCTION OH, OU. 248. When two adjectives separated by or, ou, precede the noun, un is repeated before each ; but if they follow it, un is used but once ; as in, The happiness of a people depends Le bonheur d'un peuple depend d'une upon its having a good or bad ad- bonne ou d'une mauvaise administra- ministration. tion. Under a prince who is feeble or little Sous un prince faible ou peu laborieux, inclined to labor, the people are gen- le peuple est ordinairement mal- erally unhappy. heureux. Remark. In proverbs, maxims or sententious expressions, un is used or not ; it is a matter of taste ; as in, Too constant a happiness sometimes Un bonheur trop constant devient sou- becomes intolerable. vent insupportable. A wise woman is worth more than a Femme sage est plus que femme belle, beautiful one. OF A EMPLOYED IN ENGLISH BEFORE A NOUN QUALIFIED OR NOT BY AN ADJECTIVE AS THE ATTRIBUTE OF THE VERB TO BE. 249. Whenever a noun preceded by a is used in English as the complement or attribute of the verb to be, un is not expressed in French, unless the English noun should be qualified by an adjective or a qualificative expression, or the verb to be should have flor its nominative the pronoun ce ; as m, My father was a general and my uncle Mon pere etait general et mon oncle an admiral. amiral. One of your brothers is a distinguished L'un de vos freres est un general dis- general, and the other an admiral of tingue, et l'autre un amiral de great reputation. grande reputation. What is your father's profession 1 He Quelle est la profession de monsieur is a physician. votre pere 1 II est medecin, or, C'est un medecin. In the first sentence, the names general and amiral are used as mere adjectives ; no idea of individuality is attached to these words ; the second sentence, on the contrary, points out the persons spoken of not only as occupying the ranks of general and admiral, but as being among those of the same rank, the one a general and the other an admiral, of a particular kind, and the adjective un serves to convey this view of the mind. ADJECTIVE. 117 250. Remark. Whenever the adjective grand is used with the following noun to designate a certain situation in the government of a country, the two words should then be united by a hyphen, as forming but one word, and un should not be expressed ; as in, Mr. M** is a grand-officer of the legion Monsieur M** est grand-officier de la of honor. legion d'honneur. The same remark applies to any expression of the same character. OF A BEFORE A NOUN OR A PROPOSITION USED IN APPOSITION IN ENGLISH. 251. Whenever a is used in English before a noun or an expression used in apposition to another, un is not expressed in French ; as, The best coffee comes from Mocha, Le mcilleur cafe vient de Moka, ville a town of Arabia Felix. de l'Arabie heureuse. All the nations of the globe have a Tous les peuples de la terre ont une notion more or less clear of the idee plus on moins juste de l'exist- existence of a Supreme Being, an ence d'un etre Supreme, preuve evi- evident proof that original sin has dente que le peche originel n'a pas not totally obscured our understand- tout-a-fait obscurci notre jugement. OF A PLACED IN ENGLISH AFTER WHAT, BEFORE A NOUN PRECEDED OR NOT BY AN ADJECTIVE. 252. A used in English after the pronoun ivhat, before a noun or an adjective, is not expressed in French. What a beautiful morning ! Quelle belle matinee ! "What a man Napoleon was ! Quel homme etait Napoleon ! OF A PLACED IN ENGLISH BEFORE A NOUN EXPRESSING MEASURE OR WEIGHT. 253. A, used in English before a noun expressing measure or weight, is rendered in French by the article the : Com sells for eight shillings a busbel. Le ble sevend huit schellings le bois- seau. This lace sells at two dollars a yard. Cette dentelle se vend deux gourdes Vaune. OF A PLACED IN ENGLISH BEFORE A WORD EXPRESSING A PERIOD OF TI.UE. 254. When a is used in English at the end of a sentence, before a noun expressing any period of time, it is rendered in French by the preposition by, par; as in, My father earns ten dollars a week. Men pere gagne dix gourdes par se- maine. I g to France three times a year. Je vais en France trois fois par an. 118 FRENCH GRAMMAR. OF THE ADJECTIVE A USED IN ENGLISH BEFORE A NOUN, PRECEDED OR NOT BY AN ADJECTIVE, IN AN INTERROGATIVE OR AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCE USED NEGATIVELY. 255. Whenever an interrogative sentence used negatively is a mere form of language to express an affirmation, a is used in French as in English, and is expressed by un ; as in, Have you not a knife 1 meaning, You JN'avez-vous pas un couteau 1 have a knife, have you not 1 But if the sentence be intended to ascertain if really you have a knife or not, it becomes partitive, and a used instead of any is expressed by de; as, N'avez-vous pas de couteau % If the sentence be affirmative instead of being interrogative, a, if used in English, should be expressed by de before a noun, and by un before an adjective ; as in, No, sir, I have not a knife. Non, monsieur, je n'ai pas de couteau. I have not a single knife. Je n'ai pas un seul couteau. OF THE PLACE OF THE ADJECTIVE A, UN. 256. Un is always placed before the noun which it qualifies, whether this noun is preceded or not by an adjective : I have a bird. J'ai un oiseau. You have a beautiful child. Vous avez un bel enfant. Exceptions. (1.) With the adjective tout, un is placed between that adjective and the noun which it qualifies ; as, I have spent a whole evening at your J'ai passe toute une soiree chez votre father's. pere. But if tout should be used as an adverb, meaning entirely, quite, &c, the adjective un might be placed indifferently before or after it ; as in, This is quite a different affair. C'est une tout autre affaire, or, C'est tout une autre affaire. (2.) Whenever the nouns monsieur, madame, and mademoiselle, are used with the pronoun tel, to designate a person in a vague and indefinite manner, corresponding in English to the expressions, Mister, Mistress, or Miss So-and-so, the adjective un is placed in French between the above nouns and the pronoun tel; as, Monsieur untel; Madame une telle ; Mademoiselle une telle. ADJECTIVE. 119 3d. A used in English with the adjective such, always follows it ; but in French it is placed before that adjective ; as in, Such conduct is shocking. Une telle conduite est choquante. How can you associate with such a Comment pouvez-vous frequenter un man 1 tel homme 1 OF CASES IN WHICH A OR OXE IS NOT EXPRESSED IN FRENCH. 257. A or one is not expressed in French before the numerical adjectives hundred and thousand; as in, How many persons were there at the Combien de personnes y avait-il au bal party last night 1 One hundred. hier soir I Cent. I bought a diousand bushels of corn to- J'ai achete aujourdhui mille boisseaux day. de ble. . One, used as a pronoun in English, is not expressed in French in sentences like the following : If you wish for a dog, I can give you a Si vous desirez un chien, je peux vous pretty one. en donner un joh. This is a good one (speaking of a joke.) En voila une bonne. OF CASES IN WHICH A MAY BE EXPRESSED BY THE ARTICLE THE IN FRENCH. 253. There are a few cases in which a is expressed by the article the in French ; as in, I wish you a good morning, or evening. Je vous souhaite le bon jour, or, le bon soir (idiomatical.) He has a large head. II a la tete grosse. He has a noble appearance. II a Pair distingue. But we say, very properly : I wish you a pleasant evening, or Je vous souhaite une agreable soiree morning. or matinee. He has a big nose, a large mouth and II aun grosnez, une grande bouche et an ugly chin. un vilain menton. However, the former expressions are more elegantly used than the latter, a always implying an idea of peculiarity which does not suit the meaning of the nouns head, nose, chin, &c, for a man has but one head, one nose, one chin, &c. QUESTIONS 168. What is the nature of adjectives, and what functions do they perform in the language 1 169. Do adjectives agree in number and gender with the nouns which they qualify, and have they not several degrees of signification 1 170. What is die feminine termination of adjectives 1 120 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 170. Do adjectives, ending in the masculine with an e mute, change theif termination in the feminine 1 170. What are the exceptions to the preceding rule 1 171. When an adjective ends with a vowel which is not an e mute, how does it form its feminine 1 What is the only exception 1 172. How is the feminine of adjectives ending in an, ien, and on formed 1 What are the exceptions 1 172. What is the feminine of the adjectives benin and malin ? 173. When an adjective does not end with n, how does it form its feminine, ag a general rule 1 174 How is the feminine of adjectives ending in c formed 1 174. How is the feminine of the adjective crud formed 1 175. How is the feminine of adjectives ending in/ formed 1 176. How is the feminine of adjectives ending in g formed 1 177. How is the feminine of adjectives ending in el, eil, ol, ul, as, os, ot t formed 1 Mention the exceptions to the preceding rule. 178. How is the feminine of adjectives ending in eur, and deriving from present participles, formed 1 178. How is the feminine of adjectives ending in teur, and not derived from present participles, formed % 178. Are there not some adjectives which, although deriving from present participles, form their feminine in trice ? Which are they 1 178. How is the feminine of adjectives ending in erieur formed 1 178. Are there not some few adjectives ending in eur which have no feminine termination % Which are they 1 179. How is the feminine of adjectives ending in x formed 1 Mention the exceptions. 180. Are there not five adjectives which have two masculine terminations, according to their qualifying nouns beginning with a consonant or a vowel? Which are they, and how do they form their feminine 1 181. Are there not some adjectives which are only used in the masculine, and others in the feminine 1 Name some of them. 182. What are the different kinds of numerical adjectives 1 182. What are the cardinal numbers 1 Require the pupil to recite them. 182. How are the ordinal adjectives formed from the cardinal 1 182. What are the collective adjectives of number 1 183. When speaking of the days of the month, do the French use the car- dinal or ordinal adjectives 1 184. What is the peculiarity attached to the number eleven, onze ? 185. When is the conjunction and, et, used in the formation of a numerical adjective 1 186. Is the adjective one, un, used in French with the adjectives cent and mille ? 187. What are the numerical adjectives used in music, poetry, games, &c. 1 188. What are the distributive and proportional adjectives 1 189. How is the plural formed in the adjectives 1 189. Do adjectives ending in s or x in the singular, change their termination in the plural 1 189. How is the plural of adjectives ending in au and al formed 1 190. When do the adjectives vingt and cent take the sign of the plural 1 190. When the adjectives cent and vingt are used instead of the ordina adjective centieme, do they take the plural % 191. Does the adjective mille ever take the plural % How is it spelled when used in dating a letter or any other document 1 191. When mille means a mile, does it take the plural 1 192. Is the conjunction and, et, ever used in French, as a conjunction, in the formation of a numerical adjective 1 Why is it never used except in the case of vingt et un, trente et un, &G.1 193. How is the plural of the adjectives universel and penitentiel formed 1 ADJECTIVE. 121 193. How is the plural of the adjectives ending in ant and ent formed 1 1.93. Does the adjective tout keep the letter t in the plural 1 193. Do not adjectives ending in al form their plural in several ways 1 Which are they 1 193. Are there not several adjectives ending in al which are plural in the masculine or the feminine alone 1 194. What are the degrees of comparison in adjectives 1 195. How is a comparison of equality formed in affirmative and negative sentences *? 196. 197. How are comparisons of superiority or inferiority formed 1 Is the sign of the comparative repeated before each adjective 1 197. How is than expressed in French, when used after more or less, employed as adverbs of comparison or quantity 1 198. How are the comparative adjectives better, worse and less expressed in French 1 198. How are the comparative adverbs better, worse and less expressed in French 1 198. When are these words adjectives or adverbs 1 199. How many kinds of superlatives are there % 199. How is the superlative absolute formed 1 199. How is the superlative relative formed 1 199. Are the signs of these two kinds of superlatives repeated before each adjective 1 200. When a superlative relative is placed before the noun which it qualifies, is the article the used once, or twice 1 When should the noun be placed before the superlative 1 201. Is there any absolute rule in reference to the place of adjectives 1 202. (2.) What is the place of adjectives expressing color, form, taste, flavor and sound 1 202. (1.) What is the place of adjectives deriving from past participles 1 202. (3.) What is the place of adjectives performing the part of nouns 1 202. (4.) What is the place of adjectives expressing the point of view in which we consider persons and things 1 202. (5.) What is the place of adjectives expressing the state of persons and thing.-, or referring to habits 1 202. (6.) What is the place of adjectives expressing an outward or acci- dental modification 1 202. (7.) What is the place of adjectives distinguishing objects by gender, species or sort 1 202. (S.) What is the place of adjectives designating countries % 203. What is the place of adjectives deriving from perfect participles 1 204. What is the place of adjectives when they have some analogy with the noun which they qualify 1 What is their place when they have none 1 205. In what case are many of the adjectives we have said should be placed after the noun, placed before 1 206. What is the place of numerical adjectives 1 207. Are there not a great number of adjectives which change entirely their signification by being placed before or after the noun 1 (Make the pupil men- tion those most generally used.) 208. What is the termination of the adjectives which euphony requires to be placed after the noun 1 209. When two or several adjectives qualify a noun, and one of them belongs to the class of those which should always follow it, where are they all placed 1 210. When two or several adjectives qualify a noun, and each of them could indifferently precede or follow it, what consideration decides whether they should follow or precede it 1 211. When two adjectives are used to describe the appearance of persona and things, where can they be placed 1 11 122 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 212. Can two adjectives follow each other in French, as they do in English, without being separated by a conjunction 1 213. What are the relations of adjectives with other words 1 214. Should the adjective agree in number and gender with the noun which it qualifies 1 215. When an adjective is preceded or followed by several nouns of the same gender, how does it agree with these nouns 1 216. When an adjective qualifies several nouns of a different gender, how does it agree with them 1 216. When an adjective changes its termination in the feminine, should the masculine noun precede or follow th; ■'•- v/hi h is feminine 1 217. When two nouns are ;; on 6us, and the adjective is intended to qualify only the last, how does the ; .. re agree 1 218. When an adjective is precede d by several nouns united or not by the conjunction and, and only qualifies the oes it take the sign of the plural on account of the others 1 219. When an adjective is precede." by t vc nouns separated by the con- junction or, and is only intended to qualify the ■ ~", does it take the sign of the plural 1 And how does it agree if it sh b< h nouns 1 220. When an adjective is used with \ted by the preposition of, with which of these nouns should it agree '. 221. When an adjective is used with two nouns separated by the con- junctions as well as, as, with, or any the same nature, how does it agree "? 222. How does the adjective feu, late, agree, accordi g to its being preceded or followed by the article the ? 223. How does the adjective nu, naked, agree, according to its being placed before or after a noun 1 224. Same question in reference to the adjective demi, half, — does it ever take the plural 1 225. Same question in reference to the adjectives, except'e, vu, y compris, &c. 226. When an adjective is used as an adverb, to modify the signification of a verb, does it take the feminine or plural *? 226. When two adjectives are used one aiier another, without being separated by a conjunction or by a comma, do they agree with the preceding noun 1 Why do they not agree 1 227. How do the snd adjectives new-born, dead-drunk, &c, agree % 228. 229. When the expression avoir Voir relates to persons or animals, if the adjective preceded by the noun air expresses either a moral faculty, a quality or a metaphysical distinction, does that adjective agree with the noun air, or the person or animal spoken of 1 229. If the adjective designate a form, a manner of being merely physical, with what does that adjective agree 1 230. When avoir Vcir : slates to things, with what does the following adjec- tive agree 1 231. When an adjective is used in the superlative degree, does it still agree with the noun which it qualifies 1 232. Do adjectives qualify indifferently nouns of tilings and persons 1 Hew can it be ascertained whether an adjective can qualify a noun of persons or things 1 233. Are there not some adjectives which are not susceptible of comparison 1 What should be their meaning 1 234. When we wish to mention the dimensions of a thing, how should the (sentence be turned in French if the verb to be is used in English 1 235. How should the sentence be turned if the verb to be is not used in English 1 235. When a comparison is made between two persons or things, in reference to their size, how is the preposition by expressed in French 1 ADJECTIVE. l~o 236. When an adjective is used to qualify a noun, is it preceded or not by the article the ? 236. When an adjective is used as a noun, does it take the article 1 237. When a noun is accompanied by two adjectives expressing opposite qualification?, should the article be expressed before each 1 238. When the adjectives express qualifications of a similar nature, should the article be repeated \ 239. "When an adjective is prefixed to a proper name, either to express the quality of the person spoken of, or to distinguish that person from any other of the same name, is the article used before that adjective 1 241. When the article is used with the adjective tout, where is it placed 1 242. What part of speech have adjectives for their object 1 Are all adjec- tives followed by an object ? 243. Can an adjective have indifferently for its object, a noun of things or persons ! 244. When an adjective is used impersonally with the verb to be, what propo- sition does it govern in French 1 245. When the adjective a, un, is accompanied by several nouns, when should it be repeated before each of them \ 246. When several nouns are separated by the conjunction or, on, when is the adjective un repeated before each of them "? 247. Same question, when adjectives are united by the conjunction and, et. 248. When two adjectives are separated by the conjunction or, ou, when is the adjective un repeated before each of them 1 249. When a noun preceded by a in English is used as the attribute of the verb to be. when is a expressed in French and when is it not 1 250. When die adjective grand is used with a noun as the attribute of the verb to be, is a expressed in French 1 251. When a is used in English before a noun used in apposition to another, is it expressed in French 1 When a is used in English aker what before a noun, preceded or not by an adjective, is it expressed in French \ 233. When a is used in English before a noun expressing measure or weight, how is it expressed in French 1 254. When a is used in English before a noun expressing a period of time, how is it expressed in French 1 255. When a is used in English before a noun preceded by an adjective, in an interrogative or affirmative sentence used negatively, when is a expressed in French by un or de ? 255. If the sentence should be affirmative, instead of being interrogative, how should a be expressed either before a noun or an adjective 1 256. What is the place of the adjective a, un, in French 1 What is the place of the adjective tin with the adjective tout ? 256. (2.) What is the place of un with the nouns monsieur, madame, and mademoiselle, followed by die adjective tel ? 256. (3.) What is the place of the adjective a in French, used with the word i 257. Is a expressed in French before the words rent and mille ? 257. Is one expressed in French after an adjective 1 258. In what cases is a expressed in French by the article the ? Mentios the examples. 124 FRENCH GRAMMAR. OF THE PRONOUN. 259. The Pronoun is a word which takes the place of a noun. Although this definition is applicable to some of the words called pronouns, yet there are some among them which would be better called adjectives, because they are never employed without being joined to nouns ; but we shall keep this denomination for all, because they are generally qualified by that appellation, and sometimes clear- ness is preferable to precision. The pronouns are of great service in languages ; they not only save repetitions which would be insupportable and hard, but they spread over the style a clearness, animation, variety, and grace, which would not exist without their assistance. In this passage, for instance, which we extract from the works of the Abbot Girard. The grammar ought to follow the II faut que la grammaire soit conduite genius of the language of which it par le genie de la langue qu'e/Ze treats ; its method ought to be clear traite ; que la methode en soit nette and facile ; it should not omit any of et facile ; qu'elle n'omette aucune the laws consecrated by good prac- des lois consacrees par l'usage ; et tice ; it should be definite, precise, que tout y soit exactement defini, and illustrated by examples, so that ainsi qu'eclaire par des exemples, ignorant people may learn it, and the afin que les ignorants puissent Z'ap- learned may approve it. prendre, et que les savants lui don- nent four approbation. The words elle, en, y, V , lui, leur, are pronouns, which replace the nouns grammaire and savant. If, instead of them, we repeat the words themselves, the sentence is not tolerable, and presents the most ridiculous specimen of style ; as, II faut que la grammaire soit conduite par le genie de la langue que la grammaire traite ; que la methode de la grammaire soit nette et facile ; que la gram- maire n'omette aucune des lois consacrees par l'usage ; et que tout dans la grammaire soit defini, ainsi qu'eclaire par des exemples, afin que les ignorants puissent apprendre la grammaire, et que les savants donnent a la grammaire l'approbation des savants. We shall divide the pronouns into six different classes : 1. Personal Pronouns. 2. Possessive " 3. Relative " 4. Absolute " 5. Demonstrative " 6. Indefinite " PRONOUN. 125 OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 260. Personal pronouns are those which are used to designate persons and things. There are three persons ; The First is that who speaks. The Second is that who is spoken to The Third is that who is spoken of. Personal pronouns may be nominatives or objectives. OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS, /, THOU, HE, SHE, IT, WE, YOU, THEY, USED AS NOMINATIVES IN SENTENCES WHICH ARE NOT INTERROGATIVE. 261. When the pronouns I, thou, he, she, it, we, you, and they, are used simply as nominatives of the following verb, in sentences which are not interrogative, they are, in French, as in English, placed before the verb, and expressed as follows : Speaking of Persons. I speak, je parle. We speak. nous parlons. Thou speakest, tu paries You speak, vous parlez. He or she speaks, il or elle parle. They speak, Us or dies parlent. Speaking of Things. It is interesting, il est interessant. (Speaking of a book.) It is large enough, elle est assez grande. (Speaking of a carriage.) il pleut. (Used impersonally.) They are interesting, Us sont interessants. (Speaking of books.) They are large enough, elles sout assez grandes. (Speaking of carriages.) OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS USED AS NOMINATIVES IN INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. 262. When a personal pronoun is used in an interrogative sen- tence, it is placed after the verb in simple ten&es, after the auxiliary in compound tenses, and is separated from either by a hyphen ; as in, Do I speak l . parle-Je ? Do we speak 1 parlons-nows ? Dost thou speak 1 paries-? u ? Do you speak 1 iparlez-vous ? Does he or she speak 1 parle-t-t7 or elle ? Do they speak 1 parlent-i7s or elles ? Is it interesting 1 est-il interessant 1 (Speaking of a book.) Is it large enough 1 est-elle assez grande 1 (Speaking of a carriage.) Does it rain 1 pleut-i7 ? (Used impersonally.) OF SEVERAL CASES IN WHICH PERSONAL PRONOUNS USED AS NOMINATIVES ARE PLACED AFTER THE VERB, ALTHOUGH THE SENTENCE IS NOT INTERROGATIVE. 263. (I.) When the verb is in the subjunctive mood without a conjunction expressed before it ; as, May I with ray own eyes see the thun- Puisse-^'e de mes yeux voir tomber la der fall ! foudre ! 11* Therefore, thus, aussi. Perhaps, peut-etre, Still, encore. 126 FRENCH GRAMMAR. (2.) When the verb forms a proposition which shows that the words of some person are referred to ; as, I shall be dissatisfied, said he, if you Je serai mecontent, dit-t7, si vous re- repeat my words. petez mes paroles. (3.) When the verb is preceded by any of the following adverbs : At least, for all that, &c, toujours. Vainly, en vain, vainement. At least, au moms, du moins. Therefore the king is very powerful. Aussi le roi est-z7 tres puissant. Perhaps we shall go to-morrow into Peut-etre irons-nous demain a la cam- the country. pagne. Still it is true that you did behave Encore est-il vrai que vous vous con- badly, dui sites tres mal. At least it is certain that he is a Toujours est-z7 certain que c'est un rogue. coquin. Vainly did he try to stop my horse. En vain essaya-t-z7 d'arreter mon cheval. At least it is certain that you have Du moins or au moins est-i7 certain que deceived me. vous m'avez trompe. This exception is not absolute, for it would not be a fault against the language to place the pronoun before the verb, but then the locution would be flat and deprived of grace and elegance. OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS USED AS NOMINATIVES IN SENTENCES EXPRESSING A STRONG FEELING OF WONDER, ADMIRATION, INDIGNATION, &c. 264. Sentences expressing a strong feeling of wonder, admiration, indignation, or used emphatically, admit of several modes of con- struction,' in which the personal nominative pronouns are not used in French as they are in English. If a man, for instance, being innocent of the charge, were suspected of intending to betray the interest of his friend, and should exclaim, I would betray the interest of my friend ! No, never ! this sentence, in order to convey the state of feeling of the speaker, should be rendered as follows : Moi, trahir les inter&s de mes amis ! Non, jamais ! or, Moije trahirais les interns de mes amis ! Non, jamais ! or, Je trahirais les interets de mes amis, moi f Non, jamais ! PRONOUN. 127 The first sentence is elliptical ; the words Je pourrais, I should be such a man as, are understood. The two others are merely emphatic, but have much force. The pronouns of the other persons, singular and plural, should be, toi, lui, elk, nous, vous, Us, elks, for, thou, he, she, we, you and they ; as, toi trahir, or tu trahirais ; lui or elk trahir, or il or elk trahirait ; nous trahir, or nous trahirions ; vous trahir, or vous trahiriez ; eux or elks trahir, or Us or elks trahiraient. In pronouncing- the above sentences, a strong emphasis should be laid on the pronouns ?noi, toi, &c. If a man who attaches much importance to his own opinion should say, You maintain that these doctrines are correct, and I pretend they are false, this sentence, in order to convey the state of his mind, should be rendered by, Vous soutenez que ces doctrines sont vraies, et moi,je pretends qu'elles sont fausses. The omission of the pronoun moi, would render the sentence flat and inexpressive. OF THE PERSONAL NOMINATIVE PRONOUNS I, THOU, HE, 4c, USED AFTER THE VERB TO BE IN ENGLISH, OR PRECEDING THE DEFECTIVE VERBS, WILL, SHALL, WOULD, COULD, 4c, OR ANY OTHER USED IN THEIR STEAD, IN ANSWER TO A QX'ESTIOX. 265. Whenever the pronouns I, thou, he, &c, are used in English after the verb to be, they are considered in French as the attributes or objects of that verb, and expressed by the objective personal pronouns moi, toi, lui, elk, nous, vous, eux or elks ; as in, It is I who love you, and not he. C'est moi qui vous aime, et non pas lui. The second part of the sentence is elliptical, and signifies, It is not he, Ce n'est pas lui. It is thou who will do that. C'est toi qui feras cela. It will be he or she who will go to Ce sera lui ou die qui ira a la ville, town. &c. Sometimes the verb to be is not expressed, as is the case in answering questions with the defective verbs will, shall, could, &c. ; but the pronouns I, thou, he, her, &c, should be expressed as in the preceding cases, and the words will, shall, &c, be suppressed ; as in 1:23 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Who will do that 1 I will. (For it Qui f'era cela 1 Moi. will be I who will do it.) Who has done that '? He has. (It is- Uui a fait cela 1 Lui, &c. he who has done it.) OF THE PERSONAL NOMINATIVE PRONOUNS FOLLOWED BY AN ADJECTIVE. 266. When either of the personal pronouns /, thou, he, she, &c, is used before an adjective, it is still expressed in French by the corre- sponding objective pronouns moi, toi, lui, elle, &c. ; as in, T alone can do that. Moi seul peux faire cela. He, with six others, has raised this Lui septieme, a releve ce bateau, boat. These sentences are elliptical, and signify, It is I alone who, Sic, It is he who with, &c. ; the pronouns he, I, &c, are therefore objective, and should be expressed as such. OF THE PERSONAL NOMINATIVE PRONOUNS /, THOU, HE, SHE, &c, USED IN DISTRIBUTIVE SENTENCES. 267. A sentence is called distributive when a fact having been, or being about to be, accomplished, that sentence expresses the part which each individual has taken or will take in it ; in such cases, the nominative pronouns I, thou, he, she, &c, used in English, are- still expressed in French by the objective pronouns moi, toi, lui, elle, Sic, provided these pronouns are of different persons or genders ; as in, Your two brothers and mine will take Vos deux freres et le mien se chargent hold of this enterprise ; they will de 1'entreprise ; eux fourniront Par- furnish the money, and he will do the gent, et lui executera le travail, work. Your brother and sister were both Votre freie et votre sceur etaient pre- present when I fell ; he helped me sents quand je suis tombe ; lui m'a to get up, and she laughed at the aide a me relever, elle a ri de mon ace ident. accident. These sentences are still elliptical ; the verb to be is understood before the pronouns I, he, she, &c. ; they are then, in fact, objective pronouns, and should assume that character in French. OF THE PERSONAL NOMINATIVE PRONOUNS /, THOU, HE SHE, &c, USED IN EXCLAMATIVE SENTENCES OR IN AN APOSTROPHE. 268. The personal pronouns /, thou, he, she, &c, used in English in exclamative sentences or in an apostrophe, are expressed in French by the objective pronouns moi, toi, lui, elle, &c. ; as in, Thou whom I so dearly loved ! what Toi que j'aimais si tendrement ! qu'es has become of thee 1 tu done devenu 1 He who so often betrayed me, why do Lui qui m'a si souvent trahie, pour I still love hi.n 1 quoi done l'aiine-je encore 1 PRONOUN. 129 OF THE PERSONAL NOMINATIVE PRONOUNS J, THOU, HE, SHE, &c, USED AFTER THAN AND AS IN A COMPARISON OF EQ.UALITY, INFERIORITY OR SUPERIORITY. 269. When either of the personal pronouns 7, thou, he, &c., is used after than or as in a comparison of equality, superiority or inferiority, it is expressed in French by one of the corresponding objective pro- nouns moi, toi, lui, elle, &c. ; as in, You are not as handsome as I. Vous n'etcs pas aussi belle que moi. Your brother is better than he or she. Votre frere est meilleur que lui or elle. You are less rich than they. Vous etes moins riches qu'eux or dies. OF THE PERSONAL NOMINATIVE PRONOUNS I, THOU, HE, &c, FOLLOWED BY A RELATIVE PRONOUN. 270. Whenever either of the personal pronouns I, thou, he, &c, is followed by a relative pronoun, which, being at the head of an inci- dental proposition, separates the nominative pronoun from the verb of which the pronoun is the subject, the pronouns I, thou, he, &c, are expressed in French by the objective pronouns moi, toi, lui, elle, &c. ; as in. He who is so poor now, has commanded Lui, qui est si pauvre aujourdhui, a or the armies of the republic. il a commande les armees de la re- publique. But when the relative pronoun comes after the personal pronoun of the third person singular or plural, and does not stand at the head of an incidental sentence, so that no comma should be placed between the two pronouns, the English personal pronoun becomes demon- strative in French, as meaning that person who, and is expressed by one of the following words : Celui, for he, Celle, she, Ceux, tt they, (Masculine,) Celles, a they, (Feminine,) He who thinks himself happy, is always Celui qui se croit heureux, est toujours sure to be so. sur de l'etre. Thev are mistaken who think that hap- Ceiix qui croient que le bonheur con- piness consists, in riches. siste dans les richesses, se trompent. (See the rules relating to these pronouns, paragraph 372.) (See the chapter on demonstrative pronouns, to ascertain how the personal nominative pronouns he, she, it and they, should be expressed when used as nominatives of the verb to be, according to the verb being followed either by a definite noun, a personal pronoun, a verb, 130 FRENCH GBAMMAR. an adjective, or a noun used indefinitely, that is to say, without being preceded by the or a, or an adverb.) HOW THE PERSONAL NOMINATIVE PRONOUNS JE, TU, IL, &c, J, THOU, HE, 4c, SHOULD BE USED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES, IN ORDER THAT NO AMBIGUITY SHOULD EXIST IN REFERENCE TO THE NOUN TO WHICH THESE PRONOUNS RELATE. 271. There can never be any ambiguity or doubt in regard to the noun which the personal pronouns of the first and second persons, singular or plural, represent ; but it is not the same with those of the third person ; the following rule must then be observed : The nominative pronouns il, elle, Us, elles, must always refer to a noun, either nominative or objective, employed definitely ; but never to both, nor to a noun taken in an indefinite meaning ; thus the fol- lowing sentence is correct : Nature, as a minister of the irrevo- Ministre des ordres irrevocables de cable decrees of God, never deviates Dieu, la nature ne s'ecarte jamais from the laws which it has received des lois qu'e/Ze a recues de lui ; elle from him ; it does not alter in any n'altere en rien, les plans qui lui ont way his plans, and in all it accom- ete trace?, et dans tout ce quelle. plishes, it shows the seal of the accomplit, elle presente le sceau de Almighty, L'Eternel, because the personal pronoun elle refers to nature, a nominative used in a definite manner. Slavery does not prevent the happiness L'esclavage n'empeche pas le bonheur of the slave, when he has not enjoyed de Vesclave, quand il n'a pas joui du the gift of liberty. bienfait de la liberte. This sentence is correct, because il refers to esclave, which is used as the object of the noun bonheur, and is taken definitely. But the following sentence, Racine has imitated Euripides in all Racine a imite Euripide dans tout ce that he has beautiful in his Phedra, qu'iZ a de plus beau dans sa Phedre, is incorrect, because il is used after two nouns, one being nominative, the other objective, and may relate to either Racine or Euripides ; the phrase then is ambiguous, and therefore incorrect. This sentence, also, is incorrect : You have the right of chase, and I Vous avez droit de chasse, et je le trouve think it well founded, fonde, or, il est fonde selon moi, because, in the first mode of translation, le, the objective personal pronoun, and in the second, il, the nominative personal pronoun, refer PRONOUN. 131 to droit dc chasse, which is used indefinitely, not being preceded by an article. The following- sentence is also incorrect, No peace for the wicked ; he seeks it, Nulle paix pour le mechant ; il la it (lies. cheiche, die fuit. been use la, the objective, and elle, the nominative pronouns, refer to nulle paix, when the meaning of the sentence requires that it should relate to paix in the affirmative. This rule, which results from the necessity of clearness, so much required in the French language, is one of the most difficult in its application, and requires the constant attention of the writer. In the impersonal verbs, it, il, does not seem to take the place of a noun, as in the following phrases : It rains, Il pleut, Many events have passed, II s'est passe bien des evenements, but the first sentence is elliptical, and means, le del (il) pleut, and the second could be constructed in this way : bien des evenements (il) se sonf. passes. OF SEVERAL PERSONAL PRONOUNS JOINED BY THE CONJUNCTION AND, ET, AND USED TOGETHER, AS NOMINATIVES OF THE FOLLOWING VERB. . When, instead of one, there are several pronouns of different persons used as nominatives, they are expressed in French by the objective pronouns mot, toi, lui, elle, &c, and the following rules must be observed : The person who speaks is always mentioned the last, the person addressed is named iirst, and the verb is generally preceded by the personal nominative pronoun of the first person plural, nous, ice, if there is a pronoun of the first person among these employed as nom- inatives ; as, Yon and I will go hunting to-morrow. Vous et moi t nmis irons demain a la chasse. If there is no pronoun of the first person among the nominatives, the verb is generally preceded by the nominative pronoun of the second person plural, vous, you; as, You and he will go hunting to-morrow. Vous et lui, mus irez demain a la chasse. If the two pronouns used as nominatives are both of the third 132 FRENCH GRAMMAR. person singular and plural, the verb is put in the third person plural, without being preceded by the personal plural pronoun of the third person ; as, He and they will go hunting to-morrow. Lui et tux iront demain a la chasse. Tn the first and second of these three sentences, the verbs are pre- ceded by the pronouns nous and vous, because those verbs having each two nominatives of different persons, usage has decided that the first person should be the noblest of the three and the second nobler than the third. We have said generally, in speaking of the use of the pronouns nous and vous, because some of our best writers have sometimes dispensed with them, but it is better to use them. In the third sentence, the two nominative pronouns being of the same person, it is sufficient that the verb should be in the third person plural, to agree with both. If the pronouns of the three persons, singular or plural, should be employed as nominatives, the verb should be employed in the first person plural, and generally preceded by the personal pronouns of that person ; as, He, you and I, will go hunting to-mor- Lui, vous et moi, nous irons demain a row. la chasse. Or, Nous irons demain a la chasse, lui, vous et moi. But the order in which the pronouns are placed in regard to each other should never be altered. The same rule is applied when a noun is employed with one or more pronouns as nominatives of a verb ; as in, My father and T will go to town this Mon pere et moi, nous irons, or simply, evening. irons, ce soir a la ville. My sister and you are very pretty. Ma sceur et vous, vous etes, or simply, etes, trds jolies. My mother, you and I, will set out to- Ma mere, vous et moi, nous partirons, night. or simply, partirons, cette nuit. My servant and he are at work in the Mon domestique et lui travaillent dans fields. les champs. REPETITION OF PERSONAL NOMINATIVE PRONOUNS. 273. Our best writers differ so much in regard to the repetition of personal nominative pronouns, that the rules we are going to give PRONOUN. 133 should not be considered as absolute ; but, however, by conforming to them, a foreigner will always speak or write correctly. OF THE REPETITION OF PERSONAL NOMINATIVE PRONOUNS OF THE FIRST AND SECOND PERSON SINGULAR AND PLURAL. 274. Whenever two or more verbs, having for their nominatives a pronoun of the first or second person, singular or plural, are in the same tense, both affirmative, and separated by the conjunction and, et, the personal nominative pronoun is repeated or not — it is a matter of taste ; as in, I love and admire him. Je I'aime et I'admire, or, Je l'aime et je I'admire. If the verbs are both negative, and separated by the conjunction neither, ni, the personal nominative pronoun is not repeated ; as in, I neither love nor esteem her. Je ne l'aime ni ne l'estime. When the verbs are separated by the conjunction or, ou, alone, the pronoun may not be repeated ; as in, Whether I love or detest her, what is Que je l'aime ou la deteste, qu'est ce it to you 1 que cela vous fait 1 or, Queje l'aime ou je la deteste, qu'est ce que cela vous fait 1 But if the conjunction ou is not used alone, the pronoun ought to be repeated ; as in, Que je I'aime ou que je la deteste, qu'est-ce que cela vous fait 1 I do not know whether I love or hate Je ne sais si je l'aime ou si je la hais her. Whenever the verbs are not in the same tense, or the same form, if the first has an object which is not a personal pronoun, or if they are separated by any other conjunction but and, or, and neither, the personal nominative pronoun should be repeated ; as in, I have just arrived and will set out to- Je mens d'arriver et je repartirai de- morrow, main. You are young (person) and probably Vous etes jeune et probablement vous love glory (action.) aimez lagloire. I extended my arms as to embrace the J'etendais les bras comme pour embras- horizon, and I found but the empti- ser l'horizon, et je ne saisissais que le ness of the atmosphere. vide des airs. You please everybody, because you Vous plaisez a tout le monde, parceque have as much modesty as wit. vous avez autant de modestie que d'esprit. I hate him, but I many him because it Je le hais, mais je l'epouse parceque is my father's wish. e'est la volonte de mon pere. When passing from the affirmative to the negative, the pronoun 12 134 FRENCH GRAMMAR. may not be repeated, but it should when passing from the negative to the affirmative ; as in, I fear God, dear Abner, and have no Je crains Dieu, cher Abner, et n'ai pas odier fear. d'autre crainte. You have no wings, and you wish to fly. Tu n'as point d'ailes, et tu veux voler. OF THE REPETITION OF THE PERSONAL NOMINATIVE PRONOUNS OF THE THIRD PERSON SINGULAR AND PLURAL. The preceding rules are all applicable to the pronouns of the third person singular and plural, except in the following cases. 275. (L) Whenever the verbs are not in the same tense, the repe- tition of the nominative pronoun is facultative ; as in, He arrived this morning and will start // est arrive ce matin et repartira (or il again to-morrow. repartira) demain. 276. (2.) When several verbs following each other have different objects, the pronouns should be repeated whenever the object changes, except before the last, if it is preceded by the conjunction and, et; as in, He takes a hatchet, cuts down the II prend une hache, il coupe le mat, le mast, throws it into the sea, calls jette a la mer, il m'appelle par mon me by name and invites me to follow nom et ?n'invite a le suivre. him. The verbs takes and cuts not having the same object, the pronoun he is repeated before the last ; cuts and throws having the same object, mast, he is not repeated before the second verb ; it is repeated before calls, because the object changes and is suppressed before invites, which is the last, on account of the conjunction and being used before it. 277. (3.) When plural verbs follow each other and we wish to suppress the conjunction and before the last, so as to give more power to the meaning of the sentence, the pronouns should be repeated ; as, Deceitful, cunning, hypocritical, dan- Fourbes, adroits, hypocrites, danger- gerous, they flatter, caress and sur- eux, Us flattent, Us caressent, Us en- round with enticements. vironnent de seductions. 278. (4.) If the last verb be united to the preceding by the con- junction and, which is itself followed by a long incidental sentence, the pronoun should be repeated before it ; as, He rushes upon his enemy, and after l£ fond sur son enneini, et apres Vavoir having seized him with a victorious renverse d'une main victorieuse, il le hand, he throws him down, as the renverse comme le cruel Aquilon abat severe Aquilon would the golden har- les moissons dorees qui couvrent la vest which covers the plains. campagne. pronoun. lOo 279. (5.) Although the first verbs are used without pronouns, if the last is separated from them by a long incidental sentence, fol- lowing the conjunction and, this last verb should take the pronoun ; as in, Excited by an iusatiable avidity, blind- Excite par l'insatiable avidite, aveugle ed by ambition still more insatiable, par l'ambition plus insatiable encore, he renounces all feelings of humanity, il renonce aux sentiments d'humanite, turns his strength against himself, tourne ses forces contre lui-meme, and in attempting die destruction of cherche a s'entre-detruire, se dttruit his fellow-men, in fact destroys him- en effet, et, apres I es jours de sang ct self; and after those days of earn- de carnage, lorsque la fumeedelagloirc age, when die smoke of glory has s'est dissipee, il voit d'un ceil triste, la vanished, he sees with an eye of sad- terre devastee, les arts ensevelis, les ness, the land devastated, the arts nations dispersees, les peuples af- buried in oblivion, the nations scat- faiblis, son propre bonheur ruiue, et tered, tb.e people weakened, his own sa puissance reelle aneantee. happiness destroyed, and his real power annihilated. In this sentence, the first verbs, tourne, cherche, se detruit, have no pronouns, but on account of the long incidental sentence which fol- lows et, euphony requires that the pronoun should be used before the last verb, voit. We should repeat, that the preceding rules are not absolute, but as foreigners are deprived of this instinctive feeling w T hich a native has, and which tells him when he may with propriety follow this or that inspiration, they should have a guide, and by following these rules, they will always be enabled to write correctly. OF PERSONAL PEOXOUXS USED OBJECTIVELY. 280. The English personal pronouns used objectively are the fol- lowing: me, thee, him, her, it, us, you, them. These pronouns are expressed in French in different ways, according to their being used as direct or indirect objects of the verbs. A pronoun or a noun is the direct object of a verb, whenever it can be used with that verb without the assistance of a preposition, and make sense with it. A pronoun or a noun is the indirect object of a verb, when it cannot be used with that verb without the help of a preposition so as to make sense with it. OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS USED AS DIRECT OBJECTS OF A VERB. 281. Whenever personal pronouns are used as direct objects of a verb, in a sentence which is either affirmative, negative, or inter- 136 FRENCH GRAMMAR. rogative, they are placed before that verb in all its tenses, except the imperative mood used affirmatively, in which case they follow the verb in French as they do in English ; and they are expressed as fol- lows : me, me; thee, te; him, le; her, la; it, le or la; us, nous; you, vous ; them, les ; as in, He sees me, I see thee, We see him, You see her, You see it, (speaking of a book,) He sees it, (speaking of a watch,) You see us, I see you he me sees, I thee see, we him see. you her see. you it see, he it sees, you us see, Iyou il me voit. je te vois. nous le voyons. vous la voyez. vous le voyez. il la voit. vous mows voyez. je vous vois. nous les voyons. x »cc juu, x yuu see, We see them, (speaking of persons and things,) we them see 282. The same English objective pronouns, when employed with a verb in the imperative mood used affirmatively, and then placed after that verb, are expressed in the following manner : me, moi; thee, toi; him, le; her, la; it, le or la; us, nous ; you, vous; them, les; as in, Love me, aimez-wioi. Love it, aimez-Ze or la. Love thyself, aime-foi. Love us, aimez-nows. Love him, aimez-Ze. Love yourself, aimez-wMs. Love her, aimez-Za. Love them, aimez-Zes, (speaking of persons and things.) By comparing these pronouns with those which precede them, it will be seen that the only difference between them is in the first and second person singular, the other being expressed by the same words in either case. Whenever a verb governs, without a preposition, a pronoun and a noun united by the conjunction el, that verb should be preceded by a plural objective pronoun of the same person as the pronoun expressed in English, and followed by the noun and pronoun which it governs ; in which case, this pronoun should be expressed by one of the fol- lowing words : moi, toi, lui, elle, nous, vous, eux, elles ; as in, Your father knows me and my brother Votre pere nous connait tres bien mon very well. frere et moi. I hate them and all their friends. Je les hais eux et tous leurs amis. I blame you and your sister very much. Je vous blame beaucoup, vous et votre sceur But if the noun and pronoun were separated by the conjunctions ou or ni, the objective pronoun placed before the verb should be omitted ; as in, I neither love him or his father. I will take you or your brother. Je n'aime ni lui ni son pere. J'emmenerai votre frere ou vous. PRONOUN. 137 or PERSONAL PRONOUNS USED AS INDIRECT OBJECTS OF A VERB. 283. Whenever a personal pronoun is used as the indirect object of a verb, the preposition governed by that verb is either the prepo- sition to, H, or some other; these two cases should be examined sep- arately ; the pronoun being expressed in a different manner in each. OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS USED AS INDIRECT OBJECTS OF A VERB GOVERNING THE PREPOSITION TO, A. 284. When a personal pronoun is employed as the indirect object of a verb governing the preposition to, a, in a sentence which is either affirmative, negative, or interrogative, the general rule is, that the pronoun should still be placed before the verb in all tenses except in the imperative mood used affirmatively, the preposition to be omitted in French, and the pronouns rendered by: to me, me; to thee, te; to him and to her, lui; to it, y; to us, nous; to you, vous; to them, (speaking of things,) y ; to them, (speaking of persons,) leur ; as follows : You speak to me, I speak to thee, You speak to hiui or to her, You do not pay attention to it, He speaks to us, I speak to you, You speak to them, You do not pay attention to them, (speaking of things,) you (to me) speak, I (to thee) speak, you (to him or to her; speak, you (to it) do not pay attention, he (to us) speaks, I (to you) speak, you (to them) speak, you (to them) do not pay attention, vous me parlez. je te parle. vous lui parlez. vous y faites attention. il nous parle. je vous parle. vous leur parlez. vous n'y faites pas atten- tion. 285. The same English objective pronouns, when employed with a verb in the imperative mood used affirmatively, and then placed after that verb, are expressed in the following manner : to me, moi; to thee, toi ; to him and to her, lui; to it, y; to us, nous; to you, vous; to them, (speaking of persons,) leur; to them, (speaking of things,) y; as in, Speak (to me,) parlez-77ior. Speak (to him) or Speak (to thyself,) parle-toi. (to her,) parlez-lui. Pay attention (to it,) faites-?/ attention. Speak (to us,) parlez-nows. Speak (to yourself,) parlez-uows. Speak (to them,) parlez-Zewr. Pay attention (to them,) (speaking of things,) faites-y attention By comparing these pronouns with those which go before the verb, it will be seen that they are expressed by the same words, except in the first and second person singular. To this general rule, which requires that personal objective pro- 12* I3S FRENCH GRAMMAR. nouns governed by the preposition to should be placed before the verb, and the preposition omitted, there are three exceptions, which we will examine separately. OF REFLECTED VERBS GOVERNING THE PREPOSITION TO. 286. Whenever a verb is reflected in French, although it may not be so in English, and governs the preposition to, d,, the preposition as well as the pronoun which it precedes, are both placed after that verb in all its tenses and moods, whether affirmative or negative, and expressed as follows : to me, d, moi; to thee, & tot; to him, h lui; to her, it elle; to us, ti nous; to you, d, vous ; to them, (masculine,) d eux ; to them, (feminine,) a elles. [To it and to them, (speaking of things,) are, as in the preceding case, expressed by y placed before the verb ;] as in, You trust me, you yourself trust to me, vous vous fiez d moi. I trust thee, I myself trust to thee, je me fie d toi. He trusts him, he himself trusts to him, il se fie d lui. He trusts her, he himself trusts to her, il se fie a elle. I trust it, I myself to it trust, je m'y fie. You trust us, you yourself trust to us, vous vous fiez d nous. We trust you, . we ourselves trust to you, nous nous fions a vous. They trust them, They themselves trust to ils se fient d eux (masc.) a them, elles (fem.) I trust them, (speaking I myself to them trust, je m'y fie. of things,) OF VERBS WHICH, BEING USED IN A CERTAIN SIGNIFICATION, REQ.UIRE THE PREPOSITION TO AND THE PRONOUN WHICH IT GOVERNS TO BE PLACED AFTER THEM. 287. There are verbs and verbal expressions which being used in a certain meaning, require the preposition to and the pronoun which it governs to be placed after them, and to be expressed as they are in the preceding chapter ; they are the following : Tenser, to think, (meaning to have one's mind occupied about a person or thing ;) as in, I think of you, I think to you, Je pense d vous. But when penser signifies to have an opinion about a person or thing, it governs the preposition of, de; as in, What do you think of me 'J Que pensez-vous de moi 1 Songer and rever having the same meaning as penser in the first case as in, I think of you from morning to night. Je songe or je reve d vous du matin au PRONOUN. 139 But when river and songer signify to dream, they both govern the preposition of, de; as in, I dreamed of you the whole night. i'ai reve de vous toute la nuit. Venir, to come, used in its natural meaning, and implying an idea of motion of the body ; as in, He came to me and spoke to me in II vint d moi et me parla en ces termes. this way. But when venir is used metaphorically, not implying a motion of the body, the pronoun is placed before the verb ; as in, An idea came to my mind. II me vint une idee. Alter, to go, follows the same rule as venir ; as in, I went to him and shook hands with 3'allai a luiet lui serrai la main. him, •This dress does not fit you well. Cette robe ne vous va pas bien. Etre, when signifying to belong, or implying an idea of right or duty ; as in, This book belongs to me. Ce livre est a moi. It is time to play. C'est d moi a jouer. It is mine to command and yours to C'est d moi de commander et d vous obey. d'obeir. En appeler, to appeal to ; as in, I appeal to you from this decision. 3 'en appelle d vous de cette decision. Avoir affaire, to have business with ; as in, Come, I have business with you. Venez, j'az affaire d vous. Avoir recours, to have recourse ; as in, If I am ever in trouble, I will have Si je me trouve jamais dans l'embarras, recourse to you. yaurai recours d vous. Prendre garde, to mind ; as in, Mind him or he will deceive you. Prenez garde d lui ou il vous trompera. Faire attention, to pay attention ; as in, Why do you never pay attention to me. Pourquoi ne /at'f es-vous jamais attention d moi. There may be some few more expressions of the same kind, but they are very seldom used. 140 FRENCH GRAMMAR, OF VERBS WHICH, GOVERNING THE PREPOSITON TO, HAVE FOR THEIR OBJECTS MORE THAN ONE PRONOUN, OR A PRONOUN AND A NOUN. 288. When a verb governs more than one pronoun, or a pronoun and a noun, with the preposition to, the several pronouns, or the pronouns and the noun, should all be placed after the verb, and the preposition to repeated before each ; as in, I speak to you and him. Je parle d vous et d lui. I spoke both to him and his father. J'ai parle d lui et d sonpere. REMARKS ON THE FOUR PRECEDING CHAPTERS. 289. It happens very often in English that the preposition to is not expressed with the verb, when in fact that verb requires it ; hence arises a great difficulty for foreigners, whether they should use the dative or the accusative case with those classes of verbs ; in order to get over this difficulty, it must be remembered that in French a verb cannot stand in the same relation with two nouns or two pronouns, unless they are united by a conjunction ; thus the following expressions, I told your father a good story , I will pay your mother a visit, or any other of the same kind, cannot be translated literally in French, because the two nouns father and story are used in the accusative case with the verb to tell, as well as mother and visit with the verb to pay, without being united by a conjunction. But by analyzing the sen- tence, it is always easy to discover before which of the two objects the preposition to should be placed ; for if I ask, What have you told? the answer is, A story. To whom 1 To your father. What have you paid ? A visit. To whom ? To your mother. Therefore, in the following sentences, I told him a story, I paid her a visit, him and her stand for to him and to lier, and are expressed accordingly. Je lui ai dit une histoire, Je lui ai fait une visite, and not, Je Z'ai dit une histoire, Je Z'ai fait une visite. There are many cases, however, which an American or an Eng- PHONOUN. 141 lishman will not so easily analyze as the preceding ; let us take the verb to permit, for instance : the genius of the English language admits of the following expression, To permit a person to do a thing. This cannot be said in French, because to permit signifies to give per- mission, which requires the use of the preposition to after it ; thus we should say in French, To permit to a person to do a thing; the fol- lowing sentence, therefore, I permitted him to go to the theatre, should be expressed by, Je lui (to him) permis d'aller au theatre, and not. Je le (him) permis d'aller au theatre. We also say, to permit a thing to a person; therefore the following sentence, My physician allows me to eat fish, could be rendered by, Mon medecin me (to me) permet le poisson, or, Mon medecin me (to me) permet de manger du poisson. We will now examine a few verbs which, presenting the same difficulty, can be properly used by English pupils, by reasoning by analogy, with the verb to permit. To please signifies to be agreeable, which cannot dispense with the preposition to before its object ; we should say, then, instead of, You please me, you please to me, vous me (to me) plaisez. To pardon signifies to grant pardon, which requires to before a noun of person; we should say, then, instead of, I pardon you, I grant pardon to you, Je vous (to you) pardonne; but we also say in French, To pardon a fault to a person. Therefore the following expressions, I pardon him for having deceived me, I forgive you for your past crimes, should be rendered by, Je lui (to him) pardonne de m'avoir Je wus (to you) pardonne vos crimes trompe, passes. 142 FRENCH GRAMMAR. To answer signifies, to make an answer to a person or a thing ; therefore, I answered him, to come immediately, I have answered your letter, should be expressed by, Je lui (to him) repondis de venir desuite, J'ai repondu a votre lettre. These examples are sufficient to put a foreigner on his guard in cases similar to the few we have just given ; a good dictionary will always tell him whether the verb he wants to use is active or neuter, and what preposition it governs. OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS USED AS INDIRECT OBJECTS OF A VERB WITH ANY PREPOSITION EXCEPT THE PREPOSITION TO. 290. Whenever a verb has a personal pronoun for its object, -and governs any other preposition than the preposition to, that preposition and the pronoun should be placed after the verb in French, as in English, and the pronouns expressed as follows : Me, mot ; thee, toi ; him, lui; her, elle ; us, nous; you, vous ; them, (masc.) eux, (fern.) elles ; [we will hereafter speak of the pronouns it and them, speaking of things;] as in, He speaks of me. II parle de moi. I will go with thee. J'irai avec toi. 1 cannot go there without him. Je ne puis pas y aller sans lui. I will know it by her. Je le saurai par elle. You are angry with us. Vous etes fache contre nous. I shall be there before you* J'y serai avant vous. I came after them. Je vins apres eux, or elles. This rule has no exceptions, except in the case of the pronouns it and them, (speaking of things,) used with the preposition of, when they are both expressed by en, which precedes the verb in all its tenses, except in the imperative mood used affirmatively ; as in, I spoke of it (or of them) half an J 'era parlais il y a une demi-heure. hour ago. Speak of it now, if you please. Parlez-m a present, je vous prie. We will hereafter devote a whole chapter to the pronoun it when preceded by a preposition which cannot be contracted with that pronoun, as in the word en. PRONOUN. 143 OF THE P£RSOx\AL PRONOUNS HIM, HER, AND THEM, FOLLOWED BY A RELATIVE PRONOUN, PRECEDED OR NOT BY A PREPOSITION. 291. (1.) Whenever the personal pronouns him, her and them, are followed by a relative pronoun, preceded or not by a preposition, they sometimes become in French demonstrative pronouns, signifying that person or those persons, and are then expressed by, celui, him ; celle, her; ceux, them, (masculine,) celles, them, (feminine ;) as in, I have been deceived by her whom I J'ai ete trompe par celle que j'aimais le loved the most. plus. Put yourself in the place of him to Mettez-vous a la place de celui a qui whom you would do an injury. vous voulez faire une injure. 292. (2.) But when the pronouns him, her and them, are not used in the sense of that person or those persons, and are only employed instead of a noun of person, singular or plural, they retain their character of personal pronouns, the relative pronoun which follows them forms an incidental proposition with the following verb, and they are expressed as objective pronouns by lui, elle, eux, elles ; as in, I have been deceived by her, whom I J'ai ete trompe par elle, que j'aimais loved so much. tant. I was betrayed by them, whom I J'ai ete trahi par eux, en qui j'avais trusted so much. tant de confiance. 293. (3.) Should the personal pronoun be the direct object of the verb, that personal pronoun should be expressed twice, — once before the verb, the second time before the relative pronoun with which it forms the incidental proposition ; as in, I love him still who has betrayed me Je Z'aime encore lui qui m'a trahi tant so many times. de fois, 294. (4.) But if the relative pronoun should not form an incidental proposition with the following verb, the objective pronoun placed before the verb would act as an antecedent for that pronoun, and its reduplication be unnecessary; as in, I see them advancing in good order. Je les vois qui s'avancent en bon ordre, OF REFLECTED PRONOUNS. 295. Objective pronouns, when they are in the same number and person as the nominative of the verb of which they are the objects, are called by grammarians reflected pronouns ; they are expressed in 144 FRENCH GRAMMAR. English by myself, thyself, himself, &c. Those pronouns, in French, vary according to their being placed before or after the verb. OF REFLECTED PRONOUNS USED WITH ACTIVE VERBS, AND NEUTER VERBS GOVERNING THE PREPOSITION TO. 296. Whenever a reflected verb is active, or, being neuter, governs the preposition to, the reflected pronouns are placed before that verb, in all its tenses, except in the imperative mood used affirmatively, the preposition to is omitted, and they are expressed as follows : Myself, or to myself, me ; thyself, or, to thyself, te ; himself, herself, itself, or, to himself, to herself, to itself, se ; ourselves, or, to ourselves, nous ; your- selves, or, to yourselves, vous ; themselves, or, to themselves, se; as in, I love myself, Thou lovest thyself, He, or she, loves himself or herself, We love ourselves, You love yourself, or yourselves, They love themselves, I speak to myself, Thou speakest to thyself, He speaks to himself, She speaks to herself, We speak to ourselves, You speak to yourselves, They speak to themselves, I (myself) love, thou (thyself) lovest, he, or she, (himself or herself) loves, we (ourselves) love, you (yourself, or your- selves) love, they (themselves) love, I (to myself) speak, thou (to thyself) speakest, he (to himself) speaks, she (to herself) speaks, we (to ourselves) speak, you (to yourselves) speak, they (to themselves) speak, je mairae. tu f'aimes. il or elle s'aime. nous nous aimons. vous vous aimez. ils s'aiment. je me parle. tu te paries, il se parle. elle se parle. nous nous parlons. vous vous parlez. ils or elles se parlent. We shall speak of the reflected pronouns itself, themselves, (speak- ing of things,) and oneself, in a separate chapter. 297. The same English reflected pronouns, when employed with a verb in the imperative mood used affirmatively, are placed after that verb, and expressed as follows : Thyself, or, to thyself, toi ; ourselves, or, to ourselves, nous ; yourself and yourselves, or, to yourself and to yourselves, vous ; as in, Love thyself, Let us love ourselves, Love yourself or yourselves, Speak to thyself, Let us speak to ourselves, Speak to yourself, A\me-toi. Aimons-nows. Aimez-wws. Parle-toi. Parlons-nous. Parlez-vous. OF REFLECTED PRONOUNS USED WITH ANY OTHER PREPOSITION THAN THE PREPOSITION TO. 298. Whenever the pronouns myself, thyself, &c, are preceded by any other preposition than the preposition to, d,, in French, whatever may be that preposition in English, they are expressed as follows : Myself, moi or moi-meme ; thyself, toi or toi-mhrve ; himself, lui or PRONOUN. 145 hu-meme ; herself, elk or elle-meme ; ourselves, nous or nous-memes ; yourself, vous or vous-meme ; yourselves, voiis or vous-memes ; them- selves, (masc.) eux or eu-x-memes, (fem.) elles or elles-memes. The word meme, meaning self, should never be used with the pro- noun except when an ambiguity would arise by employing the pronoun alone, or where the verb is emphatically used ; as in, Why do you always speak so much of Pourquoi parlez-vous toujours tant de yourself. vous ? (No ambiguity and no em- phasis.) Your sisters have too good an opinion Vos soeurs ont trop bonne opinion of themselves. d'elles mimes. (Ambiguity without meme.) This sentence would be ambiguous without the word meme, because the pronoun elles employed alone could as well apply to any other ladies as to the nominative, sisters. OF ACTIVE AND NEUTER VERBS, WHICH BEING USED EMPHATICALLY, REQ.UIRE THE REFLECTED PRONOUNS MOI-MSME, TOI-MEME, LUI-MEME, &c, TO BE PLACED AFTER THEM, WHETHER THEY ARE REFLECTED OR NOT. 299. It is often the case that in praising II arrive souvent qu'en nous flattant ourselves we reflect upon others. nous-memes nous medisons d'aumii. We often excuse in ourselves the faults Nous excusons souvent en nous-memes which we blame in others. les fautes que nous blamons chez les autres. Have you seen that yourself 1 Yes, I Avez-vous vu cela vous-meme ? Oui, have. je l'ai vu moi-meme. Who has painted this landscape 1 It is Qui a peint ce paysage 1 C'est ma my daughter ; she did it herself. fille ; elle l'a peint elle-meme. The first and second sentences would be flat, without the pronoun vous-memes being placed after the verb. The third is emphatically used, and signifies, Are you very sure you have seen that 1 The fourth is also emphatic, and means that the lady received no assistance in painting the landscape ; that she has done it alone. But it would be ridiculous, in speaking of a lady, to say, for, Site has killed herself, Elle s'est tvee elle meme, because it is not to be supposed that any one would be inclined to assist her in committing a suicide ; the reflected pronoun se placed before the verb is sufficient to show that she died by her own hands. OF THE RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS EACH OTHER AND OXE ANOTHER. 300. The reciprocal pronouns each other and one another, may be used with active and neuter verbs ; the reciprocal verb, when neuter, may govern the preposition to, &, or any other. 13 146 FRENCH GRAMMAR. A receiprocal action requiring the interference of at least two persons, reciprocal verbs are always used in the plural. The reciprocal pronoun in French corresponding to the words one another and each other, is, Vun Vautre, (sing, masc.) Vune Vautre, (sing, fem.) les uns les autres, (plu. masc.) les unes les autres, (plu. fern.) OF THE RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS EACH OTHER AND ONE ANOTHER, EMPLOYED WITH ACTIVE VERBS. 301. When the verb which expresses the reciprocal action is active, that verb is, in French, both reflected and reciprocal ; it is, therefore, preceded by a reflected pronoun of the same person and number as the nominative, and followed by the pronoun Vun Vautre, agreeing in gender with the nominative ; as to its number, the two words Vun Vautre are used in the singular, if the reciprocal action takes place only between two persons, and in the plural if between more than two ; as in, The two sisters of your friend love one Les deux sceurs de votre ami s'aiment another tenderly. Vune Vautre tendrement. These two children hate one another. Ces deux enfants se ha'issent Vun Vautre. Wolves do not eat each other. Le^ loups ne se mangent pas les uns les autres. (More than two wolves.) OF THE RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS EACH OTHER AND ONE ANOTHER, EMPLOYED WITH A NEUTER VERB GOVERNING THE PREPOSITION TO, A. 302. When the verb which expresses the reciprocal action is neuter and governs the preposition to, it, in French, that verb is still reflected and reciprocal ; the preposition it is placed between the two words Vun Vautre, which compose the reciprocal pronoun, and this pronoun follows the same rule as in the preceding case, in relation to number, gender and person ; as in, I would fain know what these two Je voudrais bien savoir ce que ces deux persons are saying to each other. personnes se disent Vune a, Vautre. Rogues do not trust each other. Les fripons ne se fient pas les uns aux autres. (More than two rogues.) These houses are a nuisance to each Ces maisons se nuisent les unes aux other. autres. (More than two houses.) OF THE RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS ONE ANOTHER AND EACH OTHER, EMPLOYED WITH NEUTER VERBS GOVERNING ANY OTHER PREPOSITION THAN THE PREP- OSITION TO, A. 303. Whenever the verb which expresses the reciprocal action is neuter, and does not govern the preposition to, that verb is no longer reflected ; but the reciprocal pronoun, Vun Vautre, keeps its place after PRONOUN. 147 h, and, as in the preceding case, the preposition is placed between the two words which compose that pronoun ; as to the number and gender of these words, they follow the preceding rule : as in, We speak of one another. Nous parlons Pun de Vavtre. Why do these ladies always speak ill Pourquoi ces dames parlent-elles tou- of one another \ jours mal les unes des autres. (More than two persons.) They will destroy each other. II periront les uns par les autres. These two rooms communicate with Ces deux chambre communiquent I'une each other by a passage. avec Vautre par un corridor. OF THE PRONOUNS IT AND THEM, (SPEAKING OF THINGS,) USED AS DHIECT OBJECTS OF A VERB. 304. The personal objective pronouns it and them, (speaking of things.) when used without a preposition, have no other equivalent in French than him, her and them, (speaking of persons,) expressed by le, la and les ; they present no difficulty, the language admitting that these pronouns, le, la and les, should be indifferently applied to persons and things ; thus we say, with the same propriety : Je le vois, (speaking of a man or a horse.) Je la vois, (speaking of a woman or a cow.) Je les vois, (speaking of men, women, horses and cows.) 305. But when the pronouns it and them (speaking of things) are preceded by a preposition, they have no equivalent in French different from him, lui ; her, elle ; them, (masc.) eux ; them, (fem.) elles; to them, leur ; except in the case of the prepositions to and of, which, with those pronouns, are expresssed by the contracted pronouns y and en, and the genius of the French language does not always admit of these pronouns of persons being applied to things. A Frenchman, in this difficulty, should refer to usage and follow that of our best writers: but foreigners are deprived of this assistance — they want rules to guide them ; we therefore will establish such principles as to enable them to express themselves correctly in all cases. OF THE OBJECTIVE PRONOUNS IT AND THEM, PRECEDED BY THE PREPOSITIONS .4 AND DE IN FRENCH, WHATEVER MAY BE THE PREPOSITIONS USED IN ENGLISH INSTEAD OF TO AND OF. 306. Whenever the pronouns it. and them (speaking of things) are preceded by the prepositions of and to, and relate to nouns of things 148 FRENCH GRAMMAR. not personified, they should be expressed by en for of it, and y for to it; as in, As to this fact, if you speak of it, I Quant a. ce fait, si vous en parlez, je le will deny it. nierai. It is in vain for me to remonstrate J'ai beau vous faire des remonstrances, with you, you never pay attention vous n'y faites jamais attention. to it. If you desire these books, I will make Si vous desirez ces livres, je vous en you a present of them. ferai present. I will give you no more lessons ; you Je ne vous donnerai plus de lecons; do not pay attention to them. vous n'y etes pas assez attentif. 307. But y and en, although most generally applied to things, are sometimes used in speaking of persons ; as in, I saw your brother, and I have spoken J'ai vu votre frere, et nous en avons of him much with my son. beaucoup parle, mon tils et moi. Have you heard of the captains of your Avez-vous recu des nouvelles des capi- two ships 1 Yes, we heard of them taines de vos deux navires % Oui, this morning. nous en avons entendu parler ce matin. In the last appointments you have Dans les dernieres nominations que made, have you thought of my sons 1 vous avez faites, avez-vous pense a Yes, I thought of them. mes fils % Oui, j'y ai pense. In these sentences, or any other similar to them, it is evident that the mind alludes more intimately to things connected with the persons spoken of than to those persons themselves ; the first sentence, for instance, signifies, I have spoken of his interest, rather than his person as a man; the second, We heard of their safety, or of their being in such situation, rather than we heard of them as being such, or such men ; the third implies the same meaning as the first. If the mind, on the contrary, should refer more intimately to the persons spoken of than to things connected with them, the pronouns of persons should be used with the preposition, and the preceding sentences should be rendered by : Oui, j'ai beaucoup parle de lui avec mon fils. Oui, nous avons entendu parler d'eux. Oui, j'ai pense d eux. OF THE OBJECTIVE PRONOUNS IT AND THEM, (SPEAKING OF THINGS,) WHEN THEY ARE PRECEDED IN FRENCH BY ANY OTHER PREPOSI- TION THAN DE AND A. .308. Whenever the objective pronouns it and them (speaking of things) are preceded in French by any preposition other than it and PRONOUN. 149 de, it should be remarked whether the nouns of things to which these pronouns relate are personified or not ; if personified, they are expressed in French by the corresponding objective pronouns relating to persons, lui, elle, eux, elles, leur ; if not personified, the sentence should be modified so as to dispense with the pronouns altogether, or the construction should be altered so as to admit of these pronouns and their prepositions being rendered by y or en. A noun of things is said to be personified when the thing repre- sented by that noun is made to act or to feel as a person would, or to possess qualities which belong only to persons. The following sentences will illustrate these several cases. 309. Mountains are frequented on account of the air one breathes on them ; how many people are indebted to them for the recovery of their health ! In the first part of this sentence, the noun mountains is not person- ified ; on them, therefore, cannot be expressed literally ; the English idea should be modified, and there used instead of on them, and expressed by y, placed before the verb breathes ; in the second propo- sition, on the contrary, the noun mountains is personified, for a person, or God alone, and not a thing, has the power to confer a benefit so as to create a debt of gratitude in the heart of man ; to them should, then, be expressed by leur, a pronoun of person placed before the verb, and the whole sentence rendered as follows : Les montagnes sont frequences a cause de Pair qu'on y respire; combien degens leur doivent le retablissement de leur sante. 310. War brings in its train numberless evils. War is a state of things, which, properly speaking, has not the faculty of bringing things in its train ; it is man, who, being in a state of excitement against his fellow men, causes the evils spoken of, and brings them in his train as long as he fights, and long after having done fighting ; the noun war, in the above sentence, is then personi- fied, and that sentence should be expressed by : La guerre entraine apres elle des maux sans nombre. 311. Everybody knows that self-love is a bad adviser ; yet we take counsel from it. and permit it to direct most of our actions. We do not take counsel from a thing ; and when we say that we do, we attribute to the noun which represents that thing, a faculty that is only possessed by man ; we then personify that noun of things, and 13* 150 FRENCH GRAMMAR. the pronouns which relate to it should in French be expressed by the corresponding pronouns of persons ; the preceding sentence should then be translated as follows : Chacun sait que V 'amour propre est un mauvais conseiller ; cependant nous prenons conseil de lui, et nous lui permettons de diriger la plupart de nos actions. 312. Speaking of an army, we say, We marched up to it. If an army is in fact a thing, this thing is composed of men, and in the above expression the mind alludes rather to those who compose it than to the thing itself; the noun army is then personified, and we should say, Nous marchdmes & elle. 313. These birds and dogs are my only pleasure ; I have nothing but them. They are my only diversion ; I dream of nothing else. These horses are exhausted ; give them a little wine. These flowers will die unless they have some water. When speaking of animals, flowers and other things we love dearly, the feelings we experience for them raise them, in our esti- mation, to the same level with human beings ; they thus become per- sonified, and the pronouns which relate to them should be expressed accordingly. The above sentences should therefore be rendered by ; Ces oiseaux et ces chiens sont mon seul plaisir ; je n'aime qu'eux. Eux seuls m'occupent; je ne reve qu'd eux. Ces chevaux sont rendus ; donnez leur un peu de vin. Ces fleurs vont perir si on ne leur donne un peu d'eau. 314. Gambling is a horrid passion; health, reputation*, fortune, honor, are swallowed by it. In this sentence the noun gambling is not personified ; by it cannot, therefore, be expressed literally; but the genius of the language admits of its being rendered by the adverb there, y, and we should say: Le jeu est une passion horrible ; la sante, la reputation, la fortune et l'honneur s'y engloutissent. I rolled a large stone, to be able to look through the window, and mounted upon it. Stone is not personified, and this sentence should be rendered by suppressing the pronoun it altogether, which does not alter the clear- ness of the sentence ; as, Je fis rouler une grosse pierre, pour pouvoir regarder par la fenetre, et je montai dessvs. PRONOUN. 151 OF THE PRONOUNS IT AND THEM, OMITTED IN ENGLISH IN AN- SWERING QUESTIONS, BUT WHICH SHOULD BE EXPRESSED LN FRENCH WITH THE VERBS OF WHICH THEY ARE THE COMPLEMENT. 315. In the following sentences, Is this your horse 1 Yes, it is, Are these young men your sons 1 Yes, they are, Are you sick 1 Yes, I am, Do not forget to mention my marriage to your father. No, I will not, the answers, Yes, it is, Yes, they are, Yes, I am, and I will not, although complete in English, are incomplete in French : the verbs require a complement, which is, my horse for the first, my sons for the second, sick for the third, and forget to mention it for the last. But the repetition in the answer of the noun, adjective, or idea employed in the question, would cause a repetition contrary to the rules of euphony ; they should not be repeated, then, but the pronouns it or them should be used in their stead, and the sentences completed as follows : Yes, it is it ; Yes, they are them; Yes, I am it ; No, I will not forget it. It remains now to be examined how these pronouns, it and them, should be expressed, according to their being used instead of a noun, an adjective, or an idea. 316. (1.) A noun has a number and a gender of its own ; it can, therefore, impart either of them to the pronoun which takes its place ; we will then establish this rule : Whenever the pronouns it or them are expressed in French to com- plete the meaning of a sentence, if they take the place of a noun, they agree with that noun in number and gender, whether this sen- tence expresses a comparison or not, and are expressed by one of the following words, le, (masc. sing.,) la, (fem. sing.,) les, (masc. and fern. plur. ;) as in, Will this young man ever become your Ce jeune homme sera-t-il jamais vqtre son-in-law 1 Yes, he will. gendre ^ Oui, il le sera. Will this young lady ever be your Cette demoiselle sera-t-elle jamais votre daughter-in-law 1 Yes, she will. belle-fille 1 Oui, elle la sera. Nobody, my dear, is more of your friend Personne, ma chere, n'est plus votre than I am. amie que je ne la suis. Are these young men your sons 1 Yes, Ces jeunes gens, sont-ils vos fils 1 Oui, they are. ce les sont. 317. (2.) An adjective has neither number nor gender of its own ; it cannot therefore impart either to the pronoun which takes its place ; hence, the following rule . 152 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Whenever the pronoun it is required in French to complete the meaning of a sentence, if it takes the place of an adjective, it should be expressed by the masculine singular pronoun le, whatever may be the number and gender of that adjective ; as in, Are you sick, sir 1 Yes, I am. Etes vous malade, monsieur 1 Oui, je le suis. Are you tired, madam 1 No, I am not. Etes vous fatiguee, madame 1 Non, je ne le suis pas. Are you pleased, ladies 1 Yes, we are. Etes vous contentes, mesdames *? Oui, nous le sommes. 318. (3.) It sometimes happens that a noun is used as an adjec- tive, and it is always the case, when it is neither preceded by the article the or the adjective a; then the pronouns it or thetn are still invariably expressed by le; as in, Ladies, are you relations to Mr. D. 1 Mesdames, etes vous parentes de Mon- Yes, we are. sieur D. 1 Oui, nous le sommes. Gentlemen, are you men of honor 1 Messieurs, etes vous hommes d'hon- Yes, we are. neurl Oui, nous le sommes. In these two sentences, the noun relations and the expression men of honor are mere qualificatives, not being preceded by the article the or the adjective a. 319. An idea is of no number nor gender ; therefore, the pronoun it, employed to take the place of one, is always singular masculine in French and expressed by le; as in, Will you have the kindness to take this Voulez-vous avoir la bonte de porter ce book to your sister'? Yes, I will. livre a votre soeur. Oui, je le ferai avec plaisir. But if the sentence should express a comparison, the pronoun le could be dispensed with ; as in , A name has less influence on man than L'influence des noms sur les hommes one might think. est plus rare qu'on ne pense. Happy people are more numerous than Les gens heureux sont plus communa you think. que vous ne pensez. OF THE EXPRESSIONS TO IT AND THERE, OMITTED IN ENGLISH IN ANSWERING QUESTIONS, AND WHICH SHOULD BE EXPRESSED IN FRENCH WITH THE VERB OF WHICH THEY ARE THE COMPLEMENT. 320. Whenever to it and there are necessary to complete the meaning of a sentence, they should be expressed in French, although PRONOUN. 153 they are omitted in English, and rendered by the word y, unless the verb before which it is to be placed should commence by the vowel i, in which case, euphony requires that this pronoun or adverb should also be omitted in French ; as in, Will you think of rae when I am gone "? Penserez-vous a moi quand je serai Yes, I will (think oi" it.) parti 1 Oui, j' y penserai. Do you think your father will be at Croyez-vous que votre pere soit chez home to-night 1 Yes, I think he lui ce soir 1 Oui, je crois qu'il y will (be there.) sera. Will you go into into the country to- Irez-vous demain a la campagne 1 Oui, morrow 1 Yes, I think I shall (go je crois que j'irai. there.) OF THE PRONOUNS ITSELF, THEMSELVES, (SPEAKING OF THINGS.) 321. The pronouns itself and themselves (speaking of things) are not grammatically used in English without being preceded by a prepo- sition, but their equivalent, se, is employed in many cases, in French, with active and neuter verbs, to express either a situation or an action which is not the result of the interference of any body ; as in. This flower is fading fast (fades itself.) Cette fleur se fletrit-vite. If we do not drink that wine, it will Si nous ne buvons pas ce vin, il se get spoiled (spoil itself.) gatera. I let the tumblers fall and they broke to J'ai laisse tomber les verres et ils se pieces (broke themselves.) sont casse en mille pieces. 322. But itself and themselves, (speaking of things,) preceded by a preposition, are very often used in English, and usage varies in French as to the manner in w-hich they ought to be expressed ; the following examples will show how our best writers have expressed these two pronouns : Vice is odious in itself (of if.s nature.) A favor always carries its reward with itself. Crime always carries remorse with itself. Deception always bears its punishment in itself. Le vice est odieux en soi, or lui-memc. Un bienfait porte toujours sa recom- pense avec soi, or lui. Le crime traine toujours le remords apres soi, or lui. Toute tromperie porte avec elle, or soi, sa punition. It results from these examples, that the pronoun itself is indifferently expressed by soi, lui or elle; that the adjective meme is added to these pronouns, either to avoid an ambiguity or to convey the emphatic meaning implied in the sentence ; the pronoun itself signifies, then, in or of its nature. 154 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 323. The plural pronoun themselves is never expressed by soi, but by eux and elles, followed or not by the adjective meme, in cases similar to the preceding ; as in, Vices are odious in themselves. Favors always carry their reward with themselves. Crimes always carry remorse with themselves. Les vices sont odieux en eux-memes. Les bienfaits portent toujours leur recompense avec eux. Les crimes trainent toujours le remords apres eux. OF THE PRONOUNS ONE'S SELF, HIMSELF, AND OURSELVES, (USED INDEFINITELY.) 324. The pronoun one's self, as well as himself and ourselves, (used indefinitely,) may be used as direct or indirect objects of a verb ; their antecedent is always an indefinite pronoun, a verb in the infinite mood, or a noun used in a vague and indefinite meaning ; and they are expressed by the pronoun soi, without the adjective meme, unless used emphatically ; as in, We (indefinite) ought but seldom to speak of ourselves (indefinite.) It is necessary for everybody to take care of himself (indefinite.) To love one's self and others is the duty of an honest man. In attempting to deceive others, we (indefinite) often deceive ourselves (indefinite.) To love only ourselves (indefinite) is to be good for nothing. To act in this manner is to ruin one's self. Each one works for himself (indefi- nite.) He who ascribes everything to himself (indefinite) has but few friends. A man (indefinite) can speak favorably of himself (indefinite) when he is calumnniated. On ne doit parler que rarement de soi II est necessaire de prendre soin de soi. Aimer soi et les autres est le devoir de l'homme de bien. En essayant de tromper les autres, c'est souvent soi que Von trompe. N' aimer que soi c'est n'etre bon a rien. Agir ainsi c'est se perdre soi-meme (emphatic.) Chacun travaille pour soi. Quiconque rapporte tout a soi n'a pas beaucoup d'amis. Tin homme peut parler avantageuse- ment de soi quand on le calomnie. 325. It sometimes happens that these pronouns are used as nomi- natives ; but it is only by apposition, and they are then expressed by soi-meme: as in, In trying to deceive others, we are En essayant de tromper les autres, on sometimes deceived ourselves. est souvent trompe soi-meme. Although the preceding rules are admitted by most grammarians as laws in our language, some of our best writers have inverted them, PRONOUN. 155 by using soi in relation to a definite noun of person, and lui in con- nection with an indefinite pronoun ; but these are mere licenses, which a foreigner should entirely disregard. REPETITION OF PERSONAL OBJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 326. Personal objective pronouns are invariably repeated before each verb by which they are governed, in simple tenses, but in compound tenses, they are not ; as in, God is the creator of the universe ; we Dieu est le createur de l'univers ; nous ought to fear, serve, and love him. devons le craindre, le servir, et l'adorer. He has so much flattered, praised, II nous a tant flattes, hues et bl&mes, and blamed us, that we do not know que nous ne savons reellement que what to think of him. penser de lui. 327. Whenever the second verb is a compound of the first, and expresses the repetition of the same action, the objective pronoun may not be repeated ; but that repetition cannot be dispensed with, if the second verb express a different action ; as in, I tell it and tell it again ; if you do not Je le dis et redis encore ; si vous ne follow my advice, you will certainly suivez pas mes conseils, vous vous ruin yourself forever. perdrez certainement pour toujours. You will never finish this work; for Vous ne finirez jamais cet ouvrage ; car you do and undo it twenty times a vous le faites et le defaites vingt fois day. par jour. OF TWO OBJECTIVE PRONOUNS GOVERNED BY THE SAME VERB IN ALL THE TENSES OF THAT VERB, EXCEPT IN THE IMPERATIVE MOOD USED AFFIRMATIVELY. 328. Whenever a verb governs two personal pronouns, whether it be in the affirmative, negative or interrogative form, and whatever may be the tense or mood in which that verb is used, except the imperative mood employed affirmatively, these two pronouns are placed before the verb, in the following order : The pronouns me, te, se, nous and vous, are never employed together, and one of them being used, it always comes first ; they are never followed either by Jul, or lair. Le, la, and les, are never employed together ; and if one of them should be used with the verb, it should be placed first, provided none of the five preceding ones are wanted. 156 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Lui and leur are never employed together, and should come first, pro- vided no one of those already mentioned is used with the verb ; but they are never properly used with y. Finally, y always precedes en, which is always the last. The following examples will illustrate these rules : Will you send it, him, her or them to me. I will send it, him, her or them to thee. He will remember it, him, her or them. He will send it, him, her or them to us. They will send it, him, her or them to you. He compels me to it. I will compel thee to it. He condemns himself to it. You compel us to it. I have compelled you to it. Why do you speak to me of it. He will speak to thee about (of) it. He will complain of it. Why did you not speak to us about (of) it. I have spoken to you about (of) it. I will send it him, her or them, to him, to her, or to them. I will compel him, her, or them to it. I will warn him, her or them of it. I will send (to) him (to) her or (to) them some. Will you put a piece to that coatl Yes, I will, (put one of them to it.) Voulez-vous me le, me la, or me les envoyer. Je te le, te la, te les enverrai. II se le, se la, or se les rappellera. II nous le, notes la, or nous les enverra lis vous le, vous la, vous les enverront. 11 m'y force. Je t'y forcerai. II s'y condamne. Vous nous y forcez. Je vous y ai force. Pourquoi m'en parlez-vous. II t 'en parlera. II s'en plaindra. Pourquoi ne nous en avez-vous pas parle. Je vous en ai parle. Je le lui, la lui, les lui, le leur, la leur, les leur enverrai. Je Vy or les y forcerai. Je Pen or les en avertirai. Je lui en or leur en enverrai. Voulez-vous mettre une piece a cet habit 1 Oui, j'y en mettrai une. 329. Whenever the pronouns me, te, se, nous and vous, are to be used with either to him, to her, or to them, as the objects of the same verb, me,te, se, nous or vous, should be placed before that verb, and to him, to her, or to them, should follow it, expressed by d lui, d elle, d eux, or a elles; as in, Will you introduce me to him, to her, Voulez me presenter d lui, d elle, a eux, or to them 1 or d elles ? I will introduce thee to him, to her, or Je te presenterai d lui, d elle, d eux, d to them. elles. He has introduced himself to him, to II s'est presente d lui, d elle, d eux, d her, or to them. elles, &c. 330. Y is never used with lui and leur, because a verb in French cannot have two objects governed by the same preposition, unless they are separated by a conjunction, which, however, would be the case, if y, lui and leur, should be used together, since they stand for to it, to him, to her and to them. This difficulty in the French language will PRONOUN. 157 be explained when speaking of the relation existing between the verb and its objects. OF TWO OBJECTIVE PRONOUNS EMPLOYED WITH THE VERB IN THE IMPERATIVE MOOD USED AFFIRMATIVELY. 331. Whenever a verb employed in the imperative mood used affirm- atively governs two pronouns, these pronouns are placed after that verb, in the following order : Le, la, les, are always placed first, and moi and toi are placed after y, but nous and vous precede it, and en comes the last ; as, Send it, him, her, or them, to him, to Envoyez le lui, la lui, or les lui, le leur, her, or to them. la leur, or les leur. Send it, him, her, or them, to me, or Envoyez le ?noi, la moi, les moi, or le to us. nous, la nous, les nous. Compel me to it, and I shall do it. Forcez-y moi, et je le ferai. Compel us to it, and we shall do it. Forcez nous-y, et nous le ferons. If you have any cheese, give me some Si vous avez du fromage, donnez m'en. Here are some apples; give him, her or Voici des pommes; donnez-Ziw or leur tiiem some (of them.) en, &c. 332. The adverb there, expressed in French by y, follows the same rule as the prononns to it and to them, (applied to things,) also ren- dered by y ; thus we should say, Take me there. Conduisez-y moi. Take us there. Conduisez-nows y. Behave well there. Conduis-y toi bien, Behave well there. Conduisez-vous y &c. bien, &c. Although most grammarians agree upon the respective place of the pronouns moi, toi, and y, usage has now almost admitted that the pro- noun or adverb y should follow the pronouns of the first and second person singular moi, and toi, making an elision of oi, as follows : Take me there. Conduisez m'y. Behave well there. Conduis t'y bien. Send him there. Envoyez Vy. QUESTIONS. 259. What is a pronoun, and how many kinds of pronouns are there * 260. What is a personal pronoun 1 261. How are personal nominative pronouns expressed in French 1 262. What is the place of personal nominative pronouns in affirmative and interrogative sentences 1 14 158 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 263. When a verb in the subjunctive mood is used without que, what is the place of the nominative pronoun % 263. When a verb is used to quote the words of another person, where is the nominative pronoun placed 1 263. What are the adverbs, which, being placed before a verb, require that the nominative pronoun should be placed after that verb 1 264. When a sentence expresses a strong feeling of wonder, indignation, surprise, &c, how are the personal pronouns expressed, and what is their place 1 265. When personal nominative pronouns are used after the verb to be, as its complement, how are they expressed % 265. How are the personal nominative pronouns expressed, when used in answering a question with the defective verbs well, would, should, &c, or any others used in a similar manner 1 266. When a personal nominative pronoun is immediately followed by an adjective, how is it expressed 1 267. How ai-e personal nominative pronouns expressed in distributive sen- tences, and what is called a distributive sentence 1 268. How are the personal nominative pronouns expressed in exclamative sentences 1 269. How are personal nominative pronouns expressed after as and than, in sentences expressing a comparison % 270. How are personal nominative pronouns expressed, when followed by a relative pronoun 1 271. What should be the nature of a noun in order that it may serve as an antecedent for a personal pronoun without creating an ambiguity 1 272. When a verb has for its nominative two pronouns of different persons, united by the conjunction and, in what number and person should the verb be used, if there is a pronoun of the first person among the nominatives, and by what should it be preceded 1 272. If there is no pronoun of the first person among the nominatives, and the two pronouns are of a different person, in what person should the verb be used, and by what should it be preceded 1 272. If the two pronouns be of the third person, what should be done 1 272. When the verb has for its nominative more than one pronoun, what is the respective place of these pronouns 1 272. When, instead of being united by the conjunction and, the pronouns are separated by or, in what person and number is the verb used 1 274. In what cases are the personal nominative pronouns of the first and second persons singular and plural repeated or not in French 1 274. When are the conjunctions which should unite the several propositions forming a sentence, for personal nominative pronouns of the first and second persons, not to be repeated 1 275. When two or several verbs in the third person are not in the same tense, should their nominative pronouns be repeated 1 276. When several verbs in the third person have different objects, should their nominative pronouns be repeated 1 277. When several verbs in the third person plural follow one another, and the conjunction and is suppressed before the last, should their nominative pro- nouns be repeated 1 278. If the conjunction and, which precedes the last verb, is itself followed by a long incidental sentence, should the personal nominative pronoun of the third person be repeated before that last verb 1 279. Although the first verbs in the third person are used without a pronoun, if the last be separated from them by a long incidental sentence, should the verb be preceded by a pronoun 1 279. When several verbs are united by any other conjunction than and, or, and neither, should the personal pronouns of" the third person be repeated 1 280. When is a personal objective pronoun the direct or the indirect object of a verb 1 PRONOUN. 159 281. When personal pronouns are direct objects of a verb, what is their place in all the tenses of that verb, except in the imperative mood used affirmatively, and how are they expressed 1 251. What is the place of objective personal pronouns, when the verb is in the imperative mood used affirmatively, and how are they expressed 1 252. If a verb govern a pronoun and a noun, as its direct objects, what is the place of that noun and pronoun 1 How is the pronoun expressed 1 By what should the verb be preceded, according to the noun and pronoun being separated by the conjunctions and, or, or neither? 284. When personal pronouns are indirect objects of a verb governing the preposition to, d, what is the place of those pronouns 1 How are they expressed in all the tenses except in the imperative mood used affirmatively, and should the preposition be omitted I . When the verb is in the imperative mood used affirmatively, what is die place of the pronouns, and how should they be expressed 1 2 Q 6. Should the verb governing the preposition to, d be reflected, in French 1 What should be die place of die objective pronoun, and should the preposition be expressed * 286. Is diere any difference, in this case, whether the imperative mood be negative or affirmative 1 287. Are there not certain verbs, which, being used in a certain signification, require the pronoun and the preposition to, d to be placed after them 1 What are diose verbs, and what should be their signification. (Ask the question separately for each.) 288. When a verb governs more than one pronoun, or a pronoun and a noun, with the preposition to, d, what is the place of the several pronouns or nouns, and should the preposition be repeated before each 1 2S9. Can a verb, in French, have two direct objects, unless they are separated by a conjunction 1 289. Can a verb, in French, have two indirect objects governed by the same preposition, unless they are separated by a conjunction 1 289. What mode of reasoning should be resorted to in order to ascertain whether a verb governs the preposition to, in French, when that preposition is omitted in English 1 (Ask the pupil to analyze the several sentences given in die grammar in paragraph 289.) 290. When a verb governs a pronoun with any other preposition than the preposition to, d, what is the place of the pronoun in all the tenses of that verb, whether affirmative or negative, and should the preposition be expressed and repeated. 291. How are the pronouns him, her, and them, expressed in French, when preceded by a prepositioii and followed by a relative pronoun, and used instead of that person who ? 292. How are the same pronouns expressed, when not meaning that person who, and when the relative pronoun and the verb of which it is the nominative form an incidental preposition 1 293. Should die objective pronoun be the direct object of the verb, and fol- lowed by a relative pronoun forming an incidental proposition, how should that objective pronoun be expressed, and by what should the first verb be preceded 1 294. What should be done if the relative pronoun should not form an inci- dental proposition with the verb of which it is the nominative 1 295. What is a reflected pronoun 1 296. How are the reflected pronouns expressed in French, whether they be used as direct objects of a verb, or as its indirect objects governed by the prepo- sition to, a ? What is their place 1 297. What is the place of reflected pronouns with a verb in the imperative mood used affirmatively, and how are they expressed in that case 1 298. How are the reflected pronouns expressed, when they are preceded by any other preposition than the preposition to, d, and what is their place 1 29^. When is the adjective meme used with the reflective pronouns 1 160 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 299. When should an active or neuter verb be followed by the reflective pro- nouns moi-meme, toi-meme, lui-meme, &c, whether that verb is reflected or not n - 300. How are the reciprocal pronouns one another and each other expressed in French 1 300. In what number are reciprocal verbs used 1 301. When a reciprocal verb is active, is it also reflected 1 301. When the reciprocal action takes place between more than two persons, in what number is the pronoun Vun I'autre used 1 302. Whenever a reciprocal verb is neuter and governs the preposition to, d, is that verb reflected, and what is the place of the preposition % 302. In the case of the neuter verb governing the preposition to, d, does the reciprocal pronoun follow the same rule in reference to number and gender as in that of the verb being active 1 303. When the reciprocal verb, being neuter, governs any other preposition than the preposition to, d, is that verb still reflected 1 What is the place of the preposition, and what should be the number and gender of the pronoun Vun V autre? 304. When the pronouns it and them (speaking of things) are used without a preposition, are they expressed by any other words than him, her, and them, (applied to persons) 1 308. How are of it, to it, and of them, and to them, expressed in French (ap- plied to things) 1 337. Are not the pronouns ye and en sometimes used in speaking of persons, and in what case % SOS. What is understood by saying of a noun that it is personified 1 308. When a noun of things is personified, how are the pronouns it and them expressed after a preposition % 308. When it or them, preceded by a preposition other than to and of, relate to names of things which are not personified, what is to be done in reference to those pronouns in French % How should the sentence be turned 1 (The teacher should examine separately the examples given in the paragraphs 309, 310, 311, 312, 313, and 314.) 315. Whenever the pronouns it and them, understood in English, are required, in French, in order to complete the meaning of an answer, should they be expressed in French 1 316, 317, 318, 319. How are they expressed when taking the place of a noun, an adjective, or an idea, and why are they so expressed 1 318. When a noun is used as an adjective, how is the pronoun it expressed, which corresponds to that noun 1 319. In sentences in which the pronoun it, understood in English, ex- presses a comparison, can the pronoun it be suppressed in French as well as in English 1 320. Whenever the pronoun y, to it, or the adverb y, there, is understood in English, should it be expressed in French 1 320. What is the only exception to the preceding rule *? 321. Although the pronouns itself and themselves (applied to things) are not properly used in English without a preposition, are they not frequently used in French, and how should they be expressed 1 322. 323. When itself and themselves are preceded by a preposition, how should they be expressed 1 324. How are the pronouns one , s self and himself and ourselves (used indefin- itely) expressed in French, when they are preceded or not by a preposition 1 324. When is the adjective me/ne employed with the pronoun soi, for one's self, himself, and ourselves (used indefinitely) 1 325. Whenever the pronouns one's self or ourselves are used as nominatives by apposition, how are they expressed in French 1 326. Are objective pronouns invariably repeated before each verb 1 327. If the second verb is a compound of the first, and expresses the repeti- tion of the same action, should the objective pronoun be repeated % What should PRONOUN. 161 be done if the second verb should express the reverse of the action expressed by the first 1 328. When a verb governs two pronouns, in what order should these pro- nouns be used, and where should they be placed when the verb is not in the imper- ative mood used affirmatively 1 329. Whenever the pronouns me, te, se, nous and vous, are to be used with any of the expressions to him, to her, and to them, where are these last pronouns placed, and how should they be expressed 1 330. Is y ever used with lui and leur? Why is it not 1 331. Whenever two pronouns are to be used with a verb in the imperative mood used affirmatively, in what order should they be used, and how should they be expressed 1 OF ADJECTIVE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 333. Grammarians do not agree upon the name to be given to these pronouns ; they are called, by some, mere adjectives, while others have preserved the old denomination of pronouns, with the qualifica- tion of possessive, as they always denote possession. Both of these pretensions are sustained by arguments of equal force ; but as this discussion has no influence upon the rules which relate to the word itself, and it being only necessary to know how to use it properly, we shall take no part in the matter, and, to satisfy both parties, will call this part of speech, Adjective Possessive Pronoun. The pronouns of this denomination are divided into two classes : 1st. Those which are always joined to a noun. 2d. Those which are never joined to a noun. OF ADJECTIVE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS ALWAYS JOINED TO A NOUN. 334. Among this class of pronouns, some refer only to one person, and some to several. Those which refer only to one person, as the possessor, are : For the first person singular : (My) mon ma mes ♦* second " " (Thy) ton ta tes « third " (His, her) son sa ses Mon, ton, and son, are masculine singular. Ma, ta, and sa, are feminine singular. Mes, tes, and ses, are masculine and feminine plural. Those which refer to several persons as possessing a single object are : r the first person plural ; (Our) notre notre ■ second " " (Your) votre votre " third " (Their) leur leur 14* 162 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Notre, votre, and leur, are masculine and feminine singular. Those referring to several persons possessing several objects, are : First person, (Our) nos. Second person, (Your) vos. Third person, (Their) leurs. Nos, vos, and leurs, are masculine and feminine plural. In English, these pronouns agree in number and gender with the possessor ; while, in French, they agree with the object possesssed, and always precede it ; as, My horse, Mon cheval. (masculine.) Thy horse, Ton cheval. " His or her horse, Son cheval. " The pronoun which precedes horse remains in the masculine, what- ever may be the owner, because cheval is masculine. My cow, Ma vache. (feminine.) Thy cow, Ta vache. " His or her cow, Sa vache. " The pronoun which precedes cow remains in the feminine, what- ever may be the owner, because vache is feminine. My horses and cows, Mes chevaux et mes vaches. Thy horses and cows, Tes chevaux et tes vaches. His or her horses and cows, Ses chevaux et ses vaches. The pronouns which precede horses and cows do not vary on account of the gender of these two nouns, as they belong to either. Our horse and cow, Notre cheval et notre vache. Your horse and cow, Votre cheval et votre vache. Their horse and cow, Leur cheval et leur vache. The pronouns notre, votre, and leur, being masculine and feminine, do not vary before cheval and vache; but it must be understood, that, although they represent the third person plural, they are used in the singular, because they represent the property of one horse or one cow, divided among several individuals. But, if we wish to speak of several horses and several cows belonging to several individuals, then we have to employ the plural form of these very same pronouns of the third person plural ; as, Our horses and cows, Nos chevaux et nos vaches. Your horses and cows, Vos chevaux et vos vaches. Their horses and cows, Leurs chevaux et leurs vaches. PRONOUN. 163 These pronouns, nos, vos, and leurs, being of either gender, do not vary before masculine or feminine nouns. Or inn!: PRONOUNS OUR, YOUR, THEIR, XOTRE, VOTRE, LEUR, SOMETIMES USED IX THE PLURAL, SOMETIMES IN THE SINGULAR, IN FRENCH, ACCORDING TO THE MEANING OF THE SENTENCE. 335. Whenever the pronouns ow , your, and their, are used in English before plural nouns, it becomes necessary to ascertain whether any idea of plurality is attached to those nouns, whether the idea of plurality having been sufficiently expressed by the nominative of the verb, the nouns are only used in their abstract meaning, or, finally, whether these nouns are ever used in the plural, in French. In the former case, the pronoun and noun should be used in the plural ; in the two others, they ought to remain in the singular ; as in, Our heart experiences the want of Notre cceur eprouve le besoin d'aimer. love. Our hearts were struck with a feeling D'un sentiment d'horreur nos cceurs of horror. etaient frappes. We risked our lives in attempting to Nous avons risque notre vie en tachant save yours. de vous sauver. Tell them that if they ever come back Dites leur que s'ils reviement jamais again, I will break their necks. ici, je leur casserai le cou. Ladies, stop your impatience, and give Mesdames, moderez votre impatience, way to your humanity. et abandonnez-vous a votre human- he. In the first sentence, the noun heart is used in an abstract meaning, and does not imply an idea of plurality. In the second, the same noun refers to several persons whose hearts were individually struck with horror. In the third and fourth, the idea of plurality is sufficiently expressed by the nominative of the verb. In the last, the nouns impatience and humanite are never used in the plural, in French, when employed to express a feeling of impa- tience or humanity. OF THE PRONOUNS OUR AND YOUR, RELATING TO ONE PERSON ALONE. 335. (bis) It is customary among writers and orators, when addressing the public, to make use of the personal pronoun we instead of /; but the adjectives and participles which refer to this pronoun should then be used in the singular, since they relate only to a single individual ; and the possessive adjective pronoun be employed, as if in reality it related to several persons, and expressed by notre or nos 164 FRENCH GRAMMAR. according to the following noun being in the pluial or in the sin- gular ; as in, We have done all in our power for our Nous avons fait tous nos efforts pom grammar to be as complete as possi- que notre grammaire, fut aussi com- ble. plete que possible. If we are not sure of convincing you. Si nous ne sommes pas sur de vous we are sure at least our motives are avoir convaincu, nous sommes au pure. moins certain de la purete de nos in- tentions. As a matter of politeness, the personal pronoun of the second person plural is used in French, as in English, instead of that of the second person singular, when addressing a person we are familiar with ; in these instances, the possessive pronouns of the second person plural, votre, vos, should be used in French, and not those of the second person singular, ton or tes ; thus, speaking to a single person, we should say, politely, You apply yourself too much to your Vous etes trop appliqui dans vos etudes , studies. (and not, dans tes 6tudes.) OF THE AGREEMENT OF THE ADJECTIVE POSSESSIVE PRONOUN. 336. The possessive adjective pronoun agrees in French with the thing possessed, and not with the possessor, as in English ; that is to say, it is always of the same number and gender as the noun before which it is placed ; as in, Your sister is very amiable, but her Votre sceur est fort aimable, mais ses en- children are very troublesome. fants sont insupportables. I like your brother, but I cannot bear J'aime beaucoup votre frere, mais je ne his wife. puis souffrir safemme. What has your daughter done with her Que votre fille a-t-elle fait de son livre? book! 337. Exception. Whenever an adjective possessive pronoun is placed before a feminine noun beginning with a vowel or an h mute euphony requires that pronoun to be used in the masculine ; as in, Her image follows me everywhere. Son image (fem.) me suit partout. His humanity is proverbial. Son humanite (fem.) est proverbiale. PRONOUN. 165 REPETITION OF THE ADJECTIVE POSSESSIVE PRONOUN. 338. The possessive adjective pronoun indicating the same views of the mind in reference to the noun as the article does, with only an additional idea of possession, those two parts of speech should follow the same rules in most cases ; and we might, perhaps, dispense with the repetition of those rules here ; but as foreigners cannot hear too often the same principles, especially when they differ with those of their own language in cases of similar nature, we will repeat, for the possessive pronouns, what we have already explained, in speaking of the article. OF THE REPETITION OF THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS WITH TWO NOUNS UNITED BY THE CONJUNCTION AND, ET. 339. Whenever the possessive pronouns are used with several nouns in the singular, united by the conjunction and, expressed or understood, these pronouns should be repeated before each nonn ; but when the nouns are in the plural, although they are generally repeated, there are many cases in which usage allows that they should be used but once ; as in, He has the same faults as his father and II a les memes defauts que son pere et mother. sa mere. Resemble your fathers and mothers, Ressemblez a vos peres et meres, et and be, as they were, a blessing for soyez, comme eux, la benediction de your country. votre pays. Children resemble to some extent their Les enfants ont des ressemblances avec fathers aud mothers. leurs peres et leurs meres. Although usage authorizes the omission of the pronoun, as may be seen by the above examples, it is better that foreigners should not avail themselves of this privilege, for it is difficult for them to ascer- tain when they may use it with propriety or not. OF THE REPETITION OF THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUN WITH TWO NOUNS UNITED BY THE CONJUNCTION OR, OU. 340. Whenever two nouns, united by the conjunction or, ou, repre- sent objects of a different nature, the possessive pronoun should be repeated before the second ; but if the second noun is only used to explain the meaning of the first, the repetition of the pronoun is not necessary ; as in, You shall not leave this place without Vous ne sortirez pas d'ici sans me giving me your money or your donner votre argent ou vos habits. clothes. The Indians and the Jews are much Les Indiens et les Juifs sont trda attached to their castes or tribes. attaches a leurs castes ou trikus. 166 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Money and clothes are two different things, but castes and tubes are synonymous. OP THE REPETITION OP THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS WITH TWO ADJECTIVES UNITED BY THE CONJUNCTION AND, ET. 341. Whenever two adjectives, united by the conjunction and, et, are used to qualify the same noun, the possessive pronoun is not repeated ; but if the two adjectives qualify two nouns, one being expressed, and the other understood, the pronoun should be repeated before each ; although, if the two adjectives are placed after the noun, the repetition ought not to take place ; as in, Farewell, my good and worthy friend; Adieu, mon bon et digne ami; ne per- be of good courage, and think some- dez pas courage, et pensez quelque- times of me. fois a moi. Every man has his good and evil Chaque homme a son bon et son mauvais genius. genie. She has been placed on earth to share Elle a ete mise sur la terre pour parta- my good and evil fortune. ger ma fortune bonne et mauvaise. The last sentence is grammatical, but it would be better to say : Elle a ete mise sur la terre pour partager ma bonne et ma mauvaise fortune. In the first sentence, there is but one friend spoken of, — he was good and worthy ; in the second, there are two genii, one good, the other bad ; hence the repetition of the pronoun before the second adjective. OP THE REPETITION OP THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUN WITH TWO ADJECTIVES UNITED BY THE CONJUNCTION OR, OU. 342. Whenever two adjectives united by the conjunction or, ou, are not synonymous, the pronoun is repeated before the last ; unless the two adjectives should be placed after the noun, in which case, the pronoun is never repeated ; as in, We shall all be judged according to our Chacun de nous sera juge selon ses good or bad actions. bonnes ou ses mauvaises actions. Every village has now its own history, Chaque village a maintenant son his- either true or false. toire, vraie oufausse. OF THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS OF THE FIRST PERSON SINGULAR, WITH THE NOUNS FATHER, MOTHER, &c. 343. Whenever the nouns father, mother, sister, brother, uncle, aunt, child, friend, or any others of a similar nature, are used in an PRONOUN. 167 apostrophe, or in speaking of our own relatives, they are preceded, in French, by the possessive pronouns mon, ma, mes, although these pronouns are omitted in English ; as in, Good morning, fadier; how is mother Bon jour, mon pere; comment se porte to-day 1 ma mere, or maman, ce matin 1 Come, children, let us go and take a Venez, mes enfants, allons nous prome- walk. ner. Father, have you seen aunt Lucy to- Mon pere, avez-vous vu ma tante Lucie day 1 aujourdhui 1 Although a person should address children who are not his own, it is a matter of kindness to use the pronoun my, in French ; as in, Well, children, how is your father this Eh bien ! mes enfants, comment se afternoon 1 trouve votre p£re aujourdhui 1 OF THE DIFFERENCE EXISTING BETWEEN THE PERSONAL PRONOUN LEUR, MEANING TO THEM, AND THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUN LEUR, MEANING THEIR. 344. The personal pronoun leur, used for to them, should not be mistaken for the possessive pronoun leicr, meaning their; for the former never takes the sign of the plural, whilst the latter agrees in number and gender with the noun which it precedes ; as in, Do not speak to them of my affairs. Ne leur parlez pas de mes affaires. They have sold their horses and car- lis ont vendu leurs chevaux et leurs riages. voitures. OF THE POSSESSrVE PRONOUNS USED IN ENGLISH BEFORE NOUNS EX- PRESSING A PART OF THE BODY, OR ANYTHING BELONGING TO OUR MORAL OR PHYSICAL CONSTITUTION. 345. Whenever any of the possessive pronouns is used before a noun expressing a part of our body, or anything which belongs to our moral or physical constitution, or when we speak of an object or person which is so designated by the verb, or the sense of the sen- tence, as not to leave any ambiguity in regard to the owner of what is spoken of, the genius of the language requires that the article the should be used in French, instead of the English pronoun. This peculiarity of the French language gives rise to the three fol- lowing rules : 168 FRENCH GRAMMAR. OF CASES IN WHICH THE ARTICLE THE ALONE SHOULD BE USED IN FRENCH, INSTEAD OF THE ENGLISH POSSESSIVE PRONOUN, BEFORE NOUNS THE SIGNI. FICATION OF WHICH HAS BEEN EXPLAINED IN THE PRECEDING CHAPTER. 346. Whenever by using the article the alone, before such nouns as have been designated in the preceding chapter, no ambiguity arises in the sentence, it should be invariably employed in French, instead of the English possessive pronoun ; as in, I have lost my voice. J'ai perdu la voix. He lost his life. II a perdu la vie. My head aches, (or, I have a pain in J'ai mal a la tele. my head.) I have a sore throat, (or, I have a pain J'ai mal d la gorge. in my throat.) Your daughter tells a falsehood when- Votre fille dit un mensonge toutes les ever she opens her mouth. fois qu'elle ouvre la bouche. These sentences are perfectly clear with the article ; for nobody can lose any other voice or life than his own ; no one can have a pain in any other head or throat than his ; a person cannot open any other mouth than his own, in order to tell a lie. Remark. But if the nouns expressing a part of our body, or any of our faculties, were qualified by an adjective, the possessive pronouns should be used in French as they are in English ; as in, She raised her white hands to heaven. Elle leva ses blanches mains vers le ciel. I have lost my fine voice. J'ai perdu ma belle voix. What is the matter with your little Qu'avez-vous a votre petit pied? footl OF CASES IN WHICH AMBIGUITY WOULD ARISE IN THE SENTENCE BY USING THE ARTICLE THE ALONE, INSTEAD OF THE ENGLISH POSSESSIVE PRONOUN. 347. If an ambiguity should arise in a sentence by using the article the alone, as clearness is the first condition of good language, that ambiguity should be remedied in some way; for that purpose, an objective pronoun is used with the verb, to show distinctly what is the body to which the part spoken of belongs ; as in, He has broken his arm, (he to himself II s'est casse le bras. has broken the arm.) Do not press my hand so much, (do not Ne me pressez pas tant la main. to me press the hand so much.) Thank God for having saved your life, Remerciez Dieu de vans avoir sauv6 la (thank God for having saved to you the life.) vie. PRONOUN. 169 It will be necessary to cut off your leg, 1^ faudra qu'on vous coupe la jambe t if they wish to save your life, (it will si l'on veut vous sauver la vie be necessary to cut off the leg to you, if they wish to save the life to you.) If, in the first sentence, the article the were used alone, there would be ambiguity ; for by saying simply, he has broken the arm, one does not see what arm has been broken ; but the ambiguity disappears by the use of the pronoun himself, preceded by the preposition to ; for if the person spoken of has broken something to himself, and that some- thing is the arm, it is clear that it is his arm. The second sentence, with the article the alone, would also be ambiguous, for nothing would show what hand should not be pressed so much ; — but with the addition of the pronoun, the ambiguity dis- appears ; for if I tell a person not to press something too much to me, and that something be the hand, it is clear that I mean my hand. Should the article the be used alone in the third sentence, it would not appear what life was saved ; because one might as well thank God for having saved the life of any one else, as his own ; — but by using the pronoun vous with the verb, it becomes evident that if T ought to thank God for having saved something to me, and that something is life, that life is mine. The same mode of reasoning is applicable to the last sentence, and shows how the rule we have given in the first part of this chapter should be applied. Remark. When the noun expressing a part of our body, or any of our mental faculties, is qualified by an adjective other than droit or gauche, right or left, the possessive pronoun should be used in French, as in English, with or without the personal objective pro- noun ; as in, What ! you have had your beautiful Quoi ! vous vous etes fait couper votre arm cut off 1 beau bras ? or, Quoi ! vous avez fait couper votre beau bras? Why did you have her little tooth Pourquoi lui avez-vous fait arracher sa pulled out *? petite dent ? or, Pourquoi avez-vous fait arracher sa petite dent? OF CASES IN WHICH THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUN USED IN ENGLISH SHOULD ALSO BE EMPLOYED IN FRENCH. 348. There are cases in which, by using the article the alone before nouns expressing a part of our body, the sentence is ambiguous, and which do not admit of a personal pronoun being placed before the 15 170 FRENCH GRAMMAR. verb, as in the preceding chapter, in order to destroy that ambiguity , it then becomes necessary to use the possessive pronoun in French as is done in English ; as in, I see my leg swelling. Je vois ma jambe qui enfle, (and not la jambe qui m'enfle.) He gave him his hand to kiss. II lui donna sa main a baiser. She boldly gave her arm to the sur- Elle donna hardiment son bras au chirur- geon. gien. He loses all his blood. II perd tout son sang. In the first instance, I may see my neighbor's leg swelling, as well as my own ; and the sentence je vois la jambe qui m'enfle not being French, the possessive pronoun should be used, to relieve the ambi- guity. In the second, the person spoken of could give the hand of some- body else to kiss. In the third, the lady could take the arm of another person to the surgeon. In the last, the meaning would not be complete without the pos- sessive pronoun ; — and in none of these three last cases would the construction of the language admit of a personal objective pronoun being used to relieve the ambiguity caused by the use of the article. 349. But we say, in a familiar manner, Give me your arm, Donnez-moi le bras, although another arm could be given instead of that asked for ; because the persons speaking, in such cases, are so situated as to leave no doubt in the mind as to the arm which one wishes to have. 350. Usage, in many instances, requires that the possessive pro- noun should be employed where no possible ambiguity could arise from the use of the article ; as in, He always finds himself on his legs. II se trouve toujours sur ses jambes. I saw it with my own eyes. Je l'ai vu de mes propres yeux. I heard it with my own ears. Je l'ai entendu de mes propres oreilhs. For a man cannot find himself on any other legs but his own, or see with others' eyes and hear with others' ears. 351. It is also customary, when speaking of a disease which has become periodical, to use the possessive pronoun before the noun which designates that disease ; as in, My headache has tormented me the Ma migraine m'a tourment£ toute la whole day. journee. PRONOUN. 171 I have my usual pain in my leg. J'ai mon mal dejambe. I have a sore throat, as usual. J'ai mun mal de gorge. As if a man could be actually tormented by the headache of another person, or experience a pain in another person's leg- or throat, the possessive pronoun shows, in cases similar to the above, that the diseases spoken of are not merely accidental. OF CASES IN WHICH THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUN, BEING USED WITH A NOUN FOLLOWED BY A RELATIVE PRONOUN, IS EXPRESSED IN FRENCH BY THE ARTICLE. 352. Whenever a possessive pronoun is used in English with a noun preceding a relative pronoun, which is itself followed by a nominative pronoun of the same person as the possessive, this pos- sessive pronoun is expressed, in French, by the article ; as in, Give me my pocketbook that I bought Donnez-moi le portefeuille que j'ai in New York. achete a New York. How do you like your carriage which Comment trouvez-vous la voiture que you have received from France 1 vous avez fait venir de France 1 Where have you put my stockings that Ou avez-vous mis les bas que j'ai rac- I mended this morning 1 commodes ce matin 1 Although sentences constructed in this way do not always appear sufficiently clear, the language does not admit of any other construc- tion ; and if the person spoken to should be in doubt, as might be the case, in the first and last sentences, about the thing spoken of, that doubt would cease by his asking, Which pocketbook'? What stockings ? OF THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS OF THE THIRD PERSON, HIS, HER, ITS, AND THEIR, (APPLDZD TO THINGS.) 353. The possessive pronouns of the third person singular and plural, when relating to persons, are used in French as they are in English, except in the cases mentioned above, in which the article is used in their stead ; but the pronouns its and their, (applied to things,) have no distinct equivalent in French, and present some dif- ficulties. 35 i. (1.) Whenever its and their (applied to things) are employed in English in the same proposition as the noun to which they relate 172 FRENCH GRAMMAR. they are expressed in French by the pronouns of persons, son, sa, ses, leur, leurs ; as in, The country has its amusements. Le campagne a ses agrements. These languages have their beauties. Ces langues ont leurs beautes. Boston and its neighborhood present to Boston et ses environs presentent a the eve the finest prospect. l'ceil la plus belle perspective. Have "you seen Paris, its theatres, Avez-vous vu Paris, ses theatres, ses buildings, and amusements 1 edifices, et ses amusements 1 355. (2.) The pronouns its and their are also expressed by son, sa, ses, leur, and leurs, whenever they are used before a noun governed by a preposition, and referring to something mentioned before or after ; as in, It is on account of its climate, soil, and C'est a cause de son climat, de son sol, productions, that France is so much et de ses productions, que la France admired by foreigners. est tant admiree des etrangers. The water was so high that in its L'eau etait si haute que dans sa course course it swept away several houses elle entraina plusieurs maisons et and trees. plusieurs arbres. 356. (3.) The pronouns its and their are still expressed by son, sa, ses, leur, and leurs, when they are used before a noun qualified oy an adjective, although these pronouns do not stand in the same proposition as the noun to which they relate ; provided that noun, thus qualified, is the nominative of the next verb ; as in, This town is a delightful spot; its reg- Cette ville est un lieu charmant; ses ular buildings please me much, and batiments reguliers me plaisent beau- its peaceful inhabitants are very coup, et ses habitants paisibles sont amiable. tres aimables. 357. (4.) The pronouns its and their should yet be expressed by son, sa, ses, leur, and leurs, when the noun before which they are placed, not being qualified by an adjective, and not being in the same proposition as the antecedent of the pronoun, stands as the nominative or the object of a verb after which the proposition of is or may be used ; as in, This city is magnificent; I admire the Cette ville est magnifique; j ! 'admire la beauty of its streets and the splendor beaute de ses rues et la splendeur of its edifices. de ses edifices. London is a very fine city, although its Londres est une tres belle ville, quoique houses are brick-built. ses maisons soient de brique. 358. (5.) But when the possessive pronouns it and their do not stand in the same proposition as their antecedents, and the preposition of de, does not precede or follow the verb of which the noun which PRONOUN. 173 they qualify is the nominative or the object, those pronouns are expressed in French by the article the, and the personal pronoun en accompanies the verb of the proposition in which they stand ; as in, These trees are very old, but their Ces arbres sont tres vieux, mais les fruit is delicious. fruits en sont delicieux. Why do you not drink wine 1 Because Ponrquoi ne buvez-vous pas de vin 1 I fear its effects. Parceque j'en redoute les effets. I admire this statue; its head is sub- J'admire cette statue; la tete en est lime. sublime. Greece was fond of war, although she La Grece aiinait la guerre, quoiqu'elle was aware of its danger. en connut les dangers. When we live in a country, we must Quand on vit dans un pays, il faut en follow its customs. suivre les usages. Philadelphia is a tine ci(y; its streets Philadelphie est une belle ville ; les rues are large and regularly built. en sont larges et bien baties. Although the preceding rules are considered by all grammarians as the laws of good language, many writers have set them aside ; but foreigners have no such privilege ; everything for them should be fixed and precise, and the rules we have just given will, in all cases, be a sure guide for them. QUESTIONS. 333. What is an adjective pronoun % 333. Into how many classes are the adjective possessive pronouns divided 1 334. What are the possessive adjective pronouns of the first person singular and plural, which are always joined to a noun 1 334. What are the possessive adjective pronouns of the second and third per- sons singular and plural, which are always joined to a noun '? 335. When the pronouns our, your, and their, are used in English, before plural nouns, should diese nouns always be used in the plural, in French 1 In what case should they be used in the singular 1 335. When the pronoun we is used in English, in reference to a single per- son, are the adjectives or participles relating to that pronoun used in the singu- lar or in the plural 1 And are the possessive pronouns our and your, connected with that plural pronoun we, expressed in French by the corresponding words, notre and votre. or by the pronouns of die first and second persons singular 1 336. With what nouns do the possessive pronouns agree 1 with the possessor or the thin? or persons possessed 1 337. When the possessive pronouns are used with a feminine noun beginning with a vowel or an h mute, are they used in the feminine or in the masculine 1 338. Do the possessive pronouns follow the same rule as the article in refer- ence to their repetition ] 339. When possessive pronouns are used with several nouns in the singular, separated by the conjunction and, should they be repeated before each 1 Is there any difference when the nouns are in the plural 1 340. When these pronouns are used with several nouns united by or, in what cases are they repeated or omitted % 341. When adjective possessive pronouns are used with a noun qualified by 15* 174 FRENCH GRAMMAR. two adjectives united by and, when are they repeated before the second adjec- tive and when omitted 1 342. When these pronouns are used with a noun qualified by two adjectives united by or, when are they repeated before the second adjective and when omitted 1 343. What is the rule in reference to the use of the possessive adjective pro- noun of the first person singular, in French, with the nouns father, mother, brother, sister, friend, child, or children, &C.1 344. What is the difference existing between the personal and possessive pronoun leur? 345. 346. Whenever the possessive adjective pronouns my, thy, his, &c, are used in English before nouns expressing a part of the body, or any things belong- ing to our moral constitution, how are they expressed in French, when those nouns are not qualified by an adjective 1 346. How are these pronouns expressed, when the nouns expressing a part of the body are qualified by an adjective 1 347. If an ambiguity should arise from the use of the article alone, what should be done, in French, in order to keep the article and destroy the ambi- guity 1 348. 349, 350. Are there not cases which require in French, as well as in English, the use of the adjective possessive pronoun before the class of nouns mentioned above 1 351. When speaking of a pain or disease the return of which is periodical, is the article or possessive pronoun used before the noun expressing the disease itself, or the part of the body affected with it 1 352. Are possessive adjective pronouns used in French as they are in English before nouns preceding a relative pronoun, when that relative pronoun is followed by a personal nominative pronoun of the same person as the posses- sive 1 353. Have the possessive pronouns its and their, (applied to things,) an equivalent in French, distinct from his, her, and their, (applied to persons.) 354. How are its and their expressed in French, when they are employed in the same proposition as the noun of things to which they relate 1 355. How are these pronouns expressed when they are preceded by a prepo- sition, and the noun which they qualify relates to something mentioned before or after 1 356. How are these pronouns expressed when they precede a noun qualified by an adjective, and they stand, or not, in the same proposition as their ante- cedent. 1 367. How are these pronouns expressed when the noun which they precede is used with a verb, after which the preposition de, of, is or may be used in French 1 358. When the pronouns its and their do not stand in the same proposition as their antecedent, and the preposition de, of, is not used before or after the verb of which the noun qualified by these pronouns is the nominative or the object, how are they expressed in French 1 OF POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS WHICH ARE NEVER JOINED TO A NOUN. 359. These pronouns may relate to one or several persons. Those which relate only to one person as the possessor, are, For the first person singular : Mine, le mien, la mienne, les miens, les miennes. PRONOUN. 175 For die second person singular : Thine, le tien, la tienne, les tiens, les tiennes. For the third person singular : His, her, its, le sien, la sienne, les siens, les siennes. Le mien, le tien, le sien, are singular masculine. La mienne, la tienne, la sienne, " feminine. Les mieus, les tiens, les siens, are plural masculine. Les mieunes, les tiennes, les siennes, " feminine. Those which relate to several persons possessing only one object, are, First person piura. : Ours, le notre, la notre. Second " " Yours, le votre, la votre. Third " " Theirs, le leur, la leur. Le notre, le votre, le leur, are masculine La notre, la votre, la leur, are feminine. Those, in fine, which relate to several persons possessing several objects, are, First person plural : Ours, les notres. Second " " Yours, les votres. Third " Theirs, les leurs. Les notres, les votres, and les leurs, are of either gender. These pronouns are never joined to a noun, but they relate to one, and cannot be used unless the noun to which they relate has been expressed before ; as, I have sold my horse; have you still J'ai vendu mon cheval; avez-vous en- yours 1 core le votre? You destroy your health; I keep mine. Vous detruisez votre sante; je conserve la mienne. They agree in number and gender with the noun to which they relate. 360. Merchants, when they correspond with each other, generally do not observe this rule ; nothing is more common among them than beginning an answer to a letter by this barbarous phrase : I have received yours dated such a J'ai recu la votre datee de tel jour day. &c. The word lettre not being already expressed, the pronoun cannot be used ; the phrase should be turned thus ; J'ai recu votre lettre datee, &c. 176 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 361. The personal pronouns are employed instead of the pos- sessive, when nouns of things are used instead of nouns of persons ; There is no better writer than he. II n'y a pas de meilleure plume que lui. There is not in the world a better II n'y a pas au monde de meilleure fencer than you. epee que vous. In these two sentences, plume is used for ecrivain, (writer,) and epee for tireur, (fencer.) But if those two nouns were taken in their natural meaning, the possessive pronouns should be employed ; as, There are no better pens than yours. II n'y a pas de meilleures plumes que les votrcs. There is no better sword than yours. II n'y a pas de meilleure epee que la vbtre. If, in the two first sentences, the possessive pronoun was used instead of the personal, their meaning would be, There is no better pen than your pen; There is no better sword than your sword ; which is not the idea which the speaker has in mind. 362. The adjective possessive pronouns are never related to a noun taken indefinitely ; as in sentences like the following : He is not disposed to give pleasure, II n'est pas d'humeur a faire plaisir, et and I am disposed to be benevolent. le mien est d'etre bienfaisant. In the first ages of the world, the Dans les premiers ages du monde, father of each family governed it chaque pere de famille gouvernait with absolute power. la sienne avec un pouvoir absolu. Because a noun employed without an article, or without the equiva- lent of an article, cannot be followed by a pronoun referring to that noun. The above sentences should be expressed as follows : II n'est pas d'humeur a faire plaisir, et moi, je suis d'une humeur bienfaisante. Dans les premiers ages du monde, chaque p8re de famille gouvernait ses enfants avec un pouvoir absolu. m PRONOUN. 177 OF THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS MINE, THINE, HIS, HERS, OURS, YOURS, AND THEIRS. OF THE IDIOMATICAL EXPRESSIONS A, (OR THAT) FRIEND OF MINE, A (OR THAT) BOOK OF YOURS, &c. 363. Whenever the possessive pronouns mine, thine, his, &c, are used after a noun governing the preposition of, as, A friend of mine, Ttco books of yours, &c, they form, with that noun, an idiomatical expression, which cannot be rendered literally in French, and should be turned by : One of my friends, Two of your books; as in, I have found two books of yours among J'ai trouve deux de vos livres parmi les mine. miens. I met this morning with a friend of J'ai rencontre ce matin un de mes amis mine that I had not seen for ten que je n'avais pas vu depuis dix years. ans. 364. But if the noun is preceded by one of the demonstrative pro- nouns this, that, these, or those, as in, That friend of mine, Those books of yours, the sentence should be altered, and turned by, my friend, your books, and the possessive adjective pronouns my, your, should be expressed according to the rules given in the paragraph 352 ; as in the following sentences : What has become of that friend of Qu'est devenu votre ami, M. C*** 1 yours, Mr. C*** » What lias become of that friend of Qu'est devenu Vami que vous vantiez yours, Mr. C***, whom you praised tant, M. C*** 1 so much 1 OF THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS MINE, THINE, HIS, &c, USED WITH THE VERB TO BE, TO EXPRESS AN IDEA OF RIGHT, DUTY, OR TURN. 365. Whenever any of the possessive pronouns mine, thine, his, &c, is used with the verb to be, to express an idea of right or duty, it forms with that verb an idiomatical expression, which cannot be rendered literally in French ; instead of the possessive pronoun, the preposition to is used, followed by an objective pronoun, of the same person and number as the possessive pronoun, and the prepo- sition of, de, is used after the objective*pronoun, before the next verb ; as in, It is mine to command, and yours to C'est a moi de commander, et d vous obey. d'obeir. The same French expression, Cest d, moi, is sometimes used to 178 FRENCH GRAMMAR. convey an idea of turn ; in such case, instead of the preposition of, the preposition to, &, is used before the verb ; as in, It is my turn to play, and not yours. C'est a moi d jouer, et non pas d vous. OF THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS MINE, THINE, HIS, &c, USED WITH THE VERB TO BE, AND CONVEYING AN IDEA OF PROPERTY. 366. When the possessive pronouns mine, thine, his, &c, are used with the verb to be, to convey an idea of property, as in, Is this book yours? Yes, it is mine; they are expressed in French in two differ- ent ways. If the thing spoken of, as book, in this case, is pointed out singly, and the sentence signify, Does this book belong to you ? the answer, It is mine, only asserts the right of the owner to the property of the book, and is expressed by, C'est & moi, using a per- sonal objective pronoun of the same person as the English possessive pronoun, with the verb to be, followed by the preposition to. But if there were several books, and the person who speaks should wish to ascertain which one is the property of the person spoken to, the answer, Yes, it is mine, would not only assert the right of the owner to the book spoken of, but would do it to the exclusion of the others ; in cases similar to this, the possessive pronoun mine is expressed literally in French, and the answer should be, Oui, c'est le mien; as in, Is this watch yours 1 No, it is not Cette montre, est-elle a vous 1 Non, mine. (Meaning only, it does not elle n'est pas d moi. belong to me.) Is this your watch 1 ? No, it is not Est-ce la. votre montre 1 Non, ce n'est mine. (Meaning not only that the pas la mienne. watch is not mine, but there exists another watch somewhere, which is mine.) Are these horses yours 1 Yes, they Ces chevaux, sont-ils a vous 1 Oui, ils are mine. sont d moi. Are these your horses 1 Yes, they are Sont-ce la vos chevaux 1 Oui, ce sont mine. les miens. OF THE ENGLISH EXPRESSIONS OF MY OWN, OF HIS OWN, Sec. 367. The English expressions of my own, of his own, &c, cannot be rendered literally in French ; they should be translated according to the meaning of the sentence, by some equivalent expressions, such as : which belongs to me, to me, of my composition, of me ; or any PRONOUN. 179 other conveying the same meaning as that of the English sentence ; as in, I have a farm of my own in Normandy. J'ai eu Normandie une ferme a moi, or qui?n'appartic?it en propre. I played last night a piece of my own. J'ai joue hier soir un rnorceau de moi, or de ma composition. Has not your sister a horse of her Votre sceur n'a-t-elle pas un cheval d own 1 elle. Do not meddle with this; it is no con- Ne vous melez pas de cela; ce la ne cern of yours, (this does not concern vous regarde pas. you.) QUESTIONS 359. How are the possessive pronouns of the second class, those which are never joined to a noun, expressed in French 1 359. Should these pronouns, as well as the article which precedes them, agree in number and gender with the noun of which they take the place *? 360. Can these possessive pronouns be used without the noun of which they take the place, having been expressed before 1 361. When nouns of things are idiomatically used, instead of nouns of per- sons, can the possessive pronouns be used, in French 1 What pronouns are used instead of the possessive 1 362. Can possessive pronouns be used when referring to a noun used indefi- nitely 1 363. How should be turned, in French, expressions similar to the following : A friend of mine? 364. That friend of yours ? 365. It is mine to do this, and yours to do that ? 365. It is my turn to do this ? 366. Is this book yours? Yes, it is mine? Is this your book? Yes, it is mine ? 366. What difference is there between the meaning of these two last sen- tences 1 367. How should expressions like the following be rendered in French : Have you a horse of your own? I played a concerto of my own? This is no con- cern of yours ? OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 368. Demonstrative pronouns are words the functions of which are not to name the object spoken of, or to specify it by its qualities, but to point it out among others of the same kind. Demonstrative pronouns are, in French, divided into seven classes. 1st. Those which always precede a noun. 2nd. Those which alwavs follow a noun. ISO FRENCH GRAMMAR. 3d. Those which always precede a preposition, or a relative pro noun, and relate to definitive nouns. 4th. Those which, relating to nouns used definitely, are never fol- lowed hy a noun, a preposition, or a relative pronoun, and signify, in English, this ere one, that there one. 5th. Those which relate to things or ideas before expressed in an indefinite manner. 6th. Those which are used with the verb to be. 7th. Those which, relating to some indefinite idea, precede a relative pronoun, and form with that relative pronoun a compound expression, expressed in English by what, or which. OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS ALWAYS PLACED BEFORE A NOUN. 369. When the demonstrative pronouns this, that, these, and those, precede a noun, they are expressed in French in four different ways, according to the number and gender and the first letter of the noun following. This or that, ce, is used before a noun singular masculine, beginning with a consonant or h aspirated. " cet, is used before a noun singular masculine, beginning with a vowel or an h mute. " " cette, is used before all feminine nouns in the singular. These or those, ces, is used before all plural nouns ; as, This book. Ce Zivre, This hamlet. Ce Aameau. This work. Cet ouvrage. That man. Cet homme. That woman. Cette femme. These men or women, Ces hommes et ces femmes. These pronouns relate equally to persons and things. 370. Whenever this and that, these and those, are used in English before a single noun, as these pronouns are, in such case, expressed by the same words in French, they should be rendered, in translating, by such and such, which will thus convey the meaning of the English; as, You seem to like to talk but to have an Vous semblez n'aimer a causer que opportunity of mentioning this or pour avoir l'occasion de citer tel ou that author. tel auteur. These pronouns may also be rendered in French by employing ce, pronoun. 181 cet, cette, or ces, before the noun, and placing the pronouns ci and /A after it ; as, Which do you prefer, this or that Le quel preferez-vous, cet auteur-ci ou author 1 cet auteur-ld ? or, cet auteur-ci ou celui-ld? or again, Le quel de ces auteurs preferez-vous, celui~ci ou celui-ld ? OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS WHICH ALWAYS FOLLOW A NOUN. 371. These pronouns are two in number, and have no other equivalent in English than the words here and there, placed after a noun by apposition, to point it out among others ; they are expressed in French by ci for here, and la for there; in old times, they were used by themselves, and many examples may be found in our best writers ; Madame de Sevigne made frequent use of them. She wrote, in a letter dated on the 16th of March, 1672, We shall see each other between this Nous nous verrons entre ci et Paques. day and Easter. But in our days, this pronoun ci is only used after nouns of persons and things ; Id, is sometimes employed alone, but it is only elliptically ; I dislike this man, and that woman Je n'aime ni cet homme-ci, ni cette also. femme-la. He is there alone. II est la seul. In the first example, ci refers to the nearest object, and la to the furthest. In the second, la, standing by itself, means, in that place there, dans ce lieu la. OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. WHICH, RELATING TO A NOUN USED IN A DEFINITE SENSE, OR PRECEDED BY THE ADJECTIVE A, ALWAYS PRECEDE A PREPOSITION, OR A RELATIVE PRONOUN. 372. We have already mentioned that class of pronouns, when speaking of personal nominative pronouns used in English before a relative pronoun (paragraph 270 ;) we will only state here that the demonstrative pronouns this, that, these, and those, are expressed by the same words as he, she, and they, in the same case ; that is to say, This and that, by celui, relating to a noun singular masculine. 11 " celle, " " " feminine. 16 182 FRENCH GRAMMAR. These and those, by ceux, relating to a noun plural masculine. " " celles, " " " feminine. Thus, speaking of a book, which is masculine, we say : That of my brother, Celui de mon frere. Speaking of a cow, which is feminine, we say : That of my brother, Celle de mon frdre. Speaking of books, we say : Those of my brother, Ceux de mon fre*re. Speaking of cows, we say : Those of my brother, Celles de mon frere. This pronoun is used in speaking of persons and things, and, as we see by the preceding examples, agrees in number and gender with the noun to which it relates ; as in, He who does not know how to behave Celui qui ne sait pas se conduire, ne himself, can never command others. peut commander aux autres. I want a light; bring me that which is J'ai besoin d'une lumierej apportez-moi on the table. celle qui est sur la table. I will never forgive that of your broth- Je ne pardonnerai jamais a celui de vos ers who has offended me. freres qui m'a offense. Give me that of your books which you Donnez-moi celui de vos livres que do not like. vous ne voulez pas. 373. The pronoun celui should not be separated by too many words from the noun to which it relates ; thus, the following sentence is incorrect : Courage, a quality peculiar to the Le courage, cette qualite des armees French armies, always became fruit- Francaises, devenait toujours inutile less, and often fatal, because pru- et souvent fatal, parceque la pru- dence was not that of our councils, dence n'etait pas celle de nos con- seils. This sentence is not incorrect because the pronoun celle could pos- sibly relate to any other noun than qualite, but because the mind is not at once impressed with the relation existing between these two words ; the latter part of this sentence should be altered in its con- struction, as follows : Parceque la prudence ne dirigeait pas nos conseils; or, parce que la prudence n'etait pas la qualite de nos conseils, (avoiding the use of the pronoun.) PRONOUN. 183 374. The pronoun celui, when used as the antecedent of a relative pronoun, cannot be in French separated from that pronoun, as it is the case in English, unless it is by a noun or pronoun used with the preposition o/as its object. Thus the following sentence, They are mistaken who think that happiness consists in riches, should be altered in its construction ; as. They who think that happiness consists in riches, are mistaken; and expressed by, Ceux qui croient que le bonheur consiste dans les richesses, se trompent. Whichever of you will deceive me, Celui de vous qui me trompera, s'en shall repent it. repentira. Whichever of your brothers will go to Celui de vos freres qui ira a la ville, town, shall bring back my horse. raraenera mon cheval. In poetry or in elevated style, the first sentence could be con- structed as follows : lis se trompent, ceux qui croient que le They are mistaken, those who believe, bonheur consiste dans les richesses, &c. ; using the same construction as the English, with this difference, that the demonstrative pronoun those is prefixed to the relative, because in French a nominative personal pronoun can never be the antecedent of a relative. 375. Whenever the demonstrative pronouns of this class are employed in a particular sense, at the beginning of a sentence, they always relate to a noun already expressed or understood, or men- tioned afterwards, and may be used in either gender and number ; She (of you ladies, understood) who Celle qui saura bien sa lecon, sera re- will know her lesson well, shall be compensee. rewarded. I They or those who know their lesson, Celles qui sauront leur lecon, seront re- will be rewarded. compensees. Those who have distinguished them- Ceux qui se sont distingues pendant la selves during the battle, shall receive bataille, recevront la croix d'hon- the cross of honor. neur. 376. But when these pronouns are used in a general sense, and are only intended to signify the person, or the persons, they cannot be used at all in French, their meaning being too vague and indefinite to 184 FRENCH GRAMMAR. be expressed by a pronoun of this class ; the sentence should then be altered, and a noun used instead of the pronoun ; as in, Those to whom I was speaking when Les personnes, or les dames, a qui je you called me, are charming ladies. parlais quand vous m'avez appele, sont des femmes charmantes. Those widi whom you saw me in the Les personnes, or les messieurs, avec street, are officers in my regiment. qui vous m'avez vu dans la rue, sont des officiers de mon regiment ; or, les officiers avec qui vous m'avez vu dans la rue, appartiennent a mon re- giment. 377. The pronouns which belong to this class can never be used in relation to a noun which is not preceded by the article the, or the adjective a; thus, the following sentence, That man is not wanting in courage, but that of his brother is far superior, cannot be translated literally, by, Cet homme ne manque pas de courage, mais celui de son frere est beaucoup plus remarquable, because celui refers to courage, which is neither preceded by the or a. It should be turned differently ; as, for instance, by, Mais son frere est beaucoup plus brave, so as to avoid using the demonstrative pronoun at all. 378. The pronouns of this class can never be modified, either by an adjective, a past participle, or any expression of a similar nature ; thus, in the following sentences, Among the letters we have just received, give me that which comes from England, Among these pens, give me that which is good to write with, the expressions which comes, and which is good, could not be replaced in French by the past participle come, and the adjective good, alone ; and the following sentences, Parmi les lettres que nous avons recues, donnez-moi celle venue d'Angleterre ; and, Parmi ces plumes, donnez-moi celle bonne pour ecrire, would be incorrect ; they ought to be constructed in French as they are in English ; as, Parmi les lettres que nous avons recues, donnez-moi celle qui vient d'Angleterre. Parmi ces plumes, donnez-moi celle qui est bonne pour ecrire. PRONOUN. 1S5 379. The pronouns of this class may sometimes be elegantly suppressed in sentences like the following : He who wishes to be feared, is seldom Qui veut se faire craindre, est rarement loved. aime. If the death of Socrates was that of a Si la fin de Socrate est d'un sage, la wise man, that of Christ was that of mort de Jesus-Christ est d'un Dieu. a God. 380. Whenever, at the beginning of a sentence, such is used for he, she. they, those, &c, it is rendered in French as these last pronouns would be ; as in, Such as seem to be happy, are not Ceux qui semblent heureux, ne le sont always so. pas toujours. OF DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS, WHICH, RELATING TO NOUNS USED DEFINITELY, ARE NEVER FOLLOWED EITHER BY A NOUN, A PREPOSITION, OR A RELATIVE PRONOUN, AND SIGNIFY IN ENGLISH, THIS ERE ONE, THAT THERE ONE. 381. The demonstrative pronouns of this class are composed of those of the two last ; that is to say, of the word celui, followed by ci or lit. They point out a person or thing, and have the meaning, celui-ci of this ere one, celui-lil of that there one. They agree in number and gender with the noun to which they relate, and are expressed as follows : This (one,) masc. sing. celui-ci, that (one,) celui-la. u fem. " celle-ci, " celle-la. These (ones,) masc. plnr. ceux-ci, those (ones,) ceux-la. C( fem. " celles-ci, " celles-la. Thus, speaking of two men, we say, This is a good one, but that one is Celui-ci est bon, mais celui-ld est va.6- wicked. chant. Speaking of two ladies, This one is handsome, but that one is Celle-ci est belle, mais celle-ld est laide. ugly. Speaking of horses, These are gentle, but those are restive. Ceux-ci sont doux, mais ceux4d sont retifs. Speaking of peaches, These are ripe, but those are green. Celles-ci sont mures, mais celles-ld sont vertes. In sentences similar to these, the pronoun celui-ci designates the nearest objects, and celui-ld, the most distant. 16* 186 FRENCH GRAMMAR. OF THE PRONOUNS CELUI-CI AND CELUI-LA, USED IN RELATION TO ONE NOUN ONLY. 382. Whenever the demonstrative pronouns of this class are pre- ceded by one noun only, celui-ci and celui-lil are indifferently used in reference to that noun ; as in, Lovely spring succeeds gloomy winter ; Apres sombre hiver gai printems ; after fair weather comes rain ; fine apres joli terns triste pluie ; apres weather succeeds to this again. celle-ci le beau temps. Had I written this book in a dogmatic Si j'avais ecrit cet ouvrage d'un style style, learned people only would dogmatique, les savants seuls l'au- have read it, and these had no need raient lu, et ceux-ld n'en avaient pas of it. besoin. OF THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS CELUI-CI AND CELUI-LA, RELATING TO NO NOUN ALREADY EXPRESSED. 383. When a sentence is intended to express the enumeration of several persons or things, the pronouns celui-ci and celui-ld may be used, without relating to any noun already expressed ; as in, Applauded by all, but also polite and Applaudie de tous, mais a son tour affable to all, she anticipated the affable et civile a tous, elle pre venait wishes of some, and replied politely ceux-ci, et repondait honnetement a to others. ceux-ld. In cases similar to these, celui-ci relates to what comes first to our mind, and celui-ld, to what comes next. OF THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS CELUI-CI AND CELUI-LA, FOLLOWED BY A RELATIVE PRONOUN. 384. Celui-ci and celui-ld are not generally followed by a relative pronoun when used as nominatives ; the pronoun celui, and the inci- dental sentence of which the relative pronoun is the nominative, being sufficient to point out the person or thing spoken of; but some of our good writers have made use of them in such cases; as in, He who lives unknown by the world, Celui-ld qui \it ignore, vitheureux; or, lives happy. Celui-ld vit heureux, qui vit ignore. We would not advise foreigners to use this privilege, which is only tolerated in sententious expressions like the preceding ; to dispense with the pronouns ci and Id is far preferable. 385. But when the pronouns celui-ci and celui-ld are employed as the object of a verb, they may very properly be followed by a relative ronoun, provided this pronoun does not form, with the following verb, PRONOUN. 187 an incidental proposition, used in apposition to the demonstrative pronoun ; as in, I brought you a book, but your mother Je vous ai apporte un livre, mais votre told me this was not the one you mere m'a dit que ce n'est pas celui-ld wanted. dont vous avez besoin. Speaking of a lady, Is this the one you wish to marry 1 Est-ce celle-ci que vous voulez epouser 1 ? Speaking of two men, Is this die one who has insulted my Est-ce celui-ci qui a insulte ma sceur 1 sister *? But the following sentence would be incorrect : Speaking of boys, Give this book to the one who is sit- Donnez ce livre a celui-ci qui est assis ing on the sofa. sur le sofa. Because, qui est assis sur le sofa forming an incidental proposition, which points out the person spoken of, the pronoun ci, which per- forms the same function, becomes useless, and should be omitted ; we should say thus : Donnez ce livre a celui qui est assis sur le sofa. OF THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS THIS AND THAT, RELATING TO AN IDEA ALREADY EXPRESSED, OR TO THINGS ALLUDED TO IN AN INDEFINITE MANNER. 386. Whenever the demonstrative pronouns this and that are used to recall to the mind an idea already expressed, or allude to things taken indefinitely, they are expressed in French by ceci and cela. When used together, ceci refers to the nearest, and cela to the most distant idea or thing ; and when used singly, ceci refers to what is to follow, and cela to what has been already mentioned. These pro- nouns have no reference to the nature of the thing which they recall to the mind ; they represent it as a substance, and when applied to an idea, they only point it out as having been expressed before ; this indefinite character deprives them of number and gender. Thus, we say, This is only laughable, but that is hor- Ceci n'est que risible, mais cela est rible. horrible. What is this 1 a book; and that 1 a Qu'est-ce que c'est que ceci? C'est un knife. livre; et cela? un couteau. 188 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Whenever this and that are used in Eng.ish before a present parti- ciple, the construction should be altered, this mode of expression not being admitted in French ; as in, This being your opinion, [since this is Puisque c'est (or, telle est) votre your opinion,] I esteem you no opinion, je cesse de vous estimer. longer. OF THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS THIS, THAT, THESE, AND THOSE, AND PER- SONAL PRONOUNS HE, SHE, IT, AND THEY, USED WITH THE VERB TO BE, WHEN THIS VERB IS FOLLOWED, EITHER BY A NOUN PRECEDED BY THE OR A, A PERSONAL PRONOUN, OR A VERB. 387. Whenever any of the demonstrative pronouns, or any of the personal nominative pronouns of the third person singular or plural, is used as the nominative of the verb to be, and this verb has for its object either a verb, a personal pronoun, or a noun preceded by the article the, or any other word performing the same function, or by the adjective a, those pronouns are generally expressed in French by the demonstrative pronoun ce, and the verb to be is also generally used in the singular, unless it is immediately followed by a plural noun, or a personal pronoun of the third person plural, standing as the nomina- tive of the next verb, or simplv as the direct attribute of the verb to be; as in, Do you see this poor cottage 1 this, or Voyez-vous cette pauvre cabane 1 c'est that, is all his fortune. toute sa fortune. A little house and a few pieces of furni- Une petite maison et quelques meubles, ture, these are all his fortune. c'est la tout sa fortune. Who is that gentleman 1 He is my Qui est ce monsieur 1 C'est I'avocat father's lawyer. de mon pere. Do you see that officer 1 He is a cap- Voyez-vous cet officier 1 C'est un tain in my regiment. capitaine de mon regiment. Do you know this lady 1 She is my Connaissez-vous cette dame 1 C'est la brother-in-law's sister. sceur de mon beau-frere. Look at those pretty children; they are Regardez ces jolis enfants; ce sont les my father's pupils. eleves de mon pere. Who has committed the robbery 1 Is Qui a commis le vol 1 Sont-ce ces it these men'? Yes, it is they. homm.es? Oui, ce sont eux. It is we who have assisted this poor C'est nous qui avons secouru cette family. pauvre famille. I have two things in contemplation; J'ai deux choses en vue; c'est de me these are, to get married and to retire marier, et de me retirer a la cam- into the country. pagne. 388. We have employed the expression generally, when speaking- of the number of the verb to be, and of its nominative, ce, because writers have sometimes used the nominative pronouns il, elle, Us, elles, where that verb is followed by a noun preceded by the article the, and PRONOUN. 189 have used the verb to be in the singular, although it is followed by a plural noun, or a personal pronoun of the third person plural ; as in, It is not the Trojans, it is Hector, Ce n'est pas les Troyens, c'est Hector, whom they pursue. qu'on poursuit. Who lias done that 1 It is they. Qui a fait cela 1 C'est eux. Who is this nobleman 1 He is the Qui est ce grand signeur 1 H est le chamberlain of the king. chambellan du roi. The first sentence is correct, because the plural noun Trojans is the object, and not the nominative, of the verb poursuit. But we do not advise foreigners to follow the example given in the others. The verb to be, used in the singular, before a plural pronoun of the third person, is a fault, and the pronoun ce in the last, would be more in conformity with the genius of the language. OF THE USE OF THE PRONOUN CE, WITH THE VERB TO BE, IN INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. 389. Whenever the sentence in which the pronoun ce is required as a nominative for the verb to be is either affirmative or negative, that pronoun may be employed in all the tenses of that verb ; but if the sentence were interrogative, euphony only permits of its being used in the following tenses and persons ; est-ce, sont-ce, (third person singular and plural of the present of the indicative,) etait-ce, (third person singular of the imperfect,) fut-ce, (third person singular of the preterit definite,) sera-ce, (third person singular of the future absolute,) serait-ce and seraient-ce, (third persons singular and plural of the conditional present,) as in, Is it your father who came this mora- Est-ce votre pere qui est venu ce in« 1 matin 1 Are these the horses which you brought Sont-ce la les chevaux que vous avez from England 1 amenes d'Angleterre 1 Was it your brother who was speaking Etait-ce votre frere qui parlait quand je when I came in 1 suis entre 1 Was it your colonel who presented the Fut-ce votre colonel qui presenta la petition to Napoleon 1 petition a Napoleon 1 Will it be he who will be appointed Sera-ce lui qui sera nomme ministre de secretary of the navy 1 la marine 1 Were he my best friend, I should con- Serait-ce mon meilleur ami, je le con- demn him. damnerais. Were they my own children, I would Seraient-ce mes propres enfants, je ne not spare them. les epargnerais pas. Therefore, furent-ce, seront-ce, a-ce etc, avait-ce ete, &c, although they are found in some ancient writers, are now proscribed in good language as contrary to euphony. 190 FRENCH GRAMMAR. OF THE NUMBER OP THE VERB TO BE, WHEN, HAVING THE PRONOUN CE FOR ITS NOMINATIVE, THAT VERB IS FOLLOWED BY SEVERAL NOUNS IN THE SIN- GULAR. 390. Whenever the verb to be, having the pronoun ce for its nomi- native, is followed by several nouns in the singular, practice varies. Some grammarians admit of the verb to be being used in the plural, but the generality of our good writers only use the singular, and we should advise foreigners to follow their example ; thus, although we find in Condillac, What are the three principal Christian Quelles sont les trois vertus theolo- virtues 1 They are faith, hope, and gales % Ci sont la foi Vesperance et charity, la charite, — with the verb to be used in the plural, we should prefer the singu- lar, as in all similar cases ; as in, It is rain and heat which make the C'est la pluie et la chaleur qui fecondent earth fertile. la terre. It is truth and justice that ought to C'est la verite et la justice qui doivent dictate the decisions of a magistrate. servir de base aux decisions des magistrats. 391. Whenever the verb to be is followed by several nouns of a dif- ferent number, euphony requires that the plural no an should come first, and the verb to be should be used in the plural ; as in, That story was told to me by the Ce sont les freres et la soeur de votre brothers and sister of your friend. ami qui m'ont fait cette histoire ; and not C'est la soeur et les freres. OF THE VERB TO BE, HAVING THE PRONOUN CE FOR ITS NOMINATIVE, WHEN IT IS SEPARATED BY A PREPOSITION FROM A NOUN IN THE PLURAL, OR FROM A PERSONAL PRONOUN OF THE THIRD PERSON PLURAL. 392. Whenever the verb to be, having the pronoun ce for its nomi- native, is followed by a preposition, it is invariably used in the sin- gular, whatever may be the number of the noun or pronoun which ?omes after the preposition ; as in, It is from them that I expect this C'est d'eux qui j'attends cette faveur. favor. It is for the magistrates to watch over C'est aux magistrats de veiller a la the security of the inhabitants. securite des habitants. PRONOUN. 191 OF THE EXPRESSION SI CE NEST, IF IT IS NOT, FOLLOWED BY A PLURAL NOUN. 393. The expression si ce n'est, when used in the sense of except, is never used in the plural, even before a plural noun, because it performs the functions of a preposition which is always undeclinable ; Who will help me except my friends 1 Qui m'aidera si ce n'est mes amis? Who shall we love if not the ladies 1 Qui aimerons nous si ce n'est les femmes. OF THE NOMINATIVE PRONOUNS HE, SHE, IT, AND THEY, USED WITH THE VERB TO BE, WHEN THE VERB IS EITHER FOLLOWED BY AN ADJECTIVE, A NOUN USED AS AN ADJECTrVE, (THAT IS TO SAY, NOT PRECEDED BY THE OR A,) OR AN ADVERB OF QUALIFICATION. 394. Whenever the verb to be, having for its nominative any of the personal pronouns he, she, it, or they, instead of being followed either by a pronoun, a noun preceded by the or a, or a verb, is followed either by an adjective, a noun used as an adjective, (that is to say, not preceded by the or a,) or an adverb of qualification, these nominative pronouns, instead of being expressed in French by ce, are rendered by one of the personal nominative pronouns, il, elle, Us, or elles, according to the nature of the sentence ; as in, It is worthy of a great nation to build II est digne d'une grande nation de hospitals for their wounded soldiers. construire des hopitaux pour sea guerriers invalides. Do not depend upon him; he is not a Ne comptez pas sur lui; il n'est pas man of his word. homme de parole. It is well to be generous, provided it is II est bien d'etre genereux, pourvu que not with other people's money. ce ne soit pas avec 1 'argent des autres. 395. In these sentences, and in any others of the same nature, the pronouns he, she, it, or they, do not recal to the mind, — they do not point out nor refer to anything having been mentioned before. They are not demonstrative pronouns ; they are personal nominative pronouns, and, therefore, should be expressed as such ; but if, when using the imper- sonal expressions it is, it was, it will be, &c, the pronoun it should refer to something mentioned before, as is generally the case when answering questions or deducing consequences, then that pronoun should assume the character of a demonstrative pronoun, and should be expressed by ce, although the verb to be is followed by an adjec- tive ; as in, Is it not very difficult to learn French 1 N'est-il pas tres difficile d'apprendre le Yes, it is (that fact of learning Francais "? Oui, c'est tres difficile. French) very difficult, 192 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Est il necessaire que nous allions en Europe 1 Oui, c'est necessaire. Oui, vous avez raison; nous devons faire la guerre a l'Angleterre ; c'est Is it necessary for us to go to Europe 1 Yes, it is. Yes, you are right; we must go to war with England; it is indispensable. 396. The impersonal expression, it is true, is an exception to this last rule. When relating- to something- said before, it can as well be expressed by il est vrai as by c'est vrai; as in, You are very witty, it is true; but there are a great many imperfections in your works. I am young, it is true ; but in a noble soul, courage does not wait for vears. Vous avez beaucoup d'esprit, c'est vrai; mais que d'erreurs dans vos ou- vrages. Je suis jeune, il est vrai; mais aux ames bien nees, la valeur n'attend pas le nombre des annees. We cannot too much insist on foreigners paying the greatest atten tion to the rules mentioned in this chapter, as well as those given in paragraph 387 ; not that those rules are difficult to understand, but their application is troublesome, inasmuch as the genius of the two languages differs on this point. OF FRENCH IDIOMATICAL EXPRESSIONS IN WHICH CE IS ELEGANTLY USED WITH THE VERB TO BE, ALTHOUGH IT HAS NO EQUIVALENT IN ENGLISH. 397. Ce joined to the verb to be, forms a number of idiomatical expressions, called Gallicisms, which are elegantly used in French ; as, The way to encourage merit is to C'est encourager le merite que de le reward it. recompenser. To despise the true spirit of science is C'est ne pas connaitre l'esprit de la not to know it. science que de la mepriser. Hatred is a dreadful passion. C'est une terrible passion que la haine. One loves very coldly who is not jeai- C'est aimer froidement que n'etre point ous. jaloux. Merit is often a heavy burden. C'est un pesant fardeau d'avoir du merite. We see by these examples, that, in sentences of this kind, the second proposition is either preceded by que, que de, or de; but the two last are preferable, unless no verb should be used after que; as in, C'est une terrible passion que la haine, »n which case, que de, or de alone, could not be used. PRONOUN. 193 OF THE COMPOUND ENGLISH PRONOUN WHAT, USED FOR THAT WHICH, WHEN USED AT THE BEGINNING OF A SENTENCE, THE SECOND PROPOSITION 0£ WHICH BEGINS WITH THE VERB TO BE. 398. Whenever a sentence begins in French by the pronour ce, followed by a relative pronoun, both being most generally expressed in English by the compound pronoun what, if the second proposition begins with the verb to be, the demonstrative pronoun ce should be repeated or omitted before that verb, according to the fol- lowing rules : 399. (1.) When the verb to be is followed by an adjective, the pro- noun ce is not repeated before that verb ; as in, What you have just told me is horrible. Ce que vous venez de me dire est horrible. 400. (2.) When the verb to be is followed by a verb, or a personal pronoun, the pronoun ce is invariably repeated before that verb ; as in, What I wish the most is to go and see Ce queje desire le plus, c'est Waller vous you. voir. What attaches me to life is yourself. Ce qui m'attache a la vie c'est vous. 401. (3.) When the verb to be is followed by a noun in the singu- lar, the pronoun ce may be repeated or omitted ; it is a matter of taste ; as in, What deserves our admiration the Ce qui merite le plus notre admiration most is virtue. est (or c'est) la vertu. 402. (4.) But when the noun which follows the verb to be is used in the plural, the pronoun ce is invariably repeated before that verb ; which, being then used in that number, cannot have for its nominative the pronoun ce qui, placed at the commencement of the sentence, that compound expression always requiring the verb of which it is the nom- inative to be used in the sigular ; as in. What amused me most at the menag- Ce qui m'a le plus amuse a la menage- erie was the frolics of the monkeys rie ce sont les gambades des singes. OF THE PRONOUN CE, USED W'lTH THE VERB TO BE AT THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE SECOND PROPOSITION OF A SENTENCE WHICH DOES NOT BEGIN WITH CE. 403. Whenever the second proposition of a sentence begins with the verb to be, the pronoun ce is prefixed to that verb, or omitted before it, according to the following rules : 17 194 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 404. (1.) If the verb to be is placed between two nouns, the pro- noun ce may be used or dispensed with before that verb, according to taste ; as in, The law of the universe is, woe to the La loi de 1'univers est, (or c'est,) mal- vanquished. hew au vaincu. 405. (2.) When the verb to be is preceded by a noun and followed by a verb, the same rule should be observed ; as in, The greatest desire of most French- La fureur de la plupart des Francais men is to be witty. est (or c'est) d'avoir de l'esprit. 406. (3.) The rule is the same when the verb to be is preceded by one or several verbs in the infinitive mood, and followed by a noun ; as in, To tell the truth to kings, is the duty of Dire la verite aux rois, est (or c'est) le those who surround them. devoir de ceux qui les entourent. 407. (4.) But whenever the verb to be is preceded and followed by a verb in the infinitive, the pronoun ce should be placed before it ; as in, To commit an act of injustice, is to be Faire une injustice, c'est etre impie. impious. OF THE PRONOUN CE, USED AS THE ANTECEDENT OF A RELATIVE PRONOUN PRE- CEDED OR NOT BY A PREPOSITION, AND EXPRESSED BY WHAT. 408. Ce, followed by a relative pronoun, relates only to things ; it is always masculine, and governs the verb of which it is the nomina- tive in the singular, because its meaning is too vague, and not suffi- ciently specified to ascertain its number and gender ; as in, What pleases is more dangerous than Ce qui plait est plus dangereux que ce that which offends. qui offense. The relative pronouns to which ce may be prefixed, are que, qui, dont, and quoi. With que, qui, and dont, no preposition can be used after ce; but quoi cannot follow ce without being preceded by a preposition. When joined to qui, ce qui is always employed as the nominative of the next verb. When joined to que, dont and quoi, the compound expres- sions ce que, ce dont, and ce h quoi, (whatever may be the preposi- PRONOUN. 195 tion used before quoi,) are always the objects of* the verb following ; as in, What makes me happy, makes you Ce qui me rend heureux, vous rend mis- miserable, erable. What I love, you dislike. Ce que j'aime, vous le detestez. What you are "speaking of, is known by Ce dont vous parlez, est connu de tout everybody. le monde. What you are deficient in, is judgment. Ce par quoi vous pechez, c'est le manque de jugement. In the first example, ce qui is nominative to the verb rend, in the last three, ce que, ce dont, ce par quoi, are the objects of the verbs yaime, vous -parlez, and vous pechez. ELLIPSIS OF THE PRONOUN CE, AFTER THE VERB TO BE, OR ANY OTHER, VERB REQUIRING THAT PRONOUN AS ITS DIRECT OBJECT, BEFORE THE PRO- NOUN QUOI, WHAT, PRECEDED BY A PREPOSITION. 409. Whenever the pronoun what, governed by a preposition, is used after the verb to he, the pronoun ce, which enters into the forma- tion of the compound expressions of what, with what, &c, may be suppressed, according to taste; as in, That is what (that of which) I wished C'est de quoi, or ce dont, (dont meaning to speak to you of. de quoi,) je voulais vous parler. Tell me what (that in which) I can Dites-moi en quoi, or ce en quoi,je puis assist you in. vous servir. This is what (that to which) I alluded Voici (see here) a quoi, or ce a quoi, je to. faisais allusion. It is evident that in these sentences the verbs this is, tell me, and see here, require a direct object after them, in order to complete their meaning ; that direct object which is understood, is indefinite in its meaning, and signifies this thing or the thing, rendered in French by the pronoun ce; and it is only for the sake of elegance that this pronoun may be omitted ; grammatically, it ought to be expressed. OF THE ENGLISH PRONOUN WHICH, USED IN ANSWERING A PREVIOUS QUES- TION. 410. Whenever, in answer to a previous question, which is used in reference to a noun employed to signify a whole, it is expressed by celui que, celle que, &c; but whenever it refers to a noun used par- ticularly or indefinitely, it is expressed by ce que, (that thing which ;) Which of these two gowns shall I send La quelle de ces deux robes vous en- yon J . Which you pleaee. verrai-je 1 Celle que vous voudrei. 196 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Celle que meaning that dress of the two which, etc. ; that having there a definite meaning-. Do you choose meat or fish 1 Which Voulez-vous de la viande ou du pois- you please. son 1 De ce que vous voudrez. De ce que meaning a part of that of the two things which you please ; that having an indefinite meaning. OF THE ENGLISH PRONOUN WHICH, USED AFTER A COMMA, IN THE SECOND PROPOSITION OF A SENTENCE. 411. Whenever which is used after a comma, in the second part of a sentence which is not interrogative, and relates to the whole of the first part, or to a portion of it, it is expressed by ce qui, if nominative to the next verb, and by ce que, if objective ; as in, She gets up very late, which is very Elle se leve bien tard, ce qui est tres bad for her health. mauvais pour sa sante. She goes out in the evening, which I Elle sort le soir, ce que je n'aime pas do not like much. beaucoup. It is evident, that, in the first sentence, which does not relate to the word late, but to the whole proposition, she gets up very late, and sig- nifies that which ; and in the second, which does not relate to the word evening, but to the fact of going out in the evening, and it is that which I do not like much, and signifies, also, that which, which being objective, is expressed by ce que. OF THE PRONOUN WHICH, USED AS NOMINATIVE AT THE HEAD OF AN INCI- DENTAL PROPOSITION, AND RELATING TO SEVERAL ANTECEDENTS, REQ.UIR- ING THE VERB FOLLOWING TO EE USED IN THE PLURAL. 412. Which meaning ce qui and ce que, and these two compound pronouns being always of the singular number, whenever that pro- noun, or any other expression requiring to be rendered by ce qui or ce que, comes before a verb which should be used in the plural, on account of which relating to several antecedents, the sentence must be constructed differently ; as, She plays on the piano, and draws very well, which are two very fine accom- plishments in a lady, should be constructed thus : She plays on the piano, and draws very well, accomplishments which are consid- ered very fine in a lady. Elle joue du piano, et dessine tres bien, talents qui sont consideres comme tr^s agreables dans une femme. PRONOUN. 197 In this sentence, the plural noun talents sums up the two antece- dents of the pronoun which, and that noun becoming the antecedent of the relative pronoun qui, admits of the next verb being used in the plural. QUESTIONS. 368. What is the definition of a demonstrative pronoun 1 368. Into how many classes are demonstrative pronouns divided 1 (Ask the pupil what is the distinctive character of each class.) 369. How are the demonstrative pronouns which are always placed before a noun expressed in French 1 370. How are the pronouns this and that expressed in French, when they are placed before a single noun 370. Are there not two ways for expressing those pronouns in the preceding cases, and which should be preferred 1 371. What are the demonstrative pronouns which are always preceded by a noun 1 To what word do they correspond in English 1 372. How are the demonstrative pronouns, which, relating to a definite noun, are always followed either by a preposition or a relative pronoun, expressed in French 1 372. Are not the personal pronouns he, she, and they, expressed by the same words as the demonstrative, when they are followed by a relative pronoun 1 373. Can the pronouns celui, celle, &c, be separated by a great number of words from their antecedent 1 374. Can the pronouns celui, celle, &c, be, in French, as they are in English, separated from the relative pronoun of which they are the antecedents 1 375. Should not the pronouns celui, celle, &c, when used in a particular 6ense, always relate to a definite noun already expressed, understood, or men- tioned afterwards "? 376. When these pronouns are used at the beginning of a sentence, in a gen- eral sense, and meaning the person, or the persons, can they be used in French'? or should not a noun be employed in their stead 1 377. Can the pronouns of this class be used in French, in relation to nouna which are not preceded by the or the adjective a? 378. Can the pronouns of this class be modified by an adjective or a past participle, without being followed by the expressions which is, or which are 7 379. Cannot the pronouns celui, celle, &c, be elegantly suppressed before a relative pronoun 1 380. When such is used at the beginning of a sentence, instead of he, she, and they, how is it expressed in French ! 381. How are the demonstrative pronouns this, that, these, and those, ex- pressed, when, not being followed either by a noun, a preposition, or a relative pronoun, they signify this ere one, that there one, &c.l 381. Should these pronouns relate to definite or indefinite nouns *? and which should be applied to the nearest and which to the most distant object 1 382. When the pronouns of this class are used in relation to a noun only, can celui-ci be indifferently used, as well as celui-ld, in relation to that noun *? 383. Cannot the pronouns of this class be used sometimes without relating to any noun already expressed, and in what case 1 38 1, 385. Cannot these pronouns be sometimes followed by a relative pro- noun, when used as nominatives 1 How is it when used objectively 1 386. How are the pronouns this and that expressed, when relating to an idea or to a thing taken indefinitely 1 17* 198 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 386. Can these two pronouns be used, in French, before a present participle 9 as they are in English 1 How should the sentence be turned 1 387. How are the pronouns this, that, these and those, he, she, it and they, expressed, when, being used as nominatives to the verb to be, this verb is either followed by a noun preceded by the or a, a personal pronoun, or a verb 1 in what cases is the verb to be used in the plural 1 388. Is the example of some writers, who have used the verb to be in the sin- gular, although it is followed by a plural noun or a personal pronoun of the third person plural, worthy of imitation 1 And is it proper to use the personal nomina- tive pronoun with the verb to be, when this verb is followed by a noun preceded by the or a ? 3S9. Can the pronoun ce be used as a nominative to the verb to be, in all the tenses of this verb, in sentences which are not interrogatives 1 3S9. What are the tenses and persons in which ce may be used as a nomina- tive to the verb to be, in interrogative sentences % 390. In what number should the verb to be be used, when, having the pro- noun ce for its nominative, it is followed by several nouns in the singular 1 391. In what number should the verb to be be used, when, having the pronoun ce for its nominative, it is followed by several nouns of a different number 1 and in what order should these nouns be placed 1 392. What should be the number of the verb to be, when, being followed by a plural noun or by a plural pronoun of the third person, it is separated from them by a preposition 1 393. Is the expression si ce n'est, meaning except, ever used in the plural 1 394. When the verb to be, having for its nominative any of the personal pro- nouns he, she, it, and they, is followed either by an adjective, a noun used as an adjective, or an adverb of qualification, how are those persons expressed in French 1 — by ce, or by the personal pronouns il, elle, Us or elles? 395. When the verb to be being followed by an adjective, the nominative pronoun it refers to something mentioned before, is it expressed by il, or by ce, and why 1 396. Is there not an adjective, which, being used with the verb to be, admits of this verb being preceded either by il or ce? 397. When the verb to be, preceded by the pronoun ce, is used at the begin- ning of a certain class of idiomatical expressions, how should the second propo- sition begin, by de, que, or que de? 398. How is the pronoun what expressed in French, when used at the begin- ning of a sentence which is not interrogative'? 399. If the verb to be, placed at the beginning of the second proposition of a sentence which commences by ce, is followed by an adjective, is the pronoun ce repeated before that verb 1 400. If the verb to be, in a case similar to the preceding, is followed either by a verb or a personal pronoun, is the pronoun ce repeated before that verb % 401. What should be done when the verb to be is followed by a noun in the singular 1 402. Is there any difference, when the verb to be is followed by a plural noun 1 403. 404, 405, 406, 407. When the verb to be is used at the head of the second proposition of a sentence, when should the pronoun ce be used before that verb 1 408. When ce is followed by a relative pronoun, to what does it refer 1 Of what gender is it, and in what number does it govern the verb following 1 408. What are the relative pronouns to which ce can be prefixed 1 408. Which of those relative pronouns can be separated from ce by a prepo- sition 1 408. Which of these compound expressions are used as nominative, and which as objective 1 409. Cannot the pronoun ce be dispensed with sometimes before a relative oronoun, and in which case 1 PRONOUN. ' 199 409. Where is the necessity that the pronoun ce should be expressed or understood, in cases similar to the preceding % 410. When which is used at the head of a sentence expressing an answer to a previous question, and refers to a noun employed to express a whole, how is it expressed in French 1 How is it when the noun which that pronoun refers to is indefinite or used in a partitive sense 1 411. When which is used after a comma in a sentence which is not interrog- ative, and refers to the whole meaning of the first proposition, how is it ex- pressed in French, when nominative or objective 1 412. Can the pronoun which be used at the head of an incidental proposition, when relating to several antecedents, which require the verb following to be used in the plural ? And if that pronoun cannot be used, how should the sentence be turned in French ? OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 413. We have seen already that the use of the personal pronouns is to designate persons and things ; that of relative pronouns is to recall the mind to them, and to explain or restrict their meaning. Therefore, relative pronouns relate necessarily to objects which have been spoken of before, and have been designated by a noun or pronoun. \ This noun or pronoun is called antecedent. This antecedent is not always expressed ; in many sentences it is understood, but the mind supplies it with facility, and places it immediately before the relative pronoun which belongs to it. Relative pronouns also operate as conjunctions in connecting two phrases together, when we say : The society in which we live is La societe que nous frequentons est pleasant, agreable, the relative que unites and makes only one sentence of these two : La societe est agreable, nous frequentons cette societe. This pronoun affords, also, the advantage of determining, with the period which follows it, the extent of the signification which we intend to give to the first ; thus, in this instance, we do not pretend to say that society in general is pleasant, but only the particular society in which we live. And this idea is expressed by the insertion of que before this restrictive period. The relative pronouns are six in number : Who, or that, qui. Whom, that, or which, que. Who, that, whom, or which, le quel. 200 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Whose, dont, de qui, du quel, &c What, quoi. Where, in which, ou. Relative pronouns should not be mistaken for absolute pronouns, of which we shall speak hereafter. OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN WHO. 414. The relative pronoun who is always expressed in French by qui, which is of the same number, gender, and person, as its antece- dent; as in, The lady who sings is ray sister. La dame qui chante est ma sceur. The gentlemen who came this morning Les messieurs qui sont venus ce matin are merchants. sont des marchands. OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN THAT. 415. The relative pronoun that is used in speaking of persons and things ; it is always of the same number, gender, and person, as its antecedent ; it is sometimes used as a nominative to the next verb, and sometimes, also, as its object. When nominative, it is expressed by qui; when objective, by que; The bird that sings on that tree is very Uoiseau qui chante sur cet arbre est pretty. trds joli. The children that 1 have punished this Les enfants que. j'ai punis ce matin sont morning are very disobedient. tres desobeissants. 416. But when that is used in the sense of which, and relates to one of the words something, anything, or nothing, it is expressed by quoi, placing before it the preposition which governs the pronoun that in English ; as in, J do not know anything that your Je ne sache rien d quoi votre frere soit brother is fit for. propre. The adjective propre governing the preposition &, instead of the preposition for, which it governs in English. OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN WHICH. 417. The relative pronoun which is only used in place of things ; it is always of the same number, gender, and person, as its antecedent; it may be used as the nominative or the object of the next verb. When PRONOUN. 201 nominative, it is expressed by qui or le quel; when objective, by que; as in, The apples which you have brought, Les pommes que vous avez apportees y are all rotten. sont toutes pourries. What is the bird which sings now 1 Quel est l'oiseau qui chante mainten- antl 418. Le quel is only used to avoid an ambiguity, when the relative pronoun which being separated from its antecedent by a certain num- ber of words, it does not appear clearly what noun is the antecedent of the pronoun. 419. Which sometimes performs the part of a demonstrative pro- noun ; as in, Which of these two books will you give me 1 Take which you please. It is then expressed as such, and, according to the rules we have given when speaking of that class of pronouns ; the preceding sen- tence should then be rendered by : Le quel de ces livres voulez-vous me donner 1 Prenez celui que vous voudrez. OF THE COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS OF WHICH, TO WHICH, AT WHICH, FROM WHICH, THROUGH WHICH. BY WHICH, WITH WHICH, ETC. 420. Whenever of which is placed after a noun which is not gov- erned by a preposition, it is expressed in French by dont, and the construction should be altered so as to place after dont the nominative of the next verb ; as in, I have some foreign flowers, the smell J'ai des fleurs etrangeres, dont Vodeur of which is very sweet. est tres agreable. I have some foreign flowers, the smell J'ai des fleurs etrangeres, dont je n'aime of which I do not like. pas l'odeur. 421. But when of which is placed after a noun preceded by a prep- osition, it keeps its place, in French, after that noun, with which it agrees in number and gender, and is expressed by du quel, de la quelle, des quels, des quelles, according to the number and gender of the noun to which it relates ; as in, I have some foreign flowers, to the J'ai des fleurs etrangeres, a l'odeur smell of which I shall never get ac- des quelles je ne m'accoutumerai ja- customed. mais. The daughter of Minos gave a thread La fille de Minos donna un fil a The- to Theseus, by means of which he see, par le moyen du quel il sortit du went out of the labyrinth. labyrinthe. 202 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 422. The pronoun which, when preceded by the preposition to, or any other except those mentioned in paragraph 423, is ex- pressed, in French, by le quel, la quelle, les quels, les quelles, according to the number and gender of the noun to which it relates ; as in, Idleness is a vice to which young peo- ple are very much inclined. The studies (to) which he applies him- self to are very difficult. This is the tool with which I have made this pretty flower. Is this the piano on Avhich you played last night % Whose house is that near which we passed this morning % Here is a book, without which I can- not work. La paresse un vice au quel je ne m'ac- coutumerai jamais. Les etudes aux quelles il s 'applique ne sont pas tres difficiles. Voici Poutil avec le quel j'ai fait cette jolie fleur. Est-ce la le piano sur le quel vous avez joue hier soir 1 A qui est la maison pres de la quelle nous sommes passes ce matin 1 Voici un livre, sans le quel je ne peux pas travailler. 422. (Bis.) Which, used in cases similar to the preceding, is some- times also expressed by quoi ; as in, These are things to which you do not pay sufficient attention. These are conditions without which this affair would not have been agreed upon. That is the cause for which he has been arrested. Ce sont des choses a quoi vous ne faites pas assez attention. Ce sont des conditions sans quoi cette affaire n'aurait pas ete conclue. Voila le sujet pour quoi il a ete arrete. These sentences are consecrated by usage, but are not grammati- cal, because the pronoun quoi should never relate to nouns taken in a definite sense. 423. Whenever the pronoun which is preceded by any of the prepo- sitions from, at, through, by, and in, and expresses an idea of extrac- tion, transmission, or rest, it is rendered in French by the pronoun ou, in the following manner: from which, d'ou; at which, ou; through or by which, par ou; in which, ou; as in, The country through which we passed, in going to D***, a village from which they extract a great quantity of coal, is the most fertile of those in which I have ever travelled. The end at which he aims, is to revive liberty in a country from which it seems to have been banished. Which way (by where) did you come 1 Le pays par ou nous passames en allant a D***, village d'ou l'on extrait une grande quantite de charbon, est le plus fertile de tous ceux ow,j'ai jamais voyage. Le but ou il vise, c'est de faire re- vivre la liberte dans un pays d'ou elle semble avoir ete bannie. Par ou etes vous venu 1 PRONOUN. 203 424. From which is never expressed by dont, except in the follow- ing sentence : The family which he comes from, La maison dont il sort, which should not be mistaken for the following : La maison d'oii il sort; which means, The house which he comes from. The word maison having two significations, house, and family, which give those sentences an entirely different meaning, requiring a change in the pronoun, in order that they should be properly under- stood. The word oil is also an adverb, and then corresponds to the English word where, and when used with the preposition de and par, which are the only ones by which it may be governed, it becomes the equivalent of the expressions whence and which way. 4-25. Whenever the pronoun which is preceded by a preposition, and signifies what thing, or what fact, in a sentence which is not interroga- tive, it is expressed by quoi ; as in. The tables were cleared away, after Les tables furent enlevees, apres quoi which the ball began. le bal commenca. 426. But if the sound produced by the use of quoi, preceded by its preposition, should be disagreeable, they should be both omitted, and their place supplied by the conjunction and, et, followed by an adverb of time, such as, ensuitc, alors, aussitot, &c, afterwards, then, at once, &c. ; as, Les tables furent enlevees et ensuite, {alors, or aussitot,) le bal commenca. OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN WHOM. 427. The relative pronoun whom is always used as the object of a verb ; it relates to persons only. "When employed without a preposition, it is expressed by que, which is of either number and gender, and should agree with the noun to which it relates ; as in, I? this the young lady whom you recom- Est-ce la la jeune personne, que voua mended to me 1 m'avez recommandie? 204 FRENCH GRAMMAR. These pretty children whom you love Ces jolis enfants que vous avez tant so much are all dead. crimes sont tous morts. When whom is preceded by a preposition, it is expressed in French according to the following rules. OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN WHOM PRECEDED BY THE PREPOSITION OJf> t DE. 428. Of whom maybe expressed, in French, in the following differ- ent manners : de qui, dont, and du quel, de la quelle, des quels, and des quelles. De qui and dont are preferable to du quel, &c, and dont is generally preferable to de qui ; we say generally, because some gram- marians pretend that when the antecedent of of whom is a noun, de qui should be used in its stead, and dont, when that antecedent is a pronoun ; as in, The lady of whom you are speaking is La dame de qui vous parlez est trds very well known. connue. You are the person we were speaking C'est vous dont nous parlions. of. But this distinction is a nicety which should not trouble foreigners. Dont is as properly used as de qui; and, idiomatically, it is preferable. 429. Du quel, de la quelle, &c, are only employed when, the rela- tive pronoun being separated from its antecedent by a number of words, the sentence might be rendered ambiguous by using dont and de qui, which, being of either number and gender, do not clearly show at once which is the noun to which they relate ; as in, When I went to court, everybody Quand j'allai a la cour, tout le monde seemed to take the greatest interest semblait prendre le plus vif interet a in the fate of the sister of your friend, la sozur de votre ami, de la quelle je of whom I had never heard before. n'avais jamais entendu parler. De la quelle is used here instead of dont or de qui, because neither of these pronouns would indicate sufficiently whether they relate to samr or ami; but however necessary the use of this pronoun may be, for the sake of clearness, elegance proscribes it, and sentences should be constructed so as to avoid the necessity of using it. OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN WHOM, PRECEDED BY ANY OTHER PREPOSITION THAN OF, DE. 430. Whenever whom is preceded by any other preposition than of, it is expressed by qui, or le guel, la quelle, &c. ; qui being prefer- PRONOUN. 205 able to le quel whenever the sentence is so constructed as to leave no ambiguity in reference to the antecedent of that pronoun ; as in, Who was that lady to whom Mr. C*** Qui est cette dame a qui M. C*** vous introduced you the other day 1 presenta l'autre jour 1 It is die mother of die minister to C'est la mere du ministre d la quelle whom I already had so many obliga- j'avais deja tant d'obligations, qui a tions, who has yet obtained diis obtenu cette place pour mon frere. office for my brother. A qui is used in the first sentence because its use cannot create any ambiguity ; but a la quelle is necessary in the other, because it qui would not show at once whether the pronoun refers to ministre or mere. Are you engaged to the young lady with Etes-vous fiance a la jeune personne whom I saw you last summer % avec qui je vous vis 1'ete dernier 1 Here is the gentleman I was running Voici le monsieur apres qui je courais. after. 431. From whom is always expressed by de qui, or du quel, in case of an ambiguity, but never by dont; as in, The ladies from whom I received this Les dames de qui je recus cette infor- information are gone to Europe. mation sont parties pour l'Europe. OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN WHOSE. 432. Whenever the pronoun whose is not preceded by a preposi- tion, it can always be expressed by dont, or de qui, or du quel, (this last expression being only used in case of an ambiguity,) and it should then be followed by the nominative of the next verb, whatever may be the construction of the sentence in English ; as in, The lady whose talent and virtue you La dame dont vous admirez tant le admire so much is the mother of talent et la vertu, est la mere de these pretty children. ces jolis enfants. The man whose genius is grand and L'homme dont le genie est grand et sublime, like nature, is the admira- sublime, comme la nature, est l'ad- tion of the world. miration du monde. 433. But when whose is preceded by a preposition, or if the preposi- tion, not being expressed in English, is governed by the French verb, the construction of the sentence should be altered, and that pronoun be expressed by de qui or du quel alone, placed after the noun which it precedes in English ; as in, Napoleon, whose greatness of soul is so Napoleon, dont la grandeur d'ame est much admired, and to whose valor tant admiree et a la valeur de qui, or (to the valor of whom) the French du quel, les Francais doivent tant de owe so many victories, died at forty- victoires, mourut a l'age de quarante- five years of age. cinq ans. 18 206 FRENCH GRAMMAR. She is a woman to whose caprices I C'est unefemme aux caprices de qui, or shall never submit. de la quelle, je ne me soumettrai ja- mais. REMARKS ON THE PROPER USE OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS IN FRENCH. OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN QUI, NOT PRECEDED BY A PREPOSITION. 434. The relative pronoun qui, used without a preposition, relates to persons and things ; it is of either number and gender, and is invariably repeated before each verb of which it is the nominative ; as in, She is a young lady who sings well, C'est une jeune personne qui chante plays on several instruments, and is bien, qui joue de plusieurs instru- admired by everybody. ments, et qui est admiree de tout le monde. 435. Qui is always of the same person, number and gender, as its antecedent ; that is to say, it governs the verb and adjectives which follow it in the same number, gender, and person, as that antecedent, but, as to itself, it remains unchanged ; as in, It is I who have insulted you. C'est moi qui vous ai insulte. You, who pretend to love me, why do Vous, qui pretendez m'aimer, pourquoi you not revenge me 1 ne me vengez-vous pas 1 436. Qui should not be separated from its antecedent, when that antecedent is a noun, unless the meaning of the sentence should show clearly the relation existing between them ; as in, It has been necessary, above all, to II a fallu, avant toutes choses, vous make you read, in the holy Scrip- faire lire dans l'ecriture sainte, tures, the history of the people of Vhistoire du peuple de Dieu, qui fait God, which is the foundation of re* le fondement de la religion, ligion. In this sentence, qui is separated from its antecedent by the words du peuple de Dieu, but the sense compels that pronoun to relate to the noun histoire; there is no ambiguity, and the construction is correct. 437. The pronoun qui may be separated from its antecedent when that antecedent is a personal objective pronoun used as the direct object of a verb ; as in, I found her weeping bitterly. Je la trouvai qui pleurait a chaudes larmes. PRONOUN. 207 The reason for this rule is, that the pronouns le, la, and les, used as the objects of a verb, cannot possibly, on account of the rules we have already given, be placed after the verb, and as no ambi- guity arises in sentences of this kind, there is no objection to the pronouns being separated. 438. When speaking of personal and demonstrative pronouns used as nominatives, we have already stated that these pronouns could not generally be separated from the relative pronoun of which they are the antecedents, and we have given the exceptions. (See these two parts of speech.) 439. Although the pronoun qui, used as a nominative, ought not to be separated from its antecedent, the construction of the sentence sometimes requires that it should not precede immediately the verb of which it is the nominative, on account of some incidental proposi- tions being placed between them ; these constructions are regular, provided they do not alter the clearness of the sentence ; as in, Are you, then, the man who, when I met Etes vous, done, Vhomme qui, lorsque je him ten years ago, was begging for le rencontrai, il y a dix ans, mendiait his bread, and now possesses so son pain, et qui maintenant possede great riches 1 de si grandes richesses ^ In this sentence, the relative pronoun qui is separated from the verb of which it is the nominative by the incidental propositions, lorsque je le rencontrai and il y a dix ans ; but the sense is clear, and consequently the construction regular. 440. But although the pronoun qui can be separated from its ante- cedent by an incidental proposition, this cannot be done when this incidental proposition is composed of a preposition followed by its object ; as in, The goddess, who, on entering the La deesse, en entrant, qui voit la table room, sees the table dressed, admires mise, admire un si bel ordre, et recon- its fine arrangement, and recognizes nait 1'eglise. the hand of the church. Hearing this, with an arm that knows D'un bras, d ces mots, qui peut tout no resistance, he destroys everything renverser, il detruit tout ce qui l'en- around him. toure. These sentences are badly constructed ; they should stand as fol- lows : La deesse qui, en entrant, &c. A ces mots, d'un bras qui peut, &c. 208 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 441. The pronoun qui should not be employed when it relates to a noun followed by an object ; as in, Do not take my brother's horse which Ne prenez pas le cheval de mon frere is lame. qui est boiteux. Let us go and see the sister of my Allons voir la soeur de mon ami qui est friend who is always sick. toujours malade. Those sentences are incorrect, because they are not clear ; in the first, we do not see clearly whether it is the horse or my brother that is lame ; in the second, we cannot discover whether it is the sister or the friend who is sick. They ought to be constructed as follows : Ne prenez pas le cheval boiteux de mon frere. Allons voir la soeur malade de votre ami. 442. Qui is sometimes used without its antecedent being expressed, which is generally the case when that antecedent is a pronoun ; the pronouns which are understood are as we have already explained it, when speaking of the demonstrative pronouns ce, celui, celle, ceux, or celles; as in, He who stands as surety, ought to pay. {Celui.) Qui repond, paie. Those who could work, did so. {Celui.) Travaillait qui pouvait. Let us play the game in which the loser Jouons a {celui) qui perd gagne. is the winner. The first sentence stands for, Celui qui repond paie; the second, for Ceux qui le pouvaient travaillaient ; and the last, instead of Jouons au jeu oil celui qui perd gagne. These sentences, and others similar to them, are idiomatical, and one must be very well acquainted with the language before he omits a pronoun as the antecedent of qui. 443. The pronoun qui, when its antecedent is a noun, ought always to relate to a noun taken in a definite or particular sense, that is to say, preceded by the or a expressed or understood ; as in, He received me with a politeness II m'a recu avec une politesse qui m'a which charmed me. charme. He received me with his habitual kind- II me recut avec la bonte qui lui est or- ness. dinaire. These sentences would be incorrect if the or a were omitted. But the following : He has not a book which is not his II n'a pas de livre qui ne soit de son own choice. choix. PRONOUN. 209 He behaves as a man who knows the II se conduit en hommc qui connait le world, monde, He is overwhelmed with troubles which II est accable de maux qui ne lui lais- do not leave him a moment of rest, sent pas un moment de repos, This is a sort of fruit that does not C'est une sorte de fruit qui ne murit ripen in Europe, pas en Europe, There is no man who can say, I shall II n'y a pas d'homme qui puisse dire, live until to-morrow, je vivrai jusqu'a demain, are also correct, though the nouns which serve as the antecedents of qui are neither preceded by the nor a, in French ; because they are elliptical, and if we supply the words which the ellipsis gives us the privilege to omit, we shall see that the vague meaning of the nouns livre, homme, maux, and, fruit, would change and become deter- mined ; for they are used instead of, II n'a pas un livre qui, &c. II se conduit comme un homme qui, &c. II est accable par des maux qui, &c. Ce fruit est d'une sorte qui, &c. II n'y a pas un homme qui, &c. OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN QUI, PRECEDED BY A PREPOSITION. 444. The relative pronoun qui, preceded by a preposition, is only used when speaking of persons or things personified ; it is of either gender and number, and agrees with its antecedent ; as in, The man who owns this beautiful gar- Uhomme d qui appartient ce beau jar- den is very rich. din est tres riche. Providence, without whose assistance La Providence, sans l'assistance de qui we cannot succeed, is always just nous ne pouvons reussir, est toujours and merciful. juste et miser icordieuse. OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN QUE. 445. The relative pronoun que relates to persons and things ; it is of either number and gender ; it is never used as a nominative or pre- ceded by a preposition, and is always of the same number and gender as its antecedent, which, generally, it immediately follows ; as in, The ladies whom we have known in Les dames que nous avons connues en France have just arrived in Boston. France viennent d'arriver a Boston. 446. Que may be separated from its antecedent by a certain number of words, provided the mind may, without trouble or ambiguity, recur to that antecedent, of which those words are but the complement ; What is an army 1 It is a body acted Q,u'est-ce qu'une armee 1 C'est un upon by a number of different pas- corps anime d'une infinite de passions sions which a skilful man incites to differentes qu'un homme habile fait the defence of the country. mouvoir pour la defense de la patrie. 18* 210 FRENCH GRAMMAR. It is impossible, in this sentence, to mistake the antecedent of the pronoun que, because the mind has no trouble in recurring to the noun corps, although it is separated from that pronoun by the incidental qualificative proposition, animi oVune infinite de passions differentes. All sentences constructed like the preceding, in which the mind could not recur at once to the antecedent of the relative pronoun que, are defective, and ought to be avoided. 447. The relative pronoun que should never be mistaken for the conjunction que; they are easily distinguished, because, when it is a relative pronoun, it may be expressed by which or whom, in English, which is never the case when it is a conjunction ; for then it is always the equivalent of the same part of speech, that, in English. 448. Que should always be used in sentences like the following : It is not to you I speak, Ce n'est pas d vous que je parle, It is of you I speak, C'est de vous que je parte ; for if, instead of que, we use the pronoun qui, this pronoun would require to be preceded by the preposition to, &, in the first sentence, and of, de, in the other, which then would stand thus : C'est a vous a qui je parle, c'est de vous de qui, or dont je parle. In which case, the verb parler would have two objects, vous and que, governed by the same preposition, which is against the genius of the language. 449. Que, although most generally used with an antecedent, is sometimes employed in French instead of what meaning what thing, in sentences like the following : I do not know what to say. Je ne sais que dire. He did not know what to answer. II ne sut que repondre. OF THE PRONOUNS LE QUEL, LA QUELLE, LES QUELS, LES QUELLES. 450. The relative pronoun le quel, &c, is used when speaking of persons and things. It takes either number and gender ; as, Le quel, singular masculine, Les quels, plural masculine, La quelle, singular feminine, Les quelles, plural feminine, and agrees with its antecedent. 451. The pronoun le quel should only be used, with or without a PRONOUN. 211 preposition, in order to avoid an ambiguity ; it never follows imme- diately the noun to which it relates ; as in, Here is an instance taken from the Voici un exemple tire des papiers English papers, which I cannot help Anglais, le quel je ne puis m'em- mentioning. pecher de rapporter. You know, madam, that there is a Vous savez, madarne, qu'il y a une counterfeited edition of my book, edition contrefaite de mon livre, la which is to be out in a few days. quelle doit paraitre dans peu de jours. 452. But these sentences are inelegant, and it would be better to alter their construction so as not to be obliged to use the pronoun le quel; as, for instance, J'ai trouve dans les papiers Anglais, Vexemple suivant que je ne puis m'empecher de rapporter. Vous savez, madame, qu'il y a une edition contrefaite de mes ouvrage ; die doit paraitre dans peu de jours. OF THE PRONOUN DONT. 453. The relative pronoun dont is used in speaking of persons and things ; it is of either gender and number ; it means of whom, whose, of which, and of what. We have already said that it should be pre- ferred to de qui and du quel, when the construction and clearness of the sentence admit of its being used. 454. It can be employed instead of whose, when this pronoun is not preceded by a preposition , and should only be replaced by du quel, when, being placed at some distance from its antecedent, an ambi- guity should arise in reference to the noun to which it relates ; as in, The goodness of the Lord, the effects La bonti, de Dieu, de la quelle (and not of which we feel ever}' day of our dont) nous ressentons tous les jours lives, should induce us to obey his les effets, devrait bien nous engager commands. a suivre ses commandements. Dont would be a fault, because this pronoun, being of either gen- der, could as well have Dieu as bonte for its antecedent ; the sentence would then be ambiguous, which must always be avoided. 455. It ought not to be forgotten, that dont should always be fol- lowed by the nominative of the next verb ; as in, The French ought never to forget the Les Francais ne doivent jamais oublier memory of IVapoleon, whose great la memoire de Napoleon, dont les deeds have covered their country hauls faits ont couvert le pays de with glory. gloire. 212 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 456. When dont takes the place of what, it should always be pre- ceded by the demonstrative pronoun ce, as its antecedent ; as in, Do you ever think of glory 1 Yes, in- Pensez-vous quelquefois a la gloire 1 deed; it is what I dream of every Oui, vraiment; c'est ce dont je reve night. toutes les nurts. 457. Dont is sometimes used instead of with which, by means of which, avec le quel, au moyen du quel; as in, Do you know the ingredients with Connaissez-vous les ingredients dont la which cotton powder is made 1 poudre de coton est composee 1 OF THE PRONOUN QUOI. 458. The relative pronoun quoi is used instead of which and what, when the antecedent of these pronouns has a vague and indefinite meaning, or when they relate to a whole sentence already expressed. It is also employed in relation to things; but idiomatically, and instead of the pronoun le quel, which now would be preferred by good writers ; it is always preceded by a preposition ; as in, The king walked a minuet, after which Le roi dansa un menuet, apres quoi the whole court retired. toute la cour se retira. Are these the materials with which Sont-ce la les rnateriaux avec quoi vous you are to build this house 1 devez batir cette maison 1 There is nothing which I would not II n'y a rien a quoi je ne me soumisse submit to, in order to please you. pour vous plaire. In the first sentence, quoi relates to the first clause, the king walked a minuet; in the second, it relates to a noun of things, materials, and is used for les quels; and, in the last, it relates to the indefinite pronoun nothing. 459. Whenever the words something or anything, or any expres- sion conveying the same idea of vagueness, are used to denote the means or instrument necessary to perform an action, they are ex- pressed by the pronoun quoi, preceded by the preposition of, de; as in, Give me something to write with. Donnez-moi de quoi ecrire. I have something to play with. J'ai de quoi m'amuser. OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN OU. 460. The relative pronoun ou is of either number and gender, and relates only to things. It is used alone, and also with the preposi- tions de, of, and par, by. PR NOUN. 213 Oil is used instead of in which and to which ; tfou, instead of from which; and par oil, instead of by which or through which; as in, This is the house in which I live. Voici la maison ou je demeure. Is this the hotel which you wish to go Est-ce Id Vhotel ou vous -voulez aller % to'? This is a mine from which they extract Voici une mine d'ow l'on tire de tres beautiful diamonds. beaux diamants. Is the country through which we have Le pays par ou nous devons passer to pass to-morrow beautiful 1 demain, est-il beau 1 Is this the pass we must follow 1 (by Est-ce la le sentier par ou nous devons which we must pass.) passer % 461. It is seen by these examples that ou is used instead of which, le quel, whenever the sentence expresses an idea of rest as in the first, an idea of motion as in the second, fourth, and fifth, or an idea of extraction as in the third. 462. In a sentence like the following : Was it to this office you applied last year 1 the pronoun oil could not be employed after the noun office, if the prep- osition to should be used before that noun, because ou, meaning to which, would imply the repetition of the same preposition as governed by one verb, which is, as we already mentioned it, against the rule of language ; thus we cannot say : Est-ce a ce bureau ou vous vous adressates l'annee derni^re 1 The conjunction that, que, ought to be used instead of the pronoun ; Est-ce d ce bureau que vous vous adressates l'annee derni^re 1 But if the sentence should be constructed by omitting the preposition : as in, Was this the office to which you applied last year 1 then the pronoun oil should be properly used instead of to which; as Est Ik le bureau ou vous vous adressates l'annee derniere 1 The preposition to, implied in the meaning of oil, standing for au quel, being used only once with the verb s'adres&er. 463. The adverb when is very often used in English, instead of the relative pronoun which, preceded by the prepositions in, during, at, or to. But in French, adverbs have no antecedents, and the English 214 FRENCH GRAMMAR. adverb should, in such cases, assume in our language its real charac- ter, which is that of a relative pronoun. It is then expressed by oit; Do you remember the time when we Vous rappelez vous le temps ou (during were together in college 1 which) nous etions ensemble au col- ^legel Have you recovered from the blow you Etes-vous retabli du coup que vous received the day when we arrived in recutes le jour ou (at which) nous Boston 1 arrivames a Boston % Were you present at the battle when Assistiez-vous a la bataille ou (in our general lost his life 1 which) notre general perdit la vie 1 This rule is very important, and using quand for when is a fault which Americans and Englishmen are constantly making, in cases similar to the preceding. 464. In a sentence like the following : Well ! what will you begin with 1 it must be ascertained whether the meaning is : by what part, or by what thing, will you begin. In the first instance, the above sentence should be expressed by : Eh ! bien, par ou voulez-vous commencer 1 and, in the other, by: Eh ! bien, par quoi voulez-vous commencer 1 Par oil signifying by what part ? the beginning, the end, the middle one, or any other; and par quoi, by what thing, by this one, that one, or any other ? Remark. Whatever may be the relative pronoun required by the meaning or construction of a sentence, that pronoun is never omitted in French, as it is so often the case in English ; as in, Who is the man I see yonder 1 Qui est Phomme que je vois la bas 1 The lady you love is not so very La femme que vous aimez n'est pas si pretty. " jolie. QUESTIONS. 413. What is the definition of a relative pronoun 1 413. What part of speech should be the antecedent of a relative pronoun 1 413. Is the antecedent of a relative pronoun always expressed "? PRONOUN. 215 413. What are the relative pronouns in French 1 414. How is who expressed in French, and of what number and gender is it 1 415. How is the relative pronoun that expressed in French 1 Is it always used as a nominative, or is it also used objectively 1 How is it expressed in either case 1 416. When that is used in the sense of which, and relates to one of the words something or anything, how is it expressed 1 417. Is the pronoun which used in relation to persons and things 1 and how is it expressed in either case, whether it be used as a nominative or as an object ? 418. When is the pronoun le quel used instead of which 1 419. Is not which sometimes used as a demonstrative pronoun 1 How is it expressed in such cases ? 420. How is of which expressed when it comes after a noun which is not pre- ceded by a preposition ] What is the word which should always follow the pro- noun 421. How is of which expressed when it comes after a noun which is pre- ceded by a preposition 1 422. How is the relative pronoun which generally expressed, when it is pre- ceded by any other preposition than of, de? 422. (Bis.) Is not the pronoun which, in cases similar to the preceding, sometimes expressed idiomatically by another pronoun than le quel ? 423. How is which expressed, when, being preceded either by from, at, through, by, or in, it is used in a sentence implying an idea of rest, translation from one place to another, or extraction 1 424. Is not from which sometimes expressed by dont? in what case 1 424. Is not the pronoun oii. sometimes used as an adverb 1 and by what prep- osition can it be preceded 1 425. When the pronoun which is preceded by a preposition, and signifies what thing, or what fact, in a sentence which is not interrogative, how is it ex pressed 1 426. If the sound of the pronoun should be disagreeable to the ear, how should it be supplied 1 and how should the sentence be constructed 1 427. How is the pronoun ivhom expressed, when used without a preposition 1 428. How is of whom expressed 1 Which is generally preferable, de qui or dont? 429. When should du quel, &c, be preferred to de qui and dont? 430. How is whom expressed, when it is preceded by any other preposition than of ? When is le quel to be preferred to qui? 431. How is from wlxom expressed, — by de qui or dont? 432. How is the relative pronoun whose expressed, when it is not preceded by a preposition 1 433. How is the same pronoun expressed, when it is preceded by a preposi- tion 1 432, 433. What is the word which should always follow, in French, the pro- nouns dont, de qui, and du quel? 434. Does the pronoun qui, used without a preposition, relate to persons, or things, or to both 1 Of what number and gender is it 1 and is it repeated before each verb which it governs 1 435. With what words does the pronoun qui agree 1 and what does this agreement signify ? 436. Can the pronoun qui be separated from its antecedent when that ante- cedent is a noun 1 437. Can the pronoun qui be separated from its antecedent when that ante- cedent is an objective pronoun 1 If it can, why "! 438. When the antecedent of qui is either a relative or a nominative personal pronoun, can it be separated from them in French as it is in English 1 439. Cannot the pronoun qui be sometimes separated from its antecedent when that antecedent is a noun, and on what condition 1 216 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 440. Can the pronoun qui be separated from its antecedent by a preposition followed by its object 1 441. Can the pronoun qui be used at all when it relates to a noun followed by its object 1 What is to be done if it cannot be used 1 442. Cannot the pronoun qui be used without an antecedent 1 and if it can, what is the nature of the antecedent that can be dispensed with 1 443. What should be the nature of a noun, in order that it may serve as an antecedent to the pronoun qui? 443. Is the article the, or the adjective a, always expressed before the nouns which serve as an antecedent to the pronoun qui? (The pupils should give examples in which the article and the adjective a are not expressed, and show how these examples apply to the preceding rules.) 444. Does the pronoun qui, preceded by a preposition, relate to persons or things 1 Of what number and gender is the expression de qui, and with what does it agree 1 445. Does the relative pronoun que relate to persons or things, or to both '? Is it ever preceded by a preposition 1 and is it used as a nominative or as an object to the verb following 1 What is the word which it generally follows 1 446. On what condition can the pronoun que be separated from its antece- dent 1 447. How can it be ascertained whether the word que is either a relative pronoun or a conjunction 1 448. Why is que used, and not a qui, in a sentence like the following, C'est a vous que je parle, It is to you that I apeak ? 449. Is not que sometimes used without an antecedent 1 To what word does it then correspond in English 1 450. What number and gender can the pronoun le quel take 1 With what does it agree 1 451. For what purpose only should the pronoun le quel be used 1 452. Is not the use of the pronoun le quel inelegant, and is it not better to try to dispense with it 1 453. Of what number and person is the pronoun dont? Is it used in speaking of persons or things, or of both 1 To what word does it correspond, in English 1 454. When is it that dont can be used instead of whose? and when should it be replaced by du quel ? 455. By what word should dont be invariably followed, in French 1 456. When dont takes the place of what, by what word should it be pre- ceded 1 457. Is not dont sometimes used instead of with which, by means of which? 458. What are the English pronouns which can be expressed by quoi ? and what should be the nature of its antecedent 1 458. Is it not also sometimes used in relation to things used definitely, and in virtue of what privilege 1 459. When the words something or anything are used to denote the means or instrument necessary to do anything, how are they expressed in French 1 460. Of what number and gender is the pronoun oil, and what is the nature of the nouns to which it relates 1 What are the prepositions by which it can be preceded 1 460. To what English expression do ou, d'oii, and par ou, correspond 1 461. What should be the meaning of the English sentence, for the above expression to be rendered by oil, d'ou, and par ou? 461. Why cannot the pronoun ou be used in a sentence like the following : Est-ce a ce bureau que vous vous adressdtes Vannee dernier e ? Was it to tfiis offi.ce you applied last year ? 463. Can the adverb when be translated as such in French, where it relates to a noun already expressed 1 If not, why 1 and how is it expressed t 464. In a sentence like the following : What will you begin with, what should be the meaning of with what, for it to be expressed in French either by par quoi or par oil ? proxoun. 217 OF ABSOLUTE OR INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN*.. 465. Absolute pronouns are those which have no relation to an antecedent; they are generally used in interrogative or exclamative, but sometimes also in affirmative sentences ; they correspond to the English interrogative pronouns who, whom, whose, what, ivhi^h, where, and are expressed as follows : Who, qui, qui est-ce qui, or quel. Whom, qui, or qui est-ce que. Whose, a qui, a qui est-ce que. What, quel, que, or qu'est-ce que, and quoi. Which) le quel, qui. Where, ou. OF THE ABSOLUTE PRONOUN WHO. 466. The absolute pronoun who is expressed by qui, or qui est-ce qui, (who is it who,) when, being taken in an absolute meaning, it does not relate to a noun expressed after the verb ; and by quel, when the next verb is followed by a noun to which this pronoun que<. relates. The absolute pronoun qui is generally singular and masculine, on account of its vague and absolute meaning ; but quel agrees in num- ber and gender with the noun or pronoun with which it is connected in the sentence. 467. We should mention here that qui is far preferable to qui est- ce qui, which is a real pleonasm and a Gallicism, and ought to be avoided. The following interrogative and affirmative sentences will illustrate these rules : Who gave you this beautiful dog 1 Qui vous a donne ce beau chien 1 (absolute meaning.) Who are those people we see on the Quelles sont ces personnes que nous hill 1 (relative meaning.) voyons sur la colline 1 Everybody knows who set fire to that Tout le monde sait qui a mis le feu a house. cette maison. (absolute meaning.) Tout le monde sait quel est celui qui a mis le feu a cette maison. (relative meaning.) 468. The second sentence could idiomatically be expressed by : Qui sont ces personnes que nous voyons 6ur la colline; using qui in the plural ; but the former should be preferred, because qui being absolute in its meaning, ought not, as we have said, to be 19 218 FRENCH GRAMMAR. used in relation to any noun, whilst quel, on the contrary, should always be employed when the pronoun who relates to one. The two last, show how absolute pronouns are used in sentences which are not interrogative ; in the first, qui is employed in an abso- lute meaning ; it relates to no noun ; in the second, quel is used in relation to celui, which, standing for the expression, the man or the person, that is singular and masculine, requires the pronoun quel to be used in that number and gender. OF THE ABSOLUTE PRONOUN WHOM. 469. The absolute pronoun whom is expressed by qui, whether it is preceded by a preposition or not, or by qui est-ce que, (who is it whom;) but qui should be preferred, for the same reason we gave when we spoke of qui est-ce qui, who. Qui used for whom is of either number and gender ; it is absolute in its meaning, and only refers to persons ; as in, Whom have you seen in the public gar- Qui avez-vous vu aujourd'hui dans le den to-day 1 jardin public 1 Of whom were you speaking when my De qui parliez-vous quand mon frere est brother came in 1 entre. With whom will you go to the theatre Avec qui irez-vous ce soir au theatre "? to-night 1 I do not know whom you mean. Je ne sais de qui vous voulez pavler. Nobody knows whom he will marry. Personne ne sait qui il epousera. In the first sentence, qui signifies what persons, and is plural and feminine ; in the second, it means what person, and is feminine and singular, &c. ; showing, as we have said, that this pronoun may be used in either number and gender. Qui, used instead of whom, has no other good equivalent in French ; qui est-ce que being a Galli- cism, which ought to be avoided in good language. OF THE ABSOLUTE PRONOUN WHOSE. 470. The absolute pronoun whose is employed to convey different meanings in English ; we shall examine them separately. 471. Whose, used in an interrogative sentence, before a noun fol- lowed by the verb to be, and signifying either to belong, whose turn is it, or whose duty or right is it to do a thing, is expressed in French by d, qui, to whom, and the sentence takes the following form : Whose book is this 1 A qui est ce livre 1 or, A pui ce livre est-il 1 Whose turn is it to play * A qui est-ce d jouer 1 PKONOUX. 219 Whose duty is it to mount guard to- A qui est-ce de monter la garde au- day 1 jourd'hui 1 472. Whose, employed when a comparison is meant between two or more persons or things, is rendered by, Who is that of whom, or Who are those of whom; Quel est celui dont, Quelle est celle dont, Quels sont ceux dont, Quelles sont celles dont, according to the number and gender of the noun to which that pronoun relates ; as in, You had two French teachers ; whose Vous avez eu deux maitres de Fran- lessons do you like die best 1 cais; quel est celui dont vous preferez les lecons 1 You had many friends, but we never Vous avez eu beaucoup d'amis, mais knew whose feelings were the most nous n'avons jamais su quel est celui congenial to yours. dont les sentiments se rapprochaient le plus des votres. We should state here that whose, used as an absolute pronoun, is never expressed in French by dont. OF THE ABSOLUTE PRONOUN WHAT. 473. The absolute pronoun what is used either in interrogative, affirmative or exclamative sentences. OF THE ABSOLUTE PRONOUN WHAT, USED IN INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. 474. When the absolute pronoun what is used in an interrogative sentence, it may either signify what thing, or relate to a noun expressed after the next verb. 475. When what signifies what thing, and is not preceded by a preposition, it is expressed by que, or qu'est-ce que, when used objec- tively ; and by qu'est-ce qui, when employed as a nominative. Its meaning is absolute and indefinite, and it is therefore deprived of number and gender ; as in, What are you doing there 1 Que faites-vous la 1 What does your brother want 1 Que desire votre frere 1 or, Que votre frere desire-t-il 1 What wakes her up in the middle of Qu'est-ce qui la reveille au milieu de la the night 1 nuit 1 476. What, signifying of what moment, or consequence, and used before the verb to be, is also expressed by que, or qu'est-ce que, and the sentence is constructed as follows : What are men before God 1 Que, or qu'est-ce que, sont les horames devant Dieu 1 220 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 477. Que, or qu'est-ce que, when used with a verb followed by an adjective, requires the preposition de to be placed before that adjective, which is always singular and masculine. This preposition stands for the expression which, is, always understood when the antecedent of an adjective has a vague and indefinite meaning ; as in, What is the news to-day % (What do Que dit-on de nouveau aujourd'hui 1 they say which is [of] new to-day 1) or, Qu'est-ce qu'on dit de nouveau aujourd'hui 1 478. What, signifying what thing, and preceded by a preposition, whatever may be the place of that preposition in English, or whether it is expressed or understood, is expressed by quoi ; as in, What are you talking about 1 De quoi parlez-vous 1 What is that man aiming at 1 A quoi cet homme vise-t-il 1 479. What, preceded by a preposition, is sometimes elegantly expressed by que instead of de quoi, (of what,) and d, quoi, (to what ;) as in, What is the use of science without Que (a quoi) sert la science sans la virtue 1 (to what is science useful 1) vertu 1 What is the use for a miser to own Que (de quoi) sert a l'avare d'avoir riches 1 (of what use is it 1) des tresors 1 480. Whenever what does not mean what thing, it relates to a noun which it precedes immediately, or which is placed after the verb ; and whether it be preceded by a preposition or not, it is then expressed by quel, and this pronoun agrees in number and gender with the noun to which it relates ; as in, What is the news to-day 1 Quelles sont les nouvelles aujourd'hui 1 What are your motives to act as you Quels sont vos motifs pour agir comme you do 1 vous le faites 1 To what hotel do you go ? A quel hotel allez-vous 1 Of what dress do you speak to me 1 .De quelle robe me parlez-vous *? 481. What, in proverbial interrogative sentences, may also be expressed by qui, which then relates to things ; as in, What gives a character to a bird 1 Its Qui, or qu'est-ce qui, fait l'oiseaul C'est plumage. le plumage. What makes a monk 1 It is not his Qui, or qu'est-ce qui, fait-le moine *? Ce dress. n'est pas son habit. But we could not say, What are the northern states 1 Qui sont les itats du nord ? PRONOUN. 221 What are the ancient empires 1 Qui eont les anciens empires? because these sentences are not proverbial ; quel should be used instead of qui. OP THE ABSOLUTE PRONOUN WHAT, USED IN EXCLAMATIVE SENTENCES. 482. When the absolute pronoun what is used before a noun in an exclamative sentence, whether that noun be qualified by an adjective, or preceded by a or an, or not, it is expressed by quel, quelle, quels or quelles, according to the number and gender of that noun, and a or an is not expressed ; as in, What a beautiful morning ! let us go Quelle belle matinee ! allons a la cam- into the country. pagne. What splendid horses ! where do they Quels magnifiques chevaux ! d'ou vien- come from \ nent-ils % 483. When the absolute pronoun what is used before the verb to be followed by an adjective, the verb is omitted in French ; its place is supplied, as we have seen in the preceding chapter, by the preposi- tion de, and what is expressed by quoi; as in, What is more instructive and amusing Quoi de plus instructif et de plus amu- than to read celebrated writers in sant que de lire les auteurs celebres their own language 1 dans leur propre langue 1 484. Que and combien are sometimes used in exclamative sentences in the sense of how, how many, how much, or what, and the sentences are constructed as follows : How terrible and powerful religion is ! Que (or combien) la religion est terrible et puissante ! What an amiable family is that of Mr. Que (or combien) lafamille de Monsieur L** ; but what a disgusting one is L** est aimable ; mais que (or com- that of Mr. C** \ bien) celle de Monsieur C** est re- poussante ! The first part of this sentence could also be constructed as follows : Quelle aimable famille que celle de Monsieur L**, mais, &c What a fine girl she would have been Que (or combien) elle eut ete belle, or if she had not experienced this mis- quelle belle file, elle aurait ete si elle fortune ! n'avait pas eprouve ce malheur ! OF THE ABSOLUTE PRONOUN WHAT, USED IN AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCES. 485. When the absolute pronoun what is used in a sentence which is neither interrogative nor exclamative, it. is expressed by que or 19* 222 FRENCH GRAMMAR. quoi, according to its being preceded by a preposition or not, when it relates to no noun ; and by quel, when it does relate to one ; as in, I asked him many questions; but he did not know what to answer. Why do you not join in the conversa- tion 1 Because I do not know what you are speaking of. I do not know what to decide. Do you go to the ball to-night 1 Yes, but I do not know what dress I shall wear. Je lui fis plusieurs questions ; mais il ne sut que repondre. Pourquoi ne vous melez-vous pas a la conversation 1 Parceque je ne sais de quoi vous parlez. Je ne sais a quoi me decider. Allez-vous ce soir au bal 1 Oui, mais je ne sais qelle robe je mettrai. OF THE AESOLUTE PRONOUN WHICH. 486. The absolute pronoun which, when used in an interrogative sentence, without being followed by the preposition of, and referring to a noun before expressed, is rendered in French either by le quel, quel, or quel est celui qui or que, which agree in number and gender with the noun referred to ; as in. You have seen these the prettiest 1 lies ; which is You have seen these ladies ; which do you prefer 1 Vous avez-vu ces dames ; quelle est la plus jolie 1 or, quelle est celle qui est la plus jolie 1 Vous avez-vu ces dames ; la quelle pre- ferez-vous 1 or, quelle est celle que vous preferez 1 It results from these two examples, that, when the absolute pronoun which is followed by the verb to be, it is either expressed by quel or guel est celui qui or que; but when the verb which follows it is not the verb to be, it is rendered either by le quel, or quel est celui qui or que, 487. Which, when followed by of, and referring to a noun follow- ing, may be expressed either by le quel de preceding the noun used in the English sentence, which noun is then followed by the verb in the interrogative form, or by quel est celui de before the noun following, this noun being itself followed by one of the relative pronouns qui, que, dont, &c, before the next verb used in the affirmative form, according to this relative pronoun standing as its nominative, or its direct or indirect object ; as in, Which of your sisters do you like the best 1 (speaking of one sister only.) Which of your sons have you heard from 1 (speaking of more than one eon.) La quelle de vos scaurs aimez-vous le mieux 1 or, Quelle est celle de vo3 soeurs que vous aimez le mieux 1 Des quels de vos fils avez-vous recu des nouvelles % or, Quels sont ceux de vos fils dont vous avez repu des nou- velles % PRONOUN. 223 Which of these two gentlemen was Le quel de ces deux messieurs vous par- speaking to you when I met you 1 lait quand je vous ai rencontre 1 or, Quel est celui de ces deux messieurs qui vous parlait quand je vous ai ren- contre 1 Which of these books costs you the Les quels de ces livres vous content le most 1 (speaking of more than one plus cher 1 or, Quel sont ceux de ces book.) livres qui vous coiitent le plus cher 1 488. When which, followed by of, instead of preceding a noun, comes before a pronoun, it may also be expressed by qui, which then may transmit to the following verb and adjectives the gender, but not the number, of the pronoun governed by of; as in, Which of you, ladies, will be bold Qui, or la quelle de vous , mesdames, sera enough to attack me ? (speaking of assez hardie pour m'attaquer 1 or, one lady.) Quelle est-celle de vous, mesdames, qui sera assez hardie pour m'attaquer 1 Which of you, gentlemen, will go to Les quels de vous, messieurs, veulent Texas with me 1 (speaking of more aller au Texas avec moi 1 or, Quels than one gentleman.) sont ceux de vous, messieurs, qui veulent aller au Texas avec moi 1 Qui may be followed by a feminine adjective, because the noun ladies shows sufficiently the gender of that pronoun ; but as there is nothing in either of these sentiments which indicates in a definite manner whether the attack is to be made by more than one of the ladies, or if there is more than one gentleman offering to go to Texas, qui being deprived of the signs of the plural, the verb and adjective following cannot be used in that number ; and when the mind alludes to more than one person, in sentences of this kind, the expressions les quels, or quels sont ceux, should be resorted to. 489. The absolute pronoun which, used in a sentence which is not interrogative, may relate to a noun either already expressed or men- tioned afterwards ; in the former case, it may be rendered by quel, or quel est celui qui, que, dont, &c, with the verb to be; or by le quel, or quel est celui qui, que dont, &c, with any other verb ; as in, You have seen these ladies, and you Vous avez-vu ces dames, et vous ne cannot tell which is the prettiest. pouvez pas me dire quelle est la plus jolie, or, quelle est celle qui est la plus jolie. Look at these two horses, and tell me Regardez ces deux chevaux, et dites which you prefer. moi le quel, (or quel est celui que) vous preferez. 490. In the latter case, that is to say, when which relates to a noun which it precedes, that pronoun is expressed either by le quel or quel 224 FRENCH GRAMMAR. est celui; the former followed by de, and the noun governed by that preposition ; the latter by de and the same noun, followed by one of the relative pronouns qui, que, dont, &c., according to the meaning of the sentence ; as in, Tell me which of these houses you want to buy. I should like to know which of these books cost you the most. Dites moi la quelle de ces maisons, or, quelle est celle de ces maisons, que vous voulez acheter. Je desirerais savoir les quels de ces livres, or, quels sont ceux de ces livres, qui vous coutent le plus cher. 491. The remark we have made when speaking of which followed by a personal pronoun, in interrogative sentences, is applicable to those which are affirmative ; as in, Tell me, ladies, which of you are my friends. I must know, children, which of you stole my preserves. Dites moi, mesdames, les quelles de vous sont mes amies, or, quelles sont celles de vous qui sont mes amies. II faut que sache, mes enfants, le quel, or, qui de vous, or, quel est celui de vous qui, a vole mes confitures. OF THE ABSOLUTE PRONOUN WHERE. 492. The absolute pronoun where is used in interrogative and affirmative sentences, and is always expressed by ou. Where is an absolute pronoun whenever it is used without an ante- cedent, and may be turned by a noun of things united to the pronoun quel, or when it stands for what, quoi ; this pronoun may be preceded by either of the prepositions par and de; as in, Where do you go 1 Where do you come from 1 Which way (by where) will you go 1 What do you aim at 1 How (by what) do you intend to suc- ceed 1 I do not know where I am going. Tell me which way you came. I should like to know whence you came. (En quel lieu) ou allez-vous 1 (De quel lieu) d'ou venez-vous 1 (Par quel lieu) par ou passerez-vous 1 (A quoi) ou aspirez-vous 1 (Par quoi) par oil en viendrez-vous a bouf? Je ne sais (en quel lieu) ou je vais *? Dites moi (par quelle route) par ou vous etes venu 1 Je voudrais savoir (de quel lieu) d'ou vous venez ? PRONOUN. 225 QUESTIONS. 465. What is the definition of an absolute pronoun 1 465. In what kind of sentences are they used 1 465. What are the French absolute pronouns corresponding to the English ones, who, wliom, ivhose, what, which and where? 466. How is who expressed when taken in an absolute meaning 1 466. How is it'ho expressed when it relates to a noun following 1 466. Of what number and gender is the pronoun qui, and with what does the pronoun quel agree 1 467. Which is preferable, qui or qui est-ce qui? and why 1 468. When who is used as the nominative of a plural verb in English, how should it be expressed, by qui or quel? 468. Why, in the preceding case, is quel preferable to qui? 46S. Is the absolute pronoun who used in sentences which are not interroga- tive 1 and how is it expressed dien 1 469. How is the absolute pronoun whose expressed, whether it is preceded or not by a preposition 1 469. Which. should be preferred instead of whom, qui or qui est-ce que? 469. Of what number and gender is qui used for whom ? Is it absolute in its meaning, or does it refer to a noun 1 470, 471. Whenever whose, used as an absolute pronoun, conveys an idea of property, turn, or duty, how is it expressed in French 1 If the sentence implies an idea of turn, what preposition should be used after the verb to be, before the infinitive following % (The same question when the sentence implies an idea of duty or right.) 472. How is ivhose expressed when it implies an idea of comparison between several persons or things 1 472. Is the absolute pronoun whose ever expressed by dont ? 473. In what kind of sentences is the absolute pronoun what used 1 474. What is the meaning of the absolute pronoun what in interrogative sen- tences 1 475. When what signifies what thing, and is not preceded by a preposition, how is it expressed 1 476. When what, signifying of what moment or consequence, is used with the verb to be, how is it expressed 1 477. When the verb which follows what is itself followed by an adjective, by what should this adjective be preceded 1 477. Why is the preposition de used before adjectives in cases similar to the preceding 1 478. How is what expressed when, signifying what thing, it is preceded by a preposition 1 479. How is the absolute pronoun what sometimes elegantly expressed, when preceded by a preposition, and meaning what thing? 480. Whenever what does not signify what thing, does it not relate to a noun following, and how is it expressed % 480. Does quel agree with the noun to which it refers, and can it be or not preceded by a preposition 1 481. Cannot what, which relates to things, be sometimes expressed by qui, which generally relates to persons 1 and in what kind of sentences 1 482. How is what expressed before a noun qualified or not by an adjective, in exclamative sentences 1 483. Is the adjective a or an, placed in English after what, ever expressed in French 1 483. When, in exclamative sentences, what is used before the verb to be, in English, this verb being followed by an adjective, is that verb expressed in French 1 By what is it replaced 1 and how is the pronoun what rendered 1 484. How are the English pronouns how, how many, how much, and what, 226 FRENCH GRAMMAR. in exclamative sentences, sometimes rendered in English % (Let the pupil recite the examples.) 485. How is the pronoun what expressed in sentences which ai-e neither inter- rogative nor exclamative 1 486. When the absolute pronoun which is used in interrogative sentences, without being followed by of, and relating to a noun before expressed, how is it rendered in French, as the nominative of the verb to be? 486. How is that pronoun expressed, in the same circumstances as above, when used as the object of any verb 1 487. When the pronoun which, followed by of, relates to a noun following, how is it expressed 1 487. When, in the preceding case, which is expressed by le qxiel, what form does the sentence assume 1 and how is it when which is expressed by quel est celui que, qui dont, &LC.1 488. When which, still followed by of, relates to a pronoun instead of a noun, how can it be expressed besides le quel and quel est celui? 4S8. When which is expressed by qui, can it be followed by a feminine adjec- tive, and why 1 Can it be followed by a verb in the plural, and why not 1 489. When the absolute pronoun which is used in a sentence which is not interrogative, and relates to a noun already expressed, how is it expressed 1 490. What is the case when which relates to a noun expressed afterwards 1 How is the sentence constructed in this latter case 1 491. When which, in a sentence which is not interrogative, is followed by a pronoun governed by of, instead of being followed by a noun, what rules should be observed 1 492. How is the absolute pronoun where expressed, and in what meaning is ou a pronoun 1 492. By what prepositions can it be preceded 1 OF INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 493. Indefinite pronouns are words which serve to designate persons and things in an indefinite manner, which relate only to a vague object, and present to the mind nothing fixed or precise. The words which are called indefinite pronouns are not all real pronouns ; some would be better qualified by being called adjectives ; but, as they are generally known under the name of pronouns, for the sake of clearness we will give them this denomination. Indefinite pronouns are divided into four classes, distinct from each other; as, 1st. Those which are never joined to a noun. 2d. Those which are always joined to a noun. 3d. Those which are sometimes joined to a noun, and sometimes not. 4th. Those which are followed by the conjunction que. PRONOUN, 227 OP INDEFINITE PRONOUNS WHICH ARE NEVER JOINED TO A NOUN. 494. The pronouns of this class are the following : Some one, they, yon, we, somebody, people, &c, Somebody, one, some one, anybody, any one, &c, Whoever, whosoever, any person that, all those who, &c, Everybody, each, every one, One another, each other, Other people, others, Nobody, no one, none, no man, anybody, any one, any man, Nothing, not anything, anything, on. quelqu'un. quiconque. chacun. l'un l'autre. autrui. personne. rien. These words are real pronouns, because they are never joined to the noun to which they relate, but, on the contrary, take its place, OF THE ENGLISH EXPRESSIONS, THEY, ONE, A MAN, A WOMAN, SOMEBODY PEOPLE, WE, YOU, I, ETC., TAKEN IN AN INDEFINITE SENSE. 495. Whenever any of the expressions they, one, a man, a woman, somebody, people, we, you, I, &c, or any other having the same vague meaning, are taken in an indefinite sense, they are expressed by on. This pronoun is always used as a nominative ; it indicates a sort of third person, vague and indefinite ; it is probably derived from the word homme, man, as an abbreviation ; in fact, wnen we say, One plays, one studies, On joue, on etudie, it is as if we said, man plays, man studies. This pronoun, which is in constant use in the language, is only used in relation to persons ; it always governs in the singular the verb of which it is the nom- inative, and generally requires the nouns and adjectives used in reference to itself to be in the singular and in the masculine ; as in, They. They speak, they play. They came to fight. On parle, on joue. On en vint aux mains. One. One loves to flatter one's seif. On aime a se flatter. A man. A man is not always master of his own On n'est pas toujours maitre de soi . temper. 228 FRENCH GRAMMAR. A woman. It is not always in the power of a wo- On n'est pas toujours maitresse d'aller man to go where she likes. ou 1'on veut. Somebody. Somebody knocks at the door. On frappe a la porte. People. People think and say openly. On pense et l'on dit tout haut. We. We acquire experience at our own ex- On acquiert de l'expe>ience a ses d6- pense. pens. You. You will find troublesome people every- On trouve partout des importuns. where. When I tell you that I depend upon Quand on vous dit que l'on compte sur you. vous. 496. We have said that the pronoun on generally governs the sin- gular and the masculine ; this is always the case in reference to the verb following, which is never in the plural ; but there are instances in which that verb can be followed either by nouns or adjectives used in the plural and in the feminine ; this is the case when the sentence alludes clearly to several indivduals, and to ladies ; as in, A woman. One is not always young and pretty. On n'est pas toujours jeune etjolie. When one is pretty, one is not ignorant Quand on est jolie, on ne l'ignore paa. of it. Men. We are not slaves to be so badly On n'est pas des esclaves pour £tre si treated. maltraites. OF THE PRONOUN ON, PRECEDED BY ET, SI, OU, AND QUE. 497. When the pronoun on is preceded by any of the words ei, ou PRONOUN. 229 si, V ought to be prefixed to the pronoun, for the sake of euphony ; as, If we knew how to limit our wishes, we St Von savait borner ses desirs, on should spare ourselves a great deal s'epargnerait bien des maux, et Von of trouble, and we should gain many se procurerait beaucoup d'avan- advantages. tages. The place where one goes. Le lieu ou Von va. But this rule should not be observed where the pronoun on is fol- lowed by a word beginning- with an /, as le, la, lui, les, &c. ; still, for the mere satisfaction of the ear ; as, They will receive a letter, and they will On recevra une lettre, et on la lira tout read it aloud. haut. L'on la lira would be intolerable. The same remark is applicable to the word que, when followed dv a verb beginning with the letter c, having the sound of k; as, We learn much more easily what we On apprend beaucoup plus facilement understand, than that which we do les choses que Von comprend, que not. celles que Von ne comprend pas. Laziness is a fault which is rarely cor- La paresse est un defaut que Von corrige rected. rarement. But when que is followed by a verb beginning with any other letter than c, the / is suppressed or not, according to taste. OF THE REPETITION OF THE PRONOUN ON. 498. The pronoun on should be repeated before each verb which has it for its nominative ; as, They praise him, blame him, threaten On le loue, on le blame, on le menace, him, caress him; but whatever they on le caresse; mais quoiqu'ow fasse, do, they cannot get along with him. on ne peut en venir a bout. 499. "When the pronoun on is repeated, it must relate to the same object. The following phrase, One believes himself to be loved, and On croit dtre aime, et Von ne vous one is not loved, aime pas, is incorrect, because the pronoun on has two antecedents ; it is not the same person who believes he is loved and who does not love ; we ought to say. On croit etre aime, et on ne Test pas. 230 FRENCH GRAMMAR, OF THE INDEFINITE EXPRESSIONS, SOME ONE, ANYONE, SOMEBODY, ANYBODY, ONE, A FEW, ETC. 500. The indefinite expressions some one, any one, somebody, any- body, one, or any other having the same meaning, are expressed by the indefinite pronoun quelqu'un. This pronoun is either used in an absolute meaning, that is to say, relating to no noun, or it relates to one. When used without reference to a noun or pronoun, quelqu'un is only employed in relation to persons, and has no feminine and no plu- ral ; it may be used as the nominative or the object of a verb ; as in, Somebody has been here to-day, who- Quelqu'un est venu ici aujourd'hui,qui wanted to speak to you. avait besoin de vous parler. How do you know this 1 I have it Comment savez-vous cela 1 Je le tiens from somebody. de quelqu'un. Has any one come to-day % Quelqu'un est-il venu aujourd'hui 1 501. But, when referring to a noun or pronoun, it is used in rela- tion to persons and things, it takes either number and gender, whether it be employed as a nominative or an object ; and is always followed by of, de, before the noun, pronoun, or adjective which it governs ; as Speaking of a lady, Tell me the name of your friends, and Nommez-moi vos amies, et je verrai I will see whether I know any of j'en connais quelqu'une. them. Speaking of pamphlets, Have you still any of those pamphlets you showed me the other day 1 Speaking of a gentleman, Will any of you, gentlemen, go hunting with me to-day 1 Speaking of jewels, If you wish to buy rings, I have some very pretty ones, that I will sell you very cheap. Speaking of a horse, Did any of my horses run away last night 1 Avez-vous encore quelques unes de ces brochures que vous m'avez montrees autre jour Quelqu'un de vous, messieurs, veut-il venir aujourd'hui a la chasse avec Si vous voulez acheter des bagues, j'en ai quelques unes de tre~s jolies, que je vous vendrai bon marche. Quelqu'un de mes chevaux s'est-il echappe la nuit derniere 1 PRONOUN. 231 The preposition of, de, is placed between the pronoun quelqu'un and the adjective which follows it, on account of the vague and indefinite meaning of that pronoun, which does not admit of its being immediately qualified by an adjective ; of takes the place of the expressions which is or ivhich are, which, as we have already explained it, are idiomatically rendered in French by de. OF WHOEVER, WHOSOEVER, ANY PERSON THAT, ALL THOSE WHO, ETC. 502. The indefinite expressions whoever, whosoever, any person that, all those who, or any other conveying the same vague meaning, are expressed by quiconque. This pronoun has no plural ; it is gen- erally masculine, but takes the feminine occasionally. It is only used in relation to persons, and has the peculiarity of con- taining the relative qui and its antecedent, so as to be used as the nominative of two verbs, or to be the nominative of one and the object of another ; as in the following sentences, Whoever knows men, learns not to Quiconque connait les horames, apprend trust them. a s'en defier. This speech is for those who are Ce discours s'adresse a quiconque est guilty. coupable. In the first sentence, quiconque is nominative of the verbs connait and apprend; and in the second, it is nominative of est and objective of s'adresse. In the following sentence, according to the decision of the Academy, the pronoun is used in the feminine, as having a positive relation to women : Whoever of you will be bold enough to Quiconque de vous sera assez hardie slander me, I will cause her to repent pour medire de moi, je l'en ferai re- of it. pentir. But this mode of expression is out of use, and should be avoided ; it should be as follows : Celle de vous qui sera assez hardie, &c. OF THE INDEFINITE EXPRESSIONS, EVERYBODY, EVERY ONE, EACH, EACH ONE, EVERY, ETC. 503. The indefinite expressions everybody, every one, each, each one, every, &c, or any other of the same kind, are expressed by chacun, which means, all the individuals of a species taken one after another. This pronoun follows nearly the same rules as quelqu'un ; when used 232 FRENCH GRAMMAR. in an absolute meaning, that is to say, without reference to any noun or pronoun, chacun is only used in relation to persons ; it is always singular and masculine, and is always used as a nominative ; as in, Everybody says the king will declare Chacun dit que le roi declarera la war to England. guerre a l'Angleterre. Every one should mind his own busi- Chacun devrait s'occuper de ses pro- ness. pres affaires. 504. But when chacun refers to a noun or a pronoun, it may relate either to persons or things ; it is used in either gender, but not in the plural, and is always followed by of, which comes before the noun or pronoun which is governed by it, except when it is placed at the end of the sentence ; but in this case, the pronoun en, of it, or of them, is placed before the verb ; as in, Each one of these books has its own Chacun de ces livres a sa place dans ma place in my library. bibliotheque. If you behave well, I will make a Si vous vous conduisez bien, je ferai un present to every one of you. cadeau a chacun de vous. Speaking of ladies, You see these pretty flowers ; if you are Vous voyez ces jolies fleurs; eh bien ! good, I will give one to each one of si vous etes sages, je rows en donnerai you. une a chacune; or, j'en donnerai une a chacune dc vous. The old phrase un chacun, for every one, is no longer admitted ia the language. 505. We have now to solve a difficulty, so much the more embar- rassing that its solution rest upon a very subtle mode of reasoning. Chacun, although it is always singular, is sometimes followed by the adjective pronouns, son, sa, ses, his, her, and sometimes by leur, leurs, their ; the following rules must be observed in these cases. When in the sentence there are no plural nouns of which chacun is the distributive, son, sa, ses, ought to be used ; as in, He gave each one his share. II donna a chacun sa part. Let every one mind his own business. Que chacun songe a ses affaires. We shall reward each one according to Nous recompenserons chacun suivant his merit. son merite. But when chacun is contrasted with a plural noun of which it is the distributive, the following distinction should be made : 506. Son, sa, ses, are used after chacun, when the verb of the first PRONOUN. 233 proposition is immediately followed by an object with which it forms a complete sense ; as in, They all brought their offerings to the lis ont tous apporte leurs offrandes au temple, each according to his means temple, chacun suivant ses moyens et and devotion. sa devotion. Men ought to love one another, each Les hommes devraient s'aimer les uns for his own interest. les autres, chacun pour son propre interet. In these two sentences, the collective idea is completed after the plural objects offrandes and les uns les autres have been expressed ; for, lis ont tous apporte leurs offrandes, Les hommes devraient s'aimer les uns les autres, are sentences complete in their meaning ; and it remains for the pro- noun chacun to show how the actions expressed by the verbs have been performed by their nominatives acting separately. 507. But when, on the contrary, chacun is placed before the object of the verb, which object denotes the things or persons to be distrib- uted by that pronoun, the plural idea is not completed when chacun appears in the sentence, and that plural idea should be conveyed to the last by the pronouns leur or lews ; as in, Men ought, for the interest of all, to Les hommes devraient avoir, chacun love another. pour leur interet, de l'amour les uns pour les autres. In this sentence, the first proposition, les hommes devraient avoir, does not form a complete sense, and therefore cannot, as in the first instance, be followed by the pronouns of the third person singular, son, sa, ses; leur or leurs should be used in their stead. These rules in regard to the proper use of chacun are rather meta- physical, and do not strike the mind as being based upon the true principle of analogy ; but they are admitted by all grammarians, through the authority of our best writers, and make a law in our language. Foreigners should study them carefully. 508. When the verb of the principal proposition has no object, it that proposition is complete in its meaning, either of the pronouns son, sa, ses, or leur and leurs, may be used, according to the manner in which the sentence is punctuated ; as in, All the judges have voted, each accord- Tous les juges ont vote, chacun selon ing to his own judgment. ses lumieres ; or, Touts les iuges ont vote, chacun, suivant leurs lumieres. 20* 234 FRENCH GRAMMAR. The first sentence signifies, All the judges have voted, and each one has voted according to his judgment j whilst the second is elliptical, and means, All the judges have voted according to their judgment; and, Each has done it according to his own. This last proposition being inserted in the principal, and separated from it by the pronoun chacun, placed between two commas. 509. When chacun, contrasting with a plural noun of which it is the distributive, is followed by a pronoun, this pronoun is always used in the plural ; as in, The queen said to the deputies, that it La reine dit aux deputes, qu'il 6tait was time for them to return to their tems qu'ils s'en retournassont chacun home. chez eux. 510. Whenever the expressions everybody, every one, &c, instead of conveying an idea of individuality, imply that of a whole, instead of being rendered by chacun, they are translated by tout le monde, all the world, and by tous, all ; as in, Everybody says the king is dead, but Tout le monde dit que le roi est mort, I do not believe it yet. mais je ne le crois pas encore. Every one of my friends has forsaken Tous mes amis m'ont abandoone dans me in my misfortune. mon malheur. OP THE INDEFINITE EXPRESSIONS, OTHER PEOPLE AND OTHERS. 511. The indefinite expressions other people and others are ren- dered by autrui, which is only employed in relation to persons ; it is rarely used in speaking of a single individual ; it has neither gender nor number; it is never joined to an adjective, and is always preceded by a preposition ; as in, Do not envy other people's property. N'enviez pas le bien d'autrui. Do not do to others what you would not Ne faites pas d autrui ce que vous ne have done to you. voudriez pas qu'on vous fit. 512. The pronoun autrui presents a difficulty, which is, to know whether and when the adjective possessive pronouns son, sa, ses, leur and leurs, or the personal pronoun en, must be used with it. Son, sa, ses, leur, and leurs, ought to be used with autrui, when PRONOUN. 235 the nouns to which these pronouns are prefixed are themselves pre- ceded by a preposition ; as in, You may take interest in others, with- Vous pouvez epouser les interets d'au- out approving all their actions. trui, sans etre le panegyriste de toutes leurs actions. But when the nouns to which son, sa, ses, leur, or leurs, ought to be prefixed are not preceded by a preposition, then the relative en is used with the article ; as in, Take interest in others, but take care Prenez les interets d'autrui, mais ayez not to espouse their quarrels. soin de n'en pas epouser les quer- elles. Leurs querelles would be a fault. OF THE INDEFINITE EXPRESSIONS, ONE ANOTHER AND EACH OTHER. 513. The indefinite expressions one another and each other are rendered by Tun Vautre, which is used in relation to persons and things ; it takes the feminine, Vune Vautre, and the plural, as, les wis les autres, les unes les autres; and always keeps the article before each of the words un and autre. These two words are used conjointly or separately. When used conjointly, they express a reciprocity between several persons or things ; then Pun acts as governing, and Vautre as gov- erned, so that the last only admits of a preposition before it ; as in, One must help another, On doit se secourir Vun Vautre, which means, L'un doit secourir l'autre ; {Vun being nominative, and Vautre objective.) People always suffer on account of the Les peuples souffrent toujours des wars which states carry on against guerres que les etats se font les uns (each other) one another. aux autres. 514. Vun Vautre should not be mistaken for Vun et Vautre, which has a signification entirely different ; when we say, They destroy themselves, lis se detruisent Vun et Vautre, we express that each one destroys himself; but when we say, lis ee detruisent Vun Vautre, 236 FRENCH GRAMMAR. we express that one destroys the other, and the other destroys the one. Fire and water destroy each other, or Le feu et l'eau se detruisent Vun Vautre. one another. Vun et Vautre, in a sentence like this, would have no meaning. 515. The two words Vun and Vautre, when used separately, indi- cate division ; they are no longer a single pronoun, but two distinct ones ; then Vun may be governed by a preposition as well as Vautre, which is not the case when they are united. Uun is used for the person or thing spoken first ; Vautre, for the other ; as in, Passions understand one another ; if we Les passions s'entendent les unes avec give way to one, we cause another to les autres; si l'on se laisse aller aux appear. unes, on attire les autres. OF THE INDEFINITE EXPRESSIONS, NOBODY, NO ONE, NONE, NO MAN, ANY. BODY, ANY ONE, ETC. 516. The indefinite expressions, nobody, no one, none, no man, any- body, any one, &c, or any other having the same negative meaning, are expressed by the indefinite pronoun personne. The word personne is also sometimes a noun ; but in either case, it is only used in relation to persons. Personne, as a noun, is always feminine, and signifies a person. Personne, as a pronoun, is always masculine and singular. 517. It is always accompanied by the negation ne in sentences which are not interrogative ; but when used interrogatively, the nega- tion is sometimes dispensed with : as in, There is no person so badly informed II n'y a. personne, si peu instruit des af- about business as not to know his faires, qui ne sache quels sont ses in- own interest. terets. No one knows whether he is worthy of Personne ne sait s'z7 est digne d'amour love or hatred. ou de haine. T .„. . ... „ C Personne veut-il venir avec moil or, Is any one willing to come with me '.in *. -i • n jo l Personne ne veut-il venir avec mpi 1 That office suits him better than any- Cette place lui convient mieux qu'a per- body else. sonne. (Elliptical.) In the following sentence, Is there any one here *? No, nobody, Y-a-t-il quelqu'un ici 1 Non, personne, personne is used elliptically for il n'y a personne; so that, if the nega- tion is not apparent in the sentence, it is easily supplied by the mind, ;n destroying the ellipsis. PRONOUN. 237 518. When personne means quelqu'un, anybody or any one, it is used only as nominative, and in phrases expressing interrogation or doubt ; then it is never followed by the negation ; as in, I doubt if anybody has ever described Je doute que personne (quelqu'un) ait nature so well as Guessner. jamais peint la nature aussi bien que Guessner. Has any one ever told a tale with more Personne (quelqu'un) a-t-il jamais candor than La Fontaine 1 conte plus naivement que La Fon- taine 1 If ever any one is bold enough to un- Si jamais personne (quelqu'un) est as- dertake it, he will succeed. sez hardi pour l'entreprendre, il reussira. 519. Although the generality of grammarians admit that the pro- noun personne is always masculine and singular, some pretend that when it evidently refers to ladies, it ought to take the feminine ; we agree with them, that in such cases the masculine should not be used, but we further say, that the pronoun ought not to be used at all, and the phrase be turned so as to dispense with it, as in the following ; instead of saying, Ladies, there are none of you bold Mesdames, il n'y a personne de vous euough to deny the truth of my argu- assez hardie pour nier la verite de ments, mes arguments, the sentence ought to be turned thus : Mesdames, il n'y a aucune de vous qui soit assez hardie pour, &c. The difficulty thus disappears, and the sentence is correct. 520. Whenever the indefinite pronoun personne is followed by an adjective the preposition de should be placed between them, because, on account of its vague and indefinite meaning, personne cannot serve as an antecedent for an adjective ; de, as in the case of the pronoun quelqu'un, is used instead of the relative pronoun which, followed by the verb to be; as in, I know nobody as brave as you are. Je ne connais personne d'aussi brave que vous. There are no poor people in America. II n'y a personne de pauvre en Ame- rique. Personne, although of an indefinite character, may be the antece- dent of the personal pronoun il; as in, No man is rash when he is sure not to Personne n'est temeraire quand i7 est be seen. sur de n'etre pas vu. Nobody knows whether he is worthy Personne ne sait s'tf est digne d'amour of love or hatred. ou de haine. 238 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Whenever the noun personne, which is always feminine, relates either to an adjective or a personal pronoun, this adjective or pronoun, instead of agreeing with that noun, agrees with the idea which it represents, and is used in the masculine ; but this can only take place when this adjective or pronoun is placed at some distance from the noun personne, or is not in the same proposition ; as in, Persons of consummate virtue have in Les personnes consommees dans la vertu everything a rectitude of mind and a ont en toutes choses une droiture judicious attention which prevent d'esprit et une attention judicieuse them from slandering anybody. qui les empechent d'etre medisants. The adjective medisants, in this sentence, is masculine plural, although it relates to the feminine noun personnes, because this noun relates to man in general, and does not forcibly recal to the mind a feminine idea so as to compel the agreement of the adjective. Although the interests of these three Quoique ces trois personnes eussent dea persons were entirely different, they interets bien differents, Us etaient were nevertheless all tormented by tous neanmoins tourmentes de la the same passion. meme passion. In this sentence, the pronoun Us, and the adjective and past par- ticiple tous and tourmentes, are not very far from the noun personne; but they are not used in the same proposition, and as the noun to which they refer does not positively represent a feminine idea, they may not agree with their antecedent itself, but with the idea which it represents, and be used in the masculine. OF THE INDEFINITE EXPRESSIONS, NOTHING, NOT ANYTHING, ANYTHING, ETC. 521. The indefinite expressions nothing, not anything, anything, &c, are expressed by the indefinite pronoun rien. Rien is also a noun, and as a noun it signifies a thing of little value. As a pronoun, it is always singular and masculine, and only used in relation to things. 522. Rien has two different significations, whether it is used with or without a negation. Rien, accompanied by a negation, signifies nulle chose, nothing; as in, It is better to do nothing than to spend II vaut mieux ne rien faire que de faire one's time in trifles. des riens. In this sentence, the first word, rien, is a pronoun, and is preceded PRONOUN. 239 by the negation ; the second word, riens, is in the plural as a noun, and means trifles. He does not apply himself to anything 11 ne s'applique a rien de solide. substantial. 5Q3. Rien, joined to the verb compter, to count, although without a negation, still signifies nothing ; as in. When one speaks as you do, it makes Quand on parle comme vous le faites, others diiuk that you count for noth- on donne a penser que Von compte ing virtue, honor, and probity. pour rien, la verlu, l'honneur, et la probite. 524. Rien. without a negation, signifies quelque chose, anything, and is used only in sentences expressing interrogation or doubt ; as in, I doubt if there is anything better cal- Je doute que rien (quelque chose) soit culated to make an impression upon plus capable de faire impression sur people than the sight of the calami- les peuples que la rue des malheurs ties which have visited France. qu'a eprouves la France. Is anything better calculated to flatter Rien flatte-t-il si delicieusement l'es- the mind and the ear than a speech prit et l'oreille qu'un discours sage- uiselv conceived and noblv deliv- ment concu et noblement exprime * ered 1 5-25. Ri^n. used as a direct object, is, in the simple tenses of verbs, placed after the verb, and in the compound tenses, between the aux- iliary and the past participle ; as in, He says nothing. II ne dit rien. He lias said nothing. II n'a rien dit. But when it is the object of an infinitive, it is placed before that infinitive ; as in, I cannot give you anything. Je ne puis vous rien donner. As an indirect object it is always placed after the verb, whatever may be the mood : as in, think of anything is better than Ne penser a rien vaut mieux que de to think of evil. penser au mal. 526. Rien governs the preposition of, de, before the following adjective ; as in, Is anything more delightful 1 Est-il rien de plus delicieux? That man has nothing pleasing about Cet homme n'a en lui rien d'agrtable. him. 240 FRENCH GRAMMAR. OF INDEFINITE PRONOUNS ALWAYS JOINED TO A NOUN. 527. The pronouns of this class are four in number ; as, Some, any, quelque. Every, each, chaque. Whatever, whatsoever, any, any whatever, any whatsoever, quelconque. Certain, some, certain. These words ought not to be classed as pronouns ; they are adjec- tives ; but as custom and usage have determined their denomination we shall keep it, so as to be understood by all. OF THE INDEFINITE EXPRESSIONS, SOME AND ANY. 528. Some and any are sometimes expressed by of, followed or not by the article the, and sometimes by quelque, which signifies one or several among a greater number, but always conveys the idea of a few ; it is used in relation to persons and things, and takes either number and gender ; as in, Do you bring any news 1 Apportez-vous quelque nouvelle 1 Some (a) writer has said that. Quelque auteur a dit cela. I have bought some books. J'ai achete quelques livres. T heard from some persons that you J'ai entendu dire par quelques personnes were dead. que vous etiez mort. OF THE INDEFINITE EXPRESSIONS, EVERY AND EACH. 529. Every and each are expressed by chaque, which is of either gender, but has no plural ; it is a distributive adjective which desig- nates a person or a thing taken separately. Each man has his tastes, each country Chaque homme a ses gouts, chaque pays its manners. ses usages. The English pronoun every gives rise to many mistakes among for- eigners, and consequently requires some explanation. 530. When every is joined to a noun, the extent of its signification must be ascertained before translating it ; if the meaning of the noun, joined to the pronoun each, awakens in the mind the idea of individu- ality, this pronoun ought to be expressed by the word chaque; as in, During the review, each soldier re- Pendant la revue, chaque soldat recut ceived a compliment for his good un compliment pour sa conduite en behavior in presence of the enemy. ^ presence de l'ennemi. At the exhibition of paintings, each A l'exposition de peinture, chaque tab- picture was placed in a proper light. leau etait place dans un jour conven- able. PRONOUN. 241 The mind, in these two sentences, cannot help dividing the soldiers and pictures by individualities, because one soldier received his com- pliment after another had received his, and each picture was placed one by one, so as to receive its proper light. 531. But if, on the contrary, the meaning expressed by each or every, and the noun which follows, presents to the mind the idea of a whole, without reference to individualities, then each is rendered by tout, all; as in, Every man is born with good and bad Tous les hommes naissent avec de bons propensities. et de mauvais penchants. I visited my cellar and found every J'ai visite ma cave et j'ai trouve toutes botde empty. les bouteilles vides. In these two sentences, the mind attaches no importance to the indi- viduality of man and bottle ; it is struck only with the idea of them as a whole, and every is expressed by tout. 532. When chaque is used for every, it should always be followed by a noun ; this phrase, which is generally used, These books cost me one dollar each, Ces livres me coutent une gourde chaque, is wrong, and ought to be turned thus : Chacun de ces livres me coute une gourde. OF THE INDEFINITE EXPRESSIONS, WHATEVER, WHATSOEVER, ANY, ANY WHAT- EVER, ANY WHATSOEVER. 533. The indefinite expressions whatever, whatsoever, any, any whatever, any whatsoever, are expressed by the indefinite pronoun quelconque, which is of either gender and number. Although generally applied to things, this pronoun is sometimes used in relation to persons. It is generally accompanied by a negation, and placed after it; then it is only used in the singular. He was left with nothing at all. II ne lui est demeure chose quelconque (not used.) There is no reason which could compel II n'y a raison quelconque capable de him to do it. 1'y obliger (not used.) There is uobody in the world whom I II n'y a homme quelconque auquel je may trust. puisse me fier (not used.) A line being given, you must find its Une ligne quelconque etant donnee, length. trouvez sa longueur. Two points being given, you must find Deux points quelconques etant donnis the third. trouvez le troisi^me. 21 242 FRENCH GRAMMAR. OF THE INDEFINITE EXPRESSIONS, CERTAIN, SOME. 534. The indefinite expressions certain and some are sometimes expressed by the indefinite pronoun certain, which is used in relation to persons and things, and takes either number and gender. It is usually preceded by un, a, an, but sometimes not ; as in, I know this from a certain author. Je sais ceci d'un certain auteur. Certain facts have come to my ear. Certains faits sont parvenus jusqu'a moi. The pronoun certain must not be mistaken for the adjective, which means sure, positive; as in, A certain fact and a fact certain are Un certain fait et un fait certain sont two different things. deux choses tres difFerente3. QUESTIONS. 493. What is the definition of an indefinite pronoun 1 493. Into how many classes are indefinite pronouns divided 1 (Mention the four classes.) 494. What are the indefinite pronouns of the first class 1 (Let the pupil mention these pronouns, with their significations in English.) 495. Is the pronoun on ever used objectively 1 Of what person is it, and what is its meaning 1 495. What is its probable etymology'? Is it used in relation to persons or things "? In what number does it govern the verb following, as well as the noun and adjectives used in relation to itself? 496. Are there not cases in which nouns and adjectives relating to the pro- noun on can be used in the feminine and in the plural 1 497. Whenever the pronoun on is preceded by any of the conjunctions et, si, ou, and que, what does euphony require to be placed before it 1 498. Should the pronoun on be repeated before each verb 1 499. Can the pronoun on be repeated where it does not relate to the same object 1 500. How are the English expressions some one, any one, somebody, anybody, &c, rendered in French 1 500. When the pronoun quelqu'un is used without any reference to a follow- ing noun or pronoun, is it used in relation to persons and things 1 Is it used in the feminine and in the plural 1 Can it be used both as the nominative and the object of a verb 1 501. How is the pronoun quelqu'un used, when it relates to a noun or pronoun used afterwards % 501. Can the pronoun quelqu'un be immediately followed by an adjective 1 501. Why is the preposition of, de, used after the pronoun quelqu'un, before an adjective "? 502. How are the expressions whoever, whosoever, whomsoever, any person that, all those who, &c, rendered in French *? 502. What are the number and gender of the pronoun quiconque ? 502. Is the pronoun quiconque applied to persons or things 1 502. Is it never used in relation to a feminine noun 1 503. How are the expressions everybody, every one, each, each one, every, &c, expressed in French 1 PRONOUN. 243 503. When the pronoun chacun is used in an absolute meaning, does it refer to persons or things ? Of what number and gender is it 1 504. How is the pronoun chacu?i used, when it relates to a noun or pronoun 1 Does it relate to persons and things, and does it take the plural 1 504. When followed by a noun or pronoun, what preposition is used between them 1 505. When chacun is not contrasted by a plural noun, what are the possess- ive adjeetive pronouns which are used in relation to it 1 506. What are the possessive adjective pronouns which are used after cha- cun, when the verb of die first proposition has an object and forms with it a complete sense 1 507. But when chacun is placed between the verb and its object, what is the possessive adjective pronoun which should be used after chacun? 508. When the verb of the first proposition has no object, and however the sense is completed, what possessive adjective pronoun should be used after cha- cun ? 509. How should the sentence be punctuated, when using either son, sa, ses, or leur or leurs? 509. What should always be the number of the personal pronoun used after chacun ? 510. How are the expressions everybody, every one, &c, rendered, when, instead of referring to individualities, they carry the idea of a whole 1 511. How are the expressions other people, others, &c, rendered 1 511. Is the pronoun autrui used in relation to persons or things 1 Is it used in speaking of one or more persons 1 Has it any plural or feminine 1 Is it ever joined to an adjective 1 and is it ever used without being preceded by a preposi- tion 1 512. In what case is the pronoun autrui followed by any of the possessive adjective pronouns son, sa, ses, leur, and leurs? 512. In what case is the same pronoun used with en and the article 1 513. How are the indefinite expressions one another and each other rendered in French 1 513. Is the pronoun Pun I'autre used in relation to persons and things 1 Does it take the feminine and the plural 1 513. What idea does the pronoun Vun V autre convey, when the two words Vun and V autre are used together 1 514. What is the difference between the expressions Vun V autre and Vun et V autre? 515. What do the words Vun and Vautre indicate, when used separately 1 Do they form thus one or two distinct pronouns 1 516. How are the indefinite expressions nobody, no one, none, &c., rendered in French * 516. Is the pronoun personne employed in relation to persons or things 1 516. Is not the word personne sometimes used as a noun 1 516. Of what gender is that word, when used either as a pronoun or a noun 1 517. What should be the form of the sentence for the pronoun personne re- quiring to be accompanied by a negation % 517. What is the English meaning of the pronoun personne, when used with- out the negation ne? 518. When the pronoun personne is used without the negation ne, how is it employed, — as a nominative, or objectively \ 519. Can the pronoun personne be followed by a feminine adjective 1 520. Can the pronoun personne be immediately followed by an adjective 1 Why cannot that pronoun be the antecedent of an adjective, and what is the meaning of the preposition de, which separates them 1 520. Notwithstanding the indefinite character of the pronoun personne, can- not this pronoun be followed by the personal pronoun il? and if it can, why 1 520. When the word personne is used as a noun, although it is then feminine, 244 FRENCH GRAMMAR. cannot the adjective or personal pronoun used in relation to it be used in the masculine, and why 1 and in what case 1 521. How are the indefinite expressions nothing, not anything, anything, &c, rendered in French 1 521. Is not the word rien sometimes used as a noun, and what does it sig- nify then 1 521. When the word rien is used as a pronoun, of what number and gender is it. 1 Is it used in speaking of persons or things 1 522. What does rien signify, when accompanied by a negation 1 523. What does rien signify, when used without a negation, with the verb compter? 524. What does rien signify, when used without a negation 1 525. Where is the pronoun rien placed in simple and compound tenses, when used as the direct object of a verb 1 525. Where is it placed, when the direct object of a verb in the infinitive mood 1 525. Where is that pronoun placed, when used as the indirect object of a verb 1 526. What preposition does rien govern before an adjective 1 527. What are the indefinite pronouns which are always joined to a noun 1 and what do they signify in English 1 528. How are some and any expressed, when used as indefinite pronouns 1 When expressed by quelque, do thev convev the idea of a great number or of a few! 528. Is not the pronoun quelque sometimes used to signify one, in a vague manner 1 Does it apply to persons or things 1 Is it of either number and gender 1 529. How are the indefinite expressions every and each expressed before a noun ! Is the pronoun chaque of either gender, and does it take the plural 1 What does this pronoun signify % 530. When the meaning of a noun preceded by every awakens in the mind an idea of individuality, how is it expressed ! 531. How is this word every expressed, when it conveys the idea of a whole 1 532. Can chaque, used for every, be used without its being followed by a noun ! 533. How are the indefinite expressions, whatever, whatsoever, &c, expressed when joined to a noun 1 533. Is the pronoun quelconque employed in relation to persons and things, and is it used in either number and gender 1 533. When used with a negation, does it take the plural 1 534. How is the indefinite expression certain expressed 1 534. What is the difference in the meaning of the word certain, when used either as a pronoun or an adjective, and where is it placed in either case 1 OF INDEFINITE PRONOUNS SOMETIMES JOINED TO NOUNS, AND SOMETIMES NOT. 535. The pronouns of this class are the following : No, none, not one, no man, no woman, nobody, nul. Not any, none, not one, aucun. No, not one, pas un. Other, autre. Both, either, l'un et 1'autre, l'un ou 1 'autre. Neither, ni l'un ni 1'autre. Same, even, meme. PRONOUN. 245 Such, tel. Several, many, plusieurs. All, every, everything, however, although, very, tout. These words, employed by themselves, are real pronouns ; when joined to a noun, they are mere adjectives. Some of them are some- times adverbs. OF THE INDEFINITE EXPRESSIONS, NO, NONE, NOT ONE, NO MAN, NO WOMAN, NOBODY, ETC. 536. The indefinite expressions, no, none, not one, no man, &c, can be rendered by the indefinite pronouns nut, aucun, and pas un. 537. Nul, either as a pronoun or an adjective, is a sign of exclu- sion ; it is stronger in its meaning than aucun and pas un. It is always accompanied by a negation, takes either gender, but is never used in the plural as a pronoun ; as in, No one knows whether he deserves Nul ne sait s'il est digne d'amour ou love or hatred. de haine. Speaking of ladies, None shall be received in my house Nulle ne sera recue chez moi a raoins unless she deserves it. qu'elle ne le merite. 538. Nul is never followed by an adjective, but may be used in relation to a noun or a pronoun ; it is then separated from them by the preposition of, de; as in, None of those who went into that cav- Nul de ceus qui sont entres dans cette era has ever returned. caverne n'en est revenu. 539. Nul, as an adjective, takes the feminine, but is never used in the plural, except when relating to a noun expressed before ; it means then void, or of little or no value; as in, There is no truth in that picture. II n'y a nulle verite dans ce tableau. These men have no capacity. Ce sont des hommes nuls. These deeds are void. Ces actes sont nuls. The Academy authorizes the use of nul, adjective, as qualifying a noun used objectively ; as in, This man is so obstinate that he will Get homme est si entete qu'il ne se yield to no reason. rend a nulle raison. But it would be better to use aucun, and say : Cet homme est si entete qu'il ne se rend a aucune raison. 540. Aucun, as a pronoun, takes either gender, but is not used in 21* 246 FRENCH GRAMMAR. the plural ; it is always accompanied by a negation when, used in rela- tion either to a noun, a pronoun, or an adjective, it is followed by the preposition de, of; as in, I have looked for your books, but I have J'ai cherche vos livres, mais je n'm ai trouve aucun. Ou sont vos plumes 1 II n'y en a aucune sur la table. Aucune de vous, mesdemoiselles, ne m'a encore donne ses exercises. Aucun de ces soldats ne mourra de sea blessures. not found any. Where are your pens 1 There are none on the table. None of you, young ladies, has yet given me her exercises. None of these soldiers will die of his wounds. 541. Aucun, as an adjective, is of either gender and number ; it is used with a negation, except in sentences expressing either interroga- tion or doubt : as in, There is no way by which you can suc- ceed in this affair. I do not wish it in any way. I have paid no attention to your sister. Was ever a man more happy than you 1 The best comparison, perhaps, that has ever been made, is that of Pope about the Alps, in his Essay on Criticism. Vous tt'avez aucun moyen de reussir dans cette affaire. Je ne le veux en aucune maniere. Je n'ai rendu aucuns soins a votre soeur. Aucun homme fut-il jamais plus heur- eux que vous 1 La plus belle comparaison qu'il y ait, peut-etre, en aucune langue, est celle que Pope a tiree des Alpes, dans son Essai sur la Critique. 542. Pas un, as a pronoun, is only used in familiar or proverbial expressions ; it takes either gender, but is never used in the plural. When employed in relation either to a noun, a pronoun, or an adjec- tive, which has not been already expressed, it is followed by the prep- osition de, of; it excludes more strongly than aucun, and is not always accompanied by a negation ; as in, Not one believes it, not one says it. He is as learned as any one. There is not one of these pictures that does not come from a great master. None of those cows belong to me. Pas un ne le croit,^as un ne le dit. II est aussi savant que pas un. II n'y a pas un de ces tableaux qui ne soit d'un grand maltre. II n'y a pas une de ces vaches qui m'ap- partienne. 543. Pas un, as an adjective, takes either number and gender, but no plural ; it is expressed in relation to persons and things, and is always accompanied by a negation ; as in, At the ball last night, there was not a Au bal hier soir, il n'y avait pas une lady who wore diamonds. femme qui portat des diamants. There is not an officer in the army who II n'y &pas un officier dans toute l'armee is not ready to die for his country. qui ne soit pret a mourir pour sa patrie. PRONOUN. 247 OF THE INDEFINITE EXPRESSION, OTHER. 544. Autre, other, is either a pronoun or an adjective, and takes both number and gender ; it is applied to persons and things, and serves to distinguish them. It is a pronoun when not joined to a noun. Would another be more useful to vou 1 Un autre pourrait-il vous etre plus utile 1 Nevertheless, in this case, it is more of an adjective than a pro- noun, because there is a noun understood, which is homrne, man. 545. It is an adjective when joined to a noun, or preceded by the pronoun en, which takes the place of the noun, or when used in ellip- tical sentences ; as in, The ancients did not believe in another Les anciens ne croyaient pas qu'il y eut world. un autre monde. The temple of Solomon being destroyed, Le temple de Solomon ayant ete de- they built another by order of Cyrus. truit, on en rebatit un autre par les ordres de Cyrus. We cannot be happy in this world and Nous ne pouvont etre heureux dans ce the other. monde et dans V autre (monde.) (El- lipsis.) Autre is sometimes used to represent a person, but indefinitely . as in, I had rather you would learn it of any J'aime mieux que vous l'appreniez de other person than of me. tout autre que de moi, (Ellipsis.) OF THE INDEFINITE EXPRESSIONS, BOTH, EITHER. 546. The indefinite expressions both and either are rendered in French by either of the indefinite pronouns Pun and Vautre, which take either number and gender, or by tous deux, which is used also in the feminine. L'un et Vautre is a pronoun when not joined to a noun ; as in the following, Both state the same fact. L'un et l'autre (or tous deux) rappor- tent le meme fait. I know them both. Je les connais l'un et l'autre, or tous deux. But it is an adjective when joined to a noun ; it is then only used in the singular ; as in, It is rare to use both hands equally II est rare qu'on puisse se servir egale- well. ment bien de Vune ft Vautre main. 248 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 547. Here a difficulty is raised by grammarians ; must the verb which follows Vun et V autre be placed in the singular or plural ? The Academy thinks that we may indifferently use the singular or the plural after Vun et Vautre, and in the last edition of its Dictionary we find, -,.., . , C L'une et V autre est bonne. Either is good. J iw a , Wg sont ^^ Voltaire almost always employs the singular ; as in, Both will soon see their last hour. Uun et Vautre bientot voit son heure derniere. Either thing now would be too blama- iPun et Vautre aujourd'hui serait trop ble. condamnable. Many distinguished authors do the same ; but, notwithstanding these respectable authorities, we think the plural alone ought to be admitted, because each of the pronouns Vun Vautre, taking the place of a noun, ought to act upon the verb as the nouns would ; therefore, two nouns, employed as nominative, always commanding the plural, when they are united by the conjunction et, the singular cannot pos- sibly be used after Vun et Vautre. OF THE INDEFINITE EXPRESSION, NEITHER. 548. The indefinite expression neither is rendered by the indefinite pronoun ni Vun ni Vautre ; this pronoun is used in relation to persons and things ; it takes either number and gender ; when followed by a noun or pronoun to which it relates, the preposition de, of, is placed between them ; ni Vun ni Vautre is also used as an adjective ; as in, Neither of your brothers shall marry Ni Vun ni Vautre de vos freres n'epou- my sister. sera ma soeur. I know neither of your sisters. Je ne connais ni Vune ni Vautre de vos soeurs. Are you acquainted with these gentle- Connaissez-vous ces messieurs 1 Non, men 1 No, I know neither of them. je ne les connais ni les uns ni les au- tres. 549. When neither is preceded by a preposition, this preposition is repeated before each of the pronouns Vun and Vautre; as in, Tears were shed on neither side. On ne repandait de larmes ni de Vun ni de Vautre cote. Have you written to your brothers 1 Avez-vous ecrit a vos freres 1 Non, No, I have written to neither. je n'ai ecrit ni a, Vun ni d Vautre. 450. Whenever the indefinite pronoun ni Vun ni Vautre is used as the nominative of a verb, this verb should be used in the plural if the pronoun. 249 action which it expresses could possibly be performed by the two nominatives represented by the pronouns Vun and V autre; as in, Either of your brothers solicit this Vos deux freres sollicitent cette place, office, but neither has talent enough mais ni I'un ni Vautre n'ont assez de to occupy it. talent pour la remplir. Either of your sons were in the battle Vos deux fils etaient a la bataille de of Waterloo, but neither of them was Waterlo, mais ni I'un ni l : 'autre n'ont wounded. ete blesses. In these two sentences, both brothers might have had talent enough to fill the office, and both sons might have been wounded ; the verbs, therefore, have been used in the plural. 551. But if the action expressed by the verb could not possibly have been performed by the two nominatives represented by the pro- nouns Vun and V 'autre, that verb should be used in the singular ; as in, Neither of them is my father. Ni I'un ni I' autre n'est mon pe're. Neither of them will be elected mayor Ni I'un ni V autre ne sera ela maire de la of the city of Boston. ville de Boston. A man can have but one father ; the city of Boston has only one mayor ; therefore, the actions expressed by the verbs to be and to be elected could not possibly be performed by the two nominatives Vun and V autre, and these verbs should be used in the singular. Grammarians do not agree upon this rule ; but we give it as a guide to foreigners, who will always write correctly by conforming to it. 552. Remark. The indefinite pronouns both, either, and neither, should not be mistaken for the conjunctions expressed by the same words. As conjunctions, they are not expressed in French. The conjunctions and or or, used between the words preceded by both or either, and nor repeated before those which come after neither, are sufficient to convey the meaning of the sentence ; as in, This young lady is either foolish or Cette jeune personne est folle ou m6- wicked. chante. This lesson is both difficult and te- Cette lecon est difficile et ennuyeuse. dious. This horse is neither handsome nor Ce cheval n'est ni beau ni bon. good. OF THE INDEFINITE EXPRESSIONS, SAME, SELF, AND THE ADVERB EVEN. 553. The indefinite expression same is rendered by the indefinite pronoun meme. Merne, as a pronoun, relates to persons and things, and takes either number or gender. It denotes identity, that is to say, that the 250 FRENCH GRAMMAR. person or thing so spoken of is no other than that which has been spoken of already. Thus, speaking of a man, we say, The same has come to see me. Le meme est venu me voir. Speaking of an affair, I always work at the same. Je travaille toujours a la meme. 554. When an adjective, meme may signify identity or similarity, and always precedes the noun which it qualifies. (Identity.) In Germany, the same churches some- En Allemagne, les mimes eglises ser- times serve for Catholics and Pro- vent quelquefois pour les Catholiquea testants. et les Protestants. (Similarity.) It is rare to find two persons of the II est rare de trouver deux personnes du same character. meme caractere. Meme is sometimes added to a noun to give more force to its signi- fication, and then signifies the word self, in English ; as in, Is it virtue itself. C'est la vertu meme. It is myself. C'est moi-meme. 555. Meme, as a pronoun or an adjective, must not be mistaken for the adverb, which means even; in which case it should remain inva- riable ; as in, Stars, animals, and even plants, were Les astres, les animaux, les plantes among the Egyptian deities. meme, etaient au nombre des divini- tes Egyptiennes. The following verses of Racine have been criticised : Jusqu'ici la fortune et la victoire memes Cachaient mes cheveux blancs sous trente diademes, because it has been supposed that meme was used by him as an adjec- tive, qualifying the two nouns, fortune and victoire; if such was the case, Racine would not have failed to recall the idea of the two nouns, by adding the pronoun elle to meme; saying, La fortune et la victoire elles memes ; but raeme'here is an adverb, and used in the plural, because at the time when Racine was writing, usage still permitted to orthography PRONOUN. 251 this adverb mimes or mime ; he was then right in choosing such a termination as would suit the rlryme of the next verse. OF THE INDEFINITE EXPRESSION, SUCH. 556. The indefinite expression such is rendered by the indefinite pronoun tel. Tel is masculine or feminine, and applies to persons and things. This pronoun is used to designate a person or thing in an indefinite manner ; as in, The storm will fall upon such a one who L'orage tombera sur tel qui ne s'y at- does not think of it. tend pas. It takes also the place of a proper name ; as in, Who told you that 1 Such a one. Qui vous a dit cela 1 Un tel. And, in fine, is used instead of such a person who, in some Galli- cisms ; as in, He who sows does not always reap. Tel qui seme ne moissone pas tou- jour s. Tel is used in this sentence for the pronoun celui. 557. Tel, as an adjective, indicates a comparison between two per- sens or things, but without expressing what or whom they are com- pared to ; as in, Such a man as you is born to aspire to Un homme tel que vous est ne pour honor and glory. aspirer a la gloire et aux honneurs. The obstinacy of the rebels is such as L'obstination des rebelles est telle qu'on not to be easily conquered. ne peut facilement la vaincre. 558. When such, in English, is placed at the beginning of a sen- tence, and used in a partitive sense, if it refers to a single object or individual, it must, in French, be preceded by un, une, and if to sev- eral, by the preposition de, when placed before the noun, and des, if placed after it ; as in. Such a man is not calculated to com- Un tel homme n'est pas fait pour com- mand respect. mander le respect. Such men are not calculated to be De tels hommes ne se font point aimer, loved. Such horses as yours cannot run very Des chevaux tels que les votres ne peu- fast. vent courir tres vite. 559. But when used in the middle of a sentence, un, de or des, are FRENCH GRAMMAR. not used before tel, provided the noun following is not used in a par- titive sense ; as in, Give me such a pen as you please, and Donnez-moi telle plume que vous vou- I shall write better than you. drez, et j'ecrirai mieux que vous. Give me such horses as you please, Donnez-moi tels chevaux que vous vou- and I will break them. drez, et je les dompterai. OF THE INDEFINITE EXPRESSIONS, SEVERAL AND MANY. 560. The indefinite expressions several and many are rendered by the indefinite pronoun or the adjective plusieurs; as a pronoun, plu- sieurs is of either gender, and always plural. When used in an abso- lute meaning, that is to say, without referring to any noun or pro- noun expressed afterwards, it only relates to persons ; as in, Many are deceived by attempting to Plusieurs sont trompes en essayant de deceive others. tromper les autres. This sentence, although correct, is wanting in elegance ; it would be better translated by : On est souvent trompe en essayant de tromper les autres. 561. When plusieurs is used in relation either to a noun, a pro- noun, or an adjective, expressed afterwards, it is employed in rela- tion to persons and things, and is always followed by the preposition de; as in, Several or many of my friends will sail Plusieurs de mes amis partiront demain for Europe to-morrow. pour l'Europe. A great number of soldiers could not fol- Un grand nombre de soldats ne purent low the army, and many of them died suivre l'armee, at plusieurs d'entr'eux of cold and hunger. moururent de froid et de faim. (Enti-e is used after de, before a personal pronoun, for the sake of euphony. ) The want of fodder compelled us to Le manque de fourrage nous forca a abandon several of our horses on the abandonner plusieurs de nos chevaux road. sur la route. 562. Plusieurs, as an adjective, relates to persons and things, and is never followed by of, de; as in, Many philosophers have been deceived Plusieurs philosophes se sont trompes upon the nature of the soul. sur la nature de l'ame. PRONOUN. 253 OF THE INDEFINITE EXPRESSIONS, ALL, EVERY, EVERYTHING. 563. The indefinite expressions every, everything, and all, are ren- dered by the indefinite pronoun tout. Tout, as a pronoun, is always masculine and singular, and signifies everything ; as in, Everything in our heart ought to yield Tout doit dans notre coeur ceder a to justice. 1'equite. He laughs at everything. II rit de tout. 564. This pronoun, used as the direct of object of a verb, is placed after it in simple tenses, and, in compound tenses, between the aux- iliary and past participle ; as in, He confesses all. II avoue tout. He has confessed everything. II a tout avoue. But when an indirect object, it is always placed after the verb, either in simple or compound tenses ; as in, He thinks of everything. II pense a tout. He has thought of everything. II a pense a tout. The same rule is observed in the infinitive mood. 565. Tout, as an adjective, is employed in relation to persons and things ; it takes either number and gender, and has two different meanings ; it expresses either the generality or the whole extent of a thing ; or it means every. In the first acceptation, it requires the article before the noun which it qualifies , as in, We must all die. Tout le monde meurt. All the horses have been taken for the Tous les chevaux ont ete pris pour Par- army, mee. In the other meaning, the article is not used before the noun which immediately follows the adjective ; as in, Every man ought to sacrifice his life for Tout homme doit sacrifier sa vie pour his country. son pays. When used for every, tout is always placed in the singular. 566. In the first signification, tout may accompany, not only the adjective possessive pronouns, but even the following : nous, vous, eux, ce, celvi, ceci, cela, celui-ci, celui-ld, and le. 22 254 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 567. With the adjective pronouns, tout is always placed first; as in, AH my friends, all thy brothers, and all Tous mes amis, tous tes freres, et toute his family, were at my nuptials sa famille, etaient a mon manage. 568. Tout always follows nous, vous, and eux; as in, All of us, all of you, all of them. Nous tous, vous tous, eux tous. 569. Tout precedes the demonstrative pronoun ce celui, ceci, cela, celui-ci, and celui-lil; as in, All that I say is true. Tout ce que je dis est vrai. All those who were at the party were Tous ceux qui etaient au bal etaient my friends. mes amis. I do not like all this, nor all that. Je n'aime ni tout ceci, ni tout cela. Look at those books, and give me all Regardez ces livres, et donnez-moi tous these and all those. ceux-ci et tous ceux-ld. 570. With le, la, and les, as objective pronouns, tout follows the verb which governs them, in simple tenses, and, in compound ones, is placed between the auxiliary and past participle, as follows, I like them all. Je les trouve tous bons. I have experienced them all. Je les ai tous eprouves. 571. Tout is sometimes used adverbially ; its signification then is merely expletive, and it takes neither gender or number ; as in, He speaks aloud. U parle tout haut. He told her coldly that he did not love II lui dit tout froidemeut qu'il ne l'ai- her. mait pas. 572. Sometimes tout signifies although very, quoique-tres ; entirely, entierement ; or, however, quelque. Then it is subject to some par- ticular rules. 573. Rule I. Tout, employed for any of the three above words, remains unchanged before a masculine adjective ; as in, Horses of that color are generally very Les chevaux de ce poil sont generale- good or very bad. ment tout bons ou tout mauvais. Children, however amiable they may Les enfants, tout aimables qu'ils sont, be, have always a great many faults. ne laissent pas d'avoir bien des de- fauts. Although much frightened, they made Tout effrayes qu'ils etaient, ils se de- a good defence. fendirent bien. 574. Rule II. Tout, employed instead of the same three words PRONOUN. 255 and placed before a feminine adjective beginning with a vowel or an h mute, takes neither gender nor number ; as in, These fruits are entirely different from Ces fruits la sont tout aatres que lea tlie others. premiers. Virtue, however strict it may be, is a La vertu, tout austere qu'elle est, fait source of true pleasure. gotiter de vrais plaisirs. These engravings, although very inter- Ces gravures,£o«£ interessantes qu'elles esting, do not always please. sont, ne laissent pas d'ennuyer a la longue. 575. But tout takes both number and gender before a feminine adjective beginning with a consonant or an h aspirated ; as in, They were much surprised to see us. Elles furent toutes surprises de nous voir. This is an empty head. C'est tine tete toute vide. Although very wise and learned, their Toutes sages et toutes savantes qu'elles company is very irksome. sont, leur societe est tres ennuyeuse. These young ladies, however pretty Ces demoiselles, toutes jolies qu'elles they may be, are not pleasing at all. sont, ne sont nullement aimables. 576. Rule HE. Tout, used for one of the three above words, changes neither gender nor number before a feminine adjective begin- ning with a consonant, when the adjective is immediately preceded by an adverb ; it also remains unchanged before an adverb ; as in, These young ladies are as pretty as Ces demoiselles sont tout aussi jolies you. que vous. She is just like you. Elle est tout comme vous. This river flows softly. Cette riviere coule tout doucement. OF THE INDEFINITE PRONOUN ALWAYS FOLLOWED BY QUE. OF THE INDEFINITE EXPRESSIONS WHOEVER, WHOSOEVER, WHOMEVER, ETC. 577. The indefinite expressions whoever, whosoever, whomever, and whomsoever, when used in an absolute meaning, that is to say, with- out referring to any noun, are rendered by qui que, or qui que ce soit. These two expressions are always in the singular number, and only employed in relation to persons. They are used with or without a negation. 573. Without a negation, they mean, as we have said, whoever, whatever person it may be, and govern the next verb in the subjunctive mood ; as in, Whoever may call, say that I am en- Qui que ce soit qui vienne, dites que j© gageo". euis occupe. 256 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Whomever we speak to, we must be A qui que ce soil que nous parlions, polite. nous devons etre polis. Whoever you may be, I do not wish to Qui que vous soyez, je ne desire pas associate with you. me Her avec vous. From these examples it results, that when qui que ce soit is a nom- inative, it is followed by the relative qui, and when objective by que; thus, when nominative, the words que ce soit must follow the first qui, to avoid the immediate repetition of the same word qui ; but, when objective, these words, que ce soit, may be omitted, as may be seen in the last example. 579. Accompanied by a negation, qui que ce soit signifies personne, anybody or nobody, according to the construction of the English sen- tence, and the verb following is then used in the indicative mood ; as in 5 We ought never to slander anybody. On ne doit jamais mal parler de qui que ce soit. Nobody has prejudiced me against you. Qui que ce soit ne m'a prevenu contre 580. When whoever is used in relation to a noun, it is then ex- pressed by quel que, in two words, "and quel agrees with that noun in number and gender ; as in, Criminals ought to be punished, 'who- Les criminels doivent £tre punis, quels ever they may be. quHls puissent etre. In this sentence, the expression however relates to the noun crimi- nals, which, being masculine plural, requires the word quel to be of that number and gender. OF THE INDEFINITE EXPRESSIONS, WHATEVER, WHATSOEVER, ETC. 581. Whenever the indefinite expression whatever is used in an absolute meaning, it is rendered by quoi que or quoi que ce soit. These two expressions are always used objectively, and only employed in relation to things. When preceding the verb of which they are the object, either may be used ; but when the verb comes first, it can only be followed by quoi que ce soit. According to the construction of the English sentence, they are used with or without a negation. 582. Without a negation, they mean whatever it may be, and govern the next verb in the subjunctive mood ; as in, Whatever he is doing, he leaves it at Quoi que ce soit qu'ilfasse, il quitte sur once when his duty calls him out. le champ, quand son devoir l'appelle. PRONOUN. 257 Whatever he may do, he will never Quoi qu'il fasse, il ne reussira jamais, succeed. 583. With a negation, they signify ant/thing or nothing, rien, and are followed by the indicative ; as in, Without proper care we cannot sue- Sans une application convenable nous ceed in anything. ne pouvons reussir en quoi que ce soit. Remark. Although quoi que has the same signification as quoi que ce soit que, its similarity with quoique, although, both in meaning and writing, requires, for the sake of clearness, that it should be rendered by quelque chose que, which conveys the same meaning and destroys the ambiguity ; thus, in the above example, it would have been better to write : Quelque chose qu'il fasse, &c. 584. When whatever is used in relation to a noun, it is expressed by quelque, provided that noun, preceded or not by an adjective, should follow it immediately, and by quel que, in two words, if the verb should be placed between whatever and the noun. In the first instance, the indefinite pronoun quelque agrees in number and gender with the noun following ; in the latter, it is the word quel which agrees with that noun, and que remains invariable ; as in, (Quelques richesses que vous possediez, vous ne serez jamais heureux. Quelles que soient les richesses que vous possediez, vous ne serez jamais heu- reux. Whatever may De the great deeds Quelques belles actions qu'il fasse, il which he accomplishes, he will never n'en sera jamais recompense be rewarded for them. OF THE EXPRESSION HOWEVER, USED BEFORE AN ADJECTIVE, A PAST PARTI- CIPLE, OR A Q.UALIFICATIVE ADVERB. 585. Whenever the indefinite expression however is joined to an adjective not immediately followed by a noun, an adverb implying qualification, or a past participle, it is rendered by quelque, which then acting as an adverb, remains invariable, and the verb following is used in the subjunctive mood ; as in, However powerful they may be, they Quelque puissants quails soient, ils ne are neither loved nor respected. sont ni aimes ni respectes. However respected you may be, they Quelque respectis que vous soyez, on ne will not obey you. vous obeira pas. 22* 258 FRENCH GRAMMAR. However skilfully they attempt to do Quelque adroitement qu'ils s'y pren- this, they will not succeed. nent, ils ne reussiront pas. 586. It results from what precedes, that, whenever the word quelque is used before a verb, it is spelled in two words, quel and que, and the first part, quel, agrees with the noun which follows the verb. 587. When used immediately before a noun preceded or not by an adjective, quelque is spelled in one word ; it acts as an adjective, and agrees as such with the noun which follows it. 588. When placed before an adjective, or a past participle not fol- lowed by a noun, or a qualificative adverb, quelque is still spelled in one word, acts as an adverb, and remains invariable. Foreigners should bear in mind the preceding remarks, which will assist them in using this word correctly. OF THE EXPRESSION ALTHOUGH VERY, USED BEFORE AN ADJECTIVE, A PAST PARTICIPLE, OR AN ADVERB OF QUALIFICATION. 589. We have, when speaking of the indefinite pronoun tout, explained how this word should be used when corresponding to the English expression although very; it remains for us to point out the difference in meaning existing between tout, although very, and quelque, however, so as to justify the use of the indicative mood with the former, and that of the subjunctive with the latter. When we say, Although very pretty, you do not please everybody, we admit as a fact that the person spoken of is very pretty. No doubt or uncertainty exists in the mind of the person who speaks in refer- ence to the beauty of the person spoken of; the indicative shows that state of positiveness, and we say, Toute jolie que vous etes, vous ne plaisez pas a tout le monde. But in the sentence following : However pretty you may be, you do not please everybody, the degree of beauty is not ascertained ; there is a doubt in the mind in reference to how pretty the lady is, and this state of doubt requires the use of the subjunctive mood ; thus we say, Quelque jolie que vous soyez, vous ne plaisez pas a tout le monde. PRONOUN. 259 OF THE EXPRESSION, SUCH AS. 590. The expression such as is rendered by tel que, which is em- ployed in making comparisons ; as in, We fear to see ourselves such as we On craint de se voir tel qu'on est, par- are, because we are not such as we cequ'on est pas tel g«'on devrait ought to be. etre. This expression governs the indicative mood. It would be a fault to use quel que instead of tel que. QUESTIONS. 536. How are the indefinite expressions no, not one, none, no man, no ivoman, nobody, &c, rendered 1 537. Does the word nul exclude more strongly than aucun and pas un ? Is it always accompanied by a negation *? Does it take either gender 1 and is it used in the plural as a pronoun 1 538. Is the pronoun nul ever used in relation to an adjective 1 When used in reference to a noun or pronoun, is it not separated from either by a preposi- tion, and which is it 1 539. In what case does nul, used as an adjective, take the plural 1 What is its meaning when used in the plural 1 540. Does the word aucun, used as a pronoun, take either gender and num- ber 1 Is it accompanied by a negation 1 When employed in relation to a noun, a pronoun, or an adjective, what preposition does it take before them 1 541. Does the adjective aucun take either number and gender'? Is it always accompanied by a negation 1 In what cases is the negation dispensed with % 542. In what kind of expressions is pas un used as a pronoun 1 Does it take either number and gender 1 542. When employed in relation to a noun, a pronoun, or an adjective, is it not separated from them by a preposition, and which is it 1 Does it exclude more strongly than aucun ? 543. When pas un is used as an adjective, does it take either number and genrler 1 Is it employed in relation to persons and things, and is it accompanied by a negation 1 544. Does the word autre, used either as a pronoun or an adjective, take both number and gender 1 Is it applied to persons and things 1 545. In what case is the word autre used as an adjective 1 546. How are the indefinite expressions either and both rendered in French 1 Does the pronoun Vun et I'autre take either number and gender 1 and how is it in regard to tous deux? 546. In what cases is the pronoun Vun et V autre either a pronoun or an adjec- tive 1 547. In what number does the pronoun Vun et Vautre govern the verb fol- lowing *? 548. How is the indefinite expression neither rendered 1 Is the pronoun ni Vun ni Vautre used in relation to persons and things 1 Does it take either num- ber and gender % When followed by a noun or a pronoun to which it relates, ia it not separated from either by a preposition, and which is it 1 Is it also used as an adjective 1 260 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 549. When ni Vun ni V autre is governed by a preposition, bow is that prepo- sition used 1 550, 551. When m Vun ni V autre is employed as the nominative of a verb, in what case is that verb used in the singular, and when is it used in the plural 1 552. How are both, either, and neither, expressed, when used as conjunctions 1 553. How are the indefinite expressions some, self, and the adverb even, ren- dered in French 1 553. Does meme, as a pronoun, take either number and gender, and does it relate to persons and tilings 1 554. What is the meaning of the word meme, used as an adjective 1 Does it precede or follow the noun which it qualifies % 554. When meme is used instead of the word self, how does it modify the signification of the noun which it follows 1 555. In what signification is meme an adverb 1 Is meme invariable when used as an adverb 1 556. How is such expressed in French 1 Does the word tel, used as a pro- noun, take either number and gender 1 Does it apply to persons and things 1 556. Does not tel sometimes take the place of a proper noun % By what word should it then be preceded % 556. Is not the pronoun tel sometimes used instead of the demonstrative pro- noun celui? In what kind of sentences 1 557. What does the word tel indicate, when used as an adjective 1 558. When such is used in English at the beginning of a sentence, and relates to a singular noun, by what should the pronoun tel be preceded in French 1 What should be done if such should relate to a plural noun 1 559. But when tel is used in the middle of a sentence before a noun which is not employed in a partitive sense s what should be done 1 560. How are the indefinite expressions several and many rendered in French 1 560. Is not the word plusieurs sometimes an adjective and sometimes a pro- noun % As a pronoun, is plusieurs of either number and gender 1 560. When plusieurs is used as a pronoun, in an absolute meaning, does it relate to persons and things 1 561. When the pronoun plusieurs is used in relation either to a noun, an ad- jective, or a pronoun which it precedes, is it not separated from them by a prepo- sition 1 and which is it 1 562. Does plusieurs , used as an adjective, relate to persons and things, and is it ever followed by the preposition de? 563. How are the indefinite expressions every, everything, and all, expressed in French 1 563. Of what number and gender is the word tout, used as a pronoun *? 564. What is the place of the pronoun tout, used as the direct object of a verb in simple and compound tenses 1 564. Where is it placed when the indirect object of a verb % 565. When lout, used an adjective, signifies either the whole extent nr iTir generality of a thing, is it followed by the article or not! Is it used in eidier number and gender 1 565. When tout means every, is it also followed by the article, and does it take either number and gender 1 566. When tout is used in the meaning of all, by what pronouns can it be accompanied 1 567. What is the place of tout, when used with an adjective possessive pro- noun 1 568. What is the place of tout with nous, vous, and eux? 569. What is the place of tout with the demonstrative pronouns 1 570. What is the place of tout, when relating to the objective pronouns le, la, or les, in simple and compound tenses 1 571. When the meaning of tout, used adverbially, is merely expletive, does it take either the feminine or the plural 1 PRONOUN. 26 i 572, 573. When tout used in the sense of although very, entirely, however, ia placed before a masculine adjective, does it change its termination on account of the number of that adjective ? 574. When tout, used in the same meaning as above, is placed before a fem inine adjective beginning with a vowel or an h mute, does it take the number and gender of diat adjective 1 575. When tout, still used in the same meaning, comes before a feminine adjective beginning widi a consonant or an h aspirated, does it agree with that adjective 1 576. If tout should be placed before a feminine adjective beginning with a consonant or h aspirated, preceded itself immediately "by an adverb, should it agree with that adjective 1 576. Does tout change before an adverb which is not followed by an adjec- tive ? 577. How are the indefinite expressions whoever, whosoever, whomever, &c, rendered in French, when used in an absolute meaning 1 In what number are the two expressions qui que and qui que ce soit used 1 Do they relate to persons and things ! 573. When used without a negation, what is the meaning of qui que and qui que ce soit? and in what mood do they govern the verb following 1 579. When used with a negation, what is the meaning of qui que ce soit? and in what mood is the verb following used 1 580. How is whoever expressed, when used in relation to a noun 1 With what does the pronoun quel agree 1 551. When the expression whatever is used in an absolute sense, how is it rendered in French % 581. Are the expressions quoi que and quoi que ce soit ever used as nomina- tivps, and do they relate to persons or things 1 581. When whatever is used after the verb, can it be expressed by quoi que ? 552. When used without a negation, what is the meaning of the expressions quoi que and qicoi que ce soit ? In what mood do they govern the next verb 1 583. What is the meaning of the above expressions, when used with a nega- tion ? By what mood are they then followed 1 583. When quoi que, on account of its similarity in pronunciation with the conjunction qvoique, in one word, and meaning although, would create an ambi- guity in the meaning of the sentence, by which expression should quoi que be replaced 1 584. When whatever is used in relation to a noun, how is it expressed when that noun follows it immediately 1 584. How should the same word be rendered if it was separated by a verb from the noun to which it relates 1 585. When however is used before an adjective not immediately followed by a noun, how is it expressed 1 Is the word quelque, in this case, an adjective or an adverb 1 5S6. When the word quelque is used before a verb, is it spelled in one or two words 1 What part of that word does agree, and with what does it agree 1 587. When the word quelque is used immediately before a noun preceded or not by an adjective, how is it spelled, in one or two words 1 and with what does it agree 1 588. When the word quelque is placed before an adjective or past participle not immediately followed by a noun, how is it spelled, and what part of speech is it then 1 589. Why does tout, although very, govern the indicative mood, whilst quelque, however, requires to be followed by the subjunctive mood 1 590. How is the expression such as, rendered in French, and what mood does it govern % 262 FRENCH GRAMMAR. OF THE VERB. 591. " The verb is a part of speech which expresses either an action performed or felt by the nominative or subject, or simply the situation or the quality of the subject, and which is conjugated with the assistance of persons, numbers, tenses, and moods." 592. In French, as well as in English, it is always easy to recog- nise a verb from another part of speech by the temporary addition of the personal nominative pronouns je, tu, il, &c. ; in this sentence, for instance : A judgment according to law, Un jugement conforme aux lois, the word conforme is an adjective, because it qualifies jugement, and does not permit any of the pronouns^, tu, il, &c, to be placed before it ; but in the following : An honest man always suits his conduct L'honnete homme conforme toujours sa to his duty and the laws of his coun- conduite a ses devoirs et aux lois de try, son pays, the word conforme is a verb, because with the pronouns je, tu, il, &c, it presents to the mind an idea able to satisfy it. Each verb expresses the idea of existence, real or intellectual, and that of a determinate modification attached to existence ; and as our mind may attribute this combination either to a single object or to several, to the person who speaks, to that who is spoken to, or who is spoken of, the verbs must have modifications in order to express these different views of the mind ; thus the following sentences : I am ploughing, thou art, he or she is, Je laboure, tu laboures, il ou elle la- we are, you are, they are ploughing, boure, nous labourons, vous labourez, ils ou elles labourent, express all the existence attached to the idea of ploughing, but the first, je laboure, shows that the idea of existence, thus modified, refers to a single person, and that this person is myself; the second, tu la- boures, means that the same idea, with the same modification, is addressed to the person spoken to, &c. Since the only verb to be, etre, being modified according to the wants of the mind, expresses sufficiently all its ideas, why is it, then, that we have invented so many words which contain in themselves fche verb and its modifications'? Let us attempt, as an answer to VERB. 263 this question, to construct a sentence without the help of these compound words, and see how our ear and taste would be pleased ; as in. Ambition is a passion which raises man or degrades him, makes him a hero or exposes him lo the greatest crimes. 'L'ambition est une passion qui eleve Phomme ou le degrade, qui en fait un heros ou le rend capable des plus grands crimes. L'ambition est une passion qui est (le- vant Phomme, ou est le degradant, qui est faisant de lui un heros ou est le rcndant capable des plus grands crimes. Without any further remarks, it is evident, that if the first sentence is elegant and pleases the ear, the other is shocking by the repetition of the same sound, ant, and the dulness which reigns in the arrange- ment of the words. OF NUMBERS AND PERSONS IN THE VERBS. 593. The verb, having to express the modified existence of its subject, should receive alterations corresponding to the different situ- tions in which the subject is to be found. 594. We then distinguish in a verb, the numbers, that is to say, the singular, when the action expressed by the verb is performed by a single person ; as, This child is reading. Cet enfant lit. And the plural, when that action is performed by several persons ; as in, These children are reading, Ces enfants lisent. 595. By the word personne, applied to verbs, we understand the modifications which it receives as referring to one who speaks, one who is spoken to, or is spoken of; this modification is felt both by the nominative or subject of the verb, and the verb itself. The subject is either a noun or a pronoun. When a pronoun, this pro- noun, by its alterations, indicates the person of the verb, and the verb, by its termination, shows under the control of what pronoun it is. The subject, when a noun, always governs the third person. We say of a verb that it is in the first person, when the action ex- 264 FRENCH GRAMMAR. pressed by the verb is performed by the person who speaks ; as, I sing, je chante ; we sing, nous chantons. The verb is in the second person, when it is the person spoken to who performs the action ; as in, Thou singest, tu chantesj you sing, vous chantez. The verb is in the third person, when it is the person spoken of who performs the action ; as in, He or she sings, il on elle chante; they sing. Us ou elles chantent. 596. In French, as well as in English, although we speak only to one person, politeness requires that we should employ the second person plural instead of that of the singular ; thus we say, Sir, you write very well. Monsieur, vous icrivez (and not tu ecris) fort bien. In passive and neuter verbs, conjugated with to be, of which we shall soon speak, when vous is used instead of tu, the verb to be takes the plural, but not the word which modifies that verb ; thus we say, Madam, you are loved, Madame, vous etes aimee, (and not aimees,) although vous and etes are in the plural. The same remark applies to the case when nous, we, is used instead of I, je, as is the custom of writers when speaking of them- selves ; as in, We are satisfied that a language cannot Nous sommes convaincu qu'on ne peut be learned without a complete knowl- savoir un langue sans en connaitre edge of the grammar. parfaitement la grammaire. Convaincu is in the singular, although referring to the plural pro- noun nous, because, in fact, that pronoun relates only to one indi- vidual, and stands in the sentence for the singular pronoun I, je. OF THE TExNSES OF THE VERB. 597. We have said that a verb expresses an action or a situation. But this action or situation may have taken place in the past, or may be taking place at the time we speak, or may take place in the future. VERB. 265 There are, then, new accessory ideas to be added to those of num- ber and persons, and to that of the principal idea expressed generally by the verb. Since, as we have seen, the termination changes in the verb, to express, by this material alteration, the modification of the subject, in regard to persons and number, it ought to change, also, to characterize these new accessory ideas relating to different periods of time ; thus, I did plough yesterday, Je labourai hier, expresses an action which is past at the time I speak. I am ploughing now, Je laboure maintenant, expresses an action which takes place at the time I speak. I shall be ploughing to-morrow, Je labouverai demain, expresses an idea in the future, which has not been accomplished yet, but shall be. These three expressions, je labourai, je laboure, and je labourerai, which all belong to the same primitive idea of ploughing, and stand modified in the same manner in regard to the accessory idea of num- ber and persons, being ail in the first person singular, have received different terminations to express, besides, the new modifications of times ; and it is by the difference in these terminations, that one expresses the present, another the past, and the last the future. 598. These different forms are called tenses, in the verbs, because they express the relations existing between the action represented by the verb, and the different periods during which this action might have taken place. Each verb has, then, three distinct forms. One to express an action in the present ; One to express an action in the past ; One to express an action in the future. We shall follow this order, in the examination of tenses, so as not to differ with the general arrangements of most grammarians, although it would be more rational to begin with the past. OF THE PRESENT. 599. There is, and there can be, but one way to conceive the idea of the present. As soon as a fact has taken place, it belongs entirely to the past, and if it has not yet taken place, it belongs to the future ■ 23 266 FRENCH GRAMMAR. a fact cannot, then, be more or less present, and for this reason we have but one way to express it ; as in, I am ploughing, I am suffering. Je laboure, je souffre. 600. The actuality of an action, or situation, does not consist in its being instantaneous, as taking place in a time which is metaphysically indivisible ; it depends upon what is taken as a unity of time ; thus, we say, very properly, I study the grammar, J' etudie la grammaire, although w r e do not pretend to express, that the study of the gram- mar takes place at the moment the person speaks, but that the study of the grammar is his habitual occupation, and will remain such until he has learned it. 601. The measure of time which constitutes the present is, then, relative to what is spoken of, and may be of a longer or shorter dura- tion. When we say, He sows some wheat this year, and the II seme du ble cette annee, et l'annee next he will sow some oats, prochaine il semera de l'avoine, we do not pretend to express that he is sowing wheat during the whole year, but he has sown wheat when he had to do it. 602. We also employ the present to express the habitual action or situation of the subject ; as in, He loves music, he fights like a lion, he II aime la musique, il se bat comme un feels the misfortunes of his country. lion, il souffre des malheurs de sa patrie. Which does not signify, that he loves music, or fights, or feels, at the moment spoken of; but that his habitual and natural dispositions are such as is expressed by the verbs. 603. The present is, sometimes, expressed under the form of the imperfect ; as when we say to a person we meet in the street, I was going to see you. J'allais vous voir. Or to some one who enters the room, I was thinking of you at this moment. Je m'occupais de vous dans ce mo- ment. This form of the present is owing to the circumstances of the fact j VERB. 267 for when I say, fallais chez vous, I express that I was in the act of going when I met yon ; the action of going to your house is, then, in part, past at the time I speak, and simultaneous with our encounter, and it is only because this encounter is itself present that fallals ex- presses the present on this occasion. The same mode of reasoning is applicable to all phrases of similar construction. 604. Sometimes, also, we use the present, in speaking of facts utterly past, but it is then because we bring our mind back to the time when the fact took place, as if we were present at the action ; it is a figure allowed by the laws of the language, which often gives to the style more rapidity, elegance, and animation ; as in, He takes a hatchet, cuts down the II prend une hache, il coupe le mat, qui mast, which was already broken, etait deja brise, le jette a la mer, il throws it into the sea, calls me by m'appelle par mon nom, et m'erc- name, and encourages me to follow courage a le suivre. him. The meaning of this sentence is not that the person spoken of is performing now the several acts which it relates ; but the form of the present strikes the imagination, and renders the idea more impressive. 605. Whenever if, meaning suppose that, is used in English before a verb in the future tense, it should be remarked whether that verb expresses the idea of a will, or that of a contingency. In the first instance, the English expression will is rendered by the present tense of the verb vouloir, to be ivilling, and the verb following is used in the infinitive mood ; in the latter, will is suppressed, and the verb follow- ing is employed in the present tense ; as in, If you will (are willing to) do this for Si vous voulez faire cela pour moi, je ine, I will do that for you. ferai cela pour vous. I will go and see you next week, if you J'irai vous voir la semaine prochaine, will promise me to return with me. si vous me promcttez de revenir avec moi. 606. The present tense is very often used in English instead of the future ; this is also sometimes the case in French, as will be seen when speaking of the future tense ; but foreigners not being able to discriminate when this privilege should be used with propriety, they should always examine whether the English verb expresses a situa- tion or a fact implying either an idea of actuality or futurity, and use the verb in French according to the result of that examination ; as in, The next time you come, I will pay La premiere fois que vous vicndrez, je you what I owe you. vous paierai ce que je vous dois. I will love you as long as I live. Je vous aimerai tant que je vivrai. 268 FRENCH GRAMMAR. It is evident, in these two sentences, that the verbs to come and to live, although in the present tense in English, do not express an idea of actuality, and they are accordingly used in the future in French. 607. The present tense is also invariably used in French, whatever may be the tense employed in English, when the verb expresses a fact which is true at all times ; as in, The Pagans did not believe that there Les Payens ne croyaient pas quVZ y a was a God. un Dieu. What charmed me the most during my Ce que j'ai trouve de plus agreable pen- journey through Italy, was the beauty dant mon voyage en Italie, c'eat la of the climate. beaute du climat. It has always been, it is, and it will always be true, that there is a God, and the climate of Italy is beautiful ; the present should then be used in French instead of the imperfect in English. 608. It should be remarked, that, whilst the English have three dif- ferent forms to express a fact in the present, the French have but one ; therefore, the expressions I plough, I do plough, and I am ploughing, are all rendered by the literal translation of the first, I plough, je labour e. This remark is very important to foreigners, who are very apt to translate the word do by the veibfaire, to do, and I am ploughing by the verb to be followed by the present participle, which is never the case in French. OF THE IMPERFECT. 609. One of the greatest difficulties of the French language, for English scholars, consists in distinguishing the difference existing between this tense and the preterite definite ; a difference which does not exist in their language, or which, at least, there is no particular manner of representing by words ; therefore, we shall enter into such details as are necessary in order to leave no doubt as to the proper use of these two tenses. The imperfect is used to express a past action in several different points of view, which we shall examine separately. 610. When I say, I was ploughing when your father Je labourais quand votre pere arriva, came, the act of ploughing is, in reality, past at the time when I speak, but it was present at the time when the father came ; it was simultaneous with this last fact. By this tense, then, we express a past in regard to VERB. 269 the time when we speak, and a present in regard to the time we speak of, and, for this reason, of a mixture of the present with the past, this form of the verb has' been called imperfect. Therefore, we shall lay down this first rule : 1st. The imperfecjt is used to express an action which was taking place at the same time that another action took place. 611. When we say, During your absence, I went (I used to Pendant votre absence, j'allais a la go) to the post-office every day, poste tous les jours, When I was in Washington, I went (I Quand yitais a Washington, j'allais used to go) to Congress every day, au Congres tous les jours, in the first of these two sentences, the verb expresses an action often repeated, a habit of life ; in the second, the verb fetais expresses a situation of some duration, and fallals a habit. In both cases, the imperfect should be used to convey to the mind the idea of the speaker ; thus we lay down as a rule, 2d. "When we wish to express an action in the past as being habitually done, or which implies an idea of situation or duration, the imperfect should be used to convey these ideas. 612. When we say, Napoleon was a great man, but he was Napoleon etait un grand homme, mais too much addicted to war, il aimait trop la guerre, we express in this sentence neither a fact having taken place at the same time with another, nor a habit or situation, but a qualification, a disposition of the mind, of the soul, and the imperfect is still used in cases of the kind ; hence the following rule : 3d. When we wish to express a situation of the mind, or natural feeelings and dispositions, in a time which is passed, the imperfect Bhould be used. 613. When we say, My father was a hundred years old Mon pere avail cent ans quand il mou- when he died, rut, we express a fact which seems at once definite, but which, in reality, does not signify that my father had only lived ninety-nine years, and three hundred and sixty-five days, but that, after having reached his hundredth year, he still continued to live, but did not reach his hun- dredth and first year. This sentence expresses, then, the situation of my father in reference to his age, which situation lasted from the day when he was one hundred years old to the moment when he 23* 270 FRENCH GRAMMAR. died ; this situation, implying an idea of duration, should still be expressed by the imperfect tense ; hence the following rule : 4th. When speaking of the age of a person who is no more, the imperfect tense should be used to express what the age of the person was. 614. When we say, My father ivas born in England, using the imperfect tense of the verb to be born, in English, if the person spoken of is still living, the compound of the present and the past participle, that is to say, the preterite indefinite, should be used in French ; and if that person is no more, the pluperfect is required by the genius of the French language, as we will explain when we speak of these two tenses ; as in, Mon pere est ne en Angleterre, (the father is still living.) Mon pere etait ne en Angleterre, (the father is no more.) 615. 5th. When, in English, the signs of the conditional, would, should, might, ought, are employed with a verb, and preceded by if, si, signifying suppose that, the imperfect is used in French, instead of the conditional ; as in, If you would come to-morrow, I would Si vous veniez demain, je vous pai- pay you. erais. If I should go into the country to- Si j 'allais a la campagne demain, j'au- morrow, I should want your ser- rais besoin de vos services. vices. 616. 6th. The imperfect may be used when we speak of an event, the effect of which was continued, although it occurred in a time defin- itely past, as yesterday ; as in, When did you lose your purse 1 I lost Quand avez-vous perdu votre bourse 1 it this morning ; I had it last night. Je l'ai perdue ce matin; je I'avais hier au soir. The action expressed by the verb avoir, although past definitely, yesterday, implies duration, since the fact of having the purse yes- terday was continued until this morning, when I lost it ; consequently, it requires the imperfect. 617. The imperfect, in French, is only expresssed in one way, as, je labour ais, which corresponds to the English expressions, I ploughed, I did plough, and I was ploughing, when employed in such case as to require the use of that tense. PRONOUN. 271 OF THE PRETERITE DEFINITE. 618. The preterite definite is the perfect of the Latin ; it is used in speaking of an action or a fact which took place at a time entirely past, of which nothing remains, which is specified in the sentence, or clearly understood, and may always be discovered by the thread of events in the relation. The time, to be entirely and definitely past, so as to require the preterite definite, must be such as to show clearly that what has been taken as the unit of time is completely elapsed. 619. What is called the unit of time is either the period during which the fact expressed by the verb took place, or the length of time necessary for that fact to be accomplished. It should be remarked, besides, that the shortest period of time which, being accomplished, requires the use of the preterite definite, is twenty-four hours ; there- fore, if we speak of a fact which took place to-day, this week, this month, this year, this age, &c, the words day, week, month, year, being used in the sentence to mention the period of time during which the fact expressed by the verb took place, the preterite definite cannot be used, because the unit of time, a day, a week, a month, a year, &c, is not entirely elapsed; but if the fact we wish to mention took place yesterday, last week, last month, last year, last age, &c, the unit of time, a day, a week, a month, &c, being entirely passed, the preterite definite is the tense which should be employed to express it ; as in, Your brother came to see me yesterday, Votre frere vint me voir hier, et me dit and told me that he had not heard qu'il n'avait pas recu de nouvelles from you for two months. de vous depuis deux mois. What did you tell my father when you Que dites-vous a mon pere quand vous saw him last week! le vites la semaine derniere? When the President went to Boston, Lorsque le President alia a Boston, le last month, what sensation did his mois dernier, quelle sensation sa pre- presence produce there ! sence y produisit-e\\e 1 When did Congress meet last year ! Quand le Congres s'assembla't-il They met, as usual, on the fourth of Vannee derniere? II s'assembla le December. quatre Decembre, comme a l'ordi- naire. When did Franklin go to France ! A quelle epoque Franklin alla-t-\\ en He went there towards the end of France ! II s'y rendit vers la fin du the last century. siecle dernier. 620. But it is not often the case that the unit of time is expressed by the words day, week, month, &c. ; most generally it is to be discov- ered by the thread of events in the relation. The question is, then, whether the period during which the fact described by the verb took ^72 FRENCH GRAMMAR. place is entirely elapsed or not ; the analysis of the following sentence will show how to reason in similar cases. Amenophis conceived the design of making his son a conqueror; he set about it after the manner of the Egyptians, that is to say, with great ideas; all the children who were born on the same day as Sesostris were brought to court by order of the king; he had them educated as his own children, and with the same care as Sesostris; when he was grown up, he made him serve his appren- ticeship in a war with the Arabs ; this young prince learned there to bear hunger and thirst, and subdued that nation, till then invincible. Let us examine each verb separately, and see which of them should be used in the preterite definite. Conceived. Amenophis had a son ; after having considered what he should do with him at some future day, he concluded he would make him a conqueror ; the unit of time is, then, the length of time during which he thought of his son's fate, till he conceived the design mentioned in the sentence ; that period of time is entirely elapsed, and conceived should be used in the preterite definite. He set about it. Amenophis, after having made up his mind that his son should be a conqueror, commenced the execution of that design. What he set himself about is entirely accomplished, since his son became in fact a conqueror, and the unit of time, which is the period of time necessary for these preparations to be completed, being entirely over, set should be used in the preterite definite. Were brought. Amenophis, wishing that his son should have com- panions of his own age, ordered that all the children who were born on the same day as his son should be brought to court. This does not, certainly, mean that the children were all brought to court on the same day, but it is, however, represented as a single fact, the result of a single order, and the unit of time is the period which was necessary for that order to be executed ; it is all over, since these children were educated like Sesostris ; therefore, were brought should still be used in the preterite definite. He had them educated. This expression embraces the whole period of time during which the education of the children took place ; the unit of time is the length of that period ; it is entirely elapsed, since the sentence expresses that this education was the same as that of the children of Amenaphis, which did not certainly remain unfinished ; the preterite definite should then still be used in this case. When he was grown up. The unit of time, in this expression, is the length of the period which had been necessary for the son of Amenophis to grow up to manhood. This period is entirely elapsed VERB. 273 eince Sesostris entered then upon his new career of a conqueror ; hence the preterite definite again. He made kirn serve his apprenticeship, &c. The unit of time is here the whole time of Sesostris' apprenticeship ; it is past altogether, since he became afterwards a great monarch himself; made should then be used in the preterite definite This young prince learned there, &c. This sentence expresses a fact which took place during the apprenticeship of Sesostris ; and since this apprenticeship is entirely past, the unit of time implied in this case is also past, and the same tense should be used as in the preceding case. And subdued that nation, &c. The unit of time is here the length of time which was employed by Sesostris to effect the conquest of the nation spoken of; it is entirely past, since the nation was subdued; therefore, the preterite definite should still be used, and the whole sen- tence translated as follows : Amenophis concut le dessein de faire de son fils un conquerant; il s'y prit a la maniere des Egyptiens, c'est a dire, avec de grandes idees; tous les enfants qui etaient nes le meme jour que Sesostris furent amenes a la cour par ordre du roi; il les fit e lever cornme ses propres enfants, et avec le meme soin que Sesostris ; quand il fut grand, il lui fit faire son apprentissage par une guerre avec les Arabes; ce jeune prince y apprit a soufFrir la faim et la soif, et il subjugua cette nation, jusqu'alors invincible. 620. The principles developed in the preceding explanations, although perfectly correct, and sufficient to guide a foreigner in the use of the preterite definite, do not find their application in conversa- tion, or in writing letters, when speaking of facts of a common and daily occurrence ; because it should be well understood that the use of the preterite definite always requires that the mind should be strongly impressed with the idea of the precise moment when the fact mentioned took place, which is not generally the case in conversa- tion, when we think a great deal more of the fact itself than of the very moment when that fact took place ; the use of the preterite defi- nite in like cases would show an air of affectation, which should always be avoided when speaking French ; the preterite indefinite is the tense which should then be properly used, to conform with the habit of the people and the genius of the language. We shall, in the next chapter, illustrate this difficulty by a series of examples. 621. The preterite definite is invariably expressed in French by one word ; as, je lahourai, which corresponds to the English expres- sions, I ploughed, I did plough, or, i" was ploughing, when the meaning of the sentence is such as to require the use of that tense. 274 FRENCH GRAMMAR. OF THE PRETERITE INDEFINITE. 622. This preterite is used to express that an action or a fact has taken place, but without reference to any particular time, or period of time, and without intimating whether the action or fact spoken of is entirely past or not. There is, in fine, in the idea conveyed by this preterite, something vague and indefinite, which completely distin- guishes it from the preceding tense ; when I say, I have ploughed my field this morning, J 'ai laboure mon champ ce matin, the act of ploughing is certainly in the past, as regards the time when I speak ; bat it took place during the morning, which is a part of the day, which day is not over. This last circumstance is charac- terized in the language by using the preterite indefinite ; according to this principle, we w 7 ould say, He has worked much this week, and II a beaucoup travaille cette semaine, et he worked much yesterday, or the il travailla beaucoup hier ou avant day before yesterday, hier; because, the week not being entirely past, the preterite definite could not be used ; whereas, it should be employed in the last part of the sentence, the day spoken of being entirely over, though the week is not. According to the same principle, we should say, My pupils have studied well this year, Mes eleves ont bien ctudie cette annee, and they did study well last month, et ils etudierent bien le mois der- nier; using the preterite indefinite first, because the year is not past, and the preterite definite afterwards, because the month is over. We see, then, that the choice to be made between these two tenses depends upon what is taken as a unit to measure the time, whether a day, a week, a month, or a year; if that unit of time be over, the preterite definite ought to be used ; if not entirely done, then the pret- erite indefinite ; but it must be observed that this unit of time can never be less than twenty-four hours. 623. The preterite indefinite is also used when wo wish to express an action or a situation which is past, without fixing the time in a precise manner, or when we speak of a fact or action which has usually taken place ; thus, we say, He has read much, studied much; he II a beaucoup lit, beaucoup etudie; il a has benefited himself by his reading; profite de ses lectures; il a reflechi he has reflected all his life, toute sa vie ; VERB. 275 because, in all these propositions, we wish to express but a habit, or a past action, without any precise reference to the time when it took place. It seems that, in cases like these, the time taken as the unit is the life of the person spoken of; and as this life is not over, accord- ing to the preceding rules, this preterite is the tense which should express it. 624. This explanation conforms so much to the principles already explained, that, if we spoke of a person who is no more, we should use the preterite definite or the pluperfect, and say, II hit beaucoiip, il profit a de ses lectures, or, II avait beaucoup luj il avail beaucoup prqfite, &c. ; by using the preterite definite, we only show that the unit of time, life, is over ; by using the pluperfect, the mind embraces two facts , that which was performed during the life of the person spoken of, and and that of his death, both being past ; but the former having taken place before the latter, without mentioning how long before, which, as we shall see, is characteristic of the pluperfect. 625. The analysis of the following sentence will sufficiently illus- trate the rules contained in the preceding paragraphs. Inflamed with the desire of knowing mankind, I have travelled, not only among the most polished nations, but even among the most barbarous. I have observed tliem in the different degrees of civilization, from the state of simple nature to the most perfect state of society; and wherever I went, the result was the same: — that is to say, I have everywhere seen beings occupied in drying up the different sources of happiness that nature had placed within their reach. / have travelled. It is clear, that the time when the journey spoken of was made is past; but where is the unit of time to be found? Is there expressed in this sentence, anything to show when the journey took place ; is it even necessary that this time should be known ? It is not ; the only thing mentioned is that the person who speaks has travelled ; but when and how long do not occupy the mind, and this want of precision in reference to the time when the fact mentioned took place is characteristic of the preterite indefinite. I have observed them. &c. If the principal fact of travelling is vague and indefinite, in reference to time, the facts which took place during the voyage partake of the same vagueness, and should be expressed by the same tense. And wherever I went, the result was the same. The two verbs 1 went and was should also be used in the preterite indefinite, because the facts which they represent having taken place during the jour- 276 FRENCH GRAMMAR. ney, which, we have seen, is indefinite, assume the same character, and should be expressed by the same tense. I have everywhere seen, &c. The preceding remarks apply to this verb, and need not be repeated ; the above sentence should then be rendered as follows : Enflamme du desir de connaitre les homines, j'az voyage, non settlement parmi les nations les plus policees, mais aussi parmi les plus barbares; je les ai obser- vees dans leurs differents degres de civilisation, depuis l'etat de simple nature ^"usqu'a l'etat de societe le plus parfait; et partout ouje suis alle, le resultat a ete e meme: — c'est-a-dire, que j'ai vu partout des etres occupes a tarir les sources de bonheur que la nature avait placees a leur portee. 626. Remark. The preterite indefinite is also used generally in conversation and in writing letters, although the unit of time is speci- fied and entirely elapsed ; this is a matter of habit, which arises, very likely, from the fact, that, when speaking of events of a daily occur- rence, the mind is more strongly impressed with the idea of the fact itself than with that of the precise moment when that fact took place. Thus, when I say, I went to the theatre last night with your sister, the idea which predominates in my mind is, that I went to the theatre with your sister ; it is what I wish you to know ; the fact that it was last night is of a secondary consideration ; hence the habit of saying, / have been to the theatre last night, instead of, I went, or J did go. This remark is very important, because the use of the preterite definite in like cases would show a desire for precision which would appear rather pedantic, and expose the speaker to be ridiculed. The following sentences will give a sufficient idea of this peculiarity in our habits : 627. What have you been doing these Qu'avez-vous fait depuis quinze jours 1 two weeks'? I went to New York, Je suis allee a New York, ou j'ai where I spent several days. Did passe plusieurs jours. Vous y etes you enjoy yourself much there 1 Yes, vous beaucoup amusee? Oui, j'y ai I had a very pleasant time ; the passe le temps de la maniere la plus weather was very fine ; I had a sleigh- agreable. II a fait un temps magni- ride every day, and went to the opera fique ; je me suis promenee en trai- every evening; my father was very neau tous les jours, et j'ai ete a kind to me, and let me do all I l'opera tous les soirs; raon pere a eti pleased. tres bon pour moi,et m'a laisse faire tout ce que j'«i voulu. Every verb used in the above sentence expresses a fact which is entirely past ; the unit of time, week, is entirely elapsed, but it is evident that the mind is more strongly impressed with the idea of the facts themselves than with that of the very moment when these facta took place ; hence the use of the preterite indefinite. VERB. 277 628. But if the facts which are related were of such a nature as to follow one another in succession, and form a narrative, which, in order to be made impressive and clear, should require that they should be taken singly, this want of precision would require the use of the preterite definite ; as in, You wish me to tell you the particulars Vous desirez que je vous raconte les of the accident which happened to details de l'accident qui est arrive my wife yesterday. Here they are : hier a ma fenime. Eh bien ! les She wished to take a ride on horse- void : Elle desirait faire une pro- back, and, after dinner, I sent my menade a cheval, et, apres diner, servant after the horse. She rides yenvoyai mon domestique chercher very well, as you know, and she les chevaux. Elle est tres bonne jumped on her horse without my as- ecuyere, comme vous le savez, et sistance; but she was no sooner in elle sauta a cheval sans mon secours ; the saddle, than the horse started mais elle ne fut pas plutot en selle, at full gallop. I ran after her, but que le cheval partit au galop. Je the horse became furious ; she could courus apres elle, mais son cheval not manage him, and I perceived s'emportaj elle ne put le conduire, et she was frightened. I then succeeded je m'apperpus qu'elle avail peur. in getting hold of the bridle, but the Cependant je reussis a me saisir de horse reared and she fell ; fortunately, la bride, mais son cheval se cabra et her foot did not remain entangled in elle tomba' heuieusement, son pied se the stirrup. I alighted, raised her desengagea de Pettier. Je desendis de in my arms, and she fainted away. cheval, je la relevai,et. elle s'evanouit Several persons gathered around us ; dans mes bras. Plusieurs personnes I begged of a gentleman to get me a s' assembler ent autour de nous ; je carriage, and I brought her home in- priai un monsieur d'aller me cher- sensible; but she soon recovered, and cher une voiture, et je la ramenai a is now doing well. la maison sans connaissance ; mais elle revint bientot a elle, et elle est assez bien aujourd'hui. The use of the preterite indefinite would render this narration flat and intolerable to the ear. 629. Remark. Whenever a verb in the future past in English is preceded by the conjunction if, meaning suppose that, that verb is expressed in French by the preterite indefinite ; as in, I will give you five dollars, if you will Je vous donnerai cinq gourdes, si vous have my coat done to-morrow at six avez fini mon habit demain a six o'clock. heures. 630. It should be remarked, that the preterite indefinite is always expressed in French by the present of the indicative of the verb to have, and the past participle of the verb to be used in that tense ; thus, J'ai laboure corresponds to the English expressions, J have ploughed, and / have been ploughing. 631. When speaking of the age of a person who is no more, if we wish to express with accuracy how many years, months, and days 24 278 FRENCH GRAMMAR. he did live, either of the preterites definite or indefinite should be used ; as in, He was a hundred years oJd when he II a eu, or il eut, cent ans le jour de sa died. (Meaning that he accomplished mort. his hundredth year on the day of his death.) 632. When speaking of the birth of a person who is still living, the preterite indefinite should be used, because the unit of time being life, daring which the fact of the birth is not destroyed, it is not entirely elapsed ; as in, My father was born in 1800. Mon pere est ne en 1800. But if we speak of a person who is no more, the preterite definite or the pluperfect should be used ; as in, Mon pere naquit, or etait-ne, en 1800. With the preterite definite, the mind embraces but one idea, that of the cessation of life, with which the fact of the birth disappears ; with the pluperfect, the mind refers to the fact of the birth as having preceded that of death, both being over, but the first having taken place before the other, without the circumstance that it was immedi- ately before, which particulars are the characteristics of the pluper- fect. Although the distinction thus established between these two preterites ought to be strictly observed in the language, foreigners might be deceived by hearing Frenchmen using them indifferently, one for the other. The only conclusion to be derived from this remark is, that a great many of my countrymen do not speak their own language properly ; but their example ought not to be fol- lowed. OF THE PLUPERFECT. 633. The pluperfect is used to express that a fact has taken place before another fact which is also past, without reference to the length of time elapsed between the two ; the fact expressed by this tense is then doubly past, once in regard to the time when it is mentioned, and once as to the event which it has preceded ; which makes it more than past, and from which originated its name of the pluperfect, which means past more than perfectly past, or past twice ; as in, VERB. 279 I had breakfasted when you came to J'avais dejeune quand vous vi rites chez my house. moi. The breakfast is done, and it was done before you came ; hence the pluperfect. 634. The analysis of the following sentences will illustrate the rule we have given above. Calypso, having shown Telemachus all these natural beauties, said to him, " Rest yourself; your clothes are wet; it is time for you to change them; then wo shall see each other again, and I will tell you facts which will touch your heart." In the mean time, she brought him, with Mentor, into the most secret part of a grotto, near that where the goddess dwdt. The nymphs had kindled in this grotto a large fire of cedar wood, the pleasant smell of which spread itself on all sides ; and they had left there some clothes for their new guests. She brought him expresses a fact which took place at a certain pre- cise time entirely past, and should be used in the preterite definite. Dwelt expresses a situation implying an idea of duration, and requires the use of the imperfect. Had kindled expresses an action performed by the nymphs before the goddess came to the grotto with her guests, but without specifying how long before their coming the fire had been kindled ; this vague- ness, in reference to the time when the first fact took place before the other, is characteristic of the pluperfect. And they had left there, &c, expresses, also, a fact which took place before the goddess came to the grotto with Mentor and Telemachus, but with the same vagueness as in the preceding case, in reference to the time which elapsed between the two facts ; hence the pluperfect again. Spread itself expresses the repetition of the same action, the con- stant renewal of the smell produced by the burning of the cedar wood, and should be rendered by the imperfect. The above sentence should, then, be rendered as follows : Calypso, apres avoir montre a Telemaque toutes ces beautes naturelles, lui dit, " Reposez-vous ; vos vetements sont mouilles; il est temps que vous en changiez; ensuite nous nous reverrons, et je vous dirai des choses qui toucheront votre coeur." Elle le conduisit alors avec Mentor, dans le lieu le plus secret d'une grotte, pres de celle ou la deesse demeurait. Les nymphes avaient allume dans cette grotte un feu de bois de cedre, dont l'odeur agreable se repandait de tous cotes ; et elles y avaient laisse des vetements pour les nouveaux hdtes. 635. Remark. Whenever a verb in the conditional past in English is preceded by the conjunction if, meaning suppose that, that verb is used in the pluperfect in French, if would or should expresses a mere contingency; and in the infinitive mood, preceded by the pluperfect 280 FRENCH GRAMMAR. of the verb to be willing, vouloir, if an idea of will is implied in the meaning of the sentence ; as in, f S'ils Vavaient poursuivi, (no will,) ils If they would, or should, have pursued j 1'auraient attrappe ~ 'ils avaient voulu le % ils 1'auraient attrappe. him, they might have caught him. | S'ils avaient voulu \epoursuivre,(a. will,) When could is used, instead of would or should, to express a con- ditional past in English, after if, meaning suppose that, as that word always implies an idea of possibility, it is expressed in French by the pluperfect of the verb to he able, pouvoir, and the verb following is used in the infinitive mood ; as in, I would have been much obliged to you, Vous m'auriez rendu un grand service, if you could have done this work si vous aviez pufinircetoxwYagelner yesterday at twelve o'clock. a midi. PRETERITE ANTERIOR. 636. We have said, speaking of the pluperfect, that it expresses that a fact has taken place before another fact which is also past, without reference to the time elapsed between the two facts ; but, if we wish to establish a more intimate relation between these two facts, so as to show that one took place immediately before the other, this circumstance of one fact following the other immediately, requires the use of a distinct tense, which is called the Preterite Anterior ; as in, As soon as I had dined, I went out. Aussitut que feus dine, je sortis. The meaning of this sentence shows in a definite manner the pre- cise moment when the two facts which it mentions took place ; for the end of my dinner preceded immediately the fact of my going out, and my going out took place immediately after I had dined ; the two verbs are, then, preterites, definite in reference to time ; but one expresses a fact which took place before that expressed by the other, and, in consequence of it, is called Preterite Anterior. It follows, from this definition, that the verb which is used after a preterite anterior cannot be in any other tense than the preterite definite. 637. The following analysis will illustrate the preceding rule. As soon as the moon had appeared above the horizon, Mentor, who had heard the voice of the goddess, who was calling her nymphs in the woods, awakened Telemachus. Had appeared expresses a fact which took place immediately before Mentor awakened Telemachus ; it is, then, a preterite anterior, and awakened is a preterite definite. VERB. 2S1 Had heard expresses a fact which took place before the moon had appeared above the horizon ; but how long before 1 This circumstance is not mentioned, and is not implied in the meaning of the sentence ; this verb is, then, a pluperfect, and not a preterite anterior, as the first. Was calling expresses a fact which was taking place at the same time as the moon was rising above the horizon ; it implies, besides, an idea of repetition and duration ; it should, therefore, be expressed by the imperfect. ANALYSIS OF SEVERAL SENTENCES, SHOWING HOW THE PUPILS SHOULD REASON IN ORDER TO ASCERTAIN WHICH OF THE PAST TENSES THEY SHOULD USE. 638. Telemachus and Mentor had been exposed to great danger; in the midst of a tempest, they were thrown among the fleet of the Trojans, their most deadly enemies. In this emergency, Mentor, by his courage and presence of mind, saved his friend and himself; and Telemachus, living afterwards in the island of Calypso, relates the fact of their escape to the goddess, in the following words : The mildness and courage of the wise Mentor charmed me; but I was still more surprised when I saw with what skill he rid us of the Trojans. When the skies began to clear up, and the Trojans ivere about to discover who we were, he remarked one of their ships, which ivas similar to ours, and which the tempest had separated from the others; she had her poop crowned with certain flowers. He hastened to place on our poop wreaths of similar flowers ; he attached them himself, with little bands of the same color as those of the Trojans; he ordered all our rowers to stoop as low as they could along their seats, so as not to be recognised by the enemy; in this position, we passed in the midst of their fleet. They screamed with joy when they saw us, as if they saw again friends whom they had thought lost. We were even compelled, by the violence of the storm, to saif some time with them; finally, we stood a little in the rear, and, whilst the boisterous winds drove them towards Africa, we used our greatest exertions to land on the neighboring coast of Sicily. Charmed me. If the idea expressed by the verb is, that Telema- chus was habitually charmed by the mildness and courage of Mentor, charmed should be used in the imperfect ; but, if it is only intended to signify that, on a particular occasion, previous to his getting rid of the Trojans, the mildness and courage exhibited by Mentor charmed him, the verb charmed should be used in the preterite definite ; the unit of time being the period during which he was charmed before he got rid of the Trojans. I was still more surprised expresses an instantaneous fact, which took place when Telemachus saw with what skill Mentor acted after- wards. The unit of time is the period during which the surprise did last ; it is entirely past at the time he speaks ; hence the preterite definite. 24* 282 FRENCH GRAMMAR. He rid us expresses a fact entirely accomplished, since Telema- chus is then safe in the island of Calypso ; the time when that fact took place is fixed in his mind, and the unit of time is the length of time which was necessary to accomplish his deliverance. When the skies began to dear up. The verb began, in this case, may be used either in the imperfect or the preterite definite ; it de- pends altogether upon the view of the mind. If Telemachus means that, whilst the skies were beginning to clear up, Mentor remarked, &c, the verb began should express an action which was taking place at the same time when another action took place, and should be used in the imperfect ; but if, on the contrary, he means that, after the skies had begun to clear up a little, Mentor remarked, &c, the verb began should express a distinct part of an action, which, itself, was already accomplished when Mentor remarked, &c, the unit of time being the length of the beginning of the clearing up, which would be entirely elapsed at the moment when the remark was made ; hence the pret- erite definite. Were about to discover, &c. Were expresses here a mere situation, and not a fact, for Telemachus and Mentor were not discovered at all ; this situation implies an idea of duration, for it lasted as long as the skill of Mentor had not modified it ; were should, then, be used in the imperfect. Who we were. Were expresses also a situation ; the two individu- als spoken of had always been, previous to that time, the one Telem- achus and the other Mentor; they were still such men then, and would always be the same ; the situation implies, then, an idea of duration, and should be expressed by the imperfect. He remarked. This verb expresses a single isolated and instanta- neous fact, which took place at a certain moment, when the skies had cleared up so far ; it is altogether past, the unit of time being that of a mere glance ; hence the preterite definite. Which ivas similar, &c. Was expresses here the situation of the ship spoken of, which, by a mere chance, was built on the same pattern as that of Telemachus ; this situation implies an idea of dura- tion ; for these two ships would remain similar till they would be altered or destroyed ; hence the imperfect. Had separated expresses a fact which had taken place before an- other, both being past, without specifying how long the one had taken place before the other ; for it only signifies that the storm had separ- ated that ship from the others before they saw it ; hence the pluperfect. She had her poop, &c, expresses the mere situation of the poop; VERB. 283 it implies duration, since the poop had been crowned with certain flowers before the ship was discovered ; hence the imperfect. He hastened, &c. When Mentor saw the Trojan ship, a fact took place ; he saw that he could take advantage of this circumstance by- decorating his own vessel in the same way, and he hastened, &c. ; hastened expressed, then, an action which took place at a certain precise time entirely elapsed, the unit of time being the mere instant which separated the thought from the act of hastening ; hence the preterite definite. He ordered our rowers expresses a fact of the same nature as the preceding, and requires no other explanation. As low as they could. Could is a verb which signifies either, as they were naturally able to stoop, or, as they would be able to stoop if they tried to do it as low as possible. In the first instance, could should express a mere ability of doing a thing, that is to say, a situation, and should require the use o'f the imperfect ; in the latter, it should express a fact which would take place if a condition were accomplished, that of trying as much as possible, and should, then, be rendered by the conditional present of the verb to be able. We passed in the midst of their fleet. After the rowers had obeyed the order of stooping as low as they could, a fact took place, that of passing through the Trojan fleet ; the unit of time is the period which was necessary for Telemachus and Mentor to effectuate that passage ; it is altogether past, since they landed afterwards on the coast of Sicily ; therefore, the time being specified, and the unit of time elapsed, the preterite definite should be used. They screamed with joy tolien they saw us. The second verb, saw, shows the time when the fact expressed by the first took place ; the unit of time is the time during which they screamed ; it is entirely past ; therefore, screamed should be used in the preterite definite. Aa to the verb saw, it expresses a fact which implies no idea of duration, which took place all at once ; the unit of time is a mere instant ; the whole is altogether over ; this last verb should, then, also be expressed by the same tense as the first. As if they saw again, &c. The preterite definite, always implying the idea of a fact as having taken place at a certain precise time which is entirely elapsed, cannot be used in reference to a mere matter of fancy, such as is expressed in this case ; the verb saw only expresses a situation of the mind in the past, and should, therefore, be rendered by the imperfect. Had thought lost. The Trojans thought their friends were lost 284 FRENCH GRAMMAR. before their meeting with the vessel of Telemachus ; had thought expresses, then, a fact which had taken place before another; but how long before they met with this vessel had they thought their friends lost? Nothing shows, in this case, that it was immediately before ; and, therefore, the fact expressed by that verb has all the characteristics of the pluperfect, and should be rendered by that tense. We were even compelled, &c, expresses a fact which was the result of the storm ; the unit of time is the period during which they had to remain restrained in their wish to escape from the sight of the Tro- jans ; that unit of time is elapsed, since they finally escaped to the coast of Sicily ; hence the preterite definite. We stood a Utile in the rear expresses a fact of the same nature as the preceding ; the unit of time is the period during which they stood in the rear ; it is past, for the same reason as before ; hence the same tense. Whilst the boisterous winds drove them, &c, expresses a fact which was progressing, and during which another fact, expressed by the next verb, took place; it implies duration, and requires the use of the imperfect. We used our greatest exertions, &c, expresses a fact which took place at the period mentioned in the first part of the sentence ; it does not imply the idea of duration ; it is presented to the mind as a whole ; the unit of time is the period during which the efforts were made ; it is elapsed since Telemachus landed on the coast of Sicily ; hence the preterite definite. We deem the preceding analysis sufficient to guide foreigners in the choice of the proper tenses to be used in our language ; and we may assure them, that, if they are willing to use this mode of reason- ing for some time in the course of their studies, they will soon acquire a facility for discovering at once what is the tense which is required by the meaning of the sentence they have to translate. OF OTHER WAYS OF EXPRESSING THE PAST. 639. We sometimes, in order to be more precise, use expressions of a peculiar nature, which belong to the idiom of the language. For instance, to express that a fact has just taken place, instead of making a phrase which would require the use of several words, the verb venir, to come, is elegantly used ; as in, I have just done reading this work. Je viens de finir la lecture de cet ouvrage. I have just spoken to him about this Je viens de lui parler de cette affaire, affair. VERB. 235 These sorts of preterite express the past which is the nearest to the present. We also use the imperfect of the verb aller, to go, to express that we were about doing a thing ; as in, John, why do you not bring my coat 1 Jean, pourquoi n'apportez-vous pas mon habit 1 I was going to bring it, sir, when you J'allais l'apporter, monsieur, quand called me. vous m'avez appele. OF THE FORMS OF VERBS WHICH RELATE TO THE PAST. 640. We have, then, according to what precedes, five different ways of expressing past events : The Imperfect ; The Preterite Definite ; The Preterite Indefinite ; The Pluperfect ; The Preterite Anterior ; without mentioning the manner of expressing a fact just past, with the verbs venir and aller. With these forms, we may indicate with precision all that is con- nected with the past, so as to satisfy the mind of both the speaker and hearer. OF THE FUTURE. 641. The future is, as we have already said, a tense which ex- presses that an action or a fact has not yet taken place, but will or shall take place. This action or fact in the future may be understood in two different manners ; when I say, I shall plough my field, Je labourerai mon champ, I express, in a manner simple and absolute, an action which I intend to perform in the future, without referring to any particular time. This form remains the same, whatever may be the epoch in the future when the action shall be performed ; for I may say, with the same propriety, I shall plough in an hour, this evening, Je labourerai dans une heure, ce soir- to-morrow, in a week, in a month, demain, dans une semaine, dans mi in a year, in an age. mois, dans un an, daus un siecle. 642. This form is called Future Present, Simple, or Absolute. Present, because it is not mixed with any idea connected with the past. Sijnple, because it is expressed without the assistance of any 286 FRENCH GRAMMAR. of the auxiliary verbs. Absolute, because it expresses an action or situation in the future in an absolute manner, without reference to any particular time in that future. But sometimes the form of the present is used to express a future, as in this sentence : I start to-morrow at eight o'clock. Je pars demain a huit heures. It is evident that the idea of the future is not rendered by the pres- entee pars, but by the addition of the adverb demain; and, if we say, je pars, and not^'e partirai, it is probably because we wish to express, that the person who speaks has positively made up his mind to go, in a manner as positive and sure as if he had to go right away, the very minute he speaks ; he wishes to express how certain, how positively sure, he is to start the next day. OF ANOTHER WAY OF EXPRESSING A FUTURE. 643. When we wish to express, not only that a fact will or shall take place, but that it will take place immediately, which in English is rendered by the expressions to be about and to go, this idea of immediate futurity is expressed in French by the verb to go, aller, used in the present tense ; as in, John, I want my coat. John, je veux mon habit. It is ready, sir; lam about, or I am II est pret, monsieur; je vais voua going, to bring it to you. l'apporter. OF THE FUTURE PAST, OR ANTERIOR. 644. The other form of expressing a future is the following : I shall have ploughed my field when J'aurai laboure mon champ quand vous you come back. reviendrez. In this case, we express an action which is not done yet, and conse- quently future in regard to the moment we speak, but which shall be done and past when another fact takes place. This form, then, expresses altogether a future as to the time when we speak, and a past as to another action in the future. This double consideration of a future joined to a past has caused this tense to be called Future Past; and we see well enough how these two qualifica- tions do not imply contradiction. It is also called a Composed or Compound Future, because the use of this tense requires the assistance of the auxiliary verb to have. VERB. 287 QUESTIONS. 591. What is the definition of a verb 1 592. How can a verb be distinguished from any other word which is spelt like it 1 592. What idea does a verb express in any language 1 592. Has not the verb modifications in order to express the different views of the mind * 592. Since there is but one verb, to be, which, being modified according to the views of the mind, expresses sufficiently all our ideas, why have men invented so many words, generally called verbs, and which contain, in their meaning, the principal idea of existence, with such modifications as are required by the wants of the mind 1 593. Is the verb modified in its spelling according to the different situations in which its subject can be found *? 594. What is the meaning uf a verb being used in the singular or plural 1 595. What are persons in the verbs 1 and what do we understand by saying that a verb is in the first, second, or third person singular or plural 1 596. When we address, in French, a person we are not very familiar with, do we use the second person singular or plural 1 596. When the pronoun you, vous, is thus used instead of thou, tu, are the adjectives and past participles relating to that pronoun used in the singular or in the plural 1 596. Do not writers and speakers generally use the plural pronoun we, nous, when speaking of themselves 1 Should, then, the adjectives and participles relating to that pronoun, nous, be used in the singular or in the plural 1 597, 59S. How are the several modifications called which a verb receives to express, either that a fact has taken place in the past, does take place now, or will take place in the future 1 599. How many tenses are used to express that a fact is present 1 600. A fact, to be expressed in the present tense, should it absolutely take place instantaneously, at a time which is metaphysically indivisible 1 600, 601. What should be considered as the unit of time, for a verb to be used in the present tense ! 602. If we wish to express an habitual situation or action of the subject, still existing at the time we speak, what tense should be used 1 603. Is not the imperfect sometimes used to express a fact in the present *? In which case 1 604. Is not the present sometimes used in speaking of facts entirely past 1 For what purpose 1 605. When if, meaning suppose that, is used in English before a verb in the future tense, what tense is used in French instead of the future 1 606. When a verb, although in the present tense in English, expresses a fact which has not yet taken place, what tense should be used in French 1 607. Whenever a verb expresses a fact which is true at all times, what tense should be used in French, whatever may be the tense used in English 1 608. Have the French, like the English, three different manners of expressing a fact in the present tense 1 609. 610. When a verb expresses that a fact was taking place in the past at the same time that another action took place, what tense should be used in French, in reference to the first fact 1 611. When a verb in the past expresses an action as being habitually done, or implies an idea of situation or duration, what tense should be used in French 1 612. When a verb expresses a situation of the mind, or natural feelings and dispositions, in a time which is past, what tense should be used in French 1 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 613. What tense is used in French to express the approximate age of a person at the time of his death 1 Why is the imperfect used in such a case 1 614. What tenses are used in French when speaking either of a person still living, or of one who is no more 1 615. When if, meaning suppose that, precedes a verb in the conditional in English, in what tense should that verb be used in French 1 616. When a verb expresses a fact which, although happening at a time entirely past, implies an idea of continuation or duration, in what tense should that verb be expressed in French 1 617. Have the French, like the English, three different manners of using a verb in the imperfect tense 1 618. In what case is the preterite definite used in French 1 618. What is understood in grammar by the expression, " unit of time " 1 618. Can the preterite definite be used in speaking of a fact which took place to-day, this week, this month, this year, &c. 1 618. Why cannot the preterite definite be used in speaking of a fact which took place to-day, this week, this month, &c. 1 619. Is the unit of time always clearly expressed in a sentence which requires the verbs to be used in the preterite definite 1 619. When die unit of time is not expressed, how should a foreigner reason in order to discover what that unit of time is, and whether it is entirely elapsed or not 1 (Here the teacher should exact from his pupils that they should parse, with a great deal of attention, the examples given in the grammar. He should make them analyze each verb, so as to show clearly why the preterite definite, or any other tense, should be used for each particular case.) 620. In conversation, or in writing letters, although the facts which are related have taken place at a definite period, and the unit of time is entirely elapsed, is the preterite definite properly used to express those facts 1 620. Why is the preterite indefinite used in the preceding case, in preference to the preterite definite 1 621. Have the French, like the English, three different manners of using a verb in the preterite definite 1 622. What should be the circumstances in which a fact took place, for that fact to be expressed in French by the preterite indefinite 1 622. What is the difference between the preterite definite and the preterite indefinite 1 622. If the unit of time, expressed or understood in a sentence, should not be entirely elapsed, which of the preterites, definite, or indefinite, should be used 1 622. If the fact which is expressed by the verb took place in the past, at a time which is neither mentioned nor understood, but indefinitely past, what tense should be used to express that fact 1 622. When the verb expresses a fact which was habitually done at a time which is entirely past, but during the life of the person spoken of, and who is still living, what tense should be used 1 624. But, if the person spoken of in the preceding case was no more, what tenses should be used to express the same fact 1 What is the reason of this differ- ence in the choice of tenses 1 625. (The teacher should make his pupils analyze the sentence contained in paragraph 625, widi the same care as was recommended for the preterite definite.) 626. What is the tense which is generally used in conversation or in writing letters, when speaking of facts entirely past, and the unit of time of which is altogether elapsed 1 626. Why is the preterite indefinite, in such cases, preferred to the preterite definite % 627. (Parse the sentence, paragraph 627.) 628. But when, even in conversation, the facts which are related follow one another so as to form a narrative, is not the preterite definite more properly used VERB. 289 than the preterite indefinite 1 and what character would the use of the latter give to the sentence 1 (Analyze the sentence, paragraph 628.) 629. Whenever the conjunction if, meaning suppose that, is used in English before a verb in the future past, how should that verb be expressed in French 1 630. Have the French more than one way to use a verb in the preterite indefinite 1 631. When speaking of the age of a person who is no more, if we wish to express with accuracy how many years, mondis, and days he has lived, what tense should we use 1 632. When speaking of the birth of a person still living, what tense of the verb to be bom should be used in French 1 632. If the person spoken of should be dead, what tense might be used to express that fact 1 and what difference exists between the use of the preterite definite and that of the pluperfect 1 633. In what case is the pluperfect used in French 1 and why is this tense so called 1 634. (Analyze the sentence, paragraph 634.) 635. Whenever if, meaning suppose that, is used in English before a verb in the conditional past, how should that verb be used in French, according to the English conditional being expressed by would, should, or could? 636. For what purpose is the preterite anterior used in French 1 What is the difference existing between tiiis tense and the pluperfect 1 636. By what tense is the preterite anterior invariably followed 1 Why is it bo 1 Why is this tense called a preterite anterior 1 637. (Analyze the sentence, paragraph 637.) 638. (The analysis contained in paragraph 638, having a reference to the five tenses used in French to express a fact in the past, should be studied with great care ; and the teacher cannot be too particular in making his pupils try to give him an account of all that belongs to the proper use of those tenses.) 639. If we wish to express a fact in the past as having just taken place, how is this done in French 1 639. What verb is used in French to express that a person was about doing a thing 1 and in what tense should that verb be used 1 640. (Review the tenses in the past in a summary manner.) 641. When the action expressed by the verb has not taken place, what tense should be used to express it 1 641. Is there more than one tense to express that a fact will or shall take place 7 641. If there is but one tense, how should the sentence be modified in order to express the future period in which the fact expressed by the future tense shall take place % 642. Why is this tense called either future simple, absolute, or present 1 642. Is not the present tense sometimes used to express a fact which has not yet taken place 1 How can this be 1 643. Is there not an idiomatical expression used in French to show that a fact is about to take place immediately 1 What is that expression 1 in what tense should it be used 7 644. If we wish to express that a fact will have taken place when another fact shall take place, what tense should be used to answer this view of the mind 7 644. Explain why this tense is called a future past, or a compound future? 25 290 FRENCH GRAMMAR, OF MOODS. 645. The word mood is derived from the Latin word modus, and signifies manner. We understand, then, by moods, different ways of expressing the existence of a subject, with its attribute ; in other words, moods con- tain different forms assumed by the verb, in order to express either an action or a situation. There are in French five moods, which are, The Indicative ; The Conditional ; The Imperative ; The Subjunctive ; The Infinitive. 646. There are in languages two general kinds of moods ; some are personal, some impersonal. The personal moods are those where the verb, by its terminations, agrees with its subject ; there are four of this class : The Indicative ; The Conditional ; The Imperative ; The Subjunctive. The impersonal moods are those in which the verb does not change its termination, and has no subject to agree with. There is but one mood of this class in French, which is the infinitive. Personal moods are the only ones which may be used to express a proposition, since it is only in these moods that the verb identifies itself with its subject, and receives modifications from it in number and person. Impersonal moods, on the contrary, cannot be used to express a proposition, because they are deprived of the forms which would enable them to receive the influence of a subject ; they require, to form a proposition, the assistance of another verb in a personal mood ; as, To revenge the death of a father, Venger la mort d'un pdre, is not a proposition ; nothing is affirmed or denied by a subject ; it may be considered, at the most, as the nominative of another phrase, with a verb in a personal mood ; as, To revenge the death of a father is Venger la mort d'un p&re est toujours always legitimate. legitime. VERB. 291 The extent of the meaning of what are called moods, and of their functions, in enabling the mind to communicate its conceptions, will be entirely demonstrated by examining each mood in its private capacity. OF THE INDICATIVE MOOD. 647. The indicative mood is that which expresses affirmation in a positive and absolute manner, and has, for accomplishing its functions in the language, eight tenses or forms, which are, as we have already seen, The Present ; The Imperfect ; The Preterite Definite ; The Preterite Indefinite ; The Pluperfect ; The Preterite Anterior ; The Future Absolute ; The Future Past. OF THE CONDITIONAL MOOD. 648. When I say, I should plough if my oxen were in Je labourerais si mes boeufs etaient en good order, bon etat, I would have ploughed if it had not J'aurais labour^ s'il n'avait pas plu, rained, or, J'eusse iaboure s'il, &c, I do not express any longer, as in the indicative, that I am, have been, or shall be ploughing, in a positive, absolute manner, but that the act of ploughing is depending on a condition or a supposition ; if my oxen were well, if it had not rained. The action expressed by the verb is then understood in a different manner ; it is no longer an absolute affirmation, but a conditional one, depending on a supposition. All the forms of language which express this condition of the mind produce a new mood, a new manner of thinking, which is called conditional. Let us see now what are the different forms of this mood. 649. In the sentence, I would plough if it did not rain, Je labourerais s'il ne pleuvait pas. 292 FEENCH GEAMMAE. I express that the act of ploughing would be performed now, if the rain did not fall now ; the mind is then in the present, in reference to the act itself and the condition attached to it, and the tense which expresses that idea is called Conditional Present. But when I say, I should have ploughed if it had not J'aurais labour e s'il n'avait pas plu, rained, I express a fact which would have taken place in the past, if another fact, also in the past, had not prevented it. This double character of the past, attached to the fact itself and the condition on which it depends, gives to this tense such a character as to deserve the name of Conditional Past. This tense is applied with equal propriety to the past, in all its modifications ; for we say, I should have ploughed this morning, J'aurais laboure ce matin, hier, il y a yesterday, twenty or a hundred years vingt ans ou il y a cent ans, &c. ago, &c, 650. The conditional affirmation is, then, the distinct characteristic of every form of the conditional mood ; sometimes, it is true, the condition is not expressed, but it is always understood. In this sentence, for instance, * One would never believe that he was On ne croirait jamais que ce fat la the same person, meme personne* the condition is not expressed, but understood, and may be easily sup- plied ; as, (If one would only look at his ap- C On ne croirait jamais que ce fut la pearance.) < meme personne, si 1'on s'en tenait ( aux apparences. The forms proper to the conditional are, then : The Conditional Present ; The Conditional Past. OF THE IMPERATIVE MOOD. 651. Sometimes we do not affirm positively, nor conditionally, but we order, we request the subject to perform the act, or to place him- self in the situation, expressed by the verb. This new mode of considering the effect of the verb is called imperative, and is expressed by the imperative mood, from the Latin imperare, which signifies to order, to command. VERB. 293 Thus, the command, or positive demand, is the qualification, the characteristic, which constitutes the form of the imperative. These forms are only two in number. We may order the action expressed by the verb to take place immediately ; as in, Plough. Laboure. Let us plough. Labourons. Plough. Labourez. And this form, relating to the time present, is necessarily a present; or it expresses a fact or situation which should always be such at any period of our life, and is still a present ; as, Let us be always just. Soyons toujours justes. Let us always be on our guard. Soyons toujours sur nos gardea. 652. We may also give an order which is to be executed in the future ; as in, Plough to-morrow; Labourez demain ; but the verb does not change its form, and the adverb to-morrow has to show that the action of ploughing is not to take place now. 653. Bat, if we wish the action of the verb to be performed before a certain time or fact which we specify ; as in, Have ploughed this field before my Ayez laboure ce champ avant mon return, retour, we thus express a wish or order which has to be performed or accom- plished at a future period. This form belongs also to the future; but, as it signifies that this act should be passed before another, (my return,) this future would be the future past of the imperative. However, this last tense of the imperative mood is not considered by grammarians as an indispensable accessory of the imperative, and does not appear in the conjugation of verbs. We mention it here only as a natural consequence of an operation of the mind which may render its use necessary. 654. Neither of these two forms of the imperative has a first person in the singular, because, generally, man does command or order him- self. We do what we have in view without proffering the order, or if we do it, as in this phrase, Keep up thy courage, my friend, Prends courage, mon ami, 25* 294 FRENCH GRAMMAR. which is sometimes used in speaking to one's self, we use the second person singular, because the mind divides him who speaks into two persons, one of whom addresses the other. It should be remarked, that a verb in the imperative mood, being naturally deprived of a nom- inative, cannot be used in the third person singular and plural. These two persons belong to the subjunctive mood, and always suppose the fact of another verb understood before them. OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. ' 655. Sometimes the action expressed by the verb depends upon an idea expressed by a preceding verb, existing or understood in the sen- tence, whose signification should be the manifestation of a desire, fear, doubt, order, anxiety, wish, or any other expression showing that the mind is not in a positive state of affirmation ; as in, I wish he may plough. Je desire qu'il laboure. I feared that he might not plough in Je craignais qu'il ne labour&t pas a time. terns. I doubt if he comes. Je doute qu'il vienne. I order you to leave the premises. J'ordonne que vous quittiez les lieux, etc. All the forms which express this particular view of the mind belong to a mood called subjunctive, from the Latin word subjungere, which means to unite, with an idea of submission. Let us examine the different forms or tenses of this mood. When I say, I wish him to plough now, Je desire qu'il laboure dans ce mo- ment, I wish him to plough next week, Je desire qu'il laboure la semaine pro- chaine, the form, qu'il laboure, which is the same in either case, expresses a present in the first sentence, and a future in the second. To these two questions, Does he plough 1 Shall he plough 1 Laboure-t-il 1 Labourera-t-il 1 the same answer may be made ; I doubt if he ploughs, or, if he shall Je doute qu'il laboure. plough. Therefore this form is altogether a present and a future, and we shall call it the Present and Future of the Subjunctive. VERB. 295 OF THE IMPERFECT OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 656. We may say, I had doubted, I have doubted, I J'avais doute, j'ai doute, je doutai,je doubted, that he might plough. doutais, qu'il labourat. In either of these cases, the action of ploughing is past in regard to the moment when I speak, but it is simultaneous with that of doubt- ing ; it thus represents a past and a present in two different points of view, and at the same time, the dependence required by the subjunc- tive ; the tense used to express this situation of the mind, represented by the verb, ought, then, to be called the Imperfect of the Subjunctive, for the same reasons which have qualified the imperfect of the indic- ative. OF THE PRETERITE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 657. The preterite of the subjunctive expresses an action already past at the moment we speak, or an action in the future at that moment, but which the mind considers as being already past, when that expressed by the first verb takes place ; as in the following, It has been necessary that he should II a fallu qu'il ait laboure. plough. He shall not come to my house before II ne viendra pas chez moi qu'il n'ait he has ploughed. laboure. The first sentence expresses a definite past, entirely accomplished. In the second, although the action of ploughing is in the future, it will be past and completed at the time when the action of the first verb is performed ; this circumstance justifies the appellation of pret- erite given to this tense ; and on account of the dependence of the second verb in regard to the first, the tense which represents this situ- ation is called the Preterite of the Subjunctive. OF THE PLUPERFECT OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 658. They had feared that I might On avait craint que j'eusse labouri trop have ploughed too soon. tot. This sentence expresses, evidently, a pluperfect, according to what has been said when speaking of the indicative mood, because the fact of having ploughed too soon was past before the time when the fear was experienced. They wished that I might have plough- On desirerait que yeusse labouri avant ed before such a time. telle epoque. 296 FRENCH GRAMMAR. This phrase, which expresses a future in regard to the time when we speak, is a pluperfect in regard to the time spoken of; and the second verb being under the control of the first, this tense is named the Pluperfect of the Subjunctive. OF THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 659. When a verb expresses an action or a situation without refer- ence to time, number, and persons, that verb is said to be in the infin- itive mood. This denomination does not express in itself the meaning of the word, but it is authorized by usage and practice. To plough, to suffer, to render, Labourer, souffrir, rendre, signify, simply, to be ploughing, to be suffering, to be rendering, or to exist with the modification of ploughing, suffering, or rendering, with- out saying whether the action expressed by the verb is performed by me, or some other, by one or several, now, in the past, or the future ; these verbs are then said to be in the infinitive mood. Let us examine now what are the modifications or different forms of this mood. OF THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 660. The present participle is a modification of the infinitive mood, being deprived of number and persons, but always referring to the time present ; it expresses, like the verb, the fact of existence, modi- fied by the meaning of the verb. Ploughing, Labourant, signifies, existing in performing the act of ploughing. This tense, joined to the verb to be, serves to decompose, and express the action contained in the verb itself; it is invariably terminated in ant, and expresses always the idea of simultaneousness with the epoch spoken of, and for this reason is called the Present Participle. The appella- tion participle comes from the fact that it participates with the verb to be in expressing the action of all the verbs. OF THE PAST PARTICIPLE. 661. The past participle is a modification of the infinitive mood, having no persons, expressing no action, but a situation. Ploughed, Laboure, signifies, existing with the modification of being ploughed. VERB. 297 The past participle, with the verbs to have and to be, forms the compound tenses of all the verbs ; it always expresses a relation anterior to the time present, and for that reason is called the Past Par- ticiple. With the verb to have it shows the action of the subject, and with the verb to be its situation ; and in this latter case agrees with it in number and gender. The termination of this tense varies considerably, according to the different conjugations, and the fact of the verb being regular or irregular. The rules which establish its agreement with its nominative and direct object constitute the most difficult part of our language. We shall, hereafter, explain them, so as not to leave any embarrassment in the mind of the student. RECAPITULATION OF ALL THE MOODS AND TENSES. 662. Let us now recapitulate, in a few words, what we have said at some length, of the different moods of the verb. Infinitive. This mood expresses simply the fact of existing, with a specified modification. It has three forms or tenses : The Present of the Infinitive. The Present Participle. The Past Participle. Indicative. This mood has for its distinct characteristic, to affirm in a positive and absolute manner. It has eight forms or tenses : The Present. The Imperfect. The Preterite Definite. The Preterite Indefinite. The Pluperfect. The Preterite Anterior. The Future Present or Absolute. The Future Past. 298 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Conditional. This mood affirms, but on a condition expressed or understood. Its principal forms or tenses are two in number : The Conditional Present. The Conditional Past. Imperative. This mood expresses order or demand ; it is applicable to the present and future, and has but one form or tense : The Imperative Present. Subjunctive. This mood expresses fear, doubt, anxiety, wish, order, and is always under the control of another verb, which precedes it, expressed or understood ; it is also always preceded either by que or one of the relative pronouns in all its tenses and persons. These tenses or forms are four in number : The Present ; The Imperfect ; The Preterite ; The Pluperfect. The verb, instead of being affirmative, might be interrogative, thus answering to the wants of the mind when any question is to be asked. Under this form, the verb has but two moods, the Indicative and Conditional, and may be expressed under ten different forms or tenses, which belong to these two moods. OF THE DIFFERENT SORTS OF VERBS, IN REFERENCE TO THEIR FORMS. 663. The verbs, in regard to the manner in which they are employed with their tenses and persons, are divided into three Regular Verbs ; Irregular Verbs ; Defective Verbs. Regular verbs are those whose terminations in their different tenses and persons, primitive or derivative, are like those of the verb which is used as a model. VERB. 299 The irregular verbs are those whose terminations do not conform to those of the standard verbs in all the tenses and persons. Defective verbs are those which are deficient in some of their tenses and persons. OF THE DIFFERENT SORTS OF VERBS, DJ REFERENCE TO THEIR FUNC- TIONS IN THE LANGUAGE. 664. The verbs, in regard to their functions in the language, are divided into six distinct classes : 1st. The Auxiliaries to have and to be, which are used to form the compound tenses of all the verbs, including themselves. 2d. The Active Verbs. 3d. The Passive Verbs. 4th. The Neuter Verbs. 5th. The Reflected Verbs. 6th. The Impersonal Verbs. AUXILIARY VERBS. 665. The auxiliary verbs are, to have and to be, avoir and etre. They are called auxiliary from the Latin word auxilium, which means succor, help ; because they serve to conjugate all the verbs in their compound tenses. ACTIVE VERBS. 666. Active verbs are those which have a direct object ; as, aimer, to love ; lire, to read ; ecrire, to write. They are known to be active, because they may be followed by the words somebody or something, quelqiCun or quelque chose, without the assistance of a preposition ; thus, we may say, To love something or somebody; to Aimer quelqu'un ou quelque chose ; lire read something, to write something. quelque chose, ecrire quelque chose. The verb avoir, to have, when not employed as an auxiliary, but expressing possession, is an active verb ; as in, I have a book; I have, what 1 a book. J'ai un livre; j'ai, quoi * un livre. PASSIVE VERBS. 667. Passive verbs are those whose action is applied or felt by the subject ; as in, I am loved, he is burned, we are Je suis aime, il est bride, nous sommes beaten. battus. 300 FRENCH GRAMMAR. In these sentences, the subject does not act, but is acted upon by the verb. Passive verbs are conjugated with the auxiliary etre, to be. All the active verbs may be conjugated in the passive form, but the neuter verbs cannot. NEUTER VERBS. 668. Neuter verbs are those which have no direct object, that is to say, after which the words somebody or something cannot be placed, without these words being preceded by a preposition ; as in, We must obey the laws of our country. II faut obeir aux his de son pays. You must obey your father. Vous devez obeir a voire pere. The same remark applies to the following verbs : Togo, Aller, To speak ill (of,) Medire, To fall, Tomber because we cannot say, To go somebody, speak ill somebody, Aller quelqu'un or quelque chose, midire fall something. quelqu'un or quelque chose, tomber quelqu'un or quelque chose. 669. Remark. There are a great number of verbs which are active in speaking of things and neuter in speaking of persons, that is to say, after which a noun of things can be used without being preceded by a preposition, whilst a noun of person cannot. These verbs require particular attention, because, whilst they can be used pas- sively in speaking of things, they cannot when speaking of persons ; let us take, for example, the verb to tell, dire; the English expression, I was told that your father was dead, cannot be used passively in French, because the verb dire is not active, speaking of persons ; for we do not say, to tell a person, but to tell to a person; the sentence should, then, be inverted, as, they told to me that your father, &c, and rendered by, On m'a dit que votre pere etait mort. The same mode of reasoning should be applied to all the verbs ; therefore, before translating a passive verb by the passive form in French, it must be ascertained whether, in that particular case, the verb could be used actively. If it can, the passive form may be used ; VERB. 301 if it cannot, the construction should be changed, and the verb to have should be used instead of the verb to be. When speaking of the rela- tion existing between the verb and its objects, we shall enter into more particular explanations on this subject. OF REFLECTED VERES. 670. Reflected verbs are those which are conjugated with two per- sonal pronouns of the same person, one nominative, and the other objective. They are called reflected, because the nominative receives the action of the verb, or, in other words, the action of the verb reflects upon the nominative ; as in, I flatter myself, he flatters himself, &c. Je me flatte, il se flatte, &c. In je me flatte, je is the subject who flatters, me is the object or person flattered ; therefore, the one who flatters, and he who receives flattery, being the same person, the action of the verb returns or reflects upon him who acts, or upon the nominative, and the verb is thus made reflected. 671. In reflected verbs, the objective pronoun is sometimes the direct and sometimes the indirect object of the verb ; in this sentence, I love myself, Je m'aime, or J'aime moi, me or moi is the direct object of the verb ; but, in the following : I say to myself, Je me dis, or Je dis a moi, me or d, moi is the indirect object, and should be preceded by a prepo- sition, to receive the action of the verb. 672. There are two sorts of reflected verbs : 1st. Those which are never conjugated, or used, without two pronouns of the same person preceding the verb ; as in, I repent, I mock, &c, Je me repens, Je me moque, etc.; we could not say, je repens, je moque, &c. Those which are sometimes conjugated with one and sometimes with two pronouns of the same persons, according to the idea we have to express ; as in, I praise myself, Je me loue, I burn myself, Je me brule, because we may say, in other cases, je hue, je brule. 26 302 FRENCH GRAMMAR. (A list containing the reflected verbs of the first class will be found at the end of the grammar.) 673. Remark. Reflected verbs are invariably conjugated in French with the auxiliary verb to be, etre. This is an oddity which can only be accounted for by the meaning of the verb itself; for, when we say, we have avenged ourselves, we express the fact that we have been avenged; by whom"? by ourselves; hence, very likely, arises the use of the verb to be in such verbs ; but, the preposition by being sup- pressed, it becomes impossible to parse those verbs with the verb to be; it would, then, perhaps, be better to take this fact of the reflected verbs being conjugated with the auxiliary to be, for one of those idiomatical oddities which are to be found in every language, which custom and time have sanctioned, and which should be respected and observed, without attempting either to explain or legitimate them. However, foreigners should pay particular attention to this fact, which, being in opposition to their own habits, exposes them to repeated mistakes when they are compelled to make use of a reflected verb. OF RECIPROCAL VERBS. 674. Reciprocal verbs are those which are used to express a recip- rocal action between two or more persons. We have explained the mechanism of those verbs when speaking of the reciprocal pronouns ; and we refer the student to that part of our grammar. OF IMPERSONAL VERBS. 675. Impersonal verbs are those which, in their conjugation, admit only the third person singular of each tense ; as, It rains it snows, it is necessary, &c. II pleut, il neige, il est necessaire. The verb there to be, in English, admits of the two third persons, singular and plural ; but, in French, it follows the general rule, and is only used in the third person singular. OF CONJUGATIONS. 676. The word conjugation comes from the Latin conjugation which means union, junction, coupling together under the same yoke. To conjugate a verb is to recite it with all its tenses, persons, and VERB. 303 numbers ; that is to say, to repeat it, with all the modifications pro- duced by moods, tenses, persons, and numbers. We have already examined and explained all that relates to the tenses and moods ; let us see now what we understand by persons and numbers. OF PERSONS AND NUMBERS. 677. There are three persons in the verb : The first is that who speaks ; The second is that who is spoken to ; The third is that who is spoken of. As we have seen, under the article personal pronouns nominative, the pronouns of the first person are, je in the singular, and nous in the plural : thus, when we say,je park, I speak, there is but one person who speaks ; when we say, nous parlous, there are several persons speaking. The pronoun of the second person is tu in the singular, and vous in the plural ; but usage and politeness require generally the use of these two pronouns in the singular ; thus, addressing a single person, we say, tu paries, or vous parlez; addressing several, vous parlez. The pronouns of the third person are il and elle in the singular, Us and elles in the plural ; thus, speaking of one person, we say, il or elle parle, he or she speaks ; and of several, Us or elles parlent, they speak. Names of things or persons are all in the third person, singular or plural ; as, The sun shines. Le soleil brille. Men are good. Les hommes sont bons. Napoleon was great. Napoleon etait grand. Verbs have two numbers, the singular and the plural. What we have just said of persons renders further explanation unnecessary. OF DIFFERENT SORTS OF CONJUGATIONS. 678. We have, in French, four conjugations distinguished from each other by the difference in the termination of the present tense of their infinitive. 304 FRENCH GRAMMAR. The first conjugation has its infinitive terminating in er; as, aimer, to love, parler, to speak. The second conjugation has its infinitive ending in ir ; as, finir, to finish, mourir, to die. The third conjugation has its infinitive terminating in oir ; as, rece- voir, to receive, vouloir, to be willing. The fourth conjugation has its infinitive ending in re; as, rendre, to render, prendre, to take, boire, to drink. The four conjugations include all the French verbs in their com- pass. Grammarians are at great variance as to the classification of verbs in conjugations ; although they cannot find any other termina- tions than these four, some pretend, in order to facilitate the study of verbs, that they ought to divide them into as many conjugations as there are groups of them which may be conjugated alike, and call them regular, reducing thus the number of the irregular verbs almost to nothing Some do not go so far, and admit as regular those only which, by their number, may form separate classes, leaving thus a larger num- ber irregular. But these different systems, after all, are of no assistance to the student ; on the contrary, they produce a confusion in his mind. Having a great number of classes of regular verbs with the same ter- mination, he is at a loss to remember to which class any particular verb may belong ; therefore, we will preserve the old plan, and admit only four conjugations ; take a verb as a model in each one ; call regular all those which are conjugated alike in all tenses and persons, and irregular, those which differ from them. In order to facilitate the study of the conjugations, we shall place at the end of this grammar the models of each one, with its modifica- tions in form, as well as a complete table of all the irregular verbs, conjugated in full with all their tenses and persons. OF MIDDLE VERBS. 679. Now that we have shown the verb in all its phases of regular- ity and irregularity ; in its different forms, affirmative, negative, and interrogative ; in its four conditions, active and passive, reflective and reciprocal ; it becomes necessary to explain a peculiar property of a certain number of them, that of being used sometimes actively and sometimes passively, with or without the same auxiliary verb to have. VERB. 305 These verbs are called Middle Verbs, from the Greek, which admits of three voices, active, passive, and middle; the last of which is so called because it partakes of the two others. The knowledge of these verbs is of great importance to foreigners, who have no indications to understand their meaning without it. We shall give here a list of those which are of general use in the language. ACTIVE MEANING, PASSIVE MEANING. Accroltre. To increase. To augment. He has much increased his fortune. His fortune augments every day. II a beaucoup accru sa fortune. Sa fortune accroit tous les jours. Arreter. To arrest. To stop. We must arrest this man. We stopped at Boston. II faut arreter cet homme. Nous arretames a Boston. To increase. To augment. He increases his income every day. His income augments every day. II augmente son revenu tous les jours. Son revenu augmente tous les joura. Baisser. To let down. To fall. They let down the curtain at ten The stock begins to fall. o'clock. On baissa le rideau a dix heures. Les actions commencent a baisser. Battre. To beat. To beat. He beats the drum. The drum was beating. II bat la caisse. Le tambour battait. Blanchir. To whiten. To grow white. This paste whitens the skin. A fool's head never grows white. Cette pate blanchit la peau. Une tete de fou ne blanchit jamais. Bruler. To burn. To be burning. Formerly they used to burn the dead. One could see the ship burning. Autrefois on brulait les morts. On pouvait voir le vaisseau bruler. Casser. To break. To break. The fatigues of war have broken his In the midst of the operation the rope constitution very much. broke. Les fatigues de la guerre l'ont beaucoup Au milieu de l'operation la corde casse. cassa. 26* 306 FRENCH GRAMMAR, Changer. To change. To change. This storm will change the weather. Fashion changes from day to day. Cet orage changera le temps. Les modes changent de jour en jour. Chauffer. To heat. To be heated. While they heat the bath. While the bath is heating. Pendant qu'on chauffera le bain. Pendant que le bain chauffera. Commencer. To begin. To begin. We must begin the day well. The day did not begin successfully. II faut bien commencer la journee. Le jour n'a pas commence heureuse- ment. Continuer. To continue. To last. He has continued his inquiries. If the war lasts, we are lost. II a continue ses recherches. Si la guerre continue nous sommes per- dus. Coucher. To put to bed. To sleep. We must put this child to bed. We slept at the house of a friend. II faut coucher cet enfant. Nous couchames chez un ami. Descendre. Take down. To reach. You must take down this picture. Her hair reaches to her waist. Descendez ce tableau. Les cheveux lui descendent jusqu'a la ceinture. Diminuer. To impair. To lessen. His misfortunes have impaired his His credit lessens every day. credit. Ses malheurs ont diminue son credit. Son credit diminue tous les joura. Discontinuer. To stop. To cease. They stopped playing. War has not qeased for the last twenty years. lis discontinuerent le jeu. La guerre n'a pas discontinue depuis vingt ans. Doubler. To double. To be doubted. He has doubled his fortune in two His fortune has been doubled by trade . years. II a double sa fortune en deux ans, Sa fortune a double dans le commerce. VERB. 307 Embellir. Embellish. To grow handsome. This fountain will embellish your gar- She grows handsome every day. den. Cette fontaine embellira votre jardin. Elle embellit tous les jours. Enlaidir. To disfigure. To grow ugly. The small-pox has disfigured her. This woman grows more and more ugly. Le petite verole l'a enlaidie. Cette femme enlaidit de plus en plus. Epaissir. To thicken. To thicken. Food thickens the blood. Preserves thicken by boiling. Les aliments epaississent le sang. Les confitures epaississent en cuisant. Etovffer. To suffocate. To be suffocated. The excessive heat suffocates our la- Our workmen are suffocated with the borers. heat. L'excessive chaleur etouffe nos ouv- Nos ouvriers etouffent de chaleur riers. Fermer. To shut. To shut. Take care to shut your door. This door does not shut well. Ayez soin de fermer votre porte. Cette porte ne ferme pas bien- Finir. To finish. To have an end. I shall soon finish this affair. This affair will have no end. Je fiairai bientut cette affaire. Cette affaire ne finira jamais. Fondre. To melt. To be melting. The heat melted all the wax. The snow is melting. La chaleur fondit toute la cire. La neige fond. Grossir. To swell. To swell. The rains have swelled the river. The river has swelled much. Les pluies ont grossi la riviere. La riviere a bien grossi. Guerir. To cure. To be cured. My physician has cured him perfectly. He is very sick, but he will soon be cured. Mon medecin l'a gueri parfaitement. II est tres malade, mais il guerira bien- tot. 308 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Levei . To lift. To shoot. We cannot lift this heavy stone. Barley shoots sooner than wheat. Nous ne pouvons lever cette enorme L'orge leve plus tot que le bled, pierre. Loger. To lodge. To live. We cannot lodge three thousand men in We live near the palace. these barracks. Nous ne pouvons loger trois mille Nous logeons pres du palais. hommes dans cette caserne. Manquer. To miss. To be wanted. You have missed a fine opportunity. Provisions were wanted in the city. Vous avez manque une belle occasion. Les vivres manquaient dans la ville. Monter. To carry up. To amount. Carry up this furniture to my room. These sums amount to ten thousand dollars. Montez ces meubles dans ma chambre. Ces sommes montent a dix miile gourdes. Pendre. To hang. To hang. We have hung our raisins in the sun. The fruit which hangs from that tree. Nous avons pendu nos raisins au soleil. Les fruits qui pendent a cet arbre. Peser. To weigh. To weigh. We must weigh this bale of cotton. This bale weighs two hundred pounds. II faut peser cette balle de coton. Cette balle pese deux cents livres. Prefer. To lend. To stretch. I shall lend you my carriage. That leather stretches like a glove. Je vous preterai ma voiture. Ce cuir pr&te comme un gant. Rafraichir. To refresh. To cool. We must refresh the wine. The wine will cool in water. II faut rafraichir le vin. Le vin rafraichit dans l'eau. Rajeunir. To make one appear younger. To grow younger. This wig makes you appear much This woman grows younger every day younger. Cette perruque vous rajeunit beaucoup. Cette femme rajeunit tous les iours. VERB. 309 Rcfroidir. To refresh. The rain has refreshed the air. La pluie a refroidi l'air. To cool. While the soup cools. Pendant que la soupe refroidira. Relever. To relieve. To recover. This inheritance has relieved his dis- To be just recovered of an illness. tresses. Cette succession a releve ses affaires. Relever de raaladie. To settle. Sleeping settles the complexion. La soniaieil repose le teint. Reposer. To lie. He lies on his bed. II repose sur son lit. Ressusciter. To resuscitate. To be resuscitated. Jesus Christ resuscitated Lazarus. Jesus Christ was resuscitated the third day. Jesus Christ ressuscita le troisieme jour. Jesus Christ ressuscita Lazare. To delay. Why delay this marriage T Pourquoi retarder ce mariage 1 Retarder. To be delayed. This marriage is delayed from day to day. Ce mariage retarde de jour en jour. Rotir. To burn. To be scorching. The excessive beat has burnt the You are scorching under the sun. plants. L'excessive chaleur a roti les plantes. Vous rotissez au soleil. To fire. Tliey fired the guns at once. On tira le canon aussitut. Tirer. To be fired. The guns were fired at twelve. Le canon tira a midi. To turn. Vo'j will have to turn the wheel. Vous aurez a tourner la roue. Tourner. To turn. The earth turns around the sun. La terre tourne autour du soleil. To upset. This coachman will upset us. Ce cocher nous versera-. Verser. To upset. This coach will upset. Cette voiture versera. 310 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Vieillir. To make one grow old. To grow old. Sorrow made him grow old very fast. He has grown old in business. Le chagrin l'a vieilli bien vlte. II a vieilli dans les affaires. OF A CHOICE BETWEEN THE AUXILIARY VERBS AVOIR AND ETRE. 680. Active verbs are all conjugated with the auxiliary verb to have, avoir. Passive verbs are all conjugated with the auxiliary verb to be, etre. Some neuter verbs are always conjugated with to be, etre ; some with to have, while others are sometimes conjugated with the one and sometimes with the other, according to the sense of the sentence. There are, also, verbs which are sometimes active and sometimes neuter, and which, when neuter, are conjugated with either of the auxiliaries, according to their meaning. We shall give a list of all the neuter verbs which are conjugated with to be alone, and another, of those which can be conjugated with either auxiliary ; the neuter verbs which will not be found in these lists are those which are always conjugated with avoir alone. 681. A LIST OF NEUTER VERBS WHICH ARE ALWAYS CONJUGATED WITH ETRE, TO BE. to succeed. to set out. to arise. to become again. to start again. to result. to fall again. to come back. to come. to fall. to come. Aller, to go._ Parvenir, Arriver, to arrive. Partir, Choir, to fall. Provenir, Deceder, to die. Redevenir, Devenir, to become. Repartir, Disconvenir, to disagree. Resulter, Echoir, to fall. Retomber, Eclore, to hatch. Revenir, Intervenir, to intervene. Survenir, Mesavenir, to come to any trouble. Tomber, Mourir, to die. Venir, Naitre, to be born. Examples. These children had gone into the prai- rie. You have arrived too early. She has fallen in going up stairs. These great men are all dead. Literary men have become rare. Ces enfants etaient alles dans la prai- rie. Vous etes arrive de trop bonne heure. Elle est chue en montant l'escalier. Ces grands hommes sont tous decedes. Les vrais litterateurs sont devenns rares. VERB. 311 Your note will become due before your Votre billet sera echu avant votre re- return, tour. These eggs have hatched. Ces ceufs sont eclos. He has intervened in this affair. II est intervenu dans cette affaire. Their parents are dead. Leurs parents sont morts. Our misfortunes have arisen from our Nos malheurs sont nes de nos dissen- quarrels. sions. When he went into the country, I came Quand ilfut parti pour la campagne, je home. revins chez moi. How many people have obtained situa- Que de gens sont parvenus a des em- tions which they do not deserve ! plois qu'ils ne meritent pas ! Has his error arisen from his igno- L'erreur dans laquelle il est tom.be serait ranee 1 elle provenue de son ignorance 1 They have started again for the coun- Ik sont repartis pour la campagne. try. Great misfortunes have resulted from II en est resulte de grands malheurs. it. Your children would have come back Vos enfants seraient revenus avec nous. with us. This news has arrived just now. Cette nouvelle est survenue a l'instant. I doubt if the thunderbolt has reached Je doute que le tonnere soit tombe. the ground. They came to implore my clemency. lis sont venus implorer ma clemence. Remark. It should be remarked that the neuter verbs which are conjugated with to be alone, express either an idea of motion or rest. A LIST OF NEUTER VERBS WHICH ARE SOMETIMES CONJUGATED WITH AVOIR AND SOMETIMES WITH E*TRE, EITHER ACCORDING TO CUSTOM OR TO THE MEANING OF THE SENTENCE IN WHICH THEY ARE USED. 682. Accourir, to run to. I heard of his misfortune, and ran to his J'ai entendu parler de ses malheurs, et assistance. j'ai, or je suis, account a son aide. (Custom.) Apparditre, to appear. The spirit of the great Hector has ap- L'ombre du grand Hector nous est ap- peared to us. parue, or nous a apparu. (Custom.) Convenir, to suit, to fit. This house would have suited him very Cette maison lui aurait parfaitement well. convenu. (Custom.) Convenir, to agree, to settle. We have agreed upon, or settled, the Nous sommes convenus du prix de ce price of this horse. cheval. (Custom.) 312 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Crottre, to grow. This child has grown much during his Cet enfant a beaacoup cru durant sa sickness. maladie. (Active meaning.) Crottre, to be grown. This plant is prodigiously grown. Cette plante est prodigieusement crue, (Situation.) Courir, to run. The soldiers ran to their general. Les soldats ont couru vers leur general. (Action.) This preacher is much run after. Ce pretre est fort couru. (Situation.) Deborder, to overflow. The river has overflowed during the La riviere a deborde pendant la nuit. night. (Action.) How is the river % It has overflowed Comment est la riviere 1 Elle est de- its banks. bordee. (Situation.) Dechoir, to decline, to fall. Since his father's death, he gradually Depuis la mort de son pere, il a dechu fell every day. de jour en jour. (Action.) He has fallen very low in the public II est fort dechu dans 1'estime du pub- esteem, lie. (Situation.) Decroltre, to decrease, to fall. The water has much decreased since Les eaux ont beaucoup decru depuis la the drought. secheresse. (Action.) The river has fallen two inches. La riviere est decrue de deux pouces. (Situation.) Demeurer and r ester, to remain or to live in a place. He remained in Paris, Il est reste, or demeure, a Paris, signifies that the person spoken of is still now in Paris. (Situation.) II a reste, or demeure, a Paris, signifies that the person spoken of has lived in Paris, but is no longer there. (Action.) Echapper, to avoid, not to be heard, not to be perceived, not to be understood. He has escaped (avoided) death. II a e"chappe a la mort. (Action) What you have just said has escaped Ce que vous venez de dire m'a 6chapp6 . me. (Action.) VERB. 313 This fault has not been perceived by Cette faute a echappe d Voltaire. (Ac- Voltaire, tion.) Echapper, to run away, to escape from, to slip. The stag has escaped the dogs. Le cerf est echappe des chiens. (Situa- tion.) I had forgotten that name. Ce nom rrCetait echappd. (Action.) Racine made this fault through mis- Cette faute est echappee a Racine, take. (Action.) Expirer, to expire, to be out. My lease was out, or expired, yesterday. Mon bail a expire hier. (Action.) The truce has expired since yesterday. La treve est expiree depuis hier. (Sit- uation.) Grandir, to grow, to be grown. How he has grown since I saw him ! Comme il a grandi depuis que je ne l'ai vu ! (Action.) How tall she has grown ! Comme elle est grandie ! (Situation.) Perir, to perish, to be no more. They perished during the storm. lis ont peri pendant la tempGte. (Ac- tion.) What has become of all your children % They are all dead and gone. lis sont tous peris. (Situation.) 6S3. A LIST OF NEUTER VERBS WHICH SOMETIMES HAVE AN ACTIVE MEANING. Aborder, (active meaning,) to come near, up with, to ; to board, to accost, to charge, to handle, to hint at. To come up with a ship. Aborder un vaisseau. To board an enemy's ship. Aborder un vaisseau ennemi. He came up to me, or accosted me, II m'a abordi tres cavalidrement. very boldly. To handle, or hint at, a question. Aborder une question, &c. Aborder, (neuter meaning.) Our ships have disembarked at Havre. Nos vaisseaux ont abordi au Havre. (Action.) When our ship had reached the shore, Quand le vaisseau fut ahordi, nous we landed and started for Paris. debarquames et nous partimes pour Paris. (Situation.) 27 314 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Accoucher, (active meaning,) to deliver a woman. This physician has delivered several Ce medecin a accouche plusieurs dames ladies of my acquaintance. de ma connaissance. Accoucher, (neuter meaning,) to lie in, to be delivered. This lady has been successfully deliv- Cette femme a accouche heureusement. ered. (Action.) She has been delivered of a fine boy. Elle est accouche, d'un beau garcon. (Situation.) Accroitre, (active meaning,) to increase, to enlarge. He thinks of nothing but the means of II ne songe qu'aux moyens d' accroitre increasing his authority. son autorite. Accroitre, (neuter meaning,) to increase, to augment. His fortune has much increased these Sa fortune a beaucoup accru, depuis deux two years. ans. (Action.) Their pride had increased with their Leur orgueil etait accru par leur puis- power. sance. (Situation.) Baisser, (active meaning,) to let down, to lower. Let down the glasses of the carriage. Baissez les glaces de la voiture. Baisser, (neuter meaning,) to fall. The river has fallen a foot. La riviere a, or est, baissee d'un pied. With avoir, this verb expresses the action of falling ; with etre, it expresses the situation of the river after its fall. Cesser, (active meaning.) to leave off, to discontinue, &c. He left off his work on account of his II a cesse son travail a cause de ses eyes. yeux. Cesser, (neuter meaning,) to be over, to cease. The rain is over, (meaning that it has II a cesse de pleuvoir. (Action.) ceased raining for the present.) The rain is over, (meaning that the La pluie est cessie. (Situation.) rain is entirely over.) Changer, (active meaning,) to change, to exchange, to barter, to alter, &c. He has changed, exchanged, or bar- II a change sa. vieille vaisselle contrede tered, his old plate for new. la neuve. VERB. 315 Changer, (neuter meaning,) to change, to be altered or improved, &c. Fashions have much changed for the Les modes ont bien change depuis last twenty years. vingt ans. (Action.) This young man is much altered since Ce jeune homme est bien change depuis his return from the continent. son retour du continent. (Situation.) Cornmencer, (active meaning,) to begin. The French government has begun the Le gouvernement Francais a commence fortifications of Paris. les fortifications de Paris. Cornmencer, (neuter meaning,) to commence, to begin. The fair began on the first of January. La foire a commence le premier Janvier. (Action.) The fair has already commenced. La foire est commenpee. (Situation.) Descendre, (active meaning,) to take, to bring, or to let, down. Take that picture down. Descendez ce tableau. Descendre, (neuter meaning,) to descend, to go down, &c. You went down too fast. Vous avez descendu trop vite. (Action.) Is your father up stairs 1 No; he has Votre pere, est-il en haut 1 Non; il est come down. descendu. (Situation.) The verb redescendre, to come down again, follows the same rule as descendre. Dirninuer, (active meaning,) to diminish, to lessen, &c. I am compelled to lessen my expenses. Je suis oblige de dirninuer mes de- penses. Dirninuer, (neuter meaning,) to abate, to decrease, &c. The fever has much abated since yes- La fievre a beaucoup diminue depuis terday. hier. (Action.) How short the days are now ! Comme les jours sont diminues mainte- nant ! (Situation.) Echouer, (active meaning,) to run aground. When the captain saw his ship was Quand le capitaine vit que son navire leaking, he ran her aground on the faisait eau, il Vechoua sur la cote, coast Echouer, (neuter meaning,) to fail, to miscarry, &c. All my projects have failed. Tous mes projets ont echoue". Where i3 your vessel 1 It is aground Ou est votre vaisseau 1 II est ichoui in the strait. dans la passe. 316 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Emhellir, (active meaning,) to beautify, to embellish, &c. This cosmetic embellishes the com- Cette eau embellit le teint. plexion. Emhellir, (neuter meaning,) to grow handsome. She has grown much handsomer since Elle a beaucoup embelli depuis que nous we have seen her. ne l'avons vue. (Action.) How handsome she is now ! Comme elle est embellie ! (Situation.) Entrer and Rentrer, (active meaning,) to take in, to get in, &c. Take these casks into the cellar. Entrez ces barriques dans la cave. (Not much used.) This is the season for getting in the hay. Voici le moment de rentrer les foins. Entrer and Rentrer, (neuter meaning,) to enter, to come in, to come in again. I entered the room, and found my Je suis entre dans la chambre, et j'ai mother in tears. v trouve ma mere en pleurs. At what o'clock did you come in last A quelle heure etes vous rentre hier night 1 I came in at ten o'clock. 6oir 1 Je suis rentre a dix heures. Sortir, to go out, and Ressortir, to go out again, follow the same rule as entrer and rentrer. They are not used with avoir in their neuter meaning. Monter, (active meaning,) to carry up, to lift up, &c. ; to wind up, &c. Carry up all this into my room. Montez tout cela dans ma chambre. Did you wind up your watch last night 1 Avez-vous monte votre montre hier soir 1 Monter, (neuter meaning,) to go up, to be up. He went up to his room four times II a monte quatre fois a sa chambre during the course of the day. pendant la journee. (Action.) Is your father up in his room! At Votre pere, est-il monte . dans sa cham- what o'clock did he go up 1 bre 1 (Situation.) A quelle heure y a-t-il monte? (Action.) Remonter, to carry up, to lift up again, to go up, to be up again, follows the same rule as monter. Passer, (active meaning,) to pass, to go over, to cross, &c. We went over the river in a very small Nous avons passe la riviere dans un boat. tres petit bateau. This verb is active in many other meanings; see a good dictionary. VERB. 317 Passer, (neuter meaning,) to pass ; to come, or to go, through, by, or over, &c. The crown of Spain has passed to the La couronne d'Espagne a passe a la Bourbon family. maison de Bourbon. The army passed by here. L'armee a passe par ici. (Action.) The army is gone by. L'armee est passee. (Situation.) Our fine days are gone by. Nos beaux jours sont passes. (Situa- tion.) See a good dictionary for the other cases in which passer has a neuter meaning. Repasser. This verb follows the same rule as passer. Retourner, (active meaning,) to turn, to turn up. I must have my coat turned. II faut que je fasse retourner mon habit It is time now to turn hay. II est temps de retourner le foin. Retourner, (neuter meaning,) to return, to go back ; to turn up. My father has returned home. Mon pere est retourne' dans son pays. (Situation.) What have you turned up 1 Qu'auez-vous retourne? I have turned up diamond. i'ai retourne carreau. (Action.) Rajeunir, (active meaning,) to make young. Your wig makes you look twenty years Votre perruque vous rajeunit de vingt younger. ans. Rajeunir, (neuter meaning,) to grow young again. You have grown much younger since Vous avez beaucoup rajeuni depuis que we saw you last. nous ne vous avons vu. (Action.) You look twenty years younger with Vous etes rajeunie de vingt ans avec your new set of teeth. votre nouveau ratelier. (Situation.) Sonner, (active meaning,) to ring, to sound, &c. I rang for the chamber-maid, but she J'az sonne la femme de chambre, mais has not come. elle n'est pas venue. The trumpets sounded the charge, but Les trompettes sonnerent la charge, the troops did not move. mais les troupes ne bougerent pas. Sonner, (neuter meaning,) to ring, to sound, &c. The bell has rung for service at the Le service a sonne a la cathedrale. cathedral. (Action.) It was after three o'clock when we sat Trois heures etaient sonnies quand nous at the table. nous mimes a table. (Situation.) This sentence sounded well. Cette phrase a bien sonne. (Action.) The dinner has rung. Le diner a sonne, &c. (See a dictionary.) 27* 3 IS FRENCH GRAMMAR. Vieillir, to make old, or to grow old, follows the same rule as rajeunir. Remark. It should be remarked, that, among the neuter verbs which are conjugated with either of the auxiliaries, avoir is employed whenever the verb expresses an action, whilst etre is used when it implies the idea of a situation. QUESTIONS 645. What is the signification of the word mood? 645. How many moods are there in French 1 646. What is the difference between personal and impersonal moods 1 646. How many impersonal moods are there in French *? 646. Can impersonal moods be used to express a proposition 1 647. For what purpose is the indicative mood used in French 1 647. Of how many tenses is the indicative mood composed, and which are they! 648. What is the use of the conditional mood 1 649. How many tenses are there in the conditional mood 1 649. In what case is the conditional present used 1 649. What is the signification of the conditional past 1 650. Is the condition on which depends the fact denoted by the conditional mood always expressed 1 651. What dictate of the mind is the imperative mood intended to obey 1 651. How many tenses are there in the imperative mood 1 652. Is this only tense used to give an order, or express a desire, to be exe- cuted now and in the future 1 653. Although there is but one regular form to be used in the imperative mood, cannot a compound tense be employed so as to order that a command should be executed before something else has taken place 1 654. How many persons are there in the imperative mood 1 654. Is there any third person singular or plural in the imperative mood 1 654. Are the persons used in this mood accompanied by personal pronouns as their nominatives 1 655. If a sentence is composed of two propositions and the first verb ex- presses an emotion of the soul, or if the idea expressed by the whole is that of a doubt, what mood is used in French to transmit that state of the mind 1 655. What circumstance, past, present, or future, does the present of the subjunctive express 1 656. For what purpose is the imperfect of the subjunctive used 1 657. Does the preterite of the subjunctive express a past, a present, or a future 1 658. When is the pluperfect of the subjunctive used % 659. What do we mean when we say that a verb is in the infinitive mood 1 660. Why is the present participle so called 1 and what does it express 1 660. Is this tense deprived of number and persons 1 661. What is a past participle 1 Has it any persons, and what does it express 1 661. What functions does the past participle perform in the conjugation of the verbs 1 and why is it called past participle? 661. With what does the participle agree when it is conjugated with to be* VERB. 319 661. Is there any regularity in the termination of past participles 1 662. "What does the infinitive in<5od express, and how many tenses has it 1 662. What does the indicative mood express, and how many tenses has it 1 662. (Same question in reference to the conditional, imperative, and sub- junctive moods.) 662. How many moods are there which can assume the interrogative form % 663. How many classes of verbs are there in reference to the manner in which they are conjugated 1 664. How many kinds of verbs are there in reference to their functions in languages 1 665. What is die function of an auxiliary verb 1 665. How many auxiliary verbs are there 1 666. "What are active verbs, and what distinguishes them from others 1 666. "With what auxiliary are they conjugated 1 667. What is the character of a passive verb, and with what auxiliary is it conjugat 3d 1 668. What is die character of a neuter verb 1 669. Are there not many verbs which are active speaking of things aud neuter speaking of persons 1 • 669. Can a verb after which a noun of persons cannot be used without a preposition, be used passively in French in speaking of persons 1 669. When an English passive verb is to be translated into French, to what should a foreigner give attention before he uses it in the same form 1 670. What is a reflected verb 1 When the nominative of a reflected verb is a pronoun, by what is it always preceded % 671. Is the reflected pronoun always die direct or indirect object of the verb, or can it be either 1 672. How many kinds of reflected verbs are there 1 673. With what auxiliary are reflected verbs conjugated 1 673. How can we account for the use of the verb to be in French, instead of the verb to have, in the conjugation of reflected verbs 1 674. What do reciprocal verbs signify 1 (The teacher should refer here to what has been said in speaking of reciprocal pronouns, and ask the same ques- tions as have been put when examining the pupils on them.) 675. What is an impersonal verb 1 Is an impersonal verb ever conjugated in French in the third person plural 1 676. What is the meaning of die word conjugation applied to verbs 1 677. How many persons are there in the conjugation of verbs 1 What are they, and what do they signify 1 677. What are the pronouns of die first, second, and third persons singular and plural 1 677. In what persons are nouns either singular or plural 1 678. How many conjugations are there in French 1 What are the termina- tions in the four conjugations 1 678. Are all the French verbs included in these four conjugations *? 679. What are the characteristics of middle verbs 1 (The teacher should not request his pupils, except when they are far advanced, to know which verbs are called midti* ones; he should only advise them to read attentively those given as examples la the grammar, so as to understand their meaning. A good diction- ary and long practice are the only useful guides in this difficulty.) 680. With what auxiliary are active verbs conjugated 1 680. With what auxiliary are passive verbs conjugated *? 680. With what auxiliary are neuter verbs conjugated 1 680. Are there not some neuter verbs which are sometimes active and conju- gated with either auxiliary *? 680. What should decide whether these verbs should be conjugated with avoir or etre? 681. What are the neuter verbs which are always conjugated with etre? 'The pupils should learn this list of verbs by heart.) 320 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 681. What is the meaning of the neuter verbs which are only coniujjated with Stre? J S 682. What are the neuter verbs which are sometimes conjugated with avoir and sometimes with etre'f (The pupils should learn these verbs by heart, as well as the preceding, and give an account of their different significations.) 683. Are there not some neuter verbs which are sometimes used as active verbs 1 (Same remark as above.) OF THE SUBJECT OF THE VERB. 684. We have seen that to affirm is the principal function of the verb. We call subject or nominative the word which represents the person or thing which performs the action of the verb, or is in the situation expressed by it. The attribute of the verb is the word which modifies the fact of existence expressed by the verb ; in other words, the subject expresses the person or thing about which we affirm something, and the attribute is the result of this affirmation. The subject is always represented by a noun or a pronoun, and the attribute by an adjective joined to a verb, or implied in that verb ; when we say virtue is amiable, the adjective amiable is joined to the verb to be, and this verb expresses the connection we wish to establish between virtue and the qualification of amiability ; but if we say, Pierre vit, Peter lives, the adjective is implied in the verb, vit, lives, since this verb signifies, est vivant, is living. This decomposition of the verb may be performed for all the verbs ; the only exception is in the verb etre, to be, when it does not signify exister, to exist, or to be existing. It is always very easy to find out what is the subject of a verb, by applying to that verb the question, qui est ce qui? who? the answer to the question is the nominative. When we say Pierre vit, Peter lives, if we ask, qui est-ce qui vit? who lives? the answer, Pierre, Peter, shows that Peter is the subject. PLACE OF THE SUBJECT OR NOMINATIVB OF THE VERB. 685. The subject, whether a noun or a pronoun, is generally placed before the verb ; as in, We love reading. Nous aimons la lecture. Man is never pleased with his fate. L'homme n'est jamais content de son sort. VERB. 321 PLACE OF THE SUBJECT IN INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES, WHEN THE NOMINA- TIVE IS A PRONOUN. 686. In interrogative sentences, if the subject be a pronoun, it always goes after the verb ; as in, Will you give me this book 1 Voxxlez-vous me dormer ce livre 1 Shall we go home to-morrow 1 Retournerons-?ious demain a la mai- son 1 When the verb, in interrogative sentences, being followed by the pronouns il, elle, on, has for its last letter a vowel, in order to avoid a disagreeable sound which would be shocking to the ear, the letter t is placed between the verb and the pronoun ; as in, Does he arrive *? Shall she come 1 Do you like thieves 1 Arrive-t-il 1 Viendra-t-elle 1 Aime-t-on les coquins 1 The interrogation in the first person singular, being made by placing the pronoun je after the verb, produces, sometimes, such disagreeable sounds to the ear, that it becomes necessary to change the natural dis- position of the words ; thus, Do I sleep « Do I run « Do I lie 1 Dors-je 1 Cours-je 1 Ments-je 1 would be intolerable ; and we are compelled to say, Is it that I sleep 1 Is it that I run 1 Is it that I lie 1 Est-ce que je dors 1 Est-ce que je cours 1 Est-ce que je ments 1 PLACE OF THE NOMINATIVE IN INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES, WHEN THE NOMI- NATIVE IS A NOUN. 687. 1st. Whenever an interrogative sentence does not begin with an interrogative adverb, such as how, when, how much, &c, or with an absolute pronoun, such as whom, what, which, or where, if the verb with which the interrogation is made has a noun for its nominative, the sentence should begin with that noun, and the verb should be fol- lowed by a personal pronoun of the same person, number and gender, as the noun used as a nominative ; as in, Will your father come to-morrow 1 Votre pere, viendra-t-il demain 1 If the verb was used in one of the compound tenses, the personal pronoun should be placed after the auxiliary; as in, Has your father come to-day 1 Votre pe*re, est-il venu aujourd'bui 1 222 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 688. 2d. When, the nominative of the verb being a noun, the sentence begins with an interrogative adverb or an absolute pronoun, the sentence can be constructed in two ways: If the verb has no object, and is not in any of the compound tenses, the noun used as a nominative can be placed either before or after the verb ; — if placed before, the verb should be followed by a personal nominative pronoun as above ; if placed after, the personal pronoun would become unnecessary ; as in, Ttri .„ r . „ $ Quand votre pere, viendra-t-z7 ? or. When will your father come 1 J ^ w vien( f ra votrepdre? 689. 3d. But if the verb were in any of the compound tenses, or had an object after it, the noun used as its nominative should always precede it ; as in, When did your father come 1 Quand votre pere est-il venu 1 How does your father like the music Comment votre pere, trouve-t-il la tnu- that I sent him 1 sique que je lui ai envoyee 1 690. Remark. Although the verb has no object, if it was followed by an incidental proposition beginning with a relative pronoun having the nominative for its antecedent, that nominative should be placed after the verb, in order not to be separated from the relative pro- noun ; as in, How is this young officer now, whose Comment se porte maintenant ce jeune departure we have so much re- officier dont, nous avons tant regrette gretted 1 le depart 1 691. General remark. We Would caution foreigners against a fault which is profusely spread through a work published in London by Olendorf, and reprinted in this country ; most of his interrogative sen- tences are constructed as follows : When will your father come ? Votre pere quand viendra-t-il 1 placing the nominative before the interrogative adverb, which is never the case in French, unless the person who speaks wishes to call the attention to the person or thing he is going to mention, in which case, there should be a comma after the noun, and the voice should take such an inflection as to show that the question does not begin with the noun, but with the adverb following ; as, Votre pere, quand viendra-t-il *? VERB. meaning, I wish to speak of your father ; when will he come ! or. By the by, when will your father come 1 PLACE OF THE N03nNATIVE IN A SENTENCE USED AS A QUOTATION". 692. Whenever a verb is used in a quotation, its nominatitive, whether a noun or a pronoun, is invariably placed after it ; as in, Be happy, said he. Soyez heureux, dit-il. I die innocent, said Louis XVI., on the Je nieurs innocent, dit Louis XVI., sur scaffold. l'echaffaud. PLACE OF THE NOMINATIVE IN A SENTENCE BEGINNING WITH A VERB IN THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 693. The nominative is still placed after the verb, when, expressing a wish, we make use of the subjunctive mood ; as in, May the people be convinced that there Puissent les peuples se convaincre qu'il is no greater scourge than a revolu- n"y a pas de plus grands fleaux que lion ! les revolutions ! And also, when the subjunctive is used to express quand me me, though, and a conditional ; as in. Though the universe should crumble at Diit Vunivers s'ecrouler a ses pieds, il his feet, he would not be moved. n'en serait pas emu. The natural construction of these two sentences should be, Je souhaite que tous les peuples soient convaincus, &c. Quand meme l'univers s'ecroulerait, Sec. But the other form is more energetic and animated. PLACE OF THE NOMINATIVE WHERE THE VERB IS PRECEDED BT A RELATIVE PRONOUN WHICH HAS FOR ITS ANTECEDENT THE OBJECT OF THAT VERB. 694. The nominative is still placed after the verb, when this verb is preceded by a relative pronoun having for its antecedent the object of that verb : as in. The news brought by the messenger La nouvelle yu'apporta It courier est was good. bonne. The man who was killed by your friend L'homme que tua votre ami 6tait mon was mv son. - fils. 324 FRENCH GRAMMAR. It would not be considered as a fault of language to place the nomi- native before the verb in cases similar to these ; but harmony and elegance require the other construction. PLACE OF THE NOMINATIVE IN IMPERSONAL SENTENCES. 695. The nominative should also be placed after the verb, in imper- sonal sentences ; as in, A great calamity has happened to me. II m'est arrive un grand malheur. PLACE OF THE NOMINATIVE IN SENTENCES EEGINNING WITH THE WORDS TEL, AINSI, TOUJOURS, AUSSI, PEUT-ETRE, ENCORE, EN VAIN, VAJNEMENT, DU MOINS, AND AU MOINS. 696. Whenever a sentence begins either with tel, such, or ainsi, thus, the nominative of the verb, whether a noun or a pronoun, should be placed after it ; as in, Such was the fury of the soldiers that Telle etait la fureur du soldat que rien nothing could stop them. ne pouvait l'arreter. Thus ended this bloody affair. Ainsi fiiiit cette sanglante tragedie. This transposition of words, however, can only take place where the verb has no object. 697. But when the sentence begins with any of the other adverbs, toujours, aussi, peut-etre, &c, if the verb has a pronoun for its nom- inative, that pronoun is generally placed after the verb, although this transposition is a mere matter of elegance ; but if the nominative be a noun, it should be placed before the verb, which then is generally fol- lowed by a personal pronoun of the same person, number, and gender, as the nominative ; as in, Perhaps he was right in acting as he Peut-etre eut-il raison d'ayir comme il did. le fit. If we were not offended, at least we Si nous ne fumes point offenses, du were much surprised at his conduct. moins fumes nous tres surpris de sa conduite. In vain did your friends advise you not En vain, or vainement, vos amis voua to trust that man. conseillerent-ils de ne pas vous tier a cet homme. This pronoun, however, may be omitted ; it is a matter of taste to use it or not. 698. In fine, we must place the subject after the verb when that subject is followed by a number of words which belong to it. This exception to the general rule is sometimes absolute, and some- times a matter of taste. It is absolute when the words which belong VERB. 325 to the subject form an incidental proposition, which, by its extent, would deter the mind from the connection existing between the verb and its subject, as in the following sentence : There, in the midst of prairies enara- La, au milieu de prairies emaillees de elled with flowers, are creeping, in fleurs, serpentent mille petits ruis- winding mazes, a thousand small seaux, qui distribuent partout une eau streams, whitti dispense everywhere pure et limpide. a pure and limpid water. Or when we wish to avoid a construction which would seem heavy and wanting in harmony ; as in, Did you see the sacrifice where the Vites-vous le sacrifice ou coula le sang blood of so many victims ran 1 de tant de victimes? The construction, ou le sang de tant de victimes coula, would be flat and deprived of harmony. This rule is a matter of taste when we wish to awake the attention on a subject by an unexpected and bold transition ; as in, In fine, to the honor of France, a man Enfin, pour l'honneur de la France, had been admitted in the govern- etait entre dans l'administration des ment, who was greater by his mind affaires publiques, un homme plus and virtues than by the honors con- grand encore par ses vertus et par son ferred on him. esprit que par ses dignites. AGREEMENT OF THE VERB WITH ITS NOMINATIVE IN REFERENCE TO NUMBER. AGREEMENT OP THE VERB WITH A SINGLE NOUN. 639. When a verb has only one noun for its nominative, it should always be of the same number as that noun, whether it is followed or preceded by it ; as in, Man was born to reign over the world. L'homme est ne pour regner sur le monde. Kings hold their rights from God, and Les rots tiennent leurs droits de Dieu, their power from the people. et leur puissance du peuple. Remark. A verb used in a personal mood should always have a nominative, and that nominative should always be expressed. There are, however, some few adverbial expressions in which the nominative can be elegantly omitted ; as in, It is better late than never. Vaut mieux tard que jamais. It is better to remain silent than to Vaut mieux se taire que mal parler. speak nonsense. 28 326 FRENCH GRAMMAR. OF THE NUMBER OF THE VERB WHEN IT HAS FOR ITS NOMINATIVES SEVERAL NOUNS UNITED BY AND, ET, OR NEITHER, NJ. 700. Whenever a verb has for its nominatives several nouns in the singular, and united by either of the conjunctions and or neither, et or ni, that verb is always used in the plural ; as in, Idleness and effeminacy will spoil the L'oisivete et la mollesse corrompent les best dispositions. plus beaux naturels. Neither gold nor riches can make us Ni for ni la richesse ne nous rendent happy. heureux. However, when the nominatives, being separated by the conjunc- tion ni, are considered as acting individually, and not conjointly, upon the verb, that verb should be used in the singular ; as in, Neither man nor beast has ever been Ni Vhomme ni aucun animal n'a pu se able to create himself. faire soi-meme. Neither of our hearts can be perfidious. Ni son cceur ni le mien ne pent £lre perfide. OF THE NUMBER OF THE VERB WHEN IT HAS FOR ITS NOMINATIVES SEVERAL NOUNS WHICH HAVE NO CONJUNCTION BETWEEN THEM. 701. When a verb has for its nominatives several nouns following each other without having any conjunction between them, that verb is used in the plural, if the nouns, having no similarity in their mean- ing, act conjointly upon the verb ; and in the singular, if they are either synonymous, or, expressing a gradation, act separately upon the verb ; as in, Years, disease, drunkenness, are said L'&ge, la maladie, Vivresse, changent, to change our natural disposition. dit-on, la caractere. At any period of our life, the love of Dans tous les ages de la vie, V amour du work and the taste for study are a travail, le gout de I'etude est un bien. real blessing. Louis, his son, the state, and Europe Louis, son fite, Vetat, VEurope, est en itself, are in your hands. vos mains. OF THE NUMBER OF THE VERB WHEN IT HAS FOR ITS NOMINATIVES SEVERAL NOUNS SEPARATED BY THE CONJUNCTION OR, OU. 702. Whenever a verb has for its nominatives several nouns in the singular separated by the conjunction or, ou, the verb is used in the singular, if the action which it expresses can be performed only by one of the nominatives ; and in the plural, if the several nominatives concur in the performance of that action ; as in, My father or my uncle shall be ap- Mon pere ou man oncle sera nomme am- pointed an ambassador. bassadeur. Ignorance or error can sometimes serve L'ignorance ou Verreur peuvent quelque- as an excuse to the wicked. fois servir d'excuse aux mechants. 327 OF THE NUMBER OF THE VERB WHEN, HAVING FOR ITS NOMINATIVES SEVERAL NOUNS, THEY ARE SUMMED UP BY ONE OF THE WORDS TOUT, ALL, RIEN, NOTHING, PERSONNE, NOBODY, ETC. 703. When a verb, having for its nominatives several nouns in the singular or plural, is preceded by an expression which sums them up in one word, that verb is used in the singular; as in, Fortune, dignity, honors, all disappear Biens,dignites, honneurs, tout disparait in death. a la mort. Amusements, conversation, plays, no- Amusements, conversations, spectacles, tiling could divert him from his rien ne pouvait le distraire de sa grief. douleur. OF THE NUMBER OF THE VERB WHEN IT HAS FOR ITS NOMINATIVES SEVERAL NOUNS QUALIFIED BY ONE OF THE INDEFINITE PRONOUNS TOUT, CHAQUE, EVERY, QUELQUE, SOME OR ANY, AUCUN, NOT, NOT A, NOT ANY, ETC. 704. When a verb has for its nominatives several nouns modified by any of the indefinite pronouns tout, quelque, nul, aucun, and chaque, it is used in the singular, if the nominatives act separately, and in the plural, if they act conjointly, upon that verb ; as in, Each nation, each period of life, each Chaque nation, chaque &ge, chaque sexe, sex, has its peculiar tastes. a ses gouts particuliers. Every Christian, every good knight, Tout Chretien, tout digne chevalier, doit ought to sacrifice himself for his se sacrifier pour sa religion, religion. Even 7 night, every morning, brings us Chaque nuit, chaque aurore, nous ap- new proofs of the goodness and wis- portent de nouvelles preuves de la dom of Divine Providence. sagesse et de la bonte de la Provi- dence Divine. No regiment, no column, had been able- Aucun corps, aucune colonne, n'avaient to break through our square. pu enfoncer notre carre. OF THE NUMBER OF THE VERB WHEN IT HAS FOR ITS NOMINATIVE ANY OF THE INDEFINITE EXPRESSIONS L'UN ET £' AUTRE, EITHER OR BOTH, OR NI L'UN Nl L' AUTRE, NEITHER. 705. (See what we have said when speaking of these two indefinite pronouns.) OF THE NUMBER OF THE VERB WHEN IT HAS FOR ITS NOMINATIVES SEVERAL NOUNS THE FIRST TWO OF WHICH ARE SEPARATED BY ANY OF THE EXPRESSIONS COMME, AINSI QUE, AVEC, DE m£mE QUE, ETC. 706. Whenever a verb has for its nominatives several nouns the first two of which are separated by any of the expressions comme, ainsi que, avec, de rneme que, &c, it is necessary to examine whether those several expressions are only used to express a comparison, and signify as veil a%, or whether they serve to unite the several nomina- 328 FRENCH GRAMMAR. tives to make them act conjointly on the verb, and are used instead of and. In this latter case, they require the verb to be put in the plural ; in the former, on the contrary, the verb should agree with the first noun ; as in, The king means well, as well as his Le roi, aussi bienque ses ministres, vent ministers. le bien. His honesty, as well as his other high Son honnetete, autant que ses autres qualities, made him respectable. grandes qualites, hfaisait respecter. Gengis, the Arabs, the Turks, and Gengis, ainsi que les Arabes, les Turcs, many others, have founded large et beaucoup d'autres, ont fait de establishments far from their country. grands etablissements loin de leur patrie. Count Piper, with some officers of Le Comte Piper, avec quelques qfficiers de chancery, had left the camp. la chancellerie, avaient quitte le camp. OF THE NUMBER OF THE VERB WHEN IT HAS SEVERAL NOMINATIVES THE FIRST TWO OF WHICH ARE SEPARATED BY ANY OF THE EXPRESSIONS PLU- TOT QUE, RATHER THAN, PLUS QUE, MORE THAN, MOINS QUE, LESS THAN, NON SEULEMENT, NOT ONLY, ETC. 707. When a verb has for its nominatives several nouns the first two of which are separated by any of the expressions plutot que, plus que, moins que, non settlement, mais, &c, that verb should always agree with the noun which expresses the predominant idea ; but, if any of these expressions were preceded by more than one noun, the verb, then, should be used in the plural ; as in, It is his ambition, rather than his re- C'est son ambition, plus encore que ses verses, which caused his loss. revers, qui a cause sa perte. It is less his reverses than his ambition Ce sont moins ses revers que son am- which caused his loss. bition qui Va perdu. Wisdom and virtue, rather than the II faut que ce soit la sagesse et la vertu, presence of Mentor, ought to tell you plutot que la presence de Mentor, qui what you have to do. vous inspirent ce que vous devez faire. OF THE NUMBER OF THE VERB WHEN IT HAS FOR ITS NOMINATIVES TWO VERBS IN THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 708. When a verb has for its nominatives two verbs in the infinitive mood, it is used in the singular, if the two nominatives act separately upon the verb ; and in the plural, if they act conjointly ; as in, To know how to listen and to answer, Bien ecouter et bien repondre, est une des is one of the greatest perfections that plus grandes perfections qu'on puisse one can possess in conversation. avoir dans la conversation. To grow old, to be sick, and to die, Vieillir, etre malade, et mourir, sont lea are the greatest evils of life. plus grands maux de la vie. VERB. 329 OF THE NUMBER OF THE VERB WHEN IT HAS FOR ITS NOMINATIVE THE EXPRESSION PLUS D'UN, MORE THAN ONE. 709. When a verb has for its nominative the expression plus d'un, more than one, it is used in the singular, unless that expression is repeated before it ; it is always used in the plural after plus de deux, trois, &c, more than two, three, &c. ; as in, Everything was supernatural in Moses. Tout etait surnaturel dans Mo'ise. Plus More than one learned man has d'un savant Ya regarde comme un regarded him as a very skilful poli- politique tres habile, tician. I have found more than one Englishman J'ai connu plus d'un Anglais et plus and more than one German who found d'un Allemand qui ne trouvaient harmony only in their language. d'harmonie que dans leur langue. OF THE AGREEMENT OF THE VERB WITH COLLECTIVE NOUNS. OF THE NUMBER OF THE VERB WHEN IT HAS FOR ITS NOMINATIVE A COLLECTIVE NOUN TAKEN IN A GENERAL SENSE AND PRECEDED BY THE ARTICLE THE IN FRENCH. 710. When a verb has for its nominative a collective noun taken in a general sense and preceded by the article the in French, that verb is always used in the singular, whether the collective noun is followed by a noun in the plural or in the singular ; as in, One half of mankind lives at the ex- La moitie des hommes vit aux depena pense of die other half. des autres. One half of the world has always La moitie du monde a toujours mange' absorbed the other. l'autre. However, there are cases in which the verb should be used in the plural ; and this is the case when the mind is more strongly impressed by the idea represented by the plural noun than by the collective noun in the singular ; as in, One half of the trees I have planted are La moitii des arbres que j'ai plant6a dead. sont marts . OF THE NUMBER OF THE VERB WHEN IT HAS FOR ITS NOMINATIVE A COLLEC- TIVE NOUN TAKEN IN A PARTITIVE SENSE. 711. When a verb has for its nominative a collective noun taken in a partitive sense and followed by a noun in the plural, that verb is either used in the singular or the plural, according to the mind refer- 28* 330 FRENCH GRAMMAR. ring more especially to the idea of plurality represented by the noun in the plural than to the collective noun itself; as in, A crowd, an infinity, a multitude of young Phoenicians were performing the dances of their country. How many victories are to be found during the third period of the Roman republic ! A crowd of barbarians ravaged the country. Une foule, une infinite, une multitude de jeunes Pheniciens executaient les danses de leur pays. Quelle foule de victoires se present e dans le troisieme age de la republique Romaine ! Une nuee de barbares desolerent tout le pays. 712. With la plupart, the greatest part, or most, followed by a plural noun, the verb is always used in the plural ; but it is placed in the singular, if the noun which follows la plupart, or any other expression of the same kind, is in that number ; as in, Most men die without knowing it. Most men care but very little for the motives or diligence of a writer. An immense number of persons were present at this exhibition. La plupart des hommes meurent sans le savoir. La plupart du monde se soucie fort peu de l'intention et de la diligence des auteurs. Un nombre infini, or une infinite, de monde assistait a ce spectacle. OF THE NUMBER OF THE VERB WHEN IT HAS FOR ITS NOMINATIVE AN ADVERB OF QUANTITY, OR A NOUN USED WITHOUT BEING PRECEDED BY THE OR A, EITHER OF THEM BEING FOLLOWED BY A NOUN IN THE PLURAL. 713. When a verb has for its nominative an adverb of quantity, such as peu, few, beaucoup, many, assez, enough, moins, less, plus, more, trop, too many, &c, or a noun used without its being preceded either by the or a, such as force, nombre, quantite, &c, many, fol- lowed by a noun in the plural, the verb is always used in that number ; but it is employed in the singular whenever the noun following any of the above expressions is not used in the plural ; as in, So many years of habit were like iron Tant d'annees d'habitude etaient comme chains which bound me to those men. des chaines de fer qui me liaient a ces hommes. There are people enough who know Assez de gens meprisent les richesses, how to despise riches, but very few mais peu savent s'en separer. who know how to part with them. There were many jewels shining on her Force brillants sur sa robe eclataient. dress. Many people are afraid of public opin- Quantite de gens redoutent l'opinion du ion. m public. Such a kindness will ruin you. Tant de bonte vous perdra. 714. Remark. The same rule is applicable when the plural noun is understood after the adverb of quantity ; as in, Everybody wishes for prosperity, but Tous souhaitent la prosperite, mais peu few know how to enjoy it. savent en jouir. VERB. 331 Very few people know how to distin- Tres peu savent distinguer le familier guish between wbat is familiar and du nature!, what is natural. OF THE NUMBER OF THE VERB WHEN PRECEDED BY THE RELATIVE PRONOUN QUI. 715. As the pronoun qui is always of the same number as its ante- cedent, the preceding rules are applicable, whether the several nom- inatives of the verb act directly upon it, or through the medium of that relative pronoun. There is one case, however, which may present some difficulty ; it is the following : 716. Whenever the relative pronoun qui, acting as the nominative of the verb following, comes after a plural noun or pronoun preceded by de or des, either of these words being itself preceded by a noun in the singular, the verb should be used in the plural, if qui relates to the last of the two nouns separated by de or des ; and in the singular, if it relates to the first ; as in, Thales is the first amongst the Greeks Thales est le premier des Grecs qui ait who has ever taught that the soul is enseigne que l'ame est immortelle. immortal. Saint Therese was one of the wise Sainte Therese fut une des merges pru- virgins who knew how to command dentes qui surent obeir et commander. and obey. Man is the only animal who exercises L'homme est le seul des animaux qui agriculture and the innumerable arts exerce l'agriculture et les arts innom- which derive from it. brables qui en derivent. IS'apoleon is one of the most ambitious Napoleon est l'un des princes les plus princes that have ever reigned. ambitieux qui aient jamais regne. OF THE NUMBER OF THE VERB WHEN IT HAS FOR ITS NOMINATIVE THE PRO- NOUN CE. 717. (We refer the student to what we have already said of this pronoun when treating of the demonstrative pronouns.) OF SEVERAL CASES IN WHICH THE VERB SHOULD BE USED IN THE PLURAL, ALTHOUGH ITS NOMINATIVE IS IN THE SINGULAR. 718. There are cases in which the verb should be used in the plu- ral, although its nominative is in the singular ; this agreement is authorized by a figure, which is grammatically called attraction; that is to say, the mind is attracted towards the plural by the meaning of the expression, rather than by the expression itself; as in, All the Hebrews who remain faithful f C \ «**' reste encore de fid « les m ' shall come to-day to renew their*! T . reux > ,,, . , allegiance to Him 1 Lu / ™ ndront aujourd'hui renouveler 5 1, leurs voeux. 332 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Her decease is nothing but. Sa maladie sont des vapeurs. What I tell you is no joke. Ce queje vous dis la ne sont pas des chansons. Riches arise from commerce. L'effet du commerce sont les rich- QUESTIONS G85. What is the place of the nominative of a verb in a sentence which is not interrogative 1 686. What is the place of the nominative of a verb in an interrogative sen- tence when that nominative is a pronoun 1 686. When, in an interrogative sentence, the verb ends with a vowel, and has for its nominative either of the pronouns il, elle, or on, what should be placed between the verb and the pronoun in order to avoid the meeting of the two vowels 1 686. When an interrogation is made with a verb in the first person singular of the present of the indicative, and that verb is a monosyllable, how is the sen- tence generally constructed 1 687. When, in an interrogative sentence, the verb has a noun for its nomina- tive, how should that sentence be constructed, provided no absolute pronoun or interrogative adverb should be used 1 688. How should a sentence of the same kind be constructed when it begins in English either with an interrogative adverb or an absolute pronoun, and the verb, having no object, is not used in any of the compound tenses 1 689. What should always be the construction when the verb has an object, or is used in a compound tense 1 690. How should the sentence be constructed, if the verb, having no object, were followed by an incidental proposition beginning by a relative pronoun hav- ing for its antecedent the nominative of the verb of the principal proposition 1 691. Can an interrogative sentence, on any account, begin with the nomina- tive of the verb, when there is an interrogative adverb used in that sentence 1 If this construction is sometimes allowed, in what meaning! and how should the sentence be punctuated *? 692. What is the place of the nominative in a sentence used as a quotation 1 693. What is the place of the nominative, when the subjunctive mood is used without que, in order to express a wish 1 694. Where is the nominative placed, when the verb, being preceded by its object, is itself immediately preceded by a relative pronoun having that object for its antecedent 1 695. What is the place of the nominative in impersonal sentences constructed with the verb to be? 696. What is the place of the nominative in sentences beginning with either of the words tel and ainsi? 697. What is the place of the nominative when the sentence begins with any of the adverbs aussi, toujours, peut-etre, encore, en vain, vainement, du moins, and au moins, whether this nominative be either a noun or a pronoun 1 698. What is the place of the nominative when it is followed by a number of words which either restrict, extend, or modify its signification 1 699. When a verb has but one noun for its nominative, in what number and person should it be used 1 699. Can a verb in a personal mood be used without a nominative 1 700. In what number should a verb be used when it has for its nominatives several nouns in the singular separated by either of the conjunctions and or neither ? VERB. 333 700. If the two nominatives, being separated by neither, should be consid- ered as acting separately upon the verb, should this verb be used in the plural or in the singular 1 701. When a verb has for its nominatives several nouns in the singular, these nouns not being separated by and or neither, in what case is that verb used in the plural, and when in the singular 1 702. When a verb has for its nominatives several nouns in the singular sepa- rated by the conjunction or, in what case is the verb used in the plural, and when in the singular 1 703. In what number should a verb be used, when, having several nouns for its nominatives, diese nouns are summed up by any of the words tout, rien, per- sonne, &C.1 704. In what number should a verb be used, when it has for its nominatives several nouns modified by any of the indefinite pronouns tout, chaque, quelque, aucun, &C.1 705. In what number should a verb be used, when it has for its nominative either of the indefinite pronouns Pun and V autre, ni Vun ni V autre? 706. In what number should a verb be used, when, having several nouns for its nominatives, the first two are separated by any of the expressions comme, ainsi que, avec, de meme que, &c 1 707. In what number should a verb be used, when it has for its nominatives several nouns, the first two of which are separated by any of the expressions plu- tbt que, plus que, moins que, non seulement? 708. In what number should a verb be used, when it has two other verbs in the infinitive mood for its nominatives 1 70.9. In what number should a verb be used, when it has for its nominative the expression ^us d'un? 710. In what number should a verb be used, when it has for its nominative a collective noun, taken in a general sense and preceded by the article the? 711. In what number should a verb be used, when it has for its nominative a collective noun taken in a partitive sense 1 712. When the collective expression laplupart is followed by a plural noun, can the verb be used in the singular % and how is it when it is followed by a noun in the singular % 713 What is die number of a verb, when it has for its nominative either an adverb of quantity or a noun used without being preceded either by a or the, fol- lowed by a plural noun q . 714. What should be the case if the plural noun were not expressed after the adverb of quantity 1 715. What should be the number of a verb having the pronoun qui for its nominative 1 716. If the pronoun qui should come after a plural noun or pronoun pre- ceded by de or des, either of these words being itself preceded by a noun in the singular, when should the verb following be used either in the plural or in the singular number 1 717. (The teacher should repeat here the questions which have already been given, when speaking of the pronoun ce, in reference to the number of the verb following.) 718. Are there not cases in which a verb should be used in the plural, although its nominative should be in the singular 1 Which are they 1 334 FRENCH GRAMMAR. OF THE AGREEMENT OF THE VERB WITH ITS NOMINATIVE IN REF- ERENCE TO PERSONS. 719. The verb should always be of the same person as its nomina- tive, whether this nominative be a noun or a pronoun. This rule pre- sents no difficulty whenever the verb has for its nominative either a single noun or pronoun, or several nouns ; for if the nominative be one or several nouns, the verb should be in the third person ; and if a pro- noun, it should be in the same person as that pronoun. Let us examine now in what person the verb should be used when it has for its nominatives one or several nouns with one or several pro- nouns, or more than one pronoun only. OF THE PERSON IN WHICH THE VERB SHOULD BE USED WHEN IT HAS FOR ITS NOMINATIVES ONE OR SEVERAL NOUNS, AND ONE OR MORE PERSONAL PRONOUNS, OR MORE THAN ONE PRONOUN ONLY. 720. We have already stated, when speaking of personal pronouns, that the first person takes the precedence over the two others, and the second over the third ; therefore, if amongst the several nominatives of a verb there is a pronoun of the first person, the verb should be in the first person plural, preceded or not by the pronoun nous, as a mat- ter of taste ; if, there being no pronoun of the first person, there is one of the second, the verb should be in the second person plural, pre- ceded or not by the plural pronoun vous ; if, finally, the several nomi- natives were all in the third person, the verb should be in the third person plural ; as in, Your sisters, brothers, you and I, will Vos sceurs, vos freres, vous et mot, go to Boston this evening. (nous) irons ce soir a Boston. Your father, you and he, shall accom- Votrepere, wus etlui, (vous,) trCaccom- pany me in my expedition. pagnerez dans mon expedition. Your friends and he were arrested last Vos amis et lui ont ete arretes la nuit night. derniere. 721. Remark. The same rule is applicable, whenever, the nomina- tives being several pronouns, or a noun and one or several pronouns, are separated by the conjunction or, ou, instead of and, et; as in, You or he has broken this glass. Vous ou lui avez casse ce verre. He or I will be married this year. Lui ou moi serons maries cette annee. But when the two pronouns are of the third person, if they are both in the singular, the verb is used in the third person sin- VERB. 335 gular ; and if one is in the plural, the verb is in the third person plu- ral : as in, He or she has deceived me. Lui ou elle m'a trompe. He or they will start for Europe to- Lui ou eux partiront demain pour l'Eu- morrow. rope. OF THE AGREEMENT OF THE VERB IN REFERENCE TO PERSONS, WHEN IT HAS THE RELATIVE PRONOUN QUI FOR ITS NOMINATIVE. 722. The relative pronoun qui being of the same person as its ante- cedent, it is evident that the verb of which it is the nominative should be in the same person as that of those antecedents ; however, the con- struction of a sentence may be such as sometimes to leave some doubts in reference to the agreement of the verb, and we shall examine the several cases in which this doubt may arise. OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN QUI, PRECEDED BY AN ADJECTIVE. 723. When a verb is preceded by qui, having for its antecedent a personal pronoun followed by an adjective, the verb should be in the same person as that personal pronoun ; as in, I alone am guilty. C'est moi seul qui suis coupable. Do not curse thy fate; thou alone hast N'accuse point ton sort; c'est tot seul made it what it is. qui Vas fait. OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN QUI, HAVING FOR ITS ANTECEDENT AN ADJECTIVE USED AS A NOUN, THAT IS TO SAY, PRECEDED BY THE ARTICLE THE. 724. Whenever the relative pronoun qui has for its antecedent an adjective used as a noun, which adjective is used as the attribute of a verb having for its nominative a personal pronoun, the verb which follows qui may be used either in the third person singular or plu- ral, and it then agrees with the adjective used as a noun, or in the same person as the nominative of the first verb ; as in, I am the first one who has made the Je suis le premier qui ai fait connaitre French acquainted with Shakspeare. Shakspeare aux Francais. (Vol- taire.) I am the first one who has ever given a Je suis le premier qui ait donne la des- description of Laconia. cription de la Laconic (Chateau- briand.) You are the only one who seems to Vous etes le seul qui paraissiez corn- understand happiness. prendre le bonheur. (J. J. Rous- seau.) Thou wert the only one who could con- Tu etais la seule qui put me consoler de sole me for the absence of Rica. l'absence de Rica. (Montesquieu.) 336 FRENCH GRAMMAR. OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN QUI, HAVING A NOUN FOR ITS ANTECEDENT. 725. Whenever, in an affirmative sentence, the relative pronoun qui has for its antecedent a noun which is itself the attribute of the verb, having for its nominative a personal pronoun of the first or second person singular or plural, if the nominative and the attribute of that verb do not present to the mind two distinct and separate objects, the relative pronoun qui refers forcibly to the first, and the verb which it precedes agrees in number and person with the nominative ; as in, I am a young widow who is in need of Je suis une jeune veuve qui ai besoin a husband. d'un mari. (Voltaire.) You are a couple of rogues who asso- Vous etes un couple de fripons qui me sociate to cheat me. jouez d'intelligence. (J. J. Rous- seau.) But if the personal pronoun and its attribute, although they are identical, should present themselves to the mind as two distinct and separate objects, then the relative pronoun qui should refer to the last, and the verb which it precedes should be used in the third person sin- gular or plural ; as in, I am a cook whose talents are no longer Je suis un cuisinier qui n'a plus ni sel appreciated. ni sauce. (Voltaire.) You are a guardian angel who came to Vous etes un genie tutelaire qui est venu to consolidate peace. consolider la paix. (Laveaux.) Remark. Whenever the sentence is negative, the verb which fol- lows qui is always used in the third person. OF THE OBJECT OF VERBS. 726. A word is said to be the object of a verb when it depends immediately on that verb, and restrains its signification. A word may restrain the signification of a verb directly or indirectly. A word restrains the signification of a verb directly when it follows the verb immediately, without the help of a preposition, expressed or understood ; and it is then called the direct object of that verb. A word restrains the signification of a verb indirectly, when it follows it, being preceded by a preposition, expressed or understood. We discover the direct object of a verb by applying to it the ques- tion, whom? qui? ox what? quoi? The answer is the direct object. VERB. 337 When we say, I love; whom? God; J'aime; qui? Dieu : / study; what? Natural philosophy ; J'etudie; quoi? La physique : the words Dieu, God, la physique, natural philosophy, are the direct objects of the verbs faime, j'etudie, I love, I study. The indirect object of a verb is discovered by asking the questions, de qui, de quoi, & qui, & quoi, &c, of whom, of what, to whom, to what, &c. ; the answer to these questions shows the indirect object ; as, I complain; of whom? of you; Je me plains; de qui? de vous. I repent; of what? of my fault ; Je me repens ; de quoi? de ma faute. I speak; to whom? to Peter; Je parle; a qui? a Pierre. I" yield; to what? to my grief; Je succombe ; a quoi? a. ma douleur. The words vous, Pierre, faute, douleur, are the indirect objects of the verbs je me plains, je parle, je me repens, je succombe. A verb may have for its object three sorts of words, — a verb in the infinitive, a noun, or a pronoun. OF THE VERB AS AN OBJECT. 727. A verb in the infinitive limits the signification of another verb, ox is its object, either without the help of a preposition, or with the preposition &, to, or de, of. Some verbs never take a preposition before the infinitive which they govern : such are, aller, to go ; aimer mieux, to prefer ; falloir, to be necessary ; envoyer, to send ; daigner, to deign, &c. ; as, He goes to seek the book you want. U va chercher le livre dont vous avez besoin. Let the justice of the king pass. Laissez passer la justice du roi. We must set out. II j aut partir, &c. Some require the preposition of before the infinitive which they govern ; as, achever, to achieve ; affecter, to affect ; conseiller, to advise ; craindre, to fear ; promettre, to promise, &c. : Are you sure to find him * Etes-vous assure de le trouver. Do you not fear to go alone 1 Ne craignez-vous pas rf'aller seul 1 Do you promise me to change 1 Me promettez-vous de changer ^ &c. An immense number take the preposition &, to, before the infinitive governed by them ; as, avoir, to have ; aimer, to love ; consentir, to consent ; parvenir, to succeed, &c. : I have to write a letter. J'ai I beg they may be forgiven. $ I fear your I am apprehensive of your I dread your i. doing this. I tremble at your I am afraid of your I am astonished at your doing this. > I doubt your doing this. $ I deny having done this. I am delighted J'aime } ,, e , . , r admire \ * ue Von f™ se son devou "- feZnsms I * ue ^nsfassiez cela. Je permets Je trouve bon Je trouve mauvais que vousfassiez cela. I am rejoiced I am satisfied I am joyous I am glad I am sorry I am grieved I am mortified I am surprised I see with pleasure I see with sorrow you have done * tWta this Jerome l^'onhurpardonne. Je crains "\ i , apprehende Je redoute Kque vous nefassiez cela. Je tremble Vaipeur J Je m'etonne ) /• • • Jedoute $ Pas que, j Pourvu que, Suppose que, Sans que, Jusqu'a ce que, Pour que, Soit que, Pour peu que, ) Si peu que, $ not that. provided. suppose that. (Obso- lete.) without, until. in order that, whether. (Obsolete.) and a few others, but which have become obsolete, and are but seldom if ever used in the present state of the language. The following examples will show that the meaning of the sentences in which these conjunctions are employed requires the subjunctive mood, indepen- dently of the conjunctions themselves. Help me, if you please, in order that, Aidez-moi, je vous prie, afin que, or or so that, I may have done my task pour que, 'faiefini ma tache a tems. in time. This sentence denotes desire, anxiety, purpose, &c. 1 will go and see you before you start J'irai vous voir avant que vous ne par- tor Europe. tiez pour l'Europe. There is doubt, uncertainty, whether the person spoken of will start or not ; for he may die or change his mind before starting. I v.'ill go into the country to-morrow J'irai demain a la campagne, en cas, or in case the weather should be fine. au cas, qu'i\fasse beau temps. There is doubt whether the weather will be fine or not. So far is he from repenting it, that, on Bien loin qu'il s'en repente, au contraire, the contrary, he is always committing il continue toujours d'en faire de plus new faults. belles. The first proposition of this sentence shows a feeling of aversion to repentance, which requires the subjunctive, like any other emotion of the soul. Although she is very pretty, I cannot Bien qu'eWe soit, or quoiqu'eMe soit, tres endure her. jolie, je ne puis la souffrir. This conjunction governs the subjunctive on account of the idea of opposition which it always supposes ; it always implies the idea of VERB. 369 something which ought to be done or felt, and which is not, on account of some peculiar disposition in our mind. In this case, for instance, it would be natural to love the person spoken of, since she is very pretty, but, for some cause or other, she is not loved ; and it is that idea of opposition which prompts the use of the subjunctive mood. Let us shut the door, for fear we should Fermons la porte, de peur que, or de be seen. crainte qu'on ne nous voie. The feeling of fear manifested in this sentence requires the sub- junctive. Let us shut the door, not that I fear we Fermons la porte, non que, nonpas que, should be seen, but we shall feel or pas que, (obsolete,) je craigne more at ease. qu'on nous voie, mais nous serons plus a notre aise. These conjunctions govern the subjunctive on account of their nega- tive meaning implying an idea of denial, which, denoting an impulse of the" soul, requires the use of that mood. I forgive you, provided you promise me Je vous pardonne, pourvu que vous me to behave better. promettiez de vous mieux conduire. Pourvu que always implies the idea of a condition or obligation imposed upon a person, and this impulse of the mind requires the subjunctive . He never goes out without you scoldiug II ne sort jamais sans que vous le him. grondiez. Sans que always implies the idea of something taking place although it ought not, and from this contradiction arises the use of the sub- junctive. I will wait till you have done. J'attendrai jusqu'd ce que vous ayez fini. The uncertainty lies here upon the length of the period at the end of which the action expressed by the verb following the conjunction is to take place. You shall learn your lesson whether you Vous apprendrez votre lecon soit que are willing or not. vous le vouliez ou non. The doubt is so plainly shown in this case, that it requires no explanation. From these examples, and the explanations which accompany them, it is evident that the subjunctive is still, here, the result of the dispo- 370 FRENCH GRAMMAR. sition of the mind, and it is useless to commit these conjunctions to memory, as words ; the analysis of the sentences in which they are used leaves no doubt in reference to the mood they should govern. OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD AT THE BEGINNING OF A SENTENCE. 766. The subjunctive mood always supposes the existence of an- other verb which governs it ; when, therefore, it is found at the beginning of a sentence, it can only be on account of such a verb being understood, of which elegance and usage authorize the suppression ; as in ; Let me die on the spot if I have told Que je meure sur le champ si je vous you an untruth. ai dit un mensonge. / wish is understood and suppressed in order to render the expres- sion more impressive. May you live happy together many Puissiez-vous vivre heureux ensemble years. pendant de longues annees. Same remark. 767. Remark. The subjunctive mood is sometimes found with the verb savoir, used negatively, without any verb understood before it, and without any other reason than usage ; thus we say : I am not aware that anybody has ever Je ne sache pas que personne m'ait deceived me. jamais trompe. This expression is purely idiomatical, and only used in cases similar to the preceding. OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD AFTER A SUPERLATIVE RELATIVE. 768. The verb which follows a superlative relative from which it is separated by one of the relative pronouns, is used in the subjunctive mood whenever the sentence expresses a doubt or a feeling ; but, if that sentence is a mere affirmation, or statement without the soul being excited by any of the feelings natural to man, the verb which follows the superlative is used in the indicative mood. If, speaking of a lady, I should say : There is the most handsome woman I have ever seen ! I should yield to a strong feeling of admiration, and I should express it by saying, with the subjunctive mood : Voici la plus belle femme que j'aie jamais vue I VERB. 371 But. if, there being several ladies together, I should happen to know the most handsome of them, and, without being acquainted with her name, I wished to mention this fact by saying : Of these ladies, it is the most handsome that I know; meaning simply, J know only one of these ladies, and it is the most handsome of them; this sentence would be a mere affirmation, in which the superlative, the most handsome, would stand instead of the name of the lady, which I cannot make use of because I do not know it; the indicative mood would then show that state of my mind, and •I should say : De toutes ces dames, c'est la plus belle que je connais. It is evident, that, in this sentence, there is no feeling of admiration for the beauty of the lady ; hence the indicative. If, when saying, The Bellerophon is the largest vessel that France has ever built, I only mean, France has built many large vessels, and the Bellerophon is the largest, I only affirm a fact, without my mind being excited by any kind of feeling, and I say, with the indicative : Le Bellerophon est leplus grand vaisseau que la France a jamais construit. But, if I wonder at the size of the vessel, and look upon it as an achievement worthy of admiration ; or if, other nations having many vessels larger than this one, I wish to depreciate the merit which, otherwise, France might have had in building such a vessel ; in the first instance, the feeling of admiration, in the latter, that of abuse, which then would occupy my soul would require the use of the sub- junctive, and I should say : Le Bellerophon est le plus grand vaisseau que la France ait jamais construit. The same mode of reasoning should be applied when the sentence, instead of being affirmative, assumes the negative form. 769. Remark. Although either mood can be used after a superla- tive, the subjunctive is more generally employed than the indicative, on account of the character of the expression itself ; for it is not natural that we should place a person or a thing above or below all others of the same kind without experiencing some feeling of admiration or contempt. 372 FRENCH GRAMMAR. OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD AFTER THE EXPRESSIONS LE SETJL, L' UNIQUE, LE PREMIER, AND LE DERNIER. 770. The following expressions, le seul, Vunique, the only one, le premier, the first, and le dernier, the last, govern either the indica- tive or the subjunctive, according to the views of the mind. Do we wish to affirm directly, positively, and without any accessory idea either of doubt, uncertainty, fear, surprise, &c, they are followed by the indicative ; do we, on the contrary, speak of a thing as being vague, doubtful, or which, at least, we consider as such, the subjunc- tive is required after them. Such are the only rules which can be established in such cases ; the person who speaks or writes should always consult his own mind before making use of either mood ; as in, I am the only one who knows you. Je suis le seul qui vous connaisse. This sentence with the subjunctive implies either an idea of admira- tion or contempt for the person spoken of, or of pride in the person who speaks. My money is concealed in a place which Mon argent est cache dans un lieu que is known to you alone. vous seul connaissez. This sentence only signifies : You know where my money is, and nobody knows it but you ; it is a mere affirmation ; hence the indicative. A person who has made the same calculation twice, and who, having obtained different results, discovers that the error was made in the first, would say, with the indicative : It is the first time that the mistake was C'est la premiere fois que je me suis made. trornpe. But, if, having made an error in a calculation, this mistake were dis- covered, and the person who made it should exclaim, with a feeling of surprise or wonder : This is the first time I ever made a mistake, the subjunctive would express that state of his mind, and he would 6ay : C'est la premiere fois que je me sois trornpe". VERB* 373 It is the last time I made the mistake, C'est la derniere fois que je me suis trompe, with the indicative, signifies that the mistake was only made the last time; but, C'est la derniere fois que je me sois trompe, with the subjunctive, signifies, that, after having made previously several mistakes, the person who speaks never made any after that which he has just mentioned, and glories in the fact of having always acted right since. OP THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD AFTER A NOUN PRECEDED EITHER BY THE ARTICLE LE OR THE ADJECTIVE UN, AND FOLLOWED BY A RELATIVE PRO- NOUN. 771. Donnez-moi la bouteille qui contienne le plus de vin, with the subjunctive, expresses a desire for getting, among a lot of empty bottles, that which can hold more wine than the others, Donnez-moi la bouteille qui contient le plus de vin, with the indicative, expresses a desire for getting, among a lot of bottles already full, that which contains more wine than the others. In the first instance, there is a strong desire to obtain the largest bottle ; there is a doubt about getting a bottle able to contain more wine than the others, for they, by chance, may be all small, or of the same size, &c. In the second case, on the contrary, the bottles are all full ; the only thing is, to take among them that which is larger than the others; there is no doubt, no anxiety in the mind; it corresponds- to the following idea: Among these bottles there is one which holds more wine than the others ; give it to me. Donnez-moi une bouteille qui contienne une pinte de vin expresses a desire to have a bottle able to contain a pint of wine, without knowing, however, whether such a bottle can be found ; this doubt requires the subjunctive ; whilst Donnez-moi une bouteille qui contient une pinte de vin signifies: I have several bottles able to hold a pint of wine ; give me one of them. No doubt is expressed here; hence the indicative. 32 374 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Remark. Although, according to these rules, the - indicative and subjunctive can be properly used after a noun followed by a relative pronoun and preceded either by le or un, the indicative is generally used after the, le, on account of the definiteness of the noun thus accompanied ; whilst the subjunctive is more frequently used with un, the noun which un precedes having always a vagueness in its meaning which prompts the mind to use this mood. OP THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD AFTER THE INDEFINITE PRONOUNS QUI QUE, QUOI QUE, QUEL QUE, QUELQUE QUE, AND TOUT QUE. 772. The indefinite pronouns qui que, whoever, quoi que, whatever, quel que and quelque, (adjective,) whatever, and quelque, (adverb,) however, the subjunctive mood is always used ; but tout que should be followed by the indicative when it signifies although very, and by the subjunctive when it means however ; as in, Man, whoever thou mayest be, respect Homme, qui que ta sois, respecte ce this modest monument erected by modeste monument eleve par la re- gratitude, connaissance. Whatever you may do, you will never Quoi que vous fassiez, vous ne reussi- s icceed in your own country. rez jamais dans votre pays. Whatever services you may reader Quelques services, or quels que soient les him, he will never be grateful for services, que vous lui rendiez, il n'en them. sera jamais reconnaissant. However pretty this woman may be, I Quelque jolie que soit cette dame, je ne shall never love her. l'aimerai jamais. However amusing these books may be, Tout amusants que soient ces livres, ils they are nevertheless very danger- n'en sont pas moins dangereux. ous. Although you are very wise, fear the Tout sage que vous etes, craignez le danger of temptation. danger de la tentation. In the first sentence, the uncertainty rests on the character of the man spoken of; in the second, on what you may do ; in the third, on the nature of the services which will be rendered ; in the fourth, on the more or less beauty the lady can possess ; in the fifth, on the degree of interest that the books can possess ; finally, the last is in the indicative mood because the meaning of the sentence is positive, and admits that the person spoken of is very wise. 773. Remark. Although tout que may be properly used when sig- nifying however, it would be more in accordance with the genius of the language to use quelque in such cases, and to employ tout que only in the sense of although very, with the indicative. VERB. 375 OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD AFTER QUE, USED TO AVOID THE REPETITION OF THE SAME CONJUNCTION. 774. Whenever que is used to avoid the repetition of the same con- junction before the several verbs which that conjunction governs, it governs the same mood as the conjunction of which it takes the place. The only exception to this rule is where que is used instead of if, si; in which case, it governs the subjunctive, as we have already- explained, whilst si itself governs the indicative ; as in, I will not forgive you unless you apolo- Je ne vous pardonnerai pas d moins que gize to me and behave better. vous ne me. fassiez des excuses et que vous ne vous conduisiez mieux. If you go to France and stay there two Si vous allez en France et que vous y years, you will speak French per- restiez deux ans, vous parlerez Fran- fectly. cais parfaitement. As soon as I am in the country, and I Aiissitbt que je serai a la campagne, et have an opportunity, I will send you que 'faurai une occasion, je vous en- some fruit. verrai du fruit. OF CONJUNCTIONS WHICH S03IETIMES GOVERN THE SUBJUNCTIVE AND SOME- TIMES THE INDICATIVE MOOD. 775. There are six conjunctions which sometimes govern the indic- ative and sometimes the subjunctive mood, according to the sense of the sentence in which they are employed ; they are the following : Sinon que except. Ensorte que, (obsolete,) ^ De sorte que, >so that, so as. Demaniere que. j Tellement que, so that. Si ce n'est que, unless, except. He behaved so as to deserve the re- II s'est conduit de maniere qu'W a me- spect of honest people. rite le respect des honnetes gens. He answered nothing except that he II ne repondit rien sinon, or si ce n'est, would not do it. qu'W ne voulait pas le faire. You must behave so as to merit the Conduisez vous de maniere que vous respect of honest people. meritiez l'estime des honnetes gens. I only fear that you will not succeed as Je ne crains rien sinon, or si ce n'est que soon as you think. vous ne reussissiez pas aussitot que vous le croyez. The two first sentences express mere affirmations, while there is an idea of doubt implied in the meaning of the last two. OF THE SUEJUXCTIVE MOOD AFTER THE REFLECTIVE VERBS SE DOUTER AND &ATTEXDRE. 776. The verbs douter and attendre, signifying to doubt and to wait, the first implying a feeling of doubt and the other one of expecta- 376 FRENCH GRAMMAR. tion, govern the subjunctive mood ; but these two verbs, when used reflectively, having no longer the same meaning, require the indicative mood to be used after them ; for se douter signifies to think, and s'attendre, to hope; as in, I doubt if he will come. Je doute qu'W vienne. I suspect, I think, he will come. Je me doute qv?\\ viendra. I wait for him to come. J'attends qu'd vienne. I hope, I expect, he will come. Je m'attends qu'il viendra means, signifies, Je me doute qu'il viendra, He will come; I am sure of it. Je m'attends qu'il viendra, He will come ; at least I hope so ; which, being mere affirmations, cannot be followed by the subjunctive. Remark. Used negatively, the verbs se douter and s'attendre govern either mood, according to the signification of the sentence. GENERAL REMARKS ON THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 777. From what has already been said in reference to the subjunc- tive mood, we must arrive at this conclusion : that there are no precise rules to indicate exactly when it should be used ; the state of our mind or feelings should be our only guide. Does the idea which we wish to convey imply that of a doubt ? are we excited by any of the ordinary impulses of the human mind? or is there any uncertainty attached to the fact expressed by the verb we are going to use? These several circumstances should be conveyed by the assistance of the mood of doubt and emotions, — that is to say, by the subjunctive. Is, on the contrary, the fact represented as being positive, without any mixture of doubt or feeling ; is it, finally, a mere affirmation 1 Then, whatever may be the construction of the sentence, whether affirm- ative, negative, or interrogative, the verb expressing that fact should be employed in the mood of affirmation, that is to say, in the indica- tive mood. What has a foreigner to do, then, in order to use the subjunctive mood properly 1 Only to stop before he makes use of a verb preceded either by que or any of the relative pronouns, and see whether the sentence requires this mood to be employed or not. If, then, he has understood properly what we have attempted to illustrate in the pre- VERB. 377 ceding chapters, he will never feel embarrassed, or reduced to guess, in reference to what he has to do in order to conform to the genius of our language ; but if he does not take time to reflect, until his mind is properly regulated, he will very likely obey the impulse of his English habits, and use in French the same mood as he would in his own language. "We shall say one word here in reference to a false notion which serves generally as a rule among foreigners who have been badly instructed in French, that is to say, that a verb should be used in the subjunctive mood because it is preceded by que; we have seen already that this supposition is erroneous, and will state here that que is the consequence of the subjunctive mood, but never the cause of it. Therefore, if a verb, used in the subjunctive, should be generally pre- ceded by the conjunction que, or one of the relative pronouns, it does not follow that a verb should be used in that mood because it follows that conjunction or any of these pronouns. We use the word gen- erally, because there are a few cases in which a sentence may begin by the verb in the subjunctive mood without que being expressed, as, for instance, in an exclamation when the nominative is elegantly placed after the verb ; as in, Let our colonies perish rather than a Perissent les colonies plutot qu'un prin- principle ! cipe ! But this is a mere privilege, which does not interfere with the rule ; this sentence being elliptical, and showing evidently the suppression of the words I wish that, at the beginning of it. OF THE CORRESPONDENCE EXISTING BETWEEN THE SEVERAL TENSES OP THE INDICATIVE MOOD WITH EACH OTHER, AND WITH THOSE OF THE CONDI- TIONAL. 778. We gave, in the first edition of our grammar, an elaborate series of examples and rules, in order to show and illustrate all the possible combinations of the tenses in the indicative and conditional moods ; we thought then that these examples and illustrations were necessary, and even indispensable, for enabling foreigners to make a proper use of these tenses and moods according to the genius of the language ; but experience has proved to us that a general rule would be far preferable to all these details, which are neglected by the gen- erality of students, and which, after all, add nothing to what has already been explained at a great length, when speaking of each one 32* FRENCH GRAMMAR. of the tenses and moods ; we will, then, only state here as a general rule : Whenever the verbs to be used in a sentence have been ascer- tained to belong either to the indicative or conditional moods, or to bot'h, — which can always be done without difficulty after having studied carefully what precedes — in order to use those verbs in the proper tenses, it is only necessary to examine the circumstances which accompany the fact or facts expressed by them ; they will always indicate clearly what tense should be used for each case. This rule is sufficient for a student who has fully understood our definitions and illustrations of the several tenses of the indicative and conditional moods ; and as to those who have no clear idea of the sig- nification of those tenses, no rule in reference to the relation which may exist between them can assist them in ascertaining which should be chosen among all those which can be coupled together in the construction of a sentence. An example will illustrate our meaning ; suppose we wish to translate into French the following sentence : It was reported yesterday that the president would come to Boston. The verb it was reported can be expressed either by the imperfect^ the preterite definite, or the preterite indefinite, of the verb to report. Should the fact that each of these tenses can be properly used with the conditional present enable the student to ascertain which of them he has to choose in this particular instance? Certainly not. What should guide him, then ? He should only reflect on what he is willing to say, and act accordingly. Does he wish to express that it was currently reported yesterday, during the whole day, that the president would come to Boston — the verb it was reported would then imply an idea of duration and repetition, which requires the use of the imperfect ; as in, On disait hier que le president viendrait a Boston. Does he wish to mention that yesterday, on a particular occasion, the fact of the president coming to Boston was reported 1 — the verb to report would then express a fact which took place in the past at a certain precise time, which is entirely over ; the unit of time, a day, being entirely elapsed, which circumstances are characteristic of the preterite definite, and he would say, On dit hier que le president viendrait a Boston. VERB. 379 Finally, should this sentence be only intended to express that the fact of the president coming to Boston was reported sometime yes- terday, without any distinctness in reference to the very moment when this report was made ; — this vagueness about the time when the fact expressed by the verb took place being characteristic of the preterite indefinite, the sentence should then be, On a dit hier que le president viendrait a Boston. It is evident, therefore, that, in this particular case, — and the result should be the same in any other where the indicative and conditional mood are to be used, — the only useful knowledge is that which shows clearly to the student what tense he should use in order to be under- stood ; and if he applies properly the rules we have given on this subject, the tenses which he will be induced to employ cannot fail to come within the range of those which the genius of our language admits of being coupled together. OF THE CORRESPONDENCE WHICH SHOULD EXIST BETWEEN THE SEVERAL TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE AND CONDITIONAL MOODS, AND THOSE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE, IN ORDER TO EXPRESS WITH THE LATTER MOOD EITHER A PAST, A PRESENT, A FUTURE, OR A CONDITIONAL. 779. If the subjunctive should possess the ten tenses of the indica- tive and conditional moods, we would apply to that mood the remarks that we have just made in the preceding chapter, when speaking of the correspondence which exists between the several tenses of those two moods ; but the subjunctive has only four tenses, instead of ten ; it then becomes necessary to explain what conventional mean- ings have been attributed by usage to each of these four tenses, according to their being preceded by this or that tense of the indica- tive or conditional mood, in order to show that the fact represented by the verb in the subjunctive expresses either a present, a past, a future, or a conditional. OF THE PRESENT AND PRETERITE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. — WHAT TENSE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE SHOULD BE USED WHEN THE VERB WHICH IS TO BE EMPLOYED IN THAT MOOD IS PRECEDED BY A PRESENT IN THE INDICA- TIVE. 780. 1st. Whenever the verb of the principal proposition is in the present of the indicative, that of the incidental proposition should gen- erally be placed in the present of the subjunctive, if intended to repre- 380 FRENCH GRAMMAR. sent a present or a future, and in the preterite of the same mood when intended to express a past ; as in, Present. I must go into the country immediately. II faut que 'faille immediatement a la campagne. Future. I must go into the country to-morrow. II faut que yaille demain a la cam- pagne. Past. You must have been very lazy to have U faut que vous ayez ete bien paresseux succeeded so little in your studies. pour avoir si mal reussi dans vos etudes. 781. Remark. Although the preterite of the subjunctive expresses generally a past, when the first verb is in the present of the indicative, it may, however, sometimes be used to express a future anterior in sentences like the following : You must have done this work to-mor- II faut que vous ayez fini cet ouvrage row before twelve o'clock. demain avant midi. WHAT TENSE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE SHOULD BE USED WHEN THE VERB WHICH IS TO BE EMPLOYED IN THAT MOOD IS PRECEDED BY A FUTURE ABSOLUTE IN THE INDICATIVE. 782. Whenever the verb of the principal proposition is in the future absolute of the indicative mood, that of the incidental should be placed in the present of the subjunctive to express a future abso- lute, and in the preterite to express either a past or a future anterior ; as in, I must go into the country to-morrow. I shall never believe that you have done that in in so little time. You must have done this work to-mor- row. Il faudra que 'faille demain a la cam- pagne. Je ne croirai jamais que vous ayez fait cela en si peu de temps. II faudra que vous ayez fini cet ouvrage demain. The fact expressed by the verb aller, in the first sentence, does not imply any idea of anteriority, whilst the last sentence signifies that the work should be done before the day is over, and that of the second expresses simply a past, without any mixture of futurity ; the remark on the last example applies to the last sentence given in the preceding chapter. VERB. 381 CANNOT THE PRESENT AND THE PRETERITE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE BE USED WHEN THE FIRST VERB IS IN THE PRETERITE INDEFINITE? 783. The present of the subjunctive can be used after the preterite indefinite whenever the verb of the incidental proposition expresses a fact which is true at all times ; as in, God has covered the eye with thin and Dieu a entoure l'oeil de tuniques minces transparent coats, that we might see et transparentes, afin qu'on puisse through. voir a travers. The fact that we see through these thin coats is true at all times. 784. The second verb is also used in the present after a preterite indefinite, when that verb expresses a fact which is present at the time spoken of, or future in reference to the time expressed by the first verb ; as in, Your father had too bad a night for him Votre pere a trop mat passe la nuit pour to be better this morning. qu'il puisse etre mieux ce matin. I have got your trunks ready, so that J'ai prepare vos malles, afin que vous yon might start to-morrow early in puissez partir demain matin de bonne the morning. heure. In the first of these two sentences, the second verb expresses a fact which is present at the time when the person speaks ; whilst in the latter, the fact expressed by the same verb expresses a future in refer- ence to the time when the trunks were prepared. 785. The second verb is used in the preterite of the subjunctive after a preterite indefinite, whenever, expressing a fact which is always true, it shows that the particular instance of such a fact has taken place in the past ; as in, He must have solicited his judges. Il a fallu quHl ait sollicite ses juges. It is a fact always true, at least in France, that a client who wishes to gain his case should see and intreat the magistrates who have to decide upon it ; but this sentence only expresses an instance of the kind, and represents it as having taken place in the past ; hence the preterite of the subjunctive. OF THE IMPERFECT AND PLUPERFECT OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. — WHAT TENSE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE SHOULD BE USED, WHEN THE VERB WHICH SHOULD BE EMPLOYED IN THAT MOOD IS PRECEDED EITHER BY ANY OF THE PAST TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE OR BY ONE OF THE CONDITIONALS. 786. Whenever the verb of the principal proposition is in any of the past tenses of the indicative, or in one of the conditionals, that of the incidental is used in the imperfect of the subjunctive to express a 382 FRENCH GRAMMAR. present or a future in relation to the time when the fact expressed by the first verb took place, and in the pluperfect to express a past in reference to the same time ; as in, Present. I wished sincerely that new successes might silence envy. Caligula wanted the Romans to render him divine honors. God suffered the Roman empire to be overthrown by the invasion of the barbarians. I had ordered all the documents to be communicated to you. Je desirais sincerement que de nouveaux sacces fissent taire l'envie. Caligula voulut que les Romains lui rendissent des honneurs divins. Dieu a permis que l'invasion des bar* bares renversdt l'empire Remain. J'avais ordonne que tous les documents vous fussent communiques. Future. I had done ploughing my field before you came. I should like to see men forming but a large republic, whose supreme chief should be God. Would you have wished me to sacrifice my own happiness for the satisfac- tion of a mere revenge 1 J'ews labour e mon champ avant que vous n'arrivassiez. Je voudrais que les hommes ne formas- sent qu'une grande republique, dont Dieu serait le chef supreme. Auriez-vous voulu que pour me venger je sacrifiasse mon bonheur personnel 1 Past. I did not know you had made so thor- ough a study of modern languages. You never would believe that wicked- ness and hatred would have produced such deplorable results. You had not thought that a snare had been laid for your simplicity. We have never been aware that the king had granted you this favor. You would not be pleased if we had disobeyed your orders. You would not have been pleased if we had not obeyed your orders. I had done ploughing my field before you arrived. Je ne savais pas que vous eussiez fait une etude si approfondie des langues modernes. Vous ne voulutes jamais croire que la mechancete et la haine eussent pu produire de si tristes resultats. Vous n'aviez pas era qu'on exit tendu un piege a votre innocence. Nous avons toujours ignore que le roi vous eut accorde cette faveur. Vous trouveriez mauvais que nous eus- sions contrevenu a vos ordres. Vous auriez trouve mauvais que nous n'eussions pas execute vos ordres. J'eus labour e mon champ avant que vous nefussiez arrive. WHAT TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD SHOULD BE USED WHEN, THE FIRST VERB BEING IN THE PRESENT, THE SECOND EXPRESSES EITHER A CONDITIONAL PRESENT, AN IMPERFECT, OR A CONDITIONAL PAST. 787. Whenever a verb in the present tense of the indicative mood is followed by another verb which, if the subjunctive should not be required by the first, would be expressed either by the imperfect or VERB. 3S3 the conditional present, that second verb should be used in the imperfect of the subjunctive ; as in, Do you think she would sing if I asked Croyez-vous gw'elle chantdt si je l'en her for it 1 No, I do not think she priais 1 Non, je ne crois pas f/w'elle would in presence of so many people. le voulut en presence de tant de per- sonnes. Gayety is seldom found where there is On trouve rarement la gaiete ou n'est no health ; Scarron was funny, but pas la sante ; Scarron etait plaisant, I hardly believe he was gay. mais je doute qu'ilfut gai. In the first of these two sentences, the imperfects of the subjunctive, chantdt and voulut, are used instead of the conditionals chanterait and voudrait, which cannot be employed in this case, on account of the doubt implied in the meaning- of the sentence. In the second sentence, the imperfect of the subjunctive, fut, is used instead of the imperfect of the indicative, etait, which, if the indicative mood could be used, should be employed to show the habit- ual disposition of the mind of the person spoken of. But, if the condition expressed or implied in the meaning of the sentence, instead of referring to the present or to the future, should allude to the past, the second verb, expressing then a conditional past, should be rendered by the pluperfect of the subjunctive ; as in, Do you think she would have sung if Croyez-vous ir sometimes used in the subjunctive mood in a peculiar manner 1 How is it *? 768. When a verb is preceded by a superlative relative which is itself fol- lowed by a relative pronoun, what should be the meaning of the sentence for that verb to be used in the subjunctive mood 1 769. Although either mood can be used after a superlative, according to the meaning of the sentence, which is the most generally used 1 Why is it the subjunctive 7 . 770. In what case is the subjunctive used when the verb of the incidental proposition is preceded by any of the expressions, le seul, V unique, le premier, and le dernier? (The teacher should make his pupils analyze the sentences given in the grammar, for this case as well as those which precede and follow it, in order to ascertain whedier they fully understand the explanations which it contains.) 771. What should be the meaning of a sentence for the subjunctive to be used after a relative pronoun having for its antecedent a noun preceded either by the adjective a, un, or the article the? 771. Which is the mood which is the most generally used in such cases 1 772. What mood should invariably be used after any of the indefinite pro- noun=, qui que, quoi que, quel que, and quelque? Why is it the subjunctive 1 773. After tout que, which mood should be preferred 1 774. Whenever que is used in order to avoid the repetition of a conjunction, what mood does it govern 1 775. Are there not some conjunctions which sometimes govern the indicative and sometimes the subjunctive mood 1 Which are they 1 and why this difference 1 33 3S6 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 776. What mood do the reflected verbs se douter and s'attendre govern after them 1 Why do they not govern the subjunctive 1 776. When used negatively, do they govern either mood 1 777. Since it appears, from what precedes, that there can be no positive rules in reference to the use of the subjunctive mood, how should a foreigner reason in order to ascertain whether this mood is to be used or not 1 What should he do before using, in French, a verb which is preceded either by que or any of the relative pronouns 1 777. Is the subjunctive mood the absolute consequence of a verb being preceded by que, or a relative pronoun, or is it not the meaning of a sentence which requires that que or the relative pronoun should be followed by that mood 1 (The teacher should insist on these remarks being well understood, because they show plainly what the difficulty is, and how it should be overcome.) 778. Are any particular rules necessary in order to show how the several tenses of the indicative and conditional moods should be used together 1 778. What guide should foreigners have in order to use the tenses of these two moods properly 1 779, 780. Whenever the verb of the principal proposition is in the present tense of the indicative mood, what tenses of the subjunctive mood should be used in order to represent a fact as being either present, future, or past 1 781. Cannot the preterite of the subjunctive be used with a verb in the present of the indicative, in order to express a future anterior 1 (Give an example.) 782. Whenever the verb of the principal proposition is in the future abso- lute, what tenses of the subjunctive mood should be used to express either a future absolute, a past, or a future anterior 1 (Give an example for each case.) 783. When, the first verb being in the preterite indefinite, the second ex- presses a fact which is true at all times, what tense of the subjunctive should be used in order to express that fact % 784. When, the first verb being in the preterite indefinite, the second expresses a fact as being present at the time spoken of, or future in reference to the time when the fact expressed by the first verb took place, in what tense of the subjunc- tive mood should the second verb be used 1 785. When, the first verb being in the preterite indefinite, the second verb, expressing a fact which is always true, shows that the particular instance spoken of took place in the past, what tense of the subjunctive mood should be used to express that fact 1 786. Whenever the first verb is in one of the past tenses of the indicative mood, or in one of the conditionals, what tenses of the subjunctive mood should be used to express either a present, a future, or a past 1 787. Whenever, the first verb being in the present of the indicative, the second expresses a fact the existence of which is submitted to a condition, what tense of the subjunctive mood should be used, whether this condition is to be accomplished either now, in the future, or should have been accomplished in the past *? 788. What tense of the subjunctive should be used to express a fact which is always true, whatever may be the tense or mood in which the first verb may be employed 1 OF THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 789. A verb in the infinitive mood is either the nominative or the object of another verb. When used as a nominative, it governs the third person and the singular number. VERB. 387 "When used as the object of a verb, the infinitive mood is subject to some particular rules, which require to be attended to with care. We have already examined the several cases in which, two verbs following one another, the second may be used either in the indica- tive or subjunctive mood ; it remains now for us to examine when that second verb can also be used in the infinitive. CAN A VERB BE GOVERNED BY ANOTHER IN THE INFINITIVE MOOD WHEN THIS VERB DOES NOT RELATE EITHER TO A NOUN OR PRONOUN ALREADY EXPRESSED IN THE SENTENCE? 790. A verb, to be used in the infinitive mood, should always show clearly what is the noun, pronoun, or idea, to which it relates ; therefore, when a sentence is so constructed as to require that two verbs should follow one another, the second verb having no antece- dent already expressed in that sentence, the infinitive cannot be used unless the mind might at once detect what that infinitive refers to. [n the following sentence, for instance : It is better for a man to be unfortunate II vaut mieux etre malheureux que cou- tban guilty, pable, the second verb, etre, is very properly used in the infinitive mood, although it has no antecedent already expressed, because the mind supplies it without difficulty ; it is evident that etre refers to man in general. But, if a man, wishing to inquire whether he should go to New York on some particular occasion, should say : Faut-\\ alter a New York 1 Must I go to New York 1 the sentence would be incorrect, because the verb alter might refer to anybody as well as to himself; the subjunctive mood should be employed in such cases, and the above sentence be expressed by Faut-il que 'faille a New York 1 CAN A VERB ALWAYS BE GOVERNED BY ANOTHER, IN THE INFrNITIVE MOOD, WHEN THAT VERB HAS AN ANTECEDENT ALREADY EXPRESSED IN THE SENTENCE? 791. Whenever, two verbs following one another, the second has an antecedent already expressed in the sentence, this verb cannot be 388 FRENCH GRAMMAR. used in the infinitive mood unless that antecedent be either the nom- inative or the object of the first verb ; as in, Man does not live long enough to L'homme ne vit pas assez longtems accomplish all his projects. pour accomplir tons ses projets. I command you, on the part of the Je vous ordonne, de la part du roi, de king, to get ready to begin the cam- vous tenir pret a commencer la cam- paign with him to-morrow at sunrise. pagne avec lui demain au lever du soleil. These two sentences are perfectly clear ; it is evident, that, in the former, the infinitive accomplir relates to man, and, in the latter, tenir refers to vous ; there can be no hesitation in detecting the connection between these two infinitives and their antecedents. But we could not say : The life of man is not long enough for La vie de Vhomme n'est pas assez him to accomplish all his projects, longue pour accomplir tous ses projets, because the infinitive mood, instead of having for its antecedent the nominative of the first verb, la vie, relates to the object of that nom- inative, Vhomme; this circumstance makes the sense ambiguous; one does not see at once whether it should be life or man that is to per- form the act expressed by the second verb, accomplir. This sentence should, then, be rendered by, La vie de Vhomme n'est pas assez longue pour qu'il accomplisse tous ses projets, the subjunctive mood, qiVil accomplisse, showing clearly, through its masculine nominative, il, that the verb refers to man, and not to life, which is feminine. We could not say, either : What have I done that you should in- Qu'ai-je fait pour venir m'insulter "? suit me ! because venir has no antecedent ; one does not see who is to come and insult ; it ought to be : Qu'ai-je fait pour que vous veniez m'insulter 1 But, if the first verb had an object, as in : What have I done to you that you Que vous ai-je fait pour venir m'insulter 1 ? should insult me 1 the sentence would be correct, because one would see clearly that it is you who is to come and insult. VERB. 389 792. Remark. It should be remarked, however, that, although the second verb should relate to the object of the first, the infinitive can only be used when this connection is clearly established by the mean- ing of the sentence itself; therefore, the following sentence would be incorrect : What have I done to your father for Qu'ai-je fait a votre pere pour venir him to come and insult me 1 m'insulter 1 because it does not appear clearly whether it is the father or the person spoken to who is to come and insult. The subjunctive should be used here, in order to show, through its nominative, what is the antecedent of the verb venir; as in, Qu'ai-je fait a votre pere pour qu'il vienne m'insulter 1 REMARKS ON THE USE OF THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 793. Whenever two verbs follow one another, the second should be put in the infinitive mood preferably to the indicative or the sub- junctive mood, provided no ambiguity would arise from the fact of using that mood. There is generally no ambiguity in a sentence constructed with the infinitive mood, when the verb used in this mood has for its antece- dent either the nominative or the object of the first verb ; but, should the sentence not be perfectly clear, even in this case, the indicative or subjunctive should be used instead of the infinitive. From what precedes it results, that the English expressions so often used, I wish I could, I wish I was, &c, cannot be rendered in French literally ; the second verb, having the same nominative as the first, should be expressed by the infinitive mood ; as in, I wish I was rich, that I might go to Je voudrais etre riche, pour pouvoir aller Europe. en Europe. I wish I could speak French as well as Je voudrais pouvoir parler Francais you. aussi bien que vous. 794. The French language admits of two infinitives being used one after the other, the second being then the object of the first ; as in, I will let him know it. Je veux le hi f aire savoir. I dare not permit them to write. Je n'ose leur permettre d'ecrire. But three or more infinitives used in this way would make the 33* 390 FRENCH GRAMMAR. style confused, heavy, and disagreeable to the ear. Good writers pro- scribe such a practice ; therefore, we should not say : I think I shall be able to go and see Je crois pouvoir aller voir vos parents. your parents. Do not think that you can exercise all N'allez pas croire pouvoir faire jouer tenia the powers of eloquence. les ressorts de 1'eloquence. Such sentences should be constructed either with the indicative or the subjunctive mood, as follows : Je crois que je pourrai aller voir vos parents. N'allez pas croire que vous sachiez faire jouer tous les ressorts de 1'eloquence. OF CASES IN WHICH EUPHONY REQJJIRES THAT THE INDICATIVE OR SUBJUNC- TIVE MOOD SHOULD BE PREFERRED TO THE INFINITIVE. 795. The indicative and the subjunctive mood should be preferred to the infinitive whenever several verbs, following each other in this latter mood, would require to be preceded by the same preposition, — either to avoid the repetition of that preposition, or because, not being used to establish the same relation between those several verbs, the repetition of that preposition would make the sentence obscure. Aristippus ordered his companions to Aristippe chargea ses compagnons de tell his fellow-citizens, on his part, dire, de sa part, a ses concitoyens, de to think, in time, to get69- " '« ft in reflected verbs 1 528 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 1070. What is the preterite anterior composed of in active verbs, or in neuter verbs conjugated with avoir? 1070. What is the preterite anterior composed of in neuter verbs conjugated with etre? 1070. What is the preterite anterior composed of in passive verbs 1 1070. " " " « in reflected verbs % 1071. What is the future past composed of in active verbs, or in neuter verbs conjugated with avoir? 1071. What is the future past composed of in neuter verbs conjugated with etre ? 1071. What is the future past composed of in passive verbs 1 1071. " " " in reflected verbs 1 1072. How is the conditional past composed in active verbs, or in neuter verbs conjugated with avoir? 1072. How is the conditional past composed in neuter verbs conjugated with etre? 1072. How is the conditional past composed in passive verbs 1 1072. '•' " « in reflected verbs 1 1073. What is the preterite of the subjunctive composed of in active verbs, or in neuter verbs conjugated with avoir? 1073. What is the preterite of the subjunctive composed of in neuter verbs conjugated with etre. 1073. What is the preterite subjunctive composed of in passive verbs 1 1073. " " « in reflected verbs 1 1074. What is the pluperfect of the subjunctive composed of in active verbs, or in neuter verbs conjugated with avoir? 1074. What is the pluperfect of the subjunctive composed of in neuter verbs conjugated with etre? 1074. What is the pluperfect of the subjunctive composed of in passive verbs 1 1074. What is the pluperfect of the subjunctive composed of in reflected verbs 1 1075. What is the imperative mood derived from 1 1076. What is the imperfect of the subjunctive derived from 1 What are the several terminations of the imperfect of the subjunctive 1 1077. What is the last letter of the second person singular in all tenses 1 Is there any exception to that rule 1 1077. What is the letter with which the third person singular never ends 1 1077. What is the termination of the first person plural in all tenses % Is there no exception to this rule 1 1077. What is the termination of the second person plural in all tenses 1 Is there no exception to this rule 1 1077. What is the termination of the diird person plural in all tenses 1 Is there no exception to this rule 1 1077. In what particular does the first person singular of the conditional differ from the same persr.n in the future 1 1077. In what particular do the several persons of the conditional differ from the corresponding persons in the imperfect 1 A SERIES OF QUESTIONS TO EE ASKED FOR THE CONJUGATION OF ANY REGULAR VERB. 1078. What are the primitive tenses of any verb 1 1078. What is the present of the infinitive of the verb to love? The present participle 1 The past participle 1 1078. Is the verb aimer an active or a neuter verb 1 CONJUGATION OF THE REGULAR VERBS. 529 107S. Why is it an active verb 1 Is it active in speaking of persons and things 1 1078. What are the three persons singular of the present of the indicative of the verb aimer? What is the termination in each *? 1078. What is the preterite definitive of the verb aimer? What is the ter- mination of its several persons 1 1078. What derivative tenses are formed from the present of the infinitive 1 1078. How is the future absolute derived from the present of the infinitive, aimer? 1078. Recite the future. What are the terminations of its several persons 1 1078. Knowing the first person singular of the future absolute, what should be done to have the same person in the conditional % 1078. Recite the conditional. What are the terminations of that tense in its several persons 1 1078. In what particular do the several persons of aimer, in the conditional present, difl'er from the corresponding persons in the imperfect of the indicative % 1078. What are the derivative tenses which are formed from the present participle of the verb aimer? 1078. How are the three persons plural of the present of the indicative formed from aimant? Recite those three persons. How are they spelled 1 1078. How is the imperfect of the indicative derived from aimant? Recite the imperfect ; spell each person. 1078. How is the present of the subjunctive derived from aimant? Recite the present of the subjunctive. How is it spelled 1 1078. What derivated tenses are formed from the past participle 1 1078. What is the preterite indefinite composed of in the active verb aimer? 1078. " pluperfect " « " " * 1078. " preterite anterior " 1078. « future past " 1078. " conditional past " 1078. " preterite of the subjunctive 1078. " pluperfect of the subjunctive Recite each of these compound tenses, and spell them. 1078. What is the imperative mood of the verb aimer derived from 1 Recite it, and spell it. 1078. What is the imperfect of the subjunctive of the verb aimer derived from 1 Recite it, and spell it. 1078. CONJUGATION OF THE VERBS ENDING IN BR. FIRST CONJUGATION. AIMER. 1 VFINITIVE MOOD. PRESENT. to love not to love aimer. n'aimer pas, or ne pas aimer. PRESENT PARTICIPLE. loving not loving aimant. n'aimant pas. 45 530 FRENCH GRAMMAR. PAST PARTICIPLE. loved aime. COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT. to have loved not to have loved avoir aime n'avoir pas aime. COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT PARTICIPI having loved not having loved ayant aime. n'ayant pas aime. INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. Affirmative. Negative. Interrogative. I love, &c., or I I love not, &c., or do I love, &c., or am loving. I do not love, or am I loving 1 I am not loving, j'aime je n'aime pas aime-je tu aimes tu n'aimes pas aimes-tu il or elle aime il or elle n'aime pas aime-t-il or elle nous aimons nous n'aimons pas aimons-nous vous aimez vous n'aimez pas aimez-vous ils or elles aiment. ils or elles n'aiment aiment-ils or elles 7 pas. Negative and Inter- rogative. do I not love 1 &c., or am I not lov- ing 1 n'aime-je pas n'aimes-tu pas n'aime-t-il or elle pas n'aimons-nous pas n'aimez-vous pas n'aiment-ils or elles IMPERFECT. I loved, or I did love, or I was loving, &c. j aimais tu aimais it or elle aimait I loved not, or I did I love, or was did I not love, did not love, or I was not loving. &c. je n'aimais pas tu n'aimais pas il or elle n'aimait I loving 1 &c. aimais-je aimais-tu aimait-il or elle was I not ing 1 &c. lov- n aimais-je pas n'aimais-tu pas n'aimait-il or elle nous amnions vous aimiez ils or elles ai- raaient. nous n aimions pas aimions-nous vous n'aimiez pas aimiez-vous ils or elles n'ai- aimaient-ils or maient pas. elles 1 PRETERITE DEFINITE. n'aimions-nous pas n'aimiez-vous pas n'aimaient-ils or elles pas 1 loved, or did I loved not, or did did I love 1 &c. love, &c. not love, &c. je n'aimai pas aimai-je tu n'aimas pas aimas-tu il or elle n'aima pas aima-t-il or elle j aimai tu aimas il or elle aima nous aimames nous n aimames pas aimames-nous vous aimates vous n'aimates pas aimates-vous ils or elles ai- ils or elles n'ai- aimerent-ils or me*rent. merent pas. elles 1 did I not love 1 &c. n aimai-je pas n'aimas-tu pas n'aima-t-il or elle pas n'aimames-nous pas n'aimates-vous pas n'aimerent-ils or olios pas 1 AIMER, TO LOVE. 531 I have loved, &c. j'ai aime tu as aime il or elle a aime nous avons aime vous avez aime ils or elles out aime PRETERITE INDEFINITE. I have not loved, have I loved 1 &c. &c. je n'ai pas aime ai-je aime tu n'as pas aime as-tu aime il or elle n'a pas a-t-il or elle aime aime nous n 'avons pas avons-nous aime aime vous n'avez pas avez-vous aime aime ils or elles n'ont ont-ils or elles pas aime. aime 1 have I not loved 1 &c. n'ai-je pas aime n'as-tu pas aime n'a-t-il or elle pas aime n'avons-nous pas aime n'avez-vous pas aime n'ont-ils or elles pas aime 1 I had loved, &c. j'avais aime tu avais aime il or elle avait aime nous avions aime vous aviez aime ils or elles avaient aime. PLUPERFECT. I had not loved, had I loved ? &c. &c. je n'avais pas aime avais-je aime tu n'avais pas aime avais-tu aime il or elle n'avait pas avait-il or elle aime aime nous n'avions pas avions-nous aime aime vous n'aviez pas aviez-vous aime aime ils or elles n'avaient avaient-ils or elles pas aime. aime 1 had I not loved 1 &c. n'avais-je pas aime n'avais-tu pas aime n 'avait-il or elle pas aime n'avions -nous pas aime n'aviez-vous pas aime n'avaient-ils or elles pas aime 1 PRETERITE ANTERIOR. I had loved, &c. j'eus aime tu eus aime il or elle eut aime nous eumes aime vous eutes aime ils or elles eurent aime. I had not loved, &e. je n'eus pas aime tu n'eus pas aime il or elle n'eut pas aime nous n'eumes pas aime vous n'eiltes pas aime ils or elles n'eurent pas aime. had I loved, &c. eus-je aime eus-tn aime eut-il or elle aime eumes-nous aime eiites-vous aime eurent-ils or elles aime 1 had I not loved 1 &c. n'eus-je pas aime n'eus-tu pas aime n'eut-il or elle pas aime n'eumes-nous pas aime n'eutes-vous pas aime n'eurent-ils or elles pas aime ? FUTURE ABSOLUTE. I shall or will love, &c. j'aimerai tu aimeras il or elle aimera nous aimerons vous aimerez ils or elles aime- ront. I shall or will not love, &c. je n'aimerai pas tu n'aimeras pas il or elle n'aimera pas nous n'aimerons pas vous n'aimerez pas ils or elles n'aiine- ront pas. shaU or will I love '"? &c. aimerai-je aimeras-tu aimera-t-il or elle aimerons-nous aimerez-vous aimeront-ils or elles 1 shall or will I not lovel &c. n'aimerai-je pas n'aimeras-tu pas n'aimgra-t-il or elle pas n'aimerons-nous pas n'aimerez-vous pas n'aimeront-ils or elles pas 1 532 FRENCH GRAMMAR. I shall or will have loved, &c. j'aurai aime tu auras aime il or elle aura aime nous aurons aime vous aurez aime ils or elles auront aime FUTURE ANTERIOR. I shall or will not shall or will I have have loved, &c. loved 1 &c. je n'aurai pas aime aurai-je aime tu n'auras pas aime auras-tu aime il or elle n'aura pas aura-t-il or elle aime . aime nous n'aurons pas aurous-nous aime aime vous n'aurez pas aurez-vous aime aime ils or elles n'auvont auront-ils or elles pas aime. aime ? shall or will I not have loved 1 &c. n'aurai-je pas aime n'auras-tu pas aime n'aura-t-il or elle pas aime n'aurons-nous pas aime n'aurez-vous pas aime n'auront-ils or elles pas aime i 1 CONDITIONAL MOOD. I should, could, Mould, or might love, &c. j'aimerais tu aimerais il or elle aimerait nous aimer ions vous aimeriez I should, could, would, or might not love, &c. je n'aimerais pas tu n'aimerais pas il or elle n'aime- should, could, would, or might I love 1 &c. aimerais-je aimerais-tu aimerait-il or elle rait pas nous n'aimerions aimerions-nous pas vous n'aimeriez pas aimeriez-vous should, could, would, or might I not love *? &c. n'aimerais-je pas n'aimerais-tu pas n'aimerait-il or elle n aimerions-nous pas n'aimeriez-vous ils or elles aime- ils or elles n'aime- raient. raient pas. aimeraient-ils elles 1 n'aimeraient-i elles pas 1 I should, could, would, or might have loved, &c. j'aurais aime tu aurais aime il or elle aurait aime nous aurions aime vous auriez aime ils or elles auraient aime. I should, could, would, or might have not loved, &c. je n'aurais pas aime tu n'aurais pas aime il or elle n'aurait pas aime nous n'aurions pas aime vous n'auriez pas aime ils or elles n'au- raient pas aime. should, could, would, or might I have loved 1 &c. aurais-je aime aurais-tu aime aurait-il or elle aime aur ions-nous aime auriez-vous aime auraient-ils or elles should, could, would, or might I not have loved 1 &c. n'aurais-je pas aime n'aurais-tu pas aime n'aurait-il or elle pas aime n'aurions-nous pas aime n'auriez-vous pas aime n'auraient-ils or elles pas aime 1 IMPERATIVE MOOD. love, or do love aime aimons aimez. love not, or do not love n'aime pas n'aimons pas a 'aimez pas. REMARKS ON THE FIRST CONJUGATION. 533 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. that I may love, &c. que j'aime que tu a iines qu'il or qu'elle aime que nous airaions que vous aimiez qu'ils or qu'elles ainient. that I might love, &c. que j'ai masse que tu aimasses qu'il or qu'elle aimat que nous aimassions que vous aimassiez qu'ils or qu'elles aimassent. PRESENT. that I may not love, &c. que je n'aime pas que tu n'aimes pas qu'il or qu'elle n'aime pas que nous n'aimions pas que vous n'aimiez pas qu'ils or qu'elles n'aiment pas IMPERFECT. that I might not love, &c. que je n'aimasse pas que tu n'aimasses pas qu'il or qu'elle n'aimat pas que nous n'aimassions pas que vous n'aimassiez pas qu'ils or qu'elles n'aimassent pas. that I may have loved, &c. que j'aie aime que tu aies aime qu'il or qu'elle ait aime que nous ayons aime que vous ayez aime qu'ils or qu'elles aient aime. that I may not have loved, &c. que je n'aie pas aime que tu n'aies pas aime qu'il or qu'elle n'ait pas aime. que nous n'ayons pas aime que vous n'ayez pas aime qu'ils or qu'elles n'aient pas aime. PLUPERFECT. that I might have loved, &c. que j'eusse aime que tu eusses aime qn'il or qu'elle eut aime que nous eussions aime que vous eussiez aime qu'ils or qu'elles eussent aime. that I might not have loved, &c. que je n'eusse pas aime que tu n'eusses pas aime qu'il or qu'elle n'eut pas aime que nous n'eussions pas aime que vous n'eussiez pas aime qu'ils or qu'elles n'eussent pas aime. REMARKS ON THE FIRST CONJUGATION. 1079. This conjugation has only four irregular verbs ; as in, Aller, S'en aller, Envoyer, Renvoyer, to go. to go away. to send. to send back. All other verbs ending in er are called regular; but several of them undergo changes in the orthography of some of their tenses and per- sons. These irregularities, which have not been deemed sufficient to 45* 534 FRENCH GRAMMAR. cause these verbs to be classed among the irregular, deserve, how- ever, the most careful attention ; because, without a full knowledge of them, it is impossible to write or pronounce the language cor- rectlv- eter 1080. CONJUGATION OF THE eler ger to throw jeter to call appeler INFINITIVE PRES- to avenge venger throwing jetant calling appelant avenging vengeant thrown jete called appele avenged venge I throw jeorj' jette* tu jettes* il or elle jette* nous jetons vous jetez ils or elles jettent* call appelle* appelles* appelle* appelons appelez appellent* INDICATIVE PRES- venge venges venge vengeons* vengez vengent I jeorj' tu il or elle nous vous ils or elles threw etais etais etait etions etiez jetaient called appelais appelais appelait appelions appeliez appelaient avenged vengeais* vengeait* vengions vengiez vengeaient* tu il or elle threw or did throw jetai jetas jeta called or did call appelai appelas appela PRETERITE avenged or did avenge vengeai* vengeas* vengea* JETER, ETC. 535 The following table will give a complete idea of these irregulari- ties. The tenses and persons marked with an asterisk are the only ones which are irregular. VERBS ENDING AS FOLLOWS : MOOD. yer ENT. to agree agreer to pierce percer to employ employer to pray prier. PARTICIPLE. agreeing agreant piercing per cant* employing employant praying priant. PARTICIPLE. agreed agree pierced perce employed employe prayed, prie. MOOD. ENT. agree agree agrees agree agreons agreez agreent FECT. agreed agreais agreais agreait agreions agreiez agreaient DEFINITE. agreed or agree agreai agreas agrea did pierce employ pray perce emploie* prie perces emploies* pries perce emploie* prie percons* employons prions percez employez priez percent emploient* prient. pierced employed prayed percais* employais priais percais* employais priais per^ait* employait priait percions employions priions perciez employiez priiez percaient* employaient priaient. pierced or did employed or did prayed or did pierce employ pray percai* employai priai percas* employas prias per^a* omploya pria 536 FRENCH GRAMMAR. nous jetames vous jetates ils or elles jeterent I shall or will throw je or j ' jetterai* tu jetteras* il or elle jettera* nous jelterons* vous jetterez* ils or elles jetteront* lines appelates appelerent call appellerai* appelleras* appellerons* appellerons* appellerez* appelleront* vengeames* vengeates* vengerent FUTURE avenge vengerai vengeras vengera vengerons vengerez vengeront I should, would, throw could, or might J eor j' jetterais* tu jetterais* il or elle jetterait* nous jetterions* vous jetteriez* ils or elles jetteraient* call appellerais* appellerais* appellerait* appellerions* appelleriez* appelleraient* CONDITIONAL PRES- avenge vengerais vengera is vengerait vengerions vengeriez vengeraient IMPERATIVE throw jette* jetons jetez call appelle* appelons appelez avenge venge vengeons* vengez that I may que je or j' que tu qu'il or qu'elle que nous que vous qu'ils or qu'elles throw ette* ettes* ette* etions etiez jettent* call appelle* appelles* appelle* appelions appeliez appelient* SUBJUNCTIVE PRES- avenge venge venges venge vengions vengiez Tengent that I might que je or j' que tu qu'il or qu'elle que nous que vous qu'ils or ou'ellcs throw 'etasse etasses etat etassions call appelasse appelasses appelat appelassions appelassiez appelassent. avenge vengeasse * vengeasses * vengeat * vengeassions * vengeassiez * vengeassent * JETER, ETC. 537 agreames pereames* employanies priames agreates percates* employates priates agreerent percerent employment prierent. PRESENT. agree pierce employ pray agreerai percerai emploierai* prierai agreeras perceras emploieras* prieras agreera percera emploiera* priera agreerons percerons emploierons* prierons agreerez percerez emploierez* prierez agreeront perceront emploieront* prieront. MOOD. EN'T. agree pierce employ pray agreerais percerais emploierais * prierais agreerais percerai s emploierais* priera is agreerait percerait emploierait* prierait agreerions percerions emploierions * prierions agreeriez perceriez emploieriez * prieriez agreeraient perceraient. emploieraient * prieraient. mood. agree pierce employ pray agree perce emploie * prie agreons percons* employons prions agreez percez employez priez. MOOD. agree pierce employ pray agree perce emploie * prie agrees perces emploies * pries agree perce emploie * prie agreions percions employions prions * asreiez perciez employiez priez * agreent percent emploient * prient. FECT. agree pierce employ pray agreasse percasse * employasse priasse agreasses percasses* employasses priasses agreat percat* employat priat agreassions percassions * employassions priassions atrr^assiez percassiez * employassiez priassiez aareassent percasaeiti * omployassent priassent. 538 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 1081. From the foregoing table it results, that the verbs ending in eter double the t whenever this letter is followed by a mute syllable, as e, es, ent. 1082. That the words ending in eler double the I whenever this letter is followed by a mute syllable, as e, es, ent. 1083. That the verbs ending in ger keep the e after the g when- ever this letter, according to the conjugation of the verb aimer, ought to precede the vowels a and o, so as to continue to the g the soft sound which it must have in the pronunciation. 1084. That the verbs ending in eer must keep the two ee-s all through the conjugation, in all tenses and persons. 1085. That the verbs ending in cer take a cedilla under the c whenever this letter is followed by one of the vowels a or o, so as to preserve the soft sound which it must have in the pronunciation. 1086. That the verbs ending in yer change the letter y into i whenever the y should be followed by an e mute. 1087. That the verbs ending in ier do not take, in the first and second persons plural of the present of the subjunctive, the termina- tion of the imperfect of the indicative, as the verb aimer does, but that of the present of the indicative. 1088. But these exceptions are themselves subject to some restric- tions ; for instance, there is a certain number of verbs ending in eter, which, instead of doubling the letter t before a mute syllable, zsjeter, keep a single t, but take a grave accent over the e preceding it. They are the following : Acheter, to buy. Colleter, to collar. Coqueter, to coquet. Decolleter, to uncover the neck. Etiqueter, to label. Suracheter, to overpay. Trompeter, to summon with sound of trumpet. 1090. The verbs ending in ecer, emer, ener, ever, evrer, are conju- gated in the same manner, taking a grave accent over the e whenever it is followed by a mute syllable, as in the following : Depecer, to carve. Semer, to sow. Mener, to lead. Achever, to finish. Sevrer, to wean. The present of the indicative of these verbs is written as follows : J'achete, and not j'achette. Je depece, " je depece. 539 Ebrer, as celebrer, Ecer, " rapiecer, Echer, a pecher, Eder, a deceder, Egler, " regler, Egner, a regner, Esiier, " alleguer, Eler, ft reveler, Einer, c< blasphemer, Ener, ec aliener, Equer, ft hypothequer, Erer, cc adherer, Eter, (C empieter, Etrer, C( penetrer, REMARKS ON THE FIRST CONJUGATION. .Te se"me, and not je seme. Je m£ne, " je mene. J'acheve, " j'acheve. Je sevre, " je sevre. 1091. All the verbs ending in to celebrate, to piece, to commit sin, to die, to regulate, to reign, to allege, to reveal, to blaspheme, to alienate, to mortgage, to adhere, to encroach, to penetrate, change the acute accent which is on the e of the penultimate syllable into a grave accent in all the tenses and persons in which this syllable is followed by e, es, ent; as, Je celebre. I celebrate. Tu regies. thou regulatest. lis revelent. they reveal, &c. 1092. Among the verbs ending in eler, there are some which, instead of doubling the I before a mute syllable, take a grave accent over the e which precedes the I. They are the following : Peler, to peal. Bourreler, to torment. Congeler, to congeal. Degeler, to thaw. Geler, to freeze. Harceler, to torment. Regeler, to freeze again. These verbs are conjugated in the following manner: I peal, Je pele, and not pelle. He torments, II harcele, " ha-celle. They torment, Tls bourrelent, " bourrellent. It will thaw, II degelera, " degellera. It congeals, II congele, " congellc. It would freeze, II gelerait, " gellerait. 1093. All the verbs of this conjugation, to the number of about twenty-five hundred, in the first person singular of the present of the indicative, under the interrogative form, lake a grave accent over the last e; as, aime-je? &c. Most grammarians recommend the use of the 540 FRENCH GRAMMAR. acute accent in this case, instead of the grave ; but the pronunciation induces us not to fall into their views, because this last e always sounds as if a grave accent were placed over it. QUESTIONS 1079. How many irregular verbs are there in the first conjugation 1 Which are they 1 1079. Are there not some verbs in the first conjugation which, although they are not called irregular, differ in some particular from the verb aimer in the spelling of some of their tenses and persons % 1080. How do the verbs of that description end 1 1081. In what particular do the verbs ending in eter differ from aimer in their conjugation 1 10S2. In what particular do the verbs ending in eler differ from aimer in their conjugation 1 1083. In what particular do the verbs ending in ger differ from aimer in their conjugation 1 1084. In what particular do the verbs ending in eer differ from aimer in their conjugation 1 1085. In what particular do the verbs ending in cer differ from aimer in their conjugation 1 1086. In what particular do the verbs ending in yer differ from aimer in their conjugation % 1087. In what particular do the verbs ending in ier differ from aimer in their conjugation 1 1088. Are there not some verbs ending in eter which differ from jeter in their conjugation % Which are they 1 In what particulars do these verbs differ from jeter ? 1090. Do not verbs ending in ecer, emer, ener, ever, evrer, follow the same rule as those mentioned in the preceding paragraph % 1091. Into what is the acute accent in the verbs contained in paragraph 1091 changed, when the e on which that accent is placed is followed by a mute sylla- ble, that is to say, ending either in e, es, or ent ? 1092. Among the verbs ending in eler are there not some which, instead of doubling the I before a mute syllable, are spelled with a grave accent over the e which precedes the letter I ? Which are they 1 1093. How many regular verbs are there in the first conjugation 1 How are those verbs spelled in the first person of the present of the indicative, when used interrogatively 1 1094. SECOND CONJUGATION. FINIR. CONJUGATION OF THE VERBS ENDING IN IR. INFINITIVE MOOD. PRESENT. to finish not to finish finir. ne pas finir. PRESENT PARTICIPLE. finishing not finishing finissant. ne finissant pas. FINIR, TO FINISH. 541 PAST PARTICIPLE. finished fini. COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT AND PAST PARTICIPLE. having finished avant fini. not having finished n'ayant pas fini. COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT OF THE INFINITIVE AND PAST PARTICIPLE. to have finished not to have finished avoir fini. n'avoir pas fini. INDICATIVE MOOD. Affirmative. I finish, &c. je finis tu finis il or elle finit nous finissons Negate Interrogative. I do not finish, &c. do I finish 1 &c. je ne finis pas finis-je tu ne finis pas finis-tu il or elle ne finit pas finit-il or elle nous ne finissons finissons-nous vous finissez vous ne finissez pas finissez-vous ils or elles finissent. ils or clles ne finis- finissent-ils < sent pas. elles 1 Interrogative and Negative. do I not finish % &c ne finis-je pas ne finis-tu pas ne finit-il or elle pas ne finissons-nous pas ne finissez-vous pas ne finissent-ils or elles pa? IMPERFECT. I finished or was finishing, &c. je finissais tu finissais il or elle finissait nous finissions vous finissiez ils or elles finis- saient. I finished not or was no finish- ing, &c. je ne finissais pas tu ne finissais pas il or elle ne finissait pas nous ne finissions pas vous ne finissiez pas ils or elles ne finis- saient pas. did I finish or was I finishing 1 &c. finissais-je finissais-tu finissait-il or elle finissions-nous finissiez-vous finissaient-ils or elles 1 did I not finish or was I not finish- ing'? &c. ne finissais-je pas ne finissais-tu pas ne finissait-il or elle pas ne finissions-nous pas ne finissiez-vous pas ne finissaient-ils or elles pas 1 PRETERITE DEFINITE. I finished or did I finished not or did did I finish 1 &c. did I not finish'? &c. finish, &c. not finish, &c. je finis je ne finis pas finis-je ne finis-je pas tu finis tu ne finis pas finis-tu ne finis-tu pas il or elle finit il or elle ne finit pas finit-il or elle ne finit-il or elle pas 46 542 FRENCH GRAMMAR, nous finimes nous ne finimes pas finimes-nous ne finimes-nous pas vous finites vous ne finites pas finites-vous ne finites-vous pas ils or elles finirent. ils or elles ne fini- finirent-ils or ellest ne finirent-ils or rent pas. elles pas 1 PRETERITE INDEFINITE. I have finished, I have not finished, have I finished % &c. &c. &c. j'ai fini je n'ai pas fini ai-je fini tn as fini tu n'as pas fini as-tu fini il or elle a fini il or elle n'a pas a-t-il or elle fini fini nous avons fini nous n'avons pas avons-nous fini fini vous avez fini vous n'avez pas avez-vous fini fini ils or elles ont fini. ils or elles n'ont ont-ils or elles fini 1 pas fini. have I not finished, &c. n'ai-je pas fini n'as-tu pas fini n'a-t-il or elle pas fini n'avons-nous pas fini n'avez-vous pas fini n'ont-ils or elles pas fini'? PLUPERFECT. I had finished, &c. I had not finished, had I finished 1 &c. &c. j'avais fini je n'avais pas fini avais-je fini tu avais fini tu n'avais pas fini avais-tu fini il or elle avait fini il or elle n'avait avait-il or elle fini pas fini nous avions fini nous n'avions pas avions-nous fini fini vous aviez fini vous n'aviez pas aviez-vous fini fini ils or elles avaient ils or elles n'avaient avaient-ils or elles fini. pas fini. fini 1 had I not finished 1 &c. n'avais-je pas fini n'avais-tu pas fini n'avak-il or elle pas fini n'avions-nous pas fini n'aviez-vous pas fini n'avaient-ils or elles pas fini 1 PRETERITE ANTERIOR. I had finished, &c. I had not finished, had I finished 1 &c. &c. j'eus fini je n'eus pas fini eus-je fini tu eus fini tu n'eus pas fini eus-tu fiui il or elle eut fini il or elle n'eut pas eut-il or elle fini fini nous euraes fini nous n'eumes pas eumes-nous fini fini vous eutes fini vous n'eiites pas eutes-vous fini fini ils or elles eurent ils or elles n'eurent curent-ils or elles fini. pas fini. fini % had I not finished 1 &c. n'eus-je pas fini n'eus-tu pas fini n'eut-il or elle pas fini n'eumes-nous pas fini n'eutes-vous pas fini n'eurent-ils or elles pas fini 1 I shall or will fin- ish, &c. je finirai tu finiras il or elle finira FUTURE ABSOLUTE. I shall or will not shall or will I fin- finish, &c. ish 1 &c. je ne finirai pas finirai-je tu ne finiras pas finiras-tu il or elle ne finira finira-t-il or tile pas shall or will 1 not finish 1 &c. ne finirai-je pas ne finiras-tu pas ne finira-t-il or elle F1NIR, TO FINISH. 543 nous finirons nous ne finirons pas finirons-nous ne finirone-nous pas vous finirez vous ne finirez pas finirez-vous ne finirez-vous pas ils or elles finiront. il or elles ne fini- finiront-ils or elles 1 ne finiront-ils or ront pas. elles pas % FUTURE ANTERIOR. I shall or will have I shall or will not shall or will I have shall or will I not finished, &c. have finished, finished 1 &c. have finished 1 &c. &c. j'aurai fini je n'aurai pas fini aurai-je fini n'aurai-je pas fini tu auras fini tu n'auras pas fini auras-tu fini n'auras-tu pas fini il or elle aura fini il or elle n'aura aura-t-il or elle fini n'aura-t-il or elle pas fini pas fini nous aurons fini nous n'aurons pas aurons-nous fini n'aurons-nous pas fini fini vous aurez fini vous n'aurez pas aurez-vous fini n'aurez-vous pas fini fini ils or elles auront ils or elles n'auront auront-ils or elles n'auront-ils or elles fini. pas fini. fini? pas fini 1 CONDITIONAL MOOD. I should, would, could, or might finish, &c. je finirais tu finirais il or elle finirait nous finirions vous finiriez ils or elles fini- raient. I should, would, could, or might not finish, &c. je ne finirais pas tu ne finirais pas il or elle ne finirait pas nous ne finirions should, would, could, or might I finish 1 &c. finirais-je finirais-tu finirait-il or elle finirions-nous vous ne finiriez pas finiriez-vous ils or elles ne fini- finiraient-ils raient pas. elles 1 should, would, could, or might I not finish 1 &c. ne finirais-je pas ne finirais-tu pas ne finirait-il or elle pas ne finirions-nous pas ne finiriez-vous pas ne finiraient-ils or elles pas 1 CONDITIONAL PAST. I should, would, could, or might have finished, &c. j'aurais fini tu aurais fini il or elle aurait fini nous aurions fini vous auriez fini ils or elles auraient fini I should, would, could, or might not have fin- ished, &c. je n'aurais pas fini tu n'aurais pas fini il or elle n'aurait pas fini nous n'aurions pas fini vous n'auriez pas fini ils or elles n'au- raient pas fini. should, would, could, or might I have finished 1 &c. aurais-je fini aurais-tu fini aurait-il or elle fini aurions-nous fini auriez-vous fini auraient-ils or elles Anil should, would, could, or might I not have fin- ished 1 &c. n'am-ais-je pas fini n'aurais-tu pas fini n'aurait-il or elle pas fini n'aurions-nous pas fini n'auriez-vous pas fini n'auraient-ils or elles pas fini 1 544 FRENCH GRAMMAR. do finishj finis finissons finissez. &c. IMPERATIVE MOOD. do not finish, &c. ne finis pas ne finissons pas ne finissez pas. SUBJECTIVE MOOD. that I may finish, &c que je finisse que tu finisses qu'il or qu'elle finisse que nous finissions que vous finissiez qu'ils or qu'elles finissent. PRESENT. that I may not finish, &c. que je ne finisse pas que tu ne finisses pas qu'il or qu'elle ne finisse pas que nous ne finissions pas que vous ne finissiez pas qu'ils or qu'elles ne finissent pas. IMPERFECT. that I might finish, &c. que je finisse que tu finisses qu'il or qu'elle finit que nous finissions que vous finissiez qu'ils or qu'elles finissent. that I might not finish, &c. que je ne finisse pas que tu ne finisses pas qu'il or qu'elle ne finit pas que nous ne finissions pas que vous ne finissiez pas qu'ils or qu'elles ne finissent pas. PRETERITE. that I may have finished, &c. quej'aie fini que tu aies fini qu'il or qu'elle ait fini que nous ayons fini que vous ayez fini qu'ils or qu'elles aient fini. that I may not have finished, &c. que je n'aie pas fini que tu n'aies pas fini qu'il or qu'elle n'ait pas fini que nous n'ayona pas fini que vous n'ayez pas fini qu'ils or qu'elles n'aient pas fini. PLUPERFECT. that I might have finished, &c. que j'eusse fini que tu eusses fini qu'il or qu'elle eut fini que nous eussions fini que vous eussiez fini qu'ils or qu'elles eussent fini. that I might not have finished, &c. que je n'eusse pas fini que tu n'eusses pas fini qu'il or qu'elle n'eut pas fini que nous n'eussions pas fini que vous n'eussiez pas fini qu'ils or qu'elles n'eussent pas fini. 1095. All the verbs of this conjugation whose present participle terminates in issant are regular. They are two hundred and two in number. The others are irregular, and will be found conjugated RECEVOIR, TO RECEIVE. 545 in this grammar to the number of ninety-two. Several grammarians, with the idea of reducing the number of the irregular verbs of this conjugation, have thought proper to group them into four different classes, but without any other result for the pupil than to create a confusion in his mind; we shall not adopt this plan, therefore, but shall conjugate all the irregular verbs of this conjugation, as well as those of the others, separately, according to their alphabetical order. QUESTIONS 1095. What is the termination of the present participle in the regular verbs of the second conjugation 1 1095. How many regular verbs are there in that conjugation 1 THIRD CONJUGATION. EEC E VOIR. 1096. CONJUGATION OF THE VERBS ENDING IN OIR. INFINITIVE MOOD. to receive not to receive recevoir. ne pas recevoir, ne recevoir pas, PRESENT PARTICIPLE. receiving not receiving recevant. ne recevant pas. PAST PARTICIPLE. received recu, ue, us. ues. COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT OF THE INFINITIVE AND PAST PARTICIPLE. to have received not to have received avoir recu. n'avoir pas recu. 46* 546 FRENCH GRAMMAR. COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT AND PAST PARTICIPLE, having received not having received ayant recu. n'ayant pas recu. Affirmative. I receive, &c. je recois tu recois il or elle recoit nous recevons vous recevez ils or elles recoi- vent. INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. Negative. Interrogative. I do not receive, do I receive 1 &c. &c. je ne recois pas recois-je tu ne recois pas re^ois-tu il or elle ne recoit re^oit-il or elle pas nous ne recevons recevons-nous pas vous ne recevez recevez-vous pas ils or elles ne recoi- recoivent-ils or vent pas. elles 1 Negative and Interrogative. do I not receive T &c. ne recois-je pas ne re^ois-tu pas ne re^oit-il or elle pas ne recevons-nous pas ne recevez-vous pas ne recoivent-ils or elles pas 1 IMPERFECT. I received or was receiving, &c. je recevais tu recevais il or elle recevait nous recevions vous receviez ils or elles rece- vaient. I received not or was not receiv- ing, &c. je ne recevais pas tu ne recevais pas il or elle ne rece- vait pas nous ne recevions pas vous ne receviez pas ils or elles ne re- cevaient pas. did I receive or was I receiv- ing? &c. recevais-je recevais-tu recevait-il elle recev ions-nous receviez-vous recevaient-ils or elles 1 did I not receive or was I not receiv- ing! &c. ne recevais-je pas ne recevais-tu pas ne recevait-il or elle pas ne recevions-nous pas ne receviez-vous pas ne recevaient-ils or elles pas? PRETERITE DEFINITE. I did receive, &c. I did not receive, did I receive 1 &c. did I not receive 1 je recus tu recus il or elle recut nous recumes vous recutes &c. je ne recus pas recus-je tu ne re^us pas re^us-tu il or elle ne recut recut-il or elle pas nous ne recumes recumes-nous pas vous ne recutes recutes-vous pas ils or elles recu- ils or elles ne recu- recurent-ils or rent. rent pas. elles 1 &c. ne recus-je pas ne recus-tu pas ne recut-il or elle pas ne recumes-nous pas ne recutes-vous paa ne recurent-ils or elles pas *? RECEVOIR, TO RECEIVE, 547 PRETERITE INDEFINITE. have received, I have not receiv- have I received 1 have I not x-eceiv- &c. ed, &c. &c. jai recu tu as recu il or elle a recu nous avons recu vous avez recu je n ai pas recu tu n'as pas recu il or elle n'a pas recu nous n'avons pas avons-nous recu recu vous n avez pas avez-vous recu recu Is or elles ont recu. ils or elles n'ont ont-ils pas recu. reci ai-je recu as-tu i - ecu a-t-il or elle recu elles ed 1 &c. n'ai-je pas recu n'as-tu pas recu n'a-t-il or elle pas recu n'avons-nous pas recu n'avez-vous pas recu n'ont-ils or elles pas I'ecu 1 PLUPERFECT. I had received, I had not received, had I received 1 &c. &c. &c. had I not received 1 &c. i avais recu je n'avais pas recu avais-je recu n avais-je pas recu tu avais recu tu n'avais pas recu avais-tu re^u n'avais-tu pas re^u il or elle avait recu il or elle n'avait pas avait-il or elle recu n'avait-il or elle pas recu recu nous avions recu nous n'avions pas avions-nous recu n'avions-nous pas recu recu vous aviez recu vous n'aviez pas aviez-vous recu n'aviez-vous pas recu recu ils or elles avaient ils or elles n'av- avaient-ils or elles n'avaient-ils or recu. aient pas recu. recu 1 elles pas recu 1 PRETERITE ANTERIOR. had received, &c. I had not received, had I received! had I not received T &c. &c. &c. j eus recu je n'eus pas recu eus-je recu n eus-je pas recu tu eus recu tu n'eus pas recu eus-tu re^u n'eus-tu pas i - ecu il or elle eut recu il or elle n'eut pas eut-il or elle recu n'eut-il or elle pas recu nous eumes recu nous n'eumes pas eutnes-nous recu recu vous eutes recu vous n'eutes pas eutes-vous recu recu ils or elles eurent ils or elles n'eurent eurent-ils or elles recu. pas recu. recu 1 recu n'eumes-nous pas recu n'eutes-vous pas recu n 'eurent-ils or elles pas recu 1 FUTURE PRESENT. I shall or will re- I shall or will not shall or will I re- shall or will I not ceive, &c. receive, &c. ceive 1 &c. receive 1 &c. je recevrai je ne recevrai pas recevrai-je ne recevrai-je pas tu recevras tu ne recevras pas recevras-tu ne recevras-tu pas il er elle recevra il or elle ne recevra recevra-t-il or elle ne recevra-t-il or pas elle pas 548 FRENCH GRAMMAR. nous recevrons vous recevrez ils or elles rece- vront. nous ne recevrons recevrons-nous pas vous ne recevrez i-ecevrez-vous ne recevrons-nous ne recevrez-vous pas pas ils or elles ne rece- recevront-ils or ne recevront-ils or vront pas. elles 1 elles pas 1 FUTURE ANTERIOR. I shall or will have I shall or will not shall or will I have shall or will I not received, &c. have received, received 1 &c. have received 1 &c. &c. j aurai recu tu auras recu il or elle aura recu nous aurons recu vous aurez recu ils or elles auront recu. je n aurai pas recu aurai-je recu tu n'auras pas recu auras-tu recu il or elle n'aura pas aura-t-il or elle recu recu nous n'aurons pas aurons-nous recu recu vous n'aurez pas aurez-vous recu recu ils or elles n'auront auront-ils or elles pas recu. n aurai -je pas recu n'auras-tu pas recu n 'aura-t-il or elle pas recu n'aurons-nous pas recu n'aurez-vous pas recu n'auront-ils or elles pas recu 1 CONDITIONAL MOOD. I should, would, could, or might receive, &c. je recevrais tu recevrais il or elle recevrait nous recevrions vous recevriez ils or elles rece- vraient. I should, would, could, or might not receive, &c. je ne recevrais pas tu ne recevrais pas il or elle ne rece- vrait pas nous ne recevrions pas vous ne recevriez pas ils or elles ne rece- vraient pas. should, would, could, or might I receive 1 &c. recevrais-je recevrais-tu recevrait-il or elle recevrions-nous recevriez-vous recevraient-ils or elles 1 should, would, could, or might I not receive 1 &c. ne recevrais-je pas ne recevrais-tu pas ne recevrait-il or elle pas ne recevrions-nous pas ne recevriez-vous pas ne recevraient-ils or elles pas 1 I should, would, I should, would, should, would, could, or might could, or might could, or might have received, not have receiv- I have receiv- &c. ed, &c. ed 1 &c. aurais recu je n aurais pas aurais-je recu recu tu aurais recu tu n'aurais pas aurais-tu recu recu il or elle aurait il or elle n'aurait aurait-il or elle recu recu pas recu should, would, could, or might I not have re- ceived 1 &c. n'aurais-je pas recu n'aurais-tu pas recu n'aurait-il or elle pas recu RECEVOIR, TO RECEIVE. 549 nous aunous recu nous n aurions pas aunons-nous recu n aunons-nous ' pas recu recu tous auriez re^u vous n'auriez pas auriez-vous recu n'auriez-vous pas recu recu ils or elles auraient ils or elles n'au- auraient-ils or elles n'auraient-ils or raient recu. elles pas re^u ' do receive, &c. recois recevons recevez. IMPERATIVE MOOD. do not receive, &c. ne recois pas ne recevons pas ne recevez pas. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. that I may receive, &c que je recoive que tu re^oives qu'il or qu'elle receive que nous recevions que vous receviez qu'ils or qu'elles recoivent. that I may not receive, &c. que je ne recoive pas que tu ne recoives pas qu'il or qu'elle ne recoive pas que nous ne recevions pas que vous ne receviez pas qu'ils or qu'elles ne recoivent pas. IMPERFECT. that I might receive, &c. que je recusse que tu recusses qu'il or qu'elle recut que nous recussions que vous recussiez qu'ils or qu'elles recussent. that I might not receive, &c. que je ne recusse pas que tu ne recusses pas qu'il or qu'elle ne recut pas que nous ne recussions pas que vous ne recussiez pas qu'ils or qu'elles ne recussent pas. that I may have received, &c. que j'aie recu que tu aies recu qu'il or qu'elle ait recu que nous ayons recu que vous ayez recu qu'ils or qu'elles aient recu. PRETERITE. that I may not have received, &c. que je n'aie pas recu que tu n'aies pas recu qu'il or qu'elle n'ait pas recu que nous n'ayons pas recu que vous n'ayez pas recu qu'ils or qu'elles n'aient pas recu. that I might have received, &c. que j'eusse recu que tu eusses recu qu'il or qu'elle eut recu que nous eussions recu que vous eussiez recu qu'ils or qu'elles eussent recu. PLUPERFECT. that I might not have received, &c. que je n'eusse pas recu que tu n'eusses pas recu qu'il or qu'elle n'eut pas recu que nous n'eussions pas recu que vous n'eussiez pas recu qu'ils or qu'elles n'eussent pas recu. 550 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 1097. All the verbs of this conjugation, to the number of two hun- dred and thirty, end in oir in the infinitive. Of these, seven only are regular; they are easily recognized by their termination in evoir; the others are called irregular, and will be conjugated in this grammar in all their tenses and persons. The seven regular verbs of this conjugation are the following : Apercevoir, to perceive. Concevoir, to conceive. Decevoir, to deceive. Percevoir, to collect taxes. Recevoir, to receive. Devoir, to owe. Redevoir, to owe again. 1098. When the letter c, which is found in the first five verbs of this list, is followed, in the conjugation of the verb, by any of the vowels o, o, or m, a cedilla is placed under it, to change the hard sound that c has before these vowels into the soft sound which is required by the pronunciation. In the past participle of the verb devoir, which is du, the last letter, u, takes a circumflex accent, to distinguish this word from the con- tracted article du, of the ; the accent is not kept in the feminine. The past participle redu, from redevoir, takes no accent. QUESTIONS 1097. How many verbs are there in the third conjugation 1 1097. Amongst those two hundred and thirty verbs, how many are there which are called regular 1 What is the termination of those regular verbs in the present of the infinitive 1 1097. What are the regular verbs of the third conjugation 1 Name them. 1098. Whenever in a verb of this conjugation the letter c is followed by any of the vowels a, o, u, what sign should be placed under the c, in order to make it soft % 1098. Why is the past participle of the verb devoir, du, spelt with a circum- flex accent over the u ? Is that accent kept in the feminine or plural 1 FOURTH CONJUGATION. RENDRE. 1099. CONJUGATION OF THE VERBS ENDING IN RE. INFINITIVE MOOD. PRESENT. to render not to render rendre. ne pas rendre. RENDRE, TO READER. 551 rendering rendant. PRESENT PARTICIPLE. not rendering 1 ne rendant pas. PAST PARTICIPLE. rendered rendu. COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT. to have rendered not to have rendered avoir rendu. n'avoir pas rendu. COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT AND PAST PARTICIPLES. having rendered not having rendered ayant rendu. n'ayant pas rendu. Affirmative. I render, &c. je rends tu rends il or elle rend nous rendons vous rendez INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. Negative. Interrogative. Negative and Interrogative. I do not render, do I render 1 &c. do I not render 1 &c. &c. je ne rends pas est-ce que je rends est-ce que je ne rends pas tu ne rends pas rends-tu ne rends-tu pas il or elle ne rend rend-il or elle ne rend-il or elle pas ne rendons-nous pas ne rendez-vous pas ils or elles rendent. ils or elles ne ren- rendent-ils or elles! ne rendent-ils or nous ne rendons rendons-nous pas vous ne rendez pas rendez-vous dent elles pas I rendered, or was rendering, &r. je rendais tu rendais il or elle rendait ■one rendkms vou9 rendiez ils or elles ren- daient. IMPERFECT. I rendered not, or did I render, or was not render- was I render- ing, &c. ing 1 &c. je ne rendais pas rendais-je tu ne rendais pas rendais-tu il or elle ne rendait rendait-il or elle pas nous lie rendions rendions-nous pas vous ne rendiez pas rendiez-vous Is or elles ne ren- daient pas. rendaient-ils elles 1 did I not render, ot was I not ren- dering % &c. ne rendais-je pas ne rendais-tu pas ne rendait-il or elle pas ne rendions-nous pas ne rendiez-vous pas ne rendaient-ils or elles pas 1 552 FRENCH GRAMMAR. PRETERITE DEFINITE. I rendered, or did I rendered not, or did I render 1 &c. render, &c. did not render, &c. je rendis tu rendis il or elle rendit nous rendimes vous rendites je ne rendis pas rendis-je tu ne rendis pas rendis-tu il or elle ne rendit rendit-il or elle pas rendit rendi mes-nous vous ne rendites rendites-vous pas ils or elles ren- ils or elles ne ren- rendirent-ils or dirent. dirent pas dies'? did I not render 1 &c. ne rendis-je pas ne rendis-tu pas ne rendit-il or elle pas ne rendimes-nous pas ne rendites-vous pas ne rendirent-ils or elles pas 1 PRETERITE INDEFINITE. I have rendered, &e. j'ai rendu tu as rendu il or elle a rendu nous avons rendu vous avez rendu ils or elles out rendu. I have not ren- dered, &c. je n'ai pas rendu tu n'as pas rendu il or elle n'a pas rendu nous n'avons pas rendu vous n'avez pas rendu ils or elles n'ont pas rendu. have I rendered % &c. ai-je rendu as-tu rendu a-t-il or elle rendu avons-nous rendu avez-vous rendu ont-ils or elles rendu 1 have I not ren- dered 1 &c. n'ai-je pas rendu n'as-tu pas rendu n'a-t-il or elle pas x-endu n'avons-nous pas rendu n'avez-vous pas rendu n'ont-ils or elles pas rendu 1 PLUPERFECT. I had rendered, &c. , j'avais rendu tu avais rendu il or elle avait rendu nous avions rendu vous aviez rendu ils or elles avaient rendu. I had not ren- had I rendered 1 dered, &c. &c. je n'avais pas avais-je rendu rendu tu n avais pas rendu il or elle n'avait pas rendu avais-tu rendu /ait-il rendu elle nous n'avions pas avions-nous rendu rendu vous n aviez pas rendu ils or elles n'av- aient pas rendu. aviez-vous rendu avaient-ils or elles rendu 1 had I not ren- dered 1 &c. n'avais-je pas rendu n'avais-tu pas rendu n'avait-il or elle pas rendu n'avions-nous pas rendu n'aviez-vous pas rendu n'avaient-ils or elles pas rendu 1 PRETERITE ANTERIOR. I had rendered, I had not ren- had I rendered 1 had I not ren- &c. dered, &c. &c. dered 1 j'eus rendu je n'eus pas rendu eus-je rendu n'eus-je pas rendu tu eus rendu tu n'eus pas rendu eus-tu rendu n'eus-tu pas rendu il or elle eut rendu il or elle n'eut pas eut-il or elle rendu n'eut-il or elle pas rendu rendu RENDRE, TO RENDER. 553 nous eurnes rendu nous n'eumes pas eurnes-nous rendu n'eumes-nous pas rendu rendu vous eutes rendu vous n'eutes pas eutes-vous rendu n'eutes-vous pas rendu rendu ils or elles eurent ils or elles n'eurent eurent-ils or elles n'eurent-ils or elles rendu. pas rendu. rendu 1 pas rendu 1 I shall or will ren- der, &c. je rendrai tu rendras il or elle rendra nous rendrons vous rendrez ils or elles ren- dront. FUTURE ABSOLUTE. I shall or will not shall or will I render, &c. render 1 &c. je ne rendrai pas rendrai-je tu ne rendras pas rendras-tu il or elle ne rendra rentra-t-il or elle pas nous ne rendrons rendrons-nous pas vous ne rendrez rendrez-vous pas ils or elles ne ren- rendront-ils or dront pas. elles 1 shall or will I not render 1 &c. ne rendrai-je pas ne rendras-tu pas ne rendra-t-il or elle pas ne rendrons-nous pas ne rendrez-vous pas ne rendront-ils or elles pas 1 FUTURE ANTERIOR. I shall or will have I shall or will not shall or will I have shall or will I not rendered, &c have rendered, rendered 1 &c. have rendered 1 &c. &c. j'aurai rendu je n'aurai pas aurai-je rendu n'aurai-je pas rendu rendu tu auras rendu tu n'auras pas auras-tu rendu n'auras-tu pas rendu rendu il or elle aura rendu il or elle n'aura aura-t-il or elle n'aura-t-il or elle pas rendu rendu pas rendu nous aurons rendu nous n'aurons pas aurons-nous rendu n'aurons-nous pas rendu rendu vous aurez rendu vous n'aurez pas aurez-vous rendu n'aurez-vous pas rendu rendu ils or elles auront ils or elles n'auront auront-ils or elles n'auront-ils or rendu. pas rendu. rendu 1 elles pas rendu ! CONDITIONAL MOOD. I should, " would, could, or might render, &c. je rendrais tu rendrais il or elle rendrait nous rendrions vous rendriez ils or elles ren- draient. PRESENT. I should, would, should, would, could, or might could, or might not render, &c. I render 1 &c. je ne rendrais pas rendrais-je lu ne rendrais pas rendrais-tu il or elle ne rendrait rendrait-il or elle pas nous ne rendrions rendrions-nous pas vous ue rendriez rendriez-vous pas ils or e\\ea ne ren- rendraient-ils or draient pas. elles 1 47 should, would, could, or might I not render 1 &c. ne rendrais-je pas ne rendrais-tu pas ne rendrait-il or elle pas ne rendrions-nous pas ne rendriez-vous pas ne rendraient-ils or elles pas 1 551 FRENCH GRAMMAR. I should, would, could, or might have rendered, &c. i'aurais rendu tu aurais rendu il or elle aurait rendu nous aurions rendu vous auriez rendu ils or elles auraient rendu. I should, would, could, or might not have ren- dered, &c. je n'aurais pas rendu tu n'aurais pas rendu il or elle n'aurait pas rendu nous n'aurions pas rendu vous n'auriez pas rendu ils or elles n'au- raient pas rendu. should, would, could, or might I have ren- dered 1 &c. aurais-je rendu aurais-tu rendu aurait-il or elle rendu aurions-nous rendu aunez-vous rendu auraient-ils or elles rendu 1 should, would, could or might I not have ren- dered 1 &c. n'aurais-je pas rendu n'aurais-tu pas rendu n'aurait-il or elle pas rendu n'aurions-nous pas rendu n'auriez-vous pas rendu n'auraient-ils or elles pas rendu 1 do render, &c. rends rendons rendez. IMPERATIVE MOOD. do not. render, I ne rends pas ne rendons pas ne rendez pas. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. PRESENT. that I may render, &c. que je rende que tu rendes qu'il or qu'elle rende que nous rendions que vous rendiez qu'ils or qu'elles rendent. that I may not render, &c. que je ne rende pas que tu ne rendes pas qu'il or qu'elle ne rende pas que nous ne rendions pas que vous ne rendiez pas qu'ils or qu'elles ne rendent pas. that I might render, &c. que je rendisse que tu rendisses qn'il or qu'elle rendit que nous rendissions que vous rendissiez qu'ils or qu'elles rendissent. IMPERFECT. that I might not render, &c. que je ne rendisse pas que tu ne rendisses pas qu'il or qu'elle ne rendit pas que nous ne rendissions pas que vous ne rendissiez pas qu'ils or qu'elles ne rendissent pas. that I may have rendered, &c. que j'aie rendu que tu aies rendu qu'il or qu'elle ait rendu que nous ayons rendu que vous ayez rendu qu'ils or qu'elles aient rendu. PRETERITE. that I may not have rendered, &c que je n'aie pas rendu que tu n'aies pas rendu qu'il or qu'elle n'ait pas rendu que nous n'ayons pas rendu que vous n'ayez pas rendu qu'ils or qu'elles n'aient pas rendu. RENDRE, TO RENDER. 555 that I might have rendered, &c. que j'eusse rendu que tu eusses rendu qu'il or qu'elle eut rendu que nous eussions rendu que vous eussiez rendu qu'ils or qu'elles eussent rendu. PLUPERFECT. that I might not have rendered, &c. que je n'eusse pas rendu que tu n'eusses pas rendu qu'il or qu'elle n'eut pas rendu que nous n'eussions pas rendu que vous n'eussiez pas rendu qu'ils or qu'elles n'eussent pas rendu. 1100. All the verbs of this conjugation end in re in the present of the infinitive, as rendre, to render. They are about two hundred and forty in number. Those which are conjugated like rendre, in all their tenses and per- sons, are called regular ; forty of them belong to this class ; they are the following : Appendre, (not to hang up. Morfondre, to be very cold. used,) Parfondre, (not to melt equally. Attendre, to wait, to expect. used,) Confondre, to confound. Pendre, to hang. Correspondre, to correspond. Perdre, to lose. Defendre, to defend. Pondre, to lay eggs. Demordre, to give up. Pourfendre, to cut in two. Dependre, to take down, or to Pretendre, to pretend. depend on, upon. Refendre, to split again. Descendre, to go down, to de- Refondre, to melt again. scend, &c. Remordre, to bite again. Detendre, to unbend, to Rendre, to render. loosen. Repandre, to spell, to shed. Detordre, to untwist. Repondre, to answer. Distendre, to distend, to ex- Retordre, to twist again. tend. Revendre, to sell again. Entendre, to hear, to under- Sous entendre, to understand. stand. Survendre, (not to sell too dear. Epandre, to spread. used,) Etendre, to spread. Suspendre, to suspend. Fendre, to split. Tendre, to hold out, to bend. Fondre, to melt. Tondre, to shear. Mevendre, (not to undersell. Tordre, to twist. used,) Vendre, to sell. Mordre, to bite. All the other verbs of this conjugation are irregular, and will be conjugated in this grammar. 1101. There is a sure method of ascertaining whether a verb of the fourth conjugation is regular or not ; if the present participle ends in dant, the verb is regular; if not, the verb is irregular. 1102. It must be remembered, that, when the first person singular of the present of the indicative, of any verb, has only one syllable, we cannot use it interrogatively ; thus, we cannot say, vends-je 1 do I sell ? prends-je? do I take ? &c. ; the only exceptions are : Fais-je ? Do I do 1 Dis-jf Do 556 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Dois-je 1 Do I owe 1 Vois-je 1 Do I see % Ai-je 1 Have 1 1 Vais-je 1 Do I go 1 This remark is applicable to nearly all the verbs of the fourth con- jugation, whatever may be the number of their syllables. Another form must, then, be given to the verb ; as, Est-ce que je vends 1 Is it that I sell 1 &c. The interrogation being made in the verb to be, est-ce, the verb following is used in the affirmative form. QUESTIONS. 1100. How many verbs are there in the fourth conjugation 1 1100. How many regular verbs are there in that conjugation % 1101. How can it always be ascertained whether a verb of the fourth conju- gation is either regular or irregular 1 1102. When a verb of this or of any other conjugation, in the first person singular of the present of the indicative used interrogatively, is composed of only one syllable, what form should it assume 1 1102. What are the exceptions to the preceding rule 1 1103. CONJUGATION OF THE PASSIVE VERBS. We will only give a single model for the conjugation of the passive verbs, because the form is the same in the four conjugations. INFINITIVE MOOD. to be loved not to be loved 6tre aime. n'etre pas aime. PRESENT PARTICIPLE. being loved not being loved etant aime. n'etant pas aime COMPOUND OF THE INFINITIVE AND PAST PARTICIPLE. to have been loved not to have been loved avoir ete aime. n'avoir pas ete aime. PASSIVE VERBS. 557 COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT AND PAST PARTICIPLES. having been loved. not having been loved ayant ete aime. n ayant pas ete aime. INDICATIVE MOOD. Affirmative. I am loved, &c. je suis aime, ee tu es aime, ee il est aime elle est aimee nous sommes aimes, ees vous etes aimes, ees, ils sont aimes elles sont aimees. Negative. Interrogative. Negative and In- terrogative. I am not loved, &c. am I loved 1 &c. am I not loved 1 &c. je ne suis pas suis-je aime, ee aime, ee tu n'es pas aime, es-tu aime, ee ee il n'est pas aime est-il aime elle n'est pas aimee est-elle aimee nous ne sommes sommes-nous pas aimes, ees aimes, ees ne suis-je pas aime, ee n'es-tu pas aime, ee n'est-il pas aime n'est-elle pas aimee ne sommes-nous pas aimes, ees rous n'etes pas etes-vous aimes, n'etes-vous aimes, ees ne sont-ils pas aimes amies, ees ees ils ne sont pas sont-ils aimes aimes elles ne sont pas sont-elles aimees 1 ne sont-elles pas aimees. aimeesl IMPERFECT. I was loved, &c. I was not loved, was I loved 1 &c. was I not loved 1 &c. &c. J'etais aime, ee jen'etais pas aime, etais-je aime, ee n'etais-je pas aime, ee ee tu etais aime, ee tu n'etais pas aime, etais-tu aime, ee n'etais-tu pas aime, ee ee il etait aime il n'etait pas aime etait-il aime n'etait-il pas aime elle etait aimee elle n'etait pas etait-elle aimee n'etait-elle pas aimee aimee nous etions aimes, nous n'etions pas etions-nous aimes, n'etions-nous pas ees aimes, ees ees aimes, ees vous etiez aimes, vous n'etiez pas etiez-vous aimes, n'etiez-vous pas ees aimes, ees ees aimes, ees ils etaient aimes ils n'etaient pas etaient-ils aimes n'etaient-ils pas aimes aimes elles ' etaient elles n'etaient pas etaient-elles n'etaient-elles pas aimees. aimees. aimees 1 aimees 1 PRETEPJTE DEFINITE. I wa« iovd, kc. je fus airnej £e tu fus aimi, ee il fut aime •lie fut aimee I was not loved, was I loved 1 &c. was I not loved 1 &c. je ne fus pas aime, fus-je aime, ee ee tu ne fus pas aime, fus-tu aime, ee ee il ne fut pas aime fut-il aime elle ne fut pas fut-elle aimee aimee 47* &c. ne fus-je pas aime, ee ne fus-tu pas aime, ee ne fut-il pas aime ne fut-elle pas aimee 558 FRENCH GRAMMAR. nous fumes aimes, nous ne fumes pas fumes -nous aimes, ne fumes-nous pas ees aimes, ees ees aimes, ees vous futes airaes, vous ne futes pas fiites-vous aimes, ne futes-vous pas- ees aimes, ees ees aimes, ees lis furent airaes ils ne furent pas furent-ils aimes ne furent-ils pas aimes aimes elles furent aimees. elles ne furent pas furent-elles aimees 1 ne furent-elles pas aimees. aimees 1 PRETERITE INDEFINITE. I have been loved, I have not been have I been loved 1 have I not been &c. loved, &c. &c. loved, &c. j'ai ete aime, ee je n'ai pas ete ai-je ete aime, ee n'ai-je pas ete aime, ee aime, ee tu as ete aime, ee tu n'as pas ete as-tu ete aime, ee n'as-tu pas ete aime, ee aime, ee il a ete aime il n'a pas ete aime a-t-il ete aime n'a-t-il pas ete aime elle a ete aimee elle n'a pas ete a-t-elle ete aimee n'a-t-elle pas ete aimee aimee nous avons ete nous n'avons pas avons-nous ete n'avons-nous pas aimes, ees ete aimes, ees aimes, ees ete aimes, ees vous avez ete vous n'avez pas ete avez-vous ete n'avez-vous pas ete aimes, ees aimes, ees aimes, ees aimes, ees ils ont ete aimes ils n'ont pas ete ont-ils ete aimes n'ont-ils pas ete aimes aimes elles ont ete elles n'ont pas ete ont-elles ete n'ont-elles pas ete aimees. aimees. aimees *? aimees 1 PLUPERFECT. I had been loved, I had not been had I been loved, had I not been &c. loved, &c. &c. loved, &c. j'avais ete aime, je n'avais pas ete avais-je ete aime, n'avais-je pas ete ee aime, ee ee aime, ee tu avais ete aime, tu n'avais pas ete avais-tu ete aime, n'avais-tu pas ete ee aime, ee ee aime, ee il avait ete aime il n'avait pas ete avait-il ete aime n'avait-il pas ete aime aime elle avait ete aimee elle n'avait pas avait-elle ete aimee n'avait-elle pas ete aimee ete aimee nous avions ete nous n'avions pas avions-nous ete n'avions-nous pas aimes, ees ete aimes, ees aimes, ees ete aimes, ees vous aviez ete vous n'aviez pas aviez-vous ete n'aviez-vous pas aimes, ees ete aimes, ees aimes, ees ete aimes, ees ils avaient ete ils n'avaient pas avaient-ils 6te n'avaient-ils pas aimes ete aimes aimes ete aimes elles avaient ete elles n'avaient ete avaient-elles ete n'avaient-elles pas aimees. aimees. aimees 1 ete aimees 1 PRETERITE ANTERIOR. I had been loved, I had not been had I been loved 1 had I not been &c. loved, &c. &c. loved 1 &c. j'eus ete aime, ee je n'eus pas ete eus-je ete aime, 6e n'eus-je pas ete aime, ee aime, ee tu eus ete aime, ee tu n'eus pas ete eus-tu ete aime, ee n'eus-tu pas ete aime, ee aime, ee il eut ete aime il n'eut pas ete eut-il ete aime n'eut-il pas ete aime aime elle eut ete aimee elle n'eut pas ete eut -elle ete aimee n'eut-elle pas 6t6 aimee aimee PASSIVE VERBS. 559 nous eumes aimes, ees vous elites aimes, ees ils eureat aimes elles eurent aimees. ete nous n'eumes pas ete aimes, ees vous n'eutes pas ete aimes, ees ils n'eurent pas ete aimes elles n'eurent pas ete aimees. eumes-nous ete aimes, ees eutes-vous ete aimes, ees eurent-ils ete aimes euvent-elles ete aimees 1 n eumes-nous pas ete aimes, ees n'eutes-vous pas ete aimes, ees n'eurent-ils pas ete aimes n'eurent-elles pas ete aimees 1 FUTURE ABSOLUTE. I shall or will be loved, &c. je serai aime, ee tu seras aime, ee il sera aime elle sera aimee nous serons aimes, ees vous serez aimes, ees ils seront aimes elles seront aimees. I shall or will not be loved, &c. je ne serai pas aime, ee tu ne seras pas aime, ee il ne sera pas aime elle ne sera pas aimee nous ne serons pas aimes, ees vous ne serez pas aimes, ees ils ne seront pas aimes elles ne seront pas aimees. shall or will I be loved 1 &c. serai-je aime, ee seras-tu aime, ee sera- t-il aime sera-t-elle aimee serons-nous aimes, ees serez-vous aimes, ees seront-ils aimes seront-elles aimees 1 shall or will I not be loved 1 &c. ne serai-je pas aime, ee ne seras-tu pas aime, ee ne sera-t-il pas aime ne sera-t-elle pas aimee ne serons-nous pas aimes, ees ne serez-vous pas aimes, ees ne seront-ils pas aimes ne seront-elles pas FUTURE ANTERIOR. I shall or will have been loved, &c. j'aurai ete aime, ee tu auras ete aime, ee il aura ete aime elle aura ete aimee nous aurons ete aimes, ees vous aurez ete aimes, ees ils auront ete aimes elles auront ete aimees. I shall or will not have been loved, &c. je n'aurai pas ete aime, ee tu n'auras pas ete aime, ee il n'aura pas ete aime elle n'aura pas ete aimee nous n'aurons pas ete aimes, ees vous n'aurez pas ete aimes, ees ils n'auront pas ete aimes elles n'auront pas ete aimees. shall or will I have been loveo. 1 &c. aurai-je ete aime, ee auras-tu ete aime, ee aura-t-il ete aime aura-t-elle ete aimee aurons-nous ete aimes, ees aurez-vous ete aimes, ees auront-ils ete aimes auront-elles ete aimees 1 shall or will I not have been loved! &c. n'aurai-je pas ete aime, ee n'auras-tu pas ete aime, ee n'aura -t-il pas ete aime n'aura-t-elle pas ete aimee n'aurons-nous pas ete aimes, ees n'aurez-vous pas ete aimes, ees n'auront-ils pas ete aimes n'auront-elles pas ete aimees 1 560 FRENCH GRAMMAR. CONDITIONAL MOOD. PRESENT. I should, would, could, or might be loved, &c. je serais aime, ee tu serais aime, ee il serait aime elle serait aimee nous serions aimes, ees vous seriez aimes, ees ils seraient aimes elles seraient aimees. I should, would, could, .or might not be loved, &c. je ne serais pas aime, ee tu ne serais pas aime, ee il ne serait pas aime elle ne serait pas aimee nous ne serions pas aimes, ees vous ne seriez pas aimes, ees ils ne seraient pas aimes elles ne seraient pas aimees. should, would, could, or might I be loved 1 &c. serais-je aime, ee serais-tu aime, ee serait-il aime serait-elle aimee serions-nous aimes. ees seriez-vous aimes, ees seraient-ils aimes seraient-elles should, would, could, or might I not be loved 1 &c. ne serais-je pas aime, ee ne serais-tu pas aime, ee ne serait-il pas aime ne serait-elle pas aimee ne serions-nous pas aimes, ees ne seriez-vous pas aimes, ees ne seraient-ils pas aimes ne seraient-elles pas aimees 1 I should, would, could, or might have been loved, &c. j'aurais ete aime, ee tuaurais ete aime, ee il aurait ete aime elle aurait ete aimee nous aurions ete aimes, ees vous auriez ete aimes, ees ils auraient ete aimes elles auraient ete aimees. be loved, &c. sois aime, ee soyons aimes, ees eoyez aimes, ees. that I may be loved, &c. que je sois aime, ee que tu sois aime, ee qu'il soit aime qu'elle soit aimee I should, would, could, or might not have been loved, &c. je n'aurais pas ete aime, ee tu n'aurais pas ete aime, ee il n'aurait pas ete aime elle n'aurait pas ete aimee nous n'aurions pas ete aimes, ees vous n'auriez pas ete aimes, ees ils n'auraient pas ete aimes elles n'auraient pas ete aimees. should, would, should, would, could, or might could, or might I have been I not have been loved 1 &c. loved 1 &c. n'aurais-je pas ete aime, ee n'aurais-tu pas ete aime, ee n'aurait-il pas ete aime n'aurait-elle pas ete aimee n'aurions-nous pas ete aimes, ees n'auriez-vous pas ete aimes, ees n'auraient-ils pas ete aimes n'auraient-elles pas ete aimees 1 aurais-je ete aime, ee aurais-tu ete aime, ee aurait-il ete aime aurait-elle ete aimee aurions-nous ete aimes, ees auriez-vous ete aimes, ees auraient-ils ete aimes auraient-elles ete aimees 1 IMPERATIVE MOOD. be not loved, &c. ne sois pas aime, ee ne soyons pas aimes, ees ne soyez pas aimes, ees. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. PRESENT. that I may not be loved, &c. que je ne sois pas aime, ee que tu ne sois pas aime, ee qu'il ne soit pas aime, qu'elle ne soit pas aimee PRONOMINAL VERBS. 561 que nous soyons aimes, ees que vous soyez aimes, ees qu'ils soient aimes qu'elles soient aimees. que nous ne soyons pas aimes, eea que vous ne soyez pas aimes, ees qu'ils ne soient pas aimes qu'elles ne soient pas aimees. that I might be loved, &c. que je fusse aime, ee que tu fusses aime, ee qu'il fut aime qu'elle tut aimee que nous fussions aimes, ees que vous fussiez aimes, ees qu'ils fussent aimes qu'elles fussent aimees. IMPERFECT. that I might not be loved, &c. que je ne fosse pas aime, ee que tu ne fusses pas aime, ee qu'il ne fut pas aime qu'elle ne fut pas aimee que nous ne fussions pas aimes, ees que vous ne fussiez pas aimes, ees qu'ils ne fussent pas aimes qu'elles ne fussent pas aimees. that I may have been loved, &c. que j'aie ete aime, ee que tu aies ete aime, ee qu'il ait ete aime qu'elle ait ete aimee que nous ayons ete aimes, ees que vous ayez ete aimes, ees qu'ils aient ete aimes qu'elles aient ete aimees. that I may not have been loved, &c. que je n'aie pas ete aime, ee que tu n'aies pas ete aime, ee qu'il n'ait pas ete aime qu'elle n'ait pas ete aimee que nous n'ayons pas ete aimes, ees que vous n'ayez pas ete aimes, ees qu'ils n'aient pas ete aimes qu'elles n'aient pas ete aimees. PLUPERFECT. that I might have been loved, &c. que j'eusse ete aime, ee que tu eusses ete aime, ee qu'il eut ete aime qu'elle eut ete aimee que nous eussions ete aimes, ees que vous eussiez ete aimes, ees qu'ils eussent ete aimes qu'elles eussent ete aimees. that I might not have been loved, &c. que je n'eusse pas ete aime, ee que tu n'eusses pas ete aime, ee qu'il n'eut pas ete aime qu'elle n'eut pas ete aimee que nous n'eussions pas ete aimes, ees que vous n'eussiez pas ete aimes, ees qu'ils n'eussent pas ete aimes qu'elles n'eussent pas ete aimees. 1104. OF PRONOMINAL VERBS. Pronominal verbs are those in which each person is conjugated, through all the tenses, with two pronouns of the same person, one being nominative, the other objective. If the nominative of the verb, instead of being a pronoun, is a noun, then the nominative pronoun is not used, and the objective must be of the same number and person as the nominative, that is to say, of the third person singular or plural, according to the number of this nominative. (For the reflective pronouns see the Grammar.) 562 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 1105. OF REFLECTED VERBS. Reflected verbs are either active or neuter. (See the Grammar.) Some active verbs are used impersonally with the reflected form ; but then they admit only of the third person singular. They assume this form, in a passive sense, for the sake of brevity and energy ; as in, There are a great many houses building II se batit beaucoup de maisons cette this year, annee, instead of Beaucoup de maisons sont baties cette annee. A great battle will be fought to-morrow, II se donnera une grande bataille de- main, instead of Une grande bataille sera donnee demain. Reflected verbs have their simple tenses conjugated like those of the verbs from which they are derived, whether active or neuter, reg- ular or irregular ; but their compound tenses are conjugated with the auxiliary verb etre, to be, without exception, and the past participle agrees in number and gender with its nominative, when the verb is active. 1106. When a reflected verb is used in the infinitive mood, pre- ceded by another verb, the reflected pronoun placed before the infin- itive must be of the same number and person as the nominative of the first verb ; as in , I wish to take a walk. Je veux me promener. Thou wishest to take a walk. Tu veux te promener. He or she wishes to take a walk. II or elle veut se promener, &c. My brother wishes to take a walk. Mon frere veut se promener. My brothers wish to take a walk. Mes freres veulent se promener. Foreigners must pay attention to this rule, in order to avoid a fault very common among them, which consists in using the reflected pro- nouns of the third person singular or plural before the infinitive, what- ever may be the person and number of the nominative of the first verb ; a fault into which they are led by observing the pronoun se so com- monly prefixed to the infinitive of the reflected verbs. The application of this rule may present some difficulties in the case of impersonal verbs, which are used elliptically ; but, by the analysis of the sen tence, they are easily removed ; as in, You must go and take a walk. II faut aller vous promener. REFLECTIVE VERBS. 563 This phrase stands for : II faut que vous alliez vous proniener, in which the preceding rule finds its application without difficulty. There are in French a great number of verbs which are used in the reflective form, although in English they do not admit of the reflective pronouns, one's self, myself, thyself, himself or herself, &c. They will be found in the following list. 1107. A LIST OF VERBS WHICH ARE REFLECTIVE IN FRENCH, ALTHOUGH THEY DO NOT TAKE THIS FORM IN ENGLISH. S'abstenir, to abstain. S'evaporer, to evaporate. S'accorder, to agree. Se fletrir, to fade away. S'adresser, to apply. S'evanouir, to faint away. Se baigner, to bathe. S'endormir, to fall asleep. Se raidir, to bear up against. Se rendormir, to fall asleep again. Se facher, to be angry, to be S'acharner, to fall furiously offended. upon. Se liquefier, to become liquid. Se figurer, to fancy. Se mourir, to be dying. S'imaginer, (C S'empresser, " eager. Se remplumer, to new feather. S'eclipser, " eclipsed. S'attrouper, to flock in crowds. Se remplumer, to begin to thrive. S'ecouler, to flow out. S'attendrir, to be moved. S'envoler, to fly away. S'opiniatrer, " obstinate. S'emporter, to fly into a pas- Se degouter, " out of conceit sion. with. Se gangrener, to gangrene. Se renouveler, to be renewed. S'euivrer, to get intoxicated. Se resoudre, " resolved. Se paraliser, " palsied. Se faire, " silent. Se lever, " up. Se garder, to beware. S'ennuyer, " weary. S'epanouir, to blow. Se desister, to give over. Se vanter, to boast. Se demettre, . " up- Se dechainer, to break loose. S'en aller, to go away. S'enrhumer, to catch cold. Se coucher, " to bed. Se so'jcier, to care for. S'attrister, to grieve. Se plaindre, to complain. S'amender, to grow better. S'avancer, to come forward. S'enhardir, bold. S'aboucher, to confer. S'assoupir, " drowsy. Se figer, to congeal. Se familiariser, " familiar. Se glisser, to creep into. S'impatienter, " impatient. Se plaire, to delight in. Se radoucir, " milder. Se complaire, a S'appauvrir, " poor. S'appetisser, to diminish. S'enorgueillir, " proud. Se desister, to desist. S'enrichir, " rich. S'acquitter, to discharge. Se lasser, tired. S'entretenir, to discourse with Se guerir, to heal. Se defier, to distrust. S'enquerir, to inquire. Se determiner, to determine. S'entremettre, to intermeddle S'ecouler, to elapse. S'ingerer, c< S'efforcer, to endeavor. S'agenouiller, to kneel down. Se recrier, to exclaim. Se moquer, to laugh at. S'attendre, to expect. Se saisir, to lay hold of. 564 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Se Uglier, S'accouder, S'appiiyer, Se depecher, Se hater, S 'evader, S'echapper, S'allier, Se marier, Se meler, Se fondre, Se meprendre, Se mefier, Se mutiner, S'opposer, Se deborder, Se farder, S'apercevoir, S'obstiner, Se putrefier, S'expatrier, Se revolter, Se dedire, Se rejouir, Se souvenir, Se ressouvenir, Se repentir, Se demettre, to league. to lean on one's elbow, to lean upon, to make haste. to make one's es- cape. to make one's es- cape. to make an alli- ance. to marry. to meddle with. to melt. to mistake. to mistrust. to mutiny. to oppose. to overflow. to paint. to perceive. to persist. to putrefy. to quit one's coun- try. to rebel. to recant. to rejoice. to remember. to repent to resign. Se retracter, S'endetter, S'enfuir, Se vendre, S'acheminer, S'apetisser, S'asseoir, S'attabler, Se glisser, S'arreter, S'esquiver, S'attacher, Se raidir, Se baisser, S'efforcer, Se debattre, Se soumettre, S'abonner, Se rendre, S'enteter, Se formaliser, Se piquer, Se refugier, Se reposer, S'enraciner, Se fier, Se promener, Se retirer, S'etonner, S'emerveiller, to retract, to run in debt, to run away, to sell, to set off. to shrink, to sit down. " " at the table, to slip, to stay, to steal away, to stick to. to stiffen. to stoop, to strive, to struggle, to submit, to subscribe, to surrender, to take a strong fancy, to take offence. " pet. " refuge. " rest. " root, to trust, to walk, to withdraw, to wonder. QUESTIONS. 1104. What is a pronominal verb 1 1104. When the nominative of a pronominal vei-b is a noun, in what number and person should the pronominal pronoun be used 1 1105. Are not active verbs sometimes used in the impersonal and reflected form 1 What meaning have they then — active or passive t 1105. With what auxiliary are reflected verbs conjugated 1 1105. When, two verbs following one another, the second is in the infinitive mood and the reflected form, in what person should the reflected pronoun which precedes that infinitive be used 1 1105. If the first of the two verbs were used impersonally, of what person should be the reflected pronoun placed before the infinitive following 1 1105. Are there not in French a great number of verbs which assume the reflected form whilst they are deprived of it in English 1 1107. (The verbs contained in this list should be learned by the pupils.) s 'aimer, to love one's self 565 CONJUGATION OF REFLECTIVE VERBS. 1108. S'AIMER, TO LOVE ONE'S SELF. INFINITIVE MOOD. to love one's self s 'aimer. PRESENT. not to love one's self ne pas s 'aimer. loving one's self s'aimant. PRESENT PARTICIPLE. not loving one's self ne s'aimant pas. COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT OF THE INFINITIVE AND PAST PARTICIPLE. to Lave loved one's self not to have loved one's self s'etre aime. ne pas s'etre aime. having loved one's self s'etant aime. COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT AND PAST PARTICIPLES. not having loved one's self ne s'etant pas aime. INDICATIVE MOOD. Affirmative. I love myself, &c. je m'aime tu t'aimes il or elle s'aime nous nous aimons vous vous aimez ils or elles s'ai- ment. PRESENT. Negative. Interrogative. Negative and Inter- rogative. I love not myself, do I love myself 1 do I not love my- &c. &c. self? &c. je ne nraime pas tu ne t'aimes pas il or elle ne s'aime pas nous ne nous ai- mons pas vous ne vous ai- mez pas ils or elles ne s'ai- ment pas. ne m'aime-je pas ne t'aimes-tu pas ne s'aime-t-il or elle pas ne nous aimons- nous pas ne vous aimez-vous pas s'aiment-ils or dies'? ne s'aiment-ils or elles pas *? m aime-je t'aimes-tu s'aime-t-il or elle nous aimons-nous vous aimez-vous IMPERFECT. loved myself, &c. I did not love my- did I love myself 1 did I not love my- self, &c. &c. je m'airnais tu t'aimais il or elle s'aimait 48 je ne m aimais pas m'aimais-je tu ne t'aimais pas t'ahnaie-tu il or elle ne s'aimait s'aimait-il or elle pas self? &c. ne m'aimais-je pas ne t'aimais-tu pas ne s'aimait-il or elle pas 566 FRENCH GRAMMAR. nous nous aimions nous ne nous anni- nous aunions-nous ons pas vous vous aimiez vous ne vous aimiez vous aimiez-vous pas ils or elles s'ai- ils or elles ne s'ai- s'aimaient-ils or maient. maient pas. elles 1 ne nous aimions- nous pas ne vous aimiez- vous pas ne s'aimaient-ils or elles pas 1 PRETERITE DEFINITE. I did love myself, I did not love my- &c. je m'aimai tu t'aimas il or elle s'aima nous nous aimames vous vous aimates ils or elles s'ai- merent. self, &c. je ne m'aimai pas tu ne t'aimas pas il or elle ne s'aima pas nous ne nous ai- mames pas vous ne vous ai- mates pas ils or elles ne s'ai- merent pas. did I love myself? did I not love my- &c. self? &c. m'aimai-je ne m'aimai-je pas t'aimas-tu ne t'aimas-tu pas s'aima-t-il or elle ne s'aima-t-ilor elle pas nous aimames-nous ne nous aimames- nous pas vous aimates-vous ne vous aimates- vous pas s'aimerent-ils or ne s'aimerent-ils or elles 1 elles pas 1 PRETERITE INDEFINITE. I have loved mv- self, &c. je me suis aime, ee tu t'es aime, ee il or elles'est aime, ee nous nous sommes aimes, ees vous vous etes aimes, ees ils or elles se sont aimes, ees. I have not loved myself, &c. je ne me suis pas aime, ee tu ne t'es pas aime, ee il or elle ne s'est pas aime, ee nous ne nous sommes pas aimes, ees vous ne vous etes pas aimes, ees ils or elles ne se sont pas aimes, ees. have I loved my- self? &c. me suis-je aime, ee t'es-tu aime, ee s'est-il or elle aime, ee nous sommes-nous aimes, ees vous etes-vous aimes, ees se sont-ils or elles aimes, ees 1 have I not loved myself? &c. ne me suis-je pas aime, ee ne t'es-tu pas aime, ee ne s'est-il or elle pas aime, ee ne nous sommes- nous pas aimes, ees ne vous etes-vous pas aimes, ees ne se sont-ils or elles pas aimes, ees 1 PLUPERFECT. I had loved myself, &c. je m'etais aime,ee tu t'etais aime, ee il or elle s'etait aime, ee nous nous etions aimes, ees vous vous etiez aimes, ees ils or elles s'etaient aimes, ees. I had not loved myself, &c. je ne m'etais pas aime, ee tu ne t'etais pas aime, ee il or elle ne s'etait pas aime, ee nous ne nous etions pas aimes, ees vous ne vous etiez pas aimes, ees ils or elles ne s'e- taient pas aimes, ees. had I loved myself? &c. m'etais-je aime,ee t'etais-tu aime, ee s'etait-il or elle aime, ee nous etions-nous aimes, ees vous etiez-vous aimes, ees s'etaient-ils or elles aimes, ees ? had I not loved myself? &c. ne m'etais-je pas aime, ee ne t'etais-tu pas aime, ee ne s'etait-il or elle pas aime, ee ne nous etions-nous pas aimes, ees ne vous etiez-vous pas aimes, ees ne s'etaient-ils or elles pas aimes, S AIMER, TO LOVE OSES SELF. 567 PRETERITE ANTERIOR. I had loved myself, &c. je me fus aime, ee tu te fus aime, ee il or elle se fut aime, ee nous nous fumes aimes, ees vuus vous fiites aimes, ees ils or elles se furent aimes, ees. I had not loved myself, &c. je ne me fus pas aime, ee tu ne te fus pas aime, ee il or elle ne se fut pas aime, ee nous ne nous fumes pas aimes, ees vous ne vous futes pas aimes, ees ils or elles ne se furent pas aimes, ees. had I loved my- self 1 &c. me fus-je aime, ee te fus-tu aime, ee se fut-il or elle aime, ee nous fumes-nous aimes, ees vous futes-vous aimes, ees se furent-ils or elles aimes, ees 1 had I not loved myself? &c. ne me fus-je pas aime, ee ne te fus-tu pas aime, ee ne se fut-il or elle pas aime, ee ne nous fumes-nous pas aimes, ees ne vous futes-vous pas aimes, ees ne se furent-ils or elles pas aimes, eesl FUTURE ABSOLUTE. I shall or will love myself, &c. I shall or will not love myself, &c. je m'aimerai je ne m'aimerai pas tu t'aimeras tu ne t'aimeras pas il or elle s'aiinera il or elle ne s'ai- mera pas nous nous aimerous nous ne nous aime- rons pas shall or will I love myself? &c. m'aimerai-je t'aimeras-tu s'aimera-t-il or elle shall or will I not love myself? &c. ne m aimerai-je pas ne t'aimeras-tu pas ne s'aimera-t-il or elle pas nous aimerons-nous ne nous aimerons- nous pas vous vous aimerez vous ne vous aime- vous aimerez-vous i or elles s'aime- ront. rez pas ils or elles ne s'ai- meront pas. s'aimeront-ils elles 1 ne vous aimerez- vous pas ne s'aimeront-ils or elles pas 1 FUTURE ANTERIOR. I shall or will have loved mvself, &c. ie me serai aime, J ee tu te serasaime, ee il or elle se sera aime, ee nous nous serons aimes, ees vous vous serez aimes, ees ils or elles se seront aimes, ees. I shall or will not have loved my- self, &c. je ne me serai pas aime, ee tu ne te seras pas aime, ee il or elle ne se sera pas aime, ee nous ne nous serons pas aimes, ees vous ne vous serez pas aimes, ees ils or elles ne se seront pas aimes, ees. shall or will I have loved myself? &c. me serai-je aime, ee te seras-tu aime,ee se sera-t-il or elle aime, ee nous serons-nous aimes, ees vous serez-vous aimes, ees se seront-ils or elles aimes, ees 1 shall or will I not have loved my- self 1 &c. ne me serai-je pas aime, ee ne te seras-tu pas aime, ee ne se sera-t-il or elle pas aime, ee ne nous serons-nous pas aimes, ees ne vous serez-vous pas aimes, ees ne se seront-ils or elles pas aimes, ees 1 568 FRENCH GRAMMAR. CONDITIONAL MOOD. I should, would, could, or might love myself, &c. je m'aimerais tu t'aimerais il or elle s'aimerait nous nous aime- rions • vous vous aimeriez ils or elles s'aime- raient. I should, would, should, would, could, or might could, or might not love myself, I love myself? &c. &c. je ne m'aimerais m'aimerais-je pas tu ne t'aimerais t'aimerais-tu pas il or elle ne s'aime- s'aimerait-il or elle rait pas nous ne nous aiine- nous aimerions- rions pas nous vous ne vous aime- vous aimeriez-vous riez pas ils or elles ne s'ai- s'aimeraient-ils or meraient pas. elles 1 should, would, could, or might I not love my- self? &c. ne m'aimerais-je pas ne t'aimerais-tu pas ne s'aimerait-il or elle pas ne nous aimerions- nous pas ne vous aimeriez- vous pas ne s'aimeraient-ils or elles pas 1 I should, would, could, or might have loved my- self, &c. je me serais aime, ee tu te serais aime, ee il or elle se serait aime, ee nous nous serions aimes, ees vous vous seriez aimes, ees ils or elles se se- raient aimes, I should, would, could, or might not have loved myself, &c. je ne me serais pas aime, ee tu ne te serais pas aime, ee il or elle ne se se- rait pas aime, ee nous ne nous se- rions pas aimes, ees vous ne vous seriez pas aimes, ees ils or elles ne se seraient pas ai- mes, ees. should, would, could, or might I have loved myself? &c. me serais-je aime, ee te serais-tu aime, ee se serait-il or elle aime, ee nous serions-nous aimes, ees vous seriez-vous aimes, ees se seraient-ils or elles aimes, PftS 1 should, would, could, or might I not have loved myself? &c. ne me serais-je pas aime, ee ne te serais-tu pas aime, ee ne se serait-il or elle pas aime,ee ne nous serions- nous pas aimes, ees ne vous seriez-vous pas aimes, ees ne se seraient-ils or elles pas aimes, love thyself, &c. aime-toi aimons-nous aimez-vous. IMPERATIVE MOOD. do not love thyself, &c. ne t'aime pas ne nous aimons pas ne vous aimez pas. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. PRESENT. that I may love myself, &c. que je m'aime que tu t'aimes qu'il or qu'elle s'aime that I may not love myself, &c. que je ne m'aime pas que tu ne t'aimes pas qu'il or qu'elle ne s'aime pas S AIMER TO LOVE ONE S SELF. 569 que nous nous aimions que vous vous aimiez qu'ils or qu'elles s'aiment. que nous ne nous aimions pas que vous ne vous aimiez pas qu'ils or qu'elles ne s'aiment pas. IMPERFECT. that dit love ilf, &c. que je m aimasse que tu t'aimasses qu'il or qu'elle s'aimat que nous nous aimassions que vous vous aimassiez qu'ils or qu'elles s'aimassent. that I might not love myself, &c. que je ne m'aimasse pas que tu ne t'aimasses pas qu'il or qu'elle ne s'aimat pas que nous ne nous aimassions pas que vous ne vous aimassiez pas qu'ils or qu'elles ne s'aimassent pas. PRETERITE. that I may have loved myself, &c. que je me sois aime, ee que tu te sois aime, ee qu'il or qu'elle se soit aime, ee que nous nous soyons aimes, ees que vous vous soyez aimes, ees qu'ils or qu'elles se soient aimes, ees. that I may not have loved myself, &c. que je ne me sois pas aime, ee que tune te sois pas aime, ee qu'il or qu'elle ne se soit pas aime, ee que nous ne nous soyons pas aimes, ees que vous ne vous soyez pas aimes, ees qu'ils or qu'elles ne se soient pas aimes, ees. that I might have loved myself, &c. que je me fusse aime, ee que tu te fusses, aime, ee qu'il or qu'elle se fut aime, ee que nous nous fussions aimes, ees que vous vous fussiez aimes, ees qu'ils or qu'elles se fussent aimes, ees. PLUPERFECT. :. that I might not have loved myself, &c. que je ne me fusse pas aime, ee que tu ne te fusses pas aime, ee qu'il or qu'elle ne se fut pas aime, ee que nous ne nous fussions pas aimes, ees que vous ne vous fussiez pas aimes, ees qu'ils or qu'elles ne se fussent pas aimes, ees. CONJUGATION OF THE IRREGULAR VERBS. FIRST CONJUGATION. 1109. Irregular verbs, as we have already stated, are those which differ, in some of their tenses and persons, from those which we have given as models of the four regular conjugations. Whatever may be the irregularity of a verb, it is irregular only in its simple tenses ; the compound are all regular ; therefore, we shall suppress them in the following conjugations, as well as those deriva- tive tenses which are regularly formed from the primitive. There are only four irregular verbs in the first conjugation. They are tV following : 48* 570 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Aller, S'en alter, Envoyer, Renvoyer, to go. to go away. to send. to send back. 1110. ALLER, TO GO. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. alter. Present Participle. allant. INDICATIVE MOOD. Past Participle. alle. Present. je vais tu vas il va ils vont. Preterite Definite. 'allai tu alias nous allames vous allates il alia ils or elles allerent Future Absolute. 'irai, &c. CONDITIONAL MOOD. Present. Present. j'irais, &c. IMPERATIVE MOOD. va. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. que j'aille que tu ailles qu'il aille qu'ils aillent. The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with the auxiliary verb etre, to be. 1111. Remark. Although the verb alter takes the auxiliary etre in its compound tenses, yet, when the idea intended to be expressed is, that a person has been to a certain place, but has returned from it, we substitute for this verb the compound tenses of the verb to be ; the verb alter expressing only the fact of a person's having gone some- where, without implying the idea of returning : as in, f Jean a ete a l'ecole ce matin. (He has T , , , , ... . ! been, but has returned.) John has gone to school this morning. \ Jean ^ ^ h p - co , e ce ' mat i„. (He I has gone, but has not returned.) We use the verb alter to express the idea of going to see a person, when, while speaking, we are out of the house of the person we intend to visit ; but, if in the house, the verb venir ought to be employed ; as in, I will go and see you to-morrow. J 'irai vous voir demain. (Being out of the house.) I will come and see you to-morrow. Je viendrai vous voir demain. (While in the house.) SEN ALLER, TO GO AWAY. 571 Thus, aller signifies to go from where we are to any other place, and venir signifies to come again to the place where the person is who speaks. 1112. S'EN ALLER, TO GO AWAY. This verb presenting some difficulty to foreigners, we shall conju- gate it in all its tenses, and in the affirmative, negative, interrogative, and negative and interrogative forms. INFINITIVE MOOD. PRESENT. to go away not to go away s'en aller. ne pas s'en aller. PRESENT PARTICIPLE. going away not going away s'en allant. ne s'en allant pas. PAST PARTICIPLE. gone away en alle. COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT OF THE INFINITIVE AND PAST PARTICIPLE. to have gone away not to have gone away s'en etre alle. ne s'en etre pas alle. COMPOUND OF THE PRESENT AND PAST PARTICIPLES. having gone away not having gone away s'en etant alle. ne s'en etant pas alle. INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. Affirmative. Negative. Interrogative. Negative and Inter' rogative. I go away, &c. J do not go awav, do I go away 1 &c. do I not go away "? &c &c. je m'en vais je ne m'en vais pas m'en vais-je ne m'en vais-je pas tu t'en vas tu ne t'en vas pas t'en vas-tu ne t'en vas-tu pas il s'en va il ne s'en va pas s'en va-t-il ne s'en va-t-il pas nous nous en allons nous ne nous en nous en allons-nous ne nous en allons- allons pas nous pas vous vous en allez vous ne vous en vous en allez-vous ne vous en allez- allez pas vous pas ils s'en vont. ils ne s'en vont pa6. s'en vont-ils 1 ne e'en vont-ils pas *? 572 FRENCH GRAMMAR. I was going away, &c. je m'en allais ta t'en allais il s'en allait nous nous en allions vous vous en alliez ils s'en allaient. IMPERFECT. 1 was not going was I going away 1 away, &c. &c. je ne m'en allais pas m'en allais-je tu ne t'en allais pas t'en allais-tu il ne s'en allait pas s'en allait-il nous ne nous en nous en allions-nous allions pas vous ne vous en vous en alliez-vous alliez pas ils ne s'en allaient s'en allaient-ils 1 pas. was I not going away 'i &c. ne m'en allais-je pas ne t'en allais-tu pas ne s'en allait-il pas ne nous en allions- nous pas ne vous en alliez- vous pas ne s'en allaient-ils PRETERITE DEFINITE. I did go away, &c. I did not go away, did I go away 1 &c. &c. je ne m'en allai pas m'en allai-je tu ne t'en alias pas t'en allas-tu il ne s'en alia pas s'en alla-t-il nous ne nous en nous en allames- je m'en allai tu t'en alias il s'en alia nous nous en allames vous vous en allates ils s'en allerent. allames pas vous ne vous en allates pas ils ne s'en allerent pas. nous vous en allates-vous s'en allerent-ils 1 did I not go away 1 &c. ne m'en allai-je pas ne t'en allas-tu pas ne s'en alla-t-il pas ne nous en allames- nous pas ne vous en allates- vous pas ne s'en allerent-ils PRETERITE INDEFINITE. I have gone awav. &c. je m'en suis alle tu t'en es alle il s'en est alle nous nous en sommes alles vous vous en etes alles ils s'en sont alles. I have not gone away, &c. je ne m'en suis pas J alle tu ne t'en es pas alle il ne s'en est pas alle nous ne nous en sommes pas alles vous ne vous en 6tes pas alles ils ne s'en sont pas alles. have I gone away 1 &c. m'en suis-je alle t'en es-tu alle s'en est-il alle nous en sommes- nous alles vous en etes-vous alles s'en sont-ils alles 1 have I not gone away 1 &c. ne m'en suis-ie pas alle J ne t'en es-tu pas alle ne s'en est-il pas alle ne nous en sommes- nous pas alles ne vous en etes- vous pas alles ne s'en sont-ils pas alles 1 PLUPERFECT. I had gone away, I had not gone had I gone away 1 &c. away, &c. &c. je m'en etais alle je ne m'en etais m'en etais-je alle pas alle tu t'en etais alle tu ne t'en etais t'en etais-tu alle pas alle il s'en etait alle il ne s'en etait pas s'en etait-il alle alle nous nous en etions nous ne nous en nous en etions-nous alles etions pas alles alles vous vous en etiez vous ne vous en vous en etiez-vous alles etiez pas alles alles ils s'en etaient ils ne s'en etaient s'en etaient-ils alles. pas alles. alles 1 had I not gone away 1 &c. ne m'en etais-je pas alle ne t'en etais-tu pas alle ne s'en etait-il pas alle ne nous en etions- nous pas alles ne vous en etiez- vous pas alles ne s'en etaient-ils pas alles 1 S EN ALLER, TO GO AWAY. 573 PRETERITE ANTERIOR. I had gone away, I had not gone had I gone away 1 had I not gone &c. away, &c. &c. away!&c. je m'en fus alle je ne m'en fus pas rn'en fus-je alle ne m'en fus-je pas alle alle tu t'en fus alle tu ne t'en fus pas t'en fus-tu alle ne t'en fus-tu pas alle alle il s'en fut alle il ne s'en fut pas s'en fut-il alle ne s'en fut-il pas alle alle nous nous en fumes nous ne nous en nous en fumes-nous ne nous en fumes- alles fumes pas alles alles nous pas alles vous vous en futes vous ne vous en vous en futes-vous ne vous en futes- alles futes pas alles alles vous pas alles ils s'en furent alles. ils ne s'en furent s'en furent-ils ne s'en furent-ils pas alles. alles 1 pas alles 1 So I shall or wi away, &c. je m'en irai tu t'en iras il s'en ira nous nous en irons vous vous en irez ils s'en iront. I shall or w ill have gone away, &c. je m'en serai alle tu t'en seras alle il s'en sera alle nous nous en serons alles vous vous en serez alles ils s'en seront alles. FUTURE ABSOLUTE. I shall or will not shall or will I go go away, &c. away ! &c. je ne m'en irai pas m'en irai-je tu ne t'en iras pas t'en iras-tu il ne s'en ira pas nous ne nous en s'en ira-t-il nous en irons-nous irons pas vous ne vous en vous en irez-vous irez pas ils ne s'en iront pas. FUTURE I shall or will not have gone away, &c. je ne m'en serai pas alle tu ne t'en seras pas alle il ne s'en sera pas alle nous ne nous en serons pas alles vous ne vous en serez pas alles ils ne s'en seront pas alles. s'en iront-ils 1 ANTERIOR. shall or will I have gone away ! &c. m'en serai-je alle t'en seras-tu alle s'en sera-t-il alle nous en serons- nous alles vous en serez-vous alles s'en seront-ils alles 1 shall or will I not go away % &c. ne m'en irai-je pas ne t'en iras-tu pas ne s'en ira-t-il pas ne nous en irons- nous pas ne vous en irez- vous pas ne s'en iront-ils pas 1 shall or will I not have gone away 1 &c. ne m'en serai-ie pas alle J ne t'en seras-tu pas alle ne s'en sera-t-il pas alle ne nous en serons- nous pas alles ne vous en serez- vous pas alles ne s'en seront-ils pas alles 1 I should, would, could, or might go away, &c. je m'en irais tu t'en irais il s'en irait CONDITIONAL MOOD. PRESENT. I should, would, should, would, could, or might could, or might not go away, &.c. I go away! &c. je ne m'en irais pas m'en irais-je tu ne t'en irais pas t'en irais-tu il ne s'en irait pa3 s'en irait-il should, would, could, or might I not go away! &c. ne m'en irais-je pas ne t'en irais-tu pas ne s'en irait-il pas 574 FRENCH GRAMMAR. nous nous en mons nous ne nous en nous en mons-nous ne nous en mons- irions pas nous pas vous vous en iriez vous ne vous en vous en iriez-vous ne vous en iriez- iriez pas vous pas ils s'en iraient. ils ne s'en iraient s'en iraient-ils ? ne s'en iraient-ils pas. pas 1 I should, would, could, or might have gone away, &c. je m'en serais alle tu t'en serais alle il s'en serait alle nous nous en serions alles vous vous en seriez alles ils s'en seraient alles. I should, would, could, or might not have gone away, &c. je ne m'en serais pas alle tu ne t'en serais pas alle il ne s'en serait pas alle nous ne nous en serions pas alles vous ne vous en seriez pas alles ils ne s'en seraient pas alles. should, would, could, or might I have gone away 1 &c. m'en serais-je alle t'en serais-tu alle s'en serait-il alle nous en serions- nous alles vous en seriez-vous alles s'en seraient-ils alles 1 should, would, could, or might I not have gone away 1 &c. ne m'en serais-je pas alle ne t'en serais-tu pas alle ne s'en serait-il pas alle ne nous en serions- nous pas alles ne vous en seriez- vous pas alles ne s'en seraient-ils pas alles 1 IMPERATIVE MOOD. go away, &c. va-t-en allons-nous en allez-vous en. do not go away, &c. ne t'en vas pas ne nous en allons pas ne vous en allez pas. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. PRESENT. that I may go away, &c. que je m'en aille que tu t'en ailles qu'il s'en aille que nous nous en allions que vous vous en alliez qu'ils s'en aillent. that I may not go away, &c. que je ne m'en aille pas que tu ne t'en ailles pas qu'il ne s'en aille pas que nous ne nous en allions pas que vous ne vous en alliez pas qu'ils ne s'en aillent pas. IMPERFECT. that I might go away, &c. que je m'en allasse que tu t'en allasses qu'il s'en allat que nous nous en allassions que vous vous en allassiez qu'ils s'en allassent. that I might not go away, &c. que je ne m'en allasse pas que tu ne t'en allasses pas qu'il ne s'en allat pas que nous ne nous en allassions pas que vous ne vous en allassiez pas qu'ils ne s'en allassent pas. ENVOYEK, TO SEA'D. 575 PRETERITE. that I may have gone away, &c. que je m'en sois alle que tu t'en sois alle qu'il s'en soit alle que nous nous en soyons alles que vous vous en soyez alles qu'ils s'en soient alles. that I may not have gone away, &c. que je ne m'en sois pas alle que tu ne t'en sois pas alle qu'il ne s'en soit pas alle que nous ne nous en soyons pas alles que vous ne vous en soyez pas alles. qu'ils ne s'en soient pas alles. PLUPERFECT. that I might have gone away, &c. que je tn'en fusse alle que tu t'en fusses alle qu'il s'en fut alle que nous nous eu fussions alles que vous vous eu fussiez alles qu'ils s'en fussent alles. that I might not have gone away, &c. que je ne m'en fusse pas alle que tu ne t'en fusses pas alle qu'il ne s'en fut pas alle que nous ne nous en fussions pas alles que vous ne vous en fussiez pas alles qu'ils ne s'en fussent pas alles. 1113. ENVOYER, TO SEND. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. envoyer. envoyant. INDICATIVE MOOD envoy e. Present. j'envoie tu envoies il envoie. Preterite Definite. j'envoyai tu envoyas nous envoyames vous envoyates il envoya ils envoyerent Future. j'enverrai, &c. CONDITIONAL MOOD. Present. j'enverrais, &c. Conjugate after the same manner the verb renvoyer, to send back. These two verbs are conjugated with the auxiliary avoir, to have. We have seen that defective verbs are those which are not used in all their tenses and persons. The following verbs are not only defective, but impersonal also, that is to sav, they are used only in the third person singular of each tense. Neiger, Arriver, Bruiner, Degeler, Eclairer, Geler, Greler, Gresiller, Importer, Resulter, Tonner, to snow. to happen. to drizzle. to thaw. to lighten, (speaking of the weather.) to freeze. to hail. to rime. to matter. to follow. to thunder, (speaking of the weather.) 576 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 1114. NEWER, TO SNOW. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present Present Participle. Past Participle. neiger. neigeant. neige. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. il neige, it snows. Imperfect. il neigeait, it snowed. Preterite Definite. il neigea, it did snow. Preterite Indefinite. il a neige, it has snowed. Pluperfect. il avait neige, it had snowed. Preterite Anterior. il eut neige, it had snowed. Future Absolute. il neigera, it shall or will snow. Future Anterior. il aura neige, it shall or will have snowed. CONDITIONAL MOOD. Present. il neigerait, it should, &c., snow. Past. il aurait neige, it should, &c, have snowed. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present. qu'il neige, that it may snow. Imperfect. qu'il neigeat, that it might snow. Preterite. qu'il ait neige, that it may have snowed. Pluperfect. qu'il eut neige, that it might have snowed. All the verbs contained in the list of defective and impersonal verbs on the preceding page are conjugated like neiger. IRREGULAR, DEFECTIVE, AND IMPERSONAL VERBS OF THE SECOND CONJUGATION. 1115. ACQUERIR, TO ACQUIRE. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. acquerir. acquerant. INDICATIVE MOOD. acquis. Present. j'acquiers tu acquiers il acquiert ils acquierent. Preterite Definite. j 'acquis tu acquis nous acqiumes vous acquites il acquit ils acquirent. Future. j'acquerrai, &c. BOUILLIR, TO BOIL. 577 CONDITIONAL MOOD. Present. j'acquerrais, &c. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present. que j'acquiere que tu acquires qu'il acquieie qu'ils acquierent. The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to have. The following verbs are conjugated in the same manner : Conquerir, to conquer. Querir, to fetch. Reconquerir, to conquer again. Requerir, to require. S'enquerir, to inquire. Of these verbs : 1116. Conquerir is defective, and only used in the present of the infinitive, preterite definite, imperfect of the subjunctive, past parti- ciple, and all the compound tenses. Querir is only used in the present of the infinitive, with the verbs aller, envoyer, and venir ; but the compound expressions which it forms with these verbs are rarely employed by well-educated people. Reconquerir is used only in the same tenses as conquerir. S'enquerir is used in the present of the infinitive, preterite definite, imperfect of the subjunctive, past participle, and all the compound tenses. (Not much used.) 1117. ASSAILLIR, TO ASSAULT. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. assaillir. assaillant. assailli. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. j'assaille til assailles il assaille. Preterite Definite, j'assaille tu assaillis il assaillit nous assaillimes vous assaillites ils assaillirent. The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to have. Conjugate after the same manner Iressaillir, to start. 1118. BOUILLIR, TO BOIL. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. bouillir. bouillant. bouilli 49 578 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Present. INDICATIVE MOOD. je bous tu bous Preterite Definite, je bouillis nous bouillimes tu bouillis vous bouillites il bout. il bouillit ils bouillirent. The compound tenses of bouillir are conjugated with the auxiliary avoir, to have. Conjugate after the same manner : Eboaillir, Rebouillir, to boil away. (Not used.) to boil again. These three verbs are not much used, except in the third persons of their several tenses, simple and compound. If any other person of those verbs is wanted, we use the verb faire, to make, with the infini- tive ; as in, I am boiling peas. Jefais bouillir des pois. But, in the passive sense of the verb to boil, bouillir is properly used in all its persons ; as in, I am, I was, boiling with anger. Je bous, je bouillais, de colere. 1119. COURIR, TO RUN. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past Participle courir. courant. INDICATIVE MOOD. couru. Present. je coura tu cours il court. Preterite Definite. je courus nous courumes tu courus vous courutes il courut ils coururent. Future Absolute. je courrai, &c. CONDITIONAL MOOD. Present. je courrais, &c. The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with the verb avoir, to have. Conjugate in the same manner : Accourir, Concourir, Discourir, Encourir, Parcourir, Recourir, Secourir, The compound tenses of the verb accourir are sometimes conjugated with etre, to be. to run to. to concur. to discourse. to incur. — to run over. to have recourse. to help. D0RM1R, TO SLEEP. 579 Present. cueillir. 1120. CUEILLIR, TO GATHER. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present Participle cueillant. Past Participle. cueilli. Present. Preterite Definite, je cueillis nous cueillmies Future Absolute. je cueillerai, &c. INDICATIVE MOOD. je cueille tu cueilles tu cueillis vous cueillites il ceuille. il cueillit ils cueillirent. Present. CONDITIONAL MOOD. je cueillerais, &c. The compound tenses of this and the following verbs are conjugated with avoir, to have. Accueillir, Recueillir, to welcome. to gather, to reap. These verbs are conjugated after the same manner as cueillir. Present. dormir. 1121. DORMIR, TO SLEEP. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present Participle. dormant. Past Participle. dormi. Present. je dors INDICATIVE MOOD. tu dors Preterite Definite, je dormis nous dormlmes tu dormis vous dormites il dort. il dormit ils dormi rent. The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to have, as well as those of the following : Endormir, Redormir, The two reflective verbs : to lull asleep, to sleep again. S'endormir, Se rendormir, to fall asleep, to fall asleep again, have their compound tenses conjugated with elre, to be, as all other reflective verbs. 580 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 1122. FAILLIR, TO FAIL. This verb is defective, and only used in the tenses of the infinitive mood, the preterite definite, and its derivative, the imperfect of the subjunctive, as well as in all the compound tenses. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. faillir. faillant. failli. Preterite Definite, je faillis tu faillis il faillit nous faillimes vous faillites ils faillirent. Imperfect of the que je faillisse que tu faillisses qu'il faillit Subjunctive. que nous faillis- que vous faillissiez qu'ils faillissent. sions The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to have. 1123. FLEURIR, TO BLOSSOM, TO FLOURISH. This verb is regular in all its tenses and persons, when it means to blossom; but when used figuratively, and meaning to flourish, it makes its present participle florissant, and its imperfect fiorissais, &c. Thus we say : The arts were flourishing at Rome. Les arts florissaient a Rome. Commerce being flourishing, the city Le commerce florissant, la ville parait appears lively. gaie. Refleurir, to flourish again, follows the same rule. These two verbs are conjugated with avoir, to have. 1124. FUIR, TO FLY. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. fuir. fuyant. fui. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. je fuis tu fuis il fuit Preterite Definite, je fuis tu fuis il fuit nou3 fuimes vous fuites ils fuirent. M0UR1R, TO DIE. 581 The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to have. Conjugate in the same manner s'enfuir, to run away, with the verb etre, to be, in its compound tenses. 1125. GESIR, TO LIE. This verb is defective, and no longer in use ; but we still say, il git, he lies, ci-glt, here lies, and gissant, lying, in obituary sentences. 1126. HAIR, TO HATE. This verb is regular, except in the singular of the present of the indicative, in which the diaeresis is suppressed, as well as in the second person singular of the imperative ; as in, Je hais tu hais, il hait ; hais. It is conjugated with avoir, to have. The diaeresis, placed over the i, causes this letter to be sounded by itself, and prevents its being joined to the preceding vowel in the pro- nunciation . 1127. MOURIR, TO DIE. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. mounr. mourant. Past Participle. mort. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. je meurs tu meurs Preterite Definite, je mourus tu mourus nous mourumes vous mourutes Future Absolute. je mourrai, &c. CONDITIONAL MOOD. Present. je mourrais, &c. il meurt ils meurent. il raourut ils moururent. Present. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. que je raeure que tu meures 49* qu'il meure qu'ils meurent. 582 FRENCH GRAMMAR. The verb is conjugated with the auxiliary verb etre, to be. The reflective verb se mourir is conjugated like the preceding. 1128. OUIR, TO HEAR. This verb is only used now in the preterite definite, in the imper- fect of the subjunctive, in the infinitive, and all its compound tenses ; as in, il ouit, que j'ou'isse, qu'il ouit, ou'ir, j'ai ou'i, &c. with the auxiliary, avoir, to have. The signification of this verb is far from being so extended as that of entendre; it is said only of a temporary sound which we hear by chance and without design. We must not use it in speaking of a minister, a lawyer, a speech ; but we say very properly : To hear the mass. O Lord ! deign to hear our prayer Ouir la masse. Seigneur ! daignez ou'ir nos pridre Speaking of a vague rumor, we say, I have heard it. Je Pai ou'i dire. 1129. OUVRIR, TO OPEN. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. ouvrir. ouvrant. INDICATIVE MOOD. ouvert. Present. j'ouvre tu ouvres il ouvre. Preterite Definite. j'ouvris tu ouvris nous ouvrlmes vous ouvrltes il ouvrit ils ouvrirent. Conjugate this verb and the following with the auxiliary avoir, to have : Rouvrir, Entr'ouvrir, Couvrir, Recouvrir, Decouvrir, Offrir, Mesoffrir, (not used,) Souffrir, to open again, to half open, to cover, to cover again, to discover, to offer, to underbid, to suffer. SERVIR, TO SERVE, 583 1130. SENTIR, TO FEEL. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past Particif. sentir. sentant. INDICATIVE MOOD. senti. Present. j e sens tu sens il sent. Preterite Definite. je sentis tu sentis nous sentimes vous sentites il sentit ils sentirent. The tenses of this verb are conjugated with the auxiliary avoir, to have. Conjugate in the same manner Consentir, Pressentir, Ressentir, Mentir, Dementir, Repartir, Conjugate with etrc, to be : Se ressentir, Se repentir, Partir, Repartir, Sortir, Ressortir, to consent, to foresee, to resent. to lie. to give the lie. to reply. to feel still. to repent. to set out, to depart. to set out again. to go out. to go out again. The two last verbs are sometimes also conjugated with avoir, to have. (See page 275, sec. 1043.) Present. 1131. SERVIR, TO SERVE. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present Participle. servant. Past Participle. servi. Present. je sers INDICATIVE MOOD. tu sers Preterite Definite, je servis nous servi mes tu servis vous servites il sert. il servit ils servirent. This verb is conjugated with the auxiliary avoir, to have, as well as 584 FRENCH GRAMMAR. desseivir, to clear a table, to do an ill office to somebody. The reflec- tive verb se servir takes the auxiliary etre, to be. Asservir, a com- pound of servir, and meaning to subject, is regular, and is conjugated like finir. 1132. TENIR, TO HOLD. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past Participle tenir. tenant. INDICATIVE MOOD. tenu. Present. je tiens tu tiens il tient ils tiennent. Preterite Definite. je tins tu tins nous tinmes vous tintes il tint ils tinrent. Future Absolute. je tiendrai, &c. CONDITIONAL MOOD. Present. je tiendrais, &c. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present. que je tienne que tu tiennes qu'il tienne qu'ils tiennent The compound tenses of this verb take the auxiliary avoir, to have. Conjugate, after this manner : Appartenir,* Avenir, Circonvenir,* Contenir,* Contrevenir,* Convenir, Deprevenir,* Detenir, Devenir, Disconvenir, Entretenir,* Intervenir, Maintenir,* Mesavenir, Obtenir,* to belong, to happen, to circumvent, to contain, to contravene, to agree, to unprepossess. to detain, to become, to disagree, to entertain, to intervene, to maintain, to succeed ill. to obtain. Parvenir, Prevenir,* Provenir, Redevenir, Retenir,* Revenir, S'abstenir, Soutenir,* Se ressouvenir, Se souvenir, Subvenir, Survenir, Venir, to attain. to prevent, to in- form. to proceed from. to become again. to retain. to come back. to abstain. to sustain. to recollect. to remember. to relieve. to come unexpect- edly. to come. Those of the above verbs which are marked with an asterisk are conjugated with avoir, to have, and the others with etre, to be. Avenir, to happen, is only used in the third person singular of the present of the indicative, il avient, and in the past participle, avenu. VETIR, TO CLOTHE. 585 Provenir, to proceed from, is only used in its third persons, singu- lar and plural, and in its compound tenses. 1133. VETIR, TO CLOTHE. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. vetir. vetant. INDICATIVE MOOD. vetu. Present . je vets tu vets il vet. Preterite Definite. je vetis tu velis il vetit nous vetimes vous vetites ils vetirent. The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to have. Conjugate, in the same manner : Revetir, to clothe. De vetir, to strip, to undress. Se vetir, to dress. Se devetir, to divest one's self. The last two verbs, being reflective, are conjugated with etre, to be. 1134. Remark. The verb benir, to bless, which is not included in this list, has two past participles, beni, e, speaking of persons, and benit, e, speaking of thmgs ; as in, Be blessed among all women. Soyez benie parmi toutes les femmes, (speaking of the Holy Virgin.) The promises of the courtiers are too Les premosses des grands ne sont trop often but court holy water. souvent que de l'eau benite de cour. When ressortir signifies to be under the jurisdiction of a court, and repartir means to divide, these two verbs are regular, and are conju- gated like Jinir; as in, This business was under the jurisdic- Cette affaire ressortissait a la cour, tion of the court. and not ressortait. When he returned to the army, he Quand il repartait pour l'armee, il re- divided his property among his partissait ses biens entre ses amis, friends. It must be remembered, that repartir, to start again, is written without any accent, but repartir, to divide, has an acute accent over the e. 586 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Ferir is only used in the infinitive, and in the following expression ; Without striking a blow. Sans coup ferir. Saillir, a term of architecture, has but the infinitive, present parti- ciple, saillanl, and the third persons, singular and plural, of the pres- ent of the indicative. When meaning to gush, to spout out, it has the same tenses, and the past participle, sailli, with all the compound tenses, but then it is conjugated like finir ; as in, This cornice projects too much. Cette corniche saille trop. The water gushed with much force. Les eaux saillissent avec beaucoup de force. IRREGULAR, DEFECTIVE, AND IMPERSONAL VERBS OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION. 1135. AVOIR, TO HAVE. This verb, active and auxiliary, has been already conjugated in all its forms. RAVOIR, TO HAVE AGAIN. This verb, active and defective, is only used in the present of the infinitive. Y AVOIR, THERE TO BE. This verb, impersonal, has been conjugated in all its forms. 1136. S'ASSEOIR, TO SIT DOWN. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. s'asseoir s'asseyant. INDICATIVE MOOD. assis. Present. je m'assieds tu t'assieds il s'assied. Preterite Definite. je m'assis tu t'assis nous nous assimes vous vous assites il s'assit ils e'assirent. Future Absolute. je m'assierai, or je m'asseyerai, &c. DECHOIR, TO DECAY. 587 CONDITIONAL MOOD. Present. je m'assi^rais, or je m'asseyerais, &c. This verb, like all reflective verbs, is conjugated with the auxiliary etre, to be. 1137. The verb asseoir, used actively, is conjugated like the reflective, with the exception of the reflective pronouns, which must be suppressed, and then it takes avoir, to have, in its compound tenses. The Academy, as well as usage, permits this verb to be conjugated in the following manner : INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. assoir. Present Participle. assoyant. INDICATIVE MOOD. Past Participle assis. Present. j'assois tu assois il assoit. Preterite Definite. j 'assis tu assis nous assimes vous assites il assit ils assirent. These three modes of conjugating the verb asseoir are in use in France, and admitted by the Academy, but we recommend the first as the most generally adopted by people of education. 1138. CHOIR, TO FALL. This verb is extremely defective, and used only in the present of the infinitive, and sometimes in the past participle and compound tenses ; but it is an old word, and ought to be avoided. 1139. DECHOIR, TO DECAY. Present . dechoir. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present Participle. decheant. Past Participle. d6chu. Present. Imperfect. INDICATIVE MOOD. je dechois nous dechoyons (\ot used.) tu dechois vous dechoyez il dechoit ils d^choient. 588 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Preterite Definite, je dechus tu dechus il dechut nous dechumes vous dechutes ils dechurent. Future Present. (Not used.) Present. CONDITIONAL MOOD. (Not used.) Present. IMPERATIVE MOOD. (Not used.) SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. que je dechoie que tu dechoies qu'il dechoie que nous de- que vous dechoyiez qu'ils dechoient. choyions This verb is conjugated with either of the auxiliaries, avoir or etre, according to the meaning of the sentence. 1140. ECHOIR, TO EXPIRE, TO BE DUE, TO FALL, TO FALL DUE, TO BELONG. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. echoir. Present Participle. echeant. INDICATIVE MOOD. Past Participle echu. Present. j'echois tu echois il echoit ils echoient. Imperfect. (Not used.) Preterite Definite. j'echus nous echumes tu echus vous echutes il echut ils echurent. Future Present. j'echerrai, &c. CONDITIONAL MOOD. Present. j'echerrais, &c. IMPERATIVE MOOD. (Not used.) SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present. quej'echoie que tu echoies qu'il echoie que nous echoyions que vous echoyiez qu'ils echoient. This verb takes avoir or etre, according to the meaning of the sentence. MOUVOIR, TO MOVE. 1141. FALLOIR, TO BE NECESSARY. - (Impersonal. Corresponding to the English verb must.) infinitive mood. Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. falloir. fallant. INDICATIVE MOOD. fallu. Present. il faut. Preterite Definite. il fallut. Future Absolve. il faudra. CONDITIONAL MOOD. Present. il faudrait. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present. qu'il faille. The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to have, and in the third person singular only, the verb being impersonal. The English expressions, I must, he must, the king must, &c, are rendered by A-hich means literally II faut que je, II faut qu'il, II faut que le roi, It must that I, It must that he, It must that the king, that is to say, by il faut que followed by the nominative of the Eng- lish verb must; and the verb following is used in the subjunctive mood, in a tense corresponding to that of the verb falloir in the prin- cipal proposition. 1142. MOUVOIR, TO MOVE. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. mouvoir. mouvant. INDICATIVE MOOD. mu. sent. je meus tu meus il meut ils meuvent. erite Definite. je mus tu mus nous mumes vous mutes il mut ils murent. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. sent. que je meuve que tu meuves qu'il meuve qu'ils meuvent 50 590 FRENCH GRAMMAR. The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with the auxiliary avoir, to have. Conjugate in the same manner, Emouvoir, to move. Promouvoir, to promote S'emouvoir, to be concerned. The verb promouvoir is only used in the present of the infinitive, the past participle, and the compound tenses ; it takes avoir, to have. S'emouvoir, being reflective, is conjugate^ like all reflective verbs, with etre. to be. 1143. PLEUVOIR, TO RAIN. (Impersonal.) INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle, Past Participle. pleuvoir. pleuvant. plu. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. il pleut. Preterite Definite. il plut. The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with the auxiliary avoir, to have, and only in the third person singular. 1144. POURVOIR, TO PROVIDE. INFINTIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. pourvoir. pourvoyant. pourvu. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. je pourvois tu pourvois il pourvoit. Preterite Definite, je pourvus tu pourvus il pourvut nous pourvumes vous pourvutes ils pourvurent. The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to have. 1145. POZTVOIR, TO BE ABLE. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. pouvoir. pouvant. pu. SEOIR, TO FIT, TO BECOME, ETC. 591 INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. je peux or puis tu peux il peut ils peuvent Preterite Definite. je pus nous puines tu pus vous putes il put ils purent. Future Absolute. je pourrai, &c. CONDITIONAL MOOD. Present. je pourrais, &c. SUBJUN CTIVE MOOD. Present. que je puisse que tu puisses qu'il puisse que nous puissions que vous puissiez qu'ils puissent. The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to have. ^ 1146. S AVOIR, TO KNOW. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. savoir. eachant. INDICATIVE MOOD. su. Present. je sais tu sais nous savons vous savez il sait ils savent. Imperfect. je savais, &c. Preterite Definite. je sus tu sus nous sumes vous states il sut ils surent. Future Absolute. je saurai, &c. CONDITIONAL MOOD. Present. je saurais, &c. IMPERATIVE MOOD. sache sachons sachez. The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to have. 1147. SEOIR, TO FIT, TO BECOME, TO FIT WELL. (Defective.) INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. seyant. sis. seoir. 592 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Present. Imperfect. Future Absolute. INDICATIVE MOOD. il sied il seyait il siera ils sieent. ils seyaient ils sieront. Present. CONDITIONAL MOOD. il sierait ils sieraient. Present. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. qu'il siee qu'ils sieent. This verb has only the above tenses and persons, and has no com- pound tenses. 1148. SURSEOIR, TO REPRIEVE, TO PUT OFF. This verb is only used in the present of the infinitive, the past par- ticiple, sursis, and the compound tenses taken passively and imper- sonally; as in, The sentence has been put off. II a ete sursis au jugement. Present. valoir. 1149. VALOIR, TO BE WORTH. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present Participle. Past Participle. valant. valu. Present. je vaux Preterite Definite, je valus nous valumes Future Absolute. je vaudrai, &c. INDICATIVE MOOD. tu vaux tu valus vous valutes il vaut. il valut ils valurent. Present. Present. CONDITIONAL MOOD. je vaudrais, &c. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. que je vaille que tu vailles qu'il vaille qu'ils vaillent. The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to have, as well as the following : VOULOIR, TO BE WILLING. 593 Revaloir, to return like for like. Equivaloir, to be equivalent. Prevaloir, to prevail. This last verb makes its present of the subjunctive as follows : que je prevale que tu prevales qu'il prevale que nous prevalions que nous prevaliez qu'ils prevalent. 1150. VOIR, TO SEE. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. voir. voyant. INDICATIVE MOOD. vu. Present. je vois tu vois il voit. Preterite Definite. je vis tu vis nous vinies vous vite3 il vit ils virent. Future Absolute. je verrai, &c. CONDITIONAL MOOD. Present. je verrais, &c. The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to have, as well as those of the following : Revoir, to see again. Entrevoir, to have a glimpse of. Prevoir, to foresee. This last verb makes its future and conditional as follows : Future Absolute. je prevoirai, &c. Conditional Present. je prevoirais, &c. 1151. VOULOIR, TO BE WILLING. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. vouloir. voulant. INDICATIVE MOOD. voulu. Present. je veux 50* tu veux il veut ila veulent. 594 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Preterite Definite. je voulus tu voulus nous voulumes vous voulutes il voulut ils voulurent. Future Absolute. Present. je voudrai, &c. CONDITIONAL MOOD. je voudrais, &c. IMPERATIVE MOOD. veuille veuillons veuillez. Present. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. que je veuille que tu veuilles qu'il veuille qu'ils veuillent. The compound tenses of this verb take the auxiliary avoir, to have. IRREGULAR, DEFECTIVE, AND IMPERSONAL VERBS, OF THE FOURTH CONJUGATION. 1152. BATTRE, TO BEAT. Present. battre. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present Participle. battant. Past Participle. battu. Present. bats INDICATIVE MOOD. tu bats Preterite Definite, je battis nous battimes tu vous battites il bat. il battit ils battirent. The compound tenses of battre are conjugated with avoir, to have, as well as those of the following : Abattre, Combattre, Debattre, Rabattre, Rebattre, to pull or cut down. to fight. to debate. to pull down again, to beat. to abate lowing, being reflective, are conjugated with etre, t S'ebattre, Se debattre, to make, or to be, to struggle. merry. CONCLURE, TO CONCLUDE. 595 1153. BOIRE, TO DRINK. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. boire. buvant. INDICATIVE MOOD, bu. Present. je hois tu bois il boit ils boivent. Preterite Definite. je bus tu bus nous bunies vous butes SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. il but ils burent. Present. que je boive que tu boives qu'il boive qu'ils boivent. The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to have, as well as those ofreboire, to drink again. 1154. CLORE, TO CLOSE. (Defective.) INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. clore. Present. clos Present Participle. closant. INDICATD7E MOOD. tu clos Past Participle. clos. il clot. No preterite definite. This verb, in its compound tenses, is conjugated with avoir, to have, as well as eclore, to hatch, and enclore, to enclose. 1155. CO NC LURE, TO CONCLUDE. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. conclure. concluant. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. je conclus tu conclus Preterite Definite, je conclus tu conclus nous conclumes vous conclutes Past Participle, conclu. il conclut. il conclut ils conclurent. The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to have, as well as those of exclvre, to exclude. 596 FRENCH GRAMMAR. 1156. CONFIRE, TO PICKLE. Present. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. confire. confisant. INDICATIVE MOOD. je confis tu confis tu confis Preterite Definite, je confis nous conflmes vous confites Past Participle. confit. il confit. il confit ils confirent. The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to have, as well as those of the following : Suifire, to suffice. Circoncire e, to circumcise. 1157. COUDRE, TO SEW. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. coudre. cousant. cousu. Present. INDICATIVE MOOD. je couds tu couds Preterite Definite, je cousis nous couslmes tu cousis vous cousites il coud. il cousit ils cousirent. The compound tenses of this verb take avoir, to have. Conjugate in the same manner : Decoudre, Recoudre, to rip. to sew again. 1158. CROIRE, TO BELIEVE. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. croire. croyant. INDICATIVE MOOD. cru. Present. j e crois tu crois il croit. Preterite Definite. je crus tu cms nous crumes vous crutes il crut ils crurent. The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to have, as well as those of accroire, to make one believe, which is only used in the infinitive present with the verb faire, to make ; as in, Faire accroire. To make one believe, DIRE, TO SAY. 597 1159. CROITRE, TO GROW. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. croitre. Present Participle. croissant. INDICATIVE MOOD. Past Participle. cm. Present. je crois tu crois il croit. Preterite Definite. je crus tu crus nous crumes vous crutes il crut ils crurent. This verb is conjugated with avoir or etre, according as its signifi- cation is active or passive. Conjugate in the same manner : Accroitre, Decroitre, to increase, to decrease. 1160. DIRE, TO SAY. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. dire. Present Participle. disant. INDICATIVE MOOD. Past Participle. dit. Present. J e di= tu dis vous dites. ildit Preterite Definite. je dis nous s tu dis dimes vous dites ildit ils dirent. The verb dire is conjugated with the auxiliary avoir, to have. Conjugate in the same manner : Redire, to say again. The following verbs, Contredire, to contradict, Dedire, to disown, Interdire, to interdict, Maudire, to curse, Medire, to slander, Predire, to foretell, Se dedire, to recant, are also conjugated like dire, with the exception that their second person plural of the present of the indicative makes contredisez, maudissez, predisez, dedisez, medisez, dedisez. interdisez, 598 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Maudire, to curse, takes ss in maudissant, in the three persons, plural of the present of the indicative, maudissons, maudissez, mau- dissent, in all the persons of the imperfect, in the third person singular and the three persons plural of the present of the subjunctive, qu'il maudisse, que nous maudissions, &c. ; the other tenses are conjugated like dire. 1161. ECRIRE, TO WRITE. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. ecrire. ecrivant. ecrit. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. j'ecris tu ecris il ecrit. Preterite Definite. j'ecrivis tu ecrivis il ecrivit nous ecrivimes vous ecrivites ils ecrivirent. The verb ecrire is conjugated with avoir, to have. Conjugate in the same manner : Circonscrire, to circumscribe. Decrire, to describe. Inscrire, to inscribe. Prescrire, to prescribe. Proscrire, to proscribe. Recrire, to write again. Souscrire, to subscribe. Transcrire, to transcribe. 1162. ETRE, TO BE. This verb has been conjugated in all its forms, page 516. 1163. FAIRE, TO MAKE, TO DO, INFINITIVE MOOD. TO CAUSE. Present. faire. Present Participle. faisant. INDICATIVE MOOD. Past Participle fait. Present. je fais tu fais vous faites il fait ils font. Preterite Definite. je fis tu fis nous fimes vous fi tes il fit ils firent . Future Absolute. je ferai, &c. JOINDRE, TO JOIN. 599 CONDITIONAL MOOD. Present. je ferais, &c. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Present. que je fasse que tu fasses qu'il fasse que nous fassions que vous fassiez qu'ils fassent. This verb is conjugated with the auxiliary avoir, to have. Conjugate in the same manner : Contrefaire, to counterfeit.' Defaire, to undo. Redefaire, to undo again. Refaire, to do again. Satisfaire, to satisfy. Surfaire, to ask too much. Some writers have adopted a different orthography for several of the tenses of this verb; as nous fesons, and all the tenses derived from the present participle, fesant; but the Academy has not yet sanctioned it. 1164. FRIRE, TO FRY. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Past Participle. frire. frit. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. je fris tu fris il frit. Future Absolute. je frirai, &c. CONDITIONAL MOOD. Present. je frirais, &c. mmmmmmn IMPERATIVE MOOD. fris. This verb is defective, and only used in the above tenses, and in all the compound tenses which are formed with avoir, to have. In order to supply the tenses and persons which are wanting, we use the verb /aire, to make, in those tenses and persons, with the verb frire, in the infinitive ; as in, We fry. Nous faisons frire. You fry. Vous faites frire, &c. 1165. JOIXDRE, TO JOIN. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past Participle, joindre. joignant. joint. 600 FRENCH GRAMMAR. Present. Preterite Definite. je joins INDICATIVE MOOD. tu joins je joignis nous joignimes tu joignis vous joigmtes il joint. il joignit ils joignirent. The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to have. Conjugate in the same manner all the verbs ending in amdre, eindre, oindre, in the present of the infinitive ; as, Craindre, Peindre, Poindre, to fear, to paint, to dawn. Also : Astreindre, Atteindre, Ceindre, Oontraindre, Enfreindre, Eteindre. Feindre, Plaindre, Restreindre, Teindre, to subject, to compel. to reach, to overtake. to gird. to constrain. to infringe. to put out, to extinguish. to feign, to pretend. to pity to restrain. to dye. T-'' 1166 LIRE, TO READ. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past Participle lire. lisant. INDICATIVE MOOD. lu. Present. je lis tu lis il lit. Preterite Definite. je lus tu lus nous lumes vous lutes il lut. ils lurent. This verb is conjugated with avoir, to have. Conjugate in the same manner : Elire, Relire, to elect. to read again. Present. mettre. 1167. METTRE, TO PUT. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present Participle. Past Participle. mis. NAITEE, TO BE BORN. 601 INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. je mets tu mets il met. Preterite Definite. je mis tu mis nous mimes vous mites il mit ils inirent This verb is conjugated with avoir, to have. Conjugate in the same manner : Admettre, Commettre, Compromettre, Demettre Omettre Permettre, Promettre, Remettre, Soumettre, Transmettre, Se demettre, S'entremettre, to admit. to commit. to compromise. to disjoint, to put out. to omit. to permit. to promise. to put again, to set again, to replace. to submit. to transmit. to resign. to interpose. The last two verbs, being reflective, take the auxiliary etre, to be. 1168. MOUDRE, TO GRIND. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. moudre. Present Participle. moulant. INDICATIVE MOOD. Past Participle. moulu. Present. je mouds tu mouds il moud. Preterite Definite. je moulus tu moulus nous moulumes vous moulutes il moulut ils moulurent This verb is conjugated with the auxiliary avoir, to have. Conjugate in the same manner : to grind, to whet, to grind again. Etnoudre, Remoudre Present. naitre. Present. Preterite Definite. 1169. NAITRE, TO BE BORN. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present Participle. Past Participle. naissant. INDICATrVE MOOD. tu nais je naquis nous naquimes 51 ne. il nait. tu naquis vous naqultes il naquit ils naquirent. 602 FRENCH GRAMMAR. This verb is conjugated with the auxiliary etre, to be. Conjugate in the same manner : Renaitre, to revive. 1170. PAITRE, TO GRAZE. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. paitre. paissant. INDICATIVE MOOD. pu. je pais tu pais il pait. Present. (No preterite definite.') This verb, which is very little used, has no compound tenses, no preterite definite, and no imperfect of the subjunctive. Conjugate in the same manner : Repaitre, to feed. Se repaitre, to feed one's self. These two verbs have a preterite definite and imperfect of the sub- junctive ; as, je repus tu repus il reput nous repumes vous reputes ils repurent. que je repusse que tu repusses qu'il reput que nous repussions que vous repussiez qu'ils repussent. The compound tenses of repaitre are conjugated with avoir, and those of se repaitre with etre, to be. 1171. PARAITRE, TO APPEAR. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Present Participle. Past Participle. paraitre. paraissant. paru. INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. je parais tu parais il parait. Preterite Definite, je parus tu parus il parut nous parumes vous parutes ils parurent. The compound tenses of this verb are conjugated with avoir, to have.