Class ?^ BrSRsS Book ^ F( g> CopyrigMI^^ COPYRIGHT DEPOSm Efie 3Elural Science Series Edited by L. H. Bailey The Soil. King. The Spraying of Plants. Lodeman. Milk AND ITS Proddcts. Wing. Enlarged and Sevised. The Fertility of the Land. Boberts. The Principles of Fruit-growing. Bailey. 20th Edition, Revised. Bush-fruits. Card. Revised. Fertilizers. Voorhees. Revised. The Principles of Agriculture. Bailey. Revised. Irrigation and Drainage. King. The Farmstead. Roberts. Rural Wealth and Welfare. Fairchild. The Principles of Vegetable-gardening. Bailey. Farm Poultry. Watson. Enlarged and Revised. The Feeding of Animals. Jordan. (Now Rural Text-Book Series. ) The Farmer's Business Handbook. Roberts. The Diseases of Animals. Mayo. The Horse. Roberts. How TO Choose a Farm. Hunt. Forage Crops. Voorhees. Bacteria in Relation to Country Life. Lipman. The Nursery-book. Bailey. Plant-breeding. Bailey and Gilbert. Revised. The Forcing-book. Bailey. The Pruning-book. Bailey. (Now Rural Manual Series.) Fruit-growing in Arid Regions. Paddock and Whipple. Rural Hygiene. Ogden. Dry-farming. Widtsoe. Law for the American Farmer. Green. Farm Boys and Girls. McKeever. The Training and Breaking of Horses. Harper. Sheep-farming in North America. Craig. Cooperation in Agriculture. Powell. The Farm Woodlot. Cheyney and Wentling. Household Insects. Herrick. Citrus Fruits. Coit. Principles of Rural Credits. Morman. Beekeeping. Phillips. Subtropical Vegetable-gardening. Rolfs. Turf for Golf Courses. Piper and Oakley. The Potato. Gilbert. Strawberry-growing. Fletcher. STRAWBERRY-GROWING r BY S. W. FLETCHER PROFESSOR OF HORTICULTURE AT THE PENNSYLVANIA STATE COLLEGE THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1917 All rights reisrved ^^t ,f(o COPTRIOHT, 1917, bt the macmillan company. Set up and electrotyped. Published March, 191 7. MAR 22 1917 Norfnaati '^ttae J. 8. Cuehing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. ^GI.A455985 PREFACE The strawberry is distinctively North American. Most modern varieties sprang from species found only in the Americas. Progress in the domestication of this fruit was coincident with the introduction into Europe of American types. The acreage under commercial culture in the United States and Canada has grown from 1400 acres in 1854 to 150,000 acres in 1910. This is more than the combined acreage of all other countries. This book aims to reflect modern commercial practice in North America. A history of the rise of strawberry- growing, together with a discussion of the origin, botany and breeding of the North American type, are presented in a companion volume, ''The Strawberry in North America." All of the more than 1800 varieties that have originated in North America are described in Technical Bulletin 11, Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station, Blacksburg, Virginia : " North American Varieties of the Strawberry." I have freely incorporated the experience of others, as is noted in the text. I am under especial obligation to Matthew Crawford, Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio, and to the Editor of the Rural Science Series. A number of the illustrations are borrowed, for which acknowledgment is made in the List of Illustrations. S. W. FLETCHER. State College, Pa., January 29, 1917. CHAPTER I PAGES Locations, Sites and Soils 1-17 Locations .... 1-6 Strawberry districts 2-3 Type of market . 3-4 Type of farming and labor 5-6 Sites .... fr-10 Air drainage 7 Water drainage 7-8 Exposure 8-9 Advantages of flat land 8-9 Protection from wind . 9-10 Soils 10-12 The "ideal" strawberry soil 10 Soil preferences in different regions 11-12 Atlantic coastal plain 11 Florida and the Gulf states . 11-12 Pacific states .... 12 Qualities of good straivberry land . 12-17 Texture and water-holding power 13-14 Fertility 15-16 Drainage 16-17 CHAPTER II Planting 18-43 Preparation of the land .... 18-20 Plowing 18-19 Vlll Contents PAGES Fitting 19-20 Bedding and ridging 20 Season of planting ...... 21-25 Factors that determine the time . 21-22 Planting seasons in different regions 22-25 In the North 22 In the Atlantic Coastal plain and Florida 23 In the Mississippi Valley 24 On the Pacific coast . . . . 24-25 The plants 25-29 Where to buy 25 Number required to the acre 26 Preparing plants for setting 26-27 Heeling in 27-28 Trimming 29 The spacing of the plants .... 29-33 Distance between plants in the row 29-30 Distance between rows 30-31 Specific examples of spacing 31-33 In Canada and northern United States 31-32 In the South .... 32 On the Pacific coast . . 33 Marking out the land ..... 33-35 With a line or wire .... 33 With the plow 33-34 Peg markers 34 Sled markers 34 Wheel markers 35 Essentials to success in planting . 36-37 Methods of protecting the roots . 36 Firm setting 36-37 Depth of planting .... 37 Methods of setting 37-41 With the hand 37-38 With the spade 38-39 With the dibber 39-40 Planting machines and transplanters . 40-41 Care after planting 42-43 Shading and watering .... 42 Cutting the blossoms .... 42-43 Contents IX CHAPTER III PAOEB Rotations, Manuring and Fertilizing . . 44-65 Rotation practice in different regions . . . 45-49 In the North 45-47 In the South 47-49 Companion crops ...... 49-51 Vegetables as fillers between strawberries . 49-51 Strawberries as fillers between fruit-trees . 51 Plant-food requirements ..... 51-55 Plant-food in the berries .... 51-52 Plant-food withdrawn from the soil . . 52 Why strawberries require a rich soil . . 53 Results of fertilizer experiments . . . 53-55 Green-manuring ....... 55 Farm manures ....... 55-58 Advantages and disadvantages . . . 55-56 Rate of application ..... 56-57 Use of lime and ashes ..... 57-58 Applying fertilizers ...... 58-60 When to apply 58-59 Methods of distributing .... 59-60 Current fertilizer practice ..... 61-65 Canada and northern United States . . 61-62 Middle Atlantic states 62-63 South Atlantic states 63 Southern states 63-64 Mississippi Valley and westward . . . 64-65 CHAPTER IV Tillage and Irrigation . Why tillage is essential . Root system of the strawberry Weeds Tillage tools .... For horse tillage . For hand tillage . 66-83 66-68 66-67 67-68 68-70 69-70 70 Contents Tillage methods 71-76 How often to till 71 How deep to till 71-73 How late in the autumn to till 73-74 Early spring tillage .... 74-75 Tillage during blossoming and picking season I 75-76 Irrigation in arid regions .... 76-79 Grade necessary 76 Methods of applying water . 77-78 How often to irrigate .... 79 Irrigation in humid regions .... 80-83 Results of experiments .... 80-81 Special difficulties .... 81 Furrow system 82 Overhead pipe or sprinkling system 82-83 CHAPTER V Training the Plant 84-106 Methods of training defined .... 84-88 Hill or stool 84-85 Hedge-row 85-86 Spaced row ...... 86-87 Matted row 87-88 Broadcast or matted bed 88 Factors that determine the method of training 88-91 Climate 88-89 Soil 89 Variety 90-91 Method of culture . . . 91 Specific examples of the several methods 91-95 Hill training 91-93 Matted rows ..... 93-94 Spaced rows and hedge-rows 95 Bedding the runners ..... 95-99 When to begin 96-97 Methods 97-98 Distance between bedded plants . 98 Contents XI Removing surplus runners ..... Controlling the width of the matted row Spacing plants in the matted row Runner control in hills, hedge-rows and spaced rows ...... Summer pruning ...... FAQES 99-106 99-100 100-102 102-105 105-106 CHAPTER VI Mulching 108-125 Advantages and disadvantages of the winter mulch 108-111 Prevents heaving .... 108-109 Prevents freezing 109-110 Retards the ripening season 110 Increases danger from frost 111 Mulch materials . 111-116 Manure 111-112 Straw .... 112 Corn fodder . 112-113 Growing a mulch crop . 113-114 Mulches of wild herbage 114-115 Miscellaneous mulching materials 115-116 Growing a mulch in the strawberry field 116-118 Oats or barley between the rows . 116-117 Crab-grass in the South 117-118 Use of the winter mulch 118-121 When to apply- 118-119 How much to use . 119-121 When to remove . 121-121 The fruiting mulch 122-125 When it is needed 122-123 Materials used 123-125 CHAPTER VII Pollination 126-137 Tyyes of blossoms 126-128 Terms used in describing sex 127-128 Xll Contents PAGES Staminate and pistillate varieties compared . . 128-132 The theory of division of labor in the blossom 129 Relative productiveness .... 129-130 Advantages and disadvantages of pistillates 131 Pistillate varieties gradually disappearing . 131-132 Selecting and distributing the pollinizer . . . 132-136 Desirable points in a pollinizer . . . 133 The "mating" of varieties .... 133-134 Immediate influence of pollen . . . 134-135 Distributing the pollinizer .... 135-136 Weather conditions and pollination . . . 137 CHAPTER VIII Packages 138-153 The box ... . 138-144 Material 138-139 Shape and ventilation . . 139-141 Cubic contents 141-142 Dimensions . 143 Prices .... 143-144 Crates 144-146 Types — gift and return 144-145 Size 145-146 Prices . 146 Making up boxes and crates . 146-149 Special packages . 149-153 Refrigerators 150-151 California chests . 151 Trays .... 152 Baskets 152-153 CHAPTER I X Picking and Packing .... Length of picking season As affected by location and climate As affected by the age of the plants 154-181 154-156 154-155 155-156 Contents Xlll PAGES Picking problems ...... 156-160 How ripe berries should be 156-158 How often to pick 158-159 Time of day to pick 159-160 Care necessary 160 Picking receptacles 161-163 Boxes, cups and stands 161 Carriers 161-163 Selection and management of pickers 163-167 Relative value of different types o f pickers 163-164 Maintaining the grade . 164-165 Handling pickers in the field 165-167 Accounts with pickers . 167-173 Cash day-book records and checks 167-169 Punch tickets 169-171 Prices 171-173 Grading 173-178 Packing sheds 173 "Topping" .... 173-174 Field grading 174-175 Shed grading 175-178 Grades .... 176 Grading trays and scoops 177 Packing 178-181 Facing 178-179 Piece packing 179-180 Cooling .... 180-181 CHAPTER X ^Iaeketing 182-209 The personal, or retail, market 183-186 Opportunities for development 183-186 Selling through retail dealers 184-185 House-to-house selling 185-186 Means of transportation to the wholesale market 186-191 Express 186-187 Ventilator cars 187-189 XIV Contents Refrigerator cars . . . . . Water transportation .... Pre-cooling and cold storage .... Pre-eooling methods — air blast and cold room Cold storage ..... The strawberry season ..... Influence of weather on the season The procession of shipping districts in the market ...... Normal shipping seasons of the different dis- tricts ...... Methods of selling in the wholesale market By consignment ..... By f. o. b. sales ..... Cooperative marketing ..... Types of selling associations Forwarding associations Pooling associations Essentials to success .... Sales methods ..... Federation of local shipping associations By-products ...... Canning ...... Preserves, sirups and other by-products PAGES 189-191 191 191-193 191-192 192-193 193-198 194-195 195-196 197-198 198-201 198-199 200-201 201-206 201-203 201-202 203 203-204 204-205 205-206 207-209 207-208 208-209 CHAPTER XI Cost op Prodtjction, Yields, Profits . Factors that determine the cost of production . Type of farming Acreage ...... Other factors ..... Estimates of cost of production, yields and prices Average yields in different states Canada and northern United States Southern states ..... Florida and the Gulf states . Pacific states ..... Results under market garden culture . 210-225 210-212 210-211 211-212 212 213-225 213 214-216 216-219 21*^-221 221-223 223-225 Contents XV CHAPTER XII PAGES Propagation and Renewal 226-248 Layers or runners ...... 226-232 Nursery methods 226-227 Home-grown plants 227-228 Value of runners from the fruiting bed . 228 Ratio of runner increase in different varieties 228-229 Digging, packing and shipping . . . 229-232 Other methods of propagation .... 233-236 Potted plants 233-234 Cuttings or summer bedding . . . 234-235 Seeds 235-236 Division 236 Age of the plantation 236-238 Current practice in the North . . . 237 In the South and West .... 237-238 Factors that determine the life of a plantation . 238-242 The location and its climate . . . 239 Method of culture 239-240 Method of training ..... 240 Variety 240-241 Comparative cost of renewing and resetting . 241-242 Renewal methods ....... 242-248 Mowing and burning 242-244 Reducing the number of plants . . . 244—246 Renewing hills and hedge-rows . . . 246-247 Carrying plants over the summer in the South 247-248 CHAPTER XIII Everbearing Varieties, Forcing and Other Special Methods of Culture . . 249-267 Culture of the everbearers ..... 249-253 Removing the blossoms .... 249-250 Harvesting and marketing .... 250-251 Commercial value ..... 252-253 Culture of the Alpine 254—255 Fall crops and double croppers .... 255-256 XVI Contents Forcing in greenhouse benches PAGES . 256-258 Forcing in pots . 258-263 Care in the cold frame . . 259-260 Bringing the plants into heat . 260-261 Pollination . 261-263 Forcing varieties .... 263 Growing fancy and exhibition berries . 263-265 Strawberry barrels .... . 265-267 CHAPTER XIV Insects, Diseases and Frost , Spraying equipment and materials Preparation of spray materials Plant diseases and their control Leaf-spot .... Powdery mildew . Root-rot .... Injurious insects and their control Weevil .... Leaf-roller .... White grub .... Root-louse .... Crown borer Lesser insect pests Miscellaneous pests Frost protection .... Conditions which favor frost injury Mulches .... Screens .... Smudging and heating . 268-284 268-270 269-270 270-272 270-271 271 272 272-279 272-273 273-274 274-275 275-276 276 277-279 279 280-284 280-281 281-282 282 283-284 CHAPTER XV Varieties ....... Does it pay to test novelties ? Points to consider in selecting varieties . Adaptation to chmate and soil I*urpose for which the fruit is grown 285-305 285-287 287-291 287-288 288-289 Contents xvn Preferences of the market How many varieties to grow Noteworthy varieties . . . . . Descriptions of seventeen leading sorts Less prominent varieties . . . . Descriptions of forty-six kinds PAOBS 289-290 290-291 291-299 299-306 APPENDIX Statistics on Acreage, Peoduction and Value 307-317 In the United States 307-309 Decrease in acreage 307 Value of the crop in 1909 308 Leading states and counties 308-309 In Canada 309-311 Local centers of production . 311-317 Atlantic states 311-313 Mississippi Valley 313-316 Pacific states .... 316 Canada 316-317 ./ LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS OPPOSITE PAGE Plate I. A hillside strawberry field in Virginia. Knock- ing down the ridge with a drag, Norfolk, Virginia. (From Bulletin 6, Virginia Truck Experiment Station.) 20 Plate II. A home-made revolving spacer, used at Nor- folk, Virginia. (From Bulletin 6, Virginia Truck Ex- periment Station.) Six-row iron wheel marker. (From R. M. Kellogg Co., Three Rivers, Michigan.) 33 '/" Plate III. Tin hooded setting basket. (From R. M. Kellogg Co., Three Rivers, Michigan.) Irish potatoes and strawberries as companion crops, Norfolk, Vir- ginia. Hand planting, without the aid of a tool. (From Bulletin 6, Virginia Truck Experiment Station.) Strawberries as a filler crop between apples. Hood / River, Oregon 37 Plate IV. Plants smothered by crab-grass, Norfolk, Vir- ginia. Wheel hoe, Los Angeles, Cahfornia . . 70 '^ Plate V. Irrigation before setting, at San Diego, Cali- fornia. Contour irrigation. Hood River, Oregon. (From "Better Fruit," Hood River, Oregon.) Double rows on irrigation ridge, Watsonville, Cahfornia . 77 ' Plate VI. Nursery piped for overhead irrigation. (From the Skinner Irrigation Co., Troy, Ohio.) Irri- gation ridges, Pajaro Valley, Cahfornia. Irrigation , flumes, Tropico, Cahfornia . . . . . 81 ^ Plate VIL A hill plant, showing its numerous crowns. (Copyright by R. M. Kellogg Co., Three Rivers, / Michigan.) 92 XX List of Illustrations OPPOSITE PAGE Plate VIII. Parting a heavy winter mulch from over the rows, Michigan. Hill plants of Magoon, Vashon, Washington 115 Plate IX. Circular dropper used to cut runners from hill plants. Foot-power stapling machine. (From R, M. Kellogg Co., Three Rivers, Michigan.) Fruit- ing mulch between rows of hill plants on drainage ridges, Florida. (From Bureau of Plant Industry, / U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 123 / Plate X. Staminate and pistillate blossoms. Unin- jured and frost-killed blossoms 128 v/ Plate XI. Successive stages in the opening of a Brandy- wine blossom, and the setting of fruit . . . 132v Plate XII. Nubbins, usually the result of imperfect fer- tilization, sometimes of insect injury .... 137 Plate XIII. Twenty-four quart Leshe crate of ungraded Arkansas Aromas. Twenty-four pint Hallock crate of well-graded Louisiana Klondikes. Thirty-two quart American ventilated crate of well-graded Missionary from Florida. (All from Farmers' Bulletin 664, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 146 Plate XIV. Pony refrigerator used in Florida. (From Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) Chest of drawers or shdes, used in CaUfornia. Re- turn trays used in southern Cahfornia . . . 150 Plate XV. Overhead carrier, used in the Los Angeles dis- trict, CaUfornia 163 Plate XVI. Packing shed at Norfolk, Virginia. Pack- ing shed at Vashon, Washington. Harvesting scene, Norfolk, Virginia ....... 173 Plate XVII. Box of three-tier Clarks. (W. J. Davis, N. Yakima, Washington.) Method of stripping crates in ventilator cars. Fancy and No. 1 grades of Florida berries. (From Bulletin 664, U. S. Dept. of Agricul- ture.) 177 Plate XVIII. Shipping shed of a cooperative associa- tion near Los Angeles, California. Small schooner bringing strawberries to the Norfolk, Virginia, dock . 191 List of Illustrations XXI OPPOSITE PAOB Plate XIX. Shacks in large strawberry fields, southern California, occupied by the Japanese laborers who rent the land. Coldframe used as a cutting bed in sum- mer bedding 228 Plate XX. Box of 500 plants crated for shipping by freight or express. Plants bunched for maiUng . . 230 Plate XXI. Cheap greenhouse made of hot-bed sash, used for forcing strawberries at Hackensack, New Jersey. Potted plants plunged in cinders in a cold- frame 257 Plate XXII. Strong potted runner from a 3-inch pot that was plunged in the field. Forcing crown from a 6-inch pot. Unrooted runner of Pan-American variety, bearing several half -ripe berries. (From L. R. Johnson, Cape Girardeau, Missouri.) A good forced plant of Glen Mary, showing wire berry support . 260 Plate XXIII. A four-row spray outfit in which the power is derived from sprocket wheels. (From R. M. Kellogg Co., Three Rivers, Michigan.) 269 Plate XXIV. Brandywine, a standard sort under irriga- tion in southern California. Wilson, the dominant variety from 1860 until 1885 292 "Fertilizers and Crops," p. 694. 2 Report Mo. Hort. Soc, 1907, p. 267. Rotations, Manuring and Fertilizing 53 Why strawberries require a rich soil. Although the amount of plant-food actually removed by the strawberry plant is small, the crop responds to liberal fertilizing. This is partly because it has a high money value an acre, — prospective, at least, — but chiefly because of the very short time between the blos- som and the ripe fruit. In the North, the plants have only about four weeks in which to develop a crop that may weigh three or four times more than the plants. The apple has several months in which to mature its fruit, a large crop of which is not nearly equal to the weight of the trees. Hence, the main fertilizer require- ment of the strawberry is that the plant-food shall be immediately available. The texture of the soil and the facility with which water and plant-food move through it are even more important than its plant-food content. Where the strawberry blossoms and fruits continuously over a period of several months, as in Florida and south- ern California, the draught upon the soil is somewhat heavier. Numerous field experiments have shown conclusively that the analysis of the fruit is no index to the fertilizer treatment that should be given. Neither does an analy- sis of the soil reveal much that will aid the strawberry- grower in the use of fertilizers. The grower may obtain some hint from soil' aijalyses and fertilizer experiments elsewhere, upon the same type of soil; but field tests with different fertilizers on his own farm are likely to yield more valuable results. * ^ Results of fertilizer experiments. The futility of attempting to follow the fertilizer prac- tice of another district is illustrated by the conflicting " Better Fruit," Dec, 1913, p. 27. 144 Strawberry-Growing $3.00 to $3.25 a thousand. American ventilated pint, $2.75 to $3.00 ; Hallock quart, $2.60 to $2.90 ; Hallock pint, $2.25 to $2.50 ; Leslie quart, $2.60 to $2.90 ; Leslie pint, $2.25 to $2.50. These prices are for American boxes made up, for Hallock and Leslie boxes in the flat. Wire- sewed American boxes are preferable to those made up with tacks. There are, also, several types of folding berry boxes; these are shipped in the flat and are made up without tacks. They cost a little more than the others. The prices of boxes are lower now than ever before. In 1860 splint boxes cost $30 a thousand ; in 1870, $15 a thousand. CRATES The type of crate to use is determined by the type of box selected, since crates and boxes are sold to fit ; also by the market. Sub- stantial, iron-bound, return crates with hinged covers still are used somewhat for local trade (Fig. 9). These cost two or three times more than gift crates. Sectional return crates with two, three or four slat trays — usually three — each holding eight boxes, are useful for local markets. The trays are cleated so as to provide room for heaping berries without mashing them. Each tray may be taken out and displayed separately. Hallock and Leslie crates cost about half as much as Fig. 9.- iii%iia*Hii^i;;«n. . Heavy iron-bound return crate Packages 145 American ventilated crates, since they have fewer pieces, and no racks or divisions are placed between the layers of boxes (Plate XIII). The covers of most gift crates are nailed on, but it is better to have them hinged with strap iron, as this permits the easy inspection of the crates, which is an aid in making sales. The gift crate should be light, but substantial enough to carry the fruit without damage; some are constructed of very flimsy material. Size. The size of the crate, like the size of the box, depends on the distance that the fruit is to be shipped and the preference of the market. The farther the shipper is from market the smaller should be the crate, as the berries carry better. This is the chief reason why twenty-four or sixteen quart crates are used almost universally in the Mississippi Valley and westward, while thirty-two quart crates, or larger, are preferred in the East. Use the largest crate that can be handled conveniently and that will carry the berries safely ; the larger the crate the less it costs a box and the lower the expense of packing. The thirty-six quart crate is preferred by some, especially in New York ; it is better to make sales from than the thirty- two quart crate, since twelve baskets are exposed to the buyer ; but it cannot be handled easily by one man. The largest gift crate now used to any extent is the sixty-quart, which has four layers of fifteen quarts each. This has been popular in the Norfolk district for over fifty years. Two men are required to lift it, so it cannot be banged around like a light crate. The sixty quart size is a convenient unit for the wholesale trade ; most retailers in small towns can use that quantity at a time. The sixty-four, forty- 146 Strawberry-Growing eight, forty-five and thirty-six quart crates are used some- what in the East, but more eastern strawberries are now shipped in thirty-two quart crates than all other packages. The sixteen and twenty-four quart crates long have been standard in the Mississippi Valley and westward, and in the South, and are gaining favor among eastern shippers. Recently the twelve quart crate has been used somewhat in the Mississippi Valley. The twenty-four pint crate is becoming a standard package in the West and South for extra early or extra fancy berries. Prices. The present prices for gift crates, f.o.b. factory, are given below ; wine and dry quart crates usually cost the same: Standard American ventilated, 32 qt. 17^{f Standard American ventilated, 24 qt. 15jf Standard American ventilated, 16 qt. 12^(4 Hallock 24 qt. 7U to 8U HaUock 16 qt. 5U to 6U Hallock 12 qt. 5U to 6U HaUock 24 pt. 5U to 6^^ Leslie 24 qt. 8^ to 9U Leslie 16 qt. 5H to 6§j5 Leslie 12 qt. 5U to 6U Leslie 24 pt. 5^ to 6U Associations that buy package material in car-lots secure a considerable discount from these prices. There has been but little reduction in the cost of gift crates since 1880. MAKING UP BOXES AND CRATES Boxes, crates and refrigerators should be procured long before the picking season opens. There is a risk in buying L_. L aLj ..^iidAV Plate XIII. Types of Crates. — Top, tweiit\-lnur quart Leslie crate of ungraded Arkansas Aromas ; center, twenty-four pint Hallock crate of well graded Louisiana Klondikes ; bottom, thirty-two quart American ventilated crate of well graded Missionary from Florida. Packages 147 a full supply before the picking season begins, as the esti- mated crop may be cut short by weather conditions ; but it is safer to prepare for a full crop than to risk being caught without an adequate supply of packages in the middle of the harvest. The following experience illustrates what may happen if the ordering of package material is left until the last moment.^ "On account of the lack of berry crates the strawberry shipping at New Albany, Indiana, collapsed early last month. It is estimated that the loss will amount to $100,000. Hundreds of thousands of boxes of berries were left to rot in the fields." If ordered early, box material has a chance to dry out before being used, so that the moisture from crushed berries will be quickly ab- sorbed by the wood without injuring adjacent sound ber- ries. Packages made from material that is not well seasoned will heat. If the crates and boxes are bought knocked down they may be made up in the winter, thus furnishing profitable employment on stormy days. The crates may be made and filled with boxes, ready for use ; or the boxes may be stacked, bottom side up, so that dust will not settle into them. Some prefer not to make up the packages more than two or three days before using them, as they do not look fresh and clean if made up long ahead. Do not use second-hand boxes or crates ; even though the dingy ends are covered with colored lithographed labels, this is poor economy. Methods. The factories will make up the packages as cheaply as the grower can, but the freight bill will be heavier ; most growers find it more economical to do it on the farm. 1 "American Fruits," I (1904), p. 74. 148 Strawberry-Growing Hallock or Leslie boxes can be made up by hand for about seventy-five cents a thousand. Hallock quart boxes in the flat weigh 125 pounds a thousand ; they are crated in bundles of 500 each. Hallock crates weigh about five pounds each. It takes a little over one pound of two ounce tacks, costing twenty-five cents, to make 1000 boxes. A magnetic hammer, costing twenty cents, is useful. The forms on which to tack the boxes cost fifteen to twenty-five cents. The Hallock box is made of two pieces of veneering, scored to bend at the corners. The band is bent inward at the groove marks, wrapped around the bottom, and tacked, the short end making the outside lap. Bands cut with fine score marks instead of grooves should be bent outward, away from the score marks. Four tacks should be used on the lap side, two through the lap and two near the corners ; also two or three on the opposite side. If the veneer becomes very dry, so that it cracks, it should be dampened. A boy or girl can make 1000 to 1500 boxes a day by hand. One person can put up 4000 to 6000 boxes a day with a stapling machine ; stapled boxes are stronger than tacked boxes (Plate XIII). These machines cost about $40, when operated with steam power, and $16 to $20 when operated with foot power. They feed the wire, form the staple, drive and clinch it with one stroke of the foot pedal. Wire costs less than tacks ; a coil of stapling wire costing eighty cents will make 10,000 to 12,000 boxes. One man can make up 150 to 200 Leslie or Hallock crates a day at a cost of about one cent each. Crate forms can be made at home or can be bought for $1.25 each. F. E. Beatty gives the following directions for making the form shown in Fig. 10. "Take a plank two inches thick, six- Packages 149 ■Form for making Leslie or Hallock crates. teen to twenty inches wide and two feet long. Nail a six inch board to the back of it, then put on one inch strips to form the slots, as shown in the picture. These slots hold the ends and center pieces into their places while the sides are being nailed on." One piece of heading should be placed exactly in the center of the frame and the side pieces should be exactly even with the heading at both top and bottom. Use three-fourths ^^°- ^^ inch No. 16 wire nails ; and leave no nails protruding to catch the hands. American crates come knocked down and ready to as- semble by nailing the sides and bottoms to the ends. The division pieces or trays come made up, American boxes are shipped made up and compactly nested. They re- quire special machinery to make up and the veneer dries out and gets brittle if shipped in the flat. Several types of "folding" crates for use with American baskets are on the market, but have won little favor as yet. They are shipped folded and require no nailing, either for assembling or for attaching covers. SPECIAL PACKAGES Most strawberries are marketed in the packages de- scribed above, but a number of special packages are in use. These are of two types ; those that furnish refrigeration for berries shipped to distant markets, and those that are convenient for near markets. 150 Strawberry-Growing Refrigerators. The most elaborate and expensive strawberry package is the refrigerator box or chest. Refrigerators holding from 32 to 640 quarts of berries and a small quantity of ice were used before 1880 at Charleston, South Carolina, and in Florida. The early experiments with refrigerators by Parker Earle of Cobden, Illinois, are detailed elsewhere.^ The chief objection to the very large refrigerators was their ponderous weight. Small chests were likely to be thrown, bottom side up, in the express car and did not hold enough ice. The early styles had a narrow, upright receptacle for ice, forming a partition through the center of the box. In all later patents the ice pan covers the entire top. All the berries are cooled evenly, since the cold air near the ice settles to the bottom (Plate XIV) . Modern refrigerators are square. The ice pan is of galvanized iron, and occupies about one-third of the inside space. There is a ventilator flue of the same material through the middle. The tiers of boxes are separated by division slats. Practically all refrigerators in use now hold either sixty-four or eighty quarts of berries. The eighty quart size, with five tiers of boxes, is used more commonly than the sixty-four quart size with four tiers. The eighty quart size requires 175 pounds of ice; the sixty-four quart size, 100 pounds. When full of berries and ice the former weighs 250 pounds, the latter 225 pounds. Before the berries are put into the refrigerator they are cooled by placing them in a shady place, or in a cooling room. After the chest has been filled and iced, it is removed to a cool place to reduce the temperature of the fruit before it is shipped. The ice pan is replenished just before the refrigerator is placed upon the train. ' "The Strawberry in North America," Chapter III. Plate XIV. Special Types of Packages. — Top left, pony refriger- ator, used in Florida, with ice pan removed ; top right, chest of drawers or slides, used in California ; bottom, return trays used in southern California. Packages 151 The refrigerator is a distinct advantage to the grower who has not enough berries to load a refrigerator car. It is used early in the season, when pickings are small and prices high ; when the season is at its height, refrigerator cars are used and the berries are packed in American ven- tilated crates. The refrigerator is shipped by express; it costs six to nine cents a quart to put Florida berries into northern markets. Refrigerators cost four to five dollars each. Most Florida growers now own their own refrigerators, but at one time certain commission men derived a handsome profit from renting them to growers. California chests. A stout case holding forty-five pint boxes, with a tray on top holding twenty-five pounds of ice, is used in California. The insulation of these cases is rather poor, but they can travel for twenty-four hours without re-icing. Each grower has his own ice chests and they are returned to him when empty. Ice chests are used when only a few crates are shipped to one place. Many California berries are shipped in un-iced return chests. The chest used in the Watsonville district costs about three dollars and holds eighty pounds of berries. A chest has twenty slides, or drawers, each of which holds two boxes of berries of two pounds each (Plate XIV). The chest and slides are returned to the grower, the boxes are not. The slides are 15^ X 8j X if inches. Smaller chests with ten or fifteen slides are used to some extent. Some- times berries are shipped loose in the drawers of these chests ; this is, essentially, the old Cincinnati stand, which was used by Mississippi Valley growers from 1845 to 1890. 152 Strawberry-Groioing Trays. Berries destined for near markets are packed in return trays instead of crates; these are described by H. L. Crane, of Westwood, Massachusetts : "We use a 15 quart tray which is 5f inches deep, 17f inches wide, and 29 inches long, outside measurement. The ends are made of 5" planed boards, 5" X 17", with handles cut in them as in a bushel box. The sides are of |" board, 4f " X 29". The bottom is of five pieces laid cross- wise, one inch apart. It is made of f '' board, 5" X 17f". The cover is of five pieces ; three long f " boards, 4^" X 27^", which set inside the box, and two cross pieces which set on the sides ; these are |" X 17" X 3". The ends of the box being f " wider than the sides, protects the cross. Trays made of pine cost us 25 cents each. A sheet of wrapping paper placed over the berries keeps out the dust, which would sift through the slat tops. These trays are returned to the local growers. We get about 80 per cent of them back, and the rest are paid for." Trays holding eighteen or twenty-four quart boxes are used, also. In southern California, practically all the berries for local markets are handled in return trays holding fifteen pint baskets (Plate XIV) . The names or numbers of the grow- ers are stenciled upon them. These trays cost eight cents each. New England growers who cater to a local market ship their No. 1 berries in trays and the No. 2 stock in crates. Trays are cheaper, and more convenient for local trade than crates ; they also show off the berries better in the market. Another advantage is that none of the fruit is crushed by the weight of boxes placed above. Baskets of woven wicker work have been used somewhat in North America. Pottles, which were shaped like an inverted cone, and flat, shallow punnets were used near Packages 153 Boston and New York before 1850. About 1870, many strawberries reached Boston in wicker baskets holding forty-six quarts. In 1898, F. G. Tice of Oswego County, New York, shipped his fancy berries in baskets holding six to eight quarts. Baskets are seldom used now ; the drift is toward a smaller gift package. There is an oppor- tunity for those who cater to a personal market to in- crease their trade by the use of distinctive containers. A special four quart crate, provided with handles so that it can be carried home easily, has been used successfully. CHAPTER IX PICKING AND PACKING Because of the very perishable nature of the fruit and the rapidity with which it ripens, timely picking and careful handling are more urgent with strawberries than with most other fruits. The cost of harvesting is the heaviest charge against the crop, amounting in many cases to over $100 an acre annually. LENGTH OF PICKING SEASON Primarily, the location and its climate determine the length of the picking season ; incidentally, the soil, method of culture, age of plants and time of setting. Proceeding southward, the picking season of a variety lengthens. In latitude 34 degrees it rarely lasts more than three weeks ; in latitude 32 degrees it may extend from three to six months. In the tidewater Virginia and North Carolina districts, all the crop is harvested in about three weeks. In southern Florida, strawberries ripen contin- uously from the first of December until June, but the crop is not marketed after March. In southern Missis- sippi the season is three months ; in the northern part of the state, five weeks. The season of ripening in Florida and the Gulf states is determined very largely by the date of the last freeze or severe frost. This kills the expanded blossoms, and thus delays the picking season 154 Picking and Packing 155 four or five weeks. In the frostless districts of southern California, plants will bear more or less every month in the year, but there are fairly well-defined periods when they bear most heavily. In commercial fields, the plants are allowed to rest a short time in a semi-dormant condi- tion between seasons. The crop can be "thrown" at any time of the year by manipulating the factors of time of setting, irrigation and runner cutting. When the plants begin to slacken in bearing, the runners and leaves are cut off and irrigation stopped. After the soil has dried out and the plants begin to wilt a little, water is turned on and the plants bear again. The influence of altitude on the season of ripening is well illustrated in the Hood River Valley, Oregon. Near the Columbia River straw- berries ripen first; those on the higher benches, a few miles distant, ripen a month later. Weather conditions immediately preceding the ripen- ing of the crop modify the picking season. Some years the shipping seasons of districts that normally come into market consecutively are coincident, with disastrous results. Early, midseason and late varieties ripen prac- tically together in a backward spring. Hot weather hastens ripening, reduces yield and shortens the picking season. Cold weather prolongs the ripening season and gives firm berries. Wet weather retards ripening and makes the berries soft. In the North, the picking season normally is three to four weeks, but it may vary from eighteen to forty days and be two or three weeks earlier or later than normal. ^4* affected hy the age of the 'plant. In the South, the picking season is regulated somewhat by the time of planting and the age of the plants. In 156 Strawberry-Growing the Los Angeles district, the picking season from old plants is continuous for eight months, from April to November or December. The yield is heaviest in May, June and July, but there are profitable pickings through- out the season. Plants set in October or November bear a fair crop from April to the middle of July ; some fields have a small crop in the fall also. " In middle and northern Alabama," says F. S. Earle, "plants set in the spring and allowed to form matted rows ripen all their fruit during a period of three to four weeks, as in the North ; but if set in summer or fall they develop succes- sive fruit clusters during a much longer period, often scattering the crop through eight or ten weeks, as is the habit of the strawberry farther south. For home use or for local market, this longer fruiting season is a distinct advantage. Where berries are grown for northern ship- ment, the heavier early picking from the spring-set matted rows will be more practicable." ^ In the North, old fields often bear seven to ten days earlier than new plantings of the same variety, especially if the field was not renewed. PICKING PROBLEMS How ripe berries should be when picked depends on the variety, weather, method of training and distance from market. Soft varieties need to be picked greener than firm sorts in order to get them to market in good condition. When the weather is cool, berries may be vine-ripened for near markets, since they are firm ; in hot weather they should be picked greener. Redness does not always indicate ripeness. Some varieties color well before they are ripe, or ready to eat. Berries increase in size 1 Bui. 109, Ala. Exp. Sta. (1900), p. 41. Picking and Packing 157 considerably after they begin to get red ; those who pick early, for long distance shipment, lose this advantage. The time to pick is influenced somewhat by the method of training. Hill or hedge-row berries color early ; berries from plants in heavily shaded matted rows color late. Small and medium-size berries may be picked riper than very large berries, which color slowly. The distance to market is the most important point in deciding how ripe the berries should be when picked. Berries ripened on the vines are of better flavor and more attractive appearance than berries picked when under- ripe. The closer the market, the riper the berries should be when picked. Growers who are within twenty-four hours shipping distance of their markets pick none with white tips. These immature berries do not color up fully by the time the fruit is exposed for sale ; they are unattractive and sour. In the home garden, berries should be allowed to become dead ripe on the vines. When the fruit is destined for markets several days distant, it becomes necessary to pick it somewhat under- ripe, to secure firmness and to insure that the berries will not be over-ripe when they reach the consumer. Flavor is sacrificed to shipping quality. Some sorts, as the Clark, color well during shipment if picked when they are barely beginning to color ; others color scarcely any after being picked. Do not pick any greener than is necessary to get the fruit to market in good condition. Frequently Oregon and British Columbia berries are in refrigerator cars seven to nine days. They can be picked when barely beginning to show color. "Pick the bed daily," advises W. C. Grant, of British Columbia, "re- moving all berries that show sign of color. When the bed is properly picked, every remaining berry is green ; 158 Strawberry-Growing if any show a trace of color, the work is not thoroughly- done. By this method the berries will reach distant mar- kets in prime condition and will color up thoroughly." ^ Texas and Florida berries are picked when about three- fourths red. Farther north, where the growers are close to their markets, strawberries are picked when colored all over and without green tips. If refrigerators are used, berries can be picked riper than if they are shipped in ventilators. How often to pick. The rapidity with which the fruit ripens determines how often to pick. During cool weather, two pickings a week may be sufficient. In hot weather, daily pickings are necessary, especially if the fruit is to be shipped to a distant market. If obliged to miss a day or two on account of rain, the next picking will have many soft berries. Pick these in tin vessels and send them to can- neries or jam factories. It is necessary to pick them in order to keep soft berries out of subsequent pickings. In the higher altitudes of Montana berries ripen very slowly and frequently are picked but once a week. Weekly pickings are sufficient for everbearing varieties in late autumn. In hot weather, if the field is not picked on Saturday or Sunday, there will be many overripe berries Monday morning. The small grower who caters to a local trade can pick early Saturday morning, and sell the berries the same day ; but the large grower cannot ship on Saturday if his market is less than forty-eight hours distant. Some pick very clean on Saturday afternoon, even a trifle under-ripe, and put the fruit into cold storage over Sunday ; but in many cases it is safer to leave the 1 Bui. 17, British Columbia Dept. of Agr. Picking and Packing 159 berries on the vines. This is a personal problem in ethics, not in horticulture; it is as likely to be settled by the appeal of conscience as by the urgency of the need. We can appreciate the ingenuity, if not the ethics, of the strict Sabbatarian who hired Seventh Day Adventists, whose Sabbath falls on Saturday, to pick his berries on Sunday. In most cases — to venture a purely personal opinion — the loss of berries from not picking on Sunday is small compared with the loss in other respects. If Sunday picking is practiced, it should be optional for the pickers; if not, provision should be made for a larger force of pickers on Monday, and special care in grading is necessary to eliminate the over-ripe berries. Time of day to pick. Strawberries are picked preferably in early morning, because they are injured by standing in the sun after picking ; because they ship better if picked when cool and firm ; because it is a more comfortable time of the day for the pickers to work; and, if the market is near, be- cause the berries can be shipped and sold the same day. Whole train-loads leave points in Sussex County, Dela- ware, for New York, Philadelphia and Boston, before eight o'clock ; these berries were picked the same morn- ing. If shipping in refrigerator cars, early morning pick- ing is not so essential. The only objection to picking very early is that the berries may be wet with dew. Divergent opinions are held as to whether this injures their shipping qualities. Berries picked while wet go down quicker in cold storage than those picked while dry.^ Probably it is safer to wait until the sun has dried the dew, provided all the berries can be picked before it 1 Bui. 108, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agr. (1907). 160 Strawberry-Growing gets hot. In hot weather, if it is necessary to choose be- tween picking in the early morning while the berries are still wet with dew or rain, and deferring picking so late that some will be gathered in the heat of midday, pick early. Some growers pick every day, regardless of dew or rain ; the pickers are provided with oilcloth or rubber capes. Those who sell a small quantity of fruit in a local market can pick late in the afternoon, place the berries in a cool shed overnight and market them the next morning. Care necessary in picking. The fruit is grasped by the stem, which is pinched and broken off a short distance from the berry. The fingers need touch the berry very little, if at all. Watch for the careless or fast picker, who snaps off the berry at the calyx, leaving no stem ; snapped berries may bleed and do not carry well. Short stems husband the keep- ing quality of the berries and prevent them from packing down too tightly in the box. The stems should be of uniform length. For long distance shipping, one-fourth to one-half inch of stem is left ; for near markets, from one inch to two inches. Pickers should gather all nub- bins and over-ripe berries, which exhaust the plants. Some provide the picker with a separate box for this purpose. Until the introduction of the Wilson, most of the strawberries brought to market were pulled, leaving the hulls on the vines ; those that did not separate from the calyx in picking were hulled before being sold. This practice was introduced from England. It was soon found that the labor of hulling was too great to make it practicable and that hulled berries did not ship well. Since 1860 strawberiies have been picked and marketed with hulls on. Picking and Packing 161 PICKING RECEPTACLES Boxes, cups and stands. In commercial operations, berries are picked into the same kind of box that is used for shipping them, whether they are graded in the field or at a packing shed. For a local market, nine to twenty pound grape baskets are used, with a tin can at one end for culls. Some growers who do not grade give each picker a sixteen or twenty- four quart crate, with the picker's number stamped upon it ; when this has been filled, the picker carries it to the shed. In the Pacific Northwest, growers who find it impossible to secure the right kind of help to grade in the field, pick into a specially constructed stand or tray. This is sixteen inches long, ten inches wide, two inches deep at one side and four inches at the other; it holds about six quarts. The legs extend below the bottom three inches and one inch respectively, so that the top is level when the stand is set on the ground. The four- inch side is hinged at the bottom and secured at the top by hooks, so it can be dropped down at the grading table. This picking tray is lined loosely with white oil- cloth so that it can be easily cleaned. Carriers. When boxes are used, these aire placed in a light handled carrier, also called a tray, picker's stand or "handy." In hot weather, each picker is provided with one carrier ; in cool weather two. The most common size holds four boxes, but six, eight, ten and twelve box carriers are used. The larger the carrier, the greater the danger that the fruit picked first will be injured by the sun. The grower should provide at least twice as many car- 162 Strawberry-Growing Fig. 11. — The most common type of box carrier, or " handy." riers as there are pickers, so that the pickers need not wait at the packing shed while the full boxes are being removed. Remove the factory dust from boxes with a whisk broom before placing them in the carriers. Do not grasp a full box on both sides when removing it from the carrier; this squeezes the berries. Carriers can be made during the winter for five to seven cents each. F. E. Beatty gives directions for making the carrier shown in Fig. 11: " Take a board ^" thick, 10" wide, and 15" long for the bottom. Nail a lath on each side and on the ends to hold the boxes in place. Use two inch strips, 5" thick and 5" long, for legs. Use a piece of barrel hoop for the handle." Many growers prefer carriers without legs, as these catch in the vines; but the legs prevent the carrier from crushing the berries if it is set upon the row. A carrier provided with a strong handle that pickers may rest on is shown in Fig. 12. In the South, especi- ally near Norfolk, carriers arc made with board ends and the bottom, top and one side of veneer ; the other side is left open for taking handle out and putting in the boxes. This protects the picked fruit from the sun. In the Pacific Northwest, occasionally berries are carried from the field to the packing shed on a wire or cloth sieve, which allows the sand and dust to fall through. The most elaborate device is the overhead carrier used in the Los Angeles district, California (Plate XV). The entire field is planted ; no space is left for roads or paths. Posts Fio. 12. — Carrier with- out legs and with stout Picking and Packing 163 are set across the field 150 feet apart and brackets are nailed to them 6| feet from the ground. At the ends of the brackets are fastened wu-es, which run through a pulley. A box large enough to hold two or three crates travels on the wire across the field to the packing shed ; there it is unloaded and shoved back to the picker. SELECTION AND MANAGEMENT OF PICKERS The control of pickers requires judgment and tact to an unusual degree. Several types of mechanical pickers have been tried, but none has been successful. From eight to fifteen pickers are required to an acre, accord- ing to the yield and the skill of the picker. If a long rain is followed by hot weather, more pickers are needed. Have enough so that it will be unnecessary for them to work over eight hours a day ; tired pickers are careless. If there are too many pickers, they do not make enough money and become dissatisfied. Relative value of different types of pickers. Pickers should be engaged early. If they come from a distance, have camping facilities ready. An advertise- ment in the want column of the nearest city paper will bring many. Employment agencies may be utilized. Do not take any with defective eyesight or who are physi- cally unfit to do steady work. It is easier to get a large number of pickers to stay through the season than a few. Most growers prefer women pickers : " Engage your pickers, women first, then girls, and boys last," advises Matthew Crawford. According to O. W. Blacknall, " Women have a better eye for color, nimbler fingers and are by nature more diligent than men. Then, what is 164 Strawberry-Growing no small matter, they are more abstemious." Small girls and boys are about equally good pickers, if closely watched. Children eight to twelve years old do better work than those between the ages of fourteen and eight- een. One advantage of using men and large boys is that they can pick in rainy weather and early morning, when the vines are wet with dew, or on very hot days; a grower hesitates to ask women and young children to pick under these conditions. When local help is inadequate, pickers are secured from elsewhere, and camp on the farm. Usually the grower provides camping facilities, including sheds, tents, cook stoves and bedding. In the North Atlantic states, Italians, Bohemians and Poles are used, always with a foreman of their own nationality, who is made responsible ; American foremen cannot handle them well. These pickers are always on hand and will work fourteen hours a day if necessary. There are over 10,000 berry pickers in Baltimore alone. From Maryland southward, negro help is used almost exclusively. There are some professional pickers who work in gangs almost the year round, beginning in Texas or Florida and working north- ward with the season. They will not stay except during the height of the season, when picking is good. These itinerant pickers seldom are trustworthy. Maintaining the grade. The greatest difficulty in the management of pickers is to prevent them from filling the boxes with green, over-ripe, small or imperfect berries, and to see that they do not pull or snap the berries from the vines. If the fruit is not graded at the packing shed, extra watch- fulness is necessary in the field. Each picker should Picking and Packing 165 wear a badge with his number upon it, and each box in his carrier should be stamped with this number before being taken to the field. This takes little time and makes it possible to trace every box to the picker responsible. When the picker brings his berries to the packing shed at least one box should be examined in his presence. If the work is satisfactory, give him a white ticket ; if not, a blue ticket. The names of those who are especially pro- ficient may be displayed on a bulletin board that is hung in the packing shed ; this is an incentive to good work. It takes a few days of patient training to secure satis- factory results from new pickers. Handling pickers. A wise grower tries to keep his pickers comfortable and contented ; otherwise he may have a strike. Nearly every gang has one or more chronic grumblers; these should be detected and discharged. Pay double wage on circus days, and the forenoon of the Fourth of July. Organize sports during the lunch hour. Provide com- fortable and sanitary quarters at the camp. Motor trucks may be used to bring pickers from distant towns, and return them to their homes at night. At the close of the season give the pickers a picnic dinner at some near-by lake or resort. These attentions promote good feeling between employer and employees and result in more satisfactory service. The larger the number of pickers the greater the ne- cessity for system in handling them, so as to make every minute count. If each picker is obliged to wait ten minutes a day for empties, or there is delay in assigning new rows, the aggregate loss of time will be considerable. The pickers should be allowed to vary the monotony of 166 Strawherry-Growing the work with gossip and repartee, provided they do not play. Pickers require constant supervision; one field overseer cannot look after more than forty pickers. It must be expected that the pickers will eat some berries. The sharp eyes of a field overseer are the best corrective of excess. The pickers should start in on the side of the field farthest from the packing shed and work toward it. If the field is very large, divide it into sections by setting one or more lines of stakes across the rows ; pickers like short rows, and it is easier to look after them if they are close together. When the plants are trained in hills or narrow rows, let each picker have a separate row ; wide matted rows may be picked to best advantage by starting a picker between each two rows and requiring her to pick one-half of each. Assign rows according to the ca- pacity of the picker. The field foreman must be certain that each picker cleans the row that has been assigned to her; some may slip over to rows that seem to promise better picking. See that they do not tramp or loll on the vines or walk crossways of the rows. The pickers are obliged to move so frequently that no seat is practi- cable, although several types of "pickers chariots" have been introduced. Large berries should be placed in the box singly, medium berries by small handfuls, all so gently that there is no sound. Do not pour berries from one hand to the other. Most growers require each picker to bring the carrier of full boxes to the packing shed ; there is less chance of mixing the berries from different pickers, poor picking can be detected and pointed out at once, and the picker is relieved from her cramped position for a short time. When this is done, it is desirable that each row be num- Picking and Packing 167 bered conspicuously with painted stakes, so that the picker may readily find her row when she returns. Pro- vide each picker with a small white stake, with her num- ber stamped on it, to mark the point where she leaves off picking. When it is desirable to keep the picker at work without interruption, she calls "Box," when her carrier is full, and a man gives her a ticket and takes it to the shed. ACCOUNTS WITH PICKERS Four methods of keeping accounts with pickers are used ; cash at picking time, day-book records, redeem- able checks and redeemable punch tickets. Cash, day-hook records and checks. Very few growers pay cash to pickers as they bring in the berries ; this is inconvenient and the pickers may lose their money, but there is no chance for mistakes or forgery of checks. A few growers pay by the hour. Day book accounting is practicable only when there are less than fifteen pickers. A record is kept of each picker by the tally man at the packing shed, thus : Sam Jones May 5 65 quarts. May 6 54 quarts. May 7 80 quarts. The pickers are paid once a week, or at the end of the season. This saves much time, but disputes may arise as to the accuracy of the records. Small cards or checks have been used more than any other method of accounting but are now superseded by punch tickets, except when the number of pickers is less 168 Strawberry-Growing than twenty-five. Checks are pieces of cardboard about one inch by two inches, with the name of the grower printed on one side, together with the number of quarts it represents ; thus : J. M. Smith 4 Green Bay, Wis. Checks should be printed in denominations most con- venient for the pickers, as one quart, two quarts, four quarts, sixteen quarts, twenty-four quarts and one hun- dred quarts. Sometimes ahiminum checks, called " straw- berry money," are used. If a four quart carrier is used, in printing 1000 checks 600 might be four quart, 200 one quart and 200 two quarts. There should be, also, some 50 quart and 100 quart checks, to be exchanged for smaller numbers. The several denominations should be of different colors, to prevent mistakes. The checks are redeemable in cash at the discretion of the grower. The chief objection to check accounting is that the pickers may lose some of them. In this case he loses his pay, as the grower has no record of the persons to whom they are issued. Neither does the grower know how many checks he has issued, except by counting the number of baskets picked. A dishonest picker may steal the checks of another picker, or print more like them. A method used by M. A. Thayer of Wisconsin meets these objections. He says, "These checks are 1| X 2| inches, 5 to the page, perforated and bound in books of 500 each, making a convenient pocket check book. They are numbered consecutively, and a check is used but Picking and Packing 169 once. By noting the number on the first check used, and at any time deducting same from the next check to be issued, one can determine just how many boxes have been paid for." ^ PLEASANT VIEW FRUIT FARM Picker's Card— Not Transferable. No Date 2 <^ to I ^ 3 * e* (0 « (4 4> V n ^ S •'^ O Pi O -W § «5 g 2 2*1 5 S S q 5 =3 I o ♦» -" a fi 1 c9 *> /^ o ELMER 0. TUFTS. - AURORA, IND. Paid $ $ 50 ceots. Name. No Fig. 13. — Common type of punch ticket. Punch tickets. This is the standard method in large operations. It meets all the objections that have been raised to checks. Some of the more common type of punch tickets are shown in Figs. 13 to 16. They are printed on tough Manila tags, about 3| X I2 inches. Usually two tickets * " American Gardening," 1897, p. 392. 170 Strawberry-Growing are provided for each picker, a daily and a weekly ticket. The daily ticket is tied to the picker's left arm above the elbow, where it is out of the way. When she delivers boxes of fruit in satisfactory condition the inspector registers the number of quarts with a conductor's punch. At the close of each day's picking the number of boxes Momby R 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 e 6 6 6 6 6 Tuesday R 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 Wednesday R 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 CO 66 72 78 84 90 96 f^ lO cs ^ 1 HELLER TALLY CARD c o .^ n CJ „ » »3 CO » »» n (M .- ^ ta CO «k D»te M ♦. 190.. •<» m W „ - tc CO «. TJ 3. Picked by TT n W _ » »s CO ■». •«■ to . ^ n C< „ - lO CO •».' a s ! •s -^ n •N - — ^^ ) •« 6 12 18 24 30. 3C 42 48 54 60 66 72 78 84 90 96 Thursday R 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 Friday R 6 6 6 6 6 C fi 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 Sunday R 6 6 6 6 6 e. 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 Fig. 14. — The Heller tally card. picked that day, as shown on the daily ticket, is trans- ferred to the weekly ticket. The daily ticket is then taken up by the grower and filed away for record. The weekly ticket is kept by the picker until she is paid in full, when it is taken up by the grower as a receipt. By preserving the weekly tickets he has a complete record of the picking for the season. The daily ticket should represent about 150 boxes, in convenient denominations. The weekly ticket should have space for the name and Picking and Packing 171 number of the picker, the price paid a quart, the date on which it ends and the cash paid at the close of that week. If the picker loses his weekly ticket, the grower has the daily tickets to check it. Each picker should be required to write his name on the weekly ticket in ink ; then if it is lost, no one else can col- lect on it, for the name cannot be erased without detection. Some growers make the ticket payable to the picker whose name is written on it, so that no one else can collect on it. Another satisfactory method is to give the picker a ticket, and retain a duplicate, of a different color, at the packing shed. When the picker comes in, the two are placed together and punched ; there can be no dispute thereafter as to the number of boxes delivered. DAILY ACCOUNT OF BERRIES PICKED aY Date 'Z ^ / ^^ g Amount paid per lox „ ots.' f QtE Qts 2 2 2 Qts 3 3 3 Present tbls M Qts Qts Qts O 5 T 4 4 H i 4 4 4 4 4 T F 9 1 I 2, 8 i h 4 4 4 2 3 4 4 4 2 3 4 4 4 2 3 M a> B 4 ^ T 2 8 i 1 3 4 l^ 4 Prices. Fig. 15. — The Wallace Picking Record, daily ticket. Berry How often to pay off is mainly a matter of expediency. Some pickers require a weekly settlement ; others can be carried to the end of the season. In some of the large shipping districts the growers issue aluminum " strawberry money" which is accepted at face value by local stores. If the picker is paid in full each Saturday, he may not re- turn on Monday. A better way is to withhold one-quarter 172 Strawberry-Groiving cent or one-half cent a quart until the end of the season. A contract to this effect may be printed on the back of the tally card. The cost of picking ranges from one to three cents a quart, according to the abundance of the fruit, and how much the pickers can make in a day. It is best to estab- lish a uniform price for the season, and require all pickers 1. DATES 2 S u Qls. Qts. Qts. Qls. Qls. Cral's Pick'd Qls. PIcU'd CIS. pd per quart AMOUNT PAID n Moo. 3 2 1 12 6 4 2 1 1 Toes. Wed. 3 2 1 12 6 4 a 3 2 1 12 6 4 2 1 ■ i > I a Weekly Account of Berries Picked by Present this with your daily card at the close of each day. M , - 1. DATE w a Qls Qls Qls Qls Qts 1 Cral's Ptck'd Qls. Pick'd CIS. ed per Quart AMOUNT PAID •i f Thors 3 2 1 12 6 4, 2 1 rri. 3 2 1 12 6 4 2 1 i SaJ 3 2 1 12 6 4 2 1 Wallace's Berry-Picking Record. TOTAL. 1 Fig. 16. — The Wallace Berry Picking Record, weekly ticket. to remain ; a change in price in the middle of the season makes the pickers dissatisfied. The standard price in most sections is two cents a quart. Few growers could persuade their pickers to agree to the plan adopted by some Missouri growers in 1897. They paid one and one- fourth cents a box to pickers who remained the entire season, provided the berries netted $1.75 for a twenty- four quart crate; if more than this, one and one-half cents a box; if less, or if the pickers got tired or were discharged, one cent a box. i . M - y^'v-l; -^-^iiw 1 « vT| Plate XVI. Packing Sheds. — Top, at Norfolk, Virginia; center, at Vashon, Washington ; bottom, harvesting scene, Norfolk, Virginia. Picking and Packing 173 In Florida and southern California, the harvest ex- tends over a long period and the daily pickings are not heavy; hence it often is necessary to pay three cents a quart. In late autumn, everbearing strawberries ripen very slowly and three cents is a fair price. Toward the end of the season, when berries run small and prices are low, allow families to go into the field and pick on shares, giving them one quart in four. In this way no money need be paid out and part of the crop is disposed of at a fair profit. GRADING The grading of strawberries is mostly a development of the past ten years. Before then they were shipped, for the most part, about as they were picked from the vines ; only the nubbins were rejected. Whether the berries are graded in the field or in a shed, or not graded at all, it is necessary to have some kind of temporary receiving station where they can be examined and put in the shade as soon as pos- sible. For field grading, the sheds should be located where the pickers can bring in the berries most conveniently ; there should be one shed for every four or five acres. Secure as cool a location as possible ; hot fingers "muss" the berries. Most packing sheds are temporary, inex- pensive structures. It is essential that there should be free circulation of air and protection from the sun. The side that is open to receive the fruit should face the north ; the other sides should be boarded down to within two feet of the ground. Plate XVI shows common types of sheds. Topping. Strawberries were "topped" many years before they were graded. Grading is an attempt to have all the 174 Strawberry-Growing berries in the package approximately uniform in size, color and freedom from defects; topping may be merely placing a few choice berries on top of a box of inferior berries in an attempt to deceive the buyer. The deacon- ing or topping of strawberries has been as common as the over-facing of apples. At one time Florida growers used Hoffman to face boxes of Newman; many crates have been sent to market with Crescent on the bottom and Bubach on top. Growers who place the best baskets on the top of the crate and all the best berries on the top of the box overreach themselves. The standard in packing is rising constantly, not only as a matter of moral convic- tion, but also as a matter of policy. Dominion, provin- cial, federal, state and municipal regulations are exerting pressure in this direction. Field grading. In Florida, the Gulf states, the Ozark district and the Pacific Northwest, most of the output is graded at the packing shed ; elsewhere, mostly in the field by the pickers. Field grading is more economical than shed grading, provided the pickers can be trained to do it properly. After they have become accustomed to it, they will pick and grade nearly as many quarts a day as if all berries went into the same box. The fruit is handled less; every time berries are touched they are hurt for shipment. The berries are shaken down tightly by the picker in moving the carrier about; if they are sorted at the shed, they may be left in the boxes rather loose and will settle on the way to market, unless tightly faced. Field grading makes it possible to put the berries in a cool place very soon after they are picked. Rarely is it practicable to make more than two grades Picking and Packing 175 in the field ; separate boxes are provided for these. If only one grade is made, pick the culls also and put them in a separate box. In this case the pickers should be paid the same price for culls as for No. 1 stock ; then there is no inducement to mix culls with good berries. When two merchantable grades are made besides the culls, some growers pay the pickers more for the smaller grade than for the larger. If field-graded berries are faced, this may be done by the pickers, also, but it is preferable to do it at the shed. The top layer may be merely re- arranged to give it an attractive appearance; or it may be faced uniformly, as detailed on page 178. Do not let pickers carry large strawberries in their hands or aprons to top off with, as this destroys the gloss. Each box of field-graded berries, or at least one box from each carrier, should be examined at the packing shed. Take the box in the left hand, place the right hand over the top and gently tip the box over far enough to see that the berries on the bottom and in the middle are as good as those on top ; then allow the berries to fall back into place gently with a reverse movement. Shed grading. When the fruit is to be shipped a long distance or when the pickers cannot be trusted to do the work well, shed grading and packing are necessary. In Florida, the fruit ripens very slowly during the winter months ; it is necessary to inspect each berry to be sure that it has not been gnawed by insects. Berries are graded to remove defective specimens and to secure uniformity in size and color. Berries of medium size sell well if uniform ; if a few large ones are mixed in, they detract from the appearance of the package. Ripe 176 Strawberry-Growing berries should be sorted out and sold in near markets; under-ripe berries are shipped, and the off-grade stock used for by-products. Usually, from five to ten per cent of the berries as they come from the field are culls. Following are the grades of the Ozark Fruit Growers' Association : " ' Fancy ' berries shall be superior in size and general appearance and in addition possess the following char- acteristics : 1. "The berries must be at least two-thirds or three- fourths colored. 2. " They must be sound, dry and of good form. 3. " The stem should be from one-half to three-fourths inch in length. " * No. 1 ' berries are those not up to the standard of Fancy, yet possessing the common characteristics re- quired for Fancy in rule 2 above ; also in rules 1 and 3, but perhaps in a less marked degree. "All berries not passing either of the above grades shall be rejected and will revert to the owner for disposal as he may direct." Shipping Associations in the Pacific Northwest allow nothing smaller than five by five berries to go into the Extra Fancy or Fancy grades. Some years ago, Florida and South Carolina growers used a grading machine consisting of an endless apron as wide as a quart box, revolving on wooden rollers. Machine grading now has been discarded. One of the simplest methods of hand grading is to spread a box of berries upon a sheet of manila paper about two feet square. It requires a knack to spread out the berries at one motion, so that they will not touch each other. The fancy berries are then picked out and put into one box, I Plate XVII. Packing and Shipping. — Top right, three tier Clarks, W. J. Davis, N. Yakima, Washington ; top left, method of strip- ping crates in ventilator cars ; bottom, Florida berries, fancy grade on right. No. 1 grade on left. Picking and Packing 177 and the second grade into another ; then the culls, leaves and dirt are put into the garbage box. Grading frames are now used almost exclusively. In the Pacific North- west, the more common type is a wooden frame three feet square, or three feet by four feet, two inches deep, with the bottom of netting or wire screening. The berries are spread thinly upon it and the two grades are picked out by hand. Florida growers prefer a frame one foot by four feet, with the bottom of wire netting covered with coarse burlap. In Missouri, a flat, shallow tin "culling scoop" is preferred. This tapers from ten inches in width at the handle to about 4^ inches at the other end and is twelve to fourteen inches long. It is provided with a receptacle for a strawberry box at the small end. Whatever the form of sorting receptacle used, the object is to expose all the berries so that the culls may be taken out without unnecessary handling of the salable stock. As they come from the field, the berries are likely to be more or less sandy if the plants were not mulched. Florida growers brush them gently with feathers after they are spread upon the sorting frame, and the sand sifts through the coarse burlap. Years ago berries were washed much more than at present. One of the best methods has been described by J. McHannon : "Make a number of boxes, each ten or twelve inches square, with sides and ends only ; for the bottom, use a piece of wire netting with a one-fourth inch mesh. Sink the boxes in a tub of clean water level to the top. Pour the berries into the water over the boxes, which should be raised and lowered two or three times. They need not remain in the water over a quarter of a minute. By pouring so that they fall in the water, they are not bruised at all." At present, berries are seldom washed. Washing takes 178 Strawberry-Growing much time, and injures the shipping qualities of the berries; mulching is cheaper and equally effective. PACKING Berries are packed by the sorter, but sometimes the facing is done by another person. The box is filled nearly full with uniform berries and is tapped or shaken several times to settle them. After it is about half full, the berries are placed stems down so that the top layer will be level for the facers. Fill the boxes solidly, especially at the corners, or they will settle and be short weight. Only the facing layer is aligned. Facing. The object of facing, or " plating," is not to put all the best berries on top, but to make the box present an attrac- tive appearance and to pack the berries so they will not be shaken in transit. Facing is essential if the berries are to be shipped a long distance ; it is desirable even when they are to be sold in a near market. Boxes are faced by packing the berries in the top layer tightly to- gether. Round-conic berries, like the Clark and Aroma, are faced point up; this makes an attractive plate pro- vided the tips do not remain green. Long berries, like the Haverland, are faced on the side, with all stems ly- ing in one direction. Never face with stems up, as the hulls hide the berries. Varieties that have attractive green hulls should be placed on the side, as these add to the appearance of the face. Do not press the berries; simply lay them in snugly. The facing layer should be not over three-eighths of an inch above the top of the box, since boxes properly packed do not settle much. Any Picking and Packing 179 berries that project beyond the side of the box will be crushed and the boxes stained. If the boxes are not faced, it is necessary to heap them slightly, so that they will be level when they reach market. Fill them so full that they will be gently pressed down when the cover of the crate is nailed on. Usually the facers are placed so that they will fit to- gether tightly without regard to alignment, but in some districts, especially in the Pacific Northwest, they are aligned each way, making four by four, five by five, or four by five tier boxes (Plate XVII) . This cannot be done unless the berries are quite uniform in size. Berries smaller than five tier should not be packed. If strawberry leaves are placed on the top boxes, do not let them project from the crate. One packer can sort and pack twelve to twenty twenty-four quart crates a day. Northwestern growers usually have one packer to three pickers. The price paid for packing at Plant City, Florida, is one cent a quart box ; at Vashon, Washington, ten cents a twenty- four quart crate ; at Hood River, Oregon, the person who faces but does not pack, is paid one-half cent a box. Each packer is furnished with a rubber stamp bearing his number, which is placed upon each crate he packs. Piece packing. The larger growers in the Ozark district pack by the piece system. The packing shed force is divided into cullers, packers, graders and shed inspector ; about two- thirds of the force cull and grade. The culler empties each box of berries as it comes from the field into the tin culling scoop, picks out the small, green, sandy, over- ripe and defective specimens, and puts those that remain back into the box from which they came. The packer 180 Strawberry-Grovdng then shakes the box to settle it, adds more berries to fill it out at the corners, makes the top layer solid, and places it in the crate. The grader then determines from the size, appearance and "run" whether the crate should be branded "Fancy" or "No. 1." Those who grow fancy berries for a personal market give extra touches. Each box may be wrapped in a sheet of thin parchment or paraffin paper. This keeps out dust, and the berries carry better and keep their bright color longer. The paper is drawn over the box tightly, so that the berries do not shake, and the fruit shows through, making a very attractive package for a special trade. When berries are sold in the general market, the top layer in the crate may be covered with a single sheet of paper. Cooling. The sooner berries are placed in a cool place after they are packed the better they will carry. The crates are placed in a cool part of the picking shed until a load is ready. If the interval between packing and shipping is long, a cooling room should be provided. A shed or side hill cellar may answer the purpose, especially if the walls are insulated. Place the crates on the floor, one layer deep, upon two by four inch scantling. Take the covers off or turn them cleats down, so that the air will circulate freely ; but keep off sun and wind, both of which discolor berries. After they have been exposed in this way through a cool night, the berries carry better than if they had been shipped the day before, while still warm from the vines. Irrigation water may be run on the floor of the cooling room. Various types of ice-cooled rooms are used to a slight extent. If possible, maintain a tem- perature of forty-five to fifty degrees in the cooling room. Picking and Packing 181 The covers to the crate should be fastened on securely, with twopenny nails. This should be done on a solid place, so that there will be little jar. Do not scrawl on the crate with a colored pencil; use a neat rubber stamp or stencil. The name of the grower, the variety and the grade should be stenciled upon each crate. Take the crates to the depot on spring wagons. Time devoted to making a smooth road bed between packing shed and depot is well spent. CHAPTER X MARKETING Most men find it more difiicult to sell strawberries to advantage than to grow them. The business instinct is not necessarily associated with the cultural instinct; in fact, the two faculties seldom are present to an equal degree in the same person. There have been marked changes in selling methods since the beginning of com- mercial strawberry-culture. Until about 1840, each grower was obliged to peddle his fruit from house to house. Now a large proportion of growers delegate the sale of their fruit to business men employed for this purpose. Before 1840, the radius of strawberry-culture from the market was limited by the distance that could be covered in a few hours with the market wagon. The remarkable expansion of railroads between 1850 and 1870 made it possible to grow strawberries at greater distance from market. At that time, strawberries were shipped almost wholly in express and ventilator cars, and 600 miles was considered the limit of safety. By this time the com- mission man had become a necessity. The first successful use of refrigerator cars, in 1887, provided a means of transportation that has made it possible for the grower and consumer to live still farther apart, and has made necessary other intermediaries between the two. There are two main types of markets ; the general or 182 Marketing 183 wholesale, and the personal or retail. In the former, the grower does not deal directly with the consumer. He sells or consigns to a wholesale dealer, who parcels out the fruit to various retail dealers or grocers ; these sell it to the consumer. Sometimes there are three or four salesmen between the grower and the consumer. This is the only type of marketing that is practicable in large commercial operations, especially when the fruit is grown at a considerable distance from the market. A grower has a personal market when he sells to the consumer or to a retailer. It is used only when the amount of fruit is comparatively small, and chiefly by growers who live close to towns and small cities. It is essential that the grower shall decide, before he enters the business, to which type of market he will cater. His choice of loca- tion, varieties and methods of culture will be determined largely by the market sought. THE PERSONAL OR RETAIL MARKET For the small grower, a personal market in a near town is preferable to a wholesale market in a distant city, be- cause he runs less risk. It is a mistake for the small grower to consign express shipments to middlemen in distant cities ; transportation charges and commissions eat up the profits. There are thousands of towns with a population of 500 to 5000 where the strawberry-eating habit is comparatively undeveloped. The average town of 500 to 1000 people will use fifteen to twenty-five twenty- four quart cases a day during the berry season. The man who grows berries for a town of 5000 will find that two acres, intensively cultivated, are enough for a begin- ning. This should provide 10,000 to 20,000 boxes and 184 Strawberry-Gromng keep two delivery wagons busy. It is a mistake to ship the best berries and try to sell the second grade and culls locally. Selling through retail dealers. The most satisfactory method, when not more than five acres are grown, is to arrange with a grocer or fruiterer to retail them. If the town is small, give one man ex- clusive sale; in larger towns, have three or four repre- sentatives. The wholesale dealer has a commission of six to ten per cent, but the retailer must have twenty per cent to make a profit. Put an advertisement in the local papers, directing consumers to the dealers who handle the berries. Elmer G. Tufts, of Indiana, tells of the methods that have been successful with him : ^ " Arrange with three or four retail grocery men or fruiterers to sell your berries. Watch the wholesale market and price the berries to them ten to twenty cents a crate higher. They should be paid a percentage of the retail price. Deliver the berries every morning, if possible, and establish the retail price for that day ; do not allow the retailer to sell for less without your consent. The same grade of berries should be sold at the same price at all the stores. If it becomes necessary to reduce the price during the day, telephone each retailer. When berries are scarce, divide them among the retailers fairly. If there is a glut, make the price low enough so they can sell the berries anyhow. Use the sectional trays which can be taken apart to dis- play the berries. In the bottom of every quart of the two better grades put a neatly printed card, giving your name and address and where the same kind of berries can be secured each day." 1 Kept. Ind. Hort. Soc, 1903, pp. 90-4. Marketing 185 The card is shown below: These berries are grown by A STRAWBERRY SPECIALIST You can secure a fresh supply every day by buying those grown by ELMER G. TUFTS Aurora Indiana. If part of the crop is sold to consumers at the farm, the price should be the same as that charged by the town dealers. Some growers provide the retailers with inex- pensive wire box carriers, each holding two boxes, so that the buyer can take them home easily. House-to-house selling. Special conditions are necessary for success in selling direct to consumers. Rarely is it practicable when more than two acres are grown. There are a number of ad- vantages. The grower secures the retailers' profit and saves part of the expense of baskets and crates. The berries reach the consumer quicker and in better condition. On the other hand, direct sales involve much additional labor; some other part of the work may be slighted, especially the packing, and there are sure to be some bad accounts. Some of the essentials to success in house-to-house sell- ing have been stated by R. M. Kellogg : " Have a beau- tifully painted wagon, a shiny black horse and heavy, brass-trimmed harness, kept polished like gold. Have a four-page circular printed in two colors describing what will be offered; hand this circular to every lady in the 186 Strawberry-Growing town. Put a conspicuous advertisement in the local papers. Then have some family tickets printed, so that each family will be able to keep its own account and will need to pay but once a week. Have different varieties to tempt different appetites. Cut prices when consump- tion lags. It is hard work, but it pays ; you may be able to get three or five cents more a quart than if you per- mitted local grocerymen to handle them." The motor truck has largely superseded the horse and wagon for this purpose. The grower who seeks a personal market should have neat business stationery, attractive labels, and adopt any other practicable advertising devices. The success of sales direct to consumers depends chiefly on the personality of the grower. He must not only grow good berries, but also be a good advertiser and busi- ness man. Comparatively few are fitted for this arduous undertaking. MEANS OF TRANSPORTATION TO THE WHOLESALE MARKET Strawberries are shipped to a wholesale market by express, ventilator cars, refrigerator cars and by boat. It is imperative that they reach the market before four A.M., so that they will be ready for the early morning trade. If the supply is heavy, prices may drop twenty- five cents a crate between five a.m. and seven a.m. ; by eight o'clock the market is practically over for the day, and berries arriving late may be sacrificed to peddlers. Express. When there is less than a carload, the crates are shipped by express. Express is used chiefly for small shipments early in the season, when the pickings are light and prices Marketing 187 high. Express is the most rapid means of transportation, but sometimes the rates are so high as to be almost pro- hibitive. The crates may be handled roughly, since they are loaded and unloaded hurriedly, while the train is wait- ing. No provision is made for spacing them in the car, so as to insure ventilation. Strawberries can be shipped by express without refrigeration when they will reach the market within twenty-four hours. If the weather is cool and dry, express shipments may be on the road forty- eight hours, but the risk is great. In warm weather, small quantities of berries are shipped by express in re- frigerator chests, particularly from Florida and Cali- fornia. It is safer to use refrigerators if the fruit is to be on the road more than twenty-four hours ; but strawberries have been shipped successfully in refrig- erator chests from Hood River, Oregon, to Hong Kong. The name of the grower should be stenciled on the upper left hand corner of the cover. The name and address of the consignee should be stenciled plainly on both ends of every crate. The crates should be stout and securely nailed ; the light gift crates frequently break in shipment. Ventilator cars. These are used for shipping car-lots of berries to points not over forty-eight hours distant; in hot weather, not over twenty-four hours. They have screen-covered vents which, if kept open, give a circulation of air inside the car. If the air circulates freely, the berries carry somewhat better than by express. The cars are filled four to six tiers high, according to the size of the crates. The berries in the top tier carry poorest, because these crates rock most. Even districts that are comparatively close to market, as the Delaware-Maryland peninsula, 188 Strawberry-Growing use refrigerator cars more than formerly. Many railroads run special strawberry trains of ventilator and refrigera- tor cars on passenger schedule and do not load them down with other traffic. In loading a car the crates should be braced, so that they will not shuffle, and so that there will be an air space around each crate. The method is described by F. S. Earle : ^ " Begin the load in either end by laying down a row of packages with their ends snug against the end of the car, but with three to six inch spaces between them. Two half-inch strips, as long as the car is wide, are laid down on the row of packages, one at the front and one at the back (Plate XVII). These are nailed down by a small nail driven into the ends or heads of the crates or boxes. Another layer of packages is placed on these strips, taking care to put each box directly over the one below it, so as to preserve the air spaces from bottom to top of car. Strips are nailed on these as before, and other layers of packages are added until the desired height is reached. Another tier is then started in the same way, taking care to jam the ends of the packages squarely against those of the front tier, so as to preserve the air spaces intact, not only from top to bottom, but also from end to end of the car. When the car is in motion a cur- rent of air comes in at the front end ventilators and passes through between the tiers of packages without interrup- tion, and escapes at the rear ventilators. Side ventila- tion is usually provided also ; but it is much less important than that from end to end. "When the middle of the car is reached it becomes necessary, unless the packages chance to closely fill the space, to brace the piles solidly to prevent their shifting » U. S. Dept. of Agr. Yearbook, 1900, pp. 442-3. Marketing 189 by the bumping of the ears in switching or in starting and stopping. This is done by placing pieces of six-inch fence boards upright against each tier of packages, on either side, and reaching from the floor to the top of the car. Stout cross-strips are nailed to these uprights a foot or so from the floor and from the top. Braces are sawed about an inch longer than the measured distance between these opposing sets of cross bars. The brace pieces are put in place and are driven forcibly home. This settles the load together very solidly. The braces are toe-nailed in place to prevent the possibility of their becoming loosened and dropping down. When thus loaded, nothing short of a collision can cause the load to shift ; yet no two packages are in contact except at the ends, each being surrounded by a rapidly moving current of air as long as the car is in motion." When twenty-four quart crates are used, a load is 510 to 600 crates, occasionally 630, other sizes in proportion. The smaller the load, the better it will carry. Recently some railroads have reduced the minimum load from 15,000 to 12,000 pounds. Refrigerator cars. More than half of the berries that are marketed are shipped in refrigerator cars. The time that strawberries can be held in them depends on the conditions under which the fruit was grown, the variety, how ripe the berries were when put into the car, the package used, and the care in loading and icing. Ordinarily, it is safe to hold them four or five days ; under very favorable condi- tions they can be shipped to markets six to ten days distant. Hood River Valley growers sometimes ship Clarks to Alaska and to New York and Boston. In 1914 190 Strawberry-Growing strawberries were shipped from the Tangipahoa district, Louisiana, to Alaska. The modern refrigerator car is thoroughly insulated. It has double walls, doors and roof, with the space be- tween filled with several thicknesses of building paper, or other non-conducting material. If the ice boxes are replenished frequently, the temperature should not vary more than four or five degrees between shipping point and destination. It is unimportant whether the ice boxes are at the ends or overhead. The car is iced from the outside, and the melted water is carried off without enter- ing the car, so that the berries are kept dry as well as cool. The temperature is held around forty-five degrees. About five tons of ice are required to ice a car. Refrigerator lines operating in a commercial strawberry district must provide adequate facilities for marketing the crop. The failure of the Armour Car Line to furnish refrigerator cars in 1905 for the strawberry-growers along the Atlantic coast lines cost the company over $100,000 in damage claims. Only sound, firm, under-ripe berries should go into a refrigerator car. Refrigeration does not improve berries ; if they are soft when they go in, they will be mouldy and "leaky" when they reach market. Refrigeration merely retards the processes of ripening and decay. A refrigera- tor car is loaded in the same way as a ventilator car. A continuous circulation of cold, dry air passes over the berries. Before shipping, examine the drip pans to be sure they are not so choked with dirt that the melting ice will flood the car. The car is iced twelve to fifteen hours before it is loaded. In hot weather, the ice bunkers may need refilling before the car is shipped, especially if the berries are not pre-cooled. Stations for re-icing should be so placed that the car will be examined Plate XVIII. — Above, shipping shed of a cooperative association near Los Angeles, California ; below, small schooner bringing strawberries to the Norfolk, Virginia, dock, to be shipped north by steamboat. Marketing 191 within twelve hours from the time it is shipped, and every twenty-four to thirty-six hours thereafter. Water transportation. This is confined mainly to shipping points on the South Atlantic coast, notably from the Chesapeake Bay dis- trict ; also from southern Michigan to Chicago and other lake points. A considerable quantity of berries is shipped locally on various rivers. Water transportation is some- what cheaper than rail and the berries carry better, be- cause there is less dirt, heat and jolting. The berries are kept at a temperature of about forty-five degrees, by cakes of ice placed behind slats around the sides of the hold. The Old Dominion Line from Norfolk frequently carries 5000 sixty-quart crates a day to northern cities. Most of these are brought to the steamboat in small schooners, from strawberry fields that border estuaries many miles distant (Plate XVIII). PRE-COOLING AND COLD STORAGE If a car is loaded with warm berries, the temperature may rise ten to twenty degrees, and it is a day or more before all the berries are cooled to a point where decay, is arrested. If possible, pick only in the cool of the morn- ing. Set the crates in a cooling room for an hour or two after they are packed. Berries may be brought to a uni- form low temperature before the car leaves the shipping point by pre-cooling. P re-cooling methods. There are two methods of pre-cooling ; to place the fruit in a cold room before loading, or to blow cold air 192 Strawberry-Growing through the loaded cars. The cooling room should be heavily insulated and a temperature somewhat below freezing maintained, usually about twenty-three degrees. The refrigerator car and the cooling room are connected with a canvas hood so that the fruit does not become warm when loading. A plant costing about $1500 will cool one or two cars daily. In the cold air blast method, large fans force air over ammonia or brine refrigerating coils ; then it is conducted into the car near the middle and distributed by means of deflectors and baffles. It is with- drawn from the car through the end hatches by an ex- haust and then passes over the cold coils again. To pre-cool a car In four or five hours, a temperature of eight to ten degrees must be maintained. It is difficult to cool the entire load uniformly. As soon as the berries in the middle of the packages reach a temperature of thirty-five or forty degrees, which is as low as they can be held in transit, the air blast is shut off and the hatches closed. Pre-cooling is desirable when straw- berries are to be shipped a long distance, but it has been used very little thus far, mainly because of the expense. The cooling-room method is practicable for large growers or small shipping associations; the chief disadvantage is that it necessitates an extra handling of the fruit. The equipment required for air-blast pre- cooling is so expensive that it is practicable only for the largest shipping associations and for transportation companies. Cold storage. When berries are shipped to reach the market on Saturday they should be in refrigerator cars so that if necessary they may be carried over Sunday in the car. Marketing 193 In the large markets strawberries are stored for one to three days only, to prevent loss during a glut, or to carry them over Sunday or a holiday. Perhaps the most com- mon use of storage is to hold berries that are to be canned. In 1902-3 the United States Department of Agriculture conducted experiments on the cold storage of straw- berries, and reported : " In view of the difficulties in- volved in storing and the long season during which fresh- picked supplies can be obtained from various sections of the country, it will continue to be restricted mainly to the preservation of the fruit for a brief period when other- wise it would be lost. Strawberries handled under good commercial conditions kept from one to two weeks in good condition so far as appearance was concerned, but the flavor usually began to deteriorate after three or four days. Some of the firm-fleshed varieties, like Gandy, kept even longer than two weeks. Strawberries which have been stored for several days usually begin to break down within ten to twelve hours after removal from storage. The fruit kept best if picked when mature and fully colored, but still firm." ^ THE STRAWBERRY SEASON Until 1840, the strawberry season in northern cities was barely six weeks, — June and strawberries came together. The first extension of the season came with the marketing of early berries from New Jersey. Soon after, Delaware and Maryland entered the field, and by 1860 Norfolk had begun to compete. After the Civil War, swift steamers gave Charleston, South Carolina, a 1 S. H. Fulton, Bui. 108, Bu. Plant Ind., U. S. D. A. (1907), pp. 7-23 ; also Rept. Md. Hort. Soc, 1904, pp. 98-102. o 194 Strawherry-Groioing chance to reach northern markets. By 1885 Thomas- ville, Georgia, and northern Florida were shipping steadily. In the Mississippi Valley, there was a similar extension of the industry southward to supply the Chicago market, beginning with Berrien County, Michigan, and southern Illinois, thence by degrees to Tennessee, Missouri, Arkan- sas, Louisiana and Texas. Influence of weather on the season. Normally, there is a fairly well defined succession in the ripening periods of the different districts, from South to North ; but this may be upset completely by the weather, as has been stated by a Florida grower : ^ " Sup- pose a frost comes sweeping down over the state, killing most of the bloom. Under favorable circumstances, we may look for ripe fruit about three weeks after the bloom opens. Suppose, after the frost, we have three or four weeks of warm weather. The result is that, instead of the fruit coming on at its natural time at each point, the state throws its whole crop on the market at one time, and there is a glut." J. S. Lapham, of Delaware, de- scribes the disastrous season of 1903 : ^ " Early berries, cut off in large proportion by the frosts, bloomed again. Helped on by rains, which at last came, they yielded heavily with the Gandy, our standard late berry. This semi-second crop, maturing out of its proper season, was dumped upon the dealers when there was not a thing they could do with it. The railroads, unprepared for this emergency, quickly exhausted their stock of refriger- ator cars and also made late deliveries. Ventilator cars filled with this fruit were dumped upon the market and 1 Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc, 1897, pp. 107-11. * Rept. Peninsula Hort. Soc, 1904, p. 61. Marketing 195 sold promptly, in some cases, for one cent a quart straight carloads." The procession of shipping districts in the market. In any large city, fresh strawberries can be bought any month of the year and are abundant about six months of the year. There are fewer strawberries on eastern markets in October and November than at any other time, but limited quantities come from California, and occasionally some from Mexico. A few berries from forced plants are sold to a very limited trade in Novem- ber and December. The first berries from the Plant City district, Florida, appear in northern cities early in December; by Christmas the supply is adequate for the holiday trade. If not too green, they sell for seventy-five cents to one dollar a quart. During January and February Florida shipments increase steadily, mainly from the northern part of the state, and the price falls to thirty-five to fifty cents a quart. Florida growers have possession of the market until about March first, when southern Texas and Louisiana begin to send Klondikes in twenty-four pint cases. These sell for $2.50 to $3 a case; immediately Florida berries drop to twenty-five cents a quart. By the middle of March, Louisiana berries are going forward in car-lots and sell for $L75 to $2,25 a twenty-four pint case. The first berries from southern Mississippi and Alabama are now on the market, at $3.50 to $4.50 a twenty-four quart case. By the last of March, Louisiana, Texas, central Mississippi and Alabama are shipping steadily, but Florida offerings are beginning to decline, as the berries are getting soft ; they sell for ten to fifteen cents a quart, wholesale, which hardly pays for picking them. North and South Carolina and Arkansas 196 Strawberry-Growing berries come in the first week in April, west Tennessee a few days later, Florida berries disappear from the market about the fifteenth of April. By the last week in April, Arkansas and North Carolina are shipping in re- frigerator cars ; Louisiana berries have begun to get soft and are not quoted. The second week in May usually closes the season for Alabama, central and southern Arkansas, Mississippi and the Carolinas; these districts still have berries to sell, but are forced to relinquish the market to the Ozark region, Kentucky, Tennessee and Virginia. The immense production of the Delaware- Marjdand peninsula is on the market from the middle of May until the middle of June. Northern growers have the market until the middle or last of July. Oswego County, New York, and Nova Scotia do not close their season until about the first of August ; while Steamboat Springs, Colorado, ships until September first. Southern California markets strawberries in limited quantity in eastern cities through October and November, and the everbearing varieties provide fruit in home gardens until Thanksgiving, meeting the first arrivals from Florida. Thus, we have, in fact, strawberries the year around. The strawberry rivals the apple, banana and orange, in the period that it can be obtained in the market in fresh condition. The demand for the strawberry out of what has been considered its normal season, — that is, at times other than early spring, — seems to be increasing somewhat, but it cannot be expected that there will be a heavy demand in late summer and fall, when so many other fruits are available, or in early winter, when prices are very high. The bulk of the sales will continue to be during the months of March, April, May and June, with small quantities at other seasons. Marketing 197 Normal shipping seasons of the different districts. The shipping seasons of the principal strawberry dis- tricts in the United States, as compiled by the OflSce of Markets, United States Department of Agriculture, are given below.^ The list includes only those districts that ship in car-lots ; the output of the great body of com- mercial planting in Pennsylvania, New York, Massa- chusetts and other northern states is handled in near-by markets in less than car-lot quantities, and is not included : Alabama, Castleberry district, April 15 to June 1. " York district, April 15 to June 1. " Cullman district, April 15 to June 1. " Thorsby district, April 20 to June 1. Arkansas, Southwest district, April 25 to June 1. " Judsonia district, April 25 to June 5. " Ozark district, May 1 to June 5. California, Los Angeles district, March 1 to December 1. " Sacramento district, March 25 to August 15. " Placer County district, April 1 to June 1. " Fresno district, April 1 to August 15. " Santa Clara and Santa Cruz districts, April 1 to December 1. " Siskiyou district. May 20 to July 15. Colorado, May 20 to September 1. Connecticut, June 15 to July 1. Delaware, May 15 to June 20. Florida, Plant City district, December 1 to April 1. " Stark district, February 10 to May 15. Illinois, May 15 to June 20. Indiana, May 25 to June 25. Iowa, June 1 to June 20. Kansas, May 20 to June 20. Kentucky, May 10 to June 10. Louisiana, March 15 to May 20. Maryland, May 15 to June 30. Michigan, June 1 to July 18. Minnesota, June 20 to July 10. » Bui. 237 (1915), "Strawberry Supply and Distribution in 1914," by W. A. Sherman, et al. 198 Strawberry-Groicing Mississippi, Gulf district, March 20 to May 15. *' Osyka district, April 1 to May 15. " Sanford district, April 10 to May 15. " Lauderdale district, April 15 to June 1. Durant district, April 20 to May 20. Missouri, Ozark district, May 15 to June 20. New Jersey, May 25 to June 25. New York, June 1 to July 1. North Carolina, April 15 to June 1. Ohio, June 1 to June 25. Oklahoma, May 10 to June 10. Oregon, May 25 to July 15. South Carolina, April 12 to May 25. Tennessee, Chattanooga district, May 1 to June 5. " Dyer-Sharon-Humbolt district. May 1 to June 5. Texas, Alvin district, March 1 to May 15. " Artesian Belt district, March 1 to May 15. " Tyler district, April 1 to May 10. Utah, June 5 to July 1. Virginia, Norfolk district. May 1 to June 1. " Albemarle district. May 1 to June 5. " Eastern Shore district, May 5 to June 5. Washington, May 20 to July 15. Wisconsin, June 5 to July 15. METHODS OF SELLING IN THE WHOLESALE MAKKET The strawberry is quickly perishable, and the straw- berry market is notoriously mercurial. To distribute and sell a large quantity of strawberries at advantageous prices requires business judgment of a high order. In general, there are two methods of selling strawberries in the wholesale market, — by consignment to commission men and by sales f .o.b. loading station or destination. Consignment. Until quite recently, nearly all the sales were by con- signment. The chief advantage is that the grower re- ceives, or should receive, the full benefit of the market Marketing 199 on the day his berries arrive, whether prices are high or low. The commission man reUeves the grower of all re- sponsibility and anxiety about the sale of the berries, except the anxiety as to net returns. The grower as- sumes all the risk, the commission man none. The grower takes the chance of loss or damage in transit, the chance of glutted markets, the chance of dishonest com- mission men. He has no check on the middleman what- ever ; if dishonest, it is easy for him to pocket part of the proceeds, and telegraph "Berries arrived in bad condi- tion." On the other hand, shippers sometimes fail to realize that berries which left them in good condition may be in bad condition when they reach the market, because they were not packed or handled properly. There are honest and dishonest commission men about in the pro- portion that there are honest and dishonest growers ; the inexperienced grower should not consign berries to a middleman in a distant city without first looking up his business standing and bank references. Ship to one firm in a market, year after year. It takes time to work up a trade for a special brand of berries and a reputation for an honest pack. The shipper loses the benefit of it if he changes his selling agent frequently. It is a mis- take to divide shipments among several commission men in the same market in order to see which firm will make the highest returns. This gives no information that is reliable and destroys the confidence that should exist between the shipper and his selling agent. Insist that the commission man shall make an itemized state- ment of sales by varieties. The usual commission on small lots is ten per cent; on large lots six to eight per cent. This is a reasonable charge for the service rendered. 200 Strawherry-Growing Sales f.o.b. shipping point. Recently there has been a decided increase in sales f.o.b. shipping point, especially in the Delaware-Mary- land peninsula, the Ozark district and throughout the South. When he consigns, the grower pays all the bills, whether he gets a fair price for the berries or not. The railroad does not take cognizance of a low selling price, neither does the commission man, the box fac- tory, the fertilizer dealer or the pickers. The plan of sell- ing f.o.b. shipping point relieves the grower of the risks of transportation and marketing. He seldom receives as high returns from track sales as he gets occasionally on consignment, but the average is better and much of the worry of the business is eliminated. This method is practicable only at large shipping points which attract buyers. The buyer may deal with the individual grower, and purchase wagon loads of berries as they arrive at the shipping point. A cooperative asso- ciation may sell the berries of its members at public auction ; this is a better way to secure their full market value. If the bids are satisfactory, the grower returns home with the money in his pocket ; if not, he may con- sign them through the association. Shipping associa- tions that have established a reputation for their pack sell most of their output in car-lots f.o.b. shipping point, on quotations to dealers in distant markets. The chief disadvantage of f.o.b. sales is the possibility that the several buyers at one shipping point may reach an under- standing with each other not to pay over a certain price, regardless of the quality of the berries offered or the con- dition of the respective markets which the buyers repre- sent. Alert growers will recognize when such an agree- ment in restraint of trade has been entered into, and Marketing 201 should cooperate in refusing to accept unfair prices. The advantages of f .o.b. sales far outweigh the disadvantages. Sales f.o.b. destination, with privilege of inspection, are seldom practicable with strawberries; the fruit is so perishable that if the car is rejected there is little oppor- tunity for the shipper to handle it to advantage. COOPERATIVE MARKETING Cooperation is more widely practiced and has been more successful in marketing strawberries than any other fruit except the orange. Most of the shipping associa- tions are in the South and West ; north of the Delaware- Maryland peninsula, there is little cooperative effort and less necessity for it, since most of the fruit goes to near or personal markets. Most of the early attempts at co- operation, between 1870 and 1885, failed because there was little or no effort to secure a uniform pack. Coopera- tive effort is not likely to succeed as long as most of the growers in a community are receiving profitable returns from sales made individually. Cooperation is born of dissatisfaction with existing conditions, and usually of dire necessity. Types of selling associations. There are two types of selling associations. In one, the fruit of each member is kept separate from that of all others, although several lots may be shipped in the same car ; his returns depend on the quality of his fruit and pack. In the other, all the berries of the same variety and grade grown by different members are pooled and . sold under the brand of the association, and the returns are pro-rated to the grower according to the number of 202 Strawberry-Growing packages he contributed to that grade. The first type undertakes merely to get the fruit to market, not to set a price on it and sell it. This plan originated at Centralia, Illinois, about 1887, and has been used extensively in the South. The advantages of a forwarding association, and the methods used, have been stated by F. S. Earle:^ "The smaller growers at large shipping centers find it difficult to load in car-lots and thus secure low freight rates and prompt service. To obviate this difficulty a form of shipping association was early devised by which all or a number of shippers at any given point combine in loading cars. A loading and an unloading agent are appointed. The former receives the berries as they come from the farms, sees that they are properly loaded, makes out a manifest for each car showing the number of packages from each shipper to each consignee, and bills the car to the unloading agent. The entire load thus goes as a single shipment to one consignee, although it may con- tain berries from a hundred shippers, marked to one- fourth as many commission merchants in the same city. On the arrival of the car the unloading agent pays the freight and promptly unloads them, delivering the goods to the various commission houses, from whom he collects pro-rata for the freight and the loading and unloading charges. The same unloading agent usually acts for a number of shipping associations, so that his charges are \ reduced to the minimum." The Southern Produce Com- pany, of Norfolk, Virginia, illustrates a slightly different type of forwarding association. This company attends to the loading, icing and routing of the berries, but the grower directs to whom they shall be consigned. The » Yearbook, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1900, p. 449. Marketing 203 commission man takes six per cent of the sales and returns the balance to the grower, who then pays the Southern Produce Company for its services. Forwarding associa- tions are being gradually superseded by pooling associa- tions. Pooling associations are examples of real cooperation, in that all the berries are sold under the association brand, and the members divide the proceeds, share and share alike, in proportion to the amount of fruit they have con- tributed to each pool. A pool consists of berries of one variety and one grade ; all "fancy" Klondikes are in one pool and all "No. 1" Klondikes in another. The pool may be daily, weekly or seasonal, usually the latter. One or more executive oflficers are employed to supervise packing and loading and to sell the berries. The grower relinquishes his right to direct the disposition of his fruit when he leaves it at the shipping shed. Essentials to success in cooperative marketing. Shipping associations are not likely to succeed except under the following conditions : (1) The grading and packing must be under the supervi- sion of the association, not left to the individual members. (2) The members must be obligated to ship all their berries, except such as are needed for home use, through the association. (3) There must be a large quantity of berries of similar variety and grade. (4) The association must be democratic; each mem- ber should have but one vote, regardless of the amount of stock that he owns. Unless these conditions are provided, the grade of fruit may be lowered if it is pooled. The grower realizes that the identity of his 204 Strawberry-Groioing fruit is lost in the pool, and may be tempted to cut down the cultural operations to the lowest possible point that will enable him barely to get his berries into the pool. The most difficult feature is to secure a uniform pack. When the growers live close together, and the quantity of berries shipped is not large, it may be possible to use one or more central packing houses. This method is more expensive than packing on the farm, and good roads are essential. In most cases it is necessary to pack on the farm. The association may train a body of packers and send them to the different members; or it may supply each member with printed picking and packing rules. In either case, the brand of the association is stamped upon the crate only after it has been inspected at the car door. Rejected berries are turned back to the grower for such disposition as he may wish ; some associations con- sign them. The wholesale market wants straight car- lots of a single variety and grade. The most successful associations ship one variety almost exclusively, as the Klondike in Louisiana, the Aroma in Missouri and the Clark in Oregon. This means that the organization should be local, composed of neighbors with similar con- ditions of soil and climate and the same varieties. The more compact it is, the easier it will be to secure uni- formity in pack and unanimity concerning the conduct of the association. Sales methods in an association. The utmost importance is attached to the choice of a business manager. Secure an experienced business man from elsewhere, preferably one who has been identified with the wholesale produce trade. If he is to serve the Marketing 205 members efficiently he will need their staunch support at all times. The association sells to the wholesale trade in car-lots, rarely to retail dealers. The cars are sold f.o.b. shipping point, f.o.b. destination with privilege of inspection, by consignment to a commission house, or by consignment to an agent of the association in a distant market, to be sold by him on arrival. The more closely the sales approach an f.o.b. shipping point basis, the better. This is especially true of the small association, which cannot afford to take the heavy risk in marketing by consignment, unless it has such a small quantity of berries that f.o.b. buyers are not attracted. The charge made by a shipping association for inspecting, loading and selling may be a flat price of five to ten cents a twenty- four quart crate or a percentage of the selling price, usually two or three per cent. The value of a cooperative asso- ciation to the growers is not confined to selling the fruit. It buys fertilizer and packing material in car-lots at a considerable saving. It keeps the members posted on the best cultural practice, and acts as security for those who need cash to pay for packages or picking. It stimu- lates enterprise on matters of community interest, other than the berry business. Federation of local shipping associations. Local associations in different parts of the same district may find it advantageous to federate, in order to secure a better distribution of the crop and to prevent competi- tion among themselves. This is illustrated by the experi- ence of the Ozark district, from which about 1000 cars are marketed in a season of less than a month. At one time each of the 100 associations shipped independently, without knowing to what markets the other associations 206 Strawberry-Growing were shipping on the same day.^ The result was a very unequal distribution of the crop and very poor returns some years. Returns as low as twenty cents for a twenty- four quart crate were not uncommon. It became evi- dent that if the Ozark berry business were to survive there must be a central organization to distribute the fruit. In 1905 the Ozark Fruit Growers' Association was formed for that purpose. How effectively this has been accomplished is shown by the net returns. In 1904, the average returns of twelve local associations was ninety cents a crate. In 1905, the first year of the federation, the average returns were $1.10; in 1906, $1.32; in 1907, $2.13; in 1908, $1.80; in 1909, $1.93; in 1910, $2.31. Each local association has a manager or secretary, and an inspector who passes upon the grade and pack, fol- lowing rules prescribed by the local association. A chief inspector, who is paid by the general organization, visits the local associations frequently to acquaint the inspec- tors with the grade and methods of packing found desir- able. The output of all the local associations is distrib- uted by the general manager of the Ozark Fruit Growers' Association, but the pack of each local association is sold separately, as a unit, on its merits. This is necessary in order to preserve the advantages which location, soil, cultural skill and care in packing give to a group of fruit- growers. The market representatives advise the secre- tary or manager of each local association by letter of the condition on arrival of each car shipped by that associa- tion. Expenses are met by a commission of two per cent on sales. 1 The Office of Markets, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, now makes daily reports during the shipping season of the car-lot naovement to different cities. Marketing 207 BY-PRODUCTS A large and increasing proportion of the strawberry crop is marketed as by-products. In the past, these have been made wholly from berries that could not be sold while fresh at a profit. The market glut was the harvest time of the by-product factory. Now, many acres of strawberries are grown solely for by-products. Factories are located at most of the larger shipping points ; when the market price of fresh fruit falls below a certain figure the berries are sent to the factory. Many more factories are needed to prevent the enormous waste of strawberries, especially in the South. In Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, the Carolinas and Virginia, some seasons from fifteen to twenty-five per cent of the crop is not harvested, because the district has been crowded out of the market by points farther north. Canning. The principal by-products are canned berries, preserves, jams, sirups, jellies, crushed fruit and unfermented juice. There are more canned berries than any other by-product. The canning industry is especially prominent in Mary- land, Ontario and on the North Pacific coast. Occa- sionally canners contract with growers for all the crop, but more frequently they buy most of their stock in the wholesale market during a glut, frequently for two cents or less a quart by the carload. Such berries usually are overripe and are much better for making into sirup or unfermented juice than for canning. Berries for canning should be very firm, tart, of high color, deep red clear to the center, and hold their shape and color well after cooking. 208 Strawberry-Growing The price paid at the cannery ranges from two to six cents a quart, crates and baskets returned. "As from 9000 to 15,000 plants are grown per acre," says E. Hofer, of Oregon, " and a yield of one quart to the plant is easily maintained, it is possible to figure out from $150 to $300 an acre for strawberries at the cannery." In order to maintain a fair price for fresh berries the members of the cooperative association at Tropico, California, are re- quired to put their berries into the cannery when the price falls below three cents a pint basket. The more hulls pulled off in picking the better, since they have to be removed anyhow ; hence picking does not cost over one cent a quart. It costs one to two cents a quart to hull them at the factory. Preserves, sirups and other by-products. A few years ago the chief product of jam factories was "compound jam," the art in making which was to use as little fruit as possible. Much of the " pure strawberry jam" made by thrifty manufacturers contained no straw- berries at all, but was made out of apple jelly, glucose, aniline dyes and clover seed. The " strawberry flavoring " of that period, used at soda fountains, contained little or no fruit ; it was a chemical preparation. Recent national and state pure food laws have greatly increased the use of real strawberries for these purposes. Aside from the canned article, the largest demand is for crushed or preserved fruit and sirup, to be used at soda foun- tains. Most manufacturers prefer to put up fruit for this purpose at the point of production, rather than at the factory. They, buy toward the close of the shipping season, when prices are low, beginning in Florida and working northward with the season. The method of Marketing 209 handling berries for this purpose is described by H. C. Thompson : ^ "Wash the capped berries thoroughly in cold water, put them into tight barrels with sugar in about equal weight, load them into refrigerator cars and ship to a cold storage plant where they can be held until needed. Some- times the berries are crushed before being put into barrels, but in most cases they are packed as nearly whole as possible." A washing machine is used to remove the sand. The berries can be held for a year or more in good condition, if a temperature of twenty-eight to thirty- two degrees is maintained. Barrels of strawberries pre- served in this way are shipped from British Columbia to England, where they are made into jam and jelly. A good vinegar can be made from strawberry juice, but it costs more than apple vinegar. There is a field for the manufacture of unfermented strawberry juice, pre- pared like grape juice. A process for drying strawberries in the sun has been reported. By-products increase con- sumption and make the business more stable. 1 Farmers' Bulletin 664 (1915), U. S. Dept. of Agr., p. 20. CHAPTER XI COST OF PRODUCTION, YIELDS, PROFITS Before undertaking any agricultural enterprise, it is well to consider the probable outcome. To do this ac- curately, one should know the average cost of each opera- tion in it and the average price received for the product over a series of years. It makes little difference whether the cost of production is high or low if the selling price is commensurate ; the aim should be to grow the grade of berries that the market desires, at the lowest possible cost. FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE COST OF PRODUCTION The cost of production is determined chiefly by the cul- tural skill, diligence and business acumen of the grower. Other factors are the type of farming and the acreage. In most strawberry districts, the crop occupies the land but a short time and rotation with other crops is desirable ; this makes diversified farming necessary. The other crops provide employment for men and tools when the strawberries do not demand attention and, to this extent, reduce the cost of production. The strawberry is most commonly associated with crops that require intensive culture, mainly vegetables and other fruits. Between 1870 and 1890 many general farmers were attracted to strawberry-growing, owing to the low prices of staple farm crops. Since 1890, the straw- berry business has been mostly in the hands of horticul- 210 Cost of Production, Yields, Profits 211 turists, those who grow fruit and truck exclusively or chiefly. Acreage. Some growers have the capacity to handle a hundred acres ; others would fail with five acres. The strawberry responds profitably to intensive culture until the law of diminishing returns begins to operate. Intensive culture is more practicable under some conditions, extensive culture under others ; but if most growers would reduce their acreage and cultivate it more intensively the yield to the acre would be larger, and the cost of production reduced. The desire for a large acreage has possessed growers from the very beginning of commercial culture. In 1880, J. R. Young, Jr., of Norfolk, Virginia, had 250 acres. Between 1885 and 1895, the rage for large fields reached its height. One man in the Ozark district had 350 acres and fields of 150 to 200 acres were not uncommon. Now the individual acreage is nearer ten than fifty, and 100-acre fields are uncommon. It is better for most growers to have but ten acres of a fifty-acre farm in straw- berries, and the remainder in other crops than to have fifty acres of strawberries and be obliged to buy all the hay and grain. The profits do not increase in proportion to the acreage, as some have supposed. Beyond a certain point, the cost of each cultural operation is greater, the difficulties of securing efficient labor are more pronounced, the problem of marketing is more involved and the yield to the acre is smaller. It is not wise to double the acreage after a year of good prices ; many other growers may do likewise. The small grower, who does a large part of the work himself and superintends all of it, will make the most profit to the 212 Strawberry-Ofowing acre, but his total profit may not equal that of the grower with a larger acreage, who gets lower returns to the acre. Each man should find the mean between intensive and extensive culture that will be most profitable under his conditions. The cost of production is influenced by the probability of having a good crop each year. The strawberry is the surest in crop production of all fruits. Very rarely is there a complete failure from drought, frost or other untoward circumstance, although the yield may be reduced materially. Many districts have had no complete failure for over forty years. This makes the strawberry business a relatively safe investment, provided a satisfac- tory market is available. It is of special interest to the man with small capital, as it requires but little initial out- lay and an income is derived in six to fourteen months, ac- cording to the location. Other factors that enter into the cost of production, such as the value of land, cost of labor and distance from market, need not be considered here. The outlook for strawberry-growing is encouraging for the right sort of men. The market demand is increas- ing fully as rapidly as the acreage. Those who are worried about over-production should consider these facts : In 1790 there were 96 men employed in raising food stuffs on the farm to 4 in the city who must have food, but can not raise it. In 1860 there were 84 on the farm to 16 in the city. In 1880 there were 44 on the farm to 56 in the city. In 1900 there were 35 on the farm to 65 in the city. In 1910 there were 30 on the farm to 70 in the city. This does not point to over-production, but rather to an increase in the number of those who are dependent on the farmer and fruit-grower for food. Cost of Prodtiction, Yields, Profits 213 ESTIMATES OF COST OF PRODUCTION, YIELDS AND PRICES IN DIFFERENT DISTRICTS Census statistics show that the average yield in the United States 9.nd Canada is about 1700 quarts an acre. The yield to the acre for the census year of 1909, in a num- ber of the more important producing states and provinces, is given below : QUABTS Arkansas 1122 Missouri British Columbia . . 1700 New Jersey California 3423 New York Delaware 1771 North Carolina Florida 1774 Ontario IlUnois 1484 Oregon . . Louisiana 1794 Tennessee . Maryland ..... 1652 Virginia Massachusetts . . . 2730 Washington Michigan 1766 Qttaets 1676 2046 2499 1903 1700 1809 1147 1624 2340 The high yield to the acre in California is due partly to the fact that the plants bear almost continuously for six to eight months ; that of Massachusetts and New York to the larger acreage under market-garden culture. The average yield in Arkansas and Tennessee is no higher now than the average yield in 1845, soon after the begin- ning of the commercial culture of this fruit. Census statistics are misleading in that they deal in averages ; reports which show what individual cultivators have accomplished are of more interest to the prospective grower. Few growers realize the advantage of accurate cost-accounting in their business. Practically all of the statements that follow are estimates, not records; but they furnish a fairly reliable index to the present economic status of the industry in the diflFerent districts. All are on the basis of one acre. 214 Strawberry-Growing Canada and northern United States. In 1910 Robert Thompson, of Ontario, made the fol- lowing estimate : Rent of one acre $10.00 Taxes 3.00 Management 50.00 Plowing 2.00 Harrowing 2.00 Seven thousand plants at $3 per thousand 21.00 Planting 5.00 Fertilizers 17.00 Hoeing and cultivating eight times . . 41.00 Winter covering 25.00 Delivery 12.00 Profits above allowance for management 28.00 $216.00 Three hundred crates (7200 boxes) at 3 cents on the plants $216.00 In the Kootenay district, British Columbia, it is con- sidered that the cost of planting and caring for one acre until picking time is from S125 to $185. The total cost of producing a twenty-four pound crate is about $1.20, based on an av'erage yield of 250 crates to the acre. L. J. Farmer, of Oswego County, New York, gives an estimate for rather intensive culture in that section : Plowing and harrowing, ready to set . $10.00 Plants 25.00 Setting 5.00 Hoeing six times 50.00 Cultivating 25 times 25.00 Mulching for winter 25.00 Removing mulch and spring weeding . 15.00 Total cost to picking time .... $155.00 Picking 5000 quarts 100.00 Total cost $255.00 5000 quarts at 7 ff net 350.00 Net profit $95.00 Cost of Production, Yields, Profits 215 In 1893 and 1894 the New Jersey Experiment Station made a statistical survey of the strawberry industry of that state ; 529 growers reported in 1893, and 934 in 1894. The range of yield was from 250 quarts to 10,752 quarts an acre; the average yield for the two years was 2700 quarts. "The average value for 1893, after deducting cost of cultivation, manuring and mulching, was $176.82, or 6.4 ^ per quart, based on the average yield reported for that year (2765 quarts). The average re- turns for 1894 were $144.19 an acre, or 5.5 ^ per quart. These figures are fairly indicative, we believe, of the cash side of the strawberry crop." In 1904, E. H. Rudderow, Moorestown, New Jersey, showed that it cost him 4^ cents to produce a quart of strawberries.^ The average net price to the growers of New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia and North Carolina now is about seven cents a quart. The business is conducted at a loss if the price falls below five cents a quart. In 1907 Charles B. Welch of Michigan made the fol- lowing estimate : Rent of land $ 7.00 Taxes 1.80 Plowing 2.00 Harrowing 1.00 Marking out .15 Setting, four days 6.00 Plants and digging 1.50 Cultivating 7 times 3.00 Hoeing, cutting runners and blossoms . 8.00 500 pounds fertilizer 6.00 Sowing one bushel oats and cultivating in 1.20 200 16-quart crates, at 12)4 24.00 Picking 40.00 Packing and hauling 10.00 $111.65 ' Rept. N. J. Hort. Soc, 1904, p. 51. 216 Strawberry-Growing He adds, "This makes 200 crates of berries cost me 55.8 cents per crate, or $1.11 per bushel. Freight and cartage cost 20 cents per crate. If the berries sell for $2.44 a bushel, the commission is 24^ cents and the total cost of putting a bushel of berries on the market is $1.56. This gives a profit of 88 cents a bushel, or $88 an acre." Southern states. The cost of bringing an acre into bearing on new ground is estimated by W. H. List, of Tennessee, as follows : Clearing ready for plow $10.00 Plowing 2.50 Harrowing and laying off 1.50 200 pounds fertilizer 2.50 Setting plants 1.25 6000 plants at $1.40 8.40 Five plowings 4.00 Four hoeings 12.00 Cutting off bloom .25 Final fall cleaning up 2.00 $45.50 He says, " A yield of 100 crates, of 24 quarts each, is a fair average." Census statistics indicate that the average is about sixty crates to the acre. Tennessee and Kentucky growers estimate that it costs from $1.45 to $1.65 to pro- duce a twenty-four quart crate of berries. In the Ozark district of Missouri and Arkansas the cost of bringing an acre into bearing is about $50.00, as shown by the estimate of J. F. McNallie of Missouri : ^ Rent of one acre $ 5.00 Plowing and preparing ground .... 2.50 5000 plants 15.00 Setting plants 5.00 Cultivating 15 times 7.50 Hoeing 3 or 4 times 10.00 Mulch and spreading same 5.00 $50.00 1 Bui. 3, Mo. State Bd. of Hort. (1908), p. 11. Cost of Production, Yields, Profits 217 There is no charge for f ertiUzer in this estimate, since most of the strawberry-planting in the Ozark district is on new ground. The average return to the crate in the Ozark district now is $1.50 to $1.75. It is considered not profitable to ship if the price falls to $1.00 or below ; then the berries are sent to the cannery. A yield of 175 to 225 crates an acre is considered good, 150 crates fair, 75 to 100 crates poor. Yields of 300 to 400 crates are not uncommon. One of the best records of cost-accounting with straw- berries was reported by C. McNallie, of Missouri, in 1913:1 Report for First Crop Cost of Growing Plants Number of acres reported on .... 20 Cost of plowing ground two times ; one in Sept., 1910, and again in Feb., 1911 $ 50.00 Cost of harrowing and dragging . . 16.02 40,000 plants ; then used 35,000 to reset 350.00 Marking off land and planting . . 76.43 Resetting (labor) 19.16 Cost of hoeing four times .... 260.12 Cost of cultivating (part of bed 19 times ; part 20 times, and part 21 times) . 136.50 Running weeder over 2 times; rolling 6 times 22.50 Cost of mulching material .... 54.87 Cost of applying mulch 63.43 Rent 80.00 Picking blossoms 8.75 Hauling rock 4.20 Sharpening tools 4.00 Cultivators, hoes, weeder, etc., assuming three years' use 27.00 Total $1172.98 1 Bui. 113, Mo. Exp. Sta. (1913), pp. 298-9. 218 Strawberry-Qrowing Cost of Marketing Berries — Spring of 1912 Total number of acres reported on . 20 Cost of picking per crate $.42 Cost of crates each .15 Cost of shed hands, row boss and haul- ing, per crate .11 Sheds, trays, etc., per crate .... .04 Commission or other association charges deducted from price received per crate .10 Total marketing cost .... $1033.20 Returns from One-year-old Bed Total number of acres reported on Total value of berries sold, 1260 orates @ $1.26 per crate, net Total income per acre . . . $79.38 Total picking and marketing ex- penses per acre Total growing expenses per acre . Net loss per acre $30.98 Spring of 1912 20 $1587.60 $51.66 58.70 Repokt for Second Crop Cost of Care of Bed for Second Season Total number of acres reported . . 20 Cost of removing mulch and weeds (mulch disked down) S -5.00 Cost of team work at time of renewing 47.00 Cost of hoeing at renewing — None Cost of cultivating 6 times after renewing 30.00 Cost of hoeing after renewing, and num- ber of hoeings — None Cost of mowing three times .... 17.50 Cost of mulching, if different from cost of previous years — None Use of tools, etc 10.00 Rent 80.00 Total $189.50 Cost of Production, Yields, Profits 219 Cost of Marketing Berries Number of acres reported .... 20 Cost of picking per crate Cost of crates each Cost of shed hands, row boss ; hauling, per crate Cost of shed, trays, etc., per crate Commission or other association charges deducted from price received per crate Total $.48 .15 .11 .03 .15 $1232.80 Returns Second Year Number of acres reported .... 20 Total value of berries sold, 1340 crates at $1.88 Total income per acre Total picking and marketing cost per acre Total cultural cost per acre .... Net profit per acre $54.84 $2519.20 125.96 $61.64 9.48 $71.12 Florida and the Gulf states. A few Florida strawberry-growers made large profits between 1880 and 1892. A net profit of $3000 an acre was reported from Bradford County in 1885.^ At that time the first shipments frequently brought fabulous prices, as has been described by Stephen Powers.^ "To take an acre of raw pine woods, clear, stump, break, ditch and plant it, will cost $125 to $140. The mulching and cultivation will bring expenses up to $175 to $200 per acre before a berry is picked. In addition, the best growers apply If or 2 tons of commercial fertilizer per acre, 1 "Manual on Strawberry Fruit Culture," by O. W. Blacknall (1900), p. 90. 2 Amer. Card., XI (1890), p. 328. 220 Strawberry-Growing costing $60 or $70. A hundred bushels per acre up to the end of the picking season is a fairly good yield. The best growers get from $350 to $700 an acre, clear of all expenses. I once had a few quarts in a bushel contributed by different growers which was sold in Boston and netted $52.80." After the "big freeze" of 1894 and 1895, strawberries were planted in southern Florida ; this competition soon reduced prices very materially. At present, a yield of 100 bushels of Klondike to the acre is considered good, but exceptional yields up to 6000 quarts are reported. The average price is eighteen to twenty-five cents a quart ; the first shipments bring seventy-five cents to $1.25 a quart, for r few days. A grower at Plant City, Florida, makes the following estimate of expenses : ^ Interest on investment in land . . . $20.00 Interest on investment in equipment . 10.00 Depreciation in value of livestock and equipment - 20.00 Cost of preparation of land 10.00 Cost of fertilizer 40.00 Plants 40.00 Setting plants 5.00 Cultivation 10.00 Picking 3000 quarts at 2|>f 75.00 Grading and packing at 1 ^ 30.00 One hundred crates at 15fi 15.00 3000 boxes 11.00 Hauling to station 10.00 $296.00 The average yield in Louisiana and Mississippi is 150 to 250 twenty-four quart crates an acre. Normal returns are $1.25 to $1.40 a crate. ' Estimate furnished by H. C. Thompson, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agr. Cost of Production, Yields, Profits 221 The cost of production in the lower Rio Grande district, Texas, has been estimated by the Office of Farm Manage- ment, United States Department of Agriculture : ^ Breaking, harrowing, leveling . . Ridging and preparing beds . . . Working on borders and ditches . . Setting 10,000 plants 12 irrigations 15 cultivations Hand work with hoe Spraying Weed pulling Planting pop corn for summer shade 561 Man Days Horse Days u 5i 2 4 2 8 6 15 15 12 6 10 1 1 25i Of the cash expenses the following is an average sum- mary of the data available : Picking, 2000 quarts (estimated yield per acre) at 3fi $60.00 10,000 plants per acre at $3.50 35.00 2000 boxes 12.00 Cost of irrigation water 10.00 Interest on land, 6% of $150 per acre 9.00 Value of man labor 56§ days at 75 ^ 42.37 Value of mule labor 25i days at $1.00 25.17 $193.54 When the bed is carried for two or three years the cost of production is reduced to about $100. Pacific states. According to B. O. Longyear, yields in the Canon City district, Colorado, range from 300 to 800 twenty-four quart 1 Cir. 1, Tex. Exp. Sta. 222 Strawberry-Growing crates an acre, the latter being from small tracts. Col- orado growers estimate that the cost of production is about $1.15 for a twenty-four quart crate. Net returns of $250 an acre frequently are reported. In the Yakima Valley, Washington, a yield of 250 twenty-four quart crates is considered satisfactory for the first three years of the plantation, but 400 crates are expected the fourth year ; after that the yield declines. Yields of 600 crates an acre are not uncommon. The net prices are from $1.50 to $1.70 a crate ; there is no profit when it is less than $1.00. On Vashon Island, in western Washington, P. J. McCormick has picked 2458 quarts of Magoon from 1000 hill plants, which is at the rate of 800 crates, or 19,200 quarts, an acre. The average yield, however, is 275 to 300 crates, at a net price of about $1.60 a crate. The great shipping variety of the Hood River Valley, Oregon, — the Clark, — is a shy bearer. The average yield is 150 twenty-four quart crates, but 300 crate-yields sometimes are reported. The yield to the acre in California is increased somewhat by the protracted bearing season, but not as much as might be supposed. In southern California, the average yield is 12,000 to 15,000 pint boxes an acre, but yields of 30,000 boxes are secured occasionally. Gross returns of $1500 an acre have been reported, but the average is about $500. The cost of production is heavy; it costs about $150 to plant an acre, since it requires 30,000 to 100,000 plants. The average cost of producing and marketing a pint box of berries is 3| cents and the average selling price around five cents. In the Los Angeles district, overhead charges are very heavy. The land is worth about $1000 an acre ; most of it is rented to Japanese in four or five acre tracts for $20 an acre annually. Irrigation water is Cost of Production, Yields, Profits 223 $40 an acre annually. The Japanese live in rough shacks built in the middle of the strawberry fields (Plate XIX). Much of the strawberry-growing in southern California is by contract between American land owners and Japanese. The land owner furnishes land, water, crates or trays (to be returned), tools and all permanent equipment. The Japanese furnish all labor after the berries are planted, pay for one-half of the baskets and haul to the depot. The land owner does the marketing and divides the net returns equally with the Japanese every week ; sometimes the Japanese receive two-thirds. Results under market garden culture. The estimates in the preceding paragraphs apply to field culture. Under intensive market-garden culture, the cost of production is much heavier and the possible net profits correspondingly higher. It was reported that T. C. Kevitt of New Jersey picked 27,000 quarts from an acre of Glen Mary in 1901.^ These were hill plants spaced one foot apart each way. The possible yield and profit from an ideal acre under the so-called "Kevitt system" are given by Mr. Kevitt as follows : ^ Cost the First Season 21,780 plants $62.00 Plowing and fitting 1.00 Planting 10.00 Manure in spring 25.00 Manure in fall for mulching .... 25.00 Cultivating and cutting runners . . . 60.00 Extra labor 10.00 $193.00 » Rural New Yorker, 1902, p. 495. * Catalogue of T. C. Kevitt, 1908. 224 Strawberry-Growing Cost the Second Season 43,560 boxes $130.00 Crates 100.00 Picking, at 2 cents per quart .... 870.00 Cartage and commission 440.00 Total $1540.00 193.00 Total cost $1733.00 " The total income from one acre planted by my system, at 9 cents per quart, is $3645.54, leaving a net profit of $1900.54 each season for one acre," This statement would be more convincing if it were known that anybody has been able to secure more than half of this estimated yield to the acre, even under the most intensive culture. Burbidge reports, "A celebrated English strawberry grower said last year that his plants of British Queen had produced eight quarts of fruit per plant." No such yields have been secured in America. The net profit from an acre of strawberries under market-garden culture fre- quently runs over $1000. In 1901 Henry Jerolamen of New Jersey reported that a single acre had given a net return of $1700 and that the average return from his four acres was about $1000 an acre.^ It is probable that the bottom has not yet been reached in the price of strawberries on the wholesale market. Few consumers can afford to pay over eight or nine cents a quart retail, which will net the grower four or five cents a quart. In many cases it should be possible to grow good berries for one cent a quart, and pick them for one and one-fourth cents. The cost of packing and delivery to the depot averages about three- iRept. Wis. Hort. Soc, 1901, p. 163. Cost of Production, Yields, Profits 225 fourths of a cent a quart. If the net return at the shipping point is four cents, this leaves the grower one cent a quart, which gives some profit. At the present time, the average net returns from the wholesale market are about seven cents a quart. CHAPTER XII PROPAGATION AND RENEWAL Strawberries are propagated mainly by runners or layers ; and, to a slight extent, by division, cuttings and seeds. Probably wild strawberries once multiplied mostly by seeds, for the oldest and most widely dispersed species, Fragaria vesca, still multiplies mainly in that way. LAYERS, OR RUNNERS In F. virginiana, runners begin to form very early in the spring, before the mother plant blooms. In F. chilo- ensis, runners do not appear until after the plant has bloomed ; most modern varieties have this habit. The runners continue to form and to take root until heavy frosts, provided the ground is not dry. Unlike seedlings, runners are true to type ; they are merely divisions of the old plant. Nursery methods. The plants are grown commercially in propagating beds and all are dug; none is allowed to remain for fruiting. For home use, plants can be dug from fruiting beds, pref- erably those that have not yet borne. The propagating bed is planted and cared for in the same way as the fruit- ing bed, except that all the runners are allowed to set at will after the mother plants are well established. A sandy 326 Propagation and Renewal 227 loam, well filled with humus, is preferred to a heavy soil ; the roots forage widely in light soils. A persistent drouth in late summer or early fall results in a shortage of plants. Some nurserymen have installed overhead irrigation systems to obviate this difiiculty. Under normal conditions strong layer plants cost from $3 to $6 a thousand, according to the variety. In large cen- ters of production, where a single variety is grown almost exclusively, good plants may be had for $2 a thousand. These are the prices of standard varieties ; novelties may cost one dollar a dozen, or even one dollar a plant. Home-grown plants. The strawberry is propagated so easily that many commercial growers do not patronize nurserymen except to secure new varieties. According to W. F. Allen, "The nurserymen of the United States sell about ten per cent of the plants set in the country. Nurserymen sold last year (1912) one hundred million plants. Thus there were one billion plants set in 1913, which if set 8000 to 10,000 to the acre would plant 100,000 to 125,000 acres." ^ The chief advantage of home-grown plants is that there need be no long delay in transplanting them, which may occur with nursery plants. On the other hand, the nurseryman ought to be able to produce better plants than the fruit-grower, because it is his business. Home prop- agation rarely is cheaper than buying an equal grade of plants from a nursery. Modern methods of packing bring nursery plants to the grower nearly as fresh as when dug. 1 Proc. Amer. Pom. Soc, 1913, p. 168. 228 Strawberry-Growing Where planting is done in August, September and October, as in Florida and the Gulf states, it is impossible to get northern plants early enough for setting. Northern plants are secured in February or March and set out two by four feet apart ; by September the runners can be used for setting the fruiting bed. In southern California, growers prefer to set plants that are not more than one generation removed from the East or North. If they con- tinue to propagate from their own plants, which bear almost continuously throughout the year, the stock soon loses vigor. Value of runners taken from the fruiting bed. The easiest way to secure plants is to dig them from the fruiting bed, preferably before it bears. Runners taken from a bed that has fruited once or more, and has not been carefully renewed each year, lack vigor. For spring planting, dig runners in the fall and heel them in over winter ; if dug in the spring, the roots of the plants that are left to bear are disturbed and the yield reduced. The later in the spring the plants are dug, the more it injures the fruiting bed. The main objection is that the grower is tempted to dig the smaller and weaker plants and leave the best ones to bear fruit. In the South there is some danger that self-sown seedlings may be secured in this way. If any considerable number of plants are needed, it is far better to grow them in a propagating bed, separated from the fruiting bed, and to keep the blossoms cut off so as to promote early development of runners. Ratio of runner increase in different varieties. The number of runners that can be secured from each plant depends on the variety, soil, climate and culture. Plate XIX. — Above, shacks in large strawberry fields, southern California, occupied by the Japanese laborers who rent the land ; below, coldframe used as a cutting bed in summer bedding. Propagation and Renewal 229 F. E. Beatty, of Michigan, gives the following as the in- crease under average conditions : Michel, Beder Wood, Crescent, Warfield, Klondike and Dunlap, thirty-five runners from each plant. William Belt, Parson, Haver- land, Aroma, Brandywine, Gandy, Sample, twenty to twenty-five runners from each plant. Clyde, Glen Mary, Clark, Marshall, Parker Earle, Bubach, fifteen runners from each plant. These figures include only the strong, well-rooted runners. This increase under average conditions in commercial nurseries is small compared with the increase possible under special conditions. Plants of an expensive novelty may be set six feet apart each way on rich land, watered frequently with liquid manure, and all the runners hand- layered four to six inches apart. If the variety is a normal plant-maker each original plant will have made three hundred to five hundred strong runners by fall. Perhaps the greatest feat in strawberry propagation was by O. B. Galusha of Illinois. In the spring of 1878 he secured thirteen plants of Crescent, which had been introduced two years before, and set them in rich soil ten feet apart each way. He reported, "The plants entirely covered the ground before freezing weather. I raised 11,716 well rooted plants by actual count, the autumn being unusually favorable for their development." ^ He sold these plants for over $1000. Digging, packing and shipping. The best time to dig plants is when they are dormant. The winter mulch, old leaves and loose runners should be raked off first. Do not dig with a spade ; this cuts off the 1 Kept. Mich. Pom. Soc, 1882, p. 355 ; and Rept. Ind. Hort. Soc, 1890, p. 74. 230 Strawberry-Growing roots. On heavy or stony soil a flat-tined spading fork can be used to advantage ; on light soils, a five-tined manure fork. Some nurserymen use a digger drawn by four horses. It has a blade that slices the soil beneath the plants and loosens it, so that the plants are easily raked together by the men who follow the digger. A potato hook is used occasionally, but is likely to tear the roots. The diggers should work toward the plants, throwing the forks-full behind them. The soil should be shaken off the roots at once and the plants tied into bunches in the field, or carried to a cool place to be counted and bunched. Put them in tight woven baskets or wet burlap sacks to protect them from wind and sun ; this is especially neces- sary in warm weather. The price paid by nurserymen for hand digging, counting and bunching is twenty-five cents for 1000 plants. Fifteen cents a thousand is paid for counting and bunching. Twenty-six plants are put in a bunch, one extra for good count. All runners and dead or diseased leaves are pulled off. A few plants that are to be shipped by mail are prepared by removing all leaves but the smaller ones in the center. The roots are straightened out and laid on a very thin layer of damp sphagnum moss, covered with more moss, and so on, plants and moss alternating. The bundle is rolled in oiled paper, a piece of cardboard bound around it to protect the crowns, and covered with strong manila paper ; but the leaves should be left exposed (Plate XX). When securely tied, this package will carry plants safely for five hundred miles. Plants that are shipped by freight or express are packed in boxes with slats on the sides and tops. Old thirty- two quart berry crates are commonly used. The crate is lined with oiled paper and damp moss and the plants Propagation and Renewal 231 packed in very tightly, alternating with layers of moss. If the order is for 250 to 500 plants, the bunches may be set upright ; if for more, they are packed in double rows with the roots interlacing at the center and leaves exposed (Plate XX) . A second or third double row may be placed above this, with damp moss between. To avoid heating, not more than 2500 plants should be packed in one crate. The top is covered with moss and oiled paper. If the crate is not full, add straw or excelsior until the cover can be crowded down, so that there will be no slack. Plants packed in this way may be shipped several thousand miles without injury, in cool weather. Sphagnum moss is used as a packing material, almost exclusively. Sawdust can be used, but is more likely to heat. It is well to stamp the date of shipment on the package. For long distance shipments some prefer to pack very closely and ship in air-tight boxes. Plants have been shipped successfully to France in sealed tin cans. This method is not likely to succeed unless the plants are perfectly dormant and the weather cool. Quality in a strawberry plant. Most growers prefer plants of medium size, with strong roots and small crowns, to very large plants, because there is less crown surface exposed for transpiration of water. Old plants always are undesirable. A considerable por- tion of the very cheap stock offered by unscrupulous nurs- erymen consists of two-year-old plants that have borne fruit, or potted plants that were not sold the previous summer. Until quite recently, plants about one year old were preferred for spring planting in the North. For many years it was the prevailing opinion that the first, second and third runners are valuable for setting in the 232 Strawberry-Growing order named ; that runners formed later than these, and especially alley plants, never should be used, even though of good size. The theory was that these plants had not developed strong fruit-buds, hence they would tend to run to vines rather than to fruit. Later evidence has shown that tip plants of fair size start off better in the spring, and have fewer fruit buds than older plants, which is an advantage. S. H. Warren of Massachusetts says, " I am not afraid to set small tip end plants, particularly of those varieties that are poor plant-makers. They will produce more runners than large, overgrown plants of the same variety which are prevented from making the most plants by the necessity for developing their fruit-buds." He refers to plants that are small because they were produced late in the season, not to older plants that are small be- cause they have been crowded in the row. There is no evidence that propagation from late-formed runners tends to barrenness. In ordinary nursery practice the entire propagating row is dug and all the plants that are large enough are sold, regardless of their age. It is likely that the vigor of the plant, particularly the strength of the root system, is more important than the time of year when it was produced. The so-called " pedigree strawberry plants," those that are said to have been propagated for a number of genera- tions from the best mother plants, have not proved to be superior to ordinary well grown nursery stock. If plants are selected rigidly for a long term of years, it is possible that the character of the variety may be modified to an appreciable extent, but as commonly applied, the term is misleading.^ 1 This is considered at greater length in "The Strawberry in North America," Chapter V. Propagation and Renewal 233 OTHER METHODS OF PROPAGATION Practically all the plants used in commercial operations are field grown runners from maiden plants. In home gardens, and the more intensive types of market gardening, other methods are used to a slight extent, such as potted plants, cuttings or summer bedding, seeds and division. Potted plants. The runners from spring-set maiden plants may be layered into two-inch, two and one-half-inch or three- inch pots, in order to hasten the time when they may be detached for summer planting. This is practiced, for the most part, only in the North, Ordinarily layering is done in July and August. Several weeks before the plants are needed, the pots are filled with a specially prepared potting soil or rich soil from the field, and plunged to the rim beside the row of maiden plants, and not over eight inches distant from them. When one or two leaves have developed on a runner tip it is pressed lightly into the soil and held in place with a small stone or handful of soil. It may be necessary to go over the field several times, at intervals of four or five days. Discard "blind" runners, those in which the tip has been injured or has ceased to grow. In a normal season, it takes two or three weeks for the plant to fill the pot with roots; then it is detached, or the roots will turn brown and the plant will become pot-bound (Plate XXII). Pot-bound plants can be renewed by washing out the soil, cutting off the lifeless roots, and planting in fresh soil. The soil in the pot dries out quickly and the runners do not root readily in a dry season. The potted plants are placed in a cool shady place and watered frequently ; in a week or ten days they are ready 234 Strawberry-Growing to be planted in the field. Nurserymen ship them without pots; the ball of roots is wrapped in paper and moss. The nursery price of potted plants is $2 to $4 a hundred, which is ten times the price of strong layer plants for spring planting; to this must be added heavy express charges. For home use, good results are secured by cutting rich thick sod into pieces four or five inches square and sinking these, grass side down, beside the mother plants. One runner is rooted in each sod. Old berry boxes are used, also. Potted plants are too expensive to be practicable com- mercially. They are rarely used except in the gardens of northern amateurs. Potted plants are highly advertised by nurserymen and seedsmen ; sometimes it is stated that "a. year is saved," since the plants will "bear a full crop the following spring." This is only a half truth. A potted plant may bear as many berries as the average runner from spring-set plants; but since potted plants make few if any strong runners, the yield to the acre is very much smaller, unless the plants are set six inches apart each way in spaced rows, which is expensive. Potted plants either should be set so close as to occupy the entire ground, or set at the usual distance and vege- tables grown between the rows both in the fall of the first year and the following spring. For those who need not consider expense, potted plants offer a means of securing maximum returns from a small space in the home garden. Under high culture they give fancy ber- ries, but few of them. Cuttings, or summer bedding. For summer and fall planting in the North, plants grown from cuttings are much cheaper and about as satis- Propagation and Renewal 235 factory as potted plants. The unrooted tips are cut from maiden plants ; or runners may be used that have been thinned from the rows of spring-set plants. Make a cut- ting bed of mellow loam on a well-drained, sunny site, accessible to the hydrant. If a coldframe is placed over it, and the soil banked up on the outside, it will be easier to care for the plants (Plate XIX). Cut the runners in June or July, put them in wet burlap sacks and carry them im- mediately to shade. About one inch of the runner cord should be left attached to each plant. Part of the leaves should be trimmed off from the larger plants. Set the cuttings firmly in the soil, about three inches apart each way, with the node from which the roots will start just below the surface. The cutting bed is shaded with cotton cloth in sunny or windy weather and watered twice a day at first, once a day later. Remove the shade at night and on cloudy days ; after the plants have begun to root, grad- ually remove it altogether. In about two weeks the plants should be well rooted and may be transplanted to the field where they are to fruit, after being watered thoroughly so that the soil will adhere to the roots. Varieties that make few runners, or that root with diflSculty, may be propagated by cuttings to advantage. Seeds. Seedage is used only with the Alpines, and in breeding new varieties. Variation, induced by cultivation, as well as crossing, causes the seedlings of the common varieties to differ widely from their parents; they do not "come true." The variation in seedlings of the Alpines is not marked. The berries are picked when dead ripe, crushed, and the seeds separated by rubbing the pulp in dry sand or loam until seeds and soil are mixed ; or the surface of 236 Strawherry-Growing the berry may be pared off, and the parings placed in a stout cloth and kneaded under water to work out the pulp. Mix the seed with dry sand and sow it immediately in flats, coldframes or in the open ground. The soil should be light and rich; the seeds should be covered not over one-eighth of an inch deep. Water with a hand sprinkler. In two months the strongest seedlings may be pricked out and set in fruiting rows, about two feet by three feet. In the North, seedlings do not bear much until two years old ; in the South, and especially with everbearing varieties, considerable fruit is secured in less than a year. Division. This consists of dividing an old plant into several pieces, or "fingers," each with roots attached, and setting these in the same way as layer plants. This may be done to best advantage in early spring. It is rarely practiced except to save the stock of a new or rare variety that is threatened with extinction. Some varieties that make few, if any, runners, as the Pan-American and the bush Alpines, are propagated by division. AGE OF THE PLANTATION The strawberry is a perennial plant; theoretically, it can live and bear indefinitely. As the plant grows older, the crown, or stem, gradually elongates, and new roots are formed each year below the point where they were the year previous, thus pushing the crown higher. Some of the so-called "tree strawberries" are merely very old plants with long stems. This habit of growth auto- matically limits the life of the plant, if left to itself. In a few years it has pushed so far out of the soil that it sue- Propagation and Renewal 237 cumbs to winter injury or drought. If the soil is drawn around the plant each year, so as to keep the advancing stem covered, it will live and bear indefinitely. Good crops have been secured from hill plants that were over twenty years old. Current practice in the North. In all of Canada except western British Columbia, and in the United States as far south as Kentucky and Missouri, the commercial strawberry is grown mainly in matted or spaced rows and the plants are fruited for one year, occasionally two, rarely longer. It is more com- monly grown as a biennial in those sections that have a mild climate, as New Jersey, the Delaware-Maryland peninsula and farther south, than in the North. A few northern market-gardeners who practice intensive culture and hill training fruit the plants five or six years, some- times longer; but many hill-trained plants in the North are fruited but one year. When potted plants or strong layers are set in August or September they are plowed under after the first crop. Thus they occupy the land less than a year and approximate the semi-annual culture of the South. In the South and West. In Florida and the coastal plain of Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas, most of the beds are renewed each year, especially if they become foul with weeds. Formerly the attempt was made to carry the beds over the summer and fruit them two seasons. This was expensive and the results uncertain ; it has been gen- erally abandoned in favor of annual planting. The straw- berry is more nearly a semi-annual in this part of the 238 Strawberry-Growing South than an annual; the plants occupy the land but six to eight months, commonly from September to March. After the crop is off, part of the bed may be barred off, hoed and cultivated, not to fruit another year, but to grow plants for setting a new bed. Between the large annual cropping belt of the North and the small annual or semi-annual cropping belt of the far South is a region in which strawberries are grown in narrow matted or spaced rows and fruited for two to seven years. It includes the states of Kentucky, Tennessee, the northern parts of Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi and Louisiana and the states of Arkansas and Missouri. Most of the plantations in this territory are fruited two or three years ; in the Ozarks, they may stand five to seven years. Similar conditions prevail in Col- orado, Montana, Idaho and other mountain states ; there the second crop usually is heavier than that of the first or any subsequent years. On the Pacific coast, where strawberries are grown mainly in hills or hedge-rows, seldom in matted rows, the plants are fruited three to five years. Twelve-year-old plants sometimes are reported as bearing well but are rarely as profitable as those under five years old. In the Hood River and Yakima valleys the third and fourth crops are best ; after that the plants begin to decline. This diversity of practice in different parts of the conti- nent results from the varied conditions noted in the follow- ing paragraphs. FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE LIFE OF A PLANTATION The number of crops that it is advantageous to take from one setting depends on the location and its climate. Propagation and Renewal 239 the method of culture, method of training, the variety and the comparative cost of renewing and resetting. The location and its climate. Large quantities of strawberries now are grown in parts of the South which once were considered wholly unsuited for this crop because of the long hot summer. Attempts to carry beds through the summer by means of shading and mulching have yielded indifferent results. It is more practicable, in most cases, to grow them only in the cooler part of the year. Plants set from August to October, according to the locality, will bear a good crop the follow- ing spring, five to seven months after they were set ; then they are plowed under. Exactly opposite conditions are met in the higher altitudes of Montana and Colorado, which have a very short season. Plants set in April or May do not develop fully the first season and bear only one- fourth to one-third of a crop the following spring. Paying returns are not secured until the second season after plant- ing, and it is found desirable to fruit the plants at least three years. Method of culture. When land is high in value and intensive culture is practiced, as in market-gardening and trucking, it is more profitable to secure one heavy crop of strawberries and then use the land for some other crop than to carry the plants through the summer, when there would be no income from the land. Liberal use is made of horse manure, which is full of weed seeds ; this is another incentive to annual crop- ping. When strawberries are grown as a main crop on land of only moderate value, as in the Ozarks, it may be cheaper to fruit the bed several years. Annual renewal 240 Strawberry-Growing is more practicable in commercial operations than in the home garden, where space is limited, especially if the plants are in hills or hedge-rows. Method of training. Hills or hedge-rows are fruited longer than matted or spaced rows, except where the climate forces annual or semi-annual cropping. The cost of establishing a planta- tion under hill training is large ; usually it is cheaper to keep the plants for several years, even though weeds and pests become troublesome, than to set out a new field. In matted row or spaced row training, on the other hand, the cost of setting a new field may be small compared with the cost of renewing an old field and fighting weeds. Prac- tically all of the very old plantations are hill plants. Experiments in England showed that the total weight of the fruit from hills increased with the age of the plant up to five years, but that the size decreased somewhat. The value of the crop for each of the five years was indicated by the ratios 34, 100, 117, 111 and 110 respectively.^ Nearly all the evidence favors a life of three to seven years for hill plants. There is no reason why matted row plants could not produce profitable crops as long as hill plants, if renewed each year. Variety. Some varieties reach maturity slowly ; they bear heavier crops the second or third years than the first. Gandy and Sharpless are conspicuous examples. Most of the va- rieties preferred for hill training are of this class. Others reach maximum production the first season ; this was one of the many valuable traits of the Wilson. Varieties > Rept. Woburn Exp. Farm, 1900, pp. 35-82, and 249-51. Propagation and Renewal 241 commonly grown in matted or spaced rows bear somewhat heavier the first year than the second, unless the stand of plants is poorer or other conditions unfavorable. Comparative cost of renewing and resetting. If a good stand was secured and the first crop was heavy, the second is not likely to be as large. If the stand was poor the first year and there is prospect for a better stand the second year, a larger crop may be secured. If the bed is in good condition after the first crop, the second may be as good or better. One reason why some growers secure better crops the second year than the first is because the plants are less crowded ; the process of renewing the rows, with plow and harrow, leaves them spaced better than they were the first season. The prevalence of weeds and the increasing danger from insect pests and diseases also should be considered. The main point is, which is likely to be cheaper, — to set a new field at a cost of twenty-five to thirty dollars an acre, or to renew the old field. Probably the old field could be barred off and renewed for less than half that amount, but if the cost of fighting weeds is greater, or injury from insects and diseases larger, this saving may be more than offset. If the plants are fruited but one year, a crop of Irish potatoes, late cabbages, celery, millet and many other crops, including corn in the South, may be taken from the land the second season. When there is profit in extra early berries the old bed may be kept to advantage ; it ripens berries a few days earlier than a new bed, provided it has not been renewed or cultivated. "There are times when we get more money out of our second-crop bed than our first," says C. E. Persels, of Illinois, " because they come in a week earlier, while our 242 Strawberry-Growing market is good, even if we get twice the berries off the new bed." This is one way of extending the season of a single variety. The less cultivation or mulching given to the old bed, the earlier the berries will ripen. Although the yield is smaller, the cost of production is low. RENEWAL METHODS The methods to be followed in renewing a strawberry plantation depend chiefly on the way in which the plants are trained ; also, to some extent, on the climate, nature of the soil, stand of plants and the season. They may be divided into two groups. The first includes methods of renewing the tops of the plants, as by mowing and burning; the second comprises ways of modifying the number of plants, as by plowing and harrowing. Mowing and burning. Mowing is practiced more than any other method. It is useful mainly in broadcast, matted row and spaced row training ; occasionally in hedge-row and hill training. On the North Pacific coast, mowing is discouraged. In California, renewal is accomplished by stripping off the leaves and runners by hand ; but the strippings are not burned upon the plants. In the Rocky Mountain region, the leaves are not mowed unless the leaf-roller has been serious. With these few exceptions, mowing is practiced whenever plants are fruited two or more seasons. Mowing is done as soon as possible after the crop is harvested, preferably within a week. The longer the bed stands thereafter the more weedy it gets. In matted or spaced row training the cutter bar may be run very close to the ground, since the crowns are protected by the soil ; Propagation and Renewal 243 but in hedge-row or hill training the crowns are higher and allowance must be made for them. After the leaves and weeds have dried, they may be burned where they lie, or raked and carried off the field, or left on the field without burning. Burning destroys insects and dis- eases and clears the land of weeds ; but it may injure the crowns, and it destroys mulch and humus-making material. Hill or hedge-row plants are more likely to be injured by burning than matted row plants, since the crowns are more exposed. The older the plantation the greater the danger, for the same reason. Wait until the mowings are thoroughly dry and preferably when there is a brisk breeze, so that the fire will sweep quickly across the field. Start the fire at several places on the windward side so the whole field will be afire as nearly as possible at the same time ; a slow, creeping fire injures the plants. Back fires should be started near fences or orchards, first burning a few rows, then back-firing the whole field. Where a heavy winter mulch has been retained about the plants to protect the berries, it may be best to rake part of it into the alleys before burning, and to mix the mowings with it. Loosen the mulch with a fork or tedder; if it hugs the ground the heat and steam remain close to the plants and injure them. Unless mulch material is abun- dant and cheap, it is more economical to rake it off and stack it for use another year, than to burn it. When but little or no winter mulch is used it is desirable to scatter a little dry straw over the rows to facilitate burning. It is necessary to burn when the mowings and mulch are quite dry, but there is less danger of injuring the plants if the soil is wet. If a good stand was not secured the first season, do not risk burning; the mowings and mulch should be raked into the middles and burned there, or raked 244 Strawberry-Growing off the field with a horse rake. When strawberries are grown between rows of young fruit-trees, do not risk burning. Should a heavy rain fall immediately after mowing, and prevent burning for several days, the plants may start to grow again ; if so, omit burning that year. Burning is more popular in the North, where much mulching material is used, than in the South. Except when insects or diseases are serious, equally satisfactory results can be obtained with the plow, harrow or hoe, and the humus-making material saved for the soil. Reducing the number of plants. Destroying the tops of plants does not remedy the chief defect of old beds. In matted or spaced rows it is de- sirable, also, to reduce the number of old plants, so as to make room for the development of runners. Local cli- mate, the plant-making ability of the variety, the stand secured the first year and the age of the plantation deter- mine the number of old plants that should be retained. The older the bed, the fewer runners it will make. In wet seasons, the plants of free-running varieties may be cut out to approximately the same distance apart as when the field was planted ; in very dry seasons it may be necessary to leave nearly all the old plants in order to be sure of a full stand. After they are mowed, the rows are barred off, or narrowed to strips four to eight inches wide, so as to leave middles of tilled land in which the new plants may root. A light turning plow, bull tongue, double shovel, cultivator or disk harrow may be used to advantage. A disk harrow set to the desired width, with two or three of the center disks removed from each gang, is an efficient tool for this purpose when weighted heavily. Two rows are cut at a Propagation and Renewal 245 time, each gang straddling a row. The mulch is cut into the ground, so that it is unnecessary to burn or remove it. When a plow is used, the furrows are thrown either toward the middles or directly upon the rows of plants, covering them completely with fresh soil. On light soils this is a distinct benefit, but on heavy soils there is danger of smothering the crowns. It is preferable to bar off the cen- ter and one side of each row, so as to encourage the setting of runners in land that was in cultivated middles the year before. The next year this process is reversed. This de- stroys the oldest and least valuable plants, insures the production of runners from the younger and more vigorous plants on the outside of the old row, and makes it possible to keep the land in better condition. After the rows are barred off, subsequent thinning is done with the plow, harrow or hoe. Some growers plow across the rows, leaving the plants in squares which are about a foot in diameter and sixteen to twenty inches apart. Others harrow the rows lengthways or crossways two or three times to tear up the weaker plants, level the ridges left by the plow or disk, and draw fresh soil around the plants that remain. Hoes are then used to thin out the remaining plants so that they stand five to twenty-four inches apart. Only the strongest plants are left and the crowns of these are lightly covered with soil. The renewed bed now looks much like a new planting ; in two or three weeks it is impossible to distinguish between the two except for the less regular alignment. Some who use matted row training the first year use hedge-row training subsequent years. In the Ozark district a one-horse turning plow is used at right angle to the old rows, so as to leave the plants in small blocks about eight inches wide and three and a half 246 Strawberry-Growing feet apart. The rows the second year run opposite from their direction the previous season. Changing the direc- tion of the rows keeps the ground more level and helps to control weeds. This heroic thinning is not advisable except on soils which produce an abundance of plants. In the Hudson River district a narrow strip of the old row is covered with furrows from each side. Five or six days later the field is harrowed both ways. No plants can be seen, but in three or four weeks most of them push through. This method is cheaper and more effective than plowing away from the rows and chopping out ; it kills the weeds better and a full stand is assured. It may not succeed on heavy land. If late summer is very dry, matted rows that have been barred off and chopped out do not make a good stand. This has forced the growers in some sections, particularly in the lower Mississippi Valley, to abandon the method. The middles are stirred with the double shovel or single shovel, so as to destroy all alley plants and make room for a few new plants ; and fresh soil is worked around the old plants. If the season is wet, the bed gets too thick. The cost of renewing matted rows is from two dollars to fifteen dollars an acre. A man with a one-horse plow can bar off about three acres a day ; if a disk harrow is used, six acres can be cut. Under average conditions, the cost is about five dollars an acre. Renewing hills and hedge-rows. In hill training the problem is not to reduce the number of plants but to readjust their position. Mowing or topping are advisable in most cases and sometimes burn- ing ; but the most important work is to set the plants deeper in the soil so as to favor the formation of new roots Propagation and Renewal 247 above the old ones. This may be done most economically by drawing fresh soil around and over the crowns. Re- setting was practiced to a slight extent years ago, but it is impracticable now. The crowns are covered one-half to one and a half inches deep ; the lighter the soil, the deeper they may be covered without injury. If hill plants are set level with the surface the first year, they will be on a slight ridge after three or four years of renewal. When the rows are far enough apart to permit horse tillage this work can be done at little expense ; if the plants are set ten to twenty-four inches apart, soil must be secured from the intervening paths. Hedge-rows are renewed like hills, but some prefer to cut out the mother plants after the first crop is harvested and replace them with runners taken from maiden plants of the previous season. Carrying plants over the summer in the South. The low stature of the strawberry plant and the fact that normally it has a dormant season, or resting period, some time during the year make it possible for the culti- vator to carry it through a season of trying climate. It is best to grow the strawberry as an annual or semi-annual in Florida and the Gulf states, yet sometimes it is desirable to carry over certain plants. This is done with difficulty, on account of the long, hot summer, when the plants become practically dormant. Cultivation is discontinued, as it heats the soil at the surface. The weeds are scraped off at the surface with a hoe. A heavy mulch helps to keep the ground cool. If a thin row of corn is planted every four feet, its shade will be beneficial ; rice and cow- peas also are useful for this purpose. The Beeville, Texas, sub-experiment station reports: "On account of the fact that the second and third years 248 Strawberry-Growing are the best for the production of strawberries, it is essen- tial that every possible care be taken to insure the life of the plant during the summer months. Only two methods have thus far proved anything like successful. The first is to mulch the plants heavily with cotton seed hulls in spring, immediately following the harvest. The plants are prac- tically covered. They are irrigated eight times during the summer. Under favorable conditions more than three- fourths of the plants are saved in this way. The objection to this method is the heavy expense. A mulch of straw is not as effective. In the southern Rio Grande region pop corn is planted in the bottom of furrows between rows of strawberries, which are irrigated during the summer. As the pop corn grows, the lower leaves are stripped off so that the air circulates more freely about the strawberry plants." Sugar-cane and cotton sometimes are planted between rows of strawberries for shade, but are not con- sidered as useful for this purpose as pop-corn. CHAPTER XIII EVERBEARING VARIETIES, FORCING, AND OTHER SPECIAL METHODS OF CULTURE Modern North American everbearing varieties are descendants of the Pan-American, which was found in a row of Bismarck by Samuel Cooper of Delevan, New York, in 1898. There has been keen interest in the North in this new race of strawberries, but its economic status is not yet fully determined. All varieties are more or less everbearing in the far South. CULTURE OF EVERBEARERS The introduction of the everbearers is so recent that comparatively little is known as to the best ways of handling them. It is probable that current methods of culture will be modified considerably when their nature and possibilities are better known. Removing the blossoms. The main difference between the culture of everbearing varieties and other sorts is in the management of the blossoms. The plants are set in early spring and the blossoms cut off until midsummer — until about the first of July, in the North — then they bear throughout August, September and October. If the blossoms of the single-bearing varieties are removed in the spring, no new ones appear in the North ; everbearing varieties produce blossoms continuously until winter. The first blossoms ap- 249 250 Strawberry-Growing pear three or four weeks after the plants are set ; after that it is necessary to cut the blossoms every seven to ten days. If the blossoms are not removed during the spring months, the plants will ripen a few berries throughout the summer, but not enough to be worth while. They should be removed until midsummer, or until three weeks of the time when a crop is desired, and single-bearing varie- ties depended on for a spring crop. If set out in the fall, there will be a heavy spring crop and some fruit during the summer and fall. Everbearers require higher culture than spring-bearing sorts. Rich soil and an equable supply of moisture throughout the growing season are essential; if either are lacking, the everbearing habit is weak. They do not bear much in a dry summer or fall. If the soil is not rich, fertilizer should be applied three or four times during the season. Some varieties, as the Progressive, set runners freely and bear on the young runners as soon as they are rooted ; these should be trained in narrow matted rows. Varieties that make few, if any, runners, as the Superb, should be grown in hills, about one by three feet apart. Harvesting and marketing. The yield at one picking is small compared with a picking from single-bearing varieties. It costs three to five cents a quart to pick everbearers, or twice as much as to pick a spring-bearing variety. During July and August, everbearers need to be picked three or four times a week ; in September, twice a week ; in October, once a week may be sufficient, as the fruit ripens very slowly in cool weather. When the nights begin to get cold the berries are poor in color and flat in flavor, but Special Methods of Culture 251 hold up fairly well in size. Pollination is likely to be poor in the fall, resulting in many buttons. The crop of the first season is rarely over 4000 quarts an acre, for all pickings between July and October. Everbearing varieties are not given a fruiting mulch, since it is neces- sary to continue tillage throughout the season in order to maintain moisture and provide favorable conditions for the rooting of runners. Hence, the berries will be sandy on some soils and must be washed in a colander, or in the device described on page 177. The berries should be dried before being packed for market. A limited quantity may be sold in most of the larger cities and towns for twenty-five to thirty-five cents a quart, which gives a fair profit. The everbearers should be mulched with unusual care during the winter; they are more tender than common sorts, having been exhausted by recent fruit-bearing. This weakness is more than offset by the freedom from frost injury of the blossoms ; they are much superior to spring-bearing sorts in this respect. Even if the blossoms are killed, another crop appears shortly after, as is the case with common varieties in the South. For this reason, everbearers are of special value where there is likely to be serious loss from late spring frosts. The second spring, — a year from the time the plants were set, — they bear a heavy crop at the same time as com- mon varieties, but ripen over a longer season. This is one of the most valuable features of the North American race of everbearing varieties. Yields of 10,000 quarts an acre in the spring are not uncommon. Usually it is best to plow the bed under after this crop is harvested ; if the spring crop is heavy, the plants do not bear well the remainder of the season. 252 Strawberry-Growing Commercial value. The everbearing varieties have not yet passed the stage of exploitation. Ultra-optimistic trade catalogues and journals still describe them in superlatives. From some accounts, one would infer that the ordinary single- bearing sorts soon will be obsolete. It may be granted, without debate, that the everbearers are a distinct addi- tion to the home garden ; but whether they will be profit- able commercially is another question. W. B. Kille, of New Jersey, speaks appreciatively of their value for commercial culture : ^ " The yield of Superb, grown in matted rows from the spring crop, was at the rate of 11,500 quarts per acre, while Gandy and Chesapeake beside them made less than 6000 quarts per acre. All three had the same treatment. The Superb can be handled by two classes of growers. First, by the special- ist who will devote all his energy to the production of fall berries exclusively. This can best be done by plant- ing on the hill system and removing all blossoms until July 10th or 15th. Second, by the commercial grower who will train them in matted rows or restricted matted rows and who will get enough berries in the fall of the first season to pay for establishing the bed, and then rely upon the spring crop for his greatest returns. If grown in matted rows, it will produce a small crop in the fall, which will sell at about three times what the spring crop brings, and also a very large spring crop." It is difficult to forecast the future of the everbearers at this time. We are only at the beginning of their improvement by breeding. The Pan-American was introduced only fourteen years ago, yet even during this short period breeders have produced varieties that 1 Rept. N. J. Hort. Soc, 1913, p. 140. Special Methods of Culture 253 are distinctly superior to it. At present, the everbearers are valued almost exclusively for the home garden, and occasionally for commercial culture in a limited way. The demand for strawberries during late summer and fall is so small, because of the abundance of other fruits at that time, that it seems unlikely that there will be sufficient incentive to grow them in large quantities; but every large town and city will take a few. It is expensive to keep the blossoms cut off, although some re- cent varieties are said not to require this. It is a heavy expense to pick small quantities of berries and market them over a long season, as southern California growers can testify. Moreover, the everbearers require higher culture than standard sorts and are more easily affected by drought. The present varieties are not as attractive in size, color and flavor as the spring-bearing sorts ; un- doubtedly these defects can be corrected by breeding. Until recently, the price of plants has been exorbitant. It is probable that the everbearers have but little com- mercial future, merely for supplying berries in the summer and fall. This has been the conclusion in Europe, where everbearing sorts have been grown much longer than here. The North American everbearers, however, have one saving factor that the European varieties do not possess in equal degree, — they bear a heavy crop in the spring of the second year. It is quite likely that when improved varieties of this type have appeared they will be grown commercially by a limited number of strawberry specialists, particularly those who have a near or personal market, but the everbearers will not find favor with those who grow strawberries for a distant wholesale market. 254 Strawherry-Gromng CULTURE OF THE ALPINE Before the introduction of the Pan-American and its descendants, the Alpine strawberry was grown in North America in home gardens and in greenhouses. This is a form of the European wood strawberry, F. vesca. The berries of the Alpine are small, conical, soft, sweet and rather unattractive in color. The fruitstalks are ele- vated above the leaves. As a rule, seedlings are more vigorous and productive than runners, and the fruit is larger, but slightly inferior in quality. Young plants bear larger berries than old plants, sometimes one inch in diameter. Seed is sown in late winter or early spring, and the seedlings pricked out into flats. If seed is sown in February or March in the greenhouse or a window-box, the seedlings will bear a little fruit the following autumn, but not much until the next year. The plants are set twelve to. eighteen inches apart each way, preferably in a partially shaded place. One of the best uses for the Alpine, especially the bush kind, is as an edging to beds. Keep all the runners and flowers picked off until mid- summer, then let the plants bear the remainder of the season. The following year they will fruit more or less continuously throughout the growing season, if moisture conditions are equable and the soil rich ; like all ever- bearers, they fruit irregularly and sparsely in dry weather and require high culture. If removed in the fall to hot- beds or a greenhouse, the plants will bear all winter. The amount of fruit produced at one time is too small to make the Alpines valuable commercially. The yield is larger in the cool of autumn than during the heat of summer. After the second or third year the plants should be destroyed and new seedlings raised. The Special Methods of Culture 255 Bush Alpines, which make no runners, are propagated by seedage, but can be multipHed easily by division. These varieties make a large stool, often with thirty to sixty crowns. As each crown is formed it begins to bear ; hence there is a succession of fruit. The crov/ns, or fingers, may be separated at the end of a season, each with roots attached, and used to set a new bed. The common varieties are Red and White Alpine and Red and White Bush Alpine. Some of the best improved varieties are the Berger, Sutton, Janus, Quatre Saisone, Large Red, Improved White and Belle de Meaux. There is little interest in the Alpines now except among amateurs. FALL CROPS AND DOUBLE-CROPPERS Occasionally there are seasons when some varieties of the spring-bearing class bear a fall crop. This phenome- non usually follows a midsummer drought, which checks growth so severely as to approximate the normal winter resting period ; then rains come and quicken the plants into the vigorous growth and fruitfiilness of a second spring. Fall crops were especially common from Maine to Missouri in 1903 ; in some places as much as half a crop was gathered in October. The Cumberland Triumph was noted for producing fall crops. In those parts of the Pacific Northwest and the moun- tain states where irrigation is practiced, "double-cropper" varieties are common. These are sorts that under certain conditions produce two crops a year, one in the spring, the other in the fall. Any variety that has many crowns and runners will succeed as a double-cropper in that region. Those most commonly used are : Jessie, Clyde, Excelsior, Magoon and Warfield. Double-cropping is the 256 Strawherry-Growing result of cultural manipulation, not of an inherent ever- bearing tendency. It is accomplished by the simple expedient of withholding irrigation and drying out the plants in early summer, some two or three weeks after the first crop has been gathered, so that they have a resting period. After the leaves become brown they are mowed, raked off, burned, and the field is irrigated. The second crop ripens in September or October. These fall berries frequently bring better prices than spring berries, but the crop is not as large and the market for them is limited. Some growers cease irrigating before the plants have matured all of the spring crop, in order to secure a larger crop in the fall. A long season is necessary for double-cropping. A fall crop does not decrease the yield the next spring to an appreciable extent. Usually, it does not pay to take off a fall crop unless the spring crop was poor. Plants that are three years old, or over, are most useful for this purpose. It should be clearly understood that the true everbearing type is entirely distinct from the frequent occurrence of fall crops in standard varieties, induced by abnormal weather conditions or special cultural practice. The everbearers have a fixed tendency to bear continuously, independent of weather conditions. FORCING IN GREENHOUSE BENCHES The forcing of strawberries is not an important industry in North America, as it is in Europe. Since 1890, when field-grown berries from Florida began to appear in northern cities in considerable quantity as early as De- cember, there has been a distinct lessening of interest in the greenhouse product. Forcing is now confined to the Plate XXI. Forcing. — -Above, cheap greenhouse made of hot-bed sash, used for forcing strawberries at Hackensack, New Jersey ; below, potted plants plunged in cinders in a coldframe. Special Methods of Culture 257 private greenhouses of the wealthy and to a few com- mercial greenhouses near the larger cities. The price that it is necessary to charge for forced strawberries puts them beyond the reach of any but the aflBuent. There always will be a few who will pay $2.00 a pint for forced berries, even when Florida or California berries can be bought for fifty cents a quart ; or who will pay $2.50 each for strawberry plants in six-inch pots, each plant bearing five to ten ripe berries, in order to set one plant before each guest at a dinner party. This market, however, is extremely limited and is confined to the largest cities. Strawberries are forced in greenhouses, and are either planted directly in benches or grown in pots. Bench forcing is preferred by those who wish to produce a fair grade of berries cheaply ; pot forcing, by those who wish to secure the highest grade of berries, regardless of ex- pense. Pot forcing requires more care, but it is more convenient, and gives the gardener more perfect control over his plants. The type of house commonly used for forcing berries in benches is a low, even span, made of hotbed sash (Plate XXI) . It is seven to eight feet high, eight feet wide, with two side benches four or five feet high. After the Easter crop is harvested the house may be stripped of sash, which are used for coldframes and hotbeds. Plants for a crop to ripen for the Christmas trade are layered into three-inch pots that are plunged in the field beside virgin plants, and are transplanted to the greenhouse bench as soon as they have filled the pots with roots. They are set five to nine inches apart in rich compost, made of three parts light sandy loam to one of rotted manure. The roof of the greenhouse is stripped of sash until frost, and the plants are watered, syringed and sprayed like 258 Strawberry-Growing potted plants. When frost has checked their growth somewhat, early in November, the sash are put on and firing begins. The heat is increased gradually ; at ripen- ing time it should be ninety degrees on sunny days and sixty degrees at night. Great care in watering is neces- sary; in dark, wet weather the entire crop may mildew if the plants are over-watered. The trusses of berries are propped off the ground with forked sticks. Plants for the second crop are not layered into pots, but strong runners are transplanted from the field to coldframes in late autumn, with a big ball of soil attached. When the first crop begins to decline, these new plants are set between the old ones, which are pulled up when the fruit is off. The second crop ripens about Easter. FORCING IN POTS The main essential to success is strong plants with large crowns ; small plants with weak crowns give poor results. These are runners from maiden plants, which are set in the spring and treated as in ordinary field culture. Two- inch or three-inch pots, filled with rich soil, are plunged to the rim on each side of the row in June. The first and strongest runners are layered into them. It is necessary to watch the pots closely as heavy rains wash them out or cultivator teeth disturb them. By the last of July or first of August the runners will be well estab- lished in the pots and should be cut off. Wait until the roots completely fill the pots, but do not let the plants become pot-bound — checked in growth by lack of soil. The rooted runners are taken to the potting shed and shifted into six-inch pots, in which they are to fruit. The soil is preferably turf that has been secured from an old Special Methods of Culture 259 pasture and piled up to decay for two or three years. To this is added leaf-mould and rotted manure, making a light, rich, fibrous loam. Mix three parts of this with one part of sharp sand and add dissolved bone at the rate of one quart to three or four bushels of soil. Screen the soil through a sieve of about one-quarter inch mesh. Wet the plants before they are potted. Place an inch of potsherds or gravel in the bottom of each pot; good drainage is very essential, as the plants are watered freely during the forcing period. Set the plants so that the crown will be even with the surface. Pound the soil around the ball of roots with a potting stick ; it can hardly be too firm. Care in the coldframe. After being potted, the plants are set in the coldframe, which is located on a sunny and well-drained site, con- venient to a hydrant. Cover the ground a foot deep with coal ashes or cinders, sink the frame into these several inches and bank upon the outside (Plate XXI). Plunge the pots to their rims and as close together as possible. The ashes provide drainage, keep the pots from drying out rapidly and prevent earthworms from getting into them. Water freely until the pots are well filled with roots, then sparingly, so as to ripen the crowns. All runners should be pinched off. Spray with bordeaux occasionally to keep the foliage free from blight and mil- dew. By autumn the plants will have very large crowns and the pots will be densely filled with roots (Plate XXII) . As winter approaches, cover the frame with sash every night to protect the plants from the first frosts and strip it during the day, thus prolonging the growing season several weeks. Water less and less frequently ; during 260 Strawberry-Growing the last growing month, keep the pots so dry that the plants almost wilt. By the middle of November, in the North, the pots should be allowed to freeze and the plants become dormant. After the plants are frozen, mulch them lightly with straw and cover the frame with sash. Bringing the plants into heat. Most kinds of plants must have a check in growth, such as results from frost or drying out, before they can be forced. This is desirable with the strawberry, but not absolutely necessary. If the crop is needed for Christmas trade, part of the plants may come to fruitage without a check ; but plants which have had a long period of rest and have been frozen force better and the berries are of higher quality. Some gardeners do not attempt to ripen a crop before the last of February. M. Bultel has shown that strawberry plants which are subjected to fumes of ether before they are forced come into bloom two weeks earlier than untreated plants, and bear heavier.^ Etherization makes the plant completely dormant. These plants were treated for forty-eight hours with 400 grams of ether to each cubic meter. This method may be useful for plants that are forced without being thoroughly ripened by cold weather. The dormant plant should be brought into heat eight to ten weeks before it is desired to have ripe berries. The length of the forcing period is determined by the temperature at which the plants are held, and weather conditions. When a continuous supply of ripe fruit is desired, fresh plants should be brought in every ten days ; from fifty to eighty at a time, to secure two quarts at a 1 Jour, de la Soc. Nat. d'HorticuJture de France, April, 1912, pp. 212-17. Strong potted runner from a 3-inch pot that jvas plunged in the field. Forcing crown from a 6-inch pot, repre- senting a good strong plant. Unrooted runner of Pan-American va- riety, bearing sev- eral half-ripe berries. A good forced plant of Glen Mary, showing the low compact habit and the piece of wire screen on which the berries rest for support. Plate XXII. Various Manipulations of Strawberry Plants. Special Metliods of Culture 261 picking. Dead and diseased leaves are stripped off, the plants sprayed with bordeaux and watered freely. The pots are set on benches, preferably six to twelve inches from the glass, so that the plants will not be drawn, and are plunged into some material that will hold moisture, such as coal ashes. Narrow shelves may be suspended from the roof by iron braces. As far as possible, the gradually rising temperature of springtime out of doors should be simulated in the forcing house. During the first week, a night temperature of thirty-five to forty degrees is maintained, with ten degrees higher in the sun. Each week it is raised four or five degrees until the plants are in bloom, when it should be sixty to sixty-five degrees. It is necessary that the plants should grow slowly during the first half of the forcing period ; after they have blossomed they may be forced more rapidly. When the fruit begins to swell a temperature of seventy degrees should be maintained. Low temperature after the plants come into blossom prolongs the forcing period, increases the difficulty with pollination and gives stunted plants and small berries. Excessive heat produces weak, drawn plants, increases the danger from the red-spider and gives soft, poorly flavored berries. Syringe the foliage for red-spider every sunny day; sometimes this will be necessary even on cloudy days. During pollina- tion, syringing must be stopped, but the walks should be kept wet. Pollination. There are no insects or breezes in the greenhouse to distribute the pollen, so the gardener must do it, other- wise the berries will be few and imperfect. During blossoming, water the plants sparingly and ventilate 262 Strawberry-Orowing freely. The anthers shed pollen every sunny day; a little may fall upon the pistils, but not enough to pollinate them properly. In bright weather, especially as spring approaches, some varieties pollinate well if the gardener merely brushes his arm over the plants; but usually it is necessary to hand-pollinate each blossom. This is done in the middle of the day, when the house is dry. A small camel's-hair brush is used to distribute the pollen over the pistils ; the surplus pollen is collected in a spoon for use on pistillate varieties, or staminate sorts that produce little pollen. Staminate varieties differ wddely in their ability to produce pollen. Marshall is one of the best in this respect and Glen Mary one of the poorest, especially the early blossoms. It is impossible to grow a satisfactory plant without a fair amount of sunshine during the blossoming period. In prolonged cloudy weather, varieties that are strongly staminate normally may produce no pollen at all. When the berries begin to swell, stimulate the plants with liquid manure. This should be given twice a week, and gradually increased in strength until the berries begin to color; then the applications should cease, as they make the berries soft and watery. Rotted cow manure or sheep manure is preferred. Nitrate of soda, at the rate of one tablespoonful to three gallons of water, is almost equally effective. Sulfate of potash and acid phosphate, in small quantities, are used after the fruit has set and until it begins to turn color. All the blossoms are pol- linated, but not all the berries are allowed to mature. Small and imperfect specimens are cut off, leaving five to ten berries on each plant, according to its vigor. If they lie upon the soil they may decay ; the stems may be propped up with crotched sticks, or square pieces of wire Special Methods of Culture 263 fly screening may be laid under the trusses (Plate XXII) . Forced berries are marketed in pint or quart boxes, which are lined with cotton wool, and each berry is wrapped in a strawberry leaf. Both berries and leaves should be dry. The plants are forced but once and then are thrown away. Forcing varieties. A good forcing variety should be vigorous, have clean foliage, produce an abundance of pollen, have long, stiff fruit-stalks and bear large glossy, dark crimson berries of high quality. The English forcing varieties are not successful here. Among the best varieties for forcing are Marshall, Glen Mary, Nich Ohmer, Brandy wine and President, especially the first two. The early blossoms 'of Glen Mary frequently are without stamens and must be pollinated with another variety. The President is pistillate, but is an excellent forcing variety in other respects. It is best to grow^ three or four varieties so as to be sure of an abundant supply of pollen. These are the methods that professional greenhouse gardeners consider essential to success. For home use, fairly good forced strawberries may be secured simply by lifting strong plants, with a large ball of soil, from the open field in January, and bringing them into heat gradu- ally. GROWING FANCY AND EXHIBITION BERRIES Strawberry exhibitions are not as common now as they were fifty years ago, but the growing of fancy and exhibition berries still is a source of pride to amateur and professional alike. Some growlers have been very successful in this 264 Strawberry-Growing special phase of strawberry-culture. Chief of these was John Knox, of Pittsburgh, who sold many hundreds of bushels of Jucunda, between 1863 and 1871, at $16 a bushel. They were packed in pint boxes, which held ten berries each, and retailed at $1 a box. The most noted grower of fancy berries in recent years was E. C. Davis, of Northampton, Massachusetts. He raised many specimens of the Margaret that were three inches in diameter and one that was 3| inches long and 84 inches in diameter. John F, Beavers, of Dayton, Ohio, was very successful ; many of his specimens measured nine to twelve inches in circumference. Joseph Haywood, of Ambler, Pennsylvania, raised fancy berries for market that measured five to the quart. Henry Jerolamen, of Hilton, New Jersey, has marketed many that ran ten berries to the quart. When it is remembered that in the general market "large" strawberries run seventy-five to 100 to the quart, and "small" berries 100 to 175 to the quart, these results are no small achievement. Methods. Until the spring of the fruiting year the methods of raising fancy and exhibition berries do not differ materially from those practiced in market-garden culture. Usually potted plants are set in July or August on heavily manured land and kept in hills ; some prefer strong layers set in August. The ground is covered four or five inches deep with rotted manure in the fall. Special care is necessary in applying and removing the winter mulch. In spring, only the coarse part of the manure is raked off, and liquid manure is applied frequently after the berries begin to swell. E. C. Davis gave his plants liquid manure every day, sometimes three times a day. One-half bushel of Special Methods of Culture 265 hen manure is placed in a burlap sack and dropped into a barrel of water until the water is the color of weak tea ; this is poured on the ground between the plants, not upon them. An ounce of saltpeter in ten quarts of water gives almost as good results. A gallon of liquid manure to the square yard may be used each day without injury. An effort should be made to prolong the period of ripen- ing, so as to pump more water into the berries. This is accomplished by shading the plants with muslin or lath screens. Shade must be used with discretion, or color, firmness and flavor will be sacrificed to size. Select two or three of the best berries on each truss and cut off all others; this disbudding should be done as soon as a number of perfect-shaped berries have formed. Exhibi- tion strawberries are shipped in cotton wadding — not in cotton batting, which sticks to them. Put one berry in each compartment of an egg crate. Never touch the berries, always handle them by the stems. Strawberries may be preserved for exhibition purposes in wide-mouthed jars with tight-fitting glass stoppers. The berries should be of good color, but not fully ripe, stems on and very firm. If they are dipped quickly into melted paraffin, this helps to keep their shape. According to W. R. Ballard, a ten per cent solution of formalin and acid potassium sulfate is a fairly satisfactory preservative, but the berries lose their color in two or three years. ^ STRAWBERRY BARRELS The barrel is an interesting novelty for the amateur. In 1898 J. P. Ohmer, of Dayton, Ohio, who was especially successful in barrel strawberry-culture, gave these direc- 1 Proc. Soc. Hort. Sci., 1910, pp. 60-2. 266 Strawberry-Growing tions : " Take any iron-bound barrel, except one that has been used for pickles, sauerkraut or vinegar. Remove all hoops but four, and bore four holes in the bottom. Then space five rows of holes, twelve to a row, around the barrel, placing the fifth row five inches from the top, and the bottom row eight inches from the bottom. The holes should be li inches X 3 inches and are made by boring two holes, one above another, with a li inch bit. Put about two inches of fine gravel or coarse sand in the bottom of the barrel ; then fill it with soil to the bottom of the first row of holes. Use clay soil well mixed with rotted manure, and be careful that it is not too wet. "When planting, put the plants as near the top of the holes as possible, to allow for the settling of the soil. Get in the barrel and tramp the soil solid ; then loosen it with a trowel where the plants are to go. Spread the roots out well. Then put soil about half way up to the next row of holes. Now take a common drain tile 12 inches long and 3 or 4 inches in diameter; stand it on end in the center of the barrel and fill it with coarse sand. Then fill up the barrel with soil a little above the next row of holes and tramp again. Be careful not to move the tile and get dirt in it. After planting the second row, lift the tile, see that the sand settles, and fill it with sand again. Then put in soil above the next row of holes, tramp and plant that row. Repeat, until the five rows are planted. Don't fail to tramp. "After planting the tile remains in the barrel; leave it empty, so as to take the water. Pour water in the tile for the lower rows, and on top of the barrel for the two top rows. It would be impossible to water the lower plants without the tile and the core of sand. Fill the tile about once a day and put about two quarts on the Special Methods of Culture 267 outside. You can easily water too much. Set the barrel on bricks to keep it off the ground. As the weather begins to get cold, stop watering. Use a perfect bloom- ing variety." When winter protection is needed, build a square wooden frame around the barrel so that there will be six inches of straw all around each side. Mr. Ohmer averaged one-half bushel of berries to the barrel ; forty quarts to the barrel have been reported. A device for revolving the barrel so that it can be turned to sun- light easily may be made by setting the hub of an old buggy wheel into a log, and the other hub into the end of the barrel. Strawberries in barrels ripen ten to four- teen days earlier than those in the field. Barrel strawberry-culture fails more frequently than it succeeds. The chief difhculties are that the soil settles and pulls out the plants ; also that it dries out in winter. It is very difficult to keep the soil in all parts of the barrel moist. This method is more successful in England than in North America. The strawberry barrel is merely a novelty for the amateur ; it has no commercial value. CHAPTER XIV INSECTS, DISEASES AND FROST The strawberry is less liable to serious injury from insects and diseases than most other fruits. Fifty years ago, when the same plantation was fruited ten to fifteen years, damage from pests was much more pronounced than now, when most plantings are fruited but one year and practically none more than four years. Most of the difficulties enumerated below may be prevented or greatly lessened by careful selection of propagating stock, short rotations, clean tillage, keeping the borders of the field free from weeds, and other cultural methods, without resorting to the use of sprays. Spraying, as a routine feature of strawberry-culture, is practiced by compara- tively few growers, chiefly in the North; but periodic outbreaks of certain pests may make it desirable to spray some seasons in almost every district. Probably over ninety-five per cent of the commercial strawberry crop is grown without any spraying whatever. Nurserymen spray more than growers, so as to secure perfectly clean stock. SPRAYING EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS The common types of orchard sprayers can be adapted for strawberries. The simplest equipment for a small field is a hand pump mounted on a fifty gallon barrel or larger 268 Insects, Diseases and Frost 269 tank and placed on a two-wheeled cart. At the rear of the rig a hollow rod is attached, to which are fastened three to five nozzles at the correct intervals to cover as many rows. The rod is connected with the barrel by a spray hose. It is preferable to use two horses, so as to straddle the rows. For larger operations, an outfit of the same type, but deriving power from sprocket wheels, is more effective, as the spraying is done without stopping the team (Plate XXIII). Compressed air knapsack sprayers are serviceable for home gardens. Preparation of spray materials. Bordeaux mixture is preferred for controlling fungous diseases of the strawberry, although concentrated lime- sulfur solution, diluted at the rate of one and one-half gallons of a solution testing thirty-three degrees Beaume to fifty gallons of water, has given good results in some places. Bordeaux is made by slaking four pounds of quicklime slowly, preferably with hot water, and diluting it to make twenty-five gallons. Dissolve three pounds of bluestone (copper sulfate) in twenty-five gallons of water. This may be done quickly with hot water, or the bluestone may be placed in a burlap sack the night before the spray is to be applied and hung in a tub of water, so that the bottom of the sack is just below the surface of the water. Always use a wooden receptacle for dissolving bluestone. When ready to spray — not before — pour the lime and the bluestone solutions together into a fifty gallon barrel at the same time ; do not pour one into the other. Strain the mixture through fine wire gauze before spraying, and keep it agitated. Arsenate of lead paste is preferred to paris green for spraying strawberries, as it sticks better to the foliage. 270 . Strawherry-Growing The usual rate of application is three or four pounds to fifty gallons of spray; in most cases it is put into the bordeaux. Paste lead should be mixed with a little water to make it liquid before it is added to the bordeaux. Powdered arsenate of lead is equally effective if used at the rate of one and a half to two pounds for each fifty gallons of spray. It is not safe to spray a fruiting field after the blossoms open ; the spray will injure the blossoms and mark the berries. Leaf-eating insects that appear between blossom- ing and harvesting may be controlled with fresh powdered hellebore at the rate of one ounce to two gallons. Nurserymen located in districts that are infested with root-louse should fumigate their plants with hydro-cyanic acid gas before they are shipped. PLANT DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL Leaf-spot, rust or leaf-blight {SphoBrella jragarice). This is the most common and most conspicuous disease attacking the strawberry. It occurs on nearly all cultivated varieties to some extent, and on the wild strawberry, F. virginiana. The leaves are covered with small spots or blotches, wliich are reddish or purplish at first ; later the center becomes ashy white, bordered with red or purple (Fig. 17). The spots are distributed irregularly; when numerous they run together, forming irregular blotches. The healthy leaf surface is so reduced that the fruit does not develop properly and few runners form. Sometimes the disease attacks the fruit-stems and cuts off the food supply of the berries so that they shrivel when half grown. In very severe attacks, the whole bed is practically ruined; by midsummer it looks as though scorched by fire. Plants in heavy, wet soil are more likely to be affected than plants on light, dry soil. Bordeaux lessens the severity of the attack, but does not hold the disease in check altogether. Spray the fruiting bed twice before the blossoms open and again immediately after; a field of virgin Insects, Diseases and Frost 271 plants may be sprayed at any time. The chief reliance for freedom from leaf-bHght is the selection of resistant varieties. Some sorts, as Warfield, Beder Wood, Bubach and Gandy are very susceptible; others, as Brandywine, Michel and Thompson, rarely are affected seriously. Varieties that are susceptible in one place may not be in another; much depends on air drainage and soil drainage. Set Leaf-spot, or rust. only healthy plants. Mowing and burning the plants after harvest helps to some extent. There are at least two other closely related forms of leaf-blight. One of these (Aposphceria, sp.) is distinguished from Sphcerella by the shape of the spot, wliich usually begins at the margin of the leaf and extends toward the center, in the shape of the letter V. The Ascochyta commonly attacks the hulls and fruit-stalks. Neither responds readily to treatment. Powdery mildew {Sphwrotheca humuli). Powdery mildew curls the leaves and the white mycelium of the fungus is conspicuous on the under surface. It rarely is troublesome in the field, but may be on plants forced in the greenhouse. Bor- deaux spraying for leaf-blight controls this disease, also. In the greenhouse, the plants may be dusted with flour of sulfur every ten days. 272 Strawberry-Growing Root-rot. Some years, especially from 1902 to 1908, the root-rot or "black root" has been serious, mainly in New York, Micliigan and Massa- chusetts. When the berries are about half grown the plants wilt and turn yellow; the roots are decayed. Most of this trouble is due to winter injury, but a bacterial disease is associated with it in some cases. Poor culture, lack of fertility, the crowding of plants in the row, insufficient mulching and wet land are favorable for this trouble. INJURIOUS INSECTS AND THEIR CONTROL Weevil (Anthonomus signatus). Before the flower-buds open, those that are infested droop over, wither, and in a few days most of them break off and fall to the Fig. 18. — Work of the weevil, a, fruit-stalk with punctured buds ; b, wilting buds ; c, egg ; d, lava ; /, pupa, all three enlarged ; g, flower with feeding punctures. ground; a few hang by shreds (Fig. 18). A small white grub is feeding inside. The weevil is prevalent east of the Rocky Mountains ; it is especially serious in Delaware, Maryland, Virginia and North Insects, Diseases and Frost 273 Carolina. Sometimes it causes a loss of fifty per cent of the crop. Early blossoms are injured chiefly, so that the shortage is mostly in early fruit, which brings the liighest prices. The adult beetles hibernate over winter and appear in the straw- berry field as soon as the earliest blossom buds show. They con- tinue to emerge in great numbers for a month. The weevil is about one-tenth of an inch long, black to reddish brown, with a large black spot on each wing cover (Fig. 19). Most of the damage is caused by the female weevil, which lays an egg in the bud, then girdles the stem below it. The lava feeds within the bud ; in tliree or four weeks it pupates and emerges as a full grown weevil. The new generation of weevils feeds for a short time on the pollen of various kinds of flowers, in- cluding the strawberry, then disappears. 19. — Adult Control measures are limited mainly to preven- tion. Since the larva feeds mainly on pollen, the most effective measure is to grow pistillate varieties and use only enough plants of staminate sorts to pollinate them. The susceptibility of varieties is in direct ratio to the amount of pollen they produce. Staminate varieties which blossom early and profusely may be used as a trap crop and are plowed under after the weevils have congregated upon them. Many growers rely entirely upon profuse-blooming stami- nate varieties for protection — those that produce enough blossoms to bear good crops even though attacked by the weevil. In the home garden, covering the plants closely with muslin before they bloom will protect them. The attacks of this insect are so sporadic that most growers find it impracticable to spray. All trash and weeds in and around the field should be destroyed. Use mulch only when absolutely necessary, as the weevils hibernate beneath it. Leaf-roller {Ancylis comptana). This is a pest in the Northern states and Canada, from Colorado eastward. A greenish or brownish caterpillar, about one-half of an inch long, with a shining brown head, draws the two halves of the leaflet together with silken strands and feeds on the surface of the inclosed leaf, causing it to turn brown and die. If abundant, by the middle of June the field looks as if scorched by fire. It is the T 274 Strawberry-Growing larva of a reddish-brown moth, about three-fourths of an inch Tvide, which lays eggs on the under surface of the young leaves in May or June. Forty-two to fifty days elapse from egg to moth. In the North there are two broods each year ; in the South, three or four broods. The insects hibernate as partly grown larvae or as pupae, beneath trash and mulch. Since the larva feeds for a short time on the upper surface of the leaves before entering its shelter, arsenate of lead, applied early, is quite effective. The application must be repeated every week or ten days, as fast as new leaves are put out by the plants ; one spray- ing does little good because the eggs are laid over a long period. Mowing and burning after the crop is harvested destroys all larvae and pupae in the folded leaves. Plow the old beds under immediately after harvesting. White grub {Lachnostema, several species). White grub is the most common insect attacking the strawberry. When some of the lustiest plants in the field begin to wilt, one or more grubs will be found feeding on the large roots or in the crown. The grubs are one inch to one and one- half inches long, thick, curved, dirty white with brown heads. These are the larvae of several species of the large brownish May beetles or June bugs. The female burrows into the soil and deposits eggs one to five Fig. 20. — White grub. The j^^^^g ^elow the surface. The grub mature msect, or May beetle, - , , « i . , is shown at a. feeds the farst season on plant roots at a depth of about three inches. On the approach of winter it burrows deeper into the soil. It does most of its damage the second season. The life cycle is three years, occasionally four. As the beetle does not feed on the strawberry plant and the grub is deep in the ground most of the time, neither can be reached with insecticides. White grubs are most abundant in land that has been in sod for several years ; hence, strawberries should not be planted on a sod fallow. It is best to precede strawberries with a hoed crop, like potatoes. If this cannot be done, plow the sod deeply Insects, Diseases and Frost 275 early in the fall previous to planting, so as to expose the pupating grubs to the winter. Hogs, chickens and turkeys are efficient destroyers of grubs if al- lowed to follow in the furrow while plowing. When a plant is infested, there is no remedy but to dig down beside the crown and find the grub. This is not practicable commercially. Applications of kainit are not effective. Plants of a valuable novelty may be WTapped in wre fly screening when set; the roots grow through the netting, but the grub cannot get to the crown. Root-louse (Aphis forbesi). The presence of this insect is indicated by spots where all the plants have been killed, and the adjoining plants look unthrifty. Fig. 21. — Root-louse. On left, the stem mother ; center, viviparous fe- male of late summer and fall ; right, the male. Sometimes this is mistaken for winter injury. The plants dry out, the fruit is small and fails to ripen ; numerous ants around the plants are another indication. Dark green, bluish or blackish lice will be found clustered on the roots and crowns of unhealthy plants. This insect is widely distributed in the states east of the Rocky Mountains, but is most destructive in Illinois, Ohio, Delaware and Maryland. It does more damage on sandy soil than on heavy soil. The insects are very abundant for several years, then disappear for a time. Numerous small shining black eggs about one thirty-fifth of an inch long are laid in the fall by the last generation of that year, upon the stem and midribs of the greenest leaves. In the spring they hatch into wingless females, which give birth to living young through- out the season. In twelve to fifteen days the aphids are full grown and begin to bear young. The small, brown, cornfield ants carry 276 Strawberry-Growing young aphids from the leaves and crowns to the roots. The ants feed on the honey dew that is secreted by the aphids. They carry the aphids to new plants when infested plants die, thus spreading the pest. When the food supply becomes short, winged female forms appear which fly to neighboring fields and establish new colo- nies. In late autumn true males and females appear, pair, and eggs are laid to continue the species over winter. Parasitic enemies are abundant, but do not keep the aphids in check. Secure clean plants and set them on clean land. Avoid corn or melon fields which have been infested with the corn or melon aphis ; such fields contain numerous ants which aid in spreading the strawberry root-louse. If there is any doubt about the plants being clean, disinfect them before they are set. Tliis is performed suc- cessfully only when all the eggs have hatched ; neither fumigation nor dipping can kill the eggs without injuring the plant. If disin- fection is delayed until the eggs have hatched, however, this makes the planting season late. Dip the plants for a few minutes in a to- bacco decoction or in dilute nicotine sulfate, one part to 1000; or fumigate with hydrocyanic acid gas, using one ounce per cubic foot of space for ten minutes. Plow old beds as soon as the crop has been harvested. In the North, if the field is burned over in early spring, this destroys the eggs ; in the South, the aphids winter on the roots and burning is not effective. Crown borer {Tyloderema fragarice). In the upper Mississippi Valley, strawberry plants are attacked by a thick grub, one-quarter of an inch long, white with a brown head, which burrows in the crown. In early spring, a chestnut brown snout-beetle, one-sixth of an inch long, deposits eggs in the plant near the surface of the ground, selecting the older plants. The borer reaches maturity in July and August and b transformed into a beetle in the cavity it has made. There is one generation a year. The beetles cannot fly, so the insect spreads very slowly. A short rotation prevents it from becoming established. If plants for new settings are dug very early in the spring, before the eggs are laid, there is no danger of spreading the pest. Plow under or burn all the plants in a field that is badly infested as soon as possible after the fruit is harvested. Insects, Diseases and Frost 277 Slugs (Empria, several species). In April or May, numerous pale, greenish caterpillars, about three-fourths inch long with yellow or brownish heads, eat irregular holes in the foliage (Fig. 22). These are the larvae of a small, black, four-winged saw fly, which lays eggs on the plants about two weeks be- fore the blossoms open. When not feeding they stay on the under side of the leaf, coiled in a spi- ral. Short rotations and spraying with arsenate of lead before t-. nr, x • , ,, ,, -TIG. 22. — Injury from slugs. the blossoms open are the best control measures. After the fruit is set, use hellebore. Root worms {Typophorus and Colapsis). These are the larvae of several species of common leaf beetles. The adult beetles are black or reddish brown, one-eighth of an inch long. They feed on the opening strawberry leaves in May and June, rid- dling them. The larvae burrow into the soil and feed on the roots of the strawberry ; frequently they are mistaken for white grubs. The beetles may be killed with arsenical sprays, but a short rotation is the most practicable control measure. Crown girdler {Otiorhynchus ovatiis). Occasionally strawberry plants are girdled an inch or more below the surface of the ground by grubs. These feed on the roots but rarely burrow into the crown as does the white grub. Infested plants wilt and die. There are two generations in a season. The best preventives are a short rotation and to avoid sod land. Ground beetles (Harpalus caliginosus and H. Pennsylvanicus) . In Pennsylvania, Ohio and New York, the common black ground beetles have been known to destroy an entire strawberry crop in 278 Strawberry-Growing two or three days. They iiide beneath the mulch during the day and emerge at night. At first they feed on the seeds, later on the pulp and sometimes on the , reen berries. No satisfactory method of control is knowTi, except the remote possibility of finding their breeding area and destro,^ 'n<' it. The injury is always local and temporary. Crown moth (Sesia rutiians). On the Pacific coast, strawberries suffer from a crown borer, the larva of a moth. The caterpillar is three-fourths of an inch long, dirty white, with a brown head. Plow under the old beds promptly and practice a short rotation. Flea beetle (Haltica ignita). In all parts of the continent, particularly in Florida and the Gulf states, this insect occasionally damages the strawberry crop. It is an active, oblong, shining green or blue beetle, about one-sixth of an inch long. Tiny larvae are seen on the underside of the leaves, which become riddled with small holes. Bordeaux, or dusting with arsenate of lead, will drive the beetles away. Burn weeds near the field, especially the evening primrose. Tarnished plant bug {Lygns pratensis). This is an inconspicuous, brownish sucking insect, about one-fifth of an inch long. It is found in all parts of the continent, and attacks many kinds of plants. It punctures the young fruits of the straw- berry and they remain small and deformed. Many of the "buttons" which are attributed to frost injury are caused by this insect. Since it lives on so many wild weeds, including goldenrod, wild carrot, mullein and aster, it is difficult to control. Keep the outskirts of the field clean of weeds. Thrips (Euthrips trittci). The adult thrips are one-twentieth of an inch long, brownish yellow. They appear in early spring as soon as the buds open, and suck the sap, causing the blossoms to ^ ither. Injury from thrips is most serious during a drouth ; rains d-. itroy them. Spraying with nicotine sulfate, one part to one thf.i sand, controls them fairly well, especially if two pounds of soa* : re added to each fifty gallons. Insects, Diseases and Frost 279 Cutworms (several species). These are the larvae of night-flying moths. Cutworms do more damage to strawberries in Florida and the Gulf states than else- where. They are of various colors, usually dark green or blackish, and one-half inch to one inch long. During the day they stay in the soil and come out at night to feed, cutting ofi" the plants near the ground. The injury is most serious in early spring and fall. Poi- soned baits are used with some success. Mix paris green or arsenate of lead with bran and add a little sirup to make it stick together. Bran bait is eflFective, also, when used dry at the rate of fifty parts of bran to one of paris green. The bait is scattered among the plants. MISCELLANEOUS PESTS Rose bug. — If rose bugs attack strawberries after the fruit is set, spraying with arsenate of lead is unsafe. Nothing can be done ex- cept to hand pick them, gather them with a scoop net or cover the vines with netting or cheesecloth. Ants. — If ants are in the home garden, find the hill, poke a hole in it with a crowbar and pour in half a pint of bisulfide of carbon ; then cover it with a blanket. The fumes will destroy the ants. Snails. — In Louisiana and other parts of the South snails are injurious occasionally. They are harbored by the mulch, and are serious only in wet weather. Sprinkle air slaked lime — not quick- lime ■ — ■ around the plants. Soot is used in England. Crickets. — In the Gulf states, black and white crickets eat small holes in the fruit, causing it to rot. They hide beneath the leaves and mulch during the day and feed at night. Poisoned bran sweetened with sirup and distributed among the rows gives some relief. Birds. — Several kinds of birds, particularly the robin, take toll from the strawberry field. In large fields the loss is so small, com- pared with the good that the birds do by eating insects, that the grower should not mind it; certainly he is not justified in shooting them. In home gardens, it may be desirable to cover the plants with cheese- cloth or mosquito netting, pegging it close to the ground. Some use poultry netting stretched on posts six feet high, so as to provide permanent protection. 280 Strawberry-Growing FROST PROTECTION The strawberry plant lies close to the ground, where the temperature is considerably lower than in the branches of fruit-trees ; hence, its blossoms are more likely to be Idlled than those of tree fruits. On the other hand, it has a long blossoming season, especially in the South, so that rarely are all the blossoms killed. The low stature of the plant makes it comparatively easy to protect from frost. The amount of damage depends on the time of the frost, its severity and its duration. In the North, if the early blossoms are killed, others will develop, but these are likely to be small and weak. In the South, a new crop of blossoms appears a few days after the first has been destroyed ; the only loss is in delaying the season three or four weeks. Pistillate varieties, as a class, are somewhat more resistant to frost than staminate varieties. No variety is "frost proof." When a number of varieties are grown side by side, one or two may be injured less than the others ; this may not be due to superior hardiness but because they were not at the most susceptible stage of development. Blossoms are injured most easily when they first expand, and during fertilization. Varieties with long fruit-stalks, which elevate the blossoms well above the foliage, are especially susceptible. A light frost merely touches the apex of the cone of pistils, causing the berries to "button." Buttoning is not due to frost altogether; the tarnished plant bug, dry weather or insufficient nour- ishment may result in buttons. Frost injury is confined to the pistils, which turn black. The stamens and petals are not injured ; the blossom looks normal unless examined closely (Plate X). The most practicable method of avoiding frost injury Insects, Diseases and Frost 281 is to select an elevated site (page 6). The principal means for securing protection for established plantations are actually to cover or screen the plants with straw, cloth or other material; to prevent rapid radiation of heat from the earth by making an artificial cloud or smudge ; to warm the air ; to create a draft or current of air ; to apply water. Mulches. One of the objections to a winter or spring mulch in the North is that it increases the danger from frost. The chief reason for this is that bare soil absorbs heat during the day and radiates a portion of it at night, while a straw mulch reflects much of the heat of the sun, leaving the soil beneath it cold. Mulched plants are somewhat more succulent, also. A difference of several degrees has been noticed on a frosty night between mulched and un- mulched fields. This disadvantage is slight, compared with the benefits of a winter mulch in the North. The winter mulch may be used for frost protection in two ways. If it is left on the plants late in the spring, or until they begin to bleach, the blossoming season is re- tarded and the danger from frost lessened thereby (page 121). Some growers remove the winter mulch from half of the field early and leave it on the other half as late as they dare. The mulch, also, may be used to cover the plants when a frost is threatened. This method has been used more than any other since 1557, when Thomas Tusser wrote in his " Five Hundred Points of Good Husbandrie " : "If frost do continue, take this for a law, The strawberries look to be covered with straw, Laid overly trim upon crotches and bows, And after uncovered as weather allows." 282 Strawberry-Growing A heavy winter mulch is pushed from over the plants into the middles, where it is ready to be used for covering the plants when frost is imminent. One man can cover one- half to one acre before midnight. The straw can be left on the plants three or four days if the weather con- tinues cool, but should be removed as soon as possible. Only enough straw should be used barely to cover the plants. Throughout the South where no winter mulch is used, the fruiting mulch serves the double purpose of keeping the berries clean and affording frost protec- tion. Weather Bureau predictions are relied on for timely warning. A few hours before sunset the entire force is put at work with hand rakes covering the plants with the pine straw mulch. When no fruiting mulch is used, two or three handfuls of pine straw are thrown over each plant. Screens. Lath screens are effective in home gardens. Market- gardeners use muslin hotbed sash; these will keep off a frost of ten or twelve degrees. O. W. Blacknall, of North Carolina, covered his field with the muslin cloth used for tobacco plant-beds. Small stakes were driven into the ground in straight rows as wide apart as the strip of cloth. At the top of each stake was a wire hook to hold the cloth in place. He reported : ^ " Berries under the cloth ripened about one week earlier than those outside. On April 16, 1890, the ground froze half an inch deep and frost killed every exposed blossom. Not one per cent of those under the cloth was lost." The shading of straw- berries is discussed further on page 265. 1 Rept. Mo. Hort. Soc, 1900. p. 349. Insects, Diseases and Frost 283 Smudging and heating. The object of smudging is to produce a cloud of smoke which will prevent the radiation of heat from the earth; the object of heating is actually to warm the air. These methods find favor in districts where no mulch is used, especially in the Pacific Northwest. They are most effective when the area to be protected is large and the land approximately level. On hilly land the cold air settles down under the smudge cloud from higher points and pushes it upward. Piles of dry kindling are covered with wet straw, manure, corn cobs or sawdust, and are lighted with kerosene ; if coal tar is poured over the fires, the smoke is denser. The distance between piles on the outside of the field should not be less than seventy-five feet, especially on the wind- ward side, but may be less inside the field. In recent years, heating has largely superseded smudg- ing. There are a number of types of patented heaters; most of these burn crude oil, but some burn coal. At least 100 heaters are required to protect an acre. The expense of this method is $20 to $50 an acre a season. It is useless to begin without a large supply of oil to replen- ish the heaters. In 1910 Charles Staib, of Missouri, reported : ^ "The experiments taught us that we need 125 to 150 pots per acre to protect the bloom and berries fully from a frost of 24 degrees above zero. One hundred heaters per acre raise the temperature five degrees. The cost per acre for 100 heaters, besides labor, was $20 for heaters and $15.14 for oil. The temperature went to 24 degrees outside the field. Where we used 100 heaters the yield was 245 crates per acre which sold for $551.25 gross. Where no heaters were used, the yield was 96.6 » Kept. Mo. St. Bd. Hort., 1910, pp. 47-9. 284 Strawberry-Growing crates per acre, which sold for $113.32 gross; so that the net profit, after deducting the cost of crates and picking, was $258.29 per acre, and we still have heaters on hand." If a thermometer placed near the surface of the ground reads 37 degrees or less by two a.m., and no clouds or mist are rising, it is advisable to start the fires. Light frosts may be warded off by building large fires at the lower end of the field. The hot air rises and cold air rushes in to take its place, so that a current of air sets toward the fires from all parts of the field that are higher. When air is kept in motion there is not likely to be a frost. If the ground is wet thoroughly, either by sprinkling or by irrigation, the evening before a frost is expected the dan- ger is lessened, since the increased amount of water vapor in the air raises the dew point. If frosted plants are sprinkled at daybreak, before the sun thaws them, they are not likely to be injured, even though they were frozen severely, since the water makes them thaw out gradually. Until recently, this was practicable only in home gardens ; now the overhead system of irrigation by sprinkling pro- vides means for doing this commercially. It is necessary that the nozzle line shall rotate every four or five minutes, so as to keep all the plants wet. It is possible that heating the water used in the sprinkling system may be found practicable. CHAPTER XV VARIETIES The strawberry is burdened more heavily with indefi- nite and mediocre varieties than any other fruit. Over 500 varieties are grown in North America to-day. New varieties indicate that the species still is in the process of evolution and that continued improvement in the garden form may be expected. They also indicate that there is an active interest in the fruit and an enlarging market for it. Fruits that command only a limited mar- ket, as the quince and currant, have few varieties. The more new varieties the better, provided each is distinct and better than all other sorts in at least one important respect. This has not been the case with two-thirds of the varieties that have been introduced since the success of the Hovey stimulated effort in this direction. The ease with which new varieties may be grown and multi- plied and the very short time that it is necessary to wait for results, as compared with tree fruits, have encouraged carelessness in breeding varieties and haste in introducing them. DOES IT PAY TO TEST NOVELTIES? Occasionally some one declares that the old varieties are better than the new and protests against the intro- duction of others. He forgets that the standard sorts 285 286 Strawberry-Grcnving to which he clings once were novelties. All must be tested to find the few that are worthy. The rapidity with which Klondike supplanted Thompson, Excelsior and other varieties in the South shows how quickly a really meritorious sort secures recognition. It is not necessary for the individual fruit-grower to test all the novelties; this would be as foolish as not to test any. Some men fail because they cling to the old sorts long after these are outclassed by more recent introductions. It is recognized now that the adaptation of varieties is a local and personal problem. We no longer quarrel with our neighbor because he is of the opinion that Chesapeake is a better variety than Dunlap. The attitude of the grower toward novelties should be one of conservatism. He should cling to the standard sorts until new ones have demonstrated their superiority, as grown on his own farm. By means of trade catalogues, horticultural society proceedings, experi- ment station bulletins and conferences with neighbors, he can keep posted on the newer varieties. A few of those that might be useful for his conditions should be grown in a small way. He should have a small trial plot; it costs little and may be worth much. A dozen plants of a variety are sufficient to give a fair idea of its general appearance and behavior. If it seems promising, after two years in the trial bed, a small commercial area may Fig. 23. — Matthew Craw- ford, Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio ; for nearly fifty years the fore- most American propagator of the strawberry and one who has urged and practiced conserva- tism in describing novelties. Varieties 287 be set. Always have a standard variety near it for comparison. POINTS TO CONSIDER IN SELECTING VARIETIES The answer to the perennial question, "What is the best variety of strawberry," constantly is becoming more involved. For many years a reply, "Grow the Wilson," would have been quite satisfactory in most cases. Now, desirable varieties are more numerous and market re- quirements much more diverse and exacting. The adap- tation of varieties to localities, soils and purposes is so intricate and personal a problem that few growers care to advise others what to plant. Adaptation to climate and soil. No fruit is more fickle about its habitat than the straw- berry. Each region has favorite varieties ; the same sort may give radically different results on neighboring farms. Many varieties are of local adaptation only. The Longworth has been forgotten, save on the San Francisco market. The Atlantic disappeared from cultiva- tion, except in Oswego county. New York. The Dollar was discarded everywhere, except in the Florin district, Cali- fornia. The Clark was of little value in the Willamette Valley, Oregon, where it originated, but found a congenial habitat in the Hood River Valley. At Selbyville, Dela- ware, over seventy-five per cent of the planting is Parson ; at Bridgeville, twenty-five miles away, nearly all the acre- age is Superior. It would be interesting to speculate why the Longworth, Wilson, Monarch, Sharpless, Jessie and other old varieties have persisted in commercial culti- vation on the Pacific coast, long after they have been discarded elsewhere. 288 Strawberry-Growing Although a number of valuable sorts are of very re- stricted adaptation, some succeed under many conditions of soil and climate. These cosmopolitan sorts have made possible the extension of strawberry-culture to all parts of the continent. Varieties that succeed nearly every- where, as the Wilson, Crescent, Dunlap and Haverland, dominate the markets. Varieties that are valued only in a few sections are likely to pass from cultivation be- cause the demand for plants is not large enough to justify nurserymen in propagating them. When considering new varieties, give preference to those that have enough stamina to thrive under widely different conditions. These are likely to acquire a reputation in the markets. Purpose for which the fruit is grown. Few varieties are valued equally for all purposes. Those who raise berries for home use will select varieties of a different type than the favorites of the commercial grower. First of all, they will be of high quality. It is not necessary that they be firm ; the firmest varieties seldom are of high quality. If the home garden receives exceptional care, some of the more tender and less pro- ductive but high flavored English sorts may be grown. Berries of large size, rich color and high flavor are valued in a home variety more than a very heavy yield. The Margaret is a typical amateur variety; it responds magnificently to high culture in the home garden, but is not a profitable commercial sort. Varieties of different periods of ripening should be selected, so as to provide a succession throughout the normal season, and includ- ing some everbearing sorts for fall fruiting. When strawberries are grown for a near or personal market, high quality is not as essential. Town buyers Varieties 289 are more attracted by size, color and freshness, than by high flavor. A succession of varieties is desirable. There is, also, a limited demand in the large cities for "fancy" berries. A few persons will pay fifty to seventy-five cents a box for these when ordinary berries sell for ten or fifteen cents. Berries for the fancy market must be very large and attractive in form and color, preferably deep red, with a glossy, almost varnished, appearance. If they are of high flavor, so much the better, but this is not as essential as very large size. The most important characteristic of the valuable whole- sale market sort is good shipping quality. A variety yield- ing 20,000 quarts an acre is worthless if the berries cannot be put on the market in good condition. Productiveness is next in importance, size and quality last. Most of the sorts that have captured the markets have been only fair in quality, but firm and productive ; if attractive in color, so much the better. For long distance shipment, berries of medium size are preferable to those that are large — they carry better. Uniformity in size and regularity in shape are desirable, also. Preferences of the market. The selection of varieties is influenced somewhat by the preferences of the markets. Certain varieties have an established reputation in certain markets ; it is worth while to capitalize that reputation. The San Francisco Chronicle for 1898 contained this illuminating statement : " The San Francisco market knows only two varieties — the Longworth and Sharpless — and there may or may not be in any year any considerable quantity of either on the market. All compact, red berries are known as Long- worth; all coarse, light-colored berries as Sharpless." 290 Strawberry-Growing It is more profitable to grow what the market wants than to attempt to create a demand for a new variety. The cultivation of strawberries primarily for the canning factory is becoming an important industry in some sections, notably in Maryland, Delaware, Ontario, British Columbia and Oregon, The ideal variety for canning, according to E. Hofer, of Oregon, must have "tartness and high color, be red clear through, have solid flesh, and hold color and form after being cooked in cans. It must give an exceptionally heavy yield of medium sized berries." ^ In addition, it should be self-stemming or part readily from the shuck when picked. A new type of varieties, to be grown solely for canning, is likely to develop in the next few years. How many varieties to grow. As competition increases, the necessity for standardiza- tion of varieties becomes more imperative. In recent years, the number of varieties that are grown for the general market at any one shipping point has been much reduced. A car of a single variety commands the at- tention of buyers more than a car of several varieties. Many shipping districts now grow one variety almost exclusively ; as the Aroma in the Ozark region, the Clark in the Hood River Valley, and the Klondike in Florida and the Gulf states. The very few varieties that are grown commercially in the South are in striking contrast to the large number grown in the North. This is because the markets of southern growers are distant, while those of northern growers are near. If each district grew early, midseason and late varieties, the late sorts at southern points would compete with the early sorts at 1 Rept. Ore. State Bd. Hort., 1903, p. 241. Varieties 291 northern points. Furthermore, each variety ripens over a much longer period in the South than in the North. When there is a shipping association, it is especially impor- tant to grow but one or two varieties. This makes it pos- sible to standardize the pack, so that sales may be made on a definite basis and advertising may be more effective. When catering to a local market, a number of sorts, from extra early to very late, may be profitable ; but for the general market this is not likely to pay. Between March and July many districts compete in the general market ; each district is forced to grow varieties that ripen when the market is supplied least, regardless of other factors. Until about 1890, northern growers found it profitable to grow early varieties for the whole- sale market. Now southern berries have driven early varieties from the North, except when grown for the local markets. Fifteen years ago the Ozark region, espe- cially northern Arkansas, grew Thompson and Michel to advantage, but these were driven off the market by Klondikes from farther South, and this district was forced to grow a medium late variety — the Aroma. The ad- vice of G. T. Turpin, of Missouri, is applicable generally : "You should first find the niche in the market where you can get in first. After that, determine the variety for filling this niche ; then plant all of one variety." NOTEWORTHY VARIETIES* Not more than sixty of the 1800 North American varieties have attained prominence. Seventeen of the ^ All of the 1800 varieties of North American origin are described in Technical Bulletin No. 11, Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station, by S. W. Fletcher. 292 . Strawberry-Growing most important of those now in cultivation are described below. Staminate varieties are designated by (S) ; pistil- late varieties by (P). Aroma (S). {Cycloma.) — Originated in 1889, by E. W. Cruse, Leavenworth, Kansas, seedling of Cumberland Triumph; intro- duced in 1892. Plant semi-spreading; leaflets large, dark green; runners moderate; blossoms open midseason to late; fruit-stems erect, moderately spreading; berry large, round-conic, bright scarlet; calyx medium, adherent; seeds fairly prominent; flesh light red, firm ; core white, solid ; flavor mild subacid ; quality good. Medium late. The dominant variety in Arkansas, Kansas, southwest Missoiu-i. Valued because of its uniformly large size and productiveness. It ripens before Gandy and lasts a week later. Brandywine (S). — Originated in 1889, by E. T. Ingram, West- chester, Pennsylvania, a chance seedling supposed to be Glendale X Cumberland Triumph ; introduced in 1895. Plant stocky ; leaves medium green; runners moderate; fruit-stalks long, carried well above the foliage; berry large, broadly round-conic, dull, dark crimson ; calyx very large, easily detached ; seeds yellow, exserted, but not prominent; flesh dark salmon red, rather coarse grained, firm; core hollow; flavor brisk subacid, moderately rich; quahty good. Medium late. Valued in many districts, especially in south- ern California. The calyx frequently turns brown after the berry is picked and injures the appearance of the fruit. A good canning variety (Plate XXIV). Bubach (P). (Western Union, of some.) — Originated in 1882, by J. G. Bubach, Princeton, Illinois, one of several seedlings from hand-sown seeds of unknown parentage; introduced in 1886. Plant rather low, spreading; leaves large, dark green; runners few; fruit-stalks short, rather weak; flowers large; berry large to very large, irregular-conic, usually ribbed, waxy light crimson; calyx large, adherent; seeds large, even with the surface; flesh medium red, streaked with white, medium firm to soft, coarse grained ; core solid ; flavor subacid ; quality fair. Midseason. Widely grown between 1890 and 1905 and still valued for home use or near-by markets. Commonly pollinated with Michel, Clyde or Aroma. When properly pollinated, Bubach is one of the heaviest Plate XXIV. Noteworthy Varieties of Strawberries. — Above, Brandywine, a standard sort under irrigation in southern California ; below, Wilson, the dominant variety from 1860 until 1885, and still grown, especially in the Northwest. Varieties 293 yielding varieties grown and usually it carries out all its berries to a good size. Pronounced "Bubaw." Clark (S). (Clark's Seedling; Clark's Early; Early Idaho; Hood River.) — Originated by Fred E. Clark in Mt. Tabor District, near Portland, Oregon, from hand-sown seeds ; supposed to be a seedling of Wilson ; introduced about 1880. Plant erect; runners moderate; fruit-stems long, stout, erect; berry medium, round- conic, dark crimson; seeds bright yellow, protruding; flesh dark red, very firm ; core solid ; flavor subacid ; quality good. Midsea- son. Grown almost to the exclusion of other sorts in the Hood River Valley, Oregon, and valued in other parts of the Pacific Northwest; fails in the East. As grown in the Northwest it has remarkable shipping qualities. It requires more moisture than many varieties and is a light bearer. A good canning sort. Crescent (P). (Boynton; Park Beauty.) — Originated in 1870 by Wm. Parmalee, New Haven, Connecticut, as a chance seedling ; introduced in 1876. Plant tall, with smooth, slender leaf-stalks and small medium green leaflets; runners very numerous; fruit- stalks fairly erect, well branched ; berry medium or below, round- conic, usually with a depression in the apex, bright scarlet ; calyx medium, recurved, easily detached ; seeds medium, even with the surface or slightly protruding ; flesh light red, medium firm ; core pink, solid ; flavor acid ; quality fair. Medium early. Crescent Improved does not differ materially from the type. The Crescent has been grown more than any other variety except the Wilson. Between 1875 and 1890 it dominated all markets; in the nineties it was superseded in most places by Warfield. The most valuable points of Crescent are productiveness, even on poor land, and great vigor ; it is deficient in color, firmness and quality and rusts badly. The early blossoms produce enough pollen to fertilize themselves and bear lightly without any pollinizer. If neglected, the runners soon take possession of the entire field and the berries become very small. Dunlap (S). (Senator Dunlap; Senator.) — Originated in 1890 by J. R. Reasoner, Urbana, Illinois, parentage uncertain, but Cum- berland Triumph, Crescent, Windsor and Sucker State were used in the crosses ; introduced in 1900. Plant rather small but vigorous, semi-spreading; leaf -stalks long, slender, with dark green leaflets of medium size; runners numerous; fruit-stalks long, medium stout, usually unbranched ; blossoms in midseason ; berry medium 294 Strawberry-Growing to large, round-conic, often slightly necked, glossy, bright dark crimson; calyx of medium size, reflexed, easily detached; seeds medium, slightly sunken ; flesh rich dark red, medium firm, fine- grained ; core red, partly hollow ; flavor mild subacid ; quality good. Medium early. The most widely grown variety in the North at this time. It tends to produce too many plants, rusts considerably and the ber- ries are variable in size; but they are attractive, of good quality and are produced freely. During the latter part of the season the berries run small, largely on account of the numerous runners; it is better to restrict these to a narrow row. The berries quickly lose their bright color on the market. Dunlap is one of the best pollinizers for pistillate sorts, as it blooms profusely from early to late. It is one of the best varieties for those who cannot give high culture, as it thrives under neglect almost as well as the Wilson and Crescent. Dunlap is not firm enough for distant markets. A good variety for canning. Excelsior (of Hubach) (S). — Originated in 1890 by Louis Hubach, Judsonia, Arkansas, Wilson x Hoflfman ; introduced in 1897. Plant tall; leaflets small, dark green; runners numerous; fruit-stalks short, procumbent; flowers small; berry medium, round-conic, glossy, deep dark crimson ; calyx small, adherent ; seeds of medium size, depressed; flesh dark red, firm, juicy; core dark red, soHd; flavor very acid ; quality fair. Very early. This variety has been planted extensively in the South for northern markets. It is valued for its earliness, attractive appearance and shipping quality ; also because it bears well in cold weather. It is known as one of the sourest varieties, partly because it colors long before it is ripe. The foUage often rusts badly, causing late shipments to be insipid. If the rows become thick, the berries run small. It is one of the most dependable extra early sorts. Gandy (S). {Gaudy's Prize; First Season, of some.) — Originated in 1885 by W. S. Gandy, Newport, New Jersey, Jersey Queen x Glendale; introduced in 1888. Plant low, spreading; leaves of medium size, medium green ; runners moderate ; fruit-stalks large, erect; berry large, uniform, roundish to round-conic, rich dark, dull scarlet ; calyx large, easily detached ; seeds numerous, slightly protruding ; flesh medium red, firm, coarse-grained ; core hollow ; flavor brisk subacid ; quahty good. Very late. Gandy has been the standard late variety since 1890. In recent years it has been Varieties 295 displaced by Aroma in some sections. Gandy requires strong soil, preferably with a clay subsoil, and an abundant supply of moisture ; on thin, dry soils it buttons. Underdrained muck swamps are known as "Gandy land." A short season of ripening — usually but three or four pickings, is characteristic of this variety. The first blossoms frequently are without pollen, so it is well to plant it with Aroma. On very strong soils, it makes a rank growth in the fall, which delays the elaboration of fruit buds. An excellent shipper. Glen Mary (semi-S). — Originated by J. A. Ingram, East Brad- ford, Pennsylvania, as a chance seedling where Crescent, Downer's Prolific and Sharpless had been grown ; introduced in 1896. Plant spreading ; leaflets dark green ; runners moderate ; fruit-stalks of medium length, fairly erect; berry large, irregular round-conic, ridged and deeply pitted, dark scarlet; calyx large, moderately adherent ; seeds inconspicuous, of medium size, even with the sur- face or protruding slightly; flesh medium red, firm, juicy; core solid ; flavor mild subacid to sweet ; quality good. Midseason. Popular for market and home use because of its productiveness and large, handsome berries of good quality. It has two serious defects ; many of the early blossoms do not produce enough pollen, and the berries tend to have white tips. The bright color fades quickly in the market. It is commonly planted with Lovett, Dunlap or Parson to furnish pollen. Under favorable conditions it spaces its runners well and bears heavily. Haverland (P). — Originated in 1882 by B. H. Haverland, Cin- cinnati, Ohio, Crescent x Sharpless; introduced in 1887. Plant large, upright ; foliage abundant, light green ; runners few ; fruit- stalks short, too weak to hold up the fruit ; berries medium to large, long-conic, sometimes necked, bright light scarlet; calyx medium, easily detached ; seeds numerous, large, slightly protruding ; flesh light red, medium firm ; core pink, solid ; flavor subacid ; quality good. Midseason. Popular for home use and near markets be- cause of its exceptional productiveness. Rather soft for distant markets and too light in color but it carries fairly well if picked early. In wet seasons the berries become quite soft. It has a long ripen- ing season and is seldom injured seriously by frost. Dunlap, Clyde, Parson, Lovett and Beder Wood are good pollinizers for Haverland. It profits by an abundance of moisture. Haverland is one of the best sorts for family use. 296 Strawberry-Growing Jucunda (S). (Knox's 700.) — The origin of the American stock of this foreign variety is in doubt. In 1866 John Saul, of Wash- ington, D.C., said, "It originated with Messrs. Jamin and Durand, France, and was imported by me in 1858" ; but the same year W. R. Prince of Flushing, New York, asserted, "The Jucunda originated with John Salter, Hammersmith, England, and was imported by me in 1859." It is probable that the latter account is correct. Plant large, upright, shallow rooted; leaf -stalks smooth, leaflets large, light green; runners moderate; fruit-stalks long; flowers large; berry large, obtuse-conic, frequently irregular and coxcombed, light crimson; flesh light red, firm; flavor sweet; quality good. Midseason to late. Since 1860, Jucunda has been a standard variety for heavy, rich soils and intensive cultm-e ; it does not succeed under other conditions. John Knox, of Pittsburg, secured remarkable results with this variety ; between 1860 and 1871 he reported yields of 300 to 600 bushels an acre. Jucunda does best under hill train- ing. The young plants grow slowly and are rather weak at first ; the old plants are shallow rooted, tender, and require special care in mulching. Jucunda now is grown more commonly in the West than in the East. It is a special purpose variety. K^londike (S). — Originated by R. L. Cloud, Independence, Louisiana, Pickerproof x Hoffman; introduced in 1901. Plant erect ; leaf -stalks long, leaflets of medium size, dark green ; runners moderate ; fruit-stalks shorter than the foliage, fairly stout ; berry medium to large, round-conic, dark crimson; calyx large, reflexed, adherent, tinged with dull red ; seeds medium, scattered, depressed ; flesh dark red, very firm ; core red, solid ; flavor acid ; quality fair. Midseason to late. Klondike quickly supplanted Michel, Thompson, Excelsior and other varieties in the South; now it is grown almost exclusively in many parts of the South, especially in the Gulf states, for northern markets. It is a superb shipping variety, of good size and attractive appearance, but it is sour and its lateness is a disadvantage. It is not very resistant to drought, but is quite productive. The blossoms are protected from frost by the foliage. In Florida it is being supplanted by Missionary. Marshall (S). (Henry.) — Originated in 1890, as a chance seedhng by Marshall F. Ewell, Marslifield Hills, Massachusetts; intro- duced in 1893. Plant large, erect; leaf-stalks thick, long; leaflets large, medium green, irregularly toothed ; runners moderate ; fruit- stalks of medium length, stiff, usually double; berry large, round- Varieties 297 conic, often furrowed, dark crimson ; calyx of medium size, slightly discolored, somewhat depressed, easily detached ; seeds rather large, shghtly protruding; flesh dark red, firm, juicy; core pink, partly hoUow ; flavor mild subacid ; quality very good. Midseason. Marshall is a standard variety for home use, forcing or a special market. It requires high culture and a rich, heavy soil; it fails completely on poor and sandy soils. Marshall is a favorite among market-gardeners who practice hill culture and manm-e heavily. It is an excellent exhibition variety on account of its large size, beauty and high quahty; but it is rather unproductive, tender in bloom and rusts badly. It is preeminently an amateur and special purpose variety. Sharpless (S). (Dawley; Ontario; Shaw.) — Originated in 1872 by J. K. Sharpless, Catawissa, Pennsylvania, from mixed seed of Jucunda, Charles Downing, Wilson and Col. Cheney, but thought to be a seedling of Charles Downing; introduced in 1877. Plant of medium size, rather spreading ; leaves medium in size and color ; runners moderate ; fruit-stalks long, stiff ; berry large, very irregu- lar, wedge-conic, bright scarlet ; calyx medium, easily detached ; seeds protruding; flesh light red, medium firm; core pink, hard, often hollow; flavor mild subacid; quality good. Midseason to late. Between 1880 and 1900 the standard combination for com- mercial culture was Crescent pollinated with Sharpless. Sharpless is not as productive as Crescent but the berries are much larger; few varieties produce as many large berries. The main defect of this variety is the misshapen fruit. It is rather capricious, tender in blossom, and the berries are likely to have green tips and decay before fuUy ripe. It succeeds better in hills than in matted rows, and requires strong soil and high culture ; then it bears very large berries of good quality. Sharpless is still grown to some extent on the Pacific coast, especially in California and in British Columbia. Warfield (P). —Originated about 1882 by C. B. Warfield, Sand- oval, lUinois, a chance seedling, thought to be Crescent x Wilson; introduced in 1885. Plant erect ; leaflets medium in size and color, sharp-toothed; runners very numerous; fruit-stalks long, stout; berry medium, conic, glossy dark crimson; caljTC large, easily detached; seeds prominent, protruding; flesh dark red, firm, fine- grained ; core red, solid ; flavor acid ; quality fair. Early. Be- tween 1890 and 1900 Warfield was grown more than any other early variety ; the " big four " of that period were Crescent, Bubach, 298 Strawberry-Growing Haverland and Warfield, — all pistillate sorts. It is still valued, especially in the Mississippi Valley. Warfield is a handsome berry, an excellent shipper, a good cropper and stands frost better than most varieties; but it cannot endure hot weather and does not carry out the crop unless there is plenty of moisture. The plants must be thinned severely for best results. Warfield is commonly pollinated with Excelsior or Climax for early, and Dunlap for late. It is especially valuable for canning. William Belt (S). — Originated about 1888 by William Belt, Mechanicsburg, Ohio ; introduced in 1896. Plant rather spread- ing ; leaflets of medium size, light green ; runners numerous ; fruit- stalks long, stiff ; berry large, first fruits very irregular, later ones wedge-conic, bright crimson; calyx medium, easily detached; seeds medium, about even with the surface; flesh medium red, medium firm, fine-grained ; core pink, partly hollow ; flavor mild subacid ; quality very good to best. Medium late. William Belt vies with Marshall as a dessert variety. It is widely grown for home use and for a near fancy market. It is one of the best flavored berries grown but is rather uncertain in yield and rusts badly in some sections. William Belt is of the Sharpless type, both in plant and berry, but more productive. It thrives best in moist soils and fails in sands. The runners should be restricted for best results. It is a good pollinizer for pistillate sorts. Wilson (S). {Wilson's Albany.) — Originated in 1851 by James Wilson, Albany, New York from mixed seed of Hovey, Boss' Phoenix and Black Prince grown without hand crossing but open to natural cross-pollination; introduced in 1854. Plants of medium size, rather spreading; foliage large, dark green; runners moderate; fruit-stems of medium length, erect, branched; berry medium, regular round-conic, dark crimson ; seeds even wdth the surface, rather prominent ; flesh dark red, very firm ; core solid ; flavor acid ; quality good. Medium early (Plate XXIV) . Wilson is the most cosmopolitan of North American varieties. Between 1860 and 1885 it was grown more than all other varieties ; it practically monopolized the market until the introduction of the Crescent. At the height of its popularity it was one of the most vigorous and productive varieties iever grown, and thrived under conditions of neglect that would have starved other sorts. It colors very early, so that it has been marketed while still unripe and very sour ; when fxilly ripe, the quality is good. After the first two pickings, the Varieties 299 berries rapidly dwindle in size. The Wilson is quite susceptible to leaf -blight ; this was one of the causes for its rapid decline after 1885. It is still grown considerably, especially in eastern Canada, British Columbia, Oregon and other parts of the West, where it is valued especially for canning. It is an excellent poUinizer for pis- tillate sorts. LESS PROMINENT VARIETIES Annie Hubach (S). (Anna, o^ some.) — Originated by Louis Hubach, Judsonia,. Arkansas, Warfield x Thompson; introduced in 1904. Berry medium, round-conic with slight neck, light crimson ; flesh pale red, firm, subacid, fair ; runners numerous. Medium early. Arizona (S). (Arizona Everbearing; Mexican Everbearing.) — Originated Phoenix, Arizona, chance seedling, supposedly of Jessie ; introduced about 1890. Berry medium, round-conic, Ught scarlet; flesh light red, soft, mild subacid, good ; runners few. Midseason. Widely planted in the irrigated sections of the Pacific Southwest between 1895 and 1905, especially in southern California and Ari- zona. Still grown to a limited extent where heat and drought resist- ance are important. Improved Arizona is a selection not differing materially from the type. August Luther (S). (Luther.) — Originated 1875, by August Luther, Sedalia, Missouri; introduced 1891. Berry medium, round-conic, bright crimson; flesh light red, medium firm, subacid, good; runners moderate. Early. Valued for home use or near market. Australian (S). (Australian Everbearing; Australian Crimson.) — Introduced into California in 1885 by E. J. Baldwin, who is said to have secured it from Australia ; but probably is a renamed Ameri- can variety. Berry medium to large, round-conic, crimson; flesh medium red, very firm, subacid, good; runners moderate. Very early. In 1893 it was the dominant variety in southern California, but is now largely superseded by Brandywine. Drought and heat resistant. Beder Wood (S). (Racster ; Food.) — Originated in 1881, by Beder Wood, Moline, Illinois; introduced 1890 (as Racster), and in 1891 as Beder Wood. Berry medium or below, regular round- conic, scarlet; flesh light red, medium firm, brisk subacid, good; runners numerous. Early. Has been a standard commercial variety but now passing out. Soft and of poor color, but very productive. 300 Strawberry-Growing Captain Jack (S). (Burt.) — Originated about 1870, by Samuel Miller, Bluffton, Missouri, chance seedling, supposedly of Wilson; introduced 1874. Berry medium, round-conic, bright scarlet; flesh light red, firm, acid, good ; runners numerous. Medium early. Has been a standard variety in the Rocky Mountain states. One of the hardiest sorts. Carrie (P). — Originated by Mark T. Thompson, Rio Vista, Virginia, seedhng of Haverland; introduced about 1894. Berry large, long-conic, dark scarlet ; flesh mediinn red, medium firm, acid, good ; runners moderate. Medium late. In some places considered an improvement on its parent. Chesapeake (S). — Originated in 1903, by Geo. W. Parks, Nan- ticoke Point, Maryland, chance seedling; introduced 1906. Berry large, round-conic, bright crimson ; flesh medium red, very firm, mild subacid, very good ; runners few. Mediimi late. Rapidly growing in favor as a market variety, especially in the Atlantic states. Climax (of Graham) (S). — Originated by H. W. Graham, Tyaskin, Maryland, Bubach x Hoffman ; introduced 1902. Berry medium, round-conic, obtuse, dull light crimson ; flesh medium red, firm, brisk subacid, fair; runners moderate. Medium early. Has been grown considerably in the Atlantic states. Clyde (S). {Cycloma.) — Originated by James Stayman, Leaven- worth, Kansas, seedling of Cyclone ; introduced 1890. Berry medium to large, round-conic, light scarlet ; flesh medium red, medium firm, subacid, good ; runners moderate. Medium early. Valued for home use or near market. Too soft for distant market. Needs a strong soil to carry out the crop. Dollar (S). — Originated by Oscar F. Felton, Merchantsville, New Jersey; introduced about 1894. Berry large, round-conic, light crimson ; flesh medium red, firm, subacid, good ; runners moderate. Midseason. Has been the dominant variety in the Florin district near Sacramento, California. Shows strong ever- bearing tendencies, the young plants often fruiting as soon as rooted. Dollar Jr., a seedling of Dollar, introduced about 1900, and Dollar No. 2, a selection of Dollar, are not marked depar- tures from the type. Distinct from Gold Dollar. Early Hathaway (S). {Texas). — Originated 1892 by Louis Hubach, Judsonia, Arkansas, Wilson x Hoffman ; introduced 1902. Berry medium, round-conic, scarlet; flesh whitish, firm, acid, fair; Varieties 301 runners moderate. Medium early. Ripens a few days after Ex- celsior. \'^alued for market in many sections, especially the south central states. Has been more widely disseminated as Texas than as Early Hathaway. Frances Cleveland (P). (Mrs. Cleveland.) — Originated in 1881, by Geo. Townsend, Gordon, Ohio, seedling of Cmnberland Triumph ; introduced 1885. Berry medium to large, irregular round-conic, bright scarlet ; flesh light red, medium firm, good ; runners nu- merous. Midseason. Has been planted quite extensively. Dis- tinct from Cleveland. Fremont Williams (S). — Originated by Louis Hubach, Judsonia, Arkansas, Gandy x Bush Cluster; introduced 1904. Berry large, round-conic, light crimson ; flesh medium red, firm, subacid, good ; runners moderate. As late as Gandy and preferred to that variety in some sections. Hoffman (S). — Originated about 1884, by Mr. Hoffman, Charles- ton, South Carolina, chance seedling, supposed seedling of Neunan ; introduced 1887. Berry medium or below, round-conic, dark crimson; flesh medium red, firm, acid, fair; runners moderate. Early. From 1890 to 1900 was the dominant variety through the Southern states. Now supplanted by Klondike. Berries are very sour until fully ripe. Jessie (S to semi-S). — Originated 1880, by F. W. Loudon, Janesville, Wisconsin, Sharpless x Miner's Prolific; introduced 1886. Berry medium to large, round-conic to irregular wedge-shape, crimson ; flesh medium red, firm, subacid, good ; runners few. Midseason to late. Requires high culture. Still valued on the Pacific coast. Joe (S). (Joe Emerson; Emerson's Joe; Joe Johnson.) — Origi- nated by J. H. Black, Son & Co., Hightstown, New Jersey; a seedUng of Middlefield x Chair's Favorite was crossed with Sharp- less, and this with Gandy; introduced 1899. Berry large, round- conic, dark crimson; flesh medium red, firm, subacid, good; run- ners moderate. Late. Valued under intensive culture. Johnson (S). (Johnson's Early.) — Originated in 1893, by O. A. Johnson, Manokin, Maryland, supposed Crescent x Hoffman; introduced 1898. Berry medium to large, round-conic, sometimes irregular and necked, light crimson; flesh light red, medium firm, acid, good ; runners numerous. Medium early. One of the largest early varieties; valued for home use and market. 302 Strawberry-Growing Kittle Rice (P). (Downing' s Bride; Rice; Downing' s Pride.) — Originated about 1890, by J. F. Beaver, Dayton, Ohio ; introduced 1896. Berry large, round-conic, dark crimson ; flesh medium red, firm, brisk subacid, very good; runners moderate. Midseason. Valued for market and home use. Late Stevens (S to semi-S). (Stevens' Late Champion.) — Originated in 1897, by Arthur Stevens, Bridgeton, New Jersey, said to be "Bayview" (evidently not introduced) x Cumberland Pride; introduced 1903. Berry large, irregular wedge-conic to co.xcombed, light crimson ; flesh medium red, medium firm, subacid, good ; runners moderate. Late. A close competitor of Gandy in a few places. Longworth (S). (Longworth's Prolific; Schneike's Seedling; Schneike's Hermaphrodite.) — Originated 1848, by Mr. Schneike, gardener to Nicholas Longworth, Cincinnati, Ohio, being one of "thousands of seedlings from the Hovey, Keens' and Taylor's seedlings impregnated by Swainstone seedling" (the latter an Eng- lish variety); introduced 1851. Berry large, roundish-oval to roundish-flattened, light crimson ; flesh medium red, firm, brisk subacid, good; runners moderate. Medium early. The oldest North American variety now in cultivation. Still a standard sort in California. Lovett (S). (Lovett's Early.) — Originated in 1885, by J. H. Morris, Fairview, Kentucky, chance seedling, supposed Crescent x Wilson; introduced 1890. Berry medium to large, round-conic, bright crimson ; flesh medium red, firm, acid, good ; runners few. Medium early to midseason. Has been a standard variety ; used largely as a polhnizer. Magoon (S). — Originated by W. J. Magoon, Portland, Oregon, chance seedling; introduced 1894. Berry medium to large, ir- regular round-conic, dark crimson; flesh dark red, medium firm, mild subacid, very good ; runners moderate. Midseason to late. The leading variety for home use and near market in western Oregon. Too soft for long shipment, and only fair for canning. Makes immense stools. Fruit-stems weak. Needs deep, moist soil. Margaret (of Beaver) (S). (Marguerite, of some.) — Originated 1891, by J. F. Beaver, Dayton, Ohio, seedUng of Crawford ; intro- duced 1896. Berry large, conic, dark crimson ; flesh medium red, firm, mild subacid, very good ; runners moderate. Medium late. Varieties 303 Confused with Marguerite. Highly prized for amateur culture and for exhibition ; under high culture it produces very large berries of superior quality. Mazimus (S). (Corsican; Big Berry; Armstrongs Favorite; Ger- man Seedling. ) — Said to have originated in Germany. Berry medium to large, irregular round-conic to wedge-shape, light crimson, color very variable; flesh light red, medium firm, mild subacid, good; runners numerous. Midseason. Strongly resembles the New- York group of varieties. Michel (S). (Michel's Early; Mitchell's Early; Osceola; Ella; Young's Early Sunrise.) — Originated 1883, by Geo. Michel (pro- nounced Mike-el), Judsonia, Arkansas, chance seedling, supposed to be of Crescent; introduced 1889. Berry medium to small, round-conic, sometimes slightly necked, dull scarlet; flesh light red, medium firm, acid, fair; runners very numerous. Very early. Has been a prominent shipping variety, especially in the South. Not productive, and very sour. Now being discarded. Missionary (S). — Originated about 1900, by Nathaniel Gohn, Deep Creek, Norfolk County, Virginia, chance seedling; in- troduced 1906. Berry medium to large, round-conic, dark crimson ; flesh dark red, very firm, acid, fair; runners moderate. Early. Practically identical with Klondike, but earlier. Rapidly sup- planting Klondike in many parts of the South. Nettie (P). —Originated in 1893 by J. H. Black, Son & Co., Hightstown, New Jersey ; a Bubach x Yale seedling was crossed with Sharpless and this with Gandy; introduced 1899. Berry large, irregular round-conic to wedge-shape, scarlet; flesh medium red, medium firm, brisk subacid, good ; runners moderate. Very late, a little after Gandy. Preferred to Gandy in some sections. Neunan (S). (Nevnan's Prolific; Charleston Berry; Noonan; Nunan; Newman, of some.) — Originated by Mr. Neunan, Charles- ton, South Carolina; introduced about 1870. Berry medium, roundish to round-conic, light crimson ; flesh medium red, very firm, acid, fair ; runners numerous. Early to midseason. The dominant commercial variety of the South, for shipping north, 1878-1895 ; now mostly supplanted by Klondike and Missionary. New York (S). — Originated 1890, by Martha Yates Tanner, Slaterville Springs, New York, seedling of Bubach which was open to pollination by Jessie; introduced 1898. Berry large, irregular wedge-conic, crimson ; flesh medium red, medium firm, mild subacid. 304 Strawberry-Growing good; runners moderate. Midseason. The following varieties, most of which seem to be of authentic independent origin, so closely resemble New York as to be practicably identical : Hummer, Michi- gan Pride (of Kellogg), Morgan, Oswego, Pocahontas, Roosevelt (of Cathcoit), Ryckman. Also practically identical with Maximus, and its synonyms. Nich Ohmer (S). {Nikoma, erroneously.) — Originated by J. F. Beaver, Dayton, Ohio, seedUng of Middlefield; introduced 1898. Berry large, round-conic, dark crimson; flesh medium red, firm, mild subacid, very good; runners few. Midseason. Requires high culture. Ozark (S). {Early Ozar^.) — Originated 1902, by Chas. Shull, Sarcoxie, Missouri, Excelsior x Aroma; introduced 1908. Berry medium to large, round-conic, dark crimson; flesh dark red, firm, subacid, very good; runners numerous. Very early. A popular commercial variety; especially valued for canning. Pan-American (S). — Originated in 1898, by Samuel Cooper, Delevan, New York, thought to be a runner-sport from Bismarck ; introduced 1902. Berry medium, round-conic, obtuse, dull scarlet; flesh light red, medium firm, subacid, good ; runners practically none. Interesting only as the progenitor of the race of North American everbearing varieties. Parker Earle (S). — Originated 1886, by James Nimon, Denison, Texas, Crescent x T. V. Munson's No. 3, which was an unnamed seedling of Miner's Prolific; introduced 1889. Berry large, conic, with long neck, dark scarlet ; flesh light red, firm, mild subacid, good ; runners few. Medium late. Has been a standard variety in the West. Requires rich soil and hill training. Parson (S). (Parson's Beauty; Reynolds; Pearson's Beauty.) — Originated about 1895, by R. G. Parsons, Parsonsburg, Maryland ; chance seedling ; introduced 1899. Berry medium large, irregular- conic to wedge-conic, bright crimson; flesh medium red, firm, subacid, good; runners numerous. Midseason. Valued in Mary- land, Delaware, British Columbia, and several other sections. Pocomoke and Gibson (of Michigan) resemble it. Progressive (Never-stop) (S). — Originated 1908, by Harlow Rock- hiU, Conrad, Iowa, Pan-American x Dunlap; introduced 1912. Berry medium, wedge-conic to obtuse-conic, dark crimson; flesh dark red, firm, mild subacid, good ; runners moderate. Early. An everbearer, and one of the best of its class. Varieties 305 Ridgeway (S). —Originated 1892, by M. H. Ridgeway, Wabash, Indiana, Jersey Queen x Parker Earle; introduced 1897. Berry medium to large, round-conic to oblong-conic, light crimson; flesh medium red, medium firm, mild subacid, good ; runners moderate. Midseason to late. Valued in some sections for near market. A good pollinizer for late pistillates. Royal Sovereign (S). — Originated in England. Berry large, round-conic to wedge-shape, bright crimson; flesh medium red, firm, brisk subacid, good ; runners moderate. Very early. A standard sort in England ; grown to some extent in Canada, espe- cially on Vancouver Island and the adjacent mainland, and the Kootenay district, British Columbia, and Nova Scotia. Ruby (of Riehl) (S). (Richl.) — Originated 1890, by E. H. Riehl, N. Alton, lUinois, chance seedling, supposed to be Crescent x Sharp- less; introduced 1895. Berry medium to large, round-conic, ob- tuse, dull dark scarlet; flesh dark red, firm, subacid, good; runners numerous. Medium late. Valued in many sections, especially in Oregon for canning. Sample (P). — Originated 1894, by J. D. Gowing, N. Read- ing, Massachusetts, chance seedhng in bed of Leader; introduced 1898. Berry large, round-conic, very regular, dark crimson; flesh dark red, firm, subacid, good; runners nmnerous. Me- dium late. A standard variety in many places. Commonly pol- linated with Aroma, Dunlap and Parson. Snaps off easily in picking. Seaford (P). (Lloyd; Lloyd's Favorite.) — Originated 1892, by Chas. Wright, near Seaford, Delaware, chance seedling; intro- duced 1897. Berry medium to large, irregular wedge-conic, dark crimson ; flesh dark red, firm, acid, good ; runners moderate. Mid- season. Valued for canning. Hardy. Superior (S to semi-S). (Early Superior.) — Originated in Dela- ware about 1888 ; introduced about 1890. Berry medium, irregular wedge-conic, dark crimson ; flesh medium red, firm, subacid, good ; runners numerous. Medium early. Valued in a few localities, notably at Bridgeville, Delaware. Thompson (S). (Lady Thompson.) — Originated in 1894, by D. A. Thompson, Mt. Olive, North Carolina, chance seedling; introduced 1895. Berry medium, conic, bright scarlet ; flesh fight medium red, firm, subacid, good; runners moderate. Early. For some^ears a standard variety in the South for shipping to northern markets; X 306 Straivberry-Groiving now largely supplanted by Klondike. A heavy producer on poor soils, but berries soft and of poor color. Triomphe (S). (Triomphe de Gand; Triumph, of some.) — Origi- nated in Belgium, probably by M. de Jonghe, Brussels; intro- duced here by EUwanger & Barry, Rochester, New York, about 1855. Berry large, roundish, coxcombed, bright crimson ; flesh whitish, firm, mild subacid, very good ; runners moderate. Late. This variety and Jucunda are the only foreign sorts that have achieved prominence in North America. Valued under intensive culture on the Pacific coast. Uncle Jim (S). (Donian.) — Originated 1898, by J. F. Dornan, Glenn, Michigan, chance seedling; introduced 1902. Berry large, irregular round-conic, light crimson ; flesh medium red, medium firm, mild subacid, good ; runners moderate. Medium late. Very similar to if not identical with New York. Williams (of Ontario) (S). {Prince of Orange.) — Originated by Mr. Williams, Burford, Ontario, Crescent x Sharpless; introduced 1890. Berry large, round-conic to wedge-conic, dark crimson, often with white tip ; flesh dark red, firm, subacid, good ; runners nu- merous. Midseason. Has been a popular commercial variety in Canada, especially in southern Ontario. APPENDIX STATISTICS ON ACREAGE, PRODUCTION AND VALUE Statistics of the 12th and 13th census show a decrease of 5.5 per cent in the acreage of strawberries between 1900 and 1910. This decrease, however, is less with strawberries than with most other small-fruits, as is shown in the following table : Decrease in the Acreage of Small-pruits 1910 1900 Per Cent Decrease Strawberries Blackberries and dewberries . Raspberries and loganberries . Currants Gooseberries 143,045 49,004 48,668 7,862 4,765 151,363 50,221 60,916 12,865 6,752 -5.5 -2.4 -20.1 -38.9 -29.4 This decrease in strawberry planting was most rapid between 1905 and 1910. This contraction followed a num- ber of years of heavy and sometimes injudicious planting, especially in the South and Mississippi Valley. The reaction, however, was not as marked as that which followed the boom years of 1865-70. At present the total acreage apparently is increasing slightly. The value of the 1909 strawberry crop, as compared with other fruit crops of that year, is reported by the census as follows : 307 308 Appendix Value of Different Fruit Crops in 1909 Value Trees of Bearino Aqe Trees Not of Bearing Age Percentage OF Gain OR Lobs Apples . . S83,23 1,492 151,322,840 65,791,848 -16.7 Peaches and nectarines 28,781,078 94,506,657 42,266,243 129.8 Grapes^ . . 22,027,961 223,701,522 59,928,644 Strawberries 17,914,000 143,045 acres -5.5 Plums and prunes 10,299,495 23,445,009 6,923,581 76.6 Pears . . . 7,231,160 15,171,524 8,803,733 33.4 Cherries . . 7,231,160 11,822,044 5,621,660 43.6 Apricots 2,884,119 3,669,714 956,202 57.1 Quinces . . 517,243 1,154,339 509,800 In 1899 the relative rank was apples, strawberries, grapes and peaches ; the respective values, in round numbers, were sixty, fifteen, fourteen and seven millions. The wonderful stride in commercial peach-growing between 1899 and 1909 apparently has removed the strawberry permanently from second place ; now it vies with grapes for third place, some years exceeding that fruit in the value of the crop. If the value of the fruit produced in gardens were added to the value of the commercial product, it is probable that the strawberry would rank second to the apple. The states having the largest acreage in 1910 were : Maryland 14,292 acres Tennessee 10,761 acres Missouri 9,048 acres New Jersey 8,684 acres Michigan 8,051 acres Arkansas 7,361 acres Delaware 7,194 acres Virginia 6,606 acres 1 Does not include wine and raisin grapes. Appendix 309 The counties having the largest acreage in 1910 were : Sussex, Del 6,404 acres Anne Arundel, Md 3,937 acres Tangipahoa, La 3,311 acres Somerset, Md 2,859 acres Norfolk, Va 2,758 acres Wicomico, Md 2,700 acres Columbus, N.C 2,548 acres Rhea, Tenn 2,399 acres The Office of Markets and Rural Organization, United States Department of Agriculture, gives the following sum- mary : ^ " The eight most important commercial strawberry districts in 1914 were as follows, ranked according to carload shipments: Central California, 1905 cars ; Tennessee, 1571.5 cars ; Maryland, 1569.3 cars ; Delaware, 1374 cars ; south- ern Louisiana, 1243 cars ; North and South Carolina, 967.3 cars ; Virginia, 779 cars ; Ozark region, 748 cars." The total car-lot movement reported to that office in 1914 was 14,553.2 cars. To this should be added the large quantity that is marketed locally or shipped by express. While accurate data are not available, it is probable that the 143,045 acres of strawberries grown in the United States in 1910 were considerably more than half of the world total. The nearest competitor is Great Britain. In 1914 John Weathers estimated that the total planting in England was 21,000 acres. Canada. The Dominion Census for 1900 did not give the acreage or production of strawberries, but gave the total yield of all small-fruits, in quarts. The Census of 1910 gave the num- ber of "boxes" of strawberries produced that year; also the number of boxes of other small-fruits. About sixty per cent of all the small-fruits produced in 1910 were straw- 1 Farmers' Bulletin 237 (1916), p. 4. 310 Appendix berries. If we assume that the same ratio held in 1900, for all Provinces alike, and that a box is the equivalent of a quart (it is four-fifths of a quart), the following comparison indicates the relative importance of this industry in the different Provinces : Production of Strawberries in Canada, 1900 and 1910 British Columbia Manitoba New Brunswick Nova Scotia Ontario Prince Edward Island .... Quebec (Alberta . . . Assiniboia, East Assiniboia.West Saskatchewan . 1900 414,814 qt 72,098 qt 285,030 qt 605,672 qt 9,739,221 qt 90,344 qt 1,796,170 qt 12,790 qt 14,325 qt 2,848 qt 1,357 qt 1910 1,662,789 qt. 9,941 qt. 779,301 qt. 633,458 qt. 13,094,462 qt. 186,762 qt. 2,304,630 qt. 11,028 qt. 2,291 qt. The Dominion Census does not give the strawberry acreage, which is a fairer measure of the importance of the industry than the production of a single year. In 1911, eight per cent of the combined acreage in vegetable and small- fruits was small-fruits, and sixty per cent of the small-fruits was strawberries. If we assume that the ratio was the same in 1891 and 1901, the steady growth of the industry is re- vealed by the following figures : Acreage op Strawberries in Canada, 1891, 1901, 1911 Year Acreage of Vegetables and Small-pruits Acreage op Small-fruits Acreage op Strawberries 1891 1901 1911 77,140 116,517 223,506 6,171 9,321 17,880 3,702 5,592 10,728 Appendix 311 The average yield of strawberries in the United States, according to the Census of 1910, is 1700 quarts an acre. If we apply this ratio to the Dominion statistics for 1911, the area in strawberries then was 10,992 acres, divided approxi- mately as follows : Alberta 7 acres British Columbia 978 acres Manitoba 6 acres New Brunswick 458 acres Nova Scotia 372 acres Ontario 7702 acres Prince Edward Island 109 acres Quebec 1355 acres Saskatchewan 1 acre 10,992 acres The total acreage of strawberries in Canada is about equal to that in the state of Tennessee ; it is one-fourteenth of the total acreage in the United States. Between 1901 and 1911, however, the Canadian acreage doubled ; while in the same period that of the United States decreased 5.5 per cent. LOCAL CENTERS OF PRODUCTION^ Atlantic states. The large acreage in New England, New York and Penn- sylvania is not centralized, as in the South and West. The market-gardens near Boston, mainly in Middlesex County, maintain the standard of intensive culture established there 1 The acreage figures are quoted mostly from the twelfth and thir- teenth census of the United States. The figures of car-lot shipments for 1914 are from Bulletin 237, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Office of Markets and Rural Organization. Acreage and production vary greatly from year to year ; the figures are not intended to be an exact statement of the comparative importance of the several districts. Many important districts market most of the crop locally ; and it cannot be recorded in carloads ; hence the census statistics on acreage are the fairest means of comparison. 312 Appendix a century ago. The 6382 acres in New York are scattered over the state. Each of the leading counties — Erie, Ulster and Monroe — has less than 600 acres. Highland and Mil- ton, in Ulster County, and Angola in Erie County, lead in carload shipments. The 4136 acres in Pennsylvania are distributed among many counties. The largest centers of production in the East are found in the Atlantic coastal plain, from southern New Jersey to Florida. New Jersey has grown strawberries for the New York market since 1830. This state had 8684 acres in 1910. Cumberland, Burlington, Camden and Atlantic counties have the largest acreage. Port Norris, Landesville, Moores- town, Hammondton and Vineland are the most important shipping points. The Delaware-Maryland peninsula is the most highly specialized strawberry district in the world. In 1910 there were 16,250 acres in a territory about ninety miles long and forty miles wide extending from the lower part of Kent County, Delaware, to the upper part of Ac- comac County, Virginia. In 1914 this district shipped 2599 cars, or nearly one-sixth of all the carload shipments mar- keted in the United States that year. The industry was established on the peninsula about 1868. Sussex County, Delaware, is the most important shipping county in the country ; it had 6404 acres in 1910. In one day, sixty- three cars have been shipped from Bridgeville and forty-four from Selbyville. Maryland is the premier state in straw- berry acreage. About one-half of her 14,292 acres are on the eastern shore, or peninsula. On the mainland, Anne Arundel County, which has been growing strawberries for Baltimore and Philadelphia since 1830, maintains leadership, with 3937 acres in 1910. The Norfolk District, Virginia, has been prominent in strawberry production since 1860. It comprises over 4000 acres, mainly in Norfolk and Princess Anne counties. The 1914 movement was 629 cars. The important district in North Carolina, centering at Mt. Tabor, Mt. Olive and Appendix 313 Chadbourn, did not begin to ship in quantity until 1890. It reached the crest of its development in 1906, when more than 3000 cars were marketed. In 1910 the district included about 5000 acres, of which 2548 and 966 were in Columbia and Duplin counties, respectively. The 1914 movement was 838 cars. Between 1871 and 1890, Charleston, South Carolina, was a prominent shipping point, but it was forced out of the market by the Florida and North Carolina dis- tricts. South Carolina has one important district of more recent development, in Horry County, centering at Loris and Conway. This is an extension southward of the North Carolina district. It shipped 128 cars in 1914. Florida has shipped small quantities of berries since 1878. The acreage in 1910 was 1343, and the 1914 movement was 530 cars. The chief shipping points in northern Florida are Lawtrey and Stark, which marketed 355 cars in 1914. Plant City and Lakeland contributed most of the 152 cars moved from southern Florida in 1914. This district comprises Hillsboro and Polk counties ; it has developed since 1896. Mississippi Valley. The strawberry industry of Michigan began near Benton Harbor and St. Joseph, Berrien County, in 1861. This county has maintained prominence in this respect ; 2041 of the 8051 acres in the state in 1910 were in Berrien County ; it shipped 321 cars in 1914. Van Buren, Wayne and Allegan counties each have over 400 acres. Between 1900 and 1910 the strawberry industry of Ohio de- clined from 9373 acres to 4706 acres. Ohio now grows straw- berries solely for its own markets ; only 15 cars were shipped in 1914. Cuyahoga County, with 476 acres, has the largest area. Southern Illinois has been supplying the Chicago market since 1860. The state acreage was reduced from 7113 in 1900 to 5410 in 1910. Pulaski and Union counties lead with 1267 and 573 acres respectively. The movement from Ilhnois in 1914 was 268 cars. All but four of these 314 Appendix originated in Pulaski and Union counties, mainly at Anna and Villa Ridge. Tennessee is second to Maryland in total area in straw- berries, with 10,761 acres in 1910. The East Tennessee district, comprising Weakley, Gibson, Lauderdale, Crockett and several adjacent counties, began to ship about 1870. In 1910 there were 4546 acres in the district ; the 1914 out- put was 1090 cars. Gibson County leads with 1485 acres. The largest shipping points are Humbolt, Sharon and Dyer. The East Tennessee or Chattanooga district, comprising mainly Hamilton, Rhea and Knox counties, has developed since 1880. In 1910 it had 4338 acres, but the acreage has declined sharply since then ; the 1914 output was 481 cars. The only important shipping point in Kentucky is Bowling Green, Warren County, which marketed seventy-five cars in 1914. The Ozark district, in southwest Missouri and northwest Arkansas, has developed since 1890. In 1910 this district included 9192 acres which were about equally divided be- tween the two states, mainly in Benton, Crawford and Washington counties, Arkansas, and in Newton, Lawrence and Jasper counties, Missouri. The 1914 output was 748 cars. The principal shipping points are Monett, Anderson, Neosho, Sarcoxie, Logan and Pierce City in Missouri, and Johnson, Decatur, Alma, Springdale and Van Buren in Arkansas. The Judsonia district in White County, Arkansas, comprised 1035 acres in 1910 ; the 1914 output was 471 cars of which 252 originated at Judsonia. Several counties in southwest Arkansas, notably Sevier, recently have begun to ship. There are few other important shipping points in the upper Missouri Valley. The large area in Jefferson and St. Louis counties, Missouri — 1434 acres in 1910 — is used mostly to supply the near market of St. Louis. Doniphan County, in northeast Kansas, shipped 104 cars in 1914, mainly from Wathena and Troy. A district in southern Appendix 315 Indiana, embracing Clark, Floyd and Washington counties, shipped 101 cars in 1914 ; New Albany and Borden are the centers of production. Sparta, Monroe County and Bay- field, Bayfield County, Wisconsin, shipped about twenty cars each in 1914. Minnesota has a considerable straw- berry industry in Hennepin County, which supplies the St. Paul and Minneapolis markets. Keokuk and Montrose, in Lee County, Iowa, shipped eighteen cars in 1914. With the exception of Colorado, none of the states westward to the Rocky Mountains produces strawberries in quantity. Nevada is least hospitable ; her state acreage was reduced from fourteen in 1900 to five in 1910. Colorado's planting totaled 1326 acres in 1910. Steamboat Springs, Fremont County, is the largest shipping point. The first carload shipment of Alabama strawberries was in 1902, from Castleberry, Conecuh County. This district moved 222 cars in 1914, and the Cullman district, in north Alabama, 100 cars. There has been much new planting in Alabama since 1910, when the acreage was 1167. There are no important districts in Georgia except where the East Tennessee district dips down into Walker County. The chief shipping point in Mississippi is in the Durant district, in the central part of the state, which loaded sixty-six of the 163 cars credited to the state in 1914. Between 1900 and 1910 the state acreage decreased from 1382 to 772. Independence, Louisiana, began to ship berries to northern markets in 1879. All of the large output from this state — 1243 cars in 1914 — comes from a single parish, or county, Tangipahoa. Independence, Hammond and Ponchatoula are the largest shipping points. In recent years considerable at- tention has been given to strawberries in Texas, particularly in the Gulf coast region near Galveston, the counties of Smith and Wood in the northeast, and on the lower Rio Grande. In 1910 the state had 2161 acres ; 667 were in Smith County, which marketed ninety-nine cars in 1914. Tyler and Winnsboro are the chief shipping points. The 316 Appendix Gulf coast district, including Galveston and Brazoria coun- ties, marketed 115 cars in 1914. Dickinson and Alvin are the most prominent points of production. Pacific states. The earliest commercial culture of the strawberry on the Pacific coast was in the vicinity of San Francisco, about 1865. This district, comprising the counties of Santa Clara and Santa Cruz, had 949 acres in 1910 and moved 1532 cars in 1914. Watsonville, Gilroy, Sargent, Vega and Alviso are the largest shipping points. The Florin district, near Sacramento, began to develop about 1885. In 1910 Sacra- mento County had 450 acres and the adjacent county of Placer 433 acres. The 1914 output was 255 cars. The Los Angeles district began to be prominent about 1885. Be- tween 1900 and 1910 the acreage at this point increased from 363 to 1380. Hood River, Oregon, was the first point on the Pacific coast to ship in car-lots ; the industry began there in 1884. In 1910 the acreage was 512 ; the 1914 output was 118 cars. Other important shipping points in Oregon are Umatilla County, which loaded sixty-three cars at Freewater and Milton in 1914, and Multnomah County, which had 400 acres in 1910. The strawberry industry of Washington is hardly fifteen years old. The largest acreage is in the Puget Sound district, in the vicinity of Seattle and Tacoma, comprising King and Pierce counties and Vashon Island. Between 1900 and 1910 the acreage in this district increased from 412 to 1297. The movement for 1914 was 182 cars. Other important shipping points in Washington are Kenne- wick in Benton County, White Salmon in Klickitat County and Spokane. Canada. Commercial strawberry-growing in Canada began in Nova Scotia and Ontario about 1865. In 1911, 7702 acres, or two- Appendix 317 thirds of the total strawberry acreage of Canada, was in the province of Ontario, mainly in the southern part. The counties of Halton, Lincoln, Norfolk, Peel and Winthrop have the largest shipping points. There is a considerable acreage in the province of Quebec — about 1355 acres in 1911. It is mainly in the counties of Deux Montagnes, Laval and Terrebonne, near the cities of Quebec and Mon- treal. British Columbia is the only other province that produces strawberries in quantity; in 1911 there were 978 acres, centering mainly in Nanaimo and New Westminster counties, on Puget Sound. Late berries from Nova Scotia have been an important factor on the Boston market since 1865. The 372 acres in this province are mainly in King's and Yarmouth. The province of New Brunswick has a promising strawberry industry in King's County. INDEX Accounts with pickers, 167. Acreage : counties having the largest in 1910, 308; of small fruits, decrease in, 307 ; profitable to each grower, 211 ; states having the largest in 1910, 308. Age of plantation as affected by: climate, 238 ; method of culture, 239; method of training, 240; cost of renewing, 241 ; variety, 240 ; of plantation in different districts, 236. Air drainage, 6. Allen, W. F., quoted, 227. Alpine, culture of, 254 ; varieties, 255. Analysis of fruit, 52. Ancylis comptana, 273. Anthonomus signatus, 272. Ants, 279. Aphis forbesi, 275. Arizona Experiment Station, quoted, 68. Ashes, use of, 57. Association, Ozark Fruit Growers', 205. Associations, federation of, 205 ; forwarding, 202 ; pooUng, 203 ; sales methods in, 204 ; selling, types of, 201. Atlantic states, acreage in, 311. Bailey, L. H., quoted, 61. Barrels, strawberry, 265. Barring off the rows, 244. Baskets, 152. Beatty, F. E., quoted, 35, 46, 57, 162, 229. Bedding the land, 20 ; methods of, 97 ; summer, 234 ; when to begin, 96. Berries, washing, 177. Birds, 279. Blacknall, O. W., quoted, 282. Blossoms, cutting, 43 ; essential organs of, 126 ; removing from ever bearers, 249 ; types of, 126. Box, American Standard, 140 ; cubic contents, 141 ; dimensions, 143 ; Hallock, 139 ; laws regulat- ing, 142; Leslie, 140; making, 146 ; material, 138 ; paper, 139 ; prices, 143 ; shape and ventila- tion, 139. British Columbia, cost of produc- tion in, 214. Broadcast training, 88. Budd, J. L., quoted, 135. Bureau of Plant Industry, quoted, 159. Burning the vines, 242. Burns, W., quoted, 105. By-products, 207. Cabbage between strawberries, 50. California, cost of production in, 222 ; spacing plants in, 32 ; time of planting in, 24. Canada, acreage in, 310; local centers of production, 316; pro- duction in 1900 and 1910, 309. Canning, 207. Carload shipments from different districts, 1914, 309. Cars, loading, 188. Carrier, overhead, 162. Carriers, picking, 161. Chandler, W. H., quoted, 59, 66. Checks, pickers, 167. Chests, California, 151. Climate, influence on training, 88. Close, C. P., quoted, 75. 319 320 Index Colapsis, 277. Cold storage, 192. Commission men, 199. Companion crops, 49. Cooling rooms, 180. Cooperative marketing, 201. Corn between strawberries, 49. Corn fodder for mulching, 112. Cost of production, factors that influence, 210; in different dis- tricts, 214; yields, profits, in: 214; British Columbia, 214; New York, 214 ; New Jersey, 215 ; Michigan, 215 ; Tennessee, 216 ; Missouri and Arkansas, 217; Florida and the Gulf states, 219; Texas, 221; Col- orado, 221 ; Washington, 222 ; Oregon, 222 ; California, 222. Cowpeas in rotation with straw- berries, 48. Crates, making, 148 ; nailing and stenciling, 181 ; prices, 146 ; return, 144 ; size, 145. Crab-grass, 73; as a mulch, 117. Crawford, Matthew, quoted, 47, 134 ; referred to, 286. Crickets, 279. Crop, certainty of, 212. Crown Borer, 276. Crown Girdler, 277. Crown Moth, 278. Cultivating, 72. Cultivators, types of, 69. "Culture, The New Strawberry," 28. Cuttings, 234. Cut Worms, 279. Dammer, U., quoted, 103. Delaware-Maryland peninsula, acre- age in, 312. Delaware, soils of, 11. Dibber, setting with, 39 ; types of, 39. Diseases and their control, 270. Distance between bedded plants, 98. Districts, strawberry, 2. Double cropping, 255. Drainage, air, 6 ; methods of, 17 ; soil, 7, 16. Earle, F. S., quoted, 156, 188, 202. Empria, 277. Euthrips tritici, 278. Everbearers, commercial value, 252 ; culture, 249 ; harvesting and marketing, 250. Evergreens for mulching, 115. Exhibition, growing berries for, 263 ; preserving berries for, 265. Exposure, in selecting a site, 7. Express shipments, 186. Facing, 178. Fall crops, 255. Fall thinning of matted row, 101. Fancy berries, methods of culture, 264. Farmer, L. J., quoted, 62, 67, 214. Farming, type of, as affecting locations, 5. Farnsworth, W. W., quoted, 46. Fertility, soil, 15. Fertilizers, methods of distributing, 59 ; results of experiments with, 53 ; when to apply, 58. Fertilizing, according to variety, 54 ; current practice, 61 ; by chemical analyses, 53 ; forced plants, 262 ; in Canada and northern United States, 61 ; in Middle Atlantic states, 62 ; in South Atlantic states, 63 ; in Southern states, 63 ; with ni- trate in spring, 58. Fillers, strawberries between fruit- trees, 51 ; vegetables between strawberries, 49. Flea Beetle, 278. Florida, acreage in, 313 ; cost of production in, 219; soils of, 11; spacing plants in, 32. Forced plants, fertilizing, 262. Forcing crowns, care in coldframe, 259. Index 321 Forcing, in greenhouse benches, 256 ; in pots, 258 ; period, length of, 260 ; temperature for, 260; varieties, 263. Freezing prevented by mulching, 109. Frost injury, conditions that favor, 280. Frost protection, 280. Fruit crops, value of, in 1909, 308. Fruit-trees, strawberries between, 51. Fuller, A. S., quoted, 134. Fulton, S. H., quoted, 193. Galusha, O. B., quoted, 229. Goff, E. S., quoted, 67. Grade, maintaining the, 164. Grades, 176. Grading, 173; field, 174; frames, 177; machines, 176 ; scoop, 177; shed, 175. Grant, W. C., quoted, 157. Green, W. J., quoted, 130. Greenhouse, forcing, 256. Green-manuring, 45, 55. Ground Beetle, 277. Ground, "new," advantages of, 16. Hall, H. F., quoted, 98. Haltica ignita, 278. Hand setting, 37. Harpalus caliginosus, 2,11 . Harrowing, 19. Heating for frost protection, 283. Heaving prevented by mulching, 108. Hedge-row, renewing, 246. Hedge-rows, runner control in, 102 ; training, 85, 95. Hedrick, U. P., quoted, 131. Heeling-in plants, 27. Hills, renewing, 246 ; runner con- trol in, 102; training, 84, 91. Hoe, setting with, 40. Hoes, hand, 70 ; wheel, 70. Hofer, E., quoted, 290. Howard, W. L., quoted, 52. Insects, aid to pollination, 137 ; control, 272. Irrigation, ditches and flumes, 78 ; frequency of, 79 ; furrow system, 77 ; grade necessary, 76 ; in arid regions, 76 ; in humid regions, 80 ; overhead pipe method, 82 ; types of, 76. Jerolamen, Henry, quoted, 224. Kellogg, R. M., quoted, 185. "Kevitt System," 68, 92. Kevitt, T. C., quoted, 92, 223. Labor as affecting locations, 6. Lachnosterna, 274. Land, bedding and ridging, 20 ; fitting, 19 ; flat, advantages of, 8 ; marking out, 33 ; plowing, 18. Lapham, J. S., quoted, 194. Leaf Blight, 270. Leaf RoUer, 273. Leaf Spot, 270. Leaves for mulching, 114. Liming, 57. Line, marking out with, 33. List, W. H., quoted, 216. Loading cars, 118. Locations, 1 ; as affected by labor, 6 ; as affected by markets, 3 ; as affected by transportation facilities, 5 ; as affected by type of farming, 5. Longworth, Nicholas, quoted, 128. Lygus pratensis, 278. Machines, planting, 40. McCue, C. A., quoted, 47. McNallie, C., quoted, 217; J. F., quoted, 216. Manure for mulching. 111. Manures, advantages of, 55 ; com- position of, 55 ; application, 56. Marker, peg, 34 ; sled, 34 ; wheel, 34. Market, general or wholesale, 3 ; local or personal, 3 ; procession of shipping districts in, 195 ; 322 Index reports, 206 ; retail, advantages of, 183 ; retail, methods in, 184 two types of, 182 ; wholesale methods of selling in, 198 wholesale, transportation to, 186 Marketing, by consignment, 198 changes in methods since 1840, 182 ; cooperative, 201 ; coopera- tive, essentials to successful, 203; f. o. b. sales, 200. Marking out, 33. Maryland Experiment Station, quoted, 118. Matted row, controlling width of, 99 ; renewing, 244 ; spacing plants in, 100 ; training, 87, 93. Michigan, cost of production in, 215. Mildew, Powdery, 271. Mississippi Valley, acreage in, 313. Missouri, cost of production in, 216 ; Experiment Station, quoted, 54. Mowing the vines, 242. Mulch, crab-grass in the South, 117; crop, growing, 113; fruit- ing, materials used, 122 ; fruit- ing, when needed, 122 ; growing in the strawberry field, 116 materials, 111; winter, 108 winter, how much to use, 119 winter, when to apply, 118 winter, when to remove, 121. Mulches of wild herbage, 114. Mulching, as substitute for tillage, 68 ; for frost protection, 281 ; history of, 107 ; in the South, 248 ; purposes of, 107 ; to pre- vent freezing, 109 ; to prevent heating, 108; to retard ripening, 110; with ice, 121. New Hampshire, Experiment Sta- tion, quoted, 61 ; fertilizing in, 61. New Jersey, cost of production in, 215 ; Experiment Station, quoted, 59, 80, 215. New York, (Cornell) Experiment Station, quoted, 54 ; cost of production in, 214 ; State Ex- periment Station, quoted, 94. Nitrate of soda, use of, 59. Norfolk district, acreage in, 312 ; method of training in, 93. North, rotations in, 45 ; time of planting in, 22. Novelties, testing, 285. Nubbins, cause of, 137. Nursery methods, 226. Ohmer, J. P., quoted, 265. Ontario, cost of production in, 214. Outlook for strawberry growing, 212. Overproduction, 212. Ozark district, acreage in, 314. Ozark Fruit Growers' Association, 206. Pacific states, acreage in, 316 ; cost of production in, 221. Packages, 138 ; special, 149. Packing, 178 ; piece,179 ; sheds, 173. "Pedigree" plants, 232. Pennsylvania Experiment Station, quoted, 94. Perrine, G. L., quoted, 99. Persels, C. E., quoted, 241. Pickers, accounts with, 167 ; best types of, 163 ; handling, 165 ; management in the field, 166 ; number required, 163 ; pro- fessional, 164. Picking, care necessary, 160; carriers, 161; how often, 158; how ripe berries should be picked, 156 ; on Sunday, 158 ; prices for, 171 ; receptacles, 161 ; sea- son, as affected by age of plant, 155; season, length of, 154; time of day, 159. Pine-needles for mulching, 123. Pistillate blossoms, 127; varieties, advantages and disadvantages of, 138 ; disappearing, 131 ; heavy yield of, 128. Plant-food in strawberries, 51 ; withdrawn from the soil, 52. Index 323 Planting, 18 ; care after, 42 ; depth of, 37 ; essentials to suc- cess in, 36 ; time of, 21 ; fall, in the North, 22; firm, 30; machines, 40 ; methods of, 37 ; in different regions, 22 ; tray, 36 ; under irrigation, 40. Plants, age for setting, 231 ; alley for setting, 232 ; carrying over the summer, 247 ; digging, pack- ing, shipping, 229 ; distance between bedded, 98 ; heeling- in, 27 ; home-grown, 25, 227 number required to the acre, 26 ordering from a nursery, 25 "pedigree," 232; potted, 233 preparing for setting, 26 ; quality in, 231 ; shipping, 26 ; spacing in row, 29 ; specific examples of spacing, 31 ; thinning in matted rows, 245 ; trimming before setting, 29. Plow for marking out, 33. Plowing, depth of, 19 ; time of, 18. Pollen, immediate influence of, 134. Pollination, 126 ; and the weather, 137 ; insects an aid to, 137 ; of forced plants, 261. PoUinizer, desirable points in, 133 ; distributing the, 135 ; selecting the, 132. Potatoes between strawberries, 49. Potted plants, value of, 233 ; setting, 41. Powers, Stephen, quoted, 219. Pre-cooling, methods, 191. Preserves and sirups, 208. Prices in different districts, 214 ; lower, 224. Production, local centers of, 311. Propagating from fruiting bed, 228. Propagation, 226 ; by division, 236 ; by runners, 226 ; by seeds, 235 ; feat in, 229. Pruning, summer, 105. Refrigerator cars, 189 ; construc- tion of , 190; icing, 190. Refrigerators, 150. Renewal, methods of, 242. Renewing, cost of, 246 ; hills and hedge-rows, 246 ; matted rows, 244. Ridging, 20, 72. Root-louse, 275. Root Rot, 272. Root system, 67. Root worms, 277. Roots, methods of protecting, 36. Rose bug, 279. Rotations, in different regions, 45 ; necessity for, 44. Rows, distance between, 30 ; lay- ing off, 35 ; spacing plants in, 29. Runner cutters, 100, 103 ; propaga- tion, 226. Runners, bedding, 95 ; from the fruiting bed, 228 ; increase in different varieties, 228 ; layer- ing for forcing, 258 ; pinching and cutting, 103 ; removing surplus, 99. Rust, or leaf-blight, 270. Screens for frost protection, 282. Season, influence of weather on, 194; lengthening the, 154, 193; retarded by mulching, 110; of different districts, 197. Sea-weed, for mulching, 115. Seed propagation, 235. Self-sterility of varieties, 134. Sesia rufilans, 278. Setter's tray, 36. Setting, firm, 36; methods, 37; preparing plants for, 26 ; under irrigation, 40. Shade after setting, 42. Shavings for mulching, 115. Sherman, W. A., quoted, 197. Shipping seasons of different dis- tricts, 197. Sites, as determined by air drainage, 6 ; as determined by exposure, 7 ; as determined by water drainage, 7 ; early and late, 7 ; flat, 8 ; steep, 7. 324 Index Slugs, 277. Smudging for frost protection, 283. Snails, 279. Soil, drainage, 16 ; fertility, 15 ; as a mulch, 116; ideal straw- berry, 10 ; preferences in dif- ferent regions, 1 1 ; qualities of good strawberry, 12; "straw- berry sick," 44; texture and water-holding power, 13 ; acid, 57 ; muck and peat, 14 ; sandy and gravelly, 13 ; virgin, 16. South, rotations in, 47 ; time of planting in, 23. Spaced rows, runner control in, 102 ; training, 86, 95. Spacing plants in matted row, 100 ; specific examples of, 31. Spade setting, 38. Sphaerella fragarioe, 270. SphcBrotheca humili, 271. Spraying, equipment and materials, 268. Sprays, preparation of, 269. Sprinkling for frost protection, 284. Staminate blossoms, 127. Stand, picker's, 161. Statistics on acreage, production and value, 307. Storage of fresh berries, 192. Straw as a mulch, 112. Sturtevant, E. L., quoted, 66. Summer pruning, 105. Tarnished Plant Bug, 278. Tennessee, acreage in, 314 ; cost of production in, 216; Experi- ment Station, quoted, 54 ; fertilizer experiments in, 54. Texas, cost of production in, 221. Thayer, M. A., quoted, 168. Thinning plants in matted row, 100. Thompson, Robert, quoted, 214. Thrips, 278. Tice, F. G., quoted, 97. Tickets, pickers', 169. Tillage, after irrigation, 79 ; depth of, 71 ; during blossoming season, 75 ; during picking season, 76 ; early spring, 74 ; hand, tools for, 69 ; horse, tools for, 69 ; how frequent, 71 ; late autumn, 73 ; laying off field to facilitate, 68 ; tools, 68 ; why essential, 66. Tomatoes between strawberries, 50. Tools, tillage, 68. Top-dressing with fertilizers, 60. Topping, 173. Training, as determined by climate, 88 ; as determined by method of culture, 91 ; as determined by variety, 90 ; broadcast, 88 ; hedge-row, 85, 95; hUl, 84; matted row, 87, 93 ; methods of, defined, 84 ; Norfolk method, 93 ; spaced row, 86, 95. Transplanters, 40. Transportation facilities, 5. Trays, 152. "Tree" strawberries, 236. Tufts, Elmer G., quoted, 184. Turpin, G. T., quoted, 291. Tusser, Thomas, quoted, 281. Tyloderema fragaricB, 276. Typophorus, 111 . U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, quoted, 139, 193. Value of fruit crops in 1909, 308. Van Slyke, L. L., quoted, 51, 52. Varieties, as affected by climate and soil, 287; canning, 290. Varieties, descriptions of Annie Hubach, 299; Arizona, 299; Aroma, 292 ; August Luther, 299; Australian, 299; Beder Wood, 299; Brandywine, 292; Bubach, 292 ; Captain Jack, 300; Carrie, 300; Chesapeake, 300; Clark, 293; Climax, 300; Clyde, 300; Crescent, 293; Dollar, 300 ; Dunlap, 293 ; Early Hathaway, 300; Excelsior, 294; Index 325 Frances Cleveland, 301 ; Fre- mont Williams, 301 ; Gandy, 294; Glen Mary, 295; Haver- land, 295 ; Hoffman, 301 ; Jessie, 301; Joe, 301; Johnson, 301; Jucunda, 296 ; Kittie Rice, 302 ; Klondike, 296 ; Late Stevens, 302; Longworth, 302; Lovett, 302; Magoon, 302; Margaret, 302; Marshall, 296; Maximus, 303; Michel, 303; Missionary, 303; Nettie, 303; Neunan, 303; New York, 303; Nich Ohmer, 304; Ozark, 304; Pan- American, 304 ; Parker Earle, 304 ; Parson, 304 ; Progressive, 304; Ridgeway, 305; Royal Sovereign, 305; Ruby, 305; Sample, 305; Seaford, 305; Sharpless, 297; Superior, 305; Uncle Jim, 305 ; Thompson, 306 ; Triomphe, 306; Warfield, 297; William Belt, 298; Williams, 306; Wilson, 298. Varieties, everbearing, origin of, 249; forcing, 263; for different purposes, 288 ; how many to grow, 290; "mating" of, 133; pistillate, yield of, 128 ; plant- making ability of, 29 ; prefer- ences of the market, 289 ; runner increase in, 228 ; select- ing, 287 ; self-sterile, 134 ; train- ing of different, 90. Ventilator cars, 187. Vinegar, strawberry, 209. Voorhees, E. B., quoted, 62. Warren, S. H., quoted, 232. Washing berries, 177. Water drainage, 7. Water transportation, 191. Watering after setting, 42. Weather, influence on pollination, 137. Weeds affecting the strawberry field, 67. WeevU, 272. Welch, C. B., quoted, 215. Wheeler, Wilfrid, quoted, 62. White Grub, 274. Wind, protection from, 9. Wire, marking out with, 33. Wisconsin Experiment Station, quoted, 80. Yield, as affected by distance between plants, 98 ; average to the acre, 213; from matted rows and hills, 94 ; in different districts, 214 ; in market gardens, 223 ; of plants of different ages, 240 ; on light and heavy soils, 13. Printed in the United States of America. 'T^HE following pages contain advertisements of a few of the Macmillan books on kindred subjects The Potato By ARTHUR W. GILBERT, Ph.D. Professor of Plant Breeding, Cornell University, assisted by MORTIMER F. BARRUS, Ph.D. Professor of Plant Pathology, Cornell University, and DANIEL DEAN Formerly President of the New York State Potato Association IVii/i illustrations The authors of this book are especially fitted to write upon the potato. Professor Gilbert, as professor of plant breeding at Cornell, has made a careful study of potato breeding and varieties for several years. For- ■merly teacher of farm crops and director of agricultural extension work at the University of Maine, he has become thoroughly familiar with potato growing in the East, particularly in the famous Aroostook County region. Dr. Barrus is considered one of the best authorities on potato diseases in the country. The chapters he has contributed to the work deal with disease and its control. Mr. Dean wrote the chapters on field practice. He is a successful commercial grower, and has given much attention to the different systems of potato growing throughout the United States. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York The Pruning Manual By L. H. bailey Eighteenth Edition, Revised and Reset Illustrated^ cloth, tamo, $3.00 "The Pruning Book," first published in 1898, is now thoroughly revised and reset and appears in the eight- eenth edition in the " Rural Manual " series with many new illustrations. The experiments of the last fifteen years have made changes in some of the conceptions of pruning, and these are incorporated in the new treat- ment. The author remarks that pruning is much more than the cutting off of limbs and the shaping and train- ing of plants. The practice really rests on a sound knowledge of the way in which plants grow and how they respond to treatment. A person is not a horticul- turist until he understands these questions. Fertilizing, spraying, tree surgery, the handling of straight and ornamental trees as well as fruit plants, are all taken up. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New Tork The Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture Edited by L. H. BAILEY IVITH THE ASSISTANCE OF OVER 500 COLLABORATORS New edition, entirely rewritten and enlarged, with many new features ; with 34 plates in color, 96 full-page half tones, and over 4,000 text illustra- tions. To be complete in six volumes. Volumes I, II, III, IV, and V ready. Sold only in sets by subscription. Eac^ volume, $6.00 Set cloth, $j6.oo Leather, $60.00 "The Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture," pronounced by ex- perts to be an absolute necessity for every horticulturist and of tremendous value to every type of gardener, professional and ama- teur, is rapidly nearing completion. Only one more volume after this, the sixth, remains to be published. ''An indispensable work of reference to every one interested in the land and its products, whether commercially or professionally, as a student or an ama- teur," is the Boston Transcripts characterization of it, while Hot'ti- culture adds that " it is very live literature for any one engaged in any department of the horticultural field." "This really monumental performance will take rank as a stand- ard in its class. Illustrations and text are admirable. . . . Our own conviction is that while the future may bring forth amplified editions of the work, it will probably never be superseded. Recog- nizing its importance, the publishers have given it faultless form. The typography leaves nothing to be desired, the paper is calcu- lated to stand wear and tear, and the work is at once handsomely and attractively bound." — New York Daily Tribune. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY Publisher 8 64-66 Fifth Avenue Nev York THE RURAL MANUALS Edited by L. H. BAILEY Manual of Milk Products By W. A. STOCKING, Jr. Manual of Fruit Diseases Preparing By L. R. HESSLER and H. H. WHETZEL The Pruning Manual illustrated, lamo, 407 pp., $2.00 By L. H. BAILEY Manual of Fruit Insects By MARK VERNON SLINGERLAND and CYRUS R. CROSBY Of the New York State College of Agriculture, at Cornell University Illustrated, i2mo, ^oj pages, $2.00 A Manual of Weeds By ADA E. GEORGIA Assistant in the Farm Course, New York State College of Agriculture, Cornell University With 385 Illustrations by F. ScHiTi'LER Mathews Illustrated, cloth, i2mo, ^gj pages, index, $2.00 Manual of Farm Animals A Practical Guide to the Choosing, Breeding, and Keep of Horses, Cattle, Sheep, and Swine By MERRITT W. HARPER Assistant Professor of Animal Husbandry in the New York State College of Agriculture, at Cornell University Illustrated, i2mo, £4£ pages, index, $2.00 " A book deserving of close study as well as being handy for reference, and should be in the possession of every farmer interested in stock." — Rural World, Manual of Gardening A Practical Guide to the Making of Home Grounds and the Growing of Flowers, Fruits, and Vegetables for Home Use By L. H. BAILEY Illustrated, cloth, i2ino, §44 pages, $3.00 This new work is a. combination and revision of the main parts of two other books by the same author, " Garden-Making " and " Practical Garden Book," together with much new material and the result of the experience of ten added years. The Farm and Garden Rule Book By L. H. BAILEY Revised and enlarged edition ; illustrated, cloth, l2mo, $2.00 It is essentially a small cyclopedia of ready rules and references packed full from cover to cover of condensed, meaty information and precepts on almost every leading subject connected with country life. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York RURAL SCIENCE SERIES Edited by L. H. BAILEY Each Volume Illustrated Cloth, 12mo A series of practical books for farmers and gardeners, sold as a set or separately. Each one is the work of a competent specialist, and is suitable for consultation alike by the amateur or professional tiller of the soil, the scientist, or the student. Illustrations of marked beauty are freely used, and the books are clearly printed and well bound. ON SELECTION OF LAND, ETC. Isaac P. Roberts' The Farmstead . $1.50 T. F. Hunt's How to Choose a Farm i.^e E.G. Cheney's and J. P. Wentling's The Farm Wood Lot '. '. '. '. i co ON TILLAGE, ETC. F. H. King's The Soil 150 Isaac P. Roberts' The Fertility of the Land ....... 1.50 F. H. King's Irrigation and Drainage j^jo Edward B. Voorhees' Fertilizers. New Edition i[5o Edward B. Voorhees' Forage Crops 1I50 J. A. Widtsoe's Dry Farming '. . . 1.50 L. H. Bailey's Principles of Agriculture 1.25 S. M. Tracy's Forage Crops for the South .' Preparing ON PLANT DISEASES, ETC. E. G. Lodeman's The Spraying of Plants 125 ON GARDEN-MAKING A. W. Gilbert's The Potato D. Lumsden's Greenhouse Construction and Heating .... Preparing L. H. Bailey's Garden-Making 1.50 L. H. Bailey's Principles of Vegetable-Gardening 1I50 L. H. Bailey's Forcing Book j 23 L. H. Bailey and A. W. Gilbert's Plant Breeding. New Edition '. *. '. aioo P. H. Rolfs Subtropical Vegetable-Gardening i cq ON FRUIT-GROWING, ETC. L. H. Bailey's Nursery Book i cq L. H. Bailey's Principles of Fruit-Growing. New Edition .... 1.75 L. H. Bailey's The Pruning Book ...... \ v> F. W. Card's Bush Fruits \ \ -^^^ W. Paddock and O. B. Whipple's Fruit-Growing in Arid Regions . 1.50 J. E. Coit's Citrus Fruits ........... 2.00 S. W. Fletcher's The Strawberry in North America .... ON THE CARE OF LIVE-STOCK Nelson S. Mayo's The Diseases of Animals 1.50 W. H. Jordan's The Feeding of Animals 1,50 I. P. Roberts' The Horse i|go M. W. Harper's Breaking and Training of Horses 1.75 George C. Watson's Farm Poultry. New Edition 1,50 John A. Craig's Sheep Farming ......... i.eo E. F. Phillips' Beekeeping 2*00 ON DAIRY WORK, FARM CHEMISTRY, ETC. Henry H. Wing's Milk and Its Products. New Edition .... 1.50 J. G. Lipman's Bacteria and Country Life i .50 ON ECONOMICS AND ORGANIZATION Wijliam A. McKeever's Farm Boys and Girls 1,50 I. P. Roberts' The Farmer's Business Handbook 1. 25 George T. Fairchild's Rural Wealth and Welfare j.25 H. N. Ogden's Rural Hygiene .......... 1.50 J. Green's Law for the American Farmer 1.50 G. H. Powell's Cooperation in Agriculture . 1.50 J. B. Morman's Principles of Rural Credits ....... 1.25 Glenn W. Herrick's Insects Injurious to the Household .... 1.75 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 1 1 1 j 1 ; w II 1