^rfiyrtyAt <=JV&. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. ^ H mt ■ ■ ^'*« ^^H M*f& &o>V . I , ^/ MW TESTAMENT MANUAL: EMBRACING AN Historical Tabular View of the Gospels; TABLES OF THE PARABLES, DISCOURSES, AND MIRACLES OF CHRIST; PREDICTIONS IX THE OLD TESTAMENT, WITH THEIR FULFILMENT IN THE NEW; CLASSIFICATION OF THE BOOKS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT, WITH OBSERVATIONS ON EACH. BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES, DESCRIPTIONS OF PLACES. An Important Chronological Table. With Paps, SHOWING THE JOURNEYS OF JESUS AND ST. PAUL, &c, &c. COMPILED FROM THE WORKS OF THE MOST EMINENT BIBLICAL WRITERS. STEPHEN HAWES, AUTHOR OF " SYNCIIRONOLOGY OF SACRED AND TROFANK HISTORY." ^< BOSTON : LEE AND SHEPARD, PUBLISHERS. NEW YORK: LEE, SHEPAHD AXD DILLINGHAM. 1871. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1870, By LEE AND SHEPARD, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. Electrotype'd at the Boston Stereotype Foundry, No. 10 Spring Lane. PREFACE. This book is not designed as a commentary on the New Testament, boat rather as an introduction to a careful study and proper understanding of the New Testament Scriptures. It has been truly said that every word of the Bible is from God, and every man is interested in the meaning of it. We are aware that many elaborate and exceedingly valuable works have been prepared and offered to the public as introductions to the study of the Bible; but their very size, and consequent ex- pense, render them inaccessible to the great mass of Bible readers. This Manual we now offer to the pub- lic has been selected with great care from the works of the most eminent ancient and modern biblical critics; and its contents are so condensed, and its price so limited, as to make it available to all. Every Intelligent reader of the Bible will observe that most of the books of the New Testament, especially the Epistles, were written to confute some error that was creeping into the churches in those primitive days of Christianity, or to establish believers more firmly in the doctrines and precepts taught by Jesus Christ and his immediate followers. These errors seem to be clearly set forth by the inspired writers, with the only successful and profitable way to meet them; and we 3 4 PREFACE. are assured that the church would never be free from the influence of those false teachers who would en- deavor to draw men away from the true faith by de- claring "it is vain to serve God" in the manner pre- scribed in his word. And as this Scripture is being fulfilled in our day, and false teachers have arisen who are endeavoring to turn men from the faith once delivered to the saints, and who would, if it were possible, deceive the very elect, we should not determine the meaning of the sacred Scriptures according to modern notions and systems, but endeavor to carry ourselves back to the very times and places in which they were written, and realize the ideas and modes of thinking of the sacred writers, that we may understand and apply the great truths and doctrines which these "holy men of God spake as they were moved by the Holy Ghost." We should also remember that only an unbiassed mind can obtain the genuine sense of Scripture. There are many historical circumstances connected with the books of the Bible, which it is important for the reader to understand, and which we have endeav- ored to narrate as far as the limits of this work will permit. It is important to a right understanding of the Scriptures that we have a knowledge of their authors, the date when each book was written, the place where it was written, the occasion upon which the several books were written, their respective scopes or designs, and an analysis of each book ; also biblical antiquities, including the geography, sacred and profane history, and private life of the Jews, and other nations men- tioned in the Bible. Want of attention to the general scope and design of the doctrinal parts of Scripture, particularly of the Epistles, has been the source of many and great PREFACE. 5 errors. These should be read through at once with close attention to the scope and tenor of the dis- course, regardless of the divisions into chapters and verses, precisely in the same manner in which we would peruse the letters of other ancient writers. Great care has been exercised, in the compilation of this work, to quote only from such authorities as are known and acknowledged to be reliable. We have drawn more largely from " Home's Introduction to the Study of the Bible " than from any other work, but have consulted freely the works of Lardner, Mac- knight, Michaelis, Benson, A. Clarke. Barnes, &c, &c. The author has long felt the necessity of a work of this kind in his own experience in Sabbath schools and Bible classes, and trusts it will meet a want which must have been experienced by the community at large. It is too much to suppose that, in a book of this kind, where so many quotations and references occur, no errors will be found; yet we trust it is as nearly correct as could be reasonably expected; for no effort has been spared to secure strict accuracy in this re- spect. In conclusion, we can only enjoin upon every reader of this little volume to obey the divine injunc- tion, "Search the Scriptures," that you may "be ready always to give an answer to every man that asketh you a reason of the hope that is in you," re- membering that "all Scripture is given by inspira- tion of God, and is profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, and for instruction in righteousness." S. H. Boston, December 10, 1870. NAMES AND ORDER OF THE BOOKS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT, WITH NUMBER OF CHAPTERS AND VERSES IN EACH. NAMES. Matthew. Mark. . . Luke. . . . John. . . . Acts. . . . Romans. . . 1 Corinthians 2 Corinthians Galatians. Ephesians Philippians Colossians. i Thessalonians 2 Thessalonians Total. . . 28 1071 16 678 24 1 1 si 21 880 28 1006 16 434 16 ( 437 13 256 6, 149 *55 104 95 89 47 1 NAMES. 190 6552; Brought up, 1 Timothy. . 2 Timothy. . Titus. . . . Philemon. . Hebrews. Epist. of Jame 1 Peter. . 2 Peter. . 1 John. 2 John. 3 John. . Jude. . . Revelation. Total. u 6552 113 83 46 25 3°3 108 105 61 105 13 i5 25 40S 260 7959 CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER OF THE BOOKS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT, WITH THE ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE REFERENCES. (As arranged in the Cottage Bible.) Luke . . Lu. Acts Acts. 1 Timothy. . . . 1 Tim. Titus Ti. ! 1 Peter 1 Pe. Jude Ju. 2 Timothy. ... 2 Tim. I 2 Peter 2 Pe. I 1 John 1 Jn. J 2 John 2 Jn. j 3 J^n 3jn. ; Revelation. . . . Rev. John Jn. Matthew. . . . Matt. 1 Thessalonians. 1 Thes. 2 Thessalonians. 2 Thes. Galatians. . . . Gal. 1 Corinthians. . 1 Cor. Romans. . . . . Rom. 2 Corinthians. . 2 Cor. Mark Mark. Ephesians. . . . Eph. James. .... Ja. Colossians. . . Col. Philemon. . . . Philem. Philippians. Phil. Hebrews. . . . . Heb. CONTENTS PAGE Names and Order of the Books of the New Testament. 6 Books of the New Testament Chronologi- cally ARRANGED. • 6 Historical Tabular View. • 8 Parables of Jesus. 12 Miracles of Christ. 12 Discourses of Jesus. 13 Prophecies and Fulfilments. 14 Classification of the Books of the New Testament. 15 Historical Books of. the New Testament. • 16 I. Observations on the Canonical Gospels ; II. On the Gospel by St. Matthew ; III. On the Gospel bv St. Mark ; IV. On the Gospel by St. Luke ; V. On the Gospel by St. John ; VI. On the Acts of the Apostles. Doctrinal Books of the New Testament. • 22 I. The Apostolical Epstles ; II. The Epistle to the Romans ; III. The First Epistle to the Corinthians; IV. The Second Epistle to the Corinthians; V. The Epistle to the Galatians ; VI. The Epistle to the Ephesians ; VII. The Epistle to the ~ Philippians; VIII. The Epistle to the Colossians ; IX. The First Eristle-to the Thessa.onians ; X. The Second Epistle to the Thessalonians ; XI. The First Epiftle to Timothy ; XII. The Second Enistle to Timothy; XIII. The Eristle to Titus ; XIV. The Epistle to Philemon ; XV. The Epistle to the Hebrews. The Catholic or General Epistles. 49 I. The Genuineness and Authenticity of the Catholic Epis- tles ; II. The General Epistle of James ; III The First Gen- eral Episile of Peter; IV. The Second General Epistle of Peter; V. The First General Epistle of John ; VI. The Second and Third Epistles of John ; VII. The General Epistie of Jude. The Revelation of St. John the Divine. • • 61 Tables of the Books of the New Testament. 65 Biographical Sketches. 67 Table of St. Paul's Apostolic Journeys. • • 89 Geographical Description of the Principal Places mentioned in the New Testament. 91 Synchronology of the Principal Events in Sacred and Profane History. 143 7 © , HISTORICAL TABULAR VIEW. No. Event, i. The Birth of John foretold at Jerusalem. — Zacharias returns home. 2. The Birth of Jesus foretold at Nazareth. — Mary visits Elisabeth. 3. John Baptist born, Hill country of Judea. — Brought up in the 4. Jesus is born at Bethlehem. — Presented in the Temple 5. Wise Men from the East worship Jesus, at Bethlehem. — The Holy 6. Jesus goes from Nazareth to the Passover 7. John begins to preach and to baptize. 8. Jesus is baptized. See line on Chart from 9. Jesus' three temptations. See line from Jordan south-east. 10. John the Baptist's second testimony to Jesus. 11. Water changed into wine at Carta. — Jesus departs with his disciples 12. Jesus cleanses the Temple. — Nicodemus is instructed by Jesus. 13. Jesus discourses with a woman of Samaria. 14. Jesus at Cana, heals a nobleman's son, who was sick. 15. Jesus preaches in a synagogue, and is rejected. 16. Jesus selects Capernaum to dwell in, and calls four disciples. 17. Jesus heals a demoniac, Peter's mother- m-law, and others. 18. Jesus' First General Circuit (Mark i. 35-39), as in every other. 19. Jesus' Sermon on the Mount. 20. Jesus' Sermon on the Mount continued. 21. The first miraculous draught of fishes. — A leper healed. 22. A man sick of the palsy healed. — Matthew called, etc. 23. Jesus at the second Passover, in his ministry, heals a lame man. 24. The disciples pluck corn on the Sabbath day. 25. The withered hand restored. 26. Jesus' first partial circuit. 2j. Jesus chooses twelve Apostles, after prayer all night. Jesus delivers a sermon on the plain. 28. The centurion's servant healed. 29. Widow's son raised (Luke vii. 1 1-16). — John's messengers answered. 30. Jesus is anointed at Nain, thence he makes his Second Circuit 31. A blind and dumb demoniac healed. 32. Jesus teaches by parables. 33. Jesus interprets the parables, and adds others. 34. Jesus calms a storm, in answer to his disciples' prayer. 35. Jesus casts out devils in the country of the Gadarenes, and returns 36. Jesus answers the Pharisees. — Restores Jairus' daughter, etc. 37. Jesus revisits Nazareth (Mat. xiii. 54-58).— Third General Circuit 38. Jesus sends his 12 apostles, by two and two, to preach and heal the sick, 39. John the Baptist is beheaded by Herod. 40. Jesus feeds 5000 men, besides women and children. 41. Jesus walks upon the Sea of Galilee, and lands at 42. Jesus preaches in a synagogue. — THE BREAD OF LIFE. 43. Of unwashen hands and commandment of God. 44. Jesus heals the daughter of a Syrophenician woman. 45. Jesus feeds 4000 men, besides women and children, in the 46. Jesus answers the Pharisees, who demand a sign, etc. Jesus heals a blind man, having crossed over the Sea of Galilee to 47. Jesus foretells his death and resurrection 48. Jesus appears in glory (Mat. xvii. 1-13). — Heals a demoniac. 49. Jesus foretells, the second time, his death and resurrection. Jesus pays tribute (Mat. xvii. 24-27). — Censures his disciples. 50. Of humility and forgiveness. 51. Jesus at the Feast of Tabernacles. 52. Jesus ' ; The Light of the World." 53. Jesus heals a man born blind. — The Good Shepherd. 54. Jesus at the Feast of Dedication (John x. 22-38) Jerusalem. 55. Jesus restores Lazarus to life, at Bethany in Judea, and departs to 56. Jesus sends messengers from Ephraim to prepare for him. HISTORICAL TABULAR VIEW. Place. i. Hill country of J udea. 2. Hill country of Judea. — Returns to Naz. 3. Wilderness of Judea. 4. At Jerusalem. 5. Family go to Egypt. — Return to Naz. 6. At Jerusalem. 7. Wilderness of Judea and Jordan. 8. Nazareth to Jordan. 9. Jerusalem, and north of Jericho. 10. Bethabara beyond Jordan. 11. To Capernaum. 12. See line from Capernaum to Jerusalem. 13. At Sychar. 14. At Capernaum. 15. At Nazareth. 16. At the Sea of Galilee. 17. At Capernaum. 18. From Capernaum round Galilee. 19. North of Capernaum. 20. North of Capernaum. 21. Lake Gennesaret. — Chorazin. 22. Capernaum. — Sea of Galilee. 23. Beihesda, Jerusalem. 24. Nigh to Jerusalem. 25. At Capernaum. 26. By Lake Gennesaret, west side. 27. North of Capernaum. North of Capernaum. 28. At Capernaum. 29. At Nain. 30. Of Galilee. 31. At Capernaum. 32. At the Sea of Galilee. 33. At Capernaum. 34. On the lake. 35. To Capernaum. 36. At Capernaum. 37. Through all Galilee. 38. I rom Capernaum. 39. See Capernaum. 40. Desert of Bethsaida, east of Galilee. 41. Bethsaida in Gennesaret. 42. At Capernaum. 43. At Capernaum. 44. Country of Tyre and Sidon. 45. Desert of Bethsaida, east of Galilee. 46 Magdala and Dalmanutha. Bethsaida, east of the lake. 47. In the way to Cesarea Philippi. 48. The holy Mount Hermon. 49. In Galilee. At Capernaum. 50. At Capernaum. 51. At Jerusalem. — Mount of Olives. 52. At Jerusalem. 53. At Jerusalem. 54. Departs to Bethabara beyond Jordan. 55. Ephraira. 5b. In Samaria. Evangelist. Luke i. 1-25. i. 26-56. u i. 57-So. ii. 1-38. Mat. ii. 1-23. Luke ii. 40-52. iii. 1-20. Mat. iii. 13-17. Luke John iv. 1-13. i. 19-51. ii. 1-12. ii . 13, iii. 21. « iii. 22, iv. 42. iv. 43-54- Luke iv. 14-30. Mat. iv. 12-22. Mark i. 21-34. Mat. iv. 23-25. vi. -viii. «< Luke v. i-ii, 12-16. Mark ii. 1-22. John v. . Mat. xii. 1-8. Luke vi. 6-1 1. Mark iii. 7-12. Luke << vi. 12-16. vi. 17-49. vii. 1 -10. Mat. xi. 2-30. Luke vii .36- 50, viii. 1-3. Mat. xii. 22 50. " . ' xiii. 1- 1 7, 24-35- " xiii. 36,1 :8-23, 36-52. " xiii • 53, viii. 18-27. Mark v. 1-21. Mat. ix. 10-34. ix. 35. Mat. ix .36, x. 1-5, xi. 1. Mark vi. 14-29. yi. 30-44. Mat: xiv. 22-35. John vi. 25-71. Mark vii. 1-23. Mat. xv. 21-28. xv. 29-38. XV. , 39, xvi. 12. Mark viii. 22-26. Mat. xvi. 13-28. Mark ix. 14-29. ix. 30-32. ix. 33-50. Mat. xviii. . John vii. 2, viii. 1. vin. 2-50. *' ix., x. 1-21 M x. 39-42. Luke ix. 51-62. 10 HISTORICAL TABULAR VIEW. No. Event. 57. The Seventy sent (Luke x. 1-24). — The Good Samaritan. 58. Jesus in Martha's house (Luke x. 38-42). —Teaches how to pray. 59. Jesus casts out a dumb devil. 60. Jesus discourses on various topics. 61. All are warned to repent, etc. 62. A dropsical man healed. — The Great Supper. 63. Parable of the Lost Sheep. — Lost Piece of Silver. — Prodigal Son. 64. The Unjust Steward. — The Rich Man and Lazarus. 65. Of giving offence. — Ten lepers healed. — Jesus crosses Jordan into 66. Answer to " When the kingdom of God should come." 67. Encouragement to prayer. — Unjust judge and importunate widow. 68. Of divorce (Mat. xix. 3-12). — Little children blessed. 69. The rich young ruler. — Time of reward. 70. Parable of laborers hired at different hours. 71. Jesus a third time predicts his death, etc. 72. Jesus heals a blind man. Jesus and blind Bartimeus, having passed through, 73. Jesus in Zaccheus's house. — Parable of a nobleman and his servants. 74. Mary anoints Jesus (see John xii. 1-7). 75. Jesus' triumphal entry into Jer. from Beth'y (Mat. xxi. 1, xi. 14-17). 76. Jesus cleanses the temple the second time. 77. Jesus answers the Pharisees, who question his authority. 78. The marriage feast. — Of tribute to Caesar. 79. Jesus answers the Sadducees and Pharisees. 80. Widow's offering (Mark xii. 38-44). — Of the infidelity of the Jews. 81. Woes pronounced on the Pharisees. 82. Destruction of the Temple foretold, etc. 83. Parables: The Servants — Ten Virgins — Talents. 84. Judgment of the nations (Mat. xxv. 31-46). — Judas's covenant. 85. Last Passover (Mat. xxvi. 17-26). — Jesus washes his disciples' feet. 86. Jesus forewarns Peter, etc. (John xiii. 31-38). — And again. 87. Jesus directs his disciples how to obtain peace. 88. Jesus the True Vine. 89. Jesus promiseth the Holy Ghost to his disciples. 90. Jesus praye.h for his disc. (Jn. xvii.). — Jeru. — Peter warned 3d time. 91. Jesus' agony and betrayal. 92. Jesus before the high priests. — Peter denies Christ. — Judas repents. 93. Jesus before Pilate. — Scourged. — Arraigned (Mat. xxvii. 11-14). 94. Jesus sent to Herod (Luke xxiii. 6-12). Scourged, del. to be crucified. 95. Jesus is crowned and crucified. 96. Jesus is taken from the cross and buried. 97. Jesus' resurrection (Mat. xxviii. 1-8 ; 11-15). — Appears to Mary. 98. Jesus appears to two disciples going to Emmaus, and to the Eleven. 99. Jesus appears to 500 brethren at once on the Holy Mount Jesus appears to certain other disciples. 100 Jesus' tenth and last appearance. He ascends into heaven. Explanation. — The Historical Tabular View of the Gospels and the preceding Chart embrace every event in the Gospel History from its earliest period to the Ascension of our Lord into Heaven, accord- ing to Greswell's arrangement of A Harmony of the Four Gospels. They are divided into One Hundred Lessons, having the events localized in chronological succession. Our Lord attended five feasts in Jerusalem in the course of his minis- try, viz.: The Passovers, John ii. 13. No. 12; John v., No. 23. The Feast of Tabernacles, John vii. 10, No. 51. The Feast of Dedication, John x. 22, No. 54, and the Passover at which he was crucified. Nos. i-ii, embrace the events of the private history of John the Baptist and of Jesus. Nos. ia-32, are the events of our Lord's first year's ministry. HISTORICAL TABULAE VIEW. 11 Place. Evangelist. £7- Capernaum. Luke x. 25-37. 58. On the last circuit of Galilee. " xi. 1-13. 59- On the last circuit of Galilee. " xi. 14-54. 60. On the last circuit of Galilee. << x.i. - -. 61. On the last circuit of Galilee. '* xiii. 1-35. 62. Oa the last circuit of Galilee. u xiv. . 63- On the last circuit of Galilee. H XV. . 64. On the last circuit of Galilee. 11 xyi. 1 -3 1. 65 Peraea (Mat. xix. i, 2). Ditto. " xvii. 1 -19. 66. Peraea. m xvii. 20-37. 67. Pcrsea. « xviii. 1 -14. 68. Peraea. Mark x. 13-16. 69. Peraea. Mat xix. 16-30. 7°- Peraea. « xx. 1-16. 7 1 - In Judea, west of Jordan. << xx. 17-28. 7 2 - As he drew nigh to Jericho. Luke xviii. 35-43. As he went out of Jericho. Mark x. 46-52. 73- In the way to Jerusalem. Luke xix. 2-27. 74- At Bethany, in Judea. Mat. xxvi. 6-13. 75- Greeks wish to see Jesus at Jerusalem. John xii. 20-36. 76. Jerusalem. Mat. xxi. 12, 13. 77- Jerusalem. " xxi. 23-46. 78. Jerusalem. " xxii. 1-22. 79- Jerusalem. << xxii. 23-46. 80. Jerusalem. John Mat. xii. 37-59. 81. Jerusalem. xxiii. . 82. On Mount of Olives. " xxiv. 1-44. 83- On Mount of Olives. " xxiv. 45, xxv. 30. 84. On Mount of Olives. M xxvi. 1-5, xiv. 16. s 3 . At Jerusalem. John Luke xiii. 1-17. 86. At Jerusalem. xxii. 24-38. 87. At Jerusalem. John xiv. . 88. At Jerusalem. " XV. . 89. At Jerusalem. H xvi. . 90. Mount of Olives. Mat. xxvi. 30-35. 9i- Gethsemane. i< xxvi. 36-56. 92. Jerusalem. " ' xxvi. 57, xxvii. 10. 93- Jerusalem. John X' Mat. nil. 28, xix. 14. 94. Jerusalem. xxvii. 15-26. 95- Calvary. " xxvii. 27-50. 96. Calvary. i« xxvii. 51-66. 97- Calvary. John Luke xx. 1-18. 98. At Jerusalem. xxiv. 13-43- 99- Hermon. Mat. xxviii. 16-20. Lake Tiberias. John xxi. 1-24. 100. Jerusalem. — Mount of Olives. Acts i. 4-1 1, 22. Explanation. — Nos. 23-43, are the events of our Lord's second year's ministry. Nos. 44-100, are the events of our Lord's third year's ministry, and after the resurrection, until Jesus' ascension. To see the chronological order and locality of any fact in the histoiy, find in the column of Events the subject required, e. g. y " The Baptism of Jesus: " trace the line from the first column on left hand page, across both pages, following the corresponding numbers on both pages. On left hand page, Xo. 8 is the order of the history. Following N0.8 on the r.ght hand page. Mat. is the Evangelist recording the cv^nt. v.hi«.h Gosp-1 will be found in all the books, as under, associated with Mark and Luke, and the localities of the history are Nazareth and the River Jordan. THE PARABLES OF JESUS. Arranged in Chronological Order. PARABLES. PLACES. EVANGELIST. Sower Capernaum. Mat. xiii. 1-23. Tares Capernaum. Mat. xiii. 24-30, 36-43. Seed springing up imperceptibly. . . . Capernaum. Mark iv. 26-29. Grain of Mustard Seed Capernaum. Mat. xii. 31-32. Leaven Capernaum. Mat. xiii. 33. Found Treasure Capernaum. Mat. xiii. 44. Precious Pearl Capernaum. Mat. xiii. 45, 46. Net Capernaum. Mat. xiii. 47-50. Two Debtors Capernaum. Luke vii. 36-50. Unmerciful Servant Capernaum. Mat. xviii. 23-35. Samaritan Near Jericho. Luke x. 25-37. Rich Fool Galilee. Luke xii. 16-21. Servants who waited for their Lord. . . Galilee. Luke xii. 35-48. Barren Fig Tree Galilee. Luke xiii. 6-9. Lost Sheep Galilee. Luke xv. 3-7. Lost Piece of Money Galilee. Luke xv. 8-10. Prodigal Son Galilee. Luke xv. 11-32. Dishonest Steward *. Galilee. Luke xvi. 1-12. Rich Man and Lazarus Galilee. Luke xvi. 19-31. Unjust Judge Par<£a. Luke xviii. 1-8. Pharisee and Publican Parana. Luke xviii. 9-14. Laborers in the Vineyard Paraea. Mat. xx. 1-16. Pounds Jericho. Luke xix. 12-27. Two Sons Jerusalem. Mat. xxi. 28-32. Vineyard Jerusalem. Mat. xxi. 33-46. Marriage Feast Jerusalem. Mat. xxii. 1-14. Ten Virgins Jerusalem. Mat. xxv. 1-13. Talents Jerusalem. Mat. xxv. 14-30. Sheep and the Goats Jerusalem. Mat. xxv. 31-46. THE MIRACLES OF CHRIST. Arranged in Chronological Order. MIRACLES'. > PLACES. EVANGELIST. Turns Water into Wine Cana. John ii. 1-11. Cures the Nobleman's Son of Caper- naum. Cana. John iv. 46-64. Causes a miraculous Draught of Fishes. Sea of Galilee. Luke v. 1-11. Cures a Demoniac Capernaum. Mark i. 22-28. Heals Peter's Wife's Mother of a Fever. Capernaum. Mark i. 30, 31. Heals a Leper Capernaum. Mark i. 40-45. Heals the Centurion's Servant Capernaum. Mat. viii. 5-13. Raises the Widow's Son, Nain. Luke vii. n-17. Calms the Tempest Sea of Galilee. Mat. viii. 23-27. Cures the Demoniacs of Gadara. . . . Gadara. Mat. viii. 28-34. Cures a Man of Palsv Capernaum. Mat. ix. 1-8. Restores to Life the Daughter of Jairus. Capernaum. Mat. ix. 18, 19, Cures a Woman diseased with a Fiux of 23-26. Blood Capernaum. Luke viii. 43-48. Restores to Sight two Blind Men. . . . Capernaum. Mat. ix. 27-31. Hea s one possessed with a Dumb Spirit. Capernaum. Mat. ix. 32, 33. Cures an Infirm Man of Bethesda. . . Jerusalem, John v. 1-9. Cures a Man with a Withered Hand. . Judea,, Mat. xii. 10-13. 12 MIRACLES. PLACES. EVANGELIST. Cures a Demoniac. Capernaum. Mat. xii. 22, 23. Feeds miraculously Five Thousand. . Decapolis. Mat. xiv. 15-21. Heals the Daughter of the Woman of Canaan Near Tyre. Mat. xv. 22-2S. Heals a Man who was Dumb and Deaf. Decapolis. Mark vii. 31-37. Feeds miraculously Four Thousand. . Decapolis. Mat. xv. 32-39. Gives Sight to a Blind Man Bethsaida. Mark xiii. 22-26. Cures a Boy possessed of a Devil. . . Tabor. Mat. xvii. 14-21. Restores to Sight a Man born Blind. . Jerusalem. John ix. Heals a Woman under infirmity eighteen Years Galilee. Luke xiii. n-17. Cures a Dropsy Galilee. Luke xiv. 1-6. Cleanses ten Lepers Samaria. Luke xvii. 14-19. Raises Lazarus from the Dead. .... Bethany. John xi. Restores to Sight two Blind Men. . . . Jericho Mat. xx. 30-34. B asts the Fig Tree Olivet. Mat. xxi. 18-22. Heals the Ear of Malchus Gethsemane. Luke xxii. 50, 51. Causes the miraculous Draught of Fishes Sea of Galilee. John xxi. 1-14. THE DISCOURSES OF JESUS. Arranged in Chronological Order. DISCOURSES. PLACES. EVANGELIST. t ; ; '*"■; -s t * \ /■ " ■% Conversation with Nicodemus Jerusalem. John iii. 1-2 1. Conversation with the Woman of Sama- ria. Sychar. John iv. 1-12. Discourse in the Synagogue of Nazareth. Nazareth. Luke iv. 16-31. Sermon on the Mount Nazareth. Mat. v. -vii. Instruction to the Apostles Galilee. Mat. x. Denunciations against Chorazin, &c. . Galilee. Mat. xi. 20-24. Discourse on Occasion of healing the Infirm Men at Bethesda Jerusalem. John v. Discourse concerning the Disciples plucking Corn on the Sabbath. . . Judea. Mat. xii. 1-8. Refutation of his working Miracles by the agency of Beelzebub Capernaum. Mat. xii. 22-37. Discourse on the Bread of Life. . . . Capernaum. John vii. Discourse about Internal Purity. . . . Capernaum. Mat. xv. 1-20. Discourse against giving or taking Of- fence, and forgiving Injuries. . . . Capernaum. Mat. xviii. Discourse at the Feast of Tabernacles. Jerusalem. John vii. Discourse on the Occasion of the Woman taken in Adultery Jerusalem. John viii. i-u. Discourse concerning the Sheep. . . . Jerusalem. John x. Denunciations against the Scribes and Pharisees. .......... . Perasa. Luke xi. 29-36. Discourse concerning Humility and Prudence. . . Galilee. Luke xiv. 7-14. Directions how to attain Heaven. . . . Peraea. Mat. xix. 16-30. Discourse concerning his Sufferings. .Jerusalem. Mat. xx. 17-19. Denunciations against the Pharisees. . Jerusalem. Mat. xxii. Prediction of the Destruction of Jeru- salem. . . . Jerusalem. Mat. xxiv. The Consolatory Discourse. • . . . . Jerusalem. Tohn xiv. -xvii. Discourse as he went to Gethsemane. . Jerusalem. Mat. xxvi. 31-36. Discourse to the Disciples before his Ascension Jerusalem. Mat. xxviii. 16-23. 13 Some of the Principal Promises in the Old Testament relating to the Messiah, with their Accomplishment in the Exact Words in the New Testaments I. PROPHECIES RELATIVE TO THE ADVENT, PERSON, SUFFERINGS, RESURRECTION, AND ASCENSION OF THE MESSIAH. * PROPHECIES. FULFILMENT. Gen. iii. 15. Gen. xlix. 10. Ps. ii. 7. Gen. xii. 3 ; xviii. 18. u Isa. vii. 14. Micah v. 2. Deut. xviii. 15, 18. Isa. xxxv. 5, 6. Zech. ix. 9. Ps. xli. 9 ; lv. 12- „ H- .. Ps. xxn. 16, 17. Ps. xxii. 12, 13. Ps. lxix. 21. Ps. xxxiv. 20. Isa. li.i. 9. Ps. Ixviii. x8. Hag. ii. 7. Mai. iii. 1. Isa. ix. 6. Gen. xlix. 10 ; ix. 7. Jer. xxxi. 22. Mai. iii. 1 ; xl.,3- Isa. ix. 1, 2. Isa. xxix. 18. Isa. liii. 3. Zech. xi. 12, Isa. liii. 5, 8. Ps. xxii. 7, 8. Ps. xxii. 18. Zech. x.i. 10. Ps. xvi. 9, 10. Joel ii. a& Isa. Isa. i.3- Gal. iv. 4. Luke ii. 1, 3-5. Heb.i. 8. Acts iii. 25. Mat. i. 24, 25. Luke ii. 4-6. Jn. iv. 19; vi. 14- Mat. xi. 4, 5. Mat. xxi. 7-10. Luke xxii. 3, 4. Jn. xix. 1, 2. Mat. xxvii. 39-42. Jn. xix. 29 ; Mat. xxv.i. 48. Jn. xix. 32, 33. Mat. xxvn. 38, 1 Cor. xv. 4 ; Acts i. 9. Luke ii. 10. (Mat. ii. 1-10. J Ino. i. 1, 14. |Heb. vii. 14. I Luke i. 26-35. Mat. iii. 1 ; Lu. vii. 27, 28. * Mat. iv. 12, 17. Mat. xv. 30, 31. Luke ix. 58. Mat. xxvii. 3-8. I Mark xv. 19, 25. Luke xxji. 35-37. Jn. xix. 23, 24. Jn. xix. 34. Acts ii. 31. Acts ii. 1-4 ; iv. 3i. II. PROPHECIES RELATIVE TO THE OFFICES OF THfe MESSIAH. PROPHECIES. FULFILMENT. Deut. xviii. 18, 19. Isa. Ii. 1. Luke vii. 16. Mark i. 14. Ps. lxxviii. Isa. ix. 2. See page — . Jno. xii. 46. Ps. ii. 2. Ps. ex. 4. Mat. xxvi. 63,64. Heb. iv. 14 ; Isa. liii. 6, 10-12. Eph. v. 2. viii. 1. Isa. lix. 20. Dan. ix. 4. Jn. iv. 42. Heb. x. 12. Isa. liii. 12. Dan. ix. 17-19. Luke xxiii. 34. Jn. xv. 16 ; xvi. Ps. ii. 6. Luke i. 32, 33. 23, 24. Ps. lxxx. 27^ 36. Isa. xl. 11. 1 Tim. vi. 15. Jn. x. 11, 14. Ps. viii. 5. Jer. xxiii. 5, 6. Heb. ii. 9 ; xii. 2. Jn. xviii. 33, 36, Dan. vii. 13, 14. 37- . Eph. 1. 21. Isa. liii. 10, 12. Phil. ii. 8-10. * The references in the first column correspond with those in tha third, and those in the second column with the fourth. H THE NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. CLASSIFICATION OF THE BOOKS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. Various modes of arranging the books of the New Testament have obtained at different times. As far back as the time of Ignatius, about A. D. 100, the New Testa- ment consisted of two codes, or collections, called "Gos- pels" and "Epistles," or "Gospels" and "Apostles." But the more modern, and certainly more convenient arrangement is that of Historical, Doctrinal, and Pro- phetical Books. The Historical Books comprise the four Gospels, which relate to the transactions of Jesus Christ, and the Acts of the Apostles, relating principally to the transactions of Peter and Paul. The Doctrinal Books include the fourteen Epistles of St. Paul, and the seven Catholic Epistles, so called because they were chiefly addressed to the converted Jews who were dispersed throughout the Eoraan em- pire. The Revelation of St. John forms the Prophetical class of the books of the New Testament. This book, Dr. Mill remarks, is fitly placed last, because it predicts things that are hereafter to be fulfilled, and is therefore of a different kind from the rest; and also because it has, towards the end, that remarkable clause (Rev. xxii. 18, 19) agamst adding to or taking from it, which may be applied to all the books of Scripture ; to which observa- tion may be added, there are strong reasons for believing it to be the last written of all the books of the New Tes- tament. 15 16 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. CHAPTER I. THE HISTORICAL BOOKS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. SECTION I. OBSERVATIONS ON THE CANONICAL GOSPELS. . I. The word which we translate Gospel, among Greek profane writers, signifies any good tidings, and corre- sponds exactly with our English word Gospel, which is derived from the Saxon, and signifies God's word, or good tidings. In the New Testament this term is con- lined to the glad tidings of the actual coming of the Messiah, and is even opposed to the prophecies concern- ing Christ (Rom. i. 1, 2). Ecclesiastical writers gave the appellation of Gospels to the lives of Christ ; and the authors of those sacred histories in which are recorded 14 the good tidings of great joy to all people" of the advent of the Messiah, together with all its joyful cir- cumstances, have acquired the title of Evangelists. Besides this general title, the sacred writers use the term Gospel with a variety of epithets, a part of which it may be necessary to mention. Thus it is called the Gospel of Peace (Eph. vi. 15), because it proclaims peace with God to fallen man through Jesus Christ; the Gospel of God concerning his Son (Rom. i. 1, 3), because it relates everything concerning the conception and birth of Christ, together with all his sayings, actions, crucifixion, resurrection, and ascension ; the Gospel of his Son (Rom. i. 9), the Gos- pel of Salvation (Eph. i. 13), because it offers salvation to the lost or miserable ; the Gospel of the Kingdom of God (Matt. iv. 23, ix. 35, xxiv. 14; Mark i. 14), because it proclaims the power and dominion of the Messiah, the nature and privileges of his kingdom, its laws, and the duties of its subjects ; the Word or Doctrine of the Gospel (Acts xv. 7) ; the Word of Reconciliation (2 Cor. v. 19), because it makes known the manner and terms by which God is reconciled to sinners ; the Gos- pel of Glory (or the Glorious Gospel) of the blessed God THE CANONICAL GOSPELS. 17 (1 Tim. i. 11), and the Gospel of the Grace of God (Acts xx. 24), because it is a declaration of God's free favor to all men. The blessings and privileges prom- ised in the New Testament (1 Cor. ix. 23). the public profession of Christian doctrine (Mark viii. 35, x. 29 ; 2 Tim. i. 8; Philem. ver. 13), and in Gal. i. (J, 8, 0, any new doctrines, whether true or false, are respectively called the Gospel. II. The general design of the Evangelists in writing the Gospels was, doubtless, to confirm the Christians of that and every succeeding age in their belief in the truth that Jesus is the Messiah, the Son of God, through whom alone they can obtain eternal life (John xx. 31), and also to defend this momentous truth against the calumnies of the adversaries of the Christian faith. This task was executed by two apostles, Matthew and John, and two companions of the apostles, Mark and Luke. Of these evangelists, Matthew, Mark, and Luke have chiefly related the actions and doctrines of Jesus in Galilee, probably on account of the false reports circu- lated by the Jews in Jerusalem, who, being unable to deny the memorable transactions performed there by Jesus Christ, seem to have directed all their efforts to invalidate their credibility. On the contrary, John expa- tiates more largely on the actions and doctrines of our Saviour, both at Jerusalem and in Judea, and adds a variety of particulars omitted by the others. III. The Gospels which have been transmitted to us are four in number; and we learn from undoubted au- thority, that four, and four only, were ever received by the Christian Church as the genuine and inspired writ- ings of the evangelists. "Though we have only four original writers of the life of Jesus, the evidence of the history does not rest on the testimony of four men. Christianity had been propa- gated in a great part of the world before any of them had written, on the testimony of thousands and tens of thousands, who had been witnesses of the great facts which they have recorded ; so that the writing of these particular books is not to be considered as the cause, but rather the effect, of the belief of Christianity; nor could these books have been written and received as they were, — viz., as autJientic histories of the subject of which all persons of that age were judges, — if the facts they have recorded had not been known to be true." — Dr. Priest- ley's Notes on the Bible. 2 18 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. SECTION II. ON THE GOSPEL BY ST. MATTHEW. The Gospel of St. Matthew, which comprises twenty- eight chapters, consists of four parts, viz. : — Part I. treats on the genealogy of Jesus Christ (i. 1-17) ; the birth of Christ (i. 18-25) ; the adoration of the Magi and slaughter of the infants at Bethlehem and in its vicinity (ii-)« Part II. records the discourses and actions of John the Baptist, and the baptism of Jesus Christ by him (iii.) ; the temptation of Christ in the wilderness (iv. 1-11). Part III. Christ goes into Galilee, calls Peter, An- drew, James, and John, and performs various miracu- lous cures (iv. 12-25) ; Sermon on the Mount (v., vi., vii.) ; a narrative of several miracles performed by Christ, and the calling of Matthew (viii., ix.) ; Christ's charge to the twelve apostles, whom he sent forth to preach to the Jews (x., xi. 1.); the manner in which the discourses and actions of Christ were received by the various classes of men (xi. 2-xvi. 1-12) ; the discourses and actions of Christ immediately concerning his disci- ples (xvi. 13-xx. 1-1G). Part IV. contains the discourses and miracles of Christ on his way to Jerusalem (xx. 17-24) ; the transactions at Jerusalem until his passion (xxi.-xxvii. 1-61) ; the trans- actions on the Sabbath of Passion-week (that is, from sunset on Friday to sunset on Saturday, on Passion- week) ; the sepulchre of Christ secured (xxvii. G2-G6) ; the transactions after Christ's resurrection, chiefly on Easter-day (xxviii.). SECTION III. ON THE GOSPEL BY ST. MARK. The Gospel of St. Mark consists of sixteen chapters, which may be divided into three parts, viz. : — Part I. The transactions from the baptism of Christ to his entering on the more public part of his ministry (chap. i. 1— i8). Part II. The discourses and actions of Jesus Christ between the first and second passover (i. 14-45, ii. 1-22) ; the transactions between the second and third passover (ii. 23-28, iii.-vi.) ; the transactions of the third pass- THE CANONICAL GOSPELS. 19 over to Christ's going up to Jerusalem to the fourth and last passover (vii.-x.). Part III. The first day of Passion-week, or Palm Sunday. Christ's triumphal entry into Jerusalem (xi. 1-11) ; the transactions on the second day, or Monday (xi. 12-19) ; the transactions on the third, day, or Tues- day (xi. 20-23-xiii.) ; the transactions of the fourth day, or Wednesday (xiv. 1-9) ; the transactions of the fifth day, or Thursday (xiv. 10-16) ; the transactions of the Passover-day, that is, from Thursday evening to Friday evening of Passion-week, including the institution of the Lord's Supper, Christ's agony in the garden, his being betrayed by Judas, his trial, crucifixion, and burial (xiv. 17-72, xv.); the transactions after the resurrection of Christ (xvi.). From the striking coincidence between the Gospel of Mark and that of Matthew, several learned men have imagined that Mark compiled his Gospel from him. For proof that this hypothesis is not tenable, see Home's In- troduction to the Bible, vol. iv. pp. 257-259. SECTION IV. ON THE GOSPEL BY ST. LUKE. The Gospel of St. Luke, which consists of twenty -four chapters, is divided by Rosenmuller and others into five distinct classes or sections. Class I. contains the narrative of the birth of Christ, together with all the circumstances that preceded, attend- ed, and immediately followed it (i., ii. 1-40). Class II. comprises the particulars relative to our Sa- viour's infancy and youth (ii. 41-52). Class III. includes the preaching of John and the bap- tism of Jesus Christ, whose genealogy is annexed (iii.). Class IV. comprehends the discourses, miracles, and actions of Jesus Christ during the whole three years of his ministry (iv.-ix. 50). This appears evident; for, after St. Luke had related his temptation in the wilder- ness (iv. 1-13), he immediately adds, that Christ returns to Galilee (14), and mentions Nazareth (M>), Capernaum (31), and lake of Gennesareth (v. 1) ; and then he pro- ceeds (ix. 50) to relate our Saviour's transactions in Galilee. Class V. contains an account of our Saviour's last 20 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. journey to Jerusalem, including every circumstance reU ative to his passion, death, resurrection, and ascension, (ix. 51-62, x.-xxiv). SECTION V. ON THE GOSPEL BY ST. JOHN. The Gospel of St. John, which consists of twenty-one chapters, is divided into three parts, viz. : — Part I. contains doctrines laid down in opposition to those of Cerinthus (i. 1-18), who, having studied litera- ture and philosophy at Alexandria, attempted to form a new system of doctrine and discipline, by a monstrous combination of the doctrines of Jesus Christ with the opinions and errors of the Jews and Gnostics. Part II. The Evangelist, having settled the proposi- tion in Part I., proceeds to deliver the proofs of these doctrines in an historical manner (i. 19-xx. 2d), as being all expressed, or plainly implied, in the discourses and transactions of Jesus Christ. Part III. contains an account of the person of the writer of this Gospel, and his design in writing it (xx. 30, 31, xxi.). St. John evidently had in view to convince his readers that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God (xx. 31), and consequently that the tenets and notions of Cerinthus were altogether false and heretical. That the four Gospels were written by the persons whose names they severally bear is so generally acknowl- edged, we have thought it unnecessary here to intro- duce the many proofs usually adduced for this purpose. For further particulars in regard to the Gospels and their authors, see Biographical Sketches. SECTION VI. ON THE ACTS OF THE APOSTLES. The Acts of the Apostles forms the fifth and last of the historical books of the New Testament, and connects the Gospels with the Epistles, being a useful postscript to the former, and a proper introduction to the latter. For this reason it is usually placed between the Gospels and Epistlesj although, if placed in the order of the time in THE ACTS OF THE APOSTLES. 21 which they were written, it should be placed before John's Gospel. This book contains a great part of the lives and trans- actions of St. Peter and St. Paul, and of the history of the Christian church, commencing at the ascension of our Saviour (A. D. 29), and being continued down to St. Paul's arrival at Rome, after his appeal to Caesar, comprising a period of about thirty years. That St. Luke was the author of the Acts of the Apostles, as well as of the Gospel that bears his name, is evident, both from the introduction and from the unanimous testimony of the early Christians. Both are inscribed to Theophi- lus ; and in the very first verse of the Acts there is a ref- erence made to his Gospel, which he calls the former treatise. On this account. Dr. Benson and some others have conjectured that St. Luke wrote the Gospels and the Acts in one book, and divided it into two parts. Prom the frequent use of the first person plural, it is clear that he was present at most of the transactions he relates. The Acts of the Apostles, as they appear in our copies, contain twenty-eight chapters, and may be divided into three different parts, viz. : — Part I. contains the rise and progress of the mother church at Jerusalem from the time of our Saviour's as- cension to the first Jewish persecution (chap, i.-viii.). Part II. comprises the dispersion of the disciples, the propagation of Christianity among the Samaritans, the conversion of St. Paul, and the foundation of a Christian church at Antioch (viii. 5-12). Part III. describes the conversion of the more remote Gentiles by Barnabas and Paul, and, after their separa- tion, by Paul and his associates, among whom was Luke himself during the latter part of Paul's labors (xiii.-xxviii.) See Synchronology, from A. I). 20 to 63, in another part of this Look. 22 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. CHAPTER II. THE DOCTRINAL BOOKS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. SECTION I. THE APOSTOLICAL EPISTLES. Observations on the Apostolical Epistles in general, and those of St. Paul in particular, I. The Epistles, or letters addressed to various Chris- tian communities, and also to individuals, by the apostles Paul, James, Peter, John, and Jude, form the second principal division of the New Testament. These writings abundantly confirm all the material facts related in the Gospels and Acts of the Apostles. Though all the essential precepts and doctrines of the Christian religion were taught by our Saviour himself, and are contained in the Gospels, yet it is evident to every one who studies carefully the Epistles, that they are to be considered as commentaries on the doctrines of the gospel, addressed to particular Christian societies or in- dividuals, in order to explain to them and enforce more fully those doctrines, to confute some growing errors, to compose differences, to reform abuses and corruptions, to excite Christians to holiness, and to encourage them against persecutions. On account of the fuller displays of evangelical truth contained in this part of the sacred volume, the Epistles have been termed the doctrinal books of the New Testa- ment. They announce and explain doctrines of which our Saviour had not fully treated in his discourses, and which consequently are not clearly declared in the Gos- pels. Our Saviour often accommodated his expressions to those prejudices in which the people had been educated. Thus, in his discourses concerning his kingdom, he does not attempt at once to eradicate the erroneous notions they entertained, that he was to set up a temporal king- dom, but chose rather to remove them by gentle and easy degrees (Luke xxii. 30; Matt. xix. 28). For announcements relative to the real and spiritual THE APOSTOLICAL EPISTLES. 23 nature of Christ's kingdom, see 1 Peter i. 4; 2 Peter iii. 13; 1 Cor. xv. 28; 2 Cor. iv. 18. It was the same pre- judices concerning the temporal glories of Christ's king- dom which caused his disciples to misunderstand the meaning of his clear and explicit discourses concerning his sufferings, death, and resurrection (Mark ix. 10; Luke ix. 45, xviii. 34). It is in the Epistles principally that we are clearly taught the calling of the Gentiles to make one church with the Jews. Our Lord had indeed intimated this glo- rious event in some general expressions, and also in some of his parables (see Matt. vii. 1, xx. 1 ; Lukexv. 11, &c.) ; and, notwithstanding the numerous prophecies of the Old Testament were sufficient to convince the Jews that God would more clearly reveal the knowledge of himself and his will to the world in the times of the Messiah, the privileges, which they fancied were peculiar to them- selves as a nation, made them unwilling to believe that the Gentiles should ever be fellow-heirs with the Jews, of the same body or church with them, and partakers of the same promises in Christ by the gospel (Eph. iii. 5). This St. Peter himself could hardly be persuaded to be- lieve, till he was convinced by a particular vision vouch- safed to him for that purpose (Acts x. 28). And St. Paul tells us that this was a mystery which was but newly revealed to the apostles by the Spirit (Eph. iii. 5), and therefore not fully discovered to them by Christ before. It is also in the Epistles chiefly that the ineflicacy of the law to procure our justification in the sight of God, the cessation of the law, and the eternal and unchangea- ble nature of Christ's priesthood, are set forth. Compare Rom. iii. 20, 25; Gal. ii. 21, iii. 16, v. 2, o- y Heb. ix. 10, vii. 18, v. 5, 6, vii. 24, 25. In the Epistles only we have instructions concerning many great and necessary duties. Such are the following, viz. : That all our thanksgivings are to be offered up to God in the name of Christ (com- pare Eph. v. 8, 20; 1 Thess. v. 18 ; Heb. xiii. 14, 15). The duties we owe our civil governors are only hinted at in these words of Christ, " Render unto Cesar the things that are Cesar's ," but are enlarged upon in St. Paul's Epistles to the Romans (xiii.) and to Titus (iii. 1), and also in the First Epistle of St. Peter (ii. 13, 17). In like manner the duties we owe to the ministers of the gospel (our spiritual governors') are more expressly taught in St. Paul's Epistle to the Galatians (vi. 6 ; 1 Thess. v. 12, 24 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. 13), and to the Hebrews (xiii. 17, 18). Lastly, all the duties belonging to the relations of husbands and wives, parents and children, masters and servants, are particu- larly treated in the Epistles to the Ephesians (v. 28-33, vi. 1-9) and the Colossians (iii. 11-25), but are scarcely ever mentioned in the Gospels. II. The Epistles contained in the New Testament are twenty-one in number, and are generally divided into two classes — the Epistles of St. Paul and the Catholic Epistles. Of these, fourteen were written by the great Apostle to the Gentiles. They are not placed in our Bibles according to the order of time when they were composed, but according to the supposed precedence of the persons or societies to which tiiey were addressed. Thus the Epistles to churches are disposed according to the rank of the cities or places whither they were sent. Among the Epistles to particular persons, those to Timothy have the precedence, as lie was a favorite dis- ciple of St. Paul, and also because those Epistles are the largest and fullest. Last of all St. Paul's Epistles comes that to the He- brews, because its authenticity was doubted for a short time (though without any foundation, as the testimony of all ecclesiastical antiquity decidedly ascribes this Epistle to St. Paul). Dr. Lardner also thinks it was last written of all St. Paul's Epistles. III. The Catholic Epistles are seven in number, and contain the letters of the apostles James, Peter, John, and Jude. They are termed Catholic — that is, general or universal — because they are not addressed to the be- lievers of some particular city or country, or to individ- uals, — as St. Paul's Epistles were, — but to Christians in general, or to Christians of several countries. IV. Explicit as the Epistles unquestionably are in all fundamental points, it is not to be denied that some parts of them are more difficult to be understood than the Gospels. The reason of these seeming difficulties is evident. In an Epistle many things are omitted, or only slightly mentioned, because they are supposed to be known by the persons to whom they are addressed ; but to a person unacquainted with such particulars, they can- not but present considerable difficulty. It is further evi- dent from many passages, that St. Paul answers letters sent and questions proposed to him by his correspond- ents, which, if they had been preserved, would have illustrated different passages much better than all the EPISTLE TO THE ROMANS. 25 notes of commentators and critics. To these causes of obscurity common to all the writers of the Epistles, there are many peculiar to St. Paul, owing to his style and temper. . Possessing an ardent, acute, and fertile mind, he seems to have written with great rapidity, and without close attention to method. Hence arise those frequent parentheses which occur in his Epistles. The most useful mode of studying the epistolary writ- ings of the New Testament is, unquestionably, that pro- posed and recommended by Mr. Locke (see Preface). SECTION II. THE EPISTLE TO THE ROMANS. This Epistle is placed first in order of all the apostol- ical letters, though fifth in order of time, either from the preeminence of Koine, as being the mistress of the world, or because the Epistle itself is one of the longest and most comprehensive of all that were written by the apos- tle. Various years have been assigned for its date. While Archbishop Usher and our Bible chronology refer it to the year GO, it seems the most probable date is that which assigns it to the end of 57, or beginning of 58, at which time St. Paul w;is at Corinth, preparing to go to Jerusalem with the collections made by the Christians of Macedonia and A chain, for their poor brethren in Judea (Rom. xv. 25-27). It \wis dictated by Paul to Tertius his amanuensis (xvi. 22), and sent to Home by Phebe, a deaconess of the church at Cenchrea. It is further evi- dent that it was written from that city from Romans xvi. 23, where he sends salutations from Erastus, the chamber- lain of Corinth (which city, we learn from 2 Tim. iv. 20, was the place of his residence), and from Gaius, who lived at Corinth (1 Cor. i. 14), whom St. Paul terms his host, and the host of all the Christian church there. This Epistle has always been acknowledged to be a gen- uine and authentic production of St. Paul. The Scrip- tures do not inform us when or by whom the gospel was first preached at Rome. But it is conjectured that it was carried thither by some of those Jews who were converted at the day of Pentecost (Acts ii. 10). Had St. Peter preached the gospel there, as some assert, it is not likely sucli an event would have been left unnoticed in the Acts of the Apostles, where the labors of Peter are particularly related with those of St. Paul. It is 26 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. further evident, from Romans i. 8, that Paul had never been in that city previous to his writing this Epistle ; but being made fully acquainted with the circumstances of the church there by Aquila and Priscilla (chap. xv. 3), he adopted this method of establishing believers in the faith, and of giving them such comprehensive views of the Christian religion as to guard them against the insin- uations of false teachers of various kinds. In order fully to understand this Epistle, it is necessary that we should be acquainted with the tenets believed by those whose errors the apostle here exposes and con- futes. It is clear that he wrote to persons who had been either Gentiles or Jews, and that he designed to remove the prejudices entertained by both. The Gentiles, who lived in gross ignorance, were not much troubled concerning the salvation of their souls, but believed their sins were expiated by their virtues, and declared a man to be inno- cent who repented of his faults. The Jews, on the other hand, believed there was no one so righteous as not to stand in need of pardon ; but if there remained anything to be pardoned, they said every- thing would be expiated by death. The grounds of their justification were, — 1. The extraordinary piety of their ancestors, and the covenant God made with them. 2. Their knowledge of God through his law, and their diligence in the study of that law. 3. The works of the Levitical law, which were to ex- piate sin, especially circumcision and sacrifices. The Epistle to the Romans consists of four parts, viz. : — Part I. The Introduction (chap. i. 1-13). Part II. contains the doctrinal part of the Epistle con' cerning justification (i. 16-32, ii.-xi.), showing how justification is to be obtained (i. 17), and particularly the equal privileges of the Jews and Gentiles. Part III. comprises the hortatory or practical part of the Epistle (xii.-xv. 1-14). Part IV. The conclusion, in which St. Paul excuses himself partly for his boldness in thus writing to the Romans (xv. 14-21), and partly for not having hitherto come to them (22), but promises to visit them, recom- mending himself to their prayers (23-33), sends vari- ous salutations to the brethren at Rome (xvi.), and as- cribes glory to God our Saviour. FIRST EPISTLE TO THE CORINTHIANS. 27 " St. Paul," says Dr. Taylor, " was a great genius and a fine writer; and he seems to have exercised all his talents, as well as the most perfect Christian temper, in drawing up this Epistle." In perusing which, it will be desirable to read the first eleven chapters at once, unin- terruptedly, as every sentence seems dependent upon the whole discourse, and cannot be fully understood unless we comprehend the scope of the whole. SECTION III. THE FIRST EPISTLE TO THE CORINTHIANS. Christianity was undoubtedly first introduced at Corinth by St. Paul himself, about the year 53 or 54 (Acts xviii. 1-11). On St Paul's departure from Corinth, he was succeeded by Apollos (Acts xviii. 24-28). Aquila and Sosthenes were also eminent teachers in this church (xviii. 2; 1 Cor. i. 1). Soon after St. Paul left this church, its peace was dis- turbed by the intrusion of false teachers, who made great pretensions to wisdom and a knowledge of their Christian liberty, and thus undermined his influence, and the credit of his ministry. It appears, from chapter vii. 1, that St. Paul wrote this Epistle in answer to a letter which he had received from the church at Corinth. While they had asked his advice on certain points, they had said nothing of the enormi- ties and disorders that had crept in among them, and in the blame of which they all shared. Hence the object of the apostle in writing this Epistle seems to have been twofold, viz. : — First, the information he had received while at Ephe- sus of the disorders that prevailed in the church at Cor- inth, such as schisms and divisions (1 Cor. i. 11); many notorious scandals (v., vi.) ; idolatrous commun- ion with the heathens at their idol feasts (viii. 10) ; want of decorum and order in their public worship (xi. 2-16, xiv.) ; gross profanation of the Lord's Supper (xi. 17-34) ; and the denial of the resurrection and eternal life (xv. 12). The second cause of the apostle's writing this Epistle was his receiving a letter from the church at Corinth, by the hands of Stephanas, Fortunatus, and Achaicus (xvi. 12-17, vii. 1), in which the Corinthian Christians requested his advice concerning marriage (vii. 1), things 28 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. sacrificed to idols (viii.), spiritual gifts (xii.), prophesy' ing, or teaching others (xiv.), and concerning their making charitable collections to their poor brethren in Juclea (xvi. 1), &c, &c. The apostle seems to have endeavored to apply suita- ble remedies to the disorders and abuses which had crept into the church at Corinth, by giving to the Corin- thians satisfactory answers on all those points on which they had requested his advice and information. The Epistle divides itself into three parts, viz. : — Part I. The introduction, in which St. Paid expresses his satisfaction at their having received the gifts of the Holy Spirit for the confirmation of the gospel (i. 1-9). Part II. Contains a reproof of the coi'ruptions and abuses which had crept into the church (i. 10, vi. 1-20), and an answer to the questions which the Corinthian church had proposed to the apostle (vii.-xv). Part III. Comprises directions relative to the collec- tions for the saints at Jerusalem ; the apostle's promise soon to visit them, and salutations to various members of the church at Corinth. The genuineness of this Epistle was never seriously doubted. The opinion expressed by many, that it was written at Philippi, seems to be contradicted by St. Paul himself in xvi. 8. In Acts xvii. 18-23, xix. 1, xx. 31, we learn that after St. Paul had left Corinth, he went into Asia, and returned to Ephesus, where he re- mained three years ; and it was doubtless at the close of his residence in Ephesus that he wrote this Epistle, as appears from 1 Cor. xvi. 8. SECTION IV. THE SECOND EPISTLE TO THE CORINTHIANS. On quitting Ephesus, where the preceding Epistle was written, Paul went to Troas, in expectation of meet- ing Titus, to learn the success (he hoped) of his former Epistle, and the present condition of the Corinthian church (2 Cor. ii. 12). But not meeting Titus there, he proceeded to Macedonia (ver. 13), where he obtained the desired interview, and received satisfactory informa- tion concerning the promising state of affairs at Corinth (vii. 5). From this country, and probably from Philippi (as the subscription imports), he wrote the second letter (2 Cor. viii. 1-14, ix. 1-5), which he sent by Titus and SECOND EPISTLE TO THE CORINTHIANS. 29 his associates, who were commissioned to hasten and finish the contribution among the Christians at Corinth for the use of their poor brethren in Judea (ix. 2-4). From these historical circumstances it is generally agreed that this Epistle was written within a year after the former. As the result of the First Epistle to the Co- rinthians, many amended their conduct, and showed strong marks of repentance, and such respect for the apostle, that they excommunicated the incestuous person (2 Cor. ii. 5-11, vii. 11), requested the apostle's return with tears (vii. 7), and vindicated the apostle and his of- fice against the false teacher and his adherents (vii. 7-11). Others, however, of the Corinthians adhered to the false teacher, denied Paul's apostolical ministry by argu- ments which they pretended to draw from his First Epistle. Paul, having intimated his intention to visit Corinth from Ephesus (2 Cor. i. \5, 1G), was led to alter his intentions after he learned the true state of the church there, as he must have treated them with severity, had lie visited them (23). The scope of this Epistle is a vindication of himself of the various accusations his enemies had brought against him, and to stir them up to lead a holy life, and particu- larly to avoid communion with idolaters. This Epistle, like the first, is divided into three parts, viz. : — Part I. The introduction (i. 1-2). Part II. Paul justifies himself from the charges pre- ferred against him by the false teacher and his adherents, by showing his sincerity and integrity in the discharge of his ministry, and that he acted from a tender regard for their spiritual welfare (i. 3-2-1, ii.-vii.); he exhorts them to a liberal contribution for their brethren in Judea, and endeavors to detach the Corinthians from the false teacher and his adherents, and reestablish his authority (x.-xiii. 10). Part III. Conclusion; with various admonitions and affectionate good wishes and prayers (xiii. 1 J —14). It has been truly said, "The most remarkable circum- stance in this Epistle is, the confidence of the apostle in the goodness of his cause, and in the power of God to bear him out in it." St. Luke briefly notices (in Acts xx. 2, 3) Paul's second journey to Corinth, after writing this Epistle; and it is worthy of note, that from this time we hear no more of the false teacher. 30 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. The apostle mentions (2 Cor. xii. 14, and xiii. 1, 2) his intention to visit Corinth a third time ; and as only one visit before the date of this Epistle is mentioned in the Acts (xviii. 1), a considerable chronological difficulty had occurred. But this third visit was actually paid on the apostle's second return to Rome, when he took Corinth in his way (2 Tim. iv. 20). SECTION V. THE EPISTLE TO THE GALATIANS. The Galatians, or Gallo-Grecians, were the descendants of those Gauls, who, finding their country too small to support its redundant population, migrated from their own country, after the death of Alexander the Great, about 278 B. C, to seek for new settlements, and, after a variety of disasters, got possession of a large district in Asia Minor, near to Lycaonia, Lystra, and Iconium, from them called Galatia. Historians represent them as a tall and valiant people, who went nearly naked, armed only with a buckler and sword; and the impetuosity of their attacks is said to have been irresistible. Their religion before their con- version was exceedingly corrupt and superstitious. It is supposed they retained their native language and customs at the time the gospel was first preached among them. Christianity was very early planted in Galatia by St. Paul himself; as it appears from the Acts of the Apostles, he made two distinct visits to that place. The first is mentioned in Acts xvi. 6, the second, Acts xviii. 23. There is a diversity of opinion, among learned men, as to the time when St. Paul wrote tins Epistle to the Gala- tians, but the genuineness of the Epistle was never doubt- ed. It is evident that this Epistle was written early, be- cause the apostle complains in it of their speedy apostasy from his doctrine (Gal. i, 6), and warns them, in the strongest terms, against the Judaizing teachers who dis- turbed the peace of the churches in Syria and Asia Minor (i. 7-9, hi. 1). As there is no intimation in this Epistle that St. Paul had visited Galatia more than once, there can be no doubt that he wrote this letter from Corinth, and the sub- scription which states it to have been from Rome is" doubtless spurious, as Paul's first journey to Rome did not take place until at least ten years after the conversion of the Galatians. EPISTLE TO THE EPHESIANS. 31 The churches in Galatia were made up, like those of most other countries, partly of converted Jews, and part- ly of Gentile converts — the latter probably the more nu- merous. The circumstances which constrained St. Paul to write this Epistle with his own hand (Gal. vi. 11) were, in many respects, similar to those before mentioned in rela- tion to the church at Corinth. From the expression of St. Paul (in Gal. v. 9, 10) it is probable this disturbance in the Galatian church was made by one Judaizing teacher only, and he of an im- moral character (vi. 12, 13), and not by several zealots, as some have supposed (see Gal. v. 2-12). The Epistle to the Galatians consists of three parts, viz. : — Part I. The Introduction (i. 1-5). Part II. Is a vindication of the apostle's authority and doctrine, and shows that he was an immediate apostle of Christ himself, by divine revelation, and consequently not inferior to St. Peter himself (i. 6-24, ii.) ; also that justification is by faith in Christ, and not, as false teach- ers had taught them, by the works of the Mosaic law (iii. 1-18; also iii. 19-29, and iv. 1-7); and it further shows that by submitting to circumcision they became subject to the whole law, and would forfeit the bene- fits of the covenant of grace (iv. 8-31, v. 1-9). It also contains various instructions and exhortations for Christian, behavior (v. 10-26, vi. 1-10). Part III. Is a summary of the topics discussed, and closes with an apostolic benediction (vi. 11-18). " The Epistle to the Galatians, with that to the Romans, forms a complete proof that justification is not to be obtained meritoriously, either by works of morality, or rites and ceremonies, though of divine appointment, but that it is a free gift, proceeding entirely from the mercy of God, to those who are qualified by faith to receive it." (Dr. Macknight's Preface to the Gala- tians.) SECTION VI. THE EPISTLE TO THE EPHESIANS. " Although," says Dr. Paley, " it does not appear to have been ever disputed that the Epistle before us was written by St. Paul, yet it is well known that a 32 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL, doubt has l:)ng been entertained concerning the per- sons to whom it was addressed. ' It is contended that the name at Epliesus, in the first verse, is the only proof that tins Epistle was addressed to the Ephesians, and that this is not found in all the manuscripts extant. It is further contended that there are no allusions in this Epistle to St. Paul's having resided among the people to whom it is addressed, and the expressions in Eph. i. 15, iii. 2, and it. 1, 2, appear to be more suitable to persons whom he had never seen than to the Ephesians, with whom he had resided about three years (Acts xx. 31). But the first of these objections seems to be satis- factorily met by Bishop Middleton, who has shown that Dr. Paley was mistaken in supposing the name Ephe- sus was wanting in any manuscript extant. Again, it will be recollected that four or five years had elapsed since St. Paul had quitted Ephesus, and he could with propriety address them as he did in chap. i. 15, and iii. 2. It has been contended that this Epistle was addressed to the Laodiceans, and not to the Ephesians, from the direction given by St. Paul in Col. iv. 1G. But (as Rosenmuller has remarked) it is highly probable that by '* the Epistle from Laodicea" St. Paul meant a let- ter addressed to him by the church at Laodicea, in an- swer to which he wrote the letter addressed to the Co- lossians, — that being the larger church, — and the letter referred to in Col. iv. 10 cannot mean the Epistle to the Ephesians. The objection often made that his salutations in this Epistle are general, and that none of his particular friends and acquaintances are mentioned, seems hardly worthy of notice. It would rather prove that he was so generally acquainted with the leading members of the church, that had he addressed or sent salutations to particular individuals, he would have given offence to those neglected. Christianity was first planted in the celebrated and licentious city of Ephesus by St. Paul himself, with great success (Acts xviii. 19-21, and xix. 1. See also Acts xix. 19, and xx. 17-38). It is universally admitted that St. Paul is the author of this Epistle, and the subscription states that it was EPISTLE TO THE PHILIPPIANS. 33 written from Rome and sent to the Ephesians by Tychicus. That this Epistle was written during Paul's first impris- onment at Rome is evident from the frequent allusions to his confinement (iii. 1, iv. 1, vi. 20); and as he ex- presses no hope of his speedy release, as in his other Epistles from Rome, it was probably written soon after his arrival and imprisonment in that city, A. I). 63. As the Ephesian converts were almost entirely Gen- tiles. Paul seemed to be apprehensive that the Jews, whom he had provoked, would take advantage of his ab- sence and imprisonment to unsettle their minds. Hear- ing, however, that they stood fast in the faith (i. 15), he wrote this Epistle in order to establish them in this faith, and show them they were saved by grace, and that, how- ever wretched they once were, they now had equal priv- ileges with the Jews. In this Epistle, after the inscription (i. 1, 2), we may observe three particulars, viz. : — Part I. The doctrine explained, containing, — Praise to God for the whole gospel blessing (i. 3-14), with thanksgiving and prayer for the saints (i. 15-23, ii. 1-10) ; a more particular admonition concerning their once wretched but now happy condition (ii. 11-22) ; and a prayer for their establishment (iii.)* Part II. The exhortation. General (iv. 1-24), Partic- ular (iv. 25-32, v., vi. 1-9), Final, to war the spiritual warfare (vi. 10-20). Part III. The conclusion (vi. 21-24). The style of this Epistle seems to indicate the joyful feeling of the apostle on receiving from the Ephesian church such encouraging accounts as had been brought by their messenger (i. 15) ; and Grotius has remarked of this Epistle that it expresses the grand matters of which it treats in words more sublime than are to be found in any human tongue. SECTION VII. THE EPISTLE TO THE PHILIPPIANS. The manner in which St. Paul and his associates were led to pass over from Asia into Europe (about A. D. 53 J, and the success of their labors at Philippi, in Macedonia, are fully related in Acts xvi. ; and it ap- pears from Acts xx. 6, that the apostle visited there again about seven years after, though no particulars are 34 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. recorded concerning that visit. Of all the churches planted by St. Paul, that at Philippi seems to have been most strongly attached to him; for although a small community, they testified their affection by sending him supplies, even while laboring for other churches, and while he was preaching at Thessalonica, sent him money twice, that the success of the gospel might not be hin- dered by the preacher's becoming burdensome to the Thessalonians (Phil. iv. 15, 16). They showed the apostle the same attention, and for the same reason, when preaching at Corinth (2 Cor. xi. 9). And when they learned of his imprisonment at Rome, they sent a present to him by Epaphroditus, lest he should suffer (2 Cor. ii. 25, iv. 10, H-18). It appears from St. Paul's own words (i. 7, 13, iv. 22), that this Epistle was written while he was a prisoner at Rome, and, as he intimates an expectation of being soon released, and that he had been a considerable time at Rome (i. 12, ii. 26), it is probable he wrote this Epistle near the close of his im- prisonment. The genuineness of the letter was never questioned. The more immcdiare occasion of the Epistle was the return of Epaphroditus, one of their pastors, by whom St. Paul sent it, as a grateful acknowledgment of their kindness. As it was the apostle's rule to re- ceive nothing from churches where factions had been raised against him, it appears he was in great want of necessaries before their contributions arrived. The Philippians were the only church from whom he received any assistance. After a short introduction (i. 1, 2), the apostle pro- ceeds to express his gratitude to God for their continu- ing steadfast in the faith, and prays that they may so continue (i. 3-11), and assures them of his readiness to live or die, as should be most for their welfare and the glory of God (12-26) ; he exhorts them to walk in a man- ner becoming the gospel of Christ (i. 21-30, ii. 1-17), and promises to send them Timothy and Epaphroditus (19-30) ; he cautions them against the intrusion of Ju- daizing teachers (iii., iv. 1) ; he testifies his gratitude for their timely and Christian bounty, expresses his ability to always accommodate his temper to his circumstances, and in whatsoever circumstances Providence might place him, therewith to be content (iv 10-18) ; and concludes with salutations from himself and his friends at Rome, and a solemn benediction (21-23). It is worthy of note that the Epistle to the Philippi- EPISTLE TO THE COLOSSIANS. 35 ans is the only one of all St. Paul's letters to the churches in which no censure is expressed or implied against one of its members. SECTION VIII. THE EPISTLE TO THE COLOSSIANS. It is not recorded that St. Paul had ever visited Co- losse, and it is wholly uncertain by whom and at what time Christianity was first founded there. Dr. Lardner and some others contend, that as St. Paul had twice visited Phrygia, in which country were Colosse, Laodi- cea, and Hierapolis, it is reasonable to infer that he visited those cities. But it will be seen by a careful ex- amination that these routes lay considerably to the north- ward of the three cities before named (Acts xvi. 1-8). In his second tour he passed through Galatia and Phrygia to Ephesus andTroas (Acts xviii. 21-23), and so through the northern districts of Asia Minor (xix. 1). In chap. ii. 1, of this Epistle, we have St. Paul's own declaration, that neither the Colossians nor Laodi- ceans had then " seen his face in the flesh.*' Rosenm Oiler is of opinion that the gospel was first introduced into that city by Epaphras, who is mentioned in i. 7, iv. 12, 13. As it appears from Acts xix. 10, that many Greeks came from different parts of Asia to hear St. Paul during his residence in Ephesus, Michaelis supposes that many Colossians, particularly Philemon, were of that number. In Colossians iv. 3, the apostle alludes to his imprisonment, from which, with its close affinity to the Epistle to the Ephesians, it is evident it was written nearly at the same time, or in the early part of his imprisonment. Its authenticity was never ques- tioned. Some difficulties having arisen among them, they send Epaphras to Rome to consult Paul. The Laodiceans also seem to have written him (Col. iv. 16) concern- ing the errors of the false teachers, and to ask his ad- vice. St. Paul therefore replies in this Epistle, which he sends to the Colossians, they being the larger church, and had probably suffered most by the false teachers, but desired them to send the same Epistle to the Laodi- ceans, and ask them for a copy of their letter to St. Paul, which would enable them better to understand his answer. Michaelis wisely remarks, that " whoever 36 NETY TESTAMENT MANUAL. would understand the Epistle to the Ephesians and Co- lossians must read them together, as in many places one is a commentary on the other. Who these false teachers were, or the nature of their doctrines, is not satisfactorily known, although we may learn something of their doctrines from Col. ii. 16-23. In this Epistle St. Paul expresses great joy at the news of their continuing steadfast in the faith of the gospel, and describes to them the dignity of Jesus Christ — that he alone was the head of the church (i. 3-20) ; he en- courages them to receive Jesus Christ, and commends his own ministry. He shows them how earnestly he prayed for the Co- lossians, that they might continue constant in Christ (ii. 1-8) ; lie cautions them against the deceit of the false teachers, against the worship of angels, and cen- sures the observation of Jewish Sabbaths and festivals (ii. 8-23). He then adds precepts concerning the prac- tical duties of life (hi., iv. )-(>), and concludes with mat- ters chiefly of a private nature (iv. 7-18). SECTION IX. THE FIRST EPISTLE TO THE THESSALONIANS. The gospel was first preached at Thessalonica by St. Paul himself, accompanied by Silas and Timothy, who formed a church, composed botli of Jews and Gentiles, the latter being most numerous (Acts xvii. 2-4). The unbelieving Jews, however, stirred up a persecution against Paul and his associates, and they were forced to flee to Berea, and thence to Athens (xvii. 5-15), from whence he proceeded to Corinth. Being thus prevented from visiting Thessalonica again, as he intended (1 Thess. ii. 17, 18), he sent Silas and Timothy to visit them in his stead (iii. 1-6), and on their return to him at Corinth (Acts xvii. 14, 15, xviii. 5) lie wrote the First Epistle to the Thessalomans from Corinth, and not from Athens, as the subscription to this Epistle imports. The First Epistle to the Thessaloniansis generally ad- mitted to have been the first of all St. Paul's letters, and we find him anxious to have it read in all the Christian churches in Macedonia (v. 27). This injunction is very properly inserted in his Eirst Epistle. Its genuineness has never been disputed. EPISTLES TO THE THE S SALOPIANS. 37 Timothy having brought to St. Paul a favorable report of the steadfastness of the Thessalonians in the faith of the gospel, he wrote to convince them of its truth, and confirm them in that faith, lest they should be turned from it by the persecutions of the unbelieving Jews. After the introduction, the apostle proceeds to show the divine origin of the Christian revelation by the four following arguments, viz. : — The first argument is founded upon the miracles by which it is confirmed. The second argument is founded upon the behavior, character, and views of its first preachers (ii., iii. 1-13). The third argument in favor of the divine original of the gospel is taken from the holy nature of its precepts (iv.1-12). The fourth argument is taken from the resurrection of Jesus Christ, the Author of the gospel (iv. 13-18, v. 1-11). The apostle concludes with various practical admoni- tions and instructions (v. 12-28). " The last two chapters of this Epistle," says Dr. A. Clarke, " are certainly among the most important and most sublime in the New Testament." SECTION X. THE SECOND EPISTLE TO THE THESSALONIANS. The Second Epistle to the Thessalonians seems, from Sylvanus and Timothy being still with St. Paul, to have been written soon after the Eirst, and from the same place (i. i). It appears that the person who conveyed the Eirst Epistle to the Thessalonians speedily returned to Corinth, and reported to St. Paul the state of their church. Among other things, he was informed that from some ex- pressions in the First Epistle (iv. 15, 17, v. 4, 6), many of them expected that the day of judgment would happen in that age, and that such as held to these views were neglecting their secular afiairs, as being inconsistent with a due preparation for that important and awful event. It was to correct this misapprehension, and rescue them from an error that appeared to them to rest on apostolical authority, and must ultimately injure the spread of the Gospel, and to recommend several Chris- tian duties, that this Epistle was written. 38 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. This Epistle may be divided into five parts, viz. : — Part I. The inscription (i. 1, 2). Part II. St. Paul's thanksgiving, and prayer that they may attain the felicity promised (i. 3-12). Part III. The rectification of their mistake concern- ing the day of judgment, and the doctrine concerning the man of sin (ii.). Part IV. Various advices relative to Christian virtues, particularly to prayer, with a prayer for the Thessalo- nians (iii. 1-5) ; to reprove those who led idle and disor- derly lives, and command the faithful to shun their com- pany if they remained incorrigible (iii. 6-10). Part V. St. Paul concludes with his apostolical bene- diction (iii. 17, 18). Although this is the shortest of all St. Paul's letters to the churches, it is not inferior to any of them in the sub- limity of the sentiments, and in that excellent spirit by which all the writings of the apostle are so eminently distinguished. Besides those marks of genuineness it contains, com- mon to all the apostle's letters, it has one peculiar to itself, in the exact representation it contains of the papal power, under the characters of the " Man of Sin,' 1 and the " Mystery of Iniquity." The foundation of popery was laid in the apostle's days, but several ages passed before the building was com- pleted, and the " man of sin " revealed in full perfection. It matters not how much the " man of sin" may be ex- alted, nor how long he may reign ; at last " the Lord will consume him with the spirit of his mouth, and shall de- stroy him with the brightness of his coming." SECTION XL THE FIRST EPISTLE TO TIMOTHY. This Epistle has always been acknowledged to be the undisputed production of the apostle Paul. The time when it was written constitutes the principal difficulty concerning it. It is contended by many — among them Dr. Lardner — that it was written soon after St. Paul was driven from Ephesus on account of the tumult excited by Deme- trius and his craftsmen (Acts xix. 21-40, xx. 1). In favor of the early date, it is argued that it appears from the third chapter of the Epistle that no bishops had FIRST EPISTLE TO TIMOTHY. 39 then been appointed at Ephesus, as Paul gave Timothy instruction regarding their appointment, "and hopes to return to him shortly." Now lie departed from Ephesus when he travelled into Macedonia (Acts xx. 1), and we see from ver. 17, 28, that on his return hishops had heen appointed. Conse- quently this Epistle must have been written at the be- ginning of Ins journey; for Timothy soon left Ephesus, and was with Paul at Corinth (Acts xx. 4). It is further contended that Timothy, at the time when this Epistle was written, was in danger of being " despised for his youth" (1 Tim. iv. 12). As he became an associate of Paul at Lystra (Acts xvi. 1) he must then have been, as an assistant in the gospel, at least twenty years old. If this Epistle was written as late as is claimed by many, Timothy must have been fifteen years a preacher of the gospel, and at least thirty-five years of age, and could not in that case be despised for his youth. In reply to this, it is said that Servius Tullius, in classifying the Roman people, divided their ages into three periods. Childhood he limited to seventeen; youth, from seven- teen to forty-six ; and old age, from forty -six to the end of life. On the contrary, in behalf of the later date, which supposes this Epistle to have been written after St. Paul's imprisonment at Rome, it is insisted, — That, from the First Epistle to Timothy, he was left at Ephesus to oppose certain errors, which had not taken place in the Ephesian church before the apostle's depart- ure, for, in his charge to the Ephesian elders at Miletus, he foretold that false teachers would enter among them after his departure (Acts xx. 29, 30). As the apostle makes mention of these errors existing at Ephesus in his Epistle to the Ephesians themselves, which was written from Rome during his imprisonment, it is not probable they were prevalent there when the apostle left, after the riot of Demetrius, and went into Macedonia, from whence, it is claimed, this Epistle was written. In the First Epistle to Timothy, the same per- sons, doctrines, and practices are reprobated as are con- demned in the Second. (Compare 1 Tim. iv. 1-6, with 2 Tim. iii. 1-5, and 1 Tim. vi. 20, with 2 Tim. ii. 14, and 1 Tim. vi. 4, with 2 Tim. ii. 16). The commands, instructions, and encouragements are given to Timothy in both Epistles. (Compare 1 Tim. vi. 13, 14, with 2 Tim. iv. 1 --5.) All which Dr. Macknight justly thinks 40 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. implies that the same state of things existed among the Ephesians when both Epistles were written. Conse- quently, the Eirst Epistle was written only a few months before the Second, and not long before the apostle's death. We are aware there are seemingly plausible objections to this latter date ; but we think they admit of an easier solution than the objections to the earlier date. Eor full discussion of the claims and objections to each date, see Home's Introduction to the Bible, Vol. IV., pp. 370-377. Timothy having been left at Ephesus to regulate the affairs of the Ephesian church, St. Paul wrote this Epis- tle chiefly to instruct him in the choice of proper officers in the church, as well as in the exercise of a regular ministry. This Epistle is, therefore, usually divided into three parts, viz. : — Part I. Introduction (i. 1, 2). Part II. Instructions to Timothy how to conduct- the administration of the church at Ephesus. St. Paul, after reminding Timothy of the charge com- mitted to him, — to preserve the purity of the church against the pernicious doctrines of the false teachers, — shows the use of the Mosaic law, of which these teach- ers are ignorant. He assures Timothy that this account of the law was in accordance with the gospel, with the preaching of which he was intrusted (i. 3-11); he ex- presses his gratitude to God for calling him, " who was before a blasphemer," to the Christian faith and ministe- rial office, and observes, that this favor was extended to him as an encouragement to all who should believe, in every future age (12-20). He then proceeds to give Timothy particular instructions concerning the manner in which divine worship was to be performed in the church at Ephesus (ii.)> also concerning the qualifica- tion of persons whom he should ordain as bishops and deacons of that church (iii). After foretelling the great corruptions that were to prevail in the church in future times (iv. 1-5), the apos- tle instructs Timothy how to support the sacred charac- ter (6-16), how to admonish aged men and women (v. 1, 2), how he should treat widows (3-16), elders (17-19), and offenders (20-21), to which are added some instructions to Timothy himself (22-24), and concerning the duty of slaves (vi. 1,2); he condemns trifling con- troversies and pernicious disputes, censures the exces- SECOND EPISTLE TO TIMOTHY. 41 sive love of money, and charges the rich to be rich in good works (vi. 3-19). Part III. The conclusion. " The Epistles to Tim- othy and Titus" (written about the same time), '"taken together, containing a full account of the qualifications and duties of the ministers of the gospel, may be con- sidered as a complete body of divinely inspired ecclesias- tical canons, to be observed by the Christian clergy of all communions to the end of the world." (Dr. Macknight's Pref. to 1 Tim.) SECTION XII. THE SECOND EPISTLE TO TIMOTHY. That St. Paul wrote his Second Epistle to Timothy while in prison, is evident (i. 8, 12, 16, and ii. 9) ; and that his imprisonment was in Rome (i. 17), is universally admitted. That it was not written during his first im- prisonment, as recorded in Acts xxviii., as Drs. Ham- mond, Lightfoot, and Lardner suppose, but during a second imprisonment there, and not long before he suf- fered martyrdom, as Drs. Benson, Macknight. and Paley, Bishop Tomline, Michaelis, Rosenmuller, Home, and others contend, is amply proved by the following consid- erations. By comparing the Epistles to the Ephesians, Colossians, Philippians, and Philemon (which are known to have been written by St. Paul during his first im- prisonment), with the Second to Timothy, we see that this Epistle was not written at the same time those were. In the former Epistle the apostle confidently ex- pected soon to be released from confinement, and to depart from Rome (Phil. ii. 24, and Philemon 22). In the Second to Timothy, his language is extremely different. (See 2 Tim. iv. 6-8.) When the former Epis- tles were written from Rome, Timothy was with St. Paul, and is joined with him in writing to the Colos- sians, Philippians, and to Philemon. The present Epistle implies that he was absent, probably at Ephesus. In the first imprisonment, Demas was with him ; but now he has left him, having loved this present world, and returned to Thessalonica. Mark was also with St. Paul during his first imprisonment, and joins in salut- ing the Colossians. In the present Epistle, Timothy is" ordered to bring Mark with him (iv. 11). At the time of the apostle's first imprisonment, he dwelt two whole 42 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. years in his own hired house, being only guarded by a single soldier (Acts xxviii. 30, 31). But it appears from 2 Tim. i. 16-18, that Paul was closely imprisoned, as one guilty of capital crime, so that Onesiphorus, on his coming to Rome, had considerable difficulty in finding him out. It appears that at the time of writing this Epis- tle, the situation of the apostle was exceedingly danger- ous (2 Tim. iv. 6-8, 16-18). St. Paul says (2 Tim. iv. 20) that Erastus staid be- hind at Corinth. The apostle must therefore have passed through Corinth on that journey to Rome, after which he wrote this Epistle. But from Cesarea to Italy, in Acts xxvii. he did not pass through Corinth. These proofs, as well as many others that might be adduced, furnish abundant evidence that this Epistle was written during an imprisonment different from that mentioned in Acts xxviii. The design of St. Paul in writing this Epistle seems to be, to advise Timothy of what had befallen him during his second imprisonment at Rome, and to request him to come to him before winter. But lest he should be put to death before Timothy's arrival, he gave him, in this letter, all necessary counsel and ad- vice for the discharge of his ministerial functions, with the affection of a dying parent. This Epistle may also be said to consist of three parts, viz. : — Part I. The inscription (i. 1-5). Part II. An exhortation to Timothy, to diligence, patience, and firmness, in keeping the form of sound doctrine, with an affecting prayer for Onesiphorus (i. 2-18) ; to fortitude under afflictions, and to purity of life (ii.) ; to beware of false teachers in the last times, and to be faithful in his ministerial labors (iii., iv. 1-8). Part III. The conclusion, including the apostle's re- quest to Timothy to come to him as soon as possible, together with various salutations to his brethren in Asia Minor. The circumstances under which this Epistle was writ- ten, the miseries of imprisonment, and the near approach of death, and being addressed to the apostle's most in- timate friend, exhibit the temper and character of St. Paul, and prove that he was no deceiver, but sincerely believed the doctrines he preached. THE EPISTLE TO TITUS. 43 SECTION XIII. THE EPISTLE TO TITUS. Titus having been left at Crete to settle the churches in the several cities in that island according to the apos- tolical plan, St. Paul addressed this Epistle to him at that place. We have no certain information when or by whom Christianity was first planted in Crete. As some Cretans were present at Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost, Bishop Tomline thinks it probable that on their return they preached the gospel to their country- men (Acts ii. 11). It appears from 2 Cor. xii. 14, and xiii. 1, that during St. Paul's stay at Corinth, he made an excursion, and returned to Corinth. In this excur- sion it is supposed he made a voyage to Crete, to preach the gospel there, and took Titus with him, as an assist- ant, whom he left behind to regulate the affairs of the church. The Cretans were formerly notorious for pira- cy, luxury, debauchery, and especially for lying. To act like a Cretan was a proverbial term for telling a lie. St. Paul has quoted Epimenides, one of their own poets, as expressing their true character (Titus i. 12). There has been much controversy concerning the date of this Epistle. The subscription states it to have been writ- ten from Nicopolis, in Macedonia; but of this we have no reliable evidence. As Luke makes no mention of St. Paul's preaching at Crete, although he notices that he touched the Fair Havens in his first voyage to Rome (Acts xxvii. 8), it is most probable he wrote this Epistle after his first impris- onment. In this Epistle St. Paul has clearly defined the course for Titus to pursue in the discharge of his ministry among the Cretans, with instructions concerning his behavior towards those Judaizing teachers who endeav- ored to pervert the faith and disturb the peace of the Christian church. The Epistle consists of three parts, viz. : — Part I. The inscription (i. 1-4). Part II. Instructions to Titus, concerning the qualifi- cation and ordination of bishops and elders ; enjoins Titus to be cautious in his selection of men for this sacred office, and reminds him of the acts of the Judaizing teachers (10-16) ; he urges Titus to accommodate his exhortations to the respective ages, sexes, and circum- 44 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. stances of his people, and admonishes him to be an example of what he taught (ii.), to inculcate obedience to civil magistrates, in opposition to the teachings of those Judaizing teachers who thought it an indignity for the people of God to obey an idolatrous magistrate ; also that he should enforce gentleness to all men (iii. 1-7) ; that he should enforce good works, avoid foolish questions, and shun heretics (iii. 8-11). Part III. An invitation to Titus to come to the apostle at Nicopolis, together with various directions (iii. 12-15). By comparing this Epistle with the two to Timothy, Dr. Macknight remarks, we may learn these Judaizing teach- ers were indefatigable in propagating their erroneous doctrines, and that they were more numerous in Ephesus and Crete, and probably more successful, than in other places. SECTION XIV. THE EPISTLE TO PHILEMON. Philemon seems to have been a Christian of some consideration, residing at Colosse (Col. iv. 9, 17), who had been converted under St. Paul's ministry (19), perhaps during his abode at Ephesus (Acts xix. 10). When the apostle was imprisoned at Rome, Onesimus, a slave of Philemon, having, as is generally supposed, been guilty of some dishonesty, left his master, and fled to that city, a distance of several hundred miles. Whether Onesimus really repented of what he had done, and went to St. Paul, or in what manner they came to meet here, we have no information. But we are assured, that during the apostle's confinement " in his own hired house," he opened a way by which the rude slave was converted to the Christian faith, and baptized him. During his abode with the apostle, he served him faith- fully ; but sensible, no doubt, that he had done wrong in leaving his master, he wished to repair that injury by re- turning to him. At the same time, fearing his master might inflict upon him the punishment which, by the law or custom of Phrygia, was due to a fugitive slave, he persuaded St. Paul to write to Philemon, and request him to forgive and receive him again into his family. Grotius informs us that masters had power to torture, and even to put to death, their slaves who behaved ill, without applying to a magistrate. This was conformable both to the Koinan and Grecian law. Accordingly, St. EPISTLE TO THE HEBREWS. 45 Paul wrote this Epistle to Philemon, and not only inter- ceded for the pardon of Onesimus, but urged his master to esteem him and put confidence in him as a sincere Christian. From the confidence which Paul expresses in the Christian character of Philemon, he seemed to have no doubt his request would be granted. But we have no information whether Onesimus was pardoned or not. ''Whoever," says Dr. Benson, " will carefully ex- amine this Epistle will discern many doctrines and precepts of Christianity, expressed or insinuated ; for instance, in a religious view all Christians are on a level. Onesimus was St. Paul's son, and Philemon's brother, upon a religious account; y^t he was obliged to be Piiiiemon's slave for life, unless his master volun- tarily gave him his freedom (ver. 13, 14). Christianity makes no difference in a man's civil affairs. By Chris- tian baptism, a slave does not become a freed-man; his temporal condition is still the same. We are taught, in this Epistle, we should love and do good to all men, and not disdain to do good to the mean- est slave when it is in our power; to make restitution where an injury has been done; to be grateful to our benefactors (ver. 19) ; tc do all we can to reconcile those who are at variance : in fact, a much larger number of Christian precepts are here inculcated than we have space to consider. We can only say, that an Epistle so full of excellent instruction should not be rejected for its brevity ; but men would do well to examine it care- fully before they reject it, or speak of it lightly. From verses 1, 10, 13, 22, and 23, there can be no doubt that St. Paul wrote this Epistle during his first imprisonment at Rome, as it seems (ver. 22; he expects soon to be released. SECTION XV. THE EPISTLE TO THE HEBREWS. The nature and authenticity of the Epistle to the Hebrews have been more controverted, perhaps, than any other book of the New Testament. As the initiatory formula usual in the other thirteen Epistles known to have been written by St. Paul, is omitted in this, it has been questioned whether it was really an Epistle sent to a particular community, or only a discourse or 46 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. dissertation intended for general readers. Michaelis de- termines that it is an Epistle, from the fact that the au- thpr alludes to special circumstances in this writing, in chap. v. 11, 12, vi. 9, x. 32-34, and above all in chap, xiii. 23, 24, which contains the promise of a visit, and various salutations, which show that it really is an apostolical Epistle. Who the Hebrews were, to whom this letter was ad- dressed, learned men are by no means agreed. Without stating the various opinions of the learned fathers, who differ so essentially on this point, we give the conclusion of Michaelis, which seems to us the most reasonable, which is, that it was written for the use of the Jewish Christians at Jerusalem and in Palestine. This opinion seems corroborated by the contents of the Epistle itself. It is evident from the whole tenor of this letter, that it was addressed to persons in imminent danger of falling back from Christianity to Judaism, induced partly by persecution, and partly by the false arguments of the rabbins. As Christianity at this time enjoyed so much religious liberty through the tolerating spirit of the Roman laws and Roman magistrates, throughout the empire in general, it would have been difficult to have effected a general persecution. But, through the in- fluence of the Jewish Sanhedrim in Jerusalem, the Christians in that country underwent several severe persecutions, especially during the high priesthood of the younger Ananus, when St. James and other Chris- tians suffered martyrdom. The circumstance referred to in chap. x. 25, of this Epistle, that many who continued Christians forsook the places of public worship, does not occur in any other Epistle, and implies that by continued persecutions, the Christians were deterred from an open profession of their faith. In this melancholy situation, the Hebrews, almost reduced to despair, are referred (x. 25, 35-38) to the promised coming of Christ. This can be no other than the promised destruction of Jerusalem (Matt, xxiv.), and referred to by Christ him- self (Luke xxi. 28). This coming of Christ was to the Christians in Palestine, but in no other country, a deliver- ance from the yoke with which they were oppressed. The exhortation in Heb. xiii. 12-14, is difficult to be explained on the supposition that the Epistle was writ- ten to Hebrews who lived out of Palestine. But if we EPISTLE TO THE HEBREWS. 47 suppose it was written to Jewish converts in Jerusa- lem, the passage becomes perfectly clear. As to the language in which this Epistle was originally written, Home affirms that the Ejnstle itself furnishes positive proof that it was written in Greek, and not in the Hebrew or Syro-Chaldaic dialect, as many have endeavored to prove. It is contended that, as this Epistle was written for the Hebrews, it is proper that it should be in their own language. To this argument it has been replied, that, for the same reason, the apostle should have written his Epistle to the Romans in their language ; yet we know that the Epistle to the Romans was not written in Latin, the language of Rome, but in Greek. In fact, all the Epistles were written in Greek, and not in the language of the churches or persons to whom they were addressed. The Apostolical Epistles were intended for the use of the whole Christian world, in every age, and it was more proper they should be written in Greek, which was then universally understood, than in any provincial dialect. The style of this Epistle, throughout, has all the air of an original, and manifests that it is no translation. St. Paul's name not being affixed to this Epistle, some have ascribed it to Barnabas, the companion of Paul; others to Clement of Rome; and others to the evangelist Luke ; while Luther, the reformer, has ascribed it to Apollos. It is true that St. Paul's name is prefixed to his other Epistles; but if this is not to be considered as St. Paul's because it does not bear his name, the same objection would apply to its being ascribed to any one, because it is anonymous. It appears from Heb. xiii. 24, that this Epistle was written from Italy, where there is no evidence that Bar- nabas ever went; and we have no evidence that the church has ever acknowledged or considered Barnabas as the author of this letter. The author of this Epistle addresses the Hebrews (xiii. 18, 19) as persons among whom he had preached the gospel; and as it nowhere appears that Luke had preached to the converted Jews, it follows that he could not have been the author of the Epistle. The fact that this Epistle does not bear the name of St. Paul we consider, under all the circumstances, one of the strongest proofs that it belongs to that apostle rather than any other person. As Paul was the apostle to the Gentiles, in writing to 48 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. the Hebrews he did not assume his apostolical character, because it was little respected by the unbelieving Jews and Judaizing Christians. He did not mention his name, messenger, or the particular persons to whom it was sent, because (as Dr. Lardner judiciously remarks) such a letter might give umbrage to tbe ruling powers, at that particular crisis, when the Jews were most turbu- lent, and might endanger himself, the messenger, and the people to whom it was directed. The same objections referred to in regard to this Epis- tle will apply with equal force to the three Epistles of St. John, in all of which that apostle has omitted his name, for some reasons not now known. That St. Paul, however, did not mean to conceal himself, we learn from the Epistle itself (xiii. 23). If, as we believe, St. Paul was its author, the time when this Epistle was written may be easily determined. Lardner and Macknight have observed that it was writ- ten before the destruction of Jerusalem ; for in Heb. viii. 4, ix. 25, x. 11, and xiii. 10, the temple is mentioned as then standing, and the Levitical sacrifices are noticed as being then offered. From Heb. xiii. 23, 24, we infer that it was written from Italy, perhaps from Rome, about the time the apostle left Italy, at the close of his first impris- onment, and soon after the apostle wrote his Epistles to the Colossians, Ephesians, and Philemon. The occasion of writing this Epistle will be sufficiently apparent from an attentive perusal of its contents. The Jews did everything which threats, persecutions, and arguments could effect, to withdraw their brethren, who had been converted, from the Christian faith. They attempted to show that Moses was superior to Jesus of Nazareth, who suffered an ignominious death ; that the public worship of God, as established by their great lawgiver and proph- et, was truly splendid, and worthy of Jehovah; while the Christians, on the contrary, had no established priest- hood, no temple, no altars, no victims, &c. The object of the apostle, therefore, is to show the Deity of Christ, and the excellency of his gospel, com- pared with the institutions of Moses ; to prevent the apos- tasy of Jewish converts, and to show the insufficiency of those rites and ceremonies, which had been already abol- ished, as means of reconciliation and atonement. The Epistle to the Hebrews may be di\ ided into three parts, viz. : — Part I. Demonstrates the Deity of Christ by the explicit THE CATHOLIC OR GENERAL EPISTLES. 49 declarations of Scripture, which show his superiority to angels, by whom he is worshipped as their Creator and Lord (i. 1-14), his superiority to Moses, who was only a servant, his superiority to Aaron and all the other high priests, — Christ being the true high priest, adumbrated by Melchizedek and Aaron (ii.-v. 1-8), and the only sacrifice bv which all Levitical sacrifices are abolished (ix., x. 1-18). Part II. The application of the preceding arguments and proofs, with numerous solemn and affectionate warnings and exhortations, adapted to the various de- scriptions of persons whom he addresses (x. 19-39-xiii. 1-19). Part III. The conclusion, containing a prayer for the Hebrews and apostolical salutations (xiii. 20-25). The internal excellence of this Epistle, as connecting the Old Testament with the Xew in the most instructive and convincing manner, and elucidating both more fully than any other Epistle, or perhaps than all of them com- bined, places its divine inspiration beyond all doubt, and renders it the most important of all the apostolical writings. CHAPTER III. THE CATHOLIC OR GENERAL EPISTLES. SECTION I. THE GENUINENESS AND AUTHENTICITY OF THE CATHOLIC EPISTLES. The Epistles of St. Paul are followed in the canon of the New Testament by seven Epistles, bearing the names of the apostles James, Peter, Jude, and John. Eor many centuries they have generally been termed Catho- lic Epistles — an appellation for which several reasons have been assigned. Some have imagined they were denominated Catholic or General Epistles because they were designed to be transcribed and circulated among the Christian churches, that they might be perused by all; for they contain that one catholic or general doctrine, which was delivered to 4 50 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. the churches by the apostles of our Saviour, and which might be read with advantage by the universal church of Christ. Others are of the opinion that they received this appel- lation because they were not written to one particular person, church, or city, like the Epistles of St. Paul, but to the catholic church, Christians in general, or to the Jewish Christians wherever dispersed over the face of the earth. A third opinion is that of Dr. Hammond, and adopted by Dr. Macknight and others, and which Home thinks is most probable. It is this : " The First Epistle of Peter and the First Epistle of John, having from the beginning been received as authentic, obtained the name of catholic or universally acknowledged (and therefore canonical) Epistles, to distinguish them from the Epistle of James, the Second of Peter, the Second and Third of John, and the Epistle of Jude, concerning which doubts were at first entertained ; and they were considered by many as not being a rule of faith, hut their authenticity being at length acknowledged by the generality of the churehes, they also obtained the name of catholic or universally received Epistles, and were esteemed with equal author- ity with the rest." The propriety of the appellation canonical is not satisfactorily ascertained. The claims to authenticity of these disputed Epistles are discussed in the following sections. The order in which these Epistles are placed varies in ancient authors. But as we cannot fix with certainty the date of each, it is not very material in what manner they are arranged. SECTION II. THE GENERAL EPISTLE OF JAMES. Two apostles of the name of James being mentioned in the New Testament, considerable doubt has existed as to which is the author of this Epistle. The first was the son of Zebedee and brother of John the evangelist. But as he suffered martyrdom about A. D. 43 or 44, it is evident he is not the author of this Epistle, because it contains passages which refer to a later period, viz. : v. 1-8, which intimates the then im- mediate destruction of Jerusalem and the subversion of the Jewish polity. THE GENERAL EPISTLE OF JAMES. 51 The other, James the son of Alpheus or Cleopas; he is called the brother or near relation of our Lord (Gal. i. 18, 19), called also James the Less, probably because he was of lower stature, or younger, than James the son of Zebedee. This Epistle appears to have been written but a short time before the apostle's death ; and it is probable that the sharp rebukes and awful warnings it contains excited that persecuting rage which terminated the apostle's life. (See Biographical Sketches.) A considerable diversity of opinion has prevailed re- specting the canonical authority of this Epistle ; yet it is inserted in the ancient Syriac version, which was exe- cuted at the close of the first or beginning of the second century, in which the Second Epistle of Peter, the Second and Third of John, the Epistle of Jude, and the Book of Revelation are omitted. Commentators are equally divided concerning the persons to whom this Epistle was addressed. Whitby, Lardner, and Macknight were of opinion that this Epistle was written to the whole Jewish nation, both within and without Judea, whether believers or not. This opinion is founded on the first ten verses of the fourth chapter, and the first five of the fifth, which are supposed to contain expressions applicable to unbeliev- ers only. Bishop Tomline is of the opinion that in these passages the apostle alludes merely to the great corrup- tion into which the Hebrew Christians had fallen at that time. It does not appear probable that St. James would write part of his Epistle to believers and part to unbe- lievers, without any notice or mention of that distinction. It is admitted that the inscription " to the twelve tribes that are scattered abroad " might comprehend both believ- ing and unbelieving Jews : but we have no reason to sup- pose that either James or any other apostle ever thought of writing to any but Christian converts. The sense of the above inscription seems to be limited to the believ- ing Jews, by what follows almost immediately (i. 3, ii. 1). The object of this Epistle seems to be the same as all the other apostolical Epistles, ki to confirm rather than convert, to correct what was wrong in them that did be- lieve, and not in those who did not believe." The Epistle divides itself into three parts, exclusive of the introduction. Parti. Contains numerous exhortations (i. 1-27). Part II. Censures and condemns their unbelief and the 52 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. evil practices prevalent among them, especially undue reliance upon their riches (ii.-v. 1-G.) Part III. Contains exhortations and cautions (v. 7-20). " Having been written with the design of refuting par- ticular errors, which had been introduced among the Jewish Christians, this Epistle is not so replete with the peculiar doctrines of Christianity as the Epistles of St. Paul, or, indeed, as the other apostolical Epistles; but it contains an admirable summary of those practical duties which are incumbent on all believers, and which it en- forces in a manner equally elegant and affectionate." SECTION III. THE FIRST GENERAL EPISTLE OF PETER. The genuineness and canonical authority of the First Epistle of Peter have never been disputed. But con- cerning the persons to whom it was sent, different opin- ions have prevailed' In this diversity of opinion, the only safe rule of determination must be the inscription, together with such other circumstances as may be gath- ered from the apostolical history, or the Epistle itself. The inscription runs thus : Peter, an apostle of Jesus Christ, to the strangers scattered throughout Pontus, Galatia. Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia (1 Pet. i. 1). That these persons addressed were believing Jews, and not believing Gentiles, says Home, we apprehend, will appear from the following considerations : — We learn from Acts ii. 5, 9, there were present at the feast of Pentecost, w r aiting at Jerusalem, Jews, devout men, out of every nation under heaven, dwellers in Judea, Cappadocia, in Pontus, and Asia. Whence it is evident there were Jews dispersed in those countries. St. Peter, by agreement among the apostles, had the ministry of the circumcision peculiarly committed to him (Gal. ii. 8). It is, therefore, more probable that he wrote to Jews than to Gentiles. The persons to whom the apostle writes were termed strangers, scattered, ; which properly denotes strangers from another country. Such were the Jews (Acts ii. 10). They are said to be redeemed from their vain conversa- tion, received by tradition from their fathers (1 Pet. i. 18) ; in which the apostle plainly refers to the traditions of the Jewish rabbins and elders. FIRST EPISTLE OF PETER. 53 The persons named in 1 Pet. ii. 9, must be Jews, and not Gentiles. On these grounds it is evident this Epistle was ad- dressed to those dispersed Hebrew Christians, afflicted in their dispersion, to whom the apostles James and Paul had respectively addressed their Epistles. It appears, from 1 Pet v. 12, 13, that this Epistle was written from Babylon, and sent to the Jews by " Silva- nus, a faithful brother;" but whether Babylon here is to be understood literally or mystically, as the city of that name in Mesopotamia or Egypt, or rather Koine, or Jerusalem, has been long and warmly contested by learned men. Bishop Pearson, Mill, and Le Clerc, are of opinion that the apostle speaks of Babylon in Egypt. Erasmus, Beza, Dr. Eightfoot, Drs. Benson. A. Clarke, and many others, think that Peter intended Babylon in Assyria; Michaelis, that it was Babylon in Mesopotamia, or rather Seleucia, on the Tigris. And Grotins, Drs. Whitby, Lardner, Macknight, and Hales, Bishop Tomline, and all the learned of the Romish communion, are of opin- ion that by Babylon Peter meant, figuratively. Route, which city is called Babylon by the apostle John (Ho v. xvii., xviii.;. This latter opinion is confirmed by the general testi- mony of antiquity, which, Dr. Lardner remarks, is of no small weight. This opinion is also adopted by Home, who says it is not probahle that Peter ever visited Baby- lon in Chaldea; and Babylon in Egypt was too small and insignificant to be the subject of consideration. It appears from the Epistle itself, that it was written when the Hebrew Christians were exposed to severe per- secutions. The design of the Epistle, therefore, was to encourage and support them under their afflictions, and teach them how to behave under persecutions. It contains numerous exhortations to Jewish Chris- tians to persevere steadfastly in the faith under aii their persecutions (i., ii. 1-10) ; to a particular discharge of their several duties (ii. 11-25, iii. 1-13), by reminding them of the example of Christ, and the lessons they should draw from it (iii. 1-1-22, iv. 1-19) ; and finally, directions to the ministers of the churches and the peo- ple how to behave towards each other (v.). Erasmus pronounces this Epistle worthy of the prince of the apostles, and that it is sparing in words, but full of 54 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. sense. The author writes with the authority of the first man in the college of the apostles. SECTION IV. THE SECOND GENERAL EPISTLE OF PETER. . Some doubts were entertained by the primitive churches respecting the authenticity of this Epistle, which has been received as the genuine production of St. Peter since the fourth century, except by the Syrian church, in which it is read as an excellent book, though not of canonical authority. We have, however, the most satis- factory evidence of its genuineness and authenticity. We will cite a few of the internal evidences that St. Peter was its author. The writer of this Epistle testifies that he " must soon put off this tabernacle, even as our Lord Jesus had shown him " (2 Pet. i. 14). Now, this was shown by Christ to none of his apostles, except Peter (John xxi. li)). Again : the writer was with Christ on the Mount of Transfiguration, and beheld his majesty (2 Pet. i. 1G- 18). As there were only three of the apostles, viz., Peter, James, and John, permitted to witness the trans- figuration (Matt, xv ii. 1,2), this Epistle must have been written by one of them ; and, as it never was ascribed to James or John, it follows that it is the production of Peter. Once more : the author of it calls this his Second Epis- tle (iiL 1), and intimates that he wrote both his letters to the same persons, viz., the believing Hebrews. Compare 1 Pet. i. 1, 2 Pet. i. 1, with 2 Pet. hi. 1, 2. Consequently we infer that both Epistles were written by the same per- son. It is evident from chap. i. 14, that Peter was near his death when he wrote this Epistle ; and that it was written soon after the First, appears from the apology he makes (i. 13, 15) for writing this Second Epistle to the Hebrew Christians. Dr. Lardner thinks it probable, that soon after the apostle had sent away Silvanus with his first letter to the Christians in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia Minor, and Bithynia, some person from those countries brought information to Pome concerning the state of re- ligion there. These accounts induced Peter to write a second time, in order to establish in the faith the Chris- tians among whom he had labored. FIRST EPISTLE OF JOHX. 55 This Epistle may therefore be divided into three parts, viz. : — Part I. The Introduction (i. 1,2). Part II. J laving stated the precious blessings to which God had called them, the apostle exhorts them to im- prove in the most substantial graces and virtues (i. 3-11). cautions them against false teachers, whose tenets and practices he largely describes, and warns them to disre- gard those profane scoffers who made or should make a mock of Christ's coming to judgment (ii., iii. 1-1-1). Part III. The conclusion. The apostle declares the agreement of his doctrine with that of St. Paul (iii. 15, 1G), and repeats the sum of the Epistle (iii. 17, 18). On account of the similarity of style and subject be- tween the second chapter of this Epistle and that of Jude, Dr. Benson and Michaelis place the latter imme- diately after the Second Epistle of Peter. Dr. Blackwell says of the two Epistles of Peter, v James. Jndea. Jndea. 61 01 or 02 a 2 1 Peter. Koine. Koine. 04 04 3 4 2 Piter. Koine. Home. 65 04 4 5 1 Jolin. Unknown. Epliesns. 08 or 09 SO R 2 and 3 John. Ephesus. Ephesus. 68 orO!) bet. 80 & 90 G 3 Jude. Unknown. I'nkn'n. 14 or 05 64 or 05 7 7 Kev. St. John. Epliesns. Patmoe, or Eph's. 90 or 97 95 or 96 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES. MATTHEW. This apostle, surnnmed Levi (Mark ii. 14 and Luke v. 27), was the son of Alpheus, but not of that Alpheus, or Cleopas, who was the father of James, mentioned in Matt. x. 3, He was a native of Galilee, but of what city in that country, or what tribe of the people of Israel, we are not informed. Before his conversion to Chris- tianity Matthew was a tax-gatherer, usually styled apor- titor, or inferior collector of taxes, and not a publicanvs, or general farmer of customs. He probably held his appointment under the Romans, at the port of Caperna- um, a maritime town on the Sea of Galilee, and is under- stood to have collected the customs on all imports or exports at that place, and a tribute from all passengers who went by water. Thus we see that Matthew belonged to the lower class of people. In Matt. ix. 9, it is related how he was called to be an apostle. This is mentioned after the Sermon on the Mount. In Luke vi. 13, we read that Jesus selected twelve to be his apostles, before the Sermon on the Mount, and that Matthew was one of them. Hence we infer that, after he was called, as re- lated by Luke, he returned to his usual occupation, from which Jesus, on leaving Capernaum, called him away. On this occasion Matthew gave a parting entertainment to his friends. After this event he is mentioned only in Acts i. 13, where we learn that he, having remained with the other apostles at Jerusalem until the day of Pente- cost, was endowed with the Holy Spirit. How long he remained in Judea after this event, we have no authentic account. Socrates, an ecclesiastical historian of the fifth cen- tury, relates that when the apostles went abroad to 67 68 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. preach the gospel to the Gentiles, Matthew went into Ethiopia; and the common opinion has been that he suf- fered martyrdom at Naddabar or Naddaver, a city in that country. But this is contradicted by Heracleon, a learned Valentinian of the second century, and who, as cited by Clement of Alexandria, reckons Matthew among the apostles who did not sufi'er martyrdom. Matthew is generally allowed to have written first of all the evangelists, but the precise time of the composi- tion of his Gospel is a question that has been greatly agi- tated ; so also has the question as to the language in which this Gospel was originally written. From all the evidence adduced in these litigated questions, it seems most probable that St. Matthew wrote first a Hebrew Gospel, for the use of Hebrew converts, at quite an early date in the history of the church. As believers began greatly to increase who spoke the Greek language, it is highly probable that lie afterwards wrote in Greek, as after the destruction of Jerusalem the Jewish lan- guage, and everything belonging to the Jews, fell into the utmost contempt. It is clear, says Home, that our present Greek Gospel is an authentic original, and con- sequently an inspired production of the evangelist Mat- thew, written- a few years after the resurrection and ascension of our Lord. Except St. John, the evangelist Matthew had the best opportunity for writing a regular and connected narra- tive of the life of Christ, according to the order of time and the exact series of his transactions. Dr. Campbell says of the clearness of the style of St. Matthew's writings, in relating the discourses of Christ, that " his Sermon on the Mount, his charge to the apos- tles, his illustrations of the nature of his kingdom, and his prophecy on Mount Olivet, are examples. He has also wonderfully united simplicity and energy in relat- ing the replies of his Master to the cavils of his adver- saries." He is the only evangelist who has given us an account of our Lord's description of the process of the general judgment; and his relation of that momentous event is truly impressive. M ARK. According to ecclesiastical testimonies, this evangelist is the same person who, in Acts xiii. 5, 13, is called by his Hebrew name, John. He was not an apostle or com- MARK. 69 panion of Jesus Christ during his ministry, though Epi- pnanius and several other fathers affirm that lie was one of the seventy disciples. All that we learn from the New Testament of him is, that he was " sister's son to Barnabas " (Col. iv. 10), and the son of Mary, a pious woman of Jerusalem, at whose house the apostles and first Christians often as- sembled (Acts xii. 12). As he is mentioned as a convert from Judaism, he was probably of Jewish descent. He is supposed to have adopted the surname Mark when he left Judea to preach the gospel in foreign coun- tries. From Peter's styling him as his son (1 Pet. v. 13), this evangelist is supposed to have been converted under St. Peter's ministry, and served with him in the gospel. He was probably first introduced to St. Paul by Barnabas, and accompanied them in their travels (Acts xii. 25, xiii. f>, 13, xv. 36-41 ; 2 Tim. iv. 4; Philem. 24). From Philem. 24, and Col. iv. 10, it appears that the trouble between St. Paul and himself, referred to in Acts xv. 37-39, had been settled, and that he was with the apostle Paul in his first imprisonment at Home; and according to 2 Tim. iv. 11, he also was with him during his second captivity. There is a unanimous ecclesiastical tradition that Mark was the companion and interpreter of St. Peter, probably so called because he was the assistant of Peter, and either orally or in writing communicated and devel- oped what Peter taught. . The genuineness and authenticity of St. Mark's Cos- pel are proved by the universal testimony of ancient Christians, but considerable uncertainty prevails as to the time when it was composed. It is allowed by all the ancient authors, that St. Mark wrote from Rome ; and it is evident from the evange- list's own narrative (Mark xvi. 20) that he did not write until after the apostles had dispersed themselves among the Gentiles, and had preached the gospel everywhere, the Lord working with them, and confirming the word with signs following. Dr. Lardner, in discussing this subject, shows that the apostles did not all quit Judea earlier than A. D. 50, and the most probable date of this Gospel seems to be between the years GO and Go. It is the almost unanimous opinion of the ancients, that St. Mark wrote this Gospel at Rome by the request 70 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. of many who had heard Peter publicly preach the Chris- tian religion in that city. St. Mark, having" for a longtime been the intimate com- panion of Peter, and being familiar with what that apos- tle had delivered, could commit the particulars to writ- ing with the accuracy of an eye-witness. Hence the character of Peter is as clearly developed in this Gospel as if it had been written by that apostle himself. His weaknesses and fall are clearly exposed, and his real virtues referred to with characteristic humility. All the transactions and sayings of Christ mentioned in this Gos- pel are those which Peter witnessed: and are related with such minuteness of circumstance as shows that the person who dictated it must have been an eye-w T itness of what is recorded. As much that is recorded by Mark corresponds so near- ly with the record by Matthew, some have supposed that Mark's Gospel was, in part at least, a copy of Matthew's. But his imperfect description of Christ's transactions with his disciples after his resurrection shows conclusively that he was wholly unacquainted with the contents of Matthew's Gospel. Some writers have affirmed that St Mark suffered martyrdom. But from Eusebius, Jerome, and others, we learn that after he had written his Gospel, he deliv- ered it to the persons who had requested him to write it, went into Egypt, and having planted a church at Alex- andria, died and was buried there in the eightli year of the reign of Nero. LUKE. Concerning this evangelist we have but little certain information. From what is recorded in the Scriptures, as -well as from what is related by the early Christian writers, we learn the following particulars : — His name is a contraction of Lucanus, and indicates that he w T as descended from heathen ancestors, and was either a slave or a freedman ; thus the name harmonizes with the idea that he was by profession a physician. The higher ranks of the Romans were disinclined to practise medicine, which they left rather to their freed- men. From bis attending St. Paul in his travels, some have concluded that he was a Jew; and others have supposed he was one of the seventy disciples. But the latter sup' LUKE. 71 position is contradicted by St. Luke's own declaration that he was not an eye-witness of our Saviour's actions. The most probable conjecture is, that St. Luke was descended from heathen or Gentile parents, and in his youth embraced Judaism, from winch he was converted to Christianity at Antioch, his native city. It is clear that he was not one of the apostles, neither was he one of the seventy disciples (Luke x. 1), nor one of the two who went to Emmaus (Luke xxiv. 18), as has been sometimes supposed. The first time that this evangelist is mentioned in the New Testament, is in his own history of the Acts of the Apostles (Acts xvi. 10, 11). We there find him with St. Paul at Troas; thence he attended him to Jerusalem, continued with him in his troubles in Judea, and sailed in the same ship with him when he was sent a prisoner from Csesarea to Rome, where he staid with him during his two years' confinement (Acts xxvii. 1-17, xxviii.). The close of his life is as unknown as the commence- ment; but as none of the ancient fathers have mentioned his suffering martyrdom. Lardner and others think it probable that he died a natural death. The authenticity and genuineness of St. Luke's Gos- pel, and of his history of the Acts of the Apost'es, are confirmed by the unanimous testimony of antiquity. But notwithstanding this unanimous testimony of the ancient fathers, an attempt has been made in late years, by those who deny the miraculous conception of Jesus Christ, to impugn the authority of the first two chapters of this Gospel. But it will be seen by any careful obser- ver of the use of language, that this Gospel could not possibly have begun witli the second or third chapter, but must have been preceded by some introduction. The Gospel by St. Luke contains many exceedingly valuable accounts not mentioned by the other evangeiists ; for instance, those relating to the childhood of Jesus, tiie admirable parables related in chap. xv. and xvi., the narration respecting the disciples at Emmaus, the section from chap. ix. 51, to xix. 27, which contains particulars mostly wanting in the other evangelists. With regard to the time when St. Luke wrote his Gospel, and the place from which it was written, there seems to be a diversity of opinion. Micbaelis, Lardner. and, we think, a majori- ty of biblical critics, are of opinion it was written in the year 68 or 6-i, and the internal evidences of time ex- hibited in the Gospel itself seem to correspond with this i2 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. date. It is also most probable, that when Luke left Paul in Rome, he went directly into Greece, and there composed, or finished, and published his Gospel, and the Acts of the Apostles. That St. Luke wrote his Gospel for the benefit of Gentile converts is almost universally acknowledged by Christian antiquity, and may be inferred from his dedi- cating- it to one of his Gentile converts. It will be observed that the order of time of Matthew and Luke is different. Matthew narrates the facts re- corded in his Gospel chronologically ; Luke, on the con- trary, seems to pay but little attention to order, but makes a classification of events, referring each to its proper class, without regard to chronological arrange- ment. If it be asked how St. Luke, not being an apostle or disciple of Christ, could be able to write the narratives recorded in his Gospel, we answer that the evangelist himself expressly declares that he received his informa- tion from those who had been eye-witnesses. Dr. Campbell says of the writings of St. Luke, "No one lias surpassed him, especially in the moral instruc- tions given by our Lord in his parables, in uniting affect- ing sweetness of manner with genuine simplicity, partic- ularly in the parable of the benevolent Samaritan and the penitent prodigal." JOHN THE EVANGELIST. St. John, the evangelist and apostle, was the son of Zebedee, a fisherman of the town of Bethsaida, on the Sea of Galilee, and the younger brother of James the Elder. His mother's name was Salome. The parents of this evangelist seem to have been in easy circum- stances, for we learn that Zebedee, his father, was the owner of a vessel, and had hired servants (Mark i. 21), and that Salome, his mother, was among the number of those women who contributed to the maintenance of Jesus (xxvii. 56) ; and therefore we have no reason to imagine that their children were altogether illiterate, as some crit- ics have imagined them to have been from a misinterpre- tation of Acts iv. 13. They probably, from their stations in life, had not studied in the schools of the Pharisees, and were ignorant of the rabbinical learning and traditions of the Jews. But they were doubtless well acquainted with the Scriptures of the Old Testament, having not only read JOHN THE EVANGELIST. 73 them, but heard them publicly explained in the syna- gogues. John's acquaintance with the high priest (xviii. 15) would indicate that he lived at Jerusalem ; also that he belonged to the wealthier class. We have reason to believe that from a tender age lie nourished religious feelings, since Salome, his mother, who evinced so much love for Jesus, probably fostered at an early period, those hopes of a Messiah which she expresses in Matt. xx. 20, 21. From chap. i. 37-41, it would seem probable that he had been a disciple of John the Baptist before he became a disciple of Christ. Jobn was called to be a follower of Christ while mending a net with his father and elder brother, James, at the Sea of Tiberias (Matt. iv. 21), which is supposed to have been when he was about twenty-five years old. The two brothers, with Peter, were often admitted to peculiar favors by our Lord (Mark v 37 ; Luke viii. 51 ; Matt. xvii. 1; Mark ix. 2; Matt. xxvi. 36-45; Mark xiv. 32-42). Some of the ancient fathers affirm that Salome was the daughter of Joseph by a former wife, and that she was our Lord's sister, and John his nephew, which may explain the reason why such peculiar favors were shown to James and John, and why they sought and expected the first places in his kingdom. It may also be the reason why Jesus committed his mother to the care of John on the cross. John was a constant attendant of our Lord, and an eye- witness to all his labors, crucifixion, the scenes follow- ing the resurrection, and ascension. After the ascension of our Lord, he returned with the other apostles to Jerusalem, and on the day of Pentecost partook with them of the outpouring of the Spirit. After the death of Mary, the mother of Christ, which is supposed to have occurred about fifteen years after the crucifixion, and after the council held at Jerusalem, at which he was present (Acts xv.), John left Jerusalem, where he had resided since the crucifixion of Christ, and went into Asia Minor, where he formed and presided over seven churches in as many cities, but resided principally at Ephesus. It is supposed by some, however, that he remained in Judea and vicinity, and did not go into Asia Minor until the war broke out with the Romans, about A. D. GQ or 70. Towards the close of Domitian's reign, St. John was banished to the Isle of Patmos, where he wrote his Revelation (Rev. i. 9). After the death of Domitian, in 74 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. A. D. 96, and the accession of Nerva to the imperial throne. St. John returned to Ephesus, where he wrote his Gospel and Epistles. Jerome relates that he continued preaching until so enfeebled by age he had to be carried into the assembly. And not being able to deliver a long discourse, his custom was to repeat in every meeting, " My dear children, love one another." Tertullian relates that, in the latter part of the reign of Domitian, St. John was forcibly taken to Rome, where he was thrown into a caldron of boiling oil, from which he was miraculously released, and then brought to Patmos. But as no other ancient writer relates this circumstance, and this mode of punishment was unknown at Rome, we shall lay but little stress upon the statement. John was the youngest of the apostles when called, and lived to the greatest age. He died A. D. 100, aged ninety-six years. The time when John wrote his Gospel cannot he definitely ascertained. Some writers claim that this Gospel was written before the destruction of Jerusalem, as the writer refers, in chap. v. 2, to the pool of Bethesda, at Jerusalem, as still standing, which would not be the fact if the city had been destroyed. But it is by no means certain that this pool was destroyed with the city; it is much more probable that it was spared. The inter- nal evidence of the Gospel, as well as the testimony of the ancients, seems to warrant the conclusion that the evangelist wrote his Gospel from Ephesus, after his re- turn from Patmos, about the year 97. Campbell says " this narrative is characterized by singular perspicuity, and by the most unaffected simplicity and benevolence. There are few passages in Holy Writ more deeply affect- ing than this evangelist s narrative of the resurrection of Lazarus." PETER. Simon, surnamed Cephas, or Peter, which appellation signifies a stone, or rock, was the son of Jonas, or Jonah, and was born at Bethsaida, on the coast of the Sea of Galilee. He had a brother named Andrew, and they jointly pursued the occupation of fishermen. In Matt. xvi. 17, he is called Simon Bar-jona, that is, son of Jonah. These two brothers were hearers of John the Baptist: and from his testimony and their own conver- PETER. 75 sation with Jesus Christ, they were convinced that he was the Messiah (John i. 35-42). From this time it is probable they had frequent intercourse with our Saviour, and witnessed several of his miracles, especially that performed at Cana in Galilee (John ii. 1, 2.). Both Peter and Andrew seem to have followed their trade un- til Jesus called them to " follow him," and promised to make them "fishers of men "(Matt. iv. 18, 19; Mark i. 17; Luke v. 10). From this time they became his constant companions, and were numbered among his apostles. Peter was particularly, with James and John, honored with his Master's intimacy (Mark v. 37; Luke viii. 51 ; Matt. xvii. 1 ; Mark ix. 2 ; Luke ix. 28 ; Matt. xxvi. 36-5G). At the time Peter was called, he was married, and seems to have moved from Bethsaida to Capernaum, where his wife's mother resided ; and our Lord seems to have taken up an occasional residence at his house at that place after he left Nazareth and came to dwell in Capernaum (Matt. iv. 13), whither the people resorted to him (Luke iv. 40; Matt. viii. 16, xvii. 24-27). The distinguishing characteristics of the apostle Pe- ter are signally portrayed by the sacred historians, and these narrations of his weaknesses, as well as virtues, enhance the credibility of the sacred records, and show the sincerity of Peter's attachment to Christ, and the fervor of his zeal in the cause of his Master. He is always first to reply to all questions proposed to the disciples as a collective body by our Lord, as in Matt. xvi. 13-16. He exhibits the ardor of his spirit in attempting to walk on the sea (Matt. xiv. 28-31) ; and still more strikingly in his conduct towards the high priest's servant, whose right ear he cut off (Matt, xxvii. 51-54). His presumption is also evinced in his declara- tion that he never would abandon his Master (Matt. xxvi. 33), and his weakness in afterwards denying him under the most aggravating circumstances (Matt. xxvi. 69-75). It is probable remorse and shame prevented Peter from following Christ any farther than the high priest's palace, for it does not appear that he attended the crucifixion, as we find St. John did. Although forsa- ken by Peter before the crucifixion, our Lord remem- bered him after the resurrection, as we learn the second time he showed himself was to Peter. On another occasion (John xxi.) our Lord afforded Peter an oppor- tunity of thrice declaring his attachment to him, and charged him to feed the flock of Christ with fidelity and 76 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. tenderness. After our Lord's ascension, Peter took an active part in the affairs of the infant church (see Acts i.-x.). He took an active part in the council held at Je- rusalem (Acts xv. 7-10). Peter is not again mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles, nor have we any certain in- formation respecting his subsequent labors. From Gal. ii. 11. it would appear that he afterwards preached at Antioch. And as he inscribed his First Epistle to the Hebrew Christians, he is supposed to have preached in the countries named in that inscription (1 Pet. i. 1, 2). Tradition reports that Peter, towards the close of life, went to Koine to dwell, and was made bishop of the church in that city, and finally suffered martyrdom in the persecution raised against the Christians by Nero. The Catholics having urged the claim of the supremacy of the pope on 'account of that tradition, a thorough examination into its accuracy has led to the following result: It is admitted as certain that Peter did suffer martyrdom, and probably by crucifixion, and as prob- able that this took place at Rome; nevertheless, it is pretty clear that he never for any length of time resided in Rome, and it is morally certain that he never was bishop of the church there. It is generally admitted that he was crucified with his head downwards. Clem- ent of Alexandria adds, from an ancient tradition cur- rent in his time, that Peter's wife suffered martyrdom a short time before him. ANDREW. This apostle was a native of Bethsaida, a town of Galilee, the son of Jona, and brother of Simon Peter. But little is known of Andrew, except what is related of him in connection with Peter, to which reference is made in the biography of that apostle, which see. The principal incidents in which his name occurs during the life of Christ are, the feeding of the five thousand (John vi. 8) ; his introducing to our Lord certain Greeks who desired to see him (John xii. 22) ; and his asking, with his brother Simon and the two sons of Zebedee, for further explanation of what our Lord had said in refer- ence to the destruction of the temple (Mark xiii. 3). We have no authentic record of his subsequent history. Tradition, however, assigns Scythia, Greece, and Thrace, as the scenes of his ministry ; and he is said to have BARTHOLOMEW. JAMES. 77 been crucified in Achaia, on a cross of the form (X) commonly known as " St. Andrew's cross." BARTHOLOMEW. Bartholomew, one of the twelve (Matt. x. 3), is sup- posed to be the same person whom John, in naming the apostles, calls Nathanael. He is called Bartholomew in the first three Gospels, and by Luke in Acts i. 13, where the name Bartholomew is joined with Philip, and Na- thanael is omitted. Where the name Nathanael occurs in John, it is joined likewise with Philip, and Bartholomew is omit- ted. Nathanael may be considered as his real name, and Bartholomew merely expresses his filial rela- tion. He was a native of Cana, in Galilee, and is sup- posed to have followed the occupation of a fisherman (John xxi. 2). When informed by Philip that the Messiah had ap- peared on earth in the person of Jesus of Nazareth, he asked, ;; Can any good thing come out of Nazareth? " He, however, accepted Philip's laconic invitation, " Come and see." When Jesus saw him coming, he said, <; Behold an Israelite indeed, in whom there is no guile" (John i. -io-51). All the disciples of John the Baptist, named in the first chapter of John, became apos- tles. Bartholomew was one of those disciples to whom our Lord appeared after his resurrection, at the Sea of Tiberias (John xxi. 2). He was also a witness of the ascension, and returned, with the other apostles, to Jerusalem (Acts i. 4, 12. 13). Of his subsequent his- tory we have little more than vague tradition. JAMES. Two, if not three, persons of this name are men- tioned in the New Testament. 1. James, the son of Zebedee, and brother of John the evangelist, was. on account of his being much older than tiie other, or from some peculiar honors or favors conferred upon him by our Lord, surnamed the Great. He and his brother, in company with Simon Peter, were fishermen (Luke v. 10), probably at Bethsaida. By comparing Matt. iv. 21, Mark i. 19, with John i., it ap- 78 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. pears that James and John had been acquainted with our Lord for some time, and received him as the Messiah betore they were called to be his constant attendants — a call which they readily obeyed. Their mother's name was Mary, surnamod Salome. She is thought by some to be the sister of Mary, the mother of Jesus ; but it seems more probable that the mother of our Lord was an only daughter. We find James and John, with Peter, associated with our Lord on several interesting occa- sions. They were alone present at the transfiguration (Matt. xvii. 1 : Mark ix. 2; Luke ix. 28) ; at the restora- tion to life of Jairus's daughter (Mark v. 42; Luke viii. 51); and in the garden of Gethsemane during the agony (Mark xiv. 33; Matt. xxvi. 37; Luke xxi. 37). With Andrew they listened in private to our Lord's discourse on the fall of Jerusalem (Mark xiii. 3). From a false notion entertained by them of the king- dom of the Messiah, their ambitious views led them to join in the request made by their mother (Matt. xx. 20- 23; Mark x. 35). From Luke ix. 52, we may infer that their temparament was warm and impulsive. Probably on account of the boldness and energy which characterized their apostleship, they received from their Lord the appellation of Boanerges, or so?is of thunder. James was the first martyr among the apostles, being slain by order of Herod the king (Acts xii. 1-3), thus fulfilling the prediction of our Lord concerning him (Luke xxi. 1(1). Some Spanish historians claim that St. James made an extensive missionary tour through Western Europe, es- pecially Spain; that he returned to Jerusalem, and after his crucifixion, his body was carried back to Spain and buried, where it still remains. But we find nothing in biblical history to justify this conclusion. Clement of Alexandria reports that the officer that conducted James to the tribunal (or rather his accuser), on witnessing the bold declaration of his faith, was influ- enced to embrace the gospel, and avow himself also a Christian, in consequence of which he was beheaded at the same time. 2. James, the son of Cleopas, or Alpheus (Mark iii. 18 ; Matt. x. 3; Acts i. 13), and Mary (Mark xv. 40), was called, either in reference to his years or stature, Jciuies the Less. It is said in John xix. 22, his mother was sister to Christ's mother. It is probable, however, JUDE, OR JUDAS. 79 that she was not an own sister, properly so called. St. Jerome claims that the mother of James was the daugh- ter of Aggi, brother to Zacharias, father to John the Baptist — hence reputed our Lo.d's brother in the same sense he was reputed the son of Joseph. Indeed, we find several persons spoken of as our Lord's brethren but in what sense was controverted of old. St. Jerome. Chrysostom, and some others, will have them so called because the sons of Mary, cousin-german (according to the custom of the Hebrew language, sister) to the Vir- gin Mary. Ecclesiastical history, we think, warrants the conclusion that the mother of our Lord was the only daughter of her mother, who is generally supposed to be the second wife of Mary's father. Whether he is the James, ' ; the brother of the Lord " (Gal. i. 19), is a question which Dr. Neander pronounces to be the most difficult in the apostolic history, and can- not yet be considered as decided. We think it probable he is the same person, although there may be plausible objections to this opinion. That he was an apostle there can be no doubt, but it does not appear when his designation to this office took place. He is mentioned with peculiar distinction in Acts xii. 17, xv. 13, xxi. 18 ; 1 Cor. xv. 7 ; Gal. i. 19, and ii. 9, 12. He resided at Jerusalem during the labors of the apostles, and was present at the apostolic council at Jerusalem, where he seems to have presided, as he was the last to give his judgment, in which all the other mem- bers of the council acquiesced (Acts xv. 13-19). On account of his distinguished piety and sanctity he was surnamed " the just." He was put to death about the time of the passover, A. D. 62 ; and tradition says he was thrown, by the Jews, from the battlements of the temple, and then despatched with a fuller's club, while on his knees and in the act of praying for his murderers. JUDE, or JUDAS. There are three several names by which this apostle is called, in the history of the gospel : Jude, Thaddeus, and Lebbeus (Matt. x. 4; Mark iii. 18). He was the son of Alpheus, and brother of James the Less, and one of the twelve apostles. Judas is the name of one of our Lord's brethren (Matt. xiii. 55), but it is not certain whether our Lord's brother is identical with the apostle of this name. 80 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. There can be but little doubt, however, that he was, by descent and parentage, of our Lord's kindred. We have no account when or how he was called to the apostleship. There is no mention made of him until we find him enu- merated with the twelve apostles, nor is there anything particularly recorded of him afterwards, except in John xiv. 21-23, where we , read he addressed the following question to his divine Master : " Lord, how is it that thou wilt manifest thyself unto its, and not inito the world t " From this it is apparent that he entertained mistaken ideas of Christ's kingdom, and cherished those delusive hopes, in common with all the other apostles, of soon beholding his Master erect a powerful and magnificent empire. Jude continued with the other apostles after our Lord's resurrection and ascension (Acts i. 13), and was with them on the day of Pentecost (Acts ii. 1) ; and it is gen- erally supposed he preached the gospel for some time in Judea, and performed miracles in the name of Christ. As his life seems to have been prolonged, it is considered probable that he afterwards quitted Judea, and preached the gospel in other countries. It lias been said that he preached in Arabia, Syria, Mesopotamia, and Persia, and that he suffered martyrdom in the last-named coun- try. But we have no authentic account of his travels, and it may be even questioned whether he was a martyr. It seems certain that Jude was a married man, and had children, for Eusebius relates that Domitian, in a fit of jealousy, having heard that there were some.of the line of David and of Christ's kindred that remained, ordered an inquiry to be made concerning the posterity of David, as he suspected every one that might look like a co-rival in the empire, and that two grandchildren of St. Jude, the brother of our Lord, were brought before him. The emperor questioned them concerning their profession and manner of life, — which was husbandry, — and also concerning the kingdom of Christ, when it should appear. Being answered that his kingdom was a spiritual and not a temporal one, and that it would not appear until the end of the world, the emperor consid- ered them perfectly harmless, and dismissed them un- bound, and by an edict appeased the persecution raised against the church. JUDAS ISCARIOT. 81 JUDAS ISCARIOT. Judas was one of the twelve chosen disciples of our Lord (Matt. x. 4). Nothing is certainly known of his parentage, or place of his birth ; yet the word Iscariot is supposed by some to signify of Carioih, a small town on the east of Jordan, while others think it is derived from a word which signifies suspension, and refers to the man- ner of Judas's death. In John vi. 71, he is called the son of Simon, whence it has been supposed by some that he was the son of Simon the Canaanite, another of the twelve apostles. The principal fact which the evangelists have re- corded concerning him is found in John xii. 1-8. In Matt. xxvi. 6-13, and Mark xiv. 3-9, this narrative is immediately followed by the account of Judas's betrayal of his Master, whence it has been supposed that Judas was offended at the rebuke which the Saviour adminis- tered to him for the covetous spirit which he manifested on that occasion, and that it was in a 6pirit of revenge that he betrayed his Master. In nearly every passage where the evangelists have referred to Judas, he is spoken of as the one who be- trayed Christ. As the sacred writers have only given us an account of the proceedings of Judas, without ex- pressing any opinion concerning them, the subject is open to inquiry ; and Kitto remarks, " We must be guided in our conclusions by the facts in the case, and by the known feelings and principles of human nature." The same writer adds, " The only conceivable mo- tives for the conduct of Judas are a sense of duty in bringing his Master to justice, resentment, avarice, dis- satisfaction with the procedure of Jesus, and a conse- quent scheme for the accomplishment of his own views." The conduct of Judas, before and after the betrayal, abundantly proves that it was not the first of the above motives which prompted him to commit this wicked deed. His preferring no charges against his Master, and not appearing at the trial as a witness against him, — especially when they were so troubled to find evi- dence, — and his confession to them after the trial and condemnation of Christ, saying, "I have sinned in that I have betrayed innocent blood," prove, beyond a doubt, that he had seen nothing to condemn in his Master, but everything to approve, and that he must have been con- 6 82 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. vinced from what he had seen and heard of the doings and teachings of Christ, that he was indeed the Messiah. And as there can be no justification for his conduct, if actuated by either of the other motives referred to, we leave every reader to decide what motive could induce Judas to betray his Master, whom he professed to love, and must have known to be the Messiah, into the hands of wicked men, to be crucified. Compare John xiii. 18; Matt, xxvii. 3-8 ; Acts i. 16-20. PHILIP. Philip, one of the twelve apostles, was born at Bethsai- da, a town near the sea of Tiberias, " the city of Andrew and Peter " (John i. 44). Of his parents and way of life the history of the gospel takes no notice. It is probable, however, that he was a fisherman, the trade generally of that city. With Andrew and John, lie was a disciple of John the Baptist, and was in the neighborhood where John was baptizing at the time of the baptism of our Lord, and heard the testimony of John concerning him. It has been claimed by some, that Philip had the honor of being the first who was regularly called to be a disciple and follower of Jesus. Others, including Kitto, place him the fourth on the list of the twelve. The first act we have recorded of Philip, after he is called to follow Jesus, — a call which he readily obeys, — was to bring to the Lord, Nathanael, who is supposed to have become an apostle under the name of Barthol- omew (John i. 45-51). But little more is recorded .in Scripture concerning this apostle, except the somewhat remarkable circumstance that when our Lord beheld the five thousand people, whom he afterwards fed with five loaves and two fishes, he singled out Philip for the question, " Whence shall we buy bread, that these may eat?" It is added, "This he did to prove him, for he himself knew what he would do " (John vi. 5, 6). As this question was directed to Philip, it has been claimed that he had committed to him the special charge of supplying food, while others suppose it was done to try Philip's faith, and justify their conclusion for his want of faith by the inappropriate remark of Philip (John xiv. 8), " Lord, show us the Father, and it sufficeth us." He is also referred to in John xii. 21, 22, as the person to whom certain Greeks applied, who sought an introduce THOMAS. 83 tion to Jesus, of whom they had heard so much. The sacred history only adds to these facts that he was pres- ent with other apostles at the religious assembly in Jeru- salem, following the Lord's resurrection (Acts i. 13). There are many traditions respecting this apostle, all of which are vague and indefinite, and many of them, no doubt, originated by confounding the name of this apos- tle with that of Philip the evangelist, so honorably named in the Acts of the Apostles. But there is nothing im- probable in the statement that he preached the gospel in Phrygia, and that he met his death at Hierapolis, in Syria. THOMAS. When Jews were travelling into foreign countries, or conversing freely with Greeks and Romans, it was cus- tomary for them to assume to themselves some Greek or Latin name of great affinity, and sometimes of the very same signification, witli that of their own country. Thus our Lord is called Christ, corresponding to his Hebrew title Mashiac, or the Anointed. Simon was styled Peter, according to that of Cephas, which our Lord gave him ; Tabitha, called Dorcas, both signifying a goat. Thus it is that Thomas, according to the Syriac importance of his name, had the title of Didymus (John xx. 24), which signifies a twin. He was one of the twelve apostles (Matt. x. 3; Mark iii. 18; Luke vi. 15; Acts i. 13), and has been considered a native of Galilee, like most of the other apostles (John xxi. 2), but, according to tradition, he was a native of Antiochia, and had a twin sister called Lysia. From the brief account the evangelists have given of the life of Thomas, we find that not long after his call to the apostleship, he gave an eminent instance of his hearty willingness to undergo the saddest fate that might await him. When our Lord, on learning of the death of Lazarus, had resolved to go again into Judea to raise him from the dead, the rest of the apostles, having known that the Jews had recently sought to stone him, dissuaded our Saviour from going there, lest he should be put to death. But Thomas desires them not to hinder their Master from going thither, though it might cost them their lives. <; Let us go," said he, " that we may die with him." probably concluding that, instead of raising Lazarus, they 84 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. themselves should be sent with him to their own graves (John xi. G-16). " Whosoever is minded like most re- ligionists, who complain of the scepticism of Thomas, to follow, in the common transactions of life, the dictates of vulgar prudence, may easily abstain from putting his hands into the marks of the nails and into the side of the Lord (John xx. L ; 5), but whosoever is ready to die with the Lord will be inclined to avail himself of extraordi- nary evidence for extraordinary facts, since no one likes to suffer martyrdom by mistake." It has been claimed by some that contradictory traits of character have been developed in Thomas, such as inconsiderate faith, and a turn for exacting the most rigorous evidence. We do not find that Christ blamed Thomas for avail- ing himself of all possible evidence, nor that he doubted the sincerity of his faith in his crucified Lord ; he only pronounced those blessed who should believe without these external evidences (John xx. 19-29). Of the sub- sequent transactions and manner of death of this apostle we have but little definite knowledge. He is said to have preached the gospel in Parthia, and, according to Jer- ome, in Persia, and was buried at Edessa. There is a tradition, however, that Thomas went to India, and suf- fered martyrdom there. SIMON. Simon, one of the twelve apostles, was surnamed Ze- lotes (Luke vi. 15; Acts i. loj, probably from his warm, ardent temperament, as the true rendering of the word (zealot) seems to imply, lie is also called ' ; the Canaan- ite " in Matt. x. 4 ; Mark iii. 18 ; from which it has been inferred by some that he was a Gentile, and probably a native of Cana of Galilee. While others even claim that he was the bridegroom at whose wedding in Cana our Lord wrought his first miracle (John ii. 1-11). But it should be observed that these opinions are founded only upon a doubtful tradition. Simon is the least known of all the apostles, not a single circumstance beyond the fact of his apostleship being recorded in the Scriptures concerning him. Tradition alleges that he preached the gospel throughout North Africa, from Egypt to Mauritania, and that he even proceeded as far west as the isles of Britain. MATTHIAS. PAUL. 85 MATTHIAS. Matthias, one of the seventy disciples, was chosen by lot into the number of the apostles to supply the defi- ciency caused by the apostasy of Judas. In Acts i. 15-26, we find all that is positively known of this apostle. Soon after the return of the disciples from the Mount of Olives, where our Lord met them for the last time, and was parted from them, Peter called the atten- tion of the eleven apostles to the fact that the Scrip- ture had been fulfilled in the doom of Judas, and re- minded them that the same Scripture points out to them what their present conduct should be (Acts i. 20). For as it had been predicted that " his habitation should be desolate," so it was directed that another should take his office. It behooved them, therefore, to take one that had accompanied Jesus from his baptism by John, at the commencement of his ministry, until his ascension into heaven. Being unable of themselves to decide between Joseph, called Barsabas, and Matthias, they prayed to the Lord for direction, " and they gave forth their lots, and the lot fell upon Matthias, and he was numbered with the eleven apostles." It is remarkable that Matthias is not mentioned again in Scripture, while Barsabas is. Yet the Lord had good and wise reasons for choosing Matthias, which are wholly unknown to us. PAUL. The events in the life of St. Paul have been so clearly narrated in the Synchronology, and the Observations on the Acts of the Apostles, in other parts of this work, that it seems superfluous to rehearse them here at length. Great men have many biographers, and Paul is not an exception. In the many volumes that have been written upon his life and character, much has been drawn from the imagination of the writers, and from doubtful tra- ditions. Hence we find many things in these narratives apparently contradictory, and some that are irreconcila- ble. We shall endeavor to state, very briefly, some of the principal scenes in his eventful life, as we find them given in the Acts of the Apostles, by St. Luke, his com- panion in his labors and travels, and in the Epistles of St. Paul himself. In Acts xxi. 39, and xxii. 3, we learn that he was a 8b NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. Jew, born in Tarsus, a city in Cilicia, and in Phil. iii. 5, that he was of the tribe of Benjamin. He belonged to a sect of the Pharisees, as did also his father (Acts xxiii. 6). According to the custom of the country, he learned a useful mechanical trade (Acts xviii. 3), and was sent in early life to Jerusalem (Acts xxvi. 4, 5), where he was educated under the immediate instruction of Gamaliel, a distinguished Jewish Rabbi, where he became master of the written law of Moses, and " profited in the Jews' religion above many of his equals in his own nation, being exceeding more zealous in the traditions of the fathers" (Gal. i. 13, 14). He declared himself to be " zealous toward God" (Acts xxii. 3), and exhibited a fiery zeal, bordering on madness, by his cruel persecutions even unto death (Acts xxii. 4) of all who dared worship the God of the Hebrews, contrary to the customs and traditions of the fathers. He is first introduced to our notice as a young man named Saul, who was present at the martyrdom of Stephen, and consenting to his death (Acts vii. 57, 58, viii. 1) — an act for which we afterwards find him con- demning himself (Acts xxii. 20). Immediately after, we find him in the councils of the chief priests, and sharing their confidence. To him they intrust the responsibility of executing their designs towards the followers of Jesus (Acts xxvi. 10, 12). While executing his cruel commission, and in his ig- norance endeavoring to injure the cause of Christ, the great author of Christianity was about to make him a distinguished trophy of its power, and one of the most devoted and successful of its advocates. While on his way to Damascus, on an errand of persecution, he was suddenly arrested by a miraculous vision of Christ, who, addressing him from heaven, demanded the reason of his furious zeal, in these remarkable words : " Saul, Saul, why persecutest thou me ? " (For a full account of the conversion of Paul, and his labors and persecutions for the next three years, see Acts ix.). Being sought by Barnabas, he is found at Tarsus, and accompanies him to Antioch, from whence they are both sent to Jeru- salem to carry alms (Acts xi. 25-30). The firs't missionary journey of Paul and Barnabas from Antioch continued about two years (Acts xiii., xiv.), commencing about A. D. 45, nine years after the con- version of Paul. t They return to Antioch, where they spend several years (Acts xiv. 28), when they are sent a PAUL. 87 second time to Jerusalem, to consult the disciples re- specting circumcision (Acts xv. 2). Paul, on his second missionary tour (Acts xv. 40), after passing through Asia Minor to Europe, finds Aquila and Priscilla at Corinth (Acts xviii. 2). Here he remains eighteen months (Acts xviii. 11), when he departs for Jerusalem the fourth time, and then goes to Antioch (Acts xviii. 22). He winters at Nicopolis (Titus iii. 12), and then goes to Ephesus (Acts xix. 1), where he remains two years or more, and then departs for Macedonia (Acts xx. 1). After wintering in Achaia, Paul goes the fifth time to Jerusalem, where he is imprisoned (Acts xx., xxi.). He is sent to Csesarea, where he remains a pris- oner for two years. Being brought before Porcius Festus for trial, he per- ceived that Festus showed a strong disposition to favor the Jews, and he felt himself constrained to appeal to Caesar. He is accordingly sent to Rome as a prisoner, where he arrives the following spring, having spent the winter in Malta (Acts xxiv. 27, xxv.-xxviii.). St. Luke has not continued the history of St. Paul beyond his first im- prisonment at Rome ; consequently we have no authen- tic information of his travels and labors after his release from prison to the time of his martyrdom, nor is it known by what means he was delivered from prison. Calmet conjectures, with some probability, that the Jews durst not prosecute him before the emperor. From intimations contained in some of St. Paul's Epistles, it has been conjectured, that, being released from his first imprisonment, he left Italy and sailed for Judea, accompanied by Timothy and Titus ; that he left Titus at Crete, and thence proceeded with Timothy into Judea, and visited the churches to which he had recently sent the Epistle which is now ascribed to the Hebrews. Having visited the churches in Asia Minor, lje leaves Timothy at Ephesus, and proceeds to Macedo- nia. After visiting the churches in Greece,, and prob- ably in Corinth, he spends the winter in Epirus, and then returns to Crete, and, as Michaelis supposes, visits Corinth the third time ; from whence -he goes to Rome, where he is imprisoned the second time. Dr. Macknight thinks he remained in prison a year or more, before being put to death. (See Observations on the Sec- ond Epistle to Timothy, pp. 41 and 42 of this book). According to a primitive tradition, St. Paul was be- 88 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. headed, A. D. 66 or G7, three miles from Rome, at Aquae Salvias, and buried in Via Ostensis, two miles from the city, where Constantino the Great afterwards erected a church to his memory. " But," says Dr. Hales, " his noblest monument subsists in his immortal writings ; which, the more they are studied, and the better they are understood, the more they will be admired to the latest posterity for the most sublime and beautiful, the most pathetic and impressive, the most learned and pro- found specimens of Christian piety, oratory, and phi- losophy." Dr. Paley pays a just tribute to the great Apostle to the Gentiles, in the following brief summary of his labors and trials : — " We see him, in the prosecution of his purpose, travelling from country to country, enduring every spe- cies of hardship, encountering every extremity of dan- ger, assaulted by the populace, punished by the magis- trates, scourged, beaten, stoned, left for dead; expect- ing, wherever he came, a renewal of the same treatment and the same dangers ; yet, when driven from one city, preaching in the next, spending his whole time in the employment, sacrificing to it his pleasures, his ease, his safety; persisting in this course to old age (through more than thirty years) ; unaltered by the experience of perverseness, ingratitude, prejudice, desertion; unsub- dued by anxiety, want, labor, persecutions; unwearied by long confinement, undismayed by the prospect of death." TABLE OF PAUL S JOURNEYS. 89 TABLE OF ST. PAUL'S APOSTOLIC JOURNEYS. Various opinions are entertained as to the precise number of journeys performed by the Apostle to the Gentiles. The accom- panying- table, which we copy from Wilbur's Reference Bible, may, however, enable the student better to trace the extended missions which this great missionary performed in the short space of thirty years. See the following Map, showing the jour- neyings of St. Paul. First Second Third Fourth Fifth Journey. Journey. Journey. Journey. Journey. Antioch in Rest of Syria, Galatia, Antipairis, Colosse. Syria, Cilicia, Phrygia, Cesarea, Philippi. Seleucia. Derbe. Ephesus, Sidon, 2sicopo!is, Salamis, Lystra, Troas, Myra, Epirus, Paphos, Iconium, Macedonia, Near Salmo Corinth, Perga in Phrygia, Greece, . ne, Troas, Pamphylin, Galafia, Corinth, Fair Havens, Miletuinin Antioch in Troas, Macedonia , Melite Isl'd, Crete. Pisidia, Samothracia, Philippi, Syracuse, Rome. Iconium, Xeapolis, Troas, Rhegium, Lystra, Philippi, Assos, Puteoli, Derbe, Amphipolis, Mitylene Appii Fo- Lystra, Apollonia, Island, rum, Iconium, Thessalonica, Chios Isl'd Three Tav- Pisidia, Berea Samos " erns, Perga, Athens, Trogy Ilium Rome, Attalia, Corinth, Miletus in Italy, Antioch in Cenchrea, Asia, Spain, only Syria, Ephesus, Coos Isl'd, intended, Phenicia, Cesarea, Rhodes ' ; Crete, Samaria, Jerusalem, Patara in Jerusalem, Jerusalem. Antioch in Lycia, Antioch in Antioch in Syria. Tyre, Syria. Syria. Ptolemais, Cesarea, Jerusalem. GEOGEAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE PRINCIPAL PLACES MENTIONED IN THE NEW TESTAMENT. Abile'ne (Luke iii. 1). The tetrarchy of Lysanias, of which Abila was the capital. Its precise limits and extent remain unknown. It must have extended northward beyond the Upper Bar- rada to have included Abila; and it is probable its south- ern border extended to Mount Hermon. Acel'dama (field of blood). A field lying without the south wall of Jerusalem, purchased with the money for which Judas betrayed Christ, and which was appropriated as a place for the burial of strangers (Matt, xxvii. 8 ; Acts i. 19). Dr. Robinson says the field or plat is not now marked by any boundary to distinguish it from the rest of the hill-side ; and the former charnel-house, said to have been erected by the Armenians in the seventeenth century, now in ruins, is all that remains to point out the site. Acha'ia (proper) was a province in the south of Greece, of which Corinth was the capital, running west- ward along the Bay of Corinth, but by the poets is often put for the whole of Greece. Under the Romans, Greece was divided into two provinces, Macedonia and Achaia, the former of which included Macedonia proper, with lllyricum, Epirus, and Thessaly, and the latter, all that lay south of the former. It is in this latter acceptation that the word Achaia is always used in the New Testament. (Acts xviii. 12, xxvii. 19, 21 ; Rom. xv. 26. xvi. 5 ; 1 Cor. xvi. 15; 2 Cor. i. 1, ix. 2, xi 10 ; 1 Thess'. i. 7, 8). Adramyt'tium. A maritime city of Mysia, in Asia Mi- nor, opposite the Isle of Lesbos, and an Athenian colony. It is mentioned in Scripture only from the fact that the ship in which St. Paul embarked at Caesarea as a prisoner, 91 92 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. on his way to Italy, belonged to Adramyttium (Acts xxvii. 2). It was rare to find a vessel going direct from Palestine to Italy. It is built on a hill, and is said to contain about one thousand houses, and is still a place of some com- merce. A'dria. A city of Italy, which gives its name to the Gulf of Venice, or Adriatic Sea. It was formerly given to the whole of the Mediterranean (Acts xxvii. 27). Alexandria, or Scanderia. Once a magnificent, rich, and celebrated city of Egypt, was built by Alexander the Great, under the superintendence of Dinocrates, — the same architect who had rebuilt the temple of Diana at Ephesus, — near the most westerly branch of the Nile, soon after the overthrow of Tyre, about 332 B. C. It was made the capital of the kingdom under the Ptolemies. Alexandria is famous, among other things, for the exten- sive library which the pride or learning of the Ptolemies had collected there, at a vast expense, from all parts of the world. Alexandria was conquered by Julius Caesar, 47 B. C, and this library of the Ptolemies, containing four hundred thousand valuable works in manuscript, burned. Alexan- dria was conquered again by the Saracens, A. D. G42, and a second library, said to contain seven hundred thousand volumes, destroyed by order of the Caliph Omar; and during six months the numerous volumes supplied fuel for the four thousand baths which contributed so much to the health and convenience of the populous capital «of Egypt. Ancient Alexandria was at one time the centre of scien- tific knowledge, and to have studied there was a sufficient recommendation to distant countries. The astronomi- cal school founded there by Philadelphus maintained its superior reputation ten centuries, until the time of the Saracens. Historians tell us that at one time the city contained a free population of three hundred thousand, and an equal number of slaves. It was Jews from this city that per- secuted Stephen (Acts vi. 9). Apollos was a native of it (Acts xviii. 24). In a ship belonging to it, Paul sailed for Rome (Acts xxvii. 6). From the time of the apostles to the Saracen invasion, Alexandria was under the domin- ion of Rome, and afforded an extensive market for grain ; hence the ease with which the centurion having Paul in charge as a prisoner on his way to Rome, " found a ship of Alexandria, laden with corn, sailing into Italy." It GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF PLACES. 93 will be remembered that the celebrated translation of the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek, called the Septuagint ver- sion of the Bible, was made by Ptolemy Philadelphia, king of Egypt, 277 B. C, for the use of the Jews in Alexandria, who knew only the Greek language. St. Mark is said to have introduced the Christian reli- gion into Alexandria, which early became one of the strongholds of the true faith. The Jews remained in the enjoyment of their civil rights till A. D. 415, when, having incurred the hatred of Cyril the patriarch, they were, at his instance, banished to the number of forty thousand, and their synagogues destroyed. Amphip'olis. A city of Greece, through which Paul and Silas passed on their way from Philippi to Thessalo- nica (Acts xvii. 1). It was originally founded by the renowned Athenian general Cimon, about B. C. 500. It was situated on the left bank of the River Stiymon, which nearly surrounded it, from which it took its name. Am- phipolis was a place of much importance, and was an object of contest, and the cause of many wars between the Athenians and Spartans. It has long been in ruins. An'tioch. 1. A city on the banks of the Orontes, three hundred miles north of Jerusalem, and about equi- distant from Constantinople and Alexandria. It was the metropolis of Syria, the residence of the Syrian kings, and afterwards became the capital of the Roman provinces in Asia. For power and dignity it was but little inferior to Alexandria, and was the third great city of all that be- longed to the Roman provinces. It was very populous. In less than one hundred and fifty years after its erection, the Jews slew one hundred thousand persons in it in one day. In the time of Chrysostom, the population was com- puted at two hundred thousand, of whom at least one half were professors of Christianity. The Christian faith was introduced into Antioch at an early date, and with great success (Acts xi. 19-24). The name Christian was first applied here to its pro- fessors, whether as a term of reproach or a mere distinc- tive title is not known (Acts xi. 26).- The First Apos- tolic Council or convention was held here (Acts xv). It was the scene of the early labors of St. Paul, and from here he set forth on his first missionary labors (Acts xi. 2G, xiii. 2). It was here where both Luke and Theophilus were born and dwelt. The calamities which have be- 94 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. fallen Antioch are probably without a parallel, both in respect to number and severity. It has been besieged and plundered not less than fifteen times ; three times it has been visited with famine, twice with fire, and once with plague. It has frequently been brought to the verge of utter ruin by earthquakes ; and by that of A. D. 526, not less than two hundred and fifty thousand persons were destroyed, many of whom were strangers attending the festival of the ascension. In A. 1). 12G8 Antioch was occupied by Boadocbar, sultan of Egypt and Syria; seventeen thousand persons were slaughtered, and one hundred thousand sent into captivity. About the middle of the fifteenth century, the three patriarchs of Alexandria, xVntioch, and Jerusa- lem convoked a synod, and renounced all connection with the Latin church. The inhabitants are said to have amounted to about twenty thousand in 1822, when an earthquake destroyed about one fourth of them. The line of the ancient wall may be easily traced, and the present town occupies scarcely one third of the area originally enclosed. An'tiocii. 2. In (or near) Pisidia, in Asia Minor, was the capital of that province. Paul and Barnabas preached there (Acts xiii. 14), and we have a fuller abstract of one of Paul's sermons at this place than of any other of the apostolic discourses. A violent persecu- tion was raised against them by the Jews, and they were obliged to leave the place, which they did in strict accord- ance with their Lord's injunction (Acts xiii. 50, 51, com- pared with Matt. x. 14; Luke ix. 5). There were at least sixteen cities of the name of Antioch in Syria and Asia Minor. Axtip'atris. A city on the road from Jerusalem to ( a-area, and about seventeen miles from Joppa, accord- ing to Josephus. It was formerly called Caphar-saba; but being rebuilt and beautified by Herod the Great, it w r as by him named Antipatris, in honor of his father, Antipater. St. Paul was brought from Jerusalem to Antipatris by night, on his route to Caesarea (Acts xxiii. 31). Appii Forcm. The forum, or market-place, to which pedlers and petty merchants resorted in great numbers, built by Appius Claudius, the consul. It was about fifty miles south of Rome, on the great road from Rome to Brundusium. The name is derived from the cireuiu- stance that it is situated on the " Appian Way." Thus GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF PLACES. 95 far the Christians of Rome came to meet Paul (Acts xxviii. 15). Ara'bia. An extensive country of Asia, reaching from the Euphrates to Egypt, and from the Red Sea to the Persian Gulf (Gal. i. 17). It is usually divided into three parts. 1. Arabia Deserta (or desert), lying nearly to the east of Judea, and whose inhabitants dwelt in tents. This was the country of the Ishmaelites, and is inhabited by the modern Bedouins, who lead a wandering life, having no cities, houses, or fixed habitation, but wholly dwelling in tents. 2. Arabia Petrcea (or the rocky), lies to the south of the Holy Land. Petra was its capital. This part of Arabia must ever remain mem- orable as the scene of the journeying of the children of Israel from Egypt to the promised land. 3. Arabia Felix (or the happy), so called from its fertility, lies be- tween the Red Sea on the west and the Persian Gulf on the east. It is thought the Queen of Sheba, who visited Solomon (1 Kings x. 1), was queen of part of Arabia Felix. This was the cradle of Mohammedan supersti- tion, containing Mecca, the birthplace of Mohammed, the prophet, from whence he fled in his fifty-third year (July 1(3, A. D. 622) to Medina, also in Arabia Felix, where he died and was buried ten years after. This formed the first year of the famous Hegira. The ancient Arabs were idolaters ; they worshipped a stone. The Black Stone which has the repute of having been from time immemorial the object of their worship is still seen in the Caaba of Mecca. They say this stone was originally white, but wept itself black on account of the sins of the people. Strabo fells us that they adored but two gods, Bacchus and Jupiter; which Alexander the Great being informed of, he resolved to subdue them, that he might oblige them to worship him as their third deity. Arabs are mentioned among the strangers assembled at Jerusalem at the Pentecost (Acts ii. 11). The mod- ern Arabs are the descendants of IshmaeL a supersti- tious, vindictive race, given to robbery, but which they justify, because Abraham the father of Ishmael gave all that he had unto Isaac (Gen. xxv. 5, 6). Since the promulgation of the gospel, many of the Arabs have embraced Christianity, but by far the greater portion of them continue to this dky to profess the faith of Mo- hammed. Aueop'agus (the Hill of Mars). A place at Athens where the magistrates held their supreme council. This 96 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. tribunal is said to have been instituted at Athens by Ce- crops, the founder of that city. It took cognizance of matters of religion, the consecration of new gods, erec- tion of temples and altars, and the introduction of new ceremonies into divine worship. On this account St. Paul was brought before the tribunal of the Areopagus as a ; * setter forth of strange gods," because he preached unto the Athenians Jesus and the resurrection (Acts xvii. 19). It is said the sittings of the Areopagus were held only in the night, that the judges might not be distracted or biassed by extraneous objects. Arimatue'a. A small town to which the wealthy Jo- seph belonged, who begged the body of our Lord from Pilate, after the crucifixion, and placed it in his own new sepulchre (Matt, xxvii. 57). It is situated about thirty-six miles north-west of Jerusalem, on the road to Joppa. The Arimathea of Joseph is usually regarded as the Romathaim of Samuel. Hence it has, by some, been identified with the existing Raraleh. Some writers sup- pose this to be the Roma, situated about six miles north- west of Jerusalem. Armaged'don. The Hebrew name given to the place where the Popish and Mohammedan troops shall be de- stroyed under the Sixth Vial. Its name alludes to Me- giddo, where Barak, with ten thousand troops, slew the mighty hosts of the Canaanites, and has been interpreted the destruction of troops. Whether it shall be in Judea or in Italy, or perhaps rather in both at the same time, cannot now be determined (Hev. xvi. 1G, xvii. 13, 14). A'sia (Acts ii. 9) was not known to the ancients as one of the four grand divisions of the earth. It is not men- tioned in the Old Testament. In the New Testament it is taken for the peninsula on the western or south-west- ern side of the continent of Asia, or Asia Minor, and in- cludes the proconsular Asia, which comprised the four regions, Phrygia, Mysia, Caria, and Lydia. In this pro- consular Asia were the seven churches (Rev. ii.). Ath'ens. A celebrated city of Greece, the capital of Attica, and the seat of learning, science, and the arts. It was for some time a very powerful commonwealth. After the twenty-eight years of misfortune and bloodshed, caused by the Peloponnesian war, Athens was almost totally ruined on the 24th of April, B. C. 404, by Lysan- der. After this war, Athens never recovered the politi- cal place which she previously held, but that she rose so GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF PLACES. 97 high towards it, was truly wonderful. St. Paul, coming hither in about A. D. 52 or 53, found the people given to idolatry and idleness (Acts xvii.). The great apostle of the Gentiles, taking opportunities here to preaeh Jesus Christ, was carried before the judges or the tribunal called the Areopagus, where he gave an illustrious testi- mony to truth, and a remarkable instance of powerful reasoning. (See " Areopagus.") Azo'tus, or Ash'dod. A city of Judea, situated fifteen or twenty miles north of Gaza, in a pleasant plain. Here the ark of Jehovah triumphed over the Philistine idol Dagon (1 Sam. v. 2), and Philip, the evangelist, was found after he had baptized the Ethiopian eunuch (Acts viii. 40). Ashdod exists at present as an inconsiderable village. The site is marked by ancient ruins; there is also what has the appearance of a very ancient khan, the principal chamber of which had obviously, at some former period, been used as a Christian chapel. The place is still called Esdud. Bab'ylon. A celebrated city, the capital of the Assyrian empire, on the banks of the Euphrates. It is sup- posed to have begun to be built at the same time as the tower of Babel, and both were left unfinished at the con- fusion of tongues (Gen. xi. 4-8). Although small at first, Babylon was afterwards enlarged and improved by Belus, Semiramis, Nebuchadnezzar, and his queen, whom Herodotus calls Nitocris, until it became the wonder of the world. (For a full account of Babylon, in its greatness, before the Christian era, see Bible Dic- tionary, or Home's Introduction to the Bible, vol. iii. pp. 517, 518. ) It is several times mentioned in the New Testament, as Matt. i. 11, 17; Acts vii. 43; 1 Peter v. 13. As Babylon of old was the chief of all idolatrous cities, she is taken as a fit emblem of the enormous guilt and extensive influence of the idolatrous and papal Rome, whose destruction is predicted in Rev. xiv. 8, xvi. 19, xvii. 5, xviii. 1, 10, 20. Bere'a. A city of Macedonia, about twenty miles west * of Thessalonica, near Mount Pindus. Paul and Silas withdrew to this place from Thessalonica, where they preached the gospel with great success (Acts xvii. 10-14). Bethab'ara. The name of a town on the east bank of the Jordan, where there was a ford ; hence the name (house of passage). It is mentioned in John i. 28 as the 7 98 SEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. place where John baptized. It is probable that the Israel- ites crossed the Jordan at this place, under the conduct of Joshua. More recent and probably reliable manu- scripts give the name Bethany, and give tue location much farther north, east ot the Jordan, and about twen- ty-live or thirty miles south of the Sea of Galilee, where John baptized. Bkth'any. A town of Judea, on Mount Olivet, where Lazarus dwelt, and where he was raised from the dead, about fifteen furlongs from Jerusalem, on the way to Jericho (John xi. IS). " At present," says Dr. Robin- son, " Bethany is a small and poor village, and the cul- tivation round it much neglected. But it is a shady, ro- mantic spot, on the side of the Mount of Olives, abounding in trees and long grass." But the tract of ground bear- ing that name extended to within eight furlongs of Jeru- salem, it being only a Sabbath day's journey from it (Luke xxiv. 50; Acts i. 12); then began the tract called Blth'phage, which ran along so near Jerusalem, that the outmost street within the walls was called by that name. Bethes'da. The Hebrew name of a pool or reservoir of water in the city of Jerusalem, built round with porches for the accommodation of the sick, who resorted thither for the benefit of the medicinal qualities of the water, and upon one of whom Christ performed the healing mir- acle recorded in John v. 2-10. Beth'lkhem (house of bread), now called Beit-Lahm, was a celebrated city about six miles south-west of Jeru- salem ; called also Bethlehem Ephrath (the fruitful), or Ephrata (Gen. xxxv. l'J. xlviii. 7). It was so inconsid- erable a place as to be omitted in the general list of the cities of Judah (Josh. xv. ; Neh. xi. : see also Micah v. 2). It was a city, however, in the time of Boaz (Ruth iii. 11, iv. 1), and was fortified by Kelioboam (2 Cliron. xi. b). It is called Bethlehem of Judea to distinguish it from another Bethlehem, situated in Lower Galilee, in the tribe of Zebulon, and mentioned in Josh. xix. 15. Beth- lehem is chiefly celebrated as the birthplace of David (hence it is called the city of David) and of the Messiah (Luke ii. 4-15; Matt. ii. 6). There never has been any doubt as to the site of Beth- lehem, which has always been an inhabited place, and its sacred associations have caused it to be visited by an unbroken series of pilgrims and travellers. It is pleas- GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF PLACES. 99 antly situated on the brow of a hill, in a very fertile soil, and consists of one broad and principal street. The houses are built principally of clay and bricks, and nearly every house is provided with an apiary, with bee- hives constructed of a scries of earthen pots, ranged on the house-tops. The population is said to number about fifteen hun- dred, mostly Christians, the rest Mohammedons. About two miles from Bethlehem, towards Jerusalem, is the tomb of Rachel. On the north-eastern side of it is a deep valley, which is said to be the place where the angels appeared to the shepherds of Judea, with the glad tidings of the Saviour's birth fXuke ii. 8). In the same valley is a fountain of delicious water, said, with some probability, to be that for which David longed, and which three of his mighty men procured for him at the hazard of their lives (2 Sam. xxiii. 15-18). About two hundred paces east of Bethlehem, the place is pointed out where it is supposed our Saviour was born. Not much reli- ance is, however, to be placed in these traditions. Bethsai'da (fishing town). 1. A town in Galilee, on the western side of the Sea of Tiberias, towards the middle and not far from Capernaum (John i. 44; Mark vi. 45, viii. 22; John xii. 21). It was the native place and residence of Philip, Andrew, and Peter (John i. 44), and the frequent residence of Jesus. Its site is unknown, and the very name has long eluded the search of travellers. Bethsaida. 2. From Luke ix.10, and parallel pas- sages (Matt. xiv. 13; Mark vi. 32-45), it would seem that the feeding of five thousand i% near to a city called Bethsaida," could not have taken place in Galilee, but on the eastern side of the lake. It was originally only a village, but was enlarged and beautified by Philip the tetrarch, not long after the birth of Christ, and by him named Julias, in honor of Julia, the emperor's daughter. Bithyn'ia. A province in Asia Minor, on the Euxine Sea and the Propontis, bounded on the west by Mysia, on the south and east by Phrygia and Galatia. It is directly opposite Constantinople. It is probable that the gospel was introduced into this province at an early period, as the apostle Peter ad- dressed his First Epistle to the Christian congregations there (1 Pet. i. 1). The apostle Paul was once in- 100 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. clinecl to go into Bithynia with Silas and Timothy, but the Spirit suffered him not (Acts xvi. 7). C^esarea, of Palestine, was so called to distinguish it from the other Csesarea, from its eminence, as the Roman metropolis of Palestine, and the residence of the proc- urator. It was formerly named the Tower of Strato. Its har- bor being extremely incommodious, Herod the Great erected one of the most stupendous works of antiquity (a spacious mole), and greatly enlarged ami beautified the city, which he denominated Caesarea in honor of Augus- tus Caesar, the emperor, his great patron, 22 B. C. This place is situated about fifty-five miles north-west of Jerusalem, and is called, by way of eminence, Caesa- rea. Herod added many splendid buildings to the city, and when the whole was completed, twelve years alter he commenced the undertaking, he fixed his residence there, thus elevating the city to the rank of the civil and military capital of Judea, which rank it enjoyed as long as the country remained a province of the Roman em- pire. Vespasian raised Caesarea to the rank of a Roman col- ony, granting it exemption from the capitation tax, and afterwards from the ground taxes. The place was inhabited chiefly by Gentiles, although some thousands of Jews lived in it. Caesarea is fre- quently mentioned in the New Testament. Here Corne- lius and his kinsmen were converted by the preaching of Peter, being the hrst fruits of the Gentiles (Acts x.) ; here lived Philip the evangelist (Acts xxi. 8) ; here St. Paul was imprisoned for two years, and so admirably defended himself before Festus and King Agrippa (Acts xxi v.). It was here, also, in the Amphitheatre built by his father, that Herod Agrippa ^was smitten of God and died (Acts xii. 21-23). Cassarea retains nothing of its former greatness. At present the whole of the surrounding country, on the land side, is a sandy desert. Its ruins, which are very considerable, have long been resorted to as a quarry, when building materials were required at Acre. The place is seldom visited by travellers in Palestine, although the small vessels of the country put in here to take in their supplies. The present tenants of the ruins are said to be Snakes, scorpions, lizards, wild boars, and. jackals. GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF PLACES. 101 CLksare'a Philip'pi (formerly called Paneas). At the foot of Mount Paneas, near the springs of Jordan. It was first called Lais, or Lechem (Judges xviii. 7), and after it was subdued by the Danites (ver. 29) it received the appellation of Dan (Judges xviii. 29). It lay about one hundred and twenty miles north from Jerusalem, a day's journey from Sidon, a day and a half from Damas- cus (Matt, xvi 13). Philip the tetrarch embellished and enlarged it, and called it Oaesarea in honor of Caesar, with his own name subjoined. In compliment to the Emperor Nero, its mime was afterwards changed to Neronias. The woman who was troubled with an issue of blood, and healed by our Saviour (Matt. ix. 20), is said to have been of Caesarea Philippi. The place has now dwindled into a paltry and insignificant village. Calvary, the same as Golgotha, is supposed to have been a hill just outside the walls of Jerusalem. St. Paul delicately alludes, in his Epistle to the Hebrews (xiii. 12, 13), to this, and says that Christ, as a sacrifice for sin, suffered without the gate ; subjoining, kt Let us, therefore, go forth to him without the camp (or the city) bearing his reproach." Golgotha signifies the place of a skull, and is so called by some from its fancied resem- blance, in shape, to a skull ; by others, — and which seems more probable, — either because criminals were executed there, or perhaps because this place contained sepulchral caverns for the dead. Ca'na. A small town of Galilee, situated on a gentle eminence to the west of Capernaum. The ruler of Ca- pernaum, whose child was dangerously ill, besought Jesus to come down and heal his son (John iv. 40-51) ; thus the writings of the evangelist correspond with the geography and present appearance of the country. About a quarter of a mile from the village (for such it now is), on the road from Nazareth, is a well of delicious water by the road-side, whence all the water is taken for the supply of the inhabitants. This well is supplied by springs from the mountains, some two miles distant; and here it is usual for the pil- grims to halt, as being the source of the water, which our Saviour, by his first miracle, converted into wine (John ii. 11). In consequence of this miracle, both the Chris- tian and Turkish inhabitants of Cana cherish the singu- lar notion that, by drinking copiously of this water, in- toxication is produced. This Cana is not mentioned in 102 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. the Old Testament, but is called Cana of Galilee to dis- tinguish it from Cana or Kana (Josh. xix. 28), which belonged to the tribe of As her, and was situated in the vicinity of Sidon. Ca'maax, Land of, previous to its occupation by the Israelites, was possessed by the descendants of Canaan, the youngest son of Ham, and grandson of Noah, who divided the country anions his eleven sons, each of whom was the head of a numerous tribe or clan (Gen. x. 15-19). Here they resided for more than seven centu- ries, and founded numerous republics and kingdoms. In its more contracted sense, as divided by Joshua, ( anaan is calculated to have been not above one hun- dred and sixty miles long by fifty broad, but in its more enlarged sense it extended south to the desert of Kadoh, north to Lebanon, east to the Euphrates, ami west to the Mediterranean (Gen. xv. 18: Deut. xi. 24; Acts vii. 11, xiii. 10). Caper'naum. A city on the north-western side of the Lake Gcnnesoretll, on the borders of the tract occupied by the tribes ofZebulon and NcphthaJim. This place is Celebrated for being the residence of Christ after he com- menced his great mission, and the many mighty works he performed here; but the infidelity and impenitence of the inhabitants of the place, after the evidence given them by the Saviour himself of Ins divine mission, brought Upon them the heavy denunciation recorded in Matt. xi. LV>. And this denunciation has been SO Com- pletely fulfilled that even the site of Capernaum is quire uncertain. In the vicinity of this city our Lord delivered his ad- mirable sermon; and near it, also, was the custom-house at which Matthew the publican was sitting when Jesus called him to the apostleship (Matt. ix. 1. \)). Here the Jews bad a Synagogue (Mark i. 23; Luke iv. 88); as the Christians afterwards had a church. Mr. Buckingham found rarious remains of some an- cient settlement in its vicinity, and describes the appear- ance of the Lake of Gennesareth from Capernaum as sin- gularly grand and impressive. Cappado'cia. An ancient province of Asia Minor; hounded on the north by Pontus, on the east by the Eu- phrates and Armenia Minor, on the south by Mount Taurus (beyond which are Cilicia and Syria), and on the west by Phrygia and Galatia. The country is moun- tainous, and abounds in water, and was celebrated for its GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF PLACES. 103 production of wheat, its fine pastures, ami for mules and hursefi, of which it gave yearly to the Persians about two thousand of each. The Cappadoeians were notori- ous for their dullness and vice, and are said to have been so servile that when the liomans offered them their free- dom to live by their own laws, they said they could not endure liberty. Christianity was very early propagated in Cappadocia, for St. Peter mentions it in addressing the Christian churches in Asia Minor (1 Pet. i. 1). Cap- padoeians were present at Jerusalem on the day of Pen- tecost (Acts ii. 9). Ce'drox. See ;> Kidron." Cenchre'a. One of the seaports belonging to Corinth, whence Paul sailed for Ephesus (Acts xviii. 18). It is situated on the eastern side of the isthmus, about ten miles from the city of Corinth. The other port, on the western side of the isthmus, was called Lechieum. Ciiix'xereth, Lake of. The same as " Gennesareth," which see. Chi'os (Acts xx. 15). One of the principal islands of the iEgean Sea, between Lesbos and Samos, celebrated in ancient and modern times for its wine, iigs, marble, and white earth. The island is abt-mt thirty miles long from north to south, and its greatest breadth about tea miles. The principal town was also called Chios, and had the advantage of a good harbor. The island is now called by the Greeks Kliio, and by the Italians Seio. It was taken by the Turks from the Greeks in 1822. and the wholesale massacre and enslavement of the inhabitants by the Turks forms one of the most shocking incidents of the Greek war. Chora'zin. A small town situated on the western coast of the Sea of Galilee, at no great distance from Capernaum. It was one of those places in which our Saviour performed many of his mighty works, and whose inhabitants he upbraided for their infidelity (Matt. xi. 21 ; Luke x. 13). Jerome makes it about two miles from Capernaum : but no place of the name has been historically mentioned since his days, and not only the town, but the very name, seems to have long since per- ished. Cili'cia. A country of Asia Minor, between Pam- phvlia on the west and Pieria on the east, the Mount Taurus on the north and the Ciiician Sea on the south; celebrated on account of Cicero, proconsul there, but 104 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. more on account of St. Paul's birth at Tarsus, a city of Cilicia (Acts xxi. 39). Many Jews wore settled in Cilicia (Acts vi. 9). Clau'da. A small island near Crete, situated near the southern and western sea. It is mentioned in xYcts xxvii. 16, as is also Cki'dus (xxvii. 7), which was a city and promontory of Paria, memorable for the worship of Venus. Colos'sae, or CoLAs'&aa, was a city of Phrygia, in Asia Minor, situated near the conflux of the Lye us and the Meander, and near the towns of Laodicea, Apamea, and Hierapolis (Col. ii. 1). A Christian church was formed here very early, probably by Kpaphras (Col. iv. 13, 15), consisting of Jews and Gentiles, to whom Paul, who does not appear to have ever visited Colossie in person (Col. ii. 1), addressed an Epistle from Home. According to Eusebius, this city, with Laodicea and Hierapolis. was destroyed by an earthquake in the tenth year of the reign of Nero, not long after the writing of St. Paul's Epistle to the Colossians ; but the town must have been immediately rebuilt, for in the twelfth year of Nero it is named as a nourishing place. Co'os. A fertile island in the JEgean or Jearian Sea, near Myndos and Cnidus, which had a city of the same name, from which Hippocrates, the celebrated physician, and Apelles, the famous painter, were called Coi. It was celebrated for its wine, silks, and cotton of a beau- tiful texture. Here were made those Coce vestes, which were transparent, and are so often mentioned by the classic poets. Here also, was a large temple of iEscu- lapius, and another of Juno. It is mentioned in Acts xxi. 1. Coit'iNTii, the metropolis of Achaia proper, and the ornament of Greece, was situated on an isthmus between the yEgean and Ionian Seas. A lofty rock rises above it. on which was the citadel, or the Acrocorinthus. Its earliest name, as given by Homer, is Ephyre. When the Achae- an League was rallying the chief powers of Southern Greece, Corinth was its military centre. As the spirit of freedom was active in that confederacy, they were certain, sooner or later, to give the Eomans a i>n?tence for attacking them. The fatal blow fell on Corinth (L>. C. 1*G) when L. Mummius (or Memmius), by or- der of the Roman Senate, barbarously destroyed that beautiful city, eminent, even in Greece, for painting, GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF PLACES. 105 sculpture, and all working in metal and pottery. The territory was given over to the Siconians, and we must infer that the whole population was sold into slavery. The Corinth of which we read in the New Testament was quite a new city, having been rebuilt and established as a Roman colony by the dictator Julius Caesar, about one hundred years after the destruction of the Achaean League, and made the residence of the proconsul of Achaia not long before the assassination of Csesar. Fa- vored by its situation between two seas, the new city soon regained its ancient splendor; commerce produced an influx of riches, and the luxury and voluptuousness which followed in consequence corrupted the manners of its inhabitants, who became infamous to a proverb. In earlier times Corinth had been celebrated for the great wealth of its Temple of Venus, which had a gain- ful traffic of a most disreputable kind with its numerous merchants resident there ; and the same phenomena, no doubt, reappeared in the later Christian age. In the vi- cinity of this city were celebrated the Isthmian games, to which St. Paul alludes in different parts of his Epis- tles. Corinth also possessed numerous schools, in which philosophy and rhetoric were taught by able masters, and strangers resorted thither from all quarters to be instructed in the sciences. The number of Sophists, in particular, was very great. The knowledge of these circumstances affords a key to St. Paul's exhortations against fornication, lascivious- ness, and covetousness (1 Cor. vi. 9, 10), and also his defence of the Christian doctrine against the Sophists, to whom the fathers attribute all the strifes and conten- tions that sprang up in this church. Crete. One of the largest islands in the Mediterra- nean, now called Candia, and by the Turks, Kirid. It is situated at the entrance of the Archipelago, south- west of Asia Minor. It is about one hundred and sixty miles long, but of very unequal width, varying from six to thirty-five miles. Its in Habitants claimed great an- tiquity, and some have supposed the island was original- ly peopled from Egypt. This is founded on the conclu- sion that Crete was the Caphtor of Deut. ii. 23, and the country of the Philistines, which seems very doubtful. The island was highly prosperous and full of people in very ancient times. It was eminent as having produced the legislator Minos, about 1400 B. C, whose institu- tions had such important influence in softening the man- 10G NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. ners of a barbarous age, not only in Crete, but also in Greece, where these institutions were introduced. The character of the Cretans was of the most unfa- vorable description, and fully agrees with the quotation which St. Paul produces from " one of their own poets " in his Epistle to Titus (i. 12), who had been left, in charge of the Christian church in the island. '*The Cretans are always liars (eternal liars), evil beasts (lit- erally 'brutes'), slow bellies (gorbellies, bellies which take long to fill"). Crete derives its strongest scriptural interest from the circumstances connected with St. Paul's journey to Koine (Acts xxviii.). Cl PROS. An island in the Mediterranean, and next to Sicily in importance. It is about one hundred and forty miles in length, and varies in breadth from fifty to five miles. Its numerous havens made it a general ren- dezvous for merchants. It abounded in mineral and vegetable productions, and it was the boast of the Cypri- ans that they could build and complete their ships with- out any mil from toreign countries. In 1571 it was taken from the republic of Venice by Selim II., and has since been under the dominion of the Turks. The majority of the inhabitants belong to tire Greek church. It was one of the first places out of Palestine in which Chris* ti unity was promulgated, though at first to Jews onlv (Acts xi. 19). It was visited by Paul and Barnabas on their first missionary tour (Acts xiii. 4), and subsequently by Barnabas and John Mark (Acts xv. 3D). Paul sailed to the south of the island on his journey to Koine (Acts xxvii. 4). Ctre'ne. The principal city of the province of Libya, in Africa, founded in (532 13. C, by a colony of Greeks from Thera (Santorini), a small island in the JEgean Sea. It was sometimes denominated Cyrenaica, and by the evangelist Luke is paraphrastically called " Libya about Gyrene" (Acts ii. 10). Simon, whom the Jews compelled to bear our Saviour's cross (Matt, xxvii. 82; Luke xxiii. 26), was a native of this place. At Cyrene resided many Jews, who had a synagogue at Jerusalem. Among the Christians scattered abroad in consequence of the " persecution that arose about Stephen," Luke enumerates those of Cyrene (Acts xi. 20). Dalmanu'tha. A city on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee (Mark vifi. 10). See '■ Magdala." Dalma'tia. A province of Europe, on the east of the Adriatic Sea, forming part of lilyricum, and contiguous GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF PLACES. 107 to Macedonia. Titus was sent into this region by St. Paul to spread the knowledge of the gospel (2 Tim. iv. 10). Damas'cus is claimed by some to be the most ancient city in the world, and is called by the Orientals " a pearl surrounded by emeralds." Nothing can be more beauti- ful than its position; and the view of the city when the traveller emerges from Anti-Libanus is of the most en- chanting kind. For many miles the city is girdled by fertile fields, or gardens, as they are called, presenting the appearance of a vast superficies of rich, luxuriant foliage. The plain of Damascus owes its fertility and loveliness to the River Barrada, which is supposed by many to be the Abana or Pharpar of 2 Kings v. 12. Put the interior of the city does not correspond with the exquisite beauty of its environs. In the Armenian quarter, the houses are low, built with mud, and the liat, arched doors resemble those of stables. There is a fine wide street formed by the pal- aces of the agas of Damascus, wiio are the nobility of the land. The fronts of the^e palaces, however, towards the street, are mere mud walls, like those of a prison or hospital, with few or no windows, whilst at intervals is a great gate opening on a court. Put the interior is mag- nificent, being ornamented in the costliest style of Past- ern art. Situated on the edge of the desert, at the mouth of the plains of Coele-Syria and the valley of Galilee, it was needed as a resting-place for the caravans to India, and was essentially a commercial town. Two hundred mer- chants are said to be settled there. Lamartine makes its population about three 1 hundred thousand, of whom thirty thousand are Christians. An- other estimate, w bich probably approximates closer to the true number, makes the population but about one half this number, including twelve thousand Christians and about the same number of Jews. The proverbial big- otry of the Damascenes lias been somewhat mitigated by political and social influences, and a better feeling on religion prevails among the higher classes, but the lower classes are still fanatical. Of the origin of Damascus, nothing certain is known. It was the residence of Eiiezer, the servant of Abraham, and, according to Josephus, was built by Uz, the son of Aram, mentioned in Gen. x. 23. How long it retained its independence cannot be determined; but it appears 108 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. (2 Sam. viii. 5, G, and 1 Chron. xix. 4) that its monarch having unadvisedly attacked the victorious David, the Hebrew sovereign defeated the Syrians, making a great slaughter of them, and in his turn subdued Damascus, and exacted tribute from its inhabitants. In the time of Benhadad, about 940 B. C., Damascus was the head of a very powerful empire, since it appears (1 Kings xx. 1), that "thirty and two kings " accompa- nied him in a campaign which lie undertook against Samaria. In the time of the apostle Paul it belonged to the dependent kingdom of the Arabian prince Aretas. A great era in the history of Damascus is its conquest by the Saracens. The war was begun about G3o A. D., by the celebrated Abubekr, the successor of Mohammed, and ended in the capture of the city and the substitution of Islam is ni for Christianity. In 1301 Timour the Tartar captured the city, and barbarously treated its in- habitants. Damascus is famous, in the first age of Chris- tianity, for the conversion and first preaching of the apostle Paul (Acts ix. 3, 20; Gal. i. 12). " The street which is called Straight" (Acts ix. 11), or, at any rate, a street bearing that name, is still found in Damascus. The house ot Judas, to which Ananias was sent, is still pointed out, as well as that of Ananias himself; also the place on the wall from which St. Paul is said to have been let down in a basket to escape the indignation of the Jews (Acts ix.). These places are pointed out with great confidence by the Christians of all sects, and held in great veneration, and it may not be unreasonable to suppose that the true spots have been handed down by tradition among the followers of the cross. Decap'olis, the canton of, which derives its name from the ten cities it contained, is considered by Re- land and other eminent authorities, as part of the region of Peraea. Concerning its limits and the names of its ten cities, geographers are by no means agreed; but according to Josephus, whose intimate knowledge of the country constitutes him an unexceptionable authority, it contained the cities of Damascus, Otopos, Philadel- phia, Itaphana, Scythopolis (the capital of the district), Gadara, Hippos, Dios, Pella, and Gerasa. The name Decapolis was, in course of time, applied to more than ten towns, a circumstance which may in part account for the discrepancies in the lists given by various writers. The Decapolitan towns, referred to in the Gospels, were GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF PLACES. 109 evidently situated not far from the Sea of Galilee (Mark v. 20, and vii. 31). Deii'be. A city of Lycaonia, in Asia Minor, about sixty miles south-east from Ieonium, and eighteen miles east of Lystra. It was the birthplace of Gaius, the friend and felknv-traveller of Paul (Acts xx. 4) ; and it was to this place that Paul and Barnabas fled when expelled from Ieonium (Acts xiv. 6). E'gypt. An ancient kingdom of Africa, sometimes called " the land of Ham," a son of Noah. Its length was very disproportionate to its breadth ; its extent from the mouths of the Nile to Syene, the border of Nubia, under the tropic of Cancer, was about five hundred miles, but it was little wider than the valley through which the Nile ran in Upper Egypt, until it reached the Lower Egypt, at some distance above the head or vertex of the Delta, where the valley expanded itself. From Mizraim, the second son of Ham, comes the ordinary biblical name Mizraim, a word which properly denotes Lower Egypt, as being that part of the country with which the Israelites were nearest, and best, if not (in the earlier period of their history) solely, acquainted. This designation, however, is sometimes used for Egypt indiscriminately, and was, by the later Arabs, ex- tended to the entire country. The Upper Egypt, or The- baid, seems to be called Pathros in Scripture, as dis- tinguished from the Lower, which is also sometimes called Caphtor, or Egypt. (Compare Isaiah xi. 11, with Ezek. xxix. 14, and Jer. xliv. 1, with Ezek. xxx. 14-10, Deut. ii. 23. Jer. xlvii. 4.) Egypt is the land of the Nile, the country through which that river flows from the Island of Philae, situated just above the cataracts of Syene, in latitude 24° 1' 30", to Damietta, in 31° 35' N., where its principal stream flows into the Mediterranean Sea. On the east it is bounded by Palestine, Idumaea, Arabia Petrasa, and the Arabian Gulf. But the moving sands of the wide Libyan deserts obliterate the traces of all political or physical limits on the west. The superficial extent of Egypt has been estimated at about eleven thousand square miles. Inhabited Egypt, however, is restricted to the valley of the Nile, which, having a breadth of from two to three miles, is enclosed on each side by a range of hills : the chain on the eastern side disappears at Mocattam, that on the west extends to the sea. The soil is productive, and consists almost en- 110 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. tirely of mud brought down and deposited by the river, whose waters are indispensable every year for the pur- poses of agriculture, as the limits of their flow are the limits of vegetation. The agency of the stream is the more necessary as rain seldom falls in Lower Egypt. The Nile is never mentioned by name in our translation of the Old Testament. It is always called the river of Egypt, although the word Nile occurs in the original (Isa. xxvii. 12; Josh. xv. 4; 2 Kings xxiv. 7). This country seems to have attained an earlier and a higher civilization than any other in the world. Even in Abraham's times, we find it the seat of a royal govern- ment and a princely court, abounding in provisions, while the neighboring countries, including the fertile Palestine, were exposed to frequent famines (Gen. xii. 10). In his grandson Jacob's time there was a settled caravan trade carried on through Palestine from Arabia and the East for spicery, balm, and myrrh, and probably for slaves (Gen. xxxvii. 25). In every age of the world, since the commencement of its antiquity, Egypt has been celebrated for those stupen- dous monuments of ancient art, the Pyramids, several of which have been successfully explored by the enterpris- ing traveller M. Belzoni. The purpose for which the Pyramids were erected was once as little known as were most other things connected with Egypt. It is now sat- isfactorily ascertained that they were designed to be mau- soleums. The countless number of date trees, which form even forests about some of the villages, furnisli a great source of subsistence for the people. To cut these down would be to cut off the support of the present and the hopes of a future generation. Nothing could be more terrible than the denunciation against Egypt (Jer. xlvi. 22, 23). The common name of the Egyptian kings was Pharaoh, which signified sovereign power, though each had a name peculiar to himself. Xo intercourse subsisted be- tween the Israelites and Egyptians from the departure of the former out of Egypt, B. C 1491, to the reign of Solomon, B. C. 1015, who, having married a daughter of Pharaoh (1 Kings iii. 1, vii. 8), and established a con- siderable trade between Egypt and Palestine, the two kingdoms became intimately connected. This intimacy, however, declined even during the reign of Solomon, as Pharaoh afforded shelter to Jeroboam, son of Nebat, who afterwards became king of the ten GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF PLACES. Ill revolting tribes of Israel. Towards the end of the king- doms of Israel and Judah, when the sovereigns of those countries found themselves too weak to resist the Assyr- ian and Babylonian monarehs, they often applied to the kings of Egypt for succor. But these applications were always fatal to them, and the vain confidence of the peo- ple of God in these heathen princes is a frequent subject of reproof in the writings of the prophets (Isa. xxx. 2, xxxvi. G; Ezek. xxvi. G, 7; Hos.ea vii., viii., and ix.). (For history of the Egyptian Empire, as connected with that of the Israelites, see ''Home's Introduction to the Bible" vol. iii. pp. 52G-528.) The relation which the religion of the Egyptians sustains to that of Moses is one of much more importance, and merits a greater degree of attention, than seems to have been generally acknowl- edged. Egypt was made a province of -the Persian em- pire B. C 350, and finally became a Roman province at the death of Cleopatra, B. C. 30. Em'mats (hot baths). A small village of Judea, sixty stadia, or seven and a half miles, from Jerusalem, noted for our Lord's interview with two of his disciples on the evening of the day of his resurrection (Luke xxiv. 13- 35). The site is not now known. E'xox (fountain). A place between Salim and the Jor- dan, north-east of Jerusalem, where John was baptizing (John iii. 23). The reason given, "because there was much water there," would suggest that he baptized at the springs from which the place took its name. Eph'esus. An old and celebrated city, the capital of Ionia, one of the twelve Ionian cities in Asia Minor, in mythic times. It was situated at the mouth of the River Cayster, on the shore of the iEgean Sea, between Smyr- na and Miletus. About the time of the introduction of Christianity, while other Greek cities declined, Ephesus rose more and more. Under the Romans, Ephesus was the capital, not only of Ionia, but of the entire province of Asia, and bore the honorable title of the greatest me- tropolis of Asia. In the days of St. Paul, Jews were found settled in the city in large numbers, from whom the apostle collected a Christian community (Acts xviii. 19, xix. 1, xx. 18), which, being fostered by the hand of Paul himself, became the centre of Christianity in Asia Minor. The city abounded in orators and philoso- phers ; and its inhabitants in their Gentile state were cele- brated for their idolatry and skill in magic,- as well as for their luxury and lasciviousness. On leaving the city, 112 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. the apostle left Timothy there (1 Tim. i. 3). At later times, according to tradition, St. John lived and labored for the spread of the gospel in Ephesus, where he died at an advanced age, and was buried with Mary, the mother of the Lord. < In the hook of Revelation (ii. 1), a favorable mention is made of the Christian churches at Ephesus. The classic celebrity of the city is chiefly owing to the Tem- ple of Diana, a most magnificent and stately edifice, which had been erected at the common expense of the inhabitants of Asia proper, and was reputed one of the seven wonders of the world. The books mentioned in Acts xix. 19, were doubtless books of magic; how ex- tensively they were in use at the time they were burned may be inferred from "the price of them" being "fifty thousand pieces of silver. M Ephesus is now under the dominion of the Turks, and is in a state of almost total ruin. A few cornfields are scattered along the site of the ancient city, which is marked by some large masses of shapeless ruins and stone walls. Towards the sea extends the ancient port, which is a pestilential marsh. The ruins of the adjoining town, which rose about four hundred years ago, are composed entirely of materials from Ephesus. Consecrated first of all to purposes of idolatry, Ephesus next had Christian temples almost rivalling the pagan in splendor; and after the lapse of some centuries, the Mohammedan crescent glittered on the dome of the recently Christian church. But now Ephesus has neither temple, cross, crescent, nor city, but is " a desolation, a dry land, and a wilderness." E'piiuaim. A considerable city of Judea, eight miles north of Jerusalem, and near the desert of the same name; to which Jesus withdrew from the persecution which followed the miracle of raising Lazarus from the dead (John xi. 54). Bagster says, Ephraim appears to be the same city which is called Ephrain (2 Chron. xiii. 1 ( J), and Ephron (Josh. xv. 9), which was situated eight miles north of Jerusalem, near Bethel, and apparently between that city and Jericho. Accordingly we find that a desert or wilderness extended from Jericho to Bethel (Josh. xvi. 1), called the wilderness of Beth-aven (Josh, xviii. 12), in which Joshua and the Israelites slew the in- habitants of Ai (Josh. viii. 2-t). Ethio'pia is the name by which the English and most other versions render the Hebrew Cush. Among the Greeks and Romans, the word was used to denote any of GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF PLACES. 113 tlic countries where the people were of a sable or sun-: burnt color. But the Hebrews understood by Ethiopia, or African Cush, the whole of the region south of Egypt, above Syene, the modern Assouan (Ezek. zxix. 10. xxx. 6 . Its limits on the west and south were undefined: but it was probably regarded as extending east to the Red Sea, and perhaps including some of the islands of that sea, such as the famous Topaz Isle (Job xxviii. 19). It thus corresponds in a general sense to the countries known to as as Nuoia and Abyssinia. But that part of the vast region of Cush, which seems chiefly intended in these and most other passages of Scripture, is the tract of cuuntry in Upper Nubia, which was famous, in an- tiquity, as the kingdom of Ethiopia, or the state of Me roe. The Ethiopian nations generally ranked low in the scale of civilization ; but the splendid ruins of temples, pyramids, and other edifices found throughout the dis- trict of Meroe, attest that a high degree of civilization and art once existed among the Ethiopians. Queen Can- dace, mentioned in Acts viii. 27, was doubtless the reign- ing sovereign of Meroe, where it is probable a form of Judaism was at that time professed by a portion of the inhabitants, as seems to have been tite case in the adja- cent region of Abyssinia. Elpiira'tes. Termed in Deut. i. 7, " the great river," where it is mentioned (ver. 8) as the eastern boundary of the land which God gave to the descendants of Abra- ham. In Gen. ii. 14, the Euphrates is stated to be the fourth of the rivers flowing from a common stream in the garden of Eden. It is by far the most considerable river in Western Asia, and is often designated as " the river," as in Exod. xxiii. 31, Isa. viii. 7, Jer. ii. 18, and Rev. ix. If. It has two sources, and two arms, the eastern and western, which rise in the Mountains of Armenia. These two arms unite about three days' journey from Erzeroom. and, thus united, give rise to the Euphrates, stricily so called, which, flowing to the south, divides Armenia from Cappa- docia; but being driven westward by the Taurus and Anti-Taurus Mountains, it makes a very circuitous route, passing the north of Syria and north-east of Arabia De- serta. and at length, after many windings, it unites with the Tigris, and thus finds its termination in the Persian Gulf. 8 114 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. Fatr Ha'vens. A small bay of Crete, a little to tho north-east of Cape Leon, the present Cape Matala. The unsafeness of the harbor in which to winter occasioned the attempt to make for Phenice, on the other side of the island, which eventually led to the loss of the vessel in which St. Paul sailed for Rome (Acts xxviii. 8). Gab'batiia. Where the Evangelist states (John xix. 13) that Pontius Pilate, alarmed in his attempts to save Jesus, went into the Praetorium, and brought Jesus out to them, and sat down once more upon the tribunal. The Roman governors, although they tried causes, and con- sulted their council within the Praetorium (Acts xxv. 12), always pronounced sentence in the open air. Gad'ara was. according to Josephus, the metropolis of Persea, or the region beyond Jordan. Both the city and villages belonging to it lay within the region of the Gergcsenes, whence Christ, going into the country of the Gadarenes (Mark v. 1), is said to go into the region of the Gergesenes (Matt. viii. 28). The remains of the warm baths for which this place was anciently celebrated, and also of the tombs (among which the Gadarene demo- niac abode), are still to be seen. Gadara is now called Oomkais. Gala'tia. A province of Asia Minor, bounded on the north by Bithynia and Paphlagonia, on the south by Lycaonia, on the cast by the River Ilalys, and on the west by Phrygia. The Galatians were the descendants of those Gauls, who, finding their country too small to sup- port its redundant population, emigrated from it after the death of Alexander the Great, B. C. 278. They wor- shipped the mother of the gods, and so, St. Paul says (Gal. iv. 8), "They knew not God." In chap. iii. 1, St. Paul says, " O foolish Galatians, who hath bewitched you? " This church was so danger- ously perverted, and almost overturned, by the Judaizers there, that the apostle, in his Epistle to them, does not call them saints. Gal'ilee. The name given to one of the three divis- ions of Palestine, the other two being Judea and Sa- maria. This portion of the Holy Land was the most northern, and its limits seem to have varied at different times. It comprised the country formerly occupied by the tribes of Issachar, Naphtali, and Asher, and by part of the tribe of Dan. and is divided into Upper and Lower Galilee. Uppeii Galilee abounded in mountains, having Mount GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF PLACES. 115 Lebanon on the north, and from its vicinity to the Gen- tiles who inhabited the cities of Tyre and Sidon, it is called "Galilee of the Gentiles" (fsa. ix. 1; Matt. iv. 15), and the "coasts of Tyre and Sidon" (Mark vii. 31). The principal city of this region was Caesarea Phi- lippi, through which the main road lay to Damascus, Tyre, and Sidon. Lower Galilee, which lay between the Mediterra- nean Sea and the Lake of Gennesareth, was situated in a rich and fertile plain, and, according to Josephus, was very populous, containing upwards of two hundred cities and towns. This country was most honored by our Saviour's pres- ence. Hither Joseph and Mary returned with him out of Egypt, and here he resided permanently until his baptism by John, at thirty years of age (Matt. ii. 22. 23; Luke ii. o'J-51; Matt. iii. 13; Luke iii. 21). Hither he returned after his baptism and temptation (Luke iv. 14) ; and alter his entrance on his public ministry, though he often en- tered into other provinces, yet so frequent were his visits to this country, that he was called a Galilean (Matt. xxvi. G ( J). To this province our Lord commanded his apostles to come and converse with him after his resurrection (Matt, xxviii. 7, 1G), and of this country, most, if not the whole, of the apostles were natives, whence they are styled by the angels, "men of Galilee " (Acts i. 11). The Galileans spoke a corrupt and unpolished dialect of Syriac, and it was this which led to the detection of Peter as one of Christ's disciples (Mark xiv. 70). The Gali- leans are represented to be a turbulent and rebellious people, and were particularly forward in an insurrection against Pilate himself, who, as a summary punishment, caused a party of them to be treacherously slain, during one of the great festivals, when they came to sacrifice at Jerusalem. This may explain the expression in St. Luke's Gospel (xiii. 1), " whose blood Pilate mingled with their sacrifices," and may also account for his abrupt question when he heard of Galilee, and inquired if Jesus " were a Galilean" (Luke xxiii. 6). The principal cities of Lower Galilee mentioned in the Xew Testament are, Tiberias, Chorazin, Bethsaida, Xazareth. Cana, Capernaum, £sain, Cassareaof Palestine, and Ptolemais. Ga'za. A very celebrated city of the Jews, about sixty miles distant, south-west from Jerusalem. It was one of the fine cities of the. Philistines which fell by lot 118 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. to the tribe of Judah (Josh. xv. 47), and which offered their golden emerods to the God of Israel for a trespass offering (1 Sam. vi. 17). Its gates were carried away by Samson (Judges xvi. 3), and hither he was conducted when taken by the Philistines, great numbers of whom perished when lie pulled down the house of their god Dagon (Judges xvi. 21-30). This ancient town was laid waste by Alexander, and so made desolate, agreeably to the prediction in Zcph. ii. 14. After this event, a new and smaller town of the same name being built nearer to the sea, the former, or old Gaza, fell to decay ; this last is the place mentioned by St. Luke (Acts viii. 26), as Gaza "which is called des- ert," where Philip baptized the eunuch " of great author- ity under Candace, queen of the Ethiopians/' Gennes'areth. 1. A very pleasant and fruitful place, abounding in the gardens of great men, whence it had its name from Gen and Sar, as being the garden of princes; it lay at the foot of the Lake of Gcnnesareth, and gave that name to it (Luke v. 1). Gennesareth (called also Cinncreth). 2. The Sea of Galilee (so called from its situation on the eastern borders of that division of Palestine), through which the Jordan flows (Luke v. 1; Matt. xiv. 34 ; Mark vi. 53); called also the k ' Sea of Tiberias" (John vi. 1, xxi. 1), from the contiguous city of Tiberias. The waters of the northern part of this lake abound in fish, which circumstance marks the propriety of our Lord's parable of the net cast into the sea (Matt. xiii. 47, 48), which was delivered by him from a vessel near the shore. This lake is about fifteen miles in length by six in breadth. The Jordan enters it on the north, and it is said runs directly through, and leaves it on the south without the mingling of the waters. A strong current marks the passage of the Jordnn through the lake, and when this is opposed by contrary winds, which blow here with the force of a hurricane from the south-east, sweeping into the lake from the mountains, a boisterous sea is instant- ly raised, which the small vessels of this country are ill qualified to resist. It was in one of these small vessels, and tossed in a storm, the disciples saw Jesus, in the fourth watch of the night, walking to them on the wave (Matt. xiv. 24-26). From numerous indications it has been inferred the GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OP PLACES. 117 bed of this lake was formed from some volcanic eruption history does not record. Many of the apostles were fishermen of this lake. In Christ's time, the borders of the lake were covered with numerous villages, and well peopled; but now they are almost desolate, and the fish and water- fowl are seldom disturbed. Ger'izim and E'bal. Two mountains of Samaria, form- ing the opposite sides of the valley containing the ancient town of Shcchcm. It was on these two mountains that the tribes were to be assembled, one half on each, to hear the fearful maledictions pronounced by the Levites upon all who should violate the obligations of the sacred code, and the blessings promised to those who should observe them (Deut. xxvii. ; Josh. viii. 30-35). Gerizim is the mountain referred to in John iv. 20, on which the Samaritans built a temple and worshipped. Getiise.m'axe. A garden or small field, about fifty paces square, just out of Jerusalem, beyond Kidron. at the foot of Mount Olivet, and so called from the wine- presses in it. It is enclosed by a wall of no great height, founded of loose, rough stones. The garden belongs to one of the monastical establishments, and although great care has been taken to preserve the few old olive trees which occupy the enclosure from destruction, they exhibit symptoms of decay, clearly denoting their great age. Gethsemane is memorable in the evangelical history as being the scene of our Saviour's agony (Matt. xxvi. 3G). Gergasites', or Gergesexes'. The inhabitants of Gergesa, a town on the east of Gennesareth, near to Gadara (Matt. viii. 28). Gol'gotha. See " Calvary." Gomok'kah. One of the five cities destroyed by fire from heaven (Gen. xix. 1; Matt. x. 15). See " Sodom." Go'shex. A district or province of Egj^pt, in which Jacob and his family settled, through the instrumentality of his son Joseph. Kittoadds, i; They and their descen- dants remained there for a period of four hundred and thirty years (Gen. xiv. 10, xlvi. 28, xlvii. 27, 1. 8; Exod. viii. 22, ix. 26)." But this is evidently an error. The four hundred and thirty years referred to by Moses com- menced with the call of Abraham, or God's covenant with him, B. C. 1921. It was two hundred and fifteen years from this date, or B. C. 1706, that Jacob and his family went down into Egypt, where they remained until the exode, B. C. 1491, or two hundred and fifteen years, making four hundred and thirty years from the covenant 118 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. with Abraham to the giving of the law, the same year as the exodus out of Egypt (Gal. iii. 17). The Bible does not present any definite information as to the precise location of Goshen but it is evident that at the time of the exode the Israelites did not cross the Kile; hence it is generally inferred that this land lay along the easterly branch of the Nile, and on the east side of it. (Compare Exod. xiii. 17, and 1 Chron. vii. 21.) Greece, in the Scriptures, often comprehends all the countries inhabited by the descendants of Javan, the fourth son of Japheth, as well in Greece as in Ionia and Asia Minor. Since the time of Alexander the Great, the name of Greece is taken in a more uncertain and en- larged sense, because, the Greeks being masters of Egypt and Syria, of the countries beyond the Euphrates, &c, the Jews called all those Gentiles Greeks. In the Mac- cabees, the Gospels, and Paul's writings, a Greek com- monly signifies a Gentile. In the Old Testament, Greece and Greeks are named Javan (Isa. lxvi. ID ; Ezek. xxvii. 13, 19; Dan. xi. 2, viii. 21, x. 20). After a beginning had been made of preaching the gospel to the Gentiles, Greece at once became a princi- pal sphere for missionary labor. The Grecian cities, whether in Europe or Asia, were the peculiar field for the apostle Paul. Greece proper was divided by the Romans into two provinces, of which the northern was called Macedonia, and the southern Achaia (2 Cor. ix. 2, &c). It is diffi- cult to determine the exact division between these two provinces, but this is not important to the biblical stu- dent. Corinth is the only city celebrated in Greek his- tory in the early Christian times, in Macedonia were the two great cities of Philippi and Thessalonica ; the for- mer, however, was rather recent, being founded by Philip the Great. Nicopolis, built by Augustus in memory of the victory at Actium, B. C. 31, had risen into some im- portance in St. Paul's day, and many suppose it is this Nicopolis he refers to in his Epistle to Titus (iii. 12). Hierap'olis. A city of Phrygia, not far from Colassae and Laodica?a, in which there was a Christian church as early as the time of St. Paul, which was under the charge of Epaphras (Colos. iv. 12, 13). It was an- ciently a place of considerable importance, as is clearly attested by its magnificent ruins. Ico'nium. A city of Lycaonia, the chief of the four- teen belonging to that tetrarchy. It is situated about GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF PLACES. 119 one hundred and twenty miles inland from the Mediter- ranean Sea. Here was a synagogue of the Jews and proselytes, to whom Paul and Barnabas preached, and confirmed their doctrine by miracles, making many proselytes (Acts xiv. 1-3) : but some unbelieving Jews excited against them a persecution, which they escaped with difficulty. About six years after. Paul undertook a second journey to Iconium. The church here planted by the apostle continued to flourish until the persecu- tion by the Saracens, and afterwards by the Seljukians, -when it became nearly extinct. But some Christians of the Greek and Armenian church, with a Greek metropol- itan bishop, are still found in the suburbs of the city, not being permitted to reside within its wails. Idum^e'a is the Greek form of the Hebrew name Edom, derived from the name of Isaac's son Edom, otherwise called Esau, the elder twin brother of Jacob. It com- prised the extreme southern part of Judea, from the Sea of Sodom to the Red Sea, together with some small part of Arabia. Esau removed into this district during the lifetime of his father, and his posterity gradually obtained possession of the country which God assigned to him in the prophetic blessing of his father (Gen. xxvii. 39, 40, xxxii. 3; Deut. ii. 5-12). This province, previous to its occupation by Esau, was called Blount Seir, a designation which it never entirely lost (Gen. xiv. (3). The mountains of Edom afforded peeuliar facilities for the construction of caves, which appear to have been the earliest human habitations. In process of time the Idumaeans advanced northward in Judea, nearly as far as Hebron. During the Baby- lonish captivity, being left destitute of inhabitants, or not sufficiently inhabited by its natives, it seems to have been seized by the neighboring Idumaeans ; and although they were afterwards subjugated by the powerful arms of the Maccabees and Asmonean princes, and embraced Juda- ism, yet the tract of country of which they had possessed themselves continued to retain the appellation of Idu- ma?a in the time of Christ, and for a considerable subse- quent period. The situation of the country afforded pe- culiar facilities for commerce, which seem to have been improved from a very early period. The time of its greatest prosperity was probably soon after the founding of the kingdom of Arabia Petraea, of which Petra was the renowned metropolis. The religion of the early Edom- ites was, perhaps, comparatively pure: but in process 120 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. of time they embraced idolatry. Under the Maccabees they were forced to submit to circumcision (Mark iii. 8). Illyr'icum. A province lying to the north and north- west of Macedonia, along the eastern coast of the Adri- atic Gulf, or Gulf of Venice. It was divided into two parts, Liburnia to the north (now called Croatia), which is not mentioned in the New Testament, and Dalmatia in the south, which region still retains the same name. Hither St. Paul informs Timothy that Titus had gone (2 Tim. iv. 10). Paul himself preached the gospel in Illyricum, which was at that time a province of the Ko- man empire (Rom. xv. 19). Itub2B 7 a anciently belonged to the half tribe of Manas- seh. who settled on the east of Jordan; it stood to the east of Batamea, and to the soutli of Trachonitis. It probably derived its name from Jetur, a son of Ishmael (1 Chron. i. 31), and was also called Auranitis, from the city of llauran. During the exile this and other border countries were taken possession of by various tribes, whom we arc not bound to regard as descendants of the original possessors of the countries of which they took possession, although called after the original names of such countries. These new Ituraeans were eventually subdued by King Aristobulus (about B. C. 100). by whom they were con- strained to embrace the Jewish religion, and were at the same time incorporated with the state. When Herod the Great divided his dominions among his sons, he be- queathed Ituraea to Philip, as part of a tetrarchy com- posed of Trachonitis and Ituraea (Luke iii. 1). Jer'icho. A celebrated city in a plain of the same name, situated in the tribe of Benjamin, not far from the Kiver Jordan, at the point of its entrance into the Dead Sea. It lay before the Israelites when they crossed the river on their first entrance into the Promised Land (Josh, ii.), and was the first city taken from the Canaan- ites by Joshua, who razed it to the ground, and de- nounced a severe curse upon the person who should rebuild it (Josh. vi. 20, 26; Heb. xi. 80) ; and all the in- habitants were put to the sword, except Rahab and her family. This curse was literally fulfilled, in tiie days of Ahab, upon Hiel, the Bethelite, by whom the city was re- built (1 Kings xvi. 34). After this event it was enno'led by the schools of the prophets, which were established there (2 Kings ii. o; Judges iii. 13); its inhabit mts returned after the exile, and it was eventually fortified GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF PLACES. 121 by the Syrian general Bacchides (Ezra ii. 34; Neh. iii. 2.) Near it was a large but unwholesome spring, the waters of which rendered the soil unfruitful, until they were cured by the prophet Elisha (2 Kings ii. 21) ; and from that time they have become exceedingly whole- some and fertilizing. In the time of our Saviour Jericho yielded only to Jerusalem in size and the magnificence of its buildings. Herod the Great, in the beginning of his reign, captured and sacked Jericho; but afterwards, when he had redeemed its revenues from Cleopatra, he strengthened and adorned it. Here was the Hippodrome or Circus, in which this same tyrant caused to be shut up the nobles of the land while on his death bed at Jericho, to be massacred after his death. He died here, but his bloody purpose was not executed. Jericho was situated in a bottom, in that vast plain which was named the great plain (which marks the pro- priety of tiie expression, " going down from Jerusalem " (Luke x. 30) ; it is about nineteen miles distant from the capital of Judea. It was one of the cities appropriated for the residence of the priests and Levites, twelve thou- sand of whom resided there; and as the way thither from Jerusalem was rocky and desert, it was, as it still is, in- fested wiili thieves. A country more favorable for the attacks of banditti, and caves better adapted to conceal- ment than those presented on this road, can scarcely be imagined. This circumstance marks the admirable pro- priety with which our Lord made it the scene of his beautiful parable of the "good Samaritan" (Luke x. 30-37). Jeuu'salem (habitation of peace), the Jewish capital of Palestine. It is mentioned very early in Scripture, being usually supposed to be Salem, of which Melchize- dek was king. "In Salem is his tabernacle, and his dwelling-place in Sion " (Psalm lxxvi. 2). Jerusalem is frequently styled, in the Scriptures, the Holy City (Isa. xlviii. 2; Dan. ix. 24; Neh. xi. i; Matt. iv. 5; Rev. xi. 2), because "the Lord chose it out of all the tribes of Israel to place his name there," his temple and his wor- ship (Deut. xii. 5, xiv. 23, xvi. 2, xxvi. 2). It is held in the highest veneration, by the Christians, for the miraculous and important transactions which occurred there; also by the Mohammedans, who never call it by any other appellation than El-Kods, or The Holy. The import of Jerusalem is (from its original name Saiem, Uen. xvi. 18) the " Vision or Inheritance of 122 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. Peace; " and to this it is not improbable our Saviour alluded, in his beautiful and pathetic lamentation over the city (Luke xix. 41). It was also formerly called Jehus, from one of the sons of Canaan (Josh, xviii. 28). The name Jerusalem first occurs in Josh. x. 1, where Adoni-sedek, king of Jerusalem, is mentioned as having entered into an alli- ance with other kings against Joshua, by whom they were all overcome (Josh. xii. 1). After its capture by Joshua (Josh, x.), Jerusalem was jointly inhabited by Jews and Jebusites (Josh. xv. 63) for about four hundred years. After David — who had previously reigned over Judah alone in Hebron — was called to rule over all Israel, he led his forces against the Jebusites, and conquered the castle of Zion, which Joab first sealed (2 Sam. v. 5-9; 1 Chron. xii. 4-8). He then fixed his abode on this mountain, and called it the " City of David." It was to this place he carried the ark of the covenant, and built unto the Lord an altar, on the place where the angel stood who threatened Jerusa- lem with pestilence (2 Sam. xxiv. 15-25). By the prophet Isaiah (Isa. xxix. 1) Jerusalem is termed Ariel, or the Lion of God; but the reason of this name and its meaning, as applied to Jerusalem, are obscure and doubt- ful. The promise made to David received its accom- plishment when Solomon built his temple upon Mount Moriah, 13. C. 1004. On the east stands the Mount of 01ive>, facing the temple, of which it commands a noble prospect (Matt. xxiv. 2, 3). On the descent of this mountain our Saviour stood when he beheld the city and wept over it ; and on this mountain he stood when he uttered his prediction of the downfall of Jerusalem (Luke xix. 41-44) ; and we arc told that the army of Titus en- camped upon the very spot where its destruction had been foretold. Dr. Clarke discovered some pagan remains on this mountain, and at the foot of it he visited an olive ground, always noticed as the garden of Gethsemane. (See also " Kidron.") On the south side stood the Mount of Corruption, where Solomon, in his declining years, built temples to Moloch (livings xi. 7; 2 Kings xxiii. 13) ; it was separated from the city by the narrow val- ley of Hinnom (Josh, xviii. 16; Jer. xix. 2), where the Israelites burned their children in the fire to Moloch (Jer. vii. 31, xxxii. 35), thence made the emblem of hell, Gehenna (Matt. v. 22, xxiii. 33 ; Mark ix. 43). Towards the west, and without the walls of the city, agreeably to GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OP PLACES. 123 the law of Moses (Lev. iv.), lay Calvary, or Golgotha. (See " Calvary.") The southern quarter, originally the " City of David," built on Mount Sion, Josephus ealls the Upper City, and the house of Millo is what he ealls the Upper Market. In process of time the upper city spread downward to the winding hollow way, which he calls the '* valley of cheesemongers" (Syropeam), and comprised the Lower City, called by him Acra. Much uncertaiuty exists as to the ancient gates of Je- rusalem ; it has been objected that more are named than a city of its size would require. But it is usually sup- posed that two or more of the names applied to the same gate. In the account of the rebuilding of the wall under the direction of Nehemiah, ten gates are distinctly enu- merated, viz., three on the south, four on the east, and three on the western side of the wall. We have no ac- count of any gates being erected on the northern side. (For full account of these gates, and the names and order of them that built the wall, see Neh. iii.) The towers of Jerusalem are often mentioned in Scrip- ture and in Josephus. Most of those mentioned by Jo- sephus were built by Herod the Great, and were conse- quently standing in the time of Christ. The temple was in all ages the great glory as the principal public building of Jerusalem, as the heathen temple, church, or mosque, successively occupying the same site, has been ever since the Jewish temple was destroyed. Besides the preceding edifices, Josephus mentions a house or palace, erected by the princes of the Asmonean family, and called the Asmonean Palace. It appears to have been the residence of the Herodian family whenever they went up to Jerusalem (Luke xxiii. 7-11). After the secession of the ten tribes under Jeroboam, Jerusalem was the capital of the kings of Judah. It was captured four times, without being demolished, viz., by Shishak, sovereign of Egypt (2 Chron. xii), from whose ravages it never recovered its former splendor ; by Antiochus Epiph- anes, who treated the Jews with singular barbarity ; by Pompey the Great, who rendered the Jews tributary to Rome ; and by Herod, with the assistance of a Roman force under Sosius. It was first entirely destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar, B. C. 588, after eighteen months' siege, Jerusalem and the temple burned, and the Jews carried captive beyond the Euphrates ; and again destroyed by Titus, the son of Vespasian, emperor of Rome, A.D. 70; and ail the awful predictions of our Lord, as well as those 124 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. of the ancient prophets, are literally fulfilled. The city is desolated, the temple destroyed (notwithstanding the efforts of Titus to save it), so that not one stone was left upon another; eleven hundred thousand persons perished in the siege, and the remnant of the Jews are scattered among all nations. From the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans, until the present time, it has remained for the most part in a state of ruin and desolation, and has never been under the government of the Jews them- selves, but oppressed and broken down by a succession of foreign masters, — the Romans, the Saracens, the Franks, the Mamelukes, and last by the Turks, to whom it is still subject. The general condition of the popula- tion is that of abject poverty. A large number, espe- cially Jews, professedly live on charity. The number of inhabitants of Jerusalem has been vari- ously estimated by different travellers, but probably does not exceed fifteen thousand, about one half of whom are Jews, one fourth Mohammedans, and one fourth Chris- tians. This is a very slender estimate compared with the nourishing population the city once supported; but the numerous sieges the city has undergone, and their consequent spoliations, have left no vestige of its origi- nal power. We have it upon judgment's record, that K< b J'oj-c a marching army, a land lias been as ike garden of Eden, behind it, a desolate wilderness" (Joel ii. :>). Jop'ta, a seaport of Palestine, on the Mediterrane- an Sea, about forty miles north-west of Jerusalem, owes all its celebrity, as the principal port of Judea, to its sit- uation with regard to Jerusalem. As a station for ves- sels, its harbor is one of the worst on the coast of the Mediterranean. Ships generally anchor about a mile from the shore, to avoid the shoals and rocks of the place. It existed as early as the time of the invasion of the land of Canaan by the Israelites, as lying on the border of the tribe of Dan (Josh. xix. 4(5). It was here that the timber for the first and second temple was landed (1 Kings v. 9 ; 2 Chron. ii. 10 ; Exra iii. 7). It was here that Jonah found a ship going to Tarshish (Jonah i. 3). It appears from the xVcts of the Apostles (ix. 10, 11), that the gospel was received here soon after the ascension of Christ. Here, also* Peter restored Dorcas to life (Acts iv. 40). From the first crusades down to the present time, Joppa has been the la r ding-place of the pilgrims bound for Jerusalem. In 17ti7, the place GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF PLACES. 125 was taken by storm, by the French army under Napole- on, and was sacked without mercy, when the Turkish prisoners, to the number of five hundred or six hundred, were carried to the top of the neighboring sand-hills, and put to death by his order. The inhabitants arc said not to exceed four thousand, of whom about one fourth are reckoned to be Christians. Jor'dan. The principal river which waters Palestine. Its true source is the Lake Phiala, near Caesarea Philippi, at the foot of Anti-Libanus, whence it passes under ground, and emerging to the light from a cave in the vicinity of Paneas, it flows due south through the centre of the country, intersecting the Lake Merom, and the Sea of Galilee, and (it i3 said) without mingling with its waters, and finally loses itself in the Dead Sea. Its banks are covered with a forest of reeds and shrubs, affording shelter to wild beasts ; which were, however, driven therefrom when the river overflowed its banks, as it sometimes did, to the extent of a mile on either side (Jer. xlix. 11); Matt. iii. 6). The passage of this deep and rapid river by the Israelites, at the most unfavorable season of the year, when augmented by the melting of winter snows, was more manifestly miracu- lous than the crossing of the Red Sea. Jude'a. The most southern of the three divisions of Palestine. It comprised the territory which had formerly belonged to the tribes of Judah, Benjamin, Simeon, and to part of the tribe of Dan, being nearly coexten- sive with the ancient kingdom of Judah. Its metropolis was Jerusalem. It has been divided into four parts. 1. The western province, along the borders of the Mediterranean, in- habited by the Philistines. 2. The mountainous dis- trict, called hill country (Josh. xxi. 11; Luke i. 39). 3. The wilderness of Judea, along the shore of the Dead Sea. 4. The valley west of Jerusalem. In our Lord's time, Judea extended from the Mediterranean west to the Dead Sea east; bounded on the north by Samaria, and on the south by Edom, or the Desert. Kid'ron, Ked'ron, or Ce'dron, as it is variously termed (2 Sam. xy. 2 ; 1 Kings xv\ 13 ; 2 Kings xxiii. 6; 2 Chron. xxix. 1G; Jer. xxxi. 40; John xviii. 1), runs in the Valley of Jehoshaphat, eastward of Jerusalem, between that city and the Mount of Olives : except in winter, or after heavy rains, its channel is usually dry ; but when swollen by torrents it flows with great impetu* 1*2G NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. osity, and like other brooks in cities, it is contaminated with the filth of which it is the receptacle and common sewer. Laodice'a. There were four places of this name, although but one is mentioned in Scripture. The one situated on the coast of Syria, which was destroyed by an earthquake in 1822. has been supposed by some to be the Laodicea of Scripture; but it is now believed the true place named in Scripture was in the western part of Phrygia, on the borders of Lydia, and about forty miles south-east of Ephesus, It was the capital of Greater Phrygia, and in the primitive time of Christian- ity, as appears from St. Paul's Epistle to the Colossians, in which the Laodiceans are frequently mentioned, this place possessed a flourishing church. This is one of the •• seven churches in Asia" to which St. John was commissioned to deliver the awful warning contained in Pev. iii. 14-19. The doom denounced upon the Laodi- ceans, we are to suppose, applied to the Christian church there, and not to the city itself, and seems to have been more severe and terrible than that of the other six apoc- alyptic churches. The frequent earthquakes to which this region was exposed destroyed the greater part of the city, many of its inhabitants, and eventually obliged the remainder to abandon the spot altogether. The stately edifices of ancient Loadicea are now peopled with wolves and jackals. Lir.'vA. among the ancient Greeks, was used as an- other name for Africa, as it imports a part of it. But the Libya of the New Testament, and the country of the Lubim of the Old, was a large tract lying along the Mediterranean, to the west of Egypt. Luke says it was --the dwellers of Libya about Gyrene" (Acts ii. 10) who came up to Jerusalem at the day of Pentecost. It is noted in the Old Testament for its chariots and horses used in fight (2 Chron. xvi. 8, 9). Lycao'kia. A province in Asia Minor, between Ga- latia and Cappadocia. Its three principal cities are all mentioned in Acts iiv», viz.. Iconium, Lystra, and Der- be. They spake in the Lycaonian tongue (ver. 13), which is generally supposed to have been a corrupt Greek, intermingled witli many Syriac words. Lyc'ia. A province of Asia Minor, forming part of Cappadocia (Acts ii. 9). Lyd'da, which in later times was called Diospolis, was a large village, and, according to Josephus. hut a GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF PLACES. 127 little inferior to a city in size. The place was celebrated in the Acts of the Apostles for the miraculous cure of Eneas by Peter (Acts ix. 32-35). Lyd'ia. A province of Asia Minor, lying east of Ionia and the iEgean Sea. In the time of the travels of the apostles, it was a province of the Roman empire. Its chief towns were Sardis (the capital), Thyatira, and Philadelphia, all of which are mentioned in the New Testament, although the name of the province itself does not occur. The manners of the Lydians are said to have been corrupt to a proverb. Lys'tra. A city of Lycaonia, rendered memorable by the miracle there wrought upon the lame man by Paul and Barnabas, which made the Lycaonians think the gods had come down to them in the likeness of men (Acts xiv. 10, 11), and for the circumcision of Timothy (Acts xvi. 1). This city was south of Iconium, but its exact site is uncertain, as well as that of Derbe, men- tioned with it. Macedonia. A vast province or kingdom of Greece, formerly called JEmathia: and from the king? of M;-.ce- don, Macedonia. It was bounded on the north by the mountains of Haemus. on the south by Epirus and Achaia, on the east by the iEgean, and on the west by the Ionian and Adriatic Seas. Macedonia was the ori- ginal kingdom of Philip and Alexander, by means of whose victories the name of the Macedonians became celebrated throughout the East, and is often used for the Greeks in Asia generally. It is celebrated in all histo- ries for being the third kingdom, that, under Alexander the Great, obtained the empire of the world, and had under it one hundred and liny nations. Macedonia was subdued by the Romans under Paulus iEmilius, B. C. 163. and divided into four provinces. It was not. how- ever, reduced into a province of the Roman empire until twenty years after, when the whole of Greece was divided into two great provinces. Macedonia and Achaia. Therefore in the time of Christ and his apostles Mace- donia was a Roman province, and governed by a procon- sul. To this country, whose metropolis was then Thes- salonica, St. Paul was called by a vision (Acts xvi. 9) ? and the churches planted by him were celebrated for their great charity and ready contributions to the dis- tressed Jews in Jndea (2 Cor. viii. 9), when they them- selves lay under the extremest poverty. Mag'dala: A town in Galilee mentioned in Matt. 128 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. xv. 39, situated beyond Jordan, on the bank of Gedara. It is l*be supposed birthplace of Mary Magdalene, from which sbe took her surname. It readied to the bridge above Jordan, which joined it to the other side of Gal- ilee, and contained within its precincts Dalmanutha; hence, while Matthew says (xv. 19), Christ came into the coast of Magdala, St. Mark says, more particularly (viii. 10), that he came into the parts of Dalmanutha. Kitto and some others place Gedara on the western shore of Lake Gennesareth ; but after a careful consid- eration of the route of Christ before he came to this place, and after he left it, we are inclined to credit the views of Bagster and Dr. Lightfoot, who claim that it was situated on the south-east side of the Lake of Gen- nesareth, a Sabbath day's journey, or two miles, from Chammath, and one mile from Jordan ; and many Jew- ish writers confirm this view, while the Jerusalem Tal- mud (compiled at Tiberias) several times speaks of Magdala as adjacent to Tiberias. This was also prob- ably the Migdal-el, in the tribe of Naphtali, mentioned in Josh. xix. 38. Me'dia (Acts ii. 9) was a vast region of Asia, east of Armenia and Assyria, and north of Persia. It had its name from Madai, the son of Japhet, mentioned in Gen. x. 2. In the Babylonian captivity, the Jews were car- ried captive into Assyria, and placed in the cities of the Medes (2 Kings xvii. G. and xviii. 11). Hence we find many of them and their proselytes at Jerusalem when the Holy Ghost fell on the apostles. Mel'ita. An island in the Mediterranean Sea, on which the ship was wrecked (Acts xxviii. l-lOj which was conveying St. Paul as a prisoner to Home, and which was the scene of the interesting circumstances recorded in Acts xxvii. The learned Mr. Bryant, Dr. Hales, and some others have attempted to show that this island was in the Adriatic Gulf; but the general opinion of modern critics and geographers is in favor of Malta, which lies in the Mediterranean, about sixty miles south from Cape Passaro, in Sicily. It is about twenty miles in length and twelve miles in breadth. The island makes no figure from the sea, having no mountains or high hills. It was naturally a barren rock, but the industry and toil of man have rendered some parts of it abundantly fer- tile. The name St. Paul's Bay has been given to the place where the vessel is supposed to have been wrecked. The island was firat colonized by the Phoenicians, from GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF PLACES. 129 whom it was taken by the Greek colonists in Sicily, B. C. 736. It was afterwards possessed by the Cartha- ginians, from whom it was taken by the Romans about B. C. 242. The government was administered by a pro- praetor, dependent upon the praetor of Sicily ; and this office appears to have been held by Publius when Paul was on the island (Acts xxviii. 7). The government having undergone many changes till A. D. 1530, Charles V., who had annexed it to the Ger- man empire, transferred it to the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem, whom the Turks had recently dispossessed of Rhodes. The order of St. John, commonly called Knights of Malta, gradually fell into decay, and the island was surrendered to fche French under Bonaparte, when on his way to Egypt, in 1798. From the French it was retaken by the English, with the consent and concurrence of the natives, and was to have been restored to the Knights of Malta by the stipu- lations of the treaty of Amiens ; but the order being com- posed mostly of Frenchmen, from whom no satisfactory security for the independence of the order could be ob- tained, the English retained it in their hands, which ne- cessary infraction of the treaty was the ostensible ground of the war which ended with the signal defeat of the French under Bomiparte at the battle of Waterloo, in Belgium, June 18, 1815. Mesopotamia. A famous province, situated between the Rivers Tigris and Euphrates, The Hebrews call it Aram jVaharaim, or Aram of the Rivers, because it was first peopled by Aram, father of the Syrians, and is situ- ated between two rivers. This country is celebrated in Scripture as the first dwelling of men after the deluge, and as the birthplace of Phaleg, Heber, Terah, Abraham, Nahor, Sarah, Re- bekah, Rachel, Leah, and the sons of Jacob. Babylon was in ancient Mesopotamia till, by vast labor and in- dustry, the Euphrates and Tigris were reunited in one channel. The plains of Shinar were also in this country. It was often called Mesopotamia Syriaa, because it was inhabited by Aramaeans, or Syrians, and sometimes Padan Aram (Gen. xxviii. 2), or the plains of Aram ; or Sede-Aram, the field of Aram, to distinguish them from the barren and uncultivated mountains of the same coun- try. Balaam, son of Beor, was of Mesopotamia (Deut. xxiii. 4). Chushan-rishathaim, King of Mesopotamia, subdued the Hebrews (Judges iii. 8). "Dwellers in 130 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. Mesopotamia " were among the multitude assembled at Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost (Acts ii. 9 ; see also Acts vii. 2). Mid'ian, in Arabia Petrsea. The land into which Moses tied from tiie Egyptians (Acts vii. 29), and where he lived with Jetiiro, liis father-in-law, till he was sent back to deliver Israel (Ex. ii. 15, &c). The people were descended from Madian, the son of Abraham and" Keturah (Gen. xxv. 2), whence we have reason to believe they still retained the worship of the true God. Milk'tus. A city and seaport of Ionia, in Asia Minor, about thirty-six miles south of Ephesus. St. Paul touched at this port on his voyage from Greece to Syria, and delivered to the elders of the church of Ephesus, who had come to meet him there, that affecting and re- markable discourse recorded in Acts xx. 17-35. In this city were born Thales, one of the seven wise men, Anaxnnander, his disciple, Timotheus, the celebrat- ed musician, and Anaximenes, the philosopher. There was another Miletus, in Crete, where St. Paul leftTroph- iuius sick (2 Tim. iv. 20). Mityle'ne. A large and beautiful city, the capital of the Island of Lesbos, in the JEgean Sea, about seven and a half miles from the opposite point on the coast of Asia Minor. It was the birthplace of Pittacus, one of the wise men, Alcaeus, the poet, Diophanes, the orator, and Tiieophanes, the historian. It' it had that name in St. Pauls time, we may understand St. Luke to mean either the island or the city when lie says (Acts xx. 14), 4t We came to Mitylene." My'ka was one of the six great cities of Lycia, situ- ated near the sea; whence St. Luke says (Acts xxvii. 5), that »• sailing over the Sea of Citicia and Pamphylia, they came to Jlyra in Isysia." Mys'ia. A province of Asia Minor, south of Bithynia, and west of Pnrygia Minor. It was visited by St. Paul (Acts xv i. 7, 8). Na'in. A small city or town of Galilee, not far from Capernaum, at the gates of which Jesus Christ raised to life a widow's only son (Luke vii. 11-15). Naz'areth. A small city of Lower Galilee, celebrated as having been the place where our Saviour was edu- cated, where he preached, and whence he was called a Nazarene. It is situated about six miles west from Ta- bor (Matt. ii. 23 ; Luke iv. 16). In the time of Christ it GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF PLACES. 131 did not possess the best of characters (John i. 46). It was from a hill which overlooks the town the inhabitants would have precipitated him headlong (Luke iv. 29). Neap'olis. A maritime city of Macedonia, near the borders of Thrace, now called Napoli. Also a new name given to Shechem when rebuilt. (See " Shechem.") Paul landed here on his first journey into Europe (Acts xvi. 11). Nicop'olis. A city of Thrace. In Titus iii. 12, Paul expresses his intention of wintering here, and invites Titus, then in Crete, to join him at this place. Ol'ivet, or Mount of Olives, so called for its nu- merous olive trees, was about one mile from Jerusalem ; and from hence our Lord ascended into heaven (Acts i. 12). See also "Jerusalem." Pa'dan A 'ram. See "Mesopotamia." Pamphyl'ia. A province in the southern part of Asia Minor, having to the south the Pamphylia Sea, men- tioned in Acts xxv ii. 5, Cilicia to the east, Pisidia. to the north, — whence we find St. Paul passing through Pi- sidia to Pamphylia (Acts xiv. 24;, and from Pamphylia to Pisidia (Acts xiii. 14), — and Lycia to the west. The cities mentioned in Scripture as belonging to it are Perga and Attalia (Acts xiv. 25;. Here many Jews resided, and hence those of Pam- phylia are mentioned among those who appeared at Je- rusalem on the day of Pentecost (Acts ii. 10) ; and Chris- tianity was probably first preached in this country by some of the Jewish proselytes converted at that time. Pa'phos. The metropolis of Cyprus, at the western extremity of the island, and the residence of the Roman proconsul (Acts xiii. 4, 6). Paphos was memorable for a temple of Venus, whose infamous rites and impure worship were practised here four hundred years after- wards, notwithstanding the success of Paul and Barnabas and others in preaching the gospel. Here St. Paul struck blind Elymas, the sorcerer, and converted Sergius Paulus, the proconsul. The Jews dwelt here in great numbers (ver. 16). Twenty-five or thirty miserable huts are all that remain of this once most distinguished city of Cyprus. Par'thia. The country of the Parthians, mentioned, in Acts ii. 9, as being, with their neighbors the Medes and Elamites, present at Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost. The term originally applied to a small mountainous dis- trict lying to the north-east of Media. About 256 13. C. 132 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. Arsaces rose against the Syro-Macedonian power, and commenced a new dynasty in his own person, designated by the title of Arsacidaj. This was the beginning of the great Parthian empire, which extended itself, in the early days of Christianity, over all the provinces of what had been the Persian kingdom, being separated from the do- minions of Kome on the west by the Euphrates. It was divided into eighteen provinces. The Parthians were often in open hostilities with Home, and were sometimes tiie victors and then the vanquished, yet they were never subjugated by the Romans. The Parthians were cele- brated for their veneration for their kings, and their way of righting by flight, and shooting their arrows back- wards. The Parthians were at length conquered by Artaxerxes, A. 1). 229, who represented himself to be a descendant of the ancient Persian kings, and who succceeded to all the dominions of the Parthian kings, and founded the new Persian empire. Pat'ara. A seaport in Lycia, Asia Minor, situated at the mouth of the River Xanthus. It had a famous ti mple and oracle of Apollo. It was here that St. Paul, on his voyage i<> Jerusalem, changed his ship for one bound to Phoenicia (Acts xxi. 1, 2). Pat'mos. An island in the iEgean Sea. The island is said tv) be rocky and fare, and on account of its desolate character was used, when under the Roman empire, as a plaee of banishment; hence it was that St. John was ex- iled thither "for the testimony of Jesus" (Rev. i. 9) about A. 1). U-4. It was here that he had the revelation which he has recorded in the Apocalypse. Per'ga. A city of Pamphylia (Acts xiii. 13), rnemo- ral le among the heathen for a temple of Diana built there, and among the Christians for the departure thence of John Mark from Barnabas and Paul to Jerusalem, which occasioned the rupture between them for a season (Acts xv. o7, 40). Per'gamos, or Per'gamus, was the ancient metropolis of Mysia, the residence of the Attalian kings, and a seat of literature and the arts. King Eumenes, the second of the name, greatly beautified the town, and increased the library of Pergamos so considerably that the number of volumes amounted to two hundred thousand. The library was at length removed from Pergamos to Egypt by Antony, who presented it to Queen Cleopatra. As the art of cleaning and preparing sheep and goat skins, GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF PLACES. 133 to be used for manuscripts, was brought to perfection at Pergamos, they, from that circumstance, obtained the name of pergamena, or parchment. Pergamos, under the name of Bergamo, is a place of considerable impor- tance. One of the seven churches in Asia, to which the Apocalypse is addressed, was in Pergamos. This church was commended for its fidelity and firmness (Rev. ii. 13). Philadelphia. A city of Lydia, in Asia Minor, and a seat of another of the seven Asiatic churches to which the Apocalyptic admonitions were addressed. It was situated about twenty-five miles south-east from Sardis. Not long before the writing of the Apocalypse, the city having suffered so much from earthquakes, it was to a great extent abandoned by its inhabitants, which may, in a measure, account for its poverty, and its poverty may also, in some degree, account for its virtue, which is so highly commended (Rev. iii. 7-13). Gib- bon says, " Among the Greek colonies and churches of Asia, Philadelphia is still erect — a column in a scene of ruins." Whatever may be lost of the spirit of Chris- tianity, there is still the form of a Christian church in this city, which yet exists as a Turkish city, under the name of Allah Shehr (" city of God "), i. e. High-town. Philip'pi was a city of Macedonia Prima, or the first of the four parts into which that province was divided. It was of moderate extent, and situated on the confines of Thrace. It was formerly called Crenides, or Krenides, from its numerous springs, and afterwards Datus, from the coal mines in its vicinity ; but having been taken and forti- fied by Philip of Macedon, he named it after himself, Philippi. It eventually became celebrated for the battle in which Brutus and Cassius were defeated, B. C. 42. Julius Caesar planted a colony here, which was after- wards enlarged by Augustus, and hence its inhabitants were considered as freemen of Rome. It was here that the interesting circumstance occurred which is related in Acts xvi. The city was again visited by St. Paul on his depart- ure from Greece (Acts xx. 6). Phce'nice, or Phceni'cia. A province of Syria, which extended from the Gulf of Issus, where it bounded Cili- cia on the north, along the coast southwards, to the ter- mination of the ridges of Libanusand Anti-Libanus, near 134 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. Tyre, where it met the border of Palestine. Its princi- pal cities are Tyre and Sidon, which see. See also Acts xxvii. 12, and xi. 19. Phryg'ia. An inland province of Asia Minor, divided into the Greater and Lesser. The former had Bithynia on the north, Galatia on the east, Pamphylia and Lycia on the south, and Lydia and Mysia on the west. Its chief cities, mentioned in Scripture, are Laodicea and Hierapolis (Col. ii. 1); and of this St. Luke seems to speak in Acts ii., because he joins it with Pamphylia, below it. Phrygia Minor is referred to in Acts xvi. 6, 18, also in ver. 22, where he says they passed through Phrygia and Galatia. Pisid'ia. A country in Asia Minor, lying mostly on Mount Taurus, between Pamphylia, Phrygia, and Lycao- nia. Its chief city was Antioch in Pisidia (Acts xiii. 14), so called to distinguish it from Antioch in Syria. Pon'tus. Ad extensive province of Asia Minor, south of the Euxine Sea. It is supposed St. Peter preached in Pontus, beeause he addresses his First Epistle to the be- lieving Hebrews, who were scattered throughout this and the neighboring provinces. It was also the birthplace of Aquila (Acts xviii. 2). Ptolema'is, anciently called Accho (Judges i. 31), and now known by the name of Acre, was a maritime city of Judea, on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea, on the confines of Upper and Lower Galilee. It received its name from one of the Ptolemies. Here St. Paul rested for one day on his journey from Ephesus to Jerusalem (Acts xxi. 7). It was during the crusades the scene of many san- guinary conflicts between the infidels and Christians. Acre is celebrated for the repulse given there to Na- poleon Bonaparte b} r the Turks under Sir Sidney Smith, who, after a long and memorable siege, compelled the French to retire with great loss, and ultimately to aban- don Syria. Pute'oli. A maritime city of Campania, in Italy, on the north shore of the Bay of Naples, and about eight miles north-west of the city of that name, where it still exists under the name of Pozzuoli. Here the apostle Paul abode seven days, by the favor of the centurion, on his first journey as a prisoner to Rome (Acts xxviii. 13). Rhe'gium. A port town in Italy, opposite to Sicily. It is now called Reggia, and is the capital of Calabria. GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF PLACES. 135 Here St. Paul staid but one day (Acts xxviii. 13), and accomplished nothing which St. Luke saw fit to record. Rhodes. An island and a city in the Mediterranean Sea, near the coast of Asia Minor. It is said to have de- rived its name from the great abundance of roses that grew there. St. Paul passed through Rhodes on his way to Jerusalem from Miletus (Acts xxi. 1). Rome. The metropolis of the world during the period comprised in the New Testament history. According to the chronology of Archbishop Usher, Rome was founded by Remus and Romulus, B. C. 748, towards the close of the reign of Hezekiah, king of Judah. The city is so well known, it seems useless to give an extended account of it here. The sacred writers of the Old Testament have never mentioned it, but it frequently occurs in the books of the New Testament. St. Peter (1 Pet. v. 13) denoted it by the figurative name of Babylon. St. John, in his Revelation (xiv. 8, xvi. 19, xvii. 5, xviii. 2, 10, 21), points it out by the same name, and de- scribes it in such a manner as can only agree to Rome. 1. By its command over all nations; 2. By its cruelty towards the saints ; and 3. By its situation upon Seven Hills (Rev. xvii. 9). In A. D. 61, St. Paul came to Rome as a prisoner, after he had appealed to Caesar, and again probably in A. D. 65, a year before his martyrdom. St. Peter is also sup- posed to have suffered martyrdom at Rome in A. D. 66. Nero sets fire to the city of Rome, A. D. 64, and throws the blame on the Christians. Sal'amis, one of the chief cities of Cyprus, on the south-east coast of the island (Acts xiii. 5). It was afterwards called Constantia, and in still later times, Famagusta. Sa'lem. The city of Melchisedek, generally believed to be Jebus, or the ancient Jerusalem, which see. Sxi'lim. A place near Enon, where John baptized (John iii. 23). Salmo'ne. A seaport city at the eastern extremity of the Island of Crete (Acts xxvii. 7). Sama'ria, the ancient capital of the kingdom of Is- rael, is frequently mentioned in the Old Testament. It was built by Omri, king of Israel, about B. C. 925, on a mountain or hill of the same name. The hill was pur- chased from its owner, Shemer, from whom it derived its name (1 Kings xvi. 23, 24). Samaria continued to be 136 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. the capital of Israel and the seat of idolatry for about two centuries, until Shalmaneser carried away the ten tribes beyond the Euphrates, B. C. 721 (2 Kings xvii. 3, G), and replaced them by a mixed people. It seems to have arisen again from its ruins during the reign of Alex- ander, after whose deatli it was subject to the Egyptian and Syrian kings, until it was besieged, taken, and razed to the ground by Hyrcanus after a year's siege, B. C. 110 (Micah i. 6, 7). It was afterwards wholly rebuilt and considerably enlarged by Herod the Great, who gave it the name of Sebaste, and erected a temple there in honor of the Emperor Augustus. The whole city was greatly ornamented, and became a strong fortress. The Samaritans could not, however, be induced to offer sacrifices in their new temple, but still continued to worship on Gerizim. Such was the Samaria mentioned in the New Testa- ment, where the gospel was preached by Philip, and a church founded by the apostle (Acts viii. 5, 9). Shecbem, now called Nabnlus, is the present place of abode of the Samaritans. They still possess a copy of the Mosaic law, which is the only portion of Scripture they ever received or acknowledged. It is highly improbable the Israelites, when carried away captive into Assyria, took with them all the copies of the law; thus we infer that the Samaritan, as well as the Jewish copy, originally flowed from the autograph of Moses. Sa'mos. An island of the Archipelago, on the coast of Asia Minor, on which St. Paul went ashore as he was going to Jerusalem (Acts xx. 15). Samothra'cia. An island in the north-east part of the iEgean Sea, with a lofty mountain and city of the same name. The island was celebrated for the mysteries of Ceres and Proserpine, and was a sacred asylum. St. Paul, departing from Troas for Macedonia, arrived first at Samothracia, and then landed in Macedonia (Acts xvi. 11). It received its name from the circumstance of its being peopled by Samians and Thracians. Sar'dis, the royal city of Lydia, in Asia Minor, was celebrated anciently for its great wealth and importance. It was the object of much cupidity and many sieges. When taken by Cyrus, under Croesus, its last king, who has become proverbial for his riches, Sardis was one of the most splendid and opulent of Eastern cities. It sub- sequently passed to the Romans, under whom it rapidly declined until the time of Tiberius, when (A. D. 17), it GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF PLACES. 137 was, with eleven other Asiatic cities, destroyed by an earthquake, but was rebuilt by order of the emperor. The inhabitants of Sardis bore an ill repute among the ancients for their voluptuous habits of life. It was the seat of another of the Apocalyptic churches (Rev. iii. 1-6). Successive earthquakes, and the ravages of the Saracens and Turks, have reduced this once flourishing city to a heap of ruins. The habitations of the living form only a wretched village, called Sart. Sarep'ta, or Zarep'tha. A town between Tyre and Sidon. It was the place where Elijah, dwelling, was preserved by the widow's cruse of oil and barrel of meal that wasted not (1 Kings xvii. 9; Luke iv. 26). Sa'ron. A spacious and fertile vale, between Lydda and the sea, which contained several villages. Peter's miraculous healing of the paralytic Eneas at Lydda was the means of bringing the inhabitants of Saron to the saving knowledge of the gospel (Acts ix. 35). Seleu'cia. A city and district of Syria, near the Oron- tes River, near the sea coast, west of Antioch. It is sometimes called Seleucia Pieria, to distinguish it from several other cities of the same name. Paul and Barnabas on their first voyage embarked from this port for Cyprus (Acts xiii. 3, 4). She'chem, or Si'chem. A city of high antiquity, sit- uated in Samaria, among the mountains of Ephraim (Josh. xx. 7), and consequently within the tribe of Ephraim (Josh. xxi. 20). It is about thirty-four miles north of Jerusalem, and seven miles south of Samaria. It was here that Abraham sojourned, and where Jacob's sons slew Hamor (Gen. xii. 6, xxxiv. 1, &c). During the lifetime of Joshua, Shechem, being the nearest consider- able town to the residence of that chief in Timnath- serah, was a centre of union to the tribes (Josh. xx. 7, xxi. 21, xxiv. 1, xxv), During the judges, it became the capital of the kingdom set up by Abimelech (Judges ix. 1), who at length conquered and destroyed it (Judges ix. 34). It was soon rebuilt, and became a town of some importance ; for Rehoboam, at the time of his accession, here gave the meeting to the delegates of the tribes which ended in the division of the kingdom, B. C. 975 (1 Kings xii. 10). The first monarch of the new king- dom made this the capital of his dominions (1 Kings xii. 25), although later in his reign he built him a palace, and made the summer residence of his court at Tirzah, which place became of so much importance as to be 138 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. regarded as the capital of the kingdom until Samaria deprived it of that honor (1 Kings xiv. 17, xvi. 24). In the vicinity of this place is Jacob's well, memorable for our Saviour's conversation with the Samaritan woman (John iv. G). In the New Testament it is called by the name of Sychar, although Stephen, in his historical ret- rospect (Acts vii. 1G), uses the ancient proper name. See " Neapolis." Si'don, or Zi'don, a very ancient and celebrated city in Phoenicia. Justin derives its name from the Phoenician word fish, but Josephus from the eldest son of Canaan, by whom it was founded. It is situated on the Mediterranean, a day's journey from the springs of Jordan, and has an excellent harbor. This city has always been famous for its great trade and navigation. The best vessels in the fleet of Xerxes were Sidonian. The inhabitants were very early celebrated on account of their luxury (Judges xviii. 7). It still subsists under the name of Saide, or Seide. (See Matt, xi 21 ; Acts xxvii. 3.) Sil'oam. A fountain under the walls of Jerusalem, east and between that city and the Brook Kidron. It is supposed to be the same as the fountain En-rogel, or the Fuller's Fountain (Josh. xv. 7, xviii. 1G; 2 Sam. X vii. 17, and 1 Kings i. 9). The spring issues from a rock, and runs in a silent stream, according to the testimony of Jeremiah. The pool, or rather two pools of the same name are situated near the spring. The most remark- able feature is the ebb and tlow of the waters, some- times discharging a current like the fountain of Vau- cluse, at other times retaining and scarcely suffering it to run at all. The pools are still used for washing linen, as formerly. The water of the spring is brackish, and has a very disagreeable taste ; and people still bathe their eyes in it in memory of the miracle performed there on the man born blind (John ix. 7), On the last day of the feast of tabernacles, which was a day of great festivity among the Jews, it was the custom to bring water from this pool, some of which they drank with loud acclamations of joy and thanks- giving, and some they brought to the altar, where it was poured upon the evening sacrifice. During this solemn offering, the people sang with transports of joy the twelfth chapter of Isaiah's prophecy, and particularly the third verse. To this custom, no doubt, our Lord al- ludes in John vii. 37 ; it was observed in commemora- GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF PLACES. 139 tion of their forefathers being miraculously relieved when they thirsted in the wilderness. Sl'OH. See " Zion." Smyr'na. A city of Asia Minor, situated about forty- five miles nortli of Ephesus, of which city it was for- merly a colony. Smyrna was a very ancient city, but having been destroyed by the Lydians, it lay waste about four hundred years, to the time of Alexander the Great. It was rebuilt at a distance of about two and one half Roman miles from the ancient city, and in the time of the first Roman emperors was one of the finest cities of Asia. It is now celebrated for the number, wealth, and commerce of its inhabitants. It early became the seat of a Christian church, which is noticed in the Apoca- lypse as one of " the seven churches in Asia" (Rev. i. 11, ii. 8-11). It was destroyed by an earthquake in A. D. 177, but was rebuilt by order of the Emperor Mar- cus Aurelius, with more than its former splendor. It is said to be a better built town than Constantinople, and in proportion to its size, there are few places in the Turk- ish dominions that have so large a population, it being computed at one hundred and thirty thousand, about twenty-five thousand of whom are Christians, in com- munion with the Greek church. The Christians here are in better condition than in any other of the "seven churches." It is supposed to be the place where Poly- carp, the disciple of St. John and bishop of Smyrna, and probably " the angel of the church of Smyrna " (John ii. 8), to whom the Apocalyptic message was ad- dressed, suffered martyrdom. The Christians of Smyr- na hold the memory of this venerable person in high esteem, and go annually to his supposed tomb, which is at a short distance from the place of martyrdom. Sod'om. A city in the vale of Siddim, where Lot settled after his separation from Abraham (Gen. xiii. 12, xiv. 12, xix. 1). It had its own king, as well as the other four cities of the plain (Gen. xiv. 2, 8, 10), and was, along with them, Zoar only excepted, destroyed by fire from heaven, on account of the gross wickedness of its inhabitants (Gen. xix.). The peculiar solemnity with which the destruction of Sodom is introduced, and the circumstances which precede and follow it, as re- corded in Gen. xviii. 25-33, and chap, xix., should claim special attention. It is not our purpose to give, in this work, the theories of different writers as to the physical agencies through which this overthrow was effected. It 140 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL, has, however, been established by Dr. Robinson, that a lake to receive the Jordan and other waters must have occupied this basin long before the catastrophe of Sod- om, but of less extent. Spain. The name originally given to the whole of the peninsula now occupied by Spain and Portugal. In the time of the apostles, and until A. D. 410, Spain was a Roman province, and many Jews were settled there. It seems certain from Rom. xv. 24, 28, that Paul once formed the design of visiting Spain and preaching the gos- pel there. But whether he ever executed these intentions is not positively known. Those who hold that he suf- fered but one imprisonment at Rome — that in which the Acts of the Apostles leave him — deny this, of course ; but those who claim that he was twice imprisoned, con- jecture that after he was released, and during the inter- val between the first and second imprisonment, he ex- ecuted this intention. But the evidences are hardly sufficient to warrant the latter conclusion. Doddridge infers from Rom. xv. 20, that no Christian church had been formed in Spain before the time mentioned in verse xxiv., although an ancient legend makes James to have resided there fifteen years. Sy'char. See " Shechem." Svr'acuse. A strong, wealthy, and populous city on the south-east of the Island of Sicily. Syracuse remained an independent state, under its own kings, until about B. C. 200, when it was taken after a siege rendered famous by the mechanical contrivances whereby Archimedes protracted the defence. It still ex- ists as a considerable town, under its ancient name. St. Paul spent three days at Syracuse, after leaving Melita, when being carried prisoner to Rome. Syr'ia. In Hebrew called Aram, from the son of Shem (Gen. x. 22). It was a country in Asia comprehended between the Euphrates on the east, the Mediterranean on the west, Cilicia on the north, Phoenicia, Judea, and Arabia Deserta on the south. It was divided into sev- eral cantons or provinces, which derived their names from their situation with respect to certain rivers or cities. As most of these provinces are noticed under their respective names, it seems unnecessary to repeat them here. The Syro-Phoenician woman is so called by Mark (vii. 26) because she was of Phoenicia, which was then considered as part of Syria. St. Matthew calls her GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF PLACES. 141 a Canaanitish woman (xv. 22, 24), because this country was really peopled by the Canaanites. Ta'bor, or Tha'bor, is a mountain of conical form, entirely detached from any neighboring mountain, situ- ated on the confines of Zebulun and Naphtali, on the north-east border of the plain of Esdraeloo. It is com- puted to be nearly one mile in height. Here Barak was encamped, when, at the suggestion of Deborah, he de- scended, with ten thousand men, and discomfited the host of Sisera (Judges iv.). On the top of the mountain is an oval plain, covered with a fertile soil. On the eastern side may be found a mass of ruins, the vestiges of churches, grottos, and strong walls, all decidedly of some antiquity. It is now conceded that, at the time of our Saviour, the top of this mountain was covered with a walled and fortified city. This city was known to exist as late as sixty years after the birth of Christ. This and other circumstances seem to contradict the commonly received idea, that it was on this mountain where our Saviour was transfigured in the presence of Peter, James, and John (Matt. xvii. 1-8) ; for it is manifest that the transfiguration occurred in a solitary place, from the word *' apart," and from the fact that Peter proposed to build three tabernacles on the spot. This mountain is several times mentioned in the Old Testament (Josh. xix. 12, 22 ; Judges iv. 6, xii. 14, &c), but not in the New. The prospects from this mountain are said to be singu- larly delightful and extensive. To the south lie the mountains of Egedda and Samaria; to the north-east appears Mount Hermon, beneath which were Nain and Endor ; to the north lie the Mount of the Beatitudes (in the vicinity of which Christ miraculously fed the multitude), and the mountains of Gilboa, so fatal to Saul. The Sea of Tiberias is clearly discovered towards the north-east, terminated by the snow-capped Hermon (Light's Travels, p. 200). Mount Carmel is to the south-west, and conceals the Mediterranean. Tar'sus, the metropolis of Cilicia (Acts xxi. 39), was celebrated for being the place whither Jonah designed to flee, and where St. Paul was born. It was a very rich and populous city, and excelled in all arts of polite learn- ing and philosophy ; and it is said that even Alexandria, Athens, and Rome itself, were indebted to Tarsus for their best professors. Thessaloni'ca. A large and populous city and sea- 142 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. port of Macedonia, situated at the mouth of the River Echedorus. It had its name from Thessalonice, tie wife of Cassander, who built the city on the site of the ancient Thermae, after which town Sin its Therrnaicus was called. The modern name of this place is Salonichi; it is the chief port of modern Greece. When St. Paul came hither from Philippi, where the gospel was first preached, to communicate the " glad tidings" to the Thessalonians, the Jews were sufficient in number to " set the whole city in an uproar" (Acts xvii. 1-9). Three Tav'ebns. A town in Italy, so sailed, perhaps, from its having three houses for the entertainment of travellers. Hither the Christians of Rome came to meet Paul on his way to Rome as a prisoner (Acts xxvii. 15). Tiivati'ka. A considerable city of Asia Minor, on the road from Pergamos to Sardis, and about twenty-seven miles from the latter. It was anciently, and is still, noted for its art of dyeing, as appears from Acts xvi. 14. Tibe'rias A city of Galilee, built by Herod the Great, and so called in honor of the Emperor Tiberias. It was situated on the Lake of Gennesareth (which see), which is thence termed the Lake or Sea of Tiberias (John vi. 1-23, xxi. 1). It is about ninety miles distant from Jerusalem ; the modern town stands close to the lake, upon a small plain surrounded by mountains, and is cele- brated for its hot baths, which are much frequented. After the destruction of Jerusalem, it became the chief city of Judea. Tka( uoni'tis. A rough and mountainous country east of Iturea, and belonging to the tetrarchy of Herod Antipas (Luke iii. 1). The rocks with which it abounded afforded shelter for numerous thieves and robbers. Tro'as. A province and city of Lesser Asia. Paul is said to have twice visited this place (Acts xvi. 8, 9, xx. G ; 2 Cor. ii. 12 ; 2 Tim. iv. 13). Sometimes the name is used to include the whole country of the Trojans. Troas is usually supposed to have been the ancient Troy. Trogyl'lium. A promontory near the foot of Mount Mycale, and about five miles from Samos (xlcts xx. 15). Tyre. A celebrated city of Phoenicia; its Hebrew name. Tsor, signifies a rock (its true designation) ; but it became a place of great trade and opulence, and conse- quently of great vice (Isa. xxix. 1; Heb. ix. Ii, 12, 23). Za'reptha. See " Sarepta." Zi'on. A mountain fortified by the Jebusites, but on which David built his palace, and called it the city of David. SYNCHRONOLOGY OF THE PRINCIPAL EVENTS IN SACRED AND PEOFANE HISTORY, FROM THE BIRTH OF JULIUS C^SAR, B. C. IOO, TO THE DEATH OF ST. JOHN, A. D. IOO. Present reigning Sovereigns of the principal Nations of the Earth. B.C. 100 Egypt. — Alexander and Cleopatra, since B. C. 107. Syria. — Antiochus VIII., Grypus, since B. C. 123. Judea. — Alexander Janneus, since B. C. 106. Rome. — Consular government, since the expulsion of the Tarquins, B. C. 509, after which Rome con- tinued independent until the battle of Pharsalia, B. C. 48. Italy. — C. Marius is rewarded with a sixth consulate. He was the pride and hope of the popular party, and noted for his courage, talents, and rude mili- tary virtue, joined to rough manners, hatred of the nobles, and contempt for their cultivation and re- finement. Through his assistance the popular par- ty had gained the superiority, and the aristocracy were induced to array themselves around Corne- lius Sylla, a politic and ambitious man, who united in himself the cultivation and love of art of the nobles, with their vices and excesses. From this time two powerful political parties stood opposed to each other in arms, which finally result- ed in the perilous social wars that soon followed. Birth of Julius Cassar. 99 Alexander Janneus, king of the Jews, attacks Gaza, and demolishes it. 143 144 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. B. C. 99 China still submits to the Han dynasty ; Sematzin emperor. 97 By the death of Ptolemy Apion, Cyrene becomes a Roman province. Syria, death of Antiochus VIII. He is succeeded by his son, Seleucus VI., Nicator. 95 Alexander Janneus, after various transactions, some successful and others unsuccessful, is opposed, at the temple, during the feast of the tabernacles, by a mutiny of the Jews, of whom he slays six hundred men. 94 He subdues the inhabitants of Gilead and the Moab- ites. 93 Seleucus is defeated and succeeded by Antiochus Eu- sebes, and burned in Mopsuestia. Tigranes king of Armenia. 92 Antiochus, brother of Seleucus, and second son of Grypus, assumes the diadem. He is presently de- feated by Eusebes, and drowned in the Orontes. (H Alexander Janneus having ill success in war against Obodas, an Arabian king, the Jews make war against him. This war continued six years. Antiochus is succeeded by Philip, his brother, third son of Grypus. The social war begins in Italy, and continues three years, till finished by Sylla, the celebrated Roman general. Ariarathes VIII., king of Cappadocia. Mithridates, king of Pontus, puts him to death, and sets his son upon the throne. Ariarathes IX. takes Cappadocia from the son of Mithridates : he is soon afterwards reestablished by his father. 90 Sylla enters Cappadocia, drives the son of Mithri- dates out of it, and sets Ariobarzanes I. upon the throne. Demetrius Euchares, fourth son of Grypus, is estab- lished king of Damascus, by the aid of Lathyrus. 89 Alexander kills his mother Cleopatra; he is expelled, and dies soon after. Tigranes, king of Armenia, drives Ariobarzanes out of Cappadocia, and reinstates the son of Mithri- dates. Beginning of the war between Mithridates, king of Pontus, on the Biack Sea, and the Romans. SYXCHRONOLOGY. 145 B.C. 88 By the orders of Mithridates, all the Roman subjects in Western Asia, 80,000 in number, were put to death in one frightful day of slaughter. Anna, the prophetess, daughter of Phanuel, of the tribe of Asher, this year becoming a widow, departs not from the temple, but serves God with fasting and prayer, night and day, for eighty-four years together, until sucli time as she sees Christ in the temple (Luke ii. 37). 87 The Roman Senate gives the command against Mith- ridates to Sylla, who had distinguished himself in the social war, and been rewarded with a consu- late. Marius envied his opponent this Asiatic cam- paign, and during Sylla's absence secured the pas- sage of a resolution by the people, securing to himself the appointment to conduct the war. Sylla returned with his army to Rome, from Lower Italy, and had Marius and eleven of his confederates out- lawed as traitors to their country. Marius escapes into Africa. Sylla now passed ever into Greece, stormed Athens, seized upon the treasures of the temple of Delphi, and overthrew the generals of the king of Pontus in two engagements. He sent the valuable library to Rome. Sylla marched through Macedonia and Thracia into Asia Minor. 86 Marius, having returned from the ruins of Carthage into Jtaly, and surrounded himself with a band of desperate men, marched to the gates of Rome. The city, weakened by dissensions and famine, was compelled to surrender; upon which Marius gave free course to his thirst for vengeance ; after which he had himself chosen consul for the seventh time, but died about two weeks after, from the effects of excitement and a dissolute life. Sylla gains a victory over the generals of Mithrida- tes near Cheronea, and soon after at Orchomenas. 85 Demetrius having been taken by the Parthians, Anti-. ochus Dionysius, the fifth son of Grypus, is set upon the throne of Syria, and killed the following year. 84 Treaty of peace between Mithridates and Sylla, which terminated the war, which had cost the lives of one hundred thousand men. 10 146 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. B.C. 83 Sylla landed in Italy, after the termination of the first Mithridatic war, and marched, with the support of the aristocracy, upon Koine, and in a murderous battle before the gates of the city, annihilated the Marian party and the rebellious Samnites, eight thousand of whom he slaughtered before the eyes of the Senate. Mithridates puts his son to death. The Syrians, weary of so many changes, choose Ti- granes, king of Armenia, for their king. Eusebes takes refuge in Cilicia, where he remains concealed. 82 Sylla is named dictator for an indefinite period ; he proclaims the Cornelian law, by which the whole power of the government fell into the hands of the aristocracy, and the influence of the tribunes was destroyed. Latbyrus ruins Thebes, in Egypt, where the rebels, whom he had before defeated, had taken refuse. Decline of agriculture in Italy ; corn supplied from the provinces. 81 Death of Lathyrus. Alexander II., son of Alexander I., under the protection of Sylla, is elected king. 80 Julius Caesar's first campaign. 79 Posidonius, a philosopher of Apamea, calculates the height of the atmosphere to be about four hundred stadia, nearly agreeing witli the ideas of moderns. Alexander Janneus dies, after many successes and cruelties, and is succeeded in the regal authority by his wife Alexandra, who, conciliating the Phari- sees, reigns peaceably over Judea to the end of her life. 78 Sylla, having retired to his estate, died of a frightful distemper. Second war between Mithridates and the Romans. It lasted nearly three years. 77 The Pharisees, managing the affairs of Alexandra, grievously oppress their opponents. Sertorius, a Roman general in Spain, having rebelled against the government of Sylla, defeated every army sent against him. 76 Mithridates makes an alliance with Sertorius. Death of Nicomedes, king of Bithynia. His kingdom and Cyrenaica are reduced to Roman provinces the same year. SYNCHRONOLOGY. 147 B.C. 75 Beginning of the third war of Mithridates against the Romans. Lucullus and Cotta are placed at the head of the Ro- man army. 74 Cotta is defeated by sea and land, and forced to shut himself up in Chalcedon. Lucullus goes to his aid. The cherry tree brought to Europe about this time, from Asia, by Lucullus. M. Terentius Varro, one of the most learned of the Romans, writes three books on agriculture, which have been handed down perfect to the present time. 73 The servile war, under Spartacus, a Thracian shep- herd and gladiator, commences, and continues two years. Mithridates forms the siege of Cyzicum. Lucullus compels him to raise it, at the end of two years, and pursues and beats *him near the Granicus. 72 Herod the Great is born. Sertorius assassinated by his lieutenant, Pompey killed the assassin, when he gave himself up, and destroyed all the documents he brought with him. 71 Spartacus defeated and killed by Crassus and Pom- pey, which finishes the servile war. Spain com- pletely recovered. 70 Alexandra dies. Hyrcanus seizes the kingdom, but is soon deprived of it by Aristobulus, his younger brother. Damascus possessed by the Romans. Pompey and Crassus consuls. 69 Tigranes recalls Magdalus, his viceroy in Syria. Antiochus Asiaticus takes possession of Syria, and reigns four years. Lucullus defeats the two kings, Mithridates and Tigra- nes, in a great battle in Armenia, the day before the nones of December, and takes Tigranocerta, with all the royal treasures. 67 Mithridates recovers all his dominions in consequence of the misunderstanding that takes place in the Roman army. Pompey conquers the pirates of the Mediterranean. 66 Mithridates defeated by Pompey in a night battle in the Upper Armenia. Crete conquered by Metul- lus, after a war of two years, and reduced to a Ro- man province. Ebony introduced at Rome by Pompey. 148 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. B.C. 66 Vikramadity, a king of Ozcne, in India, patron of literature. 65 Pompey the Great, after many conquests, reduces Syria to a Roman province, thus terminating the Macedonian or Grecian kingdom, and establishing that of the Romans, the fourth great monarchy in Daniel's prophecy (Scott). Alexander is driven out of Egypt. Ptolemy Auletes, natural son of Lathyrus, is set in his place. Antiochus XII. defeated by Pompey. The race of the Seleucidas becomes extinct. Ariobarzanes II. king of Cappadocia. 64 Armenia Minor seized by the king of Galatia. 63 The conspiracy of Catiline detected by Cicero in Oc- tober, and defeated by Antony about the middle of December. Pompey appealed to by Hyrcanus and Aristobulus, and promising to arbitrate between them, discovers that Aristobulus is preparing for war ; and in conse- quence marches against Jerusalem, and takes it after a siege of three months, and restores Hyrcanus. At this time he enters into the holy of holies, and many have remarked that he never after prospered in any N undertaking. From this period the Jews be- came dependent on the Romans, after having been for a long time independent, by reason of the weak- ness of the Syrian and Egyptian kings. Augustus Caesar born. Mithridates stabs himself and dies. 62 Magnificent houses of the nobles. Marble theatre of Scaurus, to hold thirty thousand spectators. 61 Pompey enters Rome in triumph. 60 Cicero, statesman and orator, Sallust, historian, Lu- cretius and Catullus, poets. The first triumvirate, in the persons of Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus. Reign of Sciold, first king of Denmark. The Danish chronicles mention eighteen kings to the time of Ragnor Lodbrog, A. D. 750. 58 Clodius procures the banishment of Cicero. The Helvetii defeated by Julius Caesar. Ptolemy Auletes goes to Rome. Berenice, his eldest daughter, reigns in his absence. The Romans depose Ptolemy, king of Cyprus, and SYNCHRONOLOGY. 149 B.C. seize that land. Cato is charged with that commis- sion. 57 Cicero recalled from banishment. Sallust expelled from the Senate. Gylf reigns in Sweden. The early history of Sweden is involved in fable and obscurity. Gabinius, a Roman commander, defeats Alexander, and besieges him in the castle of Alexandrion. Alexander surrenders, with all his strong places. 56 Aristobulus escapes, returns into Judea, and endeav- ors to repair the castle of Alexandrion ; is hin- dered by the Romans, who put his little army to flight. He flies to Machaeron with a design to for- tify it, but is presently besieged in it. After some resistance, he is taken and sent a second time pris- oner to Rome. Pompey makes himself master of Caina, in which the treasures of Mithridates were laid up. 55 Caesar passes the Rhine, defeats the Germans and Gauls, and invades Britain. Ptolemy Auletes, king of Egypt, by money induces Gabinius to come into Egypt to restore him to the throne. John Hyrcanus furnishes Gabinius with provisions for his army, and writes to the Jews in Pelusium to favor the Romans. Gabinius and Antony restore Auletes to the entire possession of his dominions. While Gabinius is in Egypt, Alexander, son of Aristo- bulus, wastes Judea. Gabinius defeats him at the foot of Mount Tabor. 54 Caesar invades Britain a second time, and conquers part of it. Crassus succeeds Gabinius in the government of Syria. Passing into Syria and finding the province quiet, he makes war with the Parthians. 53 He comes to Jerusalem, and takes ten thousand tal- ents out of the temple. He marches against the Parthians, is defeated and killed, and his army cut to pieces by the Parthians under Surenas, at Sinnaca, in Mesopotamia, June 9. 52 Pompey sole consul. 51 Death of Ptolemy Auletes. He leaves his dominions to his eldest son, and eldest daughter, the famous Cleopatra. 150 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. B.C. 51 Caesar completes the conquest of Gaul, which becomes a Roman province. 50 The Roman civil war begins on the 22d of October, when the Senate ordered Caesar to disband his army. Caesar • besieges Pompey in Brundusium, Decem- ber 26. A water mill on the Tiber at Rome. 49 Pompey sails from Brundusium January 3. Caesar enters it on the 4th, and comes to Rome about the 19th. He besieges Marseilles in the spring, and defeats Pompey's lieutenants in Spain in the sum- mer. Returns to Rome in September, and passes into Epirus October 15. 48 Battle of Pharsalia, between Julius Caesar and Pom- pey, in which the former obtained a great and mem- orable victory, May 12. Caesar's loss was but about twelve hundred, while Pompey is reported to have lost twenty-five thousand, besides twenty-four thou- sand prisoners. Pompey flees into Egypt, where lie is treacherously slain by order of Ptolemy the younger, then a minor, and his naked body thrown upon the strand, where it lay till it was burned by his faithful freedman Philip. Antipas, or Antipater, made governor of Judea. Ponthinus and Achillas, the young king's guardians, deprive Cleopatra of her share in the government, and drive her out of the kingdom. The Alexandrian library of four hundred thousand volumes burned. 47 Death of Ptolemy Dionysius, king of Egypt. Ca?sar places Cleopatra upon the throne with Ptolemy, her youngest brother. m The war of Alexandria. That city taken by Julius Caesar. He conquers Pharnaces, king of Bos- phorus. Caesar, having finished the war in Egypt, comes into Syria. Confirms Hyrcanus in the high priest- hood. Antigonus, son of Aristobulus, remonstrates to Caesar, but Caesar is prejudiced against him by Antipater. Antipater takes advantage of the indolence of Hyrca- nus, makes his eldest son, Phazael, governor of Jerusalem, and Herod, another of his sons, gov- ernor of Galilee. SYNCHRONOLOGY. 151 B.C. 47 Herod is summoned to Jerusalem to give an account of his conduct; but finding himself in danger of being condemned, retires to his government. 46 Caesar passes into Africa. Cato fortifies himself in Utica. On the approach of Caesar, he disdains to flee, and, rather than fall alive into the conqueror's hands, he stabbed himself, after he had read Plato's treatise on the immortality of the soul, and died February 5, in the fifty-ninth year of his age. This year is called the year of confusion, because the calendar was corrected by Sosigenes, an Egyptian astronomer. He proposed to regard the year as con- sisting of three hundred and sixty-five and a quarter days, and to keep the average year accurate by the intercalation of one day in four years. 45 The first Julian year began January 1. Hyrcanus sends ambassadors to Julius Caesar to re- new alliances, which was done in a manner very advantageous to the Jews. Caesar rebuilds Carthage and Corinth. Battle of Munda, fought March 17, between Caesar and the republican forces of Rome, under Labienus and the sons of Pompey. Caesar obtained the vic- tory after an obstinate and bloody battle, and by this blow put an end to the Roman republic. Pom- pey lost thirty thousand men, and Caesar only one thousand, and five hundred wounded. Julius Caesar at this time is made perpetual dictator of Rome, and the empire of the Caesars begin. 44 Antipater, by permission from the Romans, rebuilds the walls of Jerusalem. Caesar killed in the Senate House by Brutus, Cas- sius, and the other conspirators, having killed eleven hundred and ninety-two thousand men. After the death of Julius Caesar, the ambassadors of the Jews are introduced into the Senate, and obtain their whole request. The Jews of Asia confirmed in their privilege of not being compelled to serve in the wars. A comet seen in China. 43 Cleopatra poisons her brother when he comes of age to share the sovereign authority according to the laws. She afterwards declares for the Roman tri-? umviri. 152 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. B. C. 43 The second triumviri of Octavius, Antony, and Lepi- dus began November 27. Cicero put to death December 7. Battle of Mutina. Cassius demands seven hundred talents from Judea. Malchus causes Antipater to be poisoned, but his sons, Phazael and Herod, revenge his death by that of the murderer. 42 Antigonus,. son of Aristobulus, excites disturbances in Judea; but is vanquished by Herod. Cassius and Brutus defeated at Phiiippi in two bat- tles, having an interval, in October. Cassius orders one of his frecdmen to kill him, which he does with the same sword that wounded Caesar. Brutus, af- ter the death of his friend Cassius, kills himself by falling upon his own sword. 41 Cleopatra goes to Antony at Tarsus, in Cilicia. She gains the ascendant of him, and carries him with her to Alexandria. The short Persian war, in which Antony's brother Lucius is overpowered by Octavius. 40 The Parthians, having obtained many advantages against the Romans, slay Phazael, make Ilyrcanus prisoner, and appoint Antigonus king of Judea; but Herod, fleeing to Rome, is there constituted king by the ruling party. 39 Herod besieges Jerusalem. Lepidus is expelled from the triumvirate. Pacorus, general of Parthia, defeated by Ventidius, fourteen years after the disgrace of Crassus, and on the same day. 37 Jerusalem taken by Socius and Herod the Great, being by birth an Edomite, and a Jew only as pros- elyted. This terminates the government of the Maccabees. 36 Sextus Pompeius conquered in Sicily. Cleopatra obtains from Antony a grant of Phoenicia, Cyrene, and Cyprus. 33 Antony makes himself master of Armenia, which be- comes a Roman province, and brings the prisoners to Cleopatra. Coronation of Cleopatra and all her children. Rupture between Caesar and Antony. Cleopatra ac- companies the latter, who repudiates Octavia at Athens. SYNCHIiONOLOGY. 153 B.C. 32 War begins between Octavius and Antony. 32 Atticus, a Roman knight and author, whose works are lost, dies, aged seventy-seven years. 31 Battle of Actium, between the fleets of Octavianus Caesar on the one side and Mare Antony and Cleo- patra on the other; and which decided the fate of Antony, three hundred of his galleys going over to Caesar. Fought September 2, This battle made Augustus (the title afterwards conferred by the Sen- ate upon Caesar) master of the world ; and the com- mencement of the Roman empire is usually dated from this year, the republic becoming a monarchy. Marc Antony drives Ariarathes out of Cappadocia, and sets Archelaus in his place. On the death of that prince, Cappadocia becomes a Roman prov- ince. At the instance of Marc Antony, Herod attacks and subdues Malchus, king of Arabia Petrea. Octavius (afterwards Augustus Caesar), having van- quished Mark Antony, Herod with difficulty suc- ceeds in making his peace with him. Herod seizes Hyrcanus, who attempted to take shel- ter with the king ot the Arabians, and puts him to death. 30 Herod goes to Rome to make his court to Augustus. Obtains the confirmation of the kingdom of Judea. Antony, being falsely informed of the death of Cleo- patra, attempts to kill himself. His wound not being mortal, he is carried to Cleopatra, who drew him up by a cord from a window of the monument where she had concealed herself. Here Antony soon after died of his wounds in the arms of the queen. Cleopatra destroys herself by the bite of an asp, not to fall into the hands of her conqueror. Egypt is reduced to a Roman province at her death. Golden age of Roman literature. First standing army in Rome. Silk and linen manufactories in the Roman empire. The end of the kings of Alexandria, two hundred and ninety-three years after the death of Alexander the Great, who died on his return to Babylon, April 21, 323 B. C, at the age of thirty-two years and eight months. Direct trade of Rome with India. 154 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. B.C. 29 Ephesus, next to Alexandria, the chief place of trade in the Eoman empire. Octavius's three days' triumph at Rome. The temple of Janus closed, there being now a gen- eral peace. Rome contains four millions one hundred and one thousand and seventeen citizens. Augustus comes into Syria, passes through Palestine, and is magnificently entertained by Herod. Herod, in a furious rage and jealousy, puts to death Mariamne, his beloved wife, who was descended from the Maccabees. 28 And the year after, Alexandra, her mother. 27 Octavius, by a decree of the Senate, January 13, le- gally obtains the title of Augustus Caesar, and the absolute power of the state. Treasures of Egyptian art brought to Rome. The Pantheon built. 26 Herod, to conciliate the Romans, occasionally con- forms to heathen observances, winch greatly dis- gusts the Jews. Salome, Herod's sister, divorces herself from Costo- barus. 25 Herod rebuilds Samaria, and calls it Sebaste, from the Greek word Sebastos, or August, which was the title given to the Roman emperor. In the same year he takes great care to relieve the Jews, under the pressure of a grievous famine, which conciliated their minds towards him. The Egyptians adopt the Julian year. About this time flourished Ovid, Tibullus, Propertius, and ^Emilius Macer, poets ; Livy, historian ; Mecae- nas, minister of Augustus, patron of literature; Varrus and Tucca, critics; Strabo, geographer; Agrippa, warrior, and patron of the arts, &c. Coin first used in Britain. The Germans withstand the attempts of the Romans to subdue them, although they conquer some part of them. 22 Pantomimic dances on the Roman stage. Herod undertakes several buildings, contrary to the religion of the Jews. He builds Csesarea of Pales- tine. The conspiracy of Muraena against Augustus. 21 Augustus visits Greece and Asia. SYXCHRONOLOGY. 155 B. C. 21 Athens finally subjected to Borne. 20 Augustus gives Trachonitis to Herod. One hundred and ninetieth Olympiad. The Roman ensign recovered from the Parthians by Tiberius. 19 Aqueducts constructed by Agrippa. Herod undertakes to rebuild the temple at Jeru- salem. P. Virgilius Maro (Virgil), called the prince of Latin poets, born at Andes, a village near Mantua, seventy years B. C, on October 15, died September 22, aged fifty-one years. His Georgics, written a few years after the ten Bucolics, is considered the most perfect of all Latin composition. The iEneid, his great epic poem, was begun, as some suppose, at the particular request of Augustus. 18 Juba, king of Mauritania, and historian, died. 17 The secular games celebrated at Rome. Dedications of books first introduced. 16 Herod makes a journey to Rome to recommend him- self to Augustus. Lollius defeated by the Germans. 15 Cantabria, Austrin, Rhoebia, Vindelencia, and Moesia become Roman provinces, being conquered by Dru- sus. Herod marries his two sons, Alexander and Aris- tobulus. 14 Herod comes to meet Agrippa, and engages him to visit Jerusalem. Polemon conquers Bosphorus. 13 Augustus assumes the title of Pontifex Maximus. Domestic divisions in Herod's family. Salome, Phe- roras, and Antipater at variance with Alexander and Aristobulus. 12 The legions distributed over the provinces in fixed camps, which soon grew into cities. Among them were Bonn and Mayence. Caeeilius Lsidorus, of Rome, left to his heirs four thou- sand one hundred and sixteen slaves. Pannonia, conquered by Tiberius, becomes a Roman province. 11 Germany subdued by Germanicus. Herod goes to Rome and accuses his two sons, Alex- ander and Aristobulus, to Augustus. 156 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. B.C. 10 The solemn dedication of the city of Caesarea, that Herod had built in honor of Augustus. 9 Augustus continues the Jews of Alexandria in their ancient rights and privileges. Herod causes David's tomb to be opened to take out treasure. New disturbances in Herod's family. 8 Archelaus, king of Cappadccia, goes to Rome with Herod. He reconciles his son-in-law Alexander to his father Herod. Temple of Janus shut by Augustus. Augustus corrects the calendar by ordering that the next twelve years be without intercalation. The style was altered by ordering leap year to be ob- served but once in four years, and the month Sex- tilis to be called Augustus. Horatius Quintus Flaccus (Horace), a celebrated Latin poet, born at Venusia, a town of Apulia, B. C. 65; died aged fifty-seven. 7 Herod makes war in Arabia. G He is accused to Augustus of killing several Arabs. Tiberius retires to Rhodes for seven years. 5 Herod condemns and slays his two sons, Alexander and Aristobulus. Antipater, son of Herod, aims at the kingdom. The artifices of Antipater are discovered. Herod sends Antipater to Rome. The census or register of estates and families through- out Judea was made at this time; but the taxes were not imposed or collected until some years after. Q. Varrus appointed governor of Judea. The angel appears to Zacharias while offering incense in the temple, and informs him of the approaching conception and birth of his son John the Baptist (Luke i. 2(5). 4 Cymbeline, king of Britain. Birth of John the Baptist, six months before the birth of Jesus. Jesus Christ born at Bethlehem about the close of the four thousandth year of the world, and the fourth year before the vulgar Christian era. 3 Circumcision of Jesus Christ. Purification of the Holy Virgin. Jesus presented in the temple forty days after his birth. SYXCHROXOLOGY. 157 B.C. 3 Flight into Egypt. Herod in vain attempts to murder the infant Saviour, but cruelly massacres the male children near Beth- lehem. He puts his son Antipater to death on an accusation of treason and parricide, and five days after dies himself, in the most dreadful manner. Archelaus goes to Rome to procure of Augustus the confirmation of Herod's will in his favor. Archelaus succeeds Herod, his father, in Judea. Idu- mea, and Samaria. Herod Antipas in Galilee and Petraea, and Philip in Auronitis, Trachonitis, Paneas, and Batanaea. Mary, with the child Jesus, returns out of Egypt, and settles at Nazareth, in Galilee. 2 An impostor assumes the character of Alexander, son of Herod and Mariatnne. 1 Archelaus takes the high priesthood from Joazar, and gives it to Eleazar. A~ D- The Vulgar iEra, or Anno Domini; the fourth year of Jesus Christ. 1 Caius Caesar makes war with the Parthians. 2 Tiberius returns to Rome. 4 The leap year corrected, having formerly been every third year. 6 Quintus Varrus. encamped on the TVeser, governs Lower Germany like a Roman province. 8 Archelaus. the son of Herod, having been convicted of maladministration in his government, is deposed and banished into Gaul; and Judea is made a prov- ince of the Roman empire by Quirinius, or Cyre- nius, governor of Syria, who first levied the taxes according to the census, or register, before made; and Coponius is placed over it. Thus the sceptre was departing from Judah, for Shiioh was come, though not manifested. In this year. Jesus, being twelve years old. went up to Jerusalem, and at the temple sat in the midst of teachers of the law, both hearing them and asking them questions. Judas the Gaulonite, as he is termed by Josephus, opposed the levying of taxes by Cyrenius ; but he was soon cut off, and all his followers dispersed. 9 The Germans under Arminius defeat and kill Varrus. Ovid is banished to Tonios. 158 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. A. D. 9 Cornelius Celsus, the physician ; Phaedrus, the fabu- list; Velleius Paterculus, Roman historian. 10 Marcus Ambivius succeeds Coponius as procurator of Judea. 12 Tiberius is admitted to share the authority with Au- gustus, whence it is supposed his fifteen years are dated (Luke iii. 1.). 13 Annius Rums succeeds Marcus Ambivius. 14 Augustus dies at Nola, and is succeeded by Tiberius, his adopted son, 15 Who appoints Valerius Gratus procurator of Judea. The age of Asinius Gallus and Germanicus. 17 Twelve cities in Asia destroyed by an earthquake. Germanicus conquers Cappadocia. 19 Germanicus, poisoned by Piso, dies at Antioch. The Jews banished from Rome. The Marcomanni conquered by Drusus. 20 Tiberius expels from Italy all who profess the Jewish religion or Egyptian superstitions. 21 Arminius killed. The theatre of Pompey destroyed by fire. 23 Valerius Gratus removes Annas, the high priest, and substitutes Ismael, the son of Fabus. Eleazar, the son of Annas, is made high priest. 25 Simon, the son of Camith, is made high priest in the place of Eleazar. 26 Joseph, surnamed Caiaphas, the son of Annas, is made high priest instead of Simon. The retreat of Tiberius to Capreae. The Druids in Germany. Pontius Pilate is made procurator of Judea, and in the same year John begins his ministry. Jesus, entering upon the thirtieth year of his age, comes from Galilee to the Jordan, and is baptized of John ; at which time a most illustrious manifes- tation is made of the blessed Trinity ; for the Son of God ascending out of the water, and praying, the heavens are opened, and the Spirit of God, in the shape of a dove, descends upon him ; and the voice of the Father is heard from heaven, saying, " This is my beloved Son, in whom I am well pleased." Luke iii. 22. (Doddridge.) 27 Fifty thousand men are said to have been killed by the fall of an amphitheatre at Tridena. SYXCHRONOLOGY. 159 A. D. 27 Great fire in Rome, which consumed all the quarter of Mount Celius. 28 John the Baptist slain by order of Herod Antipas, at the instigation of Herodias, in the seventeenth year of Tiberius. (This was the seventeenth of his prin- cipality, but the fifteenth of his monarchy, for he was joint emperor with Augustus prior to the death of the latter.) Transfiguration of Christ. 29 Revolt of the Frisians, which is soon terminated. Conquest of Mauritania. Jesus retires to Ephraim, on the Jordan, to avoid the snares and malice of the Jews at Jerusalem. He comes to Jerusalem, to be present . at his fourth and last passover. Institutes the Lord's Supper ; is betrayed and crucified. His resurrection and appearance to many. Ascension into heaven, and the miraculous effusion of the Holy Ghost. (The date of the crucifixion varies in different chronol- ogies, being placed in some as late as 33.) Miserable death of Judas, the traitor. About this time flourish Philo, Alexandrian Jew, dis- ciple to Plato ; Seneca, moral philosopher ; Vale- rius Maximus, historian, and Appion, of Alexandria, grammarian, called the '* Trumpet of the World." After Christ's ascension, the apostles are warned by two angels to depart, and to set their minds upon his second coming ; they accordingly return, and giving themselves to prayer, choose Matthias to be an apostle in place of Judas. On the day of Pentecost (May 24), the Holy Spirit descends on the apostles in the form of cloven tongues, like as of fire, enabling them so to speak, that people of all nations heard them in their own language. Peter the same day preached Christ and the resurrection, and declares that this was what the prophet Joel had foretold (Joel ii. 28), and shows that Jesus, whom they crucified, was the true Mes- siah, and had risen from the dead. About three thousand believers are added to the church (Acts ii.). Peter and John heal a man at the gate of the temple who had been lame from his birth (Acts iii.). The rulers of the Jews, offended by Peter's sermon and the miraculous cure of the lame man, cast Peter and John into prison, and when brought be- 160 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. A. D. fore the Sanhedrim for trial, they boldly avouch the lame man was healed by the name of Jesus, and declare their resolution to persist in preaching in his name. They are severely threatened and dismissed (Acts iv.). 30 Ananias and Sapphira are suddenly struck dead for hypocrisy. The apostles are again apprehended by the high priest and cast into prison, but are set at liberty by an angel. Being again found teaching in the temple, they are brought before the council, but by the prudent advice of Gamaliel, a Pharisee and doctor of the law, are discharged. 31 The number of believers increasing at Jerusalem, the apostles ordain seven deacons, who should distrib- ute the alms of the whole church to the widows and poorer sort of believers. Stephen, one of these deacons, disputing strenuously with the Jews, is brought before the Sanhedrim. Being accused of blasphemy, he makes a long defence, but is in- terrupted in it, and tumultuously stoned to death, Saul heartily concurring in the execution (Acts vi., vii.). A great persecution of the church at Jerusalem fol- lows the death of the first martyr, Stephen, where Saul makes havoc of the church, who are all dis- persed but the apostles, and go into other parts and preach the word (Acts viii. 1-5). Philip, one of the seven deacons, preaches Christ at Samaria, where many are converted. Simon, the sorcerer, seeing the wonders that are done by Philip, professes to believe, and is baptized. The apostles at Jerusalem, hearing that Samaria had received the word, send Peter and John to confirm and enlarge the church. Simon Magus offers the apostles money for power to confer the Holy Ghost; his hypocrisy is detected, and he is sharply re- buked by Peter. Having preached the word in many villages in Samaria, the two apostles return to Jerusalem (Acts viii. 5-15). Sejanus, a native of Tuscany, who had distinguished himself at the court of Tiberius, is seized by order of the emperor, and strangled in prison the same day, for his conspiracy against Tiberius, whom he had before persuaded to retire to Capreae. Death of Nero, eldest son of Germanicus. SYNCHRONOLOGY. 161 A. D. 32 An angel sends Philip to teach and baptize the Ethi- opian eunuch (Acts viii. 26). 33 Galba, afterwards emperor, is consul this year. Death of Drusus, son of Germanicus. Saul, setting out for Damascus with a commission from the high priest and the council to apprehend and bring bound to Jerusalem all Christians in those parts, is converted by Christ's appearing to him on the way, who bids him go to Damascus, where he should learn what he must do. Three days after, he is baptized, and preaches Christ at Damascus with great boldness, and confounds the Jews, proving that Jesus is the true Messiah (Acts ix.). He then goes into Arabia and preaches there ; from whence he returns to Damascus, where the Jews seek to kill him, but he makes his escape in the night (Gal. i. 17; 2 Cor. xi. 32, 33). 35 Troubles and revolutions among the Parthians and Armenians. 36 Commotions in Cappadocia, which are soon quelled by the Romans. Tiberius declares himself friendly to the Christians, and wishes to enroll Christ among the gods, but is opposed by the Senate. Fire at Rome, which destroyed part of the circus, and the quarter of Mount Aventine. Three years after Saul's conversion, he returns to Jerusalem, and is introduced by Barnabas to Peter, and James, the brother of our Lord, and remains with them fifteen days (Gal. i. 18) ; but being again in danger from the Jews, the brethren conduct him to Caesarea, and sent him away to Tarsus ; and from thence he travels into Syria and Cilicia. The persecution ceases, and the churches have rest, and are multiplied. 37 Peter makes a journey through the neighboring parts, visiting the churches in Judea, Samaria, and Galilee. At Lydda he cures Eneas of the palsy, and raises Dorcas from the dead at Joppa (Acts ix. 32, 33). Tiberius dies. Caligula becomes emperor of Rome. Disgrace and death of Pilate. 38 Caligula makes Herod Agrippa, grandson of King Herod- by his son Aristobulus, and nephew to Herod Antipas, who beheaded John the Baptist, 11 162 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. A. D. and brother of Herodias, and father to King Agrippa, tetrarch, or king, of Galilee. 38 Matthew writes his Gospel about this time. The believers who had been scattered throughout Phenice and Cyprus, since the persecution which followed the martyrdom of Stephen, come now to Antioch, and preach the gospel to the Greeks there, having before preached to none but Jews. 39 Herod the tetrarch goes to Rome, in hopes of obtain- ing some favor from the emperor ; but Caligula, be- ing prepossessed by Agrippa, banishes him to Lyons. 40 The church at Jerusalem, hearing that a great num- ber of Greeks had believed at Antioch, send Barna- bas thither to confirm them. He goes to Tarsus, takes Saul along with him to Antioch, where they remain a whole year, converting multitudes to the faith. 41 Cornelius, a devout centurion, by divine admonition sends to Joppa for Peter, who, in obedience to the divine command, comes with his messengers to Csesarea, preaches the gospel to him and his friends, though Gentiles, and receives them into the church by baptism (Acts x.). Peter returns to Jerusalem, is questioned by the breth- ren for conversing with the uncircumcised ; his ac- count of the matter being satisfactory, they acqui- esce, and bless God for his grace to the Gentiles. The emperor Caligula slain on the fourth day of the Palatine games. He is succeeded by his uncle Claudius Caesar. Seneca banished to the Island of Corsica. War of the Romans against the Germans and Jews. Mauritania reduced into a Roman province. The Jews quit Babylon, and retire to Seleucia. Claudius adds Judea and Samaria to Agrippa's do- minions. Agrippa takes the high priesthood from Cantharus, and gives it to Matthias. 42 The disciples first called Christians at Antioch. 43 Claudius invades Britain with his general, Plautius. Agrippa deprives Matthias of the priesthood, and be- stows it on Elioneus. Agabus comes to Antioch from Jerusalem, and fore- tells an approaching famine. A collection is resolved upon for the poor brethren in Judea, SYNCHRONOLOGY. 163 X. D. which is sent to Jerusalem by the hands of Barna- bas and Saul. 44 About this time, James, the brother of John, is be- headed by order of Herod Agrippa ; he also impris- oned Peter, who is delivered by an angel. The same Herod, not long after, being extravagantly applauded at Caesarea, is smitten by an angel of the Lord, and being eaten of worms, dies (Acts xii.). Barnabas and Saul, having executed their commission, and carried the contributions to the poor brethren at Jerusalem, return to Antioch, and bring with them John, surnamed Mark. Vespasian fought thirty battles with the Britons, took twenty of their towns, subdued two of the British nations, and possessed himself of the Isle of Wight. 45 An eclipse of the sun occurs on the birthday of the Emperor Claudius. To prevent the superstitious drawing thence any inauspicious omens concerning him, he caused notice to be posted up some time before it happened, giving a physical explanation of the phenomenon. The dreadful famine predicted by Agabus rages in Judea (Acts xi. 27, 28). Vespasian general in Britain. Cuspius Fadus sent into Judea as governor. Barnabas and Saul being set apart, by order of the Holy Spirit, to preach the gospel to the Gentiles, attended by John, they plant the Christian faith in Seleucia, Cyprus, and other places. At Paphos they preach the gospel to Sergius Paulus, governor of that country. Elymas, a sorcerer, with- standing them, and endeavoring to turn away Ser- gius from the faith, is, at Saul's rebuke, struck blind. From this time Saul is called by his new name, Paul. From hence they sail to Perga, in Pamphylia, where John, departing from them, returns to Jerusalem. 46 Paul and Barnabas go on to Antioch, in Pisidia, where Paul makes a long discourse in the synagogue. The Jews gainsay and blaspheme, but the Gentiles believe and desire to hear him again ; whereupon he and his associates turn to the Gentiles. A persecu- tion being raised against them by the Jews, they are driven away, and go to Iconium. Many converts are made there, both of Jews and Greeks. The 164 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. A. D. ~~~^ unbelieving Jews stir up the multitude against them, and they depart to Lystra, where they cure a lame man, for which they are taken to be gods by the people, who are hardly restrained from sacrificing to them (Acts xiv. 18). 46 The Jews, having followed them thither, persuade the people to stone Paul, who, being- left for dead, re- covers and goes with Barnabas to Derbe, from whence they return to Pisidia and Pamphylia; and sailing from Attalia, come back to Antioch, in Syria, where they call the church together, and report the wonderful success of their ministry among the Gentiles. Paul and Barnabas continued a long time with the disciples at Antioch. Cuspius Fadus recalled; the government of Judea given to Tiberius Alexander. Asinius Gallus, half brother to Drusus, son of Tibe- rius, conspires against the emperor, and is banished. Thrace, which had hitherto its own king, is made a Roman province. About this time a new island appears in the JEgean Sea. It is named Therasia by Seneca. 47 The emperor takes upon himself the title of Censor. Secular games celebrated at Rome in honor of the eight hundredth year of Rome. Claudius adds three new letters to the Roman alpha- bet, the names of two of which only remain ; the JEolic digamma, which answers to our v ; and the Antisigma, which answers to a p and an s joined together. Many of the greatest men of Rome put to death by Claudius, to gratify the revenge and covetousness of Messalina, his wife. Commotions in the East, and in Germany. 48 Claudius, the emperor and censor, causes a census of Rome to be taken, by which he finds the number of citizens to be six million nine hundred thousand. Herod, king of Chalcis, takes the pontificate from Joseph, son of Camides, and gives it to Ananias, son of Nebedeus. Herod, king of Chalcis, dies. Ventidius Cumanus made governor of Judea, in place of Tiberius Alexander. SYNCHRONOLOGY. 165 A D. 48 The Gauls admitted into the Senate, and to the digni- ties of the empire. 49 London founded by the Romans. Troubles in Judea under the government of Cuma- nus. Seneca recalled from banishment, and made preceptor to A grip pa's son. 50 Columella, born in Spain, left twelve books on hus- bandry. Cologne founded by Agrippina. 51 Great dearth in the Roman empire. The Britons, making incursions into the Roman set- tlements, are vanquished by P. Ostorius Scapula, and Caractacus, the British king, sent in chains to Rome. The Jews expelled from Rome, under the reign of Claudius. Felix sent governor into Judea, instead of Cumanus. 52 The Jewish converts urge the necessity of circum- cision. Debates arise at Antioch ; and Paul and Barnabas, with some others, are sent to consult the brethren at Jerusalem. Passing through Phoenicia and Sa- maria in their way, they come to Jerusalem, where the matter is debated in a full assembly. After Peter and James had spoken for their liberty, the celebrated decree is made in favor of the Gentile converts. They send back messengers, with Paul and Barnabas, with the decree, to Antioch. After making some stay there, Judas returns to the apostles, but Silas chooses to continue longer there. Peter comes down to Antioch, and is publicly re- proved by Paul for dissimulation in his conduct. Paul with Silas, and Barnabas with John, surnamed Mark, set out in different directions to visit the churches they had planted. Paul and Silas travel through Syria and Cilicia, and several provinces of the lesser Asia, and come to Derbe and Ly>tra ; where having associated Timo- thy with tiiem, they go on to Phrygia, Galatia. and Mysia, and from thence come to Troas, where they are called to Macedonia. Being joined by Luke at Troas, they sail from thence, and cross the sea to 166 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. A.D. Europe, passing by Samothracia toNeapolis, where they land, and go to Philippi. 52 The aqueduct at Rome, begun fourteen years before by Caligula, finished this year by Claudius. 53 Nero's marriage with Octavia. Paul and his companions having preached at Philippi, Lydia is converted, and receives them into her house. They cast a spirit of divination out of a cer- tain maid servant who had brought her master much gain. The master, thereby losing considerable gain, brings Paul and Silas before the magistrates, who cause them to be scourged and thrown into prison. The jailer, ready to kill himself, is converted to the faith, and, with his whole household, baptized the same night. On pleading they were Romans, the magistrates come themselves the next day and dis- miss them ; and, having visited the brethren, they depart out of Philippi. Passing through Amphipolis and Apollonia, they come to Thessaloniea, where Paul having preached in the synagogue, and planted a Christian church, the unbelieving Jews stir up the mob against them, and oblige them to depart. Being come to Beraea, they are received more can- didly by the Jews there, many of whom, and of the Greeks, believe. But being followed thither by the Jews of Thessaloniea, Paul goes awa} T to Athens, appointing Silas and Timothy to follow him. Paul, greatly moved at the idolatry which prevailed at Athens, disputes with the philosophers, and de- clares unto them that unknown God whom they had ignorantly worshipped. He converts Dio- nysius the Areopagite, and then passes to Corinth, where he finds Aquila and Priscilla, and. lodging at their house, works as a tent-maker for the space of one year and six months, but preaches every Sabbath day to the Jews and Greeks. 54 Silas and Timothy come to him here ; and Paul, re- jected by the Jews, turns to the Gentiles, many of whom believe and are baptized. Paul is accused by the Jews, and brought before Gallio, proconsul of Achaia. who refuses to be judge in a controversy about religion, and so drives them away from the judgment seat. Claudius, the emperor, dies, being poisoned by the SYNCHRONQLOGY. 167 A. D. Empress Agrippina. He is succeeded by Nero, his wife's son, a profligate and bloody tyrant. 55 Britannicus, son of Claudius Caesar by Messalina, poisoned by the emperor, his brother. War of the Romans against the Parthians. Paul departs from Cenchrea, where, in performance of a ^ ow which he had made, he shaves his head. From thence he sails to Ephesus, where he leaves Aquila and Priscilla, whom he had brought with him from Corinth, — and spending but one Sabbath there, as he was hastening to the passover, pursues his voyage to Csesarea, where he lands and goes up to Jerusalem. There he salutes the church, and, having kept the feast, returns to Antioch, in Syria. Having continued there some time, Paul sets out on another progress (which was the third that began from thence since his conversion), in which he visits the Asiatic churches, and especially those of Galatia and Phrygia. Apollos, in the mean time, preaches at Ephesus, and being further instructed in the Christian religion by Aquila and Priscilla, goes over to Achaia, and preaches at Corinth, and other places in that prov- ince. 56 While Apollos was watering what Paul had planted at Corinth, Paul comes to Ephesus, where some. of John's disciples, being instructed by him, are bap- tized, and receive the Spirit (Acts xix.). 57 Having taught there in the synagogue for the space of three months, meeting with opposition from the Jews, he separates the disciples, and discourses daily, for two years, in the school of Tyrannus. He performs extraordinary miracles, while the ex- orcist Jews are beaten by a demoniac they would have dispossessed ; and preaching the gospel with such success that many believe, and burn their magical books. 58 Paul thinks of setting out for Macedonia and Achaia, from whence he would go to Jerusalem, and after- wards to Koine ; but sending Timothy and Erastus into Macedonia, he alters his design, and tarries some time longer in that part of Asia. Demetrius, the silversmith, raising a tumult against him, the mob is enraged, and cries out for Diana. Paul is 168 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. A.D. advised not to venture among them. The chancel- lor comes and appeases the tumult. 58 The Druids massacred. Armenia totally subdued by Corbulo, a prefect of Belgium, while governor of Syria, who, having routed the Parthinns, destroyed Artaxata, and made Tigranes king of Armenia. 59 Paul, leaving Timothy, who was now returned to him at Ephesus, departs from thence, and, having crossed through Troas in his way, crosses the sea to Macedonia, where he visits the several churches, gathering a contribution as he passes for the poor brethren in Judea. In this journey lie writes his Second Epistle to Timo- thy, as also, probably, his First Epistle to Timothy. From Macedonia he goes on to Greece, where he visits the churches at Corinth, and in the neighbor- ing parts of Achaia; and having finished his collec- tions, after three months' abode there, being now- ready to embark for Syria to avoid the Jews, he chooses to return by Macedonia. Agrippina, Nero's mother, is put to death by his or- der. •Laodicea, one of the most famous cities in Asia, de- stroyed by an earthquake. 60 Christianity said to have been preached in Great Britain. The pantomimes recalled by Nero. Appearance of a comet, by which the vulgar are greatly alarmed. The city of Puteoli, or Pozzuoli, obtains from Nero the title of August or Imperial Colony. China. Religion of the followers of Fo commenced about this time. After the days of unleavened bread, Paul sails from Philippi and comes to Troas. There he restores Eutychus to life. Having passed through several cities of Greece, he arrives at Miletus ; from thence he sends to call the elders of the church of Ephe- sus, whom he earnestly exhorts to the performance of their duties. Notwithstanding the repeated warnings of inspired persons of what the Jews would do to him, Paul resolutely goes up to Jerusalem. He is appre- hended in the temple, and confined in the cas- SYNCHRONOLOGY. 169 A. D. tie ; he claims the privilege of a Roman citizen, and thus escapes scourging. 60 Paul pleads his cause hefore Ananias, the high priest. The chief captain, understanding that above forty Jews had bound themselves, under a curse, neither to eat nor drink till they had killed him, sends him to Felix, the governor of the province, by whom he is imprisoned at Caesarea. On hearing Paul's discourse before him and his wife Drusilla, Felix trembles, and puts him off to an- other opportunity. 61 The Britons form a league to recover their indepen- dence. They take advantage of the absence of Sue- tonius Paulinus, their governor, to take up arms against the Romans. Boadicea, the British queen, defeats the Romans, killing seventy thousand in various places ; but the Britons are at last defeated by Suetonius, the Roman general, with the loss of eighty thousand. Pedanius Secundus, prefect of Rome, assassinated by one of his slaves. King Agrippa confers the high priesthood on Israel, the son of Phabius. 62 Nero puts the Empress Octavia to death. Aulus Persius Flaccus, the poet, dies in the thirtieth year of his age. When Paul had been in custody two years, Felix goes out of office, and is succeeded by Porcius Festus, but to gratify the Jews, he leaves Paul a prisoner. The Jews come to Csesarea, accuse Paul before Fes- tus. Paul makes his defence, and to avoid his sending him to Jerusalem, appeals to Caesar. King Agrippa and Bernice coming to visit the new governor at Caesarea, Festus opens the whole mat- ter to Agrippa. Paul, being permitted to speak for himself, makes such a defence before Agrippa that he is almost persuaded to be a Christian, and declares he might .have been set at liberty if he had not appealed to Caesar. Paul is shipped for Italy, with some other prisoners, in custody of a centurion, and is attended in his voyage by Luke and Aristarchus. Having suffered much in a storm, Paul is assured by an angel that none of them should perish. The storm continues many days, and they at length are ship- 170 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. A. D. wrecked on the coast of Malta ; but all get safe to land. They are treated with great kindness by the inhabitants there, and after three months' stay, they depart for Rome. 63 When they were come to Rome, Paul is allowed to dwell in his own hired house there, while the rest of the prisoners are delivered to the captain of the guard. Soon after his arrival, Paul has an audience of the Jews, and gives them an account of the Christian faith; but most of them being hardened in their unbelief, he declares the salvation of God is sent to the Gentiles. He spends two years confined to his own hired house, preaching the things concerning Christ to all that came to him. Here ends the history of the Acts of the Apostles, written by St. Luke, St. Paul's beloved companion in his travels. On the fifth of February a violent earthquake oc- curred in Campania, which destroyed a great part of the city of Pompeii, at the foot of Mount Vesuvi- us, and did considerable damage to Herculaneum. About this time Nero reduced the Cottian Alps into a Roman province, after the death of Cottius. The Parthians vanquished by the Romans under Corbulo. Tiridates, king of Parthia, lays down his crown at the foot of Nero's statue. James, the brother of our Lord, is, according to Eusebius, thrown down from the pinnacle of the temple, and stoned ; and a fuller, striking him on the head with a club, kills him. 64 The emperor of Rome sends two centurions up the Nile to discover its source; but the centurions fail in their expedition, being stopped by the cataracts and marshy grounds. Great fire in Rome, by which more than two thirds of this great city is consumed. Nero, charging the contiagration of the city upon the Christians, per- secutes them witli all manner of cruelties and tor- ments. First of the ten heathen persecutions before Con- stantine. The Jews revolt from the Romans, and pelt their SYNCHRONOLOGY. 171 k.V. governor Florus, with stones, which begins the first Jewish war. 65 Several great men conspire against the emperor; but the plot is discovered. Death of Seneca and Lucan. Campania wasted by an epidemical sickness and great tempests. Great fire at Lyons, which nearly consumed the whole city. Nero made the inhabitants of this city a present of four millions of sesterces (about thir- ty-two thousand pounds), toward repairing their losses. About the latter end of this year, St. Paul is set at lib- erty, and a little before his departure out of Italy into Asia, he writes his Epistle to the Hebrews. He preached the gospel in the Isle of Crete, and leaves Titus there to set things in order, and or- dains elders in every city. 65 Tiridates receives the crown of Armenia at the hands of Nero. ■ 66 Vespasian sent by Nero to make war against the Jews. Disturbances in Caesarea between the Jews and the idolaters who inhabited that city. The Jews of Caesarea slain to the number of twenty thousand, All Syria filled with slaughter by the battles between the Jews and the Syrians. Caestius Gallus, governor of Syria, comes into Judea. He enumerates the Jews at the passover, in Jerusa- lem, besieges the city, is defeated by the Jews, and retires. The Christians leave Jerusalem, and fly to Pella, in Ccelosyria. Josephus, Jewish historian, made governor of Galilee. 61 Vespasian invades Judea with an army of sixty thou- sand men, and carries fire and sword wherever he goes. Immense numbers of the Jews are slain in the various sieges. Eleven thousand six hundred Samaritans, who had assembled on Mount Gerizim, slain by order of Vespasian. Joppa taken and destroyed by the Romans. Death of Corbulo. Vespasian subdues Galilee. Josephus surrenders him- self to Vespasian. St. Paul and St. Peter are sup- 172 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. A. D. posed to have suffered martyrdom at Rome, near the close of Nero's reign. 67 Cerintlms was the first Ciiristian writer against the divinity of Christ. (The divinity of Christ was adopted at the Council of Nice, A. D. 325, by two hundred and ninety-nine bishops against eighteen.) 68 Vespasian takes all the places of strength, in Judea, about Jerusalem. Dread calamities in Jerusalem occasioned by the Zealots, who divide themselves into two different parties, and murder one another by thousands, committing the most horrible cruelties. The Emperor Nero is obliged to flee from Rome on account of his great cruelties. He takes refuge at the house of one of his freedmen, where he kills himself. Galba is declared emperor by the Senate. 69 Galba is slain seven months after the death of Nero, and Otho is proclaimed emperor. * A civil war ensues between Otho and Vitellius, who had been saluted emperor by the army; Otho's army is defeated at the battle of Bedriacum, upon which Otho kills himself, after a reign of three months ; he is succeeded by Vitellius. Civil war between Vitellius and Vespasian. Vespasian acknowledged emperor by a great part of Italy and the western provinces. The capital be- sieged and taken by Vetellius's soldiers. The Batavians, under Civilis, revolt from the Ro- mans, over whom they obtain two great victories. 70 Vitellius is killed, after a reign of eight months, and Vespasian succeeds him in the empire. Josephus set at liberty. Vespasian orders the capital to be rebuilt, the first stone of which was laid on the 21st of June. Titus, the son of Vespasian, sent by the emperor to besiege Jerusalem. The city is taken by the Ro- mans, Sept. 7, and all the awful predictions of our Lord, as well as those of the ancient prophets, are exactly accomplished. The city is desolated, the temple destroyed, so that not one stone is left on an- other. Josephus reckons that not less than eleven hundred thousand persons perished in this siege by fire, sword, misery, and famine. If to this be added the number killed in the battles outside of Jerusa- STNCHROXOLOGY. 173 A. D. lem, and in taking the several towns the Romans stormed, it will be found that the Jews lost, in the whole course of the war, thirteen hundred and fifty-seven thousand six hundred and sixty men. The number of prisoners during the war, according to the same historian, amounted to ninety-seven thousand. 70 The remnant of the Jews are scattered to all nations, and dispersed among them. 71 Magnificent triumph of Vespasian for his victories over the Jews. Peace being reestablished in the earth, the temple of Janus is shut. This is the sixth time of its being shut, according to Orosius. 73 The philosophers expelled from Rome. Vespasian conquers Lycia, Rhodes, Thrace, Cilicia, Byzantium, and Samos. 75 Dedication of the temple of Peace. Vespasian places in it the golden vessels belonging to the temple of Jerusalem, and great numbers of the finest perform- ances of the best artists and sculptors. 75 Nero's colossus, erected by his order at the entrance of the golden palace, is dedicated to Apollo, or the sun, by Vespasian. 76 Three cities in the Island of Cyprus destroyed by an earthquake. 77 A great plague in Rome. Ten thousand persons said to have died in one day. 78 Agricola appointed governor of Britain. Scotland circumnavigated. 79 Vespasian dies, and is succeeded by his son Titus. Herculaneum, Pompeii, and StabiaB overwhelmed by an earthquake of Mount Vesuvius. Pliny, the naturalist, loses his life, while employed in examin- ing this dreadful phenomenon. 80 Terrible fire at Rome, which raged three days and three nights. Many public buildings were de- stroyed, including the Pantheon, the Octavian li- brary, and the Capitol, which had not long been rebuilt. 81 Titus dies, and is succeeded by his brother Domitian. 83 Domitian's expedition against the Catti, a people of Germany. The emperor returns without having seen the enemy, but causes triumphal honors to be decreed him. It 174 NEW TESTAMENT MANUAL. A. D. is supposed that about this time he assumed the surname Germanicus. 84 Sabinus is made colleague with Domitian in the con- sulate. The Caledonians defeated by Agricola with the loss of ten thousand men. The fleet of Agricola sails round Great Britain. Be- fore this circumnavigation was made, the Romans were not sure that Britain was an island. 85 Domitian orders the nativity of all the great men in Rome to be cast; and such as were said to be born for empire he destroyed. Philosophers banished from Rome by Domitian. Fulvius is made colleague this year, with the emperor, in the consulate. 86 Capitoline games instituted by Domitian, and cele- brated every fourth year. The Dacian war begins tins year, according to Euse- bius. The Dacians enter the Roman provinces, and make great depredations, but are at last completely over- thrown by Julianus. 88 The secular games celebrated at Rome. 89 Domitian banishes the astrologers from Rome. 93 St. John banished to Patmos by Domitian, and there receives and writes his Revelation. 95 The second persecution against the Christians com- mences, and continues until the death of Domitian, the next year. 96 Domitian put to death by Stephanus, and is succeed- ed by Nerva. 97 About this time Timothy is stoned. St. John returns to Ephesus, and, at the request of the Christians, writes his Gospel. 98 Nerva dies, and is succeeded by Trajan, a great sov- ereign and warrior. Christian assemblies prohibited by Trajan. His persecutions of the Christians are stopped by the interference of the humane Pliny; but he was severe upon the Jews, who had murdered two hun- dred thousand of his subjects. The Roman empire at its greatest extent. The Ulpian library ; public schools in all the prov- inces ; jurisprudence flourishes j the city adorned SYNCHRONOLOGY. 175 4. D. with the Forum; pillar of Trajan, and baths; a bridge built over the Danube. 100 The Huns emigrate westward. St. John dies at Ephesus, aged ninety-four years. Persons interested in the events recorded in history before and after the period included in the foregoing pages, are referred to a larger work, by the same author, entitled, " Synchronology of Sacred and Profane History, from the Creation to the Present Time," from most of which this " Synchronology" is copied. SYNCHRONOLOGY — OF THE — PRINCIPAL EVENTS Sacred and Profane History, From the Creation of Man to the Present Time* Compiled from the most Authentic Sources, by STEPHEN HAWES. 8vo. Cloth. $3.50. LEE & SHEPARD, Publishers, BOSTON. TESTIMONIALS. From the Massachusetts Teacher. To every student of history this compilation is one of great value. It gives, in carefully prepared tables, the names of the successive rulers of every country in the world, with their appropriate dates ; a very full record of events, in chronological order, from the creation of man to the close of 1868 ; a biographical index, whereby easy reference is made to particular events ; and a list of battles, with their several dates. Those who have oc- casion to teach history will find this work very useful. The chief events of the contemporaneous history of all countries, in all ages of the world, are here seen at a glance ; the period in which any historical person lived is found in a moment ; in a word, the outlines of all his- tory are here presented in one panoramic view. We heartily recommend the work. It can be obtained by application to the publishers. Prom the Maine Journal of Education. This book will interest the student of history, as well as the general reader ; but its value to teachers is beyond all price. It is multum in parvo — the quintessence of many libraries condensed into a single volume. We can unhesitatingly commend this work as one that will be of great practical use to teachers in their work, and one of constant and permanent value in the family as a work for reference and consultation. Prom the Morning Star. We have looked through this work with an increasing conviction of its general accuracy and value. As a work of reference, it deserves a place by the side of every student, and writers in every department of litera- ture will find it a labor-saving and convenient epitome of history. Prom the Bureau of Information. We have carefully examined every page of this work, and believe that among the ten thousand events recorded therein there is not one that cannot be verified by other reliable histories. For general use we consider it indis- pensable. From the New York Tribune. It enables one to see at a glance what happened at any particular time in all parts of the world. It seems to be quite complete, and we have discovered in it no serious errors. From the Harvard (College) Advocate. The compiler has spent a great deal of time in the ar- rangement of this book, and has succeeded in giving us one of the most valuable books for reference of the present day. From the Pioneer. It is a work of great labor in the compilation, and should have a place in the family next to the Webster Unabridged. From the Weekly Chronicle. It is printed on good paper, thoroughly bound in cloth, and well worth the price asked. Every one should have it. From the Albany Evening Journal. It is an exceedingly valuable work. The examination we have been enabled to give it satisfies us that it has been carefully prepared, and fills a place unoccupied by other chronological works. We therefore commend it as a work of great value and reliability. Prom the Banner of Light. We know of no one book that so conveniently con- denses and summarizes the history of the world for the enjoyment and use of the reader, the student, and the literary worker. Prom the Hudson Register. Our school superintendents have acted wisely in intro- ducing this work into the public schools, and it should certainly have a place in every family. Prom Warren Johnson, A. M., SupH Public Schools, Maine. I have examined and used your " Synchronology " with great satisfaction, and can most cheerfully testify to its value and convenience. Prom Hon. T. W. Bicknell, Commissioner Public Schools, Rhode Island. This work is a valuable compend of universal knowl- edge. Prom the Gazette and Courier. It is remarkably correct and reliable. MANUAL BIBLE SELECTIONS RESPONSIVE EXERCISES PUBLIC AND PEIVATE SCHOOLS OF ALL GRADES, SABBATH, MISSION, AND REFORM SCHOOLS, AND FAMILY WORSHIP. BY MRS. S. B. PERRY. " Thy Word is a lamp unto my feet, and a light unto my path." — Ps. cxix. 105. 44 The grass withereth, the flower fadeth : but the word of our God shall stand for ever." — Is a. xl. 8. NOTE. The Responsive Exercises and Lessons which comprise the first sixty-five pages of "Perry's Bible Manual " are issued in separate form. The Introduction, Table of Contents, and Chapter to Teachers, being the same in both. The work is issued in the following styles and prices : — In cloth binding $1.00 Leather backs 60 Responsive Exercises .... .30 LEE AND SHEPARD, Publishers, Boston. INTRODUCTION. Hon. Schuyler Colfax, giving an account of the early Washingtonian Temperance Reform, quotes the fifth article of their organization thus : " No creed in Religion and no party in Politics to be recognized, and no political or religious ac- tion to be introduced into their operations." He says : " This last point was carried even farther than this, some objecting to prayer at the open- ing of their meetings ; but this prejudice rapidly disappeared, and the distinction was made there- after between Sectarianism and a Reverential Acknowledgment of the Divine" It is just this distinction, so well expressed, that we need to make in our use of the Bible and Devotion in our Public Schools. In the work of Education, as in the Temperance work, all forms of faith and no faith meet, and must mingle har- moniously. Let Sectarianism disappear, but Rev- erential Acknowledgment of the Divine — never ! As Parents and Teachers, Boards of Education and State Authorities, as a Republican nation, IV INTRODUCTION. we cannot afford to dispense with this acknowl- edgment of God as a purifying, invigorating ele- ment in the education of the young. " When the people that are to be — the chil- dren of to-day — are assembled for the profound purposes of education ; when, from all these vari- ous beliefs and no beliefs, they come together to prepare for perpetuating the Republic which se- cures these very rights, — and for that was every free school throughout our borders founded, — then must these differences be forgotten, and only the great fact borne in mind, that we are to per- petuate a Christian Republic ; that Reverence to God is our corner-stone, and that constant recog- nition of Him, as such, is both a duty and a ne- cessity." — Miss Seymour, in Old and New. Certain truths are common to all Christian be- lievers. Certain portions of the Bible most clear- ly present those truths. And such selections of Scripture are proved by experience to be best adapted to the use of the young in school. They are indicated by the aim we have in view, namely, to impress the great elementary truths admitted by all, whether Roman Catholic or Protestant ; to inculcate those Bible precepts which lie at the foundation of all religious teaching. This " Bible Manual " is an attempt to select and arrange these fundamental truths in a convenient form for the use of schools. Every Exercise or Selection has INTRODUCTION. V been subjected to at least two test questions. First, Does this passage convey the same truth, — not exactness of mere words, but exactness of meaning, — whether read from Catholic or from Protestant versions of the Bible ? Secondly, Does this passage, by a simple and natural read- ing of it, convey truth accepted by all Christian believers ? In making the Selections, leading representa- tives of all denominations have been consulted; and we trust the book has been so carefully and candidly prepared that it may prove accepta- ble to all, and that it may help to solve the great question now so widely discussed, — " Shall the Bible be banished from our Public Schools?" — by showing how the Bible may be retained in a true spirit and practice of Christian reciprocity. As Teachers, have we not felt the need of such a guide-book ? If we attempt simply the reading of the Scriptures as a matter of daily routine, we find that a wise selection is of the utmost impor- tance. But many of us have been obliged to own that this method has often proved weak and in- effectual. It is next to impossible, unless the reader has something new, something exciting, in this age of excitements, to hold the attention of any considerable number of children, listening to that in which they take no part. And there is danger lest by a listless, inattentive reading of VI INTRODUCTION. the Word we rob it of future power. There is a better method ; one far more attractive and powerful in its influence upon the young. It is that of responsive concert recitation or reading of the Bible text. For this practice, " Responsive Exercises " have been here arranged, hoping this may yet prove the favorite method for daily use. It is believed that this Manual may prove equally acceptable to Sabbath Schools, giving the best selections for devotional reading, al^o Respon- sive Recitations to vary the regular services of Sabbath School and Sabbath School Concert. To High Schools, Academies, and Colleges it is recommended as furnishing in convenient form such selections from Scripture as are best adapted to morning devotional services. To Parents it may prove an efficient helper on the Sabbath. To all children and youth it pre- sents the Bible in an intelligible and inviting as- pect. It is here affectionately dedicated to all who love the Oracles of God, and would have them written in letters of light upon the memory and the heart of the young ; who would give them an honored place and a living power in every school, to charm the heart of childhood, and to instruct and purify the heart of youth. TESTIMONIALS. The manuscript of this Manual was submitted by the author before publication to eminent clergymen of different denomina- tions, and to gentlemen interested in the general subject of edu- cation. Impressed with the importance of the plan, and aware of the difficulties attending its successful execution, they exam- ined the work with care and thoroughness, and from the opinions given by them, the following are selected that the public may know the views of those, who, as all will acknowledge, are emi- nently qualified to judge of its merits. Many other letters might be given, but the following are sufficient to show that the "Man- ual " is what it professes to be and therefore is worthy the confi- dence of the public. From Hon. Joseph "White, Secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education. Commonwealth of Massachusetts, State House, State Library, and Office of Board of Education, Boston, September 14, 1870. I have examined carefully and with deep interest the Bible Manual pre- pared by Mrs. S. B. Perry for the use of schools. In my judgment it is an excellent book, evincing rare skill and good taste in the selection and arrange- ment of such portions of Scripture as shed a Divine light upon the great doc- trines of life, duty, and immortality, in which all Christian people of what- ever denomination agree. Its general use in the family and the school cannot fail to lay broader and deeper the foundations of a religious education, without which all other is a delusion and a sham. From Rev. Wm. Barrows, D. D. Acting Secretary Congregational Publishing Society. No. 13 Cornhill, Boston. A very desirable work, and most happily executed. A careful examination of the manuscript has been a pleasure to me. The range of topics is very wide and varied, adapted to our highest and lowest institutions of learning, where Bible reading is properly a daily exercise. The different seasons of the year, the changing phases of nature, the ordinary and extraordinary occasions incident to school life, the Christian virtues and great moral lessons of life, — all have their appropriate selections. For family readings and Sabbath- school openings the book must have great value. The selections are made and arranged with perfect fidelity to the context, and the les ons are such ss to be entirely unexceptionable to Christians of any shade of faith. The editorial judgment, taste, and skill are admirable. The entire volume is such a com- pilation of the literary beauties and, at the same time, moral teachings of the Bible, in lessons adapted to occasions, that it must meet a want long and deeply felt — and never before so well met — by those who have need to use daily the Scriptures in public. TESTIMONIALS. From Rev. Samuel L* Jackson, D. D. Assistant Secretary Board of Education, Commonwealth of Massachusetts, State House, State Library, and Office of Board of Education, Boston, July 11, 1870. The " Bible Manual " I have examined with unexpected interest and with great satisfaction. Its object is of the highest importance, and I rejoice that a work has been prepared so admirably adapted to attain it. Its plan and method are executed with so much judgment, skill, and especially with such perfect regard to all varieties of opinion and belief, that I see not how any person of any sect or denomination, who is really in favor of any moral and religious instruction in our schools, can object to its use. From Rev. Andrew P. Peabody, D. D« Harvard University. Harvard University, June 17, 1870. I have examined Mrs. Perry's book of Scriptural Selections and Responsive Exercises from the Bible. She has, in my opinion, performed the work with great skill, with a pure devotional taste, and with a fine perception — derived from her own long experience as a teacher — of the needs of teachers and schools. I can see many reasons why such a manual is much to be preferred to the entire Bible for use in schools, and I feel confident that this is, in judicious selection, in the proportion of parts and subjects, and in compre- hensiveness, fully equal to the best works of the kind that liave appeared. I believe that it would receive the warm approval of the best teachers and friends of education. From Rev. Mark Hopkins, D. D. President of Williams College. Williams College, July 4, 1870. So far as I have been able to examine the plan and the Selections of Mrs. Perry, they meet my hearty approval. From Rev. A. A. Miner, D. I>. President of Tufts College. Boston, June 22, 1870. Having examined the little work in course of preparation by Mrs. Perry, consisting of Services and Selections from the Scriptures for the use of teach- ers and pupils in our public schools, I am of the opinion that it is excellently well adapted to its purpose. The services are well arranged and the selections wisely made- Its convenience must be at once appreciated by all. If any such work is allowed to take the place of the Bible as a whole, a better than this is scarcely to be expected. To all who desire Biblical Selections made ready at their hands, I would heartily commend Mrs. Perry's book. From George B. Emerson, IX. D. Boston, June 16, 1870. I have carefully examined the book of Bible Selections prepared by Mrs. Perry, and am so entirely pleased with it that 1 should rejoice to see it in- troduced into every school, public and private, in the country. It contains the great truths of religion in the belief in which all Christians are united, and the great principles of morality to which all good men, everywhere hold. From Rev. Alexander H. Vinton, D. D. Emmanuel Church. Boston, June 8, 1870. I take great pleasure in writing my approval of Mrs. Perry's plan of using the Scriptures in our schools. It presents those parts of the sacred teaching which are most valuable to TESTIMONIALS. all, in a way which makes them especially available to the young ; and so re- lieves that branch of school exercise from the objections commonly made to reading the Bible indiscriminately. I sincerely hope, therefore, that Mrs. Perry will easily find a publisher for her work, the fruit of experience and of earnest zeal in the cause of right education. From Rev. Phillips Brooks, D. D. Boston, June 4, 1870. I have examined with much interest and with considerable care, Mrs. Perry's arrangement of Selections from the Bible for school use, and am much impressed with the justness of the plan on which the selection has been made, and the apparent faithfulness and success with which it has been carried out. It must certainly be of great use to teachers, and help to pre- serve with the school use of the Bible, that interest and vividness of reverence which alone can make it desirable that it should be retained. I hope that her work may come before the public and be found useful. From Rev. L.. J. Livermore, Secretary of the Unitarian Sunday School Society. Boston, May 31, 1870. I have examined the Scripture Lessons prepared by Mrs. S. B. Perry for use in common schools. I thiuk the plan is based on a practical and judi- cious view of what is likely to do good, and it is carried out with a skill and taste that could only come from experience in school life, and a pure religious feeling It seems hardly possible that the work, if put into a neat and con- venient form should fail to find a ready welcome in every school room. It would be almost equally a pleasant and profitable manual for Sunday schools and for the family. From Rev. John Todd, D. D. PlTTSFIELD, AugUSt 8, 1870. Our mutual friend, Mr. White, read to me quite a number of your Bible Selections And while I don't pretend I could have made as good a selection, yet I can admire what others do : and I pronounce them admirably executed. They will, I doubt not, be highly appreciated and useful. I wish you every success. From Rev. S. Irenseus Prime, D. D. Senior Editor of the Neiv York Observer. New York, June 2, 1870. On my return from Williamstown, I embrace an early moment to return to you my thanks for the opportunity you gave me of examining portions of Mrs. Perry's Selections from Holy Scripture for use in schools. The plan is admirable : the execution appears to be happy, judicious, unex- ceptionable : and I regard the idea as well fitted to secure, under most ad- vantageous circumstances the perusal of God's Word in our primary institu- tions From Rev. John W. Olmstead, D. D. Editor of the Watchman and Reflector. I have examined with much satisfaction the manuscript of a manual of Biblical Selections compiled by Mrs. S. B. Perry, which I hope erelong to see in print. It is intended both for school and family use, and >eems to meet successfully the chief difficulties in the great question of Bible reading in our schools Subjects are well classified, the arrangement is good, the taste in the selec- tion of topics and texts excellent, and the volume gives the gems of Scripture, genuine teachings of Holy Writ, in a manner that commends the work to all denominations. Mrs. Perry's plan and its execution are indorsed by leading clergymen and 4 TESTIMONIALS. gentlemen interested in education and morals, and the long years of experi- ence and practical trial of her Manual have given her an opportunity to test its value. The separate exercises or readings are so presented as to interest the pupil, and convey the honest meaning of the texts. This attempt to solve the questions now agitating the people is well nvorth examination by all good citizens. From Rev. Gilbert Haven, D. D. Editor of Ziorts Herald. 36 Bromfield Street, Boston, June 20, 1870. I have examined a Bible Manual prepared by Mrs. S B. Perry for the use of schools. I think it a very valuable compend of Scripture and well adapted for the use of public and Sabbath schools. Every church can adopt it with- out violation of its principles, and the public schools will find in it nothing that conflicts with the feelings of the most sensitive objector. I hope it will be universally used. From Rev. Pliny Wood, Rector Trinity M. Episcopal Church. Cambridge, June 19, 1870. I have examined with some degree of care Mrs. Perry's Scripture Selec- tions and Responsive Exercises from the Bible for use in schools : and most cordially recommend it as being well calculated to interest, instruct, and lead the scholar to a decidedly devotional frame of mind. I can but bid her God speed in her chosen work, which I heartily do. From Rev. Henry M. Dexter, D. D. Editor of the Congregationa/ist and Boston Recorder. No. 15 Corn hill, Boston, May 31, 1870. I have examined the plan and execution of Mrs. Perry's Manual of Selec- tions from the Bible for use in schools and have been favorably impressed by them. And entirely aside from the question of the retaining of the whole Bible in schools or its rejection from them, it seems to me that her plan pro- poses an extremely interesting, effective, and useful style of school exercise ; and that she has managed it so well as to avoid all reasonable — aud 1 think indeed I might safely add unreasonable — denominational prejudice j so that no objection could lie against it anywhere. From Rev. George W. Blagden, D» I>. Old South Church. Boston, June 20, 1870. The longer I have thought of your selections from the Scriptures for reading in schools, the more hopeful I have felt that they may lead to union among those who may now have convicting (pinions respecting the reading of the Bible as a school exercise by the pupils. Your selections contain the essentials of religion. They have been made with taste. And they are admirably adapted to awaken the attention, and excite the emotions and exercise the conscience of the young. From Rev. George Gannett, Principal of the Chester Square School. I am entirely satisfied that the plan of your work is one of superior excel- lence. The Selections which you have made, are such as convey ail the essential truths of our common < 'hristianity 5 and ought to be more than acceptable to every believer in the Bible as an inspired book. If your book is published, as I trust it soon will be, T shall certainly adopt it as a text-book in my school } in which case we should probably require about a hundred copies annually. TESTIMONIALS. From Rev.. Edward N. Kirk, D. D., Boston. So far as I have examined your Manual, I think it will help us in our effort to save the sy3tein of American Education from becoming utterly Pagan. It is not the Bible, but a judicious selection from its contents, which I shall be surprised if all who love the Bible do not accept, as furnishing in- structors the very guide they have needed in using the Sacred Word in the exercises of the school. God save the youth of America from an education that disregards the Bible ! From Austin Phelps. Theological Seminary. Andover, Mass., November 11, 1870. The Manual of Biblical Selections by Mrs. S. B. Perry appears to me to be skilfully adapted to its purpose. Its materials are chosen with good judg- ment, its rauge of topics is extensive, and the arrangement is faithful to the connections of Biblical thought The volume bears evidence throughout of the experience of a Christian teacher in the use of the Bible. From S. H. Taylor. Phillips Academy, Andover. A careful examination of Mrs. Perry's Bible Selections and Responsive Exercises satisfies me that the book is very happily adapted for the use of schools. The selections are made wit 1 excellent taste and judgment, and contain nothing to waich any one who believes in the great truths of the Bible can object. I trust the volume may come into general use in our schools, as it cannot fail to interest and profit those who adopt it as a manual of devotion. Mr dear Mrs. Perry, — If the accompanying statement in regard to your Manual will be of any service to yon, yon are at liberty to use it either in whole or in part. You have done an invaluable service in the preparation of this book, and I pray that you mav he abundantly rewarded for it Very truly yours, S. H. TAYLOR. From Gideon L,. Soule. Phillips Academy. Exeter November 25. 1870. I have examined with deep interest the Bible Manual which you so kindly placed on my table It is excellent, and must be welcomed by all who believe in our need of the moral teaching of the Scriptures. I hope you will be rewarded by its introduction into our schools generally. I am sure they would be made bet- ter by it, and the people through tiiem. From Rev. Thomas "Wilson, Chairman School Committee, Stoughton, Mass. Stoughtox, December 8, 1870. The Bible Selections and Responsive Exerci-es compiled by Mrs. S. B. Perry have just been introduced into all the Public Schools of this town. The teachers have been supplied with the Manual, and they are all greatly grati- fied with it. It meets a want which has long been felt, but which hitherto has not i.een suitably provided for. Tnis excellent compilation fully answers all the reasonable requirements of such a Manual The admirable taste s iowii in ks preparation, and its entire freedom from scorni-ian bias, commeij'i ir strong! n a* a material help toward the solution of the question of " tne Bible in Schools." TESTIMONIALS. From A. St. John Chambre, Professor of Mental and Moral Philosophy, Dean College, Franklin, Mass. Stoughton, Mass., December 10, 1870 Mrs. Perry's Manual of Bible Selections and Responsive Exercises lias re- ceived from me the consideration such a work justly demands. Deigned not to displace the Bible, but to deepen reverence and love for it, by presenting in con- venient form, for short readings and responses, its richest treasures, it seems to me admirably suited for the uses of Sunday Schools Private Schools gen- erally, and especially our " Common Schools." Such a Manual in the public schools would do much toward settling the vexed question of the " Bible in Schools." I have not anywhere found any arrangement of Scripture by Mrs. Perry desigued to teach a controverted dogma. Her work has been done with evi- dent conscientiousness, reverence, and affectionate zeal for truth. No reasonable person, that would not wholly shut out the Bible from our schools, could object to these readings. From Rev. Asa Smith, D. D. President of Dartmouth Coll* gt . Dartmouth College, Feb. 24, 1871. Mrs. Perry's book seems to me well suited to its end, — the very important one of promoting the systematic, orderly, and intelligent use of the Bible in our institutions of learning. From Prof. E. T. Quimby. Dartmouth College Hanover, N H., Jan 10, 1871. I have examined Mrs. Perry's Bible Manual, and have introduced it to our Sabbath School. I am much pleased with the plan of the book and the man- ner in which it has been executed. I think it will be the means of inspiring a new interest in the Scriptures wherever it is used. If the book meets with the success it deserves it will find a large sale. THE BEST SUNDAY-SCHOOL SINGING-BOOK 18 SABBATH SONGS FOR CHILDREN'S WORSHIP. By Leonard Marshall, assisted by J C. Prootor and Samuel Burnham. A new book of Hymns and Tunes for use in Sabbath Schools. Paper, 30 cents. Boards, 45 cents. ■ ■ 1 r Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process. 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