Class. P N 52% Book iii^ . A * HAND-BOOK MODERN EUROPEAN LITERATURE. ■ USE OF SCHOOLS AND PRIVATE FAMILIES. BY MRS. FOSTER PHILADELPHIA: LEA AND BLANCHARD I860. » i ■• PHILADELPHIA: T. K, AND F. G. COLLINS, FRINTERS. TO MISS ANNA FREDERICA BARTON, OF BORDEAUX, &l)i<3 little toork is, WITH SENTIMENTS OF RESPECT AND GRATITUDE TOWARDS HER BENEVOLENT AND ENLIGHTENED PARENTS, AFFECTIONATELY INSCRIBED, BY HER INSTRUCTRESS, M. E. F. PREFACE The want of a work of this kind must have been very generally felt; and, in offering it to the public, the com- piler's earnest wish is to spare the literary student some of those long hours of research which so painfully retard his progress. Hitherto, the youth of both sexes have been too fre- quently left to make their entrance into society almost completely ignorant of that subject of conversation which forms its most general topic and its greatest charm — Lite- rature. They may have gained the honors of all their classes in history, geography, &c. &c, yet their first steps into the world have brought disappointment and humilia- tion. They find, in fact, that they have another education to commence, and without a guide to help them through the vast multitude of writers who are the boast and ornament of every country. To the young, therefore, a publication of this sort can hardly fail to be useful; since, if compiled with any share of judgment, it at'once unites precept with example — shows them what is excellent, and informs them VI PREFACE. why it is so. It has been the compiler's aim to comprise as much as possible in the smallest compass; and she begs leave to express a hope that, while this work may be found to contain sufficient information respecting the leading names in European Literature to satisfy casual consulta- tion, it may serve at once as a guide and stimulus to more minute and extensive investigations. CONTENTS Page Italian Literature . . . . . .16 Spanish Literature 44 Portuguese Literature . 72 German Literature . 83 French Literature . Ill British Literature . 144 Polish Literature . 204 Hungarian Literature . 225 Dutch Literature . 227 Danish Literature . 246 Swedish Literature . 258 Russian Literature . 266 Index . 277 HAND-BOOK MODERN EUROPEAN LITERATURE INTRODUCTION. Asia, tlie cradle of mankind, was also the cradle of letters. From time immemorial the Indians and the Chinese possessed great poets and philosophers; and it is from Asia that the Egypt- ians are said to have gathered their laws, philosophy, and arts. The Persians, Medes, Assyrians, and Phoenicians had, without doubt, a rich and brilliant literature, lost to us chiefly by the burn- ing of the Alexandrian library. The Greeks, who had received from Asia, or from their mother- country Egypt, the traditions of the arts, carried them to the highest perfection. Time has not been able to destroy the fine works of their poets and their historians; they are still the admiration of the civilized world. When Greece was conquered by the Romans, her taste for letters was carried to Rome, and Italy soon was in posses- sion of a literature which rivaled in some degree that of the parent source. Then came the barbarous ages of the Celts and the Iberians; but the Druids kept alive by their bards a taste for the productions of genius even amongst the most uncultivated people. After these, we meet with the "Edda," a production of the Scan- 2 14 EUROPEAN LITERATURE. dinavian nations, similar to the " Ossian" of the Scotch and Irish : and these works bring us down to the literature of the early Middle Ages, when, after the invasion of the Roman empire by the northern nations, new languages had been formed by amalgamation and cor- ruption. The Provencal tongue is the best known of this period, and its poets spread far their reputation; while, at the same time, the Arabs, having stretched their empire along the north of Africa and through Spain to the foot of the Pyrenees, looked with disdain upon the people of the west. [Bagdad and the south of Spain had become the centres of their civilization and of their literature; and even in Persia and India poetry and the fine arts were more assiduously cultivated than in Europe. Meanwhile, the literature of Eastern Europe was overpowered and choked by the contentions of theologists. Men are poets before they are philosophers; they feel with sensibility, and describe with force, when they have made but little progress in investigation or reason- ing: the age of Homer and of Hesiod long preceded that of Socrates. But religious contests embroiled at an early period the minds of our ancestors; and, instead of the poetical productions usual in an age of powerful emotion and unfettered restraint, the literature of this period was almost entirely devoted to the squabbles of theology and metaphysics. The presumption of man quickly added to the simple and sublime doctrines of Christianity the theo- ries of a vain philosophy, wrapt up in mysteries and idle questions, which the self-directed faculties of man are unequal to resolve. The scholastic theology, with its infinite train of bold disquisi- tions and subtle distinctions, was the first production of the spirit of inquiry after it began to resume some degree of vigor and activity in Europe. Misled by the acute and inquisitive Greeks in the Eastern Empire, and by the Arabian sages in Spain and Africa, the philosophers who first applied to science were involved in a maze of intricate inquiries, produced by the refined theology of the one and the frivolous subtlety of the others. Invention and art were fet- tered by authority, and the force of genius was spent in speculations at once visionary and difficult to comprehend. Still, there was a novelty in these ill- directed pursuits which INTRODUCTION. 15 rsed and interested the human mind. Schools were opened in y cathedral and almost in every monastery of note ; colleges and universities were erected; corporations were founded; regular courses of study planned; academical titles and honors invented; and distinction in the schools led not only to reputation, but to social rank and eminence. In all these efforts to advance the human mind, there was, how- ever, one great imperfection which prevented their general utility — the use of the Latin tongue. The languages of Europe were con- sidered barbarous from the subversion of the Roman empire till the beginning of the sixteenth century. They were destitute of elegance and of force, and even of perspicuity; and no attempt had been made to improve or polish them. The Latin tongue was consecrated by the church to religion; and custom, with authority scarce less sacred, had appropriated it to literature. All the sciences cultivated in the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries, were taught in Latin; all books were written also in that language: thus it was only a circumscribed number of individuals who could penetrate into the temple of knowledge. The taking of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453 served to advance the progress of letters ; when the learned men of Greece were forced to seek shelter in Italy and Germany. The important discovery of printing also immensely facilitated this progress; and, in the time of Pope Leo X. in Italy, of John III. in Portugal, of Ferdinand and Isabella in Spain, of Francis I. in France, of Charles V. in Germany, and of Elizabeth in England, Europe seemed to spring up from its long sleep of the Dark Ages, when all learning had been confined to the cloister and the church : the love of literature became universal : and mankind viewed with astonishment their own extent of talent and immense power of mental enjoyment. There are four ages particularly marked as those in which there was a great development of the arts. The first is that of Philip of Macedon and Alexander the Great; the second is that of Augustus Caesar; the third is that which followed the taking of Constantino- ple by Mahomet II. ; and the fourth age is generally considered 16 ITALIAN LITERATURE. that of Louis XIV. and our Queen Anne. Of all countries in modern times, it is Italy in which a national literature first "began to flourish : the great poet Dante, early in the fourteenth century, used and polished his mother-tongue, and was the first distinguished native writer in Europe. Hence, in my notices of European litera- ture, I commence with that of Italy. THE LITERATURE OF ITALY. The numerous divisions of Italy into kingdoms and principalities is the chief cause of the Latin tongue dying away among the various dialects of its people. In the twelfth century, Italian was ivritten; hitherto, it had only been a spoken tongue : none but the learned wrote in Latin, while those who wished for a more extensive audience wrote in Italian. The kings of Sicily were among the first encouragers of this dialect; and, having invited the Troubadours to their court, songs and ballads in the style of those poets of Provence speedily sprang up. When Charles of Anjou, Count of Provence, became King of Naples, he naturally propagated the amusements of his country: the Italians imitated the Provencals; and at the end of the twelfth century Italy had a dawning of literature in these poems. The Rappresentazioni — Mysteries, or Sacred Dramas, as they were called — common at this period,. were compositions of little merit. Zeno says they were written in a tame, low style, without skill or grace. After Alcamo, JDrusi, Falcaccliiero, and Vemacia, we meet with a more correct language. An inscription in the cathedral of Ferrara, dated 1135, is said to be the oldest composition in Italian verse. St TJwmas Aquinas was famed for his knowledge; his theological opinions gave rise to a sect called TJiomists. Spinello and Malespini were historians of the thirteenth century; Guinicelli and Ghislieri were poets : and we meet also with the names of Guitone, Brunetti, Cavalcanti, and Fra-Jacopone, but their works are little known, except " The Treasure" of Brunetti. FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 17 The Venetian, Marco Polo, traveled into the interior of Asia about this time, and on his return published his travels, which were long regarded as fabulous exaggerations, but have since been fully authenticated. Ricobaldo and Pepius wrote at this period. Both mention the celebrated Michael Scott of the same age. Early in the fourteenth century, the great poet Dante appeared. He did not take up his pen till of mature age. Being a man of strong feelings, he had entered warmly into the political divisions of his country. Florence was torn with contentions; the G-uelfs and Grhibelins had created a civil war ; Dante was banished, and, after wandering from city to city without a permanent asylum, he fixed upon Ravenna for his residence, where he wrote the poem which has given so much glory to his name. In the "Divina Comedia" of Dante, it is easy to trace the political sentiments of the author; — his admiration and hatred are not dis- guised : and hence his work is at once a singular monument of the profound sensitiveness of the writer, and a valuable historical record of the deeds of his compatriots. Upon this is based the whole movement of his poem ; — the Infernal Regions ("Inferno"), Pur- gatory ("Purgatorio"), and Paradise ("Paradise"), are peopled with the spirits of those whom the love and hatred of Dante had admired or condemned on earth. The poet's brilliant imagination has, however, added a superstructure of great sublimity, occasional grace, and constant novelty. By a series of allegorical representations, Dante conducts us through the three stages of human existence. In the "Inferno," we witness the misery of sin; in the "Purgatorio," the struggles of virtue ; and those who have surmounted the temptations of this world, and begun to taste the pleasures of the next, are described as enjoying that peace of mind which is imaged by the terrestrial "Paradise" of Dante. This part of the poem displays, in a surprising manner, the exalted energy of the poet's persuasion, that it was possible, by purity of life and mind, for man to hold communion with his Maker. Hence he combats the fallacy that we are of necessity bound down to earth; and vindicates our prerogative of soaring upwards, by declaring that, did we not allow ourselves to be acted upon by false 2* 18 ITALIAN LITERATURE. pleasures, our tendency would be to a union with Him "in whom we live, and move, and have our being." Dante's resource in words is astonishing; he seizes on Greek, Latin, Oriental tongues, Ger- man, Provencal, the Langue d'Oil, and even the Anglo-Saxon (a colony having settled, says Muratori, in Calabria in the eleventh century). So confident is Mr. Bruce Whyte of the power of these languages in the interpretation of Dante, that he asserts, " Every obscurity in the Divina Comedia can be cleared up by the Welsh, or Bas-Breton." This is only because they were parts of that mother-tongue which produced the Armorican, or Romanic dialect. Besides this magnificent poem of the " Divina Comedia/' Dante wrote several works in prose : u La Vita Nuova," a " Treatise on Monarchy," " Eloquence," and " The Banquet." At this period, the unhappy Cecco wrote a poem against Dante; and, as the Inquisition fancied it was a criticism against their insti- tutions, the poet was burnt alive. There arose, at this period, also, several imitators of Dante, as Uherti and Frezzi; who were the best. Mussato wrote " The Tyrant of Padua," and " Achilles ;" the first tragedies of modern literature. Cino was a lyric poet of this period, celebrated by Dante, and imitated by Petrarch. The fame of Petrarch followed closely on that of Dante ; and his age was distinguished by general intellectual activity. Petrarch introduced a liberal, profound, and elegant scholarship ; and communicated to his countrymen that enthusiasm for the litera- ture, the history, and antiquities of Borne which so much occupied his own heart. From this time the admiration of learning and genius became almost an idolatry among the people of Italy. Kings and republics, cardinals and doges, vied with one another in flattering and honoring Petrarch; embassies from rival states solicited the honor of his in- structions; his coronation occupied the court of Naples and the people of Rome as much as the most important political transaction could have done. To collect books and antiquities, to found professorships and col- leges, became universal among the great. The spirit of literary research allied itself also to that of commercial enterprise. Every FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 19 place to which the merchants of Florence extended their gigantic traffic ; from the bazaars of the Tigris to the monasteries of the Clyde, was ransacked for medals and manuscripts. Petrarch was exceedingly ambitious of literary fame; it was his Latin poems which procured him the honor of being crowned pub- licly at Rome; but these are all faded away, and his great fame rests on the graceful and varied sonnets which he addressed to the beautiful Laura de Sade. The poem of " Africa, or the Punic Wars/' is tedious and indifferent. Andrea Dandolo wrote the " Chronicles of Venice till 1343." Villani wrote " The History of Florence from its Foundation ;" which was continued by his brother, Matteo, whose son, Filippo, still further extended it. Bartolo was a famous jurisconsult of this period. His chief works are entitled " The Guelfs and Ghibelins," " Tyranny," and " Administrations of the Republic." Pastrengo wrote a " Dictionary of Illustrious Men." Boccacio studied the classical writers of Greece : but his Latin works are hasty, crude, and ill-informed. He wrote an epic poem, called " The Thesead." But it is not his verse which has perpetu- ated his name for so many centuries; it is his harmonious prose, the animation of his language, and the joyousness of his imagina- tion. This gayety is, however, frequently licentious; and his work, entitled " The Decameron," is rarely seen in a lady's library; but selections of his best tales are published. Sacclietti followed Boccacio; but his stories, entitled " The Youth of Florence," are indifferent by the side of his predecessor's works. These authors are called by the Italians the Trecentisti, or men of the thirteenth century, because they took their origin at this time; and after their brilliant age there was considerable languor in the literature of their country. Giovanni Fiorentino, called also Pecorone, wrote "II Pecorone," a collection of tales. Pandolfini wrote a treatise, entitled " Go- vernment of the Family." JVami, surnamed BiircMello, was the inventor of the verse called burlesque. Poliziano is first known to us as the tutor of the family of the Medici. Cosmo de Medici had liberally encouraged science and literature; and his sons grew up among men of the finest talents. 20 ITALIAN LITERATURE. The Medici had so extended their mercantile pursuits, that they took the rank of princes from their riches; and Florence became, through them, the centre of learning in Italy. Poliziano was a distinguished Latin and Italian poet of the age. A late Italian author (Foscolo) quotes some of his verses, as equal to anything ever written in that language. Benedetto Accolti had dedicated to Piero de Medici, the son of Cosmo, and father of Lorenzo, his " History of the Wars of the Christians and the Turks." His son Bernardo Accolti wrote the first drama, called " Virginia." Ber- nardo Cenini was the first Florentine printer. Chrysolaras, a noble Greek, first taught that language in Florence, and is called the father of modern classical learning. Luigi Pulci lived also at Florence at this time, and is the author of the well-known poem of "Morgante Maggiore:" he is considered the last of the old ro- mancers, and the first of the Italian epic writers : his brother Luca wrote " II Ciraffa Calvaneo," a heroic poem, and others. Valla wrote "Fables." Manetti left many valuable works; the chief of them are "A History of the Literature of Florence," and a "Life of Pope Nicholas V." Cambiatore was crowned as a poet in 1430. Twelve years after, Eneas Sylva was crowned by the Emperor Frederick III. ; and a few years later Panormita received the same honor from the hands of the Emperor Sigismond. The three blind poets named Bello, the two Brandolini, Antonio Alamanni, Filelfo, and Bellinconi, have all received honorable men- tion from their cotemporaries for poetic talent. Among the prose writers of this period, we find Pope Pius II, as author of " Com- mentaries' 7 on the history of his time. Platina wrote "The Lives of the Popes," and "The History of Mantua." Giustiniana wrote a "History of Venice." Masuccio wrote tales. Meantime, as the nations of Europe had begun to feel their own strength, they gradually threw off the power of the Pope ; and when he could no longer maintain his authority, he endeavored to reserve at least a confirmatory right in each kingdom. The sanction of the Pope not being a matter of indifference to subordinate sove- reigns, he delegated to them his power on easy conditions, by in- vesting them with the title of Vicars of the Church. It was thus the family of Este obtained the dominion of Ferrara : thus the cities FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 21 of Rimini and Cesena were held by the family of Malatesta; Faenza and Imola by the Manfredi; and many other cities and provinces became subject in the same way to petty sovereigns, who governed with despotic authority, as supported by the Pope : but their dissen- sions and family feuds rendered this fertile country the theatre of rapine and of bloodshed; and from this cause the literature of Italy suffered frequent interruptions. It is as well to remark that, as many authors wrote in Latin at this period, they assumed a suitable name, and it is therefore some- what difficult to trace the original. Thus, Filippo Buonacorso called himself Callimaclius Experiens, and is celebrated for his " History of the Affairs of Hungary." Poggio Bracciolini, a secretary of several of the Popes, discovered the works of Quintilian, and was a writer of great research. Indeed, the early part of the fifteenth century was generally distinguished by a warm admiration of the ancients, and was followed by the natural desire of infusing their beauties into the native tongue. Cantalicio, Braccio, Augurelli, all cultivated Latin poetry with considerable success. Folengi was the inventor of Macaronic poetry. The effort which Poliziano had made to restore a just appreciation of the ancients, aided by Pontano and Janazzero, was rewarded by such productions as those of Fracastoro, Vida, Naugerio, and Flaminio ; "in whom," says Roscoe, "the great poets of the Augustan age seem once more to be revived." Another immense step in the progress of mental light which was beaming over Italy was the free examination of the absurd preten- sions of judicial astrology. Pico of Mirandola was one of the first who entered the lists against this formidable adversary of real know- ledge, in his work "Adversus Astrologos," published at Venice 1498. Pico's most remarkable work was "De Ente et Uno." Nicoli, a citizen of Florence, devoted his entire fortune to the col- lection of Greek and Latin manuscripts; and thus became the founder of the library of St. Marco. At Naples, the King Alphonso had used every exertion to follow the steps of Cosmo de Medici, from whom he had received the wel- come gift of a rich manuscript of Livy. An illustrious band of scholars formed the Academy of Pontano. Pontano was celebrated both for prose and verse ; he labored with assiduity and success in 22 ITALIAN LITERATURE. the improvement of his native tongue. This was all at once deemed so important a subject, that Messala wrote an entire volume on the letter s. Pontano's most remarkable work is a satire called " The Ass." Alamanni was also a poet of this age; but, having conspired against the Medici, he was obliged to fly, and found protection from the accomplished monarch Francis I. of France. His best work is "La Coltivazione," in the style of Virgil's Greorgics. Sanazzaro is noted for his graceful sonnets, and for a poem called "Arcadia." Casa was an elegant prosaist. After Florence and Naples, Ferrara was distinguished for its pro- tection of the Literati. DuJce Hercules, of Este, the reigning prince, translated dramas from the Latin, that he might have them acted in his own palace. And here we must first mention the remarkable and unfortunate Savonarola, whose powerful pen was employed to support the truths of the Gospel. Riva and Bigi were well known at Ferrara; and the two Strozzis, father and son, would alone have been sufficient to distinguish that city. It was, however, the poet Boiardo who gave it its greatest celebrity; his remarkable poem of "Orlando Innamorato" bears evidence of a fine imagination, and is imbued with great vivacity of coloring. At the same time, a young man named Ariosto had excited the attention of Prince Hercules of Este, by having dramatized the story of "Thisbe;" but his maturer works must be noticed later. At Mantua, Duke G-onzaghi had adopted the general passion for letters. In 1433, the fable of Orpheus, dramatized by Poliziano, was acted as a pastoral tragedy; and the Montefeltri, dukes of Ur- bino, outvied the rest of Italy by the magnificence with which their romantic palace was constructed, and furnished with rare and splendid articles. But the pride of Federigo of Urbino was his copious and superb collection of books, many of which were adorned with massy ornaments of gold and silver, as typical of their interior excellence. The son of this prince was not only a patron of learning, but a practical and accurate scholar. The learned Pietro Bembo has de- voted a considerable tract to the celebration of his merits; and Castiylione has honored his memory with an eulogium which will be as lasting as the language in which it is written. Castiolione' 's best work is entitled "II Corfcegiano." FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 23 The court of Milan, under Prince Lodovico Sforza, was not be- hind the rest in its patronage of literature. Beccari had written his pastoral of "Sagrifizio." Cornazzano produced his poem "De Re Militari," and his " Vita della Beata Vergine :" his lyrics are excellent, and so are also his sonnets. Achilline wrote pastorals; Gasparo Visconti "rivaled Petrarch/' says Tiraboschi. Freyoso wrote his " Cerva Biancaj" and the industrious Donato Bossi shone as historian. Here also appeared the accomplished Leonardo da Vinci) who was admired as painter, sculptor, poet, musician, archi- tect, and geometrician. Nor must we forget that Venice was celebrated for its knot of classical scholars, drawn together by the persevering Aldo Manuzio, a man of great learning and unwearied diligence, who established a printing press, and devoted his life to the producing of correct copies of the eminent Greek and Latin authors. Works from the Aldine press are highly valued down to the present time. Aldo's first work was the "Hero and Leander" of Musaeus, printed in 1494. The education of Lorenzo de Medici, reigning prince of Florence, had prepared Italy to look for an eminent protector of learning. He had all the fancy and taste of a poet, and has left us many very beautiful productions. Roscoe, speaking of Lorenzo, says that he led the way in some of the most valuable species of poetic composi- tion, and some of his productions stand unrivaled among those of his countrymen. The riches of his family had introduced an abund- ance, a luxury and refinement, unexampled in the annals of man- kind. Instead of any longer contending for power, the princes of Italy attempted to rival each other in taste, in splendor, and elegant accomplishments. It was considered essential to their grandeur to give their household establishments a literary character. Hence their palaces became a kind of polite academy, in which the nobility of both sexes found a constant exercise for their intellectual talents : courage, rank, and beauty did not hesitate to associate with learn- ing and wit, though these might be accompanied with poverty. Lo- renzo was at once a generous patron of Literati, and a competent judge of their works. He was an earnest supporter of the use of brie own tongue, at the same time that he assisted numerous Latin writers. There is a striking, though unpleasing, feature of the fif- 24 ITALIAN LITERATURE. teenth century in tlie violent discussions among the learned men of this country; thus, Besarion and George of Trebisond, both of whom had sought refuge in Italy after Mahomet the Second's taking of Constantinople, Fielfo and Poggio, Poggio and Valla, Nicolo Nicoli and Peretti, Poliziano and Scala, were in perpetual disputes, and frequently wrote with great acrimony. Meanwhile, Pontano had published his " Art of Writing/' and Brandolini his " Art of Speak- ing;" while Landino gave to the world his fine translation of Pliny's Natural History. Nicolo Corregio was a dramatic poet. JSpagnwoM of Mantua wrote a "Critique against Women." Verrini of Florence wrote " Sacred Poetry." Martelli wrote his tragedy of "Tullia," and some popular poems. Navegero of Venice was celebrated for his a Epigrams." Allori is the name of two brothers distinguished for their burlesque poems. Brocardo was a lyric poet of eminence, and Tarsia shared his renown in the same species of writing. Among the prose works of the sixteenth century, we find Sabbellico' s " History of Venice," Bonfadw's "History of Genoa," and Lillio Giraldi's "History of the Greek and Latin Poets." Secclii wrote comedies. Firenzuola, Strajiazola, and Porto are among the best writers of tales, at this time. War now changed the face of society in Italy. Charles VIII. of France overran the country; and the literature of this period is constantly tinctured with sentiments which would naturally arise on such an event. Thus Sanazzaro wrote those beautiful verses which celebrate the life of Alphonso of Naples, and adverts to many circumstances of the times. The Medici were driven from their city by popular resentment, and were no sooner gone than their palace was plundered. The exquisite gardens, formed by Lorenzo the Magnificent as a repository for the fine remains of antiquity in sculpture, were completely destroyed, to the everlasting regret of every lover of art. A period of eighty years had, however, spread a brilliancy over the literary and artistic talents of the Italians which will always throw a halo round their name. Charles VIIL, having reached Naples, and made good his claim to the crown, found that his return to France was impeded by the combined princes of the north. The monarch was glad to purchase his per- SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 25 sonai safety by giving back all that he had won : but no retribution could repair the evils his presence had occasioned. The extremely dissolute manners of the French had introduced a similar spirit into Italy, which was ingrafted on the naturally strong passions of her people, and perpetually evinced in their internal family dissen- sions. It has been said, that nothing in the history of mankind has ever surpassed the infuriate hatred of party spirit at this epoch : the feeling disfigures their literature ; for a considerable time all is weak, petty, worldly; genius was absorbed by earthly passions. Louis XII., of France, was more successful in Italy than his pre- decessor: he obtained Naples, and gave it to Ferdinand the Ca- tholic. Here our historical notices must conclude. The literature of Italy now merges into one mass; her kingdoms were torn with such perpetual strife, that her authors could scarcely struggle into sight. Yet we must pause, and look back for an instant on the intellectual splendor which had reigned for a time : " With peculiar pleasure every cultivated mind must repose on the fair, the happy, the glorious Florence; on the halls which rang with the mirth of Pulci; the cell where twinkled the midnight lamp of Poliziano; the statues on which the young eye of Michael Angelo gazed with a kindred inspiration ; the gardens in which the elegant and intellectual Lorenzo meditated some sparkling song for the May- day dance of the Etruscan virgins. Alas, for the beautiful city ! for the wit and the learning, the genius and the love ! From the time Sforza called in the aid of the French, the star of Italy was clouded ; her day of glory gone : slaughter and famine, infamy and despair, ran riot in the land." Pope Leo X., a son of Lorenzo the Magnificent, rendered Rome the place of attraction for all learned and accomplished men. Among these, Michael Angelo was the most conspicuous ; and even in literature has left touches of exquisite beauty, as great, though not so numerous, as those of the pencil and the chisel : his sonnets are much admired. Ariosto was by no means so highly appreciated as his great co- temporary above noticed. Ariosto' s most celebrated work is the " Orlando Furioso," founded on the before-named poem of Boiardo : its chief story (for it is a series of separate tales) is founded on 26 ITALIAN LITERATURE. that of Roland, one of the knights called Palladins by Charle- magne. The poet is varied in his style, his pictures, and his characters; he has a happy mixture of the serious and the pleasant, the familiar and the sublime, the graceful and the terrible. Yida was another star of the court of Leo X. : his chief poem is " The Art of Poetry." The applause bestowed on those who purified and adorned the Italian tongue at this period must not be confined to one sex only. At no period of society have the female admirers of literature proved themselves more formidable rivals to the lords of the crea- tion than at that of which we are now speaking. Cassandra Fidelis is placed among the most learned characters of the age. Alessandra Scala holds nearly the same distinguished place ; while Cecca of Sienna is called by Poliziano u a tenth muse." Vittoria Colonna, Marchioness of Pescara, has sung the praises of her hus- band (the brave soldier who won the battle of Pavia for Charles V. of Germany) in verses as sweet and graceful as either those of Petrarch or Ariosto. Veronica Gambara, Countess of Correggio, has not left so many elegant productions as her friend ; but there are two of her poems which are considered superior to Vittoria' s best : one is addressed to the rival monarchs, Charles V. of Ger- many, and Francis I. of France, imploring them to give peace to Italy ; the other was composed on revisiting her native city Brescia after the death of her husband. There is another remarkable woman of this period whom we must name, were it only with a sister spirit of kindness to help to rescue her name from infamy. By some she has been characterized as possessing few qualities that command respect, while by others she was extolled for superior virtues, and as an ardent patroness of in- tellectual labor. Lucrezia Borgia, the accomplished Marchioness of Ferrara, was herself a poetess, and in correspondence with some of the finest minds of her age; — a taste which ill agrees with the terrible accusations of vice from the pen of Guicciardini, the his- torian of her time. Koscoe has considered her position in society of such importance, that he has dedicated an entire chapter to the clearing of her name. This he has done so well that the question ought to be deemed settled. SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 27 At this period, Berni introduced a burlesque style, "which from him is called Poesia Bernesca. Of this it is difficult to convey an adequate idea, as its excellence consists rather in simplicity of diction, and the sweetness of the Tuscan dialect, than in any sterling wit or vigorous sentiment which bears to be transferred into another language. Of this style are the works of Bino and Mauro. "We are also told that Oasa has exaggerated this style in representations of the feelings and ideas of the lower classes, but carrying them to positive coarseness and indelicacy. Berni himself is not entirely free from this reproach. Berni' s great work was the version of Boiardo's " Orlando In- namorato;" and he has added so much to it, that it is looked upon as more his than Boiardo's. It is eminently distinguished for the wit of its author, and the bold and dexterous use of language and rhythm. Lord Byron has admirably imitated Berni in more than one of his poems. The Italian poets were early acquainted with the works of the ancients, to whose taste they yielded, and imbibed no small portion of their spirit. Thus, Trissino composed his tragedy of " Sofonisba" in blank verse, or versi sciolti, which is certainly far better calcu- lated for serious subjects than rhyme in any form. Hucettai, nephew of Leo X., composed his tragedy of "Orestes," also, in blank verse : this is considered one of the most beautiful pieces that any author, ancient or modern, has adapted to theatrical representa- tion. Trissoni also wrote " Italy delivered from the Groths," and " The Triumphs of Belisarius in Italy." The Scaligers, father and son, were remarkable critics of this age. The academy of Crusca at Borne was one of those establishments which greatly help the progress of letters. Philosophy was taught by the writings of Mamiani Pamjponaccio, Telesio, and Campanella; while among the distinguished Latinists are found Pietro Bembo and Arsilli as poets, Paulo Giovio and Flaminio as historians. The "Mambriano" of Bello belongs to this age, and the historians Summonte, Bonato, and Rucellai: the latter is often styled the modern Sallust. Here also we must place the celebrated GvAcciar- 28 ITALIAN LITERATUKE. dini, whose " History of Italy" extends from the years 1494 to 1532. These wrote in Italian. A very remarkable work appeared in the political world at this moment ; it was the " Principe" of 31acliiavelli, but its merits have been so variously canvassed, that it is difficult to give a general idea of it. This profound statesman lived in times which resembled a combat of wild beasts, in which the strongest and most ferocious destroys the rest : it was for such times he wrote, — when an act of dexterous perfidy might be one of patriotic self-devotion, and call forth the same degree and the same kind of respectful admiration. He had also a keen sense of the ridiculous, and he writes with a peculiar irony, frequently misinterpreted : and, however dishonorable his ideas are, according to our present notions of politics, his works derive a peculiar interest from the mournful earnestness which he manifests whenever he touches on topics connected with the calami- ties of his beloved country. He despaired of the liberty of Flo- rence, and was anxious to support any government which might preserve her independence. As a poet, MacMavelli is not entitled to any high place; the "Decennali" are merely abstracts of the history of his own times in rhyme, on the model of Dante. His comedies deserve more attention; and the "Mandragola" is superior to the best of G-oldoni. MachiavelW s "History of Florence," written at the command of the Pope, is decidedly inaccurate, but penned with a freedom and impartiality which are highly commend- able. Nardiy Segni, Nerli, VarcM, and Adriani were spirited histo- rians, who followed the style of Machiavelli, and dared to detail facts and utter sentiments the most contrary to the interests of the princes of Italy, and even of the popes. There is another historian to be noticed at this time, Bernardo Davanzati; his "History of the Schism of England" is remark- able for its great clearness and conciseness. The Ferrari family were earnest supporters of literature : the elder was professor of politics and ethics at Padua and Milan. Francesco collected rare books; and his collection formed the base of the Ambrosian Library. Octavias was admired by Louis XIV., and was distinguished for his talents. Leonardo Aretino, from the severity of his satirical SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 29 works, was called " The Scourge of Princes." He was so much dreaded that crowned heads coveted his friendship ; on which ac- count he caused a medal to be struck, on one side of which is his head, with this inscription: "The divine Aretino;" and on the other he is seated on a throne, receiving the oblation of princes. He is not otherwise deserving of notice, for his works are frequently gross and irreligious, especially his dramas. The brothers, Leon- ardo and Francesca Brnni, are called " The Aretines" from Arezzo, their native place. Vinciguerra wrote in the severe style of satire; and Ruzzante followed Berni in the most lively manner. In the latter half of the sixteenth century, we find, as poets of secondary merit, Beccuti, a writer of lyrics; Yincenzio Martelli, Lidgi Alamanni, Grazzini, Anguillara, poets of varied talents. Vida is distinguished above the crowd; but his works bear puerile titles, as " Silk-worms," " Chess," &c. Luigi Dolce imitated the ancients, and translated from them. Franco wrote in the popular style. Paved imitated iEsop. Tansillo followed Berni. Rota made the~first eclogue in Italian; Muzzio soon followed, and wrote thirty eclogues. Ongaro wrote the dramatic pastoral of " Alceo." Castelletti wrote " Amaryllis," and Beccari " The Sacrifice," both pastoral dramas. Costanza and Valvasone wrote minor poems. The next star of genius which shone over this intellectually favored country was the unhappy Torquato Tasso. He was born at Sorento, and was the son of Bernardo Tasso, himself a poet of no mean excellence. At twelve years old, the young Torquato was a prodigy of learning; at eighteen, he published his poem of Rinaldo; and, at twenty-two, he formed the design of his great work called " Jerusalem Delivered," under the patronage of the princes of Este. He had apartments in their palace at Ferrara. It was here that he received that impression of the beauties and virtues of Alphonso's sister, the Princess Leonora, which so greatly influenced Ms life. His aspirations were deemed presumptuous, and he was made to expiate his audacity in the cell of a lunatic asylum. In this dun- geon of misery, Tasso completed his exquisite poem of " Jerusalem Delivered." After seven years' imprisonment, he again entered the world ; and then wrote " Jerusalem Regained," which is considered 3* 80 ITALIAN LITERATURE. Inferior to the former poem. Tasso is also renowned for his very elegant pastoral u Aminta;" and is esteemed a superior writer of prose, proved by his " Dialogues." The Academy of the Rozzi at Sienna encouraged satirical comedy, which was carried to considerable perfection in the " Calandria" of Cardinal Bihbiana. Muzio wrote his " Art of Poetry." A crowd of useful historians belong to this century, as Malvolti, Giannone, JBurcliardi) Bandellij Nerli, Fabroni, Grumello, Zebaldeo, JSagredo, Zomasi. The painter Vasari wrote his " Lives of Italian Painters, Sculptors, and Architects." Landi wrote romances, letters, and fables. Bandello wrote tales in the manner of Boccacio. Cinzio Giraldi, Granucci, and Erizzio were prolific writers of romances. Cavalcanti, a zealous republican, left divers works. Gianotti wrote " On the Eepublic of Venice." Giambidlari wrote " The History of Europe," " A Treatise on Letters," " Lessons on Purgatory," and other works. Castelvetro wrote " Commentaries on Petrarch." Varolii wrote a " History of Florence" (continued by Adriani), and was esteemed as a lyric poet. Caro wrote " Comedies" and " Letters." Lollio was re- markable as an orator, and wrote the pastoral drama of u Arethusa." Benvenuto Cellini was a celebrated artist, and left interesting " Memoirs" of his own life. Contili wrote comedies in prose, and various poems. Doni was one of the founders of the Peregrini Academy of Venice, and wrote " Philosophy of the Ancients," " Commentaries," and various other works. Corso wrote u On the Tuscan Dialect." Nannini wrote " The Life of G-uicciardini," and other works. Spei^oni wrote various " Dialogues." Telesio was the head of the school called after him Telesian, against the philo- sophy of Aristotle. Salviati was a critic, and wrote on the Deca- meron, on Tasso, &c. Costanza wrote " The History of the King- dom of Naples." Bargeo was a celebrated professor of literature at Pisa, and superintended the copying of manuscripts for Francis I.; he wrote a poem called "The Chase," and various "Letters" and " Essays." Paruta was an elegant writer of prose. His best works are "The War of Cyprus" and "A History of Venice." Mazzoni was a celebrated philosopher; he wrote a work entitled " The Triple Life of Man," and various other writings. The un- SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 31 happy Giordano Bruno wrote comedies. He was burnt alive at Rome. These writers close the list of authors called by the Italians the cinque cento, or "men of the fifteenth century ;" and we now come to the sei centisti, or " sixteenth century rnen," who are, in fact, the men of the seventeenth century ; but who had their origin in the preceding century. A few words will suffice to paint the period which spread a veil of darkness upon the literature of Italy. " In wishing/' says Salfi, in his " History of Italy/' " to be revenged on the Protestants of Germany, the Roman Inquisition gave force to the despotism of Philip II. and of his successors/' At the beginning of the seventeenth century died Caporalli, a poet who wrote " Satires/' " The Voyage to Parnassus/' and other poems. Guistiniani imitated the (Edipus of Sophocles. Torelli wrote the tragedy of " Merope." Buonarelli wrote a pastoral, entitled " The Philosopher of Sciros." Porta wrote dramas ; he founded the Secret Society, and invented the camera obscura. Baldi was a mathematician and poet. He wrote the poem of " The De- luge," and another, entitled " Navigation." Vecclii wrote the first opera buffa, called " Amphiparnassus." Rinuccini wrote the operas of " Daphne" and " Eurydice." Marini figured as the head of the pastoral school, and wrote idyls, lyrics, and pastoral dramas. Chia- brero, wrote " Italy Delivered," and " The Ansaleida." LalU tra- vestied the Iliad. The unfortunate Ferrante Pallavicino was put to death at Avignon, and some of his works were prohibited : he wrote satires and farces; one of which is entitled "The Celestial Divorce." Buonarotti wrote " The Judgment of Paris," a dramatic pastoral. Dottori wrote a poem called " The Ass." A name, more celebrated in this age than any other, makes us for awhile forget the abasement and corruption into which were fallen the letters of Italy; it is that of Galileo. He was noted as an astronomer; but his mind was so richly stored, and his " Letters" so eloquent and elegant, that he ranks among the great authors of his time. It was Marini and his followers who chiefly contributed to the corruption of the Italian literature by their affected and over- ornamented style. Guarini was of this age, and, in some degree, 32 ITALIAN LITERATURE. escaped the bad taste of the times: his pastoral drama of the " Pastor Fido" has touches of considerable merit, exaggerated by the German critic Schlegel. Chiabrera was of a far better class : his odes and lyrics have great merit. Tassino, or Tassoni, as is va- riously written, wrote his mock heroic poem, called the " Secchia Rapita," or " Stolen Bucket," intended as a satire on the foolish motives of war between the Milanese and the Bolognese ; but it is Salvator Rosa who is distinguished in this weak age by his power- ful writings. Consulting his passions more than his head, this splendid painter poured forth his verses in the abundance of his teeming ideas, frequently regardless both of style and phrase. The " Satires" of Salvator are remarkable for their depth of thought and vigor of expression; and his works, whether of the pen or the pencil, were all in alliance with virtue and her cause. He was the first who struck the harp for liberty, and exposed the abuses in morals and in manners which result from despotism in government. In spite of every opposition, the writings of Salvator Rosa were read with avidity, and universally celebrated, even before they were printed. His political opinions, his philosophy, his taste, all belong to another age, and were splendid exceptions to the general tanie- ness and literary degradation of that in which he lived. Salvator is entitled the Juvenal of Italy. The historians Davila, Sar]?i, and Bentivoglio are also conspicu- ous. Davila' s " History of the Civil Wars of France," Sarjn's li History of the Council of Trent," and Bentivoglio' s " History of the Wars in Flanders," are standard works. There are several agreeable collections of letters, worthy attention, from the pens of Caro, Bernardo Tasso, Tolomei, Guidicione, Macliiavelli, Bembo, Torquato Tasso, Galileo, Bentivoglio, Ganganelli, Metastasio, Mag a- lotti, Algarotti, Gozzi, Baretti, &c. Caro, after being a successful ambassador more than once, amused himself by writing graceful poems, of which a canzone has always been celebrated : it is enti- tled " Yenite all ombra de J gran gigli d'oro." From the pen of Bernardo Tasso we have an epic poem, called " L' Amadigi." Tolo- mei wished and tried to introduce a stiff classical style into the poetry of his country, but failed : from his pen we have a dialogue called " Cesano," and various minor poems, besides seven books of SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 33 letters. From Guidicionc we have " An Oration to the Republic of Lucca/' with divers poems. From the learned Bembo we have u A History of Venice/' " A Poem on the Death of his Brother/' and others. Ganganelli became the active friend of literature as Pope Clement XIV. Magalotti was a careful and graceful writer : his chief poetry consists of two volumes of anacreontics. Algarotti was celebrated for his taste in art : he was employed by Augustus III., King of Saxony, to describe and increase the Dresden Gallery. He wrote both prose and verse, but is somewhat affected. Among the prose writers of the seventeenth century, we must men- tion Ammirato, who wrote a "History of Florence," and "The Genealogy of the Noble Families of Naples." Boccalini was cele- brated as a satirist. He wrote " News from Parnassus," " The Political Touchstone," and other works. Beni was a critic of celeb- rity. He wrote "A Comparison of Homer, Virgil, and Tasso," with other works. The "Lessons and Academical "Works" of Toricelli is a useful collection. Loredano was a writer of romances. Buomattei wrote "Lessons on Dante," and other works. Cardinal Sforza Pallavicino wrote " The History of the Council of Trent," and several other works. JSfani wrote a "History of Venice." Baldinucci wrote " Notices on Drawing and Engraving." Bartoli, a Jesuit, wrote a "History of the Company of Jesus." Beverini and Segneri were celebrated preachers, who have left various reli- gious works. Francesco Redi was distinguished as a naturalist and poet. His chief work is entitled "Experiences." Towards the close of the seventeenth century, there was a pre- lude to a better order of things than had reigned for some years in the world of letters in Italy by the institution of two academies ; one was called the Academy of Arcadia, and commenced by the meeting of certain learned men at the dwelling of Christina, Queen of Sweden, at Rome; its founder was the learned Crescimbeni, a critic well known; the other was the Academy of Cinento, at Florence, for the propagation of physical knowledge. The opening of the eighteenth century was marked by an awak- ening of intellect. Filicaja contributed much to the improvement of taste; he wrote a fine poem on the "Siege of Vienna by the Turks." Then appeared Muratori's celebrated historical works ; 34 ITALIAN LITERATURE. and his "Delia Perfetta Poesia," one of the best works on criticism in the Italian language. Cardinal Bellarmino , s theological works attracted considerable attention. Zeno, Metastasio, and Maffei ap- peared as dramatic writers; Yico and Gravini in philosophy; Fru- goni in lyric poetry; and soon after them a brilliant list succeeds. Baretti appeared in criticism and philology ; Bettinelli, Denina y and Tirahoschi in history; AJ fieri in tragedy; Goldoni in comedy; Pas- seronim lyric poetry; and it may be observed of them that they were moral writers ; they did not bend the knee to the then fashion- able infidelity; they did not dishonor their pen to corrupt the hearts and destroy the best feelings of their countrymen. Menzini was a celebrated satirical writer and lyric poet. Marchetti translated Anacreon. Stampiglia wrote melodrames, and was the precursor of Zeno and Metastasio. Bellini wrote " Sonnets" and "Letters," but was especially celebrated as an anatomist. Fontanini wrote " The Library of Italian Eloquence." Genovesi wrote " Philo- sophical Meditations," a work which had great influence in his age. Lami was distinguished as a man of great learning; he wrote "Literary Stories," and poetry. Manfredi wrote poetry, but his especial talent lay in mathema- tics and astronomy. Yico gave to the world his " Moral Philoso- phy," and awakened thoughts of profound interest. Stellini pub- lished his work " On the Origin and Progress of Manners." The school of Marini lost its influence by degrees ; and the Italians be- came simple, natural, and true in their poetry. Guidi, Zappi, and Frugoni wrote good lyric poems. The "Adamo" of Campaillo was read with eagerness : Perfetti was crowned in the capitol, like Petrarch. Salandri became eminent as a poet; and Mattel versi- fied the Psalms very beautifully. "La Providenza" of Leonarducci, in forty-five cantos, was greatly extolled. Spolverini's "Coltiva- zione del Riso" was considered a chef-d' 'ceuvre of its kind; and then followed many comic writings; as the charming " Ricciardetto" of Fortiguerra; the "G-onella" of Becelli; and the humorous poems of Fagiuoli, Anderlini, Volar esso, and Mei. Bianchini wrote his "Universal History;" Giannone wrote a "History of Naples;" Mazzuclielli wrote " Literary and Biographical History." As writers of secondary eminence in the drama, we must name Pariati } EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 35 Lazzarini, CTiiari, and Calsahigi. Algarotti employed his pen on criticism and the fine arts, while Riccoboni obtained no mean repu- tation in dramatic criticism and the drama, as well as in his "His- tory of the Italian Stage/' But we must pause awhile, to look more particularly on the very eminent dramatists of this century. Metastasio brought to perfection the didactic style. He wrote with the intention of his verse being set to music ; but, though admirable for this purpose, his delineations of passion as a dramatist are too much generalized to produce great effect on the reader. 3Ietastasio was sent for to the court of Vienna, and became preceptor to the unfortunate Queen of France, Marie Antoinette. At Vienna, he found the Italian Zeno enjoying the honors of poet-laureate, and these two amiable men lived in perfect harmony, producing a vast variety of dramas. Maffei had written the only regular tragedy known in Italy since many years; his "Merope" is esteemed a truly classical production. Goldoni, and his companion Gozzi, carried comedy to consider- able perfection. The former was of especial advantage in this par- ticular. Goldoni gave a completely different character to the comedy of Italy. Before his time, they had little more than ex- temporary exhibitions of the inhabitants of their different provinces ; occasionally a rich vein of humor would be found in the represent- atives of these country people; and this rendered the kind of amusement so long delightful to the Italian citizens. Arlechino was the clever fellow from Bergamo; Pulcinella was the impudent, self-satisfied servant from Naples; Pantalone was the good-natured, easy merchant from Venice ; the Dottore was the quack from the college of Bologna; G-elsomino was the beau from Kome; Brighella the rogue from Ferrara, and so forth through all the provinces. The actors who represented these characters, spoke only what their own minds suggested as belonging to them ; so that a player's individual wit and talent were easily perceived. Goldoni attached himself to one of these companies, and resolved to correct their laxity, but did not succeed without much opposition. At last, to adapt himself to all parties, and yet effect his purpose, Goldoni left his comedies only half regular in their plans; half serious, half burlesque in their sentiments; abounding in improbabilities, and often deficient in 36 ITALIAN LITERATURE. common information. Although he is intentionally moral, it is often hut a flimsy worldly morality. His comic talent is very great; he excels in ridiculing affectation, and fashionable vices ; and he has also admirably depicted the honest, noble character, persevering in its integrity, and evincing a good and ingenuous heart. Gozzi was the leader of a rival company of comedians. Gozzi disliked these innovations, and formed comedies of another sort, by engrafting sorcery and fairy ism upon the old Italian farce. He drew into his service, with great success, all the nursery stories of Venice, and rendered his pieces almost as attractive as those of Goldoni. Both still find their just value; Goldoni delights us with his wit, Gozzi and his fairies are yet enjoyed in the north of Italy. We must remark that the written comedy of the Italians is entitled the "Comedia di Carettere;" the other is called the "Comedia del Arte." It is singular that, at the same time, Opera, Comedy, Farce, and Tragedy should have been carried to the highest point which these compositions have ever reached in Italy. Metastasio, Goldoni, Gozzi, and Alfieri were either cotemporaries, or close successors. Alfieri, born in 1749, had conceived the noble idea of restoring tragedy to its proper dignity, by making it subservient to the in- terests of his country, hoping by its aid to awaken the sleeping and degenerate people. He discovered, however, that he was writing for the succeeding generation, rather than the one around him. In Alfieri's tragedies, the beauty of his diction, the intense interest excited by the passions of his chief characters, the terrific suspense in which he keeps us to the brink of the catastrophe, and the elo- quent and sublime descriptions he gives of the inward struggles, and secret workings of the heart, are admirable. He is accused of a too general harshness and want of tenderness. The play of " Said" is an exception to this remark; nothing can be more touching than the monarch's affecting remembrances of those days when, con- science free, he stood before the Great Supreme; and the pathetic idea of the old warrior, that the trumpet carried only tones of fear, now that his children were to be in the battle. The tender, faithful nature of David is also painted in the poet's best style. The theatre, which had long been considered as the school of NINETEENTH CENTURY. 37 intrigue, effeminacy, and servility, was, after the appearance of Aljieri's tragedies, regarded as the only nurse of mental vigor and public virtue. There was a grandeur in Aljieri's love of independ- ence which cannot be contemplated without a glow of admiration. His comedies and miscellaneous productions are considered by no means equal to his tragedies in point of talent : his translation of Sallust is looked upon as good, while that of Yirgil is poor and spiritless. The prose writers of the eighteenth century excite but little interest. Whenever reason and philosophy were the subjects of their labors, they could never rise to the rank of other nations, for their political thraldom had cast a damp on every intellect. In the works of their best writers on these topics, we find the authors stopping to discuss trite sophisms and common-place truths, of which all the rest of Europe had long been tired, but which are brought forward by them as ingenious and novel. Beccaria is celebrated for his work entitled " Crimes and their Punishments;" Filangieri for his " Science of Legislation." Pietro Verri published a "History of Milan;" and his brother Alexander the much-admired " Notti Roman e '/' — a work which brings us into the nineteenth century. The present age is abundantly rich in Italian talent. Monti is recognized as the first of their directly modern writers, although he often uses his pen with all the irregularity of an im- provisatore. His tragedies of " Caius Gracchus" and " Aristode- mus" are on the classical plan, and have great beauties; the latter is one of the most affecting of all Italian tragedies, and the author is thought to have excelled Alfieri in the harmony and poetical language of his composition. Monti has translated the Iliad, and this effort of his pen is looked upon as one of the finest specimens of Italian poetry. He has successfully imitated Dante in a poem entitled " Basvilliana ;" and rarely has the harp of Italy been struck by a bolder or more skillful hand. Cesarotti has very ably translated Ossian ; the beauties of which seem to have found a peculiarly appropriate conveyance in the sweet language of Italy. Barotti of Ferrara has written a didactic poem on physics. Bat- 4 38 ITALIAN LITERATURE, tacchi of Pisa wrote a poem entitled " The Net of Vulcan." Vianelli left several poems of different styles. Bandini is celebrated as a bibliographer, and has written " The Ages of Florentine Literature/' " Life and Letters of Americo Vespucci/' and other less important works. Alberti made an excellent Dictionary. Savioli of Bologna has written annals of that city. Signorelli of Naples has written on the " Revolution of the Two Sicilies/' Morelli was a distin- guished philologue. In the drama, we have to name Federici, Albergati, Armelli, and Carpani; in lyric poetry, Count Savioli, Lamberti, and Minzoni ; Bregolini attempted an epic, but did not rise into any distinguished reputation. Ceretti, Count Giovio, Rosetti, Mazza, Avellani, Lo- renzi, Arid, Count Leojpardi, and Vitorelli may be gratefully re- membered for their poesies, sentimental and graceful; while the lively Galfo, Bondi, and Count d'fflci excel in humor and epigram. As satirical poets, there are Signorelli, Bossi, and Zanoja. Fab- broni has written literary history, and biography ; Rovelli, Italian history; Manzi, history, philology, and translations from Lucian, &c. ; Rossmini, the " History of Milan •" and MazzaclielZi, on history and antiquities. Coletta has written a good " History of the King- dom of Naples." Soaves " Moral Philosophy" has decided admir- ers ; and his ideas on " Education" are wholesome and useful. Lanzi has succeeded in his " Storia Pittorica," and Mazza has cleverly translated some of our English minor poets. Romagnesi's " Moral and Political Philosophy," Moscati's "Philosophy," Bosselini's "Po- litical Economy," all breathe a tone suited to the wants of the age, and have been produced amid deep suffering in the political exist- ence of the much-harassed and oppressed Italy. There are writers of European celebrity among those of this century yet unmentioned. Manzoni has attracted universal attention by his power in tragedy, and in historical novels; " The Count of Carmagnola" is a very fine play; and "The Betrothed" is as remarkable a novel. Pariniia highly esteemed by his countrymen; Canto has written a clever essay on this poet and his age. Parini, in his poem called " The Day," has been compared to Cowper in his " Sofa," to Crabbe when he is most harmonious and tender, and to Pope in his " Rape of the Lock." The Countess Albrizzi, in her "Moral Portraits," has NINETEENTH CENTURY. 39 placed her amiable countryman Pindemonte at the head of them; religious without bigotry; independent in mind, yet contented in dis- position; learned and modest, warm-hearted in his feelings, but pure in his thoughts; indulgent and generous, calm and reflective, he combines all that the mind can wish for in his elegant compositions. His " Sermoni," or Discourses, are a mild satire conveyed in beauti- ful language. Pindemonte made great effort to give more variety and nature to historical plays, in Italy; but was severely handled by the critics of his country. XJgo Foscolo gave to the world a lovely specimen of Italian poetry in his exquisite little poem entitled " I Sepolcri." The subject was a law passed during the republican sway in the north of Italy, forbidding inscriptions over the tombs, or any sign of distinction or commemoration. The author addresses this poem to his distinguished cotemporary, the above-named Pin- demonte, who wrote a short one in reply, supporting Foscolo's argu- ment in condemning the unfeeling restriction. Foscolo's first work of eminence was a tragedy called " Tieste," which was represented at Naples; and the boldness of its language, and political allusions, added to the youth of its author, not only awakened the enthusiasm of the citizens in his favor, but called down upon him the oppres- sions of the Austrian government. He fled for safety to the Euga- nean Hills, and thence to Florence. The young poet has strongly delineated what he felt on this occasion in his celebrated work en- titled " The Letters of Ortis." An inspiring and noble elevation of sentiment on all subjects connected with the liberty of mankind appears in every page of these letters. The descriptions of natural scenery are also exquisitely given, and though in prose, are some of the writer's sweetest poetry; while the most able judges allow that the style affords one of the best models of modern Italian eloquence. But to modify this high merit, we cannot but regret its romantic senti- mentality, of the worst species. Foscolo lived many years in Eng- land, and was considered a distinguished scholar : he died in 1827. Pignotis's " History of Tuscany;" MicaU's " History of Italy;" Botta's "History of the War of American Independence;" Perti- cari (nephew of Monti), and his "Treatise on the Trecentisti;" Cesar Antonio, and his "Beauties of Dante;" Gioja's "Merit and Recompense," and his "Elements of Philosophy;" the tragic Nico- 40 ITALIAN LITERATURE. lini of Florence ; the reflective Romagnesi; the comic Nota; the graceful Grossi of Milan, with his most charming poem of "Ilde- gonda," and his epic "I Lombardi," are all eminently worthy our attention; and besides these, we have the comedies of Rossi and Count Girand, with the touching sketches of Silvio Pellico, whose work called "My Prisons" has awakened the sympathy of all Europe. Joseph Visconti was one of the chief writers of a society who published a periodical called "The Coffee-room ;" which ceased in 1766. There was also a society of "The Palentine Printing- press," composed of Milanese gentlemen, who published the Latin poets, with Italian translations, in thirty-one quarto volumes; and the works of Sigonio and Muratori. Casti's "Animali Parian ti" has procured him a distinguished name ; his " Grotto of Trophonius," and Anacreontic poetry, are well known. Leqpardi has penned minor poems of great beauty; Mauriani's "Idyls" deserve notice. "We have also to name Carreri's pleasing poems, with those of Ber- chet and Perticari; IlarcJietti is more aspiring, and his poem, in four cantos, of "Una Notte di Dante," is esteemed. Romani's tragedy of "Norma" has been mutilated for the celebrated opera, and his Canzonettes, addressed to Paganini, the celebrated violinist, are universally known. JSestini's poem, in three cantos, of "La Pia," is not written with sufficient energy to sustain the reader's interest. A crowd of minor poets ought yet to be named, that my readers may be convinced how truly poetry is the peculiar talent of the Italians. We have Barbieri, Bertoletti, Biava, Bisazza, Bixio, Cagnoli, Cantu, Carcano, Castagnoliy Cesari, Colleoni, Costa, Cris- toforis, Fiorentiiio, Gargallo, Giannone, Guerrazzi, Lamberti, Mez- zanotte, 3Iisirini, Midtedo, Pananti, Pejpoli. Francesco Ruffa, tragedian and lyrist; remarkable for the great beauty of the lines on the death of his wife in 1841. The Duke of Ventignano, Cesare delle Valle, has written the tragedy of "Medea," and various comedies. He is considered to have given to his country that true comedy, hitherto wanting in her literature; "II Bigletto;" "La Capitale e la Provincia;" "I due Secoli," are much approved. Oliva wrote "Sigesmunda di Salerno;" a poem entitled "II Messias;" and translated Euripides. Giuseppe Campagna has written " Sergio di Napoli," "Giuliano Apostate," and sonnets of merit; there are NINETEENTH CENTURY. 41 also Francesconi, Micheletto, De Livo, as poets of merit. Among the lyrists, Gasgallo shines as celebrated for his translations. Bal- dachini is distinguished for his fine language. The followers of the Komantic School are Cesare Malpiero, Pasquale di Virgilii, and Pietro Paola Parzanese, author of the graceful "Arrnonica Itali- ane." Guerrazzij Varese, Bazzoni, and Cantu are among the chief modern writers of novels. Tommaseo's " Correspondence of the Yenetian Ambassadors" is an entertaining work; and his poems and other prose works are gracefully penned. Touracelli's u His- tory of Naples and Sicily from 1250 to 1302" is exceedingly in- teresting. A late publication of Italian Tales, collected and selected by Zirardini, has issued from the Parisian press of Baudry. I venture to caution mothers and governesses against giving this work to young ladies. A work, entitled a Classic Readings in Italian Literature/' by Canizzaro, is every way worthy of attention. The Italians honor their female writers with a distinct notice, and are proud to mention their graceful productions. Nina Siciliana has the earliest notice ; Ricciardi de' Selvaggi, Ortensia di Gugli- elmo, Giustina Perotti, Livia del Chiavello, Lucrezia Tomabuoni de' Medici, Barbara Torelli Sirozzi, Camilla JScarampi Guidoboni, were all anterior to the two highly distinguished poetesses I have mentioned in their proper age, namely, Vittoria Colonna and Vero- nico Gambara; after them we have yet to name Margherita di Valois, Gaspara Stampa, Fiorenza Piemontese, Dafne di Piazzi, Tullia d' Aragona, Gerolama Gastellani, Lucrezia Figliucci, Isa- bella, della Mora, Suor Dea de' Bardi, Laura Terracina, Livia Boromeo, CJdara Matraini, Lucia Bertani dalV Oro, Leonora Falletti, Egeria di Canossa, Lucia Albani Avogadro, Olimpia Mcdipiero, Laura Battiferro degli Ammananti, Virginia Salvi, Dianora Sauseverino, Fiametta Malespina Soderini, Isotta Bram- batti Grumelli, Lucrezia Marcello, Modesta dal Pozzo Zozzi, Mar- gherita Malescotti, Isabella Andreini, Lodovica JSbarro Collalto, Lucrezia Marinella, Veneranda Cavalli, France sca Farnese, Margherita Costa, Laura Ghirardelli, Anna Caruso, Emilia Or- landini, Faustina Degliazzi Forli, Eutropia Tosini, Virginia Baz- zani, Aurora Gaetani, Elena Riccoboni^ Maria Buonacorsi, Gio- 4* 42 ITALIAN LITERATURE. vanna Camera, Faustina Zappi, Ippolita Caraffa, Maria Strozzi Odalpi, Maria BorgMni, Luisa Bergalli, Prudenza Capizucchi, Gaetana Paperini, Petronilla Paolini, Prancesca Manzoni, Maria Morelli Fernandez, Rodilla Amedea, Augusta Picolomini Vastro- giardi, Paolina Grismoridi, Maria Cicci, Diodata Roero, Teresa Bandettini. Many pleasing selections from the poems of the above-mentioned ladies are published. The literature of the present age is enriched by poems from the pens of the following : Teresa Albarelli Vordoni, Caterina Bortoloni Condet, Adele Curti, Cecilia de Lima Folliero, Caterina Ferrucci, 3Iassini Rosellini, Giuseppa Guacci Nobile, Elvira Giaurpieri, Laura Mancini Oliva, Gfiulia Molino Colombani, CMara Morroni Bemabo Silorate, Giuseppina Poggiolinij Isabella Possi, Angela Scacerni Prosperi, Rosa Taddei, Giuseppina Turrisi Colonna, Angela Veronese Mantovani. In Italy, the well-educated natives speak of their female writers with infinite satisfaction and pride ; but the glory of their names has scarcely yet risen above the horizon of their own country. We must not omit naming a class of poets peculiar to Italy — the Improvisatori. Their talent, their inspiration, and the great enthu- siasm which they excite, are all illustrative of the national character. In them, too, we perceive how truly poetry is the language of the soul and the imagination. When the talent is manifested in a child, it is studiously cultivated, and he receives all the instruction which is likely to be useful to him. He is taught mythology, history, and philosophy; but the divine gift itself, the second and more harmonious language, which with graceful ease assumes every artificial form, this alone is left to develop itself according to the dictates of nature. Sounds call up corresponding sounds; the rhymes spontaneously arrange themselves, and the inspired soul pours itself forth in verse. Teresa Bandettini, Rosa Taddei, Gorilla Olimpica, Gianni, Mazzei, and Sgricci have been distinguished as Improvisatori; the former of the last three named wrote nothing in his study which could give him any claim to his prodigious reputation; when, how- ever, he uttered his spontaneous verses (which are preserved to us by the diligence of short-hand writers), we remark, with admiration, his lofty poetry, rich imagery, powerful eloquence, and strength of NINETEENTH CENTURY. 43 thought; and which place him on a level with men who are the glory of Italy. It is very evident that talent of all kinds is abund- ant in Italy. An amazing number of new books have been pub- lished within the last year. Patriotism is no longer a forbidden word; literary journals and newspapers from all parts of the world are liberally permitted; reading societies are numerous; in a word, the intellect has thrown off its chains, and the liberty of the press has been accorded. New ideas have been spread abroad, and the knowledge of foreign languages and letters has gone far to dissipate the prejudices of the Italians; who, instead of being an isolated people, have become members of the great Literary Republic of Europe. Let us now make a general outline of the phases of Italian Literature. In the thirteenth century, the poetry of Italy was formed on that of Provence. In the fourteenth century, three remarkable men, Dante, Petrarch, and Boccacio, gave a new power to the language. The fifteenth century was consecrated by the Italians to the study of antiquity. The invention of printing- multiplied the Greek and Roman classics ; academies and libraries were formed; criticism and philology were studied; Feltro founded a college for belles lettres, philosophy, and the fine arts. The dra- matic art revived, and produced a revolution in poetry. The six- teenth century was the golden age of Italian Literature. The Romantic Epic had its progressive perfection through Pulci, Boi- ardo, and Ariosto. The Heroic Epic was renewed from the ancients by Trissino and Tasso. Bucolic poetry was successfully cultivated by Sanazzaro, Muzio, and Rota. Regular Tragedy was first written by Trissino and Rucellai. Satirical Comedy originated in the Academy of Sienna by Bibiena and Machiavel, and at the same time the spontaneous or improvised Comedy. The carnivals of Florence produced the burlesque Satire of Berni. The austere Satire of Vinciguerra, and the melancholy Satire of Alamanni, were produced by the sight of the political degradation of Italy. Italian prose acquired a high degree of strength and eloquence through Machiavel. The seventeenth century is marked by the general decay of Italian Literature. For near one hundred and fifty years, says Sismondi, she produced only cold and poor copyists, 44 SPANISH LITERATURE. who tried to swell their mediocrity by "bombast. Marini was at the head of this class. In the eighteenth century, the academy of Arcadia, under Queen Christina of Sweden, overthrew the school of Marini. The influence of French Literature was perceptible. In the nineteenth century, there are many illustrious names. Its Lite- rature is become useful and serious, says Salfi; the writers have shown that there is no real poetry if it is not animated by a national interest; and the prose has been boldly used, to speak of facts and truths which hitherto had never been so frankly avowed. The following is a list of authors, to be further consulted on the Literature of Italy: Tirabosclii's Hist. Ital. Lit.; Fontanini's Library of Ital. Eloquence; Mazzuclielli's Diet, of Ital. Authors; Corniani's Ital. Lit.; Ugoni's Continuation of Corniani; Gtmma's Hist. Lit. ; Ginguene's Hist. Ital. Lit. ; Sismondi's Hist. South of Europe; Salfi' s Hist. Ital. Lit.; Roscoe's Hist. Lorenzo Medici, and of Leo X. Besides these, Tenevelli and Gregorii of Turin; Gamba of Bassano; Vaerini of Bergamo; Orlandi of Bologna; Quirini of Brescia; Negri of Florence; Affo of Parma; Fabroni of Pisa; Guinani of Ravenna; Foscarini of Venice; Toppi, Nicodemo, Giustiniani, and Afflitto of Naples; Argelati of Milan, have all written works in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, which aid the student of Italian Literature. THE LITERATURE OF SPAIN. Spain was so closely connected with the Roman power, that we readily trace her literary history from the same source. Four of the most distinguished of the emperors of Rome were natives of Spain: Trajan, Adrian, Marcus-Aurelius, and Theodosius. By de- grees, it became no longer necessary for the youth of Spain to be educated at Rome. Cadiz, and other cities, had their colleges. The first century was remarkable for the literary character of Spain : Cordova was the native place of Seneca, Lucan, Florus; Martial, Prudentius, and Quintilian were also natives of Spain. The first literary impulsion of Spain came from Italy ; the second from Africa, whose churches, and five hundred bishops, with their SEVENTH CENTURY. 45 religious disputations, gained so much renown. It was from the first to the fourth century that Spain shone with peculiar lustre by the writings of her doctors, her priests, and her bishops; and she remained in this palmy state till the arrival of the barbarians. Of these, many tribes passed through the country with fire and sword; but the Visigoths remained, and, by their wise and prudent conduct, established peace and order. It was about the middle of the eighth century, that the Arab Prince Abdheram, founded the kingdom of Cordova. Two motives had armed this people; fanaticism and science. Their enthusiasm in the religion of Mahomet led them on to every country, in the hope of raising the standard of the Crescent. But the Spaniards were already Christians, and came off victori- ous in that struggle, which at first cost them so much blood; and they remained faithful to their creed. Unfortunately, Spain was disunited in language, as in govern- ment. In Catalonia and Navarre, the Provencal was used; in Castile, another dialect of the Romance, while Portugal and Galicia had each another. No original production is known in any of these dialects. The love of conquest absorbed all minds, and divided the nation into two parties. One, easily subdued, became Arab in their institutions, and studied at Cordova and Seville, using the language of the conquerors; the other, full of enthusiasm and patriotism, would shake off the yoke, and retire to the mountains. Those in the north preserved the Castilian idiom, but neglected all literature, in order to repulse the conquerors : yet this literary sleep, which for three centuries followed the conquest, was the epoch of study, of taste, and of art. In the seventh century, St. Isadore of Seville flourished as a theologian. St. Julian, Archbishop of Toledo, wrote poetry as well as prose. St. Eulologe wrote the lives of the saints, and was him- self a martyr in the eighth century. In the tenth, the Arab Othman wrote " The History of the Poets of Spain." Many re- markable Spanish-Arabian writers appeared in this and the two next centuries; among whom we find Mo&lema of Cordova, who wrote "A Treatise on Numbers." Bent Aislia, a poetess of Cordova, left a rich library. Aboulvalid wrote the " Library of the Ulus- X 46 SPANISH LITERATURE. fcrious Men of Spain," "Library of the Arabian Poets/' and an Historico-critical Dictionary. Kazradgi ben Hareth, of Seville, wrote a History of the Spanish Literature. Yosouf Aboulkassem wrote poetry and history. Zaidun Ahmed was a celebrated poet of Cordova. Mahomet Azadita was a historian. Dijona ben Ganah was a celebrated grammarian. Gassani Abulfada wrote "The Divan of Poesies." Saidi All wrote "The History of Barbarous Nations." Aben Pace was one of the most celebrated philosophers of the Middle Ages. Kaisi Abunassar wrote poetry and philology. Rosclid Averboes is called the Commentator, and was one of the most celebrated medical men, as well as mathematician and philoso- pher, among the Arabs. " Collyget" is the title of his chief work. Omar wrote "The Spanish- Arabian Library." Malek Gemaleddin is the principal grammarian of his time. Abid Hassan wrote a "Description of the World." In the eleventh century, the Christian kings kept at a distance from the Moorish kings, whom, however, they at last subdued, and their deeds were sung in ballads and romances. At length, in the twelfth century, appeared the famous poem called "The Cid" (or Hero), a national epic, which is Homeric in its subject. The Grecian poet had sung the victory of Europe over Asia; and the Spanish poet took as his theme the scarcely less grand victory of the Christians over the Mussulmans. Considered as a literary curiosity, this Chronicle is worthy of attention; but all that can be called poetry in it belongs to the national character, and the interest of the subject. The events are related chronologically: there is no invention: but the style is chivalresque, and the situations are frequently happily painted. We perceive in it all that has been gathered from the Arabs; the rhyme, the chivalrous form, the variety and the simplicity of the pictures. The same characters belong to the fabulous chronicle of "Alexander the Great." The Moors had diligently cultivated the arts and sciences, and formed an empire unrivaled for its prosperity by any in Christen- dom. The universities of Toledo, Cordova, Seville, and Granada were sought by students from every country, to acquaint themselves with the science, the poetry, and music of the East. THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 47 All the other literature of Europe is European ; that of Spain is decidedly oriental. Its spirit, its pomp, its object, all belong to another sphere of ideas; nothing, therefore, can be more unjust than to estimate its products by our own standards. The brave and chivalrous feelings of the Spaniards, their pride and dignity, their power and richness of imagination, are all to be traced in their literature. In their early poems, we again behold the heroism of their ancient knights; and in the poets of their brightest age we recognize the magnificence of the court of Charles V. ; when the same men who led armies from victory to victory likewise held the first rank in the republic of letters. The number of Spanish writers is very considerable, and their fecundity almost appalling ! There are more dramas in the Spanish tongue than in all the other languages of Europe put together. The literature of Spain manifests itself in sudden and fitful lights; we admire it for an instant, and it is again lost in obscurity; but these glances always induce a desire to see more, which is gratified from time to time. Ferdinand III. showed a spirit of generous sympathy for his people, and ordered the laws to be translated into the Romance dia- lect for their benefit. He combated bravely with James of Ara- gon against the Moors, and obtained them the cities of Cordova, Seville, and Cadiz. He established corporations, and the Congress of Castile, or Tribunal of Appeal. The two abbes, Antonio and Nicolas, are recorded as celebrated poets of the end of the thirteenth century. Zamora wrote an " Ecclesiastical History" at this period, and Loaysa a "History of Spain." In Aragon, Alphonso X., son of Ferdinand IV., was surnamed the learned. While yet young, he knew all that had been pro- duced in the schools of Bagdad. As king, he was a zealous legis- lator, and insisted upon all the legal tribunals carrying on their proceedings in the Castilian language. He reformed the laws, and fixed the rules for astronomical observations, hence called the "Al- phonsine Tables;" he wrote the chronicles of his country; instituted chairs for Law and Philosophy at Salamanca; and published miscel- lanies of his own compositions. 48 SPANISH LITERATURE. His people followed his example, and occasional productions were seen; such as the " Legends" of Gonzales de Berceo; these legends were the foundation of those religious dramas which afterwards be- came so remarkable a feature in the Literature of Spain. A remarkable character of this epoch was the philosopher Rai- mond Lulle. We find him seneschal of the palace at Aragon; hermit in Majorca; at Paris, Genoa, Rome, Tunis, and Algiers, disputing with learned men; and, after his death, reyered as a mar- tyr. His works are numerous. The Spanish Arab Lahamita wrote poetry and history. Djaeddu Abu was a celebrated poet of the same race. In the middle of the fourteenth century, Alphonso XL, of Cas- tile, was a protector of letters, and wrote a chronicle in verse ; the prince Juan Manuel wrote a celebrated work, entitled " The Count of Lucanor," and some poems. At the close of the same century, Ayala was also distinguished in this barren period. We must not, however, forget that Catib Mahomet, of Granada, -was a most prolific historian and poet. Fahrun ben Abram also wrote largely on the Arabs, and Leo the African wrote a "Description of Afri- ca," and " Commentaries on the Mahometan Religion," besides poems. With the death of Alphonso X. the spirit of literature faded in Spain. The fourteenth century was one of decline, the kingdom being torn by civil wars; but, towards its close, Juan Ruyoz, priest of Hita, consecrated his leisure to literary pursuits, and produced several clever satires; a species of writing always singularly relished by the Spaniards. The minds of the Spaniards were not, however, inactive ; in fact, they were never more vigorous. The people sought and obtained liberty, both religious and political : they shook off the yoke of the court of Rome, and delivered their kings from the excommunication of the Vatican. John II., like his grandfather Alphonso, protected letters, and was himself a writer. Talent became the premium of court patron- age, and without wit no man could hope to join in the splendid festivities of the age. Aragon, which up to this time had occupied itself only with the FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 49 serious studies of law, now introduced several academies of Floral games. The severest magistrates unbent their brows to listen with smiles to the songs of the Troubadours. Villena and Santillana, both men of the court, poured forth boldly their thoughts, and set the Inquisition at defiance. Villena wrote " The History of the Troubadours," " Commentaries on the Eneid," and left a translation of Dante, and a collection of miscellaneous poems: he is looked upon as the father of Spanish poetry. Juan de Mena wrote " The Labyrinth," which has had almost as many commentators as the " Divina Comedia" of Dante. Clavijo wrote a " History of Tamer- lane," to whose court he had been sent ambassador. Valera wrote a " History of Spain." Pulgar was celebrated as the historian of Ferdinand and Isabella. Badajoz, Guevara, Ladron, Acuna, and Cota, were poets of mediocre celebrity in the middle of the fifteenth century. Haro wrote " On Reason and Thought." Juan de En- zinas composed the first " Art of Poetry." His brother, Francis Dryander, as he called himself, was a pupil of Melancthon, and translated the New Testament into Spanish. The marriage of Isabella of Castile with Ferdinand of Aragon, and the consequent conquest of Granada, gave great power to the nation. The Spaniards made considerable attainment in epic, lyric, and allegorical poetry, without the assistance of strangers : the drama also rose among them before they had intermingled with other Eu- ropean nations; they have, therefore, reason to be proud of the originality of their productions. The drama is singularly conspi- cuous in the effusions of Spanish intellect. It was formed on the ancient Castilian taste, and is much more irregular than that of other countries. Its object was to affect the hearts of men, to har- monize with their opinions and customs, and to flatter their national pride. It is on this account that neither the satirical remarks of other nations, nor the criticisms of their own men of letters, nor the prizes of their academies, nor the favors of their princes, have ever persuaded them to adopt the system which at present prevails in the rest of Europe. The Spaniards refer the origin of their drama to three works of a very dissimilar kind — the Mysteries represented in churches; the 50 SPANISH LITERATURE. satirieo-pastoral drama, entitled " Mingo Rebulgo," by Cota; and the dramatic romance called " Celestina." The Mysteries were ac- companiments to religious ceremonies; in which frequently the most gross buffooneries were used in the representations of sacred writ. The " Mingo Rebulgo" was rather a political satire in dia- logue than a drama, and was written during the reign of John II., to ridicule that monarch and his court. The " Celestina" merits the attention of all who wish to trace the true origin of the drama among the moderns. The first act of this singular production was written by an anonymous author, towards the beginning of the fif- teenth century, at a period when the Parisians were passionately fond of the mysteries and moralities which were represented by the Fraternity of the Passion, and the clerks of the Bazoche, and dis- plays much comic talent. The first author left the production in- complete. Fernando de Rojas got possession of the fragment, and added twenty long acts to the first, which was itself very long. He involves his characters in the most romantic adventures, and gives a tragical conclusion to the whole. Some people praised the " Ce- lestina," and commended it as a moral work; others condemned it as detailing immoralities which need never be published; the Church was consulted, and its decision was inconsistent; the " Celestina" was prohibited in Spain, and permitted in Italy. The Spaniards still glory in this national production, which, in their opinion, opened the career of the drama to the moderns. Juan de Hoz wrote dramas of good repute. " Avarice Punished" is the most re- markable. Juan Valdesso was a reformer of this period : he wrote 11 Considerations on a Religious Life;" — a work which was trans- lated by Nicholas Ferrar, and printed at Oxford in 1638. But, in the time of Ferdinand and Isabella, which ought to have been an age of intellectual progress, the Inquisition damped all mental efforts; every one who attempted to introduce the senti- ments of other countries, either in metaphysical or religious specu- lations, was no sooner discovered than he was committed to the flames, together with his work. Intellectual pursuits were conse- quently abandoned in terror; and it was not till the transfer of the government to Madrid, in the time of Ferdinand's grandson, SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 51 Charles V., that the taste for literature revived, in the classical style, which was the only safe path. Early in the sixteenth century, the value of Christopher Columbus was felt in his death: the "Letters" and "Journal" of the cele- brated navigator have profound interest. His second son, Ferdi- nand, left a magnificent library to the city of Seville. Castillo formed the Spanish " Cancionero," or collection of one hundred and thirty-six lyric poets. Donna Cervaton is remarkable for her "Let- ters." The Cardinal Ximenes published a polyglot Bible. It is most painful to read of the numbers of learned men who perished at this period; and the list of prohibited books published in 1559 becomes almost ludicrous in its abundance. As well put the human mind in prison, if it were possible ! In the midst of this gloomy night, the affections and the imagi- nations were left to spread their gentle influence; and Boscan, with his friend Garcilasso, rose like twin stars on the horizon of litera- ture, to delight their countrymen and the world. They are both distinguished for their correct and graceful style. Boscan was pre- ceptor to the notorious Duke of Alva, but failed to instill any of his own soft nature into that tyrant : he wrote in the manner of Pe- trarch. Garcilasso also considered himself as a disciple of Petrarch. His restless disposition led him to seek military employment at the Austrian court. Here his enthusiastic nature made him aspire to the love of a lady superior in rank to himself, and occasioned his banishment by the king to one of the islands of the Danube. But Garcilasso redeemed his liberty by his poetry, and his master's fa- vor by his bravery. Among the thirty sonnets of this poet, many are distinguished for that sweetness of language and delicacy of expression which take the soul captive; and the mixture of sadness and love with the fear and the desire of death, powerfully expresses the agitation of his soul. Garcilasso is called the Spanish Petrarch : he wrote odes, sonnets, pastorals, and other poems. Boscan wrote sonnets, canciones, epistles, and translated the Hero and Leander of Museus. Peretius or Juan Perez was remarkable for his precocious talents; he wrote the "Panegyric of Mary Magdalene." Gil Polo continued the "Diana" of Montemayor, and wrote other poems. Perez de Oliva wrote many excellent prose works, especially a "Dis- 52 SPANISH LITERATURE. course on the Power of the Soul," and "Dialogues on the Dignity of Man." Garces wrote an " Epistle to Paul III." in favor of the Indians. Mendoza ranks as the third of the Spanish classical poets, and was one of the celebrated statesmen and generals who distinguished the reign of Charles V. While still a student at Salamanca, Men- doza wrote " The Life of Lazarillo de Tormes," the first and plea- santest of those memoirs of rogues for which the Spaniards have manifested a peculiar taste. In after life, Mendoza showed great ardor in the collecting of Greek manuscripts; and his reputation was augmented by his " History of the Civil Wars of Grranada." The reign of Charles V. was rich in poets; but there is a sameness observable in all of them, which is chiefly owing to the general adop- tion of pastoral poetry for the expression of their ideas : they are, therefore, not calculated to leave any lasting impression on the mind, save the remembrance of their harmony and a sort of languid softness. Merrera and Luis Ponce de Leon must be added to the preceding, as possessing the same characteristics. Herrera has obtained the surname of the divine, and stands at the head of the lyric poets; more, it is said, from party spirit than any peculiar merit. He is noted for his use of Latinized words, and that pedantic air which, with some, goes further in the creation of a great name than origin- ality and native wit. There is, however, one exception in Herrera' s poems; the author of the "Ode on the Battle of Lepanto," in my opinion, truly deserves the title of divine : it is all soul, and that in its brightest essence, universal piety : not the piety of sect or country, but the deep feeling of a spirit which, while it adores in humility, knows itself "a spark of the Divinity," and looks far beyond the littleness of earth. Luis Ponce de Leon has also a re- ligious cast in his inspiration, and is more generally correct in style. JD'Acuna made an elegant translation of some portions of Ovid, and was celebrated for the grace and feeling displayed in his son- nets and canzoni. Cetina was the first happy imitator of Anacreon. Several attempts were made in the lifetime of Charles V. to per- petuate his glory in an epic poem ; but his flatterers failed, and their efforts are forgotten. Castillejo devoted himself to the ancient style SIXTEENTH CENTUEY. 53 of Spanish poetry called " Redondilhas," and exhibited much spirit, grace, and ease. Gomara wrote a "General History of the Indies," "Annals of Charles V.," and several other works. Mejia wrote a " History of the Caesars." Matamores was celebrated for his learning. Cano was surnamed the Christian Cicero, and wrote various theological works. Ocamrpo wrote general " Chronicles of the History of Spain." Saint Theresa, a Carmelite nun, wrote several remarkable works : as, " The History of her Life," " The Road of Perfec- tion," " Internal Faith," and " Letters." Luis of Granada was a celebrated Dominican friar. Works relative to religion and mysti- cism were very prevalent in Spain at the close of the sixteenth cen- tury. " The Magdalen" of Malon, " Mystic Works" of Cruz (who was afterwards canonized), the " Christian Patience" of Zarate, the " Life of St. Jerome," by Siguenza, are all works produced by the religious views of the age. Two distinguished historians adorn this age, — Mariana and Zu- rita. The former wrote the " History of Spain," which gave him a brilliant name: he is thought to have taken Livyfor his model; but was constrained in his expressions by the fear of the Inquisition : we must also remark that he and Zurita, as well as Ferreras Sa- avedras and Garihai, are so jealous of their country's honor, as to be often unjust towards others. They frequently forget that, though patriotism is one of the first of manly virtues, love of truth is the first duty of the historian. Ferreras wrote a History of Spain, and assisted in the compilation of the great Spanish Dic- tionary. The writers of fiction in Spain are very numerous and singularly national in their character. Their works may be classed under four distinct heads: chivalric romances, pastoral tales, pathetic or love stories, and adventurous details of life in every grade. We now come to one of the master-spirits of Spain — Cervantes. In his youth, he wrote a great number of poems and romances; but his entire want of fortune induced him to attach himself to the Cardinal Aquaviva, with whom he visited Rome. A servile office was ill suited to the activity of his mind. He entered the army, served under Colonna, and lost his left arm at the battle of Le- 5* 54 SPANISH LITERATURE. panto. Thus incapacitated for a soldier's life, Cervantes embarked for Spain. The ship was captured by a Barbary corsair, and Oer- r antes was carried prisoner to Algiers: he remained five years in captivity, and was then ransomed. Three years after, he published his " Gralatea," a pastoral tale, which has been imitated in French by Florian; and then a number of comedies, most of which have been lost. Lope de Vega was then attracting great attention by his comic talents, and his rivalry humiliated the struggling Cervantes so much, that for a while he laid aside his pen, and during the life of Philip II. obtained some little employment, which only just pre- served him from absolute want. The death of this monarch libe- rated the minds that had been weighed down by his despotism. Cervantes soon after gave to the world the first part of his inimita- ble " Don Quixote," and the success of this part quickly led to the production of the whole. This work has been translated into all European languages. It has been said that Spain possesses but one good work, and that a critique upon all the rest : its value is such, that it has become incorporated with the literature of every Euro- pean State, and may be said to have lost its nationality. The melancholy monarch, Philip III., could never smile, save when fol- lowing the adventures of the hero of La Mancha; but neither Philip nor any of his courtiers thought fit to grant assistance to the indigent author, and poor Cervantes, in prison for debt, was left there " alone with his glory !" Spain had been for many years overrun with books of romantic knight errantry, for the most part miserable compositions, in imitation of Ariosto; by which the na- tional spirit was misdirected, and its taste corrupted. Cervantes saw this, and also the increasing admiration of his countrymen for that inflated style and puerile play upon words which seem to be the result of a diseased imagination. " Don Quixote" appeared, and no work ever exhibited a more lively satire, or a happier vein of inven- tion. The perpetual contrast between the poetical and the prosaical spirit is its most striking feature, while the romance of the imagina- tion, mixed up with the petty details of social life, is productive of the most ludicrous effects. The hero is raised in our esteem by his generous feelings ; and, although carried to mad excess, we cannot help delighting in the elevated mind which makes it the object of SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 55 life to defend the weak, to aid the oppressed, and to be the cham- pion of justice and innocence. It is said, by the natives of Spain, that the style of " Don Quixote" possesses an inimitable beauty, which no translation can convey, and which no other writer has equalled. At the same time, a continuation of the first part of " Don Quixote" was written by Avellaneda, which much annoyed Cervantes, although it has considerable merit. Cervantes wrote also the romance of " Persiles and Sigismund," which the Spaniards greatly admire; also a collection of tales, called "Exemplary Novels." His poem, called " A Journey to Parnassus," is a satire on the literary taste of the age, and contains many beauties; but such is the merit of " Don Quixote," that we never think of inquir- ing for anything else from the same author. There is a remarkable opposition in the rise of the drama in Italy and in Spain. In the former country, men of the highest genius, assisted by munificent princes, attempted to revive the dra- matic representations of the ancients : while in Spain, mountebanks composed and recited their own dramas, without any other object than that of amusing the populace as a source of profit to them- selves. Thus it followed, that the Italian dramatists wrote to please the learned, the Spanish to please the ignorant: method, refine- ment, taste, and erudition distinguished the one; while vigor, nature, and teeming invention, marked the other. The "Nu- mantia" and "Life in Algiers" are what remain of the plays of Cervantes. Cervantes had witnessed in his youth the commencement of the dramatic art in Spain, and may be looked upon himself as one of its founders. But, after the fall of the mysteries, the drama was slow in forming. Lope de Rueda assisted it greatly as actor and author, and was succeeded by Naliarro. Among the cotemporary writers was Ercilla y Zuniga, author of a poem called "Araucana," which has sometimes been cited as the only Spanish epic : this is, however, warmly contested by the natives, and no less than thirty-six other poems of this class are mentioned by them, not one of which is of conspicuous value. Voltaire first drew attention to the "Araucana," and borrowed from it in the formation of his tragedy called "Zaire." Maurique was the lyric poet of this age. 56 SPANISH LITERATURE. Lope de Vega was born fifteen years after Cervantes. His facility in writing poetry was equal to its utterance by the Italian improvi- satore. He tells us he had written a hundred plays, which were represented within four and twenty hours of their first conception. His friend and biographer, Montalvan, remarks, that he composed more rapidly than his amanuensis could write : thus, with incon- ceivable fertility he produced two thousand two hundred dramas, of which three hundred have been published. This prodigious literary labor produced Lope de Vega almost as much money as glory. No poet ever enjoyed his own fame more: he was surrounded by crowds whenever he appeared, and was denominated the "prodigy of nature" and the " phoenix of Spain." Honors and rewards showered upon him from all sides; but we must detract from their purity, by telling that they were as much bestowed for fanatical zeal as for poetical talents. Amongst his dramas there are about four hundred of the Sacramental Acts. It has been calculated, as a matter of curiosity, that Lope de Vega wrote twenty-one million three hundred thousand lines ! Cervantes had originated the idea of a grand and severe style of tragedy ; but after Lope appeared, neither tragedy nor comedy, pro- perly so called, was to be found : novels and romances usurped the stage. One of these comedies is a dramatic novel : the burlesque and the tender, the vulgar and the refined are mingled together, without destroying the spirit of the piece; princes and potentates, valets and lovers, all carry on the plot, as the exigencies of the story require. Curiosity is excited by a complicated intrigue, and the author does not attempt to give longer duration to the interest, or the emotion of the spectator, than to their laughter. Nothing like a desire to cultivate the morals of the people is visible. Lope de Vega portrays passions the most disordered, and in perfect ac- cordance with the impetuous temperament of the nation. His sacred pieces depict in very faithful colors the religious spirit of his times and the prevailing manners; and of these the Sacramental Acts possess more dignity than the dramas on the lives of the Saints. These last are written with the most incongruous union of characters : allegorical personages, buffoons, saints, peasants, scholars, kings, the infant Messiah, the Almighty Father, the devil, in addi- SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 57 tion to all the heterogeneous beings which a grotesque imagination can conceive, are made to act and converse together. These pieces were acted in churches, and the scenes were often such as to excite in the minds of the cultivated in our day an idea of gross irrever- ence, and even blasphemy. The Sacramental Acts were of more simple construction, and composed of long dialogues on theology, disputations, and scholastic subtleties. Before the representation of one of these pieces, which also were performed in churches, a pro- logue, equally allegorical, but mingled with comedy, was presented to the audience, as if to indemnify them for the more serious atten- tion about to be required; and between the acts of the sacramental piece was an intermediate one, entirely burlesque. Lope de Vega is very little read out of his own country, and few of his writings have been translated; in fact, there are traits in his dramas which disgust the moralist, and are revolting to the philoso- pher : for instance, the slight horror and little remorse inspired by the commission of murder. There is no nation where so much in- difference has been manifested for human life; and Lope de Vega, instead of correcting, administers to the evil tastes of his country- men. How fatal must have been the effect of exhibiting to a people already too prone to sanguinary revenge, the characters of robbers and murderers as heroes of their country ! Bravery in conflict with social order, unjustifiable resistance to magistrates and the inferior officers of justice, were set forth as the favorite heroism of the stage. In the mean time, Las Casas was redeeming the honor of his countrymen by his virtuous and energetic conduct towards the poor Mexicans. The best work of this excellent man is "A General History of the Indies." At the same period as Lope de Vega, there appeared in the world another great genius who also created the theatre of his country — Shakspeare lived at this time; but the barrier which separated the languages of the North from those of the South divided the illus- trious rivals. Perez de Montalvan cannot be separated from his master. This young man was full of talent and fire. His admira- tion of Liope de Vega knew no bounds. He took the latter for a model; and not only wrote one hundred theatrical pieces success- fully, but was also the biographer of the admired original : like him, 58 SPANISH LITERATURE. too, Montalvan was divided between poetry and the Inquisition, of which he was a notary. While comedy had all at once become thus brilliant, tragedy had been essayed by Oliva, who wrote " Fregen- val;" Bermudez drew two subjects from the piteous tale of Inez de Castro; Cueba wrote both tragedies and comedies; De Castro wrote "The Cid," and gave a subject which has more perpetuated the fame of the French poet Corneille than his own. Corneille developed the beauties of which he found the germ in De Castro, both as to plot and ideas. The only great philosopher that Spain has known lived in this century. Lewis Vives was for a considerable time the tutor of Mary, daughter of Henry VIII., who used to value him so much, as to visit Oxford for the sake of hearing his lessons. The chief work of Vives is a " Treatise on the Corruption and Fall of the Arts and Sciences." His works were collected and published at Basle in 1555. Francisco and Juan Lugo were theological writers of this period, belonging to the order of Jesus. It was the latter who introduced the use of the bark of the quinquina tree as a medicine. At the close of the sixteenth century, the literature of Spain bore all the impression of the corrupted taste of the people and their government. The intellect of the nation seemed to be gradually declining; but it was not till the middle of the seventeenth that it appeared to have fallen into a lethargic slumber, which was evi- dently brought about by the weakness of the latter princes of the House of Austria. Gongora was the chief of the fantastic and affected school, who were desirous of forming a new epoch by more refined culture, as they expressed it. Marini had carried into Italy this weakness, about the same period. Gongora is obscure in his allegories, ridiculous in his epithets, and pedantic in his manner; he styles the Man§anares, "the duke of rivulets or the viscount of rivers." Lo Desma and Arteago applied the same eccentricities to pastoral poetry as Gongora had to the "Loves of Polyphemus;" Arteago wrote " A Treatise on Ideal Beauty." Villegas is called the Anacreon of Spain, but often shows all the follies of the school of the cultoristos or refiners. The two brothers Argensola were much superior; and Lobergo, the elder, wrote three tragedies which have been much admired; the younger brother imitated Horace SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 59 with considerable skill. The historical works of Lohergo are good in style. "The History of the Conquest of the Moluccas/' and " The Annals of Aragon/' are standard works. Herreras Torde- sillas wrote "A General History of India/' and "A History of Spain/' both of which are highly esteemed. Geronimo dc Alcala wrote several works on religious subjects, but is now chiefly known as the author of one of the best Spanish novels, "El Donado Ha- blador." Figueroa wrote various poems; those of Ledesma are mystic. Espinel was at once a priest, a poet, and a musician. He trans- lated Horace, wrote epistles, odes, "The Temple of Memory," and, in "The Life of Marc Obregon," gave Le Sage a model for his Gil Bias. Virves was a dramatic poet. Aguilar of Seville was a pro- lific poet, and also a painter. He translated the "Aminta" of Tasso, and wrote a poetical "Discourse against the Style of Gon- gora," with many other works. Suarez Figueroa was an imitator of Montemayor. He wrote "The Mirror of Youth/' "The Constant Amaryllis," and, besides other original poems, translated the "Pas- tor Fido" of Guarini. Borja y Aragon wrote the epic of "Naples Reconquered," and other poems. Rioja was a friend of the cele- brated Quevedo, and wrote "Epistles," and poems, especially a celebrated ode entitled "The Ruins of Italy." This century was remarkable for the universal effort to write ; and, from the prince to the peasant, we find an endeavor to be known by literary talent pervading Spain. Rebolledo was a noble, general, governor of the Palatinate, ambassador, minister, and poet. His lyrics are yet admired. But Quevedo is the only one of this age who awoke the remembrance of Cervantes. Quevedo has been compared to Vol- taire; not so much in genius as in turn of mind — a versatility of talent, a vein of pleasantry, a cynical gayety, an adroitness of ridi- cule, and the art of compelling the abuses of society to appear before the bar of public opinion. He is, however, so lavish of inci- dent, and his strokes of wit are so frequent, that he fatigues even while he amuses, and his great error is wasting his genius on com- mon ideas. Quevedo' s prose works are, "A Treatise on the Art of Ruling/' a variety of "Visions," used as satires; "Advice to the Lovers of Fine Language;" "A Treatise on all Subjects in the 60 SPANISH LITERATURE. World, and many besides;" with "The Life of the Great Tocano." In this last, he paints the manners of his country in a very amusing way. Quevedo has also written above a thousand sonnets, many of which contain great beauties; besides numerous poetic romances, pastorals, and allegories. The Jesuit Molina wrote his work en- titled "The Agreement of Grace and Free-will/' which created fierce disputes between the Jesuits and Dominicans. Moncada was another author of illustrious family; his work en- titled " Expedition against the Turks and Greeks" is esteemed. Coloma wrote " The Wars of the Low Countries," and translated Tacitus. Nieremberg became a naturalized Spaniard, and has writ- ten fifty-one works in Latin or in Spanish. The Jesuit Gracian had great influence in literature; his principal works are " A Man- ual of Prudence;" " Cunning, the Art of the Mind;" " The Hero;" "The Political Man;" "The Discreet Man, or Man of the Court." Nicolas Antonio wrote a celebrated work on " Exile," besides form- ing " The Spanish Library," a work in two folio volumes, published at Rome. Querrera wrote " The Devil on Two Sticks," afterwards remo- deled in French by Le Sage. Antonio de Soils is deservedly no- ticed for his " History of the Conquest of Mexico," and was also very much renowned for his theatrical compositions, among which " Love a la Mode" is, perhaps, one of the best comedies of which his country can boast. Solis was united in close friendship with one who became the star of his age ; a man of decided genius, whose dramatic productions are admirable, but, unhappily, frequently licentious and immoral. Colder on de la Barca has been styled by the Spaniards the prince of dramatists. The Spanish literature is peculiarly distinguished by this conspicuous talent in the composi- tion of plays, as if the exuberance of feeling amongst them found here the best method of emitting its variety and warmth. Caldcron was as fertile in genius and diligent in writing as Lope de Yega. Contrary to the habits of his countrymen, Caldcron left nothing to chance; all his plays are finished with the most perfect talent, agreeable to fixed principles, and to the first rules of art. Calderon was a true poet, with an imagination less vast than that of De Vega, though more flexible and better regulated; he avoided the faults of SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. CI his predecessor, and so far surpassed him, as to cause him to be almost forgotten. Calderon's plays may be divided into four classes : representations of sacred history, mythological pieces, his- torical pieces, and pictures of social life. " His true genius," says Schlegel, " is peculiarly shown in the management of religious sub- jects; he contemplates and paints, with imperturbable serenity of soul, the passing tempests of the world; his poetry is an unceasing hymn of joy on the splendors of the creation." Such are the re- marks of his G-erman critic. His French biographer, Sismondi, says, " that Calderon, although endowed with a noble genius and brilliant imagination, appears to be the man of his own age, the wretched epoch of Philip IV. j he loses sight of nature in the cha- racters he represents ; truth is unknown to him ; and aiming at the ideal, he produces only exaggeration ; he is the true poet of the Inquisition ; no one ever so far disfigured Christianity by passions so ferocious, or morals so corrupt." These opinions are very oppo- site, yet I am inclined to think both critics in some degree right. Schlegel may be styled the poetical admirer, Sismondi the moral inquisitor. Calderon has penned exquisite poetry, but degraded his muse by occasional grossness ; and his religion is strongly tinc- tured with the prejudices of his church. By the side of Calderon shone Moreto, whose style is more sim- ple, whose dialogue is more lively, and whose pleasantries are more natural. One of the pieces of this author, called a Indifference agaiust Indifference," might be fixed upon to give the general cha- racter of the whole Spanish theatre. At the same time lived another prolific dramatist, Gabriel Sellez, who wrote under the name of Molina. He is remarkable for seizing every occasion to launch his witticisms and epigrams, and spares no authority, human or divine. It is a singular observation that we have to make of all these clever writers, so little restrained by moral principle, namely, that they chiefly belonged to the ecclesiastical profession. Lope de Vega, Calderon, Moreto, Molina, and Soils were all priests ! The Spanish dramatists show more invention than observation ; more imagination than good sense; more force than taste; more of natural qualities than of acquired. Hence it arises, that all have sought from preference to sketch intrigues on their canvas, rather 6 62 SPANISH LITERATURE. than paint characters; to put adventures in procession before us rather than passions and vices; and thus their theatre resembles more a magic lantern than a gallery of portraits faithfully traced, as in our own Shakspeare. It is also certain, that, during the reigns of Philip III. and Philip IV., in the second half of the golden age of Spanish literature, while yet the stage was inundated with innumerable authors, not one of the forty companies of actors then existing offered to the public a single tragedy. Philip IV. wrote several pieces for the theatre; and it is curious to observe a monarch's view of private life, and what notion a per- son entertains of society who is by rank elevated above all partici- pation in it. Philip failed, both as poet and king, to excite respect. Michael Molinos published his " Spiritual Guide/' and thus became the founder of the Quietist opinions. De Roxas enjoyed a high reputation for comic talent in the mid- dle of the seventeenth century; his best piece is considered to be "The Plot is laid among Fools/' The reign of Charles II., who transferred, at his death, in 1700, the heritage of the House of Austria to the Bourbons, is the epoch of the last decline of Spanish literature: it is the period of the perfect insignificance of this splendid country in the political world, and of its extreme moral debasement. Condamc/s drama of "The Slave in Chains of Gold" belongs to this period; as also "The Sun of Faith at Marseilles, and the Conversion of France/' by Reynoso y Quinones, and " The Mary of Jesus," a drama by Armesto. Efforts were, however, made, with some degree of success, to imitate the French writers of the time of Louis XIV., as in Luyando Mont land's two tragedies; but they want elegance of language to compensate for stiffness of manner. Luzan imitated Boileau, and wrote "The Art of Poetry." The exertions of Mayam and Fcijoo assisted greatly in producing a new era. The critical work of the latter, "El Teatro Critico," first appeared in 1726, and was continued pe- riodically. The former was in the law, but delighted to extend the taste for literature. Nicolas Moratin was among the most earnest reformers of the lite- rature of this century. He wrote the tragedies of " Hormisinda" EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 63 and "Lucretia;" also an epic poem entitled "The Ships of Cortez," and other works ; and was the father of the celebrated comic writer Leander Noratin. Cadalso wrote the tragedy of "Don Sancho;" Thomas Yriarte was the author of various poems and fables; and Caldaza was an industrious translator from Racine, Voltaire, and other French writers. A man of infinite wit, Father de la Isla, satirized the scandalous degradation of Christian eloquence, for which the pulpit was con- spicuous, in a very clever work entitled " The Life of Friar G erund de Campazas;" and here I must observe that the Italians do not possess a single work to be placed by the side of those of Cervantes, Quevedo, and Father de la Isla. They consider it beneath them to mingle pleasantries with philosophical reflections; but we must not believe them to be the more profound thinkers on that account : they are only the less agreeable. "The Life of Friar Gerund" is considered one of the best satires ever written. There are other prose writers of this period of less renown. Ve- lazquez wrote on the " Origin of Spanish Poetry," and Ciscar " On the Origin of the Spanish Tongue." The Jesuit, Father Burriel, was a celebrated antiquarian. Larramendi, of the same order, wrote on theological subjects. Father Florez was of the order of St. Augustine, and is celebrated for his "Key to History," "Reli- gious Spain," and other works. The "Virginia" of Montiano, and the "Teatro Espaiiol" of De la Huerta, appeared at the close of this century; as also Sedano's "Spanish Parnassus," with some light and graceful idyls by Melen- dez Valdez; but none of their works are conspicuous in excellence. Lampillas, a Jesuit, wrote warmly in defence of his national litera- ture, under the title of "Essay, historical and apologetical, on the Literature of Spain." The two brothers Mohedano wrote a "His- tory of the Spanish Literature." Juan Bautista Munoz was chief cosmographer of the Indies, and wrote a "History of the New World." Don Rodriguez de Castro wrote a "History of the Aca- demicians," " On the Origin of the Goths," and other works. The peaceful reign of Ferdinand VI. was favorable to literature; and Charles III. did more to promote letters than all his predeces- sors united. The spirit of the age proved too powerful for the "sa- 64 SPANISH LITERATURE. cred tribunal of the Inquisition :" every writer seemed desirous of promoting the interests of freedom and humanity; and Charles III. gave decided preference to literary talents for every post of office in his kingdom. There was a brilliant display of genius and talent in this reign; and such men as Andujar, Cabrera, Cambronero, Clemente, Goristizia C Farril, Herreros, Hermosilla, Lardizabal, Nunez, Reinoso, are known in every branch of literature. In 1788, Charles IY. began his reign, when the reform of the colleges, and expulsion of the Jesuits, by the influence of the Mar- quis of Roda, were a great help to literature. The loss of Leandro Moratin marks the opening of the nineteenth century. He has been surnamed the Moliere of Spain, and is de- servedly at the head of the modern writers of comedy in that coun- try. His poem of "La Toma de Granada," and an excellent comedy of "El Viejo y la Nina," with "El Baron," and "El si de las Ninas," are very justly esteemed. Triarte wrote many Latin works, and was an accomplished scholar, as well as a writer of many light and graceful fables. The same taste was evident in Sama- niego, which gained him the name of the La Fontaine of Spain. Tajna's poem of " The Conquest of Seville," and Heredia's poem of " The Whirlwind," adorn this period. TJlloa eloquently re- corded his voyages; and his nephew, of the same name, was a cele- brated critic. Bustamente was a learned antiquary. CavaniUes wrote a remarkable work on botany; Hervas made an extensive catalogue of languages; Sanchez wrote "The History of Religious Eloquence in Spain;" and Fojardo established the periodical called " The Thinker." Jovellanos, whose name is synonymous with all that is good and amiable, equaled the best of his European co temporaries as an eloquent and refined scholar and a profound statesman. Whatever he did was well done. We have " A Collection of Lyric Poems" from his pen; a comedy entitled "The Honorable Delinquent;" with a vast variety of treatises relative to different branches of gov- ernment; but the writings for which he is most especially. renowned are, " An Essay on the Project of an Agrarian Law," published in 1787 ; and soon after " An Essay on Public Amusements." Juan Melendez Valdez is called the Anacreon of Spain, and has NINETEENTH CENTURY. 05 obtained a place among the most distinguished poets in any age for his odes. Llorente is among the most industrious writers. His " Critical History/' and " Plan of a Religious Constitution/' brought him into notice too conspicuously, and he expiated the fault of superiority in penniless exile. His " History of the In- quisition'' is fearfully interesting. Marina wrote u The Theory of the Cortes/' and " Annals of the Holy Office/' which are imperish- able monuments of erudition and research. Florida JBlanca, and more especially Campomanes, labored to introduce a knowledge of political economy in all its branches; and the invaluable work of the latter " On Popular Industry" was circulated with as much zeal in Spain, as the Bible in England. The whole strength of the intellect of Campomanes, which was remarkably powerful, was given to writing for the benefit of his country. Innumerable essays and dissertations, as well as memoirs and discourses, flowed from his eloquent pen; all more or less on subjects relative to the political economy of Spain. The Countess Montijo published numerous tracts calculated to enlighten the poorer classes. Capmany was a celebrated philologue and economist, and wrote an extensive work on " The History and Criticism of Eloquence," with several other works. Masdeu, a Jesuit, wrote " A Critical History of Spain." The stormy pamphlets of the French Revolution were rigorously excluded from Spain. This was the period of Florida Blanca's first difficulties as prime minister, as the numbers of denunciations caused violent oppositions to his authority. The entire trade of booksellers was, in many instances, interdicted; some were severely fined, and frequently kept in secret prisons. At length, the Roman- tic School of Germany received its admirers in Spain, and a new era began : for it was not till the commencement of the present century that there was anything of value in the tragic theatre of Spain. Cimfuegos, a nephew of Jovellanos, is the Alfieri of this country : he was aided by the histrionic talent of Isidoro Mayquez, an actor so perfect as to be considered superior to Talma, to Kemble, or to Kean. Then followed Quintcma, whose tragedy of u Pelayo" is written with such a spirit of nationality, that the Spaniards, when forced to repulse an invading enemy, repeated aloud its finest parts, as they marched to combat. His " Lives of Illustrious Spaniards" 6* 66 SPANISH LITERATURE. is a very. valuable work. His volume of " Poesias Selectas Castel- lanas" contains poems replete with energy, patriotism, and beauty. Galliardo's "Dicionario Critico Burlesco" gives excellent speci- mens of Spanish satirical humor. Savinon and Garostiza, in fol- lowing the same steps, and making their pens subservient to the interests of freedom, did wonders towards spreading the sacred flame among their countrymen. Trigueros wrote " El Poeta Filosofo," a didactic poem of great merit. The " Letters" of the Count de Cabarrus hold a distinguished place. Lardizabal has written on the criminal code with great eloquence. At the present moment, the elegant poet and accomplished scholar, Sefior Martinez de la Rosa, shines conspicuously. The delicacy of his taste, and pecu- liarly bland sweetness of his mind, are only equaled in attractive- ness by the power and strength of his judgment. His piece, called " The Widow of Padilla," was composed and played during the siege of Cadiz. The tragedies of " Morayma" and " (Edipus" have added great honor to his name, especially the latter : his fugitive pieces are replete with grace. In England, " The Spanish Legends" from the pen of Moza, with a paraphrase of Conde's "History of Spanish Arabs ;" Clavigero's translation of the "Ancient History of Mexico;" and a volume of poetry entitled " No me Olvides," of no ordinary beauty, prove that the exiled sons of Spain are not without graceful talents or praiseworthy industry. To this list many other estimable names might be added; as that of Blanco White, and also that of Treuba Cosjoy. Indeed, the terrible political struggles of Spain have long put an effective barrier to any rapidity of mental progress within her own limits; and the language and literature of the peninsula are not very generally studied in this country. During the reigns of Mary and Elizabeth, Spanish was, in a great measure, the language of the court ; it was also extensively culti- vated during those of Charles and James. The study of Spanish literature, however, went out of fashion on the accession of the House of Hanover. Circumstances, some years since, gave it, once more, a temporary popularity. The intimate political connection which existed between the two countries during the Peninsular War, and the crowd of distinguished Spaniards who were compelled to NINETEENTH CENTURY. 67 seek refuge on our shores, contributed to revive a taste for the litera- ture of Spain. Archbishop Amat has written an "Ecclesiastical History/' and a work on "The Church Militant/' he is considered one of the "glorias" of the Spanish Church : his nephew, Bishop of Astorga, has ably written a biography of the learned Archbishop, and other works. Apecccha wrote some fine poetry, but died young; his sonnets, and a poem entitled "The Crown of Flora/' are much admired. Arjona Roldan and Francisco dc Castro belong to the same class of poets, and are graceful writers. Arnao wrote several distinguished articles in the Historical and Geographical Dictionary of Navarre, and translated " Humboldt's Travels." Arriaza is highly estimated as a poet; in the "Espagne Poetique" of Maury, he takes a pre- eminent place. Bermuclez de Castro writes imaginative prose and pretty verses: he is one of the editors of the "Madrid Heview." Breton dc los Ilerreros is a prolific dramatic writer, and stands as the Scribe of Spain. His plays, entitled "A la Vejez, Viruelas;" "Los dos Sobrinos/' "El Ingenuo/' "La Falsa Ilustracion," and several more, are generally admired. Ilerreros is director of the National Library of Madrid, and member of the Spanish Academy, and looked upon as one of the cleverest men of the day. Burgos first distinguished himself by his translations from the ancients; he then published a work entitled " Continuacion cle Frutos Litera- rios," in four quarto volumes, with interesting notices of inedited works: his "Biografia Universal" was interrupted by the disturbed state of the country; but he employed his pen on dramatic com- positions, as "Los Tres Iguales," in which he is thought to have equaled Calderon and Solis; "El Baile de Mascara," and "El Opti- mista y el Pesimista." The exalted political position of Burgos gave extraordinary weight to his fine work, entitled "Instruccion (\ los Subdelegados de Fomento," which is one of the very few works stereotyped in Spain. Serafin Calderon has written some pretty poesies, and a novel called " Cristianos y Moriscos." The memory of Count Campo Alange is cherished for the patriotism he displayed in his writings and his character; in the periodical called the "Artist," many of his tales and sketches have met with general admiration. Canal is known chiefly by his essay on the literary 68 SPANISH LITERATURE. life of Antolin Merino, who had continued the "Espana Sagrada." Carvjal spent a busy political life, but found time to write some charming poetry in the manner of Leon and Herrera; his versifica- tion of some of the Psalms, and other parts of the Scriptures, is looked upon as superior to all others; his " History of the Rebellion of the Moors" is also much valued. Francesco de Castro has left some admired odes. Don Jose de Castro is author of the tragedy of "Boabdil," and the drama of "Fray Luis de Leon/' which has had an extraordinary success. Clemencin is highly distinguished as a geographer and historian; many of his papers formed the chief excellence, during several years, of the memoirs of the Spanish Academy; his researches on the antiquities of Spain are much valued; he has also left, "Memoirs on the History of the Cid;" "Commentaries on Cervantes;" "Essay on the Queen Isabella, and her Influence on the Sixteenth Century;" in a word, Clemencin stands among the first Spanish prose writers of the present age. Donoso Cortes is a barrister who has gained considerable reputation for his literary talents, as editor of the periodicals called " El Por- venir," and "El Piloto;" he was afterwards director of the "Mad- rid Review." Duran has edited an interesting work, entitled " Coleccion de Romanceros y Cancioneros," and published important observations on "La Decadencia del Teatro Espanol." Escosura has written the novels, "Conde de Candespina," "Ni Re ni Roque," and several successful plays. Espronceda wrote a poem entitled "Pelayo," and minor pieces. Floran is another minor poet, but whose sonnets possess great merit. Estrada shines as a historian and political writer; his " Introduccion a la Historia de la G-uerra de la Independencia," and several other large quarto volumes on important political questions, led the way to his better known works, entitled " El Tribuno del Pueblo Espanol," and " Curso de Economia Politica;" which last is considered a masterpiece, and has called forth the praises of eminent writers both in England and Prance. The Duke de Frias has published some very pleasing poetry. Galliano has edited various reviews and literary papers, as the " Revista Espanola," " Correo National," "La Espana," "El Piloto;" and has passed an active life in the service of literature. Gallego is an aged poet, whose youthful and maturer productions NINETEENTH CENTURY. 69 have been well esteemed; bis " Elegia al Dos dc Mayo" created considerable attention. Gutici'rcr: has written a fine drama, enti- tled " El Trovador," and has obtained a just renown from that and various other theatrical pieces. GarelU is noticed as a protector of literature, and a man of great eloquence in the Senate. Enrique Gil is a graceful and energetic poet. Gil y Zarate is one of the first admired poets of modern Spain; his dramatic works, entitled " Rosaniunda," and " Blanca de Borbon y Carlos II.," have gained him a sure name in after ages. Hartzenbu&ch, born of German parents, brought, from the genius of his fatherland, all the taste and fanciful dreams of his countrymen. His "Redonsa Encantado" was very successful in the theatres; and his minor poems met with a cheerful welcome. Hermosilla is distinguished in literature and philology: his latest works are a translation of the Iliad, and a u Curso di Critica Literaria." Jerica is noted as a graceful poetical fabulist. Larva's u El Castellano Viejo" is a fine specimen of brilliant prose writing. Lista is highly distinguished, both in prose and poetry : in the former, we have, as specimens of fine writing, his "Introductions to History and to Literature;" and, in poetry, his verses, entitled " La Vida Humana," leave nothing to be de- sired. Madrazo is noticed as a poet and prose writer of mediocre talent ; his poem, entitled " La Senda de la Vida," is graceful and plaintive. Maturana's " Teodoro o el Huerfano Agradecido" in verse, and " Sofia y Enrique" in prose, are his principal works. Maury published, in Paris, " La Espagna Poetica," and the poem of "Esveroy Almedora;" his translation of Dryden's " Alexander's Feast" is very boldly and ably clone. Mesonero first attracted at- tention by the graceful style and exact observations of his publica- tion, entitled "El Curioso Parlante;" and afterwards by his "Se- manario Pintoresso Espanol." Minands political writings are enti- tled, " Las Cartas del Pobrecito Holgazan," " Los Usos y Derechos Imprescriptibus del Pueblo," &c. ; he wrote also " La Historia dc la Revolution de Espana, durante los Anos de 1820 al 23," &c. The Marquis of Miraflores has written some energetical pamphlets on political subjects. Mora published the " Cronica Cientifica y Literaria," first in Madrid ; and then, emigrating to England, con- tinued it, under the protection of Ackermann, with the first four 70 SPANISH LITERATURE. numbers of " No me Olvides," " Meditaciones Poeticas," and va- rious other minor publications of great merit. Santisteban has published some articles in the " Revista de Madrid j'/ and a work, entitled " Consideraciones sobre la Organization Politica y Social de Espana," &c. ; and is an eloquent member of the Cortes. Pacheco is an active member of the literary world, and has written cleverly in reviews and periodicals, besides having penned some very sweet verses. His dramas of " Alfredo/' and " Los Infantes de Lara," have been much admired. Pastor Diaz was a poet from his earliest years, but has not pro- duced any one great work, being drawn aside from literary pursuits by the political events of his distressed country; his poems, entitled " El Artista," and " Oda a la Luna," are, however, considered among the best in the language. Pillegrin appeared in the politi- cal arena under the name of Abenaman, and distinguished himself in most of the periodicals as a spirited writer of prose, and an ele- gant writer of verses. Pena y Aguayo has written ably as a juris- consult. The Duke de Rivas (Saavedra) is one of the brightest ornaments of modern Spanish literature : on leaving his country, in 1822, he wrote some fine lines, entitled "El Desterrado;" in Lon- don, " Florinda," and "El Sueno del Proscripto," were penned; shortly after, his fine composition " Al Faro," and the " Moro Espo- sito," the drama " Don Alvaro," and the comedy " Tanto Vales Cuanto Tienes," with the historical novel of " El Conde de Villa Mediana •" many very beautiful fugitive pieces are later productions. Poca de Togores, Solas y Quiroga, jSamoza, Tapia, Torcno, and Vega, are praiseworthy and industrious writers of the second rank. Zorilla takes a higher station, and has won a brilliant position in the literature of his country, in the present day; his poetry is much enjoyed by the fair sex, and his historical novels equally so. The " Tesoro de Novelistas Espaiioles," with notes by Don Eugcn io de OcJioa, is a most entertaining work for the winter's evening. Don Tomas Gonzales has left a manuscript of a supplement to the History of Charles V., which is exceedingly interesting. Ga- liana has written a "History of Spain." Capman has given " Historical Notices of Barcelona," and regrets the burning of in- teresting archives in the late bombardment of that city. Mcmdrom NINETEENTH CENTURY. 71 has published " A Narrative of the Campaigns of Zumalacarregui," and " A History of the Keformed Cortes. " Translations from many of our best British authors are very general in Spain; but their present publications are chiefly collections of, and selections from, their own finest writers. The unsettled political interests of any country call forth countless pamphlets, and the press of Madrid has been conspicuous for its prolific progeny of this nature; which, in spite of governmental prohibitions, circulate liberally among the eager population. A Spanish magazine, entitled " La Colmena," is regularly published by Ackeraiann; and the " Antologica Espa- iiola" promises to be a valuable periodical. The early phases of the Spanish literature have a distinct and predominating oriental feature, which was, at a later period, joined to the style of the Troubadours of Provence. Up to the middle of the thirteenth century, it bears these characteristics; when we find the brilliant and pompous manner of the East united to the stiff and ungraceful style of the monks, and the mysticism of the Christ- ian religion mixed up with ancient mythology. Historical chroni- cles, in meagre verse, marked the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, with the addition of translations from the classics, and some few pastoral poems. The brilliant exploits of the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, with those of their successor Charles V., ought to have produced fine writers, but the Inquisition arrested the progress of general intellectual advancement; poetry, however, rose above per- secution. G-arcilasso, Boscan, Mendoza, and Herrera distinguished the sixteenth century. The seventeenth was opened with brilliance : Cervantes, Lope de Vega, Calderon, and Quevedo were its stars. It closed in weakness; and this continued to the middle of the eight- eenth century, when a few patriotic men endeavored to revive the apparently lethargic energies of their countrymen; and, at the close of this century, Spain was quite alive to the necessity of encou- raging the intellectual advancement of her children. The nine- teenth century has seen a general effort and desire to encourage native talent predominate even above the political difficulties of this long-agitated country, The principal works to be further consulted on the literature of Spain are, Schotus's Library of Spain; Taximeter's Cat. of Span. 72 PORTUGUESE LITERATURE. Writers 5 Matamores Hist, of Acad, of Spain; Nit. Antonio's Span. Lib.; Mohedano's Hist. Span. Lit.; Ant. Baena's Illus. Child, of Madrid; Lampilla's Ess. Lit. Spain; Casiri's Lib. Hist, and Apol.; Guarino's Ess. Lit. Charles III. ; Quintana's Life of Ccl. Span- iards; Capmany's Crit. Hist. Sp. Eloquence; Siscar's Let. Lit.; *Bduterwek's Hist. Lit. Spain; Rossi's Diet. Spanish Arabs; Sclde- gel's Hist. Dram. Art; Lord Holland's Life of Lope de Vega. THE LITERATURE OF PORTUGAL. There is only one monument existing of the ancient language of Portugal : it is a fragment of thirty-two verses, which appears to belong to the age of the Arabs' first penetration into Europe ; but as the kingdom of Portugal is only nominally separated from that of Spain, as they call themselves Spanish and their neighbors Cas- tilian, it is to be believed that they were conquered by the same masters as Spain; and the strong resemblance of their tongue to that of the Latins, proves that the Roman government had strongly marked its passage in Lusitania. Among the early Arab authors of Portugal, we find Abul Valid, Abu Amran, and Abu ben Didvazatin, who is noticed as a cele- brated poet of the seventh century. Abdchnaleh ben Badrun was still more renowned and at a somewhat later period. Abdala ben Rada was a moralist, who died about the middle of the eleventh century. But before this period Recesvindo, a Benedictine monk, had gained renown by a poem in praise of St. Engratia. Spain was only beginning to shake off the yoke of the Mussul- mans, when Portugal had already completed its emancipation under a prince of the Capetian race. Henry of Burgundy, in 1072, offered his services to Alphonsus VI. of Spain ; these the king ac- cepted, and gave him all the country between the Douro and the G uadalquivcr, if he should succeed in conquering the Moors ; he did so, and obtained the price of his victory, becoming at once son- in-law of the King of Aragon and Count of Portugal. lie sur- rounded himself with a few troubadours that he brought with him, and laid the foundation of the of Portugal. His son FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 73 Henry, happy and brave, vanquished five Moorish kings, and was crowned king himself in 1139, and was one of the first poets of his country; he sang " The Siege of Santarem." His friend, Moniz CoelJiOy was also a poet as well as a warrior, and Hermiguiez was the Anacreon of his age; but their writings are only useful, as showing the progress of the language rather than that of the intel- lect, for they are scarcely intelligible to us. In the thirteenth century, King Diniz founded the University of Coimbra, and it is thought that he first introduced rhyme in verse ; his son Alphonso followed in the same tastes. There were some sonnets imitated from Petrarch, at this period; but the real litera- ture of this country begins only towards the end of the fourteenth century, when John I. ascended the throne. John I. conducted an army into Africa, and pursued, with ardor, the Moors. It was now that Vasco de Lobeira gave to the world his "Amadis of Gaul/' and gained the title of father of poetic chivalry. Towards the close of the thirteenth century, the worthy Bon Matheos, Bishop of Lisbon, wrote a " History of the Martyrs of Morocco," which is still a manuscript. At the commencement of the fourteenth, Father Santarem wrote " Statutes for the Order of Christ." The sad history of Don Pedro I., and his unfortunate wife, Inez de Castro, is of this epoch, and has been the subject of many fine tragedies. The unhappy king wrote " Cancioneiros," and other poems. Bon Pedro, Count of Barcellos, was diplomat, poet, and historian. He wrote " On the Lineage of Mankind." Marias died in 1407. He had attached himself to the Marquis Villena, but incurred the anger of his patron by his unfortunate admiration of a young lady, a relation of the marquis. Marias was imprisoned, but still poured forth his melancholy poesies, and con- trived to have them sent to the fair lady, whose husband, inflamed with indignation, set out to avenge the insult, and, recognizing the poet at a window of his prison, threw his javelin with such precision as to kill Marias on the spot. Gir aides has left a poem on " The Battle of Salado." A son of John I. composed various poems. Alphonso V. wrote " The Art of Fighting of the Ancient Portuguese." There is a precious manuscript in the Royal Library of Paris, from 7 74 PORTUGUESE LITERATURE. the pen of Durate, King of Portugal, entitled " The Art of the Cavalier, and a Treatise on Morals." Regras was a celebrated j urisconsult of the middle of the fifteenth century. Azurara wrote the u Chronicle of John I." Fernando Lopes has given us the touching episode of " Inez de Castro," and relates it rather as a chronicler than a poet; but he has so much grace in his naivete, that he is called the Froissart of Portugal. Resende formed his cele- brated collection of national songs. Ribeyra is one of the sweetest poets of the Peninsula; but of all species of poetry, the lyric and bucolic are least susceptible of being rendered into another tongue, and their beauties are, therefore, sel- dom known beyond their own country. His poetic romance of " Menina and Moca" had great success ; and his story, entitled " The Innocent Young Girl," is remarkable as being the earliest Portuguese production in prose, which aims at an elevation of lan- guage, and expression of the more impassioned sentiments of the heart. The glory of Portugal faded after Emmanuel, surnamed the Great. There is a " History of India," in manuscript, from the pen of this king. John IH. gave up his affairs to the Jesuits, and had his grandson, Sebastian, brought up by them ; but he protected letters with especial care. The loss of the great navigators, Albuquerque, Magellan, and Vasco da Gama, opens the sixteenth century; their voyages and conquests had a natural influence on literature at a later period. jpina is esteemed as an exact historian of this epoch. Tieve was a moral poet; and Banadra (a shoemaker) was a popular comic poet of the same age. Gil Vicente is surnamed the Portuguese Plautus; he is the ear- liest distinguished comic poet, and such was his reputation, that Erasmus studied the language expressly to read his works. His daughter Paula was the first actress of her time. Gil Vicente wrote comedies, tragi-comedics, and many autos, both sacred and profane. His son was the victim of envy, and was banished to India; he, also, wrote a great number of ... : i );m j one( j himself to his feelings, and wrote beautiful pastorals in the style of the Italian Canzoni. He traveled, and brought home the tastes of SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 75 Italy. He was the favorite author of John III., yet died unno- ticed. Mcmtemayor wrote a poetic romance, entitled " Diana.'' There is a pastoral, in this poem, which is universally selected as a masterpiece; it was continued admirably by Caspar Polo. Miran- da and Montana yor are stars in the Portuguese literature, and wrote in the Castilian dialect. This period is especially marked by the adventurous voyages of the Portuguese j and we find Pereira Pacheco, Alvares, jSFuno da Cimha, and Galvam, all leaving records of their individual voyages, or descriptions of the countries they visited. Castanheda wrote a " History of the Discovery of India/' Goes is considered a classical historian of the reigns of John II. and Emmanuel the Great. One of the supporters of the literary glory of this age was Perreira, who is named the Horace of Portugal; his tragedy of " Inez de Castro" is full of the pathetic and the sublime; he also wrote a good comedy, called "The Jealous Man," and various odes, epistles, and eclogues, under the title of " Lusita- nian Poems." Sylvestre, Barcellos, Caiado, Palcam, Dacosta, Cas- tro, Mello de Souza, and Lobo Serram may be classed as of nearly the same degree of talent as poets of the middle of the sixteenth century. They were eclipsed by Camoens, deservedly named the poet of Portugal : his poem of " The Lusiad" is a complete epic, perfect in action and arrangement, and full of poetry. Like most of his brethren, Camoens was the child of Fortune's unwearied persecution; unable to bear the degradation of poverty, u the proud man's contumely," and the pitying contempt which the learned men of Coimbra bestowed upon the efforts of his muse, he left his coun- try, and went to India, in 1553. Yet he fondly loved his native land, and in the solitude of his existence, with the spirit of a mar- tyr, he poured forth the overflowings of his heart in her praise, while he was wreathing an immortal coronet for her brow. The upright and independent spirit of Camoens rebelled against the in- justice which he saw in the government of the Portuguese settle- ment in India, and he dared openly to speak against this injustice. For this he was banished from the colony, and went to live at Macao. There is still to be seen, on the most elevated point of the isthmus, which unites the town of Macao to the Chinese continent, a sort of natural gallery, formed out of the rocks, apparently almost suspended 76 PORTUGUESE LITERATURE. in the air, and commanding a magnificent prospect over both seas, and the lofty chain of mountains which rise along the shore. Here, it is said, the poet of the western world invoked the spirit of the Epic Muse; and tradition has conferred on this retreat the name of " The Grotto of Camoens." Here, dwelling upon the actions of the heroes of his country, Gamoens felt the chain which bound him to them, and it was strengthened by absence; and, after sixteen years, he returned to the land of his fathers with a still warmer at- tachment to it than before. But Portugal was suffering under the accumulated misfortunes of the brave Sebastian; and Camoens, who had nobly supported his own miseries, was bowed to the earth by the calamities of his country. The earliest edition of the " Lusiad" appeared only three years before the death of the poet. The object of the author is the re- cital of the Portuguese conquests in India ; but he has happily contrived to blend all the illustrious actions of his compatriots in other quarters of the globe, together with whatever of splendid and heroic achievement, historical narration, or popular fables could supply; and that which forms his own and his country's glory is the national love and pride breathing throughout the whole perform- ance. At the period at which Camoens wrote, we must remember that no epic poem had appeared in any of the modern languages. Trissino, an Italian, had attempted the subject of the liberation of Italy from the Goths, but had not succeeded. Not content with the glory which must spring from the " Lusiad," Camoens tried almost every other species of literary effort, and succeeded in all. His sonnets and eclogues are exquisitely beautiful; many of them have been translated into English by the elegant pen of Lord Strangford ; and independently of their merits as translations, have, from their peculiar grace and harmony, become some of the most popular poesies in our country. The patriotic zeal of Don Jose de Souza Botelho has recently atoned for the neglect shown to Camoens. He published a splendid edition of the "Lusiad" in 1817; and had it embellished with all that the arts of typography, design, and en- graving could lavish on a book : he then presented copies to the most celebrated libraries of Europe, Asia, and America, not permit- ting a single copy to be sold. SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 77 Prcstes was a prolific dramatic poet of the age of Camoens. Luiz Brandam wrote an epic poem of great length, entitled " Eligiada." Oricntc wrote so good a pastoral, " Lusitania transformed/' that it was attributed to Camoens. Caminha wrote, with great elegance, epistles, eclogues, and other poems. Chiado was a dramatic author of little instruction, but of great talent as an improviser. Pirez was, on the contrary, a highly distinguished writer of dramas. Bernardes has left twenty graceful eclogues. Cortereal was a fol- lower of Camoens' s master spirit : he attempted epic poetry, and took the subject of the misfortunes of Sapelveda, which had fur- nished Camoens with his most beautiful episode; but he belongs only to the second class in excellence. Jloraes is one of the earliest Por- tuguese writers of romances. Another learned Resende flourished in the middle of the sixteenth century. He wrote on the antiqui- ties of Portugal. The king Don Sebastian, born in 1554, and killed at the memorable battle of Alcazar-Kebir in 1580, is believed to be the author of a work on " The Arms and Fortifications of the Ancient Portuguese." After his death, many of his letters were published by Manoel Lyra. This age saw also the best historians animated, like the poets, with a just national pride. Barros is considered the Livy of this country; his works make us acquainted with the New World, and his " Asia" is of value, both for authenticity and style. Osorio, Bishop of Sylves, and Friar Lisboa, are both esteemed as historians. Besides these, we have the works of the great Albuquerque, whose commentaries on the conquests of Portugal form a perfect history. The voyages of the celebrated Mendez Pinto distinguished the sixteenth century, and present in their details the most singular and interesting facts. In the same age, Averio visited Jerusalem, and published his Itinerary. Thome, a monk of the order of St. Augus- tine, wrote "The Works of Jesus." Martyres wrote a " Catechism of the Christian Doctrines." Lucena and Arraiz are looked upon as classic authors ; the former for his admirable style in " The Life of Saint Francis Xavier;" the latter in his "Dialogues." The death of Manoel, Count of Vimioso, an esteemed poet, hap- pened at the opening of the seventeenth century; his works are, however, chiefly minor pieces, and were eclipsed by the writings of 7* 78 PORTUGUESE LITERATURE. Lobo, who wrote pastorals of great sweetness, and other poems. Soto Mayor was one of the best poets of this period; his chief poem is entitled " The Banks of the Mondigo." Veiga was one of the bucolic writers of Portugal who have distinguished their country. Monteiro wrote a poem entitled " Gronzalo of St. Amaranth." Ma- cliado wrote the dramas of " The Siege of Dm/' and " The Shep- herd of Alfea." Gonzales Andrade is noticed as a distinguished poet; but he only wrote minor poems. Mauzinlio is honored as the second epic poet of Portugal; his chief work bears the title of "Alphonso the African." Tovar was a mystic poet. Gabriel Castro wrote an epic called u Ulysses, or the Foundation of Lisbon." Coutinho was a poet ; he raised a monument to the memory of his friend Camoens. Rollein is remarkable for his poems being written in a noble style. Olyveira Cruz, Sylveira, Pitta, and Pinto Ribeiro all belong to this prolific age of Portugal's second-rate poets. Manoel and Botellio Vasconcellos both rose a little above the crowd; the latter wrote an epic poem entitled " Alphonso, or the Foundation of the Portuguese Monarchy." Paiva de Andrada wrote a remark- able poem in Latin, on the conquest of Chaul in India. Menezes distinguished himself by a poem on the conquest of Malacca. Manoel Thomas is said to have shown peculiarly precocious talents ; in his mature years, he wrote the poems of " Insulana," " The Phoenix of Lusitania," " The Treasure of Virtue," and other poems. Galliegos wrote the " Grigantomachil." Gusman Soares wrote 11 Lusitania Restored," and other poems of a superior class. Mas- carenhas wrote a heroic poem entitled " Viriatus." Gomes, one of the councillors of Louis XIII. of France, wrote a epic entitled u Samson." The two Macedos were distinguished, especially Fran- cisco, who ranks as one of the principal poets of this century. His works are numerous, and consist of epic poems, elegies, epigrams, odes, &c. "Orpheus," a tragi-comedy of his, was played before Louis XIV. of France. It was not till after the peace of 1668, when the independence of Portugal was recognized, that it was perceived how far the national intellect had deteriorated. The country had been inundated by numbers of ill-written sonnets and pastorals. The false taste which reigned in Spain, also gained an ascendency in the sister-kingdom. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 79 JSouza is a name yet a little remembered as of this period, but famed more for fecundity than for talent. Bacellar brought still more exaggerated sentiments of languor and affectation into fashion. Aadrade was a better writer of prose than poetry; he laughed at Gongoro. Several others of the Spanish school might be named, but their works are scarcely known out of their country, and little esteemed in it. In theatrical productions, Gil Vicent and Camoens had been eminently successful ; they were now abandoned, and Lope de Vega being taken as the reigning favorite, all sentiment of nationality was extinguished. Among the prose writers of the seventeenth century, we must mention Friar -Learn, who wrote "Chronicles of the Kings of Portugal;" and Mariz, also esteemed as a historian. Brito wrote history with extreme care; but did not live to finish. His best work is entitled " A History of the Portuguese Monarchy." His style is considered correct and elegant. There were two authors of the name of Souza in this age; Luiz JSouza wrote a "History of St. Dominic," "The Life of St. Bartholomew," and "Considera- tions on the Tears of the Virgin Mary." Faria e Souza was a clever diplomatist, and a poet and critic, as well as a historian. He made it a rule to write twelve pages, of thirty lines each, a-day. His chief works are " Commentaries on the Lusiad," " Portuguese Asia," and two other works on the possessions of Portugal in Europe and America. Barbosa was a man of extraordinary learning. He made a dictionary of the Portuguese language, and wrote various theological works. Diego Couto continued the " Asia" of Barros, and Antonio Brandatii carried on still further the work of Couto. Saverim de Faria was another distinguished historian, and a cele- brated critic. His best works are "A Notice of Portugal," and "A G-eneral Account of Portugal." Feo, Ceita, and Freyre are given as models of eloquence in serious writing. The sermons of the first have been translated into other languages. Teixeira was another preacher of celebrity. Pinto Riheyro was a distinguished poly- graphe of this epoch. Semedo wrote the "History of China." The "Letters" of Don Mello are the portion of his works best known. Oardosa wrote " The Library of Illustrious Lusitanians." Balkazar 80 PORTUGUESE LITERATURE. Telles was a celebrated Jesuit, who wrote "Chronicles of the Com- pany of Jesus." Esperanza was a writer of ecclesiastic history; also Lopes Cabrcd. Viera was a distinguished Jesuit of this period. He wrote a political work under the singular title of "The Art of Robbing." Menezes was G-overnor of Tangiers, and wrote a history of that place; also "The Life of John I." At the opening of the eighteenth century, the literature of Por- tugal was in a most languid state ; we find, however, Lesbio shining as a poet and musician, Lima as a dramatic poet, and Mascarenlias Monteroyo as a prolific writer on various subjects. His chief works are entitled "Progress of the Portuguese Arms," and "The Sub- mission of the Orizes." Besides these, he left many works on Turkey. During the protracted reign of John V., the government made several efforts to revive the literary character of the nation. An academy of languages was formed, and one of history, but neither fulfilled the expectations of their founders. At length, towards the middle of the eighteenth century, the despotism of the minister Pombal, though it stifled the rising talents of individuals, roused the nation from its slumbers. The Count d'Ericeyra wrote a regu- lar epic, entitled "The Henriquiad; or, the Life of Henry of Bur- gundy;" but the directions of Boileau failed to inspire the count with the national fervor which was felt by the soldier poet; or to endow him with the same pensive spirit, or invest him with that halo of love and glory which distinguish the muse of Camoens. He wrote also a variety of prose works, and founded an Academy of Letters. Dos Reys was an industrious writer of both poetry and prose. His chief works are "Eulogy of the Portuguese Poets," and "The Portuguese Mars." He was a Jesuit, and favorite of John Y. Gaetano de Sovza continued the biography commenced by Cardosa. The dreadful calamity of the earthquake at Lisbon, in 1755, is said to have destroyed many precious literary labors, both ancient and modern. Dos Rcis Quito, was a dramatic writer of this epoch. The un- fortunate Garcam was the regenerator of taste at this period, and is called the Horace of Portugal. He died in prison, where the NINETEENTH CENTURY. 81 orders of Poinbal had placed him. Oliveira wrote sacred poems. Via'ra, the painter, was celebrated as an elegant poet. Rimalho wrote an epic entitled "Lisbon Rebuilt." Carvallio wrote a poem called " Graticanea," in the comic-heroic style. Bias Gomes wrote various poems, and was esteemed as a critic. Victorino Da Costa wrote with extraordinary facility, and has left a great variety of works written in bad taste; as, "The pure Liquid of Syntax," &c. &c. Barhosa Machado was another laborious writer of the eighteenth century. He wrote "The Life of Don Sebastian," and a vast col- lection of Portuguese biography. The species of composition in which the Spaniards most excelled, and in which they were the most prolific, is peculiarly deficient in Portugal. Antonio Jose > a Jew, wrote some clever theatrical pieces in the manner of the French vaudevilles, which drew the Portu- guese in crowds to see them. Though illiterate, coarse, and vulgar, Jose evinced a genuine vein of humor; and the nation began to re- joice at the promise of a drama of its own, when suddenly poor Antonio was seized, and, horrible to say, burnt alive by order of the Inquisition. The managers of the theatre became alarmed, lest their faith should be suspected, by continuing to represent the un- fortunate Jew's productions, and they closed the theatre. In 1788, a Royal Academy of Sciences was founded, many curious memoirs were published, and the regeneration of letters appeared near at hand. Luis Verney produced his celebrated work, entitled " The true Method of Study," which made a profound sensation in Por- tugal. In 1791, a prize was proposed by the Academy, for the best Portuguese tragedy; and the laurel crown was awarded to a lady, the Countess Vimeiro, for her production of " Osmia." On opening the sealed envelop, accompanying the piece, there was found only a direction, in case "Osmia" should prove successful, to devote the proceeds to the cultivation of olives, a fruit from which the Portu- guese might derive much advantage; and it was not till ten years after, that the name of the modest writer was known. The first volume of the dictionary of the Academy appeared the year following. At the opening of the nineteenth century, we find Barhosa Du- boccage greatly admired by his countrymen, and as much beloved. He was a relation of the celebrated Madame Duboccage. His poems *r 82 PORTUGUESE LITERATURE. are penned -with equal grace and truth. Francisco Manoel is an- other favorite poet of this period, whose works are an honor to his country. Domingo Torres has left some pleasing poems. Da Cruz JSj/Iva was a poet of considerable renown. Do Nascimento bears a still higher reputation. He wrote sometimes under his academical name of Fylinto Elysio; and, besides having written many original poems, he translated several from the French. Baptist Gomes dis- tinguished himself as a dramatic poet. Denis translated with talent and industry from the poets of France and England; and also wrote a history of Portugal. Correa da Serra was a celebrated acade- mician, and wrote historical and botanical works. The present age can boast of a fine poet in Antonio de Castilho, who has done much for the language and literature of his country. Almeida Antonio Garrot is a lyric poet and dramatist of eminence. Mendes Leal, Ignacio Pisarro, and Pedro Mesquitella are also among the poets of the day. The ladies of Portugal have been frequently distin- guished by their literary talents. We have already mentioned one; and in the sixteenth century we find the names of Agnes Baroosa, Donna Maria, daughter of king Emmanuel, Sigea, one of her ladies, and Joanna Vas, among the poetical writers of the age. In the middle of the seventeenth century, JSister Pimental was a writer of religious poetry; her chief work was entitled "The Infancy of Christ." At the close of the same century, Sister Violante do Ceo was surnamed the Tenth Muse. Many of her poems are graceful and pleasing; but there reign a false taste and affected manner in nearly all of them. They were published in the " Portuguese Par- nassus/' of 1703. Like all countries disturbed by political events, Portugal has deeply to lament her neglect of letters. In the early phases of the Portuguese literature, we may remark that the sovereigns of the country were frequently its best supporters, and also its best poets. Early in the fifteenth century, Macias, one of Portugal's sweetest poets, brought the language to a high degree of elegance, and pro- duced a large school of writers in the Galician idiom. The first attempt of printing was made in the middle of this century. The sixteenth century was to Portugal what the age of Louis XIV. was to France. Miranda brought home treasures of Italian grace; and GERMAN LITERATURE. 83 Ferreira was a successful imitator of the classic Greek and Roman writers. Comedy arose under Gil Vincente, and pastoral poetry brought into notice several of its cultivators. The wonderful ex- ploits of her voyagers made Portugal observed by the whole of Europe ; and Camoens arose to sing the glories of his country in the first great epic poem of modern European literature. History and epic poetry distinguish the seventeenth century in Portugal, but towards its close there was an evident failure in every branch of letters. This continued till near the close of the eighteenth cen- tury ; and Portugal scarcely can be said to have yet regained her former splendor of intellectual talent, although many poems, dis- tinguished for grace and sweetness, have lately issued from her press. The following are some of the best works to be further consulted on the literature of Portugal : Pereira's Treas. Port. Lang. ; Nic. Antonio's Diet. Port. Auth. ; Farm's Ulus. Portuguese; Brito's Lit. Port. • Barhosa's Lusit. Lib. ; the Travels of Du Chatelet, Murphy, Linch, Bourgoing, and Dumourier ; Memoirs of the Acad, of Sciences ; Memoirs of Lit. pub. by the Acad. Sci. ; Cor- rect da Serra's Lit. Port. ; Bouterwek, Holiday, Sismonde, Balbi, and Ferd. Denis, on the same subject. THE LITERATURE OF GERMANY. The Goths, a nation of pure Germanic origin, embraced at an early period an imperfect form of the Christian religion. The clergy alone cultivated the national idiom. A translation of the Gospels, by Bishop Ulphilas, in the Maeso-Gothic dialect, is the first monument of literature which has descended to us. Ottfried, a Benedictine monk of Weissemburg, translated the Gospels into the Frank idiom about three hundred years later. Walafrid and Wandulbert were historians and poets. GodescJiaUc and Raymo were theologians and philosophers. Iso of St. Gall wrote a " Dic- tionary of the Sciences." Solomon II. , Baron of Ramschag, wrote a " Biography of Illustrious Men." Waldram, Bishop of Stras- burg, wrote Elegies in Latin, and "Maxims of the Bible." 84 GERMAN LITERATURE. The dismemberment of the Carlovingian monarchy was favorable to the development of the German language. In the tenth and eleventh centuries, great progress was made under the sovereigns of the houses of Saxony and Franconia. Witichind, a monk, wrote a "History of the Saxons" up to 937. Dithmar, Count of Walen- beck, wrote a " History of the Kings of Germany." The Abbe Nbtker translated the Psalms. Adelbold wrote " The History of the first Three Years of Henry II. of Germany." Lambert, a monk of Hersfeld, is a celebrated historian. He wrote " The His- tory of the Germans from the most ancient Times to 1077," in Latin. Hepidanus, a monk of St. Gall, wrote German history, also in Latin ; as well as Bruno, a monk of Saxony. Witteran put the Song of Solomon into the Frankish idiom. Wilhelm of Herschau formed a Latin encyclopedia. It is at the close of the eleventh century that we must place that singular production, en- titled " The Eulogy of Hanno ;" the author is not known. It was the custom of princes to retain minstrels in their courts, who were called minnesingers, or Singers of Love ; they were pecu- liarly encouraged under the emperors of the Swabian-Hohenstaufen dynasty ; for which reason this period is called the Swabian era. It is an epoch particularly celebrated and venerated by the Ger- mans. Wernher and Veldech were two of the earliest of the min- nesingers. " Ernest of Bavaria" is mentioned as one of Veldeck's poems. Zazichoven sang "Launcelet of the Lake." Von Aue sang u Ivan the Chevalier of the Lion." ' Ofterdingen is believed to be the collector of the poems which form the base of the " Niebelungen Lied," or Song of the Niebelungen. This poem has been called the Iliad of the Germans, and styled the grandest pro- duction of the Middle Ages. It consists of a series of legends, nar- rated in glowing language, and crowded with poetical beauties. The action of the poem lies in the time when Attila was warring with the Burgundians. Risbac and Bltcrolf were present with Ofter- dingen at the celebrated poetical meeting of Wartzburg. J?sch< • n- bach is the principal author of another celebrated work of this epoch, entitled the " Hcldcnbuch," or Book of Heroes. Reinbot von Dorn wrote "The Martyrdom of St. George." Freydank wrote m on " Modesty," in iambic verses of four feet. Enekel wrote THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 85 "The Book of the Princes of Austria and Styria." Elko von Rapschow wrote the " Mirror of Saxony." Rodolph von Ansc, or Ems, was a prolific poet; his chief works are entitled, "Balaam and Josaphat;" "The Good Gerhard/' and " Wilhelm of Orleans." Otto IV, Count of Bottenlaube, was a poet of this age. Ulrwh von Lichtenstein was also celebrated as a poet. Conrad von Wuvz-. burg was still more so; he wrote "The War of Troy/' "The Ex- pedition of the Argonauts/' "The Golden Forge/' and other poems. Besides these poets of the Swabian era, there are many belonging to the thirteenth century, who are often mentioned, but the exact period of whose existence it is difficult to trace, as Merungun, Rugge, HUholt. Several princes and noblemen were poets of this epoch; as, Henry, Count of Anhalt; Conrad of Hohenstaufen ; Henry, Duke of Misnie; Henry, Duke of Breslau ; and many more. At the close of this century, a collection of laws was published, preceded by an introduction in prose : this is considered a remark- able monument of the state of the Swabian language. The author is not known. There is also much uncertainty relative to the elder poets of the fourteenth century. From the middle of the thirteenth century, Germany had had no repose from political commotions. The con- quest of Prussia by the Teutonic knights, the thirteen years inter- regnum in the sovereign authority, and a series of domestic tur- moils, kept poets and minstrels out of sight. Another school arose. The artisans formed corporations or societies, and cultivated poetry. Poetical meetings of shoemakers, tailors, weavers, &c. were held in all the principal towns of Germany. Their members were called meistersdnger. Regenbogen was one of the first of this class. Hadlouh was celebrated, but is generally placed among a superior rank. Trymberg was a sententious poet. Frankenstein left a manuscript under the title of " The Crucified." Hornek wrote a chronicle in rhyme. Meissen, called also Frauenlob (or Praiser of Ladies), formed one of the artisan schools at Frankfort. Ammen- hausen, a monk, wrote a poem on the game of Chess. Munchen continued a translation of the New Testament, in verse, begun by Von Ems. Reinhard of Westerberg wrote several pieces in the celebrated national collection called " The Chronicle of Limbourg." 8 86 GERMAN LITERATURE. Fleck put into German verse the story of " Rose and Whiteflower," from the French of Orbent. Muglin wrote canticles; also Quin- furt and Suclienwirth ; the latter wrote also historical poems. Ilein- ricli, called also Teiclincr (or the Ditcher), was celebrated for his sententious poesies. The prose writers of this period are not nume- rous. Reidesel wrote a " Chronicle of Hesse." Beliaim made a translation of the Bible. Mayenbarg translated " The Book of Nature/' from the Latin of Cantinpre. Tauler was the most re- markable prosaist of his age. His sermons, preached at Strasburg and Cologne, made an extraordinary impression. Herfort wrote " A History of the World/' in Latin. Professor Frankenstein left various works in the same tongue. The poets of the fifteenth century were few in number, and but slightly distinguished for talent. Buclieler wrote an epic poem, entitled " The Adventures of a Royal Daughter of France." Is'euenstadt wrote " The Marvelous History of Apollonius of Tyr- lande." Windier wrote " The Book of Virtue." Rothe left a " Chronicle of Thuringia." Wolkenstein composed canticles. Rosenplilt, of Nurnberg, was a licentious writer of comic pieces, called Carnival Farces. Folz, a barber of the same place, was another rhymester of similar taste. Gaspar von der Roen is be- lieved to be the collector of " The Book of Heroes." Weber, of Fribourg, is the most celebrated Swiss poet at the time of the wars of the independence. Scliernbery, a monk, is considered the author of the satirical drama of "Pope Joan." AmoDg the prose writers of this century, we find Tillman, who was author of the celebrated "Chronicle of the Lords of Limbourg," which was continued by Genslien. Turinger wrote the " Chronicle of Alsace." Wimlck wrote " The History of the Emperor Sigismond." Andreas, a priest of Ratisbon, wrote a "Chronicle from the Time of Jesus Christ to 1422." Nydhart translated " The Eunuch" of Terence. Fnrtner wrote the romance of "The Round Tabic of St. Gbraal/ ; Ringolfinge translated the romance of " Malusine" from the French. Steinkoevel was author of " A Chronicle of the World." Bixm- garten was one of the most remarkable translators of this age. IArar chronicled his times. Schilling collected the poems of /', before mentioned. Rcichenlhaller wrote a "History of the FIFTEENTH AND SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 87 Council of Constance. " Albreclit von Eye was another celebrated translator, Under his pen we observe a marked progress of the language. Ilagen wrote one of those droll tales, which were so generally liked in this and the following century. His " Book of Fools" was one of the same class as the " Eulenspiegel," or Owl- mirror, the curious and witty expressions of which still excite amuse- ment, and which is an anonymous work of this period. Botha wrote " Chronicles of the Saxons." Stein translated " The Chevalier of Turn/' from the French. The invention of printing belongs to the fifteenth century. The Germans attribute it to their countryman Guttenberg, while the Dutch claim the honor for Coster. As printing became known, it produced a new era ; learning and science became of much easier acquirement, and the rapid progress of letters proclaimed the value of the invention. The establishment of universities at Prague, Vienna, Heidelberg, Cologne, and Leipzic, about this time, was another great step in furtherance of the mental progress of Germany. There was yet, however, another century to pass before the energies of the German mind became known to Europe. At the commencement of the sixteenth century, we must notice several of those satirical works which excited attention in their day, and are a peculiar feature of the times. Sebastian Brandt wrote a poem, entitled " The Ship of Fools." Baumann put into more modern German the satire of "lleineke the Fox." Greff wrote "The New Ass of Balaam." Murner wrote "The Conspiracy of Fools." To this period belong, also, most of those tales which are now more remarkable, as forming the basis of the German taste for the wonderful, than for their own merit. These " Volksbiicher" have one peculiar characteristic : there is an extraordinary simplicity in their style, and their language is of the fine old "wonder-teeming" words, which so delight the Germans. Pfinzing, secretary of the Emperor Maximilian L, wrote a singular poem, entitled "Twer- danck," and was crowned in honor of his talents. Hans Sachs was the last of the Meistersingers. He was a shoemaker of Nuremberg, and is one of the most remarkable and most prolific of these manu- facturing poets. He is said to have written no less than six thou- sand pieces of verse, as tragedies, comedies, histories, and carnival 88 GERMAN LITERATURE. farces. Ayer introduced the opera, and was an abundant writer of comedies. Among the prose writers of the sixteenth century, Ccltes is noticed as one of the founders of the first learned societies of the Rhine and the Danube. Geiler von Keiscrberg was a powerful writer of religious discourses. Bebel was the preceptor of Melanch- thon, and a Latin author. The celebrated painter Albrecht Durer, left a work on "The Art of Fortifications," and one on "The Pro- portions of the Human Form." Count Nuenar wrote on the "His- tory of Ancient Germany." Turnmayr wrote " Chronicles of Bavaria." Kantzow wrote " Chronicles of Pornerania." Sebastian Frank was an industrious writer of historical " Chronicles." Con- rad Gessner was a celebrated naturalist of Zurich. He wrote " The History of Animals, of rare Plants, and of all kinds of Fossils." Tschudi is esteemed as a chronicler of Switzerland. Camerarim wrote elementary works on theology and history. FiscJiart is the last example of the naif style of the sixteenth century. His works have generally a comic character, and are chiefly as follows : "Consolation for the Gouty Man," "Matrimonial Discipline," " Garagantua," after Rabelais. Michel Neander founded the School ofllfeld. An interregnum of twenty-three years followed the reign of Conrad IV. Italy and Germany completed their revolution. With the succession of the House of Habsburg, chivalry began to decay, as well as that poesy which belonged to it. During the time that literature awoke in Italy beneath the care of Lorenzo de Medici and Leo X., Germany was agitated to its inmost centre by religious dissensions. Contentions and argument penetrated to the fireside of the lowliest cottage; and from the prince to the peasant religion alone occupied the mental power of this vast empire. Luther attracted the attention of all Europe. His style, vigorous and full of eloquence, proved that the German tongue was in no way behind others in strength of expression. His translation of the Bible is one of the finest specimens of the old classical German. Luther, Muscidus, and Arndt composed some fine poetry as hymns and sacred odes. Melanchthon was more gentle in his eloquence, and gained many advocates for church reform, in conjunction with Reuddin and Iluttcn; thus theological literature SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 89 burst spontaneously into a prominent position in Germany. Agrippa, Zwvnglius, Glarcanus, Xylandcr, Bugenhagen, Tauhman, Buxtorf, Agricola were all theologians of repute. Imagination, that faculty of the mind for which the Germans have always been singularly remarkable, was overpowered in the strenuous battle for truth; and for a considerable time the glories of the sacred writings occupied the only taste for literature, which could be spared from the momentary struggle, to establish their principles in pristine purity. The reign of Charles V. of Germany, although as brilliant as that of any other prince in feats of arms, has left no traces of im- provement in the literature of his country. The monarch himself was openly opposed to the Protestant princes of Germany, though it is believed he privately favored their opinions : but his kingdom was at any rate occupied by military employments from this cause, as well as from the ambitious views of its sovereign. When Protestantism had settled into principle, its effect estab- lished, and its cause somewhat forgot, a metaphysical philosophy began to occupy the mental energies of the Germans; and the pub- lications relative to it were multiplied almost to the same degree as political tracts in the most factious period of a popular government. System succeeded system with the rapidity of fashions in dress. The reverence of classical literature by those who spent their whole youth in its study alone, the consequent familiarity with the lan- guage of those philosophers of Greece and Rome whose works had formed their taste, and, above all, the easy access to scholastic edu- cation, from the multiplicity of colleges and monasteries, are evident reasons for these sedate pursuits, at once natural and pleasing to the Germans. The first German grammar appeared about 1525. Poetry was not, however, forgotten. Paul Schecle, under the clas- sical name of Melissus, wrote elegies and other poems, and was crowned at Vienna when only twenty-two years old. Pete)" Denais wrote various minor poems. Rollenhagen translated with talent Homer's "Battle of the Frogs and Mice." A long period of lethargy followed the Reformation; the empire, reduced to the shadow of an august name, seemed hastening to its dissolution. The mystic writer Boehme appeared near the close of the six- 8* 90 GERMAN LITERATURE. teenth century; and the adoration he has received from the Romantic School in Germany, deserves to he remarked. His name was the Shibboleth of the age. He left a crowd of theosophic writings, and being in the German tongue instead of the Latin (which was used up to this period in Germany) they were widely circulated. The chief of them was "Aurora." The first Quakers took much of their system from him. Boehme was a shoemaker of Goerlitz. Kepler and Helmont were natural philosophers of this period. At the opening of the seventeenth century, religious and political quarrels pervaded the country, and the evangelical orthodoxy was not more favorable to literature than the dominion of the Jesuits in the Roman Catholic states. The war of thirty years tore in pieces the great body of Germany, and disunited its parts so com- pletely that they have never been reunited. At length, in a country where the German language is not even indigenous, poetry awoke. A Silesian, Martin Opitz, deserves the name of father of the Ger- man poetry; he eclipsed Meckerlin and Spee. Zinhgraff, Mosche- roschj and Olearius were cotemporary poets; and Paul Gerhard wrote "Lyrics for the Church and House." A little later, came Hqffmanswaldau and Lohenstein, poets of the Italian school. Flemming was remarkable for his lyrics; Logan for his epigrams; Gryph regenerated the theatre. Belinkhaus wrote moral dramas and satires. Rinkhart wrote the drama of "The Christian Knight of Eisleben." Weckerling is quoted for his purity of the German tongue. He wrote pastorals, odes, &c. Andrea was a critic of this age. Clai was one of the enthusiasts of the period. He wrote "The Combat of the Angels with the Dragons." He was a man of extraordinary adventures, and was crowned as poet. Schoch wrote a comedy, entitled "The Student's Life." Werder imitated Ariosto in heavy Alexandrian verses. Dach was a popular lyric poet. Scheffer, surnamed Angelus, wrote poems entitled "The Pleasures of the Soul," "Psyche afflicted," and others. Neumark wrote "The Garden of Pleasure," and other poems. Zesen wrote " The Torments of Love," and other poems of the same kind. All these were of the weak school of Marini, and are but little valued, save as examples of the taste of the age. Among the prose writers of the seventeenth century, we must mention Albertinus, author of EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 91 "The Kingdom of Lucifer;" Amd, the author of a valuable work, entitled "True Christianity;" Stettler, who wrote " Annals of Hel- vetia." Horsdoerfer was an imitator of the affected writers of Spain and Portugal. He wrote " Game of Conversation for Ladies," and other prose works in the same style. Schrnppius was a critic of morals. Griffensohn was another satirist of the manners of the day. Buchofo, a romance writer of bad taste, belonged to his age. Blrhen was considered a good dramatic writer at that time. Darnel Major was distinguished as a naturalist. Puffendorfs great work on jurisprudence may be given as closing the seventeenth century. In commencing the eighteenth century, we may observe that theological despotism was beginning to calm. Spener preached a more gentle religion, and founded the Pietist sect. Frederick the Great of Prussia does not deserve to be placed among the German writers, for he neglected German intellect, and adopted the language of France. We have twenty-one volumes from his pen, consisting of history, philosophy, poems, and letters. At length Hatter, a native of German Switzerland, endeavored to show that the English literature better suited the taste of the Germans than the French. The learned Gottsched combated this opinion, and defended the classical models of France. The accomplished Bodmer agreed with Holler; and thus arose that long series of discussions, which formed the schools called classic and romantic, in German literature. "Die Alpen" is Holler's most celebrated production. To Bodmer the Germans are indebted for their general introduction to English literature. He translated the "Paradise Lost," wrote an epic poem called "Noah," "The Helvetic Library," "Fables of the Times of the Minnesingers," "Principles of the German Tongue," and various other works. Bodmer had a feeling of the advent of a better day for his country, and is more honored as the source of excellence in others, than for that which belonged to himself. As partial fol- lowers of Gottsched, a body of clever writers published a periodical magazine: Rabner undertook the prose satire of the work — his "Satires" have been published separately; Zaccharie gave heroics and satires; Gellert was a fabulist; Koestner wrote criticism and songs; Adolph Schlegel wrote odes, and Elias Schlegel advocated the drama : this last author is noticed as being the only dramatic 92 GERMAN LITERATURE. writer of this new birth of German literature. Gleim was esteemed for his excellent fables, and was honored by the whole country with the title of Father; his popularity was shared by Peter Uz, the clever writer of many good songs and odes. Kleist deserves notice among those poets who ameliorated the language of Germany, and elevated her poetry. His best poem is " On Spring." Gunther was distinguished for his poetical satires and epistles. Koznig was remarkable for the facility and natural style of his poems. Kruger was popular as a comic poet, and wrote dramas. Mylius imitated the dramatic writings of other countries. Brawe wrote the tragedy of "Brutus" in iambic verses. Schiebeler was a writer of burlesque poems. Hartmann was a lyric poet of repute \ but was excelled by Hoelty, whose ballads are yet esteemed. Goetz, Lange, Schmidt of Luneberg, Blum, Gemmingen y Ebert, Gallish, Mastallier, Schatz, and Zaupser were all aspirants to public admiration as authors of minor poems, many of which are penned with talent and grace. Count Stolherg wrote the drama of " Belshazzar," and some clever translations from the Greek of Theocritus; he also translated So- phocles. His brother Leopold wrote the drama of " Theseus und der Siiuling," a dramatic fiction on the infancy of Homer; with several minor poems of merit. Breitinger wrote " A Treatise on Poetry and Painting," and showed great learning in antique art. Klopstock held the first rank in what was termed the English school, and Wieland in the French; but Klopstoch opened a new path for his countrymen, while Wieland was at once the first and last of his, in the eighteenth century. Klopstock, in imitating the English poets Milton and Young, touched in his countrymen that taste for sacred things which is so peculiar to them. At the age of twenty- three, he had published the first three books of a The Messiah," and the sensation which he produced was prodigious. Though gifted with an extraordinary degree of sensibility and imagination, they were united to a most elevated feeling of religion, and never misled him. His wife, Meta Klopstock, is known to us through her own beautiful letters to our novelist Richardson. Before the time of Kiojpstock, the Christian world was in posses- sion of two remarkable poems; one from the pen of Dante, who drew his materials from the Fathers of the Church: ond one from EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 93 Milton, who used the Old Testament as the foundation of his epic. Klopstock took the New Testament for his, and he has drawn from the divine simplicity of the Gospel a poetic charm which in no way spoils its purity. Wldaud has been styled the Voltaire of Ger- many \ and there is much of the grace and facility of the Frenchman in his writings. He was honored by the principal academies of Europe, and Napoleon sent him the Cross of Honor. In his poetry, he resembles Ariosto, but is infinitely more informed than Voltaire, and more connected than Ariosto; though his philosophical romance, entitled " The Dangers of Enthusiasm/' has contrasts of gravity and gayety which are too abrupt. His poem of " Oberon" is more justly celebrated; it is eminently graceful, interesting, and moral. At the same time appeared Rainier, a writer of good odes, Winkelmann in the arts, Lessing in criticism, and Goethe in general literature; thus forming a decided German school. Gessner, a Swiss poet, is almost liked more in France than Germany; but his "Idyls," and "Death of Abel," find admirers in every country. Zimmermann, another Swiss, has been much admired as the author of an "Essay on Soli- tude j" he also wrote a poem " On the Earthquake at Lisbon, in 1755," and several philological works. Liclitenberg' s witty com- mentary on the paintings of Hogarth are of this period. It was now that the national literature was rapidly gaining the ascendency. It is true, the great philosopher Leibnitz had given immense value to the Latin tongue, by using it generally, and that he was followed by Wolf; but others had succeeded in having the native language taught, and used as a conveyance of all the other studies in colleges. Wolf originated the idea that the " Iliad" was not from one author, but a collection of poems, afterwards made up into one. Wolf and Heyne were brilliant antagonists, and enthusiastic lovers of classic lore. Lessing was considered as superior to all the German classical writers of this century, and exerted himself very successfully to combat the taste of imitating an indifferent Greek style, and in op- posing the superstitions of religion. His writings gave a new im- pulse, and his countrymen began to read Shakspeare, and dared to call themselves Germans in Germany; and, in short, established the rights of originality in lieu of the yoke of French correction. The finest productions of Lessing are considered to be the dramas 94 GERMAN LITERATURE. of "Minna von Barnhelm," "Emilia Galotti," and "Nathan der Weise." His plays are much valued by the critic Schlegel, and he is generally admired by the French. Lessing befriended Men- delsohn, and they were co-laborers in " The German Library," the first review known in Germany, and conducted by Nicolai, who wrote a tale in imitation of the "Yicar of Wakefield," called "Se- baldus Nothanker." Mendelsohn is looked upon as a profound phi- losopher; his chief work is entitled "Pksedon." Mosheim had long been regarded as the Fenelon of Germany. Thomasius had dis- tinguished himself for his law learning; and founded the first pro- fessorship of that science. Fabricius had gained celebrity as a learned bibliographer. Crusius, and the two brothers Baumgarten, were philosophers of the same period. In the mean time, Michaelis enriched his country with his learned "Introduction to the New Testament/' and "Commentaries on the Laws of Moses." Eichorn is remarkable for his works on Scriptural Antiquities, Classical and Oriental subjects, and Philosophical criticism. Salzer and Abbt were also learned inquirers of this time. Lichtwer, as a fabulist; Gerstenberg, as a lyric and dramatic writer; Goiter, as a writer of elegies, songs, and comedies; Musseus, as a satirist; with the romance writers, Jung, Lafontaine, Meissner, Krugge, Munchausen, Jacobs, and Madame Nauberf, and the antiquarians Winhelmann and Boet- tiger: all gave lustre to the end of the eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth centuries. Moeser wrote "Essays," and *' Political Tales;" also the "History of Osnabruch." Sturz nas elegantly written the "Life of Count Bernsdorff." Adelung and Oampe wrote grammar as philosophers. In the latter half of the eighteenth century," political freedom was unknown in Germany; but the men of letters had opened the minds of the people, and liberty of opinion spread rapidly among them. Lessing, Herder, Wieland, Lavater, Jung, had all contributed to this awakening of noble sentiments; but when Goethe appeared, the real revolution and reformation of German letters ensued. Goethe might stand as the representative of the entire body of German literature ; not that he is the best writer in every style, but that his talents comprised all that is peculiar to German intellect. The first effort of his pen was a drama, composed about the year EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. {)! 1707. "Goetz von Berlichingen" was also one of bis earliest pro- ductions, and in it he gives full scope to his sentiments of political freedom. "Clavigo," a tragedy, soon followed: it is valued for the truth of coloring in the domestic scenes of humble life. Goethe's novel of " Werther" next appeared, founded on some events in real life which had deeply impressed the author. His predilection for theatrical amusements induced him to write two operas, "Erwin and Elrnire," and "Claudine von Villa Belta;" and being placed in a high position at the court of Saxe Weimar, he was able by his talents and patronage to establish a decided German stage. Here this poet's beautiful dramatic compositions rapidly succeeded each other. "Iphigenie auf Tauris," "Torquato Tasso," " Count Egniont," have all won immortal honors for Goethe. His most remarkable poem, however, is the drama of " Faust;" which is so singular, though in parts so wonderfully fraught with genius, that critics have agreed to leave it uncriticised, no two minds being able to regard it in the same light. The versatile poet next tried his strength in an epic, and produced "Hermann and Doro- thea;" he also wrote two comedies, namely, "Der Grosscopta," and " Biirgergeneral." Goethe's minor poems are so many masterpieces, which have been largely imitated by his admiring countrymen. In prose composition he was equally great in point of style; his " Wil- helm Meister," and "Die Wahlverwandtschaften," are well-known romances; then we have "Das Leben Benvenuto Cellinis," Goethe's "Thoughts on Italy," his " Farbenlehre," and "Letters," all of which attest his varied talents. It has been said of Goethe, that whoever understands beauty, simplicity, symmetry, grace, ease, and cheerfulness can alone appreciate his genius. But, although looked upon as one of the most highly gifted of men, Goethe's position as an author is one which creates warm argument. No writer has met with greater fanatical admiration, or more unqualified reprobation. Goethe's presence, aided by the intelligent Duke and Duchess of Weimar, rendered that city the resort of all the learned and the tasteful. It has been called the Athens of Germany; and Etters- berg, Wilhelmstal, and Ilmenau are to the Germans what the Por- tico, the Academic groves, and the banks of the Ilyssus were to the Greeks. At Weimar, the plays of Terence used to be acted in 96 GERMAN LITERATURE. Latin, and exceedingly enjoyed; but there must be a really classical society for such an enjoyment, such as then existed in this charming city; where not only such men as Goethe and Schiller lived, but where Wieland, the two Scldeyels, Herder, Einsicdal, Madame Wolzogen, Amelia Imhoff, and the clever actor and dramatic writer Ifland, all distinguished in literature, shed lustre over this retreat of the G-erman muse. While Goethe resided in his civil capacity at Weimar, Schiller was attached to the university of Jena; and when the latter began to publish his periodical paper, called "The Hours," Goethe was delighted to join him in correcting the false principles in philosophy, taste, and morals, which at that time (1794) defaced much of the literature of Germany, in common with that of the greater part of Europe. This correspondence, once begun, was never to close but with the life of one of them; and their letters are well worth an attentive perusal. Schiller is considered, by his countrymen in general, as a greater poet than Goethe. Schiller, unlike the fortunate Goethe, was destined to struggle with life's difficulties. It was in penury and obscurity that he wrote the plays of " The Robbers," " Fiesco," " Cabal and In- trigue." At last, he accepted the office of poet to the theatre at Manheim, where he was happy because he was free, and surrounded with friends who loved and honored him. In the maturity of his age, his writings were distinguished for that sublime purity which ever springs from exalted thoughts. The beautiful tragedies of "Don Carlos," " Marie Stuart," "William Tell," and "Joan of Arc" rapidly succeeded each other. Then followed his fine dra- matic poem, entitled " Wallenstein;" and his "History of the Thirty Years' War," and " History of the Revolution of the Low Countries." The noble principles of Schiller s heroes, their en- thusiastic love of their country, combined with those glorious aspi- rations for liberty which vibrate through every nerve of the reader, and the richly poetic descriptions of landscape beauties, rentier this poet one of the most pleasing in the world. Lavat-r, the well- known physiognomist, was, at this time, a most zealous minister, and was unwearied in behalf of practical Christianity. His intense earnestness, when preaching, was a most impressive picture. He EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 97 was a prolific author. In another part of the country, Schroech was fornimg his voluminous " History of the Christian Church, and its continuation since the Reformation;" a colossal work, which he left unfinished. Werner was a dramatic poet of no little merit ; his pieces are, however, only beautiful when we look in them for songs, odes, religious and philosophical thoughts; but with these to distinguish them, they cannot be represented. One of them is entitled "Luther;" and one would imagine the author thought only of propagating a certain religious mysticism, rather than to present a theatrical amusement. " Attila" is another, which we may de- signate as a sublime and powerful conception. Werner wrote also some tales of peculiar interest; as, " The Sons of the Valley/' and " The Cross on the Shores of the Baltic." Goethe used to say of Werner's bent of mind, that it was a perverse religiosity. Kotzebue was a comic dramatic poet, without whom the Germans could boast of little of worth in comedy. It is not in the spirit of the nation. Cunning and hypocrisy, with the meaner sins of domestic life, give the worthy Germans too much pain to create their laughter; they are susceptible of comedy only in exaggerated foibles or ludicrous peccadillos. Kotzebue was poet to the theatre of Vienna; his dramas had immense success ; but he was singularly deficient in the sentiment of patriotism, and accepted situations of an ignoble character under the Russian government, in which he bestowed so little respect for the feelings of his countrymen, that, for fame and money, it was said, he would have sold his pen to the Devil. He was assassinated by a young enthusiast, named Sand, who believed fervently that he was ridding Germany of a monster. Kotzebue was a very prolific writer, and succeeded in various styles ; he edited the " Literary Week," a journal at Manheim, and wrote largely for it. His dramas are published in several volumes, and many of them are known in translations, throughout Europe. He wrote "Recollections of Paris," and "Recollections of Naples;" also a " History of Prussia," and conducted another journal, called " The Free Speaker." Burger holds distinguished rank as a poet, and was cotemporary with Goethe and Schiller, His love of the marvel- ous renders him a general favorite ; and he, above all others, has ably used the vein of superstition which so deeply touches the 9 98 GERMAN LITERATURE. heart. His poems of "Lenora" and u . The "Wild Huntsman" are universally known and admired. The two brothers Scldegel are both renowned. William Schlegel, so well known for his critical judgment, has not, in his poetry, per- mitted himself to deviate in the slightest degree from the estab- lished rules of taste. His "Elegies" are written with a finely sus- tained delicacy and great classical beauty ; he has ably translated Shakspeare, and, being a man of extraordinary attainments, may be said to have reveled in the luxuries of literature' beyond all modern authors. His correctness of judgment is said to rival the united powers of Pope, Johnson, and Parr. William SchlegeVs work on " Dramatic Literature" is extensively known and valued. He was a critic, philologist, poet, philosopher, and man of the world; full of talent, and also full of modesty. William Schlegel is immortal- ized by Madame de Stael as the Prince Castel Forte, the faithful, humble, unaspiring friend of Corinne. Tiech is the literary colos- sus of Dresden. He is an original poet, and a powerful writer. His knowledge of English literature was extensive and profound; and he devoted several years to the translation and illustration of Shakspeare, in conjunction with William Schlegel. It is to be hoped that some translator will do Tiech an equal justice; for he is but slightly known to our reading world. Frederick Schlegel, in his knowledge of languages, equaled Sir William Jones. He occupied himself chiefly in philosophy ; one of his best works is entitled " The Philosophy of History." His talents and information were of the first class. The two Schlegels, Tiech, Novalis, and Wachenroder united their intellectual powers in a publication called " The Musenalmanach," which filled all Ger- many with delight and discussion. But we must look back at some of the prose writers of the eighteenth century, not yet named. Sulzer was a natural philosopher of Switzerland. He wrote " Con- siderations on the Works of Nature." Iselin was a celebrated phi- lanthropist. His chief works are " The Patriot," " Dreams of a Friend of Humanity," and others on the same subject. Moser was a writer of prodigious fecundity; his works amount to some hun- dreds of volumes, and arc chiefly on Law. llamann was called the Magi of the North, and wrote on mora] philosophy. Basedow NINETEENTH CENTURY. 99 is celebrated for his works on religion and education. ./. Bode translated Montaigne and Sterne. Christopher Bode was a learned orientalist. Schlosser wrote on philosophical and political subjects, and is greatly esteemed. The Germans have taken particular delight in examining the mysteries of the creation, the formation of ideas in the human mind, and the exercise of our faculties. The venerable Kant, living in the most secluded manner, found no greater happiness than in em- ploying his intellect on those subjects that belong to the nobler por- tion of our being. It is not possible to find an example among the ancients, where the principles professed were more rigidly or more constantly acted upon than with the German philosopher Kant. For some time, his work, entitled " A Criticism of Pure Reason," or, in other words, an examination of our primitive faculties, was little known; but, when the store of ideas it contains was discovered, the sensation produced in Germany was such that the literary and philosophic in every branch were powerfully influenced through- out the empire. At the time the work appeared, there existed but two great modern systems of observation on the human understand- ing : one, that of our philosopher, Locke, which attributes our ideas to our sensations; the other that of Des Cartes and Leibnitz, which endeavors to prove the soul a free agent. Kant sought to trace the limits of the two empires of sense and of soul, — of exterior nature, and interior nature; and the ability with which he has done this will not be easily equaled. Succeeding philosophers, while they admired, yet found fault with Kant; and in this, as in all human science, a new and ever-varying train of reasoning may follow to perpetuity. Jacobi, Ficlite, and Schelling presented fresh ideas to their countrymen; and many of these ideas are of the most enno- bling nature. Schelling is especially to be noticed; his sublime " Treatise on Natural Philosophy," and his " Philosophy of Nature," having placed him in the first rank of the writers of Germany. Jacobi is to be admired for his mild and lofty wisdom ; the devout- ness, the benignity, and the calm grandeur of his philosophical views. Ficlite wrote " On the Destination of Man;" " The Inter- nal Self;" and on " The Nature of the Scholar, and its Manifesta- tions." Hegel was a brother philosopher of the same age, whose 100 GERMAN LITERATURE. system was only the historical sequel of anterior schemes, and is conveyed in very learned and abstruse language. Henry Schubert wrote " The History of the Soul/' and other works tending towards his favorite research after the absolute. Frederick Schlegel then imported the singular and frequently beautiful ideas of the Eastern nations ; awakening those fancies of a race of Pre- Adamites which have again in their succession found both acquiescers and disbeliev- ers. Thus, it is natural for the unthinking to ask — Of what use, then, is all this ? Of what use is the grace presented by the sculp- tor, or the magic power of the painter? Of what use is all that is only beautiful ? It speaks to the soul, it whispers of that heaven from which we are exiled, and awakens the desire to regain it. Thus it is that philosophy (the beauty of thought) proves the dig- nity of man ; for he can occupy himself with the invisible and the eternal, although his grosser nature for awhile separates him from them. Hipjpel conveyed his philosophy in humorous tales, as in the " Lebenslaufe," in the same manner as F. H. Jacobi. Fries and Bouterwek were philosophers, amalgamating and smoothing the opinions of Kant and Jacobi. From Fries we have the novel of "Julius and Evagoras;" and from Bouterwek, "Die Religion der Vernunft." Ancillon's " Uber wahre Grosse," Teimemann's " Phi- losophy," Solger's " Esthetik," belong to this class of writings. The regular historians of Germany are generally writers of great merit, and their works are fully appreciated. Schlozer's " General History of the North," and " History of Lithuania," are copious and good. Schmidt wrote eleven volumes of " The History of the Germans," which has been continued by Dresch, and is a standard work. Schlosscr is a later writer ; his " History of the Iconoclast Emperors" ranks high; but Schiller's " Revolutions of the Low Countries" is one of the finest works in the language, and awakens both pleasure and interest by the noble sentiments of liberty and toleration which embellish it. John Miiller is diffusely eloquent. He was a native of Switzerland, and his annals of that country do honor to his mind and feelings; his account of the Rutli conspiracy excites the liveliest interest. Ott/ried Miftler was a native of Si- lesia. His " History of the Dorians," and other works, are well known in England. The excellent Herder has left a good work, en- NINETEENTH CENTURY. 101 titled " The Philosophy of History;" and which is, perhaps, of all German productions, one of the most pleasingly written. The chap- ters on Persepolis and Babylon, on the Hebrews and the Egyptians, are truly delightful. Amidst a vast variety of writings from the pen of Herder, we must signalize his poem of " The Cid," which is especially admired by the Spaniards. I feel compelled to place the great historian J\ T iebu7ir among the German literati • for, although born in Copenhagen, he was brought up from an infant in German}', and wrote in her tongue. At Berlin, he wrote " Memoirs on the Roman Colonies," and paved the way for a system of agricultural colonization. His profound views contributed greatly to the esta- blishment of the University of Berlin, where he gave lectures on Roman history. This he afterwards put into the form of a regular work, entitled " The History of Borne ;" and what he has completed is of the first class of excellence. Zscliokke has written " A His- tory of the Princes and People of Bavaria," and dramas and tales, besides moral philosophy. We have also " A History of the Eng- lish Revolution," from Dahlmann. Duller' s " Maria Theresa and her Times '" Becker's " Roman Scenes of the Times of Augustus," &c. ; Hitter's " History of Philosophy ;" Gervinus's " History of German Literature;" Beckman's " History of Inventions;" Becker's "Weltgeschichte," and " Historical Tales;" Rottech's "Die Allge- meine Weltgeschichte;" Ranke's " History of the Popes," and " History of the Reformation," both works ably translated into English by Mrs. Austin; Heeren's well-known historical productions, and the historical works of Arndt, Leo, Returner, and Gcerres, all of which have decided merit. Schubart was a man of wild and ardent enthusiasm; his best poem is called "Der ewige Jude." Blumauer travestied the iEneid. Matihison was a writer of pensive verses ; his best poem is " Elysium." Seewis had the same tone of composition. HebeVs best piece is "Die Weise," a pastoral. Buerde is distinguished for his piety and harmony; he translated the "Paradise Lost." Conz translated JEschylus, and wrote " Gesanges Macht." Halen is more valued in his biographical works, "The Life of Count Munich" and " Peter the Great," than in his poems. RfejfeZ is known as the author of some good fables in verse and tales, and some feeble 9* 102 GERMAN LITERATURE. dramatic productions. Kind has great fancy and scenic effect in his poems; "Der Freischtitz," as a drama, is from his pen, and som« agreeable minor pieces, as "Der Stieglitz" and the legend " Der Grosse Christoph." Eberliard is the clever writer of " Hann- chen und die Kiichlein." Schulze is highly graceful and ideal; " Csecilie" is his chief poem. Count Platen has been highly dis- tinguished as a poet ; his " G-azeln" are beautiful examples of grace j his comedies have much merit, and he was a satirist of considerable talent. PyrTcer's best poem is "Rodolph von Habsburgh." Zed- litz is renowned for his " Todtenkranze," as a poem, and for several dramas on the Spanish model. Theodore Koerner, Maurice Arrtdt, and Schenhendorf 'are distinguished as the patriotic trinity of poets; their war-songs are full of fire and energy. We have yet to name a class of lyric poets, styled " The Suabian School." Of these, Uhland holds the first rank; his "Popular Songs," and patriotic drama of " Ernst von Schwaben," are espe- cially noticed. Kerner is highly imaginative, and more spiritualized than Uhland. JSchioabbe is clever in describing scenery, and is an ardent imitator of Uhland. Ruechert has great command of lan- guage: his "Bausteine" are charming poems. Lenan's poem of " Savonarola" has great beauties. Anastasius Griln has imitated the Nibelungenlied, in narrating the deeds of the Emperor Maxi- milian I. Gaudy is a beautiful versifier, smooth and flowing, and possessing much grace of expression; he is a general favorite in his original pieces, and has well translated several of Beranger's. Frcili- grath has been greatly and deservedly admired by his countrymen for his ingenious and very original compositions ; his versification is musical, and he has given variety to his poems by the introduc- tion of the marvelous scenes of other countries, and the wild beau- ties of nature in other climes. " The Traveler's Vision" and " The Emigrants" are cited among his best poems. Hoffman con Fallers- leben is clever in humorous political songs. Beckc is an enthusiastic lyrist, who adopts the questions of the day for the subjects of his muse. Kopitscli has great originality in the forms of his verse. Simrock has written many beautiful ballads. Pfizer is a follower of Uhland. Weseriberg and Knappe are poets of great sweetness on religious subjects. NINETEENTH CENTURY. 103 To this list must be added the writers distinguished as "Young Germany;'' who rendered themselves obnoxious to all well-thinking people by the extravagance of their opinions. Gutzkoiv, Laube, Heine, Mundt, and Wwnbarg were the chief. Heine's tragedies are of very indifferent repute, although possessing occasional beau- ties; but his prose works are full of grace and spirit. Gutzkoio's "Blasedow" is written in imitation of Richter; Laube' s work on German literature is esteemed; Mundt is valued for his criticisms; Wienharg was less influenced by the refined sensualism and elegant lyrics of Heine than Lauhe; Wienbargr's "Holland in 1831 and 1832/' and his "Account of Heligoland/' are esteemed. Eichen- dorf and F. Mueller are poets of the Romantic Ideal School. The philosophic humorists are a class of writers almost peculiar to Germany. Langbein has written witty and amusing stories, and several good ballads. ThilmmeVs " Wilhelmine" is full of drollery, and is of classical reputation in its line. NbvaMs is one of the purest ideal writers; his " Heinrich von Ofterdingen" is a novel full of lofty and sublime reflections. But Jean Paid Richter is the most remarkable writer of this class. His works, in sixty volumes, are, however, no less multifarious than extensive; embracing sub- jects of all kinds, from the highest problems of philosophy, and the most passionate poetic delineations, to " Golden Rules for the Weather Prophet," and " Instructions in the Art of Falling Asleep." His chief productions, however, are a species of novels, of which "Titan" and "Hesperus" are the largest and the best; but the term novelist, as we understand it, would ill describe so vast and discursive a genius ; for, with all his grotesque tumultuous pleasantry, Richter is a man of truly earnest, nay, high and solemn character; and seldom writes without a meaning far beyond the sphere of common romances. His beloved topic was the immor- tality of the soul; and he died while engaged in enlarging and re- modeling a work on this subject. The unfinished manuscript was borne upon his coffin to the burial vault; and Klopstock's hymn, " Thou shalt raise my Soul," can seldom have been sung with more appropriate application than over the grave of Richter. There is, however, in his writings that which dies not; that beauty and earn- estness of soul, that spirit of humanity, of love, of mild wisdom and 104 GERMAN LITERATURE. humor, over which the vicissitudes of mode have no sway; this is that excellency which alone confers immortality on writings. Theodore Hoffmann's fantastic genius is known throughout Eu- rope ; his " Tales" are the delight of readers of all ages, as being full of pleasant humor and deep meaning. Benzel is highly divert- ing; u Das goldne Kalb" is one of his best efforts. Saphir, Glas- brenner, Mises, and Lax are writers in the same style. The tales of Lewis Tieck are of a different cast; his style is distinguished as peculiarly characteristic of his country, and his writings bear the impression of the Middle Ages. Some of his best stories are " Phan- tasus," " Liebeszauber," " Die Gemalde," " Der Gelehrte." His genius is discursive and his mind highly polished, so that he has tried his powers in a variety of other forms of composition, and is one of the most distinguished of G-erman living authors. Lev: is von Arnim had the true spirit of the Romantic School; in other words, he placed the soul as the chief source of intellect, and ad- dressed himself to all the nobler ideas and sentiments of man. His " Grafin Dolores" and " Isabelle von iEgypten" are considered the best of his novels. Chamisso's " Peter Schlemil" may be placed among the humorist productions; his lyric productions are original and often masterly. Tieck, Fovque, and Arnim have also considerable reputation as poets. Lewis, King of Bavaria, has written some pleasing lyrics. Toss has ably translated Homer, Hesiocl, Virgil, and Theocritus; and his own idyls are much esteemed. Menzel is a powerful critic and historiographer. Jacob Grimm is noted for his German grammar, and for his enthusiastic devotion to the ancient literature of his country; his brother, Wil- liam Grimm, has written also on the old German literature. Although Grilprazer be far inferior in genius to Goethe and Schiller, he is looked upon as decidedly the best of those numerous minor poets who have written, with a sort of mania, for the stage. Byron's praise, however, stamped the seal of true poetry on the writings of Grilprazer. But we must mention now a great num- ber of dramatic writers, who have endeavored to amuse their coun- trymen, if not to instruct them. Their works are generally very mediocre; but, as a phase of the German literature, they must be noticed here. We will first name Grilprazer's best pieces; which NINETEENTH CENTURY. 105 are, " The Woman Ancestor," " Sappho," " The Golden Fleece," u The Dream of Life," which is a tender graceful play. Grilpra- zer is considered to have followed Werner and Millner. The most remarkable work of Werner is a tragedy, called " Der 24te Feb- ruar." The best play of the last named is " The Maid of Albania/' " The Guilt" was also successful. From his very quarrelsome na- ture, and savage disputes with poets and booksellers, M. Millner was called the wild beast of Weissenfels, a little town where he esta- blished a theatre. Honivald infused the tastes of Werner and Kotzebue into his plays; his best are, " The Going Home," "The Pharos," " The Portrait." Then came some disciples of Schiller, at a very humble distance; less successful than the above, but well known in Germany. " Earner's " Zriny," and " Rosamunde;" Ma- li/z's " Old Student," and " Hans Kohlas;" Sclienk's " Belisarius." Auffenberg took history for the base of his dramas, and wrote " The Lion of Curdistan;" "Pizarro" and "Xerxes" are his best. Ucli- tritz was successful in his " Alexander and Darius '" Zedlitz in " The Star of Seville;" each of these was popular in his day; but at length Raupacli swallowed up all these little reputations, and, although far from great in talent himself, contrived to usurp the whole stage of Germany for at least ten years. He was the Scribe of Germany, and, in spite of critics, has made a splendid fortune. In 1826, his piece of "Isidore and Olga" had amazing success; also his "Tasso," " School of Life," " A Hundred Years Ago ;" and besides innumerable others, seven volumes of historical dramas on the subject of " Hohenstaufen." Grabbe succeeded Rawpach, but was unsuccessful; he endeavored to introduce another style, wrote captiously against Shakspeare and his admirers, believed him- self a splendid poet, and died in misery, consumed with jealousy, yet decidedly gifted. Karl Immermann 's best tragedies are " Alexis," " The Victims of Silence," and " The Tragedy of the Tyrol." After these, followed what the Germans call effect pieces. The Princess Amelia, of Saxony, under the name of Amelia Heiter (serene), wrote with simplicity and sentiment, and a sound though commonplace moral. Her best plays are " Falsehood and Truth," " The Farmer," and " The Pupil." The Duke of Mecklenburg 106 GERMAN LITERATURE. took the name of W&isshaupt (Whitehead), and wrote " The Iso- lated Ones/' remarkable for its good dialogue. Frederick Holm wrote "Greseldis," "The Alchyinist," "The Son of the Desert/' and many other dramas. Mosen wrote " Otto III.," and "The Bride of Florence." Karl Gutzfiow was more original and more fortunate in the tragedy of " Monaldeschi," and the comedy of " Rococo j" but comedy is the barren side of the German theatre. Bauer nf eld is quoted as its best supporter. The people of Vienna delight in merry nonsense, and have pieces en- titled, "Popular Comedies," "Magic Drollery," "Local Farce," "Vienna Piece;" this last is synonymous with all that is laughable. Raimund must close this list, and is reserved the last as being not the least. Original and clever, simple-hearted and pure, Raimund was always teaching contentedness by means as innocent as they were delightful; and, though his pretty verses are full of gayety, with minglings of dreams, and wonders, and spirits, yet they have much earnest reality; but the stage is decidedly in a very low con- dition in Germany, both as to authors and acters. We must notice Eicliendorff and La Motte Fouque as among the best modern novelists; also Sternberg, Amelia von Schoppe, and blind George Lotz. FouquS has, however, but little judgment; his best tales are "The Magic Ring," "Undine," "The Hero of the North," "Sigurd the Serpent Killer." Kind was both novelist and dramatist of second-rate excellence. Heller's "Tales from the South," TarnowsM's "Wood Demons," and "The Tales" of Dr. Toepfer deserve popularity. Immermann's story of "Mun- chausen" is a clever satire on the present age of intellect in Ger- many. Heinrich Steffen's "Facts and Feelings from Life" is a work replete with interest. Iloffmeister' s "Life of Schiller" is valued. Bouterwek's "History of Poetry and Eloquence among the Moderns" is celebrated, and more especially that portion of it which treats of the literature of Spain. Schoeffer assisted in Dr. Valpy's edition of the classics. German travelers generally write with gayety and amiability. Bvsegger's "Travels in Egypt;" IleugcVs "Travels in Cashmere;" "Naples and the Neapolitans," by Mayer} the lively Countess Halm Halm; and the indefatigable Prince Puchler Muskau, have NINETEENTH CENTURY. 107 all delighted the public of Germany; while all Europe has enjoyed the travels of the scientific and enlightened Alexander von Humboldt, which have been most ably rendered into English by Maria Williams. His " Kosrnos," which Colonel Sabine has made familiar to English readers, will carry his name down to the latest posterity. Among the modern industrious literary men of Germany, John Frederick Cotta has displayed great zeal as a publisher. Cotta is the Aldo Manuzio of Germany; he had that superior tact which discovers real genius; and by his encouragement and perseverance, several of the most distinguished writers of his country have been preserved from oblivion. He it was who also founded many of the best literary Journals, in the direction of which he was aided by the first men of talent. Cotta was created a baron, and has received innumerable honors from cotemporary princes. In no country of Europe has there been more earnest labor in biblical research and religious philosophy than in Germany. Fred- eric Strauss, with his " Life of Jesus," is at the head of one party at the present day. An opposite party is headed by Neander; while the writings of the celebrated polemics Schleiermacher and Marheineke form the connecting links between the two parties. There are also distinguished writers of the Jewish persuasion; the acute inquirer Zunz, and his fellow-laborers Furst and Jost, Manheimer, Riesser, &c. The learned Dr. Geiger is remarked for his liberality of sentiments, in this persuasion. In Oriental literature, the Germans have many learned inquirers : as, Gesenius, Bopp, Freytag, Rosenmi'dler, Ewald, &c. In ancient German literature, Yonder Hagen, Biisching, Beneche, Lachmann, Schmeller, &c. are distinguished. Dr. Wolff, Professor of Modern Literature at the University of Jena, has enriched his country with many valuable works, both original and critical. His "Selections from the German Poets/' from the "French Poets," and from the "Italian Poets," each with biographical notes, are all much valued. As political philosophers, they have Savigny, Stahl, Hullmann, Welcker, Schubert, who are elaborate jurists. In natural philosophy, the most eminent writers are Alexander von Humboldt, Buch, Oken, Link, Broicn, Erichson, Encke, &c. &c. 108 GERMAN LITERATURE. There is a species of publication much delighted in by the Ger- mans (and which the English have of late years, in some degree, imitated), that must not be omitted here. I mean the Annuals, or Pockcl-boo7es. The German annuals have long been admitted within the literary pale, and the greatest men have voluntarily chosen this vehicle of communication with the public. Goethe continued to the last to present, in this manner, his New Year's greeting to his coun- trymen. Schiller's "Thirty Years' War" was written for a lady's almanac; the philosophic Kant and Jacobi, the majestic Klopstoch, the wild and original Hoffmann, have, in this insinuating form, in- structed the public with their wisdom, or delighted and agitated it with their striking and grotesque contributions. Here the graceful "Undine" of Fouque' first awakened sympathy for her fate; Apel, with the invisible world at his command, bewitched us with his dark and terrible fantasies; Laun, with his alternate tales of broad humor and romance ; Lafontaine, with his calm domestic pictures of Ger- man life; Blumenhagen and Vandervelde, with their sketches of chivalry and the Middle Ages; Richter, with his quips and cranks, his "Selections from the Devil's Papers," and "Dog-post Days," at once the laughing and the crying philosopher; have all in this shape passed before the public, in every aspect of the terrible, the tragical, the tranquil, or the humorous. There are but few years in which one delightful volume, at least, of elegant extracts from the " pocket-boohs^ might not be made up. The female talent of Germany has been considerable. Madame Kaubert is remarkable for her clever romances. Sophia Brentano and Johanna Schopenliaur are well known for their romances, and the latter for her works on art. Amelia Imlwff was distinguished for her knowledge of languages, her learning, and her critical taste in works of art, as well as for her poetic genius. Louisa von Kar- tell in has left several poems of merit; and her granddaughter, 1I<1- CJierzy, has written a tale of chivalry, called "The Three White Roses," with many other poems, and the opera of "Eury- anthe," for Weber to set to music. Caroline Fichkr is celebrated as a writer of historical romances. Frederica Bruhn has left "Travels in Italy." Johanna Weissenthurn is a popular dramatic writer. Faiu>?/ Tarnow is a very prolific writer : her novel called NINETEENTH CENTUui. 109 "Thekla" is much esteemed; and Theresa Hale* has given charm- in a' volumes of these fascinating productions to her delighted coun- trywomen. The novels of the Countess Halm Halm are favorites of the present day in Germany. There are three ladies who are peculiarly distinguished by the Germans as having given great de- light by their very decided German intellectual organization. These are Ralicl von Ense, Bettina von Amim, and Charlotte Stieglitz. The first is chiefly known to us by her husband's work, entitled "Kahel." The second has published her correspondence with Goethe; also "Die Gunderode," and her " Diary. ;; The last-named published a book, simply bearing her name for its title. At one time, a multitude of novels, written in a style of very false senti- ment, inundated Germany; and which, for a while, naturally turned into ridicule moonlight, and bubbling streams, and valleys, and shady groves, and, in short, all that is usually selected and collected to hush-a-bye the mind. Yet there is in most people such a natural disposition to be pleased with easy reading, that it is quite in vain to war against this numerous and indefatigable class of writers. The fact is, that all human beings feel it so delightful to love and to be loved, that this hymn of life may be modulated to infinity, and the heart will yet turn to it without satiety. But, be it well remem- bered, for it is a thing impossible to dissimulate, that even the best writings of this kind, too much indulged in, do harm. They have laid open all that is secret and should be sacred in our sentiments; and we can feel nothing now without recollecting having read of the sensation; so that every veil of the heart seems torn away; and while simplicity of character is no longer believed in, we shrink from expressing a feeling, which comes in gushing sincerity from the heart, lest we may be called artificial copyists. Thus we grow up among our fellow-men, cold and measured and unbrotherly, and no longer the loving creatures the great and ever-loving Creator in- tended us to be! Besides, a mind accustomed to this perpetual novel-reading, is rarely acquainted with itself: it is flattered and soothed into a quiescent enjoyment of its faculties, without inquiring why they were bestowed; it reflects not — it sees through the dark medium of human passions only ; it soars not — it is satisfied with earthly possessions, and sees no realm beyond the present for its 10 110 GERMAN LITERATURE. happiness, little dreaming that "death can hide from human sight sweet secrets I" It can never acquire strength to cast aside the clog- ging depravity of its animal nature, and gaze, with grateful pleasure, on that moment when its mortal garb shall be removed for the wed- ding-garment of a more perfect being; and thus it grows old in the weakness of youth, cheating itself with a perpetual illusion, and forgetting that the present stage of our existence is but one step in the Eternity to which we have been destined from the commence- ment of Time ! The Literature of Germany has very singular and marked phases. In the eleventh and twelfth centuries, the Minnesingers and Swabian poets rendered themselves immortal, and greatly advanced the civilization of their country when the rest of Europe was in darkness. In the thirteenth and fourteenth, the unique spec- tacle of schools of artisan poets produced a universal love of lite- rature among the middle and lower ranks of the people, while the nobles shunned it. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, reli- gious polemics occupied almost every pen. In the seventeenth, a love of poetry began to awaken, as if to soothe the popular mind after the long civil wars. This increased through the eighteenth cen- tury, when we find, at its close, one of the brightest constellations of intellectual talent that has ever been known in Europe. The opening of the nineteenth century saw a continuance of the same pre-emi- nence, and the Germans now hold one of the first places in the scale of merit as a cultivated and deep-thinking people. The following is a list of books that may be further consulted on the Literature of Germany : — Hamherger' 's Lex. of Ger. Auth. ; MeiiseVs Lex. of Ger. Auth.; Wetterlin's Man. Ger. Poets; Boutencd-'s Hist. Poetry and EL; Panzer's An. Ger. Lit.; Boomer's Ess. Swab. Poets; C. II Schmidt's Ger. Theat.; Koch's Hist. Ger. Lit.; Mad. de Stacl's Germany; Mcnzcl's History of German Literature. FRENCH LITERATURE. Ill THE LITERATURE OF FRANCE. At the commencement of the Christian era, the conquest of Graul had greatly increased the glory of Rome, and was a means of the rapid improvement of the subdued natives. The victors favored every advance in art and science; and very shortly academies were formed in all the principal towns. A crowd of clever men, in every style of writing, was the consequence; and the Latin authors of this period do as much honor to France as to their Roman parentage. Those who became distinguished at a distance from Rome, were drawn towards her by the hope of advantage, if not by her own anxious desire to be the pre-eminent mistress of all that was great in her empire. Then this mighty empire began to fail, by its own excess of pride, and those kingdoms it had called its provinces rose upon its ruins. About the middle of the fifth century, the Franks invaded Graul, and their long struggles with the Romans was concluded by the battle of Soissons; but the Latin tongue remained sole mistress of letters, although by degrees it lost its purity, and became daily more barbarous, from the necessity of expressing the half-civilized ideas of the Franks. The period which elapsed between the time of Clovis and that of Charlemagne can only be considered as a dark night, occasionally interrupted by flashes of lightning. The Archbishop St. Remy, of Rheims, distinguished himself by his religious and political elo- quence ; Gregory of Tours wrote the cotemporary history in six- teen books; and, notwithstanding his ignorance and credulity, he is valued for his faithfulness. We must remark that about this time rhymes were introduced in Latin verses, the first examples of which were in popular songs, composed in bad Latin, to celebrate the victories of Clotaire, one of the Merovingian kings. Charlemagne engaged learned men from England and Germany, to come and cultivate his people. Flaccus Alcuinus, a native of 112 FRENCH LITERATURE. Yorkshire, was very learned, and was sent by King Offa on an em- bassy to Charlemagne, whom he pleased so much, that Alcuinus was persuaded to remain at the court of the French monarch, and was employed to dispute the heresy of Felix, Bishop of Urgel. The University of Paris, and several others, are indebted to Alcuinus, for their foundation. Eginhart left a work, entitled "The Life and Actions of Char- lemagne," and an interesting correspondence on the events of the age. Fredegairius, surnamed the Scholar, wrote Chronicles in five books, and the continuation of Gregory of Tours. Rohan Maur composed a glossary Latin-tudesque, which was a precious treasure, with an encyclopaedia of belles lettres, and of the manner of teach- ing them. After Charlemagne, France fell again into its former darkness, and remained in it during nearly all the time of the second race of her kings. Yet the establishment of the Normans in France, under Charles III., influenced the language and litera- ture. These Scandinavian conquerors brought that love of the mar- velous common to warlike people, and also a calm and measured judgment, which was wanting to the inhabitants of the South. Under the third race of kings France fell into feudality, and the literature of the country took its tone of chivalry as a natural con- sequence ; for, the moment there was a knight to protect the weak, there was also a poet to sing his praise. The soft climate and rich soil of the south of France left leisure moments to its inhabitants, and this leisure soon produced a sweet and graceful poetry. The poets of the South were styled Trouba- dours: they went from castle to castle celebrating the brave, and praising the beautiful j their poetry was chiefly lyric. In the North, the same kind of minstrels wore called Trouveres, and though infe- rior in harmony to their brethren of the South, were greatly superior in wit and invention. For a nearer view of the Troubadours and Trou ceres, who were very numerous, we must refer our readers to the Able Millot's and to Raynouard's literary history of these poets; and also to Legrand's " Fabliaux." This class of poets existed from the end of the eleventh century to the beginning of the fifteenth, the twelfth being their golden age. Their poems were entitled "Songs of Exploits;" THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 113 " Romances of the Twelve Peers/' because the Peers of Charle- magne are their principal heroes; also "Songs of the Knights of the Round Table." Thihault, Count of Champagne and King of Navarre, was one of them, and, in conjunction with many more, used to judge the works of the others on certain fixed days. At length, Clement Isaure established the Floral Games in 1325, when a golden violet, or a silver marigold, was given as the prize for the best poem. The ladies were anxious to join in this universal song, and the gay meeting of minstrels from all parts of France gave Toulouse, once in the year, an air of activity which was not natural to that peaceful city. William of Lorris wrote the " Romance of the Rose." Brunetto Latini wrote his "Little Treasure" in French, although himself an Italian, and the preceptor of Dante. Prince Charles of Orleans, taken prisoner by the English at the battle of Agincourt, amused his hours of captivity by writing light and graceful poems ; and, under his pen, the language began to assume an agreeable and pleasing turn; while Alain Chartier, in his poem of "The Four Ladies," showed how much of its present simple clearness was then forming. Corbeil, called Villon (or the Thief), made verses remarkable for their spirit ; and Villon showed a softness and purity of mind little in unison with his manners. Joinville wrote, with a very pleasing simplicity, the "Life of St. Louis," his king and friend. Basselin was the Anacreon of this age. Clotilde de Surville is the reputed writer, in this age, of some very sweet poems, which have, however, lately been attributed to a M. de Surville, an editor of the present century. In the thirteenth century, the religious ceremonies took a dramatic character, and soon after the churches were literally little else than theatres. The Brothers of the Passion, an order of monks, invented religious plays, called Mysteries and Moralities, and these sad mix- tures of superstition and ignorance were performed in the churches. By degrees, they added morality and manners to help to strengthen these representations, and thus regular dramas sprung up. Common sense soon indicated that the church was not a fit place for such diversions ; for the naturally gay temperament of the French made them encourage every approach to the ridiculous and droll, so that 10* 114 FRENCH LITERATURE. the vis comica rose to a height unbecoming a place of worship. "L'Avocat patelin," or "The crafty Lawyer/' is looked upon as a masterpiece of this age. The Philosophy of these first ages is confined to a single branch, Theology, with its dependencies, morality and casuistry. The cele- brated Abelard is at the head of the mystic school ; wishing to blend Plato's ideas with the principles of Christianity, allowing the judg- ment of each individual to interpret the Scriptures, they built their theories simply on the love of Grod and our neighbor. The impetu- ous St. Bernard opposed their doctrine as leading to heresy by too great indulgence, and insisting on the strict orthodoxy of invariable observance of the sacred text. The most remarkable work of the times was written by a native of Burgundy, called Gerson, chancel- lor of the University of Paris. His book, entitled "The Imitation of Jesus Christ," is the nearest approach to the divine spirit of Christ which has yet emanated from the human mind, and may be considered a benefit bequeathed to suffering humanity. It has been generally attributed to Thomas d Keinpis; but the above has been completely substantiated as the fact. In regard to History, Yille- hardouin's account of the transitory "Conquest of Constantinople" has a roughness of antiquity which pleases much ; it belongs to the thirteenth century. Froissart is the charming detailer of the four- teenth century, and in his "Chronicles" gives an admirable picture of the times. Christine of Pisan has left us the "Annals of the Reign of Charles V. ft and in the fifteenth century Comines set an example of that gravity in writing history which its subject assur- edly deserves. The more general study of Greek and Latin, the discoveries of the fifteenth century, and the wars in Italy, give a new character to the French language at this period, and prepare the way for the brilliant literature which is to follow. In 1512, Louis XII. ordered that Latin should no longer be used in the law courts; but habit had rendered the use of it so natural, that even a second order was unattended to, and it was not till after repeated commands from Francis I. that the custom was abolished. The taking of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453, had obliged the learned men of Greece to seek protection in the West of Europe. SIXTEENTH CENTUEY. 115 One of the most distinguished among thern, Lascaris, founded the royal library of Fontainbleau, and that of the college of Paris. Francis I. was anxious for every kind of glory, and became an ar- dent protector of letters. By his taste, and by that of his talented sister, the way was opened to the first really literary era of France. Marguerite de Valois wrote a volume of pretty, but too free, poesies. Clement Marot, the valet of Francis L, showed acute judgment and exalted taste; his poems are of various kinds, as elegies, sonnets, psalms, &g. His father, Jean Marot, had been distinguished as a poet. Francis I was himself a poet, and his son Henry II. wrote grace- ful verses to Diana of Poitiers. Lemaire wrote some considerable poems: as "Triumph of the Virtuous Lover/' "The Green Lady," and o'thers. Crestin was the author of " Chronicles in Verse" and various "Royal Songs." Chevalet wrote the "Mystery of St. Christopher." Parmentier wrote the morality of "The Glorious Assumption of our Lady." Roger Bontems was celebrated for his facetious satires, and other poems. Oliver, Bishop of Angers, wrote Latin poems and others. Grognet wrote "Chronicles," and various poems. Du Guillet wrote verses in honor of his wife. Stephen Dolet was burnt as an atheist at Paris; his poem, entitled "Brief Discourse on the French Republic," was burnt some years after the poet. Abundance, a notary of Bazoches, wrote the mysteries" of "The Passion," "The Three Kings," and others. The Boucliet family were prolific poets of the same class. Simon Grebau and his brother Arnold were celebrated as poets. Magny wrote odes and other poems. Jean de la Taille wrote comedies, and his brother Jacques two tragedies. Michael Nostradamus, a celebrated astrolo- ger, left some specimens of his talent as a poet. Hereof, Bishop of Digne, wrote a poem entitled "The Perfect Friend," which he left unfinished. Borderie wrote a pendant to this, and called it " The Court Friend." Boetie was a friend of Montaigne, and wrote poems in French, in Latin, and Greek; besides works in prose. Charles IX. wrote verses to Ronsarcl. This latter was a poet of talent, who delighted in the plaintive and tender : he contributed greatly to the improvement of the French language. His works were published in four quarto volumes during his lifetime, and consist of poems of all kinds. The name of Habert is distinguished in the middle of 116 FRENCH LITERATURE. the sixteenth century, as that of a family remarkable for intellectual talent. We find Francois Habert translated Ovid, and wrote poems; Pierre wrote " The Mirror of Virtue ;" Isaac left poems ; another member was Bishop of Vabres, and a poet ; and Suzanne, their sister, left religious manuscripts. The Abbe Billy wrote sonnets and other poems. Dufaur Pibrac wrote a poem on "The Pleasures of a Rustic Life/' and many others. Muret wrote odes and hymns. The two brothers Amboise each attempted tragedies. Pic Bartas wrote "Uranie" and "Judith/' with other poems. Baif translated from Sophocles, and wrote original poems. La Jessie wrote agree- able songs. Arena was celebrated as a macaronic poet. Polet wrote canticles and other poems. Octavian de Gelais was celebrated at the opening of the sixteenth century as a poet; and his son,' Mel- lin, at its close, was surnamed the French Ovid. Remi Belleau was another macaronic poet. Claude de Pontoux imitated Petrarch with success. In the theatre, Jodelle tried the first regular pieces, in imitation of the Greeks. The representation of "Cleopatra" was opposed, but the poets and men of letters got it played before Henry IL, and its success determined the directors of the theatre to substitute Tragedy and Comedy in the place of the Mysteries and Moralities hitherto approved. Pe la Peruse, St. Geloise, Grevin, and, above all, Gamier, followed; preparing the way for the highest species of composition in the drama. Among the prose writers of the sixteenth century, we find Seysscl, who wrote the "History of Louis XII." Bude, who founded the College of France, and wrote "Commentaries on Government." The two Chamjriers, father and son; the elder wrote a "Chronicle of the Princes of Savoy;" and the younger, "On the Singularities of the G-auls." The Bellay family were another example of re- markable talent; William wrote Memoirs in Latin, and translated them, for Francis I., into French; Jean wrote poems of various kinds; Martin wrote Memoirs, which were afterwards added to these of his brother; R6n6 was the fourth of these distinguished brothers, and was, as Bishop of Mans, noted for his eloquence. Eustadic Bellay was Bishop of Paris, and a cousin of the same family; Joachim, a chancellor of Paris, and Jean, the cardinal, were favor- SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 117 itea of Francis I. Joachim Bella y wrote a work entitled "The Defence and Illustration of the French Tongue. " The Abbe Vata- l!e was the restorer of Hebraic studies, and wrote "Notes and Lessons on the Bible. " Herberay translated "Ainadis de Gaul" from the Portuguese. The family of Robert Estienne (or Stephens, as it is frequently translated) deserve peculiar notice, as having, by their industry and good taste as printers, immensely facilitated the progress of letters. Robert possessed an accurate knowledge of Hebrew, Greek, and Latin; his son Henry was equally eminent as a scholar; and for three or four generations the labors of this family enlightened Europe. Dumoulin was a very celebrated jurisconsult of the sixteenth century; his works form five folio volumes. Jean du Tillet wrote "An Account of the Wars of the Albigenses." Villcgagnon wrote a "History of the Defence of Malta against the Turks." The unfortunate Admiral Coligny left "Letters" and other writings. Tavanes de Saidx wrote "Memoirs." The al- chemist Jaques Gohorry wrote the "Lives of Charles VIII. and Louis XII.," and had pretensions to be a poet. Blaise de Montluc wrote "Memoirs:" this work was named by Plenry IV., of France, "The Soldier's Bible." The unhappy Vcdee was burnt at Paris; he wrote the "Beatitude of Christians." Languet wrote a "Relation of the Expedition of Augustus of Saxony against William Grum- bach." Belief orest wrote the " History of the Nine Charleses of France." The Morel family was another succession of distinguished printers. Argentre wrote "The History of Bretagne." Paradin wrote " The History of our Times," and other works. Castleneau wrote "Memoirs from 1559 to 1570." Francois GrucU was a laborious bibliographer, and prepared two works entitled " The Li- brary;" but only one has come down to us. Jean Bodin has left a work entitled "The Republic," which is celebrated. In Philosophy, theology continued its stormy debates. Rabelais, in his burlesque epic of " Gargantua," attacked the prejudices of the times, and through cynicisms and buffooneries, laid down the basis of an excellent system of education. His writings created a decided change of ideas on many important subjects, and form an epoch in the literature of his country; but they are disgraced by the coarsest indecencies : yet Rabelais has been classed among the great 118 FRENCH LITERATURE. creative geniuses of France. Montaigne, disdainiDg the mask of allegory, made the voice of reason to be listened to. In his " Es- says," he clothes philosophy with the sparklings of wit and familiar conversation, without taking away any part of its exalted end, and has made himself a name which will be reverenced as long as the French language shall endure. The religious eloquence of this period is represented by Calvin and Be Beze; while IS Hospital, in his political discourses, left models of probity and good sense. Brantome, the court historian, has left " Chronicles of the Illustrious Men and Women of his Age," written with a simple grace, but with too little restraint. The virtuous Be Thou (Thuanus) opposed his gravity and his purity to the lightness and corruptness of the times; his " Universal History" is looked upon as a model of Latin elo- quence. Translation became fashionable at this time in France. Amyot so charmingly gave the beauties of Plutarch's Lives and versions of the Greek writings of the Lower Empire, that he has rarely been surpassed in his own country as a translator. The memorable satire of " Menippee," composed by a body of Ro- man Catholic wits, is said to have been of greater service to the Pro- testant Henry of Navarre, than all his armies. In short, this sixteenth century effaced all the anterior centuries ; and the cultivation of let- ters rose to considerable distinction. The civil wars ceased at the commencement of the reign of Louis XIII. ; G-aston, Duke of Orleans, opened learned conferences in his palace ; the city imitated the court, and private individuals had also their literary meetings. A little later it was, at the Hotel Rambouillet, that the first people of the kingdom used to meet for the pleasure of discussing the writings of the world; and this gave astonishing impetus to the progress of literature. In the mean time, the members of the Port Royal Aca- demy carried grammar and logic to a high point of perfection ; and Louis XIII. , by an edict, formed the French Academy, to exercise a providential care over the language and literature of the country. The effects were soon perceptible; but the writings of the seven- teenth century were characterized by an imitation of the ancients, and could not yet deserve the distinctive epithet of a national lit< >a- ture. All authors aimed rather at a brilliant regularity of expres- SEVENTEENTH CENTUEY. 119 sion, than at the noble darings of thought; there was wit, rather than genius, form rather than sentiment; yet this is the age of which the natives are most proud, and which in itself is decidedly the type of their taste. We must notice, at the opening of this century, the death of the Bishop of Chalons-sur-Saone, Pontus de Tyard, the last of the cele- brated pleiade of poets; which constellation consisted of Gervin, Jodclle, Belleau, Gamier, La Perouse, and Ronsard. Nicholas Rapin wrote French and Latin poems, and assisted in the satire of " Menippee." Bertant was another assistant, and also wrote various minor poems. The u Satires" of Regnier are celebrated. Durant was another poet of the " Menippee." HonorS d' TJrfel is famed for his pastoral entitled " Astrea." Malslierbes attained great sweetness, and was one of the most celebrated poets of the middle period of French literature; he is frequently called the father of French poetry. B' Orleans, known as an impetuous leaguer, is the author of a number of canticles and other works. Maynard wrote epigrams, sonnets, and other minor poems. Malleville was author of " La Belle Matineuse," a sonnet that has been much admired, and other minor poems. Baro wrote indifferent dramatic pieces. Rotrou was more renowned in his tragic efforts. He wrote thirty-seven drama- tic pieces, of which " The Hypochondriac" is the best. Tristan, called the Hermit, wrote tragedies and minor poems of indifferent merit. Beryerac was another writer of tragedies of the indifferent class. Ryer wrote nineteen tragedies of little merit. The witty but scurrilous JScarron belongs to the poets of this age ; he wrote also several novels. Dufresnoy published his " Art of Painting," in agreeable verse, which has been translated by Dryden and Mason. Racan wrote eclogues and odes of some merit. Pes Barreaux wrote a sonnet on his conversion, which is remarkable. Chaplain was for a long time looked upon as the chief poet of his age; but the ridicule of Boileau overpowered his former fame, and he has sunk to mediocrity. Gilbert wrote tragedies that are now almost forgotten. Montfleury wrote comedies. Chapelle wrote various minor poems. Rene Rapin wrote a poem entitled " The Garden," and many smaller poems. Pradon was author of some tragedies, which in their day were admired more than some of Racine's. 120 FRENCH LITERATURE. The " Phedra" of Pradon was applauded at the very moment when the " Phedra" of Racine was condemned. The French are remarkable for their Memoirs; among which those of Tiller oi, De Torcy, Turenne, Cardinal d' Ossat, and De Gourville deserve notice here. In poetry, Voiture and Bcnserade fell into affectation, from a too great straining after elegance, and divided the world of letters into two factions; one, called Uranists, partisans of Voiture, who had written a remarkable sonnet addressed to Urania; the others, called Jobists, partisans of Benserade, who had written another remarkable sonnet, in which he alludes to the misfortunes of Job : posterity has decided the contention, by forget- ting both, except for their having written French many degrees purer than their predecessors. Scudery attempted an epic in "Alaric." Lemoine wrote another named "St. Louis," with as little success. But in the " Moses" of St. Armand, and the "Pharsalia" of Breboeuf, there are flashes of genius. Boileau is considered the legislator of the French Parnassus, and is their first didactic poet; but his "Art Poetique" is far less perfect in versi- fication than his satires and epistles, which are fine, both in thought and style. No one more than Boileau has given stability to French letters. Jean Baptiste Rousseau penned many odes of great beauty and harmony, and his Psalms are models of grace and purity. JSegrais, in his "Pastorals," is a faithful but weak imitator of Virgil. The "Idyls" of Madame DeshouMefsaxe often graceful, but prosaic. Fontcnclle; in his "Eclogues," makes his shepherds speak with too much wit, and too little nature; his versification is neglected and without grace. La fare, Regnier, Desmarets, Pavilion, have left light pieces; while the odes and madrigals of Chaulicu are full of feeling and philosophy. Lafontaiae is the prince of fabulists, and has never been equaled. Pulpit eloquence became very distinguished at this period; Bour- daloue was the first noticed for this excellence, and was remarkable for method and depth. The genius of Bossuct was sublime, and procured for him the epithet of the "Eagle of Meaux" (he was Bishop of Meaux). Fled tier obtained by his neatness, regularity, elegance, and harmony, a decided reputation. Mascaron has fine conceptions and a bold imagination, but is inflated and without taste. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 121 M/ssillon has extraordinary elocution, harmony, dignity, and grace, and has deserved the name of the Cicero of the Catholic church, while Bossuct is called her Demosthenes. Fenelon, more celebrated as a writer and philosopher than as an orator, has, nevertheless, done great service by his " Dialogues on the Eloquence of the Pul- pit/' His " Teleinachus" is in every hand. In reference to the dramatic compositions of this century, we will first speak of the tragic. Mairet is to be thanked for introducing nature, both in sentiment and expression; his "Sophonisba" was run after by all Paris for four years, in spite of many imperfections. The " Marianne" of Tristan had an equal success. Rotron helped to ameliorate the stage, and in " Venceslas" almost rivaled Pierre Corneille, of whom he was the most distinguished forerunner. P. Corneille commenced his career with "Medea/' which had a very moderate success. Soon after appeared the "Cid/' the first distin- guished monument of the French theatre and of the renown of its author. His other plays succeeded rapidly, and are many of them masterpieces of talent: as "China/' "The Horatii/' "Polyeucte/' &c. His brother Thomas wrote tragedies and comedies of merit. Racine was another star of this favored epoch; and by his "Iphi- genia/' "Phedra," "Esther," and "Athalia," has obtained a never- dying reputation; but the poet was not so much estimated during his lifetime. Racine is a poet every way worthy of our love. Most of his plays were written in his youth, which makes one wonder at the extreme grace, sweetness, and correctness of his language. He has also the merit of rarely disgusting us with unnecessary crimes in his tragedies, as is the case with Corneille and Voltaire; and though not distinguished for strength or power as a poet, his trage- dies have long held the first place in public estimation in France for style and harmony. His son Louis was also a good poet. Duryer and Thomas Corneille (brother of the tragic writer), Campistron, Duchet, and Lafosse followed ; none of whom are to be compared with their immediate predecessors. Thomas Corneille had much tenderness in his dramatic pieces, but they are little esteemed for the theatre. The operas of Quinault gained surprising attention. In comedy y Scarron tried to captivate by wit, but at the same 11 122 FRENCH LITERATURE. time repulsed by indelicacy ; and Corneille added another bud to bis laurel crown, by setting the example of writing a good comedy, " The Liar/' drawn from the failings of the human heart. Moliere soon followed, and worked so well as to have formed for himself a name which will be honored to the latest ages of posterity. His serious comedies of "Le Tartuffe" and " Le Misanthrope," are the delight and glory of the natives. " Le Medecin malgre lui," and " Le Bourgeois Gentilhoinme," are masterpieces of wit and gayety ; while in " Les Precieuses Ridicules," and " Les Femmes Savantes," he shows himself as acute in satire : yet, for fear it should be imag- ined he deprecated education being given to women, he wrote "L'Ecole des Femmes," to counteract the satirical vein of the two preceding comedies. Regnard was also happy in his coniic deli- neations ; and in " Le Joueur," " Le Legataire," and " Les Me- nechmes," approached near to Moliere. The pJiilosojjJiy of this century was conspicuous in its ambitious aim, and independent in its career. A Protestant family, named Basnage, did much service, however, in their energetic and simple writings, for several generations. James was the most prolific. His " History of the Reformed Churches" is much esteemed. Descartes established its liberty, and substituted individual examin- ation for the authority of Aristotle. Pascal, in his " Lettres Pro- vinciales," gives a model for eloquent discussion ; and in his " Pensees," joined the glory of the thinker to that of the writer. Mallebranche laid open those snares which are formed for us by our senses and imagination. Bufjier and Des Marais prepared the way for the eager reception of the translation of the works of our philo- sopher Locke. Fen6lon, in his doctrine of Quietism, founded on the love of G-od, was opposed by Bossuet. Bayle commenced the system of doubt, which prevailed so largely in the following cen- tury. " The Dialogues of the Dead" and " Direction for the Con- science of a King," also by FenSIon, are monuments of wisdom and foresight. The "Essays" of Nteol and the "Maxims of Larochcfoucauld are not without depth. The " Caracteres" of La Bruylre are pictures of manners wittily colored, and the u Dissertations" of St Evremond are the professions of faith of an Epicurean, but one of good company. Nor must the eminent French SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 123 Protestant divine, Jurieu, be omitted. His "Commentary on the Revelations/' and his " History of Calvinism/' are standard works, although disfigured by an intolerant spirit. The history of this age is imperfect. Mezerai wrote the " History of France/' as far as Henry IV., and has good judgment, but great negligence of learning and style. Father Daniel is voluminous, but little sure. "The Revolutions of Rome" and of " Portugal," by Vertot, are written with elegance, but do not offer sufficient guarantee of authenticity. Moreri's well-known " Historical Dictionary" is the standard work of this period. " The Conspiracy against Venice," by the Abbe St. Real, is given with so much dramatic power, that it interests deeply, but awakens doubts of its truth. Bossuet, in his admirable " Dis- courses on Universal History," has worthily fulfilled the high and difficult functions of the historian. Henault's " Chronological Abstract of the History of France" met with great success. His dramas were also well received. D' Ilerbelot' s " Oriental Library" still supplies valuable information on many points of Oriental his- tory. The Abbe Henry is another esteemed historian. His best work is a " History of the Church." Le (Here's " History of Car- dinal Richelieu" is his best work ; he was the friend of Bishop Burnet and of Lord Shaftesbury. The Chevalier Ramsay wrote his "Travels of Cyrus," and translated "Huclibras" into French, very cleverly. " The Memoirs" of Sully are a charming source of delight to all who love to see historical personages in their undress. " The Memoirs of the Fronde," written by several men of talent, are curious, but partial. Those of Mademoiselle Montpensier are rich in anecdote ; and those of the Cardinal de Retz are amusing, though often startling as to morality. Andre Dacier and his wife were very eminent classical scholars of this century. Their translations of the "Iliad" and "Odyssey," of Anacreon, Sappho, Terence, Plautus, Horace, Plutarch, and Epictetus, are among the best. The criticisms of the Daciers are always greatly valued. The novels of this century were singularly lengthy and extravagant, and are now sunk into total oblivion. The names of Scudery and CalprenMe remain, but that is all. Madame de Lafayette brought romances to a reasonable size; her "Zaide" and "The Princess of Cleves," as well as "The Count of Com- 124 FRENCH LITERATURE. minges," by Madame Tencin, with. "The Comic Romance" of Scar- ron, are still read with pleasure. Voiture and Balzac were distin- guished for their "Letters," though composed for the purpose; while Madame de Sevignd's inimitable grace, wit, playfulness, and wisdom, appear to have flowed from her pen and heart without the pretension of literary glory. We have yet several prose writers to mention. Charron wrote "A Treatise on the Three Truths." Voisin wrote a "History of France," and other works. Cayet wrote a "History of Navarre." Serves wrote "The Theatre of Agriculture." Antoine Arnavld was author of a work entitled "Frank and Truthful Discourses;" he was an earnest opposer of the Jesuits. Coffeteau was a learned theologian, and wrote " Roman History," and other works. Cotton was the author of remarkable sermons. Goidlart was author of "Memoirs of the League," and other works. D'Aubigny wrote "Universal History/' and several other works. The DuJce of Rohan left "Memoirs" and "Travels." Duchesne wrote a "History of the Popes," and several other historical works. The " Memoirs" of Cardinal Richelieu and his other works are of value in history. The Abbe St. Cyran wrote warmly against the Jesuits. Bassom- jrierre left "Memoirs" of great interest. Vaugelas wrote "Remarks on the French Language." The twin brothers Saint-Marthe wrote a " G-enealogical History of France:" their family was distinguished for its learned members for several generations. Gasscn divas pro- fessor of theology at Digne, and is celebrated as a mathematician, and as the friend of the illustrious Galileo; he left works on philo- sophy, physics, and astronomy. Bignon wrote a "Description of the Holy Land," "Roman Antiquities," and other works. Duplcix wrote "Memoirs of the Gauls," a "History of France," and a "History of Rome." Percfixe wrote a "History of Henry IV." The "Letters" of Patin are considered clever and caustic. La Motlie de Yayer wrote on morals, politics, history, and literature. Jean de Laboureur wrote "The Tombs of Illustrious Persons," and several other works. Menage was learned and clever; he wrote a work on "The Origin of the French Language," and another on "The Origin of the Italian Language." Pclisson wrote a "History of Louis XIV.," and a "History of the French Academy." Bussy EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 125 JRabutin wrote "Memoirs," and other works. Auhery wrote a " History of the Cardinals de Richelieu, Joyeuse, Mazarin," and other works. Varillas wrote several historical works, as " History of France," "History of Heresies," "Anecdotes of Florence," and others. The Abb6 Martujnac is celebrated as a translator from the Greek and Latin, and left "Memoirs." The antiquary Montfaucon belongs to this century. The eighteenth century was remarkable as an era in the principles of philosophy; letters came only to have a secondary part to play. Its literature was simply a continuance of that of the preceding century, but the aim was very different. The writers of the eight- eenth century aim at the overthrow of all that impeded the liberty of thought and the liberty of action; religious power and royal power j the positive is to replace the ideal; the manners become corrupt; a spirit of innovation takes possession of the people — they laugh at everything ; the golden thread, by which man's hopes were attached to the infinite, breaks in his hand ! In. poetry, Voltaire shone at an early age; his success in the epic poem of the "Henriade," was decisive in France; but several of his other poems are not worth naming. It was in dramatic poetry that he was especially distinguished, of which talent we shall speak in its proper place. The charming poem of " Verkvert," by Gvesset, is universally read ; and though but a trifle, the hero of which is a parrot, it is a literary jewel. " The Seasons" of St. Lambert con- tain several pleasing descriptions. Delille was admired at one time for his poems, "The Imagination," "Pity," and "Gardens;" but more as the happy translator of Virgil. Flavian's "Fables" are moral and lively, with considerable grace. Gilbert, Malfilatre, and Andre Chenier, awoke hopes that were cut short by destiny. The first wrote a clever satire on the eighteenth century, and expired in a hospital of charity; misery also led the second to the tomb, after he had written on " The Genius of Virgil," and another poem called " Narcissus ;" and the axe of the Revolution caused the death of the third. Andre Chenier is the only man who has per- fectly given the ancient elegy in French. In tragedy, Crebillon took the element of feav for his dramatic power, and used it skillfully in "Atrea," " Electra," and "Rhada- 11* 126 FRENCH LITERATURE. miste." Voltaire, however, soon eclipsed him, and from his first effort, in " CEdipus," took the highest position in the world of let- ters; yet fourteen years passed over before Voltaire realized the promise given in this first play ; his following tragedies were weak and imperfect. At length " Zaire" appeared, and the critics were satisfied. The author continued for many years to pour forth a number of tragedies, some feeble, others possessing eminent beauties, so that his reputation in this branch, as in almost every other, is one of the first in France. Other writers succeeded moderately in tragedy. La Grange Chancel wrote " Amasis and Ino ;" Lamotte wrote "Inez de Castro ;" Piron wrote "Gustavus Vasa;" Latouche wrote " Iphigenia in Taurida ;" La Harpe wrote " Coriolanus '" Joseph Chenier wrote " Charles IX.," " Tiberius," and " Henry VIII. ;" Ducis arranged " Hamlet," " King Lear," and U Othello," for the French stage ; that is to say, he did not translate Shakspeare, he mutilated him. There was no decidedly good comedy in this century; Gresset and JDestouches wrote, nevertheless, with talent; " Le Mechant" of Gresset, and " Le Glorieux" of JDestouches, as also his u Philosophe Marie," have the honor of still being acted. The "Metromanie" of Piron, and the " Turcaret" of Le Sage, share the same distinc- tion. A crowd of second-rate writers might follow, but it must suffice to name a few; as Voltaire in " L'Ecossais;" Marivaux, Regnard, Du Fresny, Baron, Fabre cV Eglantine, Colli. At the close of the century, there were Collin d' ' Harlcville, Picard, Dide- rot, Legrand, Favard, and Sedainc, who created the ope>a comique; but he who closes the comedy of the eighteenth century, and who was the living expression of the agitation of the epoch, was Beau- marchais, author of " The Marriage of Figaro," of " The Barber of Seville," and of "The Guilty Mother." In moral philosophy, Duclos was conspicuous by his " Considera- tions on the Manners of the Age." In his "Emilc," Jean Jacques Rousseau seeks to correct the faults of education, but his opinions are not sufficiently digested to be solely depended on. More firm and more religious than his master, Bernard in de St, Pierre gives to God and nature the worship of a simple, good heart. In the " Harmonies of Nature/' his most amusing prose is highly poetical. EIGHTEENTH CENTUEY. 127 " Paul and Virginia," with " The Indian Cottage/' are stories in- troduced as exemplifications of the author's system, and are writings which will last as long as a human heart is beating to delight in them. Fontenelle was cold and selfish in his sentiments. His " Dialogues of the Dead/' and " Plurality of Worlds/' are the best known of his works. Marmontel, with pretensions to the name of moralist, is anything but moral, though a graceful and amusing writer. The story of " Belisarius" is charming, but de- viates from historical truth. The Count de Buffon has raised a monument which can never be diminished as a literary effort, though science is constantly finding- fresh opportunities for the improvement of our knowledge of natural history. As a philosopher, Buffon has great defects, drawing hasty conclusions from imperfect premises. After having written " The Persian Letters" as a prelude, Montesquieu , by his " Spirit of the Laws," caused each nation to examine its own constitution. Speak- ing of Montesquieu, Lord Chesterfield says, " His virtues did honor to human nature, his writings justice. A friend to mankind, Montesquieu asserted their undoubted and inalienable rights with freedom, even in his own country, whose prejudices in matters of religion and government he had long lamented and endeavored to remove. He well knew, and justly admired, the happy constitution of England, where fixed and known laws equally restrain monarchy from tyranny, and liberty from licentiousness. His works will illus- trate his name and survive him, as long as right reason, moral obli- gation, and the true spirit of the laws shall be understood, respected, and maintained." Maupertuis, a brother philosopher, wrote ^ The Eulogy of Montesquieu," and various philosophical works. Rous- seau, in his " Social Contract," develops theories which have been both admired and combated with enthusiasm ; these are the only two distinguished political systematic writers of the eighteenth century. Goguet wrote his elaborate work " On the Origin of Laws." We shall class the encyclopedists together as a useful yet danger- ous body of writers, who appear to have agreed to disseminate skep- ticism over every realm of science. Among the chief are Voltaire, Diderot, D'Alembert, D J Holbach, Helvetius, Condorcet, and La 128 FRENCH LITERATURE. Harpe. To this school belong also Cabanis, Destutt de Tracy, Volney, and Gar at. Dr. Gall — in conjunction with Spurzheim, the propounder of Phrenology — a German by birth, but who wrote much in French, and Laromiguiere, had more of spiritualism. We find the universal genius of Voltaire presiding in the field of history ; his " Siecle de Louis XIV." is his best work of this kind, although the " History of Charles XII." and " Peter III." are finely penned; yet, as they are not authentic in many points, their value is considerably diminished. Montesquieu has left an admira- ble work on " The Grandeur and Fall of the Romans;" and " The Travels of Anacharsis," by Bartlielmy, is a charming mirror of the manners and customs of the ancients. But the histories written in this age are generally not to be valued; many are only abridg- ments, and others memoirs, spoiled by partiality. The chief are, " History of Ancient and Modern India," by Guy on, and the same subject by Raynal; u The Lower Empire," by Crevier ; " General History," by Millot; " Ancient and Modern History," by Condil- lac; u Universal History," " History of France," " Spirit of the League," &c, by Anquetil; u Lessons of History," by Volney; u History, Ancient and Modern," by Rollin, the indefatigable friend to youth. Rajnn's " History of England" is still a library work, and being only down to the Revolution, has been continued by Tindal to the accession of George III. Calmet, a Benedictine monk, wrote "Universal History," "A Critical, Historical, and Chronological Dictionary of the Bible." Saurin is well known in England for his moral, historical, and critical discourses. The learned traveler, Savary, claims notice at the close of this century : he translated the Koran; and his "Letters on Egypt and Greece" are still valued. The witty Le Sage stands alone as a novelist. These are the chief writers of the eighteenth century; but we may again glance through that remarkable period, to mention more copiously the authors of the amazing mass of literature which France collected during its course. Boursaidt wrote sixteen pieces for the theatre, several romances, letters, and other works. Segrais wrote eclogues and other poems. Commire wrote Latin poems of great beauty. Perrault wrote dramas and poems. Lafosse wrote trage- dies and poems. Desmarais was a poet and grammarian. Gcnest EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 129 wrote tragedies and minor poems. Jouvencij was a poet, historian, orator, and critic. Palaprat and Brucys united their talents in several comedies. Gampisfron was an imitator of Racine the elder. Larue wrote Latin poems and others. Dancourt was a prolific writer of comedies. Die Jarry wrote clever minor poems. La Chaussee invented the "larmoyant," or tearful drama, and wrote several. Boissy was also a respectable writer of comedies. Mon- crif wrote " The Art of Pleasing," and other agreeable poems. The family of Helvetius was distinguished for talent : Adrian Hel- vetius wrote a poem, entitled " L'Esprit," which is celebrated. De Belloy was a successful writer of comedies in his day. Bernard, surnamed Gentil, wrote pleasing poems. Voisegenon wrote ro- mances and comedies. Colardeau wrote tragedies and comedies of mediocrity. Saint Foix wrote a work, called " Turkish Letters," and others. Laures was fortunate at the Academy, but not much esteemed as a poet. Dorat was a prolific writer of tragedies and romances. Saurin wrote several comedies. Antoine Thomas ob- tained the prize for prose and verse six times. Favart wrote sixty pieces for the theatre^ some of which, as minor comedies, are still favorites. Lemierre gained several academical prizes for his trage- dies, but was not successful at the theatre. De la Place was a poet of great fecundity. Collot d'Herbois was a successful author of dramas. The prose writers of this century, which were the most remark- able, have been already named; but there are several others whose works have remained in possession of a general approbation, and which must, therefore, be mentioned here. Ancillon wrote a work, entitled "The Edict of Nantes/' and others of value. Balluze wrote the " History of the Popes of Avignon." Etties Dupin wrote the " Ecclesiastical History of the Eighteenth Century," and other good historical works. Letellier wrote a " History of Janse- nius." Massieu wrote a " History of French Poetry." Basnage de Beauval wrote fifteen volumes of the a History of the Jews." Gamusat wrote " The French Library." Legendre wrote a " His- tory of France." Bellegrade wrote a u History of Spain," besides a " Universal History," and other works. Sevin wrote " Disserta- tions" on the six hundred manuscripts which he had brought from 130 FRENCH LITERATURE. Constantinople. Dubos wrote " Reflections on Poetry and Paint- ing." Duperron wrote on "The Spanish Theatre/' and other works. Ladvocat published a " Biographical Dictionary." Goujet wrote " The Library of Ecclesiastical Authors." Olivet wrote a " History of the French Academy." Macquer continued the " Historical Chronology" of the president Henault. Duchs wrote a " History of Louis XL" and " Memoirs of the Reign of Louis XIV." Villaret continued Be Velly's " History of France." Fe- vret wrote the " Historical Library." Beaumelle published the " Memoirs and Letters of Madame de Maintenon." Condamine wrote Travels and Memoirs. Baporte's work on the " Literature of France," and other historical works, are esteemed. Dreux de Radier wrote "The History of the Queens Regent." D 'Anville is celebrated for his geographical works. Duliamel was a prolific writer of " Memoirs." Mably wrote " On the Romans and the French," and several other clever historical works. Bupaty wrote " Letters on Italy, in 1785." Mirabeau was one of the greatest orators of France, and one of the most remarkable men of the great Revolution; his works are chiefly political, and are distinguished for their eloquence. Ridhieres wrote a " History of the Anarchy of Poland," and other works of value. Badly wrote the " History of the Astronomy of the Ancients," and other good works. Champ- fort wrote a " Dramatic Dictionary," and other works. Camdle Besmoulins was chiefly a political writer in favor of the great Revo- lution. Linguet wrote a " History of the Age of Alexander the Great;" also, "An Impartial History of the Jesuits," and other good works. Be Bonald's work, entitled " Primitive Legislation," is one of the most beautiful productions of modern ages. The ex- cellent Makherbes wrote a "Treatise on Rural Economy," " Thoughts and Maxims," and two memoirs " On the Civil State of the Pro- testants." Thouret's " Chronological Tables of Ancient and Mo- dern History" are valued. Beaufort's work " On the first Five Centuries of the Ptoman History," and his other works, are much esteemed. Richer wrote the " Lives of celebrated Mariners." Gvys wrote a " Literary Voyage through Greece." There are several authors of eminence whose works belong to this century, but whose deaths carry us into the nineteenth. Of these we will mention the NINETEENTH CENTURY. 131 " Celtic Dictionary" of Latour d'Auvergne and " Origin of the G-auls;" the "Letters to Emily" of Demoustier ; the poems of St. Lambert; Ncclcer's "French Revolution/' and other works; the " Proverbs" of Carmontelle; the novels of Desforges; Galliard's "Rivalry of France and England," and other historical works; the " Literary Correspondence" of Baron Grimm; the poems of Le- brun ; JSabatiei-'s "Classical Dictionary;" Valmont's "Universal Dictionary of Natural History;" the works of Cabanis on " Ger- man Literature," and other subjects. We must divide the nineteenth century into three parts : — ■ 1. The Empire, from 1804 to 1814. 2. The Restoration, to 1830. 3. The Revolution of July. 1. The Empire. — When Napoleon found himself firmly seated on the throne of France, he took pleasure in encouraging the arts, but literature was left in the back-ground. Indeed, men had suffered so much, and seen so many changes, that few were bold enough to express their thoughts. It was necessary, however, to the glory of Napoleon to have learned men about him, hence he favored various institutions; but his great object was to form military chiefs. He interfered in these institutions personally, and distributed the badge of distinction himself; but his reign is characterized by the fact, that new books rose considerably in price, not from any additional labor or increase in the price of labor, but because the demand was so small as to allow but a small number of copies to be taken off; while, at the same time, old editions of the best authors were cur- rently sold in Paris for one-fourth part of their value. But when literature dared to hold up its head once more, it was evident a new order of thoughts had sprung up with the new order of things. Instead of the cold, stiff imitations of the ancient wri- ters, Madame de Stael and Chateaubriand dared to write from the abundance of their own hearts, and borrow graces from nature only; then added to their glorious daring the proof that the trea- sures of other European countries were as much to be valued as those of ancient Greece and Rome. This was immediately desig- nated the Romantic School by the lovers of the classics; and two parties were formed in the world of letters, which, during the 132 FRENCH LITERATURE. Restoration, very warmly contested their individual excellences. Ma- dame de StaeTs work on " Germany/' her " Considerations on the French Revolution/' her novels of " Comma" and " Delphine," are distinguished by powerful talent ; and have never been equaled by any female writer. Chateaubriand's " Martyrs" and " Genius of Christianity" are charming in language throughout, but deficient in solidity and truth. His great utility, at the moment of his first literary efforts, was that of representing Christianity in her most amiable form and benefi- cial consequences; but however necessary such a writer was in France, to break the ice of infidelity, he has attached far too much to the sensible and external part of religion ; indeed, he seems never to have penetrated the deep and real essence of Christianity. In this period we must place Saint Croix, who wrote " Histori- cal Researches on the Mysteries of Paganism," and several other works; Luce de Lancival, who was a dramatic author of consider- able talent; Esmenard, distinguished as a poet; Levesque, who wrote the " History of Russia," and several other good works; Toidongeon, who wrote " The Constitutional Principles of the Na- tional Assembly," and other works; Legouve, a dramatic author and poet of distinction ; Parny, who earned the title of the " French Tibullus;" Geoffrey, who wrote on "Dramatic Literature;" Palis- sot, who wrote " Memoirs" and poems; Boufflcrs, author of minor poems; Ginguene, author of a " Literary History of Italy," which was continued by Salfi; Mentelle, who wrote " Universal Geogra- phy;" Gouffier, who wrote a "Picturesque Journey through Greece;" Suard, who translated Robertson's "Charles V." and wrote various other works; Morellet, who wrote "Memoirs," and translated from the Italian; the Able Sicard, who wrote a great number of works relative to the Deaf and Dumb Institution; Avrigny, who wrote a great many successful comic operas. The superficial and artificial Madame de Gad is must be mentioned, were it only for the amazing number of her works. The best of these have, however, become popular, from the very great scarcity of in- nocent reading in French at the commencement of this century ; but it is a pleasure to perceive that the tastes and morals of the young student arc now better attended to, although very imperfectly NINETEENTH CENTURY. 133 still. " The Evenings of the Castle/' " Annals of Virtue/' and " Theatre of Education/' of Madame de Genlis, are all popular in this country. Her "Madame de la Valiere" and "Madame de Maintenon" are graceful specimens of the author's talents, and her " Mdlle. de Clermont" is a model of the French accomplishment of relating. 2. The Restoration. — During the latter years of the Empire, literary men appeared a luxury in society , they now become a power, and they were the only men who saw the fall of Napoleon without surprise, for they had long foreseen it. The humiliated position of France, invaded and garrisoned by her enemies, awoke the patriotic feelings of two poets : Beranger, the delight of the people, wrote most spirited and heart-stirring songs, or rather odes, of admirable talent ; Casimir de la Vigne took a more serious style, and in his " Messeniennes" has merit, both as to mental talent and correct elegance, as well as patriotism. Suddenly, the ancient school was silenced by the awakening of a charming poet in the opposing class. De Lamartine published his " Meditations/' and all France felt the thrill of poetic sweetness and deep feeling, which the harmonious poet called forth. Up to the present day, this highly gifted man continues to win all hearts and charm all ears, either by his grace as a poet, or his fervid eloquence as a speaker and writer. The poems of " Joslyn," and " The Fall of an Angel," have added other laurels to those he had won before. The plain- tive and graceful poems of Millevoye were of the same period as Be Lamartine s early poesies, and were rapturously received by the young. Bausset wrote " The Life of Fenelon." Bangles wrote on " The Ancient and Modern Monuments of Hindostan," and other works relative to India. Bacretelle wrote " Studies on the Involu- tion," and other works of repute. The unfortunate Paul Louis Courtier belongs to this period. He is the Junius of French poli- tics. His numerous pamphlets are marked with intense energy and extreme causticity. Ferrand wrote " The Spirit of History," and other works. General Foy wrote a " History of the Peninsular "War." Bacepede's principal work was published after his death, and entitled " General History." Boissy d'Anglas wrote a " No- tice on Florian," and several political works. JSfeufehateau wrote 12 134 FRENCH LITERATURE. " Fables" and " Comedies." Picard wrote " The Gil Bias of the French Revolution." Count Baru wrote a " History of the Cam- paign of Russia." The Marquis Bally- Tollendal left a variety of works on various subjects, all written with a peculiar energy and eloquence : as " Memoirs in favor of his Father," " Letters to Mr. Burke." Benjamin Constant is remembered as a distinguished member of the Chamber of Deputies. His chief works are on " The Spirit of Conquest," " The Force of the Government/' " On Religion." 3. The Revolution of 1830. — Since this period, France has made strides of amazing extent in the world of letters. Cousin's u Intro- duction to the History of Philosophy" is a standard work. Count Matthew Damas's " Military History'' is powerfully interesting. But, in fact, the historians of this epoch are stars of the greatest magnitude. In this kind of writing there are two schools : the philosophic and picturesque. 3Ions. Guizot is at the head of the former ; he has written a " History of the Civilization of Europe," " Essays on the History of France," " The English Revolution." Guizot resembles the celebrated German Niebuhr in his method of treating history. " In the individual he finds the species, in the people the whole of humanity." To this school belong Thiers and Mignet, both of whom have written remarkable works on "The French Revolution." Valery's "Historical Travels," &c, must not be forgotten. The picturesque historians are men who color their writings with a vivid tone of enthusiasm, and much dramatic effect. Augustin Thierry, in his works, entitled " Letters on the History of France," and " The Concjuest of England by the Romans f Barante, in his u Literary History of the Eighteenth Century," and " The Dukes of Burgundy;" JSismondi's " History of the French and Italian Republics;" with Villemain's " Cromwell," and other works; Be Vigny's historical novels of " Cinq Mars" and " Stello;" with the " Historical Sketches" of Alexandre Dumas, belong to this class. There has lately been added another school, formed from the fusion of the two others, — the symbolical. Of this class, Michclet and Quinct are at the head. These gentlemen are united in the warmest friendship ; they are both highly cultivated ; pro- found, yet practical; upright in mind, honest in purpose, zealous in NINETEENTH CENTURY. 135 action, candid in words, and generous in argument. The convic- tion that Jesuitism has compromised the Roman Catholic Church, and the fear that it may compromise Christianity, have each spurred them to great mental exertion, both unitedly and individually. Michelefs chief works are " The Life of Luther;'' " The Life of Vico;" "History of France;" " Roman History ;" " Compendium of Modern History;" and, within a short time, "Priests, Women, and Families," and "The People;" besides several smaller, though equally valuable works, many of which are well known in England through Mr. Cocks' s spirited translations. Quinet's principal writ- ings are " The Genius of Religions ;" " Germany and Italy ;" " Discourses on the Literatures of the South of Europe ;" " My Holidays in Spain;" " Ultramontanism, or The Roman Church and Modern Society," a work which electrified France, and called forth all the bitterness of Rome, and which has been followed by u Christianity and the French Revolution," the production of an eagle intellect, soaring far above the littleness of life, to examine the workings of the Almighty, in the progress of society. Dupuis's work, u On the Origin of all Religious Rites," had excited great interest, and was the cause of much of the speculative opinion which followed. In speculative philosophy, Battanche and Fourrier have attracted considerable attention : Ballanche is all mysticism ; Four- rier is rational, and bent on economizing the happiness of his fel- low-men by appropriating their talents to useful occupations. In tragedy, Casimir de la Yigne has written with taste, elegance, and purity, both in style and moral ; his tragedies and comedies have given brilliancy to the French stage; but he wants energy, historical truth, and exalted thought. "The Sicilian Vespers," " The Paria," " Louis XL," and " The Children of Edward," have all pleased the majority of readers. Lemercier, in "Agamemnon" and " Pinto," will always deserve a conspicuous place among the dramatists of his country. But the finest talent of the age has been shown by Victor Hugo — too frequently misapplied, yet often producing things of exquisite beauty. His early poems, entitled " Autumn Leaves," " Lights and Shadows," " Interior Voices," breathe of beauty and purity; " Twilight Songs" have a political sense; his " Odes and Ballads" have many brilliant touches. His 136 FRENCH LITERATURE. novels are " Hans of Iceland/' " Bug-Jargal/' " Our Lady of Paris/' which excited much interest in the literary world through- out Europe; and " The Last Days of a Condemned One." His theatrical pieces are " Hernani/' " Marion de Lorme/' u The King amuses himself/' u Lucretia Borgia/' " Mary 'Tudor/' " An- gelo, Tyrant of Padua/' " Buy Bias/' and " The Burgraves." In many of these there are scenes which read like embodied night- mares; where, as Groethe says, "all that is vile in man's nature is exaggerated, and his good qualities are forgotten, amid a hideous phantasmagoria of vices, painted with the wildest power of a poet's fancy. Hugo's more healthy tone of mind is seen in his " Litera- ture and Philosophy," as also in a charming work about u The Rhine/' in which, however, he proves his want of benevolent sen- timents, and of that universal love which distinguishes the noble soul, by his constant snarling at England. Patriotism and justice are two things, it should seem, not always easy to be reconciled. Alexandre Dumas is looked upon as possessing the most decidedly dramatic head of the day. " Christine" is the best of his tragedies ; but it is easy to see that his literary principles are not fixed. He gleans also from other geniuses, not sufficiently depending on his own. He has coloring, animation, taste, and frequently fine thoughts, but his talent wants ripening, and his writings want care. Soumet has written a good tragedy in " Clytemnestra/' as also Ancelot, in " Louis XL" and " The Two Empresses." Comedy has no decided votary in this age in France, although little else but comic pieces are performed; but these are generally short, witty conversations, if one may say so; gay, lively trifles, with pleasing dialogue and interesting action. It is no longer society which is painted, it is private life and individuals; every one laughs, but nobody corrects himself; while true comedy should be the school of manners. Picard attacked the absurdities of the moment; Du- val rose higher and was more dramatic. Andricux was excellent in style and moral; during the Empire, his comedy of " Les Etour- dies" brought him decided fame. " La Comedienne," " Le Man- teau," and many others kept it at the same height. Barbier's poems were enthusiastically received, though he dared to curse Na- poleon. Etienne had lyric grace and nature; while De la Vigne, NINETEENTH CENTURY. 137 in "The School for Old Men/' and " The Comedians/' added to his former renown. Scribe is, however, the most successful comic writer in France, and most prolific. " Bertrand et Raton," with u La Camaraderie," will outlive his vaudevilles, although his fertile imagination and happy talent of application of any subject to the stage, have proved an abundant source of amusement to the French and of wealth to their author; for Scribe is by far the richest lite- rary man in France of the day. Alfred cle 3Iusset is a graceful poet, with more energy than his predecessor Millevoye; though there are pieces of the latter which profoundly touch the heart. The novelists are a peculiarly industrious race in all countries, and especially in France. She has long deluged the whole of Eu- rope with this species of work, in which her authors are little care- ful what principles they advocate. Balzac, Paul de Kock, St. Beauve, Jules Janin, Georges Sand (or Madame Dudevant), Eugene Sue, Frederick Soidie, are amongst the most remarkable; all of them possessing eminent talent, and many of them frequently for- getting for what purpose it was bestowed. Louts Blanc has given a "History of Ten Years/' from 1830, which is highly interesting, and may be said to have had considerable influence in producing the revolution of February, 1848. Saint Marc Girardin has pro- duced a " Course of Literature" much approved of. Lucas has written a " History of the French Theatre." The Abbe La Mennais in religious speculation, and AimS Martin in his " Education of Mothers of Families," have both attracted universal attention. The writers on science are numerous: Cuvier, Arago, Lupin, Mignet } Raoid-Rochette, Royer-Collard, Segur, are on everybody's lips. The female writers of France are highly distinguished; and though out of chronological order, we must enumerate a few of them. Clotilde de Surville wrote poems. Christine de Pisan was a writer of history. Marguerite de Valois wrote poems and novels. Jeanne d 1 ATbret wrote poems. Louise Labbe, or the Belle Cordoniere; Madeline de la Roche and her daughter Catherine; Louise de Savoie, mother of Francis I. ; Marguerite of France; Madame de Lassuze, all wrote poems of merit. Mme. Deshou- liere was also a poetess. Mme. de Motteville wrote memoirs, as also Mdlle. 3Iontpensier. Mme. de la Fayette wrote romances and me- 12* 138 FRENCH LITERATURE. moirs, and Mine, de SevignS is distinguished for the grace of her style in letters; Mme.de Maintenon for her solid good sense. Mme. de JScudery wrote romances, and also Mme. cV 'Aulnoy. Sophie Chiron wrote poems. Mme. Guyon was a writer of canticles and highly spiritualized poems. Mme. de Graffigny wrote the " Peru- vian Letters." Mme. du Chatelet wrote on philosophy. Mme. Tencin and Mme. Riccobeni wrote romances. Mme. de Goujet wrote dramas. Mme. Roland wrote poetical romances and dramas. Mme. Dacier was celebrated as a critic and translator. Mme. Staal de Launay has left memoirs. Marguerite de Lussan wrote annals. Mme. de Caylus wrote memoirs. Mme. Bourdic Viot wrote poems and romances. Mme. Duboccage wrote dramas and poems. Mme. Cottin wrote novels. Mme. de Remusat wrote me- moirs. Mme. Dufrenoy wrote poems. Mme. Guizot wrote poems; also " The Scholar/' and other works. Mme. de Stael cVHolstein wrote novels and literary history. Mme. de Genlis wrote novels and works on education. The early literature of France was peculiarly brilliant in poetry, and served as a model for all the rest of Europe. Then followed a period singularly barren in this talent. The twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries passed without any revival of this ancient distinction. In the fifteenth, there was a slight awakening of poetic taste in the higher ranks of society, but which disappeared again till near the middle of the sixteenth century. Ronsard in poetry and Montaigne in prose illustrated the conclusion of this period. The seventeenth century produced talent of all kinds; and, at its conclusion, France had attained the highest degree of excellence in classical poetry, by the works of Racine, and the most perfect grace of prose writing, by the pen of Mdme. de Savigne". The eighteenth century is more remarkable for prose eloquence in the writings of Bossuet, Massillon, Montesquieu, and the Encyclopedists, than for poetic grace in the writings of Crcbillon, Corncille, and Voltaire; but it is the golden age of French literature, and abounds with talent of every species. The opening of the nineteenth century saw France too much disturbed to find time for literary occupation; war was her sole delight. In her present age, history and imagina- tion have predominated in her literary efforts; but the painting of NINETEENTH CENTURY. 139 her novelists has been carried to the highest degree of immorality, and calls forth the reprobation of all who desire the improvement of the human mind. The following is a list of works which may be further consulted on the French literature : u The Literary History of France/' by the Benedictines and Members of the Institute; " State of the Sciences/' &c.,by Leboeuf; " Historical Library" of Fevret; "French Library" of Goujet; " History of French Poetry/' by llassieu; "History of French Theatre/' Fontenelle; "Essay on French Literature/' Neuf chateau; " Literary History" of Lambert; "Age of Louis XIV./' Voltaire; "Memoirs/' by Chaplain; "Litera- ture," by La Harpe; " Works of Boileau/' by Daunou; " Litera- ture of France," by Barante. TABLE OF COTEMPORARY AUTHORS. Ed. Aletz. Ed. d'Anglemont. Belmontet. Beranger. Saint-Beuve. Bignan. Bonnechose. Boucharlet. Boulay-Patay. Adolphe Dumas. Antoine Delatour. Denne-Baron. Guiraud. Victor Hugo. Ernest Legouve. Lamartine. Lebrun. Jules Lefevre. Mery. Alfred de Musset. Mollevant. Peyronnet. Paillet. Pougerville. J. de Resseguier. Viennet. NOVELISTS. D'Arlincourt. Arnoud and Fournier. Balzac. Berthond. Bonnelier. Ed. Corbiere. De Calvimont. F. Davin. Ernest Dupres. Jules David. Victor Hugo. Alphonse Karr. 140 FRENCH LITERATURE. Paul de Kock. Jules Janin. Henri de Latouche. Paul Lacroix. Michel Masson. Theodore Muret. Paul de Musset. Roger de Beauvoir. Alphonse Royer. Saintine. Saint-Felix. Saint-Beuve. "George Sand." Salvandy. Fred. Soulie. Emile Souvestre. Eugene Sue. Touchard-Lafosse. DRAMATISTS. Arnoud and Fournier. Anicet-Bourgeois. Alboise. Albert. Belmontet. Alex. Dumas. Adolphe Dumas. Dinocourt. Dinaux. D'Outrepont. Empis. Paul Faucher. Victor Hugo. Leon Halevy. Ernest Legouve. Locroy. Lesquillon. F. Malleville. G. de Pixercourt. Paccard. Regnault-Warin. De Rougement. Frederic Soulie. COMEDIES AND VAUDEVILLES. Etienne Arago. Emmanuel Arago. Ancelot (Madame). De Bawr (Madame). Bayard. Brazier. Cogniard. De Comberouse. C. Boujour. Carmouche. Dumersan. Dupat}>\ Alexandre Daval. Georges Duval. Etienne. Fulgence. Jaine. Lherie. De Leuven. Halevy. Melleville. Scribe. Theaulon. Vanderbruch. Xavier. FRENCH LITERATURE. 141 TRAGEDIES. Ancelot. Baur de Lormian. Delrieu. Guiraud. De Jouy. Lemercier. Sourmet. Viennet. HISTORY AND SCIENCES. Adelon. Alibert. Ampere. Arago. Azais. Artaud. Bodin. Bory de St. Vincent. Ballanche. Bignon. Blanqui. Burnouf. Boiste. Capefigue. Champollion. Chevalier. Cousin. Fred. Cuvier. Charles Dupuis. Dumas. Damiron. De Gerando. Delafosse. Droz. Dumont d'Urville. Gay-Lussac. Guizot. Geoffroy de St. Hilaire. Gail. Leonard de Gallois. De Genoude. I/Abbe de Guillon. Julia Fontanelle. Jouffroy. Jomard. Julien. Las-Cases. Lerminier. Lefebvre de Fourcy. Lacre telle. Leclerc. Letroue. Letroue. Milne-Edvards. Michaud. Michelet. Mignet. Nisard. Nowyns. Naudet. Orfila. Passy. Pelouse. Poujoulat. Pouillet. Proudhon. Quatremere. Quinet. Raoul-Rochette. Roujoux. Royer Collard. Saint-Prix, 142 FRENCH LITERATURE. Sylvestre de Sacy. Segur. Thenard. Thiers. Tissot. De Tocqueville. Virey. MISCELLANEOUS. Aime Martin. Ajasson de Grandsagne. Appert. Antony Beraud. Berthoud. Bouilly. Briffant. Philarete Chasle. Chateaubriand. Creuse de Lessert. Capot de Feuillade. Cauchois-Lemaire. Caussin de Percival. Chabrot de Volvie. Be Chateaugiron. Collin de Plancy. De Francompret. Emile Deschamps. Louis Desnoyers. Gustave Drouineau. Delaure. Andre Delrien. Ferdinand Denis. Duvicquet. Foufrede. Ernest Frouinet. Fievee. Francais de Nantes. Leon Gozlan. Eugene Guinot. Theophile Gautier. Leon Hal6vy. Jules Janin. Achille Jubinal. Laurent de Jussieu. Jol. Jay. Jouslin de la Salle. Keratray. La Mennais. De Lamotte-Laugou. Lasteyrie. Lesguillon. Laurentie. Leroi. Loeve-Weimar. Marrast. Mennechet. Merimee. Monmerqu6. Montemont. Charles Nodier. Marquis de Pastoret. Pichat. Panckouke. Perin. Pillet. Planche. Pouqueville. Roger. Saint Marc-Girardin. Saint-Beuve. Salvandy. De Senancourt. Frederic Souli6. Vatout. Thierry. Viardot. Villers. Villemain. FRENCH LITERATURE. 143 FEMALE WRITERS. D'Abrantes. Aucelot. Aragon. D'Ayzac. Belloc. De Brady. De Bawr. Bastide. Desbordes-Valinore. Dudevant. Dupin. Flahaut-Souza. Foa. Gay. Girardin. D'Hautpool. Keybeaud. Saint-Ouan. Segalas. De Salm. Soumet. Senancourt. Tastu. Ulliac-Tremadeure . Yoiart. Valdor. 144 BRITISH LITERATURE. BRITISH LITERATURE. British literature may be divided into three periods, namely — 1st Period, or Poetry of the Britons and Anglo-Saxons, from the supposed time of Ossian, A. d. 200, to the Norman Conquest. 2d Period, or Poetry of the Normans and Anglo-Normans, from 1066 to 1400. The fusion of the two languages was marked dur- ing the latter years of the twelfth century, and from this period may be dated what we now call the English language. 3d Period, or English Poetry, properly so called; which period maybe subdivided into five Epochs, namely: 1. Epoch of Chaucer, from 1350 to 1550. 2. Epoch of Shakspeare and Spenser, from 1550 to 1650. 3. Epoch of Milton and Dryden, from 1650 to 1702. 4. Epoch of Pope and Young, from 1702 to 1800. 5. Epoch of Byron, Scott, and Moore, as representatives of the intel- lect of our triune kingdom. By grouping the secondary talents round these stars of the first magnitude in each epoch, a chronolo- gical remembrance will be easily obtained; and the minuteness of the Index to this work will, it is hoped, be found useful in satisfy- ing every other demand. The learning of the ancient Britons in their Druidical institutions, is attested by history. The islands of Scotland at a very remote period contained colleges for the education of young priests and princes; but a singularly jealous principle guided their directors. The pupils were not permitted to write down anything they might learn; consequently much time was lost in their studies, and, at least, their precious information was kept from the vulgar crowd. These establishments were only branches from the parent tree in Ireland, where colonies from Asia had long been spreading abroad the riches of learning. Ossian, the son of Fingal, is believed to have written his poems at the close of the second century. Ireland was one vast university long before Scotland, and the still tardier England, had thought of mental cultivation. Monuments of the talents and taste of the ancient Irish are still sufficiently great to SEVENTH CENTURY. 145 reward the enthusiastic lover of research; and the intellectual pro- gress of the Bardic Druids of Scotland and Wales is readily traced in works which do honor to our British antiquaries. It has been said that St. Peter, or St. Paul, visited England. It is certain that the Christian religion was known, even in the north of the island, before the end of the second century. We have also the certitude that Pomponia, wife of Plautius, the proconsul of Britain, and Claudia, a British lady, married to a noble Bom an, were both Christians about this period. When we remember, too, that the highest intellectual polish had long been relished by the Romans, and that they encouraged learning and established semi- naries in every conquered country; that when such a man as Con- stantine the Great (a. d. 806) was born in our ancient northern capital, York, and educated in the island, we must conclude, that not only was intellectual cultivation known, but extensively cher- ished in Britain. The after struggles with the Saxons and Danes must greatly have impaired this flourishing condition, although it appears that the Christian religion spread gradually among the lower ranks till the time of Ethelbert, 596, when St. Augustine arrived with his mission from Pope Gregory the Great, to offer it formally to the king and his people in general. Bertha, his queen, daughter of Charibert, King of Paris, was already a Christian ; and from this period monasteries and schools were prosperous among the Britons. Gildas stands first among the early Saxon writers, and wrote, during the first half of the sixth century, a Latin tract on the History of Britain. JS r ennins is supposed to have written about the same time, but this is very doubtful; and the first un- questioned author we have is St. Columbanus, a native of Ireland. He wrote religious treatises and Latin poems. Ccedmon, the bard, composed in Anglo-Saxon; and he, with Aldhelm, Abbot of Malmsbury, Ccelfrid, Abbot of Wearmouth, and Felix, Abbot of Croyland, all known as chroniclers, bring us to the Venerable Bede. Bede's " Ecclesiastical History" gives proof of his learning and judgment. JEgnus, an Irish historian, was called Hagiograjphus, from having written the " Lives of the Saints" about this time. About the same period, the Pope Honorius made York an archbishop's see, and soon after the University of Cam- 13 146 BRITISH LITERATURE. bridge was founded by Sigebert, king of the East Angles. The influence of monkish power was at this moment, perhaps, at its cli- max in Britain. Not yet sufficiently cultivated to withstand the superstitions of the age, no less than five of our Saxon monarchs successively retired to these asylums, and gave the impetus to that movement of veneration for these institutions which, in the next three or four centuries, swallowed up the finest intellects of men, and the most amiable qualities of women, till the abuse became monstrous, and idleness was the universal vice of the people. It is recorded that Charlemagne sent for learned men from Britain to instruct his people (see Literature of France), and that our ambas- sador to his court, Flaccus Alcuinus, was a man of such talent and information, as completely to have fascinated that great and wise monarch. Alfred, our great and good king, began in 871 his reign of prudence, forethought, and consummate wisdom; and although his kingdom was torn by an overwhelming enemy, yet he found leisure to cultivate his mind, and offers a striking proof of the ad- vanced state of intellectual progress at this period. Though he modestly attributes his superiority to the fine intellects and talents of his accomplished mother, it is evident there must have been abundance of learned and eminent men around him. He had visited Rome with his father Ethelwolf, and it is not probable that they went alone; indeed, the fact of his mother's high state of cul- tivation attests the general position of education at this time, for we may conclude that she was not the only high-born lady who could read and admire poetry. No doubt many of our Saxon manu- scripts have shared the fate of those of the Greek and Roman authors, in the age of religious polemics, and have been erased by the monks, in order to be turned to their immediate service. We have proofs of what the Saxons could do, in " The Exeter Books' ' of Ccedmon; in " The Traveler's Song," and in the " Codex Yer- cellensis" and the u Chronicles." Alfred is ranked among the best and greatest of monarchs. In regard to his encouragement of learning, we find that he founded the University of Oxford, established schools throughout his do- minions, and, besides being the hero of sixty-five battles, was the best Saxon poet of the age. He translated Orosius, Boethius, and TENTH CENTURY. 147 Bede (Latin writers) J also iEsop's Fables, from the Greek. Alfred's "Code of Laws" is a monument of his sound judgment; and his survey of England, called " The Roll of Winton," became the model for William the Conqueror's " Doomsday Book." JElfric, Archbishop of Canterbury, is the next certain author. He wrote, in his native tongue, a collection of " Homilies," " A Translation of the First Seven Books of the Bible," and some reli- gious treatises. He was also author of a Latin grammar. Cyne- wolf, Bishop of "Winchester, Wulfstone, Archbishop of York, and a few feebler pens, bring us to the time of the Conquest. During this time there were many seats of learning in England, many wri- ters, and many books; which latter are now mere objects of curiosity to the antiquary. This literature lasted till the breaking up of the language towards the close of the twelfth century. Considering the general state of Western Europe in the Middle Ages, our An- glo-Saxon forefathers may be regarded as a credit to our national history. After this period, the literature of England flowed through the pens of the Norman-French. Philip de Thaun wrote treatises on popular science in verse. Thorold wrote the ro- mance of " Roland." Geoffrey Gaimar was author of " A Chro- nicle of Anglo-Saxon Kings." These preceded Wace, a native of Jersey, who wrote a poem, entitled "Le Brut d'Angleterre." Geoffrey of Monmouth and Lay anion followed: the former wrote a " History of England f the latter translated from the Norman- French, Wace's poems into Anglo-Saxon. After these, we come to the rhyming chroniclers : Robert of Gloucester ', Robert Manning of Bourne j Langtoft of Bridlington, William ofMalmsbury, Henry of Huntingdon, Matthew of Westminster. Our composers of metri- cal romances followed, among whom Thomas of Ercildoun and Adam Davie are noted : the first for " Sir Tristram," the latter for " The Life of Alexander the Great." Several other metrical ro- mances exist; their style extended from the early part of Edward II. 's reign to the close of the fifteenth century. Michael Scotus was a very remarkable character of the thirteenth century, whose writings, according to Roger Bacon, were famous throughout Eu- rope. Matthew Paris, a monk of St. Alban's, has left us a history of England. Roger Bacon, a Franciscan monk, carried his learn- 148 BRITISH LITERATURE. ing to such a point, as to have been considered under supernatural influence. His chemical experiments and mathematical calculations raised the astonishment of the vulgar to the highest degree, and made them declare that he dealt with evil spirits. The dawn of miscellaneous poetry appeared about the middle of the thirteenth century, when Henry III. sat on the throne of England, and Alex- ander II. on that of Scotland. But the earliest that can be said to possess literary merit, is an elegy on the death of Edward I. ; and the first name we meet with is that of Lawrence 31inot, who wrote short poems on the victories of Edward III. About the same time flourished Richard Rolle, who wrote metrical paraphrases of the Scriptures and other poems. We next find Langlande's u Vision of Pierce Ploughman," a satire of no little merit. " A History of Scotland," by John Fordun, bears the date of 1308; and the earn- est struggle, which the hardy inhabitants had made for their liberty against our Edward I., renders the work of great interest. Duns opposed Aquinas on the subject of grace. But the serious occupa- tion of war against the Scots, and in the Holy Land, were suflicient causes for the general neglect of learning; and never, perhaps, were the nobles of England less educated than at this time. Sir John MandeviWs, Travels belong to this period. He is our first writer in prose. Wickliffe's translation of the Old and New Testament, made them first known in the English language. At the court of Edward III. Geoffrey Chaucer was observed as a man of rank and talent. He held the position of gentleman of the bed-chamber, and afterwards was ambassador to Genoa; but although timid and re- served as a man, he was full of animation and wit as a writer. Chaucer despised the dull old rhyming chroniclers, and the more lively, frivolous minstrels, or troubadours. He aimed at the regu- lar manner of the illustrious Italians; writing allegory after Dante, tenderness after Petrarch, and humorous anecdote after Boccaccio. Chaucer rejected many Saxon words, and took the Norman-French in preference as softer; and thus gained for himself the title of father of English poetry. His chief work is called " Canterbury Tales." In these, he is peculiarly pleasing for the truth and nature he infuses into his characters; and he is besides highly picturesque and dramatic. Most of the Tales display passages of eminent beauty; FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 149 but the story of " Griselda" is the one which is generally preferred as a whole. Throughout Europe it has passed into a proverb, and still finds a ready sympathy in every heart. Chaucer's prose works are " A Treatise on the Astralabe," written for the use of his son, and " The Testament of Love;" but his works were not known till some few years after Caxton had set up his printing press, which took place in 1471. Goiver was a friend of Chaucer's, and wrote first two Latin works, and then became much esteemed for his En- glish poem with a Latin title, " Confessio Amantis," which is a severe critique on the vices of the day. His French work, " Medi- tations Frangaises," was in considerable favor, and also his " Imi- tation of Ovid." Gower's works were not printed till nearly a hundred years after they were written; and that by Caxton, in 1493. To this period belongs John Barbour, who celebrated in good verses, the epic life of King Robert Bruce ; a romance, as such poems were then called, which is still valued by the patriot sons of Scotland. Here must be placed the intelligent Bishop of Winchester, William of Wykeham, who, under Edward III. and his two successors, was distinguished for his own talents and his encouragement of learning; he was the founder of New College, Oxford, and of that at Winchester. About 1420, the Prior of the Monastery of St. Andrew in Scotland, Andrew of Wyntown, wrote his clever " Chronicle of the History of Scotland," which was pub- lished by his countryman Macpherson in 1795, and was a favorite book of Sir Walter Scott's. Hutcheon's metrical romance, called " The Gest of Arthur." Clerk's « Adventures of Sir Gowain," Holland's poem of " Howlate," all preceded " The Adventures of Sir William Wallace," by Blind Harry, a wandering bard, who was the last of the minstrel class in Scotland. The fifteenth century may be considered as opened by the graceful pen of James I. of Scotland, for the character of the compositions assumed a nobler air henceforth. He was nineteen years a prisoner in England; and during that time, often cheered his loneliness with his poetic talent. His chief poem is "The King's Quhair" (or Cahier), and contains many charming ideas. The versatile versifier, John Lydgate, is the next of note in England; but in the middle of this century, Scotland could boast of several poems noted for 13* 150 BRITISH LITERATURE. command of phraseology and fertility of -imagination. Robert Henry son wrote "The Testament of Oresseid," and a series of excellent fables. William Dunbar's writings are now warmly estimated, hut had remained in the obscurity of manuscript till the middle of last century. His poems are of three kinds : allegorical, moral, and comic. Gawin Douglas, Bishop of Dunkeld, was an- other successful northern poet. His best poem is styled u The Palace of Honor," which it is believed led Bunyan's mind in his composi- tion of " The Pilgrim's Progress." Tusser wrote the first didactic poem. Among the earliest prose writers was the beautiful Juliana Berners (sister to Lord Berners, the distinguished translator of Froissart), who, when she had become Prioress of Sopewell Nun- nery, recollected her youthful pleasures, and wrote "A Treatise on Hunting and Pishing," and one "On Heraldry," which are still renowned. Shortly after, Mrs. Boper, the eldest daughter of Sir Thomas More, is mentioned as being highly cultivated. The worthy chancellor, her father, amused himself with his pen, when weary of court life, and wrote his " Utopia" in Latin ; it was trans- lated into English by Bishop Burnet. Sir Thomas More wrote also the "Life of Bichard III. and the History of Edward V." Sir Thomas Eliot wrote the " Castle of Health." The age of the Medici in Italy was distinguished in English annals by the poetic talent of Lord Surrey, who stands alone for some years, as a green spot in the desert of original writers which reigned around him. Surrey introduced the sonnet, which became so completely a fashion among those who pretended at all to letters, that even the sanguinary, restless Henry VIII. was not contented till he had proved that he also could write sonnets! Lord Surrey sang the beauties of Geraldine, daughter of the Earl of Kildare, with a power and sweetness rarely surpassed. Sir Thomas Wyatt was another distinguished poet of the court of Henry VIII. , and was the first polished satirist in English lite- rature. Skelton, the learned tutor of Henry VIIL, distinguished by Erasmus as "the light and ornament of British literature," amused himself by writing poems, which arc singularly quaint and pithy. It is recorded by Roscoe, that our countryman, Thomas SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 151 Linacer, studied the Greek language at Florence; and was so eminently distinguished by the elegance of his manners, and his singular modesty, that he is said to have been selected by Lorenzo de Medici as the associate of his sons in their studies. It was at this period that the English language received extensive additions from the Latin tongue. Hitherto, almost everything dis- tinguished had been written in Latin; and now that the use of the native tongue was encouraged in writings, Latinized expressions crept in naturally, to fill up, as it were, the deficiencies which marked our Saxon idiom, when dealing with compound, or abstract ideas. The discussions on religion called forth even the profligate Henry's exertion, and by his pen (aided by some of the learned men around him), he earned the title of "Defender of the Faith." But Henry's overbearing character effectively checked the buds of genius of that age, though it was greatly the fashion to be learned, and foreigners expressed themselves astonished at the height to which classical learning was carried in our universities. Henry VIII. founded Trinity College, at Cambridge, and in his youth drew forth the commendations of Erasmus, as a patron of letters. Inferior even to France in literary progress, England displayed, before the time of Henry VIII., a still more mortifying contrast with Italy. Italy had also her religious schisms and public distractions, but her arts and literature had always a place of shelter. They were even cher- ished by the rivalship of independent communities, and received encouragament from the opposite sources of commercial and eccle- siastical wealth; but we had no house of Medici. In England, the evils of civil war agitated society as one mass; there was no in- closure to fence in the fields of improvement, no mound to stem the torrent of public troubles; and then followed an additional circum- stance to quell the national genius, in the violent deaths for religious opinions. In an age of persecution, the living study of his own species must be comparatively darkened to the poet, and is decidedly so to the historian. Thus England did not enter into the career of social improvement so early as France; France lay nearer to the centre from which learning and the arts were spread over Europe, and the direct road they must take to England, was through her 152 BRITISH LITERATURE. dominions. But it is for these reasons that the civilization of England is at this day of a higher order. It is the result of more urgent necessity. The advantage which France undoubtedly had in the beginning, is more than compensated by the superior develop- ment of intellect, which has long been our inheritance. The age of Louis XIV. was indeed a brilliant epoch for France, and still more so for her monarch; it was an age of glory, of splendor, and of luxury — of everything, in short, but national wisdom; and it stands the more prominent because it was not preceded or followed by anything that can be compared to it. The even tenor of our constant pace has carried us further in a wider road, and while we persevere in the same track, with as few interruptions to our pro- gress in science, in literature, and in the useful arts, as we have done for more than a century, our pride shall be, not that we have an age of Louis XIY., but that we may boast of all ages alike. The new opening of the stores of classic lore, of ancient history, and of Italian poetry, did at length contribute much to the incitement and the perfection of our national genius. Ancient superstitions lingered among the people, as with others, at the first dawn of mental power, so that the romance of human life had not then departed; the martial and heroic spirit were not dead; for the age of Elizabeth was an age of peace, yet the sound of civil combat might be, as it were, still heard in the distance. The universities of England at this period, says Roger Ascham, Queen Elizabeth's tutor, were equal to any others in France, in Spain, in Germany, or in Italy. Sir David Lindsay, a page to James Y. of Scotland, was a graceful poet, in this age of harsh religious contention, when the Reformers of the North thundered their eloquent rebukes against the papal see. His chief poems are satirical and humorous, as "The Dream," "The Complaint," &c. He also wrote dramas, gross and inelegant, though full of wit. BeUenden wrote in prose " The Complaint of Scotland." The beautiful Queen Mary brought over from her loved France much of its fascinating frivolity, but intro- duced a spirit of elegance and taste for letters, hitherto little thought of. Mary's library, as delivered up to her son, James VI., is cha- racteristic of her mind: French authors and French translations; a variety of chronicles; several romances; Petrarch's sonnets; Boc- SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 153 caccio's tales; Ariosto's "Orlando;" and besides these, her favorite poets, Alain, Chartier, Ronsard, and Marot. The poor young queen's plaintive lines on quitting France, are no mean specimen of her taste and delicacy of feeling. Robert Southwell's " Valley of Tears," and Thomas Watson's "Sonnets," are of this period. Clapperton penned some remarkable stanzas in his poem on " Mar- riage." The dearness of parchment, and the slowness of scribes, made manuscripts purchasable only by princely wealth. It was the dis- covery of paper made from rags, and the novel art of taking copies without penmen, which made books become mere objects of com- merce, and dispersed the treasures of the mind so freely through the world. One great reason for the development of the human intellect in England at this epoch, proceeded from the freedom with which the people were allowed to judge of the doctrines, and can- vass the texts, of the sacred writings. The keen interest with which they now perused the Bible, hitherto a sealed book to most of them, is allowed to have given the first impulse to the practice of reading, in both parts of the island, and to have been one of the causes of the flourishing literary period which followed. Sir John Fortescue had written his work on the " Monarchy of England." Fabian and Edward Mall opened the path of historical prose writers. Lord Burleigh wrote his "Precepts for Conduct." It was Burleigh who put forth the first newspaper. Sir John Cheke was the first professor of Greek at Cambridge, and the first who attempted to give precepts and models for the improvement of English composi- tion. About the same period, Thomas Wilson published at Cam- bridge his art of " Rhetoric." William Grocin was professor of Greek at Oxford about the same time; which language he had stu- died at Florence under Chalcondyles, Latimer introduced cheerful morality into his sermons instead of legendary superstition. Tho- mas, the historian of Italy, Cavendish, the biographer of Wolsey, and Roger Ascham's " Schoolmaster," may be given to the reign of Mary, a period little distinguished for the happy leisure neces- sary for literary pursuits, and looked upon with regret that Christ- ianity should have been so ill understood. We find recorded, about this period, the performance of mysteries and moralities at 154 BRITISH LITERATURE. Kilkenny, in honor of Mary being proclaimed Queen. " God's Promises in the Old Law," " Saint John Baptist's Preachings/' " Christ's Baptizing," &c, were written by Bale, Bishop of Ossory, for the above occasion. During the reigns of Edward VI. and Mary, religious controversy occupied every pen, and rather minis- tered to the passions, than improved the morals of the people; wit- ness the pamphlets of Fischer, Bishop of Rochester, against Luther. Elizabeth appeared, and her own talents and taste rapidly aug- mented the literary power of the English mind. She filled her court with men calculated to shine in almost every field of intel- lectual exertion. Her successors, James and Charles, resembled her in some respects; and, during their reigns, the impulse which she had given to literature, experienced rather an increase than a decline. There was something, indeed, in the policy, as well as in the personal character, of all these sovereigns, which proved fa- vorable to literature. The study of the belles lettres was, in some measure, identified with the courtly and arbitrary principles of the times ; not so much, perhaps, from any enlightened spirit in those who supported such principles, as from a desire of opposing the Puritans, and other malcontents, whose religious doctrines taught them to despise some departments of elegant literature, and utterly to condemn others. There can be no doubt that the drama, for instance, chiefly owed its encouragement, under Elizabeth and her successors, to a spirit of hostility to the Puritans, who, not unjustly, repudiated it for its immorality. We must, at the same time, allow much to the influ- ence which such a court as that of England, during these three reigns, was calculated to have upon men of literary tendencies. Almost all the poets, and many of the other writers, were either courtiers themselves or under the immediate protection of courtiers; and were constantly experiencing the smiles, and not unfrequently the solid benefactions, of royalty. Whatever, then, was refined, or gay, or distinguished in this country and at this time, came, with its full influence upon literature. The works brought forth under these circumstances, have been very aptly compared to the productions of a soil for the first time broken up, when all indigenous plants spring up at once with a SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 155 rank and irrepressible fertility, and display whatever is peculiar and excellent in their nature, on a scale the most conspicuous and mag- nificent. The ability to write having been suddenly created, the whole world of character, imagery, and sentiment, as well as of in- formation and philosophy, lay ready for the use of those possessed of the gift, and was appropriated accordingly. As might be ex- pected, where there was less rule of art than opulence of materials, the productions of these writers are not unfrequently deficient in taste, and contain much that is foreign to the purpose; in short, systematic cultivation was wanting. On this account, the refined taste of the eighteenth century condemned most of the productions of the sixteenth and seventeenth to oblivion; and it is only of late that they have once more obtained their deserved reputation. After every proper deduction has been made, enough remains to fix this era as by far the brightest in English literature. The sixty or se- venty years that elapsed from the middle of Elizabeth's reign to the period of the Restoration are unexampled in history. In point of force and originality of genius, neither the age of Pericles, nor that of Augustus, nor the times of Leo X. or of Louis XIV., can come at all into comparison, for in that short period we shall find the names of most of the greatest men that this nation has pro- duced. The excellent Dr. John Collet was famed for his uncommon learn- ing, and founded the admirable school of St. Paul's. It was under his patronage that William Lily wrote his grammar, and attempted to write comedy. He educated Leland the celebrated antiquary. William Tynedale published the first copy of the Bible in English, in Queen Mary's time. John Heywood was one of the first drama- tic writers. The poetic talent, in particular, suddenly burst forth in Elizabeth's reign. Sackville wrote his tragedy of " G-orboduc." " Mustapha," by Lord Brook, was a feeble effort; while the most accomplished gentleman of her court, Sir Philip Sidney, was one of the best of our early poets, although his chief work, " Arcadia," a pastoral romance, is in prose. Gascoigne and Tuberville, both aspired to distinction as poets, and won attention for a little time. Richard Barnfield wrote several volumes of poetry; one piece of which is much valued, commencing " As it fell upon a day." 156 BRITISH LITERATURE. Sylvester's " Soul's Errand" was written also at this time ; and the unhappy Southwell's poems went through eleven editions in sis years. Samuel Daniel is a voluminous, but dull poet of this epoch. " A History of the Civil War" is his longest poem; his minor pieces are much more valued. Drayton's u Polyalbion," a long poem, descriptive of England, belongs to the time of James I., while Fairfax's translation of Tasso's " Jerusalem Delivered" was made in Elizabeth's; and Sir John Harington translated Ariosto. Sir John Davies wrote a poem " On the Soul of Man," which has good verses. Sir Philip Sidney, as the patron of Spenser, proved his judgment to be as great as his taste. " The Faery Queen," and " The Shepherd's Calendar," of Spenser, are the delight of every age; he struck the lyre with infinite power and sweetness; he sketched with great delicacy and precision; but his heroes being almost always mere abstract personifications of some virtue, or some vice, we generally know what they are to do; hence we are never entertained with pictures of manners in " The Faery Queen," while these form one of the greatest charms of Boiardo, Berni, and Ariosto, his cotemporaries. Sir Walter Raleigh was a poet; but he also wrote history, when condemned to the seclusion of a prison by the injustice of James I. His adventurous and chivalrous spirit had delighted the court of Elizabeth, and his song of " The Shepherd to the Flowers" charms all lovers of nature. Raleigh's u History of the World" is read with melancholy interest, by those who have followed the precarious life of its author, as courtier, navigator, colonizer, and prisoner. Thomas Kendal's " Hours of Epigrams," Nicolas Breton's " Works of a Young Wit," with Henry Consta- ble's fugitive poems, are all of this period, as minor efforts of the pen. Marlowe, Ben Jonson, Massinger, with the twin friends, Beaumont and Fletcher, appeared on the dramatic horizon, to pre- pare the mind, by their opening dawn of many beauties, for glorious Shalcspeare ! The earliest dramatic attempts in England, as everywhere else, were the mysteries and moralities. But it appears that these were known amongst us even sooner than in other countries; for in the " History of the Council of Constance," it is recorded that English prelates entertained their friends, in one of the intervals between SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 157 the sittings, with a spiritual play in Latin, such as was not known to the other members of the Council, or, at least, not in such per- fection. Marlowe wrote seven plays, and made a great improve- ment in theatrical literature. It is but justice to mention, also, his drama, entitled " The Life and Death of Dr. Faustus," which is written with a force and freedom very remarkable; and, by calling in the aid of magic and supernatural agency, he has produced a work full of power, novelty, and variety, though much inferior to the work of Goethe on the same subject. Marlowe's song, " Come live with me/' is one of the sweetest we have; and his translation of the opening of the " Hero and Leander" of Musaeus is remark- ably good. Ben Jonson' s dramatic talent was so great, that he was preferred, in his lifetime, to Shakspeare. His comic powers are especially great, although "Every Man in his Humor/' and "The Alchemist," are all that are yet much admired. Ben Jonson was highly gifted; he had wit, observation, judgment, memory, and learning. His minor poems are exquisite. Robert Merrick was a spirited writer of lyrics, and friend of Jonson. Massinger wrote a number of comedies, but only one has kept possession of the stage, " A New Way to pay Old Debts." His best tragedy is considered to be " The Duke of Milan." There are many beauties scattered through his works, with great purity of style and delicacy of man- ners. But it is in Shakspeare that our wealth is inexhaustible. His personages act upon principles arising from genuine passion, very little modified by particular forms; their pleasures and pains are communicable to all times and all places; they are natural and therefore durable. His plays are expressions of the passions, not descriptions of them. His imagination is of the same powerful kind as his conception of character; it unites the most opposite extremes; and he has such magic power over words, that one alone is frequently found to be so happily employed, that it is a picture in itself. "Macbeth," "Othello," "Hamlet," "Romeo and Juliet," are immortal in tragedy; while "The Merry Wives of Windsor," "Twelfth Night," "The Taming of the Shrew," "The Comedy of Errors," are as great in comedy. He has also enriched our history with words that we never forget, and with poetry that clings to our 14 158 BRITISH LITERATURE. most intimate affections. The Greeks and Romans, especially the latter, stand before us, not imaginary paintings of a poet, but stern and living realities. His wonderful genius is considered to appear greatest in those plays where he gives way entirely to his imagina- tion, and raises his fancy to a flight above the limits of the visible world, as in "The Tempest/' "A Midsummer Night's Dream/' 1 "Macbeth," and "Hamlet." Shakspeare's plays are believed to have been written in the fol- lowing order: — ■ 1st Part of Henry VI. 2d Part of Henry VI. 3d Part of Henry VI. The Midsummer Night's Dream .... The Comedy of Errors The Taming of the Shrew Love's Labors Lost Two Gentlemen of Verona Romeo and Juliet Hamlet .... King John Richard II. Richard III. . 1st Part of Henry IV. 2d Part of Henry IV. The Merchant of Venice . All's Well that Ends Well The fifty- three plays which are published as the joint work of Beaumont and Fletcher, confer upon them as much honor as poets as their steady friendship as men. It is said that Fletcher had the fancy, Beaumont the judgment. Fletcher wrote, while Beaumont planned the fable and corrected the dialogue of his more witty and volatile friend; but they have leaned to the vices of the age, and have allowed coarseness and indelicacy to usurp frequently the place of intellect. Sir Henry Wotton's good sense and graceful poems belong to this period. Grafton, the industrious printer, during the A. D. A. D. 1589 Henry V 1599 1591 Much Ado about Nothing . 1600 1591 As You Like It ■ . 1600 Merry Wives' of Windsor . 1601 1592 Henry VIII. . 1601 1593 Troilus and Cressida 1602 1594 Measure for Measure 1603 1594 The Winter's Tale . 1604 1595 King Lear 1605 1595 Cymbelino 1605 1596 Macbeth .... 1606 1596 Julius Cgesar 1607 1597 Antony and Cleopatra 1608 1597 Timon of Athens 1609 1597 Coriolanus 1610 1598 Othello ... 1611 1598 The Tempest . 1612 1598 Twelfth Night . 1614 SEVENTEENTH CENTUEY. 159 reigns of Henry VIII. and three succeeding rcigns ; wrote also with tact and energy. % James I. of England was too pedantic and too vain to he a liberal encourager of learning; hut the earnest discussions on Romanist and Protestant questions led to much serious writing in his time. It was considered necessary to make a new translation of the Bible, and in 1611 our present translation was published by order of James. The king himself wrote a work called "Basilicon Doron," and an- other on the subject of " Witchcraft." Sir Thomas Ovcrbury and Buikop Earle were clever sketchers of character. Bishop Jewel wrote his "Apology for the Church of England." John Knox wrote his "History of the Reformation;" Buchanan, his "History of Scotland ;" Holinshed, his " History of England." Baron Napier was the celebrated inventor of logarithms, and wrote " Commentaries on the Apocalypse." Hooker earned the title of "judicious," and perpetuated his name, with others of a later date, for that truthfulness and spirit which render all writings immortal, though the fashion of them may have faded into oblivion. Echoard Wriyht was one of the first writers of travels, and constructed a remarkable sphere. Abbot, Archbishop of Canterbury, wrote a " History of the Massacres of the Valteline." Leland was a writer of antiquarian researches. HacMnyt was a great collector of voy- ages; lils works are continued by Purchas. Camden wrote "Annals of Queen Elizabeth" about the same time that Sir Edward Coke wrote his invaluable " Institutes on the Laws of England." Camden made extensive antiquarian researches, and left his library to Sir Robert Cotton, who had the same tastes; this last bequeathed the whole to the British Museum. Peter Heylin published his "Micro- cosmus." Archbishop Usher warmly opposed the Romanists, and also published his "Annales." Chillingworth wrote "Religion of the Protestants a safe Way to Salvation." John Hales is of the same class. Gandon wrote the " Ikon Basilike," in hopes of saving the life of Charles I., by appealing to the feelings of the people. The great Lord Bacon, in his work called " Instauration of the Sciences," obtained so vast a renown for his mental powers, that his moral weakness is often forgotten. His chief works are " The Progress and Dignity of the Sciences;" "Natural History;" "Moral, 160 BRITISH LITERATURE. Political, and Historical Essays ;" a number of treatises on physics, metaphysics, and chemistry, and "Portraits of Great Men." But it is the "Novum Organon" that embraces the great principles which have rendered his name second only to that of Aristotle as a practical philosopher. There is a pleasing volume from the pen of Owen Feltham, entitled "Resolves — Divine, Moral, and Political," in which the author much resembles Bacon. Burton wrote his "Anatomy of Melancholy." May, Hay tear d, Knolles, Yfilson, and Baker were historians of middle rank, but are all useful. The witty Selden wrote, "On the Civil Government of England," and "A Defence of the King's Dominion over the Sea." Sandys, Lithgone, Howell, and Thomas Herbert were intelligent travelers of this period. Dempster, a Scotchman, wrote some clever works in Latin on various subjects. Bishop Joseph Hall wrote some able satires. Archbishop Parker was a great collector of the works of the Reformers. Fox's "Book of Martyrs" became highly popular. With the poets of the seventeenth century was born the love of form. Elegance and wit try to supersede imagination and passion. Waller ranks the first as a poet of this class, and is still estimated as a refiner and improver of our poetical diction. Cowley has more energy, and a better philosophy. He praises " Omida," a lady of that age, Mrs. K. Philips, who attempted poetry. Chapman, the quaint translator of Homer; Careio, another courtier-like poet of Waller's class; Sir John Suckling ; Quarles, the puritan; Broicne, the pastoral poet; Phineas and Giles Fletcher, brothers, of consi- derable merit as minor poets; Withers, the satirist; George Herbert; Sir Richard Fanshaw, who translated Camoens; Donne, who lives in the beautiful lines addressed to his wife, and is considered the first of the metaphysical poets; all are writers of this period, and who, amidst much worthless versifying, have occasional lines of a high order of poetry. Sir John Denham won from the severe Dr. Johnson the title of "majestic;" Sir William Davcnant wrote " Gondibert;" Cleveland was a satirist; Shirley, a dramatist; Cra- shaio, a religious poet; Lovelace, a lyric poet. Meantime, Scot- land had had her Alexander Scot, Alexander Montgomery, Alexan- der Hume, King James VI., the Earh of Ancrum and Stirling, Drummond, and Sir Robert Jyton, as native poets, with the two SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 161 classical Latinists George Buchanan and Dr. Arthur Johnston, who have been styled the Scottish Virgil and the Scottish Ovid. David Caldcricood and Archbishop Spottiswoode both wrote a history of Scotland. Sir James Mcloil's "Court History," and John Lesley's " History of Scotland," are of the same epoch. The outline of our British drama may be traced from " miracle plays/' acted in 1119, through a vast number of inferior writers, but in whose works are to be found glimpses of taste and genius worthy of notice; as in Heyioood, Udall, Still, Sackeville, Fdwards, Whetstone, Lyly, Peele, Kid, Nash, Lodge, Munday, Chettie, and many more. There are also several anonymous plays worth atten- tion; and then came the brilliant writers, Marlowe, Ben Jonson, Beaumont and Fletcher, Shahspeare, and Massinger. These were succeeded by a host of inferior dramatists, as Dehher, Webster, Jlliddlcfon, Marston, Robert Taylor, Roicley, Tumour, Coohe, Nabbes, Field, Day, Glapthome, Randolph, Brome, Ford. After these there was a long cessation of the regular drama; the country was convulsed with civil war. These minor geniuses bring us to the greatest epic poet of his country; but the age was not prepared to admire him, and Milton was more known as the secretary of Cromwell than as the author of " Paradise Lost." In regard to Milton, we scarcely know whether to prefer his sublimity or his beauty; his power over both was transcendent. The Satan of Milton is the most magnificent creation in poetry. Those parts of the poem which relate to our first pa- rents are given with extreme beauty. Milton and Dante have been frequently compared; both are the most powerful poets of their country, but Dante's genius has not the grasp or the soaring power of Milton. Dante's strength is made up of units; his talent con- sists in a clear and striking detail of facts. Milton's genius was massy and congregated. Milton has been considered the greatest epic poet of the world; there arc certainly a grandeur of conception and a breadth of character pervading this poem, from beginning to end, that we scarcely admit to exist in any other poet. The " Pa- radise Regained" is more feeble. " Lycidas" is a lovely pastoral elegy. " Comus," " Samson Agonistes," and his sonnets, speak highly of his poetic power. Milton's prose works are splendid in 14* 162 BRITISH LITERATURE. diction; but some of them bear painful stamp of the violent preju- dices of bis times. Tbe prose writers of the fourth period (including the Common- wealth, reigns of Charles II., and James II.) attained a high de- gree of perfection. The chief writers on philosophical and political subjects are Milton, Cowley, Sidney, Temple, Burnet, and Locke; in history, there were Clarendon and Burnet; in divinity, Barrow, Tillotson, Stilling fleet, Sherlock, South, Calamy, Baxter, and Bar- clay; in miscellaneous literature, Fuller, Walton, L' Estrange, Dry dm, and Sir Thomas Browne; in physical science, or natural philosophy, Boyle, Barrow, and Sir Isaac Neicton. Milton's " Iconoclastes," or the Image-breaker, and his " Defence of the English People," in answer to Salmasius's " Defence of the King," with a " History of England" to the Conquest, are his chief prose works. Cowley wrote " Discourse on the Government of Cromwell." Algernon Sydney, the English Cicero, wrote most eloquently " On Government;" but the age was unequal, in its dawning strength, to protect him. Sir William Temple's "Remarks on the United Provinces," " Memoirs from 1672 to 1692," and " Essay on An- cient and Modern Learning," are models for style. This last work created a long literary controversy throughout Europe. Archbishop Tillotson was another writer who greatly improved the English tongue. His sermons are at once eloquent, perspicuous, and con- vincing. Fuller wrote his "Worthies of England." Dugdale wrote his " Antiquarian History of Warwickshire," a most enter- taining work. Stoice, Spehnan, and Speed are antiquarians of this epoch. Stowe's " Survey of London," and Spchnan's " Works on Ancient Laws," are of great value. Clarendon's " History of the Rebellion," is the most remarkable work of this age. His " Sur- vey of the Leviathan," is an essay in answer to Hobbes' work, enti- tled " The Leviathan," which was publicly censured by Parliament. Hobbes was the first of that class of doubting philosophers who have since awakened such various thoughts on the subject of divine revelation. Lord Herbert of Cherbury was a friend of Hobbes, and wrote on the same subjects. Jeremy Taylor, a chaplain to Charles I., wrote several excellent defences of the church; but when the Parliament was successful, Taylor retired into Wales, and kept a SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 163 school for the maintenance of his family. It was in this humble position that he penned those copious and fervent " Discourses" which have rendered him one of the first writers in the English language. Sir Thomas Browne is another of the same class of eloquent writers on religious topics at this period. Bishop Wilson published his " Principles and Duties of Christianity;" and a few years later, Bishop Warburton wrote his " Divine Legation of Moses." Evelyn, the founder of the Royal Society, wrote his " Sylva," or treatise on Forest Trees. The Honorable Robert Boyle stands peculiarly conspicuous for his efforts in spreading abroad Christianity. He wrote " A free Inquiry into the vulgarly re- ceived Notion of Nature," and various other treatises. Harrington's political work of " Oceana," and the " Letters" of Lady Russell, belong to this period. Charleton was a lively describer of charac- ter; and, in his " Discourses concerning the different Wits of Men," awoke the first ideas of phrenology. Cuchcorth wrote his " True Intellectual System of the Universe." Sir Roger L' Estrange dis- graced his pen by selling it to political party, and stands the first on record for this dishonor. The excellent Stillingfleet wrote his u Origines Sacrse." Dr. Robert South is called the wittiest .of English divines, and was an earnest supporter of the Church of England in its troubles. Bishop Wilkins and Bishop Pearson were noted for their theological works. Bishop Sprat wrote " The Life of Cowley," and various sermons : his style is considered the best of the middle period. Dr. Henry More was a learned cultivator of the Platonic philosophy, and wrote " The Mysteries of G-odliness," &c. Richard Baxter was an eminent nonconformist; his best work is entitled " The Saint's Everlasting Rest." Dr. John Owen was of the Independents, and wrote " An Exposition on the Epistle to the Hebrews." Edward Calamy was in great favor with the Presby- terian party. Llis sermons are published under the title of " The Godly Man's Ark." Flavel was another zealous nonconformist. His works are in a plain, perspicuous style; his < r Husbandry Spi- ritualized," and " Navigation Spiritualized," are much valued by the Calvinists. Mattheio Henry is another of the eminent noncon- formist divines of this period. George Fox founded the Society of Friends, and left numerous writings. Robert Barclay wrote his 164 BRITISH LITERATURE. celebrated " Apology for the Quakers." William Penn was an- other anxious supporter of the same sect, and wrote " Sacred Histo- ries of the Old and New Testament." John Bunyan was a mem- ber of the Baptist congregation, and wrote his admirable " Pilgrim's Progress" while in prison for his religious opinions. His sermons, or essays, are also much valued. While Milton was attracted by the serious view of the Puritan professions, Butler was looking at their ludicrous exaggerations, and turning them to account in his clever poem of " Hudibras f his prose works are also witty, and full of pithy truths. But the resto- ration of Charles II, was fatal to poetry. The Earl of Rochester, this king's favorite, had both wit and taste, which he sadly mis- used. Not so the Earl of Roscommon; whose poems are, at least, free from indecency. Sir Charles Sedley's poems are also with- out license. The Duke and Duchess of Neiocastle wrote some pretty things ; for there were some writers who partook of the draught of wit and gayety brought over from France by the king and his fol- lowers without utterly abandoning their previous tastes, or the wisdom of their English ancestors. The fine patriotic mind of Andrew Marvel inspired some pleasant verse. Old Izaah Walton wrote his charming volume, "The Complete Angler." Cotton wrote his " Emigrants in the Bermudas," and "Visions in Verse." There was Vaughcm's harsh poetry, and Stanley's " Eschylus f but, in fact, the first name of this period is that of Dryden. He was at the head of his school as a bitter, biting satirist ; a writer of sensible, sonorous, masculine verse. His "Ode on St. Cecilia's Day," his " Satires," and his " Fables," will ever perpetuate his name. His plays want natural pathos and stage propriety; of these, he wrote a considerable number, which are rarely heard of : " Don Sebastian," and " All for Love," are the best. Dryden translated Virgil's iEneid into very graceful verse, and made trans- lations also of Plutarch, Juvenal, and Persius. Sir George Ethe- ridge, Wychcj'ley, Thomas Shadwell, and Mrs. Aphra Behn were rival dramatists of the same day. Otway and Lee were more re- nowned cotemporaries. Otway was acutely sensitive, and has writ- ten a play, entitled "Venice Preserved," which must please as long as truth of feeling and harmony of language subsist. Lee was EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 1G5 powerful, but bombastic ; his " Rival Queens" is still occasionally acted. Jloicc followed Lee's manner, but had more pathos ; his " Jane Shore" is yet liked. Conyrcves " Mourning Bride" is of the same era, and is identified with the first success of Mrs. Sid- dons in London. Mrs. GentUvre was peculiarly happy in her arrangement of plot, and is a very successful writer of comedy. /Southern's tragedy of " Isabella, or the Fatal Marriage," is yet a favorite. Aclclison may stand at the opening of the eighteenth century as the founder of the taste and style of a school which reigned through a great number of years, and which still deserves the title of classi- cal. Addison tried his strength in tragedy, but his " Cato" has too much classic stiffness. It reads admirably, and dwells in the memory of every lover of fine thoughts and fine verse ; but there is not action enough in it for the stage. But if Addison did not shine in this department of literature, he amply compensated by the elegance of his prose writings, which will be named later. Hervey wrote his "Meditations among the Tombs." Philips produced his " Splendid Shilling." Charles Sackville, Duke of Dorset, wrote a few sweet poems. Parnell bequeathed us his graceful poem of "The Hermit." The Duke of Buckingham wrote an "Essay on Poetry." Gay wrote some admirable fables, some fine ballads (as " Black-eyed Susan"), and his comedy of " The Beggar's Opera." Matthew Prior is better remembered as the author of a poem called " The Nut-brown Maid," than as Secretary of State. Green wrote a poem called " Spleen." Then we had Lillo, the tragic poet of the middle and familiar life ; and he is a master of potent effect in his exhibition of human suffering, as in " George Barnwell," and "Fatal Curiosity." At length, came the better known and more celebrated Alexander Pope. He was a fit successor to the chair of Dryden ; these two are the great masters of the artificial, or classical style of poetry, in opposition to the romantic, or Shaks- pearian style ; and they have a claim upon our gratitude as having produced a kind and degree of excellence which existed equally no- where else. Pope had the same stinging sarcasm, and the same good sense as Dryden; the same hatred of what is base and mean, with something more of refinement, and a clearer moral view, than 166 BRITISH LITERATURE. can be ascribed to his predecessor : each, however, belonged to his age, and illustrated it finely. Pope wisely thought, that if a refor- mation in morals was to be effected, it must be by the example, not of the poor, but of the high-born and opulent ; and he lashed the gilded follies and sins of the wealthy with infinite good-will. His poem of " The Rape of the Lock" is a literary jewel of classic grace and wit : his " Essay on Man," and " Essay on Criticism," are highly valued for their acute reasoning and good sense; but his master-piece, as a poem, is " The Epistle of Eloisa to Abelard." Pope's translations of the Iliad and Odyssey are fine specimens of the beauty of the English language. The poet Young seems to have had a peculiar preference for serious subjects, although a man of gay temperament, and inclined to forget the reverses of life in his own pilgrimage. His "Night Thoughts," as a whole, is a poem that carries a distempered view of human life, so that its entire perusal is a painful and tedious task; yet it presents many passages of sublime expression, profound reflection, and striking imagery. In his tragedy of " Revenge," he is scholastic and monkish. The name of Pope brings to mind his fair friend (and bitter enemy !) the witty and graceful writer of letters, Lady Mary Worthy Montague. Dr. Arbutlinot was one of the brilliant wits of the same age; his satirical "History of John Bull," has given a cognomen to Britain, which will not easily be forgotten. Rymer wrote " Cri- ticisms on the Tragic Writers;" and splenetically pulls to pieces poor Shakspeare ; Rymer has, however, left a name which is much valued by historians. He formed a collection of all the public transactions, treaties, conventions, and state letters, and this is esteemed one of our most authentic and valuable records; the work is entitled " Rymer' s Foedera." Ochley, Strype, and Carte wrote English history about this time; and Thomas Stanley's "History of Philosophy," Anthony Wood's "Athense Oxonienses," Elias Ashmole's "Institution of the Order of the Garter," John Aubry's "Miscellanies," all belong to Rymer's period. Very different to these ponderous writers were Tom D' TJrfey and Tom Brown, the first a merry writer of comedies, the last known in his age for his dialogues and poems. Meanwhile Scotland had many learned men, EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 167 but only Sir George Mackenzie as an author. He wrote an im- portant "Memorial of the Affairs of Scotland," and "Essays." He was an eminent judge under Charles II. and James II. During the latter part of the seventeenth century, while England was suffering from the consequences of civil war, the public taste had become corrupted, insipid, tame, and sickly; the language itself was neglected, and the great old poets were sinking fast into obli- vion; but so soon as, by a fortunate revolution, the political inde- pendence of England came again to be displayed, her national literature also began to revive. The French taste (which the English had adopted after the Puritan period had passed away) became every day weaker; and they recurred, at last, with redou- bled affection, to the old writers of their own country. Many circumstances tended to make the short reign of Anne illustrious — the campaigns of Marlborough, the new spectacle of seeiDg England at the head of a successful continental confederacy, and the literary characters of the age. Many of these were called to fill active stations; not to mention inferior instances, we may recollect the negotiations of Prior, and the uncommonly important situation Swift held with the Tory administration; the political ambition of Bolinghrohe, equaling his literary aspirations; and the domestic question then at issue, whether the House of Hanover should suc- ceed, or the House of Stuart be restored. In the midst of these feelings, the opening of the eighteenth century was remarkable for a class of writers, peculiarly eminent for wit, elegance, and taste. These were the distinguished authors of those essays published periodically, which have placed British literature in so high a rank. While Addison was in Ireland as secretary to Lord Wharton, Sit Richard Steele commenced the first of these publications under the title of the " Tatler," to which Addison liberally contributed. Twice in the week, a short paper appeared, so conducted as to lash the vices of the age, at the same time that it promulgated virtue, under its most pleasing form. It was the great aim of these papers, that no subject connected with the good of mankind should be left un- touched; some are expressly devoted to religious topics; and those for Saturday in the " Spectator," written by Addison, contain some of the most beautiful reflections ever produced. Eustace Budgell 168 BRITISH LITERATURE. wrote the papers in the "Spectator" that are signed X. John Hughes was another contributor, and is known as the author of a play called the "Siege of Damascus." Sir Richard Steele wrote also many comedies, among which "The Conscious Lovers" is the best. " The Guardian" was another of these periodicals, in which Addison gave his masterly touches; and "The Freeholder" was attempted in defence of Government, but the violence of politics put an end to it. Addison's "Tour through Italy" is esteemed by all lovers of classical associations. " The Adventurer" was another periodical under the direction of Dr. Haiokesioorth. "The World," "The Connoisseur," "The Mirror," "The Lounger," were of the same class. Lord Shaftesbury wrote "Characteristics of Men, Manners, Opinions, and Times;" and the great philosopher John Locke gave to the world his celebrated "Essay on the Human Understanding," which will be a lasting monument of English talent. In this essay, Locke is looked upon as a model of the greatest clearness and sim- plicity in philosophical writing; while Shaftesbury is pointed out as exhibiting philosophy dressed up with every possible ornament of language. Locke also wrote "Thoughts on Education," "Dis- courses on Government," "Letters on Toleration," and "Commen- taries on Saint Paul." Aiterbury, Bishop of Rochester, and Burnet, Bishop of Salisbury, we're both celebrated for mental talent. It is said of the former that he never attempted to show the beauty of holiness, till he had convinced his hearers of its benefit. Burnet wrote "A Vindication of the Church of Scotland," and "A History of the Reformation;" but he is most known for the " History of his Own Times." Aiterbury' s sermons meddled a little too much with politics. Indeed, both of these learned men were unfortunate in this respect, and, in consequence, lived many years in exile ; as also the witty, graceful, and fascinating Lord Bolingbroke. He wrote, while in France, "A Course of Letters on the Study and Use of History." When he returned to England, he became the patron of Pope and Swift, and other men of letters. Dr. Isaac Barrow was one of the fertile and abundant preachers of this epoch, whose sermons remain as examples of intense earnestness in the great cause of religion. Barrow is venerated also as the preceptor of our EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 169 philosopher Newton; he published seven works on * Mathematics," but afterwards gave himself up exclusively to divinity. As an author, Sir Isaac Newton's scientific works form the base of his renown j but he is looked upon with veneration by every friend to Christianity, as its warm supporter, and as an earnest illustrator of the Holy Scriptures. His "Treatise on Ancient Chronology" is invaluable ; and his " Mathematical Principles of Natural Philoso- phy" was looked upon as the production of a celestial intelligence rather than of a man. Dr. Samuel Clarke, an able metaphysician, wrote a " Treatise on the Scripture Doctrine of the Trinity ;" Charles Leslie, " A Short and Easy Method with the Deists," which is still popular. William Whiston wrote "A Theory of the Earth;" he was eccentric and learned. Dr. Philip Doddridge was a copious expo- sitor of the Holy Scriptures. Dr. William Nicholson published " Historical Libraries of England and Scotland." Dr. Matthew Tindal wrote " Christianity as Old as the Creation." Dr. Bentley's answer to Collins' " Discourse on Free Thinking," is a noted work. He was the witty antagonist of the Honorable Charles Boyle, in the controversy concerning the originality of the epistles of Pha- laris. Bentley had many of the finest minds to contend with; at a later period of his life, he drew forth the censure of Dr. Conyers Middleton, another cotemporary, for accepting exorbitant fees as Regius Professor. Middleton wrote the "Life of Cicero." Dr. Jortin's sensible works belong to this period. Bishop Sherlock wrote his "Vindications of the Doctrine of the Holy Trinity." Whitelock wrote his "Memorial of English Affairs." Daniel Defoe wrote his admirable "Robinson Crusoe," and many other works. Bernard Mandeville wrote a clever satire called "The Bees;" and Andrew Fletcher, of Saltoun, wrote his able political discourses. It was now that British comedy made a bold and successful ad- vance. Farquhars " Constant Couple," "The Way to Win Him," •"The Recruiting Officer/' and "The Beaux Stratagem," all present admirable scenes of comic effect and sprightly dialogue. Congreves "Double Dealer," "The Old Bachelor," and "Love for Love," are still valued; and Sir John Vanbrugh's "Provoked Husband" is one of our most pleasing and most universal favorites, with " The Provoked Wife," and "The Relapse/' all replete with wit and ac- 15 170 BRITISH LITERATURE. tion. Gibber, too, fluttered among the strong-minded men of the day; gifted and gay, he was a successful actor of comedy, and a successful writer of more than one. "The Careless Husband" is the best, but "The Nonjuror" brought him most fame. It was an attack upon the Jacobites, and obtained for its author the honor of the laureate, although Pope, in his jealousy and bitter satire, could only make him the hero of " The Dunciad." It may be remarked that, in the series of English comic poets, Wyclierley, Gongreve, Farquhar, Vanbrugh, Steele, and Gibber, there is a gradation from unblushing indecency to tolerable modesty. Macklin, the actor, wrote the plays of "Love a.-la-Mode" and "The Man of the World." At the accession of Queen Anne, Dean Swift embarked in politics, hoping for preferment in England, but being disappointed, his tem- per was embittered, and his strong spirit of satire increased. In prose, Swift is distinguished for clearness and force ; his principal works are, "Gulliver's Travels," a most entertaining fiction and satire; an allegory, entitled "A Tale of a Tub;" various political tracts, with a variety of admirable essays and letters, which, for pungency and felicity of style, have never been surpassed. His value, however, as a moral writer is not great; for his wit was so licentious, that no subject, however sacred, and no character, how- ever amiable, could escape it. Lardner's " Credibility of the Gos- pel," Prideaux's " Connection of the Old and New Testaments," and Sherlock's "Discourse on Death," belong to this epoch. Dr. Potter's "Antiquities of Greece" excited the attention of the learned both at home and abroad. Berkeley's " Metaphysical Speculations" also excited much attention. Hunter, Black, Gavendisli, Maskeleyne, Play fair, and Hersclicl were all natural philosophers of this period. The very original Lord Karnes created a name, as philosopher and lawyer, of which the Scotch are justly proud. His "Essays on Criticism," "History of Man," "Hints on Education," "Introduc- tion to the Art of Thinking," are all productions of a man endowed with powerful and varied talent. His countryman, Allan Ramsay, was, at nearly the same time, a poet of no mean value. His pas- toral comedy of " The Gentle Shepherd" stands quite apart from the general style of European pastorals; it has no satyrs, nor fea- tureless simpletons, nor drowsy landscapes, but distinct characters EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 171 and amusing incidents ; the author's verses have passed into pro- verbs, and continue to be the solace and delight of the peasantry whom he describes. Thomson is claimed by both nations; and all are equally anxious to praise his " Seasons/' "Castle of Indolence/' and poem of "Liberty/' but his tragedies of "Tancred and Sigis- niunda," "Agamemnon/' and " Sophonisba/' though containing eminent poetical beauties, have never been able to win much atten- tion; "Coriolanus" is much better liked. The unhappy Savage was so stung by the cruelty of his unnatural mother, that he per- petuated the disgrace of his birth in a poem of powerful energy and acute feeling. He was too sensitive not to be profoundly pitied; and, at the same time, his intellectual talents were of the first order. Shenstone's " Schoolmistress/' Akenside's " Pleasures of the Imagination/' and Warton's "History of Poetry/' carry us forward to the more popular poet Coiu-per, who forms a striking example of genius writing the history of its own secluded feelings, reflections, and enjoyments, in a shape so interesting as to engage the imagination like a work of fancy. He has invented no charac- ter in fable, or in the drama; but he has left a record of his own, which forms not only an object of deep sympathy, but a subject for the study of human nature. His poem called " The Task/' is en- shrined in the hearts of all English readers ; and his translation of "The Iliad" has obtained commendation of all learned men, from its closeness to the original. Collins and Gray are considered our two finest lyric poets. Collins' odes " On the Passions," " On Evening," "On the Poetical Character," and the "Dirge" in Cym- beline, are of the first class. Gray's Pindaric ode, "The Bard," his "Hymn to Adversity," with the "Elegy," are still among the choicest specimens of English poetry. Mason, the friend of both, was not equal to either in poetic talent; but his intellectual taste and erudition were remarkable, as may be seen from the notes to " Elfrida" and " Caractacus," two of his tragedies, and his "Art of Painting." Goldsmith was superior to all these three, and per- formed miracles of skill from pure happiness of nature. After Pope, he is the most flowing and elegant of our versifiers; his "Tra- veler" and "Deserted Village" will never die in our literature, and are so replete with beauties, that they are always cherished and 172 BRITISH LITERATURE. ever new. His prose works are in no way inferior. The comedies of " The Good-natured Man," and " She Stoops to Conquer/'' are among our best. Goldsmith is one of the best painters after nature. Among these fine productions, we must not forget the charming novel of " The Vicar of Wakefield/' which is also from Goldsmith's magic pen. He is also valued as a historian, and wrote a most entertaining work, entitled "Animated Nature." We have now a long list of minor poets, whom it is only fair to mention, as each has some peculiar grace for which his name has lived. Glover's "Leonidas;" Blair's poem of "The. Grave;" Dyer's " Grongar Hill;" Hamilton's "Braes of Yarrow;" David Mallett's "William and Margaret," and the well-known "Edwin and Emma;" Tobias Smollett's " Ode to Independence;" Arm- strong's " Art of preserving Health ;" Mickles' " Cunmor Hall," and translation of Camoens' " Lusiad;" Dr. Thomas Percy's "Oh Nanny, wilt thou gang wi' me," and " The Friar of Orders Grey;" Robert Loyd's "Actor;" Churchill's "Hosciad;" Michael Bruce 's " Lochleven;" Logan's well-known lines " To the Cuckoo," which appear, however, to belong to Bruce; Thomas Warton's "Sonnets;" Joseph Warton's "Ode to Fancy;" Smart's "Song to David;" Robert Dodsley' s Poems; Lord Littleton' s "Monody;" Sir William Jones's Poems; those of Francis Faivkes; of William Whitehead; Grainger , Merrick, John Scott, William Oldys, John Cuningham, Christopher Anstey, Thomas Moss, Alexander Ross, John Lowe, John Skinner, Robert Crawford, Sir Gilbert Elliot; Robert Fer- gusson's " Cauler Water;" Lady Anne Barnard's "Auld Robin Gray," and Hammond's " Careless Content," all belong to the list of this period, though differing in slight degrees of worth. There was also Somerville, whose poem of "The Chase" deserves especial notice; Smith, Duke, King, Garth, Hughes, Blackmore, Fenton, Yalden, Philips, Stepney, Sprat, Savage, Tichell, Langhorne, and Pomfret, who are all noticed by Dr. Johnson in his "Lives of the Poets." The " Leonidas" of Glover is an epic of some merit. Nor must the devotional hymns of Dr. Lsaac Watts be forgotten, for they are deservedly popular; nor the plaintive tale of poor Falconer's " Shipwreck," predictive of his own. Macpherson's poems of Ossian excited the liveliest enthusiasm, and awakened endless discussion EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 173 as to their originality. But there is one yet unnamed, whose claims to remembrance cannot be so easily set aside; they have been sanc- tioned by learning, hailed by genius, and hallowed by misfortune. This is Chatterton; yet it is not so much what he has done, as the age at which it was done, that excites our wonder. The facility of composition, the vigor and knowledge evinced by Chatterton are most extraordinary for the age of sixteen. His " Minstrel's Song," in the poem of " Ella," is considered the best specimen of his ta- lent. Scotland had her " Minstrel" also ; for Dr. Beattie's poem, so called, is highly valued. He was soon followed by the inimita- ble Bums, the brightest jewel in the Scottish coronet of intellect, and justly deserving the title of " The Favorite of Nature." His poems of " The Cotter's Saturday Night," in the serious vein, and " Tarn O'Shanter," in the comic, would alone perpetuate his name; but he has written so many beautiful songs in both descriptions, that every one may select his favorite. There is in them a fine natural eloquence, the effusion of a warm and honest heart, with an earnestness and directness of purpose which makes his sentiment the poetry of his poem, not the images or words in which it is clothed. Hartley's " Observations on Man," which is highly valued by meta- physicians; Butler's " Analogy of Revealed and Natural Religion," admirable for its reasoning; Gregory's " State of Man and other Animals," also his " Father's Legacy to a Daughter," appeared about this time. Richardson stands at the head of our novelists, and atones for the tedium of his numerous volumes by the traits of delicacy and nature which he so minutely paints. " Clarissa Harlowe" is drawn with such truth, that you follow the heroine with unwearied pleasure even through seven or eight large volumes, and weep in agony over her sorrows and her death. " Sir Charles Grandison" is less touch- ing, but scarcely less pleasing. Richai'dson's characters are rather such as we should wish them to be, than such as nature makes them. Fielding is a striking contrast, both in manner and matter ; he is coarse and terse, but true to nature, and leads his reader through the degradations of life to teach him to avoid them. " Jo- seph Andrews," " Tom Jones" (often called the first of English novels), and Cl Amelia," are eminent productions. Smollett had the 15* 174 BRITISH LITERATURE. same graphic talent, but with more wit and license. His novels were written in the following order : " Roderick Random/' " Pere- grine Pickle/ ' " Count Fathom/ ' " Sir Launcelot Greaves," and ( J Humphrey Clinker." Sterne formed a style for himself, which was much imitated, hut is now deservedly looked upon as affected and exaggerated. Many passages in his " Tristram Shandy" and " Sentimental Journey" contain sentiments which would do honor to every mind; but the study of his works as a whole is by means advantageous to the young: they are, however, valued for their masterly sketches of character. Horace Walpole's tale of "The Castle of Otranto" was warmly admired; but he is more famed for his unrivaled " Letters," and for the agreeable court gossip of his " Reminiscences." Mackenzie's story, called ?? The Man of Feel- ing," was produced in 1771; and was quickly followed by his " Man of the World," and " Julia de Roubigne." Mrs. Sheridan's novel of " Sydney Biddulph" met with great admiration. Her husband, Thomas Sheridan, compiled a good Dictionary, and wrote the " Life of Swift." Lord Chester 'field 's name brings with it not only the memory of his own superior talents and acquirements, but that of a crowd of eminent men who lived around him. In the court of the Prince of Wales (father of Greorge III.) Chesterfield was one of the stars of intellect; he was the patron of many of our literary men, and liked the distinction; but his neglect of Johnson has cast a cloud over the author of "Letters of a Father to his Son," and proves him to have been far more benevolent in word than deed. Dr. Johnson was struggling with all the difficulties of life while he produced his herculean work of "A Dictionary of the English Language." "The Rambler" was an effort made by him to revive the periodical works before mentioned. "The Idler," a similar production, followed, and both contain much admirable morality, but the style is often inflated and verbose. Johnson's beautiful little romance of "Rasselas, Prince of Abyssinia," is one of the classical gems of our literature. His "Lives of the Poets" was written in the author's seventy-second year, which may possibly account for the asperity which is frequently visible ; but it is also an astonishing production in every respect. Johnson has been styled the " Colossus EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 175 of Literature." Co-temporary with him was David Hume, who was gaining distinction as a philosopher and historian. He was endowed with a sagacious mind and a cultivated taste, and his style is considered to possess the true Attic elegance; hut his philosophy, unfortunately, was of that chilling, ungrateful skepticism, which renders life a mere mechanism, and man worse than a brute. His "History of England" is frequently inaccurate in its statements and its dates; hut the depth and acuteness of its philosophical reflections, and the beauty of its style, have rendered it immortal. Smollett (whom we have mentioned as a novelist) continued Hume's " History of England," and, with a harsh style, is even more inaccurate. Hume's " Natural Religion" called forth Dr. Bectttie's (author of "The Minstrel") able work, "An Essay on the Nature and Immu- tability of Truth;" which was followed by "Evidences of Christ- ianity," and "Elements of Moral Science." Robertson, another Scottish writer of history, is distinguished for his clearness and grace of style. "The History of Charles V.," "History of Scot- land," "History of America," and "Historical Disquisition con- cerning India," all do honor to his pen. Fergusson, a fourth historian from the sister kingdom, has given an excellent work in his " History of the Roman Republic." Gibbon was already on the horizon of literature, but had not yet put forth all his strength; but at last, after twenty-three years of labor, he published his cele- brated "History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," which has gained him immortal renown. Several useful, though minor, writers of history now follow. William Tytler opposed Robertson's views on Mary Queen of Scots, and wrote "An Inquiry," &c, upon this subject, which is considered weak and inconclusive. Bower wrote "A History of the Popes;" Dr. John Campbell wrote "A Military History of the Duke of Marlborough;" Guthrie was indefatigable, and wrote "A History of England," "History of Scotland," "A Geographical Grammar," &c. Goldsmith published, 1763, a "History of England, in a Series of Letters from a Noble- man to his Son ;" admirable in every way. Lord Lyttleton wrote his "History of the Reign of Henry II." Dr. Robert Henry wrote a "History of Great Britain," down to the time of Henry VIII., which is much esteemed. Dr. Gilbert Stuart wrote a " History of 176 BRITISH LITERATURE, r Scotland/' a "Dissertation on the British Constitution/' and a " History of the Reformation." " Histories of Ireland" were writ- ten by Dr. Warner (1763) and Dr. Leland (1773). Whittaher wrote a " History of Manchester/' showing considerable antiqua- rian research. Orme wrote a' "History of the British Transactions in India." Granger wrote a "Biographical History of England/' Macpherson, a " History of Great Britain from the Restoration to the Accession of the House of Hanover." Lord Hailes gave the " Annals of Scotland /' Watson, a " History of Philip II. /' Russell, a " History of Modern Europe." Blackstone's " Commentaries on the Laws of England" appeared; and Kennicott's Hebrew Bible. Wesley founded the Methodist Society. Ray, Flamsteed, Hcdley, and Bradley were all natural philosophers of this age. Ray's " Wisdom of God manifested in the Works of Creation" is much esteemed. Among the number of learned, intellectual, and witty men who frequented the house of Dr. Johnson, was Arthur Murphy, who, after having made a translation of Tacitus, wrote several good co- medies; as ? "The Way to Keep Him," and "All in the Wrong." Murphy also wrote the lives of Johnson, Fielding, and our great actor Garrich, who was himself author of several lively farces. The tragedy of the " Grecian Daughter" is also by Murphy, at this period. The rich vein of humor which is to be found in the middle classes of the English, had a representative in Samuel Foote, whose wit and talent for ridicule have procured for him the name of the British Aristophanes. In Footers very amusing three-act pieces there are a strength of character, a keenness of satire, and such sparklings of wit, that the reader forgives the negligence often ap- parent in the plot, and the incompleteness of the catastrophe. Dr. Hoadley's play of " The Suspicious Husband," and " The Heiress" of General Burgoyne, are highly esteemed; and, soon after them, the brilliant genius of Richard Brinsley Sheridan added immortal specimens of his power in comedy by " The Rivals" and " The School for Scandal." Colman, the elder, was another successful writer of comedy, as in " The Jealous Wife." Edward Moore's much-admired play of " The Gamester," Brooke s "Gustavus Vasa/' EIGHTEENTH CENTURY." 177 Dr. Brovm's "Barbarossa," and Home's "Douglas," belong to the same time. We must not omit the powerfully pathetic and patriotic poet Dihdin, whose naval songs have carried delight and sound morals to a class of men not easily touched by literature. Bishop Butler did honorable service in the higher branches of ethics, but it was not till after nearly a hundred and fifty years that a decided taste for metaphysics was visible. Dr. Francis Hutche- son published his "Inquiry into Beauty and Virtue/' about 1726; and followed it by another fine work, entitled " A System of Moral Philosophy/' The system of Idealism, of Berkeley, and the writ- ings of Hutcheson, produced Hume's " Treatise on Human Nature," which was followed by his " Inquiry concerning the Principles of Morals/' and " Dialogues on Natural Religion." Dr. Adam Smith succeeded Hutcheson as the professor of moral philosophy in Glas- gow, and wrote a "Theory of Moral Sentiment/' and, some years after, appeared his great work on political economy, entitled " An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations," which has since made him be regarded as the founder of the science of political economy in England. In the mean while, Dr. ReicVs " Inquiry into the Human Mind" was published, and " Essays on the Intellectual Powers of Man." Lord Karnes had written his " Essays on the Principles of Morality and Natural Religion," and other works. Dr. Beattie's metaphysical works are named already. In England, Hartley's " Observations on Man, — his Frame, his Duty, and his Expectations," drew many admirers. Dr. Price wrote " A Review of the principal Questions and Difficulties in Morals." Abraham Tucker wrote a very pleasing work on " The Lights of Nature pursued." Dr. Priestley published a series of disquisitions on "Matter and Spirit/' but Priestley was more eminent as a na- tural philosopher than a metaphysician. The divines of this period wrote with great talent and consider- able sagacity. Bishop Warburton was brilliant and bold; his " Al- liance between Church and State," and the " Divine Legation of Moses," evince prodigious learning. Dr. Loioth wrote a " Life of Wykeham," and "Translation of Isaiah," which are highly esteemed, with other works. Dr. Conyers Middleton's " Life of Cicero" is 178 BRITISH LITERATURE. already named ; he entered warmly into the controversies of the times. The Reverend William Law wrote the popular work " A Serious Call to a Holy Life." Dr. Watts wrote his elementary works on " Logic/' and " Improvement of the Mind;" with various other theological writings. Dr. Richard Hurd's u Introduction to the Study of the Prophecies;" Dr. Dome's " Commentary on the Book of Psalms;" Dr. Jo-rim's u Life of Erasmus/' are all esteemed works : the latter writer gave offence to the high-church party by the freedom of his remarks, as also Dr. John Jebb, in his theological writings. Bishop Newton's " Dissertations on the Bible," and Arch- bishop Seeker's " Lectures on the Catechism," have been of eminent service in sacred literature. The remarkable men, Whitfield and Wesley, both deserve mention here. The former was most eloquent as a preacher, but tame as a writer; the latter was more learned, and better fitted to be the leader of a sect. Wesley was indefatigable in preaching and in writing : his apostolic earnestness procured for him sincere and pro- found respect ; but though his writings are voluminous, none of them have gained a reputation beyond the circle of his own fol- lowers. The English dissenters now evinced considerable ardor in study. Nathaniel Lardner wrote various works of importance; his chief productions are " On the Credibility of the Gospel," and " A large Collection of Ancient Jewish and Heathen Testimonies to the Truths of the Christian Religion." Hugh Farmer wrote a " Disser- tation on Miracles," with close reasoning and profound thought. Dr. James Forster wrote "Discourses on National Religion and Social Virtue," with considerable eloquence. In the Scottish Church, there were Dr. Hugh Blair, already named, and Dr. George Campbell, whose " Philosophy of Rhetoric" is considered by many to be the best work on the subject in modem times since Aristotle. Among the miscellaneous writers, the name of Edmund Burhe stands honorably conspicuous. His " Vindication of Natural So- ciety," and soon after, his " Philosophical Inquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful," attracted great at- tention. His memorable " Reflections on the French Revolution," NINETEENTH CENTURY. 179 with his political " Letters," evince an amaziDg variety of know- ledge, power of imagery, and command of language. His friend, the great painter, Sir Joshua Reynolds, wrote excellent u Discourses on Painting." Between the years 1769 and 1771, a series of let- ters, signed Junius, appeared in the " Public Advertiser," and ex- cited the liveliest curiosity by their talent. These " Letters" are now become one of the standard works of our language. Opinions are divided on the question of their authorship; and many distin- guished names are associated with it; but the largest amount of circumstantial evidence points towards Sir Philip Francis. Wil- liam Melmoth's translation of u Pliny's Letters" is highly valued, also his own u Letters on Literary and Moral Subjects." William Harris wrote Historical Memoirs of James I., Charles L, Oliver Cromwell, and Charles II. James Hams (father of the first Lord Malmsbury) wrote treatises on Music and Painting, and a work called " Hermes; or, a Philosophical Inquiry concerning Universal Grammar," which is considered one of the most beautiful pieces of analysis since the days of Aristotle. William Stuhely published an " Account of the Antiquities and Curiosities of Great Britain." Edward King published " Observations on Ancient Castles." Soame Jenyns wrote "A Free Inquiry into the Na- ture of Evil." Lord Monboddo wrote a singular " Essay on the Origin and Progress of Language;" and Home Toohe wrote his far-famed philological work, called the " Diversions of Purley." The " Cyclopedia" of Ephvaim Chambers, the first dictionary of general knowledge known in England, was published in 1728. The first magazine was the " Gentleman's Magazine," published in 1731. The "Literary Magazine" began in 1735. "The Scot's Magazine" began in 1739. " The Monthly Review" was the first periodical work of criticism, and was commenced in 1749. "The Critical Review" was established in 1756: "The British Critic" in 1793. " The Annual Register" began in 175S, under the conduct of Robert Dodsley. The nineteenth century was ushered in by a senate of the most brilliant intellectual power ever exhibited at one time. Pitt, Fox, Burke, Sheridan, Wyndham, Whitbread, Ponsonby, Ourran^ Grat- 180 BRITISH LITERATURE. tan, and Lord Ershine, shone resplendently, and many of these gifted men added liberally to the treasures of literature. The poetry of the commencement of this era was only feeble. William Hayley, the biographer of Cowper, wrote several unsuc- cessful tragedies : his best work is entitled " Triumphs of Temper." Dr. Darwin wrote his " Botanic Garden," and " Lives of the Plants." Mrs. Charlotte Smith has been noticed as a charming poetess by Sir Walter Scott, and her tale of the "Old Manor House" will always be a favorite among the numerous prose works which she also produced. Miss Blamire wrote excellent Scottish verse, as in " The Nabob/' " The Siller Crown," &c. Mrs. BarhaulcVs " Ode to Spring" is considered a happy imita- tion of Collins; but it is her "Hymns in Prose" which have constituted her most decidedly a favored votary of the Muses. Miss Seward's poetical novel of " Louisa" passed through several editions; yet it must be acknowledged that her early admirers had greatly exaggerated the merit of her productions. Mrs. John Hunter published an agreeable collection of Poems. Mrs. Ojjies Poems met with general admiration, as also her pleasing Tales. Mrs. Grant wrote some pleasing Poems and prose works, as " Letters from the Mountains," " Essays on the Superstition of the Highlanders." Mrs. Tighe's poetical powers were greater than any of the above; her poem of " Psyche" is considered as one of the best of the period. Robert Bloomfield is one of our most characteristic and faithful national poets; he wrote " The Far- mer's Boy," " Wild Flowers," &c. John Leydon was a distin- guished Oriental scholar as well as a poet. " Scenes of Infancy" is his best work. William Gifford was a poet, translator, and critic. " The Baviad" and " The Maaviad" are two of the most remarkable poems of this author; but his fame rests principally on his talent as a critic and annotator. In the hands of Gifford, the Quarterly Review became a powerful political and literary jour- nal. In the same years that Gifford edited the " Anti-Jacobin" weekly paper, George Canning frequently contributed poems of great wit and caustic satire, as "The Bovers," and "New Morality." "The Pursuits of Literature," by James Matthias, was another satirical poem of the same epoch. NINETEENTH CENTURY. 181 Dr. Wblcot, a coarse but lively satirist, wrote under the name of Peter Pindar. Henri/ Kirke White was early distinguished for his poetic talents: his career was, however, but short, yet his name will ever be an ornament to our literature. Southey wrote a sketch of his life, and edited his " Remains;" a collection of very sweet poems. The Rev. James Graham wrote "The Sabbath," a poem of some merit; and others. The Rev. W. Lisle Bowles was the original encourager of Coleridge's poetic taste, and himself author of several good sonnets and other poems. Walter Savage Landor, although a writer of some agreeable verses, is best known as the talented author of "Imaginary Conversations of Literary Men and Statesmen." Edwin Atherstone is author of the poems entitled "The Last Days of Herculaneum" and "The Fall of Nineveh," both of which are remarkable for splendor of diction and copious- ness of description. Charles Lamb, a great and delightful essayist, was also a very sweet poet. He is best known as the author of the papers signed "Elia" in various magazines of the day. William Sotheby is known as an elegant and. accomplished scholar and trans- lator. Wieland's "Oberon," with the "G-eorgics" of Virgil, the "Iliad," and the "Odyssey," are each esteemed spirited and faithful translations. His original poems are " Saul" and " Constance of Castille," with others of less note. The poetry of Leivis is of that style which easily draws attention, but deserves no very distinguished place in literature ; his " Durandarte and Belerma" and " Alonzo the Brave" are universally known. Several of our poets at this epoch delighted in the description of natural scenery; and obtained the name of "Lakists," from their love of the beauties about the lakes of Cumberland and Westmore- land. Among these, Wordsworth may be looked upon as having had an influence on his age of a more noble and purely intellectual character than any other writer; but, endeavoring to obtain a great simplicity of expression, Wordsworth sometimes repels the fastidious by his affectation, although the sanctity of his mind invests with a certain religious grandeur the commonest words and the most fami- liar thoughts. "The Excursion" is a poem tediously prolonged, but contains admirable descriptions and truly poetical ideas. Southey's " Roderick," "Joan of Arc," " Curse of Kehama," and "Thalaba," 16 182 BRITISH LITERATURE. have numerous admirers; "Wat Tyler" perhaps not so many, though it is not without power. Coleridge was another of this school, with more originality and keener perceptions of the human heart. There is a simple strength in him which is admirable; his " Christabel," "Ancient Mariner," and "Sibylline Leaves," are rich in beauties. Among the latter, his "Ode on the Departing Year" has many exquisite lines. Coleridge's lyrical ballads laid the foundation of a new school of poetry. As a translator of Ger- man works, he is also greatly esteemed, as in "Wallenstein." Coleridge's conversation was the most dazzling in extent and va- riety, and in brilliance of language, that ever was listened to. Campbell was less productive, but far more popular; his "Pleasures of Hope," and " Gertrude of Wyoming," are in every one's library, and every one's heart. Many of his minor poems are standard favorites with the people ; for instance, "The Mariners of England," "The Soldier's Dream," &c, and are full of fine sentiments and true poetry. His prose works also are numerous. Crabhe has been well named the Teniers of poetry ; his muse had a taste similar to that of the painter, and an equal truth. " The Parish Eegister," "Tales in Verse," and "Tales of the Hall," are his chief works. Moore's "Irish Melodies" showed a depth of feeling and a fund of imagination which could not easily be exhausted; and his prolific muse continued for many years to enliven and delight the lovers of the graceful and the tender. His "Lalla Eookh" and "Loves of the Angels" find enthusiastic admirers. Moore's prose works have given him a steady hold of the public approbation; and his impar- tial Lives of Byron and Sheridan, with his powerful sketch of "Captain Rock," "History of Ireland," and charming "Epicurean," are all highly valued. Rogers took a more serious line ; and, in his " Human Life," " Pleasures of Memory," and other poems, gave to the world a picture of his kind and noble heart; while his " Sketches of Italy" point out the man of refined taste and exquisite sensibility. Scott attracted all young hearts by his tales of grace- ful chivalry, "The Lady of the Lake," "Marmion," "Lay of the Last Minstrel," &c. &c. ; but he was preparing greater pleasures for his admirers; and the branch of imagination which had been exclu- sively in the hands of a few accomplished women, was suddenly NINETEENTH CENTURY. 183 seized by the great Wizard of the North, as the author of "Waver- ley." However excellent the romances of these ladies, there were a truth and vigor in his painting which for many years gathered to itself alone universal and enthusiastic admiration. During seven- teen years successively, Walter Scott poured forth the abundance of his rich mind and fancy; and in himself sufficed for the demand of imaginative writings to the whole reading world. At length, even royalty could not restrain its admiration by simple expression ; and the successful author was created a baronet, as a slight distinc- tion for such mental prowess and varied accomplishments. While Sir Walter Scott was thus turning to account the objective side of poesy, another poet had taken the subjective; Lord Byron reveled in those invisible regions where the poet walks alone with himself, turns inward to his own heart, dissects it, and reproduces it every- where. Byron embodied the sentiment of his times in that expres- sion of satiety and discontent which is found in the first two cantos of "Childe Harold," interspersed with bursts of the purest and noblest poetry. His Eastern Tales satisfied, again, the taste of the age for adventure and wild incident ; men having been for many years habituated to watch the progress of a portentous war, and the meteoric career of Napoleon. His second and third cantos of "Childe Harold" followed, and placed their author at the very pin- nacle of poetic fame. Of Byron's tragedies, " Sardanapalus" is the most interesting, "Manfred" the most poetical, and "Cain" the most powerful. The want of proper direction in youth made Byron's whole existence a perpetual war between the animal and the spiritual being ; there is, however, in his poetry, such an eternal spring of fresh-blowing images, such a perpetual stream of quick- coming fancies, called into existence by the sudden flash of his glowing thoughts and overwhelming emotions, that, whatever may have been his faults as a man, we may do reverence to his genius, with the full conviction that it is not for this generation "to look upon his like again." Though Byron's splendor as a poet put out all lesser lights, there was one which shone near him, and was, un- happily, too soon extinguished; this was the brilliant and powerful, but somewhat perverted, mind of Shelley. Shelley was intellectual and unworldly; the spiritual guide of all who forsake the past and 184 BRITISH LITERATURE. present, and, with lofty hope and hold philanthropy, rush forward into the future. Wordsworth had been considered the spiritualizer of the opposite minds ; those who cling to the past, and things that are. Both these poets are representatives of a class of thought of a more ennobling nature than that awakened by Scott and Byron, who represent only the philosophy resulting from the passions and actions of life. Wordsworth and Shelley were of a higher in- tellectual order, and have awakened profounder and more unworldly thought. Many fine selections may be made from Shelley's poems which do not touch on his crude philosophical opinions. His grandest composition is the tragedy of " The Cenci," which is also considered the best we have had since Otway. But the talent of our British writers has been, for a considerable time, turned into the channel of writing articles for the Reviews, rather than in forming complete works for future generations. Pe- riodical publications have presented an easy opportunity of express- ing thoughts and opinions; and it is in the journals that many of our recent and present men of letters have sought, and still seek, renown. It is here that we find the learning, argumentative power, and rare eloquence of Lord Brougham; the sparkling and sarcastic Jeffrey ; the incomparable humor and transparent logic of Sydney Smith; the rich and glowing criticism of Wilson; the nervous vigor and brilliant imagination of Macaulay. It is in periodicals that many of the most beautiful evidences of Southey's rich taste and antique stateliness of mind are to be sought; nay, even the greatest portion of the " Essays" which, now collected in a separate shape (as those of Lamb and Hazlitt), have become a permanent addition to our literature, first appeared, amidst a crowd of articles of fugitive interest, in journals of the day. The Edinburgh Review was the crown and apex of all the others, and from the time of its appearance may be traced the decline of our standard literature, though it is itself now a brilliant portion of the literature of the country. Its showy yet philosophical tone of criticism, the mystery attached to it, and the excellence of its compositions, soon made it an honor to be ranked among its contributors. Instead of writing volumes, authors began to write articles ; and thus talent, however great — taste, however exquisite— knowledge, however enlarged, NINETEENTH CENTURY. 185 were directed to fugitive purposes. The contributions of Lord Jef- frey, Sydney Smith, Macaulay, Sir James Mackintosh, &c. to the Edinburgh Review have been published in a collective form, and may be now said to form part of our standard literature. "We have, however, much to notice in our literary annals since this epoch; and, although they are deficient in works that were written " for all time," there are innumerable writings to be mentioned worthy our countrymen's well-established renown. The poets were not sought for as contributors to these all-imposing and important Reviews, save as occasional critics of their brother poets; and it would have been well had their pen been oftener employed in mercy. The young poets Kirhe White and Keats, whose talent merited other treatment, felt severely the bitter sarcasms of the earlier reviewers. Our spirited Byron, however, paid these critics in their own coin; and his " English Bards and Scotch Reviewers" in stinging lan- guage taught them not to expect perfection from imperfect beings. Keats' s poem of " Endymion" deserves especial notice. Leigh Hunt's "Rimini" was received with delight. Wilson's "Isle of Palms;" Milman's "Fall of Jerusalem;" Barry CornicalVs " Si- cilian Story;" Croly's "Angel of the World;" the Ballads of Allan Cunningham — all reflect honor on their authors and their country. Ileraud chose profounder themes; and, in his "Judgment of the Flood," and " The Descent into Hell," has shown great strength and power both of mind and language. He stands out from among our living poets as a man of deep meditation, extraordinary feeling, and possessing a very uncommon skill in the use of language and rhythm. Dr. Heber's " Palestine" is considered the best prize poem the University of Oxford has produced. The " Hymns" of this excellent prelate are peculiarly touching and impressive. Charles Wolfe was the author of some admirable lines descriptive of " The Burial of Sir John Moore." Robert Pollok's poem of " The Course of Time" has gone through many editions. James Mont- gomery's chief poems are " The Wanderer of Switzerland," and " The Pelican Island :" a tone of generous and enlightened mo- rality pervades all his writings. The Honorable William Robert Spencer has left a small volume of graceful verses. John Clare was another of the native poets of our country, whose humble life, 16* 186 BRITISH LITERATURE. amidst rural habits, has found true inspiration from the love of nature. Horace Smith and James Smith were first known as the witty authors of " The Rejected Addresses/' and long continued to he renowned for their lively productions in minor poems, as also for novels. Thomas Pringle evinced marked talent and good taste. William Knox and Bernard Barton wrote some pleasing minor poems. The Reverend Robert Montgomery's " Omnipresence of the Deity/' and other poems, have many admirers. The Ho- norable and Reverend William Herbert translated poems from the Norse, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese. Ebenezer Elliott, the " Corn Law Rhymer/' attracted much attention hy his force and truth, although he is harsh in phraseology. Thomas Hood is chiefly known as a comic poet; his reputation for wit gives him a place next to Foote in our literature. Alfred Tennyson is distinguished for his luxuriant fancy and originality of thought. Macaiday's "War of the League" and "Lays of Ancient Rome" much pleased those who had long admired his prose writing. Haynes Bayly has written many successful lyrics, and stands next to Moore in this excellence. Hartley Coleridge published a volume of poems not unworthy his descent : his sonnets are peculiarly admired. Many fine specimens of decided poetical talent have adorned our various periodicals; but, as is usually the case after a distinguished era, we have no one conspicuous poet of the present day. The ladies of England have contributed not a little, in these later years, to our poetical literature. Mrs. Hemans has left some of the sweetest lyrics in our language; touching and beautiful, both in sentiment and expression. Her largest works are " The Forest Sanctuary," " The Records of Woman," and a tragedy entitled The Vespers of Palermo." Miss Landon, so long known and welcomed as the musical and passionate writer, L. E. L., is another conspicuous female poet of the age; her largest poems are "The Improvisatrice" and " The Golden Violet." Joanna Baillie is especially distinguished for her tragic power; her "Dramas on the Passions" and the tragedy of " Montfort" show very superior talent. Eliza Cook, Lady E. Worthy, Mrs. Henry Coleridge, Mrs. Brooke, Mrs. Howitt, Mrs. Southey, Honorable Mrs. Norton, Miss NINETEENTH CENTURY. 187 Barrett , Miss Frances Brown, all deserve honorable mention in this place. In this period, many translations from classic and foreign poets appeared. Camjs " Dante/' Mitchell's " Aristophanes/ ' Lord Strang ford's " Camoens," Bowring's " Specimens of Russian, Dutch, Spanish, Polish, Servian, and Hungarian Poetry," Loch- hart's " Spanish Ballads," Wiffin's Tasso's " Jerusalem Delivered," Sotheby's " Iliad," are among the principal translations. Several native Scottish poets have evinced no mean talent in fol- lowing the immortal Burns. Alexander Wilson, Sector Macniel, Robert Tannahill, Richard Gall, John Mayne, and Sir Alexander Bosiuell, have each left very spirited lyrics. James Hogg, the cele- brated Ettrick Shepherd, was the most imaginative of all the un- educated poets; indeed, there are few of any class who impress us with the idea of direct inspiration so much as Hogg. His largest work is " The Queen's Wake." William Tennant's poem of " Anster Fair," Motherwell's " Jennie Morrison," Robert Nicoll's " We are Brethren a'," Gilfillan's " Days o' Langsyne," Hislop's " Cameronian's Dream," and many other poems of equal merit, from these and numerous other pens, prove that the true spirit of poesy dwells willingly among our northern countrymen. In the Drama, we had, as tragic writers, Maturin, who wrote " Bertram," " Manuel," and others. Barry Cornwall gave us "Mirandola." Milman wrote " Fazio." Miss Mitford's "Rienzi" was successful, and was followed by the " Virginius" of Sheridan Knowles, and a long succession of dramas, which have given him the first place in this line of literature. Talfourd's " Ion" and " Athenian Captive," Bulwer's " Richelieu" and " The Lady of Lyons," Marston's " Patrician's Daughter," have added much to our theatrical stores, and brought bright renown to their authors. Taylor's "Philip van Artevelde" and " Edwin the Fair," Brown- ing's " Strafford," Leigh Hunt's " Legend of Florence," Wm. Smith's "Athelwold," Beddoe's "Bride's Tragedy," all contain admirable scenes, but have not been successful as stage tragedies. In comedy, George Colman the younger was eminently success- ful. " The Heir-at-Law," " The Poor Gentleman," "John Bull," "The Mountaineers," and innumerable other plays, attest the 188 BRITISH LITERATURE. sparkling wit, gayety, and pathos of this talented writer. Mrs. Iiiclibald also produced a number of popular plays; " Such Things Are," "-Every One has his Fault," " Lovers' Tows," are among the best. Thomas Holcroft was the author of the admirable comedy "The Road to Ruin," and many others; he ranks among the first of our comic writers, and also wrote several novels. John Tobin's only successful piece was the " Honeymoon." 'Keefe shines as a witty, lively dramatist in short pieces ; as in " The Agreeable Surprise," " Wild Oats," " Modern Antiques," and many more. Frederick Reynolds has been a most prolific writer of comedies, and very successful; " The Dramatist," " The Will," " The Delinquent," attest his high comic powers and sparkling wit. Thos. Morton is another distinguished writer of comedies; " Speed the Plough," " The Way to get Married," " A Cure for the Heartache," " The School of Reform," are standard comedies on the stage. Cumberland's "West Indian," "The Wheel of Fortune," and " The Jew," are also among our best comedies. We have still much lively talent in the pieces of Poole, Planche, Jerrold, Buckstone, Bourcicault, &c. &c, but old English comedy is not known amongst our living authors. Our writers in prose fiction have been highly distinguished during the last fifty years. Miss Frances Burners " Evelina" was pub- lished in 1778, and was followed by " Cecilia," and, several years afterwards, by "Camilla" and "The Wanderer." The "Vathek" of Mr. Beckford excited great admiration, but was the only imagi- native work he produced. Cumberland's "Arundel" did not please. Holcroft' s " Hugh Trevor," "Anna St. Ives," and other novels, had but a short popularity. Bage's "Barham Downs" is the best of several very inferior novels. The " Canterbury Tales" of Harriet and Sophia Lee are standard volumes; "The Recess," by Sophia Lee, was another successful novel. "Zeluco," by Dr. John Moore, and " Mordaunt," were both favorably received. Mrs. Inchbald's " Simple Story" and " Nature and Art" gained de- served popularity. Mrs. Charlotte Smith's "Old English Manor House" is the best of several able novels. Mrs. Radcliffe has been styled the Salvator Rosa of English novelists; her "Mysteries of Udolpho" and "The Romance of the Forest" stand alone in this NINETEENTH CENTURY. 189 class of writing. "The Monk/' by Matthew Gregory Lewis, was a successful imitation of Mrs. Radcliffe's manner. His " Bravo of Venice" had also great success in its day. Mrs. Opie's "Domestic Tales" have had a steady popularity, and have gone through many editions. Godwin's "Things as they Are, or the Adventures of Caleb Williams," excited extraordinary attention, as also his " St. Leon." Anna Maria Porter's "Don Sebastian" and "The Knights of St. John" are two of the best of her numerous novels. Her sister Jane wrote " Thaddeus of Warsaw," "The Scottish Chiefs," and " The Pastor's Fireside." Maria Edgeworth' s "Belinda" was the first of her numerous novels and tales. She is esteemed as one of our best painters of national manners. " Tales of Fashionable Life," " Popular Tales," "Patronage," " Harrington and Ormond," " Helen," and the numerous works for the young, from the pen of this accomplished lady, have been ever received with delight and admiration. Jane Austen's "Sense and Sensibility," "Pride and Prejudice," and several other good novels, are highly appreciated. Mrs. Brunton's " Self-Control" and " Discipline" are of superior merit. Elizaheth Hamilton wrote " The Cottagers of Glenburnie," and various other works of estimation. Mrs. Hannah More used fiction only as a means of religious instruction. Her " Coelebs in Search of a Wife" went through ten editions in one year. Mrs. More's works form eleven octavo volumes, and she ranks as a dis- tinguished moral writer, although her latter writings were too gloomy for general utility. Sidney Owenson (Lady Morgan) has shone in various departments of our literature. Her first novel, " The Wild Irish Girl," is still read with delight. " The Novice of St. Dominick," " O'Donnel," " Florence Macarthy," and other national tales, evince a powerful mind and accurate judgment. Lady Morgan's other works are numerous, and deservedly esteemed. The Rev. C. Maturin imitated the gloom of Lewis in "Fatal Pte- venge," and afterwards published a number of works of romantic fiction, as "The Milesian Chief," "Melmoth the Wanderer," and " The Albigenses." Mrs. Shelley's powerful novel of " Franken- stein" received immediate appreciation; her other works are highly creditable. " The Annals of the Parish," from John Gait, excited decided attention; and "The Ayrshire Legatees," and various other 190 BRITISH LITERATURE. Scotch novels from the same pen, were equally admired. The " Anastasius" of Thos. Hope is one of the most original of modern romances, and met with well-merited approval. John Gibson Lockhart has produced " Valerius/' " Adam Blair/' " Reginald' Dalton," &c. Professor Wilson's "Lights and Shadows of Scottish Life/' "Trials of Margaret Lyndsay," and other novels, have added to his renown. Miss Ferrier's " Inheritance" and " Marriage" show great know- ledge of human nature : she is the Miss Edgeworth of Scotland. James Morier has written some clever eastern tales, as " The Ad- ventures of Hadji Baba," ". Zohrab the Hostage," " The Mirza." James Bailie Fraser has also described eastern life and manners, as in " The Kuzzilbash," " The Persian Adventurer," and others. Theodore Hook stands among the first of our fashionable novelists; his " Sayings and Doings," " Jack Brag," " Precepts and Prac- tice," with many others, have been warmly received. Colley Grat- tan's "Highways and Byways" is a work of great merit; his more lengthy novels have not been so well received. T. H. Lister wrote "G-ranby," "Herbert Lacy," and "Arlington," with great success. Lady Caroline Lamb's " Grlenarvon" was remarked in its day, on account of the hero being supposed to be drawn from Byron. " Graham Hamilton" and " Ada Reis" are from the same pen. Lady Dacre wrote " Recollections of a Chaperon," and is the ac- credited author of " Trevelyan," an excellent novel. The Countess of Morley wrote " Dacre," " The Divorced," " Family Records," and others. Lady Charlotte Bury is the author of several novels of this class. Mr. Ward's " Tremaine" was considered clever, but heavy. " De Yere" is in a better style, and is deeply interesting, as containing a portrait of the regretted Right Hon. G-. Canning. Mr. B. Disraeli's first novel was " Vivian G-rey," which created much curiosity, and has been followed by various others of striking merit. Mrs. Trollope has been an active novelist as well as traveler, and succeeds in describing middle vulgar life admirably; but there is a mocking bitter spirit in most of her writings, which renders them little acceptable to many. Banim's " Tales of the O'Hara Family" are deservedly popular; as also the " Irish Stories" of Crofton, Croker, Griffin, Carleton, and Mrs. S. C. Hall: these writers evidently have their country's welfare warmly at heart. NINETEENTH CENTURY. 191 Miss MlfforcVs " Scenes of Rural Life" are exquisite; "Our Vil- lage" has gained her the name of the prose Cowper of our lite- rature. Bulwer's "Pelharu," "The Disowned," "Devereux," " Paul Clifford," and " Eugene Aram," rapidly followed each other, and placed their author in the first rank of British novelists. Cap- tain Marry at is considered the best painter of sea characters since Smollett. "Peter Simple," " Midshipman Easy," and "Jacob Faith- ful," are among his best novels. Lady Blessington' s " Victims of Society," and other novels, show great knowledge of the world and the human heart; and there is, besides, scarcely a department of so-called light literature which she has not attempted with success. She was long the editor of the favorite annuals, the " Keepsake" and the " Book of Beauty." Mrs. Gore's novels depict fashionable life with great truth and piquancy. Miss Martineau is a powerful painter of humble life, and has labored energetically to ameliorate the lot of the poor. She is the first female writer in England who has taken a decided part in political compositions. Her " Illustra- tions of Political Economy," in a series of tales, evinced striking talent, which has since been fully maintained in numerous works. Miller's " Gideon Giles," Peacock's " Headlong Hall," Gleig's " Subaltern," with other novels from each, have severally met with their meed of praise; while James's " Richelieu," " Darnley," and " De TOrme," were the first of a succession of brilliant works of fiction. Maxwell's " Stories of Waterloo," and other works; Le- ver's "Confessions of Harry Lorrequer," and other Irish tales; Lover's "Legends and Stories of Ireland," and other novels; Mrs. Bray's "DeFoix," and others; Miss C. Sinclair's " Modern Ac- complishments" and " Modern Society;" Albert Smith's "Adven- tures of Mr. Ledbury;" Murray's "Prairie Bird;" the works of Lord Normanby, — are all among the superior class of recent novels. Ainsicorth has chosen a walk apart, and, in the dangerous portrait- ure of successful villany, has shown great talent, but no elevated taste. There yet remain to be named Warren, whose " Passages from the Diary of a Physician," "Ten Thousand a Year," and " Now and Then" form a landmark in the novel literature of Eng- land; Charles Dickens, whose "Pickwick Papers," "Nicholas Nickleby," " Martin Chuzzlewit," &c. &c. are full of wit, humor, 192 BRITISH LITERATURE. and truth of description, and have always the tendency to benefit and exalt his fellow-creatures; Owner Bell, whose "Jane Eyre," faulty though it be in taste and construction, is full of power; and Thackeray, who, in his " Vanity Fair," and other works, has laid bare the vices that rankle in the bosom of society with a skill and delicacy of which we have had no example since the days of Field- ing. The Historians of this period are peculiar for depth of research and intrinsic value. Mitford's "History of Greece;" Gillies' s " History of Greece ;" Sharon Turner's " History of the Anglo- Saxons," &o. &c; Ooxe's "Sir Robert Walpole," "History of the House of Austria," with other historical works; Chalmers's "His- tory of the United Colonies," and "Caledonia;" are all works of distinguished merit. Roscoe's "Life of Lorenzo de Medici" and "Leo X. ;" Laing's "History of Scotland;" Pinherton's " History of Scotland;" Lingard's "History of England" and "Antiquities of the Anglo-Saxon Church ;" Palgrave's "Rise and Progress of the English Church;" Southey's " History of Brazil," and " History of the Peninsular War;" Dunlop's "Memoirs of Spain during the Reigns of Philip IV. and Charles II.;" James Mill's " History of India ;" Charles Mills's " History of Chivalry ;" Godwin's " His- tory of the Commonwealth;" Brodie's "History of the British Empire, from the Accession of Charles I. to the Restoration;" Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians," &c. ; Hallam's "Constitutional History of England," and other historical works ; Fraser Tytler's "History of Scotland;" O'Driscol's " History of Ireland ;" Napier's "History of the Peninsular War;" Alison's "History of Europe;" Lord Mahon's "History of England from the Peace of Utrecht to the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle ;" Gutzlaff's " History of China;" St. John's " History of the Manners and Customs of Ancient G-reece;" Dunham's "History of Spain," and many others; Milman's "His- tory of Christianity;" Elphinstone' s " History of India;" Moore's "History of Ireland;" Emerson Tennent's "History of Modern G-reece;" Prescott's " History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isa- bella," and other historical works ; Burton's "History of the Christ- ian Church;" Arnold's "History of Rome;" Bishop Thirhvall's " History of Greece;" G rotes "History of Greece;" — are all works NINETEENTH CENTURY. 193 of decided eminence, and highly creditable to our literature. Sir Walter Scott 'wrote a compendious and popular "History of Scot- land," in Lardner's Cyclopasdia; Sir James Mackintosh did the same for "England," and wrote also a valuable Life of Sir Thomas More, in the same work. Macaiday's "History of England" (of which only two volumes have been published) promises to be the most brilliant historical work in our, or any other, language. To these we must add Miss Aikin's " Court and Times of Queen Eliza- beth;" and Miss Strickland's " Queens of England." Mrs. Jameson shines as one of our most graceful prose writers. Her "Loves of the Poets," " Characteristics of Women," and " The Poetry of Sa- cred and Legendary Art," bear the stamp of fine taste and deep feeling. We have individual specimens of decided talent in Biography. Mason's "Life of Gray" was considered an improvement on former biographies. Bosivell's " Life of Dr. Johnson" is even more popu- lar than any of the writings of Dr. Johnson himself. These were productions of an earlier period. Lord Holland's " Life and Writ- ings of Lope de Vega;" Southey's " Life of Nelson," and "Life of Wesley;" M'Crie's "Life of John Knox;" Moore's "Life of Rich- ard Brinsley Sheridan," "Notices of the Life of Byron," and "Me- moirs of the Life of Lord Edward Fitzgerald ;" Campbell's " Life of Mrs. Siddons;" Lord Dover's "Life of Frederick the Great;" Prior's "Lives of Burke and Goldsmith;" Miss Benger's "Queen of Bohemia;" Sir John Malcolm's "Life of Lord Clive;" Lister's "Life of Lord Clarendon;" Fraser Ty tier [s " Life of Sir Walter Raleigh;" Lord John Russell's "Life of Lord William Russell;" Lord Nugent' s " Memoirs of Hampden ;" Stewart's "Lives of Reid and Robertson;" Forster's "Statesmen of the Commonwealth;" Burton's "Life of Hume;" the lives of Curran, Grattan, and Sir James Mackintosh, by the sons of these respective gentlemen; Sir John Barrow's " Lives of Howe and Anson ;" Lord King's "Life of Locke;" Horace Twiss's " Life of Lord Eldon ;" Lord Campbell's "Lives of the Chancellors," — are all esteemed useful and in- teresting. It is observed that we have no original metaphysician of this period; but we have several fine commentators. Dugald Steicart 17 194 BRITISH LITERATURE. illustrated the views of his distinguished teacher, Dr. Reid; his " Philosophy of the Human Mind," "Philosophical Essays/' and other works, are highly valued. His successor, Dr. Thomas Brown, in the chair of moral philosophy in the University of Edinburgh, wrote "Lectures on the Philosophy of the Human Mind/' which are highly popular. Sir James Mackintosh wrote a " Discourse on Ethical Philosophy." James Mill wrote an able "Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human Mind." Abercrombie wrote an "In- quiry into the Intellectual Powers." "A Treatise on the Forma- tion and Publication of Opinions," was written by Mr. Bayley; and Alison wrote an eloquent "Essay on the Nature and Princi- ples of Taste." None of these writers have, however, investigated mind as a portion of nature, or in connection with organization. Dr. Gall and his followers have adopted this mode of inquiry; among whom Mr. George Combe, of Edinburgh, is the chief, and author of a "System of Phrenology," "The Constitution of Man considered in relation to External Objects," &c. In Divinity, Dr. Foley holds the first place in this period : his " Moral and Political Philosophy," " View of the Evidences of Christianity," " Horse Paulinse," and " Natural Theology," are all works deservedly esteemed. Bishop Watson's " Apology for the Bible" was written in answer to Bailie's " Age of Reason," and was considered a vigorous and conclusive reply. Bishop Porteus wrote a variety of sermons and tracts connected with the discipline of the Church. Bishop Horsley's translations of the Psalms, dis- quisitions on the prophets Isaiah and Hosea, and Biblical Criticisms, are much esteemed. Mrs. Hannah Move's numerous religious works were generally valued. Gilbert Wakefield wrote a work on Christ- ian Evidence in reply to Paine. Wilberforce wrote his " Practical View of the Prevailing Religious System," &c. ; and labored assidu- ously for twenty years for the abolition of the slave trade. Dv. Samuel Paw was more celebrated as a scholar than as an author ; his Spital Sermon presented the singular anomaly of fifty-seven pages of text, with two hundred and twelve of notes. Dr. Maltby and Dr. Chalmers wrote on the Evidences of Christianity. The Rev. Sydney Smith, besides being a witty and acute critic, pub- lished a volume of sermons. Dr. Herbert Marsh wrote " Lectures NINETEENTH CENTURY. 195 on Divinity" and a " Comparative View of the Churches of Eng- land and Home." About 1833, appeared the first of the celebrated " Tracts for the Times/' by Members of the University of Oxford; among whom Dr. Pasey, Mr. Newman, Professor Sewell, &c. were conspicuous. Their principles have been set forth by various works : as 31r. Gladstone's " On the Relation of the Church to the State;" Mr. Christmas' s "Discipline of the Anglican Church;" and the works entitled "From Oxford to Rome," "Hawkstone," " Margaret Percival," &c. The Rev. Robert Hall was a distinguished ornament to the body of Dissenters : his "Apology for the Freedom of the Press" is eloquent and powerful; his " Reflections on War ; " and many admirable spirit-stirring sermons, attest his high talents and energy. The Rev. John Poster's " Essays" rank as one of the most original and valuable works of the age. Dr. Adam Clarke was a profound Oriental scholar; his "Commentary on the Bible" is a standard work. The Rev. Ed. Porster edited " The Arabian Nights," and left some well- written sermons. The Rev. Josiah Alport has written several admirable works in support of the Church of England. One of the most laborious and successful of our modern Miscel- laneous writers is Isaac Disraeli, author of "The Curiosities of Literature;" "Quarrels of Authors;" "Calamities of Authors;" and several other similar works. Sir Egerton Brydges wrote " Cen- sura Literaria," in ten volumes, and many other works. Joseph Ritson was unwearied in his efforts to illustrate British literature, and made several collections of "Ancient Songs," "Ancient Poems," &c. Francis Drake published " Illustrations of Shakspeare," &c. The Rev. William Gilpin wrote "Remarks on Forest Scenery." William Cobbett was a popular but inconsistent political writer, who wrote upon momentary impulse, and consequently produced nothing that will last; although many parts of his " Cottage Economy," " Rural Walks," and "Annual Register," deserve notice. Thomas de Qwincey wrote a remarkable work, entitled " The Confessions of an Opium Eater;" and contributed largely to the periodical litera- ture of the day. William Hazlitt was a miscellaneous writer of bold and vigorous tone of thinking; the "Table Talk" and " Cha- racters of Shakspeare's Plays" are among the best of his produc- 196 BRITISH LITERATURE. tions. Thomas Carlyle is an original and subtle thinker; and, in his own peculiar style, one of the most powerful writers of the age. His " French Kevolution," " Hero Worship," " Past and Present," are among his varied and distinguished productions. William Howitt's "Book of the Seasons," " History of Priestcraft," and other works, have been generally well received. Isaac Taylor's " Natural History of Enthusiasm," and " Physical Theory of Ano- ther Life," show great earnestness in the cause of evangelical reli- gion. Jeremy Bentham was an eminent writer on Jurisprudence and Morals, and published various works which excited discussion among the leading characters of the day. His "Book of Fallacies" is a standard work. The Rev. T. Malthus wrote an "Essay on the Principle of Population, as it affects the Future Improvement of Society," and other works on Political Economy. David Ricardo wrote " Principles of Political Economy and Taxation," which is considered one of the most important treatises on this science. James Mill's " Essay on Government ;" Dr. Whateli/s " Thoughts on Secondary Punishment," "Elements of Logic," &c; Mrs. Mar- cel's " Conversations on Political Economy," and " Conversa- tions" on many other branches of science; Chalmers's work on " Political Economy in connection with the Moral Prospects of So- ciety;" M ' Culloch's "Principles of Political Economy;" Godwin's " Inquiry concerning the Power of Increase in the Number of Man- kind," and his " Inquiry concerning Political Justice and its Influ- ence on G-eneral Virtue and Happiness;" Sadler's " Law of Popu- lation;" Jones' e "Essay on the Distribution of Wealth;" Senior's " Lectures on Population;" and, though last not least, Mill's "Po- litical Economy" — are useful works which have received their due admiration. The Geographical Society published its first volume of memoirs in 1832. The Highland Society has produced excellent works. M' Culloch and Porter have made known the statistics of Great Britain; Sinclair those of Scotland; Newnham and Wakefield those of Ireland. But it is in Travels that our modern epoch peculiarly excels. Our relation with India produces annually many clever works. We NINETEENTH CENTURY. 197 have Elphinstone' s "Caboul," Pottinger's "Beludjistan," Raffles' 's "Java/' Skinner's "India/' as established favorites; and the late brilliant campaigns have already produced many delightful volumes for our instruction and amusement. Then we have the voyages of Parry, and Franklin, and Ross to the North Pole; of Beechey to the southern coast of Africa; of Hardy to Mexico; the travels of Laing and Everest into Norway and Sweden; of H D. Inglis to Spain, and many other countries; of MacFarlane to Constantinople; of Mignan into Chaldea; of Earle in New Zealand; of Game in Palestine; Keppel's "Expedition to Borneo;" Borrow' s "Bible in Spain" and "Gypsies of Spain;" Sir Francis Head's "Bubbles of the Brunnen," "The Emigrant," &c. Kinglahe in "Eothen," and Warhurton in "The Crescent and the Cross," have set forth the spirit of the East with master hands; and Layard, in his "Nineveh," has made the dry bones of an almost unknown period start into life. Besides these, Morier has supplied ample details of the Persians; and Ouselcy, Stuart, and, more recently, Mackay, of the United States. These form but a very trifling portion of the mass of intel- ligent travels published within the present century; but we cannot conclude this section without a word of warm eulogy on Murray's series of "Handbooks," which form in themselves a perfect library of geographical and historical information. The Sciences have been equally nourishing. Challis has studied the movements of the waves, in order to ascertain and fix their laws. The Royal Society has published excellent memoirs of their pursuits : the names of Herscliel (father and son), South, Bailey, Brewster, Galloway, Whewell, Airy, Adams, and Be Morgan, are of European reputation. The great name of Sir Humphry Davy stands at the head of Ghemistry; Play/air closely followed him; Kater has written on the Vibration of the Pendulum; Bolton and Tire on G-ases; Jones, Herschel, and Brewster on Light; Leslie on Heat; Wollaston has discovered new metals; Faraday has written on Electro-Galvanism, and is one of our first men of science; Owen, in Comparative Anatomy, is the Guvier of England; Prichard's ethno- graphic writings are unique in our literature. To these must be added the name of Mrs. Somerville, whose scientific writings have 17* 198 BRITISH LITERATURE. placed her on a level even with the most exalted men of science in the world. Geology has prospered under Buckland, Sir R. J. Murchison, Sir C. Lyell, Sir H Delabeche, Sedgwick, and others; Natural History under Jameson, Swainson, Kirby, Spence, Conybeare, Pen- nant, Richardson, Gray, Anderson, with numerous others. In Botany, Wallich has written on the Plants of Asia; Brown and Horsfield on those of Japan; Hooker on those of America; and Lindley has published various encyclopaedic works on this science. The " Medical Gazette/' the "Lancet/' the "British and Fo- reign Medical Review/' &c, have been brilliantly assisted by the talents of Astley Cooper, Baillie, Abernethy, Al>ercrombie, Armstrong, Copland, Gooch, Halford, Smith, Watson, Forbes, the brothers Sandioith, and a host of others. The Law Review, the Jurist, and the Law Magazine are periodi- cals ably supported. The contentions on Theological subjects have roused considerable ability on all sides. Ecclesiastical History has been cultivated with care, as in Vaughan's "Life of Wickliffe;" Todd's "Life of Cran- mer;" 3faitland's "Albigenses," "Essays on the Reformation in England/' and his "Dark Ages/' &c. &c. &c. The Parker Society has published many excellent works. The study of Eastern languages has been vigorously pursued. Colebrook and Wilson are European names; the "Sanscrit Diction- ary" of the latter is highly estimated. The Oriental Translation Fund distributes medals every year. The JElfric Society was formed in 1843 for the publication of Anglo-Saxon and other literary monuments tending to illustrate the early state of England ; and in connection with this subject the names of Sharon Turner, Bosioorth, Palgrave, Kemble, and Wright demand honorable men- tion. Besides the Edinburgh Review, there is a vast number of other periodical publications which have engaged no small portion of British talent. As this took the Whig character, there soon ap- peared a Tory Review of equal weight, viz. The Quarterly, which has ever since kept abreast of its rival in point of ability. Besides these so-called leading Reviews, there are various others, published NINETEENTH CENTURY. 199 quarterly, representing the opinions, political and religious, of dif- ferent classes of the community. The chief of these are the Westminster and Foreign Review, the English Review, the British Quarterly Review, the Christian Remembrancer, the North British Review, and the Dublin Review. Sir Richard Phillips long sup- ported the original Monthly Review; then we had Blackwood' 's ; and, as the reading public became annually larger, others, such as Fraser's, rapidly followed. The New Monthly, the Metropolitan, Ainsicorth's Magazine, Beniley's Miscellany, the Eclectic Review, the Dublin University, and Tait's Magazine, each displays both taste and industry in its contributors. The Literary Gazette and the Athenaeum are ably conducted, and cater very cleverly for those who have no leisure to read entire works. But we have yet to allude to the long list of valuable Encyclopaedias and other works which have put science and literature in the power of the humblest reader. To this class belong Rees's Cyclopaedia; the Encyclopaedia Metropolitana ; the Encyclopaedia Britannica ; the Edinburgh Encyclopaedia; Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopaedia; the Penny Cyclo- paedia; the Library of Useful Knowledge ; the Library of Enter- taining Knowledge (the last three produced under the management, literary and mercantile, of Mr. Charles Knight); the Family Library ; Constable's Miscellany ; the Penny Magazine, the Family Magazine, Chambers's Edinburgh Journal, and various others; the five " Treasuries" of Mr. Maunder (in themselves a library of useful knowledge), and a series of dictionaries and encyclopaedias devoted to special subjects, of which M Culloch's " Dictionary of Commerce," Ure's " Dictionary of Arts," Loudon's u Encyclopaedias of Agricul- ture and Gardening," Gwilt's " Encyclopaedia of Architecture," and Brande's "Dictionary of Science, Literature, &c," form a part. Many of these are voluminous, and, being all compiled by men of acknowledged ability, have become standard library works. 200 BRITISH LITERATURE. COTEMPORARY WRITERS. Aird. Atherstone. Baillie (Joanna). Ballantine. Barrett (Elizabeth). Bayly (Haynes). Brooke (Mrs.). Brown (Frances). Browning. Campbell (Calder). Carrington. Cook (Eliza). Croly. Drury (Miss). Elliot. Gilfillan. Gray. Hervey. Her and. Howitt (Mary). Hunt (Leigh). Kennedy. Laidlaw. Mackay. Macaulay. Miller. Milman. Milnes. Montgomery (James). Montgomery (Robert). Moir ("Delta"). Moore. Nicholson. Norton (Honorable Mrs.). Proctor (Barry Cornwall). Rodger. Rogers. Swain. Tennant. Tennyson. Vedder. Watts (Alaric). Wilson. Wordsworth. Wortley (Lady Emily). DRAMATISTS. Baillie (Joanna). Beddoes. Bell (Robert). Bourcicault. Buckstone. Browning. Bulwer (Sir Edward Lytton). Heraud. Hunt (Leigh). Jerrold. Knowles (Sheridan). Mars ton. Mitford (Miss). Poole. Paine (Howard). Planche. Proctor (Barry Cornwall). Spicer. Taylor. Talfourd. NINETEENTH CENTURY. 201 HISTORIANS. Alison. Aikin (Miss). Burton. Brodie. Benger (Miss). Carlyle. Conybeare. Dunlop. Dunham. Elphinstone. Fellowes. Forster. Grote. Gutzlaff. Hallam. Kenible. Lingard. Macaulay. Mahon (Lord). Mill (James). Milman. Murphy. Napier. Prescott.* Palgrave (Sir F.). St. John. Strickland (Miss). Stebbing. Scott (Rev. J.). Tytler. Thirlwall. Thomson (Mrs.). NOVELISTS. Ainsworth. Banim. Bell (Currer). Bray (Mrs.). Blessington (Lady). Bury (Lady Charlotte). Buhver (Sir Edward Lytton).. Carleton. Colley. Cramer. Croker. Cosjoy. Dacre (Lady). Dickens. Disraeli. Edgeworth (Maria). Ferrier (Miss). Fraser. Gore (Mrs.). Grattan. Griffin. Hope. Hall (Mrs. C). Howard. James. Lever. Lockhart. Lover. Maxwell. Miller. Mitford (Miss). Morley (Countess of). Morgan (Lady). Morier. * An American; but liis works have become standards in English Litera- ture. 202 BRITISH LITERATURE. Murray (Honorable A.). Smith. Normanby (Lord). St. Ledger. Opie (Mrs.). Thackeray. Peacock. Warren. Shelley (Mrs.). MISCELLANEOUS WRITERS. Bell (Robert). Jessie. Brougham (Lord). Jeffrey (Lord). Buckingham. Kinglake. Brewster (Sir D.). Knight (Charles) Bingham. Laing. Borrow. Lanclor. Bowring. Layard. Barrone. Leake. Bulwer (Henry Lytton). Lockhart. Carlyle (Thomas). Loudon (Mrs.). Crichton. M'Diarmid. Carter. Martin. Costello (Miss). Mackay. Croly. Maunder. Cocks. Miller. Coxe. Nugent (Lord). Cartwright (Miss). Rhind. De Quincey. Russell (Lord J.) Drake. Sinclair (Miss). Ellis. Sheffield (Lord). Forbes. Spalding. Granville. Taylor (Isaac). Head. Wilson (Rae). Howitt. Warburton. Jerrold. Waterton. Jameson (Mrs.). SCIENTIFIC WRITERS. Adams. Black. Airy. Bostock. Arnott. Brande. Babbage. Brewster (Sir D.) NINETEENTH CENTURY. 203 Britton. M'Culloch. Browne (James). Marcet (Mrs.). Buekland. Mayo. Combe. Mill. Carpenter. Millingen. Croker (Rev. H.). Miller. Copland. Moir. Clarke (Sir J.). Murchison. Clerk (Samuel). Nichol. Conolly. Owen. Delabeche (Sir H.). Playfair. De Morgan. Pugin. Doig. Pritchard. Elliotson. Roget. Faraday. Robinson. Fletcher. Sedgwick. Farmer. Southwood Smith. Forbes. Smellie. Galloway. Somerville (Mrs.). Gwilt. South. Herschel (Sir J.). Spalding. Hooker. Spence. Jameson. Swainson. Kirby. Thomson (Thomas) Lardner. Tweedie. Lawrence. Ure. Lindley. Whewell. Lyell. Young. 204 POLISH LITERATURE. THE LITERATURE OF POLAND. When, contemplating the map of Europe, my mind first formed the wish of rendering the intellectual powers of each country more generally known to the inhabitants of my own; a wish to create, as it were, a mental brotherhood among us; at the moment, I say, when fraternal feeling and cordiality of soul were reminding me of the common parentage of all human beings, the weeping Spirit of Poland seemed to stand before me, as if afraid to claim her part in the great family of the earth. She was but the ghost of former times: her name was gone; but "What's in a name? the rose by any other name would smell as sweet." And though shattered in form, yet is not Poland dead ; though nameless, yet is she not nerve- less; though without body, intangible as an empire, yet is her soul bright and glorious ! Not only do her actions and mental produc- tions of other days do honor to the intelligence of her children ; but now, now even in the days succeeding her triform death — days still of trial and deep suffering — yet does Poland raise her head with courage and dignity at home, and yet do her exiled sons abroad stand forth in every corner of the earth, as examples of deeply de- voted faith of principle, and highly cultivated powers; as examples of that beautiful spirit of nationality, forming at once a people's strength and glory, which never forgets the calm substantial bliss of home ! Years of difficulty, years of hope deferred, have passed over them in exile and in sorrow, yet do they look forward with the same warm hope for justice from their fellow men : yet is the energy of mind awake, yet is the independence of soul alive. Their years of probation are not wasted in vain regret; everywhere we see them seeking with earnest solicitude to be useful and honor- able members of society. Such a people could not be set aside in the project I had formed; and, once entered in the path, bright and abundant were the flowers which bloomed around me. Leaving then her sorrows, with the sentiment of justice encouraging the TENTH CENTURY. 205 prayer of hope that Poland may one day have her name and rights restored, let us turn to her glories. As with all the people of the north, eivilization did not begin in reality in Poland till the introduction of Christianity. After arrest- ing the progress of the Russian arms, Mieczyslas I., Duke of Po- land, in 965, endeavored to awaken a taste for peace in his subjects. A marriage was projected with Donibrovka, a princess of Hungary, who consented to the match on the condition of the Duke Mieczys- las becoming a convert to Christianity. Great and unwearied as was the zeal of this lady for the protection of Christianity, her hus- band kept pace with her; but the political position of Poland ren- dered their task very difficult. Every neighboring country was jealously watching her; and on every side she was forced to repulse an enemy from her frontiers. It was this which placed the son of Mieczyslas in a career of perpetual warfare. Boleslas I., however, governed so wisely, and so bravely defended his country, that he obtained the admiration of all Europe ; and the dukedom of Poland was erected into a kingdom by the Emperor Otho III. It was in this reign that deeds of arms and chivalrie valor, and romances of love and martial glory, raised Poland so high in the enthusiasm of her people. At war with Silesia; at war with Bohemia; now flying to the north as far as Hobtein, then to the east against the princes of Russia, Boleslas I. struck terror and wonder into the hearts of all his opposers. But Boleslas had at length a profound sentiment of regret for the evils these wars occasioned; and he occupied the last six years of his reign in endeavoring, by the most assiduous toil, to repair the evils they had inflicted. Thus his memory became adored; and at this hour he is looked upon as the father of Poland's greatness, at once with affection and veneration. His successors followed much in the same career; and were constantly at war with the surround- ing countries; for Poland has bitterly felt the great disadvantage of having no national bulwarks, no ocean for her guardian, to ward off the encroachments of her neighbors. The clergy being, in the early ages, everywhere the depositaries of mental light, Mieczyslas and his successors engaged many of them to come from the west, and, among the rest, some monks of 18 206 POLISH LITERATURE. the order of St. Benedict. An emigrant Frenchman, named Mar- tinus Gallus, was one of the Polish chroniclers about 1135, and is the earliest certain writer. The clergy wrote only in Latin, and took no pains to acquire the language of their new country. In 1285, at the diet of Lanezyca, it had been decreed that ecclesiastical dignities should only be conferred on the natives. This improve- ment and just patriotism gradually produced their effects on the peo- ple; and, in 1370, Casimir the Great had placed Poland in a posi- tion at once imposing and dignified. Religion flourished, and the king's power was both revered and respected. At this time, Poland was not behind the other nations of Europe, either in her protection of learned men, or in the taste for their writings. . The dawn of literature in most countries is usually marked by poetic compositions ; but if, under this appellation, are to be classed written productions alone, the inference must be, that at this period the Poles possessed no poet. Nothing can, however, be less true; the desire of fame naturally accompanied their warlike actions; and, when peace reigned among them, the old warriors themselves tried to excel each other in relating eloquently their feats of arms. Thus was formed a collection of living chronicles of the times, which might be fully depended upon; for these early bards were not youthful minstrels, like the troubadours, whose enthusiastic spirits veiled the truth in robes of imagery ; but they were grave nobles, who, in the assembly of their equals (candidates like themselves for the throne), recited at the banquet their own compositions. Even in the present times, a specimen of these ancient poets has been seen in Prince- Radzivil, whose compositions, though never printed, were on the lips of all his countrymen. When this nobleman, whom twelve thousand peasants acknowledged as their lord, was required to swear allegiance to Catherine of Russia, he told her ambassador that he would rather make the empress a gift of his wide domains for pin-money, and recite his marvellous tales with the gravity of a palatine ; — an incident which may furnish an idea of what oral poets were at the period of which we are speaking. Indeed, the spirit of poetry pervades the whole social frame of Po- land, and its legends are a cherished standard of national feeling, which is undying among them. The best authors have sought in- FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 207 Bpiration from these traditions, and several collections have heen made, to which attention has been powerfully called in modern times by the poet Micldcidc::. Casimir the Great has been named the King of Peasants, because he protected, in preference, the laboring classes ; but it was he who founded the University of Cracow, with an equal desire for the pro- gression of the superior classes. His reign was illustrated by the first code of laws, known by the name of " Statute of Wislica." A part of these laws is written in the Polish language, which already presented the characters of a settled tongue. Hedwiga, the grand- daughter of Casimir the Great, got many portions of the Bible translated into the Polish tongue — the first monument of literature from the University. This princess tried to introduce the use of the Polish tongue also into the offices of the church ; which would seem so bold an innovation by a queen renowned for piety, as hardly to be credible, were it not attested by the fact, given by several Polish historians, that the native tongue was actually adopted partially by the Romanist congregations, and generally by those of the Greek persuasion. Hedwiga had married Ladislas Jagellon, who united Lithuania to Poland, and his son greatly contributed to the rapid progress of the Polish language j indeed, at the Council of Trent, it was openly proposed for the church service, and even for mass itself. For these efforts to obtain a rational and national church service, we may in some degree account, from the fact that the Bohemians who accompanied Anne, the queen of our Richard Lion-heart, were more numerous than is usually believed. Of these foreigners, many studied at our universities; and others, unconnected with the queen's household, were prevailed upon, by her influence, to leave their native plains for the banks of the Cam or the Isis. Jerome, the disciple of the celebrated John Huss, was probably one of them. While in England, they had deeply imbibed many of WickliflVs opinions, and, returning to their native land, they found there that the spirit of the Christians of the Greek Church was ready to receive all the principles they had themselves so warmly adopted. These doctrines spread rapidly in Poland, because the Polish youths re- sorted to the universities of Prague as well as Cracow; and from the very first both Huss and Jerome had a strong party among the 208 POLISH LITERATURE. Polish nobles. With the reformers appeared the light of literature, but their hooks were frequently seized. Mafhew Glialewa, Arch- bishop of Cracow, is celebrated as an historian of the twelfth century. A work of his, entitled "The Art of Meeting Death," was one of the first printed at Haerlem in 1440. Kadlubek was a remarkable character of the early years of the thirteenth century; his life was published by Ossalinski in 1819. Bogufal and Basko were both chroniclers of the middle of the same century. Strzembeski was of the same age^ and is usually called Martinus Pohnus. OpalinsM, or John of Kempa, is the most ancient Latin poet of Poland, and flourished at the beginning of the fourteenth century. The learned Vitellio lived at the same time. Swi7iJca, secretary of Ladislas Jagellon, was the author of a poem on Casimir II. Oioleh wrote satires. Dzierha wrote history at the beginning of the fifteenth century; Rositius soon followed in the same line; and the historian Duglosz may be looked upon as closing this century. The first religious poem, "Boga Rodzica," composed in Bohemia by JSt. Adalberg, near the close of the tenth century, soon passed into the Polish tongue, and became the popular hymn of the coun- try, and was sung when the army went to battle. But the first original author who wrote in Polish was Ray of Naglovid. His prose writings are chiefly of a philosophical cast, and are eminently chaste in expression. He develops profound conceptions in a clear and graceful manner, as if he had taken Xenophon for his model. His poetical works are less happy, though sententious and epigram- matical. Prosperous in his circumstances, a favorite with King Sigismund Augustus, and so wealthy as to build two towns (a new position for a poet !), one of which bears his name, Roy was able to follow undisturbed the various impulses of his mind. At one time he translated the Psalms, at another he produced his "Models for Courtiers;" but his principal work is "The Mirror of an Honest Man," which may be considered as also that of the customs, ideas, and prejudices of his time. But we must give some account of the Polish Press. Many learned men support the idea that the cele- brated Dr. Faustus was the same person as a Polish student named Tvardovslri, who, persecuted on account of his knowledge, which was considered supernatural, is supposed to have taken refuge in SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 209 Germany, and assumed the name of Faust, or Fust, which corre- sponds to the Polish word Tvarcly, and that he associated himself with Guttenberg, to establish the printing press at Mayence and at Strasburg. Whatever may be the truth relative to the flight of Tvardovski from Poland, it is certain that we may reckon many Polish names amongst the earliest printers in Europe. Adam of Poland was a printer at Naples in 1478 ; Shrzetusld directed a press at Vienna at the end of the fifteenth century, and two Polish brothers established one at Seville. John Hatter was the first printer in Cracow, about 1483 ; but the first book printed in the Polish lan- guage only appeared in 1506, when Albert of Laski, Chancellor of Poland, published a code of laws, known by the name of "The Statutes of Laski." It was about this period that Copernicus, the great astronomer, appeared. At the age of twenty-three, he went to Italy. He stayed some time at Bononia, for the sake of knowing the astrono- mer, Dominicus Maria. From thence he passed on to Rome, where he acquired great reputation, and was chosen professor of mathematics. After some years of constant success, he returned to his own country, and applied all his knowledge to correct the sys- tem of astronomy that prevailed; and when he was about thirty- five, he expounded the system of Pythagoras, as the most harmo- nious and correct. But he employed himself in making calculations, based upon a long examination of the various phenomena of nature; and, after twenty years thus spent, he brought his scheme to per- fection, and established the system of the universe which is now everywhere received. But the Roman Church, as a never-wearied enemy to light, considered his discoveries as a dangerous heresy, for which, like Galileo, Copernicus was thrown into prison by order of Pope Urban VIIL, and the unhappy but gifted being was not suffered to leave his dungeon till he had recanted his opinions. The discoveries of Copernicus are well described by Dr. Smith in his "Essays on Philosophical Subjects." Cotemporary with Ray, we find Korwin, who assumed the Latin name of Ncoforiensis, as suitable to his Latin poems; Krosnianin, who is distinguished for his "Art of Poetry;" Tanichi, who is honored with the title of the Polish Catullus; he traveled in Italy, 18* 210 POLISH LITERATURE. and was crowned by Pope Clement VII., but his best poems are in Latin. Szamotuski was a celebrated musician and poet of this period, and Sophia Olesnicka was the first poetess of the national literature of Poland. Strut was a follower of the medical profes- sion, and distinguished as a poet. Kosmincyzk was renowned as a poet, and was an ardent protector of letters. Stanislaus Pszonka was the founder of the celebrated satirical society called "The Re- public of Babin." Ruiz, of Spanish descent, was remarkable as a Latin poet. Padniewski was a poet, orator, and historian. Gre- gory Samborczyk was a distinguished poet. Bielski was a fine historian. Szarzenski and JakuhowsM were both good poets, while Trzecieski was at once a zealous reformer, historian, and poet. All these were men of decided talent, who shone among the friends and cotemporaries of Bay, and John Kochanoivski is called the prince of Polish poets ; he imitated Homer, and yet dared to be individu- ally great. Rich in natural feeling, he poured forth the effusions of his own heart in his contemplation of human life, and was con- demned by the critics of his day ; but his native wit procured him the title of " The Pindar of Poland," and his sayings are familiar to his countrymen even at this day. The general admiration felt for his genius and character suggested to Niemczywicz (a poet of great renown, only lately dead) the subject of a beautiful drama, in which he has idealized the life of John Kochanoivski. His chief works are three books of epigrams and three books of lyric poems, a translation of the third book of the Iliad, a translation of some of Horace's poems, a translation of the Psalms, a translation of Vida's "Chess," besides original satires and elegies. Two other poets of this name were known. Andrew, his brother, made an elegant translation of Virgil ; Peter, his nephew, made one of the " Jerusalem Delivered," and of the " Orlando" of Ariosto. At this period, the success which attended the eiforts of Martin Luther in Germany had great effect on Poland. Many Poles resorted to the University of Wittenberg, in consequence of the encouragement held out by the Elector of Saxony to all who should graduate in that already flourishing seat of learning. On their return, they naturally spread abroad the knowledge of Luther's doctrines, and numerous prose writers, Catholic and Protestant, belong to this SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 211 period. Seklucyan translated the Bible; Birhoicshi wrote admira- ble sermons; Gornicshl, StarowolshC } and Orecliowsld all joined political feeling with their theological writings, which were of great merit. The labors of these learned men established the national language on a firm basis, and, although it may have since acquired more elegance, the energy, boldness, and freedom of its features are nowhere to be found so fully as in their compositions. Ovechousld (better known under his Latinized name Orechovius) displayed, in his disputes with the Romanists, all the eloquence of a Demos- thenes. He was a man of splendid talent, but of worldly, calcu- lating policy. He had not strength, however, to be faithful in his opposition : he was to be gained at any price, said Rome, and he sunk into her snares. Yet, on the whole, this apostate was useful. In his bright years of strength, he had fought for truth, and his arguments remained after his apostacy was forgotten. Cardinal Hosius, President of the Council of Trent, whom Bayle calls the greatest man that Poland ever produced, was one of the most pow- erful antagonists of Protestantism. The numerous works of Hosius have been translated into many languages. Sigismund I. was an earnest protector of letters; and, although a wise and great king, was tormented into a persecution of the Lu- therans by his queen, a daughter of Sforza, Duke of Milan, and one of the most mercenary of women. The contentions between the reformers and the adherents of the old religion were fierce in the extreme, and the fury of Sigismund against the Dantzickers is a point of history marked with peculiar interest. As a reformer, however, John Lashi enjoyed universal esteem, and the admiration professed for him by Melancthon and Erasmus bordered on enthusiasm. He was also the intimate friend of our Cranmer, who invited him to England, to assist in completing the reformation of the church. For a time, Lashi superintended the foreign Protestant congregation in London, which seems to have been instituted as an asylum for reformers who had been obliged to fly from their own countries. Intercourse between the literary characters of England and Po- land were at that time frequent; and an Englishman named Cox, who was Professor of Eloquence at the University of Cracow in 212 POLISH LITERATURE. 1527, was the first person in Poland who established a periodical work: it was called " The Ephemerides." The conclusion of the sixteenth century was distinguished by the clever prosaist, Kromer, who is styled the Livy of Poland. Chris- topher Warszewicki was an orator, historian, and diplomat of cele- brity ; Stanislaus, his brother, was remarkable for his literary talents and taste. Matthew Stryikowski was a celebrated chronicler and poet. Gornicki was remarkable as a historian. Negoszewski was crowned as a poet, and celebrated as a Latin improviser. In the month of February, 1598, at Venice, he delivered impromptu verses on the philosophy of Aristotle. He also published a Latin poem in honor of Zamoyski; and, at the same time, verses in He- brew, Greek, Latin, Spanish, Italian, and Polish. The death of a Frenchman named Statorius, a naturalized noble of Poland, marked the first year of the seventeenth century. Sta- torius had been a great friend to letters, and had made an excellent grammar of the Polish language. Solikoivski, the Archbishop of Leopol, flourished under King Stephen Battory, and is remarkable for his Latin compositions. Budny-Bieniacz was a celebrated pro- saist. Zamoyski, surnamed the Great, was a statesman, warrior, and protector of letters, sciences, and arts. Zeylitowski was re- markable for the great elegance of his poetry. Goslicki was a celebrated orator. Sebastian Klonowicz is called the Sarmatian Ovid. He wrote a poem in forty-four cantos, entitled " The Vic- tory of the G-ods," which the Jesuits destroyed wherever they met with it. Treter was a poet and engraver, although secretary to the kings Stephen Battory and Sigismund III. Rybinski was crowned as a poet. Paprocki was a good historian. Kinita was the first comic-heroic poet of Poland. Miaskowski was remarkable as a poet. Szymonoioicz was crowned as a poet, and named the Theocritus of Poland. Zimorowicz wrote graceful pastorals. Such sovereigns as the two Sigismunds and Stephen Battory, with ministers like Tomiclri, Tarnovski, and Zamoyski, could not fail of supporting with success the dignity and preponderance of the nation. As a proof of the activity of mind in this age, there were no less than fifty printing presses in Cracow alone, and eighty-three towns in Poland printed separately. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 213 Various facts bear witness to the mental movement of this age. Two new academies were founded, at Wilna and Zamose ; and, be- sides being the golden age of Poland's literature, the Poles were distinguished by that highest test of civilization, liberty of con- science, when the rest of Europe was convulsed by religious wars. Leopol was then, and has been ever since, the residence of three archbishops — one of the Greek, another of the Roman, and a third of the Armenian persuasion; yet was there never any inquiry made to which of the cathedrals a citizen who complied with the regula- tions of government resorted. Political power was the reward of this tolerant spirit, and Polish princes sat on the thrones of Bohe- mia and Hungary; Lithuania, Livonia, and Courland formed a part of their empire; and even Russia offered her crown at one time to a Polish prince. Poland was thus one of the most considerable and most enlightened states of Europe, and would probably have remained so to the present day but for the withering influence of the Jesuits. In order to counteract the progress of the reformers, the Church of Rome sent into Poland many of the most learned of her Jesuits. The Jesuits arrogated the universal tuition of youth. Everywhere they were industrious, everywhere indefatigable in their scholastic duties ; for they had the artifice to render their gram- mars exceedingly difficult, and not only thus retained their pupils the longer, but completely blinded them. The language and litera- ture of Poland became a mere jargon of interlarded Latinisms; — she had lost both before the end of another century. From this general corruption of literary taste must be excepted the sermons of Skarga, remarkable for energy, boldness, and gran- deur of pulpit oratory. A cotemporary of his was Casimir Sarbi- evshi, who received the laureate crown from Pope Urban VIII. for his lyric poetry; but he was only a Latin poet, and an imitator. Horace was his model; and, though he writes cleverly, there is little, if anything, of originality in his ideas, or warmth in his feel- ings. Coleridge places him above Cowley. We must not forget the illustrious botanist, Zaluzianshi, who was the first to describe the fructification of plants, usually known by the name of the Linnrean system, and that long before Linnasus, to whom the discovery is ascribed. The Swedish botanist could 214 POLISH LITERATURE. scarcely have been ignorant of the work of his predecessor, called "Methodus Herbaria/' which had been published at Prague; Dubois, in his literature of Poland, mentions this fact. Sigisinund III. protected the Jesuits, and his fanaticism retarded every mental effort; intrigues not only occupied, but soured, every mind. The persecutions of the dissidents in matters of religion, fomented by the then all-powerful Jesuits, caused numbers of en- lightened Poles to leave their country. Naymanowicz was a philo- sopher who endeavored to stem the torrent; and such was his love of literature, and efforts for its benefit, that he was sixteen times chosen Rector of the Academy of Cracow. Grochowshi was a fertile poet. The two PietrokoivczyTc, husband and wife, were warm friends to literature; the lady wrote graceful Latin poems. Ghelchowshi is remarkable for his good pastorals, at a time when there was little of worth. Cynerski's elegies are also above the ordinary class of poetry. Otfinow&ki translated Ovid into Polish verse. BrosM, or Broscius, was a distinguished mathematician, and a tolerable poet. Christopher and Lucas Opalinshi were both court poets. Samuel Tivardoivsld was a poet of remarkable fecundity. Pastorius wrote Latin verses, and was historiographer to Sigismund III. There was a little brightness in the reign of Ladislas IV. ; but, under Augustus I. and II. of Saxony, Poland seemed to sleep between acts of devotion and dissipation. During this darker age of litera- ture in Poland, very little poetry was published, except translations from the French poets. The brothers Lubomirshi, as philosophical writers, exhibit, however, pure and sound principles of morality. Unhappily for Poland, to the existing evil of a corrupted literature was now added the abolition of the liberty of the press. Sound notions of law and justice became, in consequence, still more obscured; anarchy pervaded the government; freedom degenerated into license; while the peasantry sunk into a condition bordering on slavery, and the limits of the country were contracted by the seces- sion of the Cossacks. Towards the conclusion of the seventeenth century, Andrew and Samuel Morsztyn translated from the French. Andrew was Trea- surer of Poland; he translated "The Cid." Samuel was Palatine of Mazovie; he translated several tragedies of Racine. Fredro was EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 215 a philosopher, historian, and poet. Jacob Sohicsl-i, father of the celebrated King John, was ardently attached to letters, and used his pen with .skill. Gawinski was the author of some good pastorals. Under John Sobieski we find but few original writers. Chroscinski translated Lucan. Stanislaus Luhomirski translated from the Italian of Guarini. John Stanislaus Jablanowski put the " Adventures of Telemachus" into very respectable Polish verse. It was Mallchi who did the most essential service to his country, by writing a Polish grammar, and by making a Polish dictionary. No nation is more indebted to woman than the Polish. One female was the means of its conversion to Christianity; another rendered it powerful, by annexing it with Lithuania; and, at the unfortunate epoch where we are now arrived, another averted from it the greatest of all misfortunes, its moral ruin as a nation. More afflicted than all others at the melancholy aspect of affairs, the mother of the princes Augustus and Michael Czartoryski bound them by an oath to use every exertion to restore the former great- ness of Poland, over which the elder branch of her house, the Jagellon family, had exercised hereditary sway. Accordingly, they endeavored to introduce reform into the government of Augustus II., who had been forced, by secret machinations, on the throne of Poland, by the Russians; and when the Czartoryskis were frustrated, they worked out their views by remodeling the system of education. It was also a part of their plan to place a native prince at the head of the kingdom; and their nephew, Prince Poniatowski, was selected. Aided by the powerful Catherine of Russia, this prince became king, as Stanislaus Augustus IV., and was a zealous patron of let- ters. The royal residence was thronged with native talent; and the king himself assisted, as a private gentleman, at the weekly meet- ings of the literati. The nobles followed this example of encourage- ment, and their abodes were filled with men of letters and science, instead of a host of idle retainers. The two brothers Zalushi employed their whole fortune in collecting a library of two hundred thousand volumes, which they bestowed upon their country as a gift. Then arose Konarski, a man of uncommon genius and energy, who fearlessly attacked the Jesuits, and at length effected a reform in the national schools. The Order of Jesuits was abolished, and 216 POLISH LITERATURE. their immense possessions consecrated to the public education. Ko- narski formed a compendium of national laws, in eight folio volumes ; and dedicated his ample fortune, and a pension granted him by Louis XV., as a testimony to his merit, to procuring translations of the best foreign works. Science, art, and industry nourished once more. Joseph Jablonowski was a warm encourager of letters. He published, at his own expense, the fine atlas of Rizzi Zanoni, and wrote various works in prose and verse. Elizabeth Druzbacka wrote some very fine idylls; they are full of the sweetest descriptions of nature, in which she is said to rival Thomson. The Princess Radzivil wrote tragedies. Rzewuski was an enthusiastic patriot, and distinguished himself by several literary productions. Bokomolec was a writer of comedies. One grand result of the all-pervading spirit of improvement was the constitution of the 3d of May, 1791; by which fine act, the nobles voluntarily despoiled themselves of their exclusive privileges, admitted the citizens into their rank, restored the rights of freedom to the peasants, and placed the new social order on a firm basis, by the establishment of hereditary monarchy. Not without reason, then, has our poet said, " Sarmatia fell, unwept, without a crime 1" Among the authors who flourished under Stanislaus Augustus was Janocki, who wrote literary history and biography. Wengierski, too, was busy with his lively verses and keen satires ; — at once the Anacreon and Peter Pindar of Poland. Then JVaruszeioicz first tried his powers in poetry and satirical writings, but finished his career as one of the finest historians of Poland. Wi/rwicz pub- lished many admirable works, and wrote geographical ones. Mina- sowicz was the author of some good poems and other vorks. Igna- tius Krasickij Archbishop of Grniezne, may be called the Polish Voltaire, wit being the principal characteristic of his numerous works ; but, while he ridiculed superstition, he never assailed reli- gion. In his " Monomachia," or War of Monks, he exposes, in a masterly manner, the bigoted absurdities of the monkish orders; then, in his " War between the Mice and the Cats," he ingeniously laughs at the dissensions that prevailed in the national councils. His fables are considered as only second to Lafontaine's, for the NINETEENTH CENTURY. 217 Poles say that the French fabulist lent his pencil to KrasicM. Tho>o fables are favorites throughout the kingdom. His " Epistles/' "Translations from Ossian," "Dictionary of Useful Knowledge/' "Imitation of Plutarch's Lives/' are all excellent; and, besides these, he wrote an epic, called " Chocun/' which bears considerable reputation. But Trembecski possessed the most poetic fire of this period. In his principal poem, called " Zofiowka," from a magnifi- cent country-seat in the Ukraine, he embodied, in fascinating lan- guage, opinions upon man's terrestrial and posthumous existence. Count de la Garde made a French translation of it, which he caused to be beautifully printed at Rome, together with the original. In his latter days, Trembecshi lost his memory to such an extent that he did not recollect he had ever written anything. He fell into a state of misanthropy, and would have no companion near him but a Cossack boy, with whom he played at chess, or listened to his songs. The only visitors he admitted were birds, which he per- mitted to build their nests in his apartments. Kniaznin was an elegant lyric poet of deep feeling; and, like Tasso, became en- amored of a lady far above his condition, which unlucky attach- ment ended in aberration of intellect; and the unhappy man died, as the poet sings, "worm-eaten of love." His patron, Prince Czartoryski, erected a splendid monument to his memory, at Pu- lawy. Kniaznin' s three dramatic poems, of "The Treble Mar- riage," " The Gypsies," and " The Spartan Mother," rank high for their lyrical beauty; and his odes are full of strength and harmony. KarpinsM was the best song- writer of this period, and his pure mind was eminently fitted for a translation of the Psalms. Kollon- tay was a philosophical writer, and conducted the paper called "The Polish Constitution." Pockzobol, the astronomer, friend of our Maskelyn, lived at this time. Ignatius Potocki was an excel- lent orator and great statesman ; and Prince Czartoryski, father of the late venerable prince, Adam, wrote a work entitled " Thoughts on Polish Authors," which deserves particular attention, as he was the first who combated the prevailing taste for French literature. SulkowsTcij although busy in a military life, wrote graceful poems. The admonition given by Rousseau to the Poles, that, if they could not help being swallowed by the Russians, they might at 19 218 POLISH LITERATURE. least prevent these latter from digesting them, appears to have been constantly acted upon by them, ever since the loss of their national independence — a misfortune which has only had the effect of still further arousing their moral energy. Having sung on the ruins of their country their emphatic " Poland is not lost while we live/' they created for themselves a Promethean existence — a moral power more enduring than that which they had lost. Their first act was to establish a Society of the Friends of Science and Belles Lettres, for the preservation of the national language, now endan- gered by the intrusion of foreign idioms. One member of the Society, Kojocynshi, composed an admirable grammar : another, Linde, compiled an excellent dictionary. Albertandi, the first President, left three thousand volumes of materials connected with the Polish history, which he had collected from various manuscripts whilst in Sweden and Italy, and which, having been prohibited making written extracts, he had retained solely by the force of his extraordinary memory. A far more important work still was that of Count Osselinshi, entitled " Historico-critical Notices of Polish Authors." He also devoted his fortune to the purchase of a large library, which he presented to the province of Gralicia. Nor were poets wanted to aid these efforts t Godebski wrote his " Patriotic Odes" and "Martial Poetry;" Felinski's "Barbara Radziwilowna" brought him undying honors. Count Thadeus Czacki helped the struggling patriots with his " Jurisprudence." Piramowicz was a critic as well as an author. Szymanowicz made an admirable translation into Polish verse of " The Temple of the Grnide," from Montesquieu. Nicolas Wolski was an astronomer, but found leisure moments to meddle with earthly concerns, and made a spirited translation of "The Marriage of Figaro." His brother Constantine preferred the serious path of Racine, and trans- lated the "Xphigenia;" also the "Zaire" and " Merope" of Vol- taire. Tanshi was a poet and prosaist of repute. ShrzetusM wrote history. Drozdowski wrote agreeable dramas; as also 3Ime. Lu- bienski. Naguczeivski translated from the Greek with great ability. Eysymont was learned in classic lore, and a poet. Sloivachi wrote some clever poems. Dembroioski translated the " Henriade." Bishop Stronowski aided the cause by his prose writings. Rai- NINETEENTH CENTURY. 219 rsalc was patriotic in his heart and pen: his poems are written with a fire and energy that time cannot cool. MatuszeiL-i.cz was a fine orator and clever poet; his son Andrew, also, distin- guished himself at a later period. The services rendered to his country by the AbM Staszyc were very remarkable, as scientific author, poet, and philosopher. His " Life of the Great Statesman Zainoyski," an original poem "On the Human Race," transla- tions of Homer, and of Buffon's " Epochs of Nature," established his fame as an author of pre-eminent merit. The formation of Col- leges of Medicine and Law, at "Warsaw, and the erection of a fine building for the " Society of the Friends of Science," were acts of his private munificence. He purchased also a large domain, which he divided among a number of peasants, subject only to a very mode- rate rent, the funds of which were destined to the gradual acquisi- tion of neighboring lands for the same benevolent purpose. He was, in short, both liberal with his purse, and a warm friend to learning; and, whilst minister of state, Staszyc discharged the duties of that office with unwearied diligence, and was also director of the mines, and of a commission for the purposes of education. The name of this worthy man became an object of national venera- tion, but of hatred to the Grand Duke Constantine, who would not permit the people to show their gratitude by erecting a monument to his memory. His name is, however, engraven on the heart of every Pole, and his memory will be cherished as long as Polish blood shall flow in their veins. Count Stanislaus PotocJd continued the honorable patriotism of his noble family by his eloquence ; and, in his leisure moments, advanced the good taste of his countrymen by translating Winkelmann. Corn. MohJri translated the iEneid, and wrote some pleasing lyrics. Prince Adam Czartoryshi never knew an idle moment; and, besides writing some charming come- dies, was a universal aid to science and literature by his pen and his purse. Xavier Bohusz searched for Poland's honor in her his- tory and antiquities. MoclinasJci wrote with energy as a critic, and advocated that emancipation from the old style of composition which, in other countries, was called Eomanticism. It was just what was necessary for the awakening talents of his countrymen, — the chains of the classic style ill suited their ardor. Baudkte attended 220 POLISH LITERATURE. to history only; while Bematoioicz interwove its dramatic facts with sentiment and romance in very elegant novels. His style and lan- guage in " Pojata" are looked upon as standard examples for those who aim at perfection. John Potocki was a writer of history and geography. Tymienski translated our poet Thomson. Wyhicki was an ardent patriot, and aided the cause with his pen. Gorczy- czewski was the author of clever satires, and translated those of Boileau. Zolkowski shone as a writer of dramas and satires. Clio- dani translated from Yoltaire. Zarblocki was a fine dramatist. SurowiecM was learned in classical writings, and famous as a statis- tician. Tomaszeivski was a distinguished epic poet. Groddek was a remarkable philologist. Stanislaus Boliusz was a clever historian. Malczeski is celebrated for the account of his journey in Switzer- land, and the ascent of Mont Blanc; he also wrote poems. • The literature of the present period is marked by the same pa- triotic character, and at the head of its poets was Niemcewicz, who only closed his mortal career a few years since, in exile. He had been distinguished under Stanislaus Augustus, and was the Nestor of Polish patriots. He had witnessed two great revolutions, and with his friend, the brave Kosciusko, had fought in America under Washington. His compositions in verse consist of tragedies, come- dies, satires, lyrics, songs, elegies, and fables; and in all these de- partments he has attained a well-deserved celebrity. His chief glory, however, consists in his " Historical Songs/' a composition quite peculiar to Poland; they are the history of his country in lyric verse, set to music, and illustrated with plates, in order to render the events more impressive to youthful minds. The book is in every Polish household, and venerated next to the Scriptures. His biographical sketches with which these lyrics are accompanied are, if possible, more valuable, and might be placed by the side of Plutarch's Lives. Niemcewicz has shown his diligence as a scholar in his u History of Sigismund HI./' which may vie with Schiller's " Thirty Years' War." He has also compiled three volumes of u Notices relative to the National History." His " Historical Novels" are amongst the most successful imitations of Scott; he translated Pope's " Rape of the Lock," the " Ode on St. Cecilia's Day," a Gray's Elegy," u Rasselas," and some poems of Words- NINETEENTH CENTURY. 221 worth and Campbell, and various pieces from the French. In- deed, he continued to the last (to use his own words) to soothe the bitterness of exile by singing to his mournful lyre. The fame of Woronicz, late Archbishop of "Warsaw, first arose from his " Sermons." These seem to be immediate emanations from the purest source of morality, couched in fiery, almost dithy- rambic language, resembling that of the Hebrew prophets. In his poetry, he is said to resemble Milton very strongly. Brodzins7cij called the poet of the heart, formed his taste upon the extempo- raneous songs of the Cracovians, which he first brought into repute ; his poetry is characterized by simplicity and grace. One of his most animated poems is written on the subject of a great number of Poles having resolved, after the partition of Poland, to force their way, at every risk, to the South of Europe, in order to join the armies of Napoleon, to whom they looked as their destined deliverer. Many of them reached the French army, and were known under the name of the Polish Legion; they fought in the German wars, and distinguished themselves in Egypt and Spain. Dombrovski was their leader, and afterwards their historian, and bequeathed his writings to the Literary Society of Warsaw. Another poet, Francis Dmoclwioslri, although he left no original compositions, may be classed with the preceding in merit, as a most successful translator of Homer, Virgil, Milton, and Young. But such is the ardent pursuit of literature in Poland, that, within the last twenty years, no fewer than three complete versions of Homer, and five of Virgil, have appeared. The industrious PrzyhylsM per- formed the Herculean labor of translating Homer, Ovid, Virgil, Milton, Young, Ariosto, Camoens, and G-esner. During this period, the drama, which appears to have been more tardy in its growth than the other branches of Polish literature, reached a high degree of development. The tragedy of " Josephus Castus," by Simonowicz, is considered very superior. Zablochi wrote some good comedies; but "The Nuncio" of Niemciwicz bears the palm. Boguslavski has done much for the Polish drama, by keeping up the national theatre of Warsaw, and visiting, with his itinerant troop, the various parts of the dismembered country, as well as by his original works, and the translations of "Hamlet" 19* 222 POLISH LITERATURE. and " Macbeth ;" indeed, a complete version of Shakspeare has been published in Poland within these few years. While on this topic, we may also pay tribute to the talent and taste of Poland in the production of good operas and fine musical composers. Kurpierski, Elsnen, Lipinski, Szopen ( Chopin), are of European fame. OsinsM left a name in the theatrical world for his translations of Corneille and Voltaire; but this checked the growth of the national theatre. At length ; such writers as Wenzyk and Karpinshi brought back the taste of their countrymen. They are the best tragic writers of Poland; the tragedies of " Grlinski," and of "Boleslaw," by the former, are among the finest in the language ; and the " Ludgarda," of Karpinshi does him equal honor. Their successful follower, Korzenioioshi, is eminently distinguished for the beautiful delinea- tion of his female characters. The Moliere of Poland is Count Fredro, quick, profound, lively, and always national. Wengiershi, already mentioned as a witty satirist, wrote " The Organ," a comic- heroic poem; "Pygmalion," " Lyrical Drama," &c. &c. Golucliovshi has written "The History of Nations," with the spirit of a true philosopher; this work created great sensation among the G-ermans, who deeply lamented the early death of the writer. The Princess Isabella Czartory ski wrote a fine work on "Gardens;" and, in ac- cordance with the principles laid down in it, she embellished her seat at Pulawy (now confiscated to the Russian power). A more important work of hers is entitled " The Pilgrim of Dobramil," of which Polish history is the basis, and morality the superstructure. The daughter of the above lady has written excellent Tales ; no writer has more admirably painted the domestic life of the Polish peasantry. Another lady of distinguished talent is Madame Tanska ; her " Mother's Legacy to a Daughter," her works on religion, and especially on education, have rendered her quite an authority on this last-mentioned topic. She has translated Mrs. Ellis's excellent work, called "Woman's Mission," into the Polish language. Oliza- roshi is a poet of Volhynia, graceful and ardent; but the most dis- tinguished of all Poland's children in literature is Michiewicz. Re- markable for his patriotism and fine liberal tone of mind, he began his career by silencing the critics, much in the same way as Byron. His magnificent poem of the "Dziady" (Feast of the Dead) is a NINETEENTH CENTURY. 223 specimen of the most powerful talent, and ranks with Goethe's "Faust/' and Byron's " Manfred." It is consoling to observe that our Byron's work is the most ennobling of the three. Goethe's " Faust" is drawn from the apparent disorder and blind hazard of human life ; " Manfred" from divine wisdom and beauty. Where Faust sees all things hideous, Manfred meets only beautiful genii, on whose calm and pure brow is reflected immortality; while it is to the dark scenes of martyrdom that the Polish poet leads us. Mkldewicz has invoked the infernal regions, to help him with tem- poral ukases, tortures, exile, chains, and instruments of suffering. Then angels are invoked by the spiritual reign ; the heroic soul, pious enthusiasm, holy indignation, prophetic songs, and divine ecstasies; and these are paintings which neither Byron nor Goethe could have executed. Among the innumerable phalanx of perverse spirits, which poetry uses as emblems of the vices and evils of life, there are various hierarchies ; the mocking demon of Goethe is the Voltairian Frenchman ; the dark genii of Byron is the romantic spirit of the nineteenth century; the Satan of Miclriewicz is brutal despotism. It is an ignoble monster, bloody, gross, ferocious, and obstinate ; but his whole diabolical army is no play of the imagina- tion ; it is a living hell he calls around him. The soldiers of his Satan are executioners, jailers, blasphemers, cannibals; they speak only of physical tortures, they lap the blood of martyrs, they seek to subdue by despair and vengeance. During the persecution carried on against the students of Wilna, Mickiewicz was exiled to the Crimea, where, as a Polish poet expresses it, " he strewed dia- monds in his path." His " Sonnets of the Crimea" are among his happiest productions, and were published at Moscow, where, through the enlightened government of Prince Galitzin, he was per- mitted to reside. His own peculiar situation suggested the poem of " Wallenrod," which is enthusiastically admired by his country- men, and is supposed to have hastened an insurrection. "Sir Thaddcus" is another masterly production, and is called the Georgics of Polish literature. "The Book" is another emanation frOm his pen, and has great admirers. A singular circumstance strikes every one, when examining the Polish language and literature: viz., that they have advanced in an 224 POLISH LITERATURE. equal ratio with the increasing misfortunes of the country, during the last fifty years. This phenomenon is so extraordinary that it deserves the consideration of every reflecting mind. What, indeed, should seem more unfavorable to the progress of a nation's mental powers than its political annihilation, and the incorporation of its dismembered provinces with several foreign states, each respectively intent upon destroying every vestige of its former nationality? Yet it is a fact, that Polish literature is actually reaching its zenith; and at no former period could Poland boast of more distinguished men in every department of science and learning, politics even included. Yet public and private libraries, to an immense extent, have been, at two different periods, sent off to Russia; but, instead of retarding, this has only promoted the growth of national literature; in fact, every attempt to recover their liberties, however unsuccessful, has only helped to invigorate the moral energies of the Poles, and the ardent feeling of patriotism, which used to be chiefly confined to one class, now animates alike the inhabitants of every cottage and palace in Poland. Their literature is more intimately connected with the history of their incessant political struggles than is the case with any other nation. It is a most potent weapon, which they now understand how to use. Among the writers of the present age, we may mention Chodzko, Czaylwiuski, and Dmoclwioshi, poets; Gorechi, a lyric fabulist; MurnicM, a dramatic poet; Jachowicz, a fabulist; Kosmian, a poet; Odyniec, Ostrowski, Szydlowski, Tymowshi y Witioicki, and Zaleski, all writers of various kinds of poems. As prose writers, we have to name Bentoivski, Borroioshi, Chodkicewicz, Dmuszewski, Romberg, Golembiowski, Kaminski, Kontrym, Leleioelj Linde, Mostowski, Oginski, Onaceioicz, Plater, Raczynski, Rzeivuski, Sen- howsky, Sharbeh, SniadecM, Szyrura, KrasinsM — all men whose literary talents have distinguished them. Several ladies of Poland have deserved the gratitude of their countrymen for their talents and patriotism, as, the Princess Lucy Giobroyc, the Princess Rosalie LubomirsJca, Madame Tyzenhaus, Madame Mcdecka, Madame Widulunsha, Madlle. Korzenioiosha. The poetical works of Adam Mlchieim.cz were printed in 1828 at Paris, by Pinard, at the expense of the Countess Ostroivska. HUNGARIAN LITERATURE. 225 The Poles have also their literary journals, which, in various forms, have attracted and delighted the people, as, " The Monitor/' conducted on the model of the "Spectator;" "Agreeable and Useful Recreations/' published first by JVaruszewicz, and continued by Albertandi ; "The Memorial of Warsaw/' conducted by most able men; "The Scientific Journal of Wilna;" the same of Warsaw, with a vast variety of periodicals published in the different large cities, as, "The Memorial of Leopol," "The Bee of Posen," &c. &c. The following is a list of works which may be further consulted on the literature of Poland : " Scriptorum Polonicorum Hecaton- tas," by Staroicolski; "Slavonia Reformata," by Wengierski ; " Museum Polonum," by Jablonowski; " Bibliotheca Poetarum," by Zaluski, and the " Magna Bibliotheca;" "Polonia Litterata," by Janochi ; " Chronologie" of Albertandi; "Essai sur l'Histoire de la Pologne," by Duclos; the third volume of the works of Kra- sicki; " Observations sur les Poetes Polonais," by Prince Adam Czartoryski ; the literary works of Stanislaus Potocki; " The His- tory of Polish Literature," by Bentowski; Juszi/nski's " Diet, of Polish Poets;" Ossolinski's "Materials for the History of Polish Literature;" LeleioeVs " Bibliographic Polonaise ;" Boivring' s " Spe- cimens of Polish Poetry;" " Introduction to the Memoirs of Michel Oginski," published at Paris in 1827. THE LITERATURE OF HUNGARY. Few nations have had a more difficult position to maintain than Hungary. The deep sentiment of patriotism has contributed largely to her present independence; but she has struggled through long years of trial, and has felt the iron of the Austrian government enter into her soul. The Latin language still continues to be fre- quently that of general intercourse even among the lower classes, although the Hungarian dialect is now coming daily more in use, and they have had an individual literature for many centuries. Stephen, first King of Hungary, was crowned in the year 1000, having been baptized a Christian three years before. He founded many establishments for learning. 226 HUNGARIAN LITERATURE. The Studium generate of Wesprim was founded a century later ; and formed after the plan of the University of Paris. In 1358, King Sigismond founded at Ofen another of these semi- naries, and King Matliias Corvin enriched it with a library. A little later, this last-mentioned prince founded the University of Presburg. The first printing press was established at Ofen (Buda) by An- drew Hesz y somewhat later than the middle of the fifteenth century, and the first work printed was "Chronicon Budense." At the close of this century, the Literary Society of the Danube was formed by Conrad Celtes. The most ancient monument of the Hungarian dialect is their popular songs. Under the reign of Louis the Great, at the begin- ning of the fourteenth century, the national tongue was cultivated with some degree of success, it being that king's especial desire to encourage it. The Bible was translated for the first time into this tongue, and the first grammar of it was made by John Panonius. In the sixteenth century, it made a rapid progress. A dictionary was formed by Kovats. Tinodi, Kahonagi, Tsanadi, Valkai, Tsaktornyi, Tserenyi, FaseJcas, Szegedi, Balassa, Enydi, and others, were all native poets of this period. In the next century, an encyclopaedia was compiled by Tsere Apaszai, who also made very diligent researches on the language of his country. An epic poem now appeared from the pen of Count Nicolas Zriny. Ladi&las Lissthij Pasko, Kohary, and Gcengyoesi were also epic poets of the same period. Rimai and Benitzky wrote lyric poems, while sacred poetry had also many votaries. There are many Latin chronicles of this period, of which the " Belae Begis Notarius," by an anonymous writer, is the most remarkable. Among Hungarian chroniclers, we may name Szekely (who is cele- brated), Temesvari, Heltat, Pethoe, Bariha, Lisnyai. At the opening of the eighteenth century, Parizpapai published his valuable dictionary; and the first newspaper was published at Presburg by Mathias Bath. After the death of Joseph II. of Austria, there was a brilliant burst of progress in the Hungarian literature. The language was taught in schools, and the National Acts were published in it. A theatre was opened at Ofen, and DUTCH LITERATURE. 227 another at Pcsth. Several newspapers were commenced. The Emperor Francis II granted their national literature his protec- tion. The poets of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries are nume- rous, namely: Szabo, Rajuis, Daika, Aranka, Doeme, Batsanyi, Takats, Horvah, TeleJci, Fekete, Matyasi, Ragy, Versegi, Virags, KovatSy Charles and Alexander Kisfaludi, the first a dramatic poet, and the second a lyric poet, both of the first class of talent; Dce- brcenteij Szemere, Csokonai, Tot, Verzsenyi, Vikovits, &c. The prose writers are equally numerous, among whom we may mention Dugonitz, Budai, Batlwri, Feier, Ilarthon, Frtsei, Sarvari, En- drcedi. THE LITERATURE OF HOLLAND AND BELGIUM. The United Provinces were for many centuries the cradle of literature, and the nursery of men of science and of learning. The Universities of Groningen, Utrecht, Leyden, Guelderland, and the celebrated school of Amsterdam, were resorted to by studious men from all countries in the north of Europe, at the same period as the universities of Italy were as eagerly sought by men of the south. And what a host of accomplished artists have sprung from this people, of whose literary produce we know so little ! This is the more singular, since our commercial and political connections with Holland have been so closely interwoven. Unwearied industry, and the spirit of patient perseverance, characterize the people of this country; and, although devoted to commerce, yet they were the first in Europe who found time to encourage the arts and sciences. I say the first, for several years before Italy was in her glory under the Medici, the Dutch, besides their magnificent manufactories, had invented oil painting and introduced printing. The microscope and the pendulum we owe to them too, at a later date. Men of learning were quietly pursuing their valuable studies in her universities; but there was no Lorenzo the Magnificent to protect and encourage them. The great hall in the Hotel de Ville at Bruges contains a library 228 DUTCH LITERATURE. of near eight thousand volumes, some of which are of great rarity. Every other large city has its library. The monastery of St. Martin and the abbey of St. Bertin, at Mechlin, produced scholars of eminence in the tenth and eleventh centuries ; and when Alfred wished to establish collegiate institutions in England, he sent for Grrumbalde, to whom Oxford was indebted as early as 886 for the foundation of its far-famed university. The work called " Livre des Assises et des bons Usages du Royaume de Jerusalem" served as a model for Godfrey of Boulogne, and is still the admiration of the best writers on national jurisprudence. No people were, consequently, possessed of better laws; and princely legislators sent to form their codes upon the same basis, when Henri Goethals excited so much gratitude for his labors that he was pre- sented by the Sorbonne with the title of doctor, par excellence, as the most learned jurisconsult of the times. He was followed by a throng of great names — prelates, doctors, grand dignitaries — all men of first-rate merit. The succession of genius in the family of the Gceilials alone, in the opinion of the biographers, was sufficient to illustrate the literary character of their country. In the twelfth century the chivalric tastes of the age were repre- sented by Christian de Troyes, a native of Hainault, who spent many years at the court of Philip of Alsace. His poems are but little known. In the same century, the favorite subject of Reynard the Fox was adopted by several Flemish poets; and was printed among the early productions of the press at Delft. In the middle of the thirteenth century, Henry III., Duke of Brabant, was an ardent friend to literature, and a poet of considerable merit. The great luxury of the Flemish nobles drew crowds of poets around them, foreign as well as native ; but the more sprightly language of the French, and their intuitive wit, pleased oftener than the national broad humor, and, consequently, many of these early writers assumed the Romaine French, in order to recommend their compositions to the courtly circles. The fabulous history of "Berte and Pepin," one of the works of the poet Aclenez, is marked as possessing surprising grace and correctness, and ranks the author as a man of decidedly superior talent. The fourteenth century brought war and all its distractions into THIRTEENTH CENTURY. 229 the homes of the before happy Flemings. Literature faded away, and all pleasure in its encouragement disappeared till the time of Philip the Good of Burgundy, whose just and judicious govern- ment of his Belgian provinces brought back the affrighted muses. The Netherlands were governed originally by their own dukes and earls, until, by marriages and other contracts, several provinces fell to the House of Burgundy, and after that to Austria. At the time of Luther, the Low Countries were the centre of European learning, and the Flemish, or Low Dutch, language was more gene- ral, especially in maritime nations, than any other. Their literature ranked the first, and the students of their universities went out into all the countries of Europe as professors to enlighten other nations. But the policy of Charles V. of Germany was the cause of this brilliant position being completely clouded. His son, Philip II. of Spain, attempted to alter the constitution, fearing the Re- formers and the independent spirit of the Dutch. xlfter their victorious struggle, the seven provinces which cast off the yoke of Spain were the first in intellectual progress. The censorship of the Austrian government was such, that few men of talent wrote in the Flemish dialect; indeed, they fled into Holland, and carried along with them many of the first merchants of the once flourishing provinces of Flanders, Brabant, and Ant- werp. For nearly two hundred and fifty years this dearth of na- tional productions lasted, and the splendid literary distinction of the country faded to a mere remembrance. Van Meteveh and Van Meerbehe were historians who flourished during the time of the severe Spanish restriction of the Flemish intellect, and escaped the searching eye of the Inquisition as if by miracle. Philip II. had sent the Duke of Alva (or Alba) into the Low Countries to subdue the spirit of the inhabitants, and the cruelty of this military despot found an object in the worthy and patriotic Anthony Strorelen of Antwerp, President of the Chamber of Rhe- toric. The well-known poet Lemaire was of this period, and is claimed by the French. (See page 115.) Margaret of Austria introduced a happier state of things, which, however, did not last, for her death was followed by a host of calamities. The Dutch are justly proud of their language, which, they say, 20 230 BUTCH LITERATURE. is the purest of all the G-othic dialects, and the most abundant and sonorous ; but it is with difficulty acquired by foreigners. It is a branch of the German, Danish, Norwegian, and consequently of the English. Some writers have said that it is peculiarly adapted to the expression of devout and dignified emotion ; it may, at least, b'e studied in its perfection in that beautiful and emphatic version of the Bible which owes its existence to the Synod of 1618. About the middle of the thirteenth century, the public decrees and civil acts were first written in the language of the country ; but before this period Latin was the only medium of communication between men of letters and the upper classes. The Dutch have always been celebrated for their pure Latinity, and still deserve to be so : for in our own times Meerman, Cras, and Van Lennep may be quoted as the legitimate heirs of classical fame. The language of this people was first called Flemish; partly be- cause the Flemish princes were for some time predominant by their great prosperity, and partly because the old- Flemish writers paid more attention to the purity of diction. The Brabant resembled most the Flemish idiom ; the Batavian or Dutch was, on the con- trary, more grave and forcible. This distinction continued till the end of the fifteenth century, when all character was lost, and the language and people remained in a debased condition till after the Spanish disturbances. It was then that the Dutch so far surpassed the Flemish, both in purity of language and force of character, that the Flemish tongue was entirely superseded in the northern pro- vince, and never has recovered its former importance. The com- mencement of the independent development of the Dutch language also marks the beginning of Dutch literature. The Dutch maintain that a native of Holland created the means by which knowledge and civilization are conveyed throughout the world. Lawrence Coster, they say, was the inventor of printing, and they allege that this is established beyond all controversy in a learned work by Koning. In the year 1823, the fourth centenary of this all-important discovery was celebrated at Haerlem, when a deputation of printers from America crossed the Atlantic to honor the festival. Among the most distinguished scholars of this country was Eras- SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 231 muSj or Gerard Didicr, a native of Rotterdam. He was the most elegant of the modern Latin authors, and one of the great restorers of learning in Europe. To the writings of Erasmus we may attri- bute the dawning of the Reformation, as it was he who introduced the spirit of inquiry on all points, although he had been much valued at one time by the superiors of the Church of Rome as a warm adherent. In one of his letters, he gives an interesting ac- count of his reception at Rome by Cardinal Grirnani, which proves in what high estimation he was held. He visited England five dif- ferent times, Henry VIII. paid him great deference : and Erasmus formed a firm friendship with the excellent Sir Thomas More. For some time, Erasmus gave lectures on the Greek literature at Cam- bridge, and then retired to Basle in Switzerland, where most of his works were published, especially his celebrated Latin "Colloquies." This work displeased the Roman Catholics; and, as Erasmus had not declared for the Protestants, he had but lukewarm friends in either party. For, at the same time, his " Treatise on Free Will" made an open breach between him and Luther, whose opinions were in favor of predestination. Erasmus made many translations from the Greek authors, and also a very valuable translation into Latin of the New Testament. Few learned men have been so greatly admired as was Erasmus in his lifetime; all the principal sovereigns of Europe tried to draw him into their kingdoms. His learning was surprising, his taste exquisite, and his industry un- wearied. The Reformation addressed itself less to the learned than to the people ; it therefore borrowed their language, and favored the culture of the Flemish dialect. The Bible was translated into Flemish, but the printer was put to death. About this period, lived the Flemish Sappho, Anne Byns; she was mistress of a school at Ant- werp, and a warm opposer of Luther. Matliys Casteleyn wrote his " Art of Poetry." GMstele was author of a poem called " The Sac- rifice of Iphigenia," and translated Virgil, Horace, and Terence. Deenne was a Flemish fabulist, and Ondegherst wrote in the French language his "Annals of Flanders." Grotius (or Hugo de Groote) was another of the master-minds of this country. He wrote with spirit, elegance, and imagination, 232 DUTCH LITERATURE. His chief works are "A Treatise on War and on Peace;" "A Treatise on the Truths of the Christian Religion;" " Commentaries on the Scriptures;" "The History and Annals of Holland/' and a great number of letters. The works of Grotius on Jurisprudence have been the great foundation on which Europe has built her pre- sent system of law and the doctrine of right. The earnest attach- ment of Grotius to the great statesman Barneveldt involved him in much trouble. Politics and religion were warmly contested throughout Europe, and in Holland the strong and upright mind of Barneveldt could not yield to the weak favorite of Elizabeth, Leices- ter, who had been sent over with troops to aid the Dutch against Spain. Grotius wrote many acrimonious things against the Eng- lish, for which we have to thank the self-conceited Leicester. It was during the imprisonment of Grotius in the Castle of Louve- stein that he wrote the most elaborate poem in the Dutch language, entitled " Evidence of the True Religion;" and by this work he laid the groundwork of that attention to religious duties which is universal in Holland. The authority of his great name, always associated with Christianity, with peace, with literature, with free- dom, and with suffering virtue, has ever been a bulwark of truth and morals. The egotistical pride of authorship, so well known as belonging to our king, James I., was one of the reasons of the per- secution of Barneveldt. James sent to the statesman of Holland a work written against the Arminians, and not receiving in return the adulation he expected, he joined all his strength to that of Prince Maurice of Orange for Barneveldt' s destruction. A cotem- porary with Grotius was Lipsius, who distinguished himself in literature, and is looked upon as a very learned critic. He is re- markable for the unsteadiness of his religious opinions, fluctuating often between Catholicism and Protestantism; for, in those days, religion was the great trial and topic of life, and in no country were the effects of the Reformation more visible than among the concen- trated population of the Netherlands. The universities, also, were frequented by so many learned philosophers, that this vital question was naturally constantly discussed; warm and earnest contests arose as each studious man interpreted either the Scriptures or their commentators. Other philologists of this period were less SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 233 conspicuous; as Despauierius, or Van Pauteren; Clenardus, or Cleynarts; Ninnius, or Nanningh; Leopard; Canter; Junius, or Joiujlu ; Van Metherche; TorrcnUus ; Gifanius, or Van Giffin; Vinandus Pighius. These were writers from the commencement of the sixteenth century to its close. Arminius (whose real name was Harmansen) was the cause of the death of Barnevelclt, and of the imprisonment of Grotius; or, rather, we should say, the discussions of the principles of Arminius were the cause. He was a native of Amsterdam, and the mild sup- porter of toleration. There were two learned Dutch writers of the name of Heinsius, father and son. The father was Councillor of State to Gustavus Adolphus, and was so remarkable for his attainments, that Pope Urban VIII. wrote to entreat him " to come and rescue Kome from barbarism j" and, at the same time, the republic of Venice made him a Knight of the Order of St. Mark. He was a pupil of the celebrated Joseph Scaliger, and has left many valuable things, both in prose and poetry. His son became as great -a Latin poet as his father, and a still greater critic. The celebrated Salmasius, al- though a Frenchman by birth, is looked upon as a naturalized son of Holland, for, after studying in her universities, he settled at Leyden, and there became noted for his abilities and immense eru- dition; he was a violent opposer and calumniator of Grotius. Upon the exile of Charles I. of England, Salmasius was prevailed upon to write a defence of that monarch, which was answered by Milton, in a work entitled "A Defence of the English People against Sal- masius' s Defence of the King." This book was read all over Eu- rope, and conveyed such a proof of the author's abilities, that he was respected even by those who were of contrary principles. Sal- masius died soon after, and some do not scruple to say that Milton killed him by the acuteness of his reply. Meantime, the national literature had taken a decided place in the country. The United States had commanded Bor to write in Dutch the history of their struggles with Spain. This work was continued by Aitzema. But the Dutch being but a fraction of the people of Europe, their language could not become sufficiently general to make their native literature much known. They are a people fer* 20* 234 BUTCH LITERATURE. tile in men of erudition, of theologians, of men of science, and of painters, and their poets are very far from not doing equal honor to their country, though hitherto they have been but as the violets in the shade. We have remarked already that, in the sixteenth cen- tury, Holland stood at the head of all Europe for its learning and its classical writings; but it was this very habit of writing in Latin that retarded their national literature. The essential character of the poetry of Holland, that which marks it in every age, and all its varieties, is a high tone of reli- gious feeling, a sublimity borrowed from devout associations. Van Maerlant is considered the father of Flemish poets; he was distin- guished as a philosopher and an orator; and what renders him re- markable is, that he was not of the Church, although all learning in his time was confined to the clergy. Maerlant (1300) translated into his own tongue many of the standard works of the ancients, among which are " The Beauties of Aristotle." Many followed him, but none improved upon him, although the " Poetic Chronicle" of Melts Stoke (1305) was published as late as 1772; but we must look upon the works of Maerlant more as curiosities than as sub- jects for criticism. His are the first developments of the germ of national poetry, and, however deficient in imagery and rugged in rhyme, entitle their author to our attention, as they obtained for him the gratitude of his countrymen. He aspired to the attain- ment of knowledge and its communication when it was an almost forbidden possession. The stream of literature has flowed on, gathering in its progress a thousand contributing rivulets : let us not forget the humble and remote spring. It is a singular fact, that the means which were employed in the fourteenth century for the advancement of the language and its literature, became in the highest degree instrumental to its degradation. We allude to the chambers of rhetoric which were founded towards the end of this era. The degeneracy of the language, as it afterwards appeared, may chiefly be attributed to the wandering orators (Sproekers), who, being called to the courts of princes, or admitted, though uninvited, rehearsed the miserable doggerel produced by themselves. These persons afterwards formed themselves, in Flanders and Brabant, into literary societies, which were known by the name of Chambers SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 235 of Rhetoric, and which offered prizes to the most meritorious poets, in imitation of the French. The example of Flanders was speedily followed by Zealand and Holland. In 1437, there was a chamber at Middleburg, at Vlaardingin, at Niewkerk, and at Gouda. Even insignificant villages had their chamber; but the purity of the lan- guage was completely undermined by these rhyming, self-styled rhetoricians. This century, therefore, introduced no improvement on the age that preceded. A little later, the Flemish chroniclers were making immortal names. The picturesque Froissart was the chronicler of France, England, Scotland, and Spain. Henricourt wrote, in the Liege dialect, his " Mirror of the Nobles of Hasbage," and other works. Monstrelet wrote " Chronicles from 1400 to 1453." Chastelain wrote " The History of the good Chevalier James of Lalain." At the opening of the sixteenth century, Olivier de la Marche had chronicled the life of Charles the Bold, and written " Memoirs from 1435 to 1474." The inroads of the Flemings soon produced a considerable change. The violent party spirit and civil dissensions of this epoch must have vent, while still the spirit of true religious feeling was to be traced; and the poets found protec- tion under Philip the Good, of Burgundy, and Charles the Bold. We must not, however, pass over without observation the romantic poetry of tradition which here, in the Netherlands, held its power over the mind as strongly as in the brighter regions of the South. The universality of some of the fables of romance is one of the most curious facts of literary history. The Knights of the Bound Table have been celebrated in almost every dialect of Europe, and even beyond its boundaries; youth gathered incitement from their tales to deeds of glory and of virtue; and in Holland the maiden learnt them by heart as earnestly as she conned her breviary. A remarkable family, in the middle of the sixteenth century, deserves notice here. Nicolas Everardi, or Everts, was the father of three brothers, all distinguished in literature. John Everts took the name John or Jan Second, because he had an uncle of the same name. He went with Charles V. of Germany into Africa, and although he died at the age of twenty-five, is looked upon as one of the best Latin poets of modern times. Besides elegies, epigrams, odes, funeral pieces and miscellanies, he wrote a poem entitled "The 236 DUTCH LITERATURE. XIX Kisses/' which is considered a chef d'ceuvre, and has been translated into most European languages. Adrian Everts wrote graceful Latin poems; and Nicolas, called also Grudius (from having been born in Louvain, country of the ancient G-rudii), held distinguished offices under Charles V. and Philip II., and was author of many Latin poems, sacred and profane. But at length the spirit of religious inquiry opened a large field of freedom and of virtue; and while the political liberties of the Netherlands began to dawn again, knowledge spread widely her benignant and encouraging influences. The impetuous character of Luther had shaken the tottering pillars of authority and usurpation; while Erasmus, though ambiguous in his policy, and wavering in his will, had opened the flood-gates of inquiry by his translation of the Scriptures. The severe edicts of Charles V. of Germany (for the Netherlands were under the government of Austria at this time), dooming the supporters of the Reformation to death — the men to the sword, and the women to be burnt alive — gave new enthusiasm to the persecuted ; and even Fruitiers, the Master of Requests to the King of Holland, became a zealous reformer and an arduous writer, both in prose and verse. Then Coornhert, private secretary to the States, wrote in a very pure style his sweet verses, and greatly dis- tinguished himself by his upright and intrepid conduct. His career was opened by a poem of gratitude, full of strength and interest, on the character of William the Taciturn. His verses are, however, far from the style and regularity which, at a later date, distinguished the poetry of Holland ; but as yet rhyme was unknown in their literature. Marinx de St. Aldegonde was author of the celebrated u Compromise of the Nobles," and translated the Psalms into verse in the Dutch language; Dathenus at the same time translated them with more fire than the calm St. Aldegonde, and obtained the prize proposed by the States of Holland, which preserved his version in use for Divine service down to near the close of the eighteenth century. The best satirical poets of this country, Vissclier and Spiehgel, were formed in the Amsterdam society before mentioned. Visscher-Roemer, surnamed the Martial of his country, had two daughters, Anne and Maria, who were both distinguished in letters. Spiehgel, author of the celebrated poem of " The Mirror of the SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 237 Heart," introduced the use of masculine and feminine rhymes, according to the French fashion. The poetry of YisscJier and his daughters consists of small pieces of mixed character, epigrams, and madrigals. The father is distinguished for his naivete', and the daughters for the delicacy of their sentiments. A high degree of perfection in the literary language of this country was attained by Peter Cornelius Hooft. This learned and laborious author was at once historian, lyric poet, and tragic poet. It is said that he read Tacitus fifty-two times, in order to he able to follow his style. Hooft left a good " Life of Henry IV. of France," which obtained for him the Order of St. Michel and a patent of nobility from Louis XIII. His "History of Holland from the Time of Charles V.," and a translation of Tacitus, are monuments of his talent in prose writing. From this time the prose of Holland became remarkably vigorous and energetic; indeed, the whole tone of the literature was elevated by the rapid improvement of the language. At the age of nineteen, Hooft was already a member of the Amsterdam Chamber of Litera- ture, which was far more celebrated than any of the other societies. The pastoral poem, entitled "Granida," is as beautiful a specimen of harmony as any in the language. By reading the Italian poets, Hooft learned to impart that melody to his own language, of which it had not been thought susceptible. He refined the versification of his age without divesting it of its vigor; his mind had drunk deeply at the founts of knowledge, and his productions are always harmonious and often sublime. Hooft was a man of liberal senti- ments, and was respected by all parties. He dared to protect Grotius in the days of his persecution; meditated offering an asylum to Galileo, in order to withdraw him from the persecutions of his dark-minded enemies; and defended Descartes from the fanaticism of Voetius. The friends of literature were in the habit of meeting at the house of Vtsscher, and it was here that the drama of Holland not only had its birth, but rose to its highest splendor. The tragedy of Hooft, entitled "Gerard of Velsen/ 7 would be a masterpiece in any country, and in all ages. Up to the year 1750, the Dutch theatre was carried to a consider- able degree of perfection. Vander-Gon, Eotgans, and Duif were 238 DUTCH LITERATURE. incomparably better dramatists than what the period of Grottsched produced in Germany. One of the most venerated writers among the Dutch was Jacob Kats; at once original and sublime, his talent suits particularly the taste of his countrymen. He is less the poet of imagination than of truth; less the inciter to deeds of heroism and glory than the gentle adviser . to acts of virtue and innocent enjoyments; less capable of awakening the impulses of fancy than of calling into exertion the dormant energies of reason and morality ; and was as celebrated for the purity of his life as for the sound sense and virtuous tendency of his writings. Kats possessed an admirable knowledge of men, a correct judgment, and striking sim- plicity of language; indeed, it is a question whether he did not indulge too freely in his love for unvarnished matters of fact. The " foreign aid of ornament" might have set off to advantage that earnest and interesting zeal in favor of truth and piety, which is so prominent in his works. But there is something so hearty in his unsophisticated style, something so touching in his simplicity, and something so frank and noble in his precepts, that we can scarcely regret his having given them to us unchanged by refinement, and unadorned by art. Kats is the poet of the people ; though his wis- dom was vast and his habits contemplative. But the ease, abund- ance, simplicity, and clearness of his style have made him at once popular and useful. No one has been more read than Father Kats, as the people affectionately call him, and up to the present hour his verses are known by heart by half the population of his country. His chief works are "The Bible of Youth," a collection of poems for the different ages of life, fables, songs, and other pieces in Latin, French, and Dutch. He has put into verse the story of " Emma and Eginhard," and written a poem called " The Wedding King." He also wrote the history of himself in verse, which he entitled "A Life of Eighty-two Years." The family named Elzevir was remarkable for its persevering industry in printing classical works of the most correct copies and beautiful type. These publications are still highly valued. The noble and gifted Reael next appears; but his busy life of statesman, vice-admiral, and ambassador, left him but short time for his visits to Parnassus. He wrote an ex- quisite poem called "The Origin of Kisses." He was followed by SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 239 the tender Bredero, and the pious Kamphuysen, who is particularly popular among the Dutch. The deep conviction of truth and the elevated devotion which distinguish Kamplmysen have been con- veyed by him in harmonious versification; and his poems are be- come the common source of consolation in distress. By this time, Samuel Coster had opened at Amsterdam the first Dutch Theatre, under the name of an Academy, and was himself the author of several tragedies on Greek and Roman subjects. Gerclcmans gave his tragedy of "The Battle of Nieuporte." Rodenburg wrote his " Charles the Bold/' Lucas Rotgans was author of a tragedy en- titled "Sylla;" and Catherine Lescailje translated with success several pieces from Racine and P. Corneille. These were the pre- cursors of the master spirit, Vondel, who is placed in the highest scale among the poets of the Netherlands. His tragedies are stand- ard works; among which, "Palamedes Unjustly Sacrificed" is pecu- liarly interesting in its chief incident, which sets forth the heroic firmness of Barneveldt, who repeated one of Horace's odes when undergoing the torture. But VondeVs finest tragedy is "Gilbert of Amstel," in which his patriotism and great and noble exploits are powerfully rendered in remarkably fine verses. Vondel is con- sidered the Racine of Holland. His poem of " Lucifer" is not equal in chaste beauty to his tragedies, savoring somewhat of affec- tation and singularity. The poet was deeply imbued with religious enthusiasm, and took many of his subjects from the Bible. Other Dutch tragedies have obtained a just renown, and Rodenberg's "Charles the Bold" is one of the best; but none equaled VondeVs. Comedy has no positive element in Holland, and remains only a coarse, grotesque thing, that rather deserves the epithet of ludicrous farce : Bredero and Focquenbroch are the least unpleasing writers, but are of slight repute. Bredero wrote " The Miller," " The Cow," "Simon," and many others of similar character. Focquenbroch' s best piece was " Love in the Madhouse," which is still played in the minor theatres of Amsterdam. There is a French theatre at the Hague, which supplies the necessary quantum of comedy. The energetic and severe manners which produced Hooft and Vondel did not last long enough to produce an epic poem for Hol- land. John Antonides, or Van der Goes, called by Vondel, his son } 240 DUTCH LITERATURE. wrote a charming poem on the river Y (near Amsterdam), which was the first of the works called "Kiver Poems," numbers of which followed. Huyyens, another friend of Tondel, looked on the world and its ways with an eye of gayety; but has drawn snch a picture of royalty as makes the heart ache. Deklier is noted for his feeling; intense and romantic, he is the poet of the heart, and never misleads it: he excels in birthday and bridal songs, which are affecting from their very simplicity and beauty; and there is not a line, a phrase, scarcely a word, that can be omitted or improved. In an opposite style were Jonktys and Vos, who made their heroines Alinervas and Yenuses. Wtsterhaen was noble in rank and character: he was the strenuous defender of Barneveldt; his three volumes of poetry are full of beauty and grace. ''The Plague of Naples" is a production of singular vigor by Anslo, and crowded with all the frightful imagery of its awful subject Gerard Brandt turned his thoughts to tragedy, and at a very early age wrote a piece entitled " The Dissembling Torquatus/'" which has many striking resemblances to the Hamlet of Shakspeare; although it is believed the young author had not the least knowledge of the existence of such a piece. Brandt being of humble parentage, and without means of education, a patron and kind encourager was found in Van Kempetij himself a learned and talented man. It has been said that Gerard Brandt's ''History of the Reformation in Holland'' is written so admirably, that it were worth while to learn the language in order to read that single work. After completing his studies, Brandt married a daughter of his patron, and was the father of sons who have even excelled him in literary reputation. There was another remarkable family of this country named Dousa, or Van der Does. John, Lord of Xoordwyck, wrote "The Annals of Holland" in Latin verse, which work was continued by his son Johannes Dousa, or John Does. George wrote his " Travels to Constantinople/' and other works. Francis wrote "Commentaries;" Theodore was a poet and philologist. Erycius, or Van de Putte, was a disciple of Eijosius, and, besides writing a little poem called "The Praise of Winter," was author of ninety- eight works of philosophy and history. Hosschius, or De Ilossche, a Jesuit, was a Latin poet of great talent. He wrote a poem on •'The Deliverance of Cambray." Beronicus. though a chimney- SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 241 sweeper, wrote a Latin poem called "The War of the Peasants/' which has been put into Dutch verse. Becanus, a Jesuit, wrote idyls and elegies. Wallius, or Van de Waille, also a Jesuit, wrote some remarkable odes. In the middle of the seventeenth century, the Flemish language greatly degenerated. Holland had become independent, and gave an asylum to the bold writers of Protestant faith; but the Low Countries were under the baneful influence of the Spanish Jesuits, who pervaded every rank of society. The public instruction was monopolized by them, and henceforth the national literature de- clined. Adrian Poirters, however, endeavored to imitate Kats in his "Carnival of the World;" and some few others, as Gcsscliier, Lambreclit, and Caudron, tried to follow him; but the dialect of their country became daily more corrupted, and was at last aban- doned entirely to the lower classes. Specimens of this corrupted language are to be seen in the "Eclipse of the Sun, or Discourse on the Death of his Serene Highness Albert, " by Bernard de Mont- fjaiUard; in the "Chronicle of the Salbes," by Gilles Waulde; the "Antiquities of Flanders," by L'Espinoy; and in the "Annals of Hainault," by Ruteau. The Jesuit, John Bollandus, is remarkable for having undertaken the collection entitled "The Acts or Lives of the Saints." The first and second volumes, containing the lives of the saints of the month of January, appeared at Antwerp in 1643. The third and fourth came out in 1658. The following volumes, to the number of fifty-three, were written by various authors ; but the work only goes as far as the middle of October. It is as well to observe that the Komanists give a saint to every day in the year. Hensclienius, a pupil of Bollandus, was the first continuer of these lives, and was invited by Pope Alexander VII. to Rome. The next was Papehrocli, who went with Ilenschcniits to Rome, and quarreled with the Carmelite monks because they would not attribute the founding of their order to the prophet Elijah. Several other Jesuits continued the work, and are known as the Bollandists. Other distinguished philologists of the seventeenth century were Putschius, or Putschen; Paulus Merula; Bonav. Vulcanius, or Scmid; Meursius, or VanMeurs; Isaacus Pontanus; Seriverius, or Sckryver, and Com. Schrevelius. 21 242 DUTCH LITBKATURE. Under Maria Theresa of Austria, the Low Countries had a better aspect, and in the middle of the eighteenth century the Academy of Brussels was founded; but its members neglected the Flemish tongue, and wrote in French or Latin. At Liege the French tongue had long been spoken, and here Baron Walef wrote the verses whose correctness astonished Boileau. The estimable bibliographer Paquot was also a native of this city. In the mean time, Holland had also experienced a decline in her literature. Her authors of this epoch are deficient in originality. It seemed as if they were ashamed of their nation, and found merit only in imitating the French. A fastidious care about words, and a minuteness in research, took the place of boldness and independ- ence of style. At the beginning of the eighteenth century, Hubert Hoot, however, dared to be himself, and may be compared to our Burns. There were also three brothers of the name of Van der Kodde, who are remarkable for their originality and variety of talent. They founded the Rliynsburger Society. Dideric Smite wrote the poem of " Belphegor, or Voluptuousness Punished," who added to the river poems by writing on the Botte. Another class of poets took the Bible for their subject ; of these Hoogvliet was the best and first. After him, Bruin wrote "The Life of St. Paul;" Haas wrote " Judas the Traitor" and "Jonas the Bepentant;" Steemvyk wrote "Gideon;" and Verstey, "Moses." After these, appeared numerous others of the same kind, of which the " Jacob" of Duim, the" Apostle Peter" of Klinkhamer, and the "Joseph" of Snahenburg, were all surpassed by the " David" of Madame Van Merken, or Van Winter, by which latter name she is less known, having married the poet Winter at an advanced age. Ma- dame Van Winter was a woman of remarkable talent. Her poem " On the Utility of the Affections" abounds with beautiful thoughts, and the one entitled " G-ermanicus" has also great merit. Her tragedies, entitled " The Siege of Leyden," " James de Byk," "Mary of Burgundy," "Louisa of Arlac," " Sybilla of Anjou," are favorites with her countrymen. Her husband's tragedy of " Monzongo" reminds the reader of Voltaire. " Menzikoff " is also by the same author. Winter also wrote a poem on the river Amstel. Wagenaar compiled a large work, entitled "The History NINETEENTH CENTURY. 243 of the Country, or Annals of the United Provinces." His great impartiality is highly valued. Simon Styl has been called the Montesquieu of Holland, for his admirable work entitled the " Origin and Greatness of the United Provinces." Water made a conscien- tious work in his " History of the Confederation of the Nobles." Gerard Meeman has written a work entitled " William, Count of Holland and King of the Romans." Two remarkable poems were written during the time that Hol- land was deluged with religious verses, and Hoogvliet's "Abraham" had gained some little reputation : these were, one on the founda- tion of the Frisons' nation, and the other on the celebrated frater- nity called the Beggars, by two brothers, William and Onno Van Haren : they are epic poems, and contain splendid passages. " The Vicissitudes of Human Life" and " Leonidas" were by the younger brother : this last poem obtained the congratulations of Voltaire. The poet Feitama has very ably translated " Telemachus," and the "Henriade," which last he took ten years to correct and polish; he translated many French plays with talent. Langendyk wrote a poem entitled " William the First," and the well-known comedy of "Don Quixote at the Marriage of Gramacha." He travestied the fourth book of the iEneid into a play called "Eneas in his Sunday Clothes," and has formed a series of pieces from the Dutch tales. Nbmsz was prolific in tragedy. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, we find Bakker's poem "On the Floods of the Country," and one entitled "The Banishment of Poets." Van Alphen's "National Songs" have given him a distinguished name. The lyrics of Bellamy of Flessing are highly esteemed, as also the works of his two friends, Ban and Klein; Nieidand, in his "Ode on Orion," has brilliantly given the wonders of astronomy. But it is only in our own time that the poet Helmers has given the Dutch a national epic. This poem is truly admirable both in subject and manner; and "The Dutch Nation" has all the peculiarity of the best early Dutch writers, with all the grace and information of modern times. We have yet to name the veteran Bilderjik, whose intellectual powers and varied erudition were not more remarkable than the purity of his life and the warmth of his benevolence. Van Effen is called the Addison of Holland, and published a periodical 244 DUTCH LITERATURE. entitled " The Misanthrope ;" he founded also, with Barre de Bean- marcliais, the " Literary Journal/' published at the Hague, and several other works of this kind. Lambert Ten Kate is considered the legislator of the Dutch language, having written several excel- lent works upon it. The most remarkable writers of romances are Agatha Dehhen and her friend Mole. Wolff. They united their talents, and have very ably painted the manners of their country in the stories of " Sarah Burgehaert," "William Levend," "The Letters of Abraham Blankaert," and " Cornelia Wildschut." Eliza- beth Post and Petronilla Moans are writers of the same style of work. The " Moral Tales," " Suzanne Bronkkorst," and some historical romances, from the pen of Loosjes, deserve notice. It is a singular fact, that, among the Dutch, who appear so grave and heavy, satirical works have been produced with very great suc- cess as a species of general literature. This talent owes its success to a bitter, biting power of language, that is difficult to translate ; but, in justice to this people, we must add that, if they bite without pity ; they are only severe against what deserves punishment, and never offend against decency or truth. Among the philologists of the eighteenth and nineteenth centu- ries, we must mention Spanheim, Jansson, Perizonius, Gronovius, Cuper, Bosj Sallengre, Clericuss, Busman, Havercamp, Draken- borcli, Paio, Oudendorp, Duker, Wesseling, Hemsterliuis, Van Len- ncp, Valhiaer, Ruhnkenius, Saxius, Luzac, Bosch, Wyttenbacli. All this talent is a proof that money is not the only species of riches among our worthy neighbors. Both in Holland and in Belgium, there are now several superior annuals published, and a constant series of well-written travels : in short, to prove that they keep pace with all the neighboring nations (however little those nations may know of them), they have not only attempted, but have succeeded in producing, excellent historical novels. In Belgium, Henry Conscience has been the successful author of "The Year of Wonder," "The Lion of Flanders," " Hugo Van Craenhove," and "Sketches of Flemish Life," besides a collection of legends, tales, and reveries, and a " History of Flan- ders." Many of these works have been translated into various other languages, and have procured for their author a name among NINETEENTH CENTURY. 245 the best writers of the present times. John tie Laet has been a strenuous friend to the revival of Flemish literature, and associated all his energy with that of Conscience to arouse the nation to a re- membrance of their former exalted place in European letters. Be Laet has written several historical romances of deserved repute, as " The House of Weserubeke," " The Crusader/' " Destiny/' " The Polar Star/' and has most ably conducted a journal at Brussels. He has more than once evinced both profound thought and learning in his publications in support of the national talent, and is looked upon as one of the ablest and most influential authors of his country. These are Belgian writers, for we must now look upon the northern and southern provinces as distinctly two nations. " A Narrative of the History of Bruges" has been written by Gaillard. Schnitzler has written a history of Russia. Jouanin and Gavar have unitedly written a history of Turkey. Van Buehel has taken a romantic story of 1096 for a poem. Dijk and Van Spall are poets of Holland. It must be added, in conclusion, that, notwithstanding the cold, formal looks of the Dutch, no nation pos- sesses a larger collection of poetry for the people, the wit and gayety of which, however, are somewhat gross. This is another contradic- tion to the decided piety and real moral worth of the generality of those very people who delight in listening to and in singing them. The following is a list of works that may be further consulted on the literature of the Low Countries: Resume de l'Hist. de la Lit. des Pays Bas, by Reiffenburg ; Bibliotheque Belg., by Foppeus; Mem. sur la Lit. des Pays Bas, by Paquot; Hist. Dutch Poet., by De Vreis; Abridg. of the Hist, of the Dutch Lang., by Yprey ; Diet. Anthol. by Witsen Gry sleek; Soirees Hist, by Van Wyn ; Merite des Hollandais, by Chollot d'Escury; Parnass. Lat. Belg., by Hoznft; Life of the Belgic Latin Poets, by Peerlkamp: these two are in Latin. The National Library at Paris contains a rich collection of the Dutch poetry and Dutch theatre, arranged by the learned Van Praet; also a second collection, arranged by Van March, especially devoted to the theatre. It is well to remark that the literature of Friesland is one of sin- gular individuality, but of which little is known out of the country. " The History of the Prisons" was written by a native of the coun- 21* 246 DANISH LITERATURE. try, Sufreid Petri, in 1527. The most brilliant period of this literature was the seventeenth century, when Gysbert Jalzobs, or Japiex, lived; who, in his enthusiastic national feeling, taught his native tongue to the librarian of the Earl of Arundel, and opened the way to our own archaeologist, George Hicks. The poems of Jahohs were published in 1801, from the edition of 1681. Profes- sor Rash, of Copenhagen, published, in 1825, the first grammar of the Frison language. . THE LITERATURE OF DENMARK. Denmark has long possessed all the advantages which, a dense population can afford; and though her splendid situation at the en- trance of the North Sea and the Baltic has not been turned to the utmost advantage, she has still profited not a little by the great streams of commercial intercourse which are so constantly flowing through the Sound and the Little Belt. Elementary education is carried to a wide extent throughout the Danish dominions; the civilization of the towns is remarkable, and literature gives abund- ant evidence of intellectual aptitude. It is said that, seventy years before Christ, a Scythian, named Frigg, appeared in the Scandinavian nations as a descendant of Wodin, or Odin, the hero of more remote times, who was worshiped as a god among them. This Scythian embodied in himself alone the talents and authority of warrior, conqueror, legislator, priest, king, and poet. It is to him they impute the invention of the Punic, characters used in their most ancient inscriptions. In the ninth and tenth centuries, the Danes, Swedes, and Norwegians, under the name of Normans, ravaged Europe. In the middle of the tenth century, Harold of the Blue Tooth, King of Denmark and Norway, was conquered by Otho I., and by him converted to Chris- tianity. In the commencement of the eleventh century, Canute the Great conquered England. It was at the conclusion of the twelfth century that Sueno Aageson wrote an abridged " History of the Kings of Denmark, from the year 300 to 1186." This work was published by Steplianius in 1642. But Norway, once forming a TWELFTH CENTURY. 247 line appendage to the Danish crown, is now irrevocably united to Sweden ; and, as forming a part of the great Scandinavian penin- sula, it seems a more natural division of country. The Danes and Norwegians now draw a broad line of deniarkation ; the great men of one country are no longer claimed by the other ; and the insti- tutions, both social and political, are showing every day more ob- viously those differences and distinctions which grow out of the contrasted position in which the two nations have been placed. The history of Holstein and of Schleswig is one of stirring interest; in all the annals of freedom no more touching episode will be found than the struggle of the Ditmarshers to preserve their independ- ence. All that pity has listened to of suffering, all that poetry has celebrated of valor, will be found portrayed in their story. There is a singular branch of literature connected with Denmark, which is profoundly interesting, and deserves our first attention on account of its antiquity. I allude to those extraordinary productions which develop the ancient Scandinavian mythology; and which, while the greatest part of Europe was involved in darkness, threw a remark- able brilliance over the inhospitable regions of Iceland. They in- fluenced Denmark for many ages, and still continue to influence the literature of the northern nations. In order accurately to under- stand and appreciate the state of letters in north-western Europe, even at the present moment, it would be highly desirable to follow the stream of Icelandic civilization into the languages which are to be traced to that parent source; but the theme is far too extensive for this work, and branches into too great a variety of topics. The Scandinavian chronicles communicate instruction respecting the say- ings and doings of the northern race; introduce us to their pri- vate and public concerns, to their habits and institutions; their courageous adventures ; their expeditions to the more southern parts of Europe; their undoubted discovery and early knowledge of Ame- rica, long before Columbus, who had probably first heard of this existing continent in the two voyages he made to Iceland; we may, indeed, perceive their action on English civil polity. The Icelandic poetry is the source of all the poetry of the north; its tongue reigned in Denmark, Sweden, and Norway; it is the language of the Scalds, their talc-tellers, and of their Runic inscriptions. The same Ian- 248 DANISH LITERATURE. guage exists among the northern Irish and among the Scottish isles ; but the German tongue advanced step by step into the Scandinavian countries; and then the Icelandic idiom retired, in similar degrees, to the monasteries of Skalhalt. It is only through the formal Latin of the Danes that we have obtained this knowledge of the Icelandic literature. In the middle of the seventeenth century, the Danish government deputed Torfesen to collect these manuscripts ; — a col- lection which was published by Eesen in 1665, who also gave a dis- tinct copy of the system of Runic mythology, as given in the poem called the " Edda." This poem had been in the possession of the Icelanders since it was collected by Sturhon, supreme judge of Iceland, in 1192. It has excited the attention of learned men of all ages, and has been the source of a great number of works of genius; for it is one continued sketch of the ancient manners and religious ceremonies of the northern nations, conveyed in that pri- mitive Ossianic language which is so poetical; and it is well to re- member that it is from Iceland's learned men that we possess the first specimens of European literature, after the Druid bards had ceased to exist. Of these, Isleif, the first bishop of Skalhalt, was consecrated in the middle of the eleventh century. He had been educated at Erfurth, and carried the taste of letters into Iceland; but his works are lost. Soemuncl Sigfussen is considered the com- piler of the " Edda" rhythmical, as it is called, in distinction to the " Edda" in prose. Ari-Hhm-Frodi is the oldest of the Icelandic historians; there is only a part of his work preserved. Haal Taits- son was a bishop of the twelfth century, whose knowledge was re- markable, but his works are lost. Gissur Halsson was author of a work called " Flos Peregrinationis." Brand Jonsson was another learned bishop. Snorro Sturhon, or Sturlasson, was editor of the prosaic part of the " Edda," and of two poems, entitled " Voelus- paeh" and " Havanal." The history of the kings of Norway, called " Heimskringla,"* is divided into Sagas, or chronicles : of which the first, or " Yulinga Saga," contains the history of the an- cient mythology of the north. The Sagas succeed each other from * This Chronicle has been translated into English, with an excel- lent commentary, by S. Laing, Esq., already mentioned in this work. FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 249 Odin to Halfdan the Black, cotemporary with Charlemagne, and have been continued by different authors to 1223. Olav-Sicitas- SJcalld and Sturla-Hinn-Frodi were nephews of Sturlson, and both men of talent. The latter, it is said, wrote the history of his family under the title of the " Sturlunga Saga." Christian II. saw the progress of church and scholastic reform. The government of Frederic II. was distinguished by the firm establishment of the Lutheran creed. It is one of the consequences of a government like that of Denmark that literature is chiefly occupied with the chronicles of departed times. Thus, there are numerous archaeolo- gists of distinguished merit in Denmark, while few writers are to be found who have added anything to the sum of moral and poli- tical knowledge. Denmark could be scarcely said to know Christ- ianity till the time of Canute the Great, in 1014; and the first school formed in the north of Europe was by Ansgard y a monk at Hamburg, in the twelfth century ; in the thirteenth, we find one mentioned at Lund and another at Odensee. It was then that clois- ters began to multiply, and a certain degree of knowledge was more widely diffused; then, too, the spirit of disputation on sophistries and subtleties began, and the middle ages of Denmark were per- petually thus employed; till at last the University of Copenhagen, which had been founded by Christian I., was left without professors, or even a director, for several years; and it only rose up from this annihilation at the time of the Reformation. In the mean time, the people had their favorite popidar ballads as a never-wearying resource for their amusement; but it is not easy to say to what period these vigorous and original effusions may be referred. They are formed of a poetry at once masculine, rich, and abundant. For some time, the wits of Denmark and the learned despised them; but the day has arrived when this sonorous harp has been again listened to : these ballads have been collected by Rahbek; the voice of olden times has again resounded in the land of the Scalds; and Denmark need not envy either the canzones of the Spanish or the minstrelsy of the Scotch. In the midst of the wandering life of the Normans, they still found time for poetry : they loved it, and cultivated it by oral com- munications. In winter, when they returned from their far off ex- 250 DANISH LITERATURE. peditions, they delighted in detailing their perils and their success. Like the Germans, they had deified the heroism of the warrior, and their position in life required that this idea should he carried to its utmost length. The paradise of these pagan warriors was a ban- queting hall, which they named the Valhalla ; and the ministering attendants were the spirits of women who had deserved the warrior's love. These spirits were called Valkyries. Thus, the ardor of en- thusiasm for distinction in war was greatly promoted by the women of these countries ; and their ballads constantly refer to these an- cient mythic remembrances. One of the most laborious of the learned men of this country is Lang, known better as Saxo Grammaticus : his knowledge of lan- guages appears to have been very great; and his " History of Den- mark" is noted for its research. But it is especially his work on the primitive idioms of the northern languages which has distin- guished him, and his notes on the Popular Ballads. Vedels repub- lished them in 1594. During the middle ages, the learned men of Denmark, as in other countries, found occupation in discussing the opinions and subtle distinctions of doctrine which distinguish the writings of those whom we call the fathers of the church (who, as Luther ob- served, direct their attention, not to those principles which should correct, instruct, and console the human creature, but to sophistries, which must inevitably bewilder the finite intellect of man) ; and, in the mean time, a powerful movement was preparing in Germany. The cry of rebellion against the sovereign authority of Home had resounded at the gates of the universities; the right of free examina- tion had been proclaimed; the Eeformation had begun. The human mind awoke here, as elsewhere, from its lethargic sleep, and the flame which consumed the bull of the pope in the streets of Witten- berg, indicated a new era, to which all eyes were turned. In 1550, the Bible was translated into Danish, and became the favorite read- ing book of the people. Shortly after, those anomalies called Mys- teries and Moralities in other countries, or Scripture subjects dra- matized, appeared in Denmark. The earliest national poet was Arrehoe, Bishop of Trondjhem, who wrote a poem called the "Hex- ameron/' but who fell into the puritanical weaknesses of his age. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 251 One of his poems is called "Plague Powder, such as all God's People may take;' 7 a kind of title very common for books in Eng- land in Cromwell's time. Count Ranzau had written a "Catalogue of the Emperors, Princes, and Kings, Protectors of Astrology,'' with other works, and various minor poems. Bartolinus was re- markable for his medical works. Torfens wrote history. The poetry of the Danes did not wait for any reform of language to manifest itself; it preceded the reform, and contributed to its birth. The "Proverbs in Verse" of Laaland were followed by a crowd of other productions, and were more than a century anterior to the fixed construction of the language by Pontoppidan ; who, however, far from assisting the language, has left nothing but Latin writings. Schenedorf was the author of the "Patriotic Spectator." Kraft was a distinguished prose writer, whose best work is written on " The Ideas and Manners of Savage People." A historical chroni- cle, by Hultfdd, appeared : feeble and awkward, it can scarcely be called a history, but is curious as a monument of the language. Bording, the editor of the "Danish Mercury," was looked upon as a respectable poet, and is placed by the German critic Wieland in his collection of writers at this epoch. Thomas Kingo is the Dr. "Watts of Denmark : he is considered one of the best lyric poets of this country; his psalms and devotional songs have been lately re- printed. His brother Nicolas wrote a poem on the history of the kings of Denmark. These writers died at the opening of the eighteenth century. Shested wrote agreeable descriptions of country in verse. Helt is supposed to be the author of many of the favorite songs of the people. What was wanted in Literature was made up in Science at this period. Astronomy had cast a brilliant light over the north; and the celebrated Tyclio Brake not only shed an eternal lustre over his country, but it is well believed that both Newton and Kepler, and many of their successors, are indebted to him for opening their minds to the perception of the great truths which subsequently dawned upon them. Sorterup wrote a collection of satirical poems and other works; Reesenberg was also a satirist of talent, and wrote various poems ; Falster had more biting power in his satirical verses than either of the above, but was less witty than Reesenberg. It 252 DANISH LITERATURE. was not, however, till the eighteenth century that the first great planet of literary genius arose on the Danish horizon. ITolberg, whose name and writings are venerated and idolized as are those of our Shakspeare, was born at Bergen, in Norway, and is regarded as the creator of the Danish school of literature. His talents were various, his learning considerable; his more serious writings were most welcomed by his countrymen, but his spirit seemed most to revel in the regions of wit and fancy. His " History of the Reform in Denmark" ranks first, and then his "Picture of Ancient and Modern Denmark;" "The Subterranean Yoyage of Nicholas Klim" was one of his most successful satires, and has been translated into many of the modern languages; indeed, so strong was Holberg's perception of the ludicrous, that, in treating of the great points of history, it frequently led him astray. He wrote also a comic-heroic poem called " Peer Paars," being the history of an honest merchant of Callundberg going in search of his betrothed. At length, RoTbcrg discovered the true bent of his genius ; and, applying himself to the drama, has left to his country as rich a supply of comedy as any other country of Europe can boast. His pieces are short representa- tions of home characters, and written with all the humor of our own Aristophanes, Foote. That entitled "The Pewter-pot Maker" had an immense success, and has become a proverb in his country : every one who has the vanity and ambition of wishing to leave his sphere, is immediately named "The Pewter-pot Maker." Holberg was created a baron, and died greatly esteemed. At the same time, Tullin was drawing attention to his productions by their sweetness. The harmony of his compositions was a new discovery for the patriotic feeling of his country; and the wonder is, not that Tullin should have met with so much success, but that the singular aptitude of the Danish language for poetical melody should not have been developed before. His poem entitled "May-day" was, in fact, the first of May to the young poesy of his country; and a few years after this production, his two poems of "Navigation" and " Creation" obtained the prizes of the university. Schoening is an esteemed historian. His best work is entitled " First Ages of the Norwegian People." Rotlie is the author of "Historical Reflections," and "Effect of Christianity upon the Condition of the People of Eu- EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 253 rope." Birkner aided education 'with his pen. SuJun is one of the most celebrated of the northern historians. Ho has written the following works: " Character of the Eighteenth Century;" "Intro- duction to the Critical History of Denmark;" "Dialogues" in imitation of Lucian; "A Defence of the Danish Comedy;" "Lite- rary Essays;" "A Series of Historical Romances;" and various minor works. Zetlitz wrote descriptive poems. Weyer was a young poet of great promise, hut who died at an early age. Wessd had somewhat of the comic power of Holberg: Wessel was the most amusing companion in the world; but his want of order and of economy threw him into perpetual difficulties, and the gayety and carelessness of his character passed into a proverb. He has left two small volumes of epigrams and droll stories, and expended the rest of his genius on a periodical publication, often recalling the grace and playfulness of Lafontaine. It was in these periodicals he pub- lished one of the best, the cleverest, and most charming of parodies, named "Love without Stockings :" it is full of wit and gayety of the most brilliant kind; a satire on the French theatre, whose pompous declamation and emphatic style had struck Wessel as frequently ridiculous. At the time this parody was composed, the Danes had to fear the influence of the doctrines of Gottsched; and already their own writer Brunn, in his divers poems, had shown how much an imitation of the French might lead them astray from their national taste. But the Danish monarch invited the German poet Klopstock to his court, and this favor gave a decided inclination to imitate the writers of that country in preference. At the death of Frederic V., the Danish poet Ewald received the crown of the university. This writer is one of the most perfect of lyric poets. The national song of Denmark, entitled "King Christ- ian by the Mainmast stood," is one of his boldest effusions. Eivald was also the writer of the first national tragedy, entitled "The Death of Beldor;" also "Ralf Krage," a drama; and tried his pen in comedy; but his great excellence was always in the lyric style. His odes are celebrated, and the elegies of "Hope" and "Remem- brance" are beautiful. EwalcVs fate was that of the pure child of song. The world had disdained his humble abode, and yet thronged round his grave; indigence had pursued him for forty years, and •29 254 DANISH LITERATUEE. fortune came to smile upon his tomb ! He had been a soldier, like Cervantes; unfortunate, like Tasso; and poor, like Camoens: he was, like them, exalted and glorified after his death. Sander wrote comedy at this time. In the days of Denmark's prosperity, when the rest of Europe was more or less influenced by the French Revolution, her mer- chants enjoyed a neutrality which greatly favored the kingdom- The poets obeyed the sense of security which filled all minds, and their lyrics had a joyous, humorous tone. Storm was successful as a comic fabulist; the Danes have ever been peculiarly partial to the ludicrous. Tode cultivated the Danish literature with success, and wrote comedies, fables, epistles, and stories in that language, though he was a native of Hamburg. Baden was author of the "Critical Journal," and contributed much to the purifying of the language. Guldbcrg is author of a "History of the World." Seidelin and Bastholm aided in the progress of education. Oh/sen has written some good comedies, as " The Golden Box." Thaarup is known for his comic operas; of which "The Harvest Home" and "Peter's Wedding" are well known in our own country. Professor Thaarup also wrote many beautiful serious lyric pieces. "Dyveke" was written by Samsoe, and is a tragedy of high reputation. Then appeared Pram and Rahbek : the former wrote an epic of some worth, entitled " Staerkadder," and commenced the first literary journal, under the title of "The Scandinavian Museum." This was succeeded by "The Journal of Truth;" and, later, Ralibch published his "Spectator," and Molbech his "Athengeum." These have been followed by the "Prometheus" of (Ehlenschldger ; but at present most of these journals have disappeared to make room for the "Monthly Review" of Reitzel. Ralihek, whose name was mixed up for more than fifty years with the literature of his country, first wrote a number of articles on the drama, under the title of "Letters of an Old Comedian," and gave lectures on literature; he then helped in the editorship of "The Minerva;" and, after having modeled his mind and style on those of our Addison, put forth his "Danish Spectator." This journal, which he directed fifteen years, is one of his best works : it is there that he has placed all the fruits NINETEENTH CENTURY. 255 of his studies and all the results of his observations. He made of his u Spectator/' also, a sort of arena, where the poets of the day were pleased to contend for public approbation. Ralibeh was named Director of the Theatre of Copenhagen, and put in practice all the theories he had formed for turning the stage to a powerful means of correcting the morals of the people : it was through him that the German works of Goethe and Schiller became known to the Danes, and that the people learned to prefer Shakspeare to Gottsched; and it was then that the tragedies of CEliIenscMclger were received with delight by his countrymen. Ralibeh died at the advanced age of seventy-three, leaving a deep regret in the hearts of all who had known him, and a vacancy in literature which it was difficult to fill. He died in the humble abode which he has described so charmingly; and where he represented himself and his wife as passing the tran- quil life of the aged, contented with their modest fortune and their peaceful home, smiling at the guest who entered, and the friend who would sit down quietly beside them. This is a most charming pic- ture for contemplation, after so busy and tumultuous a life as that of a theatrical director appears to be in our own country ! As a poet, Ralibeh had only second-rate talent; but it was amiable, if I may so say, and gay; reflecting the happy confidence of a life with- out storms, and the chaste emotions of an upright mind and warm heart. As a critic, his observation was just, his judgment clear, and his soul honest. He was gifted with a pliability of mind singu- larly useful in his position, and published a quantity of biographical notices and dissertations. He translated and commented on several foreign works. With the assistance of Nyerup, he collected mate- rials for a literary history of Denmark, and became the editor of Holberg. In a word, he ran from one point to another, as occasion required, discussing with tact, and warring, when necessary, with firmness and perseverance. Fahen was a distinguished author of comedies. He wrote a great variety of operas also, and the tragedy of "Niels Ebbensen." Hertz has written a poem called " Israel Delivered," in which he has successfully introduced the hexameter. Malte Brun made himself a European name by his profound studies and publications in geography. At an early age, he was a remark- able poet and journalist; but having too openly espoused the cause 256 DANISH LITERATURE. of the liberty of the press and the freedom of the peasantry, he was exiled, and passed an active and useful life in Paris. As a cotemporary, Baggesen gained great repute for his poems. He became the favorite of the fashionable world, which may account for the polish of his verses, and alas ! also for their futility and pre- tension. While Baggesen was visiting other countries, the war be- tween the Romanticists and Classicists began in Denmark; and Bag- gesen, on his return, could not decide to which he would belong. Meanwhile, the British fleet appeared off Zealand, Copenhagen was besieged, the Danish shipping was destroyed; but this poet showed no sympathy with his country's calamities. He wrote so lightly, that it might be said he smiled at his country's wounds; and, in consequence, he lost the admiration of his countrymen, and went to hide his dissatisfied spirit in France. Here he remained, till the approach of death gave him a longing to see his native land, which he has very beautifully expressed in some fine verses. His chief works are a collection of poems entitled " Daufauna," in which is an epic called "Thora/' "Holger," "Erik Ejejod," and the " La- byrinths." In 1804, the early poetic efforts of (Elilenschldger were recom- pensed by the prince royal with a pension; these talents had been developed by the lectures and philosophical knowledge of the worthy Henry Steffens, who was, till lately, a professor at Breslau. He came to Denmark full of the enthusiasm of the German new school of poetry, and first made the nation acquainted with the writings of Goethe, unveiling those workings of thought and sentiment which had produced such rich and beautiful results. These lectures made the deepest impression upon (EhlenschUiger, and this enthusiastic admiration of Goethe's works first opened the vein of thought in the rich mind of (EhlenscMager, and led his fancies to the highest ranges. To the fire and vigor of old romance he brought the ex- quisite polish of civilization; and he has gloriously placed the lite- rature of Denmark on a level with that of the most cultivated in Europe. At the house of Madame de Stael, in Switzerland, the young poet found a splendid reunion of German authors; and it was here that he penned the greater part of his most beautiful tra- gedy of " The Death of Correggio," which has been entitled the NINETEENTH CENTURY. 257 brightest jewel in his poetical coronet. Though this play is based upon the simplest and most tranquil elements, it is one of no ordi- nary originality and beauty. Southern imagery and southern feel- ings — the pure inspiration of the art, and the even tenor of an innocent and domestic life — have been caught by the poet with the same distinctness and grace with which he had already depicted the scenery and passions of the north. "Palnatoke" and "Hakon Jarl" had already appeared; "Aladdin," "Axel and Waldberg," with various others, followed. There are great delicacy and sweet- ness displayed in the female characters depicted by (EJdenscJddger, a circumstance which always proves his high sense of moral beauty. His minor pieces bear much of the tone and manner of Goethe, especially a collection entitled " The Gospel of the Year." The name of (Elileiischlager has taken its place among the brightest earth has known. At the present time, Ingemann and Andersen are the chief poets in Denmark. Ingemann is called the poet of the ladies; his verses are in the highest degree sweet and flowing, and his lyric composi- tions possess very considerable merit. Andersen's Novels and Tales have met with such favor in England, where most of them have been translated, that he may almost be said to have become indige- nous in this country. Wysse is noted for his sacred writings. Rosen^ lioft, Welhaven, and Molbech are poets of the present day. Moller is a critic. Rudleback is a theological writer, as also Engeltoft, Rothman has written diplomatic history in Latin. The name of (Erstedj in connection with electro-magnetism, is of European fame. Intellectual activity is kept up at this day by many excellent pe- riodical works and many well-ordered literary societies; the transl- ations of which are published carefully, and themselves warmly encouraged and cheerfully protected by the government. The most important journal is published by the brothers Berling : Naihanson, its editor, is a man of considerable talent. There are six others of various merit. The " Scandinavian Museum" is a good magazine, and next to it another, called " The Fruits of Reading." Professor Rash, a man of eminent literary attainments as a linguist, published Bjom Haldorson's Islandic Lexicon. The Society of Northern Antiquarians publishes annually, at Copenhagen, a volume of their 22* 258 SWEDISH LITERATURE. very interesting annals. The society called The Athenseum was established at Copenhagen in 1842; it has a fine library and good reading-room. It receives 161 periodicals (of course including newspapers); forty-two of which are published in that city : fifty- seven are German, twenty French, fifteen English, and one North American. During the last year alone, 1178 new volumes were added to the library. Besides the Novels and Tales of Andersen, above referred to, there have been of late several English translations from Danish popular tales, which have been received with delight by the lovers of light literature. The following is a list of works which may be further consulted on Danish literature : — Bartholin's Writings of the Danes; Worm's Runic Literature; Langebecti s great collection, entitled Scriptores Rerum Danicarum, vols, i., iv. ; viii. ; Nyeriup's Hist. Tab. of Denmark and Norway. ; THE LITERATURE OF SWEDEN. The development of literature was even later in Sweden than it had been in Denmark. The University of Upsal was founded by the care of Pope Sixtus IV. in 1476, but it languished for want of professors nearly half a century, and did not flourish till a century later. The Christian spirit had penetrated only slowly among this wild people, but at length it brought a softer aspect among them; yet the children of the north, brought up in the independence of their mountains, submitted with difficulty to the trammels of their monkish teachers. The bishop was frequently the chief warrior of his diocese, and led his vassals to the combat. Still, it was pre- cisely in the monasteries formed by these southern Christians as places of refuge and protection, that learning found its asylum until the introduction of printing. The Icelandic tongue was long in use at Upsal; the kings who resided there used to call the Scalds, or poets, to their court; and even now the language of the Dale- carlians bears a strong affinity to that of Iceland. There was re- peated the legendary ballad in the great hall of the prince; a mo- FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 259 nient fondly delighted in by this rude people, and which won them to forgetfulness of their hard lives and scanty fare, and taught them the beauty of truth and faithfulness. These ballads were collected by Afzelius and Geyer in 1814. Mixed with these tales, resembling the chivalry of the middle nations of Europe, are to be found numerous love stories. It is, indeed, singular to observe the predominance of .the affections in the writings of the early Swedes. The first monument of the prose of Sweden is a letter of six pages, written by a nun of the convent of Wadstena, and bearing the date of 1498. At that epoch, the general language was not formed; but this letter of sister Ingride is far beyond the standard literature of the day. The learned Hammersheld places it, for pathos, above the epistle of Heloisa to Abelard. There is, in the Swedish language, a well-known poem called "Vendela," in which the powers of the soul are represented as se- parately absorbed by this sentiment of affection ; and a late repub- lication of it proves how much the national feelings accord with its subject. Gustavus Vasa introduced, with great gentleness, the principles of Luther among his countrymen; but Sweden was long torn with contending political factions, and instruction of any kind made only slow progress. Trolle, the ambitious Bishop of Upsal, endeavored to maintain the interests of the kings of Denmark ; and Christian II., having been conqueror at the battle of Bagesund, came to Stockholm with vengeance in his heart against the unhappy nobles; it was at this moment Gustavus Vasa saved his country; and the royalty he had won by his courage and firmness, he main- tained by his wisdom. Two brothers, Olaiis and Lawrence Peterson, were very active in spreading the reformed principles. It was Laiorence who translated the Bible into Swedish; and Olaiis who first composed pieces for representation before the people, taking his subjects from the Scriptures. The result of this epoch was the use of the Swedish tongue by the Protestant theologians; and Gustavus himself spoke it with peculiar grace. In the mean time, the people possessed the finest of all books, the sublimest of all poetry — the Bible. The first historical works known in Sweden were by Jan Store and his brother Olaiis: these were chronicles in rhyme, and 260 SWEDISH LITERATURE. were compiled at a later date by Olaiis Magnus, who wrote also a " History of the Swedes and of the Goths." The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries presented a series of brilliant facts for history, and a succession of highly remarkable sovereigns : Gustavus Yasa, Gustavus Adolphus, Charles X., XI., and XII., with Queen Christina, who appeared among these war- riors like a statue of science surrounded by trophies of arms. Gustavus Adolphus warmly patronized letters, and was himself a poet as well as a splendid orator; he left also some memoirs of value. During the progress of the reform, Loccenius wrote his u History of Sweden." Another Latin author, Messinius, made a " Collection" for the history of his country, and wrote fifty historical dramas, five of which were played by the young students; proving how partial the learned were to the classic Latin. The son and grandson of Messinius assisted him in his literary occupations; the grandson was guilty of writing a libel against Queen Christina, and was decapitated; the father also. Bureus wrote a poem called "Nymaerevisor." Tegel wrote his "History of the Kings Gus- tavus I. and Eric XIV." at a later period ; and Girs wrote a " His- tory of John III." Georges Stjernliielm is called the father of Swedish poetry, and was the first poet of renown at this time. He introduced the regu- larity of the ancients, and his dramatic efforts were stiff and cold. His chief work is called " Hercules;" he had considerable energy of thought, but little imagination. Taking him from amidst the Swedish writers of his age, he appears a remarkable man; but when compared with his cotemporaries, Shakspeare, Calderon, and Moliere, he is very feeble. DalstJijema translated the " Pastor Fido" of Guarini. The impetus given to literature by Gustavus Adolphus was continued by his daughter Christina. In her reign, the royal palace became an academy, where all the illustrious men of Europe, who could be persuaded to leave their country, were welcomed. Unhappily, the queen neglected the talents of her subjects; so that she was neither esteemed by the natives when present with them, nor regretted when she left them. But the spirit of emulation had been awakened, and there was soon perceived a bold development of intelligence. The works of Queen Christina SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 201 are entitled "Maxims and Sentences/' "Reflections on the Life and Doctrines of Alexander," and " Memoirs." Spegel and Rosenhave were poets of this age; the latter wrote good sonnets. Spegel was also distinguished for his learning, and arranged a dictionary, which has served as the basis of later produc- tions. Rudbeh and Linnaeus were among the scientific writers; the system published by Linnasus produced a revolution in natural history, and it has been extended in Sweden by JSolcinder, Bergius, Thunberg, and Sjiarrman. Rudbeh the elder was Bishop of Ves- teras, and directed the editions of the Scriptures called the Bible of G-ustavus Adolphus. His son Olaus was a celebrated antiquarian, and wrote a work on the origin of the Swedish nation, called " At- lantica;" the grandson was a philologist, and founder of the society of science at Upsal. Swedeiiborg made known his remarkable opinions on religion, and founded a sect called "The New Jerusalem Church." In experimental philosophy, they have Wallerius, Berg- man, Ihre, and Scheeld; who have added new lights to chemistry and mineralogy. Polilen, Klingenstiema, Stroemer, and Wargentin have made very important discoveries in mathematics. Kryger and Fischerstroem have applied the principles of science to agriculture, commerce, and industry. Verelius, Ola/sen, and Bioern translated the "Sagas" of Scan- dinavian histories. Peringskioeld published his archaeological re- searches. Goeranson endeavored to interpret "The Edda." Lag- gerbring wrote a "History of Modern Sweden." Botin wrote his "Essay on the Swedish History," which is distinguished as much for order and method as for the information it contains, while the style is elegant and rapid. But it was Olaf Dalilin who did the most for the Swedish language. He was the preceptor of Gustavus III., and created boldly the expressions he wanted. He wrote a clear and easy prose, and yet gave a decided proof of his higher powers, by the poem of " Swedish Liberty." Among his successors, Creutz left a poem entitled " Atis and Camilla," which is still highly esteemed. Kellgrenn's lyrics rank among the first of his country- men. The odes and epistles of Gyllenborg are characterized by a good spirit of philosophy. He has written several tragedies, after the French ; and an epic, in which he celebrates the famous pas- 262 SWEDISH LITERATURE. sage of the Belt, which rendered Charles Glustavus master of the greater part of Denmark. Hence the three crowns of the arms of Sweden. The Satirists of this time were animated : Triewald wrote on "Bad Poets/' and Bergerstroem on "The Art of Crawling." Dalilln had already tried his pen on a "Eulogy on Folly." Eric Brander, or Skjol de Brand, wrote the epic of the "Grustaviad;" but neither of these poets has obtained the renown of a Tasso or a Camoens. Another poem on the same subject was written by Olaf Ceolsius^ who also wrote "Ingeborg," a tragedy. Nbrberg is the author of a circumstantial "History of Charles XII. ," which he was obliged to send to the queen, Ulrica Eleanor, sister of that monarch, as he advanced in the manuscript, and which was also examined by a royal commission before it went to the press ! Grus- tavus III. protected poetry as a king, and loved it as a poet. His was one of the finest minds of his age, and he was one of the most correct of its writers; but his French education blinded him on some points. He idolized Bacine, and condemned Shakspeare; and the dramas he wrote himself bear the seal of the literary principles of his preceptors. Until the time of this sovereign, there was no national theatre in Sweden; and the king placed so high a value on this method of polishing the minds of his people, that, in the theatre itself, at Stockholm, there was an apartment reserved for him. Here he transacted everything relative to literature, and used to say he was here nearer to the Muses than in his own palace. The manner in which this monarch condescended to compete for the history prize, in the Society of the Belles Lettres, is a proof of his ardent desire to keep alive emulation among his subjects. About this epoch, a Swedish lady drew the attention of her countrymen to her very charming poetical productions. Madame Nordenflycht wrote a volume of elegies and epistles, which are remarkable for their truth and tenderness. They spread her repu- tation far beyond her country, for Gesner, Haller, and Holberg have each celebrated her talents. She had retired from the world on the loss of her husband, and in this retirement wrote her sweet verses. This drew intellectual people to her house, and very soon her drawing-room was the focus of the first literary society formed in Sweden, for this habit of meeting was continued weekly after EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 263 tbe death of Mme. Nordenflyclit, under the classical title of u Utile Dulci." Elers, Tylas, and Mme. Nordetiflyclxt wrote admirable popular songs, which are amongst the most curious productions of Swedish literature. Soon after, another society was formed at Upsal, and one at Abo, in Finland. It was natural for the youth of Sweden to imitate the literary ta'ste of their king ; and we find Oxenstheim writing a fine ode on the death of Gustavus Adolphus, and another on "Hope," with two poems, entitled "Morning," and "The Storm." These are considered equal to Gesner's idyls. Hallmann and Kexell enlivened the public with their dramatic parodies. Enwalson imitated the French operas. Alderbeth translated Horace and Virgil. Tliorrild was distinguished as a critic; and Ehrenswoerd became illustrious by his observations on the arts. Hallenberg wrote the "History of Gustavus Adolphus." In this epoch, also, was a distinguished writer of Bacchantic songs; a style of poetry which is exceedingly popular in the cold regions of the north. This is Bellmann, one of those happy, gifted beings, who do everything they wish; at once a poet and musician, he gained and richly deserved the title of "The Anacreon of Sweden." A monument is erected to his memory in the great park at Stockholm. Lidner was the tender poet of this time, and a universal favorite, although his lyrics are all sad. He wrote also "The Countess of Spartarse," a good tra- gedy. Madame Lenngren's pictures in poetry have given great pleasure. Her poems are full of home-born bliss — "Domestic Habits," "The Pious Pastor," "The Young Family." A collection of legends, called the "Norman-Kiempe-Datur," was published at this time. The close of the eighteenth century was marked by the produc- tions of Leopold, whose "Odin" attracted general notice; and "Virginia" raised his dramatic fame still higher. Leopold was the last representative of the imitative, or classic school. Stenhamar has left some good lyric poems. Choraus has written " Elegies." Lilljesthrale is remarkable as a didactic poet. Sylverstolpe was much esteemed as a critic, and was author of the " Swedish Literary Journal" and " The Manual of Swedish History." 264 SWEDISH LITERATURE. Before we enter on the immediately modern era, it is but just to notice that Norway has also her own individual treasures of litera- ture, though rare; or, perhaps I ought to say, though we know little of them. Their deeds of valor, and songs of independence are, however, what we can notice with admiration. Of these last, no nation could ever boast more. One, written by a clergyman, named Zetlitz, is of the most soul-stirring poetry that ever burst from the heart. Many sweet verses have reached us, too, of the tender kind ; and Nordalil Brunn has penned some excellent Anacreon- tics. Moerh has written the romances of "Thecla," " Adelreich," and " Goethilde." The fairy legends of Norway have been made known to Europe through the brothers Grimm, of Germany. The celebrated antiquary Bishop Nordin lived at this time. At the close of the eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth century, one of the Swedes marked out, by his own intuitive taste, a new style of thinking and writing. This was Franzen, a native of Finland. He tore off the fictitious ornaments of the muse, and presented a rustic beauty to his readers, but graced by education. His poems are such as one loves to read often; they carry, in every page, a dream that seduces, a feeling that moves, a hope that con- soles; and the simple purity of the poet's soul is seen in every thought. His element was the lyric in its tender style. His poem " On the Marriage of Grustavus Vasa" is, however, dull and heavy. Syher&tolpe is a clever fabulist. Geijer and Tegner have been among the most active of the very modern literati. Hamers- hoeld has written three good books — one on "Philosophy," another on "History," and a third on the "Modern Literature of Sweden." Atterbom is a poet and philosopher ; his " Happy Island" is a pecu- liarly pleasing poem. Stagndius was evidently destined for great things, but lived only to write two tragedies, called "The Martyrs" and "Love after Death." But his profound sentiment of religion makes him shine less in the drama than in his odes, which have been published under the title of "The Bose of Sharon." The " Travels in Syria and Egypt," of Hasselquist, and those of Sparr- man in Africa, are valuable. The two most powerful of Sweden's modern writers will close our list. The amiable and excellent Tegner was Bishop of Wexioe, a small town in the province of Srua- NINETEENTH CENTUEY. 265 lande. Tempering the serious with a happy mixture of innocent gayety, Tcjner has become a universal favorite : not a family but possesses his works; not a young girl but can repeat the finest pas- sages of his poems. Painting, music, sculpture, have all taken pos- session of his verses ; and this good man has accomplished what is unique in literature — to be loved without envy, and to be praised without criticism ! He is the author of several admirable patriotic odes, and this sentiment is also beautifully conveyed in his elegies. His poem of " The First Communion" is most charming in its simple seriousness; "Axel" is a poem of romantic life in the time of Charles XII.; but Tegner's master-piece is the "Frithiof's Saga.' 7 This is one of the most interesting of the romantic chronicles of the north, and gives a perfect picture of the manners, popular assem- blies, and pagan worship of the ancient Scandinavians. Tcgner ought to be classed in the first rank of those men whom we should love, because they seek poetry in the emotions of their heart rather than in the efforts of their imagination; who create, by their pious faith, and their dreams of tenderness, a world full of sweet harmo- nies. He has invented nothing ; but in each of his works he is always a Swede, always a man of the north ; he has sung with en- thusiasm the green mountains, the charming solitudes, and the blue lakes of his country ; and, in his pensive reveries, he has been the faithful organ of a general thought, an habitual disposition of soul in his country. Tegner has an admirable talent of expression; his style is pure, clear, rich with images, and cleverly colored: his verses are correct, easy, and sonorous. The same harmony of lan- guage, the same delicacy of expression, are found in his prose. The poem of "Axel" has been translated into English by the Rev. W. Latham. Mr. Baker and Mrs. Garnet have each translated the ". Frithiof 's Saga." Geijer, or Guyer, was the founder of the literary journal called "Iduna," and has written several minor poems of great strength and beauty, also composing the music to which he sung them. He has perpetuated the life of those Normans, or men of the north, who poured down upon France at one period, and penetrated even as far as Paris, in the time of Charles III. He has also written a "History of Sweden," which is much valued. 23 266 RUSSIAN LITERATURE. In her encouragement of talent, Sweden has long been an example for Europe. Afzelius has written good lyrics. Beskoiv produced the tragedy of " Eric XIV.," and wrote lyric poems. Cederborge has written the romance of " Trasenberg," and others. Bdlgren is author of " Aaron," and other stories. Guyer has made a trans- lation of "Macbeth." The tales of Frederica Bremer are known to us through Mrs. Hoioitt. The name of Olaf Wallin has reached us as that of a poet rising into estimation. Greusemtolf & " Mori- anen" is spoken of with admiration. JSaterherg's "Sketches of Popular Manners" has excellent feeling. Fryell has added another " History of Sweden" to those already known. Jacob Aall, a large proprietor of iron mines, was devoted to literature, and, besides making contributions to the periodicals, made a G-erman translation of Snorre Stiirleson's " Chronicle of the Northern Monarchs." The Swedish General Literary Society at Stockholm has an Athenaeum, where are sixty magazines, seventy political journals, and a very good library. The progress has been immense during the last reign. The following is a list of works which may be further consulted on the literature of Sweden : Scheffer's Literature of Sweden, pub- lished at Hamburg, and also his Library of the Northern Men of Learning; Gezelin's Essay on the Learned Men of Sweden; Liden's Literature of Swedish Poets, continued by Broocman; the Catalogue of Walmstadt and Waalmark; Hamerskoeld' 's Essay on Swedish Literature; Ludectts Sketch of Swedish Literature. THE LITERATURE OF RUSSIA. Few subjects can afford more complacent pleasure to the philan- thropist than to trace the progressive development of mind, where the first rays of twilight break out of long and dreary darkness, and the day advances with sure and steady steps. Russia has thus emerged from a night of ignorance, to occupy a situation in the world of intellect, not contemptible in its actual position of to-day, even when compared with that of the southern nations. Peter the Great was the first to plan a regular system of education for his SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 267 subjects. "When lie took the fortress of Azof from the Turks, in 1696, he caused the first medal ever made in Russia to be struck in commemoration of this victory. It is remarkable that, in the same year, the first Russian grammar ever published was printed at Oxford. But the first book printed in Russia was at the Kremlin, in 1564, a century and a half after printing had been introduced into the rest of Europe. Among the first mental efforts, we hear of a code of laws entitled "Russian Truth," being written by Jaroslav. The "Chronicles of Nestor" form the most ancient of the histories of this country. The Sclavonic language gave birth to that of Russia, which is divided into two parts : first, the Sclavinski 7 which commences their literature and brings it to Peter the Great; and the second, called fiouski, which is the universal language of the present day. This is sonorous, varied, and harmonious, exceed- ingly rich, and abounding in synonymes, while it is susceptible of bold and significant combinations. Printing was first established in 1553. The SclavinsJci is poor, and has few productions written in it. The Bible, and the books of the Apostles, by St. Cyrill, and the church service, are in the Sclavinski dialect. There are several chroniclers whose names have reached us; but the precise period of their existence is doubted. Jeorghi, Maharij Kourbsky, and Yovc, the first patriarch of Russia, are among them. There were travelers also, who detailed their journeys; as Nikitin and Greekoff. Aga- tlion, a monk of Novogorod, is said to have made a chronology. Rylo, Archbishop of Rostoff, wrote the life of his preceptor, Paph- nucius. Kourbsky is said to have written a life of Czar Ivan Vassiliewitch, and Yove a life of the Czar Theodore. Theophan Pvocopowicz is called the Chrysostom of Russia. Under the Emperor Foedor, dramatic poetry cast abroad its first light; the preceptor of this prince was the author of several pieces played before the court. The students of Kief used to travel through the country, representing these dramas and others drawn from the Scriptures. The poetry of the Russians is that of a highly imitative, deeply feeling, but despotically governed people, erected on a language which blends something of the wildness of Oriental character with 268 RUSSIAN LITERATURE. the sternness and sobriety of European precision. The tone of our English literature, with that of the French and German, is very distinctly to be traced in their modern productions. Palatsin, the companion of the patriots Pozarsky and Minin, wrote a history of his times. Nicon wrote a " Religious History of Russia." Sla- vianitsky wrote a " Life of the Saints/' and formed a dictionary in Greek, Sclavon, and Latin. Theodore Gribo'iedoff wrote a short " History of Russia." The Princess Sophia, sister of Peter the Great, wrote Tragedies; and the Czar himself left a "Journal of his Campaigns," which, with his " Letters," was published by order of Catherine II. Demetrius and Tavorscy left ecclesiastical works of some value. Kracheninnikoff translated Quintus Curtius, and wrote a " Description of Kamtschatka." Nicolas Propofsky wrote on Philosophy. In the beginning of the eighteenth century, a Cossack, named Klimnovsky, wrote "On the Greatness of Soul, and on Truth:" this work contains very noble sentiments and much fine poetry. Prince Kantimir distinguished himself at this early period of Rus- sian literature by his satires and translations. It was in the reign of the Empress Anne, that Trediaskovsky, a pupil of Rollin, the French historian, made great efforts to obtain the title of founder of the Russian literature; but being more a man of science than of imagination, he showed no taste, and never became a man of talent. Rut it was a young peasant boy, born in the dreary regions of Archangel, the son of a simple sailor, who was to have the honor envied by his predecessor. Lomonossoff, devoured by the fever of genius, abandoned his native cabin, and went, with patient suffering, journeying on (supported by his own visions of enthusiasm), to throw himself at the feet of the Rishop of Moscow, entreating to be admitted as a pupil in his institution ; and he was received with benevolent kindness, and encouraged in his ardent love of study. Astonished at his talents, every care was taken to develop them still more : he was sent to study mathematics at Marienberg, and the German tongue. When his education was finished, he first turned his pen towards science, and wrote on " Electrical Phenomena," " On the Origin of Light," and many things of this kind. Then he a took to history, and wrote "The Oldest Russian History," EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 2G9 "Short Russian Annals;" afterwards a grammar, with a work on Rhetoric. At intervals, he turned his rich intellect to poetry, and wrote first the poem of "Peter the Great," then several tragedies; a great many spirited odes; also poems of encomium on the Em- press Elizabeth : in short, the works of Lomonossoff were published, complete in sixteen octavo volumes, in 1804, and present a rare diversity of subjects. But what he is most remarkable for is his " Treatise on Eloquence" and his " Rules for Russian Versifica- tion ;" so that Lomonossoff was not only the creator of Russian literature, but its legislator. A monument, by the famous Russian sculptor Martos, has been erected to the memory of this poet at Archangel. Soumarakoff was the first actor of repute, and traveled both to Paris and London to study his art. He returned triumphant, and translated Hamlet into his native language, and wrote several tragedies. Wolkoff was the second actor of renown. Maikoff wrote tragedies and lyric poems. Elizabeth, the intelligent empress, greatly encouraged these intellectual pleasures, and gave every facility to talent. Her successor, Catherine II., resolved on being popular also, and turned her attention equally to literature. She invited celebrated foreigners to her court, and corresponded with men of the finest talent in Europe; under her reign tragedy con- tinued its path with honor. The Empress Catherine has left " Me- moirs on the History of Russia;" "Instructions for the Russian Code;" " Oleg," a drama; and she translated the ninth chapter of Marmontel's story of "Belesaire;" the other parts being trans- lated by different members of her court. Barkoff translated Ho- race, and wrote a "History of Russia." Simeon translated the Psalms into verse, wrote some religious dramas, and a poem in praise of the Czar Alexis. Ablessinoff was a dramatic poet. Scher- hatoff and Bolttn were historians. Kniazin drew attention by his poems of " Dido" and of " Rosslaff," but was an unsparing pla- giarist of the French authors. Comedy also tried her wings, and rose victorious over every difficulty. Von Vizin seems to have taken Moliere for his model, and had great pliancy and ease in his style. "The Minor" and "The Brigadier," with "The Spoiled Child," are among his best. Griboiedoff wrote the only comedy 23* 270 RUSSIAN LITERATURE. that deserves to be placed by the famous " Minor" of Vizin, but unhappily he died young. Petroff translated the .ZEneid, and wrote good odes. Golikoff wrote a " History of Peter the Great." Efimief wrote comedies. Kriouslwfshy wrote the tragedy of " Po- jarsky." Kherassoff was both a lyric and epic poet; fond of his country, he sings her glory and the flight of the Tartars. His poem, called " The Russiad," contains some very striking passages, and has obtained for its author the honorable title of the Russian Homer. But a more brilliant poet than all these arose in Derzha- vin. "With a powerful mind and an admirable judgment, he even surpassed Lomonossoff. His thoughts were sublime, his style cor- rect, and his expressions new. He resembles, in some degree, the German poet Klopstock : his " Ode on God" is one of the most impressive and sublime that poetry ever produced. It has had the singular distinction of having been rendered into the Japanese tongue, and, by order of the sovereign, was printed on silk em- broidered with gold, and hung up in the chief temple of worship at Jeddo. This destiny and appreciation awaken a wide range of thought and anticipation of future discoveries in the literature of those eastern countries, for the same honor was paid to this Russian poet by the Chinese. It has been said of Derzhavin, this good and great man, that he remained a philosopher even at the foot of the throne. He awakened great and patriotic feeling, and belonging to no school, was himself the true representative of the Russian poetry. Bogdanovitch bears the title of the Russian Anacreon. The soft- ness and harmony of the Russian language had never been so hap- pily portrayed as in the charming poem of this poet, called u Du- shenka;" this word is the diminutive of Dusha (Psyche), and is expressive of great tenderness and fondness. The Empress Cathe- rine was delighted with it, and sent for the poet to her court, tell- ing him she already knew by heart all his graceful story; and " Dushenka" became the joy and idol of the nobles. At the re- quest of the empress, Bogdanovitch wrote for the stage. . He com- posed a piece which represents the festivities of the old Sclavonians, with which they welcomed the return of the twenty-fifth year of the reign of their great princes. This composition of Bogdanovitch made a strong impression, being produced just at the time the em- NINETEENTH CENTURY. 271 press had reigned a quarter of a century. He wrote many minor pieces, which are full of wit and elegance; and the song "I'm Fourteen Summers Old" has become one of the most popular in Russia. Kapniste wrote fugitive pieces with considerable talent. Bohroff wrote "The Khersonida," a descriptive poem, much in the style of Moore's Lalla Rookh, but it has more frequent bursts of sublimity. Kostroff made good translations of the Iliad, and of Ossian's poems. Neddinshi charmed the lovers of songs and bal- lads. Dmitricf pleased the pensive; his style is harmonious and energetic, tender and affecting, as the species of poem may demand. He was the poet of the drawing-room, and charmed the ladies by his graceful melancholy. Muriavieff was the preceptor of the Emperor Alexander, and wrote for his noble pupil several clever treatises on Russian history; also some " Dialogues of the Dead," and imitations of the Spectator, under the title of " The Suburban." Under this prince all the branches of literature prospered. He instituted six universities, besides an immense number of parish schools, and appeared to wish his people to understand that genius and talent might raise a man as high as hereditary rank; so that the Russians may now place themselves fairly on a footing with other European nations. Muriavieff has written a history of the Russian church. Tragedy threw off the elegiac tone, and took that of terror for its moving principle. Ozeroff wrote "Fingal" and "Donskoi," which are great ornaments of the Russian stage. The more the taste of the public was formed, the more the ear demanded a lan- guage of poetic harmony. At length awoke "the nightingale of the north," as Karamsin is beautifully called. In his youth, he imitated Sterne, but he has outlived, his error, and become famous for a clear, concise, and harmonious style in his prose works. Of these we must name the " Pantheon of Foreign Literature," which was followed by various collections of poems. "A Discourse on Happiness" appeared later;, but his great renown is built upon his "History of Russia," which is looked upon as the finest literary monument of that empire. The style is an example of pure Rus- sian idiom, whilst it is lucid, noble, and full of beauty. It is for- tunate for the literature of Russia that the most classical of her 272 RUSSIAN LITERATURE. prose writers should have employed his pen upon a work of such extent, importance, and general interest; thereby transmitting to other writers a chaste standard of style, and engaging the attention of foreigners by this splendid contribution to the history of his country. It has been translated into German, Italian, and French; the last of which is noted as being "miserably incorrect." The historian Karamsin is said to have himself declared that he had discovered two hundred errors in the first volume alone ! Karamsin established the " European Courier," and his essays published in this journal became the model of fine writing. His poems are graceful and effective. The Russians have shown peculiar excellence as fabulists; Khemnitzer, Kriloff, and Izmailoff are the most noted. He first began his literary career in Germany, but is remarkable for his perfectly Russian style, his naivety smoothness, and epigrammatic wit, most felicitously applied. Kriloff is the most fertile and ori- ginal; his fables have had the honor of being imitated by French and Italian pens. Four comedies attest his power over dramatic composition equally. Prince DolgourouM charmed the public by the originality of his poems. Zhulwvshi is noted as a translator from German, French, and English authors. His version of Gray's Elegy deserves our grati- tude; and his own poem, entitled "The Minstrel in the Russian Camp," is one of the most popular perhaps of all modern poetical productions. It was written when the author formed one of the army, just before the battle of Tarutina, and not a line but breathes the most spirit-stirring patriotism. Batinslikoff wrote some fine essays, and is inimitable in choice of expressions and harmonious diction. We have also elegies, epistles, and lyrics from his pen. "The Dying Tasso" is a poem of great beauty; and another, en- titled "To My Penates," is also a very delightful one. Labanoff is a translator from the French of Racine ; Viskovaloff from Vol- taire; Kohosclihin from Moliere, as also Pouschkin. Two kinds of poetry were still wanting to the literary crown of Russia: the ballad, which was introduced by Zliulwsky ; and the comic-heroic, which was accomplished by Alex. Pouschkin, whose tales recall the delicious follies of Ariosto, Krinkovslcy owes his reputation to the NINETEENTH CENTURY. 273 tragedy of " Pozharsky :" it is full of patriotic sentiments and poetical beauties. Bulgaria opened a path to distinction by the "Historical Ro- mances" he has written; and, in conjunction with Gretch, he put on foot "The Northern Bee," a journal of decided merit. In 1829, he published his "Russian Gil Bias," and the following year his " False Demetrius." Gretch introduced into Russia the Lancastrian system of educa- tion; and wrote a useful work, entitled "Russian Literature." The success of Bulgarin in the line of novelist opened the path to many followers; the rage for imitation has, however, weakened the merit of these compositions. The name of Alexander Pousch- Mn will reach posterity in his poem of "Pultawa," his tragedy of "Boris Godounop," "Rusland and Luidmila," "The Prisoner of the Caucasus," as well as "The Gypsies" and "The Robbers," all of which bear unequivocal marks of superior talent. Ozeroff gave great dignity to the tragic muse in "Gidipus," "Polyxena," and in " Fingal." In his delineations of the female character, he is pecu- liarly successful. Chalwvsky is another of the clever dramatists of this country; and, from the tragedy to the vaudeville, his pen has been equally successful. Anastasewicz translated from Racine, and is a distin- guished prose writer. Chihmatoff wrote the poems of "Peter the Great" and "Pozarsky," and has translated Pope's Essay on Cri- ticism. Admiral CMsclikoff was for a long time president of the academy, and minister of public instruction : he wrote " Dissertations on the Ancient and Modern Styles," translated the "Jerusalem Delivered" of Tasso, and made important works on the history of languages. General Davidoff was a poet, and author of works on strategy. The two Glinka were poets, authors of elegies and operas. Gneditch has translated "King Lear," and also the "Tancred" of Voltaire; besides writing a poem entitled "The Birth of Homer," and translating the Iliad. Ilin has written dramas. Katenin is a good lyric poet and dramatic writer. Khmelnitzky has written "Comedies in imitation of d'Harville." Kosloff became blind, and wrote a touching poem on his sufferings. 3Ierzliakoff translated the "Eclogues" of Virgil, the "Idylles" of 274 RUSSIAN LITERATURE. Mdme. Deshoulieres, and the "Jerusalem Delivered" of Tasso. Olin is author of two elegies. Basile Pouschkin was the author of fables and good lyrics; Alexis Pouschkin, translated the "Tar- tufe" of Moliere, and the " Joueur" of Regnard. Yoeykoff has written some remarkable "Letters/ 7 and made translations from Delille, besides writing a poem entitled a The Arts and Sciences." The prose writers have been very successful of late years, both as clever journalists and novelists. Gogol's " Mirgorod" is intended to portray the manners of the middle classes. Zagoskin followed the same path, with better success; " Miloslawsky," or Russia in 1612, has for its basis a most interesting portion of history, when Minin and Pozharsky rescued Russia from the Polish yoke. An- other of Zagoskm's works takes the epoch of 1812 as the subject; but all that he can say of imaginative difficulties falls far short of the reality yet dwelling in our memories; and, consequently, the book reads tame. There is a satire of great repute to be yet named. JSenkovsl'j/ wrote "The Devil's Grand Levee," which is a critique on all ranks and sexes. Among the writers of Russia whose career has closed during the last twenty years, we have to mention Ililonqff, a lyrical satirist; Gortshukov, a writer of dramas and satires; Oze- i-elzkovsky, who translated Sallust, and wrote on natural history; Grammatin, a philologist; Beketojf] who translated the "Messiah" of Klopstock; Bronerski/, a writer of history and geography; Eutusoff and Melesky, poets; Ismaeloff, a novelist, and his brother Alexander, a clever fabulist; Baron JDelvig, Sokoloff, Yenevitinoff, and Yojehoff, poets. ZernoffYfas celebrated as a jurisconsult. Golojfnui wrote travels. Guodnitcli translated Homer. Broncvsky left "The Let- ters of a Russian Officer." Anna Bunina translated Blair's Ser- mons. Platon was a distinguished theologian, and Metroj) also. We must remark that Delvig's poems are considered the orna- ment of the Russian-G-erman school; and of the immediately modern poets of Russia, we may class Chuhovsky, Botuschkoff, and Yaseind-y together, as one supplying the defects or weakness of the other ; thus, the first has the German mind, the second has the Italian objectiveness, and the third has the French tone. In the same manner, we observe Alex. Pouschkin for the objective, Bcua- tinsky for the French characteristics, and DcJvig for the German NINETEENTH CENTURY. 275 mind, Best insoff was a clever writer of romances, but is surpassed by Marlinshi. Odqjevshy has successfully imitated Hoffman's fan- tastic imagination. Mdmlle. Kidman is a graceful writer of tales. Bald is a writer of national stories and national songs. Kuholnih is a very successful writer of dramas. Prince Sologoub is lately dead, and much regretted by the readers of interesting romances. A fine Encyclopedia has been published; and the government is unwearied in its establishment of scientific societies. The Chamber- lain, Dcmidoff] set apart the sum of 20,000 rubles, to be given away annually in the encouragement of letters; and several other nobles have emulated this effort of improvement. A noble school was founded by Prince Gcditzin; a Deaf and Dumb Institution by Pi ince Iluiski ; magnificent Botanic Gardens by Count Razumou: shy. The number of journals is greatly augmented of late, and what is peculiarly useful to this country, every administration has its jour- nal. Among these, a The Journal of the Minister of Instruction" is the most generally interesting. As daily papers, there are " The Gazette of St. Petersburg," "The Russian Invalid," "The Cotem- porary," "The Son of the Country," "The Literary Library," " The Gazette of the Arts," "The Children's Journal," "The Jour- nal of Useful Knowledge," "The Friend of Health," and, the best of all, " The Northern Bee." All these are published in the Rus- sian language, and there are several in French and German. " The Northern Bee" is most esteemed for its well-judged criticisms, and " The Literary Library" the most dreaded for its satire. Adelung, a German by birth, was Director of the Asiatic Academy in Russia for many years ; he was one of the preceptors of the present em- peror, and assisted Rumanzoff in collecting manuscripts for the history of Russia. His " Literature of the Sanscrit Language" is much valued. An Indian tale, called "Nal and Damayante," from the pen of Clwkovski, has given great pleasure; and " The Heretic," from that of Lajetclinilcoff, has also created considerable attention. The lyric poems of Woldbruck are esteemed ; and the names of the poets Heiberg, BlicJier, Bemkoft, Nabo, and Minna von Maedler, are rising into notice : indeed, literary progress is great in Russia, and especially as regards translations of works of a useful tendency. We have yet to mention that the ladies are making great efforts to 276 RUSSIAN LITERATURE. be useful : Mdme. JBounin, Mdme. Poutschoff, Princess Ourouscff, Mdme. Briaga, Countess Golovkin, Princess Volkonshy, and Princess Galitzin, are all known in literature. Many more names might be yet added, but enough has been said to stimulate curiosity and excite admiration. Russia has advanced most rapidly, but has yet immense difficulties to vanquish before her vast territory shall enjoy equally the benefits of civilization and general instruction. There are public libraries now in forty-two towns of Russia, and the peri- odical publications are daily increasing. "The Gazette of the Arts" is illustrated with good engravings. "The Agricultural Journal/' "The Russian Farmer/' and "The Shepherd's Journal/' are most carefully edited. But there is still a branch of Russian literature to mention, and one which is peculiarly interesting to the philanthropist : it is the national songs — the poetry of the people. These have lately been collected by Prince Zerloff; and, though the authors are unknown, they are the joy and study of the people, and their consolation in the weariness of their winter dwellings, being conveyed from tongue to tongue through many generations. "These are no subjects for criticism," says Bowring, "for criticism cannot reach them — it can- not abstract one voice from the chorus, nor persuade the village youths and maidens that the measure is false. You hear them in the wooden huts of the cottagers; you are cheered by them when the peasant whirls you in his sledge over the frozen snow. The melody, often gentle and plaintive, in which they find utterance, visits the ear long after it has ceased. They are the delight of millions. The fame of the Iliad is nothing to theirs, and the general character of tenderness which prevails in them seems often to stamp them with the seal of Ossian's genius." INDEX N. B. — The Names of those Writers we call the Classics are given in Italics. Italian tUritcrs. THIRTEENTH CENTURY. Italian Writers. Born. Died. Page Alcamo . . . 1190 16 Drusi . 1200 16 Falcacchiero 1200 16 Vernacia 1200 16 Thomas Aquinas 1224 1274 16 Guinicelli 1274 16 Malespini 1281 16 Spinello 1281 16 Nina Siciliana 1290 41 Guitone 1294 16 FOURTEENTH CENTURY Brimetti Cavalcanti \* Jacopone Ricciardi de' Salvaggi Marco Polo . Dante Cecco . Mussato Cino Andrea Dandolo . Gio Villana Ortensia di Guglielmo Giustina Perotti TTberti 24 1300 16 1300 16 1306 16 1308 41 1318 17 1265 1321 17 1257 1327 18 1261 1330 18 1270 1336 18 1345 19 1348 19 1350 41 1350 41 1355 18 278 INDEX. Italian Writers. Born. Died. Page Bartolo 1356 19 Mat Villani 1363 19 Pastrengo 1370 19 Petrarca , . 1304 1374 18 Boccaccio 1313 1375 19 Livia del Chiavello 1380 41 Gio. Fior. Pecorone • 1380 19 FIFTEENTH CENTURY. Pandolfini . 1400 19 Sacchetti 1335 1402 19 Fil. Villani . 1406 19 Frezzi . 1416 18 Buonacorso . 1420 21 Burchiello , 'l380 1448 19 Cambiatore . . 1448 20 Lucrezia de' Medici 1450 41 Valla 1457 20 Poggio Bracciolini '. ' 1380 1459 21 Manetti 1398 1459 20 Luea Pulci . . 1460 20 Eneas Sylva (Pius II.) . 1464 20 Cassandra Fidelis . 1465 26 Luigi Pulci 1431 1470 20 Panorniita . 1391 1471 20 Bandelli . . 1475 30 Ben. Accolti 1480 20 Ant. Alamanni 1480 20 Filelfo 1480 20 Platina 1481 20 Griustiniana .'■-■'. 1489 20 Poliziano 1454 1490 19 Bello 1490 20 Bellinconi 1491 20 Lorenzo de' Medici 1448 1492 23 Boiardo 1430 1494 22 Pico of Mirandola 1463 1494 21 Vinciguerra . 1495 29 A. Brandolini . 1497 20 Baf. Brandolini 1498 20 Savonarola 1498 22 G-aspar Visconti . 1461 1499 23 Masuccio 1499 20 INDEX. 279 SIXTEENTH CENTURY. Italian Writers. Landino Pontano Sabbellico Alessandra Scala Nicolo Corregio Strozzi Aldo Manuzio Spagnuoli Verrini Bibbiana Leonardo da Vinci Camilla Guidoboni Leo X. Augurelli Rucellai Machiavelli . Luigi Martelli Navegero Castiylione . Porto Cornazzano . Allori Sanazzaro . Veronica Gambara Brocardo Tellesio Ariosto Guicciardini Bern. Accolti Tarsia Mauro Berni Bino Guidicione . Firenzuola . Ruzzante Folengi Fortiguerra . Victoria Colonna Secchi . Gaspara Stampa Born Died. Page. 142^ 1504 24 142€ 1505 21 1505 24 1506 26 1508 24 1509 22 1515 23 1516 24 1516 24 1520 30 1520 23 144£ ► 1520 41 1475 1520 25 1524 21 1475 1525 27 1469 1527 28 1527 24 1529 24 1529 22 1529 24 1451 1530 23 1530 24 1458 1530 22 fl. 1530 26 1531 24 1482 1533 27 1474 1533 22 1482 1533 27 1534 20 1535 24 1536 27 1536 27 1490 1541 27 1480 1541 32 1541 24 1542 29 1544 21 1496 1545 34 1490 1547 26 1547 24 fl. 1548 41 280 INDEX. Italian Writers. E. Piemontese Trissino Bonfadio Dafne di Piazzi Tullia d'Aragona Gerolama Gastellani Lucrezia Figliucci Isabella della Mora Suor Dea de' Bardi Laura Terracina Segni . Leonora Falletti Strapazola Lillio Giraldi Paulo Griovio Beccuti Livia Boromeo Nardi Chiara Matraini Nerli . Luigi Alamanni Casa . Yida . Yin. Martelli Tolomei Leonardo Aretino Lucia dell' Oro Acchellin i Scaliger Landi Egeria di Canossa Lucia Albani Avogadro Olinipiera Malipiero L. Battiferro degli Ammananti Virginia Salvi Bianora Sauseverino Piametta Malespina Soderini Bandello Cavalcanti . Gianotti Michael Angelo Giambullari Grazzini Anguillara . Born. Died. Page. fl. 1548 41 1478* . 1550 27 1550 24 fl. 1550 fl. 1560 41 1550 28 1550 41 1550 24 1552 24 'l483* 1552 27 1553 29 1554 41 1555 28 1555 41 *1486° 1556 28 1495 1556 29 1503 1556 27 1480 1556 29 1556 29 1490* 1557 32 1492 1557 29 fl. 1557 41 1466 1558 27 1484 1558 27 1559 30 fl. 1560 41 fl. 1560 41 41 fl. 1560 41 1562 30 1562 30 1563 30 1563 25 1564 30 1565 29 1566 29 INDEX. 28 Italian Writers. Born. Died. Page Caro ....... 1566 30 Bembo 1470 1566 22 Varchi 1520 1566 28 Luigi Dolce . 1568 29 Lollio . 1568 30 Franco .^ 1568 29 Bern. Tasso . 1569 32 Pavesi 1570 29 Isotta Grumello fl. 1570 30 Benven. Cellini 1570 30 Tansillo 1570 29 Castelvetro . 1571 30 Cinzio Giraldi 1573 30 Doni . 1574 30 Contili 1574 30 Vasari 1512 1574 30 Adriani 1513 1575 28 Rota . 1575 29 G-ranucci 1575 30 Muzzio 1576 29 Modesta Zozzi fl. 1580 41 Fabroni 1580 30 Nannini 1516 1580 30 Corso . 1582 30 Ongaro 1582 29 Castelletti 1585 29 Erizzio 1585 30 Speroni 1588 30 Telesio 1588 30 Salviati 1589 30 Margherita Malescotti fl. 1590 41 Beccari 1510 1590 29 Costanza 1591 29 Valvasone 1593 29 Isabella Andreini fl. 1593 41 Tasso .... 1554 1595 29 Bargeo 1596 30 Mazzoni 1598 30 Paruta 1598 30 Bruno 1599 31 24* 282 INDEX. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. Italian Writers. Born. Died. Page. Caporalli . Ammirato . 1601 1601 31 33 Giustiniani . 1603 31 Lodovica Collalto , fl. 1605 41 Ber. Davanzati . f. 1606 28 Torelli . 1608 31 Buonarelli . 1556 1608 31 Lucrezia Marinella fl.1611 41 Gruarini 1537 1612 31 Veneranda Cavalli fl. 1613 41 Boccalini 1613 33 Porta .... 1615 31 Sagredo Baldi .... 1616 1617 30 31 Vecchi 1620 31 Bellarmino . 1542' 1621 34 Binuccini 1621 31 Sarpi Marini '. 1569° 1623 1625 32 31 Beni . . . 1552 1625 33 G-uidicione . 1570 1630 33 Davila 1570 1634 32 Tassoni 1565 1635 32 Bigi . . . Lalli . . 1552 1637 1637 22 31 Chiabrera . ; 1553' 1638 31 Franeesca Farnese fl. 1638 41 Galileo . . . '. 1564 1641 31 Bentivoglio (CardiiiaT) . Fer. Pallavicino . 1579 1644 1644 32 31 Buonarotti . 1646 31 Buomattei . 1647 33 Toricelli 1647 33 Margherita Costa . Gwlio Strozzi 1590' fl. 1650 1654 41 41 Sforza Pallavicino 1667 33 Loredano 1669 33 Nani .... 1671 33 Salvator Rosa 1673 32 Lanra Ghirardelli . fl.1675 41 Baldinucci . 1681 33 INDEX. 283 Italian Writers Born. Ferrari Family I6l8 Anna Caruso Dottori Bartoli Beverini Segneri Fran. Redi . Died. Page. 1G82 28 fl. 1685 27 1686 31 1686 33 1686 33 1694 33 1698 33 EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. Menzini Bellini Filicaja Magalotti Gnidi . Marchetti Emilia Orlandini Faustina Forli Eutopia Tosini Gravini Zappi . Virginia Bazzani Aurora Gaetani Elena Ricoboni Maria Buonacorsi Giovanna Carriera Faustina Zappi Maria Strozzi Odalpi Maria Borghini . Luisa Bergalli Prudenza Capizucchi Stampiglia . Crescimbeni Bianchini Gaetana Paperini . Petronilla Paolini Lazzarini Fontanini Manfredi Campaillo Fagiuoli Vico Perfetti 1704 34 1704 34 1642 1707 33 1637 1711 32 1650 1712 34 1714 34 ■ fl. 1716 41 1664 1718 34 1667 1719 34 fl. 1720 41 fl. 1725 fl. 1726 41 41 1726 34 1662* 1729 33 1662 1729 34 1730 42 1668 1734 35 1736 34 1674 1739 34 1668 1740 34 1660 1742 34 1688 1744 34 1680 1747 34 284 INDEX. Italian Writers. Born. Died. Page. Giannone . . . . 1748 34 Muratori . 1750 33 Becelli 1750 34 Zeno . 1668' 1750 34 Francesca Manzon '. fl. 1750 42 Maffei 1675 1755 34 Spolverini . 1762 34 Algarotti 1712 1764 35 Anderlini 1765 34 Frugoni 1692* 1768 34 Mazzuchelli . 1707 1768 34 Yalaresso 1686 1769 34 Lami . 1770 34 Stellini 1699* 1770 34 Pariati 1665 1773 34 Ganganelli . 1705 1774 32 Corilla Olimpica fl. 1775 42 Salandri 1723* 1777 34 Rodilla Amedea t . fl. 1779 42 Augusta Picoliniin i fl. 1780 42 Metastasio . J.698 1782 34 Filangieri 1752 1788 37 Chiari 1788 35 Baretti 1719° 1789 34 Paolina Grismoridi fl. 1790 42 Goldoni 'l707* 1793 34 Beccaria 1735 1793 37 Tirahoschi . 1746 1794 34 Calsabigi 1715 1795 35 Mattei 1742 1795 34 Pietro Verri 1728 1796 37 Maria Luisa Cicci fl.1796 42 Parini '. 1729* 1799 38 NINETEENTH CENTURY. Diodata Roero fl. 1800 42 Amarilla Etrusca . fl. 1800 42 Bandini .... 1800 38 Barotti .... 1801 37 Alberti .... 1801 38 Battacchi .... 1802 38 Federici .... 1751 1802 38 INDEX. 285 Italian Writers, Alfieri Passer oni Fabbroni Vianelli Albergati Count Saviol Soave Carlo Gozzi Bregolini Ceretti Cesarotti Lanzi . Piynotti Denina Laniberti Count Giovio Bovelli Bossi . Signorelli Galfo . Signorelli Bosetti Alessandro Minzoni Mazza Avellani Zanoja MoreUi Armelli Bondi Manzi Lorenzi Moscati Count d'Elci Carpani Rossmini JJgo Foscolo Bossi . Pindemonte Bosselini Monti Crioja . Vitorelli Count Giraud Ver Born. Died. Page 1794 1803 36 1713 1803 34 1723 1803 38 1803 38 1728' 1804 38 1729 1804 38 1758 1806 38 1806 36 1722 1807 38 1736 1808 38 1730 1808 37 1732 1810 38 1734 1812 39 1731 1813 34 1750 1813 38 1784 1814 38 1814 38 1777' 1815 38 1731 1815 38 1724 1815 38 1815 38 1772 1816 38 1741 1816 37 1734 1817 38 1740 1817 38 1817 38 1752* 1817 38 1819 38 1820 38 1745 1821 38 1783 1821 38 1732 1822 38 1710 1824 38 1754 1824 38 1752 1825 38 1758 1827 38 1777 1827 39 1755 1827 40 1753 1828 39 1765 1828 38 1759 1828 37 1767 1829 39 1835 38 1779 1835 40 286 INDEX. Italian Writers, Sgricci Countess Albrizzi Arici . Count Leopardi Botta . Silvio Pettico Manzoni Micali Nicolini Roinagnesi . Grossi Perticari C. Antonio . Nbta . . -_ Rossi . Jos. Yisconti Casti . Mauriani Carreri Berchet Marclietti Romani Sestini RufFa Ventignano, Duke of Campagna . Gasgallo Baldachini . Malpiero Virgilii Parzanese C-uerrazzi Yarese Bazzoni Gantu Touracelli Zirardini Canizzarro . Tommaseo . Teresa Albarelli Vordoni (of Verona) Caterina Bortoloni Condet (of Padua) Adele Curti (of Milan) Cecilia de Luna Folliero (of Naples) Caterina Ferrucci (of Narni) . Born. Died. 1836 1760* 1836 1836 1796 1837 1766 1837 1789 1844 INDEX. 287 Italian Writers. Born. Massini llosellini (of Florence) Giuseppa Guacci Nobile (of Naples) Elvira Giaurpieri (of Florence) Laura Mancini Oliva (of Naples) Giulia Molino Colonibani (of Torino) Chiara Morroni Bernabo Silorate Giuseppina Poggiolini (of Milan) Isabella Rossi (of Florence) . Angela Scacerni Prosperi (of Ferrara) Rosa Taddei (of Naples) Giuseppina Turrisi Colonna (of Pa lermo) .... Angela Veronese Mantovani (of Treviso) .... Died. Page. 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 Spanisl) tltttcrs. SIXTH TO TENTH CENTURIES. St. Isidore St. Julian St. Eulologe Othman 636 45 690 45 782 45 912 45 ELEVENTH CENTURY. Moslema Bent Aisha . Aboulvalid . Kasradgi Aboulkassem Zaidun Azadita Ben Ganah . Gassani 1007 45 1009 45 1012 45 1013 46 1070 46 1070 46 1095 46 46 46 Saidi Ali Aben Pace TWELFTH CENTURY. 1106 1138 46 46 288 Spanish Writers. Kaisi Abunassar . Roschd Averboes INDEX. Born. Died. Page. 1140 46 1198 46 THIRTEENTH CENTURY. Berceo 1211 48 Omar 1219 46 Gemaleddin 1274 46 Abul Hassan 1275 46 Alphonso X. 1284 47 Zaniora 1299 47 Loaysa 1299 47 Abbe* Antonio 47 Abb6 Nicolas 47 FOURTEENTH CENTURY. Lakamita 1308 48 Raimond Lulli 1315 48 Djaeddu Abu Juan Buyoz (of Hita) Fahrun Abram 1318 1350 1359 48 48 48 Juan Manuel 1362 48 Catib Mahomet 1374 48 Leo the African . 1380 48 Ayala . 1397 48 FIFTEENTH CENTURY. Clavijo Villena 1407 1434 49 49 Santillana . 1398 1456 49 Juan de Mena 1412 1458 49 Rodrigo of Zaniora 1407 1470 47 Valera 1482 49 Pulgar Haro . 1486 49 49 Badajoz Gruevara . ' 49 49 Ladron 49 Acuna 49 Cota . 49 Juan de Hoz 50 INDEX. 289 SIXTEENTH CENTURY. Spanish Writers. Born. Died. Page Christ. Columbus . . 1441 1506 51 Castillo 1507 51 Ximenes [Cardinal) Perez de Oliva 1437 1517 1533 51 51 Garcilasso 1536 51 Vives . 1492' 1540 58 Boscan 1543 51 Juan de Enzinas . 1545 49 Peretius 1545 51 Juan Yaldesso 1546 50 G-arces 1547 52 Gomara 1552 53 Mejia . Las Casas . 1417 1552 1566 53 57 Gil Polo . 1572 51 Luis Vives . 1575 58 Mendoza 1575 52 Herrera 1500 1578 52 Ocampo De Rojas 1578 pub. 1579 53 50 U Acuna 1580 52 Cueba . 1582 58 St. Theresa Avila 1582 53 Cetina 1584 52 Malon 1586 53 Luis de Granada 1588 53 Cruz . 1589 53 Gonzales Molina 1590 60 G-aribai 1590 53 Luis Ponce de Leo n '. 1527 1591 52 Ercilla y Zuniga Castillejo Matamores . 1540 1595 1596 55 52 53 Cano . 53 Zarate Siguenza Argensola 25 SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 1565 1601 53 1606 53 1613 58 290 INDEX. Spanish Writers. Born. Died. Page Cervantes 1547 1616 53 Zurita 1537 pub. 1616 53 Fran. Figueroa 1540 1620 59 Mariana 1537 1624 53 Herreras Tordesillas (Ant.^) 1565 1625 59 Gongora . 1561 1627 . 58 Guillem de Castro 1630 58 G-er. de Alcala ' . 1563* 1632 59 Espinel . . 1544 1634 59 Lope de Vega 1562 1635 54 Virves 1586 1635 59 Naharro ... 1635 55 Moncada 1572 1635 60 Coloma 1637 60 Montalvan 1639 56 Quevedo 'l580 1645 59 Aguilar 1570 1650 59 Roxas 1650 62 Suarez Figueroa . 1586 1650 59 Borja y Aragon 1580 1658 59 Nieremberg 1590 1658 60 G-racian 1591 1658 60 Rioja . 1660 1659 59 Juan Lugo . 1660 58 Villegas 1595' 1669 58 Rebolledo . . . . 1587 1676 59 Sellez, or Molina 1680 61 N. Antonio . 1617' 1684 60 De Solis 1610 1686 60 Calderon de la Barca . 1600 1687 60 Miguel Molinos . 1627 1696 62 EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. Condanio Feijoo Luzan Reynoso y Q Armesto Larramendi Father Florez Burriel Velasquez 1709 62 1726 62 1730 62 1730 62 1730 62 1762 63 1763 63 1764 63 1764 63 INDEX. 291 Spanish Writers. Sedano Nic. Moratin Ciscar . Cadalso Caldaza Lardizabal . De La Isla . Yriarte (Thomas) Ulloa (Antonio) . Lampillas Mohedano . Garria de la Huerta Munoz Rod. Castro Born. Died. Page pub . 1768 63 1697' 1780 62 1781 63 1782 63 1782 63 pub .1782 64 1783 63 1794 63 1716 1795 64 1739 1798 63 1798 63 1798 63 1799 63 1739 1799 63 NINETEENTH CENTURY. Martin Ulloa (nephew) . . 1800 64 Bustamente 1800 64 Cavanilles . 1745 1804 64 Sanchez . 1806 64 Fajardo 1806 64 Florida Blanca 1728 1809 65 Samaniego . 1742 1809 64 Countess Montijo . 1809 65 Capmany . 1810 65 Count de Cabarrus 1810 66 JoveUanos . 1811 64 Cienfuegos . 1812 65 Masdeu 1817 65 Valdez 1754 1817 63 Apececha fl. 1820 67 Arjona Roldan 176l' 1820 67 Llorente 1821 65 Amat (Don Felix) 1750' 1824 67 Castro (Francisco) 1771 1827 67 Leandro Moratin 1760 1828 64 Bermudez de Castro (Jose) fl. 1830 68 Duran fl. 1832 68 Arnao fl. 1834 67 Carvjal 1753' 1834 68 Clemencin 1765 1834 68 Floran fl. 1834 68 292 INDEX. Spanish Writers Arriaza Castro (Orozeo) Hermosilla . Blanco White Hervas Tapia Marina . - Campomanes Quintana Lardizabal . Galliardo Savinon Martinez de la Rosa Garostiza Quintana Clavigero Treuba Cosjoy Breton de los Ilerreros Bermudez de Castro (Salvador) Burgos Amat (Don Firmin) Calderon (Serafin) Donoso Cortes Escosura Espronceda . Florez Estrada Frias (Duke of) Galliano Gallego Gutierrez G-arelli Gil . Gil y Zarate Hartzenbusch Jerica Larra Lista Madrazo Maturana Maury Mesonero Miiiano Mora Miraflores Bom. Died. 1770 1837 1808 fl. 1837 1771 1837 1775 1841 INDEX, 293 Spanish Writers. Born. Died. Page Morales Santisteban .... . . 70 Pacheco 70 Pastor Diaz 70 Piilegrin Pena y Aguayo Duke of Rivas (Saavedra) Roca de Togores . 70 70 70 70 Quiroga Samoza 70 70 Toreno 70 Vega .... Zorilla 70 70 Gonzales 70 Capman . Mandroza 70 70 |)ortugu£0e tUritersf. SIXTH TO FOURTEENTH CENTURIES. Abul Valid . Abu Amran Recesvindo . Abdala Rada Alphonso (Heiiriquez) Don Matheos Santarem Don Diniz . Don Pedro Barcellos Abu Dulvazatin . Abdelmalek Badrun Hermiguiez Coelho 1139 1279 FIFTEENTH CENTURY. Vasco Lobeira Griraldes Durate Das Regras . Azurara 558 72 604 72 684 72 1051 72 1185 73 1282 73 1321 73 1325 73 1354 73 . 72 72 73 73 1403 73 1407 73 1438 74 1442 74 1460 74 25* 294 Portuguese Writers. Marias Alphonso V. Fernando Lopes . Ribeyra (Bernardo) INDEX. Born. Died. 1470 1481 Page. 73 73 74 74 SIXTEENTH CENTURY. Pereira Pacheco . - 1503 75 Caiado 1503 75 Falcam 1503 75 Albuquerque 1452 1515 74 Albegaria da Costa 1517 75 Jorge Resende 1517 74 Magellan 1521 74 Pina . 1521 74 Vasco da Gama 1524 74 Tieve . 1536 74 Nuno da Cunha . 1539 75 Bandara 1556 74 Galvam 1557 75 Gil Vicente 1557 74 Miranda 1595' 1558 74 Castanheda . 1529 1559 75 Montemayor 1520 1562 75 Goes . 1567 75 Ferreira [Antonio] 1480 1569 75 Barros 1570 77 Gaspar Polo '. 1516 1572 75 Prestes 1572 77 Oriente 1572 77 Brandam 1572 77 Moraes 1573 77 Mello de Souza 1575 75 Andreo Resende 1575 77 Don Sebastian 1578 77 Camoens 1524 1579 75 Osorio 1580 77 Averio 1580 77 Mendez Pinto (Fe rn) *1508 1580 77 Thome 1582 77 Caminha 1589 77 Lisboa 1590 77 Martyres 1591 77 INDEX. 295 Portuguese Writers. Bom. Chiado Ribiero Pirez (Sebas.) Bernardes . Cortereal Died. Page. 1591 77 1592 77 1593 77 1593 77 SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. Lucena 1600 77 Arraiz 1600 77 Ct. Vimioso 1606 77 Lobo F. (Rodrigut ») 1580 1607 78 Mariz 1608 79 Leam . 1608 79 Tovar . 1614 78 Soto Mayor 1614 78 Veiga . 1614 78 Monteiro 1615 78 Machado 1615 78 Gonz. Andrade 1615 78 Mauzinko 1615 78 Diego Couto 1652 1616 79 Brito . 1617 79 Barbosa (Agostind 1617 79 Teixeira 1543 1620 79 Feo . 1627 79 Luiz Souza 1573 1627 79 Gabriel Castro 1632 78 Ceita 1633 79 Coutinho 1634 78 Sylveira 1636 78 Ant. Brandam '. 1584 1637 79 Pitta . 1640 78 Rollein 1648 78 Pinto Ribeiro 1649 78 Faria e Souza 'l590' 1649 79 M. Vasconcellos 1649 79 Saverim de Faria 1655 79 Mascarenhas 1595 1656 78 Freyre 1597 1657 79 Semedo 1658 79 P. Andrada* 1576 16(50 78 Man. Thomas 1665 78 Galhegos . . 1665 78 296 INDEX. Portuguese Writer! Don Mello {Fran.) Cardosa Esperanza . Sister Pimental G-us. Soares Bait. Tellez Gromes Lobo Serram Rib. Macedo Fran. Macedo Ceo ( Violante) Viera . Lopez Cabral Fernando Menezes Born. Died. Page 1610 1666 79 1606 1669 79 . 1670 80 , 1671 82 1616 1675 78 1595 1675 80 1675 78 1583' 1678 75 1618 1680 78 1596 1681 78 1601 1693 82 1608 1697 80 1634 1698 80 1614 1699 80 EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. Monteroyo 1670 1705 80 Lima 1680 1709 80 Lesbio . 1709 80 Gaetano de Souza 1674 1729 80 Da Costa (Victor.) 1674 1730 81 Dos Reys 1690 1738 80 Ct. Ericeyra (F. X.) 1673 1743 80 Bar. Machado 1743 81 Antonio Jose 1760 81 Dos Reis Quita 1770 80 D'Oliveira 1772 81 Garcam 1772 80 Vieira 1772 81 Rinialho 1772 81 Carvalho 1772 81 Dias Gomes 1772 81 Luis Verney 1772 81 Countess Vimeiro 1773 81 NINETEENTH CENTU RY. Bar. Duboccage . . . 1768 1803 81 Domin. Torres .... 1809 82 Sylva Da Cruz . 1732 1809 82 Do Nascimento 1734 1819 82 INDEX. 297 Portuguese Writers. Born. Died. Page Fran. Manocl .... 1819 82 Bap. Gomes 1820 82 Correa da Serra 1833 82 Ant. Castilho 82 Al. Ant. Grarrot 82 Mendes Leal 82 Ig. Pisarro 82 Ped. Mesquitella 82 (Sermcm lUritere. Ulpliilas 360? 83 NINTH AND TENTH CENTURIES. Ottfried of Weissemburg Walafrid and Wandulbert G-odeschalk and Haymo Iso of St. Gall . Solomon of Ramschag . Waldram of Strasburg . Rhoswitha . 840 83 fl. 849 83 fl. 868 83 871 83 891 83 906 83 980 83 ELEVENTH CENTURY. Witichind Ditbmar Notker Adelbold Lambert Bruno . Willeran Hepidanus "Wilhelm of Herschau 1002 84 1018 84 1022 84 1027 84 1077 84 1085 84 1085 84 1088 84 1091 84 TWELFTH CENTURY. Veldeck Wernher Zazichoven 1190 84 1159 84 1194 84 298 INDEX. THIRTEENTH CENTURY. German Writers. Von der Aue Ofterdingen Eschenbach (Wolf.) Reinbot von Dorn Freydank Enekel Eiko von Rapschow Rod. von Anse or Ems Otto IV. Count Bottenlaube Henry of Anhalt Conrad von Hohenstaufen Ulrich von Lichtenstein Duke of Misnie Duke of Breslau Conrad von Wiirzburg . Bom. Died. Page 1201 84 1207 84 1212 84 1230 84 1240 84 1250 84 1250 85 1250 85 1254 85 1267 85 1268 85 1272 85 1288 85 1290 85 1290 85 FOURTEENTH CENTURY. Regenbogen Hadloub Trymberg Frankenstein Hornek Meissen Ammenkausen Munchen Reidesel Behaim Mayenburg . Reinhard of Westerberg Fleck Tauler Muglin Herfort Quinfurt Suchenwirth Heinrick Teichner Prof. Frankenstein 1294 1300 85 1300 85 1300 85 1301 85 1315 85 1318 85 1337 85 1340 85 1341 86 1343 86 1349 86 1350 85 1350 86 1361 86 1369 86 1371 86 1382 86 1394 86 1395 86 1397 86 INDEX 299 FIFTEENTH CENTURY. German Wi iters. Bom. Died. Page Tillman . 86 Bucheler 1400 86 Neuenstadt . 1410 86 Windier 1411 86 Turinger 1420 86 Rothe 1434 86 Windek 1434 86 Andreas 1439 86 Wolkenstein 1449 86 Rosenpliit 1450 86 Nydhart 1456 86 Furtner 1468 86 Guttenberg . 1400 1468 87 Hans Folz . 1470 86 Ringolfinge . 1472 86 Steinhoevel . 1475 86 G-aspar Roen 1475 86. Weber 1476 86 Bremgarten . 1478 86 Schernberg . 1480 86 Lirar 1480 86 Schilling 1480 86 Reichenthaller' 1483 86 Albrecht von Eye 1485 87 Hagen 1490 87 Botha 1492 87 Stein • . 1493 87 SIXTEENTH CENTURY. Celtes .... . 1508 88 Geiler von Keiserberg 1445 1510 88 Bebel . 1516 88 Sebastian Brandt . 1454 1520 87 Reuchlin 1455 1522 88 Hutten 1488 1522 88 Al. Durer . 1471 1528 88 Baumann 1529 87 Ct. Nuenar . 1530 88 Zwinglius 1484 1531 89 Pfinzing 1481 1535 87 300 INDEX. German Writers Born. Died. Page Greff ... 1535 87 Turnmayr 1466 1535 88 Thomas Miirncr 1475 1536 87 Kantzoio 1499 1542 88 Sebas. Franck 1545 88 Luther 1483 1546 88 Bugenhagen 1485 1558 89 Melanchthon 1498 1560 8B Musculus 1497 1563 88 Grlareanus 1488 1563 89 Conrad Gessner 1516 1565 88 Agricola 1492 1566 89 Tschudi 1505 1572 88 Xylander 1532 1576 89 Hans Sachs 1494 1576 87 Ayer 1590 88 Fischart 1539 ,1590 88 Camerarius . 1594 88 Mic. Neander 1595 88 SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. Paul Schede, Melissus Rollenhagen Peter Denais Taubman Albertinus Arnd . Boehme Buxtorf Kepler Zinkgraff Opitiz . Flemming Belinkhaus Stettler Helmont Kinkhart Wecherling Andrea Clai . Schoeh Werder 1539 1602 89 1542 1609 89 1610 89 1565 1613 89 1560 1620 90 1555 1621 91 1625 89 1564* 1629 89 1571 1630 90 1591 1635 90 1597 1639 90 1609 1640 90 1567 1642 90 1642 91 1577' 1644 90 1586 1645 90 1651 90 1654 90 1656 90 1657 90 1657 90 INDEX. 301 German Writers. Uarsdoerfer . Dack . Schruppius . Grypli Moscherosch Griffensohn . Bucholz Olearius Paul Gerhard Sckeffer Hojjiman swaldau Neumark Birken Lohenstein . Zesen . Major . Piiffendorf , Born. Died. Page. 1658 91 1659 90 1610* 1661 91 1616 1664 90 1600 1669 90 1669 91 1671 91 1600* 1671 90 1606 1676 90 1677 90 1618* 1679 90 1621 1681 90 1681 91 1635 1683 90 1685 90 1634* 1694 91 1632 1694 91 EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. Spener Leibnitz Gunther Thoniasius Fabricius Elias Schlegel Kruger Mylius Mosheim Brawe Kleist Gottsched Baumgarten Abbt Wolf . Winhelmann Gellert Rabner Schiebeler Hartmann Crusius Haiti/ Broitinger 26 (A. T.) 1635 1705 91 1646 1716 93 1695 1723 92 1655 1728 94 1668 1736 94 1718 1749 91 1722 1750 92 1722 1754 92 1695 1755 94 1738 1758 92 1715 1759 92 1700 1760 91 1714 1762 94 1738 1766 94 1679 1766 93 1707 1768 93 1715 1769 91 1714 1771 91 1741 1771 92 1752 1775 92 1715 1775 94 1748 1776 92 1701 1776 92 302 INDEX. German Writers. Born. Died. Page Holler 1708 1777 91 Salzer .... 1720 1779 94 Sturz .... 1736 1779 94 Lessing 1729 1781 94 Goetz . «."■'■■•• 1721 1781 92 Lange . . . . 1715 1781 92 Iselm .... 1728 1782 98 Lichtwer 1719 1783 94 Bodmer 1698 1783 91 Frederick the Great 1712 1786 91 Mendelsohn . 1720 1786 94 Musseus . . . 1725 1787 94 Gessner (^SolomoTi) 1730 1788 93 llamann . . . 1730 1788 98 3Ioser 1701 1789 98 Schmidt 1716 1789 92 Blum 1739 1790 92 Gemnringen 1726 1790 92 Basedow . 1723 1790 98 Michaelis 1700 1791 94 Louisa von Karschin 1722 1791 108 Adolphe Schlegel . 1721 1793 91 J. Bode . 1754 1793 99 Burger {Gottfred) 1748 1794 97 Moeser 1720 1794 94 Zimmermann 1728 1794 93 Gailisli 1756 1795 92 Ch. Bode . 1795 99 Mastallier 173l' 1795 92 Schatz 1763 1795 92 Zaupser 1746 1795 92 Kcenig 1753 1796 92 Peter Uz 1720 1796 92 Hippel 1741 1796 100 Wackenroder 1772 1798 98 Blumauer . . 1755 1798 101 Ramler 1725 1798 93 Lichtenberg 1742 1799 93 Thomasius . NINETEE NTH CENTURY. 94 Koestner . 1719 1800 91 Novalis (or Hardenberg) 1772 1801 98 INDEX. 31 German Writers. Born. Died. Page Lacater 1741 1801 96 Glcim 1719 1803 92 Klopstock 1724 1803 92 Herder 1744 1803 96 Kant .... 1724 1804 99 Schiller 1759 1805 96 Adelung 1732 1806 94 Becker 1771 1806 101 Sophia Brentano . 1770 1806 108 Meissner 1753 1807 94 Schroeck ... 1733 1808 97 Scldbzer 1735 1809 100 Pfeffel . 1736 1809 101 John M'dller 1752 1809 100 Nicolai . 1733 1811 94 Beckman 1739 1811 101 Heyne 1730 1812 93 Wieland 1733 1813 93 Koerner 1791 1813 102 Ifland 1759 1814 96 Fichte 1762 1814 99 Jung .... 1740 1817 94 Schulze 1789 1817 102 Thummel 1738 1817 103 Campe 1746 1818 94 Madame Naubert 1756 1819 94 F. II. Jacobi 1743 1819 100 Kotzebue 1761 1819 97 Tennemann . 1761 1819 100 Halen 1752 1819 101 Solger 1780 1819 100 Theodore Hoffmann 1776 1822 104 Gerstenberg 1737 1823 94 Jean Paid Richter 1763 1825 103 Voss (John HeinricJi) . 1751 1826 104 Hebel . 1760 1826 99 Conz . . . . 1762 1827 101 Eichorn . 1752 1827 94 Bouterweh . . . 1766 1828 106 Werner . . . . 1768 1828 97 Mulner . 1775 1829 105 Frederick Scldegel 1774 1829 98 Lafontaine . . . . 1752 1831 94 Hegel 1779 1831 99 304 INDEX. German Writers. Born. Died. Page. Buerde . 1753 1831 101 Niebuhr . 1776 1831 101 Matthison . 1761 1831 101 Goethe . 1749 1832 94 Cotta . 1764 1832 107 Rahel (Madame) 1771 1833 109 Schleiermacher 1768 1834 107 Charlotte Stieglitz 1806 1834 109 Seewis . 1762 1834 101 Count Platen 1796 1835 102 Langbein 1757 1835 103 Benzel 1767 1835 104 Munchausen 1759 1836 94 Grabbe 1801 1836 105 Bosttiger 1760 1836 94 Malitz . . . * 1779 1837 105 Ancillon 1766 1837 100 Chamisso 1781 1838 104 Gaudy 1800 1840 102 Rotteck 1775 1840 101 Mdme. Schopenhaur 1770 1840 108 Immermann 1796 1841 105 Schenkendorf 1778 1841 102 Benecke 1762 1841 107 Heeren 1760 1842 101 La Motte Fouqut . 1777 1842 106 Caroline Pichler . 1769 184S 108 Kind 1768 184S 102 Madame Wolzogen 1763 1847 96 Henry Heine 1797 1847 103 Zschokke 1774 1847 101 Crusius 94 Wm. Schlegel 98 Leiois Tieck 98 Schlosser 99 Schelling 99 Brescia . 100 Gcerres 101 Leo .... . 101 Bitter . . . : 101 Schubart 101 Raumer 101 Ranke 101 Dahlmann , 101 INDEX. 305 German Writers. Duller Maurice Arndt Eberhard Zedlitz Uhland Sckwabbe Lenan " Anastasius Griin" Koerner Pyrhev Wesenberg . Hoffmann von Fallersleben Knappe Kopitsch Simrock Laube Pfizer Mundt Freiligrath . G-utzkow Becke . Eickendorf . Jacob Grimm William Grimm . Grilprazer . Menzel L. Arnini Lewis, King of Bavaria Werner Auffenberg . Schenk Raupacli Princess Amelia of Saxony Duke of Mecklenburg Amelia von Schoppe Raimund Sternberg Lotz F. Holm . Scboeffer Alex. Humboldt Tarnowski . Toepfer Heugel Born. Died. Page. 101 102 102 102 102 102 102 102 102 102 102 102 102 102 102 103 102 103 102 103 102 103 104 104 104 104 104 104 105 105 105 105 105 105 106 106 106 106 106 106 107 106 106 106 26* 306 German Writers F. Strauss . Hem. Steffen JSfeander MarTieinehe Zunz . Furst . Jost . Manheimer Biesser G-eiger Bopp . Freytag Rosenmtiller Ewald Von der Hagen Biisching Lachmann Schmeller Wolff . Hoffmeister Savigny Stahl . Hullmann Welcker Schubert Buch . Oken . Link . Brown Erichson Encke . Blmnenhagen Johanna Weissenthurn Frederica Bruhn Fanny Tarnow Theresa Haber Bettina Arnim Countess Hahn HaTin INDEX. Bom, Died. INDEX. 307 ihnri) iUrtten SIXTH CENTURY. French Writers. Born. St. Remy Gregory of Tours 544 Died. 589 594 Page. Ill 111 Charlemagne Alcuinus Eginhart Fredegairius William of Lorris NINTH CENTURY. 740 814 816 836 111 111 112 112 113 THIRTEENTH CENTURY. Abelard Brunetto Latini Villehardouin 1213 1294 114 113 114 Joinville Gerson FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 1223 1317 1336 113 114 Christine of Pisan Froissart Alain Cliartier Charles of Orleans Clotilde de Surville Clement Isaure Basselin FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 1363 1411 1333 1419 1386 1449 1391 1467 1405 1496 114 114 113 113 113 113 113 De Gelais (•Oct.) . Philip de Comines SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 1465 1502 116 1445 1509 114 308 INDEX. French Writers. Born. Died. Page Seyssel 1520 116 Jean Marot . 1457 1523 115 Lemaire 1473 1524 115 Crestin 1525 115 Chevalet . 1528 115 Parmentier . 1494 1530 115 Louise de Savoie . 1532 137 Chainpier (elder) . 1472 1540 116 Roger Bontems 1455 1540 115 Bude . ;■;•'. 1470 1540 116 Olivier 1540 115 G-rognet 1543 115 GuiL Bellai/ 1543 116 Arena .... 1544 116 Clement Marot ! 1492 1544 115 Du Guillet . 1546 115 Stephen Dolet 1546 115 Abbe Yatable 1547 117 Francis I. 1494 1547 115 Marguerite de Yalois 1495 1549 115 Abundance . 1550 115 Bouchet 1555 115 Rabelais 1483* 1556 117 De la Peruse 1530 1556 116 Mellin Gelais 1491 1558 116 Robert Etienne 1503 1559 117 Martin Bellay 1559 116 Herberaj 1559 117 Henry II 1519 1559 115 Jean Bellay 1560 116 Joachim Bellay 1560 116 Simon Grebau 1560 115 Jacques de la Taille 1562 115 Arnoul G-rebau 1562 115 Magny 1562 115 Boetie .... 1580 1563 115 Calvin . . 1509 1564 118 Eustache Bellay . 1565 116 Louise Labbe 1566 137 Dumoulin 1566 117 Xostradanius 1566 115 Borderie 1566 115 Hereot . 'l492' 156S 115 Grrevin 153S 1570 116 INDEX. 30 French Writers. Born. Died. Page. Jean du Tillet ..... 1570 117 Jean de la Taille . 1570 115 Coligny 1517 1572 117 Yillegagnon 1572 117 Jeanne cVAlbret . 1528* 1572 137 Tavanes de Saulx . 1509 1573 117 Val6e . 1573 117 Amyot 1514 1573 118 1/ Hospital . 1505 1573 118 Jodelle 1523 1573 119 Habert 1574 115 Charles IX. 1550 1574 115 Jacques Gohorry 1576 117 Renii Belleau 1577 116 Blaise de Montluc 1500" 1577 117 Claude de Pontoux 1530 1579 116 Abbe Billy . 1535 1581 116 Languet 1581 117 Belleforest . 1530 1581 117 Morel . 1583 117 Pibrac ! 1529 1584 116 Fr. Amboise 1585 116 Muret . 1526* 1585 116 Argentre 1585 117 Ronsard 1585 119 Mad. de la Roche *1530 1587 137 Cath. de la Roche 1550 1587 137 Mellin de Gelais 1588 116 Paradin 1590 117 Du Bartas . 1544* 1590 116 Ant. Baif . 1532 1591 116 Montaigne . 1553 1592 118 Fr. Grade" . 1593 117 Castelneau . 1593 117 Jean de la JesseV 1550* 1595 116 Jean Bodin . 1596 117 SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. George Scudery Garnier Father Daniel Charron 1601 120 1545 1601 116 1530 1603 123 1541 1603 124 310 INDEX. French Writer 5. Born. Died. Page. Pontus Tyard 1521 1605 119 De Beze 1519 1605 118 Nic. Rapin 1535 1608 119 Voisin 1608 124 Cayet . 1525 1610 124 Regnier 1537 1613 119 Brantome 1527 1614 118 Durant 1554 1615 119 Be Thou . 1553 1617 118 Arnauld 1560 1619 124 Coffetean 1574 1623 124 Hon ore d'Urfel 1567 1625 119 Pere Cotton 1626 124 Goullart . 1628 124 Malherbe 1555 1628 119 D' Orleans 1629 119 D 'Aubigny . 1630 124 Duke de Rohan 1638 124 Duchesne 1584* 1640 124 Sully 1559 1641 123 Card. Richelieu 1585 1642 124 Abbe St. Cyran 1643 124 Bassompierre 1579* 1646 124 Malleville . 1597 1647 119 Baro . 1599 1649 119 Scarron 1610 1649 119 Descartes 1596 1650 122 Rotrou 1609 1650 119 Vaugelas 1650 124 Yoiture 1598* 1651 124 Balzac 1596 1654 124 Tristan 1568 1655 119 St. Marthe . 1571 1655 124 Tristan the Hermit 1601 1655 119 Bergerac 1620 1655 119 Gassendi 1592 1655 124 Bignon 1590 1656 124 Ryer 1608 1658 119 Duryer 1605 1658 121 St. Armand 1594 1660 120 Breboeuf 1615 1661 120 Dupleis 1569 1661 124 Pascal 1623 1662 122 Calprenede . 1663 123 INDEX. 311 French Writers. Bom. Died. Page Paean 1589 1670 119 Pcrefixe 1670 124 Lemoine 1671 120 Patin 1601* 1672 124 La Motlie de Yayer 1588 1672 124 Cardinal de Retz . 1614 1672 123 Moliere 1622 1673 122 Des Barreaux ' . 1602 1674 119 Chaplain 1595 1674 119 Gabriel Gilbert 1680 119 Rochefoucauld 1613 1680 122 Moreri 1643 1680 123 Bertaut 1681 119 Mezerai 1610* 1683 123 P. Corneille 1606 1684 121 Montfleury . 1641 1685 119 Chapelle 1616 1686 119 Bene Rapin 1621 1686 119 Mairet 1604 1686 121 Nicol . . ■ . 1611 1686 122 Quinault 1635 1688 121 Mme. de Motteville 1689 137 Benserade 1612 1691 120 St. Real 1639 1692 123 Pelisson Fontaniers 1654 1693 124 Bussy Rabutin 1618 1693 125 Mdlle. de Montpensier . 1627 1693 123 Mme. de Lafayette 1633 1693 123 Mme. Deshoulieres 1638 1694 120 D'Herbelot 1625 1695 123 Aubery . . 1695 125 Lafontaine . 1695 120 Varillas 1625* 1696 125 Abbe Martignac . 1628 1696 125 Mme. de Sevigni . 1627 1696 124 La Bruyere 1639 1696 122 Pradon 1698 120 Racin . EIGHTEI 1639' NTH CENTURY. 1699 120 Boursault 1638 1701 128 Segrais 1701 128 OLA J French Writers. Born. Died. Page. JBossuet . 1627 1701 120 Mme. de Scuderi . 1607 1701 138 Commire . . 1625 1702 128 Perrault 1703 128 St. Evremond 1613* 1703 122 Mascaron . 1654 1703 120 DuchSt . 1668 1704 121 Bourdaloue 1632 1704 120 Mme. d'Aulnoy . 1705 138 Bayle . 1647* 1706 122 Lafosse . 1653 1708 128 Thomas Corneille 1625 1709 121 Regnard 1647 1709 122 FlecMer . . . . ; - , 1632 1710 120 Boileau 1636 1710 119 Sophie Cheron 1711 138 Lafare . 1644* 1712 120 Regrder Desrnarets 1632 1713 120 Jurieu 1637 1713 123 Fentton 1651 1715 121 JSIalebranche 1638 1715 122 Ancillon 1659 1715 129 Mme. Guy on 1648 1717 138 Balluze 1631 1718 129 Mme. de Maintenon 1635 1719 138 Letellier 1643 1719 129 Mme. Dacier 1651 1719 123 Jouvency 1643 1719 129 Grenest 1689 1719 128 Chaulieu 1639 1720 120 Palaprat 1650 1721 129 Massieu 1722 129 Andrew Dacier 1621 1722 123 Brueys 1723 129 Basnage *1635* 1723 129 Campistron . 1650 1723 121 G-arat 1694 1723 128 Abbe Fleury . . 1640 1723 123 Dufresnoy 1648 1724 119 Rapin 1661 1725 119 Larne .... 1643 1725 129 Baron .... 1657 1729 119 Du Jarry 1730 129 Sauriii . . 1677' 1730 128 INDEX. 313 French Writers. Born. Died. Page. Laniotte-Houdar . 1672 1731 126 Camusat 1695 1732 129 Legenclre 1733 129 Mdlle. de St. Lambert . 1647* 1733 125 Bellegrade . 1648 1735 129 Vertot 1665 1735 123 Le Clerc 1657 1736 123 Buffier 1661 1737 122 Sevin .... 1741 129 Rollin 1661* 1741 128 Montfaucon . 1655 1741 125 J. B. Rousseau 1670 1741 120 Dubos 1742 130 Massillon 1663' 1742 121 Chevalier Ramsay 1686 1743 123 Le Sage ... 1668 1747 126 Mme. du Chatelet . 1749 138 Mdlle. Tencin 1681 1749 124 Mme. Staal de Launay 1751 138 Duperron 1705 1752 130 La Chaussee 1692 1754 129 Destouches . 1680 1754 126 Montesquieu . 1689 1755 127 Marguerite de Lussan . 1757 138 Fontenelle 1657* 1757 127 Calmet 1672 1757 128 Boissy 1649 1758 129 Mme. de G-raffigny 1758 138 Maupertuis 1759 127 Crebillon 1647 1762 125 Crevier 1693 1765 128 Ladvocat 1709 1765 130 Villaret 1766 130 Goujet 1697' 1767 130 Olivet 1682 1768 130 Malfilatre 1732 1769 125 Macquer 1770 130 Moncrif 1687' 1770 129 Picard 1689 1770 126 Relvetius 1715 1771 127 Duclos 1704 1772 126 Fevret 1772 130 Beaumelle 1773 130 Piron 1689' 1773 126 27 314 INDEX. French Writers. Born. Died. Page Condamine . 1774 130 Henault ! 1635' 1774 123 Voisenon 1775 129 Colardeau 1776 129 St. Foix '. 1703' 1776 129 Gresset 1709 1777 125 J. Jacques Rousseau 1712 1778 126 Voltaire 1694 1778 121 Laporte 1779 130 Dorat 1734' 1779 129 Laures 1709 1779 129 Dreux de Radier . 1714 1780 130 Condillac 1715 1780 128 Gilbert 1751 1780 119 D'Anville . . 1697 1782 130 Duhamel 1700 1782 130 Marivaux 1738 1783 126 D'Alembert . 1717 1783 127 Colle 1709 1783 126 Diderot 1713 1784 126 Antoine Thomas . 1785 129 Mably 'l709 1785 130 Millot 1785 128 Goguet 1716' 1786 127 Dupaty 1744 1788 130 Savary 1750 1788 128 Bvffbn 1707 1788 127 D'Holbach . . 1723 1789 127 Mirabeauj . 1749 1791 130 Ridhieres 1735 1791 130 Mme. Riccobeni . 1714 1792 138 Favard . 1710 1792 126 Mme. de Goujet . 1755 1793 138 Mme. Roland 1754 1793 138 Lemierre . 1733 1793 129 De la Place . 1707 1793 129 Champfort . 1741 1793 130 Bailly . 1736 1793 130 Volney . " . 1757 1793 128 Cam. Desmoulins . 1762 1794 130 Linguet . 1736 1794 130 Malesherhes . . . 1721 1794 130 Thouret 1746 1794 130 Andre Chenier 1762 1794 125 LNDEX. 3: French Writers. Born. Died. Page Florian 1755 1794 125 Condorcet 1743 1794 127 Fabre d'Eglautine 1755 1794 126 Bartlielmy . 1716 1795 128 Beaufort 1795 130 Collot d'Herbois . 1750* 1796 129 Raynal 1711 1796 128 Sedaine 1719 1797 126 Richer 1720 1798 130 Guys 1721 1799 130 Beaumarchais 1732 1799 126 Mannontd . 1723 1799 127 315 NINETEENTH CENTURY. Latour d'Auvcrgne Mine. Bourdic Viot Mme. Duboccage St. Lambert La Harpe Necker Carmontelle . Desforges Mme. Cottin Colin d'Harleville Anquetil {L. P.) Grimm (Baron) Lebrun Sabatier Valmont Cabanis Dupuis Saint Croix . Luce de Lancival Joseph Chenier Esmenard Levesque Toulongeon . Delille (Jacques) Legouve Bernardin de St. Pierre Parny . Gcoffroy 1743 1800 131 1716 1802 138 1710 1802 138 1717 1803 131 1739 1803 126 1732 1804 131 1717 1805 131 1746 1806 131 1773 1806 138 1755 1806 126 1723 1806 128 1723 1807 131 1729 1807 131 1735 1807 131 1731 1807 131 1757 1808 128 1742 1809 135 1746 1809 132 1766 1810 132 1764 1811 126 1770 1811 132 1736 1812 132 1748 1812 132 1738 1813 125 1764 1813 132 1737 1814 126 1753 1814 132 1743 1814 132 316 INDEX. French Writers. Born. Died. Page. Palissot 1730 1814 132 Boufflers 1737 1815 132 Ginyuene 1748 1816 132 Mentelle 1730 1816 132 ■Ducis .... 1733 1816 126 Millevoye 1782 1816 137 Mme. de Stael 1766 1817 131 G-ouffier . 1762 1817 132 Suard .... 1734 1817 132 Delille 1738 1818 125 Morellet 1727 1819 132 Mme. de Remusat 1720 1821 138 Sicard (Abbe) 1742 1823 132 Avrigny . 1760 1824 132 Bausset 1748 1824 133 Langles ... 1763 1824 133 P. L. Courrier 1778 1824 133 Mine. Dufresnoy . 1825 138 Ferrand 1785 1825 133 Gl. Foy . . . 1775 1825 133 Lacepede 1756 1825 133 Boissy d'Anglas . 1756 1827 133 Mine. Gruizot 1773 1828 138 Neufckateau 1752 1828 133 Picard ... 1769 1828 134 Daru .... 1767 1829 134 Benj. Constant 1767 1830 134 Mme. de Genlis . 1746 1830 132 Cuvier 1796 1832 137 De Tracy . 1754 1836 128 Laroiniguiere 1756 1837 128 Lally Tollendal . 1751 1839 134 Sismondi 1773 1845 134 Casimir de la Vigne 1794 1845 133 Chateaubriand 1769 184S 131 Dupin 129 De Bonald 130 Duval . 136 Beranger 133 Lamartine 133 Guizot 134 Cousin 134 Barante 134 Mignet . 134 INDEX. 317 French ' Writers. Born. Died Page. Michelet 134 Thiers 134 Quinet 134 Aug. Thierry 134 Villemain 134 Alex. Dumas 134 Dupuis 135 Ballanche 135 Fourrier 135 Leruercier 135 Victor Hugo 135 Ancelot 136 Duval 136 Souniet 136 Royer-Collard 137 Paul de Kock 137 Jules Janin • 137 Scribe 137 Andrieux 136 Barbier 136 Etienne 136 Alfred de Musset 137 Balzac 137 St. Beauve . 137 "G-eorges Sand" 137 Eugene Sue 137 Arago 137 Fred. Soulie 137 Louis Blanc 137 St. Marc Girardin 137 Aime Martin V 137 Segur . 137 De la Mennais 137 Raoul Rochette 137 Count Mat. Dumas 134 27 ; 318 INDEX. Brittst) lUriters. British Writers. Born. Ossian Died. 200? 144 SIXTH TO THIRTEENTH CENTURY. Gildas 550 145 Nennius ♦ . • 550 145 St. Columbanus 615 145 Felix . ' 637 735 145 Alfred the Great . 900 146 Venerable Bede ' ' 848* 901 . 145 JElfric 1052 147 G-eoffrey of Monmouth (icrote) 1131 147 William of Malm&lmry 1143 147 Wace . . . (wrote) 1160 147 Layamon (icrote) 118C ) 147 Matthew Paris (icrote) 1258 147 Roger Bacon 1214 1291 147 Thomas of Ercildoun (icrote) 129S 147 Aldhelm 145 Casdnion 145 Coelfrid 145 Cynewolf 147 Wulfstone . 147 Philip de Thaun . 147 Thorold ■ 147 Gaimar 147 Eobert of Gloucester 147 Robert Manning of Bou me . 147 Langtoft of Bridlington 147 Henry of Huntingdon 147 Matthew of Westminste r 147 Michael Scotus 147 FOURTEENTH CENTURY. Duns Scotus Fordun (icrote) 1301 1308 148 148 INDEX, 319 British Writers Born. Died. Page. Adam Davie (wrote) 1356 147 Sir John Mandeville {wrote) 1300 1356 148 Minot (wrote) 1356 148 Rolle . 1356 148 Langlande . 1356 148 Wicldiffe . 1324' 1388 148 Barbour 1326 1396 149 FIFTEENTH CENTURY. Chaucer 1328 1400 148 William of "Wykeham . 1324 1404 149 Gower 1325 1408 149 Andrew of Wyntown . ( wrote) 1420 149 Lydgate . . ( wrote) 1430 149 James I. of Scotland 1437 149 Blind Harry fl. 1460 149 Juliana Berners . 1460 150 Sir John Fortescue 1430 1470 153 Caxton 1471 149 Hutcheon 149 Clerk 149 Holland 149 SIXTEENTH CENTURY. Robert Henryson . 1508 150 Fabian 1512 153 Dr. John Collet 1416 1519 155 John Heywood fl. 1520 155 William Dunbar . 1520 150 Grawin Douglas 1474 1522 150 Lord Berners fl. 1523 150 Wm. Lily 1468 1523 155 Linacer 1460 1524 151 Sir Thomas More 1481 1535 150 John Skelton 1490 fl. 1535 150 Fischer 1459 1535 154 Tynedale 1477 1536 155 Sir Thomas Wyatt 1503 1541 150 Sir Thomas Eliot . 1546 150 Lord Surrey (Henry Howard ) 1516* 1547 150 Edward Hall 1547 153 320 INDEX. British Writers. Bom. Died. Page. Clapperton . 1550 153 Udall fl. 1551 161 Leland 1552 159 Sir John Cheke 1514 1557 153 Cavendish . 1557 153 Alexander Scot 1562 160 Bale .... 1493* 1563 154 Edwards fl. 1566 161 Stowe 1566 162 Sir David Lindsay 1567 152 Roger Aschum 1568 152 Bishop Jewel 'l522' 1571 159 John Knox . 1505 1572 159 Whetstone . 1578 161 G-ascoigne 1578 155 Grafton fl. 1580 158 Tusser 1580 150 Thomas Watson . 1581 153 George Buchanan . 'l506 1582 159 Holinshed . 1584 159 Sir P. Sidney 1554 1586 156 Mary Queen of Scots 1540 1587 152 Marlowe 1565 1593 157 Peele .... fl. 1593 161 Richard Barnfield . m 1594 155 John Lesley 1527 1596 161 Alexander Montgomery . 1597 160 Lord Burleigh . 1598 153 Spenser . 1553 1599 156 Sir John Davies . 1599 156 SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. Nash . 1600 161 Robert Southivcll . 1600 153 Lyiy • fl. 1600 161 Munday 1600 161 Chettie 1600 161 Dekker fl. 1601 161 Webster fl. 1601 161 Bellenden fl. 1602 152 Hooker 159 James I. of Engla Qd ■ (H ) 244 Win. Van Haren 1713 176S 243 Van Lennep 1771 244 Wagenaar 'l709 1773 241 Onno Van Haren 1772 243 Bellamy 1757 178£ » 243 Valknaer ■ . 178S 244 Nieuland 'l769* 1794 243 Winter 1718 1795 242 Langendyh 1683 1791 243 Ruhnkenius 179S 244 Gerard Meeman . 179£ 243 NINETEENTH CENTURY. Bakker 1801 243 Simon Styl . 1802 243 Paquot 1802 I 242 Alphen 1802 \ 243 Water 1802 \ 243 Nomsz 1802 243 Eliz. Wolff . 1804 [ 244 Agatha Dekken 1804 244 Saxius 1806 J 244 Bilderjik 1806 243 Loosjes 1806 244 Lnzac 180£ > 244 Bosch 1811 244 Wyttenbach 181$ > 244 Mme. Van Merken 1772 1842 1 242 Helmers 243 Eliz. Post . 244 Petronilla Moens . 244 Henry Conscience . 244 John cle Laet 245 Graillard 245 Jouanin and Gravar 245 Van Buekel 245 Dijk . . . 245 Van Spall 245 INDEX. 347 Oamsl) tDriftrs. ELEVENTH TO SIXTEENTH CENTURIES. Danish Writers. Born. Died. Page. Isleif 1052 248 Ari-Hinn-Frodi 11— 248 Soemund Sigfussen 1133 248 Sueno Aageson 1186 246 Haal Taitsson 1149 248 Snorro Sturhon . 1192 248 Saxo G-rammaticus 1203 250 G-issur Halsson 1206 248 Brand Jonsson 1262 248 Olav-Switas-Skalld 1259 249 Sturla-Hinn-Frodi 1284 249 Laaland 1508 251 Banzau 1598 251 SEVENTEENTH CENT URY. Tycho Brake . . 1546 1601 251 Huitfield 1609 251 Arreboe 1637 250 Bording 1619 1677 251 Pontoppidan 1616 1678 251 Shested 1698 251 EIGHTEENTH CENTI RY. Thomas Kingo . . 1634 1703 251 Nic. Kingo 17— 251 Helt 1703 251 Torfens *1660 1720 251 Beesenberg . 1742 251 Holberg 1684 1744 252 Falster 1752 251 Sclienedorf . 1722 1764 251 Kraft . 1720 1765 251 Tallin 1728 1765 252 Langebeck . 1710 1774 258 348 INDEX. Danish Writers. Eioald Wessel . Schoening Wei/er Rothe Birkner Storm Samsoe Zetlitz Born. Died. Page. 1742 1781 253 1742 1783 253 1722 1783 252 1764 1788 253 1731 1795 252 1756 1795 253 1749 1795 254 1759 1796 254 1796 253 NINETEENTH CENTURY. Baden 1735 1804 254 Tocle . 1736 1805 254 Giddherg 1805 254 Falsen 1755 1808 255 Seidelin . • . 1812 254 Sander 1812 254 Brurm i8ie ► 253 Bastholm 1818 254 Thaarup 1749 1821 254 Pram . 1821 254 Hertz . 1825 255 Baggesen 1764 182e 256 Malte Brun . 1760 1827 255 Rask . 184S 257 Rahbek 254 Reitzel 254 Molbech 254 JSfyerup 255 Henri/ Steffens 256 (Ehlenschlager 256 Ingemann 257 Andersen 257 Wysse 257 Rosenhoft 257 Welhaven 257 Moller 257 Rudleback , 257 Engeltoft 257 Rothman 257 INDEX. 349 SmebisI) tUritcvs. Swedish Writers. Born. Died. Jan Store Olaiis Store Page. 259 259 Olaiis Magnus Lawrence Peterson SIXTEENTH CENTURY, 1480 1568 1541 260 259 Gust. Adolpbus John Messinius Arnold Messinius John Messinius Bureus Tegel . Grirs . Stjernhiehi Loccenius Queen Christina Dalsthjerna . SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. beheaded 1594 1632 260 1584 1637 260 1651 260 1652 260 1653 260 1654 260 1598 1672 260 1599 1677 260 1626 1689 260 260 EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. Rudbek Spegel Peringskiceld Triewald Norberg Hasselquist . Dahlin Madame Nordenflycht Moerk Botin Swedenborg Linnseus 80 1630 1702 261 1645 1714 261 1654 1720 261 1648 1743 262 1744 262 1722 1752 264 1708 1762 262 1763 262 1763 264 1708 1763 261 1689 1772 261 1707 1778 261 350 INDEX. Swedish Writers Born. Died Page Ihre . 1780 261 Bergman 1735 1784 261 Creutz 1785 261 Laggerbring Atterbom '. 1707 1788 261 1790 264 Gustavus III. 1746 1795 5 262 Bellmann 1745 1793 263 Lidner 1759 179£ 263 Kellgrenn 1751 1795 261 Olaf Ceolsius 1761 1795 262 Ehrenswoerd 179£ ) 263 Stenhamar . 179£ > 263 Bergius Thunberg Wallerius 261 261 261 Scheeld 261 Pohlen 261 Klingenstiema Stroemer 261 261 Wargentin . Kryger Olafsen 261 261 261 Fischertroem 261 Goeranson 261 Brander 262 Bergerstroem Elers 262 263 Tylas Olof Kexell 263 263 Enwalson 263 Hallenberg . Hallmann 263 263 Nordahl Brunn 264 Leopold 263 NINETEENTH CENTURY, Choraus 1806 263 LiUjesthrale 1721 1806 263 Gyllenbovg . 1732 1808 261 Thorrild 1759 1808 263 Nordin 1812 264 Madame Lenngren 1815 263 Swedish Writers. INDEX. Born. 351 Sylverstolpe Alderbeth Oxentheirn Franzen Tegner Geijer Hamerskoeld Stagnelius Afzelius Beskow Cederborge Dalgren Frederica Bremer Olaf Wallin Creusenstolf Saterberg Fryell Jacob Aall . Died. 1816 1818 1818 1847 Page. 264 263 263 264 264 264 264 264 266 266 266 266 2Q,6 266 266 266 266 266 Russian tUritera. NINTH TO SIXTEENTH CENTURIES. St. Cyrill Jaroslav Nestor Nikitin Kylo . Agathon Jeorghi Kourbsky Greekoff 863 267 1035 267 1100 267 1470 267 1481 267 1540 267 1550 267 1565 267 1583 267 Yove . Palatsin Procopowicz Nicon SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 1607 267 t 1629 268 1651 267 1605 1660 268 352 INDEX. Russian Writers. Born. Died. Page. Slavianitsky 1666 268 Theodore Griboiedoff .... 1676 268 EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. Princess Sophia . 1704 268 Demetrius . 1709 268 Yavorscy 1722 268 Kracheninnikoff . 1755 268 Propofsky . ' . 1760 268 Wolkoff 1729 1763 269 Kantimir 1709 1765 268 Lomonossoff 1711 1765 268 Barkoff 1768 269 Trediaskovsky 1702* 1769 268 Soumarakoff 1718 1777 269 Maikotf 1778 269 Simeon 1726 1781 269 Kmazi.n 1742 1781 269 Ablessinoff . 1784 269 Khemnitzer . 1744 1784 272 Scherbatoff . 1733 1790 269 Boltirt 1735 1792 269 Von Vizin . 1745 1792 269 Catherine II. 1729 1796 269 Kostroff 1796 271 Petroff 1736 1799 270 Nedelinski . 271 NINETEENTH CENTURY. Golikoff ' . 1735 1801 270 Efimief 1804 270 Bogdanovitch \ 1743' 1804 270 Kherassoff . 1733 1807 270 Bobroff 1810 271 Kriouskofsky I78l' 1811 270 Platon 1740 1812 274 Derzhavin . 1743 1816 270 Ozeroff 1770 1816 271 Dolgourouki 1764 1823 272 Kapniste 1823 271 INDEX. 353 Russian Writers. ] Born. Died. Page. Karamsin . . 1826 271 Dmitrief 1760 1827 271 Gortshukov 1750 1827 274 Ozeretskovsk Griboiedoff Beketoff 7 • 1751 1703 1760 1827 1829 1829 274 269 274 Bronevsky Kutusoff 1762 1767 1829 1829 274 274 Izmailoff Melesky Delvig Zernoff 1799 1751 1776 1770 1830 1830 1830 1831 272 274 274 274 Geloffnin 1760 1831 274 Sokoloff 1760 1835 274 Bronevsky Venevitinoff 1784 1799 1835 1837 274 274 Vojekoff Sologoub Murlavieff 1773 1839 1848 274 275 271 Kriloff Zhukosky Batiushkoff Labanoff 272 272 272 272 Viskovatoff 272 Kokosckin 272 Pouschkin (Alexander) Krinkovsky Chiscbkoff . 272 272 273 Bulyarin Gretch 273 273 Chakovsky . Anastasewicz 273 273 Chikniatoff 273 Glinka 273 Gneditch 273 Katenin 273 Kosloff Khmelnitzky Basile Pouschkin . 273 273 274 Alexis Pouschkin 274 Voeykoff Gogol . Zagoskin Senkovsky 274 274 274 274 354 INDEX. Russian Writers Madame Bunina Zernoff Milonoff Gruodnitch Metrop Demidoff Ghuhovshy Botuschkoff Vaseinsky Baratinsky Bestinsoff Marlinski Odojevsky Dahl . Kuholnik Kulman Wohlbruck Heiberg Blicher Bernkoft Nabo Minna Von Maedler Adelung Rumanzoff Lajetchnikoff Madame Poutschoff Countess G-olovkin Madame Briaga . Princess Ourousoff Princess Volkonsky Princess Gralitzin ". Born. Died. Page. 274 274 274 274 274 275 275 274 274 274 275 275 275 275 275 275 275 275 275 275 275 275 275 275 275 276 276 276 276 276 276 THE END LEA & BLANCHARD'S NEW PUBLICATIONS. NOW READY. JOHNSTONS PHYSICAL ATLAS. THE PHYSICAL ATLAS OF NATURAL PHENOMENA. FOR THE USE OF COLLEGES, ACADEMIES, AND FAMILIES. BY ALEXANDER KEITH JOHNSTON, F. R. G. S., F. G. S. Geographer at Edinburgh in Ordinary to her Majesty, Honorary Member of the Geographical Society, Berlin. In one large volume, imperial quarto, handsomely bound, With Twenty-six Plates, Engraved and Colored in the best style. Together with 1 12 pages of Descriptive Letter-press, and a very copious Index. LIST OF PLATES. GEOLOGY. 1. Geological Structure of the Globe. 2. Mountain Chains of Europe and Asia. 3. Mountain Chains of America. 4. Illustration of the Glacier System of the Alps. (Mont Blanc.) 5. Phenomena of Volcanic Action. Palaeontological and Geological Map of the British Islands. (Frontispiece.) HYDROGRAPHY. 1. Physical Chart of the Atlantic Ocean. 2. Physical Chart of the Indian Ocean. 3. Physical Chart of the Pacific Ocean or Great Sea. 4. Tidal Chart of the British Seas. 5. The River Systems of Europe and Asia. 6. The River Systems of America. Tidal Chart of the World. METEOROLOGY. 1. Humboldt's System of Isothermal Lines. 2. Geographical Distribution of the Cur- rents of Air. 3. Hyetographic or Rain Map of the World. 4. Hyetographic or Rain Map of Europe. NATURAL HISTORY. 1. Geographical Distribution of Plants. 2. Geographical Distribution of the Culti vated Plants used as Food. 3. Geographical Distribution of Quadru- mana, Edentata, Marsupialia, and Pachydermata. 4 . Geographical Distribution of Carnivora 5. Geographical Distribution of Rodentia and Ruminantia. 6. Geographical Distribution of Birds. 7. Geographical Distribution of Reptiles 8. Ethnographic Map of the World. 9. Ethnographic Map of Great Britain and Ireland. This very conviction of its value would lead us to urge upon Mr. Johnston the ex pediency of some reduced form of his great Atlas, which might render it more access- ible to common readers. * * We know of no work of which ihe methods are so well fitted for the instruction of those who come ignorantly to the subject— Quarterly Review. To the scholar, to the student, and to the already large, yet daily increasing multi- tude of inquirers who cultivate natural science, the Physical Atlas is a treasure of incalculable value. It brings before the mind's eye, in one grand panoramic view, and in a form clear, definite, and easily comprehensible, all the facts at present known relative to the great subjects of which it treats, and may be regarded as a lucid epitome of a thousand scattered volumes, more or less intrinsically valuable, of which it contains the heart and substance.— Blackwood^s Magazine. By devoting a single hour to the contemplation of our globe in the diorama of a Phy- sical Atlas, the student will witness the grandeur of the tenement in which he dwells, and will not fail to appreciate the beautiful conception of Humboldt, when he speaks of" the life of the earth."— North British Review. The author avails herself with much pleasure, of an opportunity of expressing her admiration of the accuracy, extent, and execution of Mr. Keith Johnston's Physical Atlas, and of the valuable information contained in the letterpress which accompanies it, which has afforded her the greatest assistance. It was the author's wish, and her publisher's intention, that the present edition should be accompanied by a series of maps to illustrate the more important questions of Physical Geography treated of in it ; but Mr. A. Keith Johnston having announced the publication of a new edition of his "Physical Atlas," in a reduced size at a low price — the first two numbers of which have already appeared— the project was relinquished, in the belief that Mr. A. K. Johnston's smaller Atlas will furnish suitable illustrations to this work. — From the New Edition of Mrs. SomervilWs Physical Geography. LEA & BLANCHARD'S NEW PUBLICATIONS. SOMERVILLE'S PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. New Edition, much improved. Now Ready. PHYSICAL "GEOGRAPHY. BY MAEY SOMERVILLE, AUTHOR OF " THE CONNECTION OF THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES," ETC. ETC. SECOND AMERICAN EDITION, From the Second and Revised Xiondon Edition, WITH AMERICAN NOTES, GLOSSARY, &C. In one neat royal 12mo. volume, extra cloth, of over 500 pages. The great success of this work, and its introduction into many of the higher schools and academies, have induced the publishers to prepare a new and much improved edition. In addition to the corrections and improvements of the author bestowed on the work in its passage through the press a second time in London, notes have been introduced to adapt it more fully to the physical geography of this country ; and a comprehensive glossary has been added, rendering the volume more particularly suited to educational purposes. The amount of ihese additions may be understood from the fact, that not only has the size of the. page been increased, but the volume itself enlarged by over one hundred and fifty pages. At the same time, the price has not been increased. While reading this work, we could not help thinking how interesting, as well as useful, geography as a branch of education might be made in our schools. In many of them, however, this is not accomplished. It is to be hoped that this defect will be remedied ; and that in all our educational institutions Geography will soon be taught in the proper way. Mrs. Somerville's work may, in this respect, be pointed to as a model. — Taifs Edinburgh Magazine. Although there are few subjects drier and more uninteresting in their details than Geography, when confined to descriptions of the mere form of the earth, the height of its mountains, the length and breadth of its rivers, with the extent of its oceans, the whole features of this study become changed when, instead of regarding the objects which it embraces in their present condition or superficial character, we enter on then - past history and examine their nature and relations by the light of modern science. Springs, rivers, inland seas, and lakes follow in their lurn the ocean ; and each is treated in the same judicious way. No more is said than is necessary to the under- standing of these subjects in their proper relations; whilst every fact is stated in a lucid and interesting manner. — The Athenc&um. An admirable work, full of varied information and wholesome philosophy.— Neie Orleans Bee. We have thus followed Mrs. Somerville through her intellectual journey over the globe, delighted and improved by her instructions, and anxious that others should de- rive from it the same pleasure and advantage. From the extracts which we have made, the reader will see that the work is written in a style always simple and per- spicuous, often vigorous and elegant, occasionally rising to a strain of eloquence, commensurate with the lofty ideas which it clothes. In Mrs. Somerville's pages no sentiments' are recorded which the Christian or philosopher disowns. In associating life with nature — in taking cognizance of man as tenant of the earth-home which she describes, her aspirations ever after truih, secular and divine, and every where through- out her work we meet with just and noble sentiments, the indication and the offspring of a highly cultivated and well ba.anced mind.— North British Review. From the information given, and the strength of thought displayed, on almost every page, the work is equally entitled to an attentive perusal. — S. Literary Messenger. Our praise comes lagging in the rear, and is well-nigh superfluous. But we are anxious to recommend to our youth the enlarged method of s'udying geography which her present work demonstrates to be as captivating as it is instructive. Nowhere, except in her own previous work, The Connexion of the Physical Sciences, is there to be found so large a store of well-selected information so lucidly set forth. In sur- veying and grouping together whatever has been seen by the eyes of others, or detect- ed by their laborious investigations, she is not surpassed by any one. We have no obscurities other than what the imperfect state of science itself involves her in ; no dissertations which are felt to interrupt or delay. She strings her beads distinct and close together. With quiet perspicacity she seizes at once whatever is most interest- ing and most captivating in her subject. Therefore it is we are for the book ; and we hold such presents as Mrs. Somerville has bestowed upon the public, to be of incalcu- lable value, disseminating more sound information than all the literary and scientific institutions will accomplish in a whole cycle of their existence. — Blackioood's Mag. LEA & BLANCHARD'S NEW PUBLICATIONS. LIBRARY OF ILLUSTRATED SCIENTIFIC WORKS. 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Schmitx and ZumpVs Classical Series.— Continued. From Prof. Roche, Transylvania University, Lexington, Ky., March 31, 1849. Whatever influence my position may give me shall be most cheerfully employed in bringing into general use in the West these very valuable works. I trust that you ■will prosecute to a close the proposed series, and that the execution of those that re- main to complete a Latin Curriculum may be as neat and in all respects as unex- ceptionable as that of those already published. From Prop. John Wilson, Prep. Dep. Dickinson College, Carlisle, Dec. 8, 1843. I have examined ihe three volumes wilh considerable care, and can give them my unqualified approbation. The plan is judicious, and the execution worthy of all praise. The notes comprise all that a student needs, and nil that he should have; and their position at the foot of the page is just what it should be. From Prof. E. E. Wiley, Emory and Henry College, Va. Nov. 30, 1848. From the cursory examination given them, I must say that I have been highly grati- fied. Such a series as you propose giving to the public is certainly a great desidera- tum. Our classical text-books have heretofore been rendered entirely too expensive, by the costly dresses in which they have appeared, and by the extensive display of notes appended ; many of wlvch, though learned, are of little worth to the student in elucidating the text. It will afford me pleasure to introduce into my department such books of your series as may be in our course. From S. H. Taylor, Esq., And over, Mass., Oct 30, 184S. The notes seem to me very accurate, and are not so numerous as to do for the stu- dent what he ought to do for himself. I can with safety, therefore, recommend it to my pupils. From Prop. M. 1YT. Campbell, Principal of the Grammar School, Indiana University , Nov. 6, 1848. I like the plan of your series. I feel sure it will succeed, and thus displace some of the learned lumber of our schools. The notes, short, plain, and apposite, are placed where they ought to be, and furnish the learner just about help enough. From Philip Lindsley, D. D., Pres. of the University of Nashville, Nov. 27, 1848. The classical series, edited by Drs. Schmitz and Zumpt, has already acquired a high and well-merited reputation on both sides of the Atlantic. I have carefully ex- amined your editions of Coesar and Virgil. I think them admirable text-books for schools, and preferable to all others. I shall avail myself of every suitable occasion to recommend them. From B. Sanford, Esq , Bridgewater, Mass., Jan. 17, 1849. I have examined, with considerable care, both the Caesar and the Virgil, and am much pleased with the plan and execution of the series ihus far. I am particularly gratified with the propriety and judgment displayed by the editors in the preparation of the notes ; avoiding, as I think, the prolixity and profuseness of some of our classi- cal works, and, at the same time, the barrenness and deficiency of others ; giving a body of annotations better suited to aid the teacher ill imparting a knowledge of the language, than is to be found in any edition heretofore in use. From Prof. Sturgess, Hanover College, Indiana, Dec. 30, 1848. The mere name of the editors is a sufficient and most ample guarantee of the accu- racy of the text, the judicious choice of various readings, and the conformity of those adopted to the latest investigations of MSS., and the results of the most enlightened criticism. The notes I have not examined very carefully, except those of the Virgil. They are admirable, extremely condensed, and conveying a great deal of most valu- able criticism in the briefest possible way. They are particularly valuable for their sestheti^al remarks, and the frequent references to parallel passages in the same au- thor. The preliminary life is excellent, and of great value to the student. The Sal- lust appears to be of the same general character, and the notes to furnish just such help as the diligent student really needs. I think that in bringing out such a course at a cheap rate you are conferring a great boon on the country, and additional honor on your press, already so distinguished for the valve of its issues. LEA & BLANCHARD'S NEW PUBLICATIONS. HERSCHEL'S OUTLINES OF ASTRONOMY.-^'ow i?««dy. OUTLINES 0F~ASTE0N0MY. BY SIR JOHN F. W. IIERSCHEL, F. R. S., &c. In one neat volume, crown octavo, with six plates and numerous wood-cuts. With this, we take leave of this remarkable work, which we hold to be, beyond a doubt, the greatest and most remarkable of the works in which the laws of astrono- my and the appearance of the heavens are described to those who are not mathema- ticians nor observers, and recalled to those who are. It is the reward of men who can descend from the advancement of knowledge to care for its diffusion, that their works are essential 10 all. that they become the manuals of the proficient as well as the text-books of the learner. — Athenrzum. Probably no book ever written upon any science has been found to embrace with- in so small a compass an entire epitome of everything known within all its various departments, practical, theoretical, and physical.— Examiner. A text-book of astronomy, from one of the highest names in the science. — Silliman''s Journal, BAROJS" HUJJIBOI&T'S JVEW WORK.—J\~oio Ready. ASPECTS OF MATURE, IN DIFFERENT LANDS AND DIFFERENT CLIMATES. With Scientific Elucidations. BY ALEXANDER YON HUMBOLDT. TRANSLATED BY MRS. SABINE. In one very neat volume, royal 12mo., extra cloth. It is not without diffidence that I present to the public a series of papers which took their origin in the presence of natural scenes of grandeur or beauty, on the ocean, in the forests of the Orinoco, in the Steppes of Venezuela, and in the mountain wilder- nesses of Peru and Mexico. Detached fragments were writted down on the spot, and at the moment, and afterwards moulded into a whole. The view of nature on an en- larged scale, the display of the concurrent action of various forces or powers, and the renewal of the enjoyment which the immediate prospect of tropical scenery affords to sensitive minds— are the objects which I have proposed to myself. — Author's Preface. ZOOLOGICAL RECREATIONS.— Just Issued. BY W. J. BRODERIP, Esq., F. R. S. In one neat volume of 376 pages, royal 12mo., extra cloth. ROWJTIJIWS PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY.— Just Issued. INTRODUCTION TO PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY. INCLUDING ANALYSIS. By JOHN E. BOWMAN, Demonstrator of Chemistry, King's College. In one handsome volume, royal 12mo., of over 300 pages. WITH NEARLY ONE HUNDRED ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD. STEINMETZ'S HISTORY OF THE JESUITS. HIST©HY OF TOE JESUITS, FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THEIR SOCIETY TO ITS SUPPRESSION EY POPE CLEMENT XIV.: Their Missions throughout the World ; their Educational System and Literature ; with, their Revival and Present State. BY ANDREW STEINMETZ, Author of "The Novitiate," and "The Jesuit in the Family." In two handsome crown 8vo. vols, of ahont four hundred pages each, extra cloth. LEA & BLANCHARD'S NEW PUBLICATIONS. KENNEDY'S LIFE OF "WIRT. CHEAPER EDI Tl O N, NOW READY. MEMOIRS OF THE LIFE OF WILLIAM WIRT. BY JOHN P. KENNEDY. SECOND EDITION, REVISED. In two large and handsome 12mo. volumes, with a Portrait and fac-simile of a letter from John Adams. The whole of Mr. Wirt's Papers, Correspondence, Diaries, &c., having been placed in the hands of Mr. Kennedy, to be used in this work, it will be found to contain much that is new and interesting relative to the political history of the times, as well as to the private life of Mr. Wirt. One of the most valuable books of the season, and certainly one of the most enter- taining works ever published in this country. Mr. Kennedy is admirably qualified for the preparation of such a work, and has evidently had access to a great variety of useful material. The work is one which should be in the hands of every young man in the country. Its intrinsic interest will secure it a very general popularity. — N. Y. Courier and Enquirer. The genius of the author and the popular character of his subject insure an equally interesting and valuable book, which it would be superfluous in us to commend, in any labored terms, to the attention of our readers. It is an indispensable addition to the libraries of all intelligent Americans. It is got up in the best style, with a like- ness of Mr. Wirt from a portrait by Charles B. King. — Philadelphia North American. The fascinating letters of Mr. Wirt, one of the most brilliant and agreeable men of the day, in themselves furnish a rich fund of instruction and enjoyment.— Richmond Inquirer. This work has been looked for with much interest by the public, and will not disap- point the high expectations justly based upon the well-known talents of the author, and the abundant materials left by the distinguished orator and jurist, to which he has had free access. — Baltimore American. The style is at once vigorous and fascinating, and the interest of the most absorbing character.— Philadelphia Inquirer. Now Ready INGERSOLL'S NEW WORK. HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE SECOMH WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA AND GREAT BRITAIN, DECLARED BY ACT OF CONGRESS THE 18th OF JUNE, 1812, AND CON- CLUDED BY PEACE THE loth OF FEBRUARY, 1815. BY CHARLES J. INGERSOLL. EMBRACING THE EVENTS OF 18 14.- In one well-printed 8vo. vol., of 31S pages, double columns, paper covers, price $1 00 FRANCE UNDER LOUIS PHILIPPE. The History of Ten Years, 18S0-1840; or, France under Louis Philippe, BY LOUIS BLANC, Secretary of the Provisional Government of 1S48. TRANSLATED BY WALTER H. KELLY. In two handsome crown 8vo. volumes, extra cloth, or six parts, paper, at fifty cents. HISTORY OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1789. BY LOUIS BLANC, Author of" France under Louis Philippe," &c. TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH. Ill one volume, crown octavo. LEA & BLANCHARD'S NEW PUBLICATIONS. Now Complete.— STRICKLAND'S QUEENS OF ENGLAND. NEW AND IMPROVED EDITION. LIVES OF THE QUEENS OF ENGLAND, FROM THE NORMAN CONQUEST. WITH ANECDOTES OF THEIR COURTS. Now First Published from Official Records, and other Authentic Documents, Pri- vate as well as Public. NEW EDITION, WITH ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS. BY AGNES STRICKLAND. In six volumes crown octavo, extra crimson cloth, or half morocco, printed on fine paper and large type. In this edition, Volume One contains Vols. 1, 2 and 3 of the 12mo. edition ; Volume Two contains Vols. 4 and 5 ; Volume Three contains Vols. 6 and 7 ; Volume Four contains Vols. 8 and 9 ; Volume Five contains Vols. 10 and 11 ; and Volume Six contains Vol. 12. The whole forming a very handsome se- ries, suitable for presents, prizes, &c. The publishers have great pleasure in presenting to the public this work in a complete form. During the long period in which it has been issuing from the press, it has assumed the character of a standard work ; and, as occupying ground hitherto untouched, as embodying numerous historical facts hitherto unnoticed, and as con- taining vivid sketches of the character and manners of the times, with anecdotes, documents, &c. &c, it presents numerous claims on the attention of both the student of history and desultory reader. Those who have been waiting its completion can now obtain it, forming a handsome set, twelve volumes in six, in various styles of binding. HERVEY'S COURT OF GEORGE II. MEMOIRS OF THE REIBN~0F BED8BE THE SECOND, From his Accession to the Death of Queen Caroline, BY JOHN LORD HERVEY. EDITED, FROM THE ORIGINAL MANUSCRIPT, AT ICKWORTH, By the Right Hon. JOHN WILSON CROKER, LL. D., F. R. S., &c. In two handsome volumes, royal 12mo., extra cloth. PARDOE'S FRANCIS THE FIRST.— Now Ready. THE COURT AMD REIGN~0F FRANCIS THE FIRST, KING OF FRANCE. BY MISS PARDOE, AUTHOR OF ce LOUIS THE FOURTEENTH," " CITY OF THE SULTAN, &C. &C In two very neat volumes, royal 12mo., extra cloth. EASTERN LIFE, PRESEIT ANH PAST, BY HARRIET MARTINEAU. In one large and handsome volume, crown octavo. HOUSEHOLD EBUCATIOI. BY HARRIET MARTINEAU. In one handsome vol., royal 12mo. 1 LEA & BLANCHARD'S NEW PUBLICATIONS. .MAGNIFICENT. PRESENTATION WORK. i eTsh^mUx odTe S . BY THOMAS MOORE, Esq. WITH NOTES AND BIOGRAPHICAL PREFACES. ILLUSTRATED WITH BEAUTIFUL STEEL, PLATES. ENGRAVED UNDER THE IMMEDIATE SUPERINTENDENCE OF MR. EDWARD FINDER In one large imperial quarto volume ofl74 pages, handsomely bound in extra cloth, with gilt edges. Beautifully printed on superior paper. LIST OF PLATES. Nora Creina, .-.- Painted by W. P. Frith, Engr'd by E. Finden. Rich and Rare were the Gems she Wore, " W.Fisher, " W. H. Mote. Eveleen, " R. T. Bott, " E. Finden. Love's Young Dream, " A.Derby, « E. Finden Lesbia, " W. P. Frith, " W. Holl. Kathleen and St. Kevin, - - " E. Hawkes, " W. Holl. The Hamlet's Pride, - " W. Room, " W.Edwards. Laughing Eyes, " W. P. Frith, " E. Finden. The Mountain Sprite, ... " F. Wood, " E. Finden. The Desmond's Love, - - - - " F. Crowiey, " W.Edwards. The care which has been exercised in every portion of this volume, both as to its mechanical and artistical execution, renders it in all respects well worthy of the "Irish Melodies." In illustrations, type, printing, paper, and binding, it is equal to anything that has as yet appeared in this country ; and, as a work whose attraction is not confined to a single season, it should command the attention of the public. Now Ready.— MACKAY'S TRAVELS IN THE UNITED STATES. THE WESTERN WORLD.; OR, TRAVELS IN THE UNITED STATES. exhibiting them in their latest development, social, political, and industrial. INCLUDING A CHAPTER ON CALIFORNIA. BY ALEXANDER MACKAY, Esq. FROM THE SECOND AND ENLARGED LONDON EDITION. In two very neat vols., royal 12mo. READINGS FOR THE YOUNG. FROM THE WORKS OF SIR WALTER SCOTT. WITH NUMEROUS AND BEAUTIFUL PLATES. In two very handsome vols., royal 18mo., crimson cloth POEMS, BY ELLIS, CURREPv, AND ACTON BELL, Authors of "Jane Eyre," &c. In one vol., royal ISmo. DOMBEY AND SON, COMPLETE. In one large octavo vol. of 320 double-columned pages, with 16 plates, price 50 cents. ALSO, AN EDITION ON FINE PAPER, WITH 40 PLATES, EXTRA CLOTH. DICKENS'S DAVID COPPERFIELD. PUBLISHING IN NUMBERS, WITH PLATES, PRICE 5 CENTS EACH. Uniform with Lea & Blanchard's complete edition of Dickens's Novels and Tales. MIRABE4U, A Ofe History. In one neat volume, royal 12mo. LEA & BLANCHARD'S NEW PUBLICATIONS. SHAW'S ENGLISH LITERATURE. OUTLINES OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. BY THOMAS B. SHAW, Professor of English Literature in the Imperial Alexander Lyceum of St. Petersburg In one large and handsome royal 12mo. volume. A valuable and very interesting volume, which for various merits will gradually find its way into all libraries. — N. Y. Knickerbocker. Supplies a want long and severely felt. — Southern Literary Gazette. Traces our literary history with remarkable zest, fairness, and intelligence.— N. Y. Home Journal. An admirable work — graphic and delightful. — Pennsylvanian. The best publication of its size upon English literature that we have ever met with. — Neal's Saturday Gazette. Eminently readable.— City Item. A judicious epitome — well adapted for a class-book, and at the same time worthy of a place in any library. — Penn. Inquirer. From the Rev. W. G. T. Shedd : Professor of English Literature in the University of Vt. Burlington, May 18, 1849. I t ake great pleasure in saying that it supplies a want that has long existed of a brief history of English literature, written in the right method and spirit, to serve as an introduction to the critical study of it. I shall recommend the book to my classes. FOSTER'S EUROPEAN LITERATURE.— Now Ready. HANDBOOK OF MODERN EUROPEAN LITERATURE: British, Danish, Dutch, French, German, Hungarian, Italian, Polish and Rus- sian, Portuguese, Spanish, and Swedish. With, a full Biographical and Chronological Index. BY MRS. FOSTER. In one large royal 12mo. volume, extra cloth. (UNIFORM WITH SHAW'S OUTLINES OF ENGLISH LITERATURE.) This compilation will prove of great utility to all young persons who have just com- pleted their academical sludies. The volume gives both a general and particular view of the lilerature of Europe from ihe revival of letters to the present day. It is compiled with care and judgment, and is. in all respects, one of the most instructive works that could be placed in the hands of young persons — Morning Herald. ATLAS TO DANA ON CORALS. In one large Imperial folio volume, with Sixty-one Plates, Drawn and Colored after Nature, by the best Artists. Beautifully and strongly bound in half morocco. Of this magnificent work but a very few copies have been offered for sale, and these are nearly exhausted. Those who are derirous of enriching their libraries with so splendid a specimen of American Art and Science will therefore do well to procure copies at once. A FEW COPIES STILL ON HAND OF DANA ON CORALS AND ZOOPHYTES. Being Volume V1I1. of the United States Exploring Expedition Publications. WILKES'S CALIFORNIA— A New Work, Just Issued. WE8TE1I AMERICA, INCLUDING OREGON AND CALIFORNIA. With Maps of those Regions and of the Sacramento Valley. BY CHARLES WILKES, U. S. N., Commander of the United States Exploring Expedition. Octavo. Price 75cent?. LEA & BLANCHARD'S NEW PUBLICATIONS. SIXTH EDITION, REVISED. NOW READY. LYNCH'S DEADJ5EA EXPEDITION. NARRATIVE OF tM II, S. EXPEDITION TO THE RIVER JORDAN AND THE DEAD SEA. BY W. F. LYNCH, U. S. N., Commander of the Expedition. In one large and beautiful octavo volume, of over five hundred pages. With a Map of the Jordan, of the Dead Sea, and Twenty- eight Illustrations, executed in the handsomest style. This work has elicited the approbation of the press in a manner almost unequalled. From among numerous similar testimonials, the publishers beg to submit the following: This book, so long and anxiously expected, fully sustains the hopes of the most san- guine and fastidious. It is truly a magnificent work. The type, paper, binding, style, and execution are all of the best and highest character, as are also the maps and en- gravings. It will do more to elevate the character of our national literature than any work that has appeared for years. The intrinsic interest of the subject will give it popularity and immortality at once. It must be read to be appreciated ; and it will be read extensively, and valued, both in this and other countries.— Lady's Book, Aug. 1849. Lieut. Lynch's book must be pronounced of great value, not only for the additions which it makes to our knowledge, but as the authentic record of an enterprise in the highest degree honorable to all the parties concerned. In our esteem, the value of the work is greatly enhanced by the engravings. The interest of these lies in their repre- senting subjects mostly new to those who have been wearied with the five-hundredth repetition of the same scenes and objects. The views on the Dead Sea are of special and remarkable interest, and the costume figures are also striking and suggestive. — North British Review, August, 1849. A large and elegant volume, of marked interest and decided value. — N. Y. Courier and Enquirer. A most elegant volume, profusely illustrated with beautiful maps and plates. — Evening Bulletin. One of the most useful and deeply interesting volumes that have recently been issued from the press. — Albany Evening Journal. A lasting memorial of. a great national enterprise successfully consummated. — N. y. Commercial Advertiser. It has rarely been our lot to receive a work of more sterling merit. — City Item. For the Christian student this volume possesses peculiar interest. — Zion's Herald. "We have read this work with profound interest and much satisfaction. — Southern Weekly Gazette. A work of rare interest. — N. Y. Churchman. It will unquestionably be regarded as one of the most valuable and interesting works of the season. — Washington Union. Our thanks are due to Lieut. Lynch for the gratification and instruction we have de- rived from his very able volume.— N. Y. Tribune. TAE.ES ani> stories from history. BY AGNES STRICKLAND, Author of "Lives of the Queens of England," etc. In one handsome royal 18mo. volume, crimson extra cloth, with illustrations. THE SUGAR PEASTTER'S MANUAL. BEING A TREATISE ON THE ART OF OBTAINING SUGAR FROM THE CANE. BY W. J. EVANS, M. D. In one neat volume, small 8vo., 268 pages, with wood-cuts and two plates. THEORY OF EIFE. BY S. T. COLERIDGE. In one small volume, 12mo. CATALOGUE OF LEA AND BLANCHARD'S PUBLICATIONS. THE AMERICAN ENCYCLOPAEDIA. BROUGHT UP TO 1847. THE ENCYCLOPEDIA AMEEICANA: A POPULAR DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE, HISTORY, POLITICS AND BIOGRAPHY. IN FOURTEEN LARGE OCTAVO VOLUMES OP OVER SIX HUNDRED DOUBLE COLUMNED PAGES EACH. For sale very low, in various styles of binding. During the long period which this work has been before the public, it has attained a very high character as an ENCYCLOPAEDIA FOR DAILY REFERENCE, Containing, in a comparatively moderate space, a vast quantity of informa- tion which is scarcely to be met with elsewhere, and of the exact kind which is wanted in the daily exigencies of conversation and reading. It has also a recommendation shared by no other work of the kind now before the public, in being an American book. The numerous American Biogra- phies, Accounts of American Inventions and Discoveries, References to our Political Institutions, and the general adaptation of the whole to our own peculiar habits and modes of thought, peculiarly suit it to readers in this country. From these causes, it is also especially fitted for all DISTRICT SCHOOL AND OTHER PUBLIC LIBRARIES, in some of which it has been tried with great satisfaction. It fulfils, to a greater extent than perhaps any similar work, the requirements for these institutions, presenting, in a small compass and price, the materials of a library, and furnishing a book for every-day use and reference, indispensable to those removed from the large public collections. iSome years having elapsed since the original thirteen volumes of the ENCYCLOPAEDIA AMERICANA were published, to bring it up to the present day, with the history of that period, at the request of numerous subscribers, the publishers have just issued a SUPPLEMENTARY VOLUME (THE FOURTEENTH), BRINGING THE WORK UP TO THE YEAR 1847 EDITED BY HENRY VETHAKE, LL.D. Vice-Provost and Professor of Mathematics in the University of Pennsylvania, Author of. "A Treatise on Political Economy." In one large octavo volume of over 650 double columned pages. LEA AND BLANCHARD'S PUBLICATIONS. ENCYCLOPAEDIA AMERICANA The numerous subscribers who have been waiting the completion of this volume can now perfect their sets, and all who want A REGISTER OF THE EVENTS OF THE LAST FIFTEEN YEARS, FOR THE WHOLE WORLD, can obtain this volume separately : price Two Dollars uncut in cloth, or Two Dollars and Fifty Cents in leather, to match the styles in which the publishers have been selling sets. Subscribers in the large cities can be supplied on application at any of the principal bookstores ; and persons residing in the country can have their sets matched by sending a volume in charge of friends visiting the city. Complete sets furnished at very low prices in various bindings. " The publishers of the Encyclopedia Americana conferred an obligation on the public when, fourteen years ago, they issued the thirteen volumes from their press. They contained a wonder- ful amount of information, upon almost every subject which would be likely to occupy public attention, or be the theme of conversation in the piivate circle. Whatever one would wish to inquire about, it seemed only necessary to dip into the Encyclopaedia Americana, and there the outline, at least, would be found, and reference made to those works which treat at large upon the subject. It was not strange, therefore, that the work was popular. But in fourteen years, great events occur. The last fourteen years have been full of them, and great discoveries have been made in sciences and the arts ; and great men have, by death, commended their names and deeds to the fidelity of the biographer, so that the Encyclopaedia that approached perfection in 1832, might fall considerably behind in 1846. To bring up the work, and keep it at the present point, has been a task assumed by Professor Vethake, of the Pennsylvania University, a gentleman entirely competent to such an undertaking ; and with a disposition to do a good work, he has supplied a supplementary volume to the main work, corresponding in size and arrangements therewith, and becoming, indeed, a fourteenth volume. The author has been exceedingly industrious, and very fortunate in discovering and selecting materials, using all that Germany has presented, and resort- ing to eveiy species of information of events connected with the plan of the work, since the pub- lication of the thirteen volumes. He has continued articles that were commenced in that work, and added new articles upon science, biography, history, and geography, so as to make the present volume a necessary appendage in completing facts to the other. The publishers deserve the thanks of the readers of the volume, for the handsome type, and clear white paper they have used m the publication." — United States Gazette. " This volume is worth owning by itself, as a most convenient and reliable compend of recent His- tory, Biography, Statistics, &c, * Strickland's Lives of the Queens."— Morning Herald. LEA AND BLANCHARD'S PUBLICATIONS. SCHOOL BOOKS. SCHMITZ AND ZUMPT'S CLASSICAL SERIES. VOLUME I. C. JUJLII C^ESARIS COMMENTARII DE BELLO GALLICO. WITH AN INTRODUCTION, NOTES, AND A GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX IN ENGLISH, ALSO, A MAP OF GAUL, AND ILLUSTRATIVE ENGRAVINGS. In one handsome 18mo. volume, extra cloth. This Series has been placed under the editorial management of two eminent scholars and practical teachers, Dr. Schmitz, Rector of the High School, Edinburgh, and Dr. Zumpt, Professor in the University of Berlin, and will combine the following advan- tages :— 1. A gradually ascending series of School Books on a uniform plan, so as to constitute within a definite number, a complete Latin Curriculum. 2. Certain arrangements in the rudimentary volumes, which will insure a fair amount of know- ledge in Roman literature to those who are not designed for professional life, and who therefore will not require to extend their studies to the advanced portion of the series. 3. The text of each author will be such as has been constituted bv the most recent collations of manuscripts, and will be prefaced by biographical and critical sketches in English, that pupils may be made aware of the character and peculiarities of the work they are about to study. 4. To remove difficulties, and sustain an interest in the text, explanatory notes in English will be placed at the foot of each page, and such comparisons drawn as may serve to unite the history of the past with the realities of modern times. 5. The works, generally, will be embellished with maps and illustrative engravings, — accompani- ments which will greatly assist the student's comprehension of the nature of the countries and leading circumstances described. 6. The respective volumes will be issued at a price considerably less than that usually charged ; and as the texts are from the most eminent sources, and the whole series constructed upon a de- terminate plan, the practice of issuing new and altered editions, which is complained of alike by teachers and pupils, will be altogether avoided. From among the testimonials which the publishers have received, they append the following to show that the design of the series has been fully and successfully carried out;— Central High School, Phila., June 29, 1847 Gentlemen : — I have been much pleased with your edition of Caesar's Gallic Wars, being part of Schmitz and Zumpt's classical series for schools. The work seems happily adapted to the wants of learners. The notes contain much valuable information, concisely and accurately expressed, and on the points that really require elucidation, while at the same time the book is not rendered tiresome and ex- pensive by a useless array of mere learning. The text is one in high repute, and your reprint of it is pleasing to the eye. 1 take great pleasure in commending the publication to the attention of teachers. It will, I am persuaded, commend itself to all who give it a fair examination. Very Respectfully, Your Obt. Servt. , JOHN S. HART, To Messrs. Lea & Blanchard. Principal Phila. High School. Gentlemen:- June 28, I8i7. The edition of " Cesar's Commentaries," embraced in the Classical Section of Chambers's Edu- cational Course, and given to the world under the auspices of Drs. Schmitz and Zumpt has re- ceived from me a candid examination. I have no hesitation in saying, that the design expressed in the notice of the publishers, has been successfully accomplished, and that the work is well calcu- lated to become popular and useful. The text appears to be unexceptionable. The annotations embrace in condensed form such valuable information, as must not only facilitate the research of the scholar, but also stimulate to further inquiry, without encouraging indolence. This is an im= portant feature in the right prosecution of classical studies, which ought to be more generally un- derstood and appreciated. H. HAVERSTICK, Prof, of Ancient Languages, Central High School, Phila. VOLUME II. P. VIRGILII MARONIS CARMINA NEARLY READY. LEA AND BLANCHARD'S PUBLICATIONS. SCHOOL BOOKS. BIRD'S NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. NEARLY READY. ELEMENTS OF NATURAL. PHILOSOPHY, BEING AN EXPERIMENTAL INTRODUCTION TO THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES. ILLUSTRATED WITH OVER THREE HUNDRED WOOD-CUTS. BY GORING BIRD, M.D., Assistant Physician to Guy's Hospital. FROM THE THIRD LONDON EDITION. In one neat volume. " By the appearance of Dr. Bird's work, the student has now all that he can desire in one neat, concise, and well-digested volume. The elements of natural philosophy are explained in very sim- ple language, and illustrated by numerous wood-cuts."— -Medical Gazette. ABNOT T'S PH YSICS. ELEMENTS OF PHYSICS; OR, NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, GENERAL AND MEDICAL. WRITTEN FOR UNIVERSAL USE, IN PLAIN, OR NON-TECHNICAL LANGUAGE. BY NIELL ARNOTT, IVI.D. A NEW EDITION, BY ISAAC HAYS, M.D. Complete in one octavo volume, with nearly two hundred wood-cuts. This standard work has been long and favourably known as one of the best popular expositions of the interesting science it treats of. It is extensively used in many of the first seminaries. ELEMENTARY CHEMISTRY, THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL. BY GEORGE FOWNE S, Ph. D., Chemical Lecturer in the Middlesex Hospital Medical School, &c, &c. WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS. EDITED, WITH ADDITIONS, BY ROBERT BRIDGES, M. D., Professor of General and Pharmaceutical Chemistry in the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, &c., State of New York. Department of Common Schools. 5 Albany, Oct. 14th, 1845. Messrs. Lea ,ht joyfully, and make the parlour re-echo with mirth. Next, come the Exercising Sports of the Field, the Green, and the Play-ground ; followed by the noble and truly English game of Cricket. Gymnastics are next admitted ; then, the delightful recreation of Swimming ; and the healthful sport of Skating. Archery, once the pride of England, is then detailed ; and very properly followed by Instructions in the graceful accomplishment of Fencing, and the manly and enlivening exercise of Riding. Angling, the pastime of childhood, boyhood, manhood, and old age, is next described ; and by attention to the instructions here laid down, the lad with a stick and a string may soon become an expert Angler. Keeping Animals is a favourite pursuit of boyhood. Accordingly, we have described how to rear the Rabbit, the Squirrel, the Dormouse, the Guinea Pig, the Pigeon, and the Silkworm. A long chapter is adapted to the rearing of Song Birds ; the several varieties of which, and their respective cages, are next described. And here we may hint, that kindness to Animals invariably denotes an excellent disposition ; for, to pet a little creature one hour, and to treat it harshly the next, marks a capricious if not a cruel temper. Humanity is a jewel, which every boy should be proud to wear in his breast. We now approach the more sedate amusements— as Draughts and Chess ; two of the noblest exercises of the ingenuity of the human mind. Dominoes and Bagatelle follow. With a know- ledge of these four games, who would pass a dull hour in the dreariest day of winter ; or who would sit idly by the fire 1 Amusements in Arithmetic, harmless Legerdemain, or .sleight-of-hand, and Tricks with Cards, will delight many a family circle, when the business of the day is over, and the book is laid aside. Although the present volume is a book of amusements, Science has not been excluded from its pages. And why should it be 1 when Science is as entertaining as a fairy tale. The changes we read of in little nursery-books are not more amusing than the changes in Chemistry, Optics, Elec- tricity, Magnetism, &c. By understanding these, you may almost become a little Magician. Toy Balloons and Paper Fireworks, (or Fireworks without Fire,) come next. Then follow In- structions for Modelling in Card-Board; so that you may huild for yourself a palace or a carriage, and, in short, make for yourself a little paper world. Puzzles and Paradoxes, Enigmas and Riddles, and Talking with the Fingers, next make up plenty of exercise for " Guess," and " Guess again." And as you have the " Keys" in your own hand, yoa may keep your friends in suspense, and make yourself as mysterious as the Sphynx. A chapter of Miscellanies— useful and amusing secrets— winds up the volume. The " Treasury" contains upwards of four hundred Engravings ; so that it is not only a collection of " secrets worth knowing," but it is a book of pictures, as full pf prints as a Christmas pudding is of plums. It maybe as well to mention that the "Treasury" holds many new games that have never before been printed in a book of this kind. The old games have been described afresh. Thus it is, altogether, a new book. And now we take leave, wishing you many hours, and days, and weeks of enjoyment over these pages ; and we hope that you may be as happy as this book is brimful of amusement. 31 Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process. 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