'p'^. '^^■\r....% ^^°* % 4 o 4 o '^0^ o V .J <»;"<. '"^-^..'^^ HOWD'S PATENT DIRECT ACTION WATER WHEEL. This draft represents the top view of a Re-action Central Discharging Water Wheel. No. 1, represents a Perpendicular Shaft; No. 2, the Arms ; No. 3, the Hangers to sus- pend the Rims ; No. 4, the Rims and Buckets; No. 5, Bulk Head; No. 6, Spouts to conduct the water into the Wheel ; No. 7, Circular Gate ; No. 9, Apron. Plate ] . THE 264 AMERICAN MILLER, AND MILLWRIGHT'S ASSISTANT, " He who does not keep himself on the line of knowledge, will soon find this world ahead of him, and his associations helonging to a past genera- tion."— Jir«j-ac« from a Speech delivered in the Senate of the United States, January, 1850, by SENATOR CASS, OF MICHIGAN, TO WHOM THIS WORK IS MOST RESPECTFCLLT DEDICATED BY THE ATJTHOR^^^j,-;?:^^- By WILLIAM CARTER HUGHES. iS PHILADELPHIA: HENRY CAREY BAIRD, (SUCCESSOR TO E. L. CARET,) S. E. CORNER MARKET AND FIFTH STREETS. 185L ^' .^•<^ 'f^^'b'N q^2?57' Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1850, by William Carter Hughes, in the Clerk's' Office of the District Court for the District of Michigan. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1851, by Henry Caret Baird, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, in and for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. STEREOTYPED BY L. JOHNSON AND CO. PHILADELPHIA. PRINTED BY T. K. AND P. G. COLLINS. CONTENTS. PAET FIRST. PAGE Introduction 7 Explanation of Technical Words 11 On the First Principles of Mechanics 13 The Principle of the Lever 15 Inclined Plane 18 PuUey 19 Motion 20 Central Forces 23 Friction, or Resistance to Motion 25 Table of the Surfaces of Contact without Urgents 29 Table of the Results of Experiments on Friction, with Urgents. By M. Morin 30 Table of Diameters of First Movers 35 Table of Diameters and Circumferences of Circles, Areas and Side of Equal Squares 36 Table of Geometrical Definitions of the Circle and its Parts 37 Centre of Percussion and Oscillation 38 Hydrostatics — Introduction 39 On the Upward and Downward Pressure of Water 40 Specific Gravity 42 Table of Specific Gravities 43 Hydrodynamic Power of Water Wheels 45 On the Action and Reaction of Water, as applied to Water-Wheels 46 3 4: CONTENTS. On the Construction of the Combination Reaction Water-Wheel 50 Table of Velocities of Water-Wheels per minute, with Heads of from 4 to 30 feet 54 Table of the number of Inches of Water necessary to drive one Run of Stone, for Grist or Saw-Mills on heads of 4 to 30 feet 55 Table showing the required length of Overshot and Breast- Wheels, on heads of 10 to 30 feet 56 Howd's Direct Action Water-Wheel 57 Direction for making the same 58 Vandewater's Water-Wheel 60 Engraving of. 61 Table exhibiting the quantity of Wheat ground per hour by Vandewater's Wheel 62 PART SECOND. Remarks on the Culture of Grain, &c 63 Table of Grain grown in the United States 65 On the Quality of French Burr, as best adapted for Grinding Wheat and Corn 66 The Raccoon Burr Stone 69 Directions for Preparing new Stones for Grinding. 70 Directions for laying out the Dress in Millstones 73 A special Treatise on the different Millstone Dresses now in use, with practical remarks on their action 74 Directions for making Furrows on the most approved plan , 80 Directions for Staffing and Cracking the face of the Millstone 81 On the best size of Millstones for different water powers 83 Practical remarks on Grinding Wheat and Corn ''84 Remarks on Indian Corn, as an article of foreign con- sumption 87 CONTENTS. 5 On the Construction of Merchant Bolts on the old plan.. 88 Description of a new arrangement of the Merchant Bolts on the most approved plan 89 Directions for making Bolting Cloths of all descriptions... 91 On the proper size of Mill Picks for Dressing Stones 91 Composition for Tempering Cast-steel Mill Picks 92 Ontheuse of the Proof Staff 93 On the amount of help necessary to be employed in a Mill of four run of Stones, with their duties respectively... 94 Hydraulics, as pertaining to the practical Millwright 96 Powers of Gravity, Percussion or Impulse, with the re- action attachment ;. 99 Remarks to the Millwright on the necessity of economy in planning and arra,nging the Machinery of Flouring and Grist-Mills 103 On Bedding the Stone 105 To find the number of revolutions of the Water-Wheel per minute 108 To find the velocity of the Stone per minute 108 Rule to find the Diameters of all Pitch Circles 109 To find how many revolutions the Stone makes for one of the Water- Wheel 109 On Machinery 110 Rule for constructing the Conveyor 110 On the construction of the Mill-Dam Ill On the different kinds of Smut Machines now in use, with rules for making the same 115 Remarks on a late invention for introducing air between Millstones when Grinding 118 Description of the Author's Grain Dryer, patented 1850 120 Rules for the purchase of Wheat for Millers' use 123 The proper method for fitting the Bale and Driver to the Millstone 127 Remarks on Packing Flour 129 Table for Packing Flour 130 1* 6 CONTENTS. Remarks on branding Flour in Barrels 130 Mauk's Patent Bolt 131 On the Inspection of Flour 132 Report on the BreadstuflFs of the United States, their re- lative value, and the injury which they sustain by transportation, warehousing, &c. &c. — By Lewis C. Beck, M. D 134 Analysis of Wheat Flour 160 Results of the Analyses 166 Table for Reckoning the price of Wheat 170 Steam, as applied to Propelling Mills 183 On the Construction of the Saw-Mill 184 Table for Measuring Saw-Logs 187 Harrison's Patent Mill 189 Troy French Burr Mill-Stone Manufactory 190 Lafayette Burr Mill Manufactory 192 Utica French Burr Mill-Stone Manufactory 192 Improved Patent Balance 194 Rochester French Burr Mill-Stone Establishment 196 Remarks on a New Description of Bolting Material for Grist Mills 197 Brown's Wheat Scale, with Hopper 198 Brown's Patent Smut Machine 199 Bran Dusters and Separators Combined 200 Bonnell's Improved Process of Flouring 202 Analysis of Wheat Flour 204 A new and perfect Machine for Cracking Corn in the Cob 215 Troy (New York) Mill-Gearing Establishment 216 Clasp Coupling Joint 217 INTRODUCTION. The motto which we have adopted on the title page of this work, is purely American in senti- ment, and one of those original ideas of our dis- tinguished Senator, emanating from the depths of profound intellectual greatness, and standing as the star of the nineteenth century, to illuminate the path of the down-trodden and oppressed. And when time has passed with those of this gene- ration, these immortal sentiments will ever stand out in bold relief, to perpetuate his name with the sovereignty of the American people. And, al- though expressed on a very different subject from which it is here introduced, as a doctrine which we fully believe in, we cannot observe any reason to forbid its adoption into the science of mechanics, as well as that of politics, or any other science beneficial to mankind. In its practical application to this work, we have been guided entirely by its principles, drawn from an advanced state of improvement which marks the age in which we live; and by contrasting the INTRODUCTION. past witii the present age, we can recognise that march of improvement, stamping as it does all branches of our national industry ; and none with more satisfactory results than the Milling business of the United States. The Milling business occu- pies a respectable portion of our national industry, and gives employment to a large investment of capital in all the principal wheat-growing States of this Union, which contributes largely to the benefit of our American farmers, in making a home market for Wheat and Indian Corn, the two principal staples of American produce. The author of this work, having spent the best portion of his life in the pursuit of his calling as a practical Miller, begs to say, in preparing this work for the milling public, that his object is to establish a correct guide to a business which so little is known about, in a shape of substantial reference, instead of speculative theories, and that confined to the minds only of those who are attached to the business, either by the employment of capital or otherwise. Special regard has also been paid to most of the essential improvements which have, of late, been introduced for the benefit of the miller. And we can also say, that we have omitted a large number of late inventions, from the belief of their utter worthlessness for a great many of the purposes for which they were designed ; and those of our friends • INTRODUCTION. 9 who furnished us with drafts and long statements of their peculiar views on milling, will please ac- cept our thanks for the same, and this, our apology for not giving them a place in these pages. We have thought proper to insert in this work a Report made to the Commissioner of Patents of the United States, in the year 1848, on Breadstuffs, their relative value, and the injury which they sus- tain from various causes, by Lewis C. Beck, M. D., an article which, of itself, highly sustains that gentleman's character, for the task he had to per- form ; and also reflects much credit on the Com- missioner of Patents, Mr. Burke, for the selection he made of a person fully competent to perform the same. The Report contains a scientific chemical analysis of wheat and wheat flour, with other important information, highly useful to all engaged in milling, as well as dealers in breadstuffs ; and we consider it one of the most useful and important public documents ever distributed from the Patent Office of the United States. With a full assurance and hope that this work may prove useful to all engaged in milling, I respectfully subscribe myself, Wm. C. Hughes. EXPLANATION OF TECHNICAL WORDS USED IN THIS WORK. Aperture, the opening or passage through which water is received or discharged. Area, the plain surface of superficial contents. Cubic, equation in algebra, an equation in which the highest or only power of the unknown quantity is a cute. Cube root is the number or quantity which, multiplied into itself and then into the product, produces the cube. A cubic foot of water weighs 62 J lbs. Equilibrium, equipoise, equality of weight or force ; a state of rest produced by the mutual counter action of two bodies. Friction, the act of rubbing the surface of one body against another. Gravity, weight, heaviness — the tendency of matter towards its central body. Weight is the measure of gravity. Specific gravity means the weight of a body com- pared with another of equal bulk, taken as the standard. Water is the standard for solids and liquids, and air for gas. 11 12 EXPLANATIONS OF TECHNICAL WORDS. HydronamicSj that science wbicH treats of the pro- perties and relations of water and other fluids, either at rest or in motion. Hydraulics, the science of fluids in motion ; pertain- ing to hydronamics. Impuhej force communicated instantaneously. ImpetuSj force of motion. Momentum, the quantity of motion in a moving body proportioned to the product of the quantity of matter, multiplied by its velocity. Percussion, the shock produced by the instant striking of bodies; the centre of percussion is that point in a moving body about which the impetus of the parts is balanced, and when stopped by any force, the whole motion of the revolving body is stopped at the same time. Quiescence, a state of rest. Radius, in geometry, a right line drawn from the centre of a circle to the periphery, the semi-diameter of the circle. Right Angle, in geometry, an angle of ninety degrees or one-fourth of a circle. Squared, is any number multiplied by itself. Theory, an exposition of the general principles of any science; the science distinguished from the art, and without practice. Urgent, pressing with necessity. Velocity, is that effection of motion by which a body moves over a certain space in a certain time. Viscosity, a glutinous tenacity which inclines soft bodies to stick closely together. THE AMERICAN MILLER, MILLWRIGHT'S ASSISTANT. PART FIRST. ON THE FIRST PRINCIPLES OF MECHANICS. The science of mechanism is founded on the true principles of natural philosophy, and of these principles we shall here treat in a plain, simple manner ; as a per- fect knowledge of principles of truth and certainty, in mechanical science, is as essential to the practitioner of the mechanic arts, as a perfect knowledge of the human frame is to the skilful anatomist. The theory of mechanics is essential to all intelligent minds ; and, as far as it relates to the cultivation of the mind of the practical mechanic, for whose benefit this work is designed, we shall contemplate the mechanical 2 13 14 powers to be three in number, namely : the lever, the inclined plane, and the pulley. Some authors of our acquaintance denominate them as six in number : the three latter as the wheel, axle, and screw. But it is clearly evident that the three latter are derivatives of the three former, as the wheel and axle, properly con- sidered, is a revolving lever, the screw being a revolving inclined plane. The mechanical powers are known by the following terms : as weight and force, or power and resistance,— weight being the resistance necessary to overcome, power the force requisite to overcome that resistance. When they are equal, they are said to be in equilibrio, which implies that no motion can take place. But when the force becomes greater than the resistance, they are not in equilibrium, as motion takes place. Then power being a compound of weight, may be determined by being multiplied by its relative velocity. That which gives motion is called power, that which receives it is called weight. Mechanical powers are the most simple of the me- chanical inventions, as applicable to increase force and overcome resistance. The first of those powers which claim our attention being, in effect of mechanical utility, the most essential to the millwright, namely, AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 15 THE PRINCIPLE OF THE LEVER. The lever may be considered, by all mechanics, as the leading power of the whole science of mechanism. For example, look at the formation of the entire animal creation, the superstructure of which is a beautiful illustration of those powers so largely developed in all animal creation, — every limb acting as a lever, me- chanically arranged by joints, as the fulcrums of cen- tral motion. There is no description of machinery, formed by the machinist, but of which the principle of the lever is the governing mechanical power -, the effect of which may either increase or decrease its relative power, according to the manner in which it is applied. Then, we say, millwrights particularly should be well acquainted with the natural laws by which the powers of this engine are accurately demonstrated. The lever we must suppose to be composed of some inflexible body, as wood or metal ; and although differ- ing in form in the various mechanical machines, is al- ways governed by the same laws of central motion. This central motion, in the common lever, is calculated from where the press or fulcrum is attached, which is called the centre of motion, the lever being capable of turning easily on that point. When the lever projects on either side of the fulcrum, the projections are mechanically called arms, from which we derive the power of the engine. When the fulcrum 16 THE AMERICAN MILLER, stands between tlie weight and the power, by the follow- ing simple rules we can easily determine the mechanical advantage gained; for divide the weight you wish to raise by the power you have to apply, and the quotient is the difference of leverage ; or, Multiply the weight by its distance from the fulcrum,, and the power from the same point ; then the weight and power will be to each other as their products. Example : A weight of 1440 lbs. you wish to raise by a force of 70 lbs. ; the length of the short arm of the lever being one foot from the fulcrum, what must the length of the long one be ? The answer is 20| feet in length, where the power is applied to one foot, the weight being attached. For the sake of brevity, we omit the working of the question, and simply state the answer, as it saves the introduction of algebraic signs, which would only tend to lengthen the subject without facilitating our main object, namely, a proper illustration of computing the power, which is the mechanical advantage gained by the use of all levers, of whatever form, in a plain manner. Therefore, for ascertaining the relation which exists between power and weight in the lever, the general rule is to multiply the power by its distance from the fulcrum ] being equal to the weight multiplied by its distance from the same point, the fulcrum acting as the centre of motion in all engines of this description. The analogy that exists between all machines whose power is obtained from the principle of the lever, is very great ; such machines being all governed by one AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 17 simple principle, wliicli should be considered as the general law of mechanical power : namely, the momen- tums of the power and weight are always equal when the engine is in equilibrio. Momentum means the product of the weight of the body multiplied into the distance it moves; or the power multiplied into its distance from the centre of motion, or into its velocity, is equal to the weight multiplied into its distance moved. Or the power multiplied into its perpendicular descent, is equal to the weight multi- plied into its perpendicular ascent. The next law of mechanical power shows the power of the lever and velocity of the weight moved are always in an inverse proportion to each other; as, the greater the velocity of the weight moved, the less it must be ; and the less the velocity, the greater the weight may be. The lever is of four kinds ; the one above described is the first and common kind,- by which the greatest mechanical efi'ect is obtained, as the fulcrum or centre of motion is placed between the weight and power; the nearer the weight, the greater the power. The second kind of lever is where the fulcrum is at one end, and the power at the other. Its effective power is simply as 3 is to 1, where, in a lever of the first kind, the effective power is as 12 to 1. The third kind of lever is where the fulcrum is at one end, the weight at the other, and the power applied be- tween them. The fourth is the curved lever, which differs only in form from the others, its properties being the same. 18 THE AMERICAN MILLER, The first and second are engines of real power ; while the third tends to decrease power in the same ratio that the others increase it, and are only useful to the me- chanic in obtaining velocity where the first mover is too slow, as is the case in the construction of mills propelled by water, where over-shot breast, or under-shot water- wheels are used. All wheels are constructed on this principle of the third kind of lever. But in the con- struction of mills of modern date, they may be, in nine cases out of ten, all used on the principle of levers of the first kind; which we shall clearly and simply illus- trate in this work, under the head of water-wheels. THE INCLINED PLANE. This mechanical power gives existence to a variety of useful machines of recent invention, and is used in com- bination with the lever of the first kind, which makes it a compound machine of extensive use. The wedge is simply an inclined plane, and may be considered, for many purposes, as one of the most useful of the mechanical powers. The next is the screw, which is a revolving inclined plane, and is used for pressure and raising heavy weights. The screw is a spiral groove cut round a cylinder, and everywhere describing the same angle with its length of thread, and, if unfurled and stretched, would form a straight inclined plane, the length of which would be, to its height, as the circum- AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 19 ference of the cylinder is to the distance between two threads of the screw; for in making one round, the spi- ral rises along the cylinder the distance between two threads. The length of the plane is found by adding the square of the distance between the threads, and ex- tracting the square root of the same. As the length of an inclined plane is to the pitch or height of it, so is the weight to the power; or if the height of the plane be one-third its length, then one-third of the power will raise a body up the plane by rolling, that it would take to raise it up perpendicularly; but it would travel three times the distance. The general principle is — as the height of the plane is to the height or angle of inclina- tion, so is the weight to the power, invariably. THE PULLEY. A Pulley is a mechanical assistant by which a great deal of power is obtained in a small compass, but more convenient in accommodating the direction of power to that of resistance, as, by pulling downwards, we are able to draw a weight upwards; the advantage gained being twice the number of movable pulleys. The system of pulleys is very simple, and may be ascertained as follows : To find the weight that may be raised by a known power and a given number of pulleys, fixed or station- ary, multiply the power by twice the number of mova- ble pulleys, and the product is the weight the power 20 TRt AMERICAN MILLER, equals. Example : To find the weight that a power of 180 lbs. will raise by a block and tackle, the bottom or movable block consisting of four pulleys, multiply 180 by 8 Answer — equal to 1440 lbs. A single pulley may be constructed so that the weight will be as three times the power. When more than one rope is used, in a system of pulleys where the ends of one rope are fastened to the support and power, and the ends of the other to the lower and upper blocks, the weight is to the power as 4 to 1. The principal objec- tion to this machine is the loss of power by friction of the pulleys. MOTION. Motion always is the efi'ect of impulsive force, or the act of changing place. In mechanical engines it is un- derstood as the act of transmitting power, or the means by which power is distributed. Equality or inequality of motion is as the diameters of the wheels by which it is transmitted. The relative velocity of wheels is as the number of cogs contained in each wheel. To find the relative velocity or number of revolutions of the last wheel to one of the first : Rule, divide the product of the cogs of the wheels that are drivers by the product of the driven, and the quotient is the number. AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 21 To find the number of cogs in a train of wheels to pro- duce a certain velocity : as the velocity required is to the number of cogs in the driven, so is the velocity of the driver to the number of cogs in the leader. To find the proportions that the velocities of the wheel in a train should bear to each other : Rule, subtract the less ve- locity from the greater, and divide the remainder by one less than the number of wheels in the train ; the quo- tient is the number, rising, in arithmetical progression, from the less to the greater velocity. Before we dismiss the subject of motion, we shall now consider the first principles by which motion is obtained and governed, namely, ahsolute and relative. Absolute motion is that pertaining to the removal of material bodies from place to place, and governed en- tirely by the principles of natural philosophy, and per- taining only to the theory of mechanics ; for in practical mechanics we have to do with relative motion only, which consists in the difference of time occupied by the motion of different bodies, as time is the specific measure of its velocity. There are but few branches of the me- chanic arts which are so essential to the millwright, as a proper knowledge of the laws which govern, and on which the principles of mechanical motions are based ; as the trade consists in the use, construction, and arrangement of engines of moving power, which in mills is the force to move and facilitate the different manufactures for which they are applied. Then the first thought of the practical mechanic should be, how to construct and arrange his machinery, so that 22 THE AMERICAN MILLER, the power which he has to apply, may be used in the best possible mode of construction and arrangement of his machinery, on combined scientific and practical prin- ciples of mechanical economy. The next idea to be considered is one of mechanical importance, namely, that as motion increases power de- creases. This is what may be considered one of those self-evident facts apparent in the very nature of all en- gines that can possibly be constructed; and which is also evident from the first principle of the lever, when in equilibrium, as the power multiplied into its velocity or distance moved is equal to the weight multiplied into its velocity or distance moved. From these facts we see the necessity of guarding ourselves, as much as possible, against every absurd and unphilosophical practice of many millwrights of the present day, to wit, building mills with double gearing when single would be better; for single -geared mills are always cheaper in their construction, easier kept in re- pair, and, when properly constructed, are as powerful as the best double-geared mills in the most favourable situations. We suppose there are many who may difi'er with us in this opinion, and that we shall be obliged to present au- thority, to convince and establish our peculiar views in this particular. This we hope to do under its appropri- ate head of water-wheels. All must admit that double gearing diminishes power, , by the increased resistance to motion, as that of friction ; as the more machinery used for a given purpose, the 23 more it tends to complication, and the increasing power- destroying agent, friction. It must be admitted, also, that no power can be obtained by the addition of engines, while the velocity of the body moved remains the same. And machinery requiring a different velocity, where the driving power is the same, (as is the case in flouring mills, the motion being as varied as the diff'erent useful machines required in manufacturing grain,) should be attached as near as possible to the first moving wheel, as the greater the distance from the first driving wheel, the greater the force of resistance to motion, and produces a constant tendency to equilibrium, in all machines re- quiring a great velocity. CENTRAL FOUCES. Bodies moving round a central point have a tendency to fly off in a straight line. This tendency is called the centrifugal force. It is opposite to the centripetal force, or that power which maintains a body in its curved state. Centrifugal force flies from the centre, centripetal force ^ to the centre, and are called central forces. There is no real power attached to those forces called central forces, they being only the effect of the power which gives motion to all bodies, and can neither add to nor diminish the power of any mechanical or hydraulic engine, unless it be by friction, when water is the mov- ing power, and the machine changes its direction. The 24 THE AMERICAN MILLER, centrifugal forces of two unequal bodies, moving wit! the same velocity, and at the same distance from the central body, are to one another as the respective quan titles of matter in the two bodies. The centrifugal forces of two equal bodies which per form their revolutions around the central body in th( same time, but at different distances from it, are to om another as their respective distances from the centra] body. The centrifugal forces of two bodies which per- form their revolutions in the same time, and whose quantities of matter are inversely as their distances from the centre, are equal to one another. The cen- trifugal force of two equal bodies moving at equal dis- tances from the central body, but with different veloci- ties, are to one another as the squares of their velocities. The centrifugal forces of two unequal bodies moving at equal distances from the centre, with different veloci- ties, are to one another in the compound ratio of their quantities of matter and the squares of their velocities. The centrifugal forces of two equal bodies moving with equal velocities, at different distances from the centre, are inversely as their distances from the centre. The centrifugal forces of two unequal bodies moving with equal velocities, at different distances from the cen- tre, are to one another as their quantities of matter mul- tiplied by their respective distances from the centre. It should be considered that this central force com- municates no real power, it being only the effect of power which gives motion to a body, and can neither in- crease nor diminish the power of any mechanical engine. AND anLLWRIGHT's ASSISTANT. 25 FRICTION, OR RESISTANCE TO MOTION. The greater part of all that is yet known with cer- tainty respecting the laws and properties which govern friction, is founded upon practical experiments, instituted on a large scale, and submitted to a great variety of trials, by some of the most eminent philosophers of the last century. M. Colomb, member of the Academy of Science at Paris, and Professor Vince, of the University of Cam- bridge, have written the most scientific and accurate treatises on the natural laws of friction 3 by which we are informed that friction does not. increase with the in- crease of rubbing surfaces ; or, in other words, however the magnitude of the surface of contact may vary, the friction will still remain the same, so long as the pres- sure is unchanged. Friction supposes moving or tending to move on the surface of another, or, in words more explicit, occasioned by the uniting of bodies whose velocity is sufficiently great to produce friction. There are three ways in which one surface can move upon another, in each of which friction acts differently : — 1. When one body slides upon the plain surface of another body. 2. When one body, being cylindrical, rolls upon the surface of another body. 3. When a solid cylinder is inserted in a hollow 26 THE AMERICAN MILLER, cylinder of greater diameter, and being pressed in an; direction with a certain force, revolves with it. Colomb has satisfactorily established, by repeate( experiments, all of which are confirmed by the experi ments of others, that, under the same circumstances, th friction of one surface moving upon another is in exac proportion to the pressure used and with which the sur faces are urged together. Colomb, Ximenes, and Yince, in their experiment respecting the laws and properties which govern fric tion, assert, that when any substance has several faces o different magnitudes, the friction will be the same oi whatever face it is placed, except in an extreme case when they found a slight deviation from the law; wher the pressures used were extremely intense, it was founc that the friction did not increase in quite so fast a pro portion as the pressure. The deviation from the la\^ was so inconsiderable, and happened only in such ex treme cases, that it might be for the most part un noticed. When one cylinder rolls upon the surface of anothei body, the friction is in proportion to the pressure while with cylinders of the same substance, having different diameters, but equal pressures, the friction is inversely as the diameters. Again : cylinders of th( same substance, differing both in diameter and pressure^ the friction is directly as the pressure, and inversely as the diameters, or in a compound of the direct ratio of the pressure and the inverse ratio of the diameters. When a solid cylinder is inserted in a hollow cylinder 27 of a greater diameter without rolling, if the hollow cylin- der be supposed to revolve around the axle, as happens in the case of a carriage wheel, every part of the surface of the box will be exposed to the effect of friction, while no part of the axle will suffer this effect except the side which comes in contact with the box, which is the side that is operated upon by the force of draft or pressure. Then the friction being equal to this force that over- comes friction and produces motion, multiplied by the radius of the wheel and divided by the radius of the hollow cylinder which plays upon the axle, then it ap- pears that the friction is greater than the preponderat- ing weight; in the proportion of the radius of the wheel to the radius of the cylinder. In the years 1831, 1832, and 1833, a very extensive set of experiments were made at Mentz, by M. Morrin, under the sanction of the French government, to deter- mine, as near as possible, the laws of friction, and by which the following were fully adduced and established. 1st. When no urgent was interposed, the friction of any two surfaces, whether of quiescence or of motion, is directly proportioned to the force with which they are pressed perpendicularly together ; so that, for any two given surfaces of contact, there is a constant ratio of the friction to the perpendicular pressure of the one surface upon the other. While this ratio is thus the same for the same surfaces of contact, it is different for different surfaces of contact. The perpendicular value of it, in respect to any two given surfaces of contact, is called the co-eJB&cient of friction in respect to those surfaces. 28 2d. When no urgent is interposed, the amount of the friction is, in every case, wholly independent of the ex- tent of the surfaces of contact ; so that the force with which two surfaces are pressed together being the same, their friction is the same, whatever may be the extent of their surfaces of contact. 3d. That the friction of motion is wholly independent of the velocity of the motion. 4th. That where urgents are interposed, the co-effi- cient of friction depends upon the nature of the urgent, and upon the greater or less abundance of the supply. In respect to the nature or supply of the urgent, there are two extreme cases : that in which the surfaces of contact are but slightly rubbed with unctuous matter, as, for instance, with an oiled or greasy cloth ; and that in which a continuous flow or stratum of urgent remains continually interposed between the moving surfaces of contact. Professor Morrin found, that with urgents, hog's-lard and olive oil, in a continuous stratum between surface of wood on metal, wood on wood, metal on metal, when in motion, have all of them very near the same co-effi- cient of friction, being in all cases included between 07 and 08. The co-efficient for the urgent, tallow, is the same, except in that of metals upon metals. This substance seems to be less suited for metallic substances than the other, and gives for the mean value of its co-efficient, under the same circumstances, 10. Hence it is evident, that where the extent of the surface sustaining a given AND MILLWRIGHT S ASSISTANT. 29 pressure is so great as to make the pressure less than that which corresponds to a state of perfect separation, this greater extent of surface tends to increase the fric- tion, by reason of that adhesiveness of the urgent, de- pendent upon its greater or less velocity, whose effect is proportioned to the extent of surface between which it is interposed. Such is a description of the experiments founded by M. Morrin, under the orders of the French government, to determine those laws of friction above alluded to. The following Table shoios the result of those experiments on the friction of unctuous surf aces ; meaning surfaces without artificial means reducing the friction. By M. Morrin. GO-EFFICIENT OF FRICTIOX. SURFACES OF CONTACT. Friction of motion. Friction of quiescence. Oak upon oak, the fibres being parallel 0.108 0.136 0.330 0.160 0.177 6.143 0.107 0.144 0.132 0.107 0.134 0.115 0.229 0.244 0.390 Oak upon elm, fibres parallel 0.420 Beech upon oak, do Do "wroufflit iron Do. 'cast do 0.118 Cast iron upon wrought iron Do. oak 0.100 Brass upon cast iron Yellow copper upon cast iron Leather, well tanned, upon cast iron, wet, Do. brass, do.. 0.267 30 THE AMERICAN MILLER, Table Of the Results of Experiments on Friction with Urgents By M. MoRRiN. CO-EFFICIENT OF FRICTION. SURFACES OF CONTACT. Friction of Friction of URGENTS. motion. quiescence. Oak upon oak, fibres parallel, 0.164 0.440 Dry soap. Do. do. 0.075 0.164 Tallow. Do. do. 0.0G7 Hog's lard. Do. fibres perpendicular, 0.083 6.250 Tallow. Do. do. 0.072 Hog's lard. Do. do. 0.250 Water. Do. elm, fibres parallel, 0.036 Dry soap. Do cast iron 0.080 0.098- Tallow. T)n Tcvrmo'Tit ivoTi Tallow. "P.lm imnn f^a.st, ivon 0.066 Tallow. Wrought iron upon \ fibres oak, j parallel, 0.256 0.649 r Grease & t water. Do. do. 0.214 Dry soap. Do. do. 0.085 6. 108 Tallow. Do. elm, do. 0.078 ....... Tallow. Do. cast iron 0.103 Tallow. Do. wrought iron. 0.082 Tallow. 0.103 0.075 Tallow. Do. do. Hog's lard. Do. do. 0.078 Olive oil. Cast iron upon cast iron 0.314 Water. Do. wrought iron. 6.166 Tallow. Do. brass 0.103 Tallow. Do. do. 0.075 Hog's lard. 0.058 Do cast iron 0.086 0.081 0.106 Tallow Do. wrought iron Tallow. Yellow copper upon cast iron. 0.072 6.103 Tallow. Steel upon cast iron 0.105 0.108 Tallow. Do. do. 0.079 Olive oil. Do. wrought iron 0.093 Tallow. 0.056 Tallow. AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 31 Professor Morrin does not state the amount of press- ure used in the state of quiescence by which he found those results, or the motion used; consequently, we may safely infer them to be the same in each particular case, for both tables, with the urgents and without. The extent of the surfaces in these experiments bore such a relation to the pressure, as to cause them to be separated from one another throughout, by an interposed stratum of the urgent. Those experiments prove of great advantage to the mechanic, particularly the machinist, as by them we find the mode of regulating the different substances which produce the least friction. By referring to the first table, we discover the best kinds of metals which should be used for journals and journals bearings, as brass and cast iron, by experiment, prove to produce the least friction without any urgent. And, by reference to the second table, we find the ur- gent which, by its use, we can reduce the friction to the lowest point in all kinds of machinery — namely, olive oil. Another important point, which must naturally be considered by the machinist, in connection with the sub- ject of reducing friction in all kinds of machinery, to produce the best results, a due regard should be paid to the size of the bearings or journals, as the strength of all revolving shafts are directly as the cubes of their diameters, and inversely as the resistance they have to overcome. Mr. Buchanan, in his essay on the strength of shafts, gives the following from several experiments, viz. : — 82 THE AMERICAN MILLER, That the flj-wheel shaft of a 50 horse-power engine, at 50 revolutions per minute, requires to be 7 J inches in diameter, and the cube of this diameter, being equal to 421,875, serves as a multiplier to all other shafts in the same proportion; and, taking this as as- certained, he gives the following multipliers, viz. : for the shafts of steam-engines, water-wheels, and all others connected with the first power, as 400 for shafts, in mills, leading from the water-wheel or first mover ; to drive small machinery, 200 ; for the smaller shafts which lead from the main uprights, 100. The rule being that the number of horses' power a shaft is equal to is directly as the cube of the diameters and number of revolutions, and inversely as the above multipliers, so should the size of the journals be. Some employ 340, instead of 240, as the multipliers, which gives too great a diameter to journals of second movers ; and it should be remembered that these rules relate entirely to the size of the journals where the power applied is not more than 50 horse. The diame- ters of second movers may be found from those of the first, by multiplying by 8, and those of the third movers, by multiplying by 793, respectively. One kind of material may resist much better than another one kind of strain, but expose both to a difier- ent kind of strain, and that which was weakest before may now be strongest. This, for illustration, is the case between cast and wrought iron; the cast being stronger than the wrought when exposed to twisting or AND MILL^YRIGHT'S ASSISTANT. 33 torsional strain; but malleable iron is tbe strongest when exposed to lateral pressure. We here give the results of a few experiments on the weight necessary to hoist journals of an inch in diameter close to their bearings : — Metals. Pounds. Ounces. Cast steel 19 9 Cast iron 9 7 Blister steel 16 11 Wrought iron 10 2 Swedish iron, wrought 9 8 Hard gun-metal. 5 Brass vent 4 10 Copper, cast 4 5 The above rules are worthy the notice of all ma- chinists, as much of that beauty pertaining to me- chanical structure, depends on the proper proportioning of the magnitude of materials to the stress they have to bear, and what is of far more importance, its absolute security. It is a well-known fact, that a cast-iron rod will sustain more torsional pressure than a malleable iron rod of the same dimensions. When the strength of a malleable iron rod is less than that of cast iron to resist torsion, it is stronger than cast iron to resist lateral pressure ; and that strength is as the proportion of 9 to 14. From these rules, it is easy for any millwright to make his shafts of iron best suited to overcome the re- sistance of friction, or any other material impediment 34 to whicli they may be subject, and to proportion the diameters of the journals according to the iron of which they are made. The diameter of a malleable iron jour- nal, to sustain an equal weight with a cast iron journal of 7 inches in diameter, requires to be 6.04 inches in diameter. Square bars, with a journal of one inch in diameter and one-fourth of an inch in length, gave the following results : Wrought iron, Ulster Co., New York, twisted with 326 lbs., and broke with 670 lbs. Wrought iron, Swedes, same length of lever in all cases, being thirty inches, twisted with 367 lbs., and broke with 615 lbs. Cast iron broke with 436 lbs. The diameters for light journals should be found by multiplying the diameters ascertained by the above rules, by 8 and 793, respect- ively. The rules embraced in the following table will be found of incalculable value to the millwright, in ascer- taining the proper size of all journals, beginning with the smallest size first movers, of the power of from 4 to 60 horse, and revolving from 10 to 100 revolutions per minute, and having 400 for their multiplier : AND MILLWRIGHT S ASSISTANT. 35 05 0nai4i^*^COOOtOtOi-*i-'t-»i-i|-i Horse power. CO CO t>5 to J-' h-i p O CO CO 00 pD ;. *^' bioxGocobxI-'coaitocobsco' bobiJ-'bo CJi p p p p CO GO 00 00 ^ ~a ^ p p p^ pi Cri Cri O^ rf^ *>. 00 "^(x ' ^ CO CO *^ " rfx en f-i ^ CO CO ^ en fco " ^ en g. p p p p QC GO ;. k) bo bi "rf^ o bo bi *i. v-' CO bo CO g as ppp^^^ppppenenenh;s^rf5-*^rfi.rfi.coco bskf^ bil4^H-'boco*coboa5*>-to^bx^P».to' -pcoco Lo " bo rfi. ^-' CO 05 ' ^ OS '*i> to * 05 rf^ to * CO bi CO ^ >?. ^^^^^lpPpppppjf^Kr-kfi-*«-pPPP ^ bi >fi^ " to ^ bi CO 05 4^ to ' bo ji^ to '^-^ CO ^ bx to § ^ g ;.^ti-^-'' cobsb^co" s ^-vipppo5enenenrf^rf2>-h*^f4i'rf^cococococoto cotocDbTb5i— 'cobTH-'co--.T*^co* cobobob^tocD ^ ;-a -1 p p p on p px p rfx *^ 4^ rf^ p p p p p p to io bocorfi.co^4t>-' bob5Coi:oco-a:: . Wheat at 79 cts. Wheat at 80 cts. Wheat at 81 cts. Wheat at 82 cts. 11 per bushel. per bushel. per bushel. per bushel. ^1 Value Value Value Value Value Value Value Value i"" bush. lbs. bush. lbs. bush. lbs. bush. lbs. $ cts. cts. m. $ cts. cts. m. $ cts. cts. m. $ cts. cts. m. 1 79 1 3 80 1 3 81 1 4 82 1 4 2 1 68 2 6 1 60 2 7 1 62 2 7 1 64 2 7 3 2 37 3 9 2 40 4 2 43 4 1 2 46 4 1 4 3 16 5 3 3 20 5 3 3 25 5 4 3 28 5 5 6 3 95 6 6 4 00 6 7 4 06 6 8 4 10 6 8 6 4 74 7 9 4 80 8 4 87 8 1 4 92 8 2 7 5 53 9 2 5 60 9 3 5 69 9 5 5 74 9 6 8 6 32 10 5 6 40 10 7 6 50 10 8 6 66 10 9 9 7 11 11 8 7 20 12 7 31 12 2 7 38 12 3 10 7 90 13 2 8 00 13 3 8 12 13 5 8 20 13 7 11 8 69 14 5 8 80 14 7 8 94 14 9 9 02 15 12 9 48 15 8 9 60 16 9 75 16 2 9 84 16 4 13 10 27 17 1 10 40 17 3 10 56 17 6 10 66 17 8 14 11 06 18 4 11 20 18 7 11 37 18 9 11 48 19 1 15 11 85 19 8 12 00 20 12 19 20 3 12 30 20 5 16 12 64 21 1 12 80 21 3 13 00 21 7 13 12 21 9 17 13 43 22 4 13 60 22 7 13 81 23 13 94 23 2 18 14 22 23 7 14 40 24 14 62 24 3 14 76 24 6 19 15 01 25 15 20 25 3 15 44 25 7 15 58 26 20 15 80 26 3 16 00 26 7 16 25 27 1 16 40 27 3 21 16 59 27 6 16 80 28 17 06 28 4 17 22 28 7 22 17 38 29 17 60 29 3 17 87 29 8 18 04 30 1 23 18 17 30 3 18 40 30 7 18 69 31 1 18 86 31 4 24 18 96 31 6 19 20 32 19 50 32 5 19 68 32 8 25 19 75 32 9 20 00 33 3 20 31 33 9 20 60 34 2 26 20 54 34 2 20 80 34 7 21 12 35 2 21 32 35 5 27 21 33 35 6 21 60 36 21 94 36 6 22 14 36 9 28 22 12 36 9 22 40 37 3 22 75 37 9 22 96 38 3 29 22 91 38 2 23 20 38 7 23 66 39 3 23 78 39 6 30 23 70 39 5 24 00 40 24 37 40 6 24 60 41 40 31 60 62 7 32 00 63 3 32 50 54 2 32 80 64 7 50 39 50 65 8 40 00 66 6 40 62 67 7 41 00 68 3 100 79 00 131 7 80 00 133 3 81 25 135 4 82 00 136 6 AND MILLWRIGHT S ASSISTANT. 179 -Sij jWheat atS3cts. j Wheat at 84 cts. Wheat at 85 cts. Wheat at 86 cts. B 5 per bushel. per bushel. per bushel. per bushel. Value Value Value Value Value Value Value Value il=^ bush. lbs. bush. lbs. bush. lbs. bush. lbs. $ cts. cts. m. ^ cts. cts. m. $ cts cts. m. $ cts cts. m. 1 88 1 4 84 1 4 85 1 4 86 1 4 2 1 67 2 8 1 68 2 8 1 70 2 8 1 72 2 9 3 2 50 4 2 2 52 4 2 2 55 4 3 2 58 4 3 4 3 33 5 6 3 36 5 6 3 40 5 7 3 44 5 7 5 4 17 6 9 4 20 7 4 25 7 1 4 30 7 2 6 5 00 8 3 5 04 8 4 5 10 8 5 5 16 8 6 7 5 83 9 7 5 88 9 8 5 95 9 9 6 02 10 8 6 67 11 1 6 72 11 2 6 80 11 3 6 88 11 5 9 7 50 12 5 7 56 12 6 7 65 12 7 7 74 12 9 10 8 33 13 9 8 40 14 8 50 14 2 8 60 14 3 11 9 17 15 3 9 24 15 4 9 35 15 6 9 46 15 8 12 10 00 16 7 10 08 16 8 10 20 17 10 32 17 2 13 10 83 18 1 10 92 18 2 11 05 18 4 11 18 18 6 14 11 67 19 4 11 76 19 6 11 90 19 8 12 04 20 1 15 12 50 20 8 12 60 21 12 75 21 2 12 90 21 5 16 13 33 22 2 13 44 22 4 13 60 22 7 13 76 22 9 17 14 17 23 6 14 28 23 8 14 45 24 1 14 62 24 4 18 15 00 25 15 12 25 2 15 30 25 5 15 48 25 8 19 15 83 26 4 15 96 26 6 16 15 26 9 16 34 27 2 20 16 67 27 8 16 80 28 17 00 28 3 17 20 28 7 21 17 50 29 2 17 64 29 4 17 85 29 7 18 06 30 1 22 18 33 30 6 18 48 30 8 18 70 31 2 18 92 81 5 23 19 17 31 9 19 32 32 2 19 55 32 6 19 78 33 24 20 00 33 3 20 16 33 6 20 40 34 20 64 34 4 25 20 83 34 7 21 00 35 21 25 35 4 21 50 35 8 26 21 67 36 1 21 84 36 4 22 10 36 8 22 36 37 3 27 22 50 37 5 22 68 37 8 22 95 38 3 23 22 38 7 28 23 33 38 9 23 52 39 2 23 80 39 7 24 08 40 1 29 24 17 40 3 24 86 40 6 24 65 41 1 24 94 41 6 30 25 00 41 7 25 20 42 25 50 42 5 25 80 43 40 33 33 55 6 33 60 56 34 00 56 7 34 40 57 3 50 41 67 69 4! 42 00 70 42 50 70 8 43 00 71 7 100 83 33 138 9' 84 00 140 85 00 141 7 86 00 143 3 180 THE AMERICAN MILLER, 1 TO • Wheat at 87^ c. I Wheat at 89 cts. Wheat at 90 ets. Wheatat91cts| •^a per bushel. per bushel. per bushel. per bushel. 1 l| Value Value Value Value Value Value Value Value i^ bush. lbs. bush. lbs. bush. lbs. bush. lbs. % cts. cts. m. 55 ets. cts. m. $ cts. cts. m. $ cts. cts. m. 1 87 1 4 89 1 5 90 1 5 91 1 5 2 1 75 2 9 1 78 3 1 80 3 1 82 3 1 3 2 62 4 4 2 67 4 4 2 70 45 2 73 4 5 4 3 50 5 8 3 56 5 9 3 60 6 3 64 6 1 5 4 37 7 3 4 45 7 4 4 50 7 5 4 55 7 6 6 5 25 8 7 5 34 8 9 5 40 9 5 46 9 1 7 6 12 10 2 6 23 10 4 6 30 10 5 6 37 10 6 8 7 00 11 7 7 12 11 9 7 20 12 7 28 12 1 9 7 87 13 1 8 01 13 3 8 10 13 5 8 19 13 6 10 8 75 14 6 8 90 14 8 9 00 15 9 10 15 2 11 9 62 16 9 79 16 3 9 90 16 5 10 01 16 7 12 ]0 50 16 5 10 68 17 8 10 80 18 10 92 18 2 13 11 37 18 9 11 57 19 3 11 70 19 6 11 83 19 7 14 12 25 20 4 12 46 20 8 12 60 21 12 74 21 2 15 13 12 21 9 13 35 22 2 13 50 22 5 13 65 22 7 16 14 00 23 3 14 24 23 7 14 40 24 14 56 24 3 17 14 87 24 8 15 13 25 2 15 30 25 5 15 47 25 8 18 15 75 26 2 16 02 26 7 16 20 27 16 38 27 3 19 16 62 27 7 16 91 28 2 17 10 28 5 17 29 28 8 20 17 50 29 2 17 80 29 7 18 00 30 18 20 30 3 21 18 37 30 6 18 69 31 1 18 90 31 5 19 11 31 8 22 19 25 32 1 19 58 32 5 19 80 33 20 02 33 4 23 20 12 33 5 20 47 34 1 20 70 34 5 20 93 34 9 24 21 00 35 21 36 35 6 21 60 36 21 84 36 4 25 21 87 36 4 22 25 37 1 22 50 37 5 22 75 37 9 26 22 75 37 9 23 14 38 6 23 40 39 23 66 39 4 27 23 62 39 4 24 03 40 24 30 40 5 24 57 40 9 28 24 50 40 8 24 92 41 5 25 20 42 25 48 42 5 29 25 37 42 3 25 81 43 26 10 43 5 26 39 44 30 26 25 43 7 26 70 44 5 27 00 45 27 30 45 5 40 35 00 58 3 35 60 59 36 00 60 36 40 60 7 50 43 75 72 9 44 50 74 2 45 00 75 45 50 75 8 100 87 50 145 8 89 00 148 3 90 001150 91 00 151 7 AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 181 ^4 II Wheat at 92 cts, per bushel. Wheat at 93 cts. per bushel. Wheat at 94 cts per bushel. Wheat at 95 cts. per bushel. Value bush. Value lbs. Value bush. Value lbs. Value bush. Value lbs. Value bush. Value lbs. f cts cts. m. $ cts cts. m. $ cts . cts. m. .$ cts • 1 cts. m. 1 92 1 5 93 1 5 9^ [ 1 6 95I 1 6 2 1 84 3 1 1 86 3 1 1 87 3 1 1 9C ) 3 2 3 2 76 4 6 2 79 4 6 2 81 4 7 2 8£ 4 7 4 3 68 6 1 3 72 6 2 3 75 6 2 3 8C 6 3 5 4 60 7 7 4 65 7 8 4 69 7 8 4 75 7 9 6 5 52 9 2 5 58 9 3 5 62 9 4 5 70 9 5 7 6 44 10 7 6 51 10 8 6 56 10 9 6 65 11 1 8 7 36 12 3 7 44 12 4 7 50 12 5 7 60 12 7 9 8 28 13 8 8 37 13 9 8 44 14 1 8 55 14 3 10 9 20 15 3 9 30 15 5 9 37 15 6 9 50 15 8 11 10 12 16 9 10 23 17 1 10 31 17 2 10 45 17 4 12 11 04 18 4 11 16 18 6 11 25 18 7 11 40 19 13 11 96 19 9 12 09 20 1 12 19 20 3 12 35 20 6 14 12 88 21 5 13 02 21 7 13 12 21 9 13 30 22' 2 15 13 80 23 13 95 23 3 14 06 23 4 14 25 23 7 16 14 72 24 5 14 88 24 8 15 00 25 15 20 25 3 17 15 64 26 1 15 81 26 3 15 94 26 6 16 15 26 9 18 16 56 27 6 16 74 27 9 16 87 28 1 17 10 28 5 19 17 48 29 1 17 67 29 4 17 81 29 7 18 05 30 1 20 18 40 30 7 18 60 31 18 75 31 2 19 00 31 7 21 19 32 32 2 19 53 32 6 19 69 32 8 19 95 33 2 22 20 24 33 7 20 46 34 1 20 62 34 4 20 90 34 8 23 21 16 35 3 21 39 35 6 21 56 35 a 21 85 36 4 24 22 08 36 8 22 32 37 2 22 50 37 5 22 80 38 25 23 00 38 3 23 25 38 8 23 44 39 1 23 75 39 6 26 23 92 39 9 24 18 40 3 24 37 40 6 24 70 41 2 27 24 84 41 4 25 11 41 8 25 31 42 2 25 65 42 7 28 25 76 42 9 26 04 43 4 26 25 43 7 26 60 44 3 29 26 68 44 5 26 97 44 9 27 19 45 3 27 55 45 9 30 27 60 46 27 90 46 5 28 12 46 9 28 50 47 5 40 36 80 61 3 37 20 62 37 50 62 6 38 00 63 3 50 46 00 76 7 46 50 77 5 46 87 78 1 47 50 79 2 100 92 00 153 3 93 00 165 93 75 156 2 1 95 00 158 3 182 THE AMERICAN MILLER .22 rA Wheat at 96 cts. Wheat at 97 cts. Wheat at 98 cts. Wheat at 99 cts. l| per bvishel. per bushel. per bushel. per bushel. ^1 Value Value Value Value Value Value Value Value 1^ bush. lbs. bush. lbs. bush. lbs. bush. lbs. $ cts. cts. m. % cts. cts. m. $ cts. cts. m. $; cts. cts. m. 1 96 1 6 97 1 6 98 1 6 99 1 6 2 1 92 3 2 1 94 3 2 1 96 3 3 1 98 3 3 3 2 88 4 8 2 91 4 8 2 94 4 9 2 97 4 9 4 3 84 6 4 3 88 6 5 3 92 6 5 3 96 6 6 5 4 80 8 4 85 8 1 4 90 8 2 4 95 8 2 6 5 76 9 6 5 82 9 7 5 88 9 8 5 94 9 9 7 6 72 11 2 6 79 11 3 6 86 11 4 6 93 11 5 8 7 68 12 8 7 76 12 9 7 84 13 1 7 92 13 2 9 8 64 14 4 8 73 14 5 8 82 14 7 8 91 14 8 10 9 60 16 9 70 16 2 9 80 16 3 9 90 16 5 11 10 56 17 6 10 67 17 8 10 78 17 9 10 89 18 1 12 11 52 19 2 11 64 19 4 11 76 19 6 11 88 19 8 13 12 48 20 8 12 61 21 12 74 21 2 12 87 21 4 14 13 44 22 4 13 58 22 6 13 72 22 9 13 86 23 1 15 14 40 24 14 55 24 2 14 70 24 5 14 85 24 7 16 15 36 25 6 15 52 25 9 15 68 26 1 15 84 26 4 17 16 32 27 2 16 49 27 5 16 66 27 8 16 83 28 18 17 28 28 8 17 46 29 1 17 64 29 4 17 82 29 7 19- 18 24 30 4 18 43 30 7 18 62 31 18 81 31 3 20 19 20 32 19 40 32 3 19 60 32 7 19 80 33 21 20 16 33 6 20 37 33 9 20 58 34 3 20 79 34 6 22 21 12 35 2 21 34 35 6 21 56 35 9 21 78 36 3 23 22 08 36 8 22 31 37 2 22 54 37 6 22 77 37 9 24 23 04 38 4 23 28 38 8 23 52 39 2 23 76 39 6 25 24 00 40 24 25 40 4 24 50 40 8 24 75 41 3 26 24 96 41 6 25 22 42 25 48 42 5 25 74 42 9 27 25 92 43 2 26 19 43 6 26 46 44 1 26 73 44 5 28 26 88 44 8 27 16 45 3 27 44 45 7 27 72 46 2 29 27 84 46 4 28 13 46 9 28 42 47 4 28 71 47 8 30 28 80 48 29 10 48 5 29 40 49 29 70 49 5 40 38 40 64 38 80 64 7 39 20 65 3 39 60 66 50 48 00 80 48 50 80 8 49 00 81 7 49 50 82 5 100 96 00 160 97 00 161 7 98 00 163 3 99 00 165 AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 183 STEAM AS APPLIED FOR PROPELLING MILLS. Steam, as a power for milling purposes, in locations where fuel can be easily obtained, is quite as good as water, when constructed and arranged properly. The old method of building steam-mills with single engines is always attended with a good deal of difficulty, re- quiring very nice calculation in proportioning the motion of the machinery, so as to do away with back -lashing, which is impossible, unless the velocity of the balance- wheel exceed that of the stone ; which should be borne in mind by all millwrights who undertake to build mills with single engines. But modern improvement in the science of practical mechanics has improved the steam mill, by the application of two engines instead of one. The engines are attached to the main shaft, working at right angles, which gives a very even, steady power, and dispenses with the use of fly-wheels entirely. The following sized engines may be used in mills to drive two run of stones, viz. : Size of cylinders, 10 inches bore, — length of stroke, 2 feet; to be supplied with steam from two boilers, double flues, 40 inches in diameter, 30 feet long. Boilers and engines of that size will drive two run of stones, with all necessary machinery for flouring and custom work. And a mill of that size, when properly constructed, with five cords of wood per twenty-four hours, will put up from one hundred to one hundred and thirty barrels of flour. 184 ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE SAW-MILL, WITH A TABLE FOR MEASURING SAW-LOGS. The construction of the saw-mill is something that requires improvement, even in this day of mechanical progress. The old method of building saw-mills, is to attach the water-wheel and saw to the same shaft. That we consider wrong, for the following reasons: The power of the water is so great, it requires every part of all the connecting machinery to be bound very secure, which causes a stiffness which very materially reduces the ac- tual power, when used in connection with a crank. As the power of the water is the same, both off and on the centre, producing an irregularity of motion, the momen- tum of which racks the frame of the mill, and occasions a great deal of trouble and time in extra repairs. To make this subject more plain, the weight of water, saw- sash, pitman, and crank cannot be equalized, as the length of the crank being the distance from the centre, produces that irregularity of motion, which pertains to all crank motions. Saw-mills of this description are generally driven by horizontal water-wheels, and are sim- ple in their construction, but are less powerful than those mills geared by perpendicular water-wheels as follows : The first great advantage in gearing saw-mills with perpendicular water-wheels, is, you use the water on a wheel working on the principle of the lever of the second kind, (see, "Mechanics,'' page 16,) the power being AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 185 3 to 1, and the saw being driven bj a belt^ takes away all that strain which destroys and racks the frame, as all single geared mills. Also, the gig-wheel is done away, ^; bj ^ ga^ge on the main gate, the carriage may be worked with ease, and a good deal of power saved thereby. For a water power of seven feet head, the following described rules may be used, and a good strong mill obtained :— Size of the frame, 27 by 40 — size of water- wheel, 5 feet in diameter, driving a horizontal shaft, with bevel gearing 2 inches, i pitch, driver 64 cogs, leader 32 — size of driving-drum on said shaft, 8 feet in diameter, which drives the crank shaft by a pully 2 feet in diameter,— this pully should be made about 2 feet wide, to allow room for the belt which drives the carriage by a drum of 5 feet in diameter. The carriage is worked to the saw by an eccentric rod attached from the crank shaft which runs up to the feed hand, and joins by an elbow. A fly-wheel six feet in diameter is re- quired, and bored for the crank at any required length, from 12 to 30 inches. This is the best possible mode of constructing the saw-mill, and, where a muley saw is used, is one of the best kind of mills. The size of the belting should be, when made of leather, 12 inches wide, of good band leather doubled, sewed with horse-hide dressed purpose- ly, stitched three times. This belt; if kept dry, will last for many years. The belting should be made of leather, 12 or 14 inches wide, and for the information of those concerned in mills, and requiring the use of bands, I should re- 186 THE AMERICAN MILLER, commend them to William Kumbel, the manufacturer and patentee of Kumbel's patent macLine-stretclied leather banding, who manufactures the same at No. 33 Ferry street, New York. He stretches them very thoroughly by machinery, and rivets them together, and makes them run perfectly straight ; and also war- rants them to give perfect satisfaction to the purchaser. He may at all times be addressed by mail, and will send prices of any or all the different sizes which may be wanted, and can be forwarded by express. He is a man in whom full confidence can be placed, as he war- rants, and will take back any work that does not give entire satisfaction. All millers, as well as others en- gaged in manufacturing, can attest to the importance of having bands properly made ; and I have myself re- cently visited some of the largest establishments in New York, and, among others, the extensive, and, I might say, model flouring-mill, of the Messrs. Hecker & Brothers, where I saw some 3000 feet of this belting in operation. For driving both the stone and elevators, its performance was most perfect. I should have no- ticed that the manufacturer sizes and joints by cement, before riveting. AND MILLWRIGHT'S ASSISTANT. 187 CO C O CO Cr- lO OlOiOO<:0't>> t^O'^COr— 005I:^CO»OCOCOt— iClCOt^ COT-H^t-OCOLOCOT-l-*I^OCOiOCOT-i CqcOCOCO'*^^Tti»OiOiOCO<:DCDi:Dlr~ CNlCOCOOOCOCi-rtia;Tt- r— lC\|C. O CO t-~ O CO 1— O CO t^ O CO CO^CDt^COO'-HC-l-^OCDCOOiOC^JCO ^^^^^Cq(MC-COiO-^C-li— lOCiCOi>-COUt)-^CO OOOiOi— iC^ICO-^iOCOCOt^COO^OT-HCM r-lrHi— It— ItHt— It— (T-Hi— It— It— IC<|CMC^J C>-^C*05'*cn)Cococococoooco TjiOiOOCOt-t^COOOOSOiOOr- iT-icq 2^2^2=;^;5S^SSScq^Sq^S 188 THE AMERICAN MILLER, a a ft O 1- O CO O oo O CO o (X) O C^T^Hr-lOOSGOOOl-tDLOO Oi O 1— 1 0 CM CJ CO rji r-l oo »0 !>• lO ^ CO O-l O Oi 00 1-- lO Tt* QOCiOr-tC^COCO^O':Ot- r-lT— (,— 1,-HrHi— (I— tr-H,— I OTfti-^i— i»oc5icot^T-ioa5 ;5^ 3^ o cjj t^ o -* CI i-H crri 1^ COOSOOi— IC-lCO'^tOiOCO I— Ht— Ir-Hi-HT-I.— It— li— IrH T— 1 lOrtl^COCOCMCMr-li— lOO Oil^iOCOr-HOSt^OCOi— IC3i l--~ (» OS O T-H rH 0:1 CO '^ O lO o C^lGOCOCOCOaiTtiOT^OO kO£aoCiuOCvlOl^>OCOO i-^(X)c3iaiOT— lCMc^^coTtllO 00000000000 Ot^'^r-iCOlOC^lCnCDCOO t^t^COCjiC^Oi— IrHC^ICO^ oo CO O-^r-HCX)^!— ICO'*r-IC»lO OCOOOCOOC£>COOCOCO ■^Ot^CCOOCSOOi-HtMCMCO 1:^ CO ^ GO CM CO ^ 05 '^i 00 CM t-~ ■rt^ 1- CO CO CM Cj5 10 CM' 00 CD i- t^ cx) oi OS T-H CM cq 'CO i-^ TtH CM t- CO 00 CO C>5 GO cq C» t^COCJStOOCOCMOOCOCJSiO^COCMOOCO iocDcoi--c»cx)oiasooT-(cqc\)cocoTti CO 1-^CMt^C-lCOr-ICOl— llOOlOO'^CJS^aS ■^OlOr— iCOCMt^COOO^OSOOLOrHCD iocoix>t-^i-^ocoooso;ooi— ic0C0C0t— t^OOGOOlOSOOT-H,— 1 T— 1 CO TlHOOCvICD(MCDOlOC35COGOC^qcOrH>OC3:' TtlGOCOt— CMC0!-Hi001-r duster bolts. The auxiliary mill may be adapted in size to the work to be done; a stone 36 inches in diameter^being sufficient for a common four-run mill. It should be driven with a spur wheel or gearing of some kind, as a belt is liable to slip and lose motion. The eye of the stone should be made very conical, and the irons put in so as to leave as much room in the eye as possible — the whole of which should be covered with smooth sheet iron or tin. The stones should be strongly banded, hung, and balanced very AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 207 nicely, dressed true and smooth, with a pretty large proportion of deep furrows about the eye or centre. The feeding is supplied and made very uniform and per- fect, by substituting a large funnel for the common "hop- per, shoe, and damsel." Around the tube of the funnel is cut a screw, which passes through a nut set immediately over the runner's eye. This tube reaches down in the eye of the runner until it comes nearly upon the top of the bale, which should be formed so as to fit, or nearly so, the opening of the tube ] then, by turning the funnel, the screw widens or contracts the opening at the top of the bale, admitting more or less feed, as de- sired. In using this improvement, the first grinding should be done with reference to the starch entirely, always being careful to reduce no part of it so fine as to de- stroy its granular qualities. This done, the bolting is free, and the starch is bolted out in passing through the first or superfine bolts. The remainder of the stuff's is sent directly to the auxiliary mill, where it is ground to any degree of fineness the miller may desire. It is then passed through the lower merchant or duster bolts, and such portion of it sent back to the same as may be necessary, until all the flour is brought out clear from " specula," when it is continually sent to the cooler or first bolts, to be uniformly incorporated with the super- fine flour. In this manner, the miller may put the whole con- stituent of the wheat, except the bran, into the super- fine barrel, or as much of it as, by any possibility, is 208 THE AMERICAN MILLER, susceptible of being made into flour. He may make his flour a superior article, in point of colour and tex- ture, or he may make the best '^ Grraham'' imaginable, by one straight, continuous operation. The following are some of the advantages and economies which the improvement combines : 1. As the whole body of the grain is reduced to the same fineness, it facilitates the bolting and simplifies the bolting machinery; three bolts, properly adjusted and adapted to the process being sufficient for a four- run mill. 2. It saves the time, trouble, and expense of grinding over middlings, and makes the proceeds of the mid- dlings into superfine flour, and thus avoids the loss heretefore sustained in the sale of ^^ fine flour.^' 3. It catches and reduces to flour all the partially ground or whole grain, which, by stopping or starting the mill, or from any other cause, escapes the first grind- ing, and which, by the ordinary mode of grinding, is lost in the feeds. 4. It is admirably adapted to the grinding of the wet or damp wheat, so much of which comes to our markets in unfavourable seasons. The first grinding warms the product, and, on being passed up the eleva- tors, through the cooler and first bolts, the ofi'al is com- paratively kiln-dried, when it is subjected to the rapid motion of the auxiliary mill^ and, on being bolted, is readily divested of almost every remaining particle of flour. It also exhausts the moisture in wheat compara- tively dry, and, at the same time, adds more gluten, both AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 209 of which have a direct tendency in preserving the flour from souring in warm weather and hot climates. 5. As the flour is drier, richer, and of better quality, it will absorb more liquid in bread-making, and of course make more bread, and that of more nutritious and wholesome quality, than ordinary superfine flour. This the bakers in our Eastern markets, where this flour has been sold, have already ascertained. 6. It saves enough from the bran, shorts, shipstufi*s, and middlings, besides the great saving in bolting ar- rangements, regrinding middlings, &c., to enable the miller to make his barrel of excellent superfine flour out of 15 to 25 pounds less wheat, on the average, than by any mode heretofore practised. Perhaps it may be objected that "there is nothing new in grinding over the ofi'al, or bran, but, on the con- trary, that it has long been practised.'' This, of course, I would not deny, as I do not claim to be the discoverer or inventor of any new principle. I only claim to have adapted the grinding process to the practical and con- tinuous operation of scouring or cleaning the offal with an auxiliary mill, adapted to that purpose, and running very rapidly, and, by a simple construction and arrange- ment, to have made the feeding of the offal uniform and perfect, and that by these means all the difficulties here- tofore encountered in attempting to grind ofi'al are en- tirely overcome. Heretofore, in attempting to grind offal, the main difficulty has been in the feeding and motion. If the stones were run at a high speed, the feeding could not be regularly supplied ; if run slowly, 210 THE AMERICAN MILLER, there being so large a proportion of gluten in the offal, the stones would soon become glazed. But in my plan, the stones may be run at any speed, and the feeding of bran alone will be uniform and equal. It may also be objected that ^Hhe proposed process of regrinding the offal will so speck and reduce the standard of the flour, that it will not pass inspection." It would answer this objection to say that there are now no inspection laws in the principal markets for Western flour, and that the time is rapidly approaching when the mere wJnteness of flour must be considered of secondary importance, and that it will be valuable and esteemed in proportioh to the nutriment it contains. But I by no means admit that the colour of the flour is necessarily changed by my process ; on the contrary, I assert that it will main- tain its colour and texture so as to warrant inspection, and for these reasons : 1. When the whole meal is sent from the first stones to the cooler, the bran is not cut up so fine as when at- tempting to get all the flour from the wheat by one grinding : this diminishes the chances of specking the flour. 2d. The bolts are fed much fuller than before, as the whole body of the flour is much more uniform, which has a tendency to keep the lighter particles, or " bran speckula," upon the top, until carried off by the rotary motion of the bolts, with the feeds ; and, 3d. The ^^ offal," after being reground, is not "re- turned" to the ^'hopperboy," or first bolts, but sent to the return or duster bolts, and such portion and quality AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 211 of the flour bolted out, and sent to the cooler, as the miller's judgment may dictate, and such as will not lower the grade of superfine flour; the brown ^^speckula" of the lower bolts always being returned to the same bolts, until the flour rendered is sufficiently clear to warrant sending it to the '^ cooler,'' or first bolts, to be incorporated with the superfine flour, without danger of specking or injuring its colour. This can easily be done, and scour the offal as fine as you wish, as the same comparative diff'erence is always maintained be- tween the bran and flour : the bran always being coarser and lighter than the flour, there is no trouble in separa- ting the latter from the former, by proper care in ar- ranging and managing the bolting. But it is quite unnecessary to speculate or theorize upon this sub- ject, as practical tests, made under very unfavourable circumstances for the improvement, have fully and fairly settled the whole question. The fact is, the mil- ler's skill and judgment must always determine the quality of his flour; and with this improvement he may use 6 bushels of wheat for a barrel of superfine flour, or he may make it from 3 30-60, or 3 40-60, or 4 bush- els, as the condition of the wheat and the circumstances may warrant. This '' process" may be adapted to any ordinary cus- tom mill in the same manner as specified for flouring, and with an expense of from 100 to 150 dollars, which would enable it to do a respectable flouring business, besides saving to the farmer from 3 to 5 pounds of flour, of an improved quality, on every bushel of wheat 212 THE AMERICAN MILLER, ground. A stone from 20 to 24 inches would be suf- ficient for the purpose, which might be driven with a belt where it could not conveniently be attached to gearing. The whole of the bran and all that is usually taken off for middlings and other stuffs should be ground through the small stones immediately as it is bolted ; after which, it should be thrown into a common bolt, and as much of the flour sent continuously to the main custom bolt, as the miller desires, and the residue to the '^ bran hag." The expenses would be nominal, as com- pared with the advantages and savings, which calculated at only 3 pounds to the bushel, would amount to 150 barrels of flour upon every 10,000 bushels of wheat ground, which, at $4 per barrel, would amount to the snug little sum of $600 saved to the farming commu- nity ; and the mill having such an improvement would command an amount of business that would abundantly compensate it for the trifling expense. Addison J. Comstock, of Adrian, (a gentleman who has been steadily engaged in milling during the last 15 or 20 years,) is now making preparation to adapt this improve- ment to '^custom grinding,'' after thoroughly testing it in his flouring mill. The right of use for custom mills will be sold ex- tremely low, and the savings made simply in " grinding out the tolls" for retail would be a great inducement for millers to engage in it, as, in grinding out the tolls from every 20,000 bushels of wheat, they would cer- tainly save 30 barrels of flour, besides giving to the community, for which the 20,000 bushels were ground, AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 213 300 barrels of good flour more than tliej now obtain from' the same wheat. I am now prepared to sell rights to the above improve- ment, for the use of single mills, for towns, counties, or States, having yet the exclusive rights to the follow- ing States and Territories, viz. : Ohio, Virginia, Michi- gan, Indiana, Illinois, South Carolina, Missouri, Georgia, New Jersey, Mississippi, Florida, Arkansas, New Hamp- shire, Vermont, Rhode Island, Oregon, and California. The remainder of the States are duly assigned to Mr. C. Spafford, of Tecumseh, who is also ready to put the same upon sale. Extra inducements will be offered to those wishing to purchase the right for a State or Ter- ritory ; and any one who will first adopt and bring the improvement before the public in any one of the above named States, (where not already introduced,) may dic- tate his own terms. The mill must be first class, and the proprietor bound to properly adapt his bolting in every particular to it. The expense of adopting it, aside from the right of use, will vary, according to cir- cumstances, from $150 to $250, after which it will re- quire no words to prove its durability and economy. It is certainly no objection to it to say that it is very sim- ple, and does not develope any unknown or very extra- ordinary principles; on the contrary, these should re- commend it to all intelligent and practical men. All letters addressed to me at Tecumseh, in reference to the above, will receive prompt attention. D. P. BONNELL. Tecumseh, Nov. 17, 1849. 214 THE AMERICAN MILLER, It is but very recently that the patent was issued, and that I have been prepared to sell; yet the improvement is now in practical operation in Messrs. C. Spafford & Co/s " Tecumseh Mills/' Messrs. Comstock & Jackson's ^^ Harrison Mills/' (twenty miles west of Adrian,) Messrs. Kennedy & Harris's Steam Mills, at Jackson, and is highly complimented by these last-named gentle- men, in a; late number of the Detroit Bulletin. It is also in operation in Mr. Seneca Hale's '^ Sidney Mills," in Shelby county, Ohio. Certificates from the proprie- tors of these mills will be seen herein. Also, from Charles Howard & Co., (Mr. Howard is Mayor of De- troit,) who are extensively engaged in the flour trade, and from Mr. John Copland, one of the best and most respectable bakers in that city. Messrs. Holly & Johnson, of Buffalo, to whom the " Tecumseh Mills" flour is consigned, in remitting ac- count of sales to Mr. C. Spafford, under date of the 7th November, say : ^' These are low figures, but the sales in both cases were at the ^ top of the market.' " Mr. S. J. Holley, after critically examining this pro- cess, in practical operation at the above mill, in writing from Buffalo, a few days subsequently, to Mr. Spafford, says : " You are unquestionably making your barrel of superfine flour from 12 pounds less wheat than any mill in the State of Michigan." [It is proper here to re- mark that the machinery so examined was the first put up to try the practical working of the invention, and before application for a patent was made, and that the other machinery of the mill was not well adapted to it.] AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 215 I make the above extracts to show, that although, in the opinion of Mr. Hollej, the yields by my process are from " 12 pounds less wheat than by any mill in the State/' yet the flour maintains a good reputation, and sells at the top of the market.'' A NEW AND PERFECT MACHINE FOR CRACKINa CORN IN THE COB. Patented by Mr. Ross, of Pennsylvania. This is the best machine for the purpose I have ever examined. The breaking is accomplished by the ap- plication of a new and different principle, consisting of a series of cast-iron cylindrical saws, so framed and ar- ranged as to act on the same corn but once in breaking it for the mill-stones; there being no power lost in feed- ing the machine, the saws taking an equal quantity of feed at every revolution. It runs perfectly steady, without racking any part of the other machinery of the mill, as is the case with the old-fashioned corn-crusher It is capable of cracking from 20 to 50 bushels per hour, making about 200 revolutions per minute, and is also easily set up, it being driven by a band 5 inches wide; and it takes up but a small space. For gristmills which do a large custom business, it is just the machine wanted. It can be furnished to millers in any part of the United States, by addressing Mr. Ethan A. Cran- dall, at his mill-stone manufactory, at Troy, New York. 216 THE AMERICAN MILLER, TROY (NEW YORK) MILL-GEARING ESTABLISHMENT, By Messrs. Starbuck & Son, Who are also manufacturing steam engines of all sizes, together with mills for sawing lumber, on an im- proved plan. These saw-mills, for small streams, are an excellent substitute for the purpose designed, being all complete of cast-iron gearing, made in the best possible style. This concern also constructs them to suit all powers, and capable of sawing from 500 to 3000 feet per day, with engines attached. Starbuck & Son are also manufacturing Leonard Smithes patent smut machine ; this is one of the late \ AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 217 improved machines, and said to work very well ; they are made of nine different sizes, costing from $80 to $200, and will clean from 15 to 150 bushels per hour. CLASP COUPLING JOINT West & Thompson's Patent, New York City.— Patented June 27th, 1848. This is one of the first-class inventions of modem times for coupling steam and other pipes, and shafts, 218 THE AMERICAN MILLER, and some other solid bodies, as it greatly facilitates the putting them up, and in making repairs, and at less ex- pense, as it dispenses with drilling of holes, brazing, soldering, and fitting up flanches. The figure on the preceding page represents two flanches, joined each to one of two pieces of pipe, and its application in conducting steam. P P are pieces of pipe. F F are two flanches, joined each to one of the pieces of pipe. It will be ob- served that the form given to the flanches is of such a nature as to retain the clasp in its proper place under any pressure of steam. It will also be perceived that the inner form of the clasp is so constructed as not to bear upon the flanches, only at the parts where the pressure is most required, close to the pipe. R R is a piece of vulcanized India-rubber, or any other packing that may be thought necessary. C C is the clasp. This is divided into two parts, and this part is repre- sented with the flanch resting on it. The other part of this clasp is represented by the figure to the right, which shows its concave part. By placing this over the flanches and securing the two parts of the clasp together by bolts passing through H H, is all the operation that is required in connecting two separate pieces of pipe to- gether. Every engineer or mechanic will perceive that the tighter the clasp is screwed up, the faces of the flanches are brought closer together, and the joint is thereby made perfectly tight. Advantages of this Joint over all others now in use, with a list of prices. — 1. The cost is from 25 to 30 per AND millwright's ASSISTANT. 219 cent. less. 2. The labour and expense of brazing or soldering flanches on pipes is obviated, and not required. 3. There are no holes to drill in the flanches, washers to use, or grummets to put around the bolts. 4. It only requires two, or at most three, bolts for the largest size joint, even if thej were seven feet in diameter. 5. The joints are tighter and stronger, as the pressure is exert- ed at the neck of the flanch, in close proximity to the periphery of the pipe. 6. The cost of packing is one- half less, and cannot blow out, as it is confined by the grooved segmental clasp. 7. Joints of any size may be taken apart, and put together in from five to ten minutes. 8. It enables a defective portion of a feed or blow-off pipe to be cut out, and a new piece to be put in, without involving the stopping of the attached engine, or arresting the operation of the attached boiler. 9. They are more economical in space, weight, cost, and repairs, and are applicable to cylinder heads, bon- nets, steam chests, air pumps, condensers, man-hole plates for boilers, stopcocks, nozzles, common and ro- tary pumps, and all other purposes where joints are re- quired. It will also be evident from the foregoing, to any engineer or machinist, and experience has shown, that shafts and other solid bodies can be coupled together in like manner as hollow pipes or vessels. The flanches, instead of solid projections, of the bodies to be united, may be made separate, and connected therewith in any manner desired. In flouring mills, the shafts may be taken down with- 220 THE AMERICAN MILLER. out interfering with th^ bridge trees or centres. This particular alone, makes it preferable to any other cou- pling for the purpose, as, in repairing, time and expense is saved, and not having to overhaul the centres, which, in a large merchant mill, is an item of considerable ex- pense on the old plan of either clutch or sleeve coupling. These couplings are made and kept for sale, and in- formation respecting them may also be had, by applica- tion to G-eorge D. Baldwin, city of New York. INDEX. Air between Millstones Page 118 Bale and Driver 127 Bran Dusters and Separators 200 Branding 130 Breadstuffs, Beck's Report on 134 Bolts, Making Cloth for 91 Bolt, Mauks's Patent 131 Bolting, New Materials for 197 Central Forces 23 Circle, Geometrical Definitions of. 37 Circumferences of Circles, &c., Table of 36 Clasp Coupling Joint, Thompson 217 Conveyor 110 Corn, Machine for Cracking 215 Economyin Mills..... ...." 103 French Burr 66 French Burr Millstone Manufactories , 190 Friction 25 Tables of 29, 30 Flouring, Bonnell's Improved Process 202 Furrows 80 Gearing, Troy Establishment 216 Grains, Culture of. 63 Grain Dryer 120 Gravity... ^ 99 Grinding 84 Harrison's Patent Mill 189 19* 221 222 INDEX. Help necessary in a Mill Fage 94 Hydraulics 96 Hydrostatics 39 Inspection of Flour 132 Inclined Plane 18 Indian Corn ..• 87 Journals of First Movers, Table of 35 Lever, Principle of 15 Machinery 110 Mechanics, First Principles of. 13 Merchant Bolts, Construction of. 88 . New Arrangement of. 89 Mill-Dams Ill Mill-Picks, Tempering 92 Size of 91 Millstone Dresses 74 Millstones, Laying Out the Dress in 73 The Size of. 83 Staffing and Cracking of. 81 Motion 20 New Stones, Directions for Preparing 70 Packing Flour 129 Packer's Table 130 Percussion and Oscillation, Centre of. 38 Pitch Circles, to Find Diameter of 109 Proof Staff, Use of 93 Pulley 19 Raccoon Burr 69 Saw-Logs, Table of. 187 Saw-Mill 184 Smut Machines 115 Brown's 199 Smith's 216 Specific Gravity 42 Specific Gravities, Table of 44 INDEX. 223 ^*^^™ Page 183 Stone, Bedding jq^ to Find the Velocity of 108 Stone and Wheel, Revolutions of. 109 Technical Words, E;splanation of. H Water, the Action and Reaction of 46 Inches to Drive one Run of Stones, Table of. 55 Upvrard and Downward Pressure of 40 Water- Wheels, Hydrodynamic Power of. 45 Combination Reaction 50 — Table of Velocities of 54 To find the Revolutions of. 108 Howd's Improved Direct Action 57 • Vandewater's 60 Wheat Flour, Analysis of 1j60 Wheat, Table for Reckoning Price of. 170 Rules for Purchase of 123 Wheat Scale, Brown's 198 Wheels, Overshot 56 THE END. YALUABLE PEACTICAL BOOKS, PUBUSHED BY HENKY CAREY BAIRD, SUCCESSOR TO E. L. CARET, S. E. CORNER OF MARKET AND FIFTH STREETS, PHILADELPHIA. Practiral Smtg, The design of this series is to furnish to the Artisan, for a moderate sum, hand-books of the different Arts and Manufac- tures. The following have already appeared, and additions will, from time to time, be made, as fast as the volumes can be pre- pared. THE AMERICAN MILLER, AND MILLWRIGHT'S ASSISTANT. By William Carter Hughes. Illustrated by numerous engravings of the most approved machinery, &c. In one volume, 12mo. THE TURNER'S COMPANION: Containing Instructions in Concentric, Elliptic, and Eccentric Turning. Also, various Plates of Chucks, Tools, and Instru- ments, and Directions for using the Eccentric Cutter, Drill, Ver- tical Cutter, and Circular Rest ; with Patterns, and instructions for working them. In one volume, 12mo. THE PAINTER, GILDEE, AND VARNISHER'S COMPANION: Containing Rules and Regulations for eyery thing relating to the arts of Painting, Gilding, Varnishing, and Glass Staining : numerous useful and valuable Receipts ; Tests for the detection of Adulterations in Oils, Colours, &c., and a Statement of the Diseases and Accidents to which Painters, Gilders, and Var- nishers are particularly liable ; with the simplest methods of Prevention and Remedy. In one volume, small 12mo., cloth. Rejecting all that appeared foreign to the subject, the compiler has omitted nothing of real practical worth. — Hunt's Merchant's Magazine. An excellent practical work, and one which the practical man cannot afford to be without. — Farmer and Mechanic. It contains eyery thing that is of interest to persons engaged in this trade. — Bulleiin. This book will provp valuable to all whose business is in gpy way connected with painting. — Scntt's Weekly. Cannot fail to be useful. — N. Y. Commercial. THE BUILDEE'S POCKET COMPANION : Containing the Elements of Building, Surveying, and Archi- tecture ; with Practical Rules and Instructions connected with the subject. By A. C. Smeaton, Civil Engineer, &c. In one volume, 12mo. Contents : — The Builder, Carpenter, Joiner, Mason, Plas- terer, Plumber, Painter, Smith, Practical Geometry, Surveyor, Cohesive Strength of Bodies, Architect. It gives, in a small space, the most thorough directions to the builder, from the laying of a brick, or the felling of a tree, up to the most elaborate pro- duction of ornamental architecture. It is scientific, without being obscure and unintelligible, and every house-carpenter, master, journeyman, or apprentice, should have a copy at hand always. — Evening Bulletin. Complete on the subjects of which it treats. A most useful practical work. — Bill. American. It must be of great practical -atiWij.-^ Savannah Republican. To whatever branch of the art of building the reader may belong, he will find in this something valuable and calculated to assist his progress. — Farmer and Mechanic. This is a valuable little volume, designed to assist the student in the acquisi- tion of elementary knowledge, and will be found highly advantageous to every young man who has devoted himself to the interesting pursuits of which it treats. — Va. Herald. 3 THE DYER AND COIOITR-MAKER'S COM- PANION: Containing upwards of two hundred Receipts for making Co- lors, on the most approved principles, for all the various styles and fabrics now in existence ; with the Scouring Process, and plain Directions for Preparing, Washing-off, and Finishing the Goods. In one volume, small 12mo., cloth. This is another of that most excellent class of practical books, which the publisher is giving to the public. Indeed we believe there is not, for manu- facturers, a more valuable work, having been prepared for, and expressly adapted to their business. — Farmer and Mechanic. It is a valuable book. — Otsego Republican. We have shown it to some practical men, who all pronounced it the completest thing of the kind they had seen — N. Y. Nation. THE CABINET-MAKER AND UPHOLSTERER'S COMPANION: Comprising the Rudiments and Principles of Cabinet Making and Upholstery, with familiar instructions, illustrated by Ex- amples, for attaining a proficiency in the Art of Drawing, as applicable to Cabinet Work ; the processes of Veneering, Inlay- ing, and Buhl Work ; the art of Dyeing and Staining Wood, Ivory, Bone, Tortoise-shell, etc. Directions for Lackering, Ja- panning, and Varnishing ; to make French Polish ; to prepare the best Glues, Cements, and Compositions, and a number of Receipts particularly useful for Workmen generally, with Ex- planatory and Illustrative Engravings. By J. Stokes. In one volume, 12mo., with illustrations. The two following are in preparation : THE TANNER AND CURRIER'S COMPANION. In one volume, 12mo. THE BREWER'S COMPANION. In one volume, 12mo. THE FRUIT, FLOWER, AND KITCHEN GARDEN. By Patrick Neill, L. L. D. Thoroughly revised, and adapted to the climate and seasons of the United States, by a Practical Horticulturist. Illustrated by numerous Engravings. In one volume, 12mo. HOUSEHOLD SURGERY; OR, HINTS ON EMER- GENCIES. By J. F. South, one of the Surgeons of St. Thomas's Hos- pital. In one volume, 12mo. Illustrated by nearly fifty En- gravings. CONTENTS : The Doctors >SAop.— Poultices, Fomentations, Lotions, Lini- ments, Ointments, Plasters. ^wr^rer?/.— Blood-letting, Blistering, Vaccination, Tooth-draw- ing, How to put on a Roller, Lancing the Gums, Swollen Veins, Bruises, Wounds, Torn or Cut Achilles Tendon, What is to be done in cases of sudden Bleeding from various causes. Scalds and Burns, Frost-bite, Chilblains, Sprains, Broken Bones, Bent Bones, Dislocations, Ruptures, Piles, Protruding Bowels, Wet- ting the Bed, Whitlow, Boils, Black-heads, Ingrowing Nails, Bunions, Corns, Sty in the Eye, Blight in the Eye, Tumours in the Eyelids, Inflammation on the Surface of the Eye, Pustules on the Eye, Milk Abscesses, Sore Nipples, Irritable Breast, Breathing, Stifling, Choking, Things in the Eye, On Dress, Exercise and Diet of Children, Bathing, Infections, Observations on Ventilation. HOUSEHOLD MEDICINE. In one volume, 12mo. Uniform with, and a companion to, the above. (In immediate preparation.) THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF CHEMISTEY, PRACTI- CAL AND THEORETICAL : Embracing its application to the Arts, Metallurgy, Mineralogy, Geology, Medicine, and Pharmacy. By James C. Booth, Melter and Refiner in the United States Mint ; Professor of Applied Chemistry in the Franklin Institute, etc.; assisted by Campbell MoRFiT, author of "Chemical Manipulations," etc. Complete in one volume, royal octavo, 978 pages, with numerous wood- cuts and other illustrations. It covers the whole field of Chemistry as applied to Arts and Sciences. * * * As no library is complete without a common dictionary, it is also our opinion that none can be without this Encyclopedia of Chemistry.— ^Sfciew^i^^c American. A work of time and labour, and a treasury of chemical information.— iVbriA Avierican. By far the best manual of the kind which has been presented to the Ameri- can public. — Boston Courier. An invaluable work for the dissemination of sound practical knowledge Ledger. ^ A treasury of chemical information, including all the latest and most import- ant discoveries. — Baltimore American. At the first glance at this massive volume, one is amazed at th« amount of reading furnished in its compact double pages, about one thousand in number. A further examination shows that every page is richly stored with informa- tion, and that while the labours of the authors have covered a wide field, they have neglected or slighted nothing. Every chemical term, substance, and pro- cess is elaborately, but intelligibly, described. The whole science of Chemistry is placed before the reader as fully as is practicable, with a science continually progressing. * * Unlike most American works of this class, the authors have not depended upon any one European work for their materials. They have gathered theirs from works on Chemistry in all languages, and in all parts of Europe and America; their own experience, as practical chemists, being ever ready to settle doubts or reconcile conflicting authorities. The fruit of so much toil is a work that must ever be an honour to American Science. — Evenina Bul- letin. " PERFUMERY; ITS MANUFACTURE AND USE: With Instructions in every branch of the Art, and Eeceipts for all the Fashionable Preparations ; the whole forming a valu- able aid to the Perfumer, Druggist, and Soap Manufacturer. Illustrated by numerous Wood-cuts. From the French of Cel- nart, and other late authorities. With Additions and Improve- ments by Campbell Morpit, one of the Editors of the " Ency- clopedia of Chemistry." In one volume, 12mo., cloth. 6 THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON, IN ALL ITS VARIOUS BRANCHES: To wHcli is added an Essay on the Manufacture of Steel, by Frederick Overman, Mining Engineer, with one hundred and fifty Wood Engravings. In one volume, octavo, five hundred pages. We have now to announce the appearance of another valuable work on the subject which, in our humble opinion, supplies any deficiency which late im- provements and discoveries may have caused, from the lapse of time since the date of " Mushet" and " Schrivenor." It is the production of one of our trans- atlantic brethren, Mr. Frederick Overman, Mining Engineer : and we do not hesitate to set it down as a work of great importance to all connected with the iron interest ; one which, while it is sufiSciently technological fully to explain chemical analysis, and the various phenomena of iron under different circum- stances, to the satisfaction of the most fastidious, is written in that clear and comprehensive style as to be available to the capacity of the humblest mind, and consequently will be of much advantage to those works where the pro- prietors may see the desirability of placing it in the hands of their operatives. — London Morning Journal. SYLLABUS OF A COMPLETE COURSE OF LEC- TURES ON CHEMISTRY: Including its Application to the Arts, Agriculture, and Mining, prepared for the use of the Gentlemen Cadets at the Hon. E. I. Co.'s Military Seminary, Addiseombe. By Professor E. Solly, Lecturer on Chemistry in the Hon. E. I. Co.'s Military Seminary. Kevised by the Author of " Chemical Manipulations." In one volume, octavo, cloth. The present work is designed to occupy a vacant place in the libraries of Chemical text-books. It is admirably adapted to the wants of both teacher and PUPIL ; and will be found especially convenient to the latter, either as a companion in the class-room, or as a remembrancer in the study. It gives, at a glance, under appropriate headings, a classified view of the whole science, which is at the same time compendious and minutely accurate ; and its wide margins afford sufiicient blank space for such manuscript notes as the student may wish to add during lectures or recitations. The almost indispensable advantages of such an impressive aid to memory are evident to every student who has used one in other branches of study. Therefore, as there is now no Chemical Syllabus, we have been induced by the excellencies of this work to recommend its republication in this country; con- fident that an examination of the contents will produce full conviction of its intrinsic worth and usefulness. — Editor's Preface. 7 ELECTROTYPE MANIPULATION': Being the Theory and Plain Instructions in the Art of Working in Metals, by Precipitating them from their Solutions, through the agency of Galvanic or Voltaic Electricity. By Charles V. Walker, Hon. Secretary to the London Electrical Society, etc. Illustrated by Wood-cuts. In one volume, 24mo., cloth. From the thirteenth London edition. PHOTOGENIC MANIPULATION: Containing the Theory and Plain Instructions in the Art of Photography, or the Productions of Pictures through the Agency of Light ; including Calotype, Chrysotype, Cyanotype, Chroma- type, Energiatype, Anthotype, Amphitype, Daguerreotype, Thermography, Electrical and Galvanic Impressions. By George Thomas Fisher, Jr., Assistant in the Laboratory of the London Institution. Illustrated by woo'd-cuts. In one vo- lume, 24mo., cloth. MATHEMATICS FOR PRACTICAL MEN: Being a Common-Place Book of Principles, Theorems, Rules, and Tables, in various departments of Pure and Mixed Mathe- matics, with their Applications ; especially to the pursuits of Surveyors, Architects, Mechanics, and Civil Engineers, with nu- merous Engravings. By Olinthus Gregory, L. L. D., F. R. A. S. Only let men awake, and fix their eyeg, one while on the nature of things, another while on the application of them to the use and service of mankind. — Lord Bacon. AN ELEMENTARY COURSE OF INSTRUCTION ON ORDNANCE AND GUNNERY:- Prepared for the use of the Midshipmen at the Naval School. By James H. Ward, U. S. N. In one volume, octavo. A GUIDE TO WOEKERS IN METAL AND STONE: For the use of Architects and Designers, Black and White- Smiths, Brass Founders, Gas Fitters, Iron Masters, Plumbers, Silver and Gold-Smiths, Stove and Furnace Manufacturers, Pattern Makers, Marble Masons, Stucco Makers, Carvers and Ornamental Workers in Wood, Potters, &c., from original De- signs and Selections made from every acceptable source, Ameri- can and European. By Thomas U. Waltek, Architect of Gi- rard College, and John Jay Smith, Librarian of the Philadel- phia Library. In four parts, quarto. TWO HUNDRED DESIGNS FOE COTTAGES AND VILLAS, etc. etc., Original and Selected. By Thomas U. Walter, Architect of Girard College, and John Jay Smith, Librarian of the Phila- delphia Library. In four parts, quarto. 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