• ». <9 
 
 Institute R^L/isv/ 
 
 For Use In 
 
 COUITY lOEMAL INSTITUTE, 
 
 -J^l<7JD- 
 
 By Teachers in Revievv^ing and Preparing for 
 an Examination in the Following Branches. 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY, READING, PENMANSHIP, ARITHMETIC, 
 LANGUAGE, GRAMMAR, GEOGRAPHY, PHYSIOLOGY, 
 HISTORY. DIDACTICS, CIVIL GOVERNMENT, 
 BOOK-KEEPING, RHETORIC, ELEMEN- 
 TARY SCIENCE, AND DRAWING. 
 
 PUEPARED BY 
 
 S. yv . HEATH, County Superintendent. 
 
 POWESHIEK COITNTV. IOWA. 
 
 cci?-z":k.io-:e-xt less. 
 
 BHOOKLYN, IOWA 
 , CHRONICLE .STEAM PUINT. 
 
 l^•92. 
 
 A A 
 
 • ^ — ^» 
 

•». — ■<• 
 
 ▼ ▼ 
 
 Institute RsuiBv/ 
 
 For Use In 
 
 COUITY lOEMAL INSTITUTE, 
 
 By Teachers in Reviewing and Preparing for 
 an Examination in the Follo^A^ing Branches. 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY, READING, PENMANSHIP, ARITHMETIC, 
 LANGUAGE, GRAMMAR, GEOGRAPHY, PHYSIOLOGY, 
 HISTORY, DIDACTICS, CIVIL GOVERNMENT, 
 BOOK-KEEPING, RHETORIC, ELEMEN- 
 TARY SCIENCE, AND DRAWING. 
 
 PREPARED BY 
 
 S. W. HEATH, County Superintendent. 
 
 POWESHIEK COUNTY, IOWA. 
 
 
 BROOKLYN, IOWA, 
 CHRONICLE STEAM PRINT. ' » 
 
 A A 
 
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 • ». ^ — . A\ 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 The Author's aim in this Review is to present the essential facts of 
 each subject in the most convenient fm^ija for a rapid review, by teaehers 
 and Institute classes. 
 
 The time of the Institute being very limited, only essentials can re- 
 ceive any attention; and much time is necessary when using outlines, to 
 look up the different facts suggested; and there is usually a failure to 
 sufficiently impress the fact on the mind for want of repetition, the most 
 essential factor of the memory. 
 
 Few teachers or pupils master all the essential facts of the different 
 subjects, because the matter is so spread out in text books that it is diffi- 
 cult to condense and select the essentials. Each subject is couched in a 
 few terms, containing the essence of the subject. These terms must be 
 comprehended before much successful work can be done towards mas- 
 tering the details, or making a practical application of the subject. 
 
 The method of reviewing should be to read each statement separate- 
 ly and pause long enough to consider it; as to its meaning and what it 
 includes; as to its position and relation to other parts of the subject; and 
 its relation to the subject as a whole. 
 
 Instructors using the Review in Institute classes, should follow the 
 foregoing suggestions in assigning the coming lesson. Teaching should 
 "be done when the lesson is being assigned. Never say "take to para- 
 graph so and so for next lesson;" but have the class take what you 
 teach. Have the lesson read and discussed by sentences; assigning such 
 matters to be looked up as may be necessary; but don't fail to call up the 
 questions assigned. 
 
 At the beginning of the recitation, key words, which are usually 
 printed in italics in the Review, should be written on the board and 
 members called by name or number to discuss them in their order, with- 
 out being questioned, as questions suggest answers. This plan will test 
 their knowledge of the subject, and avoid confusion or embarrassment. 
 
 Pupils and teachers can answer a great number of questions which 
 
 they have learned, i)arrot-like, without much knowledge of the subject. 
 
 : We have observed during several years' experience in marking 
 
 : teachers and pupils manuscripts, that there are more failures in defining 
 
 terms of a subject than in any other point. The remedy is plain. 
 
 In the preparation of this help we have consulted various authors on 
 I each subject and reduced their pages to paragraphs, and paragraphs to 
 sentences; giving only the essential points. 
 
 Such as the Review is, it is submitted to teachers and those prepar- 
 ing to teach, with the hope that it may prove of some help in the hands 
 ' of those willing to follow the suggestions in its use. 
 
 Author. 
 
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. V T 
 
 INSTXTL TE KEViEvV. 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 Your scholarship is more often judged by your spelling than by a,nj 
 other branch. No subject is more difficult to master. It is largely a 
 matter of memory, and requires concentrated thought. Look at, spell, 
 and write from memory; rewriting misspelled words frequently. In ad- 
 dition to the spelling, studj^ the orthographic terms, sounds, letters, dia- 
 critical marks and word analj^sis. 
 
 The following definitions are intended for a short review: 
 
 OirnioGiiAPHY is that branch of language, which treats of elemen- 
 tary sounils, letters, syllables, words and spelling. 
 
 Oktuoepi' treats of articulate sounds and the pronunciation of words. 
 
 Okgaxs of Speech are the articulatory, vocal and respiratory. 
 
 Elemen'taky Sounds are simple sounds of the voice, u.sed in the for- 
 mation of spoken words. There are forty-three in the English language, 
 represented bj^ twenty-six letters, called the alphabet. The elementary 
 sounds are divided into vocals, sub-vocals and aspirates. , 
 
 Vocals are unobstructed tones of the voice. There are eighteen 
 and are represented by five vowel letters. They are A in ale, at, air, 
 rtsk, arm: E in me, met, her; I infaie, it; O in old, odd, or; U in Mse, rw-de, 
 wp, f«ll. 
 
 Sl'BVOCAls are sounds of the voice, modified by the organs of articu- 
 lation. There are fifteen in the following kej" words: Md, did, go, Jug, 
 lull, 7»an, 7io, ]ong, ?-un, is, tins, vine, wet, yes, vision. 
 
 Aspirates are emissions of breath, modified bj' the organs of articu- 
 lation. There are ten, represented hj consonant letters. The following- 
 are the key words: ^ine, cAin, hay, think, A;ite, put, it, s/ieep, see, what. 
 
 A Letter is a character representing an elementary sound. The 
 power of a letter is the sound it represents. 
 
 A VovA'^EL is a letter, which represents a vocal sound. There are five 
 regular; a, e, i, o, u, and two irregular, w and y. 
 
 A Consonant is a letter representing subvocal and aspirate sounds. 
 They include all letters not vowels. 
 
 Semivowels represent sounds which may be prolonged without the 
 aid of a vowel. They are f, h, j, 1, m, n, r, s, v, z, c and g soft, w. y, th, 
 ch, sh, gh, wh, and ng. The vowel usually precedes in their name. 
 
 Aptiiong is a letter representing no sound, but modifying the sound 
 of another letter, or in some way distinguishing the word; short to long 
 sound; as e in fade, g in sign; determines the signification; as w in wright, 
 b in plumb. 
 
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 4 INSTITUTE REVIEW. 
 
 Diphthong is a union of two vowels, sounded or written together in 
 the same syllable; as ou in our, oi in oil and ow in now. 
 
 Tkiphthong is three vowels in the same syllable: as eau in beau, 
 beauty. 
 
 Digraph consists of two letters representing a single sound; ea as in 
 bread, ch in church. They are disjoined when one or more letters come 
 between them; as oe in home. 
 
 Trigraph is the union of three letters representing a single sound; 
 as ieu in adieu, ght in might. 
 
 Double Consonants are two consonant letters together, representing 
 a single elementary sound; as sh in hash, ss in hissing. 
 
 Liquids are consonants, whose sounds readily unite with the sounds 
 of other consonant letters. They are 1, m, n, r, and ng. 
 
 Properties of Vowels. — 1. They generally have their long 
 sounds, when they end on accented syllable, or followed by a consonant 
 and final e silent; as a in paper; e in material; i in compliance; o in no- 
 tion; u in dwty, vaute; and y in %. 
 
 2. They have their short sound generallj^ when followed by one or 
 more consonants in the same syllable, except r and sometimes 1 and s; as 
 a in pacify; e in met; i in it; o in ox; u in dun; and y in s?/stem. 
 
 3. Vowels have their medial sound when followed by r; as a in bear, 
 by 11; as u in pwll. Italian a before h or r followed by a consonant, as in 
 farm. 
 
 4. Vowels are obscure when followed by two consonants in the 
 same syllable; a in clasp, pass; e in fern, y in n?/mph. 
 
 5. A is broad when followed by 11; as in ball; au in taught; aw in 
 law. O is slender in to, oo in moon. I is a consonant, when it begins a syl- 
 lable and is immediately followed by a vowel sounded in the same sylla- 
 ble; as ah'en, omon. 
 
 6. W is a vowel only in combination; as in cow, new, view; it is si- 
 lent before r in the same syllable; as in wren. 
 
 Properties of the Consonants. — Formative Divisions are Labials 
 or lip sounds; as b, v, w, m, p, f, wh. Linguo Dentals or tongue and 
 teeth sounds; as d, th, j, z, t, th, ch, s, sh. Linguals or tongue sounds; as 
 1 and r; Linguo nasals, or tongue and nose sounds, as n; Palato nasals; as 
 ng. Palatals; as g, y, k, h. 
 
 Consonants are the bones of speech and by them we articulate words 
 or join their parts. We utter vowels but articulate consonants. Conso- 
 nant means sounding with. 
 
 Substitute is the representation of a sound usually expressed by an- 
 other letter, or combination of letters; as ei for a in feint; i for e in po- 
 Kce; u for i inbzisy; gh for f in. cough. There are eighty substitutes in 
 the English alphabet. Thirty-six vowel and forty-four consonant substi- 
 tutes. 
 
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 INSTITUTE REVIEW. 
 
 5 
 
 
 Di.vCKiTiCAL Marks are arbitraiy characters, indicating the different 
 peculiar sounds given to letters. They are the Macron, ( — ) indicating 
 long sounds: Breve, (— ') indicating short sounds; Disei'esis, {•■) or dots; 
 Semi-Dian-esis ( . ) or dot; Caret, (A ) Tilde ( ^ or wave: Cedilla (') and 
 Suspended Bar (x). 
 
 The Macron marks long sounds: as fate, mete, fine, stone, f?<se, my. 
 Over g in ^one, oo in soon; across c in can, c7iord: under e in the?/, n in 
 ink: between t and h in then. 
 
 The Breve marks short sounds: as fat, let, m, lot. ?/p, hymn. Over 
 oo in shook. 
 
 Diuresis or Dots, indicate occasional sounds: over a in far, i in ma- 
 rj'ne: under a in ball, o in do, and u in Tzide. 
 
 Semi-Di^resis or dot, over a in last, o in son, g in gem.: under a in 
 what, o in wolf, and u in fuW. 
 
 Cedilla, indicates the sound of s; as under c in chaise and cent. 
 
 Tilde, or wave over e in her, i in bird, y in myrrh and n in careon. 
 
 Caret over a in air, e in there, u in liMrl, and o in for. 
 
 Suspended Bar under s in is and x in exist; giving x the sound of gz. 
 
 Words, as to similarity in meaning and spelling, are classed as syn- 
 onyms and homonyms. 
 
 Synonyms are words similar in meaning but differing in use; as 
 bring, motion toward the speaker; fetch first from then towai'ds Ex- 
 amples: idle, lazy; industry, diligence; clumsy, awkward, uncouth, etc. 
 
 Homonyms are words alike in their pronunciation, but differing in 
 their spelling and meaning: as ate and eight; mite and might; blue and 
 blew. 
 
 Cognates are sounds made with the organs in the same position; as 
 b and p, v and f, s and z, j and ch, d and t, g and k. 
 
 Continuants are sounds capable of prolongation; as b, d, f, j, etc. 
 Explodents are sounds incapable of prolongation, as t and p. 
 
 Letters as to their position are antecedent when they come before: 
 subsequent when they follow; proximate when near; and remote when 
 farther away from the letter they modify. 
 
 A Syllable is a word, or part of a word, uttered or written together, 
 consisting of a vowel, or a vowel with consonants affixed. As to position 
 they are ultimate, or last, penult, ante-penult, and pre-ante-penult. The 
 base of the syllable is the vowel. The modifiers are the consonants com- 
 ing before or after the vowel, and are called antecedent and consequent, 
 proximate and remote modifiers. 
 
 A Word is a spoken or written sign of an idea. They are divided as 
 to their number of syllables into monosyllables, dissyllables, trissyllables, 
 and polysyllables or many syllables. As to form, words are divided into 
 simple and compound. As to origin, into primitive and derivative. 
 
 • »-' 
 
T 
 
 INSTITUTE KEVIEW 
 
 A SniPLE Word is one not formed by uniting two or more words: as 
 man, manly. 
 
 A C05IP0LTND Woijp is one formed by uniting two or more simple 
 words; as ink-stand, mother-in-law. 
 
 A Pkimitive Wo:iD is one not formed from any other word in the 
 same language; as man. gain. 
 
 A Derivative Word is one formed by a preiix or suffix, or some 
 other change; as manly, regain and men. 
 
 The Prefix is that part placed before the root. The following are 
 the most frequent: ab, from: ad, to: ambi, around; ante, front; anti, 
 against; be, to make; by, near; circum, round; con, together; dis, ont of; 
 epi, upon; hemi, half; hypo, less; in, into: inter, between; mis, wrong; 
 non, not; ob, toward; per, through; peri, around; pro, for: sub, under; 
 super, over; trans, across; un, not. 
 
 A Suffix is that part placed after the root. The following are the 
 most common: ac, al, ar, ary, cal, ile, ine, meaning belonging to; age, 
 ance, ancy, ion, meaning state or act of: t, th. d, ed, is or did; ant, ent, 
 one who; dom, ric, ship, state or territory. 
 
 ACCEXT is a stress of voice placed on some certain syllable or sylla- 
 bles of a word. Primary is the principal accent. Secondary accent is 
 the less forcible. Discriminative accent is that given words spelled alike 
 to distinguish different parts of speech: as august, grave; August, a month. 
 Other examples are, concert, frequent, compound and accent. 
 
 Spelling is naming or expressing the constituent parts of a word, in 
 their proper order. Oral is by the mouth; Orthographic by letter; Phonic 
 by sound; Phonetic by characters representing the sounds. 
 
 Rule 1. F, L or S double, when ending a monosyllable, preceded l^y 
 a single vowel; as spell, miss, staff. 
 
 Rule 2. G ending, preceded by a consonant, change y into i before 
 an additional letter; as try, trial; carry, carried; except in adding ing. 
 
 Rule 3. E silent, ending is dropped in adding a vowel suffix; as ing. 
 
 Rule 4. L L ending, drop one 1 before less and ly; but retain when 
 the syllable is accented; awful, unaccented; fulfill, accented. 
 
 Rule 5. Double the final consonant before a suffix beginning with a 
 vowel, when the syllable is accented and ends with a single consonant; 
 as begin, beginner; otherwise do not double; as wool, woolen; visit, visiting. 
 
 Rule 6. Ei begins words, ie terminates and follows e; as either, 
 reigaied: ancient, brief. 
 
 Spelling Refor5I urges the spelling of Avords as they are pronounc- 
 ed; omitting all silent and substitute letters, when useless; as ue in cata- 
 logue; me in programme; te in rosette; e in docile, doctrine and granite. 
 Change ed to t in lookt, wisht, mixt, etc. The following words have 
 been endorst by the Iowa Teachers' Association: hav, giv, liv. ar, lied, 
 thru, tho. catalog, shal. wil, wisht. 
 
 A 
 
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 INSTITI'TE REVIEW. 7 
 
 Catital Letteks should begin every sentence, name of the Deity, 
 jji-oper names, titles of honor, name of month, days of the week, the pro- 
 noun I and injection O and each line of poetry. 
 
 WoKD AxALY.sis is Separating a word into its constituent parts and 
 describing or giving the ijroperties of each part. Model: Word, simple 
 or compound, primitive or derivative, whatsj'llable, prefixes and suffixes, 
 origin and signification 
 
 Example: Premeditate is a simj)le derivative polysyllable, derived 
 from meditor (I muse) and the prefix pre (before), and thei-efore means 
 to muse or plan before. 
 
 Ohthogkaphic Parsing is a separation of a word into its constitu- 
 ent syllables and letters and giving the classification and modification of 
 each. Model: Word described as to form, origin, syllables, meaning: 
 syllables as to base ana modifiers, proximate and remote: letters as 
 vowel or consonant, and subclasses. Spell orthograpliically and phoni- 
 cally. Example: Tin is a simple, primitive monosyllable, signifying a 
 light colored mineral: the base is i. a vowel short sound; antecedent 
 modifier is ^ a consonant aspirate explodent: subsequent modifier is, ?z, 
 a consonant subvocal lingua nasal. 
 
 Pltnctuation is the use of certain characters to aid the reader in de- 
 termining the thought of the writer. Rhetorical punctuation marks the 
 structure of sentences. They are the period (.), interrogation (?), ex- 
 clamation ( !), colon (:). semicolon (:). comma (,), dash ( — ), brackets ([]), 
 and quotation marks (" "). 
 
 The Period {.) should be placed after every declarative and impera- 
 tive sentence; abbreviation; before decimals and between dollars and 
 cents; after headings, and letters used as numerals. 
 
 Intekrogatiox Point (?) follows every question. 
 
 Exclamation Point (I) follows every exclamation. 
 
 Colon (:) follows a clause complete in itself but not concluding the 
 sentence. Be yourself: never imitate. Before a quotation or enumera- 
 tion of particulars introduced by, as follows. 
 
 Se.micolon (;) is used between parts divided by commas; beft)re as, 
 namely, that is, aud between a formal enumeration of particulars. 
 
 Comma (,) se^ts off names of a series; oppositional expressions; words 
 repeated for emphasis; omission of a verb; pairs of words; quotations 
 antl when the meaning is thereby made clearer. 
 
 Dash ( — ) indicates a break in the construction. 
 
 Bif.vcKETS ([]) enclose words, phrases and clauses explanatory of 
 \\!iat precedes. 
 
 QcoTATioN Marks ('• '") show that the passage was taken verliatum 
 from another. 
 
 Referential punctuation includes the asterisk, dagger, brace or 
 index hand referring to foot notes, etc. 
 
 • ►' 
 
• ►■ ^ -^ m9 
 
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 8 INSTITUTE KEVIEW. 
 
 Etymological punctuation includes the apostrophe, hyphen, caret, 
 diacritical marks. 
 
 Methods — 1. Use a spelling book and dictionary for regular work 
 and require both oral and written work. Pronounce a word but once 
 and have pupils pronounce before spelling. 
 
 3. Rule paper or slates and write words in first column, the pai't of 
 speech in the second, definition or synonym in the third, and use the 
 word in a sentence in the fourth. 
 
 3. Use both oral and written work. Oral for creating an interest 
 and for pronunciation. Keep a list of misspelled words for review and 
 have pupils misspelling, to spell the word or write it a number of times. 
 
 4. Spelling games: Spellandgo up. Choose sides. Each pupil name a 
 letter, then all spell in concert. Spell a word beginning with the last let- 
 ter of the last word spelled. Spell a word rhyming with the 'ast woi'd 
 spelled. Form words from the letters of a word given; as carpet. Give 
 roots and affixes from which to form words. One side give a word and 
 the opposit side give a synonym, homonym or opposit. Pronouncing 
 contests.^ 
 
 5. Give a daily drill on the sounds and marking of words. Spell by 
 letter and by sound as well as writing the word. Spell geographical 
 names, terms in arithmetic, grammar and other studies. Keep a record 
 of misspelled words and per cents of spelling. 
 
 Other methods mav be added but the above are the most common. 
 
 READING. 
 
 Reading is the perusal or utterance of written thought. Silent, 
 when perused only and audible, when spoken. 
 
 Speaking is the utterance of thought without the written language 
 before the eye. Declaiming is speaking another's composition. Oratory 
 is speaking .one's own composition, and is premeditated or extempora- 
 neous. 
 
 Vocal Culture is training the organs of speech, for the most effect- 
 ive expression of thought and feeling. It consists in exercises in breath- 
 ing and uttering elementary sounds, with different degrees of force and 
 loudness. 
 
 Pronunciation is the enumeration of the sounds of a word, with 
 correct articulation and accent. Pronounce acoustics, almond, Asia, 
 bouquet, bronchitis, catchup, chainois and debris. 
 
 Articulation is the distinct enunciation of the sounds in a word. 
 Articulate tube, osier, troubl'dst, buckl'dst. Sentences: The rain ceas- 
 eth; He sells sea shells; Shall she sell sea shells? 
 
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 INSTITUTE REVIEW. 9 
 
 Pitch is the deofree of tension of the vocal chords, and is low, me- 
 dium, high and monotone. Key is the average pitch to be maintained. 
 Low: "Not a drum was heard, not a funeral note. All sights were mel- 
 lowed, all sounds subdued. "" Medium: "To him who in the love of Na- 
 ture holds communion with her visible forms, she speaks a various lan- 
 guage." High: "To arms! To arms! They come!" 
 
 Tone is the quality of voice and should be in harmony with the 
 thought expressed. Conversational in unemotional thought; as It was 
 in the morning, at the break of day. Full tone indicates joy, courage 
 or exultation; as Ring out, wild bells, to the wild sky. Galling tone 
 indicates distance; as Oh, John. John, come here. Charge, Chester, 
 charge! On, Stanley, on! 
 
 Rate is the speed with which we read, and may l3e fast, moderate or 
 slow, according to the nature of the thought. Fast rate: They crush and 
 thej' crowd; They trample upon the living and the dead. Slow I'ate: 
 "Slowly and sadly we laid him down." 
 
 Force is the energy with which we read, and may be weak, medium, 
 strong, varying, explosive or expulsive. Examples: Speak gently. Hark! 
 what is that noise? Rouse, ye Romans! Rouse, ye slaves! Laughing ex- 
 ercise: Ha! ha! ha! ha! 
 
 Inflection is the sliding of the voice upward or downward. It is 
 called simple, when entirely rising or falling. It is called a slide when 
 applied to a Avord independently or an entire sentence. Examples: Do 
 you deny that? What? Might Rome have been taken whilst I was con- 
 sul? Who is so base, that he would be a bondsman? As it was then, so 
 it is now. 
 
 The CiKCiMFLEX is a combination of the rising and falling inflections. 
 Example: You will luring your grammar tomorrow. Read, changing the 
 circumflex from will to your, to grammar and tomorrow. A teacher 
 who uses tobacco, if he does not encourage his pupils to form the habit, 
 will eventually ruin his health and injure his reputation. The general 
 rule for inflection is to be governed by the sense. Incomplete sense re- 
 quires the rising, while complete sense the falling inflection. 
 
 Emphasis is special force used in the utterance of certain words or 
 sentences, to express their importance. It is called absolute when nat- 
 urally important to the meaning. Example: We have not lo7ig to study. 
 Relative emphasis belongs to words placed in contrast with other words; 
 as, I am preparing to teach and not to keep school. Cumulative empha- 
 sis; as, I tell you, though you, though the whole woftLD, though an 
 ANGEL FROM HEAVEN were to declare it, I would not believe it. 
 Emphasis may be expressed by an increase of force, by lowering the 
 pitch, by changing the rate, by changing the accent, or by a pause. 
 
 Style of delivery is that form of modulation, or expression to awak- 
 en any particular emotion or passion, or to represent some individual. 
 
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 10 
 
 INSTITUTE REVIEW 
 
 provincial or notional peculiarity. The most common forms are the nar- 
 rative, didactic, persuasive, argumentative, colloquial, humorous and 
 personating or caricaturing style. Irish: Pon me sowl, if it's not your 
 self that I see. Its meself that's afther telling ye the news. Dutch: Der 
 man he killed vashn't killed as vash broved. 
 
 Transitions is a sudden change in the manner of delivery, and gen- 
 erally requires lower pitch, slower rate, and less force. It is used in 
 dialogs, or in personating two or more characters, and wherever tliere is 
 a change in sentiment. 
 
 Modulation is the variation in tone, pitch, force, emphasis and in- 
 flection. Proi^er modulation is of the greatest importance and requires 
 great flexibility of the powers named. 
 
 Monotone is a sameness throughout and should be avoided, unless 
 the sentiment of the piece is very grave. 
 
 Authors are the writers of the selections and should be studied care- 
 fully, as to their time, nationality, style of writings, best known produc- 
 tions and other matters of interest. The following American authors 
 should receive special study: Longfellow, Whittier, Bryant, Emerson, 
 Holland. Gary Sisters, Holmes, Lowell, Poe, Carleton. Franklin. Aldrich. 
 Sumner, Beecher, Stowe, Bancroft, Webster, Irving, Hawthorne. En- 
 glish authors: Shakespeare, Dickens, Carlyle, Macaulay, Scott, Tenny- 
 son, Goldsmith, Bunyan, Byron, Johnson and others. 
 
 Methods. — That method is best which causes pupils to think most 
 and develops most power. Judiciously combine synthetic, Avord and sen- 
 tence metliods. For beginners, give short but frequent lessons. Teach 
 the sounds of letters with their names. Give frequent drills on force, 
 pitch and inflection. Bring out the meaning of what is read by question. 
 Require pupils to copy lessons to learn to spell, use capitals properly and 
 punctuation. Have pupils tell the lesson story from memory. Read 
 aloud to your class the coming lesson, and explain to them the points to 
 study and how. Teach pupils to combine a and the with the words they 
 modify; as a-man: the-hook. Each pupil should read so that the entire 
 class can hear every word Avithout looking at the book. In the higher 
 grades much attention should he given to language study in connection 
 with the reading of a selection. Select stories and divide into para- 
 graphs, and give pupils to read. Select local items from uewsj^apei's. 
 Divide the class and match one division against the other. Choose sides 
 and when one makes a mistake, l)e seated. In lower grades have pupils 
 read Avord about, then by sentences. Call attention to the punctuation 
 marks; their meaning and use; but don't get the idea that a pause must 
 be made for e\'ery mark. Don't assign a lesson that pupils cannot com- 
 prehend. Don't stop a pupil in the middle of a sentence to correct a 
 mistake. Don't scold the bunglers. Don't alloAV a mispronounced Avord 
 to go unnoticed. Don't give beginners too many ucav Avords at once. 
 
 • ▼■ 
 
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• ► ^ , 
 
 T 
 INSTITUTE REVIEW. 11 
 
 Don't fail to give special drill to weak voices. Don't allow the siug-scng 
 drawl, but encourage the conversational expression. 
 
 The Si'XTHEriO Method consists in teaching the sound of each let- 
 ter by what is called '"Johnny stories;" or illustrations of similar sounds 
 made by animals. Family names are given to syllables to which letters 
 are prefixed, representing the different members of the family; as the at 
 familj^ the diiferent members being f — at fat; li — at hat and etc. The 
 diacritical marks are called hats. The modifying letters are called door 
 knobs and door keys. See Synthetic Manual for full explanation. By 
 this method the pupil gains a power to solve the pronunciation of new 
 words by himself, which is the foundation of educational progress. 
 
 The WoiiD Method presents the idea as the unit, by associating pic- 
 tures with words, oi- by teaching the word as the sign of the idea. Good 
 results have been obtained from this method. 
 
 The Sen'tence Method begins by presenting a picture and asking a 
 question, that brings out a sentence in answer, which is then shown tlie 
 pupil in the printed form to be just what he has stated. He is pleased 
 to see his own thoughts in print. The complete thought is m.^de the 
 unit. 
 
 The a. B. C. Method, now obsolete, except by school keepers, con- 
 sisted in teaching the names of the letters first and afterwai'd learning 
 words by spelling them alphabeticall}'. Pupils learned tlie words by 
 l^eing told the word over and over after spelling and not by spelling it, 
 as was supposed. It may properly be called the "(sin)thetic" method of 
 the dark ages; as it has been a great hinderance to educational progress. 
 
 The Voice is the audible expression of the mental and physical char- 
 acteristics of its possessor; hence its culture is of the greatest importancr. 
 He or she who neglects it in connection with each reading lesson, fails to 
 teach reading as it should be taught. Study and train the voice from the 
 very first. Since silent reading, or thought reading, constitutes the 
 most of our reading, m^uch attention should be given to the expression 
 of the thought — read silently. 
 
 PENMANSHIP. 
 
 Pex^iax.ship treats of the theory and art of writing. The essentials 
 are Legibilitij, which may lie acquired by giving attention to position, 
 movement and form; Rapidity, which may be acquired by practice in, 
 movements: Beauty, which depends on pi-inciples. uniformity, light and 
 shade. 
 
 Position is the manner of sitting most convenient for writing. The 
 three positions are. front, right and left. 
 
 A 
 
 • ► — ►• 
 
•► _ 4« 
 
 T 
 12 INSTITUTE REVIEW . 
 
 Movement is the proper control of the muscles of the fingers, fore- 
 arm and whole arm. Finger movement consists in the action of the first 
 and second fingers and thumb, in making the upward and downward 
 strokes. Fore arm movement consists of the action of the fore-arm rest- 
 ing at the elbow. Whole-arm movement is from the shoulder. Com- 
 bined movement includes all the different movements. 
 
 Holding Pen between the first and second fingers,- crossing the 
 corner of the second finger nail, crossing the first finger forward the 
 knuckle; the thumb touching the holder opposite the joint of the first 
 finger; the top of the holder pointing over tlie right shoulder; l^oth points 
 of the pen resting squarely on the paper. 
 
 FoKAi includes the lines as to kind, space, angles, connections and 
 principles. 
 
 Line is the path of a moving point. There are two kinds: straight 
 and curved. The straight lines are horizontal, vertical and oblique. 
 The curved lines are right and left. 
 
 Angle is the space between two lines that meet at a point. Right 
 angle forms a square corner. Acute angle is less than a right angle. 
 Obtuse angle is greater than a right angle. Angles are measured from a 
 circle which is divided into 360 parts or degi'ees. Quadrant or quarter 
 of a circle is 90 degrees. 
 
 Slant is the number of degrees the line is from the base or horizon 
 line. Main slant is 52 degrees. Connective slant is 30 degrees. 
 
 Space is the measuring unit. For hight it is small i\ for Avidth, 
 small «. 
 
 Connections are made by short turns, oval turns, and by loops. 
 
 Ovals are egg shape. Direct ovals begin at the top and move down- 
 ward with a left curve, and upward with a right curve. Reversed oval 
 begins at the bottom and moves up with a left curve, and down with a 
 right curve. 
 
 Principles are the constitu'ent parts of a letter, as 1st, straight line; 
 2d, right curve; 3d, left curve; 4th, extended loop; 5th, direct oval; 6th 
 reversed oval; and 7th, capital stem. The first four are usetl in making 
 the small letters. 
 
 Letters are divided into two classes, small and capital letters. The 
 small letters are divided into short, semi-extended and looped letters. 
 Short letters are one space high; semi-extended two; and looped three 
 spaces high. The short letters are; i, u, w, n, m, v, x, o, a, e, c, r, s. 
 The semi-extended letters are t, d, p, q. The loop letters are, h, k, 1, b, 
 j. y. g. z, f. 
 
 Capital Letters are formed by the 5th, 6th and 7th principles. 
 The 5th principle, or direct oval, includes O, E, D, C. The 6th principle 
 or reversed oval includes X, W, Q, Z, V, U, Y, I, J. The 7th principle 
 or capital stem includes A, N, M, T, F, H, K, S, L, G, P, B, R. 
 
 ▲ 
 
 •►— ■ ^e 
 
• »■ \ <4« 
 
 T 
 INSTITUTE REVIEW. 13 
 
 Spacing between letters should be one and a fourth space; between 
 words one and a halt" space; between sentences, three spaces. 
 
 Shading is broadening the line in writing by increased pressure on 
 the pen. There are five forms: the t shade, the p shade, the 1 shade, the 
 y shade and oval shade. 
 
 Analysis consists in naming the elements of a letter, and giving the 
 order of forming, or writing the letter. 
 
 Methods. — Appliances during the first year should be ruled slate 
 and long slate pencil. Second year, lead pencils and paper should be 
 used. The work of the first years should be copying from the board by 
 imitation without analysis. Analysis should be given to more advanced 
 pupils. Legibility first and rapidity afterwards, are the ends to be 
 reached. Use engraved copy books and practice paper for drilling in 
 form and movement. Use blackboard freely in explaining errors and 
 showing proper form. Go about among the pupils during the writing, 
 correcting their positions in pen-holding and sitting, and encourage them 
 to criticise and correct their own mistakes. As soon as they are old 
 enough to comprehend and appreciate the meaning of the terms, teach 
 the principles and have them analyze the letters. Have pupils write 
 letters on the board to be criticised by others. Don't allow pupils to re- 
 peat a fault until it becomes a habit. Teach them to write slowly and 
 carefullj'^ at first, as speed can be acquired in time. Rapidity may first 
 l)e practical on letter, then on words and sentences. Take a specimen 
 frequently and post up in the room to compare and note improvement. 
 
 ARITHMETIC. 
 
 AuiTHMETu: is that branch of mathematics, which treats of numbers 
 and the art of computing by them. 
 
 Mathe.matics is the science of quantitj', including number and mag- 
 nitude. 
 
 Algebka is that branch of mathematics, Avhich treats of the relations 
 and properties of numbers, bj'^ means of letters and symbols. 
 
 GEOMETuy is that branch of mathematics, Avhich treats of the relation 
 of magnitudes. 
 
 Tkigono.metuy is that branch of mathematics which treats of the 
 relations of the sides of angles of triangles with the methods of deducing 
 from given ])arts, unknown parts. The subject is divided into Analytic. 
 Plane and Spherical Trigonometry 
 
 Calculus is that branch of mathematics which treats of the ratios 
 of variable quantities. 
 
 PuELniiNAKV Terms. — Axiom is a self evident ti-uth: as. A whole is 
 
 A 
 
 m>-— — •<© 
 
• ► ^ 
 
 14 IXSTITITE KEVIEW 
 
 greater than a part. T/uorou is a truth to he proven: as. The square of 
 the sum of two quantities is equal to the the square of the tirst. plus twice 
 the product of the lirst by the second, plus the sipiare of the second. 
 Problem is a question proposed for solution. Sohdion is an expressed 
 statement showing how the result is obtained. Operation is an illustra- 
 tion of a solution. Principle is a fundamental truth. P>ile is the general 
 direction for solving all problems, of a particular kind. Formula is a 
 rule represented by symbols. Ctiit is a term signifying one. or one thing. 
 Xiimbcr is the expression of a detinit quantity; abstract when no thing or 
 kind is meant; concrete when the kind of unit is namoxl. Signs are char- 
 acters used to show the relation between numbers. Fignreiii a character 
 used to n?present a number. The simple value of a figure is its ^alue 
 when stauding alone. It has a local value Avhen standing with other 
 hgiu'cs. 
 
 The FrXDAMEXTAL Rules are. Xotati<Mi. Xumeration. Addition. 
 Subtraction jNIultiplieation and Division. 
 
 Notation is the art of expressing numbers liv words, letters and tig- 
 ures; as five, V. 5. 
 
 Arabic Notation expresses numl)ers liy ligures. Principles — 1. 
 Ten luiits of any order make one of the next higher. 2. Numbers in- 
 crease from right to left with a ten fold i-atio. 3. Ciphers till vacan t 
 orders. 
 
 Order is the place a figure occupies; as imiis. tens, hundreds. Per- 
 iod is a group of three orders, and receives its name from the tirst order 
 in the group; as units, thousands, millions. 
 
 Roman Notation represents numbers by seven letters: viz. I. V. X. 
 L. C. D. M. Pi-inciples — 1. Every time a letter is repeated its value is 
 repeated; II. 2. A lett-er of less value coming before one of greater, the 
 less is taken from the greater; IV. 3. A letter of less value coming after 
 one of greater, the value of the less isadiled: VI. 4. A letter of less value 
 coming between two of greater, it is taken from the one followino;; XIV. 
 5. A line above increa.ses the value a thousand times. 
 
 Addition is the process of uniting two or more like numbers into 
 one equivalent number. Principles — 1. Only like numbers and orders 
 can be added. '2. The sum is the same in whatever order added. 3. 
 The sum is always the same in kind as the numbers added. The num- 
 Ikh's to be added are called adends. The number obtained by aildition is 
 called the sum or amount. The sign is called plus and means that the 
 numbers between which it is placed are to be added. The sign of equal- 
 ity means that the expressions, between which it is placed, are equ;il. 
 Rule: Write like orders under each other. Begin at units to add. and 
 add tens to the next higher order. Proof: Divide the numbers into 
 groups, or adtl columns and write whole amount, and add amounts sc])- 
 arately. 
 
 • ► •*& 
 
• »■■ 
 
 IXSTITUTE Uf:VIE\V. 15 
 
 Subtraction is the process of fimliug the diflference between num- 
 bers of the same kind. Minuend is the larger numl^er. Subtrahend is 
 the smaller number. Remainder is the number showing the difference 
 between the minuend and subtrahend. Principles — 1. Both numbers 
 must be of the same kind. 2. The difference and subtrahend must 
 equal the minuend. Proof: Add the difference to the sul)trahend. If the 
 sum equals the minuend, the work is correct. 
 
 Multiplication is taking one number as many times as there are 
 units in another, or reducing an expression, by two numbers, to an ex- 
 pression of an equal qimntity, by one number, having a decimal ratio. 
 Multix>licand is the number to be multiplied. Multiplier is the number 
 multiplied by. Product is the number obtained by multiplying. The 
 sign is read times. Principles — 1. The multiplier is always considered 
 an abstract number. 2. The product is always the same in kind as the 
 multiplicand. Proof: Change the places of the factors. Contractions 
 are short processes, when there are ciphers annexed to either or both 
 factors. 
 
 Division is the process of finding how many times one number is 
 contained in another, or finding one of the equal parts of a number. 
 Dividend is the numl^er to be divided. Divisor is the number, by which 
 to divide. Quotient is the result of the division. liemainder is that part 
 of the dividend left after dividing. Sign is read divided b3\ Principles — 
 1. The dividend is the product of the divisor and the quotient. 2. When 
 the diviilend and divisor are alike, the quotient is abstract. 3. When 
 the divisor is al)stract, the quotient is like the dividend. 4. The remain- 
 der is like the dividend. Proof: The dividend equals the product of the 
 (]uotient by the divisor plus the remainder. The operations are called 
 Long Division \v\\e\\ all the work is written, and Short Division when 
 part of the work is performed mentally and not written. Contractions 
 are used when the divisor is a composit number, or has ciphers annexed. 
 (How?) 
 
 Compound Ni'mbeus consi.st of two or more numbers of different de- 
 nominations used to express one quantity. Thej^ differ from simple 
 numlwrs in their ratios being irregular. The operations consist of Re- 
 duction, Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and Division. Reduction 
 consists in changing from a higher to a lower, or lower to a higher de- 
 nomination, Avithout altering the values. 
 
 U. S. Money is the circulating medium of exchange, in the United 
 States, established by Congress in 1786, and consists of bronze, nickel, 
 silver and gold coins, and paper currency. The ratio is ten, and the de- 
 nominations and mills, cents, dimes and dollars. Accounts are kept in 
 dollars, cents and mills. A bill is a written statement of articles, bought 
 or sokl. with price, and entire cost. 
 
 A A 
 
 • > — ■ ■ <• 
 
• ► : 4« 
 
 T ▼ 
 
 10 INSTITUTE REVIEW. 
 
 Measure is the process of ascertaining the capacity or extent of 
 anything. 
 
 Dry Measure is used in measuring grain, vegetables and coal. The 
 denominations are pints, quarts, pecks and bushels. The standard unit 
 is the bushel containing 2150.4 cu. inches; equal to a 13-inch cube, ap- 
 proximately. Peck is i of a bushel and contains 8 quarts or 537^ cu. in.; 
 and equals apjiroximately an 8.1 in. cube. The quart is i of a peck, con- 
 taining 2 i)ints or 67 cu. in.; and equals approximately 4.1 in. cube. The 
 pint is one-half quart, containing 33i- cu. in.; equal to 3.2 in cube. 
 
 Liquid Measure is used for measuring all liquids. The standard 
 unit is the gallon, containing 231 cu. in. ; equal to a 6.12 in. cube. The 
 quart contains 57.5 cu. in., equal to a 3.88 in. cube. The pint contains 
 28.7 cu. in, equal to a 3.06 in. cube. The gill contains 7-17 cu. in, equal 
 to 1.93 in. cube. Apjaroximately the gill equals a 2 in. cube; pint, 3 in.; 
 quart, 4 in.; gallon, 6 in. cube. 
 
 Long Measure is used iu measuring distance, or length. The de- 
 nominations are: 12 in., 3 feet, b^ yds., 320 rods. The standard is the 
 yard. A line is one-twelfth of an inch. Barley corn one-third of an inch. 
 Hand equals 4 in. Span 9 in; Cubit 18 in. Furlong 40 rods. Survey, or 
 measure used in laying out land and roads, consists of 7.92 in. in a link; 
 100 links in a chain; 80 chains in a mile. Mariners measure used in meas- 
 uring depth and distance atsea, consists of 3 feet in a fathom, 720 feet in 
 a cable length. 3 miles a league. 
 
 Superficial or Surface Measure is used in estimating the A'alue 
 of surfaces; as land, plastering and paving. A surface has tAvo dimen- 
 sions; as length and breadth. Area is the product of the dimensions or 
 number of times it contains the measuring unit. The unit of measure is 
 a linear unit square. Rectangle is a surface having four straight sides 
 and four square corners; it is called a square when the sides are equal. 
 Square units and units square, differ in the ratio of the squares; as 3 feet 
 square is three times 3 square feet. Denominations — 144 sq. in. one sq. 
 ft.; 9 sq. ft. one sq. yd.; 301 sq. yds, one sq. rd. ; 160 sq. rds. one acre; 640 
 acres one sq. mile. 
 
 Solid or Cubic Measure is used in measuring solids or quantities 
 having three dimensions. Cube is a solid, having three equal dimensions, 
 six equal faces, eight square corners, and tAvelve straight edges. Rec- 
 tangular solids have three dimensions, equal or differing. Solid contents 
 equal the product of the dimensions. Denominations — 1728 cu. in. make 
 a cu. ft.; 27 cu, ft. a cu. yd.; 128 cu. ft. a cord; 24| cu. ft. a perch. 
 
 Time Measure is used in measuring time and is closely related to 
 circular measure. They may be compared by two circles, one fifteen 
 times larger than the other. The larger divided into 360 parts called de- 
 grees; the smaller into 24 parts called hours; 15 parts, or degrees of the 
 larger circle will equal one part or hour on the smaller circle. One de- 
 
 • ►" — — • *• 
 
INSTITl'TE REVIEW. 17 
 
 gree on the larger will equal 4 minutes of time on the smaller. The 
 smaller circle may he marked with a 24-hour dial so that 12 o'clock noon 
 will come at the top, and 13 o'clock midnight, at the bottom; 6 p. m. at 
 the right, and 6 a. m. at the left. In this way the two, so difficult to 
 understand, may be easily compared and explained. The circle is divid- 
 etl into 3(50 parts called degrees. In latitude 40, one degree is equal to 
 53 miles. A degree is divided into 60 parts called minutes, eqvial to 280 
 rds. A minute into 60 parts called seconds, equal to 4f rods. 
 
 Time is a measured portion of duration. Day is the time of the ro- 
 tation of the earth on its axis and consists of 24 hours. Year is the time 
 of the revolution of the earth around the sun and consists of 365i days. 
 The month originated from the moon changes. 
 
 . Weight is the measured force of gravitation, and is in proportion to 
 the amount of matter in any given quantity. It is measured by means of 
 scales or balances. 
 
 TuoY pound is the standard and contains 5760 grains. The grain 
 was originality a grain of wheat, taken from the middle of the head, and 
 woultl he near i inch long by i inch wide. To compare the I'elative 
 value and size as above described, the pwt. (24 gr) would be represented 
 1)V a surface 1 in. by f in. The ounce (480 gr.) h\ 15 sq. in., or a surface 
 3 in. l)y 5 in. The pound by 13.4 in. square or 180 sq. inches. 
 
 Apotheoauies Weight is used in compounding medicines. The 
 Scruple contains 20 grains and would be represented by a surface of 1 in. 
 l)y §. The dram (60 gr.) by 1 in. by U in. The ounce and pound are the 
 same as the Troy. 
 
 Avoirdupois Weight is the commercial weight; the pound contain- 
 ing 7000 grains and compared with Troy and Apothecaries Aveight is 
 represented by 221 sq. in., or a surface 13.4 by 16.5 inches. The ounce, 
 437i gr.. would be represented by 13.6 sq. in., or a surface 2.1 in. by 6.5 
 inches. The dram, (27.3 gr.) equals a surface 1 in. by i of an inch. The 
 above weights may be illustrated in a diagram, within the surface of the 
 Avoirdupois pound. 
 
 Metric Measure is so named from the meter, the standard unit. 
 It has been legalized by the Congress of the United States, and is in use 
 by scientific men throughout the world. Meter is the unit of length, and 
 is .0000001 part of the distance from the equator to the pole; or equal to 
 3!). 37 inches. A>- is the unit of land measure, and is 10 meters square; 
 equal to 4 sr]. rds. Litir is the unit of capacity, and is a cubic vessel 1 
 decimeter in its dimensions, and equal to 1 quart. Gram is the unit of 
 weight, and is 1 centimeter in itsdimensions and equals 15i grains. Stere 
 is the unit of solids and is 1 meter in its dimensions; equal to i of a cord. 
 Tiie i-atio of the system is 10. The Greek prefixes are used above the 
 base; and are Deka, Hekto, Kilo, Myria. The Latin prefixes are used 
 l)elow tlie base; as deci, centi, and milli. Reduction is performed by 
 
 ■<o 
 
18 INSTITUTE KEVIEW. 
 
 ■•*m 
 r 
 
 pointing off, or annexing ciphers. There are only twelve words to learn 
 in the whole system and can be learned in two hours by the average 
 pupil, when properly taught. 
 
 Factoring treats of the relation of numbers, as to their component 
 parts and 'their relation to each other. Facto?' of a number will divide it. 
 Multiple of a number will contain it. Prime number has no factors. 
 Composit number has two or more factors. Prime factor is a prime num- 
 ber. Numbers are prime to each otlier when they have no common fac- 
 tor. Conimoti Divisor is one that will divide two or more numbers. 
 Greatest Common Divisor is equal to the product of the common prime 
 factors, or a divisor of the difference after division. Least Common Mul- 
 tiple will exactly contain each given number and contains all the prime 
 factors of each numl)er and no others. The operations consists of find- 
 ing prime factors, G. C. D. and L. C. M. of numbers. Factoring is used 
 in shortening operations, by canceling equal factors and in the opera- 
 tions of reducing iractions to lower terms and to common denominator. 
 
 Fkactions treat of the relation of parts of a unit. A Fraction is one 
 or more equal parts of a unit. The Denominator indicates the number of 
 parts, into which the unit is divided. The Numerator indicates the num- 
 l)er of parts taken. The value of a fraction is its relation to its unit. 
 The unit of the fraction is the thing or things divided. The fractional 
 unit is one of the parts taken. As to value, fractions are called proper, 
 when less than 1; improper when more than 1; and mixed, when joined 
 to a whole number. As to form, they are called simple, when single; 
 complex, when there is a fraction in one or both terms; and compound, 
 when a fraction of a fraction. Principles — 1. Multiplying the numer- 
 ator or dividing the denominator multiplies the fraction. 2. Dividing 
 the numerator or multiplying the denominator divides the fraction. 3. 
 Multiplying or dividing both terms by the same number has no effect on 
 the value. 
 
 The Operations consist: 1. In reducing whole numbers to im- 
 proper fractions. 3. Mixed numbers to improj^er fractions. 3. Im- 
 proper fractions to whole or mixed numbers. 4. Fraction to higher 
 terms. 5. Fraction to lower terms. 6. Fraeti(m to least common de- 
 nominator. Addition consists of finding and adding the common numer- 
 ators. Subtraction consists of finding the difference between the com- 
 mon numerators. MtdtiiMcation consists of finding the product of the 
 nuinerators and denominators in their lowest terms. Division is hnding 
 how many times one fraction is contained in another, by inverting the 
 divisor and multiplying the terms; which is equivalent to reducing to 
 common terms and dividing one numerator hj the other. Complex 
 fractions are reduced to simple, by multiplying the extreme terms for a 
 numerator and the mean terms for a denominator. 
 
 Decijial is an order of fractions having ten or some power of ten for 
 
 ▲ A 
 
 • ► ^ ^ ^ ^ -<• 
 
•► — ^, 
 
 TNSTITITE REVIEW. 19 
 
 a denominator. They are written the same as whole numbers, with the 
 period, or decimal point, indicating units place. They decrease from 
 left to right in a ten fold ratio. They are read as whole numbers and 
 given the name of the right hand order The operations consist in 
 reducing a decimal to a common fraction, by writing the denominator 
 below and reducing to lowest terms. Reducing common to a decimal 
 fraction, by annexing ciphers to the numerator and dividing by the de- 
 nominator, pointing off as many places, as ciphers annexed. Addition 
 and Subtraction ai-e the same as in simple numbers; the decimal point 
 being placed under the decimal point column. Multiplication of deci- 
 mals has as many decimal places in the product, as there are places in 
 both factors. Division has as many decimal places in the quotient as 
 those in the dividend exceed those in the divisor. 
 
 Pekcextage embraces the various operations, in which 100 is consid- 
 ered the base. Base is the number or quantity, on whi(?h per cent is es- 
 timated. Rate is so many hundredths of the base. Percentage is the part 
 of the base taken, or considered. Any two terms being given, the third may 
 be found. B. by R. gives P. P. divided by B. gives R. P. divided by R. 
 gives B. Percentage is used in mercantile and stock transactions, inter 
 est, discount, exchange, insurance, taxes and equation of paj^ments. 
 
 Mercantile Transaction relates to purchase and sale of goods. 
 Frice is the value in monej^ called wholesale when in large quantities 
 and retail in small quantities. Agent is one intrusted with the business 
 of another, and is called consignee, when receiving goods; the one send- 
 ing being the consignor. Commission is a per cent paid the agent. Pro- 
 ceeds is what is left after the commission and charges are paid. Discount 
 is a deduction from list price. Net Price is the price after all deductions 
 are made. Cost is the price paid for goods. Profit is the gain above 
 cost. Loss is the difference below cost. Stock is capital in the form of 
 shares; usually $100. Bond is a note given by the government or a cor- 
 poration and Ijears interest. Par value is face value. Broker is a stock 
 agent. Dividend is an income from stock. Assessment is a payment by 
 the shareholder on his stock. 
 
 Interest is money paid for the use of money. Principal is the money 
 l)orrowed. Promissory Note is a written promise to pay a certain sum, at 
 a specified time. Face is the px'incipal. Legal Rate is that fixed by law. 
 Quantities considered are: Principal, Rate, Time and Interest. Opera- 
 tions are to find Interest, the Principal, Rate and Time given, which 
 e<]uals P. l)y R. and T. P, R, I. given to find T,— equals I divided by I 
 of r for 1 yr. at given rate. P. T and I to find rate— equals P. divided by 
 I for time at 1 per cent. T. R and I to find P— equals I divided by T by 
 R. T. R and Amount given to find R,— equals Amount divided by 1 plus 
 R by T. Compound Interest is interest on interest after it becomes due. 
 
 Partial Payments are part payments on a note and are usually en- 
 ▲ ^ 
 
p. ^ ^9 
 
 T 
 
 20 INSTITUTE REVIEW. 
 
 dorsed on the back of the note. Payments should draw interest from the 
 time thej^ are made until final settlement. 
 
 Discount is interest paid in advance. Bank Discount is the interest 
 on the face of the note paid in advance, including three days of grace. 
 True Discovnt is the diffei'ence between the present worth and the 
 amount of the note. Present Worth is a sum, which will in the given 
 time at the rate, amount to the same as the note. 
 
 Insukance is a promise by a company to make good a specified loss, 
 for a given amount, in a stated time. The contract is called a Policy. 
 Premium is the amount paid for the insurance. The kinds' are Fire, 
 Marine and Life. In Life insurance there are two kinds of policies. 
 Life policies payable only at death. Endowment policies pa.yable at 
 death or a specified time. 
 
 Taxes include money paid by citizens to the government, for public 
 purposes. Direct tax is levied on the property of the citizen. Poll tax is 
 a tax on each voter. Taxes are divided into municipal, township, county 
 and state taxes. Only a small per cent goes outside the county. Real 
 estates is property, fis lands. Personal jjroperty is movable property. 
 Valuation is the estimated worth. The rate is so many mills on the dol- 
 lar. The United States is supported by revenues from sale of public 
 lands, postage, and revenue stamps on tobacco, whisky, oleomargarine 
 and from customs. Customs are specific, when leaned on the quantity of 
 goods, and ad valorum, when levied on the cost of the goods imported 
 from foreign countries. 
 
 Ratio is the relation of numbers expressed by their quotients. The 
 numbers are called terms. Antecedent, or first term; Consequent or 
 second term. Ratio is simple Avhen consisting of two terms, and com- 
 pound when it consists of two or more ratios. Principle — The value of a 
 compound ratio equals the product of the antecedent terms divided h\ 
 the product of the consequent terms. The terms of ratio are similar to 
 those of a fraction; and multiplying or dividing has the same effect as mul- 
 tiplying similar terms in fractions. 
 
 Pkopoktion is an equality of ratios, in which foxir numbers are pro- 
 portional, Avhen the first has the same ratio to the second, as the third 
 has to the fourth; as 3:6: :5:10. Principles — 1. Product of the means equal 
 the product of the" extremes. 2. Product of the means or extremes 
 divided by one of the means or extremes will give the other mean or ex- 
 treme. Proportion is called simple when it comprises tAvo ratios, anil 
 compound, when there are more than two ratios. Compound proportion 
 is sometimes called Cause and Effect. Cause includes men and time, the 
 effect, the Avtn-k done; as 1st cause : 2d cause :: 1st effect : 2d effect. Ar- 
 range like terms on opposit sides of a line and cancel. 
 
 Pautnekshu' is an association of persons for the ti'ansaction of bus- 
 iness. C(t2)it<d or stock is the money represented by the firm. ^4.-i.^tY.^ 
 ▲ 
 • ►— --»• 
 
INSTITUTE REVIEW. 
 
 include the pi-02)erty and amounts due the tirm. Liabilities include debts 
 owed by the tirm. Net Ccq^ital is the difference between the assets and 
 luil>ilities. Operations include those of percentage. 
 
 Bankruptcy is a condition in which the liabilities are greater than 
 the assets. 
 
 Average includes methods of apportioning losses, equalizing part- 
 nership with time, equation of payments and mixing goods of diJferent 
 prices. The mean is in proportion to time, quantity and cost. 
 
 Involution is the process of finding the powers of a number. Power 
 is the product arising from taking a number one or more times as a fac- 
 tor. The first power is tlie number itself, represented by a line or one 
 dimension. The second power is called the square, represented by a 
 square tigure of two equal dimensions. The third power is called the 
 cube, as it represents a solid of three equal dimensions. Higher powers 
 may be represented by squares and cubes. The fourth power is a square 
 of the second and the sixth power a cube of the second. Eighth power 
 is a square of the fourth; Ninth is a cube of the third power. JExponetit 
 is the tigure indicating the jjower. The product of any two powers is 
 equal to the sum of their exponents. 2d by 2d gives 4th; 2d by 3d gives 
 5th; 3d l)y 6th gives 9th. All powers divisible by 2 are squares, and 
 those divisible by 3 are cubes. 
 
 Evolution is the process of evolving the first power or root from a 
 given poAver. Soot of a number is one of the equal factors. One of two 
 ecpial factors is called the square root; one of three, cube root; one of 
 four, fourth root, etc. Fourth root equals the square root of the square 
 root; as 2 is the fourth root of 16. The square root of a number contains 
 one-half as many figures as there are figures in the number, and the cube 
 root one-third as man3^ The first root found is doubled, because addi- 
 tions must l)e made to two sides to preserve the square. It is used as a 
 trial divisor to find the width of the additions. The width is annexed to 
 the doubled root to find the contents of the corner square. Square root 
 is used to find one of the sides of a square, when the area is given and one 
 of tlie sides of a right angle triangle, when two sides are given. 
 In finding the cube root, the root is squared to find the area of one face, 
 and nniltiplied by three, Isecause additions must be made to three sides to 
 preserve the cube. This becomes the trial divisor, to find the thickness 
 of the additions; to which is added three- oblong and one square addi- 
 tions, Avhich multiplied by the figure of the root, indicating the thickness, 
 gives the solid contents of all the additions. Cube Root is used in find- 
 ing one of the dimensions of a solid, when the solid contents are known. 
 Mensuration includes the operations of finding the superficial and 
 solid contents of surfaces and solids. Terms — Line has length; Angle is 
 formed I)y the meeting of two lines; Angles are Right, Acute, Obtuse; 
 Surface has two dimensions; as to form, i)lane or curved; as to shape, they 
 
 ▲ A 
 
 • ► — — ^« 
 
•ft. f 
 
 23 INSTITUTE REVIEW. 
 
 are rectangular, triangular, quadrilateral, plyagonal and circular. A 
 Rectangle is a figure having right angles; its area equaling the product of 
 its two dimensions. " A Square is a rectangle with all sides equal. A 
 Diagonal is a line joining two opposite angles, and is equal to the square 
 root of the sum of the squares of the adjacent sides. A Circle is a figure 
 bounded by a curved line, equally distant from the center. The circum- 
 ference is the curved boundary and is equal to the diameter multiplied by 
 3.1416. The diameter is a straight line passing through the center and 
 terminating both ways at the circumference, and equals the circumfer- 
 ence divided by 3.141G. The radius is one-half the diameter. The area 
 of a circle equals the square of the diameter multiplied by .7854. A Par- 
 allelogram is a figure having opposite sides parallel and the area equaling 
 the product of the dimensions. Trepezoid is a figure having four sides, 
 two of which are parallel. Area equals the product of the mean di- 
 mensions. Triangle is a figure having three sides. Right angle triangle 
 has one right angle and its surface equals one-half the product of the 
 base by the altitude. Acute angle triangle has three acute angles: the 
 surface is found the same as in a right angle triangle. 
 
 Mensuration of Solids. A solid includes three dimensions. A 
 Prism is a solid with parallel bases and parallelogram faces. Altitude is 
 the distance from one base to the other. Convex surface is the sum of 
 the ai'ea of the faces. A Cube is a solid with six square faces, eight cor- 
 ners and twelve edges; its contents equals the product of its three dimen- 
 mensions. A Pyramid is a solid having a rectangular base and triangu- 
 lar faces. Contents equals one-third of the product of the height by the 
 area of the base. A Cylinder is a solid with circular bases and having a 
 curved surface. Solid contents equals the area of the base multiplied by 
 the altitude. Area of surface equals circumference by length, plus area 
 of bases. A Cone is a solid with a circular base, and curved surface, ter- 
 minating in an apex. Contents equal one-third of product of the area 
 of the base by the altitude; surface equals one-half of the product of the 
 circumference by the slant height. A Sphere is a solid having a round 
 face, all points of which are equal 'y distant from the center. Surface 
 equals the square of the diameter midtiplied by 3.1416. Contents equals 
 cube of the diameter multiplied by .5236. 
 
 Applications of Mensuration. Plastering is estimated by the 
 square yard. Lath 50 in a bunch, covers 3 sq. yd. Lime, per barrel 
 contains 2J bu. and with 10 bu. sand will lay 1000 brick; with 5 pounds of 
 hair will cover 30 sq. yd of plaster two coats. Roofing is estimated by 
 the square of 100 sq. ft. A workman will nail 100 sq. yd. of lath, or two 
 square of shingles pei' day. Masonry in In-ick work is estimated by the 
 1000; 22 brick to the cubic foot. Stone work is estimated by the perch 
 of 24.75 eu. ft. Painting is estimated by the square of 100 sq. ft. 1 gallon 
 covers 250 sq. ft. two coats. Paper hanging is estimated by the double roll, 
 
 ^ ^ . . ■ — . ^ 
 
T 
 
 INSTITUTE REVIEW. 
 
 23 
 
 I'overinir 70 sq. ft. Carpeting is estimated by the sq. yd. Mixed hay in 
 the mow is estimated 500 en. ft. per ton. Capacity of Ijins are estimated 
 by en. in. 2150.4 eu. in equaling a bushel; or H cu. ft. In heaped 
 measure add i or count 1 j cu. ft.; corn in the ear 2i cu. ft. In estimating 
 cisterns count 4.2 cu. ft. per barrel of 31 gal. 
 
 Methods. — Teach beginners the combination to 10 in the four funda- 
 mental rules by the use of counters or blocks; known as the Grube 
 meiluxl. Aim at readiness and accuracy. Learning tables is a work of 
 memory, but may be aided by diagrams showing relative values. Intro- 
 duce mental arithmetic in the higher grades, Avhere the reasoning facul- 
 ties are more mature. Make drawings and diagrams for teaching weights, 
 measures and fractions and explain to pupils the relative values of the 
 denominations. Give easy problems in your drills and encourage 
 pupils to form problems for others to solve. Always drill your class on a 
 lesson when you assign it. Have contests in reciting tables and in form- 
 ing and solving problems. Keep up a continual review of some part of 
 the fundamental rules. Solution of problems in the book should not be 
 the main end, but mastery of the subject for practical business, for men- 
 tal discipline, inattention and poAver to reason. Don't make a hobbj^ of 
 arithmetic, for it don't contain all the knowledge of value, and school 
 life is too short togive it more time than is due to it. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Geography is that branch of science, which treats of the earth. 1. 
 Its relation to the solar system. 2. Its relation to nature. 3. Its relation 
 to government and society. 
 
 Mathematical Geography treats of the relation to the solar sys- 
 tem, which includes the sun and all the planets revolving around it. The 
 orbits are the paths of the planets. Satellites are the moons of the plan- 
 ets. Fixed stars are distant suns, so remote that over three thousand 
 years time is required for light to reach us from some, which are visible 
 to the eye. Universe includes all the solar systems. All the planets are 
 in the form of spheres, slightly flattened at- their poles, and in position, 
 are inclined to their orbits. They rotate on their axis, which causes 
 day and night, and revolve around the sun, which causes the yeai", and 
 being inclined to their orbits, cause a difference in seasons. The proofs 
 of the earth's rotundity: 1. Vessels have sailed around it. 2. Its shadow on 
 the moon. 3. Its surface curves away from a straight line eight inches to 
 the mile. 4. A vessel approaching shows the top sail first. 5. Other plan- 
 ets are round. Horizon is the limit of vision. Direction is taken from the 
 
 • ►■ 
 
 •<m 
 
Q*-- 
 
 ■<m 
 
 24 
 
 INSTITUTE REVIEW 
 
 l).;)int where the sun rises and is called East; other points are named West, 
 North and South. Location of places include distance and direction 
 from each other, determined by lines and circles, called parallels and 
 meridians. Parallels are the small circles passing around the earth, 
 from east to west, parallel with the equator and grow shorter as tliey 
 approach the poles. Equator is the largest parallel and divides the earth 
 into equal parts. Troioic^i are parallels 23.]- degrees from the equator, 
 each Avay, and so located by the inclination of the earth's axis. Polar 
 Circles are 23i- degrees from the jjoles and located by the same cause as 
 the tropics. Pole is the termination of the earth's axis at the surface. 
 Meridian is the half of a great circle which passes from pole to pole. 
 Latitude is the distance in degrees north or south from the equator. 
 Longitude is the distance in degrees east or west from a prime or tirst 
 meridian. Zones are belts into which the earth is divided by the tropic 
 and polar circles. Torrid zone is located between the tropics; the Tem- 
 perate zone between the tropics and polar circles; the Frigid zones are 
 bounded by the polar circles. Globes are spheres on which circles and 
 maps are drawn to represent the relative location of the great and small 
 circles, the motions of the earth, and the great land and water divisions. 
 
 Physical Geogkaphy treats of land, water, air, plants and animals. 
 The earth's surface contains 197 million square miles; 53 million of which 
 is land and 144 million is water. As to form the land is divided into 
 Continents, the largest division of ]iind;. Islands, small divisions surround- 
 ed by water; Peninsulas, bodies of land nearly surrounded \)y water; 
 Capes, points of land extending into the water; Isthmuses, narrow necks 
 of land connecting two bodies of land. As to elevation the surface con- 
 sists of Mountains or high elevations of land, grouped into a range, sev- 
 eral of which form a chain; several chains near and parallel with each 
 other, forming a mountain system. Eight of a mountain is its vertical 
 distance above sea level. Table land is a high level tract of land. Plain 
 is a level tract of land. Valley is the low land between highlands. 
 Desert is a tract of land unproductive. Oasis is a fertile spot in a desert. 
 Volcano is an opening in the earth's crust, through which lava is forced. 
 The cup-like opening is called a crater. Eruptions are caused by steam 
 forming in the interior. Earthquakes are trembling vibrations caused by 
 volcanic action. 
 
 Water of the earth is divided into oceans, the largest divisions; Seas 
 are divisions nearly surrounded by land. Gulf or bay extends into the land. 
 Strait connects two larger bodies of water. Sound is a shallow channel 
 or bay. Motions are waves, or alternate rising and falling of the surface 
 of water. Tides are long waves caused by the attraction of the sun and 
 moon. Flood tide is the rising of the water for six hours. Ebb tide is 
 the falliirg of the water the next six hours. Ocean Cur7-ents are move- 
 ments of the surface waters of the ocean, caused'by the heat of the sun 
 
 «► 
 
 ■■*9 
 
©►■ 
 
 ixsTirrxE REVIEW. 25 
 
 and tlio rotation of the earth. Their velocity is 10 miles per day. Gulf 
 Stn am is the i)rint'ipal current of the Atlantic ocean. Euro Siwo or 
 Japan current is the chief current of the Pacific. 
 
 Wateu of the atmosphere — Vcqyoi- is water in the air caused by the 
 lieat of the sun. The amount of vapor the air will hold depends on the 
 temperature: as warm air holds more than cold air. Air cooling causes 
 dew, fosj. clouds, rain, snow and hail. Deiv comes from air chilled below 
 the point of .saturation. Fog is condensed vapor floating in the air near 
 tlic earth's surface. Clouds are condensed vapor floating high in the air, 
 usually between laj^ers of air differing in temperature. Cirrus clouds 
 are high, cold and featherj^ in appearance. Cumulus clouds are heaped 
 by an upward current of air. Stratus clouds are in layers from settling 
 vapor. Niniljus clouds are shapeless and consisting mostly of raindrops. 
 Ilain is cooled vapor, falling in drops. It is most al^undant in the torrid 
 zone and along the coast. Siww is frozen vai^or formed into flower-like 
 crystals. Hail is frozen rain. 
 
 Waters of the^ontinent are Springs, which issue from the earth; 
 Brooks, small streams from springs; Creeks, streams foi'med by brooks, 
 which unite and form larger streams called a Riuer. Source of a stream 
 is where it rises: channel, the bed through wliich it flows; mouth, wliere 
 it empties. River System is a large river with all its tributaries. Basin 
 is the land drained by a system. Water-shed is the ridge or edge of the 
 basin. Delta is the formation at the mouth of a river by the sediment 
 washed down,. Estuari/ is the wide mouth wliich faces the tide. Lake is 
 a body of water surrounded by land; the head is where the water comes 
 in; the foot is whei'e the water passes out. Lakes having no outlets are 
 salt lakes. Glacier is an immense mass of ice and snow moving down a 
 mountain slope. Icebergs are large masses of floating ice broken from 
 polar glaciers. 
 
 Air is an invisible gas which surrounds the earth, and it extends 
 from 50 to 200 miles above the surface. Its weight or pressure is 15 
 pounds to the square inch, measured by a barometer. Wind is air in 
 motion, caused b}' the heat of the sun and unequal temperature; the 
 warm air rising and the cold air rushing in to take its place, simi'ar to 
 the motion of boiling water. Trade winds move westward and toward 
 the equator in the tropical regions. Monsoons are'^winds alternating on 
 the Avest coast in the temperate zone, •semi-annual]j\ Variable v^inds 
 occur in the interior of continents. Land and sea breezes occur along 
 the coast, blowing to the land in the day time and to the sea during the 
 night; caused hy the unequal heating of the surface of land and water. 
 Storms are caused by the rapid rising of heated air, causing the air to 
 rush in from all directions. CycloJies are whirling storms. Thunder 
 storms are clouds charged with electricity. Lightning is the passing of 
 electricity from cloud to cloud, or from the clouds to the earth. 
 
 • ►' — — <9 
 
•». — _ — 4f 
 
 26 INSTITUTE REVIEW. 
 
 Climate is the condition as to heat and moistui'e, modified by lati- 
 tude, height above sea level and proximity to seas. Isothermal lines con- 
 nect points having the same average temperature. 
 
 Minerals are of three kinds: Force producing; as coal of vegetable 
 origin. Industrial metals; as iron, copper, zinc, tin, gold and silver, 
 with their various alloys. Building stone includes granite, marble, lime 
 and sandstone. 
 
 Vegetables include plants distributed according to climate and is 
 greatest in the tropical regions and diminishing towards the poles and 
 tops of mountains. Grasses are the most widely distributed; as they are 
 found in all latitudes, but thrive best in temperate regions. Grains are 
 species of grass indiginous to Asia except corn which is native of America. 
 
 Animals like plants, increase from the poles toward the equator. In 
 polar regions they are distinguished on tlie land for their fur, and in the 
 water for their covering of fat. In the temperate zone they are domesti- 
 cated and most useful. In the tropical region they are large and power- 
 ful, besides there are many reptiles and monkeys. 
 
 Political Geography treats of tribes and nations banded together 
 for mutual protection. Tribes are bands of uncivilized people, governed 
 by chiefs, whose will is law. Nation is an organization of civilized peo- 
 ple, having a system of written laws. Mankind comprises about 1,500,- 
 000,000 of people. Classified socially, they are Savage without written 
 laws; Barbarous, without homes, being wanderers; Half Civilized, having 
 some skill in agriculture and manufacturing and limited education; Civil- 
 ized possess knowledge of the arts, science, education, literature and are 
 self governing. As to Races, man is divided into the Caucasian, Mon- 
 golian, Negro, Malay and Indian. As to Religion, they are Christians 
 who believe in the Bible; Jews, who reject the New Testament; Moham- 
 medans, who believe Mahomet was the Great Prophet; Brahminism, in- 
 cluding Brahma the creator, Vishnu the preserver and Siva the destroy- 
 er; Buddhism teaches transmigration of souls; that as soon as we die we 
 are born again to a higher or lower state or animal, depending upon our 
 obedience in life to the laws of Budda. 
 
 Governments . A Republic is a nation in which the people make 
 their OAvn laws and elect oflficers to enforce them. Monarchy is a 
 a government in whicli the supreme power is in the hands of one 
 person for life. It is absolute when wholly invested in the ruler and 
 limited when the laws are made by the people. Empire is a monarchy 
 comprising several nations. Kingdom is a monarchy ruled by a kind or 
 queen. Capital is the city where the laws are made. 
 
 Industries are the occupations of mankind. Agriculture is cultivat- 
 ing the soil, producing food and clothing; giving employment to one-half 
 the population of the United States. Manufacturing is making from raw 
 material things useful to mau ; as lumber, cloth, tools, machinery, leath- 
 
 • ► -*• 
 
• ►■ 
 
 INSTITUTE REVIEW. 27 
 
 r 
 
 er. furniture and Ijooks. Mining is taking minerals from the earth; as 
 coal, iron, gold and silver. Lumbering is cutting trees into logs and 
 sawing logs into plank. Commerce \% \h^ exchange of goods and prod- 
 ucts l>y means of transportation on railroads, rivers, canals and vessels. 
 
 Descriptive Geogkaphv treats of the description of a Continenl; as 
 to situation in the hemisphere, boundaries, latitude, longitude, extent, 
 relief forms, drainage, contour forms, ocean branches, zones, races, 
 countries and histoiy. Of Countries: Situation, boundaries, extent, map, 
 relief contour, climate, resources, people, government, religion, and pos- 
 sessions. Of Oceans: Situation, shape, size, currents, islands, cables and 
 routes of travel. State: Situation, extent, relief, drainage, resources, 
 cities, institutions and histoiy. County: Situation, ranges, civil and con- 
 gressional townships, shape, extent, map, relief drainage, resources, 
 population, cities and towns, railroads, schools, newspapers, public 
 buildings, officers, courts and history. Township: Name, shape, size, 
 school districts, map, natural forms, towns, boundaries and history. 
 
 Local Geography in addition to the above points on the township, 
 county and state, will include the geography of the school room; as to 
 the relative location of different objects and making a map to represent 
 them. The cardinal and semi-cardinal points as to their location in na- 
 ture and on the map. Measurements including the different lengths. 
 Map the school grounds and neighborhood, including lessons on soil, 
 plants, trees, etc. Maps should be made of each farm; direction and dis- 
 tance each farm is from the school house: when the school house was 
 built: teachers who have taught there; oldest settlers, etc. 
 
 Government Survey System is a system of survey by which a large 
 territory is laid off into townships six miles square, by means of a Princi- 
 pal Meridian and a Base Line. The Base Line extends east and west 
 near the middle of the territory to be sui-vej^ed. Principal Meridian ex- 
 tends north and south, crossing the base line near the center of the ter- 
 ritory. Townshix>s are counted from the base line north and south; each 
 six miles being run off as a township. They are known by numbers from 
 the base line. Eanges are measured fi-om the Principal Meridian east 
 and west; each six miles constituting a range indicated by the Roman 
 numerals from the Principal Meridian. A Congressional township is six 
 miles square, and divided into 36 sections or square miles. Sections 16 
 and 36 are school sections; the proceeds from the sale of the land of school 
 sections go into the permanent school fund. On account of the converg- 
 ing of meridian lines, correction lines are made every twenty-four miles 
 in this latitude and more frequently as the latitude increases northward. 
 Sections are divided into halves, quarters, and halves of quarters and 
 quarters of quarters. The subdivisions of a section are named by their 
 location; as the North half (N.i) 320 acres; Southeast quarter (S. E. i) 160 
 acres: East half of the Southeast quarter (E.4 of S. E.i) 80 acres; South- 
 
 • ►■ 
 
• >. . ■ ■ -to 
 
 T 
 
 28 INSTITUTE REVIEW. 
 
 east qnartei- of the Northwest quarter (S. E.i of N. W.i) 40 acres. 
 
 Methods. — Pupils should first have lessons in observation of form, 
 place, plants, animals and minerals. In connection Avith ol^servation 
 lessons, special attention should be given to the language of geography, 
 including such terms as may be illustrated in the immediate locality. 
 The map picture should be introduced at the very beginning. Pupils 
 , should be taught to read maps, and to make maps of places familiar to 
 them. The sand box or moulding board should be used in developing re- 
 lief forms, Avhich may afterward be worked in paper j)ulp on a smaller 
 scale. 
 
 The globe should be used in teaching the form, size, circumference, 
 diameter, equator, tropic and polar circles, zones, meridians, motions, 
 relative lo(!ation of continents, oceans, etc. The phenomena of day and 
 night, change of seasons, trade winds, absolute ana relative time, chang- 
 es of the moon, eclipses and tides. Incline the axis in different positions 
 and observe the effect it would have. 
 
 The topical method which is best for advance classes, consists of 
 outlining the lesson and assigning each pupil a special topic, on which to 
 prepare and recite without questions. Questions usually suggest the an- 
 swer. Map drawing is for the purpose of impressing the facts of loca- 
 tion on the memory and not for the purpose of teaching drawing. Card 
 board may be cut of the form of a continent or country and used for ob- 
 taining a correct outline of a country, which may afterwards be filled in. 
 I^rawing maps in squares representing a hundred or a thousand square 
 miles, gives a clear idea of the size. Progressive maps with the outline 
 dimly printed, to be developed and filled in is a practical method in map 
 study. 
 
 Outline maps should be used continually for pointing out and des- 
 cribing the location of places; pupils asking questions for each other to 
 point out. 
 
 Reviews and games should be used frequently to keep up an interest. 
 Divide the school into a geographical spelling match; stating geographi- 
 cal facts; read items from newspapers and have pupils locate the place; 
 take imaginary journeys, describing the places visited; descriptions of 
 places given by teacher or pupils, the name to be guessed. 
 
 The variety of methods is unlimited in the ingenious teacher; but the 
 above Avill be suggestive and will start you in the right line. 
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 Language study for primary grades, treats of i^roper forms of ex- 
 pression and use of words, without reference to rules or technical terms. 
 Principles — 1. A child learns by example and practice and not by 
 
 <^ 
 
INSTITUTE KEVIEW. 29 
 
 rules and theory. 2. Hal)its of utterance and forms of expression, learn- 
 ed ill I'hildhood, cling to lis throughout lite. 
 
 OxAL lessons should be given first in making stories about familiar 
 objects and pictures, followed by written stories. 
 
 Name ideas may be developed by having pupils write tlieir own 
 name, names of schoolmates, school, things to eat and wear, and names 
 of places. 
 
 Is and Ake used in statements and questions; as, The boy is here. 
 The boys are here. Is the boy hei'e? Are the boys here? Make state- 
 ments and change the statement to a question, and the use of is to are. 
 Repeat this until the habit has been formed for the correct use. 
 
 Was and Weke — The paper was torn. The papers were torn. 
 
 Has and Have — A bird has claws. Birds have claws. ' 
 
 See, saw. liave seen, has seen. I see, I saAv, I have seen, I had seen, 
 He has seen. 
 
 Went, has gone, have gone, had gone. I went. He has gone. They 
 have gone. He has gone. 
 
 Did, has done, have done, had done. I did. He has done. You 
 have done. They had done. 
 
 Sit and Set — I sit on a seat. Tlie bucket sets on a table. We sat 
 here. 
 
 Lie and Lay — I lie on the sofa. You lay tlie book down. I lay on 
 the sofa j^esterday. I have lain on the sofa. 
 
 Homonyms — two, to, too; here, hear; no, know; their, there; write, 
 right; to be used in filling blanks and forming statements and questions. 
 
 Objects — Name, parts, color, shape, size, of what made and use; as 
 ball, book, slate, chair, house, fruit, leaves, and other objects familiar to 
 the pupil. 
 
 Qualities — As tliin, smooth, sour, hard, lieavy, round, juicy, cold, 
 etc., used as above. 
 
 Actions of pupils noticed in the room and in pictures, formed into 
 statements and questions. 
 
 A and An — As a hat; an ax. 
 
 This and That — These and those; as this boy; these boys. That girl; 
 those girls. 
 
 Possession; as, This is John's book. 
 
 Their and There; as. Their hats are there. 
 
 Initials — Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, written, H. W. Longfellow. 
 
 Abbreviations — Mr. for Mister; Mrs. for Mistress. 
 
 Capital letters at the beginning of a statement or question. 
 
 Marks at the end of a statement, (.) or question, (?). Comma be- 
 tween words when three or more have been used in the same Avay; as, I 
 can see, hear, smell and taste. 
 
 Dictation exercises consist in reading statements or stories for pupils 
 
 A A 
 
 9t, ■ <9 
 
V 
 
 30 INSTITUTE REVIEW. 
 
 to write and compare and correct errors in spelling, use of words, 
 capital letters and marks. 
 
 Memory lessons consist in copying and committing to memory easy 
 lines containing gems of thought and truths worth remembering; as, 
 
 "When doubtfu' which is right, which wrong, 
 
 This you can safely do: 
 
 Do unto others as you Avould 
 
 That they should do unto you." 
 
 CoJiPOSiTiON study consists in writing short stories from outlines, 
 about objects, animals, persons or scenes, as they appear in real life, 
 or in a picture. 
 
 Letter writing consists of the Head, which includes the place and 
 date; as, Brooklyn, Iowa, May 20th, 1893. The Salutation; as. My kind 
 friend — . Body of the letter which consists of statements made. Con- 
 clusion, consisting of the closing statement; as. Yours respectfully, John 
 Smith. 
 
 Reproduction exercises consist in reading stories for pupils to 
 write or reproduce from memory. 
 
 Quotation exercises are similar to memory exercises. 
 
 Information exercises are based on elementary science study, and 
 lessons in observation of animals, as to their kind, form and habits. 
 
 Narrative is describing what has been seen on a visit to some 
 place; including statements about things noticed, that would be of interest. 
 
 Paraphrasing is similar to reproduction, and consists in changing 
 poetry to prose, using your own language. 
 
 Biographical sketch is writing a description of the life of a person; 
 including place and time of birth, childhood, education, life occupation, 
 best known work, time and place of death. 
 
 Autobiography is the biography written of one's self. 
 
 Telegrams are statements made in the fewest words possible and 
 sent over a wire to some distant station. Ten words cost 25 cents. 
 
 Method. — Teach simple sentences beginning with a capital and end- 
 ing with a period. Pupils should reproduce stories told them and write 
 stories of their own. Learn to use the language by using it. Have 
 pupils copy paragraphs and exchange papers and correct spelling and. 
 use of capitals. 
 
 Descriptive Composition. — Write a short account of the following 
 objects, describing their construction, materials, form and use: Gun, 
 plow, cart, knife, bridge, railroad, etc. 
 
 Write a description of the process of making the following: Flour, 
 butter, salt soap, glass, paper and gas. 
 
 Write what they are, where raised, where obtained, general appear- 
 ance, parts and use: Apple, cherry, banana, melon, orange, lemon, grape 
 and cocoanut. 
 
 ▲ A 
 
 • ►— ■ <• 
 
INSTITUTE REVIEW. 31 
 
 Methods for themes in higher grades: Introduce subjects by a 
 few suitable remarks. Explain the meaning of the subject distinct- 
 ly as to what it includes. Explain the origin and principles. Give an 
 account of the development and progress Show the influence upon so- 
 ciety a-id its relation to other suljjects. Conclude with reflections on the 
 subject not mentioned. This may be varied to suit other subjects. 
 
 Themes: Printing, agriculture, newspapers, commerce, architecture, 
 music, childhood, climate, time, nature, economjs history, biography, 
 memory', conversation, custom, chai'acter, trifles, opinion, temper, 
 fame, intemperance, truth, education, genius, curiosity, language, socie- 
 t3% literature, fashion, professions, art, monopoly, tariff, labor, govern- 
 ment, suffrage and amusements. 
 
 GRAMMAR. 
 
 Objects are things, which we can perceive through the senses. Idea 
 is the name of an object. Thought is a proper grouping of ideas. Word 
 is the sign of an idea. 
 
 Language is the expression of thought by means of words. 
 
 Gkammah treats of the principles and usages of language. The prin- 
 cipal divisions of grammar are. Etymology, Syntax and Prosody. 
 
 Etymology treats of the classification, properties and derivation of 
 words. 
 
 Syntax treats of the arrangement of words in sentences according 
 to the best usage. 
 
 PuosoDY treats of the quantity of syllables, of accent, and laws of 
 versification. 
 
 Pakts of Speech include the classes into which words are divided, 
 according to their meaning and use; as, noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, 
 adverb, conjunction, preposition, and interjection. 
 
 Property of a part of speech is its change in form to express differ- 
 ent shades of meamng; as, gender, person, number and case to nouns; 
 voice, mode, tense, person and number to verbs; comparison to adject- 
 ives and adverbs. 
 
 Declension is arranging the noun or pronoun in regular order, to 
 express number and case. 
 
 Inflection is the variation or change in the form of a word, by the 
 different properties. 
 
 Conjugation is the inflection, in regular order, of the mode, tense, 
 voice, person and number of a verb . 
 
 Comparison is the inflection of the adjective to express different de- 
 
 gi'ees of quality. 
 A ▲ 
 
 • ► <9 
 
INSTITUTE REVIEW. 
 
 Parsing is naming the parts of speech, telling the x^roperties, point- 
 ing out the relation to other words and giving the rule for the construe - 
 tion of a word. 
 
 Noun is a name. Common noun is the name of a class or kind. 
 Prope?^ noun is the name of some particular person, place or thing. ^16- 
 stract noun is the name of a quality, apart from the object. Participud 
 noun is the name of an action; as; singing. Gender is a distinction, with 
 regard to sex. Mnsculine denotes male. Feminine denotes female. 
 Common denotes either male or female: as parent. Neuter denotes 
 neither; as, stove. Persow distinguishes; 1st, the speaker; 2nd, the per- 
 son spoken to; 3rd, the person spoken of. Number is that form which 
 distinguishes one from more than one. Singular means one; as, boy. 
 Plural means more than one; as boys. Nouns form their plural by add- 
 ing s, es, ies, A^es, and by different words; as caps, boxes, cities, loaA'es 
 and men. Case is the relation of a noun to other words. Nominative ease 
 is the subject or predicate of a sentence; as. The hoy is studying. The 
 girl is a scholar. Possessive denotes ownership, authorship, origin or 
 kind; as Mary's slate; Hunt's speller; the sun's rays; men's clothing. Tliis 
 case is generally indicated b}^ the apostrophe and s following the noun. 
 Objective case usually follows the transitive A^erb or the preposition; as, 
 Boys dislike grammar. John Avent to town. Absolute or independent 
 case is independent of a governing Avord; as, John, come here; Honor 
 being lost, all is lost. Ap)position is a noun in the same case, used by 
 Avay of explanation; as. Grant the general, became Grant the President. 
 Rules for construction belong to case and are simply the reasons for the 
 case or relation. 
 
 Pronoun is a Avord used instead of a noun; as his book, my knife. 
 Antecedent of a pronoun is the noun or expression for AAdiicli it stands. 
 The Properties are the same as the noun for Avhich it stands. Personal 
 pronouns show hy their form Avhether they are first, second or third per- 
 son; as I, he, she, they, etc. They are compound by adding self or 
 selves to the simple personal pronoun. Possessive pronouns represen- 
 both the pessessor and thing possessed. They are mine, thine, his, hers, 
 ours and yours. They are never in the possessive case. Relative pro- 
 noun is used to represent a preceding Avord or phrase, to Avhich it joins 
 a limiting clause. They are Avho, Avhom, Avhich, that and Avhat. They 
 are compounded by annexing ever and soever. They agree Avith their 
 antecedents in properties. Interrogatives are avIio, Avhich and Avhat, AAdien 
 used in asking a question. The subsequent of an interrogatiA^e pronoun 
 is that part of the ansAver Avhich it represents. 
 
 Adjectives are Avords used to describe and define a noun. They 
 are divided into tAvo classes, descriptive and definitive. Bescriptives 
 limit or define a noun by denoting a quality belonging to it; as sweet, 
 square, good, etc. They are compound when composed of tAVO words; 
 
 • ►• 
 
^9 
 
 T 
 I-NSTITITE HEVIEW. 33 
 
 as higli-soumling: Partieipial, when derived from a verb: as, a running 
 horse. Descriptive adjectives are compared to denote different degrees 
 of quality. Definitive adjectives define or limit the meaning of a noun 
 without denoting anj^ quality. They are divided into three classes: Ar- 
 ticles, Pronominals, and Numerals. Articles include a, an and the. The 
 is called the definit; a and an the indetinits. Pronominals are definitives, 
 which may without an article prefixed, represent or stand for a noun. 
 They are divided into Demonstratives, Distributives and Indefinits. 
 Demonstratives point out detinitly; as, this, that, these, those, etc. Dis- 
 tribniives represent objects sepai-ately; as each, every, either, neither. 
 Indefinits represent objects in a general way; as all, any, other, certain, 
 many, little, no, none, and etc. Numeral adjectives express number or 
 onler; as four, fourth. Cardinals denote simply the number; Ordinal, the 
 position or rank: Multiplicative, the fold; as four-fold. 
 
 Verbs are words expressing action, being or state; as, I write; You 
 are; Ho stands. With respect to use, they are Copulatives, Transitive 
 and Intransitive. Coindatives join predicates to subjects. It is always 
 some form of the verb to be. Transitive verbs require an object to 
 complete their meaning. Intransitive verbs do not require an object to 
 ccnuplete their meaning. As to form, verbs are Regular or Irregular. 
 Bcgnlar verbs form their past tense by adding d or ed to the present 
 form: as form, formed. Irregular verbs form their past tense and part- 
 cipial forms irregularly: as go, went, gone; do, did done; see, saw, seen. 
 Voice is that form of the transitive verb showing whether the subject 
 acts or is acted upon. Active voice represents the subject as actino-. 
 Passive voice represents the subject as receiving the action, and is indi- 
 cated l)y prefixing some form of the verb to be, to the perfect participle, 
 of the transitive verb. Participle is a word derived from a verb partak- 
 ing of the properties of the verb, adjective or noun. Present participle 
 denotes the continuance of an act; as kicking, being kicked. Perfect de- 
 notes completion: as seen. Compound denotes completion in the time 
 represented by principal verb; as. Having recited his lesson, he left 
 school. Auxiliary verbs are those used in the inflection of other verbs. 
 They are do, be, have, shall, will, may, can and must. Mode is the man- 
 ner in which the action, being or state is expressed. There are five: 
 Indicative, Subjunctive, Potential and Infinitive. Indicative asserts 
 a thing as a fact; Subjunctive as doubtful; Potential indicates power, ne- 
 cessity, liberty, duty or liability; Imperative expresses a command, en- 
 treaty and permission; Infinitive expresses action,' being or state with- 
 out affirming it; sometimes called the infinitive phrase. The infinitive 
 may be used as a subject of a verb; as. To run was impossible. As the 
 object of a verb; as, He wishes to read. In apposition; as, What fun! to 
 coast upon the hill. Independent; as. To te'l the truth, [I was sick. 
 Tense flenotes the time of an action. There are three: Present, Past and 
 
 • ► — — -O 
 
• ► — 
 
 T 
 
 34 INSTITUTE REVIEW. 
 
 Future. Present denotes present time. Present perfect represents an 
 action past but connected with the present; indicated by the sign, have. 
 Pa.s^ tense represents an act in time wholly past; as, I wrote. Past per- 
 fect represents an act completed before some other past time; indicated 
 by had. Future tense, an action in the future. The signs are shall and 
 will. i^7i!;;«-(? pez/cc^! represents an act as finished before another future 
 time; indicated by the sign shall, have or will have. Unipersonal verbs 
 assert independently of any particular subject; as. It snows; Methinks. 
 Principal parts of a verb are the present, past and perfect participle 
 forms. Synopsis of a verb is its variation through modes and tenses in 
 a single person and number. Defective verbs are those wanting inj-some 
 of their parts; as beware, ought, quoth and the auxiliaries. 
 
 Adverbs modify the meaning of verbs, adjectives, participles and 
 adverbs; as, sings sweetly; very rough; quickly broken; tolerably well. 
 Adverbs of Time answer When? How long? How often? Of Place, 
 Where? Cause, Why? Manner, Hoav? Degree, How much? Conjunc- 
 tive adverbs join clauses and modify the verb in the principal clause. 
 Some adverbs admit of comparison. 
 
 Preposition is a word showing the relation between its object and 
 some other word; as. The teacher of gi-ammar, came in the room. 
 
 Conjunctions are words used to connect words, sentences and parts 
 of sentences. The two classes are Co-ordinate and Subordinate. Co- 
 07-dinate join elements of equal rank; Subordinate join elements of differ- 
 ent rank. 
 
 Interjections are words denoting emotion. Hurrah! O my! 
 Pshaw! "Ouch!" 
 
 Syntax treats of the synthesis and analysis of sentences. Synthesis 
 is the proper arranging of words to form a sentence. Analysis is the 
 separating of a sentence into its elements, and expressing the class and 
 relation of the elements. Diagraming is a convenient arrangement of 
 the parts of a sentence for examination, by means of lines, symbols, 
 numerals or braces. 
 
 Sentence is an arrangement of woitIs making complete sense. As 
 to nature, they are divided into Declarative, which declares or asserts a 
 fact; Interrogative, which asks a question; Imperatiue, which make a 
 command; Exclamatory, which express strong feeling. As to form, they 
 are Simple, having a single subject and predicate; Complex, consisting of 
 a principal clause modified by a subordinate proposition. Compound, 
 composed of two or more propositions of equal rank. As to position, 
 they are principal and subordinate propositions in complex sentences. 
 
 Elements are the constituent parts of a sentence. Subject is that 
 part of a sentence of which something has been asserted. Predicate is 
 that part of a sentence which makes the assertion. Simple elements are 
 the unmodified elements. Comjilex elements include the modifiers. Com- 
 
 i».— 4» 
 
— <o 
 
 INSTITUTJE REVIEW. 35 
 
 pound elements include two or more elements of equal rank. Comple- 
 ments are those parts or elements of the predicate, which complete the 
 sense. They are known as the Attribute and Object complements. 
 Modifying elements are classed as adjective, objective and adverbial. 
 As to form, thej^ are simple, complex or compound. As to rank, they 
 are of the first class, when a single word; of the second class, when com- 
 posed of a preposition and object; of the third class, when a sentence. 
 Arrangement of elements is placing them in their usual order. They 
 may be in regular onler or in an inverted or transposed order. 
 
 Phkases are groups of words not making complete sense when stand- 
 ing alone. They are classed as adjective, adverbial, infinitive, preposit- 
 ional and iaiomatic. In their form they are simple, complex and com- 
 pound. Clauses are the sejjarate propositions of a complex or compound 
 sentence. They are classed as principal, subordinate, subject, predi- 
 cate, relative, appositive, interrogative, objective, adverbial, etc. 
 
 False Syntax is a violation of the proper arrangement or use of 
 words in a sentence. 
 
 Rules are directions in the proper use of words; also what common 
 errors should be avoided. 1. Use an before vocal and a before subvocal 
 and aspirate sounds. 2. Do not use them for those. 3. Do not use 
 wrong case forms. 4. Express general truths in the present tense. 5. 
 Avoid the wrong form or contraction of the verb. 
 
 Prosody. — Verse consists of lines grouped by metrical rules. Poetry 
 is discourse written in metrical language; it is in rhyme or blank verse. 
 Rhyme consists in similaritj'^ of sound at the end of each or alternate 
 lines. Blank verse is without rhyme. Stanza is a group of lines in poe- 
 try. Poetic feet is a grouping of syllables hy accent. Poetic pauses are of 
 two kinds, called final, at the end of a line, and cesural, near the middle 
 of a line. 
 
 Methods. — Language work should always precede the study of 
 technical grammar, which should not be taken up before the fifth grade. 
 The object of lesson work is to form the habit of correctness in the use 
 of language both oral and written. Correct oral language, consists of 
 correct pronunciation and use of words in their proper order. Correct 
 written language consists of correct spelling and use of capitals, in addi- 
 tion to the points required in oral language. See that the thought is 
 right, truthful, clear, and the expression direct, simple, free and natural. 
 Follow the above in connection Avith each lesson. 
 
 Imitation of good forms of expression from the teacher and from 
 reading. Correct bad forms of expression, used by pupils. Do much 
 copy work- Study objects and express your thoughts, both oral and 
 written. Act and have pupils express what was done. Use pictures and 
 have pupils describe what is seen in them; as to the objects and what 
 
 A ▲ 
 
 • ». ■ -4 9 
 
• ►^ — ^ •«• 
 
 ▼ T 
 
 36 INSTITUTE KEVIEW. 
 
 they seem to be doing. Tell stories and have pupils reproduce them 
 orally and in writing. Require full and complete sentences. 
 
 Comijosition work consists of the above and additional subjects; as a 
 description of home, school, trees, a journey, how things are made, and 
 autobiographies of different objects or animals. 
 
 In grammar study; a clear definition of each term should be the first 
 point mastered. The models for parsing should be studied carefully. 
 A sentence may be written vertically, and the parsing of each word 
 written opposit; or columns may be formed, one for each part of speech. 
 Much writing will facilitate time in both study and recitation. Atten- 
 tion to the different parts of speech should be given in the reading classes 
 of the grammar grades. 
 
 Analysis may be studied by diagrams until a mastery of the subject 
 is attained, when it should be dropped. Much time is frequently wasted 
 in diagraming sentences, which are not analyzed afterward. Have the 
 diagram work done at the seat, and the time of the recitation given to 
 analysis. 
 
 Diagraming may be done in different ways: By placing numerals 
 over the principal elements and initial letters over the modifying ele- 
 ments, with lines drawn under or over, connecting modifying with prin- 
 cipal elements. A line may be drawn and divided into two parts, on 
 which may be written the principal elements; the modifying elements 
 written on lines below, opposit, and connecting with the element above 
 which they modify. The brace system places the subject above the 
 predicate verb, with modifying elements set off by braces when more 
 than one, and by l>ars when single. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY, 
 
 We have a limited amount of vital force upon which we may draw. 
 We may become spendthrifts and waste or injure this force, or be 
 wise and develop and protect our powers for mature life. Physiology 
 may be called the bookkeeping of the body, in which a strict account 
 must be given of the receipts and expenditures of the vital forces. We 
 should not only know how to use, protect and develop an organ, or part 
 of the body, but we should have some knowledge of diseased conditions, 
 the cause and simple remedies to be used in the first stages. We should 
 know something of the origin, nature and the proper and improper use 
 of stimulants and narcotics. How they effect the user, physically, mor- 
 ally and socially. We should not limit our knowledge to text-books 
 alone, but open our eyes and observe subjects daily before us. Nature's 
 laAvs are inviolable. Vital force borrowed is demanded with compound 
 
 A A 
 
 •► ■ ■ —<m 
 
: .,0 
 
 T 
 
 INSTITUTE REVIEW. 37 
 
 interest about fifteen years after, which cause naany to go into phj'sical 
 bankrnpte3% and many to go down to premature graves. 
 
 Physiology in a general sense is the science of the structure, func- 
 tion and laws of preservation of the animal body. The three divisions 
 are, Anato)mj. which treats of the structure; Physiology, which treats of 
 the function or use; and Hygiene, which treats of the laws of preservation 
 and health. 
 
 Bones are composed of animal and mineral matter, which varies in 
 proportion to age; animal matter greater in early life, and mineral in old 
 age. The form of bones vary as to use; being long and round; broad 
 and thin; short and thick. They are used for protection, motion, 
 and to maintain the form of the body. Skeleton is the framework of the 
 body and consists of 200 to 204 bones, divided into the 
 
 Head, of 28 bones: Cranium 8, consisting of the Frontal, 2 Parietal, 
 
 2 Temporal, the Sphenoid, Ethmoid and Occipital; Face 14 bones, con- 
 sisting of 2 Superior Maxilary, Inferior Maxilary, 2 Malar, 2 Lachrymal, 
 
 3 Turbinated, 3 Nasal, Vomer and 2 Palate bones; Ear 6 bones — Hammer, 
 Anvil and Stirrup. 
 
 The Trunk, 54 bones: Spinal Column 24, Ribs 12, Sturnum, Os 
 Hyoides and Pelvis 4 — consisting of 2 Innominata, Sacrum and Coccyx. 
 
 The Limbs, 124 bones: Upper limbs 64 — consisting of Shoulder 
 
 Scapula and Clavicle; Arm — Humerus, Ulna and Radius; Hand 8, Wrist 
 
 or Carpel, 5 Metacarpel, 15 Phalanges. Lower limbs, 60 bones: Leg 
 
 Femur, Pattella, Tibia and Fibula; Foot— 7 Tarsel, 5 Metatarsel, 14 
 Phalanges. Bones are united by joints which are covered with a mem- 
 brane secreting and lubricating the joints. Tobacco and alcohol stunt 
 the growth of the bones. 
 
 Diseases of the bones: Rickets is a lack of mineral matter and may 
 be cured by taking food containing lime. Sprains are breakings of the 
 ligaments binding the bones or joints together. Dislocation is forcing a 
 bone out of its socket or joint. Fracture is breaking or cracking a bone^ 
 Felon is an inflammation of the periostium, a membrane coverino- the 
 bones. 
 
 Muscles are the bands attached to the bones, which, by contracting 
 or shortening, move and hold the bones in different positions. They are 
 arranged in pairs and each muscle is composed of fibers, which is made 
 up of small cells. Tendons are the white cords attaching the muscles 
 to the bones. Walking is alternate falling and catching yourself. Vol- 
 untary muscles act under the control of the will, while involuntai-y do 
 not. Hygiene consists in properly exercising the muscles by walking 
 and movement exercises and avoiding severe strains. The muscles ai-e 
 susceptible to marvelous training; as shown in the voice, and in the 
 musical performer. 
 
 Diseases. — St. Vitus Dance is a disease of the voluntary muscles, 
 
 A ▲ 
 
 • ► — ■ ■ ■«• 
 
T T 
 
 38 INSTITUTE REVIEW. 
 
 causing sjjasmodie action which may be cured by improving the general 
 licalth and keeping quiet. Lock-jaw is a contracted condition of the 
 muscles of the lower jaw, caused by some simple wound and may cause 
 death. Gout affects the joints of the feet, indicated by a swollen condi- 
 tion usually caused b};- high living. May be cured by dieting and use of 
 simple tonics. Kheumatism affects the white, fibrous tissue of the joints. 
 Inflammatory or Acute is a disease of the blood and requires blood 
 treatment. If it continues it becomes chronic and is liable to affect the 
 heart. It is caused by exposure in damp weather. Lumbago is a dis- 
 ease of the lumbar muscles of the back, usually called a crick in the back. 
 Alcohol changes muscles into fat and thus weakens them. Tobacco 
 weakens the nerves and therefore affects the muscles. 
 
 The Skin is composed of the Cuticle or scarf skin, which covers the 
 Cutis or true skin, wliicli contains the nerves and blood vessels. Com- 
 plexion is due to the coloring matter on tlie surface of the Cutis. Pores 
 are openings through the skin allowing waste matter to escape. Hair 
 grows from a laulb or root in the skin; it is very mucli lilie the Cuticle. 
 The hair protects and equalizes the temperature of the skin and body. Nails 
 protect the ends of the lingers and toes and is very much like tlie cuticle, 
 a horny-like substance. Membranes cover the inside and outside of the 
 body. The mucous membrane covers the inside cavities and the skin 
 the outside, and acts as filters as well as protectors. Fat is an oil deposi- 
 ted in the cells of the skin, and in tlie hollow of the bones called mar- 
 row. Teeth are the hard, bony appendages attached to the jaws and 
 used in masticating the food. The parts are crown, enamel and dentine. 
 There are 32 in a full set consisting of cutting teeth or incisors, canine or 
 eyeteetli, bicuspids and grinders or molars. Milk teeth is the first set. 
 Teeth decay if not kept clean. Olands are sacks secreting oil in the 
 sldn to keep it soft. Perspiratory glands are very numerous and pass 
 off waste matter in the form of vapor. 
 
 Hygiene; — Bathe frequently to remove the dead skin and invigorate 
 the system. Wear clotliing suited to the condition of the body and 
 weather. 
 
 Diseases. — Corns are thickening of the cuticle, caused by tight shoes; 
 may be cured by soaking and paring. Ingrowing nails caused by pres- 
 sure; may be cured by removing cause and scraping nail in the middle. 
 Warts are enlarged papillae and may be removed by nitric acid. Chil- 
 blain is an inflammation of the feet, usually caused by exposure to 
 cold. 
 
 Respiration and the Voice. — Larynx is a box-like cavity at the 
 upper end of the windpipe, covered by a leaf like valve called the epi- 
 glottis, which opens when we breathe and closes when we swallow. 
 Vocal cords are located on the sides of the opening or glottis. Different 
 tones are produced by the length and tension of the cords. Vocal 
 
o»-- 
 
 "40 
 
 INSTITUTE REVIEW. 
 
 39 
 
 .sotiiuls are made by the viljratiou of the vocal cords. Windpipe or 
 trachea extends from the larynx to the lungs; it divides into two branch- 
 es called bronchi, which ilivide and terminate in the air cells. These 
 tubes arc lined with I'ilia or hairs which catch the dust. The lungs are 
 enclosed in a thin membraneous wrapper called the pleura. Inspiration 
 is admitting the air by contracting the diaphragm and while Expiration 
 is forcing the air out l)y relaxing the muscles. Coughing, sneezing, 
 laughing and crying are spasmodic actions of the lungs. One gallon is 
 the average breathing capacity, while a pint is the usual amount changed 
 each ])reath. Air carries oxygen to the blood and carbonic acid away. 
 Air must not l)e breathed over and over, which necessitates ventilation, 
 furnishing 2000 feet of fresh air each hour to each person. We breathe 
 at least 7 million times a j^ear, by which we purify 3,500 tons of blood. 
 
 Diseases. — Pneumonia is an inflammation of the air cells of the 
 lungs, caused by cold. Treatment should be sweating and good nursing. 
 Vonsjtmption destroys the lung substance, caused principallj^ by impure 
 air and the 1)est remedy is to remove the cause by plentj' of pure, fresh 
 air. I')iplitheria is a disease of the mucous meml)rane of the throat, pro- 
 ilucing a stiffness of the membrane and exuding matter, Avhich results 
 frequently in blood poison and death. The remedy is Peroxide of Hy- 
 drogen used as a gargle. Croup is an inflammation of the laiynx and 
 trachea. Treatment should produce vomiting; use hot packs on the 
 throat. 
 
 CiRCULATiox is the S3"stem bj" which the blood is carried to all parts 
 of the body. Blood contains the nutritious supply of the system; the 
 quantity is about eighteen pounds to each person. Plasma is the liquid 
 part and the corpuscles are the round disks in the blood. Coagulation is 
 the hardening of the fibrin in the plasma, which stops bleeding. Heart 
 is the engine which moves the blood. It contains four cavities, called 
 auricles and ventricles. Tricuspid valves are on the right and bicuspid 
 on the left side, with the semi-lunar at the opening of the aorta. Pul- 
 monic circulation takes the blood to the lungs, systemic from the heart 
 to all parts of the body. Arteries cany the blood from the heart, while 
 veins carry the blood to the heart. Capillaries are hair-like tubes con- 
 necting the arteries and veins. The entire circulation is made in about 
 two miuutes. Temperature of the blood is 98 degrees, which is maintain- 
 ed by oxygen, received in the lungs and regulated through the pores of 
 the skin. Lymphatic circulation is a system by which fatty tissue is 
 carried back into the blood, and foreign substance is absorbed through 
 the skin. 
 
 Diseases. — Congestion is an unnatural accumulation of blood. In- 
 flammation is continued congestion and obstruction of the flow of blood. 
 Treatment should be cooling applications. Bleeding from an artery is 
 indicated l)y red blood in jets; from a vein, dark blood. Compress the 
 
 • ►■ 
 
 A 
 
■<9 
 
 40 INSTITUTE REVIEW. 
 
 artery next to the heart, and away from the heart, in case of a vein. 
 Scrofula is a disease of the lymphatic glands and may be i3revented by 
 dieting, ventilation, and proper care. Cold is caused by chilling the 
 skin, closing the pores and stopj^ing perspiration. Treatment should be 
 sweating. Alcohol in small quantities increases the circulation; when 
 undiluted it poisons and kills. It paralyzes the capillaries and congests 
 the membranes. Its affiniiy for water harden? the tissues and weakens 
 their action. It checks the absorption of oxj'gen in the lungs and ren- 
 ders its users more susceptible to epidemics. 
 
 Food and Digestion. — Food is any substance that can be assimilat- 
 ed by the body, by which the wornout tissues are renewed. Nitrogenous 
 food includes meat, eggs and cheese and/builds up muscle. Carbon- 
 aceous food includes potatoes, corn and starch. Mineral food includes 
 water, holding in solution, iron, sulphur, magnesia, phosphorus, salt and 
 jjotash. Three pints of water are required daily and forms two-thirds of 
 the body. Digestion prepares the food for assimilation. Mastication is 
 cutting, grinding, moistening and mixing the fooci with saliva. Oaslric 
 digestion is performed by the stomach, Avhich consists of three coats: 
 outer serous, middle muscular and inner mucous, which secretes the 
 gastric juice. Cardiac orifice is the uijper opening, and Pylorus the 
 lower. Pepsin is the chief ingredient of the gastric juice, which dis- 
 solves albumen and changes the food into chyme. Intestinal digestion 
 is dissolving the oils and fats in the small intestines, by the aid of the 
 bile, pancreatic juice and intestinal juices, changing the food inta chyle. 
 AbsoriMon is the sucking up of the chyle by the lacteal vessels and veins. 
 Portal vein passes from the stomach to the liver. Hygiene — Different 
 foods vary in their nutritious properties and ease of digestion. Stimu^ 
 lants — Coffee is stimulating and nutritious when taken with milk and 
 sugar. Tea tends to coagulate albumen and delaj^ digestion. In moder- 
 ate quantities they are harmless to adults, but should not be used hj 
 children. Food should be well cooked and we should avoid rapid eat- 
 ing. Quantity and quality should be regulated by age, season and cli- 
 mate. 
 
 Diseases. — Dyspepsia or indigestion caused by abuse of the digestive 
 organs may be treated by tonics. Mumps is a swelling of the parotid 
 gland and is epidemic. It should run its course, but the suffering may 
 be alleviated by hot packs. Alcohol hinders digestion by precipitating 
 the i^epsin and coagulating albumen. It is carried to the liver and af- 
 fects the bile, causing fatty degeneration of the liver. It has a similar 
 effect on the kidneys, and checks the waste of the system. It creates an 
 appetite for itself, which is not noticed in appetites for food. Dipsomania 
 is a hereditary appetite for alcohol. 
 
 Nervous System includes the Ijrain, spinal cord and nerves. Nerve 
 tissue is composed of white and gray matter. In the brain the white 
 
 "<• 
 
O^ — ^ .^« 
 
 INSTITUTE f^EVIEW. 41 
 
 matter is on the interior aiul in the nerves on the exterior. Brain is the 
 seat of nerve force. It is wrapped in thin membranes. The Cerebrtim 
 is the front part, divided into parts connected by fibers, and is supposed 
 to be tlie seat of intelligence. Cerebellum is in the back part and is 
 supposed to control the movements of the body. Medulla Oblongata 
 is ail enlargement of the spinal cord. Nerves are the white cords per- 
 meating every part of the body; they consist of white matter on the ex- 
 ti'rior. which transmit motion, and gray matter on the interior, which 
 transmit sensation or pain. Fain is located in the brain; Spinal nerves 
 branch off from the spine; Cranial from the brain and Medulla: Sympa- 
 thetic nerves connect the vital organs. Reflex action changes a sensa- 
 tion into motion before it reaches the brain. Sleeii is a semi-conscious 
 condition, in which the body relaxes many of the forces, while others 
 continue. Five to eight hours are required for sleep. Sunlight is essen- 
 tial to nerve health. The brain is 80 per cent, water and within itself 
 insensible. Alcohol has a special affinity for the brain, by first exciting, 
 followed by muscular weakness, tlien mental weakness, resulting in un- 
 consciousness. Its excessive use will induce innumerable diseases. To- 
 bacco is composed of carbonides, ammonia and nicotine. Carbonides 
 produces sleep, ammonia bites and nicotine is a deadly poison. It 
 causes vomiting, irritates the nerves, causes many diseases; as throat 
 and \w\ig troubles, nervous disorders and injuriously affects the senses. 
 It retards the growth and development of children using it. Opium is 
 an exti'act from the poppy, which excites, followed by depression. 
 Chloroform is an anajsthetic rendering the user unconscious to pain, 
 and creates an apjjetite for itself which leads to death. 
 
 Special Senses are the avenues through which we become cogni- 
 zant of external things. Touch is that sense, located in nearly all parts 
 of the bod3^ by which we obtain impressions of form, solidity and tem- 
 perature. It is located in the papillae of the skin, and is susceptible of 
 Avonderful cultivation, as shown in the blind. Taste is the sense by 
 which we obtain flavors and is located in the tongue; different parts of 
 the tongue being sensitive to different flavors. Its natural use is to 
 guide in the selection of food and is susceptible to great cviltivation. 
 Smell is the sense bj' Avhich we perceive odors and is located in the ol- 
 factory nerve in the nose. Its use is to aid in selecting food and avoid- 
 ing bad air. Hearing is located in the ear, which is divided into exter- 
 nal, middle and internal ear. The drum is a membrane between the ex- 
 ternal and middle ear. A chain of bones rests against the drum of the 
 middle ear and connects with the semi-cii'cular canals of the internal ear, 
 which is filled with a fluid and other substance, through which sound is 
 transmitted to the brain. Sight is the sense by which we perceive light, 
 color, form, size, distance, location, and various properties of matter. 
 The organ is the eye, the parts of which are the sclerotic coat, cornea. 
 
«►. : 49 
 
 42 INSTITUTE REVIEW. 
 
 choroid coat or black lining, retina, or picture screen, the ciystalline 
 lens, aqueous hura<n', vitreous humor, iris antl pupil. Lnchrymal glands 
 are located above the eye and furnish a tluid for washing the eye, which 
 is drained off into the nose. The lens is adjusted to suit the distance of 
 the object. Near and far-sighted are defects in the lens or shape of the 
 cornea. Color-blindness is a deticiency in color sensation. Hygiene — 
 Avoit| fine print in a dim light, reading on a train, and with a light di- 
 rectly in front. Avoid rubbing the eye when objects get into it, but turn 
 the lid back over a match and remove the object. Don't use eye-washes. 
 Consult a physician in case of granulation. 
 
 Conclusion. — Health is the harmonious condition and action of all 
 the organs and tissues of the body. Disease is a disordered condition 
 and not the presence of an evil spirit. It may l)e prevented by knowing, 
 and observing or obeying the 'aws of health and using medicines to aid 
 nature in repairing the injury. Sanitary and hygienic measures are of 
 far more value than medicines. Disinfectants counteract the effect of dis- 
 ease germs. The best known are sulphur fumes, solution of suli^hate of 
 zinc, salt, copperas and chloride of lime. Poison Antidotes — Acid poison, 
 use soap suds, magnesia or lime, followed by warm water and flax tea. 
 Alkali poison — use vinegar or lemon juice, followed Avith oil or cream. 
 Arsenic — use white of eg^. Bites — use suction, lunar caustic or 1)urn. 
 Copper — use eggs or soda. Laudanum — use epicac, mustard or warm 
 water to produce vomiting. Lead — use anything to produce vomiting, 
 followed by Epsom salts. Matches — use magnesia, chalk and mucilagi- 
 nous drinks. Murcury — use milk, eggs and flour water freely. Prusic 
 acid — use a teaspoonful of hartshorn in a pint of water. Green vitrol — 
 use epicac and mustard, followed by magnesia. 
 
 Methods. — Teach primary pupils laws of health and principal parts 
 of the body. Teach the mental, moral and physical effects of tolsacco 
 and alcohol. Use the outline and topic methods mentioned with other 
 studies. Have pupils make original drawings or copies, naming the 
 parts illustrated. Have parts pointed out on the charts and described. 
 Give special atteiltion to diseases and simple treatment. 
 
 HISTORY. 
 
 In the study of history two objects should be kept in view: Fact get- 
 and thought development. The success of one depends on the other. 
 Instructions should be given in such a Avay as to store the mind, with 
 useful information, increase mental power, arouse patriotism and make 
 good useful citizens. 
 
 It should be studied as a whole, by eras, by periods, by topics and in 
 detail. 
 
 «>. ^ — ■■ ; ^i 
 
• ». : ^0 
 
 T T 
 
 INSTITUTE UEVIEW. 43 
 
 HiSTOKV is a record of events given in a chronological order. Anti- 
 diluvian history includes events prior to the deluge. Post-diluvian his- 
 tory includes events since the flood. Cliristian era includes events since 
 the coming of Christ. Scicntijic history is the story of Geology. Sacred 
 history is the story of the Bible. Profane history is obtained from other 
 sources than the Bible. Traditional history is the unwritten story hand- 
 ed down from father to son, or generation to generation. Written his- 
 tory is given in books, including the facts written at the time they oc- 
 curred. Ancient history includes all events prior to the fall of the 
 Roman empire (476 A. D.) Mediceval history includes events from the 
 5th to the 15th century. Modern history includes events from the dis- 
 cover}' of America to the present time. 
 
 EuA OF Pkepakatiox, includes events from 1493 to 1775. Including 
 the Periods of Exploration 1492 to 1607; Period of Colonization 1607 to 
 1689; Period of Unidcation, 1689 to 1775. 
 
 Era of Formation, 1775-1839. Including Period of Sepai-ation, 
 1775-1783; Period of Organization, 1783-1789; Period of Nationalization, 
 1789-1829. 
 
 Era of Reformation. 1829-1892. Including Period of Agitation, 
 1839-1861; Period of Emancipation 1861-1865; Re-Nationalization 1865 to 
 the present. 
 
 Terms to be mastered: Exploring is passing over for the purpose of 
 discover}'. Discovery is first finding what already existed. Colonizing is 
 a number of persons settling in a new place, under some form of organ- 
 ization. Charter was a written permit from a government to a colony, 
 granting certain territory, privileges and protection. Royal Province 
 was the territoiy granted by the charter and was under the government 
 of England. Conflicting claims caused much trouble between the differ- 
 ent colonies and nations making settlements. 
 
 Aborigines included the Mound Builders, who occupied this country 
 before the Indians; as shown by the numerous mounds left in the Mis- 
 sissippi valley. Indians succeeded the Mound Builders, and were infer- 
 ior to them in civilization. They possessed but few arts and made no 
 progress. Had no domestic animals and considei-ed labor degrading, 
 except for the squaws, who built the wigwam, carried the wood, while 
 the men engaged in sports. In disposition, he was cruel, treacherous, 
 lazy, and an inveterate gambler. He could endure great fatigue and the 
 most horrible torture without a sign of suffering. His religion was of a 
 low order, while not idolatrous, he feared the spirits of the animals he 
 killed. The Indians are opposed to civilization and are doomed to de- 
 struction, except those willing to become civilized. 
 
 Northmen were explorers from Norway and Sweden, who claimed 
 to have explored the east coast of this country during the 10th century. 
 They were Hurjulfson "and Lief Erickson. 
 
 A A 
 
 • » ^« 
 
• ». <• 
 
 ▼ ▼ 
 
 44 INSTITUTE REVIEW. 
 
 1492 — ERA OF PREPARATION.— 177S. 
 
 Discoveries. — Columbus discovered San Salvador, 1492; John Cabot 
 Cape Breton, 1498; Amerigo Vespucius, South America, 1499; Ponce de 
 Leon, Florida, 1512; Balboa, Pacific ocean, 1513. Magellan circumnavi- 
 gated the earth, 1517-21. Explorers — Cortez explored and conquered 
 Mexico, 1521; De Soto, the Southern part of the United States, 1540; 
 Hudson, Hudson bay, 1610; Cartier the St. Lawrence river, 1635; Jesuit 
 priests the Mississippi river, 1673-82. 
 
 The above are the principal discoveries and explorations of most 
 importance to be fixed in the mind, around which, may be gathered and 
 properly associated the less important details. First the fact; second 
 the cause; third the result. 
 
 Settlements. — Columbus, Hayti, 1493; Balboa, Darien, 1510; Jesuits, 
 Arizona, 1560; Melendez, Florida, 1565; Espejo, New Mexico, 1582; 
 Smith, Jamestown, 1607; Pilgrims, Plymouth, 1620; Dutch, Manhattan 
 Island, 1623; Roger Williams, Rhode Island, 1636. 
 
 Colonial Period. — Forms of Government: Royal Province was con- 
 trolled b}^ a governor appointed by the king. Charter government was 
 a written charter from the king, under which the people governed them- 
 selves. Proprietary was that form in which owaera of the territory gov- 
 erned. Comynercial association was a company controlling for financial 
 profit. Voluntary 2iSSOQ\dii\on was a form in which the colonists made and 
 executed their own laws. 
 
 Virginia. — Settled by London Co. 1607, with an idle, adventure- 
 some class. The object was financial gain. Religion was the church of 
 England. Fivents — The starving time, 1609; Marriage of Pocohon- 
 tas, 1613; House of Burgeses, 1619; Slavery introduced, 1619; Navigation 
 Acts, 1631; England controlling the commerce of Virginia; Bacon's re- 
 be 'lion against Governor Berkeley, which resulted in the burning of 
 Jamestown and the recall of Berkeley, 1676. 
 
 Massachusetts. — Settled at Plymouth, 1620 by Pilgrims, a sober, 
 industrious and religious class, opposed to the church of England, and 
 fleeing for religious and civil freedom. Government was a voluntary 
 association. Events — Establish Thanksgiving, 1621; Banished Roger 
 Williams, 1636, for free thought; Established Harvard College, 1636; 
 First printing press, 1639, and free schools, 1647; Persecution of the 
 Quakers, 1656-61, for refusing to take an oath, pay taxes, rejecting re- 
 ligious forms, etc.; King Phillip's war, 1675-6, which cost the colony 600 
 lives and a half million dollars; Salem witchcraft, 1692, was a supersti- 
 tious idea that people were placed under the control of others, by power 
 given them by the devil. Several were put to death. 
 
 New York— 1623, at Manhatten Island, by West India Co. The 
 colonists were honest, thrifty and religious, Avho came to make a home 
 
 • ► — ■ — ■*• 
 
0». ^0 
 
 ▼ ▼ 
 
 INSTITUTE REVIEW. 45 
 
 ill a free land. Their religion was Lutherian. Events — Surrendered to the 
 English, 1G64; Established the freedom of the press 1734, giving the peo- 
 ple the right to openly criticise the government; Negro plot 1741, was a 
 suspicion that a plot had been formed to subdue the whites. Four white 
 men and eighteen negi'oes were hanged for being suspected. 
 
 Makvland. — 1635, by English Catholics, lead by Cecil Calvert. 
 Events — Claybourne's rebellion, 1635-45; a fur trader who refused to 
 submit to the authority of Lord Baltimore; Civil war, 1655, occuri'ed 
 between the Protestants and Catholics. In a battle about fifty Catholics 
 were killed. Two governments were sustained for a while, when relig- 
 ious toleration was I'estored. 
 
 Pennsylvania — 1683, by English Quakers, led by William Penn. 
 The great law required voters to be Christians and prohibited religious 
 persecution: gave great power to the people. Penn made a treaty with 
 the Indians l)y buying their lands and dealing with them justly. 
 
 Cakojjnas— 1650-70. by English from Virginia. The Grand Model, 
 a form of government hj John Locke, adapted to an aristocratic people 
 l)ut proved a dead letter among a Democratic people. The government 
 being proprietaiy and oppressive, proved unsatisfactory and the colonies 
 divided in 1739, when they became Royal Provinces. 
 
 Georgia — 1732, by James Oglethorpe, an English officer and perse- 
 cuted Christians from the old countries. They were governed by trustees 
 who limited a man's farm, prohibited women from inheriting land, and the 
 impoitation of rum and slaves. The government proved unsatisfactory 
 and it became a Royal Prov^ince. 
 
 Colonial Wars. — King William's War — 1689-97. Cause: By war 
 between England and France, which caused a conflict between the col- 
 onies, as to territorial claims. Events — Indian ravages, expedition 
 against Quebec and capture of Port Royal. Closed by treatj'^ of Ryswick 
 leaving territory unchanged. 
 
 Queen Anne's War — 1702-13. Cause: Violation of the treaty of 
 France proclaiming son of James II King of England. Result: England 
 gained Acadia and the Newfoundland fisheries by the treaty of Utrecht. 
 
 King George's War— 1744-48. Cause: Death of the king of Aus- 
 tria, which unsettled the balance of power and unsettled territorial 
 claims. An invasion of Canada was made and the war closed by the 
 treaty of Aix la Chapelle, leaving territory unchanged. 
 
 French and Indian War — 1755-63. Cause: Settling the Ohio val- 
 ley. Events: Expeditions against Acadia, Fort DeQuene, Niagara, Ti- 
 conderoga, Louisburg and Quebec. English commanders: Braddock, 
 Shirlc}', Al)ercrombie and Washington. French: Dieskau and Montcalm. 
 War closed by treaty of Paris. The French surrendering Canada to En 
 gland and all territory east of the Mississippi. The territory west of the 
 Mississippi to Spain. Spain ceded Florida to England. The war cost 
 ▲ "a 
 ^ _ ^ ■ ^ • 
 
«». : 4» 
 
 ▼ T 
 
 46 INSTITUTE REVIEW. 
 
 the colonists thirty thousand men and eleven million dollars. The war 
 bound the colonies together. England undertook to tax the colonies to 
 pay the expense of the war, which resulted in the 
 
 1775 — ERA OF FORMATION.— 1829. 
 
 War of the Revolutiox — 1775-83. Cause: Oppression and Taxation 
 without representation. Independence declared by the Continental 
 Congress, July 4, 1776. The battles were Lexington, Ticonderoga, 
 Bunker Hill. Siege of Boston, Long Island, Princeton, Burgoyne's in- 
 vasion. Saratoga, Brandywine, Monmouth, Savannah, Camden and the 
 Siege of Yorktown. American commanders: Parker, Prescott, Putnam, 
 Washington, Stark, Gates, Greene, Lincoln, Marion and Arnold. Brit- 
 ish: Howe, Clinton, Rail, Baum, Burgoyne, Cornwallis, Tarleton and 
 Rawdon. Paul Jones gained several naval victories for the Americans. 
 Americans received aid from France. War closed by treaty of Paris, 
 England acknowledging the Independence of the United States, fixing 
 boundaries. Cost England, 50,000 men and $610,000,000; United States, 
 40,000 men and $135,000,000. 
 
 Constitutional Convention met at Philadelphia, 1787. Articles of 
 Confederation found insufficient. Washington presided at the conven- 
 tion. Adams, Hamilton, Madison, Morris, Fraiklin and Randolph were 
 the active leaders. Madison framed the Constitution, which was adopt- 
 ed by the convention and ratified by the thirteen states. 
 
 Administration op Washington and Adams — 1789-97. Party, 
 Federal. Events — Organization of cabinet and judiciary; Tariff act pass- 
 ed; Adopt first ten constitutional amendments; Locate capitol at Wash- 
 ington, 1790; Establish mint and national bank; Naturalization period 
 fixed at five years. Cotton gin invented; Franklin dies, 1790; Jay made a 
 treaty with England, agreeing to pay debts due them without forbidding 
 the impressment of American seamen. While the treaty was approved by 
 the Senate it was unsatisfactory to the people. 
 
 Adams and Jeffersons — 1787-1801. Party, Federal. Issue, Jay's 
 treaty. Events — Navy created, 1798; Alien and Sedition laws passed; 
 Naturalization period fixed at fourteen years; Eleventh amendment 
 adopted; Washington dies, 1799; Treaty made with Napoleon, 1800. 
 
 Jefferson, Burr and Clinton — 1801-9. Party, Republican. Issue, 
 Alien and Sedition laws. Events — First message to Congress; Army and 
 navy reduced; Tax taken from whisky; Naturalization fixed at five years, 
 1798; West Point academy established 1802; Ohio admitted; Louis- 
 iana purchased, 1803; Hamilton and Burr duel, 1804; Twelfth amendment 
 passed; Tripolitan war, 1801-6; National road established; Embargo act 
 passed; Burr tried for treason; Steamboat invented, 1807; Importation 
 of slaves prohibited, 1808. 
 
 Madison, Clinton and Gerry — 1809-17. Party, Republican. Issue, 
 
 ▲ A 
 
 • ►' — ' — ^- ■<• 
 
•►• ^ 
 
 IKSTITUTE liEVIEW. 47 
 
 War with England. Events— Battle of Tippecanoe; War of 1812, which 
 was caused by the impressment of American seamen and included the 
 battles of Queenstown, Perr^y's victory on the lakes, Lnndy's Lane, Fort 
 Erie. Burning of Washington and the Battle of New Orleans. War 
 closed by the treaty of Ghent, 1814. Result: The National debt increased 
 $127,000,000. business injured, but factories were built and the U. S. 
 gained a standing among nations. War with Algiers, 1815; Tariff act and 
 national bank established; Louisiana and Indiana admitted, 1816. 
 
 MoxKOE AND Tompkins— 1817-25. Party, Republican. No issue. 
 Events — Purchase of Florida, 1819; Missouri Compromise, admitting Mis- 
 souri as a slave state and limiting slave territory, 1820; Monroe doctrine, 
 agreeing to non-interference with the old world, and objecting to foreign 
 powers subduing any portion of the American continent, 1823; Tariff of 
 1824. 
 
 Parties — The Democratic party favored State soA^ereignty and econ- 
 omy; opposed national banks and internal taxation, and was strict in the 
 construction of the constitution. Leaders — Franklin, Jefferson, Madison, 
 Monroe. Burr and others. Eepublican party advocated public improve- 
 ments at national expense, a protective tariff, and favored national 
 banks. Leaders — Clay, Adams and Webster. Anti-Masonic party oppos- 
 ed all secret societies and urged their suppression by law. 
 
 J. Q. Adams and Calhoun— 1825-29. Election by the House. Party 
 Republican. Issue not defined. Events — Erie canal opened, 1825; John 
 Adams and Thomas Jeff'erson die July 4, 1826: First railroad, 1826; Pro- 
 tective tariff" bill passed, 1828; Webster's dictionarj^ published, 1828. 
 1829- ERA OF REFORMATION.— 1892. 
 
 Jackson, Calhoi'n and Van Buren — 1829-37. Party, Democratic. 
 Issue, Tariff, national bank and internal improvements. Events — Post- 
 master General member of the cabinet; Changes in the civil service; 
 Mormon church organized, 1830; Nullification act of S. C, 1831; Clay's 
 compromise bill, 1833; Veto of National bank bill, 1832; Black Hawk war; 
 1832; McCormick reaper invented, 1834; Monroe and Madison die, 1831-36; 
 Arkansas and Michigan admitted, 1837-39. 
 
 Van Buken and Johnson — 1837-41. Part3% Democratic. Issue, 
 National banks. Events — Financial panic, 1837; Seminole war; Tele- 
 graph patented, 1837; Sub-treasury bill passed, 1840. 
 
 Harrison and Tyler — 1841-45. Party, Whig. Issue, National 
 banks and a protective tariff. Events- -Harrison died April 4, 1841; Sub- 
 treasury l)ill repealed and national bank bill vetoed; Bankrupt law pass- 
 ed: Boundarj' line of Maine established; Tariff bill passed, 1842; First 
 message sent hj telegraph, 1844; Texas annexed and Florida admitted 
 as a State. 1845. 
 
 Polk and Dallas^1845-49. Party, Democratic. Issue, Annexa- 
 tion of Texas. Events — Mexican Avar, caused by the annexation of 
 
 ▲ A 
 
 • ► <m 
 
®». MO 
 
 ▼ V 
 
 48 INSTITUTE REVIEW. 
 
 Texas, and fixing tlie boundary line; Battles were fought at Fort Brown, 
 Palo Alto, Monterey, Buena Vista, Cerro Gordo and Mexico. Santa 
 Anna was the Mexican commander. American commanders were 
 Scott, Taylor, Fremont, and Kearney. War closed by the treaty of 
 Gaudalupe Hidalgo, making the Rio Grande river the boundary and ced- 
 ing California and New Mexico to the United States for $15,000,000. 
 HoAve sewing machine invented, 1846; Gold discovered in California in 
 1848. 
 
 Taylor and Filmore — 1849-53. Party, Whig; Issue, Slavery. 
 Events — The death of Taylor, 1850; California admitted without slavery, 
 1850; Postage reduced to three cents, 1851; Clay and Webster die, 1852; 
 Slavery restricted in the District of Columbia; Underground railroad 
 transferring runaway slaves to Canada, 1852. 
 
 Pierce and King — 1853-57. Party, Democratic. Issue, Omnibus 
 bill, which killed the Whig party. Events — Kansas and Nebraska bill, 
 leaving the question of slavery to the territory being admitted. Gads- 
 den purchased of Mexico a large tract of territory for $10,000,000; Perry 
 makes a treaty with Japan, 1854; A civil war breaks out in Kansas, 1854; 
 The new Republican party is formed in opposition to slavery extension- 
 Know Nothing party favored native born citizens for office, naturaliza- 
 tion period twenty-one years, and the Bible to be kept in the public 
 schools. 
 
 Buchanan and Breckenridge — 1857-61. Party, Democratic. 
 Issue, Extension of slavery. Events— Dred Scott decision, by which 
 slaves were held in free territory. Personal liberty bills were passed by 
 some states, giving fugitive slaves a trial by jury. John Brown of Kansas, 
 captured armory at Harper's Ferry, 1859. He was overpowered and exe- 
 cuted. Minnesota, Oregon and Kansas were admitted. South Carolina, 
 Georgia, Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, secede and 
 organize the Confederacy, 1861. 
 
 Lincoln and Hamlin— 1861-65. Party, Republican. Issue. Oppos- 
 ed extension of slavery. Events: War of the Rebellion; 1861-65; Causes — 
 Immediate, Secession; Remote, Different construction of the constitution, 
 systein of labor and lack of intercourse. Union chief commanders were 
 Scott, Halleck, McClellan and Grant. Confederate, Lee. Events: Fir- 
 ing on Fort Sumpter April 12, 1861; Virginia and Arkansas secede; Bat- 
 tles of 1861 were Bull Run and Wilson Creek; 1862, Merrimac and Moni- 
 tor. Fort Donaldson, Shilo, Perryville, Corinth, Murfresboro, Rich- 
 mond, Lee's invasion, Fredricksbui-g. 1863, Emancipation Proclama- 
 tion, Gettysburg, Vicksburg, Chickamauga; 1864, Wilderness, Peters- 
 burg, Sherman's march. 1865, Richmond falls; Lee surrenders to Grant, 
 which closed the war. 
 
 Leading Union generals were Butler, Lyons, Burnsides, Fremont, Buel, 
 Meade, Hooker, Sherman, Thomas, Sheridan, Logan, and many others. 
 
 Confederate generals were Bragg, Jackson, Johnson, Longstreet, Smith, 
 
 ▲ ▲ 
 
 «K ' . ■<• 
 
• ►■ 
 
 INSTITUTE llEVIEW. 49 
 
 T 
 
 Beauregard and others. Results— Cost nearly a million lives and $2, 
 750,000.000. Slavery was abolished and the Union preserved. The war 
 Avas carried on by means of paper money called greenbacks, which de- 
 preciated to 36 per cent, of the face vaKie in gold; or in other words gold 
 was worth $2.80 in paper. The Confederacy used paper money, which 
 became worthless at the close of the war and their debt will never be 
 paid. 
 
 JoH.vsox— 1865-9, after Lincoln's death, April 14, 1865. Party, Re- 
 publican. Issue, Management of the war. Events — Amnesty proclama- 
 tion pardoning rebels; Ratitication of the 13th amendment, abolishing 
 slavery; Johnson's reconstruction policy: repealing articles of secession, 
 repudiating the confederate debt and ratifying the thirteenth amend- 
 ment, re-admitted the seceded states. Congress required the ratification 
 tion of the fourteenth and fifteenth amendments, and kept them under 
 military rule until they complied. Atlantic cable laid, 1866; Alaska pur- 
 chased for $7,200,000; Johnson impeached for violation of Tenure of office 
 bill. Fourteenth amendment ratified: defining citizenship, disqualification 
 of representatives and the validitj'^ of the public debt. 
 
 Gkant, Colfax and Wilson— 1869-77. Party, Republican. Issue, 
 Negro suffrage and relations Avith seceded states. Events — Union Pa- 
 cific railroad opened, 1869; Fifteenth amendment ratified, giving the 
 negro the right of suffrage, 1870; Chicago fire, 1871; Geneva arbitration 
 allowing the Alabama claims to the U. S. of $15,000,000, 1872; Invention 
 of the telephone, 1873; Salary act, and Panic of 1873; Silver demonetized, 
 making gold the standard, 1873; Centennial Exposition, 1876; Electoral 
 Commission to decide the Presidential election, 1877. 
 
 Hays and Wheeler— 1877-81. Party, Republican. Issue, South- 
 ern policy and resumption of specie payment. Events — Removal of U. 
 S. troops from the South; Railroad strikes, 1877; Edison invents the pho- 
 nog.iaph, 1877; and electric light, 1879; Grant makes a tour around the 
 world, 1879; Gold and paper currency at par. Silver bill passed making 
 silver a legal tender, 1878. 
 
 Garfield and Arthur — 1881-85. Party, Republican. Issue, Pro- 
 tective tariff. Events — Star route frauds discovered in the mail service, 
 in whicli fictitious contracts were made; Garfield assassinated by Guiteau, 
 1H81; Longfellow and Emerson die, 1882; Polygamy prohibited; Brooklyn 
 l)ridge completed, 1883; Postal notes introduced; Postage reduced to two 
 cents; Civil sei'vice bill passed; Washington monument completed, 1885. 
 
 Cleveland and Hendricks — 1885-89. Party, Democratic. Issue, 
 Tariif reform. Event.s— Grant, McClellan and Hendricks die, 1885; Bar- 
 tholdi statue erected; Natural gas used as fuel; World's fair at New Or- 
 leans; Hancock, Logan, Seymour, Tilden, Arthur and Wheeler die, 1886- 
 7: Interstate commerce bill passed; Beecher, Conklin and Sheridan die, 
 1887-88; Department of Agriculture created, 1888; Dakotas. Montana and 
 
• ►■ 
 
 r 
 
 50 INSTITUTE REVIEW. 
 
 Washington admitted, 1889. 
 
 Harrison and Morton— 1889-93. Party, Republican. Issue, Tariff. 
 Events— Olvlahoma opened; Johnstown flood; Pan American congress, 
 composed of representatives from all the governments of the countries 
 of North and South Ameinca; Idaho and Wyoming admitted; Silver bill 
 passed increasing the purchase of silver bullion; McKinley tariff bill, re- 
 adjusting the tariff and placing sugar and other articles on the free list, 
 1890; General Belknap, Justice Miller and Bradley, Secretary of the 
 Treasury Windom, and Bancroft the historian, die, 1891. 
 
 Century of Progress. — Declaration of Independence, July 4th, 
 1776. Thirteen states with three millions of people has grown to forty- 
 four states with a population of sixty-four millions. Invention has given 
 us the lightning rod, cotton gin, steamboat, telegraph, telephone, reaper, 
 electric light, Atlantic cable, sewing machine, electric railways, phono- 
 o-raph, and thousands of other useful inventions. Production in the way 
 of agriculture and manufacture, has been the great wealth producing 
 force which has furnished the millions of laborers employment, by which 
 the country has attained great wealth. Transportation in the way of 
 railroads and rivers, which reach every nook and corner, has distributed 
 the products and justly equalized the wealth. Intellectual progress has 
 been fostered by free public schools, the newspaper, colleges and the pub- 
 lic library. While the American institutions and people are not without 
 fault, which will be corrected by succeeding generations, it may be 
 truthfully stated that a more just, upright, pi'osperous and happy people 
 does not exist on the face of the earth. 
 
 Methods. — Outline method divides the subject into divisions and 
 subdivisions, and arranges them in the order of their importance. Tojn- 
 cal method is similar to the outline method, giving each pupil a special 
 topic to study and recite. The Catechetical or Quiz method is risking 
 questions to bring out the story of the lesson. It maybe used to aid in 
 tlie other methods but should not be used exclusively. 
 
 ^ij)g Have a variety of text books. Draw maps and locate places; 
 
 Write essays; Group and associate names and dates. Make time the 
 background of the historic picture. Have two lessons — one on the geogra- 
 phy, the other on the fact. Have frequent reviews by class asking ques- 
 tions. Allow approximate dates, and group around some important 
 date. Teacher give the date, and pupil name the event; and vice versa. 
 Choose sides and ask and answer questions. Spell and pronounce his- 
 toric names and terms. Discriminate and group facts by their impor- 
 tance. Express a thought of some event and allow pupils to name the 
 event. Teach cause and effect of each event as far as possible. Give 
 but little attention to unimportant details. Send the dull ones ahead 
 occasionally to make discoveries. Interest pupils in the manners and 
 customs, schools, houses, homes, food and dress of the people. 
 
 A 
 
 ■<• 
 
: -O 
 
 T 
 INSTITUTE RfeVIEW. 51 
 
 DIDACTICS. 
 
 Didactics or Pedagogy is the science or art of teaching, or devel- 
 oping children into worthy manhood and womanhood. 
 
 Principle of teaching is a law based upon conditions of the minds 
 of those to be taught: 1. Any power may be developed and ti-ained. 2. 
 PoAvers are cultivated by wise use. 3. Active powers must be trained 
 first. 
 
 Order of Education: 1. Train the child to perceive, by cultivating 
 sense perception. 3. Proper expression in words. 3. Learn by doing. 
 
 Method is simply the manner of presenting a subject. 
 
 Education is the development of the faculties, or germs of power in 
 man, and the training of them into harmonious action, in obedience to 
 the law of reason and morality. 
 
 General Education has for its purpose, to make of the child given, 
 the best possible specimen of a man or woman. Sjyecial education is the 
 acquiring of some art, trade or profession. Physical education pertains 
 to the development and training of the physical powers of the body, 
 Moral education pertains to moral principles. Bitcllectnal education 
 treats of intellectual powers. 
 
 Educational Maxims: "Know thyself. The proper study for man- 
 kind is man. Train children to observe, to do, and to tell. Read, ob- 
 serve, reflect and note j^our thoughts. Knowledge is a means, education 
 an end." 
 
 School Management is giving attention to details; as, lining and 
 marching pupils out at intermissions; Teaching them how to sit, stand 
 and walk; To stand when reading or answering a question, without lean- 
 ing against the desk or wall; To distribute writing material in an orderlj^ 
 manner. Insist on haliits of neatness, cleanliness and punctuality. 
 Allow no leaving of seats without permission. Pupils should have a uni- 
 form method of doing their Avork. You should have close supervision 
 over the yard, prohiliiting rough play and encouraging suitable games. 
 Be sociable with pupils while playing and alloAv full freedom in proper 
 directions. Keep a position in which you can be seen by all the pupils. 
 Avoid as far as possil)le taking hold of pupils to put them in position. 
 Avoid scolding and many demerit marks; but cultivate a desire to over- 
 come evil tendencies. Avoid punishing trifles too severely; but ascertain 
 tlie motive and treat accordingly. Don't allow pupils to whisper in 
 helping each other, but teach that it is full of evil and develop a senti- 
 
 • ►■ 
 
52 INSTITUTE REVIEW. 
 
 ment against it. Don't allow romping in the school room at anj^ time, 
 but encourage out door exercises. Avoid appealing to higher power, as 
 it weakens the respect your pupils have for your authority. Don't con- 
 found giving information with tale-bearing, but encourage pupils to give 
 information the same as courts require of citizens and witnesses. You 
 should never be late, if you expect your pupils to be punctual. Always 
 give a suggestion in preference to a command. You should have a talk 
 with the parents of troublesome pupils, but don't dispute with them or 
 make any spiteful remarks. 
 
 Discipline — Order is the first essential; don't try to teach without it. 
 It is not absolute quiet, but broken by the hum of work. Secure order 
 by appearing profound and mysterious; impress your pupils that you are 
 master of the situation. Avoid over-indulging pupils or startling them 
 into order by loud commands, to drown the noise. Avoid calling for 
 order in general terms. Have but few rules and those plain and to the 
 point. "Do Right" should be the fundamental rule. Avoid a high- 
 keyed tone; Speak gently or your pupils won't cfiwa attention. Wot'k off 
 pupils surplus force by a short physical exercise. Govern through the 
 eye as much as possible by a look. Avoid permitting an act one day 
 and prohibiting it another. If possible develop an order that will exist 
 in your absence. Avoid suspecting pupils of a desire to violate rules, 
 and never ridicule pupils. Always explain to a pupil why you punish 
 him or her, and avoid Avhipping except as a last resort, and then never 
 whip a girl. Never pull a child's ear or slap his cheek. 
 
 Methods. — Avoid questioning in rotation, and put your question in 
 such a way as to lead your pupils to think. A pupil should not know 
 what his question is to be beforehand. Avoid repeating questions. Do 
 your teaching when assigning the lesson, by calling the pupils' attention 
 to the different points and explain how to master them. Avoid continu- 
 ing the lesson too long, but close in the midst of gi-eat interest, and re- 
 view a little each day of some preceding lesson. Don't mistake repeti- 
 tion for comprehension, or that detecting errors is correcting them. 
 Avoid trying to teach too many points in a single lesson, or measuring 
 your progress by pages canvassed. Drill when three facts have been 
 given. Be definit in your teaching; point directly to the subject, giving 
 your dull pupils an equal, if not a better chance, than the apt ones. Avoid 
 giving young pupils information they cannot use. Use objects in teach- 
 ing but not in drilling. Require complete answers in complete senten- 
 ces, and avoid repeating answers after pupils, or doing too much talk- 
 ing, by using unfamiliar words to the pupil, while teaching. Lead pu- 
 pils to find out for themselves, just as much as possible. The more a 
 pupil does for himself the more he becomes educated. Encourage self- 
 activity, by leading pupils to discover, instead of telling them, and thus 
 deprive them of the best part of the work. 
 
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 INSTITUTE liEVIEW. 53 
 
 Seci'King a School. — Secure a certificate, and a list of probable va 
 caiicies from the County Superintendent. Visit the directors in person 
 and convince them that you are competent to take charge and teach a 
 successful school. Make a conti-act and secure board in the best family 
 ])()sslljle. Learn the peculiarities of the neighborhood and school. Ob- 
 tain Classification Register and study it. Make your first day your best, 
 l)y having everything ready. Secure full and regular attendance by 
 visiting parents and get those to attend, who have dropped out of school, 
 having lost interest. 
 
 In Classifying, follow the Course of Study furnished, making read- 
 ing the basis. Place pupils of the same grade in the same classes, wheth- 
 er they have books or not; and drill them daily, until you have created 
 sufficient interest to demand the books. You should not neglect to give 
 the number, language, geography and general lesson to each grade as 
 required in the course of study. You wil' find a daily program in the 
 course of studj^ which should be modified to suit the peculiar needs of 
 the school. 
 
 Apparatus includes blackboard around the entire room, globe, 
 maps, reading and Physiological charts, crayons. Unabridged Dictionary, 
 buckets, wash-basin, towels, soap, mirror and comb. A set of books on 
 teacher's desk and a case in which to keep apparatus. More apparatus 
 is destroyed bj^ neglect than is worn out by proper use. It would be 
 liest for teachers to own their own tools as far as possible. Much of the 
 apparatus can be made by teachers, by using manilla paper and crayon. 
 
 Ventilation. — When not furnished with registers, lower all the 
 windoAvs at the top slightly, and keep the temperature near 70 degrees. 
 Have some pupil to look after the fire, thermometer and ventilation, 
 and keep it even. Have all pupils leave the room during recess in fair 
 weather, and give the room a complete airing. 
 
 General Suggestions. — Give special attention to the halls, vesti- 
 bules and see that they are kept neat and clean, and furnished with 
 hooks, shelves and other needs, for all these things educate. You should 
 not fail to look after the grounds and outbuildings, for their condition is 
 frequently such as to be degrading. If foul, report the condition to the 
 director immediately and require his prompt attention. Hold pupils re- 
 sponsible for damages when done purposely. 
 
 Daily Pkepakation. — You should prepare each lesson before as- 
 signing it. This may be done from outlines. The order of the recitation 
 should be a review of the preceding lesson; recitation of the present les- 
 son; discussion of the coming lesson. 
 
 General Exercises. — Always open school by singing a suitable 
 song. If pupils ars not supplied with books, copy song on board and 
 have pupils copy. Teach pupils the kind, length, pitch, and position of 
 notes and cultivate their tones by singing the scale and cords, prolong- 
 
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 54 INSTITUTE REVIEW. 
 
 ing tones, loud and soft, until they produce sweet musical tones. A 
 new sentiment should be committed each day by the school. Have quo- 
 tation roll call frequently. Have pupils report items of news that would 
 be of interest to all. Occasional drills on local government ai^e of great 
 value and should not be neglected. Talks or reading from some book on 
 elementary science is a very practical exercise for Friday afternoon. 
 
 Mental Science should be a continuous study by every teacher that 
 they may be able to properly understand, develop and train the minds 
 of those placed under their charge. The following definitions and out- 
 lines are intended to give a general view of the subject, which should be 
 followed by a course of reading and observation. 
 
 Mental states or activities are: 1. Consciousness, the power by which 
 the mind knows its own acts or conditions. 3. Attention, the power by 
 which the mind directs voluntary thinking to one subject. 3. Concep- 
 tion, the power by which an absent object becomes an object of thought. 
 
 Intellect is the knowing power, and includes 1. The Perceptive pow- 
 ers, which gather knowledge; 2. The Bepresentutive powers, which store 
 knowledge; 3. The Reflective powers, which examine knowledge. Per- 
 ceptive powers include the senses, which perceive and make discrimina- 
 tions in the form, quality and other properties of objects. Represe^itative 
 powers include Memory, which holds concepts of absent objects as they 
 are or were, including Recollection, which calls them up again. Recog- 
 nition is knowing that you have known it before. Attention, association 
 and arrangement is the order of developing the memory. Imagination 
 presents things as they might be. Reading, geography, history and poe- 
 try are proper studies for developing the imagination. Reflective pow- 
 ers include: 1. Comparison, which deals with the relation of things as to 
 size, length, position, density, value, purpose, ^ cause, effect and agree- 
 ment. 2 Abstracting, which is thinking of a quality or property, apart 
 from the object. 3. Reason, which includes the operation of forming a 
 judgment, by comparing two propositions from which a third proposition 
 is deduced, called the conclusion or judgment. Inductive reason dis- 
 covers properties common to a class. Deductive reason assigns objects 
 to classes by common properties. Reason may be developed by mathe- 
 matical analysis. Judging is noting the operations of reason. General- 
 izing is grouping objects by a common quality and may be developed by 
 the study of natural history. 
 
 Sensibilities include the feeling powers; as, 1. Desires, which appro- 
 priate external objects to the gratification of some bodily or mental 
 want. 2. Appetites are desires for food and sleep. 3. Emotions are feelings 
 known, as beauty, sublimity, ludicrous, joy, melancholy, sorrow, 
 grief, surprise, astonishment, wonder, dissatisfaction, disgust, 
 modesty, shame, reverence and adoration. 4. Propensities are feelings re- 
 ferring to self-preservation, continued existence, desire for knowledge, 
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 INSTITLTE ItEVIEW. 55 
 
 society, self-respect, esteem and to imitate. 5 Affections are feelings to- 
 wards others. Malevolent affections include anger, envy, jealousy, re- 
 venge and fear. Benevolent affections include friendship, gratitude, 
 sympathy, respect and love. 
 
 Will is that power of the mind which chooses and executes the 
 choice. The will acts in response to the feelings, which is usually excit- 
 ed to action by the intellect. Stubbornness is a lack of control of the 
 will. Weak wills are vacillating and lack force. The will may be 
 strengthened by exercises in thinking before willing, then remain firm. 
 Stubbornness should yield to reason. Avoid antagonizing the will. 
 
 School Law. — The following points will be of interest to teachers: 
 Teachers are not allowed to draw public money for time they teach 
 without a certificate. Substitutes are required to have certificates. Di- 
 i"ectors are required to examine certificates before contracting. Con- 
 tract must be signed and approved by the president of the board before 
 school opens. Directors are required to visit the school twice during the 
 term, and see that rules of the board are being complied with. Boards 
 have full control over all the schools, directors and teachers, and may 
 make rules and regulations governing teachers and officers. They may 
 grant holidays, but teachers cannot demand it. Patrons may decide at 
 the March meeting wiiat branches shall be taught, or the board in case 
 they fail to. Teachers are not required to teach any but common 
 branches, unless authorized as above stated. The contract should spec- 
 ify what higher branches are to be taught; otherwise only the common 
 branches are meant. Teachers must comply with regulations made by 
 the county superintendent in making reports, following course of study 
 and such other requirements in harmony with the school law. Teachers 
 are required to teach the effects of alcoholic drinks, tobacco, etc., to all 
 pupils. Indulgence in the use of the foregoing by the teacher, is ques- 
 tionable, and not in harmony with the spirit and intent of the ]aw\ School 
 houses may be used for public meetings, if the director or board are se- 
 cured against damages I)}'' parties using the house. Marking or defacing 
 school pi-operty is subject to a fine or imprisonment. Teachers are held 
 responsible for the preservation of school property under their care. 
 Parties injuring school property are responsible for damages. Teachers 
 teaching special branches are required to have certificate for the same. 
 Teachers have control over their pupils on the road to and from school. 
 They may suspend pupils for persistent disorder, until the director can 
 be notified, wdio maj' dismiss the pupil for the term, by the approval of 
 the president, except in independent districts, where it requires the ap- 
 proval of the entire board. 
 
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 56 INSTITUTE REVIEW. 
 
 DRAWING. 
 
 The educational value of drawing, may be measured by the amount 
 of active thinking it inspires in the naind of the pupil, and the power it 
 develops in observing, comprehending and discriminating. All can learn 
 to draw, except the blind, the idiotic, the lunatic and the paralytic. 
 
 Drawing is the simplest, the most easily comprehended, and the 
 strongest form of language, expressed by the combination of lines, tints 
 and shades. The Aljihabet consists of lines grouped by their form into 
 straight, curved and irregular; by position into vertical, horizontal and 
 oblique; by quality into light, medium and heavy. Syllables in drawing 
 include angles; as right, acute and obtuse. Words are geometric figures; 
 as the rectangle, square, rhombus, rhomboid, triangles (right, obtuse, 
 acute, isosceles, equilatei'al and scalene). Polygons, including pentagon, 
 hexagon and octagon; Circles, including ellipse, oval, crescent, lens, tre- 
 foils, quarterfoils and mixtilinear figures. The details of geometric fig- 
 ures, include base, apex, altitude, axis, diagonal, diameter, circumfer- 
 ence, radius, semi-circle, arc, chord, segment, sector and quadrant. 
 
 Sentences are forms of solids or objects drawn in detail; as, the 
 cube, sphere, hemisphere, spheroid, ellipsoid, ovoid, cylinder, half 
 cylinder' circular, or square plinth, cone, frustrum of a cone or pyramid, 
 prismi and pyramid. Details of solids, include surface, face, edge, out- 
 line, corner and point. 
 
 A Composition in drawing is a correct representation of an 
 object or group of objects or forms drawn in detai', corres- 
 ponding to their appearance and association in nature. Designing 
 is constructing and arranging geometric forms on a line, surface, or 
 around a central point, after which they may be decorated by historical, 
 geometrical forms, or conventional forms of leaves, flowers or plants. 
 Ornament is any decoration or enrichment of form or color, or construc- 
 struction, intended to beautify the object. Har^nony is a relation of 
 parts forming a pleasing whole. Field is that part of the surface occu- 
 pied by the design. Fret ornament, consists of lines broken into angles. 
 Rosette is an arrangement radiating from a center. Rhythm is the fre- 
 quent recurrence of the parts of the design. Symmetry^ is the proper 
 proportion and position of parts forming a design. Unity is such a com- 
 bination of parts as to form a pleasing whole. Concentric is having a 
 common center. Cross composed of two bars arranged transversely, and 
 is the symbol of suffering. Circle is the symbol of eternity. Trefoil is 
 
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 INSTITUTE REVIEW. 
 
 three-loljed and the symbol of the Trinity. Quarterfoil consists of four 
 lobes or foils, a symbol of the Evangelist. 
 
 The first aim in drawing- is to teach pupils to see; that is to think of 
 the parts and appearance of the thing at which they are looking. 2. To 
 give skill to the hand in representing what is seen. 3. To teach form 
 regular or geometrical and irregular or natural. 4. To give pupils the 
 power to eomj^rehend and use the art language. 
 
 CoNSTKUCTiox is that department of drawing which treats of the 
 science and art of making diagrams or working drawings, showing all 
 the facts of the thing to be made, as represented by the diffei-ent faces, 
 connected by dotted lines. 
 
 Terms — Position is the relation of the dimensions to the horizon. 
 The three positions are horizontal, vertical and oblique. Location is the 
 relation to things surrounding; as right, left, front, back, middle, above, 
 below, etc. Surface, all of the outside. Face, a limited surface bounded 
 h\ edges. Faces have angles, while solids have corners. Co7-ners are 
 formed by faces. Edge is formed by the meeting of two faces. Directioii 
 refers to things having one dimension. — Shape to things having two di- 
 mensions. — Solid, to things having three dimensions. Middle is a loca- 
 tion midway between two points. Center is a location midway between 
 manj'^ points. Bisect is to divide into two equal parts. Trisect is to di- 
 vide into three equal parts. 
 
 Form is the expression to the eye of the appearance of an object. 
 The three methods of expression are by making, by drawing and by lan- 
 guage. The three methods of study are by sight, by touch and by plac- 
 ing or arranging. The three typical solids are sphere, cube and cylinder. 
 The three points to examine are faces, edges and corners. Three facts 
 to notice in each point are number, shape and position. Three motions 
 are rolling, sliding and tumbling. 
 
 Represextatiox consists in making drawings representing objects 
 as they appear from any position or view. Principles are: 1. Objects 
 appear smaller as the distance increases. 2. Lines appear to shoi'ten as 
 the distance increases. 3. Parallel lines tend toward the same^^'point' 
 as they recede or go from the observer, and appear to meet at a point 
 called, point of sight. Measurements may be taken by:;,holding a pencil 
 at arm's length, and slide the thumb and estimate the size. The part 
 nearest should be measured and drawn first, followed by other points in 
 the order of their prominence and nearness. Subjects suitable for study 
 and practice, would be blocks, books and boxes in different positions and 
 different distances away. Buildings may be studied and represented Avith 
 their surroundings, trees, fences, etc. Never attempt to draw anything 
 before stmlying every line, as to its position, appearance and direction. 
 Problems should be formed with different objects in different positions 
 and locations; as 1. Object in front, below the eye; 2. To the left, below 
 
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 58 INSTITUTE REVIEW. 
 
 the eye; 3. To the right, below the eye. Form other problems on a level 
 with the eye and above the eye. Practice sketching l)oxes open in differ- 
 ent views, blocks with circular and square projections and indentures, 
 and sections removed. A princixale is of little use if not applied repeat- 
 edly. 
 
 Light, Shade and Shadow give relief, distinctness, solidity and 
 emphasis. Belief makes an object stand out detached from the back- 
 ground. Difitinctness is the quality of being plainlj^ seen. Solidity is 
 having the appearance of being made of something. Emj^hasis in clraAV- 
 ing is making an object or idea conspicuous. Shade is the dark part of 
 the object opposit the light, and is made by parallel lines, darker by par- 
 allel cross lines, and darkest, by blending with soft pencil or pen. Shadow 
 is the form of the object in the path of the light and of the same degree 
 of darkness, as the shade; being darker on nearing the point of inter- 
 section. Reflections i-epresent the object in an inverted position. It 
 may be studied by placing objects on a mirror, after which observe on 
 water. 
 
 Decoration is the science and art of producing beauty in ornament.' 
 Beauty is the hariBony of differences. Harmony is that combination 
 which pleases the eye. Symmetry is secui'ed by balancing parts. — Bro- 
 portion by equality of parts. — Bhythm by repetition of parts. 
 
 The order of study will be to make the type solids with glay, and ob- 
 jects like them. Cut forms from paper,, representing their faces, and ar- 
 range them in borders along a line, in rosettes around a center, and draw 
 the arrangements made. Geometric figures are used as units of decora- 
 tion, which may be filled in with historic forms, as the Moorish ornament. 
 Fleur-de-lis, Shield, Vase forms. Spiral curves, Arabesque ornament. 
 Rosette, Greek Anthemion, Gothic ornament. Conventional forms of 
 leaves and flowers. Ornamental units are unlimited. 
 
 Color being an important factor in all ornament, a knoAvledge of 
 the subject is essential, since it opens a world of beauty, in which we may 
 derive much pleasure, in recognizing and discriminating in color. 
 
 Terms — Scale includes all the tones of any color, from white through 
 a standard, or hue and its shade to black; as the red, blue and yellow 
 scales. Tone is any one color of the scale. Standard is the key tone. 
 Tint is any tone lighter than the standard. Shade is any tone darker 
 than the standard. Hue is anjr color except the six standard colors; as 
 orange red, would be a hue. Brimary pigment colors include blue, red, 
 and yellow; Spectrum primary, include red, green and violet. The ratio 
 of color values, is blue 8 j)arts, red 5, and yellow 3. Secotidary colors 
 are gi-een, formed hy blue and yellow; orange, by red and yellow; violet, 
 by red and blue. Tertiary colors include citrine, formed by orange and 
 green; russett, by orange and violet; olive, by green and violet. Neutral 
 colors are dulled colors; usually mixed with Avhite, black or some other 
 
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INSTITUTE UEVIEW. 59 
 
 folor forming a gray. QnaJity is warm, when it contains red, and cold 
 when it eontains l)hie, and neutral, when containing white and black. 
 Hdnnony is a pleasing arrangement of colors. There are six harmonies: 
 Neutral, composed of black, white and gray; Contrasted, one color with 
 neutrals; Dominant harmonies include tones of the same scale; Comple- 
 mentaiy, tones of opposit scales; Analogous, tones of related scales; Per- 
 fected, tones analogous or dominant. Contrast is a marked difference 
 in color, and may be in hue, tone or quality. In combining several col- 
 ors, the contrast should be gradual, or flowing from lighter to darker 
 tones, or darker to lighter tones. 
 
 COLOK Effects — Light tones enlarge the size, while dark tones re- 
 duce. Stripes lengthen the oljject. Tints are best suited for blondes, 
 while shades are better for brunettes. 
 
 Method. — Teach pupils to recognize and select standard colors, and 
 arrange the scales. Teach them to discriminate in tones, hues, tints, 
 and shades, assigning each one to its proper place. Teach the harmonies 
 and how to form them. Teach pupils to observe the clouds and other 
 objects and discriminate the color. Use color chart and colored paper. 
 In drawing follow the line of work suggested, using clay or paper pulp, 
 which may be made by soaking paper and grinding it. Develope the 
 type solids first, then their relative forms. Colored sticks may be used 
 in developing ideas of lines and figures. Give three points, then drill. 
 
 LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Govern:\ient is the power by which communities are ruled, and the 
 manner in which the power is exercised. The three functions of govern- 
 ment are Legislative, or law making;— Executive, or law enforcing; — Ju- 
 dicial, or law interpreting. 
 
 Constitution is the expression of rights and duties— the fundamen- 
 tal organic law, or principle of government of a nation, state or any 
 other social organization. Preamble is a statement of the purpose of a 
 constitution, i>epa?'ir?^e?^<s are the separate functions. Amend7ne7its are 
 the changes, modifications, or additions made in the constitution, as cir- 
 cumstances demand. A Bill is a proposed law, which after being ap- 
 proved by the legislative body, and signed by the chief executive, becomes 
 a law. StattUe law is a law made by the legislative body, and in harmony 
 Avith'the constitution. . Common law is the custom of the community and 
 governs in the absence of the statutory law. Rights include the relations 
 l)etween the citizens and the government There are four groups: In- 
 dustrial rights to support self and those dependent; Political rights of free 
 speech; Social rights of free schools and other institutions. Religious 
 
 
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 60 INSTITUTE REVIEW. 
 
 right to worship according to the dictates of conscience. The purpose 
 of the government is to protect the rights of tlie people, promote their 
 interest and to administer to their wants, and for these purposes it is di- 
 vided into National, State, County and Township governments. 
 
 Township is the simplest division of government- It is a division 
 of a county, bearing an individual name and independent in school, road 
 and other local matters, under certain restrictions. Officers — Board of 
 Trustees — three in number, one elected annually; Duties are to hold elec- 
 tions, levy tax, care for poor, act as Board of Health, fence viewers and 
 equalization. They divide the townships into road districts, under the 
 charge of a road supervisor, who requires all able-bodied men between 
 the ages of 21 and 45, to work two days on the roads, or pay its equiva- 
 lent. He serves two years and receives two dollars per day. Clerk is 
 secretary of the board of trustees, reports to the auditor, serves two 
 years and receives two dollars per day. Assessor lists all property not 
 exempt, and persons subject to miilitary duty, takes the census every five 
 years, serves two years, and receives two dollars per day. Justice acts 
 as a township court, keeps a docket, limited to county and $100 suits; 
 two to each township, serve two years and paid by fees. Constable serves 
 any legal paper, from township officer, or any court; serves two years and 
 paid by fees. School Board is composed of sub-directors, one from each 
 sub-district, who is elected for three years. His duties are to take the 
 enumeration annually in September, and report to the secretary of the 
 board. He also employs teacher, provides fuel, visits the school, aids in 
 governing and dismisses pupils by the approval of the president of the 
 board. The officers of the school board are President, Secretary and 
 Treasurer; whose duties are such as are usually required of such officers. 
 The school board meet in March and September, or on call of the presi- 
 dent. Their duties are to provide not 'ess than six months school, levy 
 taxes for school purposes, adopt text-books, make rules and regulations, 
 fix teacher's wages and purchase apparatus and supplies. Members re- 
 ceive no pay. There are three forms of township organization: The Dis- 
 trict township, as above described; the Independent district, consisting 
 of a board of three members, and the Independent township district, 
 composed of three members the same as the Independent district. 
 Schools are supported by a local tax not to exceed $15 per pupil, for tui- 
 tion, and $5 for contingent and ten mills for school house. In addition 
 to the local tax, a semi-annual apportionment is made of the interest on 
 the permanent school fund, which amounts to near $1.40 per pupil 
 enumerated, which is distributed in proportion to the enumeration. * 
 
 Towns and Cities need more power because they must have more 
 public conveniences; as walks, fire protection and preservation of order. 
 The organization is similar to the township, composed of a council or 
 law-making body, a Mayor, who enforces the laws and acts as a court; 
 
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 INSTITUTE REVIEW. 61 
 
 a Clerk, Treasurer and Marshal. It is an Independent school district, 
 having a board of six members. Incorporated town may be formed by 
 twenty-five voters applying to the District Court. City of the second 
 class must contain more than two thousand, and divided into wards, two 
 councilraen from each, holding two years. Council elects marshal, po- 
 lice and attorney. City of the first class contains fifteen thousand, with 
 one councilman from each ward and tAvo at large who serve two years. 
 All officers are chosen by the people for two years, except civil engineer, 
 auditor, police judge and superintendent of markets, who are chosen by 
 mayor and council. The township, town and wards are voting pre- 
 cincts. 
 
 County is a division of a state, usually twenty-four miles square, 
 composed of sixteen townships. The county government has general 
 oversight of such countj'^ matters as collection of taxes, opening roads, 
 building bridges, recording deeds, looking after the poor, county build- 
 ings, schools, courts, etc. Officials — Board of Supervisors, three in num- 
 ber, one elected annually. They establish roads, issue orders on treas- 
 urer, allow claims, control and loan school fund, canvass election re- 
 turns, equalize and levy taxes; serve three years; receive $2.50 to $4.00 
 per daj' and five cents mileage. ^wfZttor— ^Secretary of the Board keeps 
 minute book, highway record and warrant book; reports election returns 
 to Auditor of State; also abstract of census; apportion jurors, makes tax 
 list for Treasurer from Assessor's books; serves two years and receives 
 $1200 a year salary. Treasurer receives all monies belonging to the 
 county, and pays out on the warrant of the Auditor; reports monthly to 
 the State Auditor and twice each year to State Treasurer; serves two 
 years, and salary not to exceed $1500. Siqjerintendent holds examina- 
 tions, institutes, decides appeals, receives reports from teachers and sec- 
 retaries, visits schools at his option, and has general oversight of school 
 Avork; reports annually to State Superintendent; serves two years and 
 receives $4.00 per ilay. Recorder records deeds, mortgages, leases, ar- 
 ticles of incorporation, town plats and poAA'er of attorney; serves tAvo 
 years; fees 50 cents, or ten cents per hundred Avords. Clerk of the court 
 keeps record book, judgment docket, fee book, sale book, incumbrance 
 book and appearance book; issues marriage licenses, keeps a record of 
 births, deaths, subpoenas, Avitnesses, appoints guardians, administrators 
 and probates Avills; serA'es tAvo years, .salary, $1100 to $1500. Sheriff 
 gives election notice, selects jurors, preserves the peace, arrests and con- 
 tines criminals; term tAvo years; salary $200 and fees. Attorney acts for 
 the state in the prosecution of criminals, interprets the law for countj'^ 
 officials, serves two years, salary fixed by Board of Supervisors. Stir- 
 veyor sun-eys and plats land and makes re-surveys; term two years; fee 
 $4 per day. Coroner holds inquests and reports to the court; acts as 
 sheriff in case of a vacancy; term Iavo years; receives $5 per day and 
 
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 62 INSTITUTE REVIEW. 
 
 mileage. Of the taxes collected annually 10 per cent goes to the State, 
 about 30 per cent goes to the county and 60 per cent to the towns and 
 townships. 
 
 State government has for its purpose the oversight of matters of 
 general interest of the State; as state schools, asylums, prisons and the 
 making of statutoiy laws, etc. The Educational Institutions include 
 the State TJnivej-sity at Iowa City, admitting high school graduates; also 
 has departments of Law, Medicine and Dentistry; Supported by taxes 
 and proceeds of a land fund. State Normal School at Cedar Falls re- 
 ceives students holding second class certificates free of tuition. It is 
 supported by State appropriations. Blind asylum at Vinton, Mute asy- 
 lum at Council Bluffs, and asylum for Feeble-minded children at Glen- 
 wood, receive and educate the unfortunate at county and state expense. 
 The Agricultural college at Ames, givesinstruction in branches related to 
 agriculture and the mechanic arts. It is supported by State appropria- 
 tions and land grants. Reform schools for boys at Eldora and for girls 
 at Mitehellville, for the purpose of educating unruly boys and girls, is 
 supported by State appropriation. Oriphans Home at Davenport receives 
 soldiers' orphans and educates them at the expense of the county from 
 which they came. Asylums for the insane at Mt. Pleasant, Clarinda and 
 Independence are controlled by the State, at the expense of tne counties. 
 Penitentiaries at Fort Madison and Anamosa receive criminals from dis- 
 trict courts and confine them at hard labor for the term of their sen- 
 tence. Soldiers Home at Marshalltown receives and furnishes a home 
 for old soldiers, and recently provided cottages for a limited number of 
 families. 
 
 State Officials. — General Assembly is composed of Senate of fifty 
 members, elected for four years, and House of one hundred members 
 elected for two years. Salary of both memders is $550 a session, which 
 meets biennially, The duty of the Legislature is to appoint officers of 
 State Institutions, make general laws for the state, and make state ap- 
 propriations. Bills, or proposed laws are read three times in the House 
 in which they originate, discussed, amended if necessary, and voted on; 
 if passed they go through a similar process in the other House, then to 
 the Governor for his signature, when it becomes a law; unless vetoed. 
 Governor recommends legislation, approves bills, offer rewards for crim- 
 inals, pardons criminals, calls out militia, and appoints subordinate 
 officers. Secretary of State keeps legislative acts, records of incorpora- 
 tions, signs commissions, state lands and distributes state laws. Audi- 
 tor of State settles aA\ accounts with the State, draws warrants, appor- 
 tions the interest of the school fund, keeps a record of the rejjorts of 
 management of insurance companies, etc. Treasurer of State has charge 
 of all monies due the State, and pays out on the warrant of the Auditor 
 of State. Executive Council is composed of the Governor, Secretary, 
 
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 INSTITL'TE 'review. 03 
 
 Auditor and Treasurer and provide for taking the census ouce in ten 
 years, canvass the votes from counties, equalize taxes between counties, 
 and attend other matters. State Supj^rintendent of Public Instruction 
 receives reports from couiity superintendents, collects information in 
 regard to schools, recommends needed legislation, hears appeals from 
 county superintendents, pul^lishes rulings, appoints institutes, furnishes 
 (luesnons for teachers' examinations, and holds annual meetings of 
 count}' superintendents. 
 
 Salaries. — Governor, $3,000; Lieutenant Governor, $1,100 a session; 
 Secretary, Auditor, Treasurer, Superintendent, Clerk and Reporter of 
 Supreme Court, $3,200; Railroad Commissioner, $3,000; Attorney Gener- 
 al, Adjutant General, Commissioner of Labor Statistics, Custodian Public 
 Property, Dairy Commissioner, Deputy State Officers, Governor's Secre- 
 tary, $1500: Fish Commissioner Librarian, Commissioner Immigration, 
 $1200; District Judges, $2500. 
 
 Courts examine violations of law, punish criminals, and adjust diffi- 
 culties between citizens. Justices may give preliminarj' hearings and 
 bind over to court unless the fine is less than $100. The accused may de- 
 maud a jury of six before a justice, who decides the guilt or innocence of 
 the accused, the penalty being fixed hy the justice. Grand Juries exam- 
 ine witnesses as to their knowledge of violation of law, and bring in in- 
 dictments. Trial juries hear evidence and give opinion of guilt or 
 awanl damages. Writ of Habeas Corpus is a petition for an immediate 
 examination as to cause for arrest. District Courts are composed of sev- 
 eral counties, and hold four sessions a year. They have from one to 
 four judges, who are paid by the state, and hold office for four years. 
 They try civil and criminal cases and appeals from justice's courts. Su- 
 prcrtie Court consists of five judges, elected for six years. Two terms 
 are held annually in Das Moines, Davenport, Dubuque and Council 
 Bluffs. They decide appeals from district courts, correcting errors, 
 grant rehearings and establish precedents. 
 
 The f(jllowing subjects should be looked up and defined, in addition 
 to the above facts: Liberty; A Right; A Duty; A Privilege; A Citizen; An 
 Elector; Suffrage; A Corporation; Public Domain; Eminent Domain; 
 Prohibition, License and Local Option; Habeas Corpus; Political Issue; 
 Platform; Right of Petition; Repimiation. 
 
 The American idea is: "A government of the people, by the jjeople, 
 for the people," depending upon the vii'tue and intelligence of the com- 
 mon people. 
 
 NATIONAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Forms of Government — Patriarchal, or family; Theocratic, by God; 
 Monarchial, by a monarch, absolute or limited; Aristocratic, by nobles; 
 
 A ▲ 
 
 • ► ■ — ■ ■ -*• 
 
▼ ▼ 
 
 64 INSTITUTE REVIEW. 
 
 Democratic, by the people direct; Republican, by representatives of the 
 people. 
 
 Maxims. — The government is for the good of the governed. Equal 
 protection. No distinction of birth. Free speech. Intelligence the 
 foundation of a Republic. Know the Constitution. Every citizen 
 should vote. Voters should understand the issues. School houses are 
 the forts of a Republic. Intelligence, a qualification for franchise. 
 
 Constitution,— Purpose.— 1, To form a union; 2, To establish justice; 
 3, To insure domestic tranquility; 4, To proviile common defense; 5, To 
 promote the general welfare; 6, To secure liberty. 
 
 Legislative Brahcii.— Senate— Two Senators from each State; 
 ^^ec^etZ by the State Legislatures; Term, six years; Qualifications, resi- 
 dent of the State nine years, age thirty; Salary, $5000; President of Sen- 
 ate, Vice President of United States. Powers, Confirm or reject nomi- 
 nations of the President; Ratify or reject treaties with foreign countries; 
 Elect Vice-President when election fails; Act as court, of impeachment of 
 high public officers. 
 
 House. — Members, 365; Elected by the people of Congressional dis- 
 tricts; Term, two years; Qualifications — Resident of State; Citizen of the 
 United States seven years; Age twenty-five; Salary, $5000. Powers — 
 Elect Speaker and other officers, and President, if regular election fails; 
 Prosecute impeachments before the Senate; Originate all bills for raising 
 revenue. 
 
 Joint Powers — Each Congress lasts two years from the 4th of March 
 of odd years. Regular annual session begins first Monday in December. 
 Special session at the call of the President. Each House is judge of the 
 qualifications of its own members. Congress has general power of legis- 
 lation. 1, To regulate the conduct of the general business: 2, To provide 
 for the raising and disbursement of revenue; 3, To borrow or coin money 
 and regulate its value; 4, To regulate inter-state commerce; 5, To declare 
 war, and provide for an army and navy; 6, To admit new states into the 
 Union; 7, To provide for the government of the territories; 8, To enact 
 patent and copyright laws; 9, To enact uniform naturalization and bank- 
 ruptcy laws; 10, To establish post-offices and pass roads; ] 1, To provide 
 for punishment of crimes against the United States; 12, To establish 
 courts inferior to the Supreme Court; 13, To enact laws carrying into 
 effect constitutional provisions. 
 
 Acts become laws, by the written approval of the President; or by 
 his neglect (pocket veto) for ten days; but Congress has power to pass a 
 law over the President's veto, by a vote of two-thirds of each House. 
 
 Executive 'Rnxncn.— Elected by electors, chosen by the people; 
 Term, four years; Qiialifications — A natural born citizen; Age, thirty-five; 
 Resident of the United States fourteen years; Salary, $50,000; Powers and 
 Duties — Coiumander-in-chief of the army and navy; Advises legislation 
 
 A 
 
 m^. _ ^ 
 
• ►- 
 
 INSTITUTE REVIEW. 65 
 
 l\y message; Approves or disapproves acts of Congress; Makes treaties 
 by the consent of tlie Senate; Appoints ministers, judges, heads of de- 
 partments, by the consent of the Senate; Commissions all officers of the 
 United States; Grants pardons for offences against the United States. 
 
 Vice President — Elected by electors; Term and qualifications same 
 as President; Cannot be chosen from the same State; Salary, $8000; He 
 acts as president of the Senate, and succeeds the President in case of 
 death. 
 
 Executive Deixtrtments. — Secretary of State has charge of foreign and 
 domestic relations. Secretary of Treasury has charge of the collection 
 and disbursement of public moneys. Secretary of War has charge of the 
 army and military affairs. Attorney General has charge of the legal de 
 partment of the government. Secretary of Navy has charge of the navy 
 and naval affairs. Seeretarj'- of Interior has charge of lands, pensions, 
 patents and education. Secretary of Agriculture has charge of all agri- 
 cultural affairs, weather bureau, etc. Cabinet members are appointed 
 by the President and receive $8000 salary. 
 
 Jl'uicial Bkanch — Judges are appointed by the President, approv- 
 ed by the Senate. Term during life or good behavior; butmajr be retired 
 at the age of 70, having served ten years; Removed by impeachment. 
 Members: Chief Justice and eight Associate Justices. Salaries-. Chief, 
 $10,500; A.ssociates, $10,000. Jurisdiction: All cases affecting embassa- 
 dors; Controversies between States; Between States and foreign coun- 
 tries; Between citizens of a State and foreign State; Appelate jurisdic- 
 tion from inferior U. S. Courts. Inferior Courts have jurisdiction in 
 cases between citizens of different States; United States and a citizen; 
 Cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; All crimes against the 
 United States; The tiial must be by jury and held in the State where 
 the crime was committed; U. S. Circuit courts are nine in number, held 
 by a Circuit Judge, assisted by a Supreme Judge; Salary of Circuit 
 Judge, $6,000. District Courts are one or more in each State held by a 
 District Judge, who receives a salary of $3,000 to $5,000. 
 
 Privileges. — Citizens of each State shall be entitled to all the privi- 
 leges and immunities of the several States. A Republican form of gov- 
 ernment and protection against invasion, is guaranteed to each State. 
 
 Amendments may be made to the Constitution, when two-thirds of 
 both Houses deem it necessary and proijose amendments, which are after- 
 ward ratified by three-fourths of the State Legislatures. Amendments 
 adopted:!. Freedom of Religion. 2. Right to bear arms. 3. Prohibits 
 quartering soldiers on citizens. 4. Prohibits unreasonable searches or 
 seizures of private property 5. No trial for crime without indictment, 
 or be a witness against himself, or take property for public use, without 
 just compensation. 6. Grants speedy trial by impartial jury and coun- 
 sel for defense. 7. Grants trial by jury when controversy exceeds $20. 
 
«^ _ <9 
 
 ▼ ▼ 
 
 00 INSTITUTE ItEVIEW. 
 
 H. Pnjhibits excessive bail, lines and cruel and unusiial punishment. !). 
 The people retain inherent rights. 10. States have all powers not ])ro- 
 hihitedbythe Constitution. 11. Judicial power shall not extend to 
 cases between' citizens and States. 12. Fixes manner of choosing Presi- 
 dential electors. 13. Abolished slavery. 14. Delined citizenship fixes 
 ratio of representatives, dxdined ineligiljility of representatives, and de- 
 clared the validity of the pulilic debt. 15. Declared the right of suffrage 
 to all without regar'd to color, race or previous condition of servitude. 
 
 JJeld, Stipremacy, Oath and Test: All d(!bts contracted pi-ior to the 
 ado])tion of Constitution, shall be valid. Tlu! Constitution shall be the 
 supreme law. All government officials sJiall take an oath before enter- 
 ing upon their official duties. No religious test shall be required as a 
 qualification. 
 
 Y(ju should I'cad ui)lli(! following subjects in any good Cyclcjpcdia: 
 Anai'chy; Ay)p(!a]; Ap))oi'lioninent; Ai'my; liaidvi'uptcy; Bills of Attainder; 
 Credit; Reveiuies; Bill of riglits; Bonds; Bureaus; (Jaucus: Convention; Cen- 
 sus; Civil rights;(Jivi]sei'vice; Coins; Coinceililicate; Commerce;; Common- 
 wealth; Communism; Confederation; Constituency; Coi)yright; Crimes; 
 Delegates; Diplomatic service; Emancipation Proclamation; Envoys; E\- 
 ]>ost facto law; Felony; Feudal System; Flag; Foreigners; Fractional cur- 
 icncy, Freedom; Fundamental law; Gerrymander; Grand model; H<mH!- 
 steads; Impeachment; Inaugui'ation; Judiciary; Labor hours; Legal ten- 
 der; Legislature; Limitations: Lobby; Magna Charta; Mails; Mason 
 Dixon's line; Militia; Mint; Money; Nation; Naturalization; Nihilism; 
 Nullilication; Oath; Ordinance; Parties; Politicks; Platforms; Planks; Pen- 
 sions; Polls; Repudiation; Revenue duties and internal; Rebellion; Se- 
 cession; Slavei'y; Socialism; Sovei'csignty; Suffrage; Taxes; Treason: 
 'J'rcaty; Union; Veto; War; Wards; Wrongs. 
 
 BOOK KEEPING. 
 
 Book Kkki'in(x is the science of accounts, or the science of debits 
 and credits. A knowledge of this science is essential to business success. 
 Business failures are caused general'y from a lack of knowledge as to the 
 condition of the business. No person should start in life without a fair 
 knowledge of this science. 
 
 Terms. — Resources comprise what we own oi- use in business; as 
 Cash, Mei'chandise, Notes, Real instate. Personal property and Personal 
 accounts. Liabilities incilude what we owe; such as notes and accounts 
 due others. (lapUal Stock or Net Capital is the dilTei-eiu;e between Re- 
 sources and liiabilitics. Cash is moncty or drafts. Merchandise includes 
 all kinds of goods bought or sold. BUts arc; written statements of gocjds 
 
 A ▲ 
 
 • ► — — ~~ ' <m 
 
INSTITUTE UKVIKW. 07 
 
 sold or service rendered; Receioahle Avlien due us; FayabJc wlien tlue 
 another. Creditor supplies goods. Debtor reeeives goods. 
 
 Methods. — Single Entry considers only personal accounts. Double 
 Entry considers everything that affects the business, and is a complete 
 and exact science. Single Elntry uses Day Book and Ledger; Doul)le 
 Entry uses Day Book, Journal and Ledger. Day Book contains the con- 
 secutive transactions of business. Journal is a copy of the Day Book 
 arranged into debits and credits. Ledger contains a summaiy of debits 
 and credits arranged under appropriate heads. Auxiliary books are 
 Cash Book, which contains a record of receipts and disbursements of 
 cash. Bill Book, which contains all the particulars of all notes and 
 drafts issued or received. Sales Book, which contains a record of sales. 
 Journalizing is transferring the account from the Day Book to the 
 Journal. The Journal has two columns to the right for debiting and 
 ci-editing, marked Dr. and Cr. Rules — 1. Debit what comes in, and cred- 
 it what goes out. 2. Debit loss, and ci'edit gain. 3. Debit a party when 
 he ow"es us, and credit when we owe him. 
 
 Posting is transferring an account from the Journal to the Ledger. 
 The ilebits and credits are arranged each to its own page in the Ledger. 
 Debits are placed to the left side of the page, and credits to the right. 
 To is used with debits, and By with credits. The Ledger shows the 
 date, for wliat debited or credited, the Journal page and the value of the 
 item. 
 
 Pkinciples. — 1. Proprietors should be credited for investment, and 
 debited when they draw from the business. 2. Cash should be debited 
 when received, and credited when paid. 3. Bills Receivable should be 
 debited Avhen received, and credited Avhen paid. 4. Bills Payable should 
 be credited when issued, and delnted when paid or redeemed. 5. Per- 
 sonal accounts should be debited when they owe, and credited when 
 they pa}-. 6. Loss and Gain should be deliited for all outlays or losses, 
 and credited for all gains or profits. 
 
 Statements show the condition of the business by a Trial Balance to 
 ascertain if the debits and credits are equal or balance. If the footings 
 agree with the Journal footings, the work is correct. Rules: Net Oain 
 equals the sum of gains less the sum of the losses; or capital at close, less 
 capital at beginning. Present Worth equals Resources less the Liabil- 
 ities. 
 
 A Set in Book keeping is a series or group of accf)unts, involving all 
 of the principles or points usually met. 
 
 The Itemized Ledoeh is now generally used by retail dealers, and is 
 simply an itemized journal and requires much less work than a complete 
 set of books. See "Bryant and Straton's Common School Book keeping" 
 for further information. 
 
 In addition to the above, you should understand the following 
 
 4 . i 
 
• ». , •<• 
 
 T 
 
 68 INSTITUTE REVIEW. 
 
 terms: Assets; Assignee; Balance; Bankable; Bankrupt; 'Bond: Eiseount; 
 Dividend; Endorse; Face; Eirm; C. O. D. and E. O. B.; Insolvent Note; 
 Negotiable; Paj^ee; Payor; Panic; Receipt; Pro rata; Retail; Teller; Trade 
 discount; Trade mark; Usury; Valid; Value received; Vouchers; Way 
 bill, etc. 
 
 RHETORIC. 
 
 Rhetoric is the art of inventing and expressing thought most appro- 
 priately. Value of rhetoric lies in compelling us to think, to inquire, to 
 reason, and to judge. It gives a command of the vocabulary and edu- 
 cates taste in literature. 
 
 Invention treats of finding thought for a single sentence and con- 
 tinued discourse. Thinking is discriminating in mental impressions and 
 uniting ideas and forming thoughts. Invention treats of the formation 
 and punctuation of sentences, paragraphs, analysis of subjects and the 
 framework of a subject. (See grammar.) 
 
 Perspicuity treats of Style or manner in which thought is express- 
 ed, which includes the writer's individuality, clearness, and quality of 
 expression, mastery of the subject, use of Avords, as to propriety and 
 precision, arrangement and miscellaneous violations of perspicuity. 
 Rule: Use simple words arid those with propriety and precision; avoid- 
 ing obsolete and slang terms, tautology, verbosity and redundancy. 
 
 Imagery treats of the relation or similarity existing between things, 
 as expressed in figures of speech. Simile points a likeness between 
 things, which in other respects are unlike; as "Their lives glide on like 
 rivers." Metaphor is a, trsmsfer of a relation for a brief explanation; e. 
 g., "The ship plows the sea." Personification is a figure of speech in 
 which things are i-aised to a plane above or below their own; "Necessity 
 is the mother of invention;" "The waves to sleep had gone." The A^os- 
 i!rop/ie addresses the absent as though present; "Elag of the brave, thy 
 folds shall fly the sign of hope and triumph high." Antithesis is a figure 
 in which words or sentiments are set opposit or in contrast; "The prodi- 
 gal robs his heir; the miser robs himself. " Metonymy is the use of one 
 word for another, by some bond of likeness or unlikeness; "He address- 
 ed the chair;" "The bullet has given Avay to the ballot." Synechdoche is 
 the name of a part indicating the whole; as "Eifty sail for fifty ships." 
 
 Energy is the force of expression or utterance of expression; or 
 power to impress the mind or arouse the feelings. Idiom is the struct- 
 ural form peculiar to a language; as. Beside himself; got wind; took 
 place; how do you do?; jumped to the conclusion; etc. Dialects are 
 varieties of expression, found in different localities. Proverbs are pithy 
 sayings full of wit and wisdom; as "A carpenter is known hy his chips." 
 
 A 
 
•> .^e 
 
 T 
 INSTITUTE KEVIEW. 69 
 
 "Make hay while the sun shines." Climax is the arrangement of ex- 
 pressions in the order ol' their strength; "All that I have, and all that I 
 am. and all that I hope to be, I give to thee." Period is a sentence com- 
 posed of phrases or clauses, so arranged that the meaning is held in sus- 
 pense until the close: "Though betrayed, deserted, disorganized, unpro- 
 vided Avith resources, i^egirth with enemies, the noble cit_y Avas no easy 
 conquest." T rt/ve^^ is the opposit of uniformity and is that change in 
 expression which pleases. 
 
 Wit is a style resulting from the union of seemingly unrelated ideas, 
 producing surprise and pleasure: "-What I Avant.' said an orator, 'is 
 common sense.' 'Exactly.' replied his opponent." Humor is an exjjress- 
 ion Avhich excites laughter. Satire is a species of Avit, used to lash the 
 follies and vices of men. Ridicule provokes laughter at its object and 
 thus makes it contemptible. Irony is an insult in the guise of a com- 
 pliment. Parody is a partial copy, in which the spirit of the piece is 
 changed and lowered. Pun is a harmony in sound of words, but a dif- 
 ference in the sense. Pathos is that form of expression which brings 
 tears: it is elosel}^ connected Avith humor. 
 
 Elegaxce .shoAvs itself in grace and beauty of expression. First, the 
 beauty in thought, Avhicli may be clothed in the beauty of expression. 
 There must be euphony in Avords selected; and sentences must be smooth 
 and tlowing. 
 
 Pkodlctioxs. — Oral Discourse is by the mouth and is intended to 
 move the Avill; as the sermon, laAA'^yer's argument, the politician's ha- 
 rangue, and the statesman's debate. The intellect is the Avails of the 
 bank, the feelings the vault, the will the safe in the vault. Cojiversation 
 is an oral discourse betAveen two or more people. It Avidens our views 
 and gives us better possession of our thoughts and teaches us hoAv to 
 communicate. Debate is a formal public couA'ersation in Avhich the op- 
 ponents array all the facts and arguments to support his position and es- 
 tablish his propositions. Burden of Proof is the labor of ijroA'ing that 
 Avhich exists to be false and the truth of the substitute. Presumption is 
 the exemption from all labor in debate, save that of defence. Oration 
 is a discourse delivered before an audience of scholars. The subject 
 should be such as Avill arouse the thoughts and feelings of the speaker. 
 The frameAvork should consist of not more than tAvo or three points. 
 The treatment should be full of energy. The parts are the introduction, 
 Avhich should be honest and thorough; the conclusion, Avhich is a recap- 
 itulation of the argument, making the application and fitly closing it. 
 Speeches are oral discourses under A'arious circumstances. 
 
 Pkose is Avritten discourse including articles on science, historj', 
 travels and tiction. Allegories are species of fiction in Avhich virtues and 
 vices are personified. Fables are stories in Avhich animals or things take 
 the i)lace of men in supposed doings, in which useful lessons are taught 
 
•> __ , ^ .<• 
 
 70 INSTITUTE REVIEW. 
 
 Parables were discourses used by our Lord in the form of fables. Letters 
 are written communications from one person to anotlier. Biography is 
 a written work describing one's life and character. Autobiography is a 
 biography written by the subject of it. Memoir is a brief sketch of one's 
 life and character. Essay is a short composition upon any subject. 
 
 Poetry is that division of discourse which is rythmical and metrical 
 and is addressed to the feelings. Rhythm is that arrangement of words 
 allowing the alternate stress and remission of the voice in reading, which 
 should occur every two or three syllables regularly. Foot is the combi- 
 nation of two or three syllables, which requires a compound movement 
 of the voice in reading. Verse is poetry, and a single line in poetiy. 
 Stanza is a group of several lines or verses. Poem is a collection of 
 verses grouped into stanzas, written on some one topic. Scansion is the 
 reading of poetry so as to make the rhythm. Slurring is running two 
 or more syllables into one by dropping one or more letters. Metre is the 
 quality of a poem determined by the number of feet in a regular verse; 
 called dimeter, trimeter, tetrameter, pentameter and hexameter. Ehyme 
 is the harmony in sound of the final syllables of verses. Couplet is two 
 verses which rhyme. Bla7ik Verse is without rhyme. Didactic poetry 
 aims to teach; Lyric is to be sung; Pastoral deals with the objects of ex- 
 terna' nature; fields, springs, harvests and landscapes. Ejnc deals with 
 the life of a hero; Dramatic is written to be acted; Comedy is light and 
 humorous; Tragedy is earnest and serious, often fatal in the issues. 
 
 "Poeti-y ministers to that part of us which never changes. It is im- 
 mortal. Poems grow richer and better by use; for every time we read 
 them, the feeling, the sentiment, which floods the thought, is what pre- 
 serves it. Poetry which haunts the memory is not only a joy forever, 
 but is forever becoming more and more a joy." 
 "Read from the grand old masters, 
 
 Read from the bards sublime, 
 Whose distant footsteps echo 
 Through the corridors of time." 
 
 SCIENCE. 
 
 Science is accumulated and established knowledge, which has been 
 Systematized and formulated with reference to the discovery of general 
 truth, or the operation of general laws. Pure science is the knowledo-e 
 of laws, causes or powers, apart from their application. Applied science 
 is a knowledge of facts, events or phenomena, accounted for by powers, 
 causes or laws. Art is knowledge made efllcient by skill. Natural sci- 
 ences include Zoology, Botany, Geology, Physics and Chemistry. 
 
 o> .^i 
 
• ►' 
 
 INSTITL'TE UEVIEW. 
 
 Zoology is that branch of bio]og3% which relates to the animal 
 kingdom, including the structure, embryology, evolution, classilication, 
 habits and distribution of animals, both living and extinct. Animals 
 grow, move, feel, live and die. Branch is a division of the animal king- 
 dom with reference to the base of structure; as vertebrates, articulates, 
 mollusks. radiates and i^rotozoans. CYa.ss is a division of a branch with 
 reference to mode of life and perpetuation; as mammals, birds, reptiles, 
 batrachians. Order is a division of a class with reference to general 
 form and food: as carnivorous and herbivorous orders. Family includes 
 those animals whose mode of life, general form, kind of food are similar. 
 as man, monkey and cat family. Genus is similar to familj\ Specie is a 
 division of a genus or family: as the white race, gorilla and lion. 
 
 Vertebrates include all animals having a backbone and brain. 
 Mammals have warm blood and nourish their j'oung with milk. Man is 
 at the head of the animal kingdom; the o\\\y animal having the upright 
 position and a perfect hand; speaks a language and laughs; has the larg- 
 est brain, a mind and soul. Monkeys are four-handed animals. Quad- 
 rupeds are four-footeil mammals, including the ox, horse, bear, cat, 
 Avolf, fox, dog, hog and various other families. Carnivorous mammals 
 live on i"aw flesh: as the cat family. Herbivorous animals live on vegeta- 
 ble food. Buminants chew the cud. Whales have warm blood and 
 nourish their young with milk, and breathe through holes in the back 
 part of the head. Bats have leather-like wings but no beak or feathers; 
 boclj- covered with hair; sleep in the daj' time and kill insects at night. 
 Insectivorous animals include moles, hedge-hog and field-mouse; In cool 
 regions they hibernate during the winter. Bodents or gnawers include 
 beavers, rabbits, squirrels and rats. Endentates include the sloth, ar- 
 madillo, and anc-eater, living in warm climates. Marsupials are ani- 
 mals having a pouch in which they keep their young in time of danger. 
 Kangaroo of Australia and the opossum of America. 
 
 Birds are vertebrates, having warm blood, covered with feathers, 
 adapted to fljing, and a sharp bill instead of teeth, and two feet. BajJ- 
 tore.s or birds of pre}', include hawks, vultures and owls. Scansores or 
 climbers include the parrot toucan, cuckoo and wood-pecker. Insesores 
 or perchers include humming bird, swallow, whippoorwill, thrush, lark, 
 sparrow, crow, and many others. Basores or scratchers include the dove 
 family, pigeon, pheasant, partridge and others. Oralatores or Avaders 
 include heron, stork, ostrich, snipe and others. Natutores or swimmers 
 have web feet and include pelicans, gulls, dives, duck, goose and .swan. 
 
 Keptile.s have cold blood; covered Avith scales; lay eggs in holes or 
 
 sand, which hatch without brooding. Turtles have a shell into which 
 
 they can draw their her.d, feet and tail: live on land and in water. 
 
 Saurians or lizards have long body and tail, no shell, large mouth, 
 
 armed with teeth: they include lizards, mud puppies, alligators and 
 
 ^ 
 
 • ► ' -<• 
 
«^ , ^4 9 
 
 ▼ T 
 
 72 INSTITUTE REVIEW. 
 
 crocodiles, etc 8e7yents are verj' long; have no feet but move by scales; 
 swallow food whole. Batrachians have no scales; lay eggs in water; 
 breathe first by gills, but when mature by lungs; include frogs, toads, 
 etc. 
 
 Fish have cold blood; covered with scales; live in water; breathe by 
 gills. They include the spined, as perch, mackerel and sword; soft-finned; 
 as suckers, pike, pickerel, salmon, heri'ing, cod and eels. Other species 
 are puffers, tuft-gilled, sturgeon, shark and suckers. 
 
 Articulates have no internal skeleton, the body being made up of 
 a series of rings or articulations. They include insects and crustaceans. 
 /?zseci!s have the body divided into head, thorax and abdomen; breathe 
 through holes along the side, the air reaching all parts of the body. They 
 are divided into bees, wasps, butterflies, moths, flies, beetles, bugs, 
 grasshoppers, dragon flies, spiders and centipedes. Crustaceans are ani- 
 mals covered with a shell; live in water, except snails. Decapods or ten- 
 footed, include crabs, lobsters and worms. 
 
 MoLUUSKS are composed of a soft body covered with a shell, which 
 may be univalve, bivalve or multivalve. They include cephalopods, 
 grastropods, acephalopods or oyster, muscles; brachiopods and polyzoans 
 
 Radiates have parts radiating from a center, composed of five 
 parts or a multiple of five. They all live in the water; the best known is 
 the star fish. 
 
 Protozoans out number all other animals; as they are in every 
 ditch, pond, lake, and every part of the sea. They have neither mouth 
 nor stomach. They are small except sponges. 
 
 PLANTS. 
 
 Plants live, grow and die; but do not feel or move about. The 
 three great classes are trees, shrubs and herbs. Parts are root, trunk, 
 branches, leaves and flowers. Buds are the beginning of a branch or a 
 flower. There are two kinds of roots; fleshy and fibrous. Trunks are 
 composed of the pith, which does not incx'ease in size; the wood formed 
 in lings indicating ihe age. The wood hardens toward the center. The 
 bark is the outside covering. Exogens are outside growers, by forming 
 a new layer each year. Endogens are inside growers, as grass, palm 
 and corn. Monocotyledons are plants with one seed leaf, and always in- 
 side growers. Dicotyledons have two seed leaves, and are outside grow- 
 ers. Cotyledons are the seed leaves. Plumide is the stem growing up 
 from the cotyledons. Badicle is the root growing down. Annuals are 
 plants maturing in a single season. Biennials require two years to ma- 
 ture from the seed. Perrennials grow on from year to year. Leaves act 
 as the stomach and lungs of plants. The parts are petiole or foot stalk, 
 midvein and blade. Leaves are either parallel or netveined. 
 Flowers are the organs of reproduction; composed of calyx, corrolla, 
 pistil and stamens. Sepals are the leaflets of the calyx; petals 
 
 A 
 
 •— — — <• 
 
• ►- ■ — — ^e 
 
 IXSTITUTE REVIEW. 73 
 
 ai-0 loatlets of the corrolla. Pistil is divided into the stigma, style 
 aiul ovary. Stamen is composed of the tilamentand anther, which con 
 tains the pollen. 
 
 Classificatiox in Botany is the arrangement into groups by their 
 resemblance in tiowers. fruits and seeds. The two great divisions are 
 Phacnogamous or flowering plants; and Cry2)togamous or flowerless 
 plants. Class 1. ii/xo^ejis or Dicotyledons. Sub class 1. Atigiosperms, 
 having a seed vessel and includes the polj'petalons, monopetalons and 
 apetalons tlivision. Sub class 2. Oymnospej-us, or naked seeded plants. 
 Class 11. Endogens or monocotyledons, including the spadieeous, pet- 
 aloideous and glumaceous divisions. Sub class 3. Crypiogamous or 
 flowerless plants include Acrogens or ferns; Anophytes or mosses; and 
 Tliallophytes or sea weeds, mushroons and linchens. 
 
 Fkuit is the developed ovary. They are simple fruits divided into 
 flesh}', which includes Berry, Pepo and Pome; Stone fruits or Drupe; 
 Dry fruits include grains, nuts, beans, etc. 
 
 Families are Crowfoot, Magnolia, Lily, Poppy, Cress, Violet, Pink, 
 Mallow, Purslane, Linden, Flax, Geranium, Rue, Grape, Pulse, Rose, 
 Gourd, Currant, Parsley, Honeysuckle, Heath, Figwort, Sage, Night- 
 shade, Olive, Buckwheat, Walnut, Oak, Birch, Pine and others. 
 
 Plants live and grow bj' absorbing their food from the ground 
 through the roots and carrying it to the leaves where it is digested by the 
 sun, when it becomes sap and is then distributed to every part of the 
 I^lant. The use of plants is to pui'ify the air, by absorbing carbonic acid 
 and giving out oxj-gen. They furnish food in the form of fruits and veg- 
 etables; clothing, in the form of cotton and flax; material for tools, 
 utensils and buildings, and all the fuel in the form of coal and wood. 
 
 STONES. 
 
 Stones are concreted earthj^ or mineral matter. There are two 
 kimls: those acted upon bj^ acids, as chalk and marble, known as calcar. 
 eoz^A- stones; and stones unafl:ected bj' acids; as claj^, flint, pebble and 
 agate; known as silicious stones. Sandstone is composed of grains of 
 sand agglomerated, and maybe calcareous or silicious; as whetstones. 
 Gypsum or plaster is a stone unaffected by acids, and may be reduced to 
 a powder by heat, known as Plaster of Paris. Slate is a silicious rock of 
 a very flne grain and readily splits into layers. Clay is soft and easily 
 moulded into any shape; acids haA"e no effect on it. Limestone is a cal- 
 careous stone effected bj' acids, and reduced to a powder by heat. Marl 
 is composed of calcareous matter and clay and is broken up by frost, 
 forming with decayed vegetable matter a Vegetable Mold. Crystals 
 have angles, edges and faces. There are crystals in both kind of stones 
 l)ut the siliceous are much harder than the calcareous. Crystals include 
 (juartz, rubies (red,) sapphires (blue), emeralds (green), topazes (yellow), 
 amythists (violet). iJiamund is a crystal but not stone; it is pure carbon 
 
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 74 INSTITUTE REVIEW. 
 
 or charcoal and will burn Avhen the heat is strong enough. Salt is a 
 crystalized mineral but not a stone. Oranite is a stone composed of 
 three crystals: quartz, felspar and mica. Porphyries are formed very 
 much like granite, and look like fruit cake. 
 
 Metal is an elementary substance mixed with other materials, called 
 ore, and generally located in veins or layers. The most common are 
 iron, lead, tin, silver, gold and others. 
 
 Coal is the remains of vast forests, buried and changed by heat and 
 pi-essure. Turf or Peat is a young coal bed. 
 
 Igneous rocks have been formed by heat and fusion; as granite, 
 porphyrites, basalts and lavas. They contain no fossils. Aqueoue rocks 
 have been deposited by water and contain fossils. They represent the 
 different ages; as the Primary, Secondary, Tertiary and Quarternary. 
 
 PHYSICS. 
 
 Physics is that science which treats of the laws and i^roperties of 
 matter, and the forces acting upon matter; as gravitation, heat, light. ■ 
 magnetism and electricity. Exi:)eriment is a test or trial to prove or dis- 
 prove a proposition. Philosophical truths are verified by experiment. 
 Bodies as to condition or state, are solid, as a pebble; liquid, as water; 
 gaseous, as air. A body may pass through all the conditions or state, by 
 the action of heat. 
 
 Heat is a force which acts directly on the molecules of a body, caus- 
 ing Evaporation or "drying up;" Ebulition or boiling; Distillation or 
 heating and cooling. Expansion is caused by heat, while contraction is 
 caused by cooling. Thermometer is an instrument for measuring the 
 temperature. Water boils at 212 degrees, in an open vessel, and cannot 
 be made any hotter; but may be raised much higher in a boiler, produc- 
 ing steam of great power. 
 
 Light is that force or motion by which objects are rendered visible; 
 travels at the rate of 185,157 miles per second. Beflection is the throwing 
 back of the rays, as from a mirror. Befraction is the bending of rays in 
 passing through bodies af different densities. Lenses are glasses with 
 one or both sides concave or convex, making objects appear larger or 
 smaller, as shown in microscopes and telescopes. Bispersion is the break- 
 ing up of a ray of light, which is white, into the seven colors called 
 specti'um colors. Color is the property of a body breaking up light and 
 absorbing and reflecting parts. 
 
 Sound is a sensation made on the ear by the vibrations of some 
 body. It travels at the rate of 1,125 feet per second, through the air in 
 all directions. The more dense the medium, the faster sound is trans- 
 mitted. Echo is reflected sound. The pitch of sound depends upon the 
 rate of vibration. Tones on musical instruments are changed by chano-- 
 ing the length of instrument in opening and closing holes or shortenino- 
 strings. 
 
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y— : ^© 
 
 INSTITUTE REVIEW. 75 
 
 P:lectkioity is a force moving in a circuit. Voltaic electricity is 
 pi-odiiced from a battery. Frictional electricity is produced by friction 
 and will attract and repel light objects. Law: Two bodies charged with 
 like electricity repel; with different electricity they attract. Conductor 
 is a body over which electricity will pass; as metals, water and wet bod- 
 ies. Electricity tends toward the point of a body. Induction is charg- 
 ing another Ijody with electricity without direct contact. Lightning is 
 electricity passing from one cloud to another; or from a cloud to the 
 earth. E:iectricity is used in the telegraph, telephone, electric light and 
 many other uses. 
 
 Magnet is a piece of iron possessing the property of attracting other 
 pieces of iron. There are tAvo poles to the magnet. Like poles repel 
 while unlike poles attract. 
 
 Gravitation is a force possessed b,y all bodies in proportion to the 
 quantity of matter each contains, which attracts all bodies toward each 
 other. Weight is the measured force of gravitation. Z)ens% is the 
 amount of matter in a given space; or the degree of closeness of parti- 
 cles; taking water as the standard. Pressure is the force exerted by 
 liquids and gases, depending on the height of the column. 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 Chemistry treats of the changes in the composition and constitution 
 of the molecules of a body. Com2)otmd bodies are those composed of 
 simple bodies combined; as air, water, salt, chalk, etc. Simj^le bodies 
 are those which cannot be decomposed; as metals, mercury and o-ases; 
 seventy in all. ElemcJit is a simple bodjr. Decomiwsition is separatino- 
 a body into its elements; as water into oxj'gen and hydrogen. Combina 
 tionis a uniting in definite quantities, forming a bodj'; as 1 part oxvgen 
 to 2 parts hj^drogen, forming water. Mixture is a mingling of different 
 elements in irregular proportions, which does not form a compound. 
 Air is a mixture of oxygen and hj^drogen, (1 to 4) but does not form a 
 compound. Gas is an invisible fluid, very light; as hj'drogen, which is 
 inflammable; oxygen, which keeps up combustion; nitrogen, which is de- 
 structive to life; Carbon, which is found in all vegetable and animal for- 
 mation, combined with oxygen and hjalrogen. Carbon Oxide is formed 
 by combining charcoal with oxygen; itis very poisonous. Carbonic Acid is 
 a gas formed hy carbon and oxygen; Avith lime added, forms carbonate 
 of lime. Oxides are combinations of oxygen, with a metal; as lime, pot- 
 ash, soda and magnesia. Acids are compounds of oxygen Avith non me- 
 talic bodies. Salts are compounds of acids and a base; as chalk is a salt 
 composed of carbonic acid and oxide of calcium. Molecule is the small- 
 est group of atoms that can exist in a free state, possessing the proper- 
 ties of the bod3^ of Avhich it is a part. Atom is the smallest diA'ision of a 
 molecule. A molecule of Avater is composed of one atom of oxj^gen and 
 two atoms of hydrogen. 
 
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 
 
 PI W1CI 7A1 194 7 
 
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