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DIAMONDS. PEARLS 
 and PRECIOUS STONES 
 
 WHERE THEY ARE FOUND, 
 HOW CUT, AND MADE 
 READY FOR USE IN THE 
 JEWELER'S ART, THEIR 
 COMPOSITION AND VALUE 
 
 "By 
 
 MARCELL N. SMITH 
 
 WITH SIXTEEN 
 ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 Prinitd for SMITH PATTERSON COMPANY A; 
 GRIFFITH-STILLINGS PRESS, BOSTON, MASS. 
 
 I9I3 
 
^-^ 
 
 TS75a 
 
 .567 
 
 COPYRIGHT BY MARCELL N. SMITH 
 BOSTON, MASS., I913 
 
 PUBLISHED DECEMBER, I9I3 
 
 JAN -9 1314 
 
 C!,A3()1526 
 
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tDljoge lopal fittpport for more 
 tban t()ittp=fiii)e pears bas 
 ieen a constant l^elp in ottr 
 enUeaiJor to serDe t^ftm better 
 
Preface 
 
 The purpose of this book has been primarily 
 to give assistance to the employees of the 
 Smith Patterson Company in understanding 
 more fully the diamond, pearl, and colored gem 
 business by giving them, in a condensed and 
 accurate form, information that the writer con- 
 siders useful. Although he is aware that many 
 larger works already exist which cover the 
 field in a most excellent and comprehensive 
 manner, yet from the very fact that there is 
 such an excellent body of gem literature, it 
 is often hard to obtain a concise and accurate 
 idea of the most interesting points in this field 
 without the labor of extensive study. 
 
 The object of the writer has been to present 
 the most important facts concerning the nature 
 of diamonds, pearls, and other gems, and the 
 most interesting aspects in the work of discover- 
 ing and cutting or preparing gems for the arts, 
 and to give such facts as will be of interest not 
 only to the man in the business, but also to 
 many admirers of precious stones. 
 
In preparing the following pages the works of 
 many authors have been drawn from. In 
 particular the writer acknowledges valuable 
 assistance from: 
 
 "Diamond Mines of South Africa," by G. F. 
 Williams. "A Book of Precious Stones," by Julius 
 Wodiska. "Precious Stones and Gems," by E. W. 
 Streeter. "Gems and Gem Minerals," by Dr. O. C. Far- 
 rington. "Hand Book of Precious Stones," by M. D. 
 Rothschild. "Gem Cutter's Craft," by Leopold Clare- 
 mont. 
 
 He is also under obligations for valuable assistance 
 rendered by Mr. Ernest G. H. Schenck, Mr. Ludwig Nissen, 
 Mr. Henry Kryn, Mr. Lucien Zell, Mr. Joshua W. 
 Mayer, and to his son. Nelson H. Smith, for aid in pre- 
 paring the volume; and to Messrs. Schenck & Van Haelen 
 for original photographs of their cutting establishment; 
 Mr. Julius Wodiska for assistance and illustrations 
 from "A Book of Precious Stones"; Mr. Meyer D. Roths- 
 child for assistance and illustrations from the mines of 
 the American Gem & Pearl Co.; J. B. Lippincott Co. 
 for illustration from W. R. Cattelle's book, "The Pearl"; 
 G. P. Putnam's Sons for colored illustration, "Emeralds 
 from Muso Mine." 
 
Contents 
 
 Page 
 
 The Diamond ii 
 
 The Cutting and Polishing of Diamonds ... 24 
 
 Diamond Mountings 39 
 
 The Pearl 42 
 
 The Tariff on Diamonds, Pearls, and Precious 
 
 Stones 50 
 
 Precious and Semiprecious Stones 53 
 
 The Ruby 54 
 
 The Sapphire 58 
 
 The Emerald 62 
 
 The Aquamarine 65 
 
 The Tourmaline (yj 
 
 The Alexandrite 70 
 
 The Opal 72 
 
 The Amethyst 74 
 
 The Moonstone 76 
 
 The Turquoise ']'] 
 
 The Chrysolite 79 
 
 The Spinel 81 
 
 The Topaz 84 
 
 The Garnet 87 
 
 The Zircon 91 
 
 Lapis Lazuli 92 
 
 Hiddenite and Kunzite 94 
 
 Table of Precious and Semiprecious Stones . . 96 
 
Illustrations 
 
 Emerald from the Muso Mine, Bogota, Colombia, South 
 
 America Frontispiece 
 
 Facing 
 • Page 
 
 One Day's Diamond Wash at the Kimberley Mines .... 12 
 
 Kafir Employees Gambling in the Compound, Kimberley 
 
 Mines 16 
 
 The Cullinan Diamond 18 
 
 Actual size in the rough. 
 Sorting the Gravel for Diamonds at the Kimberley Mines . 22 
 
 The Cullinan Diamond 26 
 
 AH the stones illustrated were cut from the Cullinan Diamond 
 and are here shown half actual size. 
 
 The Diamond Saw 28 
 
 The saw with diamond being sawed is seen at the left of the 
 bench. 
 
 The Cutting of a Diamond 30 
 
 One stone is seen in the lathe, while the other is fixed in the end 
 of the tool held by the workman. 
 
 The Diamond Polisher's Wheel 32 
 
 The workman is adjusting the dop containing a diamond, pre- 
 paratory to polishing. 
 
 Office of a Diamond-Cutting Establishment 38 
 
 Schenck & Van Haelen, New York. 
 
 The Rajah of Dholpur 44 
 
 Whose pearls were valued at $7,500,000. 
 
 Native Indian Ruby Cutter at Work 54 
 
 Gem Cutting in Ceylon 58 
 
 Aquamarine Mine, Mitchell County, North Carolina . , 66 
 
 Tourmaline Mine, Palo, California 68 
 
 Scene in Azure Turquoise Mine, New Mexico 78 
 
The Diamond 
 
 The diamond is composed solely of pure 
 carbon and is the hardest substance known, 
 being No. lo on the Mohl scale. It is found in 
 South Africa, Brazil, India, Borneo, in the 
 Ural Mountains, and in the United States. 
 
 The ancient supply of diamonds came prob- 
 ably from India. Although we hear of dia- 
 monds in very early times, yet the ancient 
 Indian mines were apparently the first source 
 of supply and continued so until diamonds 
 were found in Borneo, which was only in small 
 amounts, and later more largely in Brazil. 
 The Brazilian mines were discovered in 1727 Brazilian 
 and were later mined extensively. Mr. Edwin -^^"^J" 
 W. Streeter, the London jeweler, in his book 
 published in 1879, states that about 1845 
 there were twenty-five thousand people en- 
 gaged in diamond digging in Brazil. 
 ,, In South Africa diamonds were first found South 
 ' in 1867. The first diggings — they could hardly ■^P'^^^ 
 be called mines — were along the Vaal River. 
 These river diggings were of considerable extent, 
 
12 DIAMONDS 
 
 and a large number of miners from all parts 
 of the world were engaged in searching for 
 stones. Their methods, however, were very 
 crude. The famous rush to Kimberley began 
 in 1870, when a fine fifty-carat diamond was 
 found on the Jagersfontein farm. The thrifty 
 widow who was then the owner of the farm 
 let the right to dig diamonds at £2 per month 
 for a claim of twenty feet square. Important 
 diamonds were next discovered on the Dutoits- 
 fontein farm, and soon diamonds were also 
 found on the Bulfontein farm located just 
 across the highway. 
 ■Kimberley The Kimberley mines were discovered In 
 Mines jgyi^ and the DeBeers and Wesselton about 
 the same time. It is needless to say that the 
 system of leasing claims did not last very 
 long, and that these various farms were soon 
 bought by miners. For some time, however, 
 the various claims were worked by one or two 
 men to each claim, then by larger partnerships, 
 and later by large French and English mining 
 companies. 
 
 In 1872 Cecil J. Rhodes, then a student at 
 Oxford University, on account of ill health went 
 to South Africa. He went first to the plantation 
 of his brother, Herbert Rhodes, who had also 
 become interested in diamond mining. A 
 
DIAMONDS 13 
 
 year later he joined his brother in his mining 
 ventures. This same year, 1873, Barnett J. 
 Barnatto came from London to join his brother, 
 Henry, at Kimberley, as a buyer of rough dia- 
 monds. Both Rhodes and Barnatto soon 
 acquired some property and became interested 
 as small mine owners. They increased these 
 holdings rapidly, until after a time both saw 
 the need of combination in mine ownership 
 and especially the need of scientific management 
 in operating the mines. In 1888, they, with 
 Messrs. Rothschild, Alfred Beit, and other 
 able mining men, formed the DeBeers Con- The DeBeers 
 solidated Mines, Ltd. Since the formation of <^om^^ny 
 this company the mines have been developed 
 along scientific lines by an extremely able 
 management, resulting in great benefit to the 
 company and also to the world. 
 
 Since the formation of the syndicate the 
 price of the gems has never been allowed to 
 break, — even in times of the greatest com- 
 mercial depression. In the early days of 
 diamond mining, on the other hand, and 
 especially in India and Brazil, prices sometimes 
 fluctuated very widely. Mr. Streeter, as an 
 example, states that at the time of the com- 
 mercial crisis of 1857 the prices of Brazilian 
 diamonds fell to one half that of the year previous. 
 
i6 DIAMONDS 
 
 compound or walled enclosure, within which 
 they must remain constantly during the whole 
 period of their work until they are discharged 
 from the mines. 
 Life in the These compounds are some seventeen in 
 Compound number, the largest being at the DeBeers. 
 miines, where four acres are enclosed; the walls 
 are ten feet in height and the compound is 
 covered with a fine wire screen to prevent the 
 throwing of diamonds outside to a confederate. 
 The huts of galvanized iron for the workmen 
 are built in the compound, and there is also a 
 swimming pool and other means of amusement, 
 so that the natives, while virtually prisoners 
 within the compound, are well cared for. When 
 they leave the employ of the company they 
 are again searched in the most thorough fashion, 
 being stripped and then placed in a detention 
 room provided only with a blanket. Here they 
 are kept for a period of five to seven days, so 
 that even if the men swallow diamonds it is 
 impossible for them to escape with their treas- 
 ures. Finally they are given their old clothes, 
 which have been kept in sacks numbered for 
 each man, and allowed to leave the compound. 
 Treatment of The diamonds are found in what is called 
 Blueground Hueground, which when mined is about as 
 hard as sandstone. After being excavated 
 
DIAMONDS 17 
 
 from the mines the blueground is conveyed to 
 t]iQ floors — large flat areas — where it isle ft 
 from three to six months, or more, to soften. 
 These floors are very large, those of the DeBeers 
 and Kimberley mines covering two thousand 
 acres. The blueground on the floors is har- 
 rowed by steam traction engines to assist in 
 pulverizing the ground. This, with the action 
 of the sun and rain, finally disintegrates the 
 material so that it can be taken to the washing 
 machines or pulsators, as they are technically 
 called. The yield of diamonds per load of blue- 
 ground is very small, but by the careful and 
 comprehensive methods used, practically no dia- 
 monds are lost and the total yield is very large. 
 
 Of the South African mines the Kimberley ^^^^f!^^ 
 and DeBeers have until recently produced most j^i^^^ 
 of the diamonds. These mines have now been 
 worked so deep, about three thousand feet, that, 
 owing to the heat and danger at that depth, 
 they are at present considered about worked 
 out and comparatively few stones now come 
 from these mines. The Dutoitspan mines are 
 at present the largest producing mines in South 
 Africa, and give very sound material, about the 
 same as that of the Kimberley, DeBeers, and Wes- 
 selton. The Bulfontein in point of production 
 is the second largest mine under the DeBeers 
 
i8 DIAMONDS 
 
 control. Its rough runs rather small in sizes 
 and is quite imperfect. From the Jagersfon- 
 tein mine, commonly called Jagers (pronounced 
 Yagus) are found some of the finest blue-white 
 stones in the world, although there are other 
 qualities of stones found there as well. The 
 Premier mine, also controlled by the DeBeers 
 Company, produces some very remarkable 
 stones. From this mine came the famous Cul- 
 linan diamond, which weighed in the rough 
 3,2535^ carats. This stone was of fine blue- 
 white color and remarkably free from imperfec- 
 tions. 
 The Cullinan The gem was bought by the Transvaal Govern- 
 ment for £200,000 and v/as sent as a present to 
 King Edward VII, who entrusted the cutting of 
 the Cullinan to Messrs. Joseph Asscher & Co., 
 of Amsterdam, who received £10,000 for their 
 work. From it were cut, besides several smaller 
 stones, two diamonds, each of which was larger 
 than any other diamond in the world. In the 
 Premier mine was also recently found the 
 second largest diamond in the world, weighing 
 1,640 carats. This stone was not very perfect 
 and was bought by Mr. Jac. Kryn, of Antwerp, 
 to be cut into small stones. The beautiful 
 deep blue diamonds which were on exhibition 
 in the spring of 19 12 at the store of Smith 
 
DIAMONDS 19 
 
 Patterson Company were from the Premier 
 mines. Many other remarkable stones in 
 golden brown, canary, green, etc., are found in 
 the Premier mines. 
 
 The Wesselton mines as a rule produce fine 
 white diamonds. The Robert Victor mine, of 
 South Africa, is an independent mine controlled 
 by English capital. The diamonds from this 
 mine are of a very fine color, but are also very 
 imperfect. 
 
 In addition to the regular mines in South River 
 Africa diamonds are found in certain rivers. -^^^^^^"-^ 
 These diamonds are now mined by damming 
 up the river at various points, pumping it dry 
 and dredging it. The river diamonds in the 
 rough can always be recognized by their dull 
 surface, which is accounted for by the scratching 
 due to the constant rubbing against pebbles and 
 other diamonds while being carried down by the 
 stream. River diamonds vary very greatly as 
 to quality. 
 
 Of the stones found in the mines in the German 
 German possessions in South America nearly -^^^^-^ 
 all are small and practically all are cut into 
 melees. They are largely, however, of very good 
 quality, and a large part of the best melees now 
 come from the German mines. 
 
 For many years the DeBeers Consolidated 
 
20 DIAMONDS 
 
 London Mines, Ltd., has sold its annual production to 
 Syndicate ^j^^ London Syndicate of diamond merchants, 
 who handle most of the products of the mines of 
 South Africa, with the exception of the German 
 mines. The London Syndicate's methods of 
 conducting business are quite unusual. In 
 general the procedure is as follows. When the 
 managers have a lot of goods for sale they notify 
 the buyers of the rough who are on their list 
 as being entitled to buy from the Syndicate 
 direct, that a "sight of the goods" may be had 
 on a certain date. The buyer must declare his 
 intention and make application some time in 
 advance of the time when a sight of the goods 
 is expected, in order to secure the opportunity 
 to make his purchase. If the favored buyer 
 who is allowed to buy the rough does not then 
 buy, he is omitted from the purchasing list for 
 several months. The goods are sold in lots of 
 some ^200,000 in value and upwards, and must 
 be paid for in spot cash. The prices are absolute. 
 Classification The goods mined at South Africa are sorted 
 of Diamonds ^^^ classified at Kimberley as follows: 
 
 I. Close goods 
 
 / 2. Spotted stones 
 
 J 3. Rejection cleavage 
 
 4. Fine cleavage 
 
 5. Light brown cleavage 
 
DIAMONDS 21 
 
 6. Ordinary and rejection cleavage 
 
 7. Flats 
 
 8. Naats 
 
 9. Rubbish 
 10. Boart 
 
 Close Goods are supposed to be pure stones of 
 desirable shapes. Spotted Stones are crystals 
 slightly spotted. Rejection Stones are those 
 seriously depreciated by spots. Cleavage are 
 broken stones. Flats are flat crystals. The 
 refuse classed as Rubbish and Boart is polishing Classification 
 material. The first eight classes are supposed According 
 to be further subdivided according to shades, 
 as follows: 
 
 Blue white L/ 
 
 First Cape 
 
 Second Cape 
 
 First bye 
 
 Second bye 
 
 Off color 
 
 Light yellow 
 
 Yellow 
 
 Only the first grade or close goods are really 
 carefully graded according to these eight 
 shades. With the other grades the sorters 
 are less particular. Each color is again sub- 
 divided into several sizes, and when the goods 
 
22 DIAMONDS 
 
 arrive in London the Syndicate again sorts 
 them into 
 
 Finest extra blue white, Fine Capes 
 
 Extra blue white, Capes 
 
 Finest blue white. Eyewaters 
 
 Blue white, Yellows 
 
 Finest white, Finest light brown 
 
 White, Light brown 
 
 Silver Capes, Brown and dark brown 
 
 All these colors are divided into shipments of 
 Closed Goods, Spotteds, Irregulars, Blocks, Naats, 
 and Flats. 
 Colors of While diamonds are found in many colors the 
 Diamonds -^g^^i colors are white and yellow of various 
 shades. The Jagers stones are largely blue 
 white and in the trade blue-white stones are 
 frequently called Jagers {Yagus). The dia- 
 monds from the Wesselton mines are usually of 
 fine white color, and goods of this color are 
 generally termed Wesseltons. All Capes and 
 Byewaters have some tinge of yellow. Brown 
 diamonds, if light enough, are quite desirable, 
 and often mount up to better appearance than 
 the best Silver Capes. 
 
 Fancy stones of remarkable shades. Golden 
 Brown, Apple Green, Deep Blue, Canary, etc., 
 if of fair size, are of much more value than blue 
 
DIAMONDS 23 
 
 white, varying according to the specimen. The 
 most valuable of all diamonds are the red. This 
 color is very rarely found, and there are only 
 a few specimens of it in existence. 
 
 Old Mine stones are supposed to be fine blue- ^^j MiW 
 white or extra fine white stones from the old 
 Brazilian or Indian Mines, and originally were 
 always cut in such a manner as to save the most 
 weight; consequently, they were frequently very 
 thick and of poor shape. Today we hear very 
 little about Old Mine stones, since as fine stones 
 have been found in South Africa as were ever 
 found in the Old Mines, and those that are 
 shown as Old Mine stones are generally "fakes," 
 coming from regular sources. 
 
The Cutting and Polishing 
 OF Diamonds 
 
 Diamond cutting and polishing originated in 
 India, and the art was afterwards introduced 
 in Italy and in Paris. It had its beginning in 
 Antwerp, about 1480, and also about the same 
 time in Amsterdam. Amsterdam has become 
 famous for its diamond cutting, and for a long 
 time had by far the largest number of cutting 
 and polishing establishments in the world. 
 
 Antwerp for some years has had some of 
 
 the largest establishments, and during the last 
 
 six years has gained rapidly on Amsterdam, 
 
 and at the present time has a considerably 
 
 larger business in the cutting and polishing 
 
 of diamonds than Amsterdam. 
 
 Improvement Diamond cutting has been carried on in 
 in Diamond a • r cr^ j ^i. ^^• 
 
 Cutting America tor nity years or more, and the cuttmg 
 
 of diamonds for the world has been revolution- 
 ized through the improvements in cutting made 
 something like forty years ago by Henry D. 
 Morse, of Boston. 
 
 Prior to these innovations diamonds were cut 
 
DIAMOND CUTTING 25 
 
 in a nearly square shape, with the corners some- 
 what rounded off, — the object being to secure 
 as much brilliancy and also to save as much 
 weight as possible. Diamonds are now cut, as 
 every one knows, practically round. The style 
 of cutting may be described as follows: 
 
 The table on the top of the stone is surrounded The Style of 
 by thirty-two small facets reaching from the " *^^ 
 table to the girdle, or edge of the stone. The 
 back of the stone has a tiny facet at the top of 
 the pyramid, formed by cutting, called the 
 culet, surrounded by twenty-four facets reaching 
 from the culet to the girdle. Formerly and even 
 now in most of the ordinary cutting compara- 
 tively little attention is paid to the girdle; but 
 the better the quality of the cutting the more 
 attention is paid to the desirability of having the 
 girdle as thin as possible, and yet not so thin as 
 to chip easily. This object is attained in the 
 patented polished girdle form of cutting, which 
 has an extra curved facet around the girdle. 
 This cutting is protected by patents in the 
 United States and in foreign countries, and in 
 New England is sold direct only to the Smith 
 Patterson Company. 
 
 In describing this cutting we will quote a The Polished 
 letter of March 14, 191 3, from the holders of the ^^''^^^ 
 patent, Messrs. Schenck & Van Haelen. 
 
26 DIAMOND CUTTING 
 
 "Before its iinal realization the quest for a 
 Standard of absolute perfection in the cutting 
 of a diamond has been one which ran through 
 centuries of constant endeavor. 
 
 "Incidentally it has brought into existence 
 that interesting branch of the trade called 
 * fancy cutting.' It has been responsible for 
 many sad disappointments and disillusions. 
 Witness in 1885 the short-lived 'Brilliant-Phare,' 
 later revived under the name of 'Twentieth 
 Century,' etc. 
 
 "By a stroke of genius the fundamental lines 
 of division governing the now classical cutting 
 called 'Brilliant' were laid down some three 
 hundred years ago by Vincent Peruzzi, in 
 Venice. The cutting at that period was done in 
 crude and primitive fashion, but it paved the 
 way towards the present high achievement. 
 
 "The latter-day Renaissance in the art of 
 diamond cutting, credit for which is entirely 
 due to the keen appreciation shown by the dis- 
 cerning lovers of jewels in the United States of 
 America, has through gradual stages of advance- 
 ment developed the possibilities inherent in the 
 'Brilliant,' and has culminated in the pro- 
 duction of an ideal stone, the cutting of which is 
 covered by patents in the United States and 
 in the principal foreign countries. 
 
DIAMOND CUTTING 27 
 
 "The superiority of this diamond resides in Why the 
 its dominant feature: The poHshed curved q^^^iJ^^ 
 facet encircling the edge of the stone, forming Best 
 a continuous narrow girdle, establishing in 
 harmony with every detail of its cutting a 
 connecting link joining all its facets into one 
 final attainment of perfection. 
 
 "This patented Polished Girdle, with its 
 resultant increase in luster and brilliancy, 
 produces a maximum diffusion of light with 
 corresponding depth of attraction. 
 
 "The smooth finish of the edge protects the 
 patented Polished Girdle diamond against injury 
 by * chipping,' — an advantage that both setter 
 and wearer will appreciate. 
 
 "The Polished Girdle of this diamond further- 
 more provides efficient means of identification; 
 the cylindrically shaped facette acting as an 
 indelible hall-mark embodied in the stone. 
 
 "It is indisputably the first and only perfectly 
 finished brilliant, — a Standard for all time. 
 
 "Isolated attempts have been made more 
 recently by some of the followers of Peruzzi to 
 give increased luster to the brilliant by adding 
 to the unfinished stone flat polished surfaces 
 spaced at more or less irregular intervals, dis- 
 turbing the line of circumference without attain- 
 ing the desired result. It is superfluous to point 
 
28 DIAMOND CUTTING 
 
 out that such makeshifts destroy their own ends. 
 
 "To the expert jeweler and diamond dealer, no 
 further explanation is necessary to make him 
 realize the advantages and superiority of the 
 patented Polished Girdle diamond. 
 
 "The person more likely to be in need of 
 guidance and information is the purchaser not 
 thoroughly conversant with the art, and who, 
 wishing to ascertain points of recognition, relies 
 upon his confidence in the knowledge of ex- 
 perienced jewelers." 
 Proportions A properly cut diamond should have fifty- 
 
 of Correctly ^{crht facets if regularly cut, and fifty-nine if 
 
 Cut Diamond ^ j i- i j • 11 A i- j 
 
 cut as a patented poiisned girdle. (Jne third 
 
 of its size should be above the girdle and two 
 thirds below, and the table should be two fifths 
 the diameter of the stone. These are the cor- 
 rect proportions to secure the greatest bril- 
 liancy. A stone cut too deep (that is, too 
 thick) lacks brilliancy, and one too shallow be- 
 comes fiat in its effect and in the trade is 
 termed a Fish-eye. In the cutting of the finest 
 diamonds much consideration is now given 
 to the girdle, while on the other hand many 
 ordinary stones are cut with thick, rough gir- 
 dles, which results in more weight being left 
 in the stone and less expense to manufacture 
 per carat, consequently a lower price to the 
 
THE DIAMOND SAW 
 
 THE SAW WITH DIAMOND BEING SAWED IS SEEN AT THE 
 LEFT OF THE BENCH 
 
DIAMOND CUTTING 29 
 
 customer by the carat. But it must be remem- 
 bered that a poorly cut stone will not look as 
 large as a stone of slightly less weight, if the 
 latter is well cut. 
 
 Fine diamonds, especially those of consider- 
 able size, are cut into drop shapes, navettes or 
 marquise shape, square cut or emerald cut, square 
 cut with steps, and oval, the last being cut like 
 a round brilliant, but of oval shape. Small 
 pieces from the processes of cleaving and 
 sawing diamonds are generally rose cut, with flat 
 back. It is due probably to this fact that the 
 rose-cut stones come from the fragments that 
 they are commonly termed chips. In the old 
 days of cutting many of the famous stones were 
 rose cut, having when properly cut twenty-four 
 facets. A correctly proportioned rose should 
 be one half its diameter in thickness. Smaller 
 and poorer roses have twelve facets. 
 
 Before being cut the rough diamonds are first 
 examined by an expert, who decides how each 
 stone shall be treated, and who then marks on 
 the stone with Ink what part of the stone shall 
 be removed by cleaving or sawing. In order to 
 get it in proper shape for further work. 
 
 In the process of cutting, rough diamonds are Diamond 
 generally cleaved or sawed to render them ^^^^^^ 
 suitable in size for cutting. If it be cleaved, 
 
30 DIAMOND CUTTING 
 
 the rough diamond Is fastened with cement to 
 the end of a wooden holder and a tiny groove is 
 scratched with another diamond on the stone 
 at the point where it is to be cleaved. The 
 stone is then held by the clamp in correct 
 position, and then a heavy steel blade is placed 
 on the diamond, and this blade is struck a 
 smart tap on the back and the stone divides 
 along the line previously determined. The 
 operation seems very simple, but is one that 
 requires excellent knowledge of the stones as 
 well as experience. 
 Diamond Sawing has been used some twenty years or 
 awing j^Qj-g^ ^j^^ enables the cutter to divide the stone 
 along any plane, independent of its structure, 
 while a diamond can be cleaved only along its 
 natural cleavage lines. The diamond saw is 
 about three and one half inches in diameter, and 
 consists of a very thin piece of a special alloy, 
 the edge of which is treated with diamond 
 dust. The work is done very slowly, several 
 hours being required to cut one diamond, so that 
 one workman operates a large number of saws 
 at the same time. 
 
 After being cleaved or sawed the stone is 
 again examined by an expert, and a plan for 
 further work on that particular stone is deter- 
 mined on. The most important point in this is 
 
THE CUTTING OF A DIAMOND 
 
 ONE STONE IS SEEN IN THE LATHE, WHILE THE OTHER IS FIXED IN 
 THE END OF THE TOOL HELD BY THE WORKMAN 
 
DIAMOND CUTTING 31 
 
 the location of the table, which when decided 
 upon is marked with an ink circle. 
 
 The next step in the process is that called Diamond 
 cutting. This work was done entirely by hand, ^^'^^^S 
 and was called bruiting, until about twenty-five 
 years ago, when machine cutting came into use. 
 In machine cutting a rough diamond is fixed 
 by cement in a steel holder held in a lathe and 
 is cut by another diamond, which is also fixed 
 into a steel holder attached to a handle some 
 eighteen inches long, this latter diamond being 
 held against the one in the revolving lathe and 
 the cutting done much after the manner of 
 wood turning. The stone is cut very rapidly 
 as compared with the old method of bruiting^ 
 the method which had been used from the time 
 of the first cutting of diamonds until the advent 
 of machine cutting. Machine cutting, however, 
 can be used only for round and oval diamonds, 
 and for the round ends of pear or drop shape 
 diamonds. Marquise shape, square or emerald 
 cut, and other fancy shapes must still be cut 
 by hand. 
 
 Diamonds are polished on a polishing wheel Diamond 
 covered with diamond dust and oil. The wheel ° ^^ ^^^ 
 is about eleven inches in diameter and made 
 from a special casting of a secret alloy known 
 only to two men, one in Amsterdam and one 
 
32 DIAMOND CUTTING 
 
 in Antwerp. The wheel is set to revolve 
 horizontally at the rate of about twenty-two 
 hundred revolutions per minute. The time 
 needed to polish a diamond, say of about one 
 carat, after it has been shaped up ready for the 
 wheel, is, depending on its hardness, from 
 two to four days. 
 Method of The diamonds to be polished were formerly 
 Holding always imbedded in a composition of lead and 
 
 UtdfTtOflCl 
 
 Polisher tin while the metal was in an almost fluid state. 
 In this case the workman sets the stone in 
 position at the proper angle with a pair of 
 pliers and smoothes the still almost molten 
 metal with his bare fingers. It seems to the 
 observer that it is a miracle that the man does 
 not burn his fingers, until it is noticed that they 
 have been calloused by the hot metal to a 
 condition almost like that of leather. 
 
 After each facet has been polished the dia- 
 mond must be removed and reset before a new 
 facet can be begun. The patent dop, invented 
 about seventeen years ago, which allows the 
 stone to be set at the desired angle and held 
 by clamps, is about the only improvement in 
 the process of polishing for many years. This 
 improvement cannot, however, be used in 
 the polishing of melees, marquise, square, and 
 other fancy-shaped diamonds in which the 
 
THE DIAMOND POLISHER'S WHEEL 
 
 THE WORKMAN IS ADJUSTING THE dop CONTAINING A DIAMOND 
 PREPARATORY TO POLISHING 
 
DIAMOND CUTTING 33 
 
 old-fashioned dop of soft metal must still be 
 used. 
 
 By a perfect diamond is meant in the trade The Perfect 
 a diamond without flaw or spot which can be ^^^°^ 
 discovered by using an ordinary watchmaker's 
 glass by a person whose eyes are ordinarily 
 strong. Scientifically the perfect diamond does 
 not exist, as all diamonds must show imper- 
 fections if a glass powerful enough be used. 
 Imperfections, termed flaws or feathers, are due 
 to carbon spots or minute cracks. Com- 
 mercially, perfect diamonds or slightly im- 
 perfect and even imperfect diamonds are equally 
 staple and salable. The actual value of the 
 stone is of course determined by its color, 
 brilliancy, freedom from discernible imperfec- 
 tions or conspicuousness of flaws if they exist, 
 and size. 
 
 The question often comes up whether dia- Can 
 
 monds used in the United States can best be Iq^^/I ^4 ^ 
 
 bought by diamond merchants from cutters in from 
 
 America or from the cutters in Europe. To European 
 
 , , , , 1 r 1 • Cutters or 
 
 those who have made a study 01 the question American? 
 
 there can be no doubt that in sizes from one half 
 
 a carat and larger, the American cutters, if 
 
 properly equipped, are able to produce and 
 
 deliver finished diamonds to the trade in the 
 
 United States cheaper than the same goods 
 
34 DIAMOND CUTTING 
 
 could be bought and landed, duty paid, from 
 European cutters. The following letter from 
 Mr. Ernest G. H. Schenck, of Schenck & Van 
 Haelen, explains the condition of the cutter in 
 America and Europe as it is today. 
 
 "Regarding wages ruling in American as 
 against European diamond cutting centers, the 
 difference which some fifteen years ago existed 
 and had a bearing upon preference of purchase 
 being given to Europe, has today become so 
 small a factor that the tables have been effi- 
 caciously turned in favor of the United States 
 for all purchases of diamonds of value and 
 size, not excluding some melees. 
 Better "The progress made here in economic hand- 
 Workmanshtp j-^^ ^£ rough merchandise has almost reached 
 the point where, should the duty be removed 
 from the cut as well as it is removed from the 
 rough diamond, I firmly believe the industry 
 would, in the United States, through better 
 workmanship, triumph and grow over all others, 
 even on an equal footing. 
 
 "Several causes lie at the bottom of this: 
 fifteen years ago the cost of manufacture 
 represented, say, about fifteen per cent of the 
 price of the finished article; today, with the 
 doubled value of the rough material it repre- 
 sents only about ten per cent (allowing, of 
 
DIAMOND CUTTING 35 
 
 course, fully for increased wages paid for 
 Improved work during that period). 
 
 "Furthermore, If some dozen years ago, at a 
 time when protection to Industries was thought 
 necessary, an average duty of less than ten 
 dollars per carat (ten per cent ad valorem) was 
 found more than sufficient, what Is the obvious 
 conclusion to be drawn today, when this same 
 duty means on the same goods not less than 
 double or twenty dollars per carat? 
 
 "On the other hand, trade unionism has Trades 
 increased In Europe even more and with greater ^^omsm 
 reason than It has In the United States; and the 
 demands have become more urgent In full ratio 
 to the abuse of labor that has been practised 
 in the old countries. The result has been that 
 the few good artisans who had not emigrated 
 to more hospitable shores, together with the 
 mass of poor workers remaining over there, have 
 gradually found better terms granted them, with 
 shorter hours of work, than had ever been the 
 case heretofore. In consequence there is today 
 a constant narrowing down of the difference 
 between the two scales of wages, and it will not 
 be long before almost equal compensation will 
 prevail In Antwerp and Amsterdam, as well as 
 in America, for the best workmanship in dia- 
 mond cutting. 
 
36 DIAMOND CUTTING 
 
 "In a general way, this wage question could 
 heretofore be summed up as follows, taking two 
 hundred dollars as an average value per carat: 
 
 I Carat, ^200.00 U. S. A. . . paid wages ^20.00 
 I Carat, ^192.00 Europe.. . paid wages $12.00 
 
 Difference $8.00 
 
 or four per cent in favor of Europe. 
 
 "Duty ten per cent on $192 is $19.20, from 
 which, deducting balance in favor of Europe 
 equaling $8, leaves $11.20, or 5.6 per cent in 
 favor of the United States. 
 
 "With the going into effect of the new Under- 
 wood Tariff this percentage of difference re- 
 mains the same, owing to the fact that the ratio 
 in duties between cut and rough diamonds 
 brought into the United States also remains 
 the same, that is, the duty on cut diamonds has 
 been increased to twenty per cent, whereas the 
 duty on rough diamonds is now ten per cent ad 
 valorem." 
 Melees Melees and sizes smaller than one half carat 
 can, however, be cut in Europe and landed, with 
 twenty per cent duty, cheaper than they can 
 be cut in America. The statements of Mr. 
 Henry Kryn and other diamond cutters regard- 
 ing the cost of labor per carat in the United 
 
DIAMOND CUTTING 37 
 
 States and Europe, while slightly different from 
 
 those of Mr. Schenck, show conclusively that 
 
 Mr. Schenck's statement regarding the difference 
 
 in cost of American and European cut goods, 
 
 after the duty has been paid in the United 
 
 States, is correct. 
 
 Diamonds have, since 1898, steadily advanced Advance in 
 
 in price and are still advancing. This is due, iJ^'^^ ^^ , 
 . . . Uiamonds 
 
 we believe, first to the difficulty in actually 
 
 mining the world's supply of diamonds, and 
 second to the fact that through the methods 
 of business of the two great companies, the 
 DeBeers Consolidated Mines, Ltd., and the 
 London Syndicate, — which combined form 
 virtually a monopoly, — they have been able to 
 control the entire diamond market and to regu- 
 late prices. For many years these two com- 
 panies have made the diamond market secure 
 and undoubtedly will continue to hold it so. 
 The extent of the rise in prices has, meanwhile, 
 been very great, and in a rough way it is safe 
 to say that diamonds are today worth more 
 than double the value of the same goods in 
 1898, and in many cases more than three times 
 what they were worth at that time. 
 
 Perhaps the greatest advance in this general 
 rise in value has been on fine crystal or Wessel- 
 ton two grainers, or half-carat diamonds, which 
 
38 DIAMOND CUTTING 
 
 have advanced to more than three times their 
 value in 1898. Silver Capes and the best of 
 the cheaper goods have advanced rather more 
 than blue white and Wesseltons, except in the 
 half-carat sizes of the latter. 
 
I 
 
Diamond Mountings 
 
 Diamonds have been mounted into gold Platinum 
 jewelry in the richer countries of the world for °^^ ^^^^ 
 centuries, but an examination of the collections 
 of old jewelry in the great museums of the 
 world will convince any one that this ancient 
 work is of interest and value only to the student 
 of antiques. These ornaments were invariably 
 of gold. In work of a more recent date, platinum, 
 although used to a limited extent for about 
 thirty years, has been used to a marked degree 
 only since about 1900. In the evolution of pres- 
 ent-day diamond jewelry, however, platinum has 
 been the metal which has increased steadily 
 in favor, until it is now practically the only 
 metal used for the most elaborate and artistic 
 creations. Platinum was discovered in South 
 America in 1735 and in Russia in 1819. It 
 has also been found in Canada and Australia. 
 About nine tenths of all produced in the world 
 now comes from Russia. Very little, however, 
 is found, only about one per cent of platinum 
 since its discovery in proportion to gold found 
 
40 DIAMOND MOUNTINGS 
 
 in the same period. It is generally found in the 
 sand of placer mines and the usual yield is one 
 ounce of platinum to a ton of sand. 
 
 For use it must be alloyed with iridium and 
 when properly alloyed is very hard and retains 
 a fine brilliant finish. As iridium is far more 
 expensive even than platinum, some manu- 
 facturers, in order to secure platinum at lower 
 price, have not used enough iridium in their 
 alloy, which has resulted in the metal becoming 
 soft and turning dull or leady in color. Platinum 
 of standard hardness of alloy weighs nearly 
 sixty per cent more than fourteen-carat gold, 
 and while fourteen-carat gold costs sixty-four 
 cents per pennyweight, platinum now costs 
 about ^2.50 per pennyweight. 
 Comparison In computing as an example the value of a 
 
 of Cost of diamond mounting, it might be said that a 
 Material m , ... 
 
 Mountings diamond mounting weighing ten pennyweights 
 
 would cost for the gold $6.40; a mounting of 
 
 the same size in platinum would weigh nearly 
 
 sixteen pennyweight and cost nearly ^40 for 
 
 the material. 
 
 The cost of working platinum is also far 
 
 greater than that of gold, but its brilliant finish 
 
 and hardness and harmonizing color make it 
 
 far the best metal for fine diamond and pearl 
 
 mountings. 
 
DIAMOND MOUNTINGS 41 
 
 It need hardly be added that the finest 
 creations in diamond mounting can only be 
 produced by artists who combine a knowledge 
 and appreciation of the finest epochs and styles 
 in the art of ornamentation, with the mar- 
 velous technical skill of the best of the pres- 
 ent-day craftsmen in platinum and precious 
 metals. 
 
The Pearl 
 
 Oriental Pearls are in a sense the purest of all gems, 
 
 Pearls 
 
 since they alone require no polishing or cutting 
 at the hands of workmen, but are found in 
 nature in their most finished form of perfection. 
 They have been known and prized since long 
 before the Christian era. They are said to 
 have been known in China four thousand 
 years ago. The gems occur more or less ex- 
 tensively in almost every country where oysters 
 or mussels are found. The pearls of the greatest 
 value are the Orientals, found in the Indian 
 and Pacific oceans. The famous fisheries of 
 Ceylon furnish a large percentage of fine pearls, 
 although the gems found there are seldom of 
 large size. The Ceylon oyster is comparatively 
 small, only about four inches in length and 
 with a thin shell, while the oyster of the South 
 Seas, Australia, and the Philippines is very 
 large and thick. From these large pearl oysters 
 comes the beautiful Mother of Pearl much used 
 in commerce. 
 
 The fresh-water pearls are found in streams, 
 
PEARLS 43 
 
 lakes, and ponds in nearly all parts of the tern- Fresh-Water 
 perate zone. American fresh-water pearls are ^ 
 found largely in the Western rivers, and are 
 generally of irregular shapes, either button or 
 baroques, although some fine pearls have never- 
 theless been found there. In fact, some very 
 fine American pearls have been discovered 
 which have commanded a very large price. 
 
 The value of a pearl depends first on its luster Value of 
 or orient, as it is termed in the trade; second, 
 on its shape, round being the most valuable, 
 next drop or pear shape, and lastly on its texture 
 or skin. The skin of a fine pearl should be free 
 from any wrinkles, scratches, or spots. Pearls 
 increase in value in proportion to an increase 
 in size much faster than does any other gem, 
 and are figured unlike any other gem. For 
 instance, if 
 
 A one-grain pearl at ^5.00 base is valued at ^5.00. 
 A five-grain pearl at ^5.00 base is worth ^125.00. 
 A ten-grain pearl at $5.00 base is worth ^500.00. 
 
 For a long time pearls have had a far greater 
 sale in Europe than in America. All jewelers of 
 much prominence abroad carry very large stocks 
 of pearls. But the pearl business in America 
 is now very large and gives every promise of 
 increasing greatly in the future. 
 
44 PEARLS 
 
 Increase in The increase In value of pearls has been going 
 yaLue ^^ during the last twenty years very rapidly, 
 and the increase has been far greater than is 
 the case with diamonds or even with emeralds. 
 The causes for this advance in price are better 
 known than in the case of diamonds, and the 
 probable value of pearls in the future can there- 
 fore be more definitely forecasted. Regard- 
 ing these points I will draw largely from a 
 personal letter from Mr. Ludwig Nissen, of 
 New York : 
 Average In brief, then, the cause for the advance in 
 Annual pj-j^^g q{ pearls is simply that the supply is now 
 Pearl absolutely inadequate to meet the demand. 
 Fisheries The supply is chiefly from two sources, — the 
 fisheries and the accumulated stores of the 
 great Indian rajahs. The fisheries, the only 
 primary source, are gradually being exhausted. 
 In the last five years, statistics show that there 
 has not been an average of ten million dollars' 
 worth of pearls from all the fisheries combined, 
 while much more than ten million dollars' worth 
 of pearls are sold annually in New York City 
 alone. Furthermore, there has not been a 
 new pearl fishery discovered in the last fifty 
 years. This exhaustion of the fisheries has been 
 accelerated by the methods used. In former 
 years divers went down to the bottom of the 
 
THE RAJAH OF DHOLPUR 
 
 WHOSE PEARLS WERE VALUED AT $7, 500,000 
 
 Courtesy of 
 J. B. Lippincott Co. 
 
PEARLS 45 
 
 sea to pick out and get the oysters which they Pearl 
 thought might contain pearls, but since the " ^^'''^^ 
 demand has so largely increased, divers are no 
 longer employed. Grapples are used in their 
 stead and are operated in the same way as 
 dredging machines, scraping up everything, 
 large and small. When these small oysters are 
 opened and seed pearls taken, there is obviously 
 no chance for the pearls to grow larger, "on 
 the same principle that where one picks a 
 peach blossom, one cannot pick a peach." In 
 this manner the pearl fisheries are being robbed 
 instead of being conserved, and the supply 
 must continue to decrease. 
 
 Drilled pearls are practically the only ones Drilled 
 found on the European market today, and this "^^^^•*" 
 fact points to the second source of supply. 
 These drilled pearls are old pearls gradually 
 accumulated and held for centuries by the pearl- 
 loving princes of India. New pearls from the 
 fisheries are never drilled, both because the 
 gems may be desired for other purposes than 
 for necklaces, and also because the moisture 
 otherwise held within the hard outer skin can, 
 in the case of drilled pearls, ooze out between 
 the skins, the pearl little by little dries up and 
 becomes lighter. The old pearls of the Indian 
 princes were always drilled so that they might 
 
46 PEARLS 
 
 be strung and thus carried with greater security 
 by the owner. The fact that most of the pearls 
 on the market are drilled shows again that we 
 are dependent for our supply on these accumula- 
 tions which are the result of centuries of pearl 
 fishing, and until four or five years ago large 
 numbers of these old pearls were lured from 
 their ancient owners by the large prices offered. 
 But now even this supply, limited as it must be, 
 is beginning to dwindle. Lastly, great diffi- 
 culties are now encountered in securing pearls 
 from these sources. A pearl syndicate has 
 Pearl been formed which collects all the pearls it can 
 Syndicate ge^ure in all parts of the East, ships them to 
 London and Paris, and then demands such high 
 prices that often a whole year must be consumed 
 in dickering before a bargain can finally be 
 reached. Taken together, all these reasons 
 explain why pearls have advanced so rapidly 
 in price, and also why fine large pearls have 
 increased most rapidly in value. It would 
 also appear from this, that since the supply is 
 so inadequate to the demand, pearls, and 
 especially fine ones, must inevitably advance 
 greatly in the future. 
 
 In conclusion Mr. Nissen says that "the 
 coming into the market of a really fine twenty 
 to twenty-five grain pearl is almost as much 
 
PEARLS 47 
 
 a sensation In the pearl market as the discovery 
 of an unknown Rembrandt picture." 
 
 The skin of an oriental pearl is formed like Skin of 
 that of an onion, and very highly skilled work- ^^^^'-^ 
 men can sometimes remove the outer layer of 
 a pearl with a bad skin and thus produce a 
 smaller pearl of good skin. This is very seldom 
 done in America, however, and at best it Is al- 
 ways a gamble whether the risk should be in- 
 curred. Fresh water pearls, on the other hand, 
 are not formed in layers, but in sections, and 
 cannot be peeled. 
 
 Pearls vary greatly In color and shade. Those 
 of pure white or white with a rose pink tint, 
 with good luster, are the most valuable of the 
 regular colors. Creamy white is also desirable. 
 Of the fancy colors black pearls of fine skin and 
 shape are very valuable, as are also fine pink 
 pearls. Button pearls are those with one side 
 flat, while baroque pearls are always of odd and 
 irregular shapes. 
 
 Pearls may be Injured by acids or by being Colors of 
 scratched, but are not harmed by pure water. -^^^^^ 
 A string of fine pearls should always be carefully 
 wiped and put away In soft cotton after being 
 worn. They should be restrung quite often. 
 
 As is well known, gems and particularly 
 pearls, have from remote antiquity been re- 
 
48 PEARLS 
 
 garded as of great value and have, therefore, 
 been eagerly collected by kings and princes. 
 Many pretty legends have arisen from this fact, 
 especially among the rajahs of the East. An 
 interesting example of this spontaneous and 
 interesting literature of gems has been handed 
 to me by Mr. Nissen, and is as follows: 
 
 The Origin of the Superstition that 
 Pearls Bring Tears 
 
 The Princess of Travancore, who was stolen 
 by a Rover of Kandy and lost in the storm called 
 down upon his ships by a potent Brahman, is the 
 heroine of the tale. Her body was recovered and 
 with it came a great gift, as the legend thus relates. 
 Pearl Now, when the elements were at peace again, 
 ^^^^ the King gave orders that certain fishermen of 
 his people who were expert divers should explore 
 the bottom of the sea where the ships of the 
 Rover were destroyed. One of these discovered 
 the body of the Princess and brought it to shore. 
 And when they prepared it for burial the women 
 found fastened upon one of the hands a shellfish, 
 the two shells of which had closed upon a finger 
 when it fell between them as they gaped. And 
 when the shells were pried apart there rolled 
 from between them a round bone, white and 
 shining, and yet of a luster so soft and beautiful 
 
PEARLS 49 
 
 that no man had seen the like. And the Brah- 
 man, when he saw it, said: "Herein are the 
 tears of Heaven which fell into the sea, con- 
 gealed and have become a gem which is beyond 
 price." And he named it "Pearl," and carried 
 it to the King. Then the King, after he had 
 heard the story of it, sent for the chief man of 
 them that worked in gold and commanded him 
 that he make for the pearl a setting most 
 precious, and when it was done, he gave it to 
 the Prince, his son, saying: "Above all things 
 let this be first among the jewels of Travancore 
 forever." And the Prince, when he looked upon 
 it said, "The beauty of it is like the brightness 
 of her eyes when they veiled themselves before 
 my passion," and he prized it more than all the 
 diamonds and rubies in his treasure house. 
 
The Tariff on Diamonds, Pearls, 
 AND Precious Stones 
 
 The recent Underwood Tariff which caused 
 so many changes also brought into prominence 
 new aspects of the diamond and gem importing 
 business. For many years the tariff on polished 
 diamonds and on other finished gems, including 
 pearls, had been ten per cent. By the new 
 tariff this was raised to twenty per cent, and 
 rough diamonds, which heretofore had been 
 on the free list, were made to bear a duty of 
 ten per cent. 
 
 The gem importers made a concerted effort 
 to prevent the change in tariff, because they 
 believed that the object of the Administration 
 would be defeated rather than furthered by the 
 changes. In other words, they believed that 
 the government would secure less revenue rather 
 than more, because of the added inducement to 
 smugglers. However, the tariff Vv^as raised and 
 the only recourse now open to legitimate dealers 
 is to see, so far as possible, that no smuggling 
 is done. The American Jewelers' Protective 
 
THE TARIFF ON GEMS 51 
 
 Association was formed to accomplish this 
 purpose. In the association are incorporated 
 almost all the legitimate dealers and importers 
 in gems and precious stones in the country. 
 These concerns realize the danger of competition 
 with gems smuggled into the country, and 
 through the association they endeavor to aid 
 the federal government by furnishing the cus- 
 toms authorities with information which they 
 alone, for obvious reasons, are in a position to 
 obtain. For this purpose the association em- 
 ploys detectives In Europe, whose work it is to 
 know what important purchases are made and 
 how they reach America. By these means 
 smugglers have recently been detected and 
 caught, who used the most ingenuous means 
 for concealing the goods. 
 
 The work of the association is further aided 
 by a clause in the Administrative Act of the 
 new tariff, which provides that, "where a 
 seizure has been made, the burden of proof 
 shall be upon the claimant." Under this pro- 
 vision even regular buyers of precious stones 
 must be prepared to furnish evidence that the 
 stones were legitimately brought Into the 
 country, since, if a smuggler is detected, not 
 only will his goods be seized, but also the 
 smuggled stones that he may have sold to his 
 
52 THE TARIFF ON GEMS 
 
 customers. Dealers must, therefore, be on their 
 guard to purchase stones only from reputable, 
 responsible houses. 
 
 In the matter of the relative advantages to 
 individuals in purchasing diamond jewelry 
 abroad and at home, Mr. Ludwig Nissen, 
 president of the American Jewelers' Protec- 
 tive Association, contributes some illuminating 
 information. He says, in the first place, that 
 he has never known a person to make as good 
 purchases abroad as could have been made at 
 home. Methods of doing business in these 
 goods are entirely different on different sides 
 of the Atlantic, and the customer not versed 
 in the technicalities that enter into the valua- 
 tion of jewels, must often fall more or less a 
 prey to the merchant working under a different 
 code of commercial honesty than exists here. 
 Also it must be noted that the quality of 
 precious stones sold in Europe is very often 
 not that desired by Americans. 
 
Precious and Semiprecious 
 Stones 
 
 Rubies, emeralds, and sapphires are always 
 classed as precious stones. Many other gems 
 should be termed "precious stones" because of 
 their rarity and beauty. Especially should they 
 be termed so in times when they are much in 
 vogue, and because of this demand through 
 fashion have advanced very largely in price. 
 
 The question may be summed up by saying 
 that in addition to diamonds, rubies, sapphires, 
 and emeralds, very fine specimens of many of 
 the s^-called semiprecious stones should be 
 considered precious stones, perhaps at all times, 
 and unquestionably so at times when there exists 
 a fashionable demand for them and they have 
 in consequence attained great value. 
 
The Ruby 
 
 Composition Rubies and Sapphires are scientifically the 
 same stone, differing only in color. Corundum, 
 the predominating mineral of both, is composed 
 of nearly pure alumina. The coloring substance 
 which differentiates rubies and sapphires is 
 believed to be chromium. In the scale of 
 hardness the gem ranks as No. 9 and is thus 
 the hardest of all substances excepting the 
 diamond. Color is the most important factor 
 in determining the value of the ruby. The 
 gem is always more or less imperfect, but its 
 freedom from bad imperfections is also im- 
 portant. Since fine rubies of all sizes are 
 extremely rare, the price increases very rapidly 
 with an increase in size, and a fine ruby of more 
 Value than four carats commands an extraordinary 
 price and can be said to be the most valuable of 
 all gems, exceeding greatly a diamond of equal 
 weight. A ruby of eleven carats is reported, some 
 twelve years ago, to have been sold for ^80,000, 
 but this is almost the limit of size in which rubies 
 Color are ever found. The color varies from the lightest 
 
RUBIES 55 
 
 rose tint to the deepest carmine, but the rarest 
 and most valuable shade is that known as Pigeon 
 Blood. This is the color of arterial blood. The 
 ruby has always been greatly admired, and Rus- 
 kin calls the ruby in the British Crown the 
 most beautiful gem he has ever seen. 
 
 The finest rubies come from Burmah and 
 are termed Oriental Rubies. Siam also pro- 
 duces rubies, but of a much darker red and of 
 very much less value. Rubies are also found in 
 Ceylon, India, Australia, Brazil, and occa- 
 sionally in America. 
 
 Rubies, as well as sapphires, are sometimes Cutting 
 cut in India in cabochon form and are afterwards 
 recut in Europe. The style is often cushion 
 shape, with step cutting. They are also cut 
 round and pear shape, similar to the cutting of 
 a diamond of these shapes. The stones are 
 cut thick or shallow to deepen or diminish the 
 color of the stone. 
 
 Many years ago scientists succeeded in pro- Synthetic 
 ducing minute crystals of rubies and sapphires ^^^^^-'" 
 which could not be distinguished from the rubies 
 of nature even by the microscope. These speci- 
 mens were, however, very small and of no com- 
 mercial value. These minute crystals are the only 
 truly synthetic rubies which have ever been made. 
 
 The scientific ruby now on the market is 
 
56 RUBIES 
 
 simply a chemical product made by fusing 
 
 powdered alumina, colored to imitate the gem 
 
 by the addition of a metallic oxide. This 
 
 scientific ruby, because it is better and cheaper, 
 
 has largely taken the place of the reconstructed 
 
 ruby, made by melting small fragments of real 
 
 rubies. These chemical products when dyed 
 
 blue pass in a similar way for sapphires. 
 
 How fine All these imitations of the true corundum 
 
 Imitation ^ems can be detected by an expert, most of 
 
 Rubies are ° i • i , . . . , 
 
 Detected them at iirst sight and without hesitation. And 
 
 even in the much rarer cases when the imita- 
 tion approaches the real stone very closely, the 
 former can always be detected under a micro- 
 scope. In the real, fine parallel lines of structural 
 strain are seen and the little enclosures, or 
 bubbles, are irregular in shape, whereas in the 
 imitation the lines of strain are curved and the 
 bubbles round. 
 
 While scientific rubies and sapphires have 
 a distinct use as ornaments, they can never 
 affect the sale of the real gems any more than 
 is the case with Imitation pearls. Aside from 
 the fact that the imitation can always be ulti- 
 mately detected, the person desiring to pur- 
 chase a ruby, as a ruby, and as a work of beauty 
 and distinction wants a gem which he knows is 
 one of nature's rarities and is therefore possessed 
 
RUBIES S7 
 
 of intrinsically great value. A good illustration 
 of this fundamental feeling is given by Mr. Zell, 
 who says, "Many perfect copies of the Sistine 
 Madonna have been made by good artists, 
 the original is priceless, the copies at the most 
 are worth a few hundred dollars, — this is the 
 relation of a gem made in nature's laboratory 
 to one produced by the chemist." 
 
The Sapphire 
 
 The Sapphire is the other great branch of the 
 
 Corundum family of gems. It differs from the 
 
 ruby only in color. 
 
 Color Sapphires vary in tint from the lightest blue 
 
 to a deep b-ackish blue, and, similar to rubies, 
 
 are valued chiefly according to their color. The 
 
 soft, velvety blue most approaching the blue 
 
 of the cornflower of England, which is known in 
 
 our country as the bachelor's button, is the 
 
 most valued color in sapphires. The best 
 
 stones should show this color by artificial as 
 
 well as by natural light. 
 
 Value of Although choice sapphires are uncommon, 
 
 % ^^^ fine large stones are more frequently found than 
 
 rubies of similar size, and consequently the price 
 
 does not advance with an increase in size so 
 
 rapidly as it does with rubies. 
 
 Sapphires are found in various places, each 
 
 locality producing its distinctive shade. 
 
 Where finest The finest specimens are termed Cashmere 
 
 Sapphires sapphires, and occur in the Himalaya Moun- 
 are round r r ■> ... 
 
 tains of the State of Kashmir in India. These 
 
GEM CUTTING IN CEYLON 
 
SAPPHIRES 59 
 
 gems possess a velvety luster, and a vivid color 
 of the true cornflower shade, without the slightest 
 trace of green or black. 
 
 Another important locality for sapphires is 
 Burmah. These Burmah or oriental sapphires 
 have a much darker shade of blue. While they 
 bear the name Burmah, most of the stones come 
 from the adjacent country of Siam. The most 
 important mine is the Bo Pie Rim mine, in 
 Battambang. 
 
 Ceylon produces sapphires of very light 
 shades, ranging from delicate pale gray blue to 
 purplish blue. 
 
 The sapphires found in Australia are generally 
 poor in color, and although fine gems occur they 
 are exceedingly rare. 
 
 In our own country fine sapphires have been Montana 
 found in Yogo Gulch, Montana. These stones Sflpj>Azr<?j- 
 have a fine electric blue tint, and the larger 
 sizes which are occasionally found are very 
 valuable, approaching in price the oriental. 
 
 Most of the Montana sapphires which are 
 found near Helena are small, — one carat and 
 less, — but are of a very uniform color and are 
 especially suited to be cut into round stones. 
 The Montana sapphires have been known since 
 1865, but the mines were first systematically 
 worked in 1891. Since that time they have 
 
6o SAPPHIRES 
 
 always been by far the most valuable gem- 
 mineral resource of the United States. 
 ^tar Sapphire An exceedingly beautiful and interesting 
 
 Cutting and variation in eems is the star sapphire and star 
 T OTtnatton 
 
 ruby. These are very valuable when the star 
 
 marking is well defined and shows a fine, six- 
 pointed star, which is always more clearly 
 defined when seen under an artificial light. 
 Star sapphires and rubies are always cut 
 cabochon, with the center of the star at the 
 apex of the cabochon. What causes the for- 
 mation of the star is not definitely known, but 
 it is probably due to the presence of a foreign 
 substance in the sapphire or ruby. 
 Sapphires In history both these gems are of great 
 tn History interest. Rubies are mentioned in the Bible 
 in the Proverbs and in the Book of Job. The 
 Greeks and Romans ascribe to the ruby the 
 power of emitting light in darkness; the Hindus 
 describe the abodes of their gods as being 
 lighted with rubies. 
 
 Sapphires were also known in ancient times, 
 which is attested by the fact that the word 
 sapphire is nearly the same in all languages. 
 
 The gem was believed to be a destroyer of 
 poison and a powerful charm, protecting the 
 wearer from fever. 
 
 Dr. O. C. Farrington states that "Burton, the 
 
SAPPHIRES 6i 
 
 African traveler, is said always to have carried 
 a star sapphire about with him as a means of 
 gaining respect from the barbarous peoples 
 among whom he journeyed. The savages 
 believed that the stone must be a talisman of 
 great power and feared to incur the owner's 
 enmity." 
 
The Emerald 
 
 Composition Beryl is a mineral known to gem lovers under 
 
 2nd Hardness , , . ~ , i j p 
 
 of Emeralds several dinerent names, the most valued oi 
 
 which is the Emerald. The mineral beryl com- 
 posing the various gems is practically the same 
 in composition, hardness, and other properties, 
 and the gems may be differentiated only by 
 their color. In composition beryl is a silicate 
 of aluminum and glucinum. On the scale of 
 hardness beryl is graded jy^ to 8, and is thus 
 much softer than the diamond, ruby, or sapphire. 
 It is owing to this fact that the emerald scratches 
 easily and that care must be taken that when 
 worn it is not subject to chafing by diamonds 
 or other harder gems. 
 Color and Beryl as a mineral is of quite common occur- 
 rence, and the crystals of the mineral in its 
 cruder form often grow to enormous size. 
 There is one such single crystal preserved in 
 the Boston Museum of Natural History, which 
 is three and one half feet long and three feet 
 wide and weighs several tons. 
 
 Beryl in this common form occurs in many 
 
EMERALDS 63 
 
 localities, but the mineral in its rarer form of 
 emerald is comparatively of very rare occur- 
 rence. The emerald or green beryl, as it should 
 be scientifically known, has long been the most 
 highly prized of the green gems. In brilliancy 
 it exceeds all other green gems excepting only 
 the very rare green sapphire. The most valuable 
 specimens exhibit a vivid grass-green shade, 
 and it is to this color that they owe their great 
 value. Other considerations, such as freedom 
 from imperfections, are quite secondary in 
 determining the value of the stone. In fact a 
 perfect emerald is almost never found, and this 
 circumstance has passed into an Eastern simile 
 which runs, "As scarce as a perfect emerald," 
 this being a symbol for the acme of rarity. The Weight 
 emerald is light in weight and an emerald of a 
 given size will be about a third larger than a 
 diamond and forty-five per cent larger than a 
 sapphire of equal weight. The distinctive color 
 of the emerald is probably due to a trace of 
 chroTdium in its composition. 
 
 The largest source of supply of fine emeralds Where most 
 is a mine in Muso, a locality about seventy-five ^° , , 
 miles northwest of Bogota, in the United States are Found 
 of Colombia. This mine has been worked 
 almost continuously since 1558, but the wildness 
 of the region and the barbarity of the aborigines 
 
64 EMERALDS 
 
 has made the working of the mine, at least until 
 recently, quite precarious. 
 Form of Fine emeralds are generally cut cushion shape 
 Cutting ^j^j^ g|-gp cutting, and in the East are often 
 cut cahochon. Fine emeralds have advanced 
 very rapidly during the last few years, both on 
 account of the growing demand of fashion for the 
 gems and the scarcity of really fine specimens. 
 Many interesting stories are told of the first 
 emeralds taken by the early conquerors of Peru 
 to Spain, and a certain Joseph D'Acosta is said 
 to have returned to Spain in 1587 with two chests 
 of emeralds, each of which weighed over one 
 hundred pounds. The truth of this story may 
 be questioned, but it is a fact that the stones 
 were highly prized and much used by the Incas 
 and Aztecs in the extraordinary civilization 
 which once existed in Peru. The emerald was 
 highly prized by the ancients and by gem lovers 
 of the middle ages, and this accounts for many 
 interesting legends and superstitions relating 
 to the gem. 
 
The a qjj a m a r i n e 
 
 Aquamarine is another of the gems composed Colors 
 of Beryl. It occurs in colors of light sky blue, 
 greenish blue, or greenish yellow. The light 
 sky-blue stone is the one of the most value, and 
 is very brilliant, especially by artificial light. 
 Recently aquamarines have become more and 
 more popular, and this is doubtless due to the 
 discovery of many fine masses of the crystal. 
 Some of the finest of these are in Siberia, India, 
 Brazil, and in many different localities in the Where^ 
 United States, notably in North Carolina. The 
 color of the aquamarine may be altered by 
 various artificial means, and experiments along 
 this line have been undertaken for many years 
 by some of the German universities, resulting 
 in the discovery of a method by which in rare 
 cases the less valuable greenish-blue variety may 
 be changed to a shade of light sky blue of great 
 value without altering the stone to any per- 
 ceptible degree. Because of this, it is thought 
 that the coloring matter in the gem must be 
 organic. 
 
 Found 
 
66 AQUAMARINES 
 
 Biblical T]\Q history of the aquamarine is not as com- 
 entton ^^qiq as that of the more valued stones. A 
 notable biblical mention of the stone is, however, 
 found in the Song of Solomon, 
 
 "O daughters of Jerusalem, 
 This is my beloved, and this is my friend. 
 His hands are as gold rings set with the beryl." 
 
 In the middle ages, beryl was supposed to give 
 its wearer cheerfulness and to compose the 
 heart and mind. It was called, in fact, the 
 "sweet-tempered stone," and these qualities 
 might perhaps account for the presence of a 
 piece of blue beryl in the English crown. 
 
The Tourmaline 
 
 Tourmaline Is like beryl, a mineral which is Brilliancy 
 in itself of great interest, especially to scientists, 
 and one which in smaller crystals sometimes 
 attains such beauty of coloring and brilliancy 
 as to become of rare charm as a gem. 
 
 Tourmaline has always puzzled scientific Its 
 authorities in determining its composition, and ^^'^^o-^*'*"** 
 in lack of a concise or authoritative definition 
 of the chemicals composing it, we will quote the 
 following description of its composition given 
 by Ruskin, in his "Ethics of the Dust": "A 
 little of everything, there's always flint and 
 clay and magnesia in it; and the black is iron 
 according to its fancy; and there's boracic 
 acid, if you know what that is, and if you don't, 
 I cannot tell you today, and it doesn't signify, 
 and there's potash and soda; and on the whole, 
 the chemistry of it is more like a medieval 
 doctor's prescription than the making of a 
 respectable mineral." 
 
 As we noted at first, tourmaline as a mineral 
 is quite distinct from its rarer gem species. 
 
68 TOURMALINES 
 
 Its Colors As a mineral it occurs in an opaque form, 
 colored either black or brown, and is quite 
 common as a rock-forming mineral, resembling 
 somewhat in its occurrence in this form, horn- 
 blend. These crystals often possess strange 
 and beautiful qualities, notably that of having 
 a strong dichroism, that is, the same crystals 
 often have different colors, being at one end 
 red and at the other end green; or, on the other 
 hand, the crystal may show a blue center, then 
 a colorless zone, and then one red and one 
 green, and furthermore the crystal will always 
 show two different colors according as it is 
 viewed from one angle or another. The beauty 
 of these changing colors is often very striking, 
 and is the chief cause which has led the tour- 
 maline to be widely appreciated as a gem. 
 
 In the cutting of the gem skill is necessary in 
 order to so cut the specimen that it will exhibit 
 its most beautiful color. The most valued 
 colors are, as a rule, dark red, sometimes almost 
 approaching that of the ruby, and dark green 
 shading to blue or yellow. 
 Tourmaline One of the chief localities for the mining of 
 ^^^■^ the gem tourmaline is Paris, Maine. The dis- 
 covery of this source was mainly accidental. 
 Two boys of the neighborhood, Elisha L. Hamlin 
 and Ezekiel Holmes, had for some time been 
 
TOURM JUNES 69 
 
 interested In the study of the minerals which 
 were of frequent occurrence In the fields about 
 their homes. One day in the fall of 1820, after 
 hunting some time for specimens, they were 
 attracted by the gleam of something green at 
 the roots of a tree. They eagerly secured the 
 mineral, and found it to be a beautiful green 
 tourmaline. However, It was late In the day 
 and their explorations could not go further. 
 Then chance further delayed the discovery of 
 more of the beautiful crystals, for that night It 
 snowed heavily, and no further work could be 
 done in the frozen ground until the following 
 spring. But with the first thaw the boys worked 
 with great Interest, and soon secured many fine 
 gems. Since that time the locality has been exten- 
 sively worked, and some of the gems taken from 
 it have found places in the crowns of kings. Ten 
 years ago It was estimated that ^50,000 worth of 
 tourmalines had been taken from this one spot. 
 
 Other localities for minjng tourmalines are 
 California, which furnishes in particular the 
 red tourmaline, Brazil, Siberia, and Ceylon. 
 
 Since tourmalines are of relatively recent dis- 
 covery there are no historical associations coupled 
 with them, and no legends are related of them, 
 although the story of their strange discovery and 
 the beauty of the gem would seem to deserve this. 
 
The Alexandrite 
 
 Discovery This gem was first found in Takovaya, in the 
 Urai Mountains of Siberia, in 1830, on the 
 anniversary of the birth of Alexander II, Czar 
 of Russia, and because of that circumstance and 
 since green and red — the colors of the gem — 
 are also Russia's national colors, it was named, 
 in honor of the Czar, Alexandrite. 
 Hardness The mineral composing the gem is Chrysoberyly 
 and Color ^j^jch resembles beryl in composition but is 
 remarkable for its hardness, being graded 8.5. 
 The alexandrite shows ordinarily an emerald- 
 green color, but changes by artificial light to a 
 beautiful red, and has, therefore, the unique 
 property of resembling somewhat "an emerald 
 by day and a ruby by night." Much of the 
 mineral is found, but transparent pieces which 
 can be used as gems are of very rare occur- 
 rence, and Alexandrites are therefore very valu- 
 able, besides being unique in the beauty of 
 their double colors. 
 Cats-eye A more common variety of chrysoberyl is the 
 gem known as Cafs-eye, which always shows 
 
ALEXANDRITE 71 
 
 the familiar band of color in the center. Most 
 of the stones are cut cabochon, in order to best 
 display this property. Most of the cat's-eyes 
 now come from Brazil and Ceylon. 
 
The Opal 
 
 "The opal, when pure and uncut in its native 
 rock, presents the most lovely colors seen in 
 the world, except those of clouds," says Ruskin, 
 in his lecture on "Color." The mineral com- 
 posing the opal does not, however, always show 
 the brilliancy of colors which we usually associ- 
 Composition ^^^ ^.^j^ ^^^ ^^^^ Chemically, it is an oxide of 
 
 silica, and is therefore much similar to quartz. 
 As a mineral, opal is quite common, and one 
 of its interesting occurrences is in the Yellowstone 
 Park, where the geyser and hot spring forma- 
 tions are composed almost entirely of this silicate 
 known here as geyserite. It may be said, there- 
 fore, that the waters of the park build up cones 
 of opal and fall into opal basins. In the rarer 
 form in which it displays its many fascinating 
 colors the gem is of comparatively rare occur- 
 rence. The most noted and most ancient mines 
 are those of Czernowitza, in northern Hungary. 
 It is well established that the Romans obtained 
 their opals from these mines. At the present 
 day, however, this ancient source has become 
 
OPALS 73 
 
 superseded by the more abundant mines in 
 New South Wales. 
 
 Why the opal displays so many brilliant 
 colors has been somewhat of a riddle to scientists. 
 The most probable theory of the varied coloring 
 is that it is formed by strata in the stone, 
 containing different percentages of water which 
 break up the ray of light similarly as a prism 
 does. The most beautiful and fascinating opals 
 are the dark ones, known as black opals. These 
 come from Australia, and since they are in 
 great demand today, command large prices. 
 
 In history the opal has always been famous Superstitions 
 and was very highly prized by the Romans. 
 In contradiction to the superstitions that are 
 now associated with the gem by some people 
 the opal was then regarded as having the virtues 
 of all the stones whose colors it displayed. It 
 was supposed to cheer the despondent and was 
 in general a symbol of hope. And like the 
 turquoise, it was believed to change color if its 
 wearer grew ill and regain it when he recovered. 
 
The Am eth yst 
 
 The common mineral quartz in one of its 
 rarer forms is known to us as amethyst. It is 
 Color, etc. the only gem which displays a beautiful violet 
 color. This color is thought to be caused by 
 organic matter within the crystal, and this 
 theory is supported by the fact that the 
 amethyst when heated first changes to yellow 
 and then entirely loses its color. 
 Where The chief sources of supply of amethysts are 
 Found j^Q^ located in Siberia and Brazil, although a 
 very few stones have occasionally been found 
 in the State of Maine. The finest stones must 
 r have a rich, dark violet color, while the lighter 
 
 shades are of much less value. In former times 
 the amethyst was much more highly valued 
 than at present, owing, no doubt, to the relative 
 scarcity of the gem at that time. But it must 
 ever continue to be highly prized for the in- 
 trinsic beauty of its violet color. 
 
 The amethyst has with many other gems 
 a long history. Its name is derived from 
 two Greek words, meaning "not to inebriate," 
 
AMETHYSTS 75 
 
 indicating that It was the belief of the ancients 
 that anything drunk from cups of this mineral 
 could never produce any deleterious effect. 
 During the middle ages it long figured as a 
 pious or episcopal gem and was long sacred to 
 the Church. 
 
The Moonstone 
 
 The moonstone is a form of felspar, and 
 comes chiefly from Ceylon. There it occurs in 
 large pieces in clay. When properly polished 
 the gem exhibits a beautiful pale-blue light 
 coming from within. The cause of this light is 
 hard to explain, but is thought to be a reflection 
 from minute tabular crystals arranged in parallel 
 position in the stone. Moonstone, like most of 
 the more or less opaque gems, is usually cut 
 cabochon form. The stone is now becoming 
 more and more popular. 
 
The T u r qjj o i s e 
 
 This mineral Is remarkable among all the 
 gem minerals In not being transparent and In 
 never occurring in the form of a fine crystal. 
 In composition turquoise Is a hydrus phosphate 
 of aluminum. The gem is rather soft; Its grade 
 is No. 6. 
 
 The ancient supply of fine turquoise came from Sources of 
 a mine not far from NIshapur, in Persia, and ^'"■PP^y 
 the mining of the gems in that locality Is said 
 to have supported the entire population of the 
 town. The mines must be very ancient. A 
 description of one was written in the year 
 1300 A.D. and according to a popular tradition, 
 one of the mines, known as Isaac's Mine, was 
 opened by Isaac, son of Abraham. At the 
 present time most of the turquoise come from 
 New Mexico. These mines also are very old 
 and were first worked by the Spaniards, it Is 
 said, by consent of the Indians, who still 
 inhabited the land. 
 
 The predominating color of the turquoise is Color 
 green, while on the other hand the color of 
 
78 TOU RQUOISE 
 
 most value is blue, and most turquoise are not 
 free from the imperfection of turning green by 
 exposure during the course of time. 
 
 Turquoise are sometimes artificially stained, 
 but this can be easily detected, and is of little in- 
 terest to the real admirer of this interesting gem. 
 
 Owing to their early discovery the turquoise 
 has always been prized by Eastern people, and 
 amongst oriental people is still considered of 
 great value. Superstition, as usual, mingles 
 in this estimate of value, and it is stated by good 
 authority that turquoise are still used in the 
 East as a remedy for dyspepsia and insanity. 
 It has also been supposed since earliest times 
 to bring its wearer good fortune, and one of the 
 proverbs of the Oriental is, "A turquoise given 
 by a loving hand carries with it happiness and 
 good fortune." 
 
SCENE IN AZURE TURQUOISE MINE, NEW MEXICO 
 
The Chrysolite 
 
 Chrysolite as a name for gems is unique, in Peridot 
 that it seems to have been used for several q,- • 
 gems in ancient biblical times, but now appears 
 to have disappeared and given place to several 
 other names for the mineral, of which Peridot 
 is used for designating the deep olive-green 
 variety. Olivine when the mineral is yellowish 
 green, and Chrysolite only when the gem is 
 of a lighter or golden-yellow color. The name 
 chrysolite means "gold stone." Aside from 
 the beauty of the colors afforded by the three 
 gems. Peridot, Olivine, and Chrysolite, the 
 origin of the mineral is perhaps its most in- 
 teresting property. Although many of the gems 
 are now known, it is very hard to determine 
 exactly where they have been found. They 
 are reported to come from Burmah, Ceylon, 
 Egypt, and from Brazil, but it is impossible 
 to ascertain the exact locality. Because of this 
 obscurity, Kunz states that nearly all the chryso- 
 lite used in modern times has been taken out 
 of old jewelry, and it is, therefore, probable 
 
8o CHRYSOLITE 
 
 that the old localities are either forgotten or 
 exhausted. There is, however, one very striking 
 source for the gem. The mineral is known to 
 be an essential constituent of meteorites, and 
 crystals are often found in these masses large 
 enough to be of value as gems. It is thus an 
 interesting fact that chrysolite is the only gem 
 which comes to us from spaces of which we 
 know nothing, actually beyond the earth. 
 Mention Chrysolite has, as I have stated, long been 
 ^^^l^ known, and is frequently mentioned in the 
 Bible and in ancient literature, but much of 
 the mineral then known as chrysolite was in 
 reality topaz. An interesting fable of its 
 discovery in those early times is related. Dio- 
 dones Siculus says of the stone, "That it was 
 not discernible by day, but was bright at 
 night, so it could be seen by the patrol. The 
 latter would cover the luminous spot with a 
 vase, and the next day come and cut out the 
 rock at the place indicated. After being 
 polished a beautiful chrysolite would appear." 
 
The Spinel 
 
 Spinel is a mineral somewhat similar to Composition 
 ruby, but as spinel gems are quite different ^u j 
 from true rubies, so the mineral spinel is quite 
 distinct from the mineral of the true ruby, which 
 is corundum. In composition spinel is almost 
 wholly a magnesia aluminate, and in hardness is 
 much softer than the ruby, being No. 8, or 
 no harder than the topaz, while the ruby is 
 No. 9. 
 
 Spinel occurs in various colors, but the most Black 
 valuable color is red, called the spinel ruby, ^^v^^ 
 From the fact that the spinel so closely ap- 
 proaches the ruby in appearance, it has often 
 been confounded with it, and in cases of fraud 
 spinel is sometimes sold in place of the corundum 
 ruby. In its own sphere, however, the spinel is 
 a beautiful gem, and while never found in very 
 large sizes, has yet been so highly prized that 
 it is found amongst the crown jewels of several 
 nations. The ruby of the "Black Prince," 
 which is shown among the crown jewels of 
 England, is a notable example of spinel. 
 
82 SPINELS 
 
 Where As spinel Is related to corundum in composi- 
 tion and appearance so it is also often found 
 associated with it in nature. The gem gravels 
 of Ceylon, Siam, Australia, and Brazil contain 
 spinel rubies, and the true corundum rubies side 
 by side, but the commercial source of spinel 
 rubies is now almost entirely a locality called 
 Badakschan, in Afghanistan, on the banks of 
 the Oxus. According to a Persian tradition 
 these mines were first disclosed when the moun- 
 tain was rent in twain by an earthquake. 
 Its Colors Besides the ruby spinel the mineral occurs 
 in several other colors, which may be used as 
 gems, viz. : red, orange, green, blue, indigo, and 
 also black and white. Colorless spinels are occa- 
 sionally passed in cases of fraud as diamonds, 
 but the deceit may be readily detected. 
 
 While the mineral spinel may be used as a 
 gem in all the colors in which it occurs, the 
 only shades which are abundant enough to 
 deserve special notice, aside from the red, are 
 the blue and black. Blue spinel resembles the 
 sapphire in color, although it is somewhat 
 paler. It comes chiefly from Ceylon and Bur- 
 mah, where it is found with the ruby spinel. 
 The black spinel is known as Ceylonite and 
 comes also from Ceylon. 
 
 In ancient times spinel rubies and corundum 
 
SPINELS 83 
 
 rubies were equally well known, and the two Legend 
 were probably often confounded. Dr. O. C. 
 Farrington, in his delightful book, relates as 
 usual some interesting superstitions regarding 
 the spinel. In the middle ages, for instance, it 
 was believed that, "if one touched with this gem 
 the four corners of a house, orchard, or vine- 
 yard, they would be j)rotected from Hghtning, 
 storms, and the like." 
 
Hardness 
 
 The Topaz 
 
 Topaz is a mineral which has been known and 
 prized since biblical times for its remarkable 
 clearness and transparency. Its decline in 
 popularity some time ago was due mainly to the 
 fact that many far inferior stones were wrongly 
 termed topaz. The real topaz is now, however, 
 being more and more appreciated. 
 Composition The real topaz is a silicate of aluminum and is 
 rff^f remarkably heavy, and is also quite hard, being 
 No. 8. The usual color of the gem is yellow, but 
 topaz are also found in many other shades. As 
 is the case with aquamarine, the color may 
 often be altered by artificial means. The yellow 
 topaz of Brazil may, for example, be changed 
 to a pale rose pink by heating, and this is often 
 done. The heating and cooling of the gem 
 must be done very carefully and slowly, but the 
 operation presents no difficulty to an expert, 
 and the pink color when once secured is abso- 
 lutely permanent. Crystals of the topaz mineral 
 often grow to large size, and occasionally 
 specimens of sufficient clearness to be used as 
 
TOPAZ 85 
 
 gems are found of remarkable size. Perhaps the 
 largest cut topaz is the one presented to Pope 
 Leo, in 1902, which weighed nearly four pounds. 
 
 The most abundant source of the gem is an Where 
 island called Topazios, in the Red Sea, and ^^'^'^^ 
 from this word is formed the present name of 
 the gem. In modern times the largest supply of 
 topaz has come from Brazil. It is here usually 
 found in pebbles amongst the gravel of streams. 
 Ordinarily occurring as a matrix in talcose rock 
 of mica slate, the action of the stream has worn 
 away the softer matrix, and thus disclosed the 
 topaz in a round and worn form, but entirely 
 free from the matrix, and known in the region 
 as pingos d^aqua, meaning drops of water. They 
 are also called by the Portuguese ^^ slaveys 
 diamonds, " and occasionally a fine example will 
 approximate in appearance a diamond; in fact, 
 a stone in the crown of Portugal reputed to be a 
 diamond of 1680 carats weight, and called the 
 Breganza, is probably a topaz of exceptional 
 clearness and beauty. 
 
 Another noted locality for topaz are the 
 Imperial mines of Russia, in the Ural Moun- 
 tains. Superb topaz are cut from the crystals 
 found there, but the finest examples are now 
 preserved for the Imperial collection. Many 
 localities in the United States also afford topaz. 
 
86 TOPAZ 
 
 Mention In biblical times topaz was a very highly 
 *R"1/ pi'ized gem, and in Revelations is mentioned as 
 forming one of the gates of the Holy City. It 
 is also related that the King of Tyre wore a 
 topaz. However, the gems spoken of under 
 this name were probably chrysolite, while what 
 the ancients termed chrysolite would now be 
 known as topaz. 
 Legend A charming legend is told of a topaz supposed 
 to be presented by Lady Hildegarde, wife of 
 Theodoric of Holland, to a monastery in her 
 native town. It is said to have emitted at 
 night a light so brilliant that prayers could be 
 read in the chapel, where it was kept, without 
 the aid of a light. 
 
The Garnet 
 
 Garnet is a gem mineral which varies greatly Names of 
 in composition, and in its various forms is ^^^^^ 
 known under the different names of almandite 
 or almandine, pyrope, rhodolite, cape ruby, and 
 carbuncle. The color is usually a dark red, but 
 the mineral also occurs in green, rose, and 
 brown tints. The mineral is a silicate, and the 
 other components of its composition determine 
 which particular variety of garnet it is. Gar- 
 nets often occur as small grains in beach sand 
 because the rocks in which the minerals occur 
 are more easily weathered away than the garnet 
 which thus remains in the form of sand. The 
 garnet crystals are then always found near the 
 water's edge, since the specific gravity of the 
 mineral is high and the waves can, therefore, 
 carry it only a short distance up the beach. 
 The name garnet comes probably from the 
 Latin word granatus, meaning like a grain. It 
 is said to have arisen because the crystals were 
 thought to resemble in color and size the seeds 
 of the pomegranate. 
 
88 GARNETS 
 
 The garnet most valued as a gem is termed 
 almanditey and is of a rich cherry, claret, or 
 blood-red color. These stones were first mined 
 near the city of Alabanda, in Asia Minor, and 
 the same source was much exploited by the 
 Romans in their day. The stones are still known 
 as Syrian garnets. This same mineral occurs in 
 large quantities near the mouth of the Stickeen 
 River, Alaska, but is not of sufficient trans- 
 parency to be greatly used as a gem. 
 
 Another variety, and probably the most 
 numerous one of the garnet mineral, is known as 
 pyrope. It does not vary much in color from 
 almandite. The mineral is almost always 
 found in eruptive or volcanic rocks, and is a 
 constituent of the diamond-bearing blueground 
 of South Africa. From this fact the finer 
 specimens of the gem are termed in the trade 
 cape rubies. 
 
 The home of the pyrope is, however, Bohemia. 
 Although the stones were known in this region 
 for centuries it was not until after Karlsbad 
 had become an international center that interest 
 was taken in the scientific mining and polishing 
 of the gems. Since then the fame of these 
 garnets and their usefulness in the arts when 
 not of sufficient fineness for jewels has led to a 
 thorough exploitation of the field, and Bohemia 
 
GARNETS 89 
 
 may be considered to have been for many years 
 the garnet center of the world. As has been 
 said, these garnets should technically be called 
 pyrope, which is derived from the Greek word 
 meaning "fire," a name given them in ancient 
 times because of their brilliant color. 
 
 In America some fine garnets have been found. American 
 These are termed, however, rhodolite, or Ameri- 
 can rubies, and are really much like almandite. 
 They occur most abundantly in Arizona, New 
 Mexico, and southern Colorado. They are 
 especially abundant among anthills, being re- 
 moved by the ants because their size stands in 
 the way of the excavations of the busy insects. 
 They are gathered largely by the Navajo 
 Indians and are sold to American gem dealers. 
 In color and brilliancy they often surpass the 
 African gems known as cape rubies. 
 
 The word carbuncle is often popularly used to Carbuncle 
 designate a garnet. This, however, is a mis- 
 nomer. Ordinarily any fine red stone cut en 
 cabochon might be termed a carbuncle. This 
 latter name came from the Roman word 
 carbunculus, which in turn is a derivation of 
 the Latin word carbo, meaning coal, and was 
 at that time bestowed on any stone displaying 
 the fire-like color and reflection which is char- 
 acteristic of the various stones now termed 
 
90 GARNETS 
 
 garnets. As all these stones in ancient times 
 
 were cut in the round shape, the name has come 
 
 down to us as carbuncle, and its association 
 
 with the garnet has always been preserved. 
 
 However, scientifically carbuncle refers merely 
 
 to the shape of the stone, and not at all to its 
 
 composition or mineralogical variety. 
 
 One of Oldest The garnet is one of the oldest stones known. 
 
 Semiprecious j^^ some of the most ancient mummies dis- 
 btones Known . 
 
 covered m rLgypt are found necklaces and 
 
 other jewels containing garnets. And under 
 the name carbuncle the garnet is mentioned in 
 the literature of all ages, being valued chiefly 
 for the brilliant fiery light which it gives forth. 
 According to the Talmud, the only light which 
 Noah had in the Ark was afforded by a car- 
 buncle. 
 
The Zircon 
 
 Zircon Is a mineral possessing a very hard, It^ Color 
 brilliant luster, and is therefore eminently quali- 
 fied to be used as a gem. The mineral occurs in 
 various colors. Tints of brown, violet, and 
 green are known as Xircon, the red as Hyacinth, 
 the yellow Jacinth, and the grayish white and 
 white, Jargoon. The latter name is said to have 
 been given the white substance because through 
 its great luster it resembled the diamond, but is 
 really of much less value. 
 
 Transparent crystals of zircon suitable for Where 
 gems come almost wholly from the Island of °"^ 
 Ceylon, where they occur in the gem gravels 
 which also contain rubies, sapphires, tourmalines, 
 etc. The zircons occur in the form of rolled 
 pebbles mostly of comparatively small size. 
 
 Zircon is also found in many other localities. It 
 is said as many as one hundred and twenty differ- 
 ent places are known where the mineral can be 
 found, but in all of these the supply is very limited. 
 
 The Zircon has no history, but its great bril- 
 liancy and fine colors render it a most attractive 
 if but little known gem. 
 
Lapis Lazuli 
 
 An Ancient The gems known as lapis lazuli are only the 
 finest specimens of the comparatively abundant 
 mineral of the same name. This stone was a 
 gem of the Greek, Roman, and Hebrew scrip- 
 tures, and throughout ancient times was very 
 highly prized. Pliny likens it to the blue sky 
 adorned with stars. Large quantities of it 
 worked by artisans into various forms are found 
 in early Egyptian tombs. The Chinese have 
 also long held it in high esteem. 
 
 The Asiatic mines from which the mineral 
 first came were visited by Marco Polo, in 
 the year 1271 a.d. 
 
 The color of the mineral is blue. It is quite 
 opaque. The most prized shade is ultramarine, 
 but the stone occurs also in paler tints. Usually 
 grains of pyrite are scattered through the stones 
 and from this effect Pliny was able to liken it to^ 
 a "starry sky." The name lapis lazuli means 
 blue stone. 
 Where The best lapis lazuli now comes from Badak- 
 Found g(;iian, in the northeastern part of Afghanistan. 
 
LAPIS LAZULI 93 
 
 The mining is done in the most primitive form. 
 Huge fires are built on the rocks, and water is 
 then thrown on them. Owing to the sudden 
 cooling the rocks split up and can then readily be 
 excavated. The yield, however, is small, and 
 the price even for exceptionally fine specimens 
 is low. China and other parts of Asia consume 
 most of the supply. 
 
 The color of the stone, however, gives it a 
 peculiar charm, and the walls of the Palace 
 Zarskoe-Selo, Russia, built by the order of 
 Catherine II, were entirely lined with slabs of 
 lapis lazuli and amber. The stone was believed 
 by the Greeks and Romans to have strong 
 medicinal properties, and when pulverized was 
 often used as a tonic. Even as late as the 
 sixteenth century it was supposed to be a cure 
 for melancholia. 
 
HiDDENITE AND KuNZITE 
 
 Where Spodumene is the mineral composing two 
 round comparatively new and charming gems, Hid- 
 denite and Kunzite. Ordinarily spodumene is of 
 a white or gray color, and possesses no great 
 value as a gem, but in its rarer form as hiddenite 
 it possesses a beautiful emerald-green color. 
 The only deposit of hiddenite known was found 
 accidentally by Mr. W. E. Hidden, through the 
 overturning of a tree on a farm near Stony 
 Point, Alexander County, North Carolina. The 
 mineral is somewhat hard to polish, owing 
 to the danger of splitting, due to its marked 
 prismatic cleavage. Although the stone pos- 
 sesses beautiful qualities as a gem and com- 
 mands a high price it is unfortunately little 
 known, as the mine at Stony Point, North 
 Carolina, was reported to have been exhausted 
 some ten years ago and no fresh supply of 
 hiddenite has ever been discovered. 
 Kunzite Kunzite is one of the newest gem minerals 
 Found known. It was discovered during the course of 
 some mining for tourmaline, near Pala, San 
 
HIDDEN I TE AND KUNZITE 95 
 
 Diego County, California, and was named in 
 honor of Dr. Kunz, who was for many years 
 the special agent of the United States Govern- 
 ment, and compiled the official document con- 
 cerning gems, appearing annually, together 
 with other reports, under the name of the "Min- 
 eral Resources of the United States." 
 
 Kunzite is dichroic, and possesses a charming Color 
 and almost indescribable light-blue color, which 
 has been characterized as deep rose lilac and 
 delicate pink amethystine. The same crystal 
 displays two different tints when viewed at 
 different angles. 
 
 The mineral is now highly prized as a gem, and 
 its beautiful and delicate color make it entirely 
 unique. Unfortunately the supply is very 
 limited. The purely chance discovery of such 
 a new and beautiful gem forms what might 
 almost be regarded as a romance. Think of 
 the chance conjunction in nature of the peculiar 
 chemical properties forming the mineral, then 
 the centuries of the infinitesimal growth of the 
 crystals from these solutions, and finally when 
 the whole had reached its last stage of per- 
 fection, its chance discovery through the 
 prick of the miner's pickaxe. 
 

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