'^ir lE 178 .E421 I Copy 1 S LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, g &^ gUNITED STATES OF AMERICA. tij* ^jp v*^-s*^ *;i^ ■^:> ^*^ -.•-' NA> ^.j^ 'Ci^ MANUAL 3 OP 2^ UNITED STATES HISTORY, FROM 1492- TO 1850. / By SAMUEL ELIOT, AUTHOR OF A HISTORY OF LIBERTV, AND PROFESSOR OF UISTORY AND LITERATURE IN TRINITY COLLEGE. BOSTON: HICKLING, SWAN, AND BROWN, 1856. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1856, by HiCKLiNG, Swan, and Brown, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts. ELECTROTYPED AT THE BOSTON STEREOTYPE FOUNDRY. PEEFACE. I HAVE written this book to supply a want felt by otliers, as well as by myself. We have looked in vain for a work, of moderate extent, in which the leading principles and the leading facts of our history are set forth side by side. To provide such a volume for the reader and the student is the object of the following Manual. In writing it, I have endeavored to observe the proper proportions. The same space is not given to every period or to every transaction. On the contrary, events are narrated at greater or less length according to their im- portance—a few days occupying as many pages in some parts of the volume as a long series of years in others. By thus making inferior matters subordinate, I trust that I have done more justice than might be anticipated from the appearance of the book to the great passages in our histoiy. It is nowhere, however, a book of details. I have confined myself intentionally to outlines — endeav- oring to sketch these in such a way as to suggest com- (iii) iv PREFACE. prehensive conceptions of tlie whole, rather than complete views of any single part. In the last division of the work, I have entered upon dangerous ground. Party feelings are still active in rela- tion to many of the movements and many of the men described in my later chapters. It is vain to hope that the views which I have taken will be every where accept- able. But I can conscientiously say that I have written of the latest, as of the earliest occurrences, without a sensation of partisanship, or of devotion to any cause less universal than the cause of truth. The character of the publication not admitting frequent notes or large citations, it is right for me to state that, while I have principally relied upon original authorities, I have also followed later writers to a considerable degree. To some works — Irving's Columbus, O'Callaghan's and Brodhead's Histories of New York under the Dutch, Sparks's Appendixes to the Writings of "Washington, Los- sing's Field Book of the Revolution, Duyckinck's Cyclo- paedia of American Literature, and Hildreth's History of the United States — I am under obligations which duty and inclination alike compel me to acknowledge. CONTENTS. PART I. OCCUPATION. CHAPTER I. EuaOPE BEFORE 1492. Europe — Acti\ity there — Material movement, 3. Intellectual move- ment—Moral movement, 4. General elevation — Monarchy in Europe — Discovery of America, 5. CHAPTER II. Columbus. Early life — Project of discovery, 7. His motives, 8. Voyage of dis- covery — The west the possession of Spain, 9. Other voyages of Co- lumbus, 10. His spirit — Name of America — A new world, 11. CHAPTER III. Spanish Settlements. Spanish adventures — Ponce de Leon in Florida — Various expedi- tions, 13. Luis de Cancello — Melendez, 14. De Espejio and Vizcaino — Motives, 15. Institutions — Circumstances— Extent of Spanish claims, 16. CHAPTER IV. , Erench Settlements. New France— Carolina: Fate of its Huguenots, 17- Expedition to avenge them— Acadie and Maine: De Mouts and De Saussayc, 18. a* (v) Vi CONTENTS. Canada: Champlain — Collisions ■^^'ith the English, 19. Priests and missionaries — Other settlers — Institutions — Circumstances, 20. Ex- tent of French claims, 21. CHAPTER V. English Settlements. Section 1. — Early movements — England and Columhus — Voyages of the Cabots, 22. Interval: Gilbert and Drake, 23, Raleigh — Failures of his colonies, 24. Gosnold and others — 111 success of the English, 2-5. Section 2. — Companies — Organized efforts, 25. Patent of Virginia, 26. London Company : Members and colonists — Jamestown — New charters, 27. Fortunes of the colony — Institutions, 28. An infant colony — Fall of the company, 29. Virginia a royal province — Growth of the colony, 30. Pl}inouth Company : Members — Colonization attempted, 31. Va- rious proprietors and companies — Settlement of Plymouth, 32. Its dis- tinction in history, 33. Political forms — Spirit, 34. Grants — Attempt at general government — Chaos, 35. New Hampshire and New Somerset- shire — Cape Ann and Salem, 36. Company of Massachusetts Bay — Boston, 37. Increase and independence — Charter government, 38. Pu- ritan principles — External relations — Internal relations, 39. Connecti- cut, 40. Providence and Rhode Island — Dissolution of the council, 41. End of companies — Position of New England — Thomas Morton, 42. Section 3. — Proprietors — Grant of Maryland, 43. A proprietary gov- ernment — Religious liberty — Troubles, 44. Other proprietors — Con- clusion- — English motives, 45. Institutions — Circumstances — English names, 46. CHAPTER VI. Dutch Settlements. Group of traders — Spirit in Holland — Dwindled in America — Hud- son's voyage, 47. Company of New Netherland, 48. Proposals of the Plymouth Puritans — West India Company — Walloon colony, 49. New Amsterdam — Patroons, 50. English claim^s, 51. Trade of the colony, 52. CHAPTER VII. S-svEDiSH Settlements. • Idea of Gustavns Adolphus — Oxenstiern calls in Germany — Results, 54. Opposing claims, b5. CONTENTS. Vii CHAPTER VIII. Indian Races. European races — Indian races — Names and numbers, 56. Algon- quins — Iroquois, 57. Mobilians — Customs and institutions, 58. In- fluence upon the European — Counter influence upon the Indian, 59. African race — The country, 60. CHAPTER IX. Europe from 1492 to 1638. The great change — Its cause and character — Luther's course, 61. Divisions — A crisis of good and evil, 62. Religious consequences — Political consequences — Spain, 63. France — Holland, 64. Sweden and Germany — England, 65. Intellectual expansion, 66. PART II. ENGLISH DOMINION. CHAPTER I. England and France from 1638 to 1763. Question of precedence — Reign of Louis XIV. — The monarchy, 69. The church — The nation, 70. Reaction — The English nation — Pe- riods of trial — Revolution of 1688, 71. Aristocracy in power — Eng- lish progress, 72. England and France, 73. CHAPTER II. The Thirteen Colonies. Old and new colonies — Plymouth annexed — Maine annexed, 74. New Hampshire — Massachusetts, 75. Connecticut — Rhode Island — Four colonies in New England, 76. Virginia — Maryland, 77. Caro- lina, North and South, 78. New York, 79. New, Jersey, 80. Pennsyl- vania, 81. Delaware — Georgia, 82. Aspect of the thirteen, 84. vjii CONTENTS. CHAPTER III. Colonial Relations. Races — Classes, 8-5. Of the old world, 86. Institutions belong to the freemen — English law, 87. Colonial governments, 88. Towns, 89. Assemblies, 90. Churches — Persecution in Massachusetts: Child, 91. Baptists, 92. Saltonstall's remonstrance — Dunster of Harvard College, 93. Quakers, 94. Witches, 95. Persecution elsewhere, 96. Save in Rhode Island, 97. Inter-colonial difficulties — Shaworaet and Massachu- setts, 98. United Colonies of New England, 99. Treatment of Rhode Island — Disagreements, 100. Dissensions elsewhere — Penn and Balti- more, 101. Relations to the mother country — The crown — Charles II. and Massachusetts, 102. Loss of the Massachusetts and other charters — Parliament, 104. Navigation acts — Duties, 105. Royal governors — Berkeley in Virginia — Bacon's rebellion, 106. Andros in New England, 107. Revolution — But not liberty, 108. Fletcher in New York, 109. General strictness, 110. Perils of the frontier, 111. CHAPTER IV. Indian Wars. Spirit of the Indians — Spirit of the English, 112. Missionary labors — The Mayhews aud Eliot, 113. Supports — Results, 114. Wars in Virginia and Maryland, 115. Pequot war — Narragansets, 116. King Philip, 117. War throughout New England — Destruction of the Nar- ragansets, 118. Of Philip — Peace, 119. Abenakis in arms — Peace in the centre and south — War in North Carolina, 120. In South CaroHna — With Cherokees — With western tribes, 121. Pontiac's war — Indians in Pennsylvania, 122. Other wars, but the issue decided — Later mis- sions, 123. CHAPTER V. Dutch Wars. Wars -SA-ith Indians, 125. Effect upon New Nethcrland — Intcmal re- strictions, 126. Religious persecution — Subjection of New Sweden, 127. New Amstel — English aggressions, 128. War : Loss of the province — Recovery and final loss, 130. CHAPTER VI. Spanish Wars. Spanish race — Its colony — Collisions with the English, 131. Effect on the colony — War: Attacks on St. Augustine and Charleston, 132. CONTENTS. ix Treaty of Utrecht — Second war : Descents on Florida — Third war : Georgia and Florida, 133. Fourth war : Cession of Florida, 134. Spain in Louisiana and California — Character of the Spanish wars, 135. CHAPTER VII. French Possessions. French race — New France — System of government, 136. Relations with Indians and English, 137. Acadie, including Maine — Canada, including New York, "Wisconsin, Michigan, 138. The Mississippi : Illi- nois— Louisiana, 139. French dominion — Colony in Texas, 140. Col- ony in Mississippi — Colony in Alabama — Grant to Crozat, 141. "West- ern settlements: Indiana — Loss of Acadie — Forts: Pennsylvania and Ohio, 142. Mississippi Company : Nev/ Orleans — Missouri : the thirteen of France — Vastness and weakness, 143. CHAPTER VIII. French Wars. Wars with Indians in the north — In the south — Strife between the French and the English, 144. Indecisive wars — King William's war, 145. Its character and course, 145. Religious differences — Queen Anne's war, 147. Collision in the west, 148. And in the east — King George's war, 149. Blood shed in Nova Scotia, 150. The Ohio Com- pany — Blood shed in Pennsylvania: George Washington — The final struggle, 151. Extent, 152. Losses of the English — Their subsequent victories, 153. Conclusion of the Avar — The French retire, 154. French and English compared, 155. CHAPTER IX. Colonial Development. - Development of territory — Of occupation, 156. Of habits of life — Of education, 157. Colleges — Of the press, 158. Official interference, 159. Editions of the Bible' — Intellectual development: In action, 160. In literature — In science, 161. In art, 162. Influences from abroad — Liberality in religion, 163. Church of England, 164. Project of bishops, 165. Classes : The slaves, 166. Colonies : Union, 167. Contributions to Boston, 168. X CONTENTS. CHAPTER X. The Mothku Country. Views of the mother country — Board of trade, 169. African Com- pany, 170. Colonial governors, 171. Cornbmy in New York — Burnet and Belcher in Massachusetts, 172. Clinton's appeal, 173. Parliamen- tary interference — Commercial rule, 17-i. Military rule — Impressment at Boston — A commander-in-chief of the colonies, 175. Judicial ten- vire — "Writs of assistance, 176. English dominion, 177. Effects on the colonies — Upon the mother country, 178. Temporary unity, 179. PART III. THE INFANT NATION. CHAPTER I. Provocations. Old troubles extended — Parties in the mother country, 183. Views of the colonies — Parties in the colonies, 184. The two sides — Minis- tries of the period — Point of taxation, 185. Discussion — Sugar act, 186. Stamp act — Resistance, 187. Congress — Declaration of rights and lib- erties, 188. Effect, 190. Riots — Non-importation and non-consump- tion, 191. Repeal of stamp act, 192. American rejoicings — New acts — Resistance again, 193. Massachusetts convention, 194. Act concerning trials in England, 195. Colonial divisions — Boston massacre, 196. Other disturbances, 197- Additional act concerning trials' — Tea de- stroyed in Boston, 198. And elsewhere — Slave trade, 199. Chastise- ment of Massachusetts and Boston, 200. Quebec act — Conventions and Provincial Congress in Massachusetts, 201. National spirit — Continental Congress, 202. Its work — American Association, 203. Petition and addresses — Peace or Avar, 204. Preparation, 205. CHAPTER II. War. Arming of Massachusetts — Not unprovoked or unanticipated, 206. Arming of other colonies — Course of Parliament, 207- First collision, 208. Its significance — Lexington and Concord, 209. Effect: Meek- CONTENTS. xi lenburg declaration, 210. "War in Massachusetts — Ticonderoga and Crown Point — Proceedings in Congress, 211. Washington appointed oommander-in-chief, 212. Bunker Hill -^ Washington at the head of the army, 213. Difficulties — Siege of Boston, 214. General government, 215. The thirteen complete — Militai'y operations, 216. Loyalists — Great Britain determined, 217. Washington before Boston — Recovery of the town — The victory, 218. Increasing perils, 219. CHAPTER III. Declaration of Independence. Transformation of colonies to states — Idea of independence, 220. North Carolina and Virginia — Congress — Hesitation, 221. Lee's reso- lution — Debate, 222. Committee on declaration — Resolution adopted, 223. And the declaration — The United States, 224. Plan of confedera- tion — Unity in Congress — State constitutions, 225. Divisions amongst the people, 226. CHAPTER IV. War, continued. Second Period. Three periods — Characteristics of the second period — Reception of the declaration, 227. Defence of Charleston — Loss of New York, 228. Loss of Lake Champlain and the lower Hudson — Loss of Newport, 229. Defence of New Jersey, 230. Organization of anny, 231. Dictatorship — Paper money, 232. Arrival of Lafayette, 233. Defeat of Burgoyne, 234. Loss of the Hudson Highlands — Loss of Philadelphia, 235. Washington's embarrassments — Loss of the Delaware, 236. Wickes's cruise — Cabal against Washington, 237- Army quarrels, 238. Army sufferings — Aspect of Congress, 239. Treaty with France — British conciliation, 240. Recovery of Philadelpliia, 241. Possession of Illi- nois — End of the period, 242. CHAPTER V. War, continued. Third Period. Characteristics — Failure to recover Newport, 243. British and Indian ravages, 244. Decline of American affairs, 245. Loss of Georgia — Defence of Charleston, 246. Failure to recover Savannah — Invasion of Virginia — Operations in the north, 247. Jones's cruise, 248. Spain in the war, 249. Loss of South Carolina — Failure to recover it, 250. Abandon- ment of the south — Its defence — Darkness in the north, 251. Light in xii CONTENTS. the south, 253. Holland in the war — Final adoption of the Confedera- tion, 254. Its inefficiency, 255. Defence of the Carolinas, 256. The central states in danger, 257. Crisis — American preparations, 258. De- feat of Cornwallis, 259. Effect — Prospects, 260. Evacuation of the "^outh — The European combatants, 261. Cessation of hostilities — He- lease of prisoners, 262. Treaties of peace, 263. Evacuation of the north — Troubles in the American army, 264. Disbanding — Government of the nation, 265. Washington's counsels, 263. And prayers, 267. CHAPTER VI. The Constitution. Foreign sjonpathy — Lafayette's visit, 268. "VYants of America — Organ- ization, 269. The states : Internal troubles, 270. Dismemberments — Case of Vermont, 271. Disputes between state and state — General government, 273. Organization of the north-west territory, 274. Difhcul- ties with Spain, 275. And Great Britain, 276. Dark times — Old foun- dations — Recent superstructures, 277. Heligious privileges, 278. Ec- clesiastical organizations — Suggestions of a national Constitution, 279. Conventions at Alexandria and Annapolis — Action, of Virginia, 280. Of other states and of Congress, 231. Opening of the Convention — Aspect, 282. Plans of a constitution, 283. Question of powers, 284. A national sj'stem adopted — Parties: Small states and large states — Views of state government, 285. Votes of states, 286. Agitation, 287. Parties : North and south — Apportiomnent of representation — The slave trade, 288. Details and discussions, 289. Adoption of the Constitution — Opposition in the nation, 290. Constitutional writings, 291. Adoption by the states, 292. Character of the transaction, 293. Sympathy for mankind — Literature of the revolution and the Constitution, 294. The music of Billings, 295. CHAPTER VII. Washington's Administration. Washington president, 296. Organization of government — Solem- nity of the Avork, 297. W"ashington to his fellow-Christians — The na- tion, 298. Work of Congress: The departments and the judiciary — Amendments to the Constitution, 299. Kcvcnue — Credit, 300. Man- ner of decision, 301. National bank — Parties, 302. Especially north and south — Points concerning slavery, 303. As to the territories, 304. Starting point of future strife, 305. Presidential tours — Work of the states — New states — Dependence upon Washington, 306. Animosity of parties — Insurrection in Pennsylvania, 308. Indian wars, 309. In- dian interests, 310. Heckewelder, the missionary — Tribute to Algiers, CONTENTS. xiii 311. Foreign relations — Commercial treaties, 312. Treaty with Spain — Relations with Great Britain and France, 313. Parties thereupon, 314. Washington proclaims neutrahty — Point proposed — Mission of Genet, 315. Great Britain and France invade American neutrality Threatened war with Great Britain, 317. Mission of Jay, 318. His treaty, 319. Opposition — Ptatification — Continued opposition, 320. The point gained, 321. Continued embarrassments : From abroad, 322. And at home, 323. Abuse of Washington, 324. His retirement — Lafayette, 325. PART lY. THE GROAVINO NATION. CHAPTER, I. FoKEiGx Aggressions. Party administrations, 329. Parties amongst the people — Parties in relation to foreign aggressions, 330. Missions to France — Arming of the United States, 331. War — Strain upon the nation, 332. Nullifica- tion, 333. Another mission to France, 334. Death of Washington, 335. The French mission — Difficulties with Spain, 336. Mississippi Territory : Slavery under debate — Territory of Indiana : Slavery again, 337. War Anth Tripoli — Acquisition of Louisiana, 338. Troubles abroad and at home — Chief point involved in the acquisition, 339. Organization of Louis- iana territories, 340. Other territorial and state organizations — Burr's projects, 341. Difficulties with Great Britain — Mission, 342. Affair of the Chesapeake, 343. Aspect of Great Britain and France, 344. British and French aggressions, 345. The administration against war — Em- bargo, 346. Succeeding acts, 347. Opposition, 348. Indian hostilities, 349. Louisiana and Florida — Warlike preparations against Great Brit- ain, 350. Termination of preceding strifes, 351. CHAPTER II. "War t;\'ith Great Britain. Declaration — Cause of the United States, 353. A party cause, 354. As such opposed, 355. War at home, 356. Means for the war, 357. Position of Great Britaia — Of France — The war: Losses on north- b \ xiv CONTENTS. « western frontier, 358. Perry's \'ictory on Lake Erie, 359. Operations on New York frontier, 360. Actions on Niagara frontier, 3G2. Defence of Lake Champlain — British superiority — Successes at sea, 363. Subse- quent reverses, 364. Losses upon the coast — Loss of north-eastern coast — Capture of Washington and Alexandria, 365. Defence of Balti- more — Indian foes, 366. National straits, 367. Party controversies, 368. Hartford Convention — Charges of disunion, 369. Proceedings of the Convention, 370. Results — Nullification in Connecticut and Massachu- setts, 371. Defence of Louisiana, 372. Martial law at New Orleans, 373. Reappearance of the navy, 374. Peace preliminaries — Treaty of Ghent, 375. Protection of foreigners, 376. Indian treaty — Algerine treaty, 377. Exhaustion of the nation, 378. CHAPTER III. Missouri Compromise. Foreign aiFairs —Domestic affairs, 379. Administrations — Seminole war, 380. Acquisition of Florida, 38L New states — Proposal of Mis- souri — Question of slavery, 382. Constitutional argument, 383. Two sides — Intense agitation, 384. Maine seeks admission — The compro- mise, 385. Different interpretations, 386. Admission of Missouri — Slave trade, 387. Visit of Lafayette, 388. CHAPTER IV. The Monroe Doctrine. Relations with Central and South America — Monroe doctrine, 389. Purpose, 390. Congress of Panama — An American league, 391. CHAPTER V. Taripf Compromise. Administrations — Question before the country — Georgia controversy, 392. Tariffs, 393. Nullification at the south — Removals from office, 395. Concessions to Georgia, 396. Tariff questions — Foot's resolution : De- bate, 397. Revision of tariff, 398. Nullification in South Carolina — Secession, 399. Resolution of South Carolina, 400. Resolution of gov- ernment, 401. Resolution of states — Tariff compromise, 402. Decision, 403. On the great question, 404. 1 i CONTENTS. XV CHAPTER VI. Financial Disorders. National finance — "Veto of United States Bank charter, 405. Re- moval of deposits, 406. Agitation, 407. Money troubles — Surplus revenue — Abolitionism, 408. Indian wars, 409. Disturbed foreign rela- tions — Especially with France, 410. Parties, 411. Commercial crisis, 412. Independent treasury, 413. Insolvency of states, 414. Repudiation in Mississippi, 415. National credit, 416. CHAPTER VII. Annexation of Texas. Recognition of Texas — Settlement of that state, 417. Revolution — Project of annexation, 418. Texas refused admission, 419. Relations ^A-ith Great Britain, 420. Treaty of Washington, 421. Landmark in our history — Sedition in Rhode Island : Approach, 422. Outbreak, 423. Civil war, 424. New states and territories — Movements concerning Texas, 425. Question of slavery — A compromise, 426. Consequences, 427. CHAPTER VIII. War with Mexico. Causes of War : Mexican — American, 428. Boundary of Texas, 429. Mission from United States — Hostilities, 430. Disparity of combat- ants — Oregon controversy, 431. Settlement, 432. Conquest of north- east of Mexico, 433. Conquest of Chihuahua, 434. Conquest of New Mexico — Conquest of California, 435. Operations in Gulf of Mexico — March upon city of Mexico, 437. Battles on the way — In valley of Mexico, 438. Last actions, 439. Composition of United States forces — Forced supplies, 440. Peace: First steps — Next steps, 441. Treaty, 442. Character of the war, 443. CHAPTER IX. Compromise of 1850. New territory, 444. Difficulties — Old questions subsiding, 445. Or- ganization of old territory — Organization of new territory — Slavery question, 446. Convention of southern members of Congress, 447. The territories declare against slavery, 448. Clay suggests compromise — Webster in debate, 449. Report of compromise, 450. Its adoption — Continued controversy, 451. xvi CONTENTS. CHAPTER X. National Development. Development of Territory — Of population, 4-52. Of occupation, 453. Of investments — Of communications, 454. Of education, 455. National institutions — Exploring Expedition, 456. The press — Libraries, 457. Literature: Political — Theological, 458. Legal — Historical, 459. Sci- entific — Belles lettres — Fiction, 460. The drama — Poetry, 461. Art — Religious development, 462. Charities, 463. Conclusion : The past and the present, 464. Part of the nation in human history, 465. APPENDIX. European Sovereigns, 467 American Authorities, 468 Presidents of Continental Congress, 468 National Administrations, 468 PAET I. OCCUPATION. 1492-1638. (1) CHAPTER I. Europe before 1492. The history of the United States begins in Europe. £y^,^pg^ There the movements, there the men arose, appqmted to prepare the way for a new nation on the earth. ActiTity If we look over the century, or the half century, there. preccduig 1492 in Europe, we are struck by the numerous signs of change and of growth. Many countries, it is true, appear to be unmoved ; perhaps the few alone seem to be really sharing in the activity of the period. But the activity is all the more remarkable in being confined to a portion only of the European races. It both seems and is a strange thmg that three or four nations, not closely united with one another or amongst themselves, should all at once put forth their energies, and lift the world, as it were, into a wider and a loftier sphere. The great material movement of the age was m move-' maritune discovery. An instinct to search over '"^''*- unknown seas for unknowm shores led to many an adventure and many an acquisition. No people was more distinguished in these enterprises than the Portuguese, whose navigators made their way to the Madeiras (1418-20) and the Azores (1432-57) on the west, then on the south, along the African coast, to and beyond the Cape of Good Hope, (1486-97.) The cliief prize at which the adven- turers were aunmg lay in the East, amongst the lands (3) 4 , PAET I. 1492-1638. embraced under the common name of tlie Indies. But a golden hue of weakh and of fame was spread over all the seas and all the shores within the reach of the Europeans. int There was also a great intellectual movement. u;ii move- The invention of printing, (1440-50), followed by the revival of ancient learning, awakened the'scholar from a long-enduring trance. He found more to learn, more to teach, and above all, a larger circle by whom his studies would be encouraged and his teachings received. The poet and the artist imbibed fresh inspiration from the increasing culture of the times ; whatever was the vocation of the mind, it was at once enlarged and ennobi,ed. If this were the proper place to cite examples, we should turn to Italy, whose scholarship, whose poetry, and whose art never shone out together with greater lustre than during the fifteenth century. The glow spread to other nations in their turn. Moral ^^^^ great moral m.ovement of the period was the move- most wondcrful of all. For ages, the spirit of man ^^^ ' seemed to have ceased to act, except in the narrow and darksome limits prescribed by authority. Here and there an individual had appeared to plead for the freedom and the faith of the Christian, but never with permanent success, often with immediate failure. At the later time of which we speak, there was a spiritual restlessness, too general and too strong to be repressed. Men tore the bandages from their eyes ; they shook the shackles from their arms ; and though long submission had rendered them incapable of effective exertion, they did not exert themselves m vain. At the end of the century, a reformer appeared in Italy, close to the centre of Christendom at Rome, in the person of the friar Savonarola, (1452-98,) whose rebukes of cor- ruption and of oppression were forerunners of the greater reformation that was to come. EUEOPE BEFOUE 1492. If there is any single impression to be derived eieva- from movements so various, it is that of the! eleva- *'°°' tion of classes hitherto feeble and degraded. The voyagers, ihe students, and above all, the earnest be- lievers of the period, sprang, in many cases, from what were called the lower orders ; and back upon the same orders, in all cases, descended more or less of the benefits resultmg from the deeds that were achieved. But we are not to suppose that human nature was changed, or that the improvement in men, in their character or their condition, was mstantaneous. The work now going on had been begun, so far as its higher elements were concerned, ages and ages before. It would require ages and ages to come before it could be in any degree completed. Another movement of the tunes was more limited chyT in its relations and its eflects. This was the rising Europe. ^|. ^j^g modern monarchies from out the strife, direct and indirect, in which they had long been engaged with the Papal authority. The monarchical power, at first nothing more than the' substitution of one oppressive dominion in the place of another, or in the place of another combined with itself, of course affected Its possessors rather than its subjects. But as the preparatory process by which more liberal constitutions might be ultimately reared, the inde- pendence of the European monarchies was the great polit- ical revolution of the period. Prominent amongst the individual figures of sovereigns were Louis the Eleventh of France, (1461-83,) Ferdmand and Isabella of Spain, (1479-1506,) and Henry the Seventh of England, (1485- 1509.) Amid these changing systems, these varying Srof" efforts, the middle ages passed away, and the America. ^^^|gj,^^ j^g^g ^^egan. If there is any occurrence to stand as the first upon the newly-opened rolls, it is that 1* 6 PART I. 1492-1638. . which came in season at once to profit by the time and to quicken its advance. Had the event taken place before, or long before, it would have been lost in the silence and the stagnation that had prevailed ; had it not taken e« reunited as a royal province, for many years, (until 1/38,) under the same governor as New York. A Quaker, interested in both tlie Jerseys dunng ''"'"""■ the Quaker possession, obtained the grant of the vania adjoining territory on the west. A royal charter constituted William Penn proprietor of a district whose extent, though uncertain, might have been described in general as lying between New York, New Jersey, and Maryland. To t ns the name of Pennsylvania was given by the crown, (1G81.) A "rant from the Duke of York conveyed the territories on the" lower shore of the Delaware to the same proprietor, (1682 ) Of this wide domain, a variety of settlers, Dutcli, Swedes, and English, were partially in occupation. To take them beneath his rule, the proprietor sent out an agent with conciliatory assurances, while, to introduce fresh bodies of inhabitants, especially of his own persuasion, he fonned an association in England. The first faiits were two clo- nics, one led by three commissioners, in the year of the charter (1081,) the other conducted by Penn himseh in the following year, (1G82.) A convention of tlie different settlers, new and old, presently accepted the proprietors or..anization of the province, including the territories of boUi the royal and the ducal grants, with their previous inhabitants. Next followed a treaty with the natives, a peaceful and a feeble tribe of Indians, whose acquiescence iH his plans might have been disregarded by Penn without any danger, had he not preferred to be just. The town ot Philadelphia was then begun, and there the first Assembly of Pennsylvania was soon convened, (1683.) With all 82 PART II. 1GCS-I7G3. Penn's care, and all liis frames of government, of which there was a goodly number, the course of his proprietor- ship did not run smooth. Troubles within the colony were accompanied by troubles without ; the province being at one time taken from liim by the EngUsh authorities, (1G92 -94.) Even after his restoration, he found matters so diffi- cult to manage, that he at length proposed to cede liis sov- ereignty to the crown, (1710.) He retained it, however, and transmitted it to liis sons, to be much the same source of struggle to them that it had been to him. The territories, so styled, of Delaware, originally Delaware. ^ . n ^ -rl ■, ' & ./ a Swedish, afterwards a Dutch, possession, then an appendage of New York, and then again annexed to Penn- sylvania, became so far separate from the latter province as to obtain a distinct assembly, though continuing to have the same governor, (1702.) Last of the thirteen was the colony of Georgia, in founding which there were mingled purposes of resistance to the Spaniards and the French in the south, as well as of relief to the suffering in England. A mem- ber of the House of Commons, James Edward Oglethorpe, had been active in proposing and carrying out an inquiry into the state of the prisons in Great Britain. The idea of rescuing some of the prisoners from a state of degrada- tion even greater than they could have fallen into by them- selves, and of settling them in a colony, occurred to Ogle- thorpe, as a philanthropist, while, as an officer in the royal army, he was also sensitive on the point of defending the colonial boundaries against the encroachments of other powers in America. The purchase of the Carolinas by the crown (1729) opened the way to the foundation of "a colony to the south of the settlements already made ; and for this a grant was obtained of the territory between the Savannah and Altamaha Rivers, under the royal name of THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 83 Georgia, (1732.) The charter conveyed the land and the dominion over it, not to colonists, nor yet to proprietors, but to twenty-one trustees, who, though subject to the royal over- sight, and to the obligations of the English law, were other- wise clothed with full power for twenty-one years. A com- mon council of thirty-four members, fifteen of whom were named in the charter, and the rest appointed by the trustees, were to act as a board of administration merely. The colo- nial lands, it was further provided, were to be held by feudal tenure ; that is, only by male heirs. A univei'sal interest was excited by this novel scheme of colonization. General .subscriptions poured in to aid the trustees in their half- benevolent, half-patriotic plans, while Parliament made a national grant of ten thousand pounds. First to enlist personally, was a party of more than one hundred, whom Oglethorpe himself led to the settlement, which he named Savannah, (1733.) Everything seemed to bid fair; the Indians were conciliated, the colonists were satisfied, the nation was all alive with sympathy. Immigrants came from afar ; Moravians from Germany ; Presbyterians from' the northern mountains of Scotland ; the earnest and the careless, the peasant and the prisoner, united in one people, (1734-3G.) To the generous project of saving the convicts of Britam was added the devoted hope of the Moravians that the natives of America might be converted. But there was a dark side to the scene from the first. The character of the colonists, that is, of the main body from England, w^as helpless enough, not to say corrupted enough, to cause great difficulties both to themselves and to their trustees. It will be seen hereafter that the military ser- vice expected from the colony was pretty much a failure. The colony soon became a royal province, (1754-55.) Such were the thirteen colonies of England. Spread out with indefinite borders and indefinite resources, they lay 84 PART II. 1638-1763. Aspect ^^^ niisty points along the Atlantic shore.. The of the eye that saw them, separate and indistinct, as they rose at the beginning, could catch no vision of the broad fields and the fruitful vales that were to expand and blend together in the future. As we look back ourselves, we see few promises of development or of unity iu the early days of the thirteen colonies. CHAPTER III. Colonial Relations. The tliirteen colonies were the colonies of Eng- ^''''' land. But tliey were far from being settled exclu- sively by Englishmen. The west, the centre, and the south of Europe all sent forth emigrants in greater or less numbers to people the American shore. Nor did these come to the settlements of other nations, to those of the Spaniards, the French, the Dutch, or the Swedes, alone, but rather to the English colonies, whose praise it is to have thus attracted and provided for the stranger. As there were different races, so there were dif- Classes. ^^^^^^ classcs. First came the gentleman, pecuHar- ly so styled, of various look and of various spirit, according to the respective colonies, but every where classified as of « the better sort." This order was perpetuated by the law of primogenitore, the eldest son receiving at least a double, if not more than a double, share of liis father's estate. Next were the people of " the poorer sort " - the lower orders, as their name denotes. But by no means the lowest ; as there were others beneath them in the scale. The mdent- ed servants, or apprentices, constituted a class of temporary bondmen. Sometimes exactly what their name suggests, too young or too shiftless to be their own masters, the m- dented were often men of a higher grade, the adherents, in many instances, of a defeated party or of a persecuted creed, who, faUing into the hands of their opponents, were 86 PART II. 1638-1763. sold for transportation to a market wliere they could be re- sold at a profit. Such were the English royalists, taken captive by the parliamentary forces; such the Roman CathoHcs, conquered while fighting for their faith in Ireland. Such, too, were many of the exiles from the continent. So great were the numbers imported as to amount — and in time of peace — to fifteen hundred a year in the single province of Virginia. The little consideration that there was for the class appears in the colonial codes.* Lower still, however, were the slaves. The first of this class were Indians, captured in wars or taken in snares, sometimes bought of their parents, even of themselves. Then came the negroes from Africa. These poor creatures found little mercy in the colonial statutes. The English law recognizing slavery declared the children of a free father to be free. But the Virginian code declared a child to follow the lot of the mother, (16G2.) The law of England pronounced it felony to kill a slave. The laAV of Virginia decided it to be none, (1667.)t Of the old These classes were confined to no colony, and to world. jiQ division of colonies. They existed amongst the rigid settlers of the north as well as amongst the freer * Maimed by a master, the servant is to be set free, (Mass. 1641 ; N. Y. 1665 ;) but any resistance on the servant's part entails an additional year of servitude, (Va. 1705.) Such as escape from their bonds are to be given up to their masters, or else their value is to be made up by those who harbor them, (Va. 1661.) Poorly as the class was rated, there was that about them, in their anger, which prompted the Virginians to make a " perpetual holiday " of the day on which a conspiracy, detected amongst their servants, was to have been executed, (1663.) f The Virginia laws make it allowable to kill a fugitive, (1672,) forbid the slave at any time to carry arms, (1682,) cut him off from trial by jury, (1692,) and prohibit his manumission, except he is transported out of the province, (1692,) or except the governor and council deem him worthy of his liberty, (1724.) Other codes take much the same tone, without always entering into the same details. The most rigid laws were those of South Carolina, (1712-^0.) COLONIAL RELATIONS. 87 and easier planters of the south. But they were not of colonial creation. They came from the old world, trans- planted from its ancient lands to the virgin soil of America. If they did not die, it was inevitable that they would take root and grow up with renewed luxuriance. institu- The sketch that goes before shows us that the tions be- colonial institutions were not the institutions of all. the free- They belonged to the freemen, so styled, " the bet- ™^"- ter sort," with but a portion of " the poorer sort " thrown in. Lidented servants and slaves, of course, had no part in the poHtical or the social privileges of their supe- riors. But besides the bondmen proper, there was a large number not bondmen, and yet not freemen by the laws of the colonies. " The people," says an early writer on the Massachusetts system, " begin to complain they are ruled like slaves." Actual restlessness was showing itself. " It is feared," says the same writer, " that elections cannot be safe there long, either in church or commonwealth, so that some melancholy men think it a great deal safer to be in the midst of troubles in a settled commonwealth, or in hope easily to be settled,* than in mutinies there, so far off from succors," (1641.) English The institutions of the freemen sprang from the law. English law. How far this extended over the colo- nies was a vexed question. One class of jurists or of statesmen in England maintained that America was a con- quered country, a country wrested from the native or the European races whom the English found in possession of it. The deduction from this view was, that the institutions of the country were at the pleasure of the crown or of the Parhament of England. But another class held opposite ground, asserting that the colonists were entitled, without * Referring to the disturbances in England. 88 PART n. 1638-1763. any consent or dissent on the part of England, to all the rights of Englishmen, inasmuch as the country was a dis- covered, not a conquered one. Some persons held an in- termediate opinion, denying the notion of conquest, and yet denying the inherent claim of the colonists to English privileges, making their rights depend on actual grants from the sovereign power. So when the habeas corpus act, pro- viding for the issue of a writ to produce the body of a prisoner, was passed, (1 680,) it was said not to extend to the colonies, because they were not specially mentioned in the bill. A sunilar act, adopted by the Massachusetts General Court, was annulled by the crown, (1692.) But the privilege was afterwards tacitly, if not explicitly, allowed. The liberal system of interpretation slowly prevailing, the Eng- lish law was almost universally recognized to be the birth- right of the colonies as truly as of the mother-land. Colonial "^^^ governments of the colonies were variously govern- organized. Those under charters were altogether °^^" ^' in the hands of the colonists. The charter of Mas- sachusetts, indeed, was so far altered in 1691 as to transfer the appointment of the governor, lieutenant governor, and secretary to the crown, and even to prescribe the conditions on which the inhabitants should be admitted as freemen. The charters of Connecticut (1662) and Rhode Island (1644—63) left the entire administration to the colonists. The seven colonies originally under proprietary govern- ment — Maryland, the Carolinas, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware — were of course subject to the authority of their proprietors, but with many restric- tions upon it in favor of the colonists. The Carolinas, under the model of John Locke,* and New York, under * John Locke, the great philosopher, was employed by the Carolinian proprietors to embody their ideas — one cannot but think — rather than his OAvn, in what was called " the grand model," or " the fundamental con- OOI.ONIAL RELATIONS. 89 the arbitrary rule of its ducal proprietor, who allowed no Assembly till 1683, were not so favorably situated. Penn- sylvania was subjected to claims asserted nowhere else, as well as deprived of rights denied nowhere else, by two peculiarities in the charter to William Penn ; one, the as- sertion of the power of Parliament to tax the colony, the other, the omission of the title of the colonists to the rights of Englishmen. The record that four of the proprietary governments were changed to royal governments, — the Carolinas, New York, and New Jersey, — and all at the desire of the colonists, bears witness against the institutions of which proprietors were the chiefs. The royal provinces, however, were organized on the same terms as the proprie- tary colonies, except that, the king being at the head of affairs, the institutions of the provinces were more uniform. The number of provinces was seven : the four just men- tioned, with the older Virginia and New Hampsliire and the younger Georgia. In some of the colonies, especially those in the Towns. ' ^ ♦' north, the tov/ns were at the centre of their organi- zation. These were the primary bodies in which the colonists stitutions." Of the system thus concocted, the primary element was property, the scale of colonial dignities being graduated according to the possessions of the colonist. Seigniories for the proprietors, baronies for landgraves and caciques, colonies for lords of manors, or freeholders, were the divisions of the soil. Authority was parcelled out amongst pala- tine and other courts for the proprietors, a grand council for them and their nobility, and a Parliament for the proprietors, the nobility, and the lords of manors. As for those not wealthy enough for either of these classes, they were hereditary tenants, or else slaves. The church of the colony was to be the church of England, with a certain amount of toleration for other creeds. This extraordinary mass of titles and of powers held to- gether for just twenty-three years, (1669-1693,) but A\ithout ever getting into actual operation. It was relinquished by the proprietors at the vmi- versal desire of the colonists, who naturally preferred the simpler and the freer institutions originally reared under the charter. 8* 90 PART II. 1638-1763. were grouped and trained as freemen. Their workings, where they existed, are written on every page of the colo- nial and the national annals. Where they did not exist, their places were but poorly suj^plied by plantations or vestries. An instinct, as it may be called, after the establishment of towns, led the early legislators of Virginia into curious expedients. At one time, the resources of the colony were to be brought to bear on making Jamestown a city worthy of the name, (1662 ;) at another, each county was directed to lay out a town of its ov/n, (1680.) At length a new capital was founded at Williamsburg, (1608.) Assem- Ncxt to the town or its substitute, under every Mies. form of government as ultimately established, there was one and the same body. This was the assembly, the same cherished institution to the colony that Parliament was to the mother land. At first, in some places, com- posed of all the freemen, then placed upon a representative basis, and then divided into two houses, one of councillors or assistants, the other of representatives or burgesses, the assembly exercised all the functions of a legislature, sub- ject, of course, to the law and the sovereign of England. The House of Representatives, or of Burgesses, as the case might be in the different colonies, constituted the popular branch, so entirely in some instances as to go by the name of the assembly, leaving the councillors or assistants to appear, what they generally were, the officers of the crown. But the assembly was by no means popular, ac- cording to modern notions. A large amount of property, real or personal, was usually essential as a qualification of membership, the very voters being under some conditions of the same nature. The sessions were oflen few and far between ; in some colonies, and at some periods, not more frequent than once in three years, or even more than three. An assembly, moreover, would sometimes hold over beyond COLONIAL RELATIONS. 91 its lawful term, becoming as much of a burden to the colony as it was intended to be an assistance. But when once convened, at the proper season and in the proper sphit, the assembly was a tower of strength to its people. That which was most variable, not to say most Churches. . „ . . . ineffective, in the colonies, was the very thing that should have been most stable and most powerful. The church of Christ was rent with factions. The blessino;s that might have issued from a common church, had it been pure and true, have no place in our history. The church of England was established in Virginia, Maryland, the Carolinas, and Georgia. The Quakers and the Presby- terians prevailed in the central colonies ; in the northern, the Puritans carried all before them. Such divisions would not merely prevent unity ; they would break up liberty. Persecu- Amongst the harshest provisions of the Massa- tion in chusctts systcm was that excluding all but church chusetts. members from the rights of freemen. Against this, Child. chiefly, was directed the petition of Dr. Robert Child, and six others, some of them of the highest station, church membership excepted, in the colony, (1646.) Child was a young man, recently arrived in the country with the purpose of making some scientific inquiry into its mineral resources. At the time of his petition, he was on the point of returning to England, but with the idea, ap- parently, of coming back to Massachusetts, could he be received on equal terms with the freemen of the colony. Be this as it may, he and his fellow-petitioners asked for admission to the privileges of Massachusetts, instead of which they found themselves charged with " contemptuous and seditious expressions," for which they were arraigned and heavily fined. Thus treated, they set about preparing a memorial, which Child Avas to convey to Parliament, and in support of which, another document, praying " for liberty 3^ PART II. 1638-1763. of conscience, and for a general governor " from England, was hastily got up amongst several of the non-freemen of Boston and its neighborhood. Only a few signatures to this paper were obtained, probably on account of the risk which tlie signers ran ; one of the most active of their number being put in irons, on the discovery of the affair by the magistrates. Child himself, and some of his fellow- memorialists, were also seized ; their papers were examined, and their persons detained in custody until after the ship in which they intended to take passage for England had departed. A copy of their memorial reached London, but was never acted upon. " I have done too much of that work already," Baptists. •' ' John Winthrop, the governor for many years, is reported to have said in his last hours, when urged to sign an order of banishment against a believer" in a different church than his own, (1649.) But he left others to carry out the austerities from which the approach of death might well recall a human spirit. Within two years, John Clarke, a minister amongst the Baptist exiles of Rhode Island, was arrested while preaching in a house at Lynn, (1651.) " They more uncivilly disturbed us," said he, " than the pursuivants of the old English bishops were wont to do." Imprisoned with some of his fellow-Baptists in Boston, Clarke did not give way, but demanded the opportunity of proving, prisoner as he was, " that no servant of Jesus Christ hath any authority to restrain any fellow-servant in his worship, where no injury is offered to others." The answer of the magistrates was, " Fined twenty pounds, or to be well whipped." One of his comrades escaped with a smaller fine, but another was whipped, while two persons who showed compassion upon him were themselves arrested and fined. Clarke, after paying his fine, would have sailed to England. But not allowed even to do this, he made his COLONIAL RELATIONS. 93 way to New Amsterdam, where he met witli humaner treat- ment, and found the means of crossing the sea. Arrived in England, he published his " 111 News from New Eng- land," " wherein is declared, that while old England is becoming new,* New England is becoming old." " The authority there established," he says, " cannot permit men, though of never so civil, sober, and peaceable a spirit and life, freely to enjoy their understandings and consciences, nor yet to live or come among them, unless they can do as they do, and say as they say, or else say nothmg ; and so may a man live at Rome also," (1652.) Clarke's case appears to have excited attention, etaU's notwithstanding the late indifference in relation to remon- Child and his fellow-petitioners. Such as were strance. -r-» • opposed to the Puritans did not stand alone in con- demnmg their intolerance. One of their own number, an early and a distinguished member of the I^Iassachusetts Company, wrote to the elders, Wilson and Cotton, in terms of sorrowful remonstrance. " It doth not a little grieve my spirit to hear what sad things are reported daily of your tyranny and persecution in New England, as that you fine, whip, and imprison men for their consciences. . . . These rigid ways have laid you low in the hearts of the saints." Thus wrote Sir Hichard Saltonstall, a Puritan, but not a persecutor, a lover of other men's liberty, as well as of his own. His letter was unheeded. Within a very brief of Har- period, the first president of Harvard College, vardCoi- Henry Dunster, a clergyman, a scholar, and a true man, was tried, convicted, and obliged to resign his office, on the charge of being a Baptist, (1654.) " The whole transaction of this business," wrote he, " is * In the time of the commonwealth. M PART II. 1638-1763. such, which in process of time, when all things come to mature consideration, may very probably create grief on all sides ; yours subsequent, as mine antecedent. I am not the man you take me to be." In the following year, (1655,) the corporation of the college appealed to the General Court to pay the amount still due to the deposed president, as well as to allow him something additional, " in consideration of his extraordinary pains." But so intem- perate was the disposition of the authorities, as to refuse not only the additional grant, but even the actual balance of the president's account. The spirit of wisdom had not yet descended either upon Harvard College or upon the community by which it had been founded. A new class of victims appeared. A few unhap- Quakers. r\ i py Quakers — the more unhappy, if guilty of the fanatical excesses with which they were charged — came to Boston, some of them to brave, all of them to encounter, per- secution, (1G5G.) Brought immediately before the magis- trates, they were first confmed, and then sent away beyond the limits of the colony. Laws were at once passed, inflict- ing a fine of one hundred pounds upon any master of a vessel who brought a Quaker with him, and ordering im- prisonment and scourging for any Quaker that might appear. This not being deemed enough, a new batch of statutes was prepared within the next two years, (1657-58,) lining the spectator or the worshipper at a Quaker meeting, the host of a Quaker, and threatening the Quaker himself with loss of ears, mutilation of tongue, and, finally, if he returned after being banished, with death. In these horri- ble enactments, almost all New England, except Rhode Island, coincided. They did not remain dead letters. One of the oldest freemen of the colony, Nicholas Upsall, ac- cused merely of kindness to the persecuted, was banished for tliree years, and, on his return, was thrown into a two COLONIAL RELATIONS. 95 years' imprisonment, (1656-59.) Nor was tlils the only case of the kind. As for the persecuted themselves, they were fined, imprisoned, scourged, and at length hanged, (1659-60.) Had it not been for the royal commands that these outrages should cease, (1660,) there is no saying how far they might have been carried. As it was, the persecu- tion continued at intervals, until a fresh order came from the king, requu'ing liberty of faith for all Protestants, (1679.) The saddest deeds of oppression in Massachusetts Witches. ^ '■ are yet to be told. It is accountable that the Puri- tan authorities should be bitter upon those who opposed their institutions or their creeds. But that they should raise a hue and cry against those who had no thought of opposing them, those against whom no charge could be substantiated but that of feebleness, of age, or of deformi- ty, seems inexplicable. An English law of older date than any existing English colony, (1603,) by which witchcraft was declared a capital crime, found a place amongst the so-called liberties of Massachusetts, (1641.) Some years elapsed before it was enforced, (1656;) nor did it then seem to set so well upon the consciences of the rulers as to make them desirous of keeping it in operation. A later attempt at the same sort of thing in Pennsylvania resulted in the acquittal of the unfortunate object of ill will, (1684.) When all was quiet, and the troubles of witchcraft appeared to have subsided forever, there was a sudden swell. A witch, so styled and so condemned, was executed at Boston, (1688.) One victim not being enough, others were soon de- manded, and found at Salem village, now Danvers. The magistrates of the colony had thrown a hundred persons into prison, when the governor. Sir William Phips, arrived from England to head the persecution. The lieutenant gov- ernor, William Stoughton, presided at the judicial tribunals. 96 PART II. 1638-1763. • Behind these official personages, several of the elders or ministers, led by Increase and Cotton Mather, father and son, urged on the ferocious pursuit. It lasted eight long months, devouring twenty victims, torturing many others, and threatening a still larger number, when the work of blood was arrested, partly by interference from England, and partly by accusations directed against some of the per- secutors themselves, (1693.) "The Lord be merciful to the country," exclaimed Chief Justice Stoughton, on find- ing that he could sentence no more as guilty of witchcraft. Years later, the letters of Kobert Calef, a merchant of Boston, who wrote against the fierce delusion of his neigh- bors, were burned in the yard of Ilarvard College by order of the president. Increase Mather, (1700.) We have lihgered lono; in Massachusetts. It is Persecu- ° ^ tion else- there that we find the most strikmg traces of that ^ ^^'^" persecuting spirit of which almost every colony had its share. New England, with one exception, occupied the same ground as its principal colony. New York ordered every Roman Catholic priest voluntarily entering the prov- ince to be hanged, (1700.) Protestants were likewise visited with penalties or with restrictions, unless they submitted to the church of England, (1704.) Maryland began by an act which proclaimed death to all who denied the Trinity, and fine, scourging, imprisonment, and banishment, to all who denied " the blessed Virgin Mary or the holy apostles or evangelists," (1649.) Long after, the Roman Catholics becoming, as has been mentioned, the objects of persecu- tion, their public services were forbidden, and their offices as teachers, both private and public, were suspended, (1704.) Of all the colonies, however, none kept nearer to Massachusetts in the race of persecution than Virginia, the colony of the English, as Massachusetts was that of the Puritan church. ' A few Puritans, who had found a corner COLONIAL RELATIONS. 97 in Virginia, invited some ministers from Massachusetts and New Haven. Three came, but were ahnost immediately warned by the government " to depart the colony with all conveniency," (1642-43.) Another Puritan clergyman, with many of his persuasion, was banished a few years later, (1648-49.) The Puritans being disposed of, the Quakers came in for attention. A law inflicted a hundred pounds' fine upon the shipmaster who introduced, and upon the colonist who entertained, a Quaker, the Quaker himself being imprisoned until he gave security that he would leave the colony never to return, (1660-63.) Bap- tists were* provided for in another law, subjecting them to a fine, (1662.) Thus the prey upon which the Puritan magistrates pounced in the north was assailed by the church of England authorities in the south. The same spirit, suspicious and oppressive, was at work throughout the land. Save in ^^^Q in One nook, where liberality and confidence Ehodo prevailed. In Rhode Island, the colony whose people were twofold exiles, — exiles from England, and exiles from New England, — persecution found no place. The assembly, gathered under the charter of 1644, estab- lished freedom of faith by legislative enactment, (1647.) In petitioning for the charter of 1663, the Rhode Islanders urged their " lively experiment that a most flourishing civil state may stand and best be maintained with a full liberty of religious concernments." Time and maturing wisdom had taught Roger Williams to practise what he preached in favor of liberty of conscience. Even the Quakers, "whose doctrines he much disliked and opposed, found refuge amongst his people, and so securely, that Rhode Island refused to insist upon the oath of allegiance to the crown, on account of the Quaker scruples to taking oaths of any kiad. " The first liberty," wrote WiUiams, " is of 9 OS -PART II. IG3S-1763. our spirits, wliicli neither Old nor New England knows the like, nor no part of the world a greater." He died, (1683 ;) but so directly did his better spirit descend to those coming after him, that with one exception bearing upon Roman Catholics, then excluded from the privileges of all the colo- nies, the laws of Rhode Island continued to bear and to for- bear for generation after generation. , , , The relations between one class and another Inter-colo- nial diffi- within the colony being such as have been described, it may be inferred how uncertain were the relations between colony and colony. Differences of origin and of situation, enhanced by differences of creed, of policy, and of interest, brought about divisions and hostilities. Nor were these confined to colonies that were far remote from one another in position or in character. On the contrary, the instances to be mentioned are those of quarrels among neighbors ; nay, even among allies. „, , Samuel Gorton, a clothier from London, who Shawomet ' ' and Mas- found uo wclcomc in Boston, Plymouth, or even in ■ the Rhode Island settlements, purchased, in the last- named vicinity, some land from the Indians, and began the little colony of Shawomet. He seems to have been a sort of spiritualist, much given to rhapsody, if not blas- phemy, but harmless, disposed to force his views upon none, and ready to fly rather than to fight amidst the war- ring parties of New England. But when pursued by his old opponents of Massachusetts, on the gi'ound that the land which his colony occupied was theirs by virtue of subse- quent negotiations with the Indians, Gorton resolved to make a stand, (1643.) It was in vain. The dozen men whom he had with him could make no effectual defence against the forty who came, with commissioners at their head, from Massachusetts. A few of the Shawomet party escaped ; but Gorton, with nine others, was transported as a COLONIAL RELATIONS. 99 captive to Boston. There he was put upon trial, partly for rejecting the dominion, and partly for rejecting the creed of his conquerors. Convicted, of course, he was set to work in irons, most of his companions meeting the same fate. But as they proved troublesome, especially by instilling their doctrines into those around them, they were set free, *' no more to come into the colony, upon pain cf death," (1644.) Gorton at once repaired to England, where, from the Earl of Warwick, then "governor-in-chief and lord high admiral of all those islands and plantations within the bounds and upon the coasts of America," he obtained a patent for his colony as a part of the Providence Planta- tions, the name of Shawomet being changed to that of its protector — Warwick, (1647.) Not long after, Massachu- setts attempted to get up another onslaught upon the War- wick settlement, but was prevented, (1651.) Massachusetts was at the head of a confederacy, colonies of ^^^^ story of which will be found to throw much New Eng- ijgi^t upou the relations of colony to colony. It had been proposed, at an early date, (1637,) to form a league amongst the New England settlements ; but the project fell through, on account of the resistance of Con- necticut to the demands of Massachusetts. Circumstances induced Connecticut to give way, some time afterwards, when a confederacy was formed, under the name of " The United Colonies of New England," (1643.) Each colony was to appoint two commissioners, who must be church members, to conduct all matters of administration, to decide upon questions of peace or war, to regulate the demand and surrender of fugitive servants, slaves, or criminals ; but all acts of the commissioners required ratification by the peo- ple. In case of war, a certain number of troops was to be furnished by the different members of the league. Massa- chusetts, furnishing a double proportion, obtained the honor 100 PART II. 1638-17G3. of having the commissioners' annual session held twice as often at Boston as at any other place of meeting. Indeed, Massachusetts was the head and front of the whole con- federacy. The spirit of the league soon came out. Massa- Treat- meut of setts, (then including New Hampshire,) Plymouth, Rhode c^Yid the two Connccticut colonies, being united, Island. . 1 -mjT . -, -r>i T 1 1 -nr - there remained Mame and Rhode Island. Maine was too scantily settled, as well as too remotely situated, to be taken into account; but Rhode Island, begirt by the confederates, had some claims to consideration. At all events, it asked admission to the union. The demand was refused, except on condition that the colony would submit itself as a dependent to Plymouth. One cannot but wonder that, with such a temper, the league refrained from blotting its independent neighbor out of existence. Disagree- Things wcnt by no means smoothly amongst the ments. confederates themselves. At one time, Connecticut imposed a tax on river navigation, which acted adversely to the interests of the town of Springfield, (1647.) Massachu- setts, at first remonstrating, soon broke out with an impost upon goods imported from the other three colonies of the league, (1649.) Nor was this repealed until after a grave protest from the commissioners, (1650.) A year or two later, Connecticut desired war to be declared against the Dutch and Indians. Perhaps it was a hasty project ; but it found support from Plymouth. Massachusetts, however, refused to enter into it, and by so doing, nearly broke up the confederac}^, (1653.) When the confederates agreed, it was often about such measures as those of persecution, to which reference has been made, or those of warfare, to which we shall arrive ere long. In fact, the United Colonies were united chiefly in deeds of violence. In works of jus- tice or of generosity, they generally broke asunder. When COLONIAL RELATIONS. 101 their union came to an end, after a feeble existence of half a century, it was regretted by none. The New England colonies were not alone in Disseu- *=" sions else- tlicsc disturbed relations. New York was long at variance with Connecticut on one side, and with New Jersey on the other. Pennsylvania had her com- plaints against Virginia; Delaware hers against Pennsyl- vania. Wherever there was a view from one colony to anotlier, it seemed to open as frequently upon scenes of controversy as upon those of peace. • Leaving the colonies themselves, and turning to Peun aud '^ ^ *-■ Baiti- their proprietors, where they had any, we discover ™°^^* the same disposition to strife. When William Penn obtained the grant of his domain of Pennsylvania, he knew that it encroached upon the claims of the Baltimore family of Maryland. Tlieir title to the territory, as far north as the fortieth degree of latitude, had been infringed upon, but by foreigners — by the Dutch and by the Swedes. It was reserved for a fellow-countryman to appropriate it to him- self. Soon after the arrival of Penn in America, he met Lord Baltimore at Newcastle, but without being able to come to any agreement. This did not prevent the Quaker from founding his City of Brotherly Love upon the land claimed by the rival proprietor, (1682.) At another meet- ing, in the following year, Penn consented to recognize the Baltimore claim, but only on condition that a price should be fixed for a portion bordering upon the Delaware, of wliich he naturally wished to retain the sovereignty. But as this offer was refused, wliile another mode of settlement, proposed by Baltimore, was refused in turn by Penn, the two proprietors again separated in anger. When Balti- more renewed his demands, a few months after, Penn threw himself upon the Dutch title, to which he claimed succes- sion through the Duke of York, (1683.) After such a plea 9* 102 PART II. 1638-1763. as this, there was no hope of justice from Penn. Appeal was made to EngUmd, where sentence was rendered against Baltimore, without being actually executed, (1685.) It was three quarters of a century before the boundary be- tween Pennsylvania and Maryland was definitely deter- mined. The relations of the colonies to the mother coun- to^the"'^^ try, that is, to England, so far as they depended mother upon general principles, were brought forward in an coiintrv. earlier part of the chapter. It is time to take them up with reference to the actual course of events. The Allegiance to the crown was one of the inborn crown, principles of the English colonist. It extended from him to those Miio had come from other lands than Endand. o The King of England was the head of the church and the head of the state — the supreme civil and mihtary power, to whom all the magistrates, all the tribunals, all the laws, all the proceedings of the colonies, were subject. Even in the charter governments, the most independent of all, the royal supremacy was universally recognized. At the same time, the exact limits between the sovereignty of the king and the independence of the colony were nowhere defined. In the royal provinces, where the dependence upon the crown was the greatest, the rights of the popular bodies were often most pertinaciously asserted. As striking an exhibition as any other of the rela- ii.^and tioi^s of the colonies with royalty is to be found in Massa- the tvventy-fivc years' controversy between Charles clmsctts II. and Massachusetts. When the restoration of that monarch occurred, nearly a year was allowed to elapse, after the certain intelligence of the event, without any proc- lamation of the royal authority in Massachusetts. There was a good deal, in fact, for the colony to do, in order to make the proclamation satisfactory to all concerned. In the COLONIAL RELATIONS. 103 first place, she had to renounce all such theories as John Eliot had propounded in his Christian Commonwealth, con- cerning the superiority of the Mosaic over the English insti- tutions. In the next place, she had " to reject, as an in- fringement of right, any parliamentary or royal imposition prejudicial to the country." So that, between her own republicans on the one side, and the monarchists of England on the other, there was some difficulty in steering a course. At length, the king being proclaimed, John Norton and Simon Bradstreet were sent as agents, with letters and instructions half servile and half defiant, to seek the royal presence and obtain a confirmation of the colonial institu- tions, (1G62.) The king confirmed the charter, but added requisitions that were likely to set the whole colony in an uproar. All laws, he said, against the royal authority, must be repealed ; the oath of allegiance to the crown must be exacted ; the Book of Common Prayer must be tolerated, and the sacraments administered to " all of honest lives ; '* nay, the freeholders of the colony, if of suitable estate and character, must be admitted as its freemen. Such was the spite of Massachusetts men, in relation to the royal demands, even against their own helpless agents, that the minister Norton sank, it is said, under the general displeasure, (1663.) The arrival of four royal commissioners, in the fol- lowing year, was followed by a celebration of the church ser- vice, and by a law from the assembly, declaring freeholders, on certain conditions, to be freemen, (1664.) The next proceedings of the commissioners resulted in the temporary toleration of churchmen and Quakers, (1665.) It must have seemed as if the very foundations of Massachusetts had been thrown down. Long years of controversy between the colony and the king ensued. The departure of the commissioners was fol- lowed by the almost immediate arrest of the changes 104 PART II. 1638-1763. ^ which they had introduced. A summons from the Loss of •' the Mas- king, Calling upon the colony to send representa- sotts^aud ^^^^^ ^^ answer the charges against it, was diso- other beyed, (16GG.)" Yet five years were allowed to elapse before the contumacy of the Massachusetts people was noticed, and then they were virtually passed over as "almost on the brink of renouncing any de- pendence on the crown," (1671.) Quite a considerable interval succeeded, in which agents after agents upheld the colony against its adversaries in England. Even bribes were resorted to, the Province of Maine and two thousand guineas being offered to the king himself. But it was too late. The royal will was roused ; the warrant went forth that the colony must submit, if it would have any charter at all. The magistrates were for yielding; the representa- tives — that is, the mass of the colonists — were for resist- ing ; and while they clung to their charter, it was declared to be forfeited, (1684.) The king immediately appointed a governor for Massachusetts, Plymouth, Maine, and New Hampshire ; but Charles dying, another official was sent out by James II., bearing the title of president of the same colonies, with the addition of the King's Province in Rhode Island, (1685.) The same year, the Rhode Island and Connecticut charters were put in abeyance. Pariia- Ncxt to the crowu was the Parliament of the meut. mother country. But this was by no means so fully acknowledged in the colonies. "We have not ad- mitted appeals to your authority," says the Massachusetts General Court to Parliament, " being assured they cannot stand with the liberty and power granted us by our char- ter," (1646,) — a declaration which was followed up by Edward Winslow, then the agent for Massachusetts in England. "If the Parliament of England," he says, " should impose laws upon us, having no burgesses in the COLONIAL RELATIONS. 105 House of Commons nor capable of a summons by reason of the vast distance, we should lose the liberties and freedom of Englishmen indeed." It was on these very grounds that the sway claimed for Parliament was again and again resisted. It was, however, again and again obeyed. Naviga- Parliament asserted its powers at an early day. tion acts. During the commonwealth, when it ruled supreme over England, it stretched forth its sceptre over America by an act requiring all colonial exports to England to be shipped only in American or English vessels, (1651.) This was extended by Parliament and the crown together, after the restoration of royalty, in a second act, ordering that most of the exports from the colonies should be shipped only to England, or to an English colony, and in American or Enghsh vessels, as before, (1660.) Two or three years afterwards, it was enacted that almost ail imports into the colonies should be shipped only from England or from an English colony, and in American or English vessels, as by the preceding statutes, (1663.) These were the famous navigation acts, the first assertions of parliamentary au- thority over the commerce of the colonies. How grievous to these such restrictions were needs not to be dwelt upon. Duties. They were followed up, at no long interval, by duties upon the export and import of certain " enu- merated articles " from one colony to another, (1 672.) This was interfering, not only with the trade, but with the very constitution of the colonies. It required a new body of of- ficials in the shape of revenue officers, appointed, of course, by the crown. Royal custom houses were also needed. It was soon proposed to demand an oath from the governors of New England — where trade was busiest, and discontent rifest — that they would enforce the commercial restrictions. But John Leverett, governor of Massachusetts, refused, and the General Court of the same colony soon passed a 106 PART II. 1638-1763. resolution " that the acts of navigation are an invasion of the rights and privileges of the subjects of his majesty in this colony, they not bemg represented in the Parliament/' (1G76-79.) A notice of the appointment of a collector of the royal customs for Nev/ England was torn down in Boston by order of the colonial magistrates, (1680.) But it was in vain, as we shall soon find. Parliament had adopted the principle of regulating the colonial trade, and was not likely to yield to the ebullitions of Boston, or of any other place in the colonies. j^ The authority of the mother country, whether govern- royal or parliamentary, was represented by a con- ^^^' stantly increasing number of officials in the colonies. Of these none were so prominent as the royal governors, to whom we now arrive in pursuing the account of the colonial relations. Nowhere did things go worse than in Virginia, in vir- of whicli Sir William Berkeley, a loyal cavaher, ^^^^^' had been governor for more than twenty years.* Under his influence, the very assembly of the province became a burden, protracting its sessions and extending its preroga- tives, providing a perpetual (so termed) instead of an annual revenue for the royal officials, and appointing county courts to levy certain imposts which were within its own province alone. To these difficulties were added others arising from the hostile bearing of the Indians, with whom the governor was disposed to temporize far more than suited the ardent Virginians, (1676.) Bacon's All at oncc, the province rose. One of the coun- rebeiiion. ^j]^ Nathaniel Bacon, being refused a commission against the Indians, declared that he would take out a com- mission of his own; at which the governor unseated him * From 1641 to 1652, and again from 1660, COLONIAL RELATIONS. 107 and declared him a rebel. But he Avas not the only one to be put down. William Drummond, the first governor of North Carolina, and Richard Lawrence, both men of ener- gy and of culture, came out at Jamestown on Bacon's side. At their demand, supported by other colonists of influence, the assembly by which the governor had been blindly sup- ported was dissolved. Bacon, elected to a new assembly, carried various measures of reform, besides obtaining a commission of commanding officer against the Indians. Again declared a rebel, he called a convention, who prom- ised to stand by him while he proceeded against the foe upon the frontier. But on the governor's taking the field with armed servants and Indians, supported by some Eng- lish men-of-war, Bacon and his party returned to meet him. Berkeley retreated, Bacon fired Jamestown, and soon after died. The cause which he had staked his all to support soon fell to pieces, and his chief adherents, Drum- mond amongst them, were hanged. Lawrence disappeared. " That old fool," said the good natured Charles II., on hear- ing of his governor's revenge, " has hanged more men in that naked colony than I did here for the murder of my father." Berkeley died of shame, it is said, in England. He left Virginia crushed and desolate. Andros Ncw England, consolidated into one province, in New was givcu over to Sir Edmund Andros, formerly °^*° ' governor of New York, (1686.) He made his ap- pearance with troops, overthrowing the colonial assemblies, if there were any left to overthrow, declaring the town organizations at an end, prohibiting the printing press, and threatening even the property of the colonists by requiring them to take out new deeds of their estates from him. It was a part of his commission to procure toleration, especial- ly for the church of England. To do this in Boston, he saw fit to seize upon one of the Puritan churches to celebrate / 108 PAUT II. 1638-1763. the church service. Resistance was not attempted, and An- dros and his council ruled supreme ; nor only over New England, but likewise over New York and New Jersey, both of which were attached to his government, (1688.) In fact, he was on the high road to dominion over all the colonies. The charters of the Carolinas and of Maryland — that is, of every other colony which had a charter, save Pennsylvania alone -r— were menaced, (1686-88.) A waste of despotism seemed to be opening wherever freedom had found a foothold. Revohi- Just then came the news of the revolution in tion. England, (1689.) It was welcomed by a revolu- tion in America. Bost^i rose against Andros, deposing him, and declaring Simon Bradstreet governor. The reaction was by no means gentle. The churchmen, whom Andros had favored, and who supported him, sent an address to King William, bewailing the peril to them from the returning " anarchy and confusion of government under which this country hath so long groaned." Rhode Island and Connecticut went farther than Massachusetts, and resumed their treasured charters. New York took up arms under Jacob Leisler and a committee of safety. The other colonies, less sorely oppressed than those of New England and New York, received the news in com- parative tranquillity. A party in Maryland rose, but not against oppression so much as for the sake of sedition. The proprietary government fell, as has been told. But not It soon appeared, however, that the English liberty, revolution was not intended to be interpreted as setting the colonies free. The charter of 1691 proved it in Massachusetts. The execution of Jacob Leisler and his son-in-law, Milbourne, in New York, by orders, how- ever, of the new governor. Colonel Sloughter, rather than by those of the king, was equally conclusive, (1691.) COLONIAL RELATIONS. 109 The appointment of Anclros — the same Sir Edmund who had trampled upon both Massachusetts and New York — • to the government of Virginia* was a still more stunning demonstration, (1692.) ^, , ^ A new attempt at colonial consolidation soon Fletcher ^ in New occurrcd. Colonel Benjamin Fletcher, a man of far less character than Andros, was made gov- ernor of New York and Pennsylvania, including Dela- ware ; the proprietary government in the latter colonies being then suspended, (1G92.) He was also declared commander-in-chief of the Connecticut and the New Jer- sey militia. Soon after taking possession of New York and Pennsylvania, Fletcher proceeded to Connecticut to take command of the militia. They assembled at his orders ; but instead of listening to his commission, the senior officer, Captain Wadsworth, cried, " Beat the drums ! " On Fletcher's attempting to persevere. Wads- worth exclaimed, " If I am interrupted again, I'll make the sun shine through you in a moment," (1693.) Thus baffled in his military functions, the governor returned to his civil powers in New York and Pennsylvania. The latter province, after resisting his demands for a grant of money, yielded only on condition that it should be dis- bursed by the provincial treasurer — a condition which Fletcher would not, and, if obedient to his instructions, could not allow, (1694.) New York itself was restive under his control. A tax for the support of ministers and the erection of churches had led to a debate between the council and the assembly; the council proposing that the governor should nominate the new clergy, but the assembly opposing. " You take it upon you," declared Fletcher to the assembly, " as if you were dictators ; " but the assem- * He proved, however, to be a comparatively good governor there. 10 110 PART II. 1638-1763. bly stood fast, and soon carried their point, " that the vestry and the churchwardens have a power to call their own minister," a dissenter, if so they pleased, although the governor was strong for the church of England, (1695.) It had been proposed by a clergyman of this church to combine New York, New Jersey, Connecticut, and Rhode Island in a single province, with a bishop, residing at New York, for its civil as well as ecclesiastical head. But this, more naturally even than Governor Fletcher's designs, came to nought. Fletcher himself, falling into disgrace at home, was recalled, leaving his attempts at consolidation an utter failure, (1698.) „ , The troubles implied in the various colonial rela- General '■ strict- tions account for much that has been ascribed to other causes. It has been so common to consider the Puritan severity as a thing apart, that one does not immediately seize upon the fact of the almost universal strictness that prevailed. Virginia, for instance, gave no harbor to Puritanism. Yet the Virginia code thunders against "mercenary attorneys," (1643,) burgesses "dis- guised with over much drink," (1659,) tippling houses, (1676,) and Sunday travelling, (1692.) Maryland de- clares with as much solemnity as Massachusetts against profanity, (1642.) Nor were precautions of a different nature neglected. Both Maryland (1642-1715) and New York (1665) make it necessary to procure a passport be- fore traversing or leaving the colonial precincts. It was from a similar impulse that the " handicraftsmen " of Bos- ton petitioned the General Court of Massachusetts to be protected against " strangers from all parts " who w^ere interfering with their trade, not to say their influence in the community, (1677.) All over the colonies, there reigned a spirit of watclifulness, perhaps more grim, but certainly not more resolute, in one place than in another. COLONIAL RELATIONS. Ill It miglit be increased or climinislied by the social or the religious temper of the colonists ; the New Englander was likely to be more upon liis guard than the Virginian. But the spirit was the common growth of the new country, •whose depths were still hid in the wilderness, whose borders "were still bristling with the arrow or the steel. ^ ., , The perils of the frontier are yet to be described. Penis of ^ •' the frou- All arouud the colonists, there extended a Ihie, or rather a series of lines, one after another, of sus- pected neighbors or of open foes. The Indian lay in ambush on this side ; on that, the European, Swede, Dutch- man, Spaniard, or Frenchman, stood in threatening attitude. Nor was the land alone overspread with enemies ; the waters swarmed with pirates and with buccaneers ; nay, the very air seemed to be filled Avith ghostly shapes and with appall- ing sounds. The world of spirits, as the colonists believed, was agitated by the wars amongst the races of America. Spirit of CHAPTER IV. Indian Wars. It is not always that justice is clone to the spirit the In- of the Indians. They are pitied when they are not vihfied. Yet there are few passages in human his- tory more indicative of native nobleness in man than those which bring before us the trustful and the generous dealings of the red men with the early adventurers to their shores. " Welcome, Englishmen," cried the sagamore Samoset to the Plymouth settlers, in words caught from English fisher- men. The greater sachem Massasoit pledged his friendship to the same colony by a formal treaty, (1621.) When the tribe of Powhatan complained of the strangers in Virginia, their chief replied, " They do but take a little waste land." Even when the anger of Powhatan ^vas kindled, and so strongly as to lead him to plan the destruction of the English, beginning with their leader, John Smith, whom he had taken captive, there Vv^as still the maiden Pocahontas to plead for mercy and for peace, (1G07.) <^-3irit of '^^^^ spirit of the English was generally very dif- tiie Eng- ferent. Their ^vrath was ever easy to be inflamed, ever difficult to be quenched. To most of them the natives were outcasts, " of the cursed race of Ham," fit to be deluded, insnared, enslaved, or exterminated. But this was not the spirit of all. There were some to be touched by the original confidence of the Indians, some to repay it by trust and by charity. " Concerning the killing (112) INDIAN WARS. 113 of those poor Indians," wrote John Robinson, the Puritan minister, from Holland to his brethren at Plymouth, in relation to the slaughter of several natives suspected of conspiring against that settlement — " O, how happy a thing had it been, if you had converted some, before you had killed any. Besides, where blood is once begun to be shed, it is seldom stanched of a long time after. . . . It is also a thing more glorious in men's eyes than pleasing in God's, or convenient for Chi'istians, to be a terror to poor barbarous people," (1G23.) ,^. . It was the idea of Kinji; James of En";land, in Mission- '^ o 7 ary la- issuing the patent of Virginia, to civilize and con- vert the natives of the country which he was giving to his companies. The London Company, accordingly, in conjunction with individuals both in England and in Amer- ica, made some exertion to carry out the royal design. A school for natives was planned, as has been mentioned, but without being established. The colony of Plymouth, listening to Robinson's appeal, recognized the possibility of brotherhood with the Indians. Laws were formally enact- ed to provide for the conversion of the natives to the Chris- tian faith, (1636.) Elsewhere, likewise, the same views found advocates ; and more than one colonist became the friend, the teacher, nay, the martyr to the Indians. _, ,, Obtaining an Encrlish errant of Martha's Vine- The May- o o & hews and yard, and then confirming his title by purchase from the natives, Thomas Mayhew began almost immediately to teach those who remained with him upon the island, (1643.) A more active missionary, however, was his son Thomas, who, after ten years' exertions, perished on a voyage to England, whither he was going for aid to his mission, (1657.) His father, and afterwards his son, continued the work to which he had sacrificed himself. Meanwhile John Eliot had begun his labors on the Massa- 10^^ 114 PART 11. 1G38-1763. chusetts mainland. Preparing himself by the study of the Indian tongue, of which he afterwards composed a gram- mar, he met a party of Indians, for the first time as their preacher, at Nonantum. "Upon October 28, 164G," he writes with touching simplicity, " four of us (having sought God) went unto the Indians inhabiting our bounds, with desire to make known the things of their peace to them." Thenceforward Eliot went on founding and rearing Indian churches, now travelling from the Merrimac to Cape Cod, and now laboring at the translation of the Catechism, and even of the Bible, into the language of his converts, (1661-G3.) Both Eliot and the Mayhews, as well as other Supports. ... . missionaries to the Indians, received their chief encouragement from a Society " for Promoting and Propa- gating the Gospel of Jesus Christ in New England," incor- porated by act of Parliament, (1649.) Large collections aided the labors and provided for the expenses of those who engaged in the holy enterprise. " Right ' honorable nursing fathers," is the address which Eliot uses in giving the society an account of his labors. He writes to Pobert Boyle, apparently the life and soul of the society, as his " right lionorable, right charitable, and indefatigable nurs- ing father." New England itself did comparatively little. Massachusetts granted lands to the converted Indians, but without much sympathy with them or with their teachers. The w^ork, as a colonial one, languished. _ , The results were therefore inconsiderable. What Besults. the Indians, or many of them, thought of the mis- sions may be gathered from the answer of a Narraganset sachem to the missionary Mayhew applying for perpiission to preach among the tribe. " Go make the English good first." What many of the English thought of the missions may be gathered from the declaration of Daniel Gookin, INDIAN WARS. 115 superintendent of the converts, — " a pillar," pays Eliot, " in our Indian work," — that he was " afraid to be seen in the streets," at the time of much ill will against the natives. Thirty years after the missionary enterprise be- gan, there were nominally upM^ards of three thousand converts, (1G73.) But the tirst church which Eliot found- ed — that at Natick — was, a few years subsequent to his death, but " a small church of seven men and three women; their pastor, Daniel Tohkohwampait," (1G9S.) Even before Eliot departed, he had seen his work declin- ing. Endeavoring to get out a new edition of his version of the Scriptures, he wrote, " I am deep in years, and sundry say, if I do not procure it printed while I live, it is not within the prospect of human reason whether ever, or when, or how it may be accompUshed." Things must have been low indeed, when the mere reprint of the Bible was so difficult. But " his charity," to use Eliot's death- bed words, " held out still," and all that he could do was done when he died, (1690.) Wars in The wars with the Indians were more effective. Virginia Earliest of these was the war of Opechancanough, Mary- Powhatan's successor, against the colony of Vir- land. ginia. Provoked by the murder of one of their warriors, the Indians suddenly fell upon the English settle- ments, which, it seems, they would have utterly annihilated, but for the warning given by a converted countryman of theirs to a Jamestown settler, (1622.) Hostilities, con- tinued at intervals for many years, were revived by a second surprise of the colony by the Lidians, (1642.) Opechancanough being taken prisoner and slain, his con- federates made peace, giving up all the land between the York and James Rivers, (1646.) In this latter war, Mary- land had been involved. Thirty years later, the two colo- nies were again united in repelling the Susquehannas, with some other tribes, (1675-77.) 116 PART II. 1638-1763. Tequot Meanwhile, more dangerous conflicts had arisen war. jj^ New England. The first actual war with the Indians there occurred in consequence of some murders by the Pequots and the Narragansets ; the latter tribe extend- ing along the western shore of Narraganset Bay, the for- mer stretchin!]r from the Thames to the Connecticut Rivers. The Narraganset chief, Canonicus, making amends for his followers, the expedition which Massachusetts equipped to avenge the murdered was directed cliiefly against the Pequots, with the result, however, of exciting rather than punishing them, (163G.) They were on the point of per- suading the Narragansets to make common cause with them, when Roger Williams, at the peril of his life, sought the wigwam of Canonicus, in order to avert an alhance Vv^hich would have threatened Massachusetts, not to say New England, with desolation. It was the return which the exile made for the persecution from wliich he had but just escaped. Instead of joining the Pequots, the Narra- gansets sent their young sachem Miantonimoh to make friends with the people at Boston. At about the same time, the alliance of the Mohegans, a tribe of Northern Connecticut, under Uncas, was secured by the Connecticut colonists. As the spring opened, the colonial forces, amounting in all to little more than one hundred, with two or three hundred Indian allies, took the field, and in four months swept the unhappy Pequots from the face of the earth. Nearly a thousand of them were slain ; tlie rest, whether men or women, old or young, being reduced to captivity and slavery. Their territory was divided between Massachusetts and Connecticut, (1637.) Karra- Notwithstanding the alliance with Miantonimoh pausi-ts. r^|-j,| ii^Q Narragansets, they were soon treated as foes. Defeated by the Mohegans, with whom they went to war, the Narragansets saw their chieftain a prisoner. He INDIAN WARS. 117 was saved by the interposition of his friend Gorton, the founder of Warwick, only to be given up again by the commissioners of the United Colonies to the Mohegan Uncas, by whom he was immediately despatched. To shield Uncas from the revenge of the Narragansets, the colonies furnished him with a body guard, and even took up arms, when Pessacus, the brother and successor of Miantoniraoh, began war against his Mohegan enemies. Nor did Pessacus avert the storm thus conjured up, but by submitting to make amends to both the Mohegans and the United Colonies, (1645.) The tribute which he then consented to pay was afterwards wrenched from him by violence, (1650.) King ^ quarter of a century later, and the ill-treated Philip, tribe of Miantonimoh and Pessacus were drawn into the great war that goes by the name of I\jng Philip's. He was Pometacum, the nephew and successor of Massa- soit, with whom the Plymouth colonists had made an early treaty, the chief of the Pokanokets or Wampanoags, a tribe on the eastern shore of Narraganset Bay. Suspected and assailed by the people of Plymouth, whose authorities claimed jurisdiction over him, Philip (to call him by his familiar name) was at length accused of hatching a gener- al conspiracy amongst the Indians. The accuser, a native of bad character, although professedly converted, was slain by some of Phihp's men, three of wdiom were presently hanged, without any actual proof of their being the mur- derers, by orders of the court at Plymouth. Philip wept, it is said, at the idea of warfare with the English. But he could not keep peace with them ; and so began a war, by far the most deadly of all between the English and the Indians, (1675.) Priven almost immediately from his domains about Mount Hope, and soon afterwards from his retreats in 118 PART 11. 1638-1763. War the Rhode Island swamps, Philip led his few war- through- riors into the heart of Massachusetts, where the In- cut New (Jijyis luxf] already risen in arms. Thence the circle England. of hostilities spread on all sides, to the tribes of the Connecticut valley in the west, to those of the Merrimac valley in the east, and farther still, to the Abcnalvis of Maine — the latter, however, being engaged in warfare of their own, unconnected with Philip and his allies. Against these was arrayed the whole of New England. Rhode Island, it is true, rather suffered than fought ; nor were Maine and New Hampshire, tlien the dependencies of Mas- sachusetts, able to take any active part. But the United Colonies were all in arms. A few hundred combatants were the most that could be mustered in any single battle ; yet the strife was more than proportioned to the numbers or the resources on either side. J^Ionth after month witnessed scenes of ambush, assault, devastation, and butchery. The work of blood was as savagely done by the English as by the Indians. / As winter drew nigh, the suspicions of the colo- tiou of the ^^^^ were excited by Uncas, the Mohegan, against Narragan- his old focs, the Narraganscts. They had given Sets pledges of peace at the beginning of the war ; nor were there now any signs of hostility on their part, except the shelter which they were charged with giving to the broken Pokanokets. But the commissioners of the United Colonies, the successors of those who had given up Mian- tonlmoh and humbled Pessacus, declared war against the Narraganscts and their chief, Canonchet. It took but a few days to overrun the Narraganset territory, and to de- feat the tribe in a fearful fight which cost the colonial forces dear. Driven from their forests and their fastnesses, the Narraganscts spread over the adjoining lands, and even as far as within eighteen miles of Boston, " We will die to INDIAN WARS. 119 the last man," exclaimed Canoncliet, when taken in the spring, "but not be slaves to the Englishman." He was slain, and his nation laid low forever. The fall of the Narragansets was accompanied by ' that of the tribes within the limits of Massachusetts. Most of the survivors turned their backs upon their ancient hunting grounds in search of freedom in the north and west. Philip, who had mourned over the beginning of the war, was too strong in heart to ojtlive its close. He sought the home of his fathers, and there, after losing his wife, his child, and most of his few r.'maining warriors, he was shot by a renegade Pokanoket. His boy, the last of his line, was sold into slavery in Bermuda. His race was given over to the executioner and the slave dealer ; his territory went to Plymouth, and, half a century afterwards, to Rhode Island. But it was no bloodless victory that the colonies had won. " The towns are so drained of men," wrote Lev- erett, governor of Massachusetts, in the thick of the contest, " we are not able to send out any more." Six hundred of the best colonists had perished ; ten times that number, and more, had suiTered from the losses and the agonies which befall even the survivors of a war. Six hundred dwellins^s were burned ; many a town was partially, many a one totally destroyed. The mere expenses of the war amounted to some- thing enormous in comparison with the actual means of the colonies. It is pleasant to meet with the record of a contri- bution of five hundred pounds, collected by an elder brother of Increase Mather, a Puritan minister in Dublin. The war had lasted a little more than a year, (1G76.) There still remained a few Indian war parties to Peace. t , . . . deal with in the Connecticut valley, as well as the Abenaki tribes in Maine. The former were soon driven off; but the latter kept to their arms until peace was liter- ally bought of them by Sir Edmund Andros, the governor 120 TART IT. 1G38-1763. of New York, to which province, it may be remembered, the eastern part of Maine then belonged, (1678.) Abonakis The Abcnakis were soon in arms again. Enlisted iu nuns, ^^j-^ ^\^q q[^q ^f ^jjg French in the wars to be related by and by, the eastern tribes repeatedly laid waste the English settlements. A quarter of a century (1689-1713) did not still the passions thus excited. At a time of peace between England and France, the colonists of the former nation attacked the allies, nay, the very missionaries of tlu; latter. Sebastian Rasles, the patriarch of a Norridgewock village on the Kennebec, where he dwelt alone amidst his savage converts, became the object of especial jealousy to the government of Massachusetts. An armed expedition failed in making him captive, (1722.) But a renewed assault was more successful, the venerable priest being slain, his chapel sacked, his village destroyed, (1724.) All the tribes of the east entered into the war. The only ally of Massachusetts was Connecticut; the efforts to obtain support from the Mohawks being answered by the advice that Massachusetts should do justice to her foes, (1722.) Peace was made, after a five years' conflict. It was broken more than once in the later French wars, (1744, 1754.) But the Abenakis submitted at last, (1760.) The central and southern colonies were for many the ceil- years undisturbed by Indian wars. Treaties with tie and {[^q Fivc Nations — the more easily made and kept south. 1 ~ M • n • '11 as these tribes were contmually at enmity with the French of Canada — protected the frontiers of the colonies of the centre. Those of the south, for some time unassailed, were at length overrun. ^,^^ . North Carolina, after frequent aggressions on the North part of her settlers, was swept by the Tuscaroras, (1711.) The aid of South Carolina, with that of her Lidian alUes, was called in, before peace could be re- INDIAN WARS. 121 stored, even for a brief period. Soon breaking out again, in consequence of the continued injuries inflicted upon tha Indians, the war grew so threatening as to require the inter- position of Virginia as well as of South CaroUna. The three colonies together forced the Tuscaroras to fly to their kindred, the Fire Nations of New York, by whom, as was formerly mentioned, they were received as a sixth tribe of the confederacy, (1713.) In South South Carolina, some time before involved in strife Carolina, ^^j^ ^.j^g Indian aUies of the Spaniards in Florida, was presently threatened with a more serious war. The tribes of the south, especially the Yamassees, aggrieved by the treatment which they received from the colonists, dashed upon their plantations, and, with revenge and slaughter, pressed northward towards Charleston. So great was the peril, that the governor armed the slaves of the province, besides obtaining a law from the assembly authorizing the conscription of freemen. These means, backed by the re- sources of North Carolina and Virginia, averted the ruin that appeared to be approaching. The Yamassees, driven back with their confederates, were forced to seek refuge in Florida, (1715.) ^.^j^ Nearly half a century elapsed before the Indians Chero- took up the hatchct in the south. The Cherokees, invaded fii'st by the forces of the Caix)linas and Vir- ginia, and then by the royal troops, at that time carrying on the last French war, retorted with sword and fire, (1759-60.) But the English and the colonial soldiery together proved too much for the Cherokees, who were soon reduced to humiliating terms of peace, (1761.) ^.^^ Meantime, the western settlements had begun to western bear the brunt of Indian warfare. Pennsylvania was attacked, just as the final contest with the French began, (1755,) by the Delawares and Shawanoes, 11 122 PART II. 1638-1763. the former of whom hcod been infamously driven from their land by the Pennsylvanians, or then- proprietors, many years before. Other tribes, joining with these, spread havoc along all the western borders of the colonies, until peace was conquered, (1758.) Poutiac's The French war over, (1763,) the same tribes, war. ^yj^ji others of varied name and race, united under the great Ottawa chieftain, Pontiac, in one simultaneous attempt to clear the western country of the English inva- ders. Such an onslaught, occurring at an earlier period, might have driven the English, not only from the west but from the east. But made against them when they had just prevailed against the hosts of France, the attacks of the Indians, though at first successful, were met and decisively subdued, (1764.) ^ ^ _,. Some sad and stransre events, in connection with Indians ^ ^ in Penn- the war thus closed, must be mentioned, for the sake sy vania. ^^ ^j^^ illustration which they offer of the passions so long dividing the English and the Indians. A number of Pennsylvanians, opposed to their own authorities, and ex- cited with suspicion and hatred against all of Lidian blood, made such demonstrations asrainst the Indian converts of the Moravian missionaries, for some time at work in Penn- sylvania, that the assembly ordered the Indians to be removed to Philadelphia. Hardly was this done, when the settlers of Paxton, a frontier town, put to death a handful of Indians lingering at Conestoga, pursuing and slaying some who, for safety's sake, had been lodged in the Lancaster jail. A force of from five to fifteen hundred borderers then set out on a march against Philadelphia, where they intended to seize the Indians transported thither, if not to make themselves masters of the city and the province altogether. * The extreme Avestem tribes remained in arms till 1765. INDIAN WARS. 12 Q They were not without their sympathizers in Philadelphia ; but those who were prepared to resist them took so deter- mined a course as to avert the dangers of the insurrection. The show of force in the city persuaded the borderers to retire, (1763-64.) The tomahawk was not yet buried in the west or ^*j^^ but "1 the south. Year after year some party or some the issue ^j^\yQ q£ Indians broke loose upon the frontiers. But decided. t . t i i i i the question had long been decided as to the hands into which victory was to fall. The scattered tribes, ill provided with arms or stores, with discipline or skill, had fallen away, from the first, before the concentrated numbers and accumulated resources of the colonists. Whatever indi- vidual bravery could do, whatever the undying independ- ence of any single tribe could achieve, was all in vain, before the resistless advance of the English. Nay, not of the English alone, but of the Indians themselves, allied with the conquerors of their countrymen. But for such as joined the stranger, the conquest would have been slower, although none the less sure. Later The Indian wars form by no means a bright chap- missions. ^^j, [^ Q^J. ixj^^tory. But, as we found something to light up the early, so we find something to light up the later relations of the Indians and the EngHsh. The missions, begun by the Mayhews and by Ehot, had never been aban- doned in Massachusetts. As time passed, and the native race grew thinner upon its former soil, new stations were taken, to reach the remoter tribes. A mission at Stock- bridge, at first in the charge of John Sergeant, afterwards obtained no less a superintendent than Jonathan Edwards, (1737-50.) A more radiant name is that of David Brain- erd, of Connecticut, who, after laboring between Stockbridge and Albany, turned southwards to Pennsylvania and New Jersey, (1744.) The exertions of a few years so enfeebled 124 PART II. 1638-1763. him that he returned to the Connecticut valley only to die, (1747.) His place was taken in Pennsylvania by Mora- vian missionaries, (1748,) whose labors, protracted to a much later period, came to such sad results as have just been described. The missionary would convert the Indians ; the colonist would hunt them to death. Alas, that so little was wrought by the friend and the teacher, in comparison with the vast achievements of the foe and the destroyer ! CHAPTER V. Dutch Wars. _ Returning to trace the fortunes of the Dutch War3 within- settlement of New Netherland, we immediately diaus. ^^^ .^^ j.j^^ .^g English neighbors, at war with the Indians, whom we may call Manhattans of the Algon- quin race. Vexed by the traders, oppressed by the officials of the colony, the Manhattans had provocation enough to take up arms at an early period. But the vicinity of their dreaded foes, the Mohawks of the Five Nations, who were disposed to be friends with the Dutch, kept them at peace until peace was impossible. The incursions of the Indians into the Dutch settlements, and the horrid massa- cres inflicted by the Dutch in return, were of the same nature as the hostilities already described, (1640-43.) A temporary truce was instantly broken by a general war, spreading from the main land to the islands, and devas- tating almost the whole of the colony. But for a company of English settlers, just fresh from encounters with the Indians, it would have gone hard with New Netherland. As it was, the exhaustion of the colony was as great as that of its foes, when a treaty terminated the war, (1 643-45.) Thrice, however, within the next twenty years, the Indians rose against the still oppressive Dutchmen, (1655, 1658, 1663.) The increase of New Netherland was arrrested by 11 * (125) 126 ' PART II. 1638-1763. these repeated wars. A contemporary document* upon (1644) dwells upon the favorable prospects of Nether- the colouy after the fur trade was thrown open, land. (1 638,) as previously mentioned. " At which time," we are told, " the inhabitants there resident not only spread themselves far and wide, but new colonists came thither from fatherland, and the neighboring English, as well from Virginia as from New England, removed under us." The hopes thus inspired are expressly stated to have been blasted by the Indian wars. Had the wars never occurred, the colony would Internal , ^ rostric- have had no rapid progress. In itself it was divided tions. ^^ what may be called castes. The patroons, for instance, were an order by themselves, not necessarily hos- tile to the authorities or unfriendly to the colonists, yet oft«n proving to be one or both. Then the colony lay at the mercy of the company and its director, whose supremacy was shared by none but a few officials and councillors. The attempts at representation on the part of the more substantial colonists, were of no avail. Boards of twelve, eight, and nine men were successively established, with the director's consent, but without any power to restrain him or to elevate themselves. It was at length resolved by the nine men to draw up , a statement of tlieir grievances to be laid before the government of the mother country. But the member charged with preparing the document, Adrian Van der Donck, was robbed of his papers, thrown into prison, and expelled from the board of the nine men as well as from the director's council, in which he had a seat, (1649.) Liberated from his imprisonment. Van der Donck set sail for Holland, with other representatives of the cause for wliich he had suffered. His exertions there brought about * In O'Callaghan's History of New Netherland, Appendix E. DUTCH WARS. 127 a provincial order from the States General, by wMch the West India Company was directed to make some conces- sions to the colony, (1650.) Two years elapse, and we find Van der Donck still appealing to the States General for justice, (1652.) The most that he procured was a municipal government for the city (as it was styled) of New Amster- dam, the first city of the United States. It was organized in the following year, (1653,) with sheriff, burgomasters, and judges, but all appointed by the director, Peter Stuy ve- sant, who had carried on for several years a downright war in defence of his prerogatives. In resentment against him personally much of the vigor belonging to the liberal party had been expended. He carried the day, it must be con- fessed, notwithstanding the city charter, notwithstanding also the remonstrances of a convention of eight towns held the same year. ^ ,. . The measure of arbitrary government was not Keligious •' ^ persecu- yet fuU. At the instance of two clergymen of the Dutch church, a proclamation from the director ap- peared, threatening fines upon all preachers and hearers of unlicensed congregations, (1656.) The first to suffer were Lutherans, who were not merely fined, but imprisoned ; then some Baptists, who were not merely fined, but banished. Soon after, a few Quakers fell into the hands of the per- secutors, one of them being subjected to tortures as horrid as any inflicted in the English colonies, (1657.) A few years afterwards, the remonstrance of a Quaker, John Bowne, who had been transported to Holland as a criminal, brought upon Director Stuy vesant the censure of the com- pany for his oppression, (1662-63.) Despite all these drawbacks upon its strength, tion of New Netherland was strong enough, with help from deT ^"^ *^® company, to subdue its neighbor of New Swe- den. That colony, though reenforced at times, con- 128 PAllT II. 1G38-1763. tinned in a precarious state, with few settlers and uncertain resources. Protested against by the Dutch as interloping within their territory, it had nevertheless invited Dutch emigrants amongst its own settlers, (1G40.) But the New Netherland authorities were on the alert. Partly in op- position to a Connecticut settlement attempted on the Dela- ware, but chiefly in resistance to the advances of the Swedes, Stuyvesant built his Fort Casimir at the present Newcas- tle, (1651.) A new governor, Pysingh, coming to the Swedish colony, got j^ossession of the fort without difficulty, (1654.) It cost him dear ; for Stuyvesant, with a force of several hundred, principally sent from Holland for the pur- pose, not only recovered Fort Casimir, but conquered Fort Christina and the whole of New Sweden, (1655.) A few Swedes swore allegiance to the Dutch ; the rest went home or emigrated to the English colonies. The Swedish gov- ernment protested against the conquest of its colony ; but it had too much upon its hands in Europe to recover its pos- sessions in America. So New Sweden came to an end ; and the dream of the generous Gustavus Adolphus that he was to found a place of refuge from persecution and from corruption vanished forever. New Am- The victorious West India Company hardly knew stci. what to do with its conquest. It found a purchaser, however, in the city of Amsterdam, which became the mis- tress of what had been New Sweden, — portions of our Dela- ware and Pennsylvania, — under the name of New Amstel, (1656.) This was enlarged by a subsequent purchase so as to embrace the Dutch possessions on both banks of the Delaware ; in other words. New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware, (1663.) _ ... But the dominions of the Dutch, whether West English ' aggres- India Company or Amsterdam city, were passing into other hands. The claims of England to the DUTCH WARS. - 129 territory had been asserted, as mentioned in a former chap- ter, from a very early period. They lost nothing, it may be believed, of their force, as colonies multiplied and lands were in continually increasing demand. An old grant from the Council for New England* was made to cover Long Island. Connecticut and Massachusetts pushed on towards the Hudson. On the south, parties from Connecticut and from Maryland threatened the domains upon the Delaware, (1639-63.) Year after year, during a quarter of a century, brought some fresh invasion of the Enghsh, exciting some fresh remonstrance from the Dutch. " Those of Hartford," runs one of the Dutch records, " have not only usurped and taken in the lands of Connecticut, but have also beaten the servants of their high mightinesses the honored com- pany with sticks and plough staves, laming them," (1640.) It is the tone of all the records, querulous and feeble, the wail of a colony never numbering more than ten thousand against its far more numerous neighbors. Nor were its neighbors its only foes. Amongst its own people was a large number of Englishmen, emigmnts from hostile colonies, who naturally became hostile settlers. At one time, some English villages of Long Island proclaimed " the commonwealth of England and his highness the lord pro- tector," (1655.) At another, the towns at the west end of the island proclaimed the English king, (1663.) Finally, the danger was so great that Peter Stuyvesant, the foe of all liberal institutions, called a convention of his province. It appears how far the English had pushed their aggressions on scanning the meagre list of the towns or settlements that were represented. New Amsterdam and Rensselaers- wyck head the roll of twelve. The convention favored peace with the Indians ; as for the English, why, the English hi New Netherland alone were " six to one," (1664.) * To the Earl of Stirling, (1635.) 130 PART II. 1G38-1763. ^^j.. Long as the dissensions between the English and loss of the the Dutch had histed, neither the colonies nor the mother countries had gone to war about them. A war of two years (1G52-54) between the Dutch and the English under Cromwell did not involve their American settlements. When England came under Charles II., another war with Holland was resolved upon, partly fronij, commercial and partly from political motives, the " chief of the latter being the intimate connection at that time between the Dutch and the French. Before war was for- mally declared, New Nelherland was surprised by an Eng- lish fleet. It did not come as a national, but as an individ- ual expedition. Charles II. had made a grant, as has been narrated, of New Netherland to the Duke of York and Albany. It had been the work of a few months only for the duke to buy up other Enghsh claims, and collect commis- sioners and troops to take possession of his new realms. Accompanied by John Winthrop, governor of Connecti- cut, who, though amiable and disinterested in most resj^ects, was full of determination against the Dutch, the commis- sioners, headed by Colonel Nichols, obtained possession of the province without battle. The terms of the surrender promised to the conquered their religion, their law of inherit- ance, and their trade and intercourse with Holland, (1G64.) The transaction, at first ^professedly discountenanced by England, was afterwards sustained by her, and finally sub- mitted to by Holland in the treaty of Breda, (16G7.) On the outbreak of fresh hostilities between the Kecovery nnd final Same countrics, a few years later, (1G72,) New York, as New Amsterdam was now called, received the summons to capitulate to a Dutch squadron, (lG7o.) It did Fo, and was held by the Dutch for upwards of a year, when it was once more, and for the last time, surrendered by them, (1G74.) Thus were the Dutch, and with them the Swedes, brought beneath the English dominion. CHAPTER VI. Spanish Wars. Spanish There Were other races, rivals of the English, race. iggg easily to be reduced than the Dutch or the Swedes. One upon the southern border bore the flag of Spain, rent and dhn indeed, but still the flag of a great nation. Its col- Yet the colony of the Spaniards was far from <^°y- being a great one. St. Augustine, eldest of the permanent settlements upon United States soil, was amongst the least active of them all. Half garrison, half mission in its character, it formed a post where a few troops and a few priests kept up the Spanish claim upon Florida. A century after its foundation, it was nearly annihilated by one of the buccaneering expeditions that were wont to ravage the American coast. It rallied, however, especially when a treaty between Spain and England put a stop to the English commissions with which the buccaneers of the time were generally provided, (1670.) „ „. . But there was no e;ood will to speak of between Collisions ^ '■ with the Spain and England, or amongst their colonies. A ^^ ^^ ' force from Florida was soon marcliing against the newly-organized Carolina, a more flagrant incursion, in Spanish eyes, upon the territory still claimed by Spain, than any of the northern colonies had made. The expe- dition was met and turned back by the resolute Carolinians, (1672.) Some years after, another invasion of the Span- (131) 132 PATvT II. 1C38-1763. iards effected the destruction of a Scotch settlement just made near the Spanish border, (1G86.) These were not wars so much as the chastisements inflicted or attempted by Florida against its English trespassers. j,^^^^ If there was any effect, it was not to dislodge the on tho intruders, but rather to stimulate the intruded upon. coony. ]?iQj.j(^g^ ^qqI^ jj fpesii start. St. Augustine awoke from its slumber, brushed up its means of offence and defence, and assumed a new attitude. The surrounding country, still in the hands of the Indians, was dotted over with forts and chapels, with soldiers and missionaries. On the other side of the peninsula, u\)on the Gulf of Mexico, Pensacola was reared with fortress and dAvellings, (1696.) It seemed as if Spain was at last to occupy our soil wi^h a colony worthy of bearing her great name. War. Presently war broke out between England with Attacks yai'ious allies on one side, and on the other on St. ' Angus- Spain and France,, (1702.) It was but just heard Chades- ^^ ^^^ Soutli Carolina, when Governor Moore ob- tou- tained the consent of the assembly to an attack upon St. Augustine. With twelve hundred men, half of them Indians, Moore was able to take the town, but not the fort, from which he precipitately retreated on the arrival of some Spanish men-of-war from Havana, (1702.) Poorly as his expedition turned out, Moore, no longer governor, headed a second, composed almost entirely of Indians, with whom he made a foray amongst the missionary villages of Northern Florida without any effective results, (1705.) The next year, a naval attack by both French and Span- iards upon Charleston was beaten off with great loss, three hundred out of eight hundred assailants being killed or captured, (1706.) This was the last event of the war, so far as the colonies were concerned, although peace was not made until seven years later by the treaty of Utrecht, (1713.) SPANISH WARS. 133 Treaty of ^liis treaty is of moment in United States his- utrecht. torj. The war, of which it was the conclusion, arose from the attempt of Louis XIV. to seat a prince of his own house upon the Spanish throne ; in other words, to combine Spain and France in one vast kingdom. So menacing was the attempt to Europe, that not England alone, but Holland, Germany, both the Empire and Prus- sia, Portugal and Savoy armed themselves against it. The treaty of Utrecht decided that France and Spain must remain separate. Had they been joined, the English colo- nies upon our shores would have found it difficult to with- stand their united foes. Second Five years after, France was on the side of Eng- ^'*'- land in a war with Spain, (1718.) It was caused Descents , a \ / onFior- principally by the refusal of Spain to fulfil the Ida. Utrecht treaty so far as related to the empire of Germany, with which power France and England, and then Holland, all alHed themselves. Afterwards, Spain and the Empire made peace together, while France, Eng- land, and Holland formed a league against them, (1725.) Little was done either in Europe or in America. Pensa- cola was taken and retaken by the French, then m their Louisiana settlements, (1719.) It was soon restored, (1721.) A force of three hundred, } artly Indians, made a sally from Carolina upon the Spanish and Indian villages of Florida, (1725.) But the war was without interest or effect, and peace returned with the treaty of Seville, (1729.) Third Then followed the settlement of Georgia, already ^'^^- . described as intended to be an outpost agamst the andlior- Spaniards, (1733.) Wliatever they thought of this ^^^' fresh aggression upon their realm, they seem to have said or done nothing for some time ; then General Oglethorpe, the head of the Georgian colony, was sum- 12 134 PART 11. 1638-1763. « moned to evacuate the territory, (17oG.) War being declared by England against Sf)ain, chiefly in consequence of Spanish depredations upon English commerce, Ogle- thorpe received orders to invade Florida, (1739.) He did so, with a force of twelve hundred men from both the Carolinas and Virginia, as well as from his own prov- ince, besides an equal number of Indians. With these, and with trains and ships, he laid siege to St. Augustine ; but being deserted by most of his Indians, and by many of his volunteers, he was obliged to abandon the enterprise, (1740.) A large expedition from England, recnforced, jSrst and last, by upwards of four thousand colonial troops, was equally unsuccessful against the Spanish strongholds in the West Indies, (1740-41.) But the Spaniards them- selves did no better in their invasion of Georgia, from which they were repelled, partly by battle and partly by fraud, Oglethorpe being still there, (1741.) After this, the Spanish war subsided, nor did the French share in the hostilities begin for three years to come, (1744.) Four years later, the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle restored things to their state before the war, (1748.) Fourth ^^st as the last colonial war with France was ^^^•. ending, the fourth and last colonial war with Spain of Fioi-- began. This power came into the contest as the Ida, ^iiy Qf France, in America even more than in Europe, the object being to prevent the English expelling the French from their American possessions, and then turning against the Spaniards, as was apprehended, and expelling them from theirs. But the French were already driven out; and nothing interfered with a vigorous onset of the English upon the Spaniards. New England and New York contributed to the capture of Havana in the open- ing year of the war, (1762.) The treaty of Paris, begun upon in the same, though not formally completed till the SPANISH WARS. 135 following year, restored Havana to Spain. But it gave an immense accession of territory to England and her colonies. AVhat France surrendered will appear hereafter. Spain ceded Florida, once the whole of North America, but now little more than a peninsula of the southern coast, (1763.) A royal proclamation of the same year gave names and boundaries to East and West Florida, the latter province embracing the French cessions east of the Missis- sippi. Twenty years after, the Floridas reverted to Spain, to be again separated from it at a later period. To make some amends to Spain for her losses in Louhiana attempting the rescue of France, the latter king- andCaii- ^^^^ cjave up hcF colony of Louisiana. To this fornia. "^ » i i • i i we shall revert. At nearly the same time that the Spaniards took possession of their acquisition in the east, they extended their settlements in the west by establishing missions at San Diego and Monterey, California, (17G9.) But the Spanish wars, so far as our country was Oil jn'ictcr of the concerned, were over. They had never arisen, ex- Spanish ^^^^^ -j^ ^j-^^ ^^gg ^f ^|^g ^^^^ brief war, from any wars. ^ ^ _ ^ _ ^ "^ consideration of American interests. Nor had they called forth any development of American energies either in crowded battles or extended campaigns. But they had continued, if we date from the first encounters, for nearly a century. CHAPTER VII. French Possessions. French TiiE great rival of the English race upon our race. g^j^ reappears. It is time to turn back beyond Spanish, Dutch, and Indian wars, nay, beyond the growth of the English colonies, to trace the progress of the French in America. No other nation, it will be found, not even the English, asserted claims or projected achievements of equal vastness. New We left the French the masters of New France France. — ^ name of vague extension originally, but subse- quently confined, as will be remembered, to Acadie and Canada. Acadie being itself shorn of its original dimen- sions, the province of Canada remained the chief division of New France. ^ , The French, like the En2;lish colonies, were not System ' '^ of gov- always under the immediate government of the cmmen . j^^Qj^j^gj, country. An intermediate authority, vested in the Company of New France, prevailed for thirty-five years, (1G27-62.) For twelve years more, a French West India Company was commissioned to administer the aifairs of the colony, (16G3-75.) But with these bodies were associated some officers of royal appointment, so that there was no time when the colony was wholly removed from the oversight of the sovereign. Nor was the season during which the two companies lasted by any means so long or so decisive as the periods of the royal government. New (136) FRENCH POSSESSIONS. 137 France, like Old France, was essentially a monarchy, and a monarchy in which the monarch was growing out of all proportion to the people. Its institutions were of the past. A governor general, representing the monarch, with an intendant for a prime minister, a council of notables for a nobility, and a host of ecclesiastics, with a bishop at their head, (from 1659,) constituted the authorities of the col- ony. The ruling class amongst the people was that of the seigneurs, or lords of the manor ; their tenants, called habitans, holding land of them by feudal tenure. No press was allowed ; no learning of a liberal nature was encouraged. The education of the province was in the hands of the religious orders, whose names and numbers were almost as manifold as in the mother-land. Under these influences, the colony could not but be greatly re- stricted. The main body of the people were necessarily dependent, unable to act for themselves or for their country, the few alone having the will and the power to urge on the work of colonization and of dominion. Such were the internal drawbacks upon the prog- within- ress 01 JNew 1< ranee. (Ji those which we may dians and ^^^jj external, the chief were the relations of the English. French with the Indians and the Einglish. Those with the Indians Avere of two kinds — with the friendly and with the unfriendly tribes. Now it may seem that the amicable intercourse of the French with the large propor- tion of the natives around them must have been entirely conducive to their prosperity. But it did not prove to be so, on account, principally, of the tendency of the French settlers to sink to the level of their Indian allies, rather than to raise these to themselves. The Frenchman, wheth- er missionary or soldier, explorer or trader, appeared to find a fascination in savage life which he could not resist ; and yet it was the vices rather than the virtues of the 12* 138 PAET II. 1638-1763. Indian character which he admired and imitated. He became indolent, treacherous, morosely cruel, in many in- stances far more of a savage than any Indian. As to the hostile tribes, it is enough, at the present moment, to name the Five Nations, with whom, as will appear hereafter, the French were at war for a century. As to the English, it must be left to the next chapter to set forth the obstacles which they presented to French advancement. It is suffi- cient to observe that these hinderances from without, joined to those from within, formed a bristling barricade over which all the ardor and all the discipline of the French character would find it difficult to mount. The stronger must have been the impulses to have extended the limits of New France so far as we shall now find them. . _,. The boundaries of Acadie stretched from the Acadie, including northern coasts, through all the east of Maine, as far as the Kennebec, the French asserted ; as far as the Penobscot, the English allowed. With the portions of the province in the north we have no further concern than to observe that they included all now called Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Cape Breton, together with indefinite re- gions beyond. Maine was but feebly held by the French. Missions at the* mouth of the Penobscot and on the Kenne- bec, with a post or two for trade, comprised all that could be called settlements. But for the towns and forts of the neighboring parts of Acadie, the east as well as' the west of Maine would have fallen into English hands. Passing over the cities and fortresses of Central including Canada, as foreign to our soil, but not without re- ^•^^ membering their importance, let us pursue the Wiscon- Canadian settlements that were made or attempted 8in, Mich- ^ actual United States territory. The first to igan. i *' advance was, as usual, a missionary, Le Moyne, who, with a few associates, labored amongst the Five Na- FRENCH POSSESSIONS. 139 tlons, then at peace. A colony was founded in Western New York, but only to be abandoned on account of renewed warfare between the French and Indians, (1656-58.) A few years later, Allouez, another missionary, led the way up the lakes, and founded the mission of St. Esprit, on the southern shore of Superior, in the present Wisconsin, (1666.) Two years after, Dablon and Marquette estab- lished a mission at Sault Ste. Marie, in the present Michi- gan, (1668.) Other missions arose in the adjoining forests and on the contiguous shores. After the missionary came the' trader, and after the trader generally the soldier; so that to tlie mission house there were added dwellings, bar- racks, and, in time, a fort, whose sounding title frequently drowned the peaceful name of the mission. Thus was Canada extended beyond the St. Lawrence and its tributa- ries, beyond all neigliborhood of the English colonies, into the valleys and the wildernesses of the west. „^ ,,. Still more distant realms were reached. Father The IMis- Bissippi. Marquette, of the Michigan mission, hearing of a great river towards the setting sun, resolved to find and to explore it. Before he started, his brethren, Allouez and Dablon, penetrated into the interior of Wisconsin and Illinois, (1672.) Marquette, with a few companions, found the Mississippi, as he had been directed by the natives, and sailed upon its waters as far down as Arkansas, (1673.) On his return, he established a new mission near the present Chicago in Illinois. The tidings from the Mississippi kindled new Louisiana. i n , ^ •• r>-|.* rr^i* plans 01 trade, new visions oi dominion, io begin upon them, there soon appeared a Frenchman, La Salle, — in youth a Jesuit, in manhood a trader and an adventurer of the highest stamp amongst the colonists of New France. Repairing to the French court, he obtained a commission to complete the discovery of the great western river, in consid- 140 TART II. 1638-1763. eration of wliicli tlie monopoly of the fur trade was to be his own, (1677.) He soon engaged in his enterprise; but four years of exertion and of disappointment passed over him, before he descended the Mississippi to its mouth and to the adjacent coasts. It did not matter that the Spaniard De Soto had been the discoverer of the river a century and a half be- fore the French. They hailed themselves possessors of the waters and of the shores, under the name of Louisiana, (1682.) French Thus was Ncw France extended from north to dominion. gQutli, and from east to west. While the Swedes and the Dutch had yielded their hold upon our soil, while the Spaniards had contracted theirs to the single corner of Florida, while the English had only their New England, New York, New Jersey, Marj'land, Virginia, and Carolina, the whole together forming not much more than a broken beach upon the Atlantic, the French dominion stretched from the Gulf of St. Lawrence, over vale, and prairie, and mountain, far round by the western waters, to the Gulf of Mexico. It still needed time, vigor, wisdom, to make this mighty em})ire a reality as well as a name. Colony in ^0 time was lost in sending La Salle, who had Texas. gone to Fraucc to tell his adventurous story, with a colony of two hundred, to make a settlement in Louisiana. Misshig the mouth of the Mississippi, the party were landed on what is now the Texan shore, near the present Mata- gorda, where they built a fort with the name of St. Louis, (1685.) But things went hard with them, and when they were reduced to less than a fifth of their original number. La Salle found it time to seek relief in Canada. On his way thitlici-, with half of his surviving comrades, he was foully murdered by one of them, (1687.) The colony of St. Louis soon vanished from the eartk TavcIvo years passed before another trial to colonize Louisiana. A twofold attempt was then made, one by the FRENCH POSSESSIONS. 141 . Endish and one by the French. The old grant of Colony m ° -^ , <•• i i Missis- Carolana having been bought up by one ot the later eippi- -^Q^y Jersey proprietors, Coxe, he sent, under permis- sion of his sovereign, a small squadron to take possession of the Mississippi. One of the vessels, sailing up the river, was met by a band of Frenchmen, who, by assuring the Englishmen that they were in a part of Canada, and not in Louisiana, prevailed upon them to turn about at a bend still called the English Turn — Detour aux Anglais. So the English retired, and the French held their own. They were a pai'ty of two hundred in number, under Lemoine DTberville, a Canadian of greater gallantry than prudence, who, mtent upon mines and treasures rather than upon the substantial resources of a colony, chose the sands of Biloxi, in what is now Mississippi, for the site of his fort, (1699.) The next year, an expedition in search of mines travelled up the river as far as the Falls of St. Anthony, first visited by some of La Salle's companions twenty years before. Colony in The mincs receded ; the sands of Biloxi remained. Alabama. DTbcrviUe, returning from France, whither he went twice m quest of supplies, transferred the main body of the settlers to Mobile, in the present Alabama, (1702.) But DTberville, who, like La Salle, was the life and the soul of his company, died, (1706,) and left the colony in a very precarious condition. " Nothing," says the French chroni- cler, " was more feeble." The truth was, that France was at this time too much occupied in Europe, to say nothing of the north of America, to rear a great colony in the wil- derness of Louisiana. Grant to -^t length the province, extending from the mouth crozat. ^f ^j^g Mississippi to Lake Michigan, and from the English Carolina and the Spanish Florida to the New Mexico of Spain, was made over, for the term of fifteen years, to Antoine Crozat, a French merchant prince. He 142 PART II. 1638-1763. was to receive a large sum every year from the royal treas- m'y towards the expenses of the colonial government, besides the monopoly of trade to and from the colony. In return, he was to send a certain number of vessels and settlers, year by yeai-, in order to keep up and to increase the colo- nial settlements, (1712.) A faint flush of vigor seemed to overspread the struggling colony. Meanwhile the settlements in the north-west had settle- b^cn extended. The missions of Kaskaskia, (about ments. 1G95,) and Cahokia, (about 1700,) in our Illinois, and the settlement of Vincennes, in our Indiana, (about 1705,) had confirmed the occupation of that region. A military post was planted at Detroit, the central point in the great arc no v/ formed by the French possessions, (1701.) Loss of Sut we have reached a period when the French Acadio. possessions were beginning to be contracted. The war in the north, to which we must recur, had ended with the surrender, according to the treaty of Utrecht, of Acadie to England, (1713.) What was thus cut off at the end of the line was more than equal, in point of population and of settlement, to all that had been added to the middle or to the lower end. Nor was there any reaction to compensate for the Pennsyi- ^^^^s. Canada, it is true, roused herself, building vaniaaud f^^.j^^ upon Ncw York territory, at Niagara, (172G,) and Crown Point, (1731.) Western Pennsylvania was dotted with fortifications, at the same time that others were raised through the Ohio valley, (1753.) But the most to be gained by these posts was a communication with the valley of the Mississippi and with Louisiana, where there was little to make the communication of any sensible importance. Louisiana, soon resigned by Antoine Crozat, had passed under the control of the Company of the West, otherwiso FRENCH POSSESSIONS. 143 Mississip- known as the Mississippi Company, (1717.) Dur- ^y.°™g^^'ing the frenzy of its speculations, both the colony Oiieaivs. and the mother country were inflated, merely to collapse with disappointment and disaster. Otherwise, the only office rendered by the company to the colony was the establishment of its capital at New Orleans, (1718-23.) The company soon returned the colony upon the royal hands, (1730.) Our narrative ends with the final outbreak of hos- tile tiiir- tilities between the French and the English in teen of AmeHca, (1754.) Forty years had passed since the treaty of Utrecht began the rupture of the French possessions; but how much was there still left! Beyond the limits of the United States the domains of the French were far more valuable, within the same limits they were far more extensive, than those of England. Over and above the colonies and posts that have been men- tioned, the first essays were made, at the epoch in question, towards the occupation of our Missouri. Counting by the states of a later period, we have thirteen of French * to match with the thirteen of English parentage. Tastness Enough has been said, however, to explain how and weak- easily the French possessions were extended by ad- venture, and yet how slightly they were either held or developed by actual settlement. The French dominion was as weak as it was vast. It spread over America like a cloud brilliant with the morning sunshine ; but, unsubstan- tial as a* cloud, it was swept by the breeze and rent asunder by the storm. * Three of each division were the same. The French list comprised Maine, New York, and Pennsylvania, with Wisconsin, Michigan, Illinois, Louisiana, Texas, Mississippi, Alabama, Indiana, Ohio, and Missouri. CHAPTER VIII. French Wars. The earliest wars in which the colonies of with In- France engaged were those with the Indians. dians in ^hey wcrc also the lon2;est. From the time the north. *' ° when Champlain headed a war party of Algon- quins against the Five Nations of New York, (1609,) this great confederacy was at war with the French, some inter- vals of peace excepted, for more than a century. To describe the descents upon the Canadian settlements, the wild cries and the wilder deeds of battles, the waste and the agony of homes, would be but to repeat our previous sketches of Indian warfare. Not until the treaty of Utrecht restored peace for a time between France and Endand did the Five Nations, then the allies of the English, bury the tomahawk that had so long gleamed above the heads of the French, (1713.) In the Later wars with Indians broke out in the south. south. The Natchez were beaten, (1729-30,) but the Chickasaws could not be subdued, (1736-40.) These conflicts, however, were of moment chiefly to Louisiana. They did not affect the destinies of the French possessions generally. Strife be- Exccpt tlic brief contest with the Spaniards of tween the Florida, described in the last chapter but one, the French ^ and the French had no wars to conduct against any Euro- Enghsh. pgrj^j^ Y^QQ besides the English in America. This, (144) FRENCH WARS. 145 it is true, was. enough for the French to contend with. Enemies for ages past in Europe, these nations turned to America in rivalry and contention. It was to outvie each other, in a great degree, that they made their settlements ; claiming the same lands at the beginning, and extending themselves in the same directions as time went on. The strife between the two great combatants began at an early period, as long ago related, when England, or rather Eng- land's colony of Virginia, destroyed the French settlement of St. Sauveur, (1613.) Continued by England herself, (1628-30,) war produced no effect; her conquests, as was mentioned, being surrendered, (1632.) indeci- ^^^ ^'HTs of the uext half century were not a eive wars, wliit more decisive. One, during the English com- monwealth, (1652-56,) reduced Acadie for a time beneath the sway of England. Another, after the restoration, (1666-67,) brought about nothing except a proposal to the New England colonies that they should conquer Can- ada. Peace restored Acadie, as far as the Penobscot, to France, leaving once more no results from the passion and the hostiUty that had been aroused. _. Acts of violence did not cease on either side. King William's An English trader on Lake Huron was seized, as ^^^' a trespasser, by the French, (1687.) At the other extremity of New France, the governor of New England, Sir Edmund Andros, made an assault upon the trading post of a Frenchman on the Penobscot, (1688.) Each race was determined to hold, and, if possible, to increase its own. A fresh trial of their strength — the fourth in all, but the first in which the colonies of either nation took an active part — began with the war called King William's by the English colonists, (1689.) As far as concerned England, then under William HI., the chief cause of the war was the support given by Louis XIV. to the lately 13 146 PART II. 1638-1763. dethroned James II. But Louis had excited in one way or another the greater part of Europe. England was sup- ported by the German Empire, Holland, Spain, and Sa- voy. From Europe the strife extended to Asia, as well as to America. The difference between the contendinoj parties in Its char- _ ^ '■ acterand America soon appeared. On one side was the course. j^Q^j^g^. country rather than the colony, the strength of France rather than the weakness of Canada and Acadie. On the other side was the increasing vigor of New Eng- land and New York, supported at one time by grants from Maryland and Virginia, and thus presenting an array of colonies, rather than a single mother-land. Both sides were alike in the allies gathered from the forest and the prairie ; the Indians of Canada, Acadie, and Maine follow- ing the French, while the English were assisted by the forays of the Five Nations along the Canadian lines. Indeed, the war was more of an Indian than of a Euro- pean one in character. It began with the descents of French and Indian war parties upon Schenectady in New York, Salmon Falls and Casco in New England, (1690.) An expedition from Massachusetts against Acadie, and another, partly from New England and partly from New York, against Canada, were more regular operations, (1690.) The latter scheme was prepared in a convention of delegates from Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New York, held in the last-named colony ; and al- though Canada was not invaded, the plans all failing, the colonies were united, at least for a season, by new bonds. The Massachusetts force, under Sir "William Phips, suc- ceeded in ravaging Acadie, and even in seizing the eastern part of Maine, where a fort was presently constructed at Pemaquid, (1692 ;) but this was retaken in a few years by the French under DTberville, (1696,) the same who FRENCH WARS. 147 appeared in the south at a later time. Peace being made between the French and the Five Nations, — who were really far more formidable enemies than the English, — while the Abenakis of Maine still swept the frontiers of New England, a general invasion of the northern colonies was planned by tlie French, (1G96-97.) But the appre- hensions of the English were happily relieved by the treaty of Ryswick between the mother countries, (1697.) The war, though lasting eight years, had produced no sensible effect upon the relative strength of the parties eno-ao-ed in it, nor had it decided any of the differences that had led to it, or that would lead to fresh strife in the future. One of these differences has not yet been brought Religious - differ- out as it sliould be. Between the French and the ences. Ei^giigij there existed the widest and the deepest gulf that ever opens between man and man or between nation and nation. It was the" chasm between opposmg creeds. Both professed to be Christians ; but the French were Catholic, the English Protestant. To the former the latter were heretics, the rightful objects of human- enmity as of divine. To the English Protestant, on the contrary, the French CathoHc was the minister of a superstition and an oppression as hateful to God as to man. It may be conceived how much these feelings contributed to whet the swords and to blunt the sensibilities of the warriors on either side. Sad, indeed, is the grouping of the two nations upon the American page, staining it with the passions of the old world, the more hateful in the new, because aUied with the savage and the heathen. No marvel, then, that warfare was soon renewed. Queen n -rt ' ^ r\ Anne's Four ycars after the peace ol Kyswick, (^ueen ^^' Anne's war began, on account, as has been related, of the designs of Louis XIV, upon the Spanish crown, 148 PART II. 1638-1763. (1702.) In America, the same Indian alliances were formed, the same Indian hostilities were excited, as in the preceding contest, except that the Five Nations did not take up the hatchet against the French until tlie war was two thirds over, (1709.) There were also the same attacks upon the border settlements ; Deerfield (1704) and Haver- hill (1708) being both wasted by the French, while the French territory about the Penobscot was scoured by the English, (1704.) But the war, as a whole, was character- ized by greater and more decisive operations. Two expe- ditions were directed from New England against Port Royal; the first laying waste the adjoining country, (1707,) the second capturing the town ; the very name of which disappeared in that of Annapolis, (1710.) The first per- manent settlement of the French, it was also the first per- manent conquest from them by the English. Two expe- ditions, likewise, were planned by New England, New York, and New Jersey, against Canada; the first being merely planned, (1709,) and the second, though attempted, failino" through the inefficiency of the admiral conducting the English force in aid of the enterprise, (1711.) As in the last war, so in this, the northern colonies of England were arrayed against France rather than her colonies. The English colonies of the centre were inactive ; those of the south were occupied at this period, as must be remembered, with Spanish and Indian hostihties. Twelve years having passed in warfare, peace was made at Utrecht, and France surrendered Acadie to England, (1713.) The war was the first of the five between the two nations to make any change in their American possessions. New points of collision were appearing in the Collision ^ . . r» i i in the west. As early as the begmnmg ot the last war, ^®^*' a treaty with members of the Five Nations was made the basis of an English claim to vast territories, FRENCH WARS. 149 (1701.) To explain the claim on any principles is not very easy. It not only made out the Five Nations to be the masters of the west, far beyond their own borders, but also made out the English king to be the master of the Five Nations. A quarter of a century afterwards, a new treaty with the same tribes actually transferred to the English a portion of the country claimed by them, (1726.) Meanwhile the pretensions of the English to the entire interior, from the coast on which their colonies were planted to the Pacific, had never been abandoned. It was their right, they alleged, to possess the western, if they occupied the eastern shores. To aid the English advance towards the west, a trading post had been established at Oswego. It now became a fort, (1727.) But where it stood, and where its range, so to speak, was meant to extend, the French claimed the sovereignty. j^^ ;n There were also difficulties, both old and new, the east, arising in the east. The war between the English and the Abenakis, in which French missions were assailed, and a French missionary was murdered, threatened fresh hostilities, (1724.) The French, on their side, exasperated, perhaps, by the loss of Acadie, were inclined to mfringe upon English rights. Acadie, they argued, was only the peninsula, or what is now called Nova Scotia. But the English replied with reason, that it was not only the penin- sula, but the adjoining mainland, and even the surround- ing islands. Yet to these the French held fast, especially to Cape Breton, where stood their stronghold of Louisburg, by far more important in their eyes, and in those of their adversaries, than any of the inconsiderable posts upon the territory that had been surrendered. At length, after a third of a century of nominal King o ' ^ -p n J George's peace, war was renewed, (1744.) It was cailed King George's by tlie English colonists, from 13* vrar. 150 PART II. 163S-1763. George II. His interposition in favor of Austria and Sar- dinia, then combined against France and Spain with other powers, led to a French declaration of war ; Spain, as may be recollected, being already at war with England. France was now under Louis XV. The French being at peace with the Five, now the Six Nations, and the Indians within the English limits being much diminished in numbers and in spirits, the European races fought their battles more by tliemselves. An expedition, proposed by Massachusetts, and supported by men from Connecticut, New Hampshire, and subsequently Rhode Island, as well as by supplies from New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, all under the command of William Pepperell, of Maine, and all accom- panied by a fleet from England, accomplished the reduction of Louisburg in less than two months, (1745.) A still more extensive campaign was projected for the following year, when New England, New York, New Jersey, Mary- land, and Virginia, with a grant from Pennsylvania, and an armament from England, were to invade Canada ; but the English force did not appear, and rumors of a French descent upon New England broke up the colonial ranks, (1746.) France did little of any kind. Her troops at CroM^n Point made some incursions into Massachusetts and New York, but the meditated invasion of New Eng- land was an utter failure. The treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle closed the war, four years after its outbreak, restoring Cape I^reton and Louisburg to France, (1748.) Peace was soon broken. An attack upon the sh'ed'iu Frcuch at Chignecto, on the Isthmus of Nova Nova Scotia, caused the first blood to be shed, (1750.) Forts rising in various places betokened additional conflicts. It was evident that the troubles in the east were far from being allayed. Nor was the prospect calmer in the west. At the expi- FRENCH WARS. 151 The Ohio ration of the last war, a number of individuals, Company, partly Englishmen and partly colonists, associated as the Ohio Company, obtained a grant of half a million of acres on the eastern bank of the Ohio River, (1749.) Virginia, whose governor was interested in the enterprise, took the lead in the treaties with the Indians and the nego- tiations with the French required by the plans of the com- pany. But the French were not to be made friends of on that ground. They attacked an Indian settlement where some Enghsh traders had found refuge, and seized them as prisoners, (1752.) They then assailed the troops of the Ohio Company. A Virginia party, sent to construct a fort at the head of the Ohio, was driven back by a French force, who completed the fortification, and called it Fort Du Quesne, (1753-54.) A larger band, already on the march from Vir- file^na g^"^^ *^ ^^^ disputed territory, was soon engaged in Peunsyi- battle with the French upon Pennsylvanian soil. George The first encountcr between detachments from both Washing- gijgg resulted in the defeat of the French ; but the second, between the main bodies at the Great Meadows, ended in the retreat of the Virginians. They had been bravely led, their leader being George Washington. An envoy of peace to the French before he thus appeared as an officer in war, he was the same in character, if not in experience, that he showed himself to be m after years. He was now but twenty-two. The final It was the final struggle that had thus begun on struggle. ii^Q shores of Nova Scotia and in the forests of Pennsylvania. The mother countries came into collision in the following year, (1755.) Then the Enghsh fleet took some French transports off Newfoundland, and followed up the attack by scouring the seas. The land forces were equally active. One army, partly of colonial and partly 152 PAUT II. 163S-1763. of English troops, marclicd under General Braddock to defeat near Fort Du Qiiesne. Another, exclusively colo- nial, first under General Lyman, and then under Sir Wil- liam Johnson, with Mohawks in the train, routed the French under Baron Dieskau at Lake George, and built Fort William Henry. But they made no attempt at the reduction of Ticonderoga and Crown Point, against which they had originally started on their march. Another colo- nial force under the English General Shirley, setting out to reduce Fort Niagara, ventured no farther than Oswego. The only expedition to succeed was one that even the victors might afterwards wish to have failed. Not content with forcing the French troops to evacuate their forts on the Isthmus of Nova Scotia, which was done by a force from Massachusetts, aided by a few hundred English sol- diers, the conquerors decided to drive the entire population of the territory into exile. Seven thousand miserable creatures, separated from their families, and bereft of their possessions, were thrown upon the charity of the English colonies, where every association, religious and social, national and individual, was against them. Thus opened the war, (1755.) It was formally declared in the spring of the following year, (1756.) Like the last of the Spanish wars, which broke Extent. . . . 1 , . T 1 . T-i 1 out m connection with this, the last Jbrench war sprang from American causes, at least to a great degree. Actual hostilities occurred in America near six years sooner than in Europe. But Europe did not sit looking across the seas. She armed herself for her Seven Years' War, as it was styled. Prussia was on the side of England, Austria on that of France. Russia and Sweden took part against Prussia, rather than for England. After Spain came in on the French side, Portugal declared in favor of the English. Germany was the chief scene of FRENCH WARS. 153 action in Europe. Asia and Africa also furnished battle grounds. American operations were for some time yet Losses ^ of the more adverse to the Enghsh than those already English. ^jgg^j,-|jg(j^ Niagara, Crown Point, and Du Quesne continued the objects of attack and of defence ; but far from being able to take them, the English were unable to defend their own posts. The fort at Oswego yielded to the Marquis of Montcalm the same year that war was declared, (1756.) The next year, (1757,) Montcalm was the master of Fort William Henry. Thus, after four campaigns, (1754 -57,) the English were retiring before the French. Yet the resources of the English had been infinitely greater than those of their foes. Canada, which bore the brunt of war, did not contain more than twenty thousand effective troops ; and even these were in danger of becoming ineffec- tive by their isolation from the mother country, on wliich the French colonists were ever wont to rely. It was not surprising, therefore, that the renewed Bubse- exertions of England, and above all of her colonies, quent ^ \)y whicli alouc tAvcuty thousand men were now A'ictories. raised, should repair the losses of the precedmg years. Louisburg was the first prize, the whole Gulf of St. Lawrence being taken possession of immediately. Fort Frontenac, on the northern shore of Ontario, and Fort Du Quesne were found deserted. Amongst those who marched against the latter fortress, only to see it in ruins, was Wash- ington, then at the head of the Virginian forces. There, where he had fought his first battles, where he had been twice obliged to retreat, once in command and once in Braddock's staff, he now made his last appearance in the war. His strength was reserved for a greater conflict. All these acquisitions of the English were made in one year, (1758.) The next brought the abandonment of 154: TART II. 1638-1763. Ticonderoga, Crown Point, and Niagara, and more mo- mentous still, the surrender of Quebec, after the great Montcalm's defeat by the troops whom the greater Wolfe had led to amazing victory, (1759.) The two years, together, decided the war. Conciu- -^^^ ^^ continued a year or two to come. An sion of attempt of the French to regain Quebec being repulsed, Montreal soon after capitulated to the English, who were acknowledged conquerors of Canada, (17G0.) All but a few posts in the farther west were surrendered to them within the following year, (1761.) Meanwhile operations, previously commenced, were re- newed against the French West Indies by an armament composed in part of colonial troops ; the islands of the Caribbean group being all captured, (1759-62.) There was no such thing as fighting against reverses like these. After twelve years of actual warfare, the French made peace ; the treaty of Paris ceding to England all east of the Mississippi save two little islands, St. Pierre and Miquelon in the north, and New Orleans in the south ; this last, with all west of the same river, being transferred to Spain, whose part in the war has been previously described, (1763.) „j^ The French colonists were loath to give up the French territory which their mother country had surren- dered. Such of the western posts as were not not already in possession of the English did not come under their new masters for a year or two, (1765.) In- deed, it was some months after the treaty that a French party under Pierre Laclede established a new settlement at St. Louis, in our Missouri, upon the lands ceded to Spain, (1764.) Several years more passed before the Spaniards installed themsehes in Western Louisiana, (1768.) But the French nation had played its pai't as a power on United FRENCH WARS. 155 States territory. Not the less lasting, however, were the influences that had arisen from its possessions and its wars while they endured. The issue of the French wars needs little com- and Eng- mcnt after what has gone before. The English, in lishcom- their compact colonies, resembled a man in full pared. , ^ armor, in contending with whom, the French, scat- tered over their disjointed settlements, were like a knight protected by nothing but fragments of his coat of mail. The Englishman, moreover, stood strong in liimself, strong in his colony even more than in his mother land ; but the Frenchman leaned upon the distant France, with all liis enterprise a dependent colonist, with all his gallantry a submissive subject. So much for the causes and contrasts that were at work in America. If we return to Europe, we shall find France too much engaged in ambition and in battle there to put forth her strength for the defence of colonies as languishing in fact as they were magnificent in form. CHAPTER IX. Colonial Development. The English territory was immensely increased mentof by the successful wars that have been described, eiri ory. -^^^^ ^yerc its limits extended solely at the expense of neighboring domains. Within the boundaries already belonging to the colonies of England, there had been a large accession to the lands formerly occupied. New fields were brought into cultivation ; new towns were formed ; new means of communication were opened between the old habi- tations and the new. Of occu- The development of territory arose chiefly from pation. ^i^Q development of occupation. As the numbers and wants of the colonists multiplied with time, they found fresh ways of employing and of enriching themselves. The seaboard was lined with merchants and traders ; the interior was filled with farmers and planters ; while around them all were clustered the artisans and the laborers whose ser- vices were needed to complete the circle of toil. Few men, or even women, in the early period, were without some laborious pursuit ; few, as wealth increased and individuals grew to be above the necessity of labor, laid aside industry altogether. In one light, the entire people is seen exerting itself to improve the soil, to build up the dwelling, to enlarge the limits of commerce, of trade, and of manufacture. How successful these exertions were, appears from the steady growth of the colonies in resources and in possessions. (156) COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT. 157 Of habits The habits of the colonists were long of the sim- ofiife. plest nature. Little space for liberality or for lux- ury could be found in a new land croAvded with its ever- recurring demands for sobriety and for self-denial. Wher- ever men lived, in the httle knot of cottages that was called a town, in the scattered villages of the country, in the iso- lated posts of the frontier, they had a narrow life before them. Afterwards things changed, and in many a spacious enclosure there arose dwellmgs of greater comfort and of greater pretension. As the strict rules of the primitive period were loosened, there was also more frequent and more genial intercourse amongst men and amongst women. Without falhng into extravagance, the wealthy found new objects of expenditure. Without jdelding to idleness, the poorer classes found new means of relaxation. The change was for the better, physically and mentally. It relieved the nerves that had been tightly strung. It enlarged the inter- ests that had been closely confined. If it did away with the primitive simplicity, it also did away with the primitive ruggedness of life. Time was gained for thought, for cul- ture, for expansion. Ofeduca- The sources of education had been opened at an tion. ej^piy period. The first laws of Massachusetts pro- vided for the schoolmaster and the school, each township of fifty families being bound to maintain a teacher of reading and writing, while each of a hundred families was called upon to set up a grammar school, (1645-47.) The exam- ple was generally imitated throughout New England. Some of the central colonies were equally on the alert, Pennsylvania, especially, making provision from the first for public schools, (1G85-80.) Maryland was much later in the field, proposing schools long before she established them, and laying them, when established, under the restriction of beuig taught only by members of the church of England, 14 158 TART II. 1638-1763. (1723.) The southern colonies were rao.^tly behindhand in the matter of education. South Carohna was amongst the earhest to organize public schools, (1721;) but these, hke the schools of almost all the country, were of a very limited design. Private instruction being preferred by the richer colonists, the schools were left to the middle and lower classes, whose interest was not strong enough to sup- port them. The patronage of the upper classes turned to the Colleges. ^.QJi^^ggg which began with Harvard, in Massachu- setts. Virginia, after depending upon a Latin school at New Amsterdam, bestirred herself to have a seminary of her own. At the instance of the Bishop of London's com- missary, — the ecclesiastical head of the province, — James Blair, the long-sleeping project of a college was revived. The aid of the king was invoked ; and he granted a charter, with donations in money and lands, to create a corporation, whose chief charge it should be to provide instruction for such as proposed to take orders in the established church. A department was also to be organized for the education of Indians. The royal names of William and Mary, then king and queen, were bestowed upon the rising institution, (1G91.) Connecticut soon had her Yale College, (1700;) New Jersey her College of New Jersey, (1738-46 ;) New York her King's College, (1754;) and Pennsylvania her Academy, (1750,) afterwards the University of Pennsyl- vania. These institutions became the centres of quite an amount of intellectual activity. Of the The printing press had long been at work. The press. ^j,gj. ^Q i^g gg^ yp ^y^g ^^ Cambridge in Massachu- setts, (1639.) But it was under so much restraint that it can hardly be said to have exerted any general influence. The importation of books was under similar hinderances, certain volumes being absolutely prohibited, (1654.) Not- COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT. 159 withstanding, the trade seemed to flourish, there soon being as many as four bookstores in Boston, while Hbraries were gathering on a small scale, (1686.) The first newspaper of the colonies was a diminutive sheet, issued once a week, under the title of the Boston News Letter, (1704.) No other press kept pace with that of Massachusetts. The royal governor of Virginia, Sir William Berkeley, made it a boast that under him " there are no free schools nor printing." *' God keep us," he profanely added, "from both !" (1671.) Not many years after, the owner of a press introduced into the colony was bound over to make no use of it until the royal pleasure could be consulted. The royal pleasure turned out to be, that the press and its proprietor should leave Virginia, (1682-83.) Official in- The increasing activity of the press is proved by terfeieiice. nothing more clearly than the continued interfer- ence to which it was subject from the colonial officials. In time, the governors of the royal provinces were regularly instructed to allow no printing without their special license, (1702.) It was -virtually the same in all the colonies. In Pennsylvania, a printer was called to account for one of his pubhcations in such a way as to suggest a retreat to New York, (1692.) Thirty years subsequently, the publisher of the Philadelphia Mercury, the only newspaper out of Bos- ton, was obliged to apologize for an article displeasing to the governor and the council, (1722.) "I'll have no print- ing of your address," says Governor Shute of Massachu- setts to the House of Pepresentatives, on their remonstrating against his proceedings ; " the press is under my control." But he did not succeed in preventing the printing, or even in bringing the printers to trial, (1719.) It was not because the Massachusetts press was free. , Qn the contrary, within a very few years, Benjamin Franklin, then a boy of seven- teen, was admonished by a joint committee of the council 160 TART 11. 1G38-17G3. and the house for certain articles of his in his brother James's paper, the New England Courant, James himself being thrown into jail for a month in consequence of having allowed Ben's animadversions upon " religious hypocrisy," (1723.) Cosby, governor of New York, went farther than Shute against the freedom of the press. His council, with whom he was having a violent dispute, took to a newspa- per, the Weekly Journal, of wdiich John Peter Zenger was the publisher. The governor, although he had his organ in the New York Gazette, determined tliat the council should be deprived of theirs, and that Zenger should be punished. After an imprisonment of eight months, Zenger \va3 tried for libel, and escaped condemnation only by the exertions of his counsel, Andrew Hamilton, of Pennsylvania. The little sympathy that there was with Zenger on the score of a free press may be conceived from the fact that, though acquit- ted, he was left to bear the losses of his imprisonment, (1732-33.) Editions of It was a striking proof of advancing energies the Bible. ^Yi^^ -^Ij^ Boston press gave in issuing an edition of the Bible, the privilege of printing the English version being a monopoly of the Universities of Oxford and Cam- bridge. The Boston edition bore the imprint of the king's printer in London, (about 1752.) A German Bible had been already printed in German town, Pennsylvania, (1743.) ii.tfiiHc- '-^^^^ intellectual development of the colonies was t'l.u those who had suiFered from the riots of the pre- ceding year, were voted amidst a turbulence of congratula- tion such as no event had ever occasioned in America. Forebodings returned with the following year. The Parliament of 1767 created a board of revenue commissioners for America; passed a tea act, by which duties were imposed upon tea and other imports into the colonies, for the purpose not only of providing for troops as before, but of securing fixed salaries for the royal governors and the royal judges ; then pronounced the New York assembly incapable of legislation until the quartering act of 1765 was obeyed by that body, hitherto resisting its exe- cution. Here were three measures more comprehensive and more oppressive than any parliamentary legislation had as yet been. Resist- They were met as might have been expected. ance " Let US complain to our parent," wrote John Dick- °' ' inson, a native of Maryland, and a representative of Pennsylvania, in his Letters from a Farmer, " but let our complaints speak at the same time the language of affliction 17 194 PART III. 1763-1797. and veneration,'* (1767.) The beginning of the next year (1768) brought out the sterner voice of Massachusetts through her representatives, inveighing against all the enact- ments of Parliament, and calling upon the colonies to join in one firm front of resistance. This measure the next house was called upon to rescind, and by no less an author- ity than that of the ministry ; but in vain. The same spirit showed itself in all classes. The students of Harvard Col- lege declared the proceedings of their tutors unconstitu- tional, and called a tree by the name of Liberty. The Boston Cadets — a volunteer guard of the governor — re- fused to appear if the revenue commissioners, who had their head quarters at Boston, were invited to join a procession. The commissioners were soon flying from a riot occasioned by the seizure of John Hancock's sloop for a fraudulent entry at the custom house. Such was the prevailing con- fusion, that British troops were ordered to the town, (1768.) This was too much for Boston. A town meeting chusetts called upon the governor to convene the General conven- (Jourt. On liis refusal, the meetinci; advised the tion. , ° people to get their arms ready, on account, it was said, " of an approaching war with France ; " then summoned a convention from all Massachusetts. This gathered, and again requested the governor to summon the legislature. He again refused, and hinted at treason in the convention, with reason, indeed, considering the entire novelty of such a body to him and to the colony. The convention, not very full of fire, deprecated the displeasure of the governor, and addressed a petition to the king. Just as the convention was separating, the troops arrived, but without finding the quarters that were demanded for them from Boston, sturdier as a town than Massachusetts as a colony. " O my coun- trymen ! " exclaimed Josiah Quincy, Jr., one of the truest- hearted young men of Boston ; " what will our children say Hi PROVOCATIONS. 195 when they read the history of these times, should they find we tamely gave away, without one noble struggle, the most invaluable of earthly blessings ? " This was no appeal to violence. "To banish folly and luxury," continued the Christian patriot, "correct vice and immorality, and stand immovable in the freedom in which we are free indeed, is eminently the duty of each individual at this day," (1768.) The new year (1769) began with a new provoca- cernino- tion, in the shape of an act directing that all cases trials in ^f treason, whether occurrinor in the colonies or not, England. ' '=' m, • should be tried in the mother country. This was worse than any taxation, worse than any extension of ad- miralty courts, any demand for quarters, any creation of revenue commissioners, any suspension of assemblies; it struck a blow at the safety of the person as well as the free- dom of the subject. The planter at Mount Vernon, hitherto calm, exclaims with indignation that " our lordly masters in Great Britain will be satisfied with nothing less than the deprivation of American freedom." " That no man," he writes, " should scruple or hesitate a moment to use arms in defence of so valuable a blessing, is clearly my opinion. Yet arms, I would beg leave to add, should be the last re- source." The Virginia assembly, of which Wasliington was still a member, passed resolutions of kindred spirit. Massachusetts was more than ready to follow. The Suffolk grand jury indicted the governor of Massachusetts, the commander-in-chief of the colonies in general, with the rev- enue commissioners and officers of the customs, for libelling the province to the ministry. Joseph Hawley, representa- tive from Northampton, declared in the house that he knew not " how Parliament could have acquired a right of legis- lation over the colonies." Thus for every fresh provoca- tion was there a fresh resistance, denying more and more of the power that was more and more oppressive. 196 PART III. 1763-1797. Colonial The Ncw York assembly now made its submis- divisions. gjQjj ^^ ^j^g quartering act. In doing so it gave great offence to many of the people, one of whom was thrown into prison for his violent denunciation of the assem- bly. Neither he nor the assembly showed much wisdom in thus contending at a time when union was so much required. But there were parties amongst the colonists, just as there had been, indeed, from the beginning, but now more distinctly marked and more widely separated. No less than five divisions existed, the central and the most substantial being that of the class already mentioned as chief in the colonies. This was flanked, on one side, by two orders more or less inclined to submit to the mother country, and on the other side by two orders more or less inclined to defy the mother country. To begin with the royalists, their name explain- ing itself; then came the neutrals, as they may be styled, neither precisely royalist nor precisely colonist; next the colonists proper, in their close and resolute ranks — the men on whom the issue depended more than on any others ; and after them the more excited parties, first of the Sons of Lib- erty, as they called themselves,* and second of the rioters. Thus, with royalists and neutrals on one wing, and with Sons of Liberty and rioters on the other, the main body of the colonists had but a weary and an anxious march. Boston The difficulties of the case were nowhere more massacre, apparent than in Boston. A constant tendency to riot on the pai-t of a portion of the townspeople required as much energy on the part of the better class as any provoca- tions from abroad against which they were contending. AVliile the wiser Bostonians were endeavoring to procure * From the words of Barre's famous speech of 1765. Many of the original Sons of Liberty were of the class described as the better one of the time ; but, at the present period, the order was made up of the more turbulent spirits, yet not the most turbulent of all. PROVOCATIONS. 197 the withdrawal of the troops quartered amongst them, a jmrty of men and boys involved themselves in a quarrel with the soldiers, the end of which was blood. This Boston Massacre, as it was called, did but add to the burden of the moderate and the effective citizens. The soldiers who had fired upon the people required to be defended upon a charge of murder ; the authorities in England required to be con- vinced that the violence of the populace was as much de- plored as the musketry of the soldiery. It marks the increasing passions of the times, that the two advocates retained by the English officer in command on the night of the affray, though they were no less tried patriots than John Adams and Josiah Quincy, Jr., should have fallen under censure for undertaking the defence. Happily for the fame of Boston, they secured the safety of the accused, only two out of nine being brought in guilty, and those of manslaughter alone, for which they were branded in the hand and then discharged, (1770.) _ ^, Boston was not alone in these disturbances. North other disturb- Carolina saw a large portion of her interior settlers banded together as Regulators * against the colonial government ; nor were they brought to reason without a battle, in which they were defeated by a volunteer force from the orderly portion of the colony, (1771.) In the north, again, the burning of storehouses at Portsmouth, and the destruction of the revenue schooner Gaspe in Narra- ganset Bay, kept up the flames of rashness and of outrage, (1772.) The Gaspe, or its officers, however, had done all that was possible to provoke its doom. The mother country had been pursuing a comparatively gentle course. The repeal of the duty upon many arti- * A name first applied in South Carolina to a party undertaking to execute the laws for themselves j in modern phrase, Lynch-law men. 17*- 198 PART III. 17G3-1797. cles imported into the colonies showed a disposition aiact con-*^ Conciliate, (1770.) Two years passed before any cerning ^ct appeared in relation to the colonies ; nor could that then enacted be called a provocation. In con- sequence of the occurrence at Portsmouth, a bill passed Parliament to secure the trial in England of any incendia- ries of the royal stores or ships in America, (1772.) It did not please the colonists, not even the great party of modera- tion, to think that they had brought this sentence upon themselves. The truth was, that the less moderate the course of things, the fewer moderate men there were to bring things back to moderation. What was done only by the violent was upheld in many instances by the jDrudent ; a common sympathy was fast fusing all parties. So Boston now held its town meeting, and put forth its memorial not only against the acts of which it had to complain, but against those which it seemed to have to apprehend. „ ^ The next year showed how fast the colonies were Tea de- •' stroyed in driving ou. It began with resolutions from Vir- gmia, where a committee was appomted to corre- spond with the other colonies. To the closer union thus pro- posed, Rhode Island was the first to adhere, but without immediate results. Yet, as the year advanced, the colo- nists found themselves the better prepared to combine in resistance to the introduction of large quantities of tea, still subject to duty. It was the plan partly of the East India Company and partly of the ministry ; the former hoping to dispose of their swollen stock, the latter to obtain some of the taxes that appeared to have been levied in vain upon the colonies. Philadelphia was the first to take the field by town meeting against tea and taxation. Boston soon fol- lowed ; and when the proceedings of town meetings, both ordinary and extraordinary, came to nought, as the governor Stood fast for the East India Company and the ministry, PROVOCATIONS. 199 the three vessels that had come in with tea were boarded, and their cargoes thrown into the dock. It was a sad event for many even of the more resolute citizens ; but the ma- jority, under the lead of Samuel Adams, was now composed of the rash as well as the resolute ; a party from the country having been most active in the destruction of the tea, (De- cember, 1773.) A few weeks later, a smaller quantity of tea, imported to private order, was also destroyed at Boston, (February, 1774.) And else- The samc thing happened at New York and An- where. napolis. But the larger portion of the tea received at New York, and all received at Philadelphia, was swiftly returned to England. This returning the tea, or the stor- ing it where it would soon lose its virtue, as in Charleston, was a far wiser course than destroying it. The process of destruction was also the less bold. It was effected by men disguised, or else so maddened as to scorn disguise. Slave It has already appeared how small a part of the trade. provocatious to the colonies consisted in mere meas- ures of taxation. A signal instance of the comprehensive inflictions from the mother country came up in the midst of the transactions lately occurred. The repugnance of the colonies to the slave trade, reviving in these times of strug- gle, brought out renewed expressions of opposition and abhorrence. Virginia attempted by her assembly to lay restrictions on the traffic ; but the royal governor was at once directed by the authorities at home to consent to no laws affecting the interests of the slave dealers, (1770.) The efforts of other colonies met with similar obstacles. Bills of assemblies, petitions to the king, called forth by the startling development of the trade,* were aUke ineffect- * In less than nine months, 6431 slaves were imported into the single colony of South Carolina, from Africa and the "West Indies. 200 * PART III. 1763-1797. ual. "It is the opinion of this meeting," — thus ran the re- solves of the county of Fairfax, George Washington chair- man, — " that during our present ditficulties and distress, no slaves ought to be imported into any of the British colonies on this continent ; and we take this opportunity of declaring our most earnest wishes to see an entire stop forever put to such a wicked, cruel, and unnatural trade," (1774.) Provocations were gathering heavily and rapidly. ment of Massachusetts and Boston, foremost m the tea trou- Massa- i^jgg c^riA qqqh after, in the disturbances occasioned cause tts ' ^ ' and Bos- by royal salaries to the governors and judges of the colonies, were singled out for peculiar chastisement. The Boston port bill closed the harbor of that town to all importation and exportation. Then General Gage, com- mander-in-chief of the British forces in the colonies, was appointed governor of Massachusetts. Not content with creating this state of siege, the ministry brought in a bill for the better regulating the government of Massachusetts Bay, by Avhich the colony was virtually deprived of its charter. The councillors and superior judges were all to be appointed by the crown ; the inferior judges and other offi- cers being left to the nomination of the governor, who was invested with a sort of absolute authority. No town meet- ings were to be held, except for elections, unless the gov- ernor saw fit to make any further exceptions. No juries were to be summoned, except by the sheriffs, that is, by the officers of the governor. To crown the whole, a third bill provided that persons charged with murder in sustaining the government, should be sent to another colony or to Eng- land for trial — a shrewd precaution, considering the cer- tainty of collision between the people and the government under the system about to be enforced. Such were the measures by which Massachusetts was to be crushed and her sister colonies overawed. The crisis had come with the spring and summer of 1774. PROVOCATIONS. 201 Quebec Another proceeding of the same period was in- ^^^- tended to separate the thirteen colonies from their neinrhbors on the continent. The French settlers in the west had shown some signs of sympathy with the English colonies, not, indeed, by any direct cooperation, or even intercourse, but by the same irrepressible instincts after liberty. When their petition for a form of government in which they could have some share was met by a system in which none but the -royal officials had any part, the French in the Illinois country protested against it with all the fer- vor of their nature, (1773.) To keep such spirits down, especially to keep them from combining with the kindred spirits of the English colonies, seems to have been the main object of the Quebec act, by which that province, extended from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the Mississippi, was placed under a government mostly of royal officials. At the same time, the French were conciliated by the restora- tion of their law and of their church, (1774.) Thus cut off from their northern and western onven- jjeisjlibors, the inhabitants of the thirteen colonies ProTin- gathered together against the mother-land. A cir- gress ia cular froui Bostou to the towns of Massachusetts Massa- called upon them to make common resistance to the chusetts. recent acts. Several of the towns, or rather coun- ties met by delegates in convention at Boston to resolve upon measures of defence, amongst which "the military art" and "a Provincial Congress" were prominent. A con- vention of IMiddlesex county at Concord resolved that " to obey them," that is, the acts of Parliament, " would be to annihilate the last vestiges of liberty in this province," (August,) Ten days after, (September,) a convention of Suffolk county at Milton recommended that the detested acts " should be rejected as the attempts of a wicked admin- istration to enslave America," The next month, (October,) 202 PART III. 17G3-1797 the House of Representatives voted itself a Provincial Con- gress. This was decisive. But that it was done, must be ascribed not merely to the inherent independence of Massa- chusetts, but to the pervading sympathy of the sisler colonies. National " Has not tliis," wrotc Washington, nearly three Bpirit. months before, in relation to the acts of Parliament and the proceedings of Governor General Gage, — " has not this exhibited an unexampled testimony of the most despotic system of tyranny that was ever practised in a free govern- ment ? . . . Shall we supinely sit, and see one prov- ince after another fall a sacrifice to despotism? . . . My nature recoils at the thought of submitting to measures which I think subversive of every thing that I ought to hold dear and valuable.'* Such was the tone of every true voice, the feeling of every true heart. A national spirit was aroused. ^ ,. More than a year previously, Benjamin Franklin Coutinen- ^ i j t o tai Con- — now agent not only for Pennsylvania, but for giess. Massachusetts, New Jersey, and Georgia — wrote officially to the Massachusetts ' House of Representatives, recommending a General Congress, (1773.) But it was not until ten months afterwards that the project was taken up, and then not in Massachusetts, but in Rhode Island. Yir- ghiia followed close, recommending that the Congress sh^ld be annual, and voting that " an attack upon one colony was an attack upon all British America," (May, 1774.) Rhode Island was the first to ap2:>oint delegates ; Massachusetts doing the same almost immediately, and the other colonies, Georgia excepted, imitating these examples. The method of appointment varied from choice by the assembly, or by a convention of the whole colony, to choice by committees, county and town, or by a single committee. It was a noble body that met at Philadelphia on the 5th of September, PROVOCATIONS. 203 1774. Samuel Adams and John Adams were there from Massachusetts ; John Jay from New York ; John Dickin- son from Pennsylvania ; George Washington, Patrick Henry, and Kichard Henry Lee, from Virginia; Christo- pher Gadsden and John Rutledge from South Carolina. " If you speak of eloquence," said Patrick Henry, on being asked about the greatest man in Congress, " Mr. Rutledge is by far the greatest orator ; but if you speak of solid in- formation and sound judgment, Colonel "Washington is unquestionably the greatest man on that floor." It needed all that the leaders, all that the members as a body, could command, to meet the exigencies of the time. The Congress that met to reject the stamp act, nine years before, had but child's play to go through, compared with the work of the present Congress — the Continental Congress, as it was called. Taxation had been the substance of three acts of Its work, -r^ , . Parliament, or, at the most, of four.* There were twice or thrice that number f upon other points to be op- posed. Against all these provocations the Continental Con- gress put forth their declaration of colonial rights. In this, much the sanie ground as to the allegiance and the general rights of the colonies was taken as had been held by the earlier Congress. It is therefore a document of secondary importance in the progress of our history. American "^^^ ®^ ^^® American Association. This was a Associa- body of articles, by which a stop was to be put, after certain dates, to all importation from or exportation * The sugar, the stamp, and the tea acts, with the act creating rev- enue commissioners. t The quartering acts, the act suspending the New York assembly, the acts concerning trials for treason and incendiarism, the three acts against Massachusetts, the Quebec act, besides those portions of the stamp and tea acts relating to Admiralty Courts and royal salaries. 204 PAKT III. 1763-1797. to Great Britain and its dependencies, so long as the op- pressive acts of Parliament were not repealed. " We will neither import nor purchase any slaves imported after the first day of December next," was one of the articles ; " after which time we will neither be concerned ui it ourselves, nor will we hire our vessels, nor sell our commodities or manu- factures, to those who are concerned in it." Thus humane as well as bold, considerate for their inferiors as well as res- olute towards their superiors, or those claiming to be such, the members of the Continental Congress signed the Amer- ican Association. The date was October 20, 1774. It was the birthday of the nation. • Toorether with the Association and the declara- Petition ® and ad- tiou, there came from Congress a joetition to the king and addresses to the people of Great Britain, Brit- ish America, and Canada, besides letters to Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and the two Floridas. These various docu- ments being adopted, and the debates on all the stirring questions of the time being concluded, not . altogether with unanimity. Congress separated, (October 26,) having pro- vided that another Congress should be convened, if neces- sary, in the ensuing spring. Peace or " Morc blood," wrotc Washington, during the ses- ^^' sion of Congress, " will be spilled on this occasion, if the ministry are determined to jDush matters to extremity, than history has ever yet furnished instances of in the annals of North America." "After all," wrote Joseph Hawley from Massachusetts to John Adams in Congress, — " after all, we must fight." Adams read the letter to liis colleague from Virginia, the fervid Patrick Henry, who burst out with the exclamation, " I am of that man's mind ! " It was not the opinion of every one. Richard Henry Lee parted from Adams with the assurance that " all the offensive acts will be repealed. . . . Britain will give up her foolish project." PROVOCATIONS. 205 Prepara- Come peace or come war, the Americans, as they tion. are hereafter to be called, were prepared. Not, it is true, with armies or fortresses, not with the material resources which they seemed to require, but with the spirit that was of far greater importance, the source of all outward strength and success. This spirit was not without its sup- ports, intellectual or physical. The struggles with the mother country had called out orators and statesmen, whose minds were daily making some fresh contribution to the thought and the power of humanity. Physically, the Americans were increasing their stores and extending their domains. The road to the great west was opened with the first settlement made in the present Tennessee, (1768.) If old weaknesses lingered, if the disputes between colony and colony continued, now on a question of boundary, now on one of doctrine, they were lost in the union that had been achieved, in the nation that had been bom. 18 CHAPTER II. War. Armino- ^^^ verj day that the Continental Congress of Massa- separated, — October 26, 1774, — the Provincial Congress of Massachusetts took a step decisive of war. This was the organization of the mihtia, consisting of all the able-bodied men of the colony, one fourth of them being constituted minute men, bound to take uj) arms at a minute's warning. Soon afterwards, provision was made for supplying the equipments and munitions of an army. The whole was placed under the direction of a committee of safety, with John Hancock for a chairman. The armhig of the colony had not been unpro- provokeci vokcd. Two montlis before, General Gage, the or uiian- commander-in-chicf and the governor, had beofun ticipated. p .^ fes ? o to fortify the land approach to Boston. He had also seized upon some stores of powder belonging to the province at Cliarlestown. Such was the temper excited 'against him, that Christopher Gadsden, the representative of South Carolina in the Continental Congress, proposed an immediate attack upon the British head quarters in Boston. Neither was the arminof of Massachusetts altojrether unan- ticipated. No colony, indeed, had gone so far ; but many a town, many a band of individuals, was prepared for con- flict. A rumor that Boston was bombarded by the British brought out numbers of the Connecticut militia to the rescue of their countrymen. Years before, when the stamp (206) WAR. 207 act was rousing the land to resistance, some ardent New Yprkers had voted "to march with all despatch . . . to the reUef of those who should or might be in danger from the stamp act or its abettors," (1765.) The juncture thus prepared for arrived when Massachusetts armed her- self. From that day, war was inevitable. The British authorities would never sit by while such things were going on, nor could they attempt any measures of repression without arousing the colonists to use the weapons which they had assumed. The example of Massachusetts was soon followed. Arming ^ of other Far and near, the colonies, by act of assembly, or ^ " of convention, or of individual resolution, took up the posture of defence. All the while, the national spirit v/as sustained by the American Association, and by the committees appointed to enforce it. Though not universally prevalent, the Association had extended itself more widely and more deeply than any previous bond of union amongst the colonies. Earnest to maintain their ties and their rights, the Americans drew out their lines. It was no great show in a military point of view. Li point of courage, of sacrifice, it was sublime. Course of ^^^^ J^^^^ ^^^^ closing in England with a ncAV Tariia- Parliament, in which the majorities for the ministry were irresistible. Amongst the members was a native of New York, Henry Cruger, who, having settled as a merchant at Bristol, was elected mayor, and returned to Parliament. In the prime of manhood, flushed with generous emotion for the country of liis birth, although opposed to its revolutionary courses, he rose to make his maiden speech against the severities with which the minis- try was threatening America. " Can it be believed," he cries, " that Americans will be 'dragooned into a conviction of this right of parliamentary taxation ? " The plea was 208 PART III. 1763-1797. taken up by men of greater influence. As tlie new year (1775) opened, Chatham and Burke devoted themselves to obtaining justice for America. In vain ; the petition of the Continental Congress to the king was refused a hearing ; rebellion was declared to exist in Massachusetts, and to be abetted by other colonies. The " New England restraining act " cut off the New England colonies from the fishery and from all trade, save to Great Britain, Ireland, and the Brit- ish West Indies. The })rohibition was soon extended to the other colonies ; New York, North Carolina, and Georgia being spared on account of their expected submission. At the same time. Lord North, the prime minister, brought out •what he called a conciliatory proposition, to the effect that the colonies should not be taxed by Parliament, if they would tax themselves, and therewith raise the sums which Parliament should deem necessary. " They complain," was the decisive reply of Edmund Burke, " that they are taxed without their consent ; you answer that you will fix the sum at which they shall be taxed. That is, you give them the very grievance for the remedy." The proposition, thus clearly seen tlu-ough by an Englishman, was not likely *to blind Americans. Out of Parliament, there were few to take any active part in relation to America. TVe should not, however, pass over the suggestion of Dr. Tucker, Dean of Gloucester, that Parliament should declare the colonies separated from the mother country until they humbled themselves to ask for forgiveness and for restoration. Had the dean's idea'been adopted, how much wrong, how much blood, might have been saved ! pji-gt But the Americans and the British were now to collision, meet in arms. A party of one hundred and fifty troops, sent from Boston to seize some cannon at Salem, not finding it there, marched, on towards Danvers. On their way, they came to a bridge, occupied at first by a few coun- WAR. 209 try people, but presently by a company of militia under Colonel Pickering. As the draw was up, the British at- tempted to cross the stream in boats, and in doing so, used their bayonets freely enough to wound the men who kept the boats from them. A serious conflict would have en- sued but for the mediation of Mr. Barnard, a clergyman of Salem, who prevailed on the British officer. Lieutenant Colonel Leslie, to return in case the troops were allowed to cross the bridge. This was agreed to on the American side ; the troops crossed, advanced a few rods, then faced about, and retired without the cannon of which they had come in search. The date was February 26, 1775. Its si"'- The collision is memorable as the first of the nificance. -^r^j.^ j^ jg q\qq ^q \)q remarked as strikingly sig- nificant of the collisions that followed. The same paucity of numbers, the same restriction of movements, the same ineffectiveness of results, characterize the whole strife be- tween Great Britain and America. Wc must be prepared for operations on a small scale, and with a small effect, each taken alone. Taken together, however, the operations of the war bear a nearer proportion to the greatness of the stakes at issue. T . The next encounter was more serious. It took ton iui:i place in the early morning of April 19. A force of eight hundred troops, marching from Boston to Concord, for the purpose of destroying the military stores collected in that place, met not quite a hundred minute men at Lexington. The British fired ; the minute men returned the fire, but, of course, retreated, leaving a few of tlieir number killed and wounded. The men of Concord retired before the troops without attempting resistance ; but from the surrounding towns there came other minute men so numerous and so spirited as to engage with the British, and compel them to retreat. The retreat became a flight ; 18* 210 PART III. 1703-1797. nor would the fugitives have escaped but for the reenforcc- ments which met them at Lexington. The number of the Americans being also on the increase, the retreat, resumed at Lexmgton, proved very difficult. Had it been protract- ed, the arrival of fresh parties of minute men would have cut it off altogether. As it was, the British, out of seven- teen hundred troops, lost nearly three hundred in killed, wounded, and prisoners. The Americans, amounting in all to several hundred, lost less than one hundred. " An inhuman soldiery," wrote Joseph Warren, Meckien- President of the Provincial Congress, to the com- burg dec- mittees of safety throughout Massachusetts, " en- raged at being repulsed from the field of slaughter, will, without the least doubt, take the first opportunity in their power to ravage this devoted country with fire and sword. We conjure you, therefore, that you give all assist- ance possible in forming an army." Massachusetts voted that at least thirty thousand men ought to be raised by NcAv England, herself furnishing nearly half the number: Rhode Island, Connecticut, and New Hampshire soon re- sponded, iDut not quite so liberally as the sister colony had desired. Out of New England, the agitation was the same. " The once happy and peaceful plains of America," wrote Washington from Philadelphia, " are either to be drenched with blood or inhabited by slaves. Sad alternative ! But can a virtuous man hesitate in his choice ? " The news, travelling slowly, reached the town of Charlotte, Mecklen- burg county, North Carolina, where a county convention was in session. It lent resolution to the delegates, who soon declared their independence of " the authority of the king and Parliament . . . and the former civil consti- tution of these colonies,"* (May.) The declaration of * Two sets of resolutions exist, one much stronger than the other, but both equally strong upon the point of independence. The dates likeAAise vary, but both profess to have been adopted in the latter half of May, 177'5. WAR. 211 Mecklenburg county was communicated to the Provincial Congress of the colony, without, however, obtaining the sympathy of that assembly. It was also forwarded to the North Carolina representatives in the Continental Congress ; but so little did it move them, that they did not even lay it before their colleagues. ^ . The troops of New Enoland were o;athering War m • ^ ° o o Massa- about Bostou. The people of Massachusetts sent an address to the people o# Great Britain. "Ap- pealing to Heaven," they declared, " for the justice of our cause, we determine to die or to be free." Repelling a Connecticut offer of mediation between herself and her governor, General Gage, Massachusetts voted him " an unnatural and inveterate enemy " — a compliment which he afterwards returned by pronouncing the Massachusetts people " rebels and traitors." The breach yawned wide, and wider still, as the passions and the outrages of war poured in. So far the Americans had acted oi> the defensive. o.!-?.?,.,7' But now a band of volunteers from Connecticut Crown and the Green Mountains, led b}^ Ethan Allen and Point. Seth Warner, with whom went Benedict Ai-nold, under a Massachusetts commission, surprised the small gar- risons at Ticonderoga and Crown Point, (May 10-12.) Descending thence against various places on Lake Cham- plain, the adventurous band secured a large booty, and then separated, leaving a considerable portion of their number in possession of the Point and Ticonderoga. The spirit aroused in action appeared in delibera- ings in tion likewise. When the new Congress assembled Congress. ^^ pi^jiadelphia in the spring, (May 10,) it began upon measures more determined by far than those of the former body. The members were mostly the same ; but the circumstances in which they met were as different as 212 PART III. 1763-1797. peace and war. Massachusetts opened the way to new res- olutions, by recommendrng the creation of -an American army, and by asking instruction as to the form of govern- ment under which she should place herself. Congress an- swered the request by advising the election of a council and an assembly, who should administer the colony by them- selves, until a governor should appear to take his part ac- cordins; to the charter of 1691. Soon afterwards, the Pro- vincial Congress of Massachusetts gave way to a General Court or assembly. The recommendation of an army was followed by Congress in adopting the troops before Boston as the American continental army. To this were also summoned a few companies of riflemen from the southern colonies. Washing- The Creation of an army required the creation ton ap- Qf 2^, commander. No act of Congress could be pointed commanci- morc important, none proved more successful, than er-m.chief. ^^^ appointment of Colonel George Washington, rejiresentative from Virginia. " We, the delegates of the United Colonies," — thus runs the commission of Washing- ton, — " reposing special trust and confidence in your patriot- ism, conduct, and fidelity, do by these presents constitute and appoint you to be general and commander-in-chief of the army of the United Colonies. . . . And you are hereby vested with full power and authority to act as you shall think for the good and welfare of the service." Rapid as these outlines of events must be, they will bear repeated testimony to the unequalled, indeed the liitherto unconceived devotion of Washington to the cause of his country. His acceptance of the commission, itself the greatest act of sac- rifice that he could make, was accompanied by the refusal of all pecuniary compensation for his services. It was a memorable day when this devoted career began — June 15, 1775. WAR. 213 Bunker As if to do honor to the general thus given them, ^^11- the New England troops, just declared the conti- nental army, furnished a detachment of one thousand, under Colonel Prescott, to take possession of Bunker's Hill, a point of great importance to the hnes around Boston. He, thi-ough a mistake assisted by the ardor of his character, threw up his redoubt upon Breed's Hill, an eminence con- siderably nearer to the town. Reenforced by a thousand men, the party completed their fortifications in tiine to re- ceive the three thousand British troops assailing them from Boston. Twice was the advance of the enemy repelled ; but the failure of ammunition obliged the Americans to retreat, leaving one of their most heroic hearts, President and Major General Joseph Warren, dead upon the field. Four hundri'd and fifty of them in all were kiUed or wound- ed ; the British losing more than twice that number. The battle of Bunker Hill, as it was afterwards called, has beea greatly magnified beyond the importance attached to it at the time. But there can be no question of its having done much to mortify the British, who had always boasted that the Americans would fiy before them, as well as much to elate the Americans, although they had always boasted that they would resist their foes, (June 17.) . Washington heard of the battle at New York, on ton at the his way to the army. Hastening his journey, he t^hTarmy ^^'^''^^'-^^ ^^ Cambridge, which was to be his head quarters, and assumed the command. On the next day, July 4, he issued an order to the forces. " The Con- tinental Congress," he proclaimed, " having now taken all the troops of the several colonies, which have been raised or which may be hereafter raised for the support and de- fence of the liberties of America, into their pay and service, they are now the troops of the United Provinces of North America ; and it is hoped that all distinctions of colonies 214 PART III. 17G3-1797. will be Laid aside, so that one and the same spirit may ani- mate the whole. . . . The general requires and expects of all officers, not engaged on actual duty, a punctual attend- ance on divine service, to implore the blessings of Heaven upon the means used for our safety and defence." Thus appealing to the love of country and to the fear of God, Washington called upon his countrymen to do their duty in the war. Difficui- Not every one was disposed to hear him. In- ties. • (Jeed, there were but few who came up to the stan- dard of their chief, either as soldiers or as men. When we read of their deficiencies and of his embarrassments, we must remember that he and those like him were the repre- sentatives of the better class of Americans, already described as most prominent and most wise during the struggles of the preceding years. They, on the other hand, who fell short of the demands upon them, were of the other classes, the rash or the timid, the too presumptuous or the too sub- missive. Siege of Washington at once determined to lay regular Boston, siege to Boston. His first object Avas merely to shut up the British in the town, (July.) Presently, he tried to bring on an attack from the enemy against the American lines, (August.) This failing, he formed the f)ur- pose of attacking the British in their own lines, (Septem- ber.) He deferred to the objections of his officers, and put off the assault, without, however, abandoning his designs. All the while, he had no arm's, no ammunition, no pay for his troops from Congress ; no general support from his offi- cers or men ; no obedience even, at times, from the soldiers or from the crews of the armed vessels acting in concert Vv^th the army. It was very difficult to fill the ranks to any degree at all proportioned to the operations of the siege. " There must be some other stimulus," he writes to the WAR. 215 president of Congress, " besides love for their country, to make men fond of the service." " Such a dearth of public spirit," he laments to a personal friend, " and such want of virtue, such stockjobbing and fertility to obtain advantages of one kind and another, I never saw before, and pray God's mercy that I may never be witness to again. . . . I tremble at the prospect. . . . Could I have foreseen what I have experienced and am likely to experience, no consideration upon earth should have induced me to accept this command." Such were the circumstances, and such the feelings, in which the commander-in-chief found himself conducting the great operation of the year. G nerai "^^ *^^^^ time there was not only an army, but a govern- government of America. The Continental Con- ^^^ ' gress, declaring themselves to be acting " in defence of the freedom that is our birthright," took all the meas- ures, military; financial, and diplomatic, which the cause appeared to require. The organization of the army was continued; that of the militia was attempted. A naval committee was appointed, and a navy — if the name can be used on so small a scale — was called into existence. Hos- pitals were provided. Several millions of continental cur- rency were issued, and a treasury department created. A post office was also organized. Several of the colonies who had applied for advice upon the point were recommended to frame governments for themselves. The Indian relations were reduced to system. A last petition to the kin^, with addresses to Great Britain and London, Ireland and Ja- maica, was adopted. More significant than all else was the appointment of a committee of secret correspondence with Europe. In short, the functions of a general government were assumed by Congress and recognized throughout the colonies. At the beginning of August, Georgia signified her acces- 216 PART III. 1763-1797. m,. x^- sion to the other colonies, thus completing the thir- The thir- ^ ^ ° teen com- tecD. A fourteenth offered itself in Transylvania, ^ ^ ^' the present Kentucky, where one or two small set- tlements had just been made. But Congress could not admit the delegate of a territory which Virginia claimed as under her jurisdiction. The nation and the government remained as the Thirteen United Colonies. Military Military oj)erations, apart from the siege of Bos- operatioiis. ^q^-^^ were imnicrous, if not extensive. The landing of a British party at Gloucester ^vas repelled. The fort near Charleston was seized by the Americans, wdio also drove the British ships out of the harbor. Norfolk, for some time in the hands of the British, w^as recovered after a gallant action. On the other hand, Stonington, Bristol, and Falmouth were not saved from bombardment, Fal- mouth (now Portland) being nearly anniliilated. The Americans, in return, sent out their privateers ; those com- missioned by "Washington, especially his " famous Manly," as he called one of his captains, doing great execution in Massachusetts Bay. Offensive operations were pursued on land. A projected expedition against Nova Scotia was given up, chiefly on account of the friendly feeling of that province. But a tvrofold force, partly from the New York and partly from the IMaine side, marched against Canada. St. John's and Montreal were taken by the Americans under General Montgomery, who fell in an assault on Quebec the last day of the year. Arnold, the same who had gone against Crown Point and Ticonderoga, kept up the show of besieging Quebec through the winter, but in the spring the Americans retreated within their own borders. One of the most successful operations of the period was towards the close of winter, when fifteen hundred Highlanders and Reg- ulators, who had enlisted under the royal banner in North Carolina, w^ere defeated by two thirds their number of WAR. 217 Americans, under Colonel Moore. It saved tlie province to the country. The mention of those enlisted in the royal cause Loyalists. . .-,... suggests the nicreasmg divisions amongst the Amer- icans. A large number, who had looked on or even joined in the proceedings of former days, drew off, if they did not take a hostile j)osition, in these days of war. Companies and regiments of royal or loyal Americans began to abound. Some of these loyalists, as they were styled, were roughly handled by their indignant neighbors, who spared neither person nor property. One of the New York Sons of Lib- erty, Isaac Sears, impatient at the moderate course pursued by the committee of safety, brought in an armed band from Connecticut, to destroy the press of Rivington's Gazetteer, a journal in the British interest. Such doings were more likely to introduce dissensions amongst the patriots than to subdue the loyalists. But when did riot fail to go hand in hand with w^ar ? Great Britain, on her part, was united. Few Britain ^^d faint wcrc the voices raised in defence of the deter- Americans, since the news of Lexincjton and Bun- mined. ^ ° ker Hill. Edmund Burke and one or two of the same spirit continued to plead for the American cause, but all unavailingly. Tlie last petition of Congress to the king was rejected. A bill of confiscation, as it may be called, was passed against the trade, the merchandise, and the ship- ping of the colonies ; Avhatever crews might be captured were to be impressed into the British navy. The army in America was augmented to forty thousand, partly by British and partly by German troops. In fine, the reduction of the colonies was the one great object with the larger part of the people, as with the rulers of Great Britain. AU the while, Washington was before Boston. But his attention was not wholly concentrated there. On the con- 19 218 PART III. 17G3-1797. ^ , . trary, his voice was to be heard in all directions, on Washing- J ' ' ton beiiire the march to Canada, in the posts of New York, on board the national cruisers, at the meetings of com- mittees and assemblies, in the provincial legislatures, within Congress itself, every M^here pointing out what was to be done, and the spirit in which it was to be done. They Avho doubt his military ability or his intellectual greatness will do well to follow him through these first months of the war ; if they do it faithfully, they will doubt no more. The activity, the judgment, the executive power, and above all the moral power of the great general and the great man are nowhere in history more conspicuous than in those rude lines before Boston. To add to the difficulties of the sieo-e, the army Recovery ^ ^ ^ of the went through a complete process of disbanding and recruiting, on account of the general unwillingness to serve for any length of time. Without men and without munitions, Washington sublimely kept his post, until, after months of disappointment, he obtained the means to take possession of Dorchester Heights, whence the town was completely commanded. The enemy, under General Howe, had long meditated the evacuation of the place ; and they now the more readily agreed to leave it on condition that they should be unmolested. The 17th of March, 1776, eight months and a half from the time that Washington undertook the siege, his generalship and his constancy were rewarded with success. The Vic- ^^ was Certainly an amazing victor}^ " I have *o^y- been here months together," he wrote to his brother, " with what will scarcely be believed, not thirty rounds of musket cartridges to a man. . . . We have maintained our ground against the enemy under this want of powder, and we have disbanded one army, and recruited another, within musket shot of two and twenty regiments, the flower WAR. 219 of the British army, whilst our force has been but little, if any, superior to theirs ; and, at last, have beaten them into a shameful and precipitate retreat out of a place the strong- est by nature on this continent, and strengthened and forti- fied at an enormous expense." Such being the result of the only operation in which the Americans and the British met each other as actual armies, there was reason for Washington and his true-hearted countrymen to exult and to hope. lucreas- ^^^ the country was in danger. An attack was iiig perils, feared at New York ; another at Charleston : the whole coast, indeed, lay open and defenceless. The year of warfare ended in greater apprehensions and in greater perils than those in which it began. CHAPTER III. Declaration OF Independence. Transfer- The coloiiies werc fighting at a disaclvantage. 0^00^0^ Not only were their resources, in a mihtary point nies to of view, inferior to those of their great antagonist ; this was but a minor consideration with them. They were taxed with rebelhon ; they Avere branded with the name of rebels by their enemies, nay, by those of their own people who opposed the war. On many, these epithets made no impression ; they were rather acceptable than otherwise to the more ardent and the more violent. But to the moderate and to the calm, it was intolerable to be charged with mere sedition. They to whom the nation owed all that was prudent, as well as vahant in its present situation, were men of law and order in a peculiar degree. The earliest care with those of Massachusetts, after the affixir of Lexington, had been to prove that the British troops were the first to fire ; in other words, that the people were defending, and not transgressing, their rights. So now it became a matter of the highest interest to set the war in its true light, by raising the Americans from the position of subjects to that of a nation. There was but one Avay, and this the transformation of the colonies into states. The idea of independence, however, was of slow indcpend- growtli. The Mccklcnburg declaration, as we have ^^'^^' read, found no favor. The general, if not the (220) DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 221 universal, sentiment was still in favor of reconciliation. " During the course of my life," said John Jay in later years, " and until after the second petition of Congress in 1775, I never heard an American of any class or of any description express a wish for the independence of the colonies." But when that petition of Congress to the king was rejected, when the English government, in consequence, j)ledged itself to continue its system of oppression, then the resolution of the colonies rose, all the more determined for having been delayed. Nearly a year had elapsed since the North Caro- Caroiina lii^i^i^s of Mcckleuburg county made their declara- and vir- tiQi^i^ wlicu tlic Nortli CaroHuians of the entire colony united in authorizing their delegates in Con- gress to concur with those of tl\e other colonies in declaring independence, (April 23, 177G.) A few weeks afterwards, (May 15,) the Virginians instructed their delegates to propose a declaration of independence to Congress. Congress had already committed itself. Its rec- ' ommendations of the year previous to some of the colonies, that they should set up governments for them- selves, had just been extended to all. It had also voted " that the exercise of every kmd of authority under the crown should be totally suppressed," (May 15.) Wliat else was this than to pronounce the colonies. independent states ? Subsequent resolutions and declarations were but the carrying out of the decision already made, iicsita- I*ut as it had not been made, so it was not car- tiou. y[q^ q^^|. without hesitation. More than one earnest mind, bent upon independence in the end, considered the course of things thitherward to be. much too hurried. " My countr3^men," wrote Washington, (April 1,) "from their form of government, and their steady attachment hereto- fore to royalty, will come reluctantly into the idea of inde- 19* 222 PART III. 1703-1797. pendence ; but time and persecution bring many Tvonderful things to pass." He was right ; the spirits and numbers of those resolved upon immediate independence increased apace Lee's res- The instructions of Virginia were soon obeyed, oiution. Upon the journals of Congress, under date of June 7, there occurs an affecting entry of " certain resolutions respecting independency being moved and seconded." No names are mentioned, no words of the resolutions are recorded. It is as if Congress had felt its own feebleness in comparison with the solemnity of the cause, and so deeply, as to hold its breath and give no sign of Avhat was passing. The mover was Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, the seconder John Adams, of Massachusetts ; and the reso- lution was, " That these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown ; and that all political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved." Opposition was immediate and resolute. At its head stood John Dickinson, of Pennsylvania, whose ten years' championship of colonial rights was assurance of his present faithfulness. The ground common to him and to the other opponents of the resolution was simply the prematureness of the measure. Nor does it seem that they were altogether mistaken. Whatever was urged by the advocates of the resolution, there were but seven colonies, the barest possible majority, to unite in favor of a proceed- ing so decisive, (June 10.) Instead of pressing their views, the party in favor of the resolution were Avise enough to postpone its final disposition for several weeks. On the other side, the opposing party, so for from exciting the country against the resolution, appear to have decided that it should have a fair consideration, and that if the colonies DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 223 rejecting it could be brought to favor it, tliey would be satisfied by the delay that had been interj)osed for delib- eration At the same time, a committee was apjiointed to tee on prepare a declaration according to the tenor of the deciara- resolution. Thomas Jefferson, of Virginia, John tion. ^ _ ^ . Adams, Benjamin Franklin, of Pennsylvania, Roger Sherman, of Connecticut, and Robert R. Livingston, of Ncav York, constituting the committee, united upon a draught by Jefferson. "Whether I had gathered my ideas," he said at a later time, " from reading or reflection, I do not knoAV. I know only that I turned to neither book nor pamphlet while writing it. I did not consider it as any part of my charge to invent new ideas altogether, and to offer no senti- ment which had never been expressed before." Truth to be told, there was neither originality nor novelty in the production. Its facts, so far as they related to the course of Britain or of the British king, were peculiar to the cause at issue. But the principles of human and of colo- nial rights were substantially such as Englishman after Englishman, as well as American after American, had asserted. The merit of the document was its appropriate- ness, its harmony with the ideas of a people who had risen to defend their birthright, rather than to win any thing not already theirs. The committee reported the declaration to Congress, (June 28.) Resohi- -^^^ adoption depended upon the adoj)tion of the tion resolution of which it was but the expression. The resolution was therefore called up, (July 1.) A day's debate ensued; nor was the decision unanimous. Four delegations hung back ; one, New York, because it had received no instructions to vote upon so grave a ques- tion ; the other three, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and South Carolina, on account of their OAvn reluctance. The South 224 PART III. 17G3-1797. Carolinians asked the postponement of a definitive vote until the next morning. When the morning came, they withdi-ew their opposition. The Pennsylvanian and Dela- ware delejzates — some members retirinfjr and others com- ins: in — save their voices likewise to the resolution. It thus received the unanimous vote of all the colonies. New York excepted, and she only for a few da}^s, until her dele- gates could be instructed to concur with their colleagues, (July 0-15.) It was the 2d of July, 177G, the true date of American independence.* . , „ The declaration followed as a matter of course. Ami the deciara- It was delayed only to receive a few amendments, *'°°" when it was adopted by the same vote as the reso- lution, (July 4.) Thus were the colonies of Great Britain trans- The United formed into the United States of America. " As free and independent states," were the words of the declaration, " they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and to do all other acts and things which independent states may of right do." Xo ioDgor the subjects of Great Britain, but an equally independent nation, the United States were* no longer open to imputations upon their course from abroad, or to doubts of it amongst themselves. When Admiral Lord Howe, and his brother, the general, commander-in- chief of the British army, offered amnesty in the king's name to all Americans who would return to their allegiance, the offer was regarded as a national insult by Congress. 'VMiat had Great Britain to forgive, or who had asked for forgiveness ? The day after a committee had been appointed to draw * As the utmost discrepancy exists amongst the later histories as to these votes and dates, it seems ad\-isable to state that Jefferson and Adams are the authorities followed in the text. DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 225 „ up the declaration, another, and a larofer one, re- Plan of ^ ' ' o ^ confed- ceived the charge of preparing a plan of confedera- eration. ^.^^^^ (June 12.) This was reported a week after the adoption of the declaration, but no action was taken upon it, (July 12.) Circumstances postponed any decision; nor were the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, as they were styled, actually adopted by Congress until more than a year later, (November 15-17, 1777,) when they were recommended to the states for adoption. A long time elapsed before all the states complied. Meanwhile Con^i^ress continued to be the unitin<2; Unity ^ _ *^ in Con- as wcll as the governing authority. Its members, e^'^ss. renewed from time to time by their respective con- stituencies, met together as the representatives, not merely of the different states, but of the common nation. It was imperfectly, as we shall perceive, that Congress served the purpose of a central power. Its treaties, its laws, its finances, its armaments, all depended upon the consent and the cooperation of the states. But it continued to be the body in which the states were blended together, however variously, in one. stato' ^^^ States were every where forming govern- constitu- ments of their own. Massachusetts took the lead, as was observed, in the early summer of 1775. Six or seven months afterwards. New Hampshire organized her assembly and council, with a president of the latter body, (177 G.) The same year brought about the estabUsh- ment of state authorities in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North and vSouth Carolina. Of the other states, Rhode Island and Connecticut were naturally content with the liberal governments which al- ready existed under their ancient charters. New York and Georgia set up their governments a year subsequently, (1777.) But the original forais underwent numerous and 226 PART III. 1763-1797. rej)eated modifications ; cacli state amending its constitution or constructing a new one, according to its exigencies. As a general thing, each liad a governor, with or without a council, for an executive ; a council, or Senate, and a House of Representatives, for a legislature ; and one or more judicial bodies for a judiciary. Lideed, the states were much more thoroughly organized than the nation. Both constitutions and declarations had arisen amongst amidst the most distracting divisions. The diifer- thepeo ei^ces in Conoy. Six months after, it was totally evacuated, (June 30, 1777.) All the time tliat Washinj'ton was thus retreating Qrganiza- '^ '=' tion of and advancing, he was enforcing the lesson of his '^'^"^^' experiences upon the government. lie could do comparatively little, as he repeatedly informed Congr(;ss, for want of no less essential an instrument than an army. The American forces, during the campaign, had consisted in part of continental, or regular, and in part of militia troops, all raised on different terms, — that is, by different bounties and under different appointments, — by the different states. What Washington wanted, what the country needed, was an army recruited, officered, equipped, and paid upon a national system. Nor was Congress insensible to the neces- sity. Before the declaration of independence, a board of war and of ordnance had been chosen from the members of Congress, to direct the military affairs of the nation. After- wards, when the calamities of the autumn were weighing heavily, Congress ordered the formation of a continental army. But the wants, thus attempted to be supplied, con- tinued. It was left entirely to the states to raise the troops and to appoint all but the general officers, while the pay and the term of enlistment proposed by Congress were wholly inadequate to the emergencies on which Washington insisted. " The measure was not commenced," wrote he to his brother, " till it was too late to be effected, and then in such a manner as to bid adieu to every hope of getting an army from which any services are to be expected." " The unhappy policy of short enlistments," the need of " some greater encouragement " in pay, " the different states' nomi- nating such officers as are not fit to be shoeblacks," the tendency of the states to fall back from regular troops upon the militia, " a destructive, expensive, and disorderly mob," — all these complaints from the commander-in-chief show that there was still no organization of the army. 232 PAKT III. 17G3-1797. Dictator- Alarmed by the disasters of the time, Congress ship. resolved, " that General Washington shall be, and he is hereby, vested with full, ample, and complete powers " to raise, oiBcer, and equip an army. To provide for its necessities, he was authorized " to take, wherever he may be, whatever he may want for the use of the army, if the in- habitants will not sell it, allowing a reasonable price for the same." He was also commissioned " to arrest and confine persons who refuse to take the continental currency, or are otherwise disaffected to the American cause," (December 27, 1776.) This commission of a dictatorship, the last resort of the ineffective Congress, and yet one of that body's wisest deeds, was to continue six months. It was after- wards renewed in much the same terms. But the powers were too dictatorial for such a man as Washington to exer- cise fully ; nor did the partial use which he made of them effect the object of so great importance in his eyes. The war went on without any thing that could be called an actual army on the American side. Paper The want of an army sprang, to a great degree, moDey. fj^om the want of a treasury. Congress, voting all sorts of appropriations, had no way of meeting them but by continued issues of paper money. These soon began to depreciate ; the depreciation required larger amounts to be put forth ; and then the larger amounts added to the depre- ciation. When the value of the bills had sunk very low, an attempt was made to restore the currency by recaUing the old issues and sending out new ones ; but these, too, depreciated fast. Then lotteries were resorted to, and loans, both at home and abroad. The states were called in, and taxes raised by them were substituted for the national Jbills. But the embarrassments of the finances were irrepa- rable. Every year added to the debt and to the poverty of the nation. WAR, CONTINUED. 233 . . , In the midst of trials so various and so profound, Arrival i ' of Lafay- there was a thrill of hope. It was caused by the arrival of a Frenchman, not yet twenty years old, who came bearing the sympathies of the old world to the new. " It was the last combat of liberty," wrote Lafayette, as he afterwards recalled his early inspirations. While he was hastening his departure from France, the news of the defeats in New York arrived, to throw the American cause into the shade, even in the eyes of the commissioners who had been sent to seek supplies in France. They would have dissuaded the young Frenchman from liis projects. *' We must be of good cheer," he rej)lied ; " it is in danger that I like best to share your fortunes." Escaping the jDur- suit of the government, who would have prevented a man of so high a rank as the Marquis de Lafayette from com- promising them with the English by joining the Americans ; tearing himself from a brilliant home, and a wife as young in years as he, Lafiiyette crossed the sea in his own vessel, and reached the coast of Carolina in safety. He hastened to Philadelphia to offer his services to Congress, which, more and more wont to be behindhand in its mission, gave him a cold welcome throuo;li the committee of foreio-n aflairs. " The coldness was such," he wrote, " as to amount to a rejection ; but without being disconcerted by the man- ner of the members, I begged them to return to the hall, and to read the following note : ' After the sacrifices which I have made, I have the right to demand two favors : one is to serve at my own expense, the other to commence as a volunteer.'" Congress was touched, and appointed the generous stranger a major-general, (July 31, 1777.) He found no hesitation in the welcome which he received from "Washington on their first meeting. " Make my head quar- ters your home," was the warm and appreciative greeting from the commander-in-chief to the young major-general. 20* 234 PART III. 1763-1797. The army and the people imitated Washington's example, and gave their confidence to the noble Frenchman, with joy that their cause had attracted such a champion. The spring of 1777 was marked only by some of Bur- predatory excursions from the British side into Con- ^°^"^' necticut, and from the American into Long Island. The summer brought about the evacuation of New Jersey, as has been mentioned. But the British retired only to strike harder elsewhere. A well-appointed army under General Burgoyne was already on its march from Canada to Lake Champlain and the Hudson. As this descended, it was the plan of the British in New York to ascend the Hudson, meeting the other army, and cutting off the com- munication between New England and her sister states. It was a promising scheme, and the first movements in it were successful. Burgoyne took Ticonderoga, and swept the adjacent country, menacing Northern New York on his riglit, and the Green Mountain region on his left. General St. Clair, who had evacuated Ticonderoga, could make no resistance ; nor was his superior officer. General Schuyler, the commander of the northern army, in any position to check the advance of the enemy. But Schuyler bore up bravely ; and the officers under him did their part. A British detachment against Bennington was defeated by John Stark and his New England militia, (August 16.) Fort Schuyler was defended by continental troops, the British retiring on the approach of reenforcements under Arnold, (August 22.) Just as these reverses had checked the advance of Burgoyne, the gallant Schuyler was ousted of his command to make room for General Gates, a very inferior man, if not a very inferior general. He, profiting by the preparations of his predecessor, met the British, and defeating them in two actions near Saratoga, (September 19, October 7,) compelled them to surrender. Nearly six WAR, CONTINUED. 235 thousand troops laid down their arms ; but more than twice that number were now collected on the American side, (October 16.) While this triumph was won, losses were still the Hud- occurring elsewhere. The advance of the British Bon High- fpom New York, after being strangely delayed, be- gan with the capture of the forts which protected the Highlands, (October 5-6.) But on proceeding some way farther up the river, the enemy found it advisable to return to New York. _ , The main army of Great Britain was that which Loss of '' Phiiadei- Washington had to deal with in New Jersey and ^ ^^' the vicmity. " If General Howe can be kept at bay," wrote the commander-in-chief, " and prevented from effecting his principal purposes, the successes of General Burgoyne, whatever they may be, must be partial and tem- porary." After much uncertainty as to the intentions of the British general, he suddenly appeared in the Chesa- peake, and landing, prepared to advance against Philadel- pliia, (August 25.) Washington immediately marched his entire army of about eleven thousand to stop the progress of the enemy. Notwithstanding the superior number — about seventeen thousand — opposed to him, Washington decided that battle must be given for the sake of Philadel- phia. After various skirmishes, a general engagement took place by the Brandywine, resulting in the defeat of the Americans, (September 11.) But so little were they dis- pirited, that their commander decided upon immediately fighting a second battle, which was prevented only by a great storm. Washington then withdrew towards the in- terior, and Howe took possession of Philadelphia, (Septem- ber 26.) Not yet willing to abandon the city, Washington attacked the main division of the British encamped at Germantown. At the very moment of victory, a panic 236 PART III. 1763-1797. seized tlic Americans, and tliey retreated, (October 4.) There was no help for Philadelj)hia ; it was decidedly lost. The contrast between the defeat of Burgoyne ton's em- ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^ Philadelphia was made a matter barrass- Qf rcproach to the commander-in-chief. Let him ments. make his own defence. " I was left," he says, " to fight two battles, in order, if jDOSsible, to save Pliiladelphia, with less numbers than composed the army of my antago- nist. . . . Had the same spu'it pervaded the people of this and the neighboring states, ... as the states of New York and New England, ... we might be- fore tliis time have had General Howe nearly in the situation of General Burgoyne, with this difference — that the former would never have been out of reach of his ships, whilst the latter increased his danger every step he took." More than this, "Washington conducted his operations in a district where great disaffection to the American caUse cut off supplies for the army, and intelligence of the enemy. To have done what he did, notwithstanding these embar- rassments, was greater than a victory. It was felt to be so at the time. " Nothing," said the French minister, the Count de Vergennes, to the American commissioners in France, — " nothing has struck me so much as General Washington's attacking and giving battle to General Howe's army : to bring an army, raised within a year, to this, promises every thing." Loss of ^^^^ enemy were not yet secure in Philadelphia, the Deia- tlic Delaware below the city being still in the pos- session of the Americans. Nor did they give it up without a struggle. Fort Mercer, upon the Jersey shore, was gallantly defended under Lieutenant Colonel Christo- pher Greene against a Hessian attack, (October 22 ;) but when Fort Mifflin, upon an island in the river, gave way after a noble struggle, under Lieutenant Colonel Sam- WAR, CONTINUED. 237 uel Smith, (NoTcmber 15,) Fort Mercer was evacuated, and the Delaware was lost, (November 20.) Aii attack meditated by the Americans upon Philadelphia, and one attempted by the British upon the American camp at Whitemarsh, (December 5-8,) resulted in nothing. The operations of 1777 were ended. wickes's One enterprise of the year is not to be passed cruise, ovcr. Captain Wickes, of the cruiser Reprisal, after distinguishing himself in the West Indies, sailed for France in the autumn of 1776. Encouraged by his suc- cess in making prizes in the Bay of Biscay, Wickes started on a cruise round Ireland in the following summer, (1777.) Attended by the Lexmgton and the Dolphin, the Reprisal swept the Irish and the English seas of their merchantmen. But on the way to America, the Lexington was captured, and the Reprisal, with the gallant Wickes and all his crew, was lost on the coast of Newfoundland. It was for the navy, of which Wickes was so great an ornament, that a national flag had been adopted in the summer of his cruise, (June 14.) " I see plainly," wrote Lafayette to Washington, against ^^ ^^^ clpsc of the year, " that America can defend Washing- herself, if proper measures are taken ; but I begin to fear that she may be lost by herself and her own sons. TVlien I was in Europe, I thought that here almost every man was a lover of liberty, and would rather die free than live a slave. You can conceive my astonishment, when I saw that toryism was as apparently professed as whiggism itself." " We must not," replied Washington, " in so great a contest, expect to meet with nothing but sun- shine." These mournful complaints, this cheerful answer, referred to an intrigue that had been formed against Wash- ington, for the purpose of displacing him from his com- mand. Generals Gates and Mifflin, both members of the 238 PART III. 1763-1797. board of war, lately organized, with Conway, a foreign general in the service, were at the head of a cabal, which was secretly supported by some members of Congress. Had their unworthy plots prevailed, had their anonymous letters to the civil authorities, and their underhand appeals to military men, succeeded, Washington would have been superseded by Gates or by Lee, it was uncertain wliich, botli of British birth, both of far more selfishness than magnanimity, of far more pretension than power. Gates, as we shall read hereafter, met the most utter of all the defeats, Lee conducted the most shameful of all the retreats, in which the Americans were involved. ILippily for the strugghng nation, these men were not its leaders. The cabal in which they were involved fell asunder ; yet without crushing them beneath its ruins. They retained their offices and their honors, as well as "Washington. Army The army was full of quarrels. Sectional jeal- quarreis. Qusics wcrc activc, the northern man distrusting the southern, and the southern the northern. National jeal- ousies were equally rife, the American officers opposing the foreign, and the foreign officers the American. More serious, because more reasonable, were the angry feelings excited in the army against Congress, now for its inter- ference, and now for its neglect. Much ill will on both sides was excited by the question of half pay for life to the officers ; it being opposed in Congress, and settled only by a compromise of half pay for seven years after the conclu- sion of the war. Washinsjton contended with all the intel- lectual and moral strength of his nature against the jeal- ousy which Congi'ess unhappily entertained of the army. " The prejudices of other countries," as he says, " have only gone to them [the troops] in time of peace. . . . It is our pohcy to be prejudiced against them in time of war ; though they are citizens, having all the ties and interests of citizens." WAR, CONTINUED. 239 ^ ^ The experience of the past twelvemonth had snfifer- given Washington more confidence in his soldiers, ings. jj^ j^^^ j^^^l ^.^^^ ^^ learn their better points, their enthusiasm, their endurance, their devotion. The winter following the loss of Philadelphia was one of cruel suffer- ings, and the manner in which they were borne formed a new link between the troops and the commander. His remonstrances against the jealousies of Congress are accom- panied by representations of the agonies of the army. " Without arrogance or the smallest deviation from truth, it may be said that no history now extant can furnish an instance of an army's suffering such hardships as ours has done, bearing them with the same patience and fortitude. To see men without clothes to cover their nakedness, with- out blankets to lie on, without shoes, (for the want of which their marches might be traced by the blood from their feet,) and almost as often without provisions as with them ; marching through frost and snow, and at Christmas taking up their winter quarters within a day's march of the enemy, without a house or hut to cover them, till they could be built, and submitting without a murmur, is a proof of patience and obedience which, in my opinion, can scarce be paralleled." This story, at once so heroic and so sad, is dated from Valley Forge. Aspect Congress, meanwhile, though finding time to abet of Con- the enemies of Washington, and to "suspect his faith- ful followers, was far from active in promoting the interests of the nation. Great changes had taken place in the composition of the assembly. Many of the earlier members had retired, some to the offices of their respective states, some to the field, some to diplomacy, some to private hfe. But a very small number attended the sessions ; twenty-five or thirty making what was now con- sidered quite a full Congress. " America once had a repre- sentation," wrote Alexander Hamilton, one of Washington's 240 TART III. 17G3-1797. aids, from head quarters, " that would do honor to any age or nation. The present falling off is very alarming and dangerous." The question of foreign alliances had been started Avith at an early date. It met with very considerable opposition. The more earnest spirits thought it humiliating to court the protection of the European pow- ers. They also thought it more likely to increase the dan- gers than the resources of the country to be drawn into the interests and the intrigues of the old world. But as time passed, and the difficulties of the war increased, the tendency to foreign connections grew stronger. Before the declaration of independence, Silas Deane was sent to France, as an agent, with hints of an alliance. Ere he reached his destination, a secret subsidy had been promised to the Americans. Meanwhile a committee of Congress was appointed " to prepare a plan of treaties to be proposed to foreign powers," (June, 177G.) Their plan being adopt- ed, Deane, Benjamin Frankhn, and Arthur Lee, of Vir- ginia, were appointed commissioners to France, (Septem- ber ;) others being sent to Spain, Prussia, Austria, and Tuscany, (December.) The French envoys, amongst v/hom Deane gave place to John Adams, devoted quite as much attention to their own disputes as to the negotia- tions with which they were intrusted. But the disposition of France against her old enemy of England was too decided to require much diplomacy on the part of America. After a year's delay, a treaty between the French king, Louis XVI., and the United'States was made, (January 30, February 6, 1778,) and ratified, (May 5.) The ncAVS of the treaty broke like a thunderbolt British *' concilia- upou the British ministry. Three years had their armies, superior both in discipline and in number, contended against the so-called rebels ; and what had been gained ? A few towns on the seaboard, New York, New- WAR, CONTINUED. 241 port, Phllaclelplila, tlie islands near New York, the island on which Newport stands, the lower banks of the Hudson and of the Delaware. This was all. Nothing had been, nothing, it must have almost seemed, could be, gained ex- cept upon the coast ; the interior was untenable, if not unconquerable. And what had been lost ? Twenty thou- sand troops, hundreds of vessels, millions of treasure ; to say nothing of the colonial commerce, once so precious, and now so worthless. It might well strike the ministry, that they must win back their colonies by some other means than war, especially if the French were to be parties in the strife. Accordingly, Lord North laid before Parliament a bill renouncing the purpose of taxing America, and another providing for commissioners to bring about a reconciliation, (February 17.) The bills were passed, and three commis- sioners were appointed to act with the military and the naval commanders in procuring the submission of the United States. To their proposals Congress returned an answer on the anniversary of Bunker Hill, refusing to enter into any negotiations until the independence of the nation was recognized. The commissioners appealed from Con- gress to the states ; but in vain. Their mission was fruit- less, except in proving that the United States would never relapse into British colonies. Desirous of concentratinsr his forces before the Kocovory ~ of Pbiia- French appeared in the field. Sir Henry Clinton, ^ ^^ ^^' now the British commander-in-cliief, evacuated Philadelphia, (June 18.) Washington instantly set out in pursuit of the enemy. Coming up with them in a few days, he ordered General Lee, commanding the van of the army, to begin the attack in the morning. Lee began it by making a retreat, notwithstanding the remonstrances of Lafayette, who had held the command until within a few hours. But for Washuigton's coming up in time to arrest 21 212 PAllT III. 1763-1797. the flight of the troops under Lee, and to protect the ad- vance of his own soldiers, the army would have been lost. As it was, he formed his line and drove the British from the field of Monmouth, (June 28.) They stole away in the night, and reached New York with still moi-e loss from de- sertion than from battle. At about the same time, a Virginia expedition, siou of under the command of Major Clarke, surprised the British garrison at Kaskaskia, (July 4,) and took possession of the surrounding villages. The more important post of Vincennes was afterwards secured by the aid of its French inhabitants.* The country was organized as a part of Virginia, under the name of Illinois county, j,^^ ^ Thus the end of the period finds the Americans the conquerors as well as the British. If the latter have New York and Newport, with their neighborhoods, the former are in jDOssession of Illinois. The main forces on cither side are again where they were at the beginning of the period, save that the British are now in New York, and the Americans waiting their opportunity to retake the city. " It is not a little pleasing, nor less wonderful to contem- plate," wrote Washington from his camp at White Plains, " that after two years' mana3uvring, and undergoing the strangest vicissitudes that perhaps ever attended any one contest since the creation, both armies are brought back to the very point they set out from, and that the offending party at the beginning is now reduced to the use of the spade and pickaxe for defence. Tlie hand of Providence has been so conspicuous in all this, that he need be worse than an infidel that lacks faith, and more than wicked that has not gratitude enough to acknowledge his obligations." * It was subsequently surprised by a British party, but recovered by Clarke in the beginning of the following year. CHAPTER V. War, continued. Third Period. Charac- The tliii'd and last period of the war extends teristics. f^.^j^ July, 1778, to January, 1784, five years and a half. Its characteristics are, the alliance of the French with the Americans, and the concentration of the more important operations in the Southern States. These points, it is to be noted, are precisely the opposite of those which characterized the preceding period. The first minister of France to the United States, Failure to recover M. Gerard, came accompanied by a fleet and army, Newport ^^^^^^ D'Estaing, (July.) "Unforeseen and unfa- vorable circumstances," as Washington wrote, " lessened the importance of the French services in a great degree." In the first place, the arrival was just late enough to miss the opportunity of surprising the British fleet in the Delaware, not to mention the British army on its retreat to New York. In the next place, the French vessels proved to be of too great draught to penetrate the channel and cooperate in an attack upon New York. Thus disappointing and disap- pointed, D'Estaing engaged in an enterprise against New- port, still in British hands. It proved another failure. But not through the French alone ; the American troops that were to enter the island at the north being greatly be- hindhand. The same day that they took their place, under (243) 244 PART III. 1763-1797. Sullivan, Greene, and Lafayette, the French left theirs at the lower end of the island in order to meet the IJritish fleet arriving from New York, (August 10.) A severe storm prevented more than a partial engagement ; but D'Estaing returned to Newport only to plead the injuries received in the gale as compelling his retirement to Boston for repairs. The orders of the French government had been peremjDtory that in case of any damage to the fleet it should put into port at once. So far was D'Estaing from avoiding action on personal grounds, that when Lafayette hurried to Bos- ton to persuade his countrymen to return, the commander offered to serve as a volunteer until the fleet should be refit- ted. The Americans, however, talked of desertion and of inefhciency, — so freely, indeed, as to affront their faithful Lafayette. At the same time, large numbers of them imi- tated the very course which they censured, by deserting their own army. The remaining forces retreated from their lines to the northern end of the island, and, after an en- gagement, withdrew to the mainland, (August 30.) It required all the good offices of Lafayette, of Washington, and of Congress, to keep the peace between the Americans and their allies. D'Estaing, soothed by the language of those whom he most respected, was provoked, on the other hand, by the hostility of the masses, both in the army and amongst the people. Collisions between his men and the Bostonians kept up his disgust ; and, when his fleet was re- paired, he sailed for the West Indies, (November.) The summer and autumn passed away without and nl- ^i^y further exertions of moment upon the American dian lav- gj^|p^ Q^-^ ^|^g pj^j.j^ Qf tfie. British, there was nothing attempted that would not have been far better unat- tempted. Marauding parties from Newport went against NeAv Bedford and Fairhaven. Others from New York went against Little Egg Harbor. Tories and Indians — WAR, CONTINUED. 245 " a collection of banditti," as they were rightly styled by Washington, descended from the northern country to wreak massacre at Wyoming and at Cherry Valley. The war seemed to be assuming a new character: it was one of ravages unworthy of any cause, and most unworthy of such a cause as the British professed to be. ^ ,. , Affau*s were at a low state amongst the Ameri- Decline of ^ American caus. " The common interests of America," wrote Washington at the close of 1778, "are mouldering and sinking into irretrievable ruin." Was he who had never despaired at length desj^airing ? There was reason to do so. " If I were to be called upon," he said, " to draw a picture of the times and of men, from what I have seen, heard, and in part know, I should in one word say that idle- ness, dissipation, and extravagance seem to have laid fast hold upon most of them ; that speculation, peculation, and an insatiable thirst for riches seem to have got the better of every other consideration, and almost of every order of men ; that party disputes and personal quarrels are the great business of the day ; whilst the momentous concerns of an empire, a great and accumulating debt, ruined finances, depreciated money, and want of credit, which, in its conse- quences, is the want of every thing, are but secondary con- siderations, and postponed from day to day, from week to week, as if our affairs wore the most promising aspect. After drawing this picture, which from my soul I believe to be a true one, I need not repeat to you that I am alarmed, and wish to see my countrymen roused." This gloomy sketch is of the government — Congress and the various officials at Philadelphia. What was true of the govern- ment was true of the people, save only the diminishing rather tlian increasing class to which we have frequently referred, as constituting the strength of the nation. A border warfare had been carried on durmg two suc- 21* 246 PART III. 1763-1797. Loss of cesslve summers, (1777-78,) between East Florida Georgia. ^^^ Georgia. The British authorities sent parties fi'om their garrisons, on one side, and on tlie other, the Americans, chiefly Georgians and CaroUiiians, mustered their mihtia. Nothing, however, but alarm and bloodshed had been accomplished, when, at the close of 1778, a serious invasion of Georgia was planned by the British commander. Twenty-five hundred troops from New York, under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Campbell, landed near Sa- vannah, liardly nine hundred Americans, under General Howe, were there to oppose them ; and, after a short en- counter, the town was taken, (December 29.) A few days later, the only other strong place upon the seaboard. Sun- bury, suFrendered to a force of two thousand British, ad- vancing, under General Prevost, from Florida. Prevost, takmg command of the united forces of the British, sent Colonel Campbell against Augusta. The expedition, suc- cessful at first, was soon so threatened by the operations of various partisans, and by those of General Lincoln, the commander of the continental troops, that Campbell evacu- ated Augusta after a fortnight's possession. Prevost then advanced from Savannah. An American force, under General Ashe, was routed at Brier Creek, and Georgia Avas lost, (March 4, 1770.) A few months later. Sir James Wright, the royal governor at the beginning of the war, returned and set up the provincial government once more. The conqueror of Georgia aspired to become the Charles- conqucror of Carolina. With chosen troops, and a **^"" numerous body of Indians, Prevost set out against Charleston. He was met before that town by the legion under Count Pulaski, a Pole who had been in the American service for nearly two years ; but Pulaski's men were scat- tered, and Prevost pressed on. The militia, assembled for the defence of the place, were under the orders of Governor WAR, CONTINUED. 247 Eutledge ; the continental troops under those of Charleston's earlier defender, Moultrie. But the disparity of forces was fearful, and proposals for surrender were under considera- tion, when the approach of General Lincoln with his army compeUed the British to retire, (May 12.) It was more than a month, however, before they left the adjacent coun- try. They then withdrew to Savannah and St. Augustine. Failure to '^^^^^ Americans w^ere by no means disposed to recover acquicscc in the loss of Georgia, On the reappcar- Sr' ^"^^ ^^ ^'^^ French fleet, under D'Estaing, after a successful cruise in the West Indies, he consented to join General Lincoln in an attack on Savannah, (Septem- ber.) But he was too apprehensive of being surprised by the British fleet, as well as too desirous of getting back to the larger operations in the West Indies, to be a useful ally. The impatience of D'Estaing precipitated an assault upon the town, in which Pulaski fell, and both the French and the Americans suffered great loss, (October 9.) The French sailed southward ; the Americans retired to the inte- rior, leaving Savannah to the enemy. Invasion I*i*eviously to the events last described, Virginia ofvir- had been invaded. An expedition from New York, ^^°^*' landmg at Portsmouth, plundered that town and all the neighboring country. Not a blow was struck agamst the foe. But booty rather than conquest being their ob- ject, they withdrew, (May.) Operations "^^^ Operations in the north during the year were in the of altogether inferior importance. As the main body of the British continued at New York, Wash- ington kept his small army in that vicinity. But he had no plans of decisive action. On making his preparations at the beginning of the year, he resolved upon an offensive course towards the Indians of Western New York, whose repeated hostilities, in conjunction with the British, were 248 PAUT III. 17G3-1797. chastised by an American expedition under General Sulli- van, (August and September.) In relation to the British, Washington could liold only a defensive attitude. Yet, when Stony Point and Verplanck Point were taken, to the great peril of the Highland fortifications, as well as to the great interruption of intercourse with New England, Wash- ington decided upon striking a blow. A gallant party, under the gallant Wayne, surprised the strong works which the British had constructed at Stony Point, (July 15,) and, though obliged to evacuate them, destroyed them, and re- covered the Hudson, that is, the imrt which had been recently taken from the Americans. The fortification of West Point was undertaken, as an additional safeguard. In other directions, beyond the immediate reach of Washing- ton, although never beyond his interest and his influence, the movements of the year were still less effective. Connecti- cut was invaded by a British force from New York, and great was the devastation, yet not without resistance, (Jiily.) At the same period, a force from Massachusetts assailed a post which the British had taken on the Penob- scot, but with great loss. Some months later, apprehen- sions of the French fleet mduced the British commander to draw in his outposts on the Hudson and to evacuate Newport, (October.) These movements, effected without loss, or even collision, were the only ones of any strong bearing upon the issue of the war. Jones's Far away, upon the coasts of Great Britain itself, cruises, ^j^g y^^y ^y^^ j^Q^y extended. Following in the track of the brave Wickes, John Paul Jones sailed in the Ranger from France to the coast of England and Scotland, entering Whitehaven, where he took the fortifications and fired the shipping of the fort. This was in the spring of 1778. In the spring of the following year, Jones being then in France, it was proposed that he should take the naval com- WAR, CONTINUED. 249 mand of an expedition in Mdiich Lafayette was to be the general-in-cliief, the object being nothing less than the inva- sion of England. This project failing, Jones got to sea in summer, with a squadron of seven sail, from a French port. Although much embarrassed by the insubordinate conduct of one of his cliief officers, Jones pursued his cruise with great success along the Scotch coast. Thence descending on the eastern side of England, he encountered a fleet of merchantmen, under convoy of two vessels of war. The two were at once engaged — the larger, the Serapis, by Jones's Bonhomme Richard, and the smaller, the Countess of Scarborough, by the Pallas, under Captain Cottineau. It was a fearful and a remarkable action. Jones was ex- posed not only to the fire of his antagonist, but to that of one of his own vessels, from the treachery or the incompetency of its commander ; and so completely battered was his ship, the Bonhomme Richard, that it went down sixteen hours after the surrender of the Serapis. The other British ves- sel also surrendered, (September 23, 1779.) The brave victor made his way safely to Holland.* Spain in The War was gathering fresh combatants. Spain, the war. after vainly offering her mediation between Great Britain and France, entered into the lists on the side of -the latter power, (June, 1779.) There was no thought of the United States in the transaction. John Jay, hastily ap- pointed minister to Spain, (September,) could not obtain a recognition of American independence. But the United States hailed the entrance of a new nation into the arena. It was so much against their enemy, however little it was for themselves. The beginning of 1780 beheld large detachments from the British at New York, under Clinton, the commander-in- * He did not return to America till the beginning of 1781. 250 P-UIT III. 17o3-1797. Loss of <^^i^^ himself, on tlieii- way soiitliw;vrJ. Charleston, Sv>uth twice ahvady assailed in vain, was the tirst objeet- ro ma. rj^^^ siege began with live thousand British against fifteen hundred Americans, (April 11 :) the numbei-s at\er- Avards inci'easing to eight thousand on the British side mid three thousand on the American. The naval forces of the attack and the defence were still more unequal. Lincoln, yet in command of the southern army, made a bnive resist- ance, but was of course overpowered. The loss of Charles- ton (^lay 12) was followed by the loss of tlie state, or the greater part of ir. Three expeditions, the chief under Lord Cornwallis, penetrated into the interior without meeting any repulse. So complete was tlie prostration of South Caro- hna, that Clinton returned to iXew York, leavinir Cornwallis to retain and to extend the conquest which had been made, (June.) Faiinreto A^ll was not yet lost. The partisans of South recover Carolina, like those of Georgia, held out in the upper country, whence they made frequent descents upon the British posts. The names of Thomas Sumter and Francis Marion recall many a chivalrous enterprise. Continental troops and militia were marching from the north under De Kalb, the companion of Lafayette in his voyage, and under Gates, who assumed the command in North Car- olina, (July.) Thence entering South Carolina in tlie hope of recovering it from its conquerors. Gates encountered Cornwallis near Camden, and. ahhough much superior in numbers, was routed, — tlie militia of North CaroHna and Virginia leaving the few continental troops to bear the brunt of the battle in vain. The brave De Kalb tell a sac- riiice upon the Held, (August 1C\) Two days at'terwanls, Sumter Avas surprised by the British cavalry under Lieu- tenant Colonel Tarleton, and his party scattered. M;u'ion was at the smne time driven into North Carolina, WAll, CONTINt^ED. 251 .. , It seemod as if the south were friven up to the nuiitof foe. So Httle exertion to defend it was made 1. .^^ ^j^^ other portions of the countr}^ that a rumor gained ground of an intention to abandon South Caro- Hna and Georgia ahogether. The French minister, De La Luzerne, wrote home of still greater saeriliees in oon- temphition. lie mentions the possibihty of a proposal from the British that the other states, should be aekuowledged to be independent if the Carolinas, both North and South, and Georgia, were surrendered. Such a proposition was never made ; but it must have been thouuht of and talked about. Such, too, were the sectional divisions in ami out of Con- gress, that there Avere some to whom the abandonment of the south wore no look of horror or of wrong. Its lie- Fortunately there were others, and a far greater loiKv. number, who never hesitated at tiie necessity of de- fending their southern brothers. AVashington, still on the watch about Ncnv York, turned anxious glances to the oper- ations at the south. " The ailairs of the Southern States," he wrote to the president of Congress, " seem to be so ex- ceedingly disordered, and their resources so nuich exhausted, that whatever may be undertaken there must chiefly depend on the means carried from hence. If these fail, Ave shall bo condemned to a disgraceful and fatal inactivity." When Gates proved incompetent to the work, AVashington ap- pointed his best otiicer. Major General Greene, to save the invaded states and to keep the country whole, (October.) Piukness ^^ ^^ ^^* ^^ dark time, even in the north. Washing- iii tiio ton had looked forward, at the opening of the year, north. . .,11 /• 1 • 1 to an active campaign ; but the hopes oi Ins heart died out one bv one. Lafavette, returning from a year's absence in France, where he had been unwearied in uphold- ing the interests of America, announced the coming of an iu-mament, both land and naval, from his country. This 252 PART III. 1763-1797. arrived at Newport, (July,) and there it remained dur- ing the rest of the year, blockaded by a British fleet. Washington's plans of an attack with the French upon New York fell through, to his great disappointment. What the French thought of the state of things may be gathered from a despatch of their commander, the Count de Rochambeau, to the government. " Upon our arrival here," he writes, " the country was in consternation. The paper money had fallen to sixty for one. ... I landed with my staff withouj: troops ; nobody appeared in the streets ; those at the windows looked sad and depressed. . . . Send us troops, ships, and money, but do not depend upon this peo- ple or upon their means." ^ It was soon afterwards that Washington wrote, " If either the temper or the resources of the country will not admit of an alteration, we may ex- pect soon to be reduced to the humiliating condition of seeing the cause of America in America upheld by foreign arms." " But I give it as my opinion," he wrote again, " that a foreign loan is indispensably necessary to the con- tinuance of the war." The autumn came, and Benedict Arnold, one of the officers upon whom the military fortunes of the nation had most depended, all but succeeded in betraying West Point to the enemy, (September.) He escaped, leaving Major Andre, with whom he had been treating, to die the death of a spy. A descent, partly of British, partly of loyalist Americans, and partly of Indians, surprised the fortresses and devastated the fields of Northern New York, (October.) Disaster was succeeding disaster, when Congress, listening to the exhortations of the com- mander-in-chief, again addressed itself to the organization of an army. It proposed enlistments of soldiers to continue * Mr. Sparks's translation, in Washington's Writings, vol. vii. pp. 504-506. WAR, CONTINUED. 253 during the war, and half pay of officers to continue after- wards and for life ; but it was only a proposal. More effec- tive were the exertions of the women of Pennsylvania, under the guidance of Mrs. Reed, the wife of the Pennsyl- vanian president, and those* of New Jersey, led by Mrs. Dickinson, who raised generous subscriptions * to meet the necessities of the American army. " The spirit that ani- mated the members of your association," wrote Washington to the ladies of Philadelphia on the death of Mrs. Reed, " entitles them to an equal place with any who have pre- ceded them in the walk of female patriotism. It embellishes the American character with a new trait." Li<-htiu Cornwallis, conqueror of South Carolina, pre- tbe pared to march uj^wn North Carolina. To secure the upper country, he detached a trusted officer, Major Ferguson, with a small band of regular troops and loyalists, in addition to whom large accessions were soon obtained from the tory part of the population. These recruits, like all of the same stamp, were full of hatred towards their countrymen on the American side ; and fierce were the ravages of the party as Ferguson marched on. Aroused by the agony of the country, a considerable num- ber of volunteers gathered, under various officers — Colonel Campbell, of Virginia, Colonels Cleaveland, Sevier, and Shelby, of North Carolina, and others. Nine hundred chosen men hastened to overtake the enemy, whom they found en- camped in security on King's Mountain, near the frontier of South Carolina. The Americans never fought more resolute- ly. Ferguson was killed, and his surviving men surrendered at discretion, (October 7.) The march of Cornwallis was instantly checked ; instead of advancing, he fell back. Nay, * In paper money, upwards of $300,000 ; but in specie firom ^000 to $7000, 22 254 PART III. 1763-1797. more ; a force which had been sent from New York to estab- lish itself in Virginia was summoned by Cornwalhs to his aid. The year had been marked by important move- iu the ments in Europe. The Empress Catharine of Rus- ^^^' sia put forth a declaration of independence, as it may be styled, in behalf of the neutral states, by proclaim- ing their right to carry on their commerce in time of war exactly as in time of peace, provided they conveyed no con- traband articles. Tliis doctrine was wholly at variance with the rights of search and of blockade, as asserted by England in relation to neutral nations. But it prevailed ; and a league, by the name of the Armed Neutrality, soon comprehended nearly the whole of Europe. Little, how- ever, Avas effected by it; the Empress of Russia herself called it her Armed Nullity. Yet the circle of hostility against England went on widening. On the accession of Holland to the Ai*med Neutrality, Great Britain, having just before captured a minister to the Dutch from the United States, — Henry Laurens, of South Carolina, — declared war at the close of 1780. But Holland no more became an ally of the United States than Spain had done, rinai '^^® "Articles of Confederation and Perpetual adoption Union between the States," adopted by Congress Confed- towards the end of 1777, were still in abeyance, eration. 'pjjg states to wliom they were sent for approval had found many objections to the plan of union. Some of the larger states disliked the right of the smaller states to an equal vote with themselves in Congress. The smaller oy>- posed the claims of the larger to the unoccupied lands of the country, alleging that what was won by common exertion should be turned to common advantage. One state — New Jersey — had the wisdom to object that Congress, or the gen- eral government, was not endowed with sufficient power, especially on the matter of regulating the trade of the coun- WAR, CONTINUED 255 try. These and other difficulties were but slowly sur- mounted When all the rest had been removed, the ques- tion of the unoccupied lands was stUl a point upon which the articles hung motionless. The magnanimity with wliich this last obstacle was removed is a bright episode in the history of the times. New Jersey was the first of the smaller states to come into the Confederacy, relymg upon he justice of her more powerful sisters, (November 20, ins.) First of the landed states to cede her claims for the general welfare was New York, (February 19, 1780 ) Her generosity, and the confidence of such states a^ New Jersey, induced the hitherto reluctant Maryland to waive her objections and sign the Articles. The thirteen were then complete, (March 1, 1781.) fidctt Congratulations were general, and weU founded, '■ so far as they related to the closer union of the states. But notliing had been gained on the score of a na- lonal government. On the contrary, sometlnng had been lost; tlie powers of Congress being rather diminished than increased under the Articles of Confederation. Before their adoption a majority of states decided a question; now, nine out of the thirteen must be united to carry any measure. The half pay for Me, for instance, that had been voted to the ^fficers of the army, was reconsidered and refused by the Congress of the Confederation, for want of nine states to vote i^.r Its fulfilment. All this had been foreboded and lamented. "A nominal head, whicli at present is but an- ther name for Congress, will no longer do," _ thus wrote TV ashington. His aide-de-camp, Hamilton, wrote that Con- gress must be clothed with proper authority, "by resuming and exercising the discretionary powers originally vested ' m them " or by calling immediately a convention of all the states, with full authority to conclude finaUy upon a general confederation," (1780.) Just before the adaption 256 PART III. 1763-1797. of the Articles, the legislature of New York presented a Ibrmal memorial to Congress, saying, " We shall not pre- sume to give our opinion on the question whether Congress has adequate powers or not. But we will without hesita- tion declare that, if they have not, they ought to have them, and that we stand ready on our part to confer them." If all these things could be said before the ratification of the Confederation, they could of course be repeated with even greater truth afterwards. A specimen of the inefficiency of the government occurs in relation to a proposal of import duties to be laid by Congress. Rhode Island refused to grant the necessaiy power to the government, and Vii'ginia, after granting it, retracted it, (December, 1782.) ,, . In the mean time events were hasteninor to a crisis Defence ° of the in the field. General Greene, taking command of ■ the southern army, with several American officers and the Pole Kosciuszko in his train, determined to save the Carolinas. He was confirmed in his purpose by his brigadier. General Morgan, who, distinguished in various actions, won a decisive victory over Tarleton at the Cow- pens, in South Carolina, (January 17.) Two months later, Greene and Morgan having retreated in the interval, the main bodies of the armies, British and American, met at Guilford, in North Carolina, (March 15.) Both retired from the field ; the Americans first, but the British with the greater loss. Cornwailis withdrew towards Wilmington, pursued by Greene, who presently dashed into South Caro- lina. There he was opposed by Lord Rawdon, who at once defeated him in an engagement at Hobkirk's Hill, near Camden, (April 25.) This was a cruel blow to Greene's hopes of surprising South Carolina. " This distressed country," he wrote, " cannot struggle much longer without more effiictual support." But it was not in Greene's nature to despair. Wliile he advanced against the stronghold of WAR, CONTINUED. 257 Ninety-Six, in South Carolina, lie detached a body of troops under Lieutenant Colonel Lee to join a band of Carolinians and Georgians who were besieging Augusta. The result was the surrender of that town, (June 5.) But the fort at Ninety-Six held out against repeated assaults, and Greene was obliged to retire before the superior force which Raw- don was leading to raise the siege, (June 19.) For a time, the war subsided ; then Greene reappeared, and fought the action of Eutaw Springs. He lost the field of battle, (Sep- tember 8 ;) but the British, under Colonel Stuart, were so much weakened as to give way, and retreat precipitately towards Charleston. Thus from defeat to defeat, without tlie intermission of a single victory, in the common sense, Greene had now marched, now retreated, in such a brave and brilliant way, as to force the enemy back upon the sea- board. The successes of the mihtia and of the partisan corps had been equally eifective. All the upper country, not only of the Carolinas, but of Georgia, was once more in the American possession. „, At the time when thing's were darkest at the The ,cen- o trai states soutli, greater perils arose at the centre of the anger, ^^q^j^^j.^^ Virginia was invaded in the first days of 1781 by a formidable force, chiefly of loyalists under the traitor Arnold. He took Richmond, but only to leave it and retire to Portsmouth, where he bade defiance both to the American militia and the French vessels from Newport, (January.) Soon after, two thousand British troops were sent from New York, under General Phillips, with direc- tions to march up the Chesapeake against Maryland and Pennsylvania, (March.) This plan embraced the twofold idea of cutting off the Carolinas from all assistance, and of laying the central states equally prostrate. At about the same time, Cornwallis, baffled by Greene in North Carolina, set out to join the forces assembled in Yii'ginia. 22* 258 PART III. 1763-1797. They, meanwliile, had penetrated the interior, swept the plantations and the towns, and taken Petersburg, (April.) The arrival of Cornwallis completed the array of the enemy, (May.) The very heart of the country was in danger. " Our affairs," wrote Washington before the con- centration of the enemy in Virginia, " are brought to an awful crisis." " Why need I run into details," he wrote again, " when it may be declared in a word, that we are at the end of our tether, and that now or never our deUverance must come ? " " But we must not despair," he urged, as dangers accumulated ; " the game is yet in our own hands ; to play it well is all we have to do, and I trust the experience of error will enable us to act better in future. A cloud may yet pass over us, individuals may be ruined, and the country at large, or particular states, under- go temporary distress ; but certain I am that it is in our power to bring the war to a happy conclusion." The nation was far from beino; up to the emer- American o i prcpara- gcncy. A Spirit of weariness and selfishness was prevailing among the people. The army, ill disci- plined and ill paid, was exceedingly restless. Troops of the Pennsylvania and New Jersey lines had broken out into actual revolt at the beginning of the year. The gov- ernment was still ineffective, the Confederation feeble. Con- gress inert, not to say broken down. When one reads that this body stood ready to give up the Mississippi to Spain, nay, to waive the express acknoAvledgment of American independence as an indispensable preliminary to negotia- tions with Great Britain, — when one reads these things, he may well wonder that there were any preparations to meet the exigencies of the times. The German Baron de Steu- ben, collecting troops in Virginia at the time of the inva- sion, was afterwards joined by Lafayette, whose troops had WAR, CONTINUED. 259 been clad on their march at his expense. By sea, the French fleet was engaged in defending the coasts against the invader. It seemed as if the stranger were the only- defender of Virginia and of America. But on the south- ern border was Greene, with his troops and his partisan allies. At the north was Washington, planning, acting, summoning troops from the states, and the French from Newi^ort, to aid him in an attack upon New York, as the stronghold of the foe, until, convinced of the impossibility of securing the force required for such an enterprise, he resolved upon taking the command in Virginia, (August 14.) Thither he at once directed the greater part of his scanty troops, as well as of the French. The allied army was to be strengthened by the French fleet, and not merely by that of Newport, but by another and a larger fleet from the West Indies. ^ , ^ The British under Cornwallis were now within Defeat of Corn- fortified lines at Yorktown and Gloucester, (August wa IS. i_22.) There they had retired under orders from the commander-in-chief at New York, who thought both that post and the Virginian conquests in danger from the increasing activity of the Americans, and especially the French. Little had been done in the field by Cornwallis. He had been most gallantly watched, and even pursued by Lafayette, whose praises for skill, as well as heroism, ran Of far and wide. Washins-ton and the French General Rochambeau joined Lafayette at Williamsburg, (Septem- ber 14.) A great fleet under Count de Grasse was already in the Chesapeake. As soon as the land forces arrived, the siege of Yorktown was begun, (September 28.) The result was certain. Washington had contrived to leave Sir Henry Clinton impressed with the idea that New York was still the main object. Sir Henry, therefore, thought of no re enforcements for Cornwallis, until they were too late, 260 PART III. 1763-1797. until, indeed, they were out of the question in consequence of the naval superiority of the French. In fact, an expe- dition to lay waste the eastern part of Connecticut \va3 occupying Clinton's mind. He placed the loyalists and the Hessians despatched for the purpose under the traitor Ar- nold, who succeeded in destroying New London, (Septem- ber.) Thus there were but seven thousand five hundi-ed British at Yorktown to resist nine thousand Americans and seven thousand French, besides the numerous fleet. In less than three weeks, Cornwallis asked for terms, (October 17,) and two days afterwards surrendered. The blow was decisive. The United States were transported. Government, army, people were for once united, for once elevated to the altitude of those noble spirits, who, like Washington, had sustained the nation until the moment of victory. " The play is over," wrote Lafayette, " and the fifth act is just finished." " O God ! " exclaimed the English prime minister, on hearing of the event. " It is all over — all over ! " It was Washin futon's earnest desire to avail of Prospects. the French fleet in an attack on Charleston. De Grasse refused. Tlien Washington urged him to transport troops to Wilmington. But De Grasse alleged his engage- ments in the West Indies, and sailed thither. The French under Rochambeau went into winter quarters at Williams- burg, while the Americans marched, a part to reenforce the southern army, and a part to the various posts in the north. Prospects Avere uncertain. It was evident that the war was approaching its close, but none could tell how nearly. Washington implored his countrymen to be on the alert. Again and again he rebuked the inaction into which they were falling, as if their work was done. The British still held their post by the Penobscot. They were still strong at New York. Wilmington was evacuated by them -, but WAR, CONTINUED. . 26X Charleston, the chief town of the soutli, and Savannah, remained in their hands. Lafayette wrote from France, whither he went at the close of the year, that " the evacu- ation of New York and Chai'leston are as far from British intentions as the evacuation of London." It turned out differently. A vote of Parliament Evacua- '' tion of that the king be requested to bring the war to a 'close, (February 27, 1782,) led to a change of ministry. Determining to recognize the independence of the United States, and to concentrate hostilities against the European powers, the new ministry sent out Sir Guy Carleton as commander-in-chief, with instructions to evacu- ate New York, Charleston, and Savannah ; in a word, the entire seaboard. Savannah was evacuated in the summer, (July 11,) Charleston in the early winter, (December 14.) It was the result of past campaigns, not of any j^resent one. The Americans were without armies, without supplies, at least without such as were indispensable for any active operations. When the French under Rochambeau reached the American camp on the Hudson in the autumn, they passed between two lines of troops clothed and armed by subsidies from France. It was a touching tribute of grati- tude, and an equally touching confession of weakness. All but a single corps of the French embarked at the close of the year. The remainder followed in the ensuing spring. Peace was then decided, ui:>on. It had been The Eu- , . , , , . ■,.-,, ropean brought about by other operations besides those combat- ^yliich havc been described. The contest in Amer- ants. ica, indeed, was but an episode in the extended warfare of the period. Upon the sea, the fleets of Britain hardly encountered an American man-of-war. ' The oppos- ing squadrons were those of France and Spain and Hol- land. By land, the French opposed the British in the East Indies, upon the coast of Africa, and in the West 2G2 PART III. 1763-1797. Indies. Tbey also aided tlie Spaniards to conquer Minor- ca, in the Mediterranean, and to assail, but in vain, the great stronghold of Gibraltar. The Spanish forces were also active in the Floridas. Holland, alone of the Euro- pean combatants, made no stand against Great Britain. In the Indies, both East and West, and in South American Guiana, the Dutch were immense losers. What was gained from them, however, did not compensate for what was lost to others by the British. The preliminaries of peace, at first with America, (November 30,) and afterwards with the European powers, (January 20, 1783,) were signed to the general contentment of Great Britain, of Europe, and of America. Hostilities soon ceased. In America, Sir Guy Cessation ^ •' of hostiii- Carleton proclaimed their cessation on the part of the British, (April 8.) Washington, with the con- sent of Congress, made proclamation to the same effect. By a singular coincidence, the day on which hostilities were stayed was the anniversary of that on which they were begun at Lexington, eight years before, (April 19.) Measures, already proposed by the British com- of pris- mander, were at once taken on both sides for the oners. release of prisoners. The treatment and the ex- change of these unfortunate men had given rise to great difficulties during the war. Even where actual cruelty did not exist, etiquette and policy were too strong for humanity. The horrors of the British jails and prison ships were bywords, and when their unhappy victims were offered in exchange for the better treated prisoners of the other side, the Americans hesitated to receive them. The troops that surrendered at Saratoga, on condition of a free passage to Great Britain, were detained, in consequence of various objections, to be freed only by desertions and slow ex- changes after the lapse of years. In short, the prisoners WAR, CONTINUED. 263 of both armies seem to have been regarded in the light of troublesome burdens, alike by those who had captured them and those from whom they were captured. Individ- ual benevolence alone lights up the gloomy scene. At the close of the war, we find Congress, on the recommen- dation of Washington, voting its thanks to Reuben Harvey, a merchant of Cork, for his humane succors to the Amer- ican prisoners in Ireland. Treaties Negotiations for peace met with many interrup- of peace, tions. So far as the United States were concerned, the questions of boundary, of the St. Lawrence and New- foundland fisheries, of indemnity to British creditors, as well as to American loyalists, were all knotty points ; the more so, that the four negotiators — Franklin, John Jay, John Adams, and Henry Laurens — were by no means agreed upon the principles by which to decide them. Some of the envoys, moreover, were possessed of the idea that France was disposed to betray her American allies ; and so strong was this feeling that the consent of the French government, the point which had been agreed upon as the essential condition of making peace, was not even asked before the signature of the preliminaries al- ready mentioned. It was before the preliminaries were signed that all these embarrassments appeared ; and they continued afterwards. At length, however, definitive treaties were signed at Paris and at Versailles between Great Britain and her foes, (September 3.) * America obtained her independence, with all the accompanying privileges and possessions which she desired. She agreed, however, against her will, to make her debts good, and to recommend the loyalists, whose property had been confiscated, to the favor of the state governments. Spain recovered the Flor- * The treaty with Holland was not concluded until the following spring. 264 PART III. 1763-1797. idas. The other terms of the treaties — the cessions on one side and on the other — do not belong to our history. The treaty between Great Britain and the United States was formally confirmed by Congress at the beginning of the following year, (January 14, 1784.) J, After long delays, the British withdrew from tion of their post on the Penobscot. New York was evac- ^^^^^ 'uated, (November 25, 1783,) and ten days later, the remaininsf forces embarked from Staten Island and Long Island, (December 4-6.) A few western posts excepted, the territory of the United States was free. The disposal of the American army had long Troubles . . i /» ^i iu the been a serious question. A year before, the army American j^^q addi'csscd Congrcss on the subject of the pay, then months, and even years, in arrears, (Decem- ber, 1782.) Congress was powerless. The army was incensed. When, therefore, anonymous addresses to the officers were issued from the camp at Newburg, proposing the alternative of redress or of desertion,* the worst con- sequences appeared inevitable. The more so, tliat the excitement was greatest amongst the better class of sol- diers, the " worthy and faithful men," as their commander described them, " who, from their early engaging in the war at moderate bounties, and from their patient continu- ance under innumerable distresses, have not only deserved well of their country, but have obtained an honorable dis- tinction over those who, with shorter times, have gained large pecuniary rewards." Washington, and Washington alone, was equal to the crisis. He had repelled with unut- terable disdain the offer of a crown from certain individuals in the army a year before, (May, 1782.) He now rebuked the spirit of the Newburg addresses, and by his majestic * "If peace [comes], that nothing shall separate you from your arms but death ; if war, that . . you mil retire to some unsettled country." WAR, CONTINUED, 265 integrity, quelled the rising passions of those around him. But he entered with all the greater fervor into the just claims of the army. His refusal at the outset of the war, renewed at the close,* to receive any compensation for his services to the country, placed him in precisely the position from which he could now appeal in behalf of his ofhcers and soldiers to Congress and the nation. His voice was heard. The army obtained a promise of its pay, including the commutation to a fixed sum of the half pay for life formerly promised to the officers at the expiration of the war, (March, 1783.) All was not yet secure. But three months later, and a body of Pennsylvanian troops marched upon Congress itself in Philadelphia. Washington de-. nounced the act with scorn. " These Pennsylvania levies," he says, " wlio have now mutinied, are recruits and soldiers of a day, who have liot borne the heat and burden of the war." He at once sent a force to reduce and to chastise them, (June.) Disband- " It is high time for a peace," Washington had ^^s- written some months previously. The army was slowly disbanded, a small number only being left when the formal proclamation of dissolution vras made, (November 3.) A few troops were still retained in arms. Of these, and of his faithful officers, tlie commander-in-chief took his leave at New York, (December 4.) Thence he repaired to Annapolis, where Congress was in session, and there resigned the commission which he had held, unstained and glorious, for eight years and a half, (December 23.) It seems as if he left no one behind him. The ment of town and the state, each had its authorities ; but the na- nothin<2: more than the name of one. Yet the the nation was without a government, at least with tion. ° o * Just after resigning his commission, he declined the overtures of Pennsylvania to propose a national remuneration for his sacrifices. 23 Cl GG TART III. 1763-1797. need of a directing and a sustaining power bad never been greater or clearer. If tbe war itself was over, its conse- quences, its burdens, its debts, its wasting influences, were but begun. No one saw tins more plainly, no one felt it more Washing- ^ '' ^ ton's deeply, than the retiring commander-m-chief. At counsels. ^^^ ^.^^^ j^^^^^| j^^ 1^^^^^^ absorbed in his military duties. In his relations to Congress, to the states, even to the citi- zens, as well as in those to foreigners, whether allies or enemies, he had been almost as much the civil as the mili- tary head of the country. The arm that had led the nation through the field was now lifted to point out the paths that opened beyond. " According to the system of policy the states shall adopt at this moment," — thus Washington wrote to the governors of the states, on disbanding the army, — " they will stand or fall ; and by their confirmation or lapse, it is yet to be decided whether the revolution must ultimate- ly be considered as a blessing or a curse ; a blessing or a curse, not to the present age alone, for with our fate will the destiny of unborn millions be involved." " There are four things," he continued, " which I humbly conceive are essential to the well being, I may even venture to say, to the existence, of the United States as an independent power. " First. An indissoluble union of the states under one federal head. " Second. A sacred regard to public justice. " Third. The adoption of a proper peace establishment. And " Fourth. The prevalence of that pacific and friendly disposition among the people of the United States which will mduce them to forget their local prt^udices and poli- cies ; to make those mutual concessions which are requisite to the general prosperity ; and in some instances, to sacri- fice their individual advantages to the interest of the community." WAR, CONTINUED. 267 j^jjfj " I now make it my earnest prayer," concluded prayers, tj^e Christian hero, " that God would have you, and the state over which you preside, in His holy protection ; that He would incline the hearts of the citizens to cultivate a spirit of subordination and obedience to government, to entertain a brotherly affection and love for (9PxQ anotlier, for their fellow-citizens of the United States at large, and par- ticularly for their brethren Avho have served them in the field ; and finally, that He would most graciously be pleased to dispose us all to do justice, to love mercy, and to demean ourselves with that charity, humility, and pacific temper of mind, which were tlie characteristics of tlie divine Author of our blessed religion, and without a humble imitation of whose example in these things we can never hope to be a happy nation.'* . CHAPTER VI. The Constitution. Foreign ^^^ loves to dwell upon the sympathy from sympa- abroad for the infixnt nation. What had been ^^' repressed while the states were 'still claimed as the colonies of Great Britain broke forth after the claim was set aside. From all parts of Europe, from ail parts of Great Britain itself, there came congratulations and ap- plauses. Even sovereigns did homage to the republic. The King of France continued its friend. The King of Spain,, recognizing its national existence, sent gifts and compliments to its great leader, Washington. No proof of regard was dearer to Yf ashington or ette"s to the nation than one which came from the friend and the champion of many years, the devoted Lafayette. He had spent two years and a hah' in gener- ous exertions at home, when he crossed the seas to join in the American rejoicings at the definite establishment of independence. The whole people welcomed hiim Divided on many points, they were united in the grateful affection which he had inspired. Soldiers and citizens, the wild borderers and the plodding townspeople, the inhabitants of every section, tlu'onged together with a common desire of doing honor to Lafayette. He was feasted in all the prin- cipal places. Congress gave him a public reception. Wash- ington crowned him with love and parental gratitude at Mount Vernon. After a six months' tour, he left America (268) THE CONSTITUTION. 269 to share in the struggles of his native country, (August, 1784— January, 1785.) Wants of He left the country of his adoption in the midst America. q£ struggles of Its own. It was contending against manifold wants, some common to any youthful nation, others peculiar to itself, to a nation so unique in its history, and especially in the history of the last twenty years. It is to these wants, and to the manner in which they were supplied, that we are to turn. o.gan- Chief of them all, the one, indeed, in which they ization. ^yjij |jg found to liavc bccu comprehended, like segments in a circle, was organization. The sharp points, the intersecting lines, the clashing forms of different dis- tricts and of different institutions, needed to be reduced to order within the curve, at once enfolding and harmonizing, of a national system. There was hardly a political princi- ple upon which the entire country agreed. There was not one political power by which it was governed. Interests Avere opposed to interests, classes to classes ; nay, men to men. When the officers of the army, for instance, formed into a society, under the name of the Cincinnati, for the purpose of keeping up their relations with one another, and more particularly of succoring those who might fall into distress, a general uproar was raised, because the member- ship of the society Avas to be hereditary, from father to son, or from kinsman to kinsman. It v/as found necessary to strike out this provision, at the first general meeting of the Cincinnati, (1784.) Even then, though there remained nothing but a charitable association, it Avas inAX'ighed against as a caste, as an aristocracy ; as any thing, in short, save Avhat it really was. It is easy to say that all this is a sign of republicanism, of a dcA'oted anxiety to preserve the institutions for Avhich loss and sufferings had been endured. But it is a clearer sign of the suspicions and the collisions 23* 270 PART III. 1763-1797. which were rending the nation asunder. Tliere was but a, single remedy. The people were to be united ; the country was to be made one. The states were absorbed in their own troubles. The states. The debts of the Confederation lay heavy upon Internal them, in addition to those contracted by themselves. troubles. ... . Their citizens were impoverished, here and tliere maddened by the calamities and the burdens, private and public, which they were obliged to bear together. At Exeter, the assembly of New Ilampsliire was assailed by two hundred men with weapons, demanding an emission of paper money. All day, the insurgents held possession of the legislative chamber ; but in the early evening, they were dispersed by a rumor that Exeter was taking up arms against them, (1786.) The same year, the courts of Massachusetts were prevented from holding their usual sessions by bodies of armed men, whose main object it was to prevent any collection of debts or taxes. So general was the sympathy with the movement, not only in Massa- chusetts, but in the adjoining states, that twelve or fifteen thousand were supposed to be ready to do the same. Nearly two thousand were in arms at the beginning of the following year, (1787.) The horror excited in the rest of the country was intense. Congress ordered troops to be raised, but as it had no power to interfere with the states, the pretext of Indian hostilities was set up. Massa- chusetts was fortunate in having James Bowdoin for a governor. Under his influence chiefly, — for the legislature was partly paralyzed and partly infected, — the danger was met. One or two thousand militia, under the command of General Lincoln, marched against the insurgents, at the head of whom was Daniel Shays, a captain in the continen- tal army. Already driven back from Springfield, where they had attacked the arsenal, the insurgents retreated to THE CONSTITUTION. 271 Petei*sliam, and were there put to rout. Of all the pi-Lson- ers, fourteen alone were tried and condemned, not one being executed. The insurrection had lasted about six months, (August, 1786 — February, 1787.) Dismem- ^01" Were sucli insurrections the only ones of the beiments. time. A body of settlers in Wyoming, principally emigrants from New England, held their land by grants from Connecticut, long the claimant of the territory. AVhen Connecticut gave way to Pennsylvania, and the latter state insisted upon the necessity of new titles to the settlements of Wyoming, the settlers armed themselves, and thr-eatencd to set ftp a state of their own, (1782-87.) What was threatened there was actually executed elsewhere. The western counties of North Carolina, excited by being ceded to the United States, organized an independent government, as the state of Franklin or Frankland, (1781.) But the people were divided, and the governor. Colonel Sevier, of King's Mountain fame, was ultimately compelled to fly by the opponents of an independent organization, (1788.) Mean- while old projects of independence had been revived in the Kentucky counties of Virginia. Petitions and resolutions led to acts of the Yh^ginia legislature consenting to the independence of Kentucky on certain conditions, (1785- 86.) Kentucky soon after petitioned Congress for admis- sion to tlie Union, but without immediate effect, (1787-88.) All these instances of dismemberment, proposed or accom- plished, relate to frontier settlements, where independence was suggested as much by the position as by the character of the settlers. But the older districts were stirred in the same way. Maine again and again strove to be detached from Massachusetts, (1786.) Case of The case of Vermont was one apart. It came Vermout. yp j^^r^j. ^\^q beginning of the war, when the inhab- itants of that district, then known as the New Hampshire 272 PART III. 1763-1797. grants, declared it tlie State of Vermont, (January, 1777,) and asked admission to the Union, (July.) The request was denied, on account of the claims of New York to the territory. A number of towns in the valley of the Con- necticut, and partly within the limits of New Hampshire, afterwards formed themselves into the State of New Con- necticut, (1779.) This soon fell through, leaving its prede- cessor, Vermont, to be enlarged by the New Hampshire towns on the eastern banks of the Connecticut, together with the New York settlements as far as the Hudson, (1781.) Overtures were then made to the British author- ities in Canada, with whom the Vermonters might well wish to be on good terms, so long as they were excluded from the Union. Congress took alarm, as Vermont expect- ed, and proposed to grant admission, provided the recent annexations from 'Nqw Hampshire and New York were surrendered. This was done ; but Congress still kept Ver- mont at a distance, (1782.) A member of the body, James Madison, explains the reasons why a propiise, so long de- layed, was finally violated. The Eastern States, except New Plampshire, and the Central States, except New York, advocated the entrance of Vermont, while New York and the Southern States opposed it, as Mr. Madison relates, through " first, an habitual jealousy of a predominance of eastern interests ; secondly, the opposition exj)ected from Vermont to western claims ; thirdly, the inexpediency of admitting so unimportant a state to an equal vote in decid- ing a peace, and all the other grand interests of the Union now depending ; fourthly, the influence of the example on a premature dismemberment of the other states." So Ver- mont remained aloof, contented, one may believe, to be free from the troubles of the United States. The strife exhibited in the case of Vermont was nothing new or temporary. Disputes between state and state arose, THE CONSTITUTION. 273 as we have had occasion to observe, in the midst between of war, and peace had not put them to rest. When state and ^ly ]\ladison spcaks of sectional interests, he alhi{fes StcltG. to the varieties of occupation and of investment which distinguished one state from another. Such things could not but lead to different systems in different parts of the country, the more so, especially in the north and in the south, that there were differences of character, and even of principle, to enliance the differences of pursuits or of pos- sessions. The allusion to the western territory is to a subject already noticed in our pages. Partially settled at the tim.e when the Confederation was completed, the ques- tion of the unoccupied lands was still undecided. It united the smaller states, as a general rule, against the larger ones, by whom the western regions were claimed. Besides these great divisions between north and south, and between the larger and the smaller states, there were others of more limited nature. Boundary questions came up, some to be determined, and others to be left undetermined, but none to subside immediately. Variances as to the share of the national debt, and more particularly as to the method of meeting it, endured from year to year. In short, the thir- teen states, instead of being intertwined, were set against one another on almost every point of importance that arose timongst them. The o;eneral srovernment continued in the same fee- General o to govern- blc statc that has been repeatedly observed. If there was any change, it was that the Confederation and its Congress had sunk to a still lower degree of inefficiency. There was even less attention to its Avants on the part of the states ; its requisitions went almost unanswered, their obliga- tions almost unregarded. The superintendent of finance, Robert Morris, of Philadelphia, by whose personal exertions and advances the country had been forced through the last 274 PART III. 1763-1797. years of the war, laid clown his oiTice in despair, after a year of peace. His creation of a bank — the Bank of North America (1781) — was recommended by Congress to the states, with the request that brandies should be established ; but in vain. Congress renewed its petition, as it may be styled, for power to lay a duty on imports, if only for a hmited period, (1783.) After long delay, a fresh appeal was made with really piteous representations of the national insolvency. New York refused to comply upon the terms proposed, and Congress was again humili- ated, (1786.) During its efforts on this point, Congress had roused itself upon another, and asked for authority over foreign commerce. Such v^'as the urgency of the interests at stake, that Congress went so far as to appoint a commission for the purpose of negotiating commercial trea- ties with the European powers, (1784.)* But the suppli- cations of Congress to the states were once more denied, (1784-86.) Or aui- ^^^ ^'^^ point alouc was Congress worthy to be zatiou called a government. It organized the western north- territory, after having prevailed upon the states, v-est ter- or most of them, to abandon their pretensions to regions so remote from themselves. Virginia hav- ing followed the earlier example of New York, a plan was brought forward by one of her delegates, Thomas Jefferson, for the division and constitution of the western territory. The plan, at first, embraced the organization of the entire western territory, out of vv'hich seventeen states, all free, "vvere to be formed. The proposed prohibition of slavery was at once voted down ; otherwise the project was adopted, * A treaty was made with only one of them, (Prussia,) but it contained substance enough for a score of old treaties, in prohibiting privateering, and sustaining the liberty of neutral commerce in case of war, (1785.) See the next chapter. THE CONSTITUTION. 275 (April, 1784.) But the cessions of tlie states not yet cover- ing the whole of the region thus apportioned, its organiza- tion was postponed until the national title to the lands could be made complete. Massachusetts (1785) and Connecticut (1786) ceded their claims, the latter state, however, with a reservation. Treaties with various tribes disposed in part of the Indian titles to the western territories, (1784-86.) * All these cessions completing the hold of the nation upon the tract north-west of the Ohio,t that country was definite- ly organized as the North-west Territory, by an ordinance of Congress, (July 13, 1787 ) This intrusted the govern- ment of the territory partly to officers appointed by Con- gress, and partly to an assembly to be chosen by the settlers as soon as they amounted to five thousand ; the inhabitants and the authorities being alike bound to the observance of certain articles of compact between the old states and the new ones that might arise within the territory. These articles provided for religious liberty ; for habeas corpus, trial by jury, and kindred privileges ; for the encourage- ment of religion and education, and for justice towards the Indians ; for the equal rights and responsibilities of the new states and the old ; for tlie division of the territory into states ; and lastly, for the prohibition of slavery. Under so liberal an organization, surveys, sales, and settle- ments followed fast. A colony from Massachusetts was the first to occupy Ohio, at Marietta, (1788.) ^.rr 1 SiuQ-ular enouG:li, while Consrress was takin2: these ties with stcps to prcscrvc the western domains, it was taking ^'^''** others to endanger them. Eager to secure a treaty *" It was many years before the Indian title was completely extin- guished f The south-west territory, though ceded in great part by the Indians, was not yet ceded by the states on whose borders it lay. South Carolina was the first to give up her claims, (August, 1787.) 27G PART III. 1763-1797. of commerce with Spain, tlie Northern and Central States assented to surrender the navigation of the Mississippi to that power, (178G.) In this they had no less an authority upon their side than Washington, who appears to have attached more importance to internal communication be- tween the west and the east alone than to that wider inter- course which the west would possess by means of its mighty river. Jefferson, then, the American minister at Paris, was farther sighted. " The act," he wrote, " which abandons the navigation of the Mississippi, is an act of separation between the eastern and western country," (1787.) Sup- pose the right to the Mississippi waived, even for a limited period, and the probability is, that a large number of the western settlers, conceiving themselves sacrificed, would have separated from their coantrymen, and gained a passage through the stream either in war or in alliance with Spain. . - ]^elations with Great Britain were still more dis- And Great turbcd tlian those with Spain. Nor were they less threatening to the west. The treaty of peace exact- ed the surrender of the western j)osts by Britain. But America was required at the same time to provide for the debts of great magnitude due to British merchants. This, however, was not done. Congress was unable, and the states were umviiling, to effect any thing ; five states, indeed, continuing or commencing measures to prevent the collection of British debts. When, therefore, John Adams, the first minister to Great Britain, entered into a negotia- tion for the recovery of the posts which the British still held, he was met at onee by the demand that the American part in the treaty should be fulfilled, (1786.) The subject of debts was not the only one on Avhich the states were violating the treaty. But it was the chief infraction ; and against it chiefly was directed a remonstrance which Con- gress addressed to the states, altogether in vain, (1787.) THE CONSTITUTION. 277 Dark *' "^^^ consideration felt for America by Europe," times. wrote Lafayette, " is diminishing to a degree truly painful ; and what has been gained hj the revolution is in danger of being lost little by little, at least during an inter- val of trial to all the friends of the nation." " I am morti- fied beyond expression," wrote Washington, " when I view the clouds that have spread over the brightest morn that ever dawned upon any country." oidfoun- Amid this tottering of the national system, the dations, q\^ foundations stood secure. The laws that had been laid deep in the past, the institutions, political and social, that had been reai'ed above them, remained to su[)- port the present uncertainties. Every strong principle of the mother country, every broad reform of the colonies, contributed to the strength and the development of the struggling nation. Nor were recent superstructures wanting. The fm^eT states, in forming and reforming their constitutions, struc- set up many a great principle, undeveloped, if not unknow^n, in earlier times. Nothing, for instance, could be more novel, as well as more admirable, than the indemnity * voted by Pennsylvania to the proprietary family of which she had cast off the dominion. It was a recog- nition of rights belonging to rulers, that had never been made by subjects in a successful revolution. The law of inheritance was another point of new proportions. The claim of the eldest son to a double share of his fathf^r's property, if not to all the prerogatives of primogeniture, was gradually prohibited, Georgia taking the lead. Suf- frage was extended in several states,t from holders of real * £130,000 sterling, in addition to all the private domains of the family. Maryland made no such indemnity; but the representative of her proprietor was an illegitimate son. t New Hampshire, Pennsylvania, Delaware, South Carolina, and, par- tially, North Carolina. ^. 278 PART III. 1763-1797. or personal 2)roperty to all tax-paying freemen. Personal liberty obtained extension and protection. The class of indented servants diminished. That of slaves disappeared altosfether in some of the states. Massachusetts, declarinor men free and equal by her Bill of Rights, was pronounced by her Supreme Court to have put an end to slavery within her limits, (1780-83.) Pennsylvania, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut forbade the importation of slaves, and the bondage of any persons thereafter born upon their soil. Other states declared against the transpor- tation of slaves from state to state, others against the foreign slave trade ; all, in fine, moving with greater or less energy in the same direction, save only South Carolina and Georgia. Societies were formed in many places to quicken the action of the authorities. In making exertions, and in maintaining principles like these, the nation was proving its title to independence. Eeiisious Nothing, however, was more full of promise than privileges. ^|jg religious privileges to which the states consented. Rhode Island, who, as formerly mentioned, had no dispo- sition to change her existing institutions, made one altera- tion by striking out the prohibitory statute against Roman Catholics, (1784.) But Rhode Island was no longer alone in her glory. The majority of the state constitutions allowed entire religious liberty. The only real restrictions upon it were those to which the Puritan states still clung in enforcing the pa^nnent of tax^es, and the attendance upon services in some church or other; the old leaven not having entirely lost its power. Particular forms of faith were here and there required, if not from the citizens, at any rate from the magistrates ; Roman Catholics being excluded from office in several states of the north, the centre, and the south. As there was no single fold into which the Chiistians of THE CONSTITUTION. 279 the United States -would enter, it was of the highest asticai importance that they* separate folds should be orguniza- marked out and governed upon definite principles. Nothing else was likely to prevent collision among the more zealous, or straying away among the more luke- warm. The American branch of the church of Enoland, deserted by the loyalists, and suspected, if not assailed, by the patriots, had but just survived the revolutionaiy strug- gle. It obtained its first bishop, Samuel Seabury, by ordi- nation in Scotland, (1784,) his first associates, Wliite and Provoost, being consecrated in England, (1787.) A conven- tion of several states at New York declared their church the Protestant Episcopal church of the United States, (1784.) The Methodist Episcopal church, strongest in the centre and the south, obtained its fii'st bishop, Thomas Coke, (1784.) Two years afterwards, the first Roman Cathohc bishop, John CaiToll, was appointed to the see of Baltimore, (1786.) The Presbyterians then formed their synods for the Central and the Southern States, (1788.) In the north, the Presby- terians and the Congregationahsts, uniting to a certain degi'ee, continued theii* ancient institutions. All over the coimtry, ecclesiastical systems were reducing themselves to form and law. Sugges- It was time for the nation to profit by the exam- tions of pigg and the principles that have been enumerated, a nation- . . ai Consti- — time for it to guard against the conflicts and the tution. pgj-iig that have been described. Alexander Ham- ilton, as mentioned in a former chapter, conceived the idea of a Convention for forming a national Constitution as early as 1780. Other individuals advocated the same measure, in private or in public. The legislature of New York supported it in 1782. The legislature of Massachusetts supported it in 1785. In the spring of the same year, (1785.) a number of 280 PART III. 17G3-1797. commissioners from Maryland and Yironlnia assem- Conven- _ '' ^ tions at bled at Alexandria, ^or the purpose of regulating driTand *^® navigation of the Chesapeake and the Potomac. Annapo- They also met at Mount Vernon. James Madison was one of their number, and he suggested the appointment of commissioners with additional powers to act, with the assent of Congress, in organizing a tariff for the two states. This being recommended by the commis- sion at Alexandria, the Virginia legislature enlai'ged the plan, by appointing commissioners to meet others, not only from Maryland, but from all the states, and " to take into consideration the trade of the United States." Five states were represented in a Convention at Annapolis in the autumn of the following year, (1786.) They were wise enough to see two things : one, that five states could not act for the whole ; and the other, that the subject of trade was but a drop in the ocean of difficulties with which the nation was threatened. At the proposal of Alexander Hamilton, one of the commissioners, and the same who had urged the formation of a Constitution six years before, the Convention at Annapolis recommended a national convention at Phila- delphia in the ensuing month of May, " to take into consid- eration the situation of the United States, to devise such further provisions as shall appear necessary to render the Constitution of the federal government adequate to the exigencies of the Union, and to report such an act for that purpose to the United States in Congress assembled, as, when agreed to by them, and afterwards confirmed by the legislature of every state, will effectually provide for the same." Action of The first to act upon this proposal from Annapo- Virgiuia. jjg ^y^g ^j^g g^^j-g g^ QfiQ^ forcmost in the cause of the country. Thus spoke Virginia : " The General Assem- bly of this commonwealth, taking into view the actual THE CONSTITUTION. 281 situation of the Confederacy, . . • ca» no longer doubt that the crisis is arriyed at which the good people of Amer- ica are to decide the solemn question whether they will by wise and magnanimous efforts, reap the just fruits of tlia independence which they have so gloriously acquired and of that union which they have cemented with so much of their common blood, or whether, by giving way to unmmily jealousies and prejudices, or to partial and transitory iMei-- ests, they will renounce the auspicious blessmgs prepared for fliem by the revolution. . . ■ The same noble and extended policy, and the same fratcrna and affcctioiio^ sentiments which originally determined the citizens of th » commonwealth to unite with their brethren of the o he states in establishing a federal government, cannot but be felt with equal force now, as motives to lay aside every inferior consideration, and to concur in such further conces- sions and provisions as may be necessary to secure the great objects for which that government was instituted and to render the United States as happy in peace as they have been glorious in war." Thereupon the legislature appomted its deputies to join with those of the other states " mdevis- in<..and discussing all such iterations and provisions as , *„ -onrlov the Federal Constitution ade- may be necessary to render tiic r eueiii ^ quate to the exigencies of the Union." The noble example thus set was at once followed «f »"'»'■ by New Jersey, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, and anTo'f Delaware. By the time these states declared them- Congres,. ^^^^.^^ (February, 1787,) Congress, after many doubts as to the propriety of the course, came out with a caU of its own. Instead, however, of takmg the broad .round on which AHrginia set herself, Congress limited Tts summons to a convention "for the sole and express pur- pose of revising the Articles of Confederation."^ The other states, Rhode Island excepted, went on to appoint their del- 24 * 282 PART III. 1763-1797. egates. The credentials of some representations supported the liberal views of Virginia ; those of others the narrower purpose of Congress. Only one state, Delaware, laid its representatives under a positive restriction, namely, to maintain the right of the state, the smallest but one in the Union, to an equal vote in any government that might be framed. The same hall in which the Declaration of Inde- of the pendence had been adopted, more than eleven years Conven- "before, and in which Cono-ress had continued to sit tiou. ' ? . . . during the greater part of the intervening period, in the State House at Philadelphia, was chosen for the ses- sions of the Convention. The day fixed for the opening arrived. " Such members as were in town " — runs the diary of Washington, who had consented, against his incli- nation, to sit in the Convention — " assembled at the State House ; but only two states being represented, namely, Vir- ginia and Pennsylvania, agreed to meet to-morrow," (May 14, 1787.) It must have been with anxious thoughts that the few who met found themselves obliged to separate day after day, without being able to make so much as a begin- ning in the work before them. At length, eleven days after the appointed time, the representatives of seven states — a bare majority — assembled and opened the Conven- tion. As a matter of course, George TVashington was elected president, (May 25.) The United States of America never wore a more majestic aspect than in the Convention, wdiich grad- ually * filled up with the delegates of every state except Rhode Island. The purpose of the assembly was sufiicient to invest it "with solemnity. To meet in the design of strengthening instead of enfeebling authority, of forming a * New Hampshire was not represented till July 23. THE CONSTITUTION. 283 eoTemment which should enable the nation to fulfil, instead of eluding its obhgations alike to the citi.en and the stran- ger —to meet with these intentions was to do what the world had never witnessed. It is scarcely necessary to say that lower motives entered in ; that the interests of classes and of sections, the prejudices of narrow politicians and of selfish men, obtruded themselves with ominous strength. Many of the members were altogether unequal to the na- tional duties of the Convention. But they were surrounded by others of a nobler mould -by the venerable Frankhn lately returned from his French mission, the representative oT ,he later colonial days; by various members of the Stamp Act Congress, of the Congress that dec ared mde- P ndence, and of the subsequent Congresses before and urin. the Confederation ; by several representaUves of he younger class of patriots, notably by Alexander Ham- ilton arid James Madison, who had been consp.cuous m the Lvements preliminary to the Convention; and by many niore whose names do not depend upon a volume like the T>resent for reverential recollection. ^ The rules of the Convention ordered secrecy of rr;;- debate and the right of each state to an equal vote ,ut,„i. Governor Randolph, of Virginia, then opened the deliberations upon a constitution by offering a series of res- olutions proposing a national legislature of two branches, a ionalLcutiv; and a national if^^y^^ ^'ZZ! inferior tribunals. Charles C. Pinckney, of South Carolma, offered a sketch of government, based on the same pri^ eiples as Randolph's, but developed with g-ater de^. Both the plans were referred to a committee of the whole •but Randolph's, or the Virginia plan, as it -- "S^e called, engrossed the debate. At the end of a fortnig^^t he committee reported in favor of the Virginia ystem. Things had not gone so far without opposition, to the 284 PART III. 1763-1797. ments of wliicii we will revert immediately. On the report of the committee, a new plan was oftered by William Pat- terson, of New Jersey, embodying the views of the Con- necticut, New York, Delaware, and Maryland, as well as the New Jersey delegations. This New Jersey plan, so st3'led, proposed a government of much more limited powers than that of the Virginia pattern. The two were referred to a committee of the whole. Soon after, Alexander Ham- ilton broached a plan of his own, going to the very opposite extreme of the New Jersey system. He was for taking the British constitution as " the best model the world has ever produced," and for creating a national government, gf which the executive and the higher branch of the legislature, as well as the judiciary, should all be elected to serve during good behavior or life. Hamilton presented his plan as an exposition of his personal convictions rather than as a sub- ject for debate, confessing that it was " very remote from the idea of the people." The question, therefore, lay be- tween the Virginia and the New Jersey plans. Question Bnt there was another question to be previously of powers, decided, if not by formal vote, at least by the course of opinions. Doubt existed about the powers of the Con- vention. Some insisted that it could do no more than revise the Articles of the Confederation ; in other words, tliat it might reform, but not displace, the existing govern- ment. These members were of course the supporters of the New Jersey plan. They called it by the name of federal, ill opposition to the system, at the time styled anti-federal, of their opponents. The anti-federal — that is, the national men — maintained the necessity of a new government as sufficient to authorize the Convention to frame one, even if the power to do so had not been expressly given. They urged this the more, in that the Convention would not create the government, but simply recommend its creation THE CONSTITUTION. 285 to the nation. The difference between the two sides was, as we see, immense. As the one or as the other prevailed, so followed the fate not merely of the Virginia and the New Jersey plans, but of the Constitution and the nation. A national ^^ ^^'^^' therefore, a turning point in the move- system ments of the Convention, when the committee of the a opte . ^jj^ig reported once more in favor of the Virginia plan. The labors of construction and of detail were all to be gone through. But the one guiding and assuring principle of a national system was gained, (June 29.) Parties were by this time but too distinctly de- ^ma?r' ^^^^^' The federal side was taken, as a general states and rulc, by the representatives of the small states, the states. national by those of the large. ^^Hiatever was up- held by the large states, especially Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and, above all, Virginia, was, as if for this simple reason, opposed by the small ones. There was a constant dread of the dominion which, it v.^as supposed, would be exercised by the superior states to the disadvan- tage and the disgrace of those of inferior rank. Perhaps the tone assumed by the large states was such as reasonably to inspire suspicion. Certain it is, that the breach between the two parties grew wider and wider, particularly when the committee and the Convention pronounced in favor of the national plan. Within ten days afterwards, Franklin, shocked by the altercations around him, moved that prayers should be said every morning. The motion was parried, partly, it was said, to prevent the public from surmising the divisions of the Convention. Views of '^^^® starting point, so far as theory was con- state gov- cerned, of the two parties, was the government by states. In this, the federal members argued, re- sides the only principle of sovereignty, and to this recourse must be had for tlie life and breath of a government for the 28 G PAUT III. 1763-1797. nation. Hence tlie name of federal, imjjlj^ing the support of a league — that is, a league between the states — as the true form of a general government. All this the national party opposed. We are not met, they reasoned, to fashion a Constitution out of the states or for the states, but to create a Constitution for the people ; it is the people, not the states, who are to be governed and united ; it is the people, moreover, from whom the power required for the Constitution is to emanate. At the same time, the national members, with a few exceptions, were far from denying the excellence of state governments. These, they urged, are precisely what we want to manage the local affairs of the different portions of the country ; in this capacity, the states will be truly the pillars of the Union. Votes of These views had entered largely into the debates states. already decided by the adoption of a national plan for the Constitution. They were again brought forward, and with renewed earnestness, in relation to a question now coming up for decision. Before the Confederation, and after it, the votes of the states in Congress had been equal, each state having a single vote, and no more. This was the rule, as has been mentioned, of the Convention. But when the point was reached in the constitutional debates, the national party insisted upon an entirely thfferent sys- tem. The votes to be taken in the legislative branches of the new government are not, it w^as asserted, the votes of the states, but the votes of the people ; let them, therefore, be given according to the numbers of the people, not of the states. Not so, replied the federal members, — and they had reason to be excited, for it was from apprehension on this very point that they had opposed the national plan, — not so, they replied, or our states, with their scanty votes, will be utterly absorbed in the larger states. One of the small states, Delaware, sent her representatives, as may THE CONSTITUTION. 287 be remembered, with express instructions to reserve her equal vote in the national legislature. But the federal i:)arty, already disappointed, found itself doomed to a fresh disappointment. Abandoning, or intimating that it was willing to abandon, the claim of an equal vote in both branches of the legislature, it stood the firmer for equality in one of the branches — the Senate of the Constitution. Even this more moderate demand was disregarded by the majority, intent upon unequal votes in both the branches. Great agitation followed. " We will sooner sub- Agitation. mit to foreign power ! " cried a representative from one of the small states. But for the reference of the matter to a committee, who, at the instance of Franklin, adopted a compromise, making the votes of the states equal in the Senate, the work of the Convention would have come to a sudden close. As it was, the report of the committee hardly allayed the tumultuous passions that had been aroused. It but partly satisfied the small states, while it kindled the wrath of the large, secure as these thought themselves, upon the point which they were now required to yield. "If no compromise should take place," asked Elbridge Gerry, of Massachusetts, " what will be the con- sequence ? A secession will take place, for some gentle- men seem decided on it." It was the federal party that talked of secession. The nationnl party, no wiser, as a whole, spoke of the dismemberment and absorption of the smaller states, hinting at the sword. Two of the New York delegation, incensed or dejected by the triumphant course of the national members, deserted the Convention. " We were on the verge of dissolution," said Luther Martin, a member from Maryland, " scarce held together by the strength of a hair." Fortunately, peace prevailed. The compromise was accepted, and both national and federal members united in determinmg on an equal vote in the Senate and an unequal vote m the House that were to be. 288 PART III. 17G3-1797. „ ,. Another division besides that between the larffe Parties : "^ north and and the small states had now appeared. It sepa- south. YQ^Q^ the north from the south. How many- reasons there were for the separation has been remarked ; but the reason of all, the one so strong as to lead men to acknowledge that the division between the north and the south was wider than any other in the Convention, — the great reason w^as slavery. This system, pierced, if not overthrown, in all the Northern and in some of the Central States, was still cherished in the south. The scanty num- bers of the free population in the Southern States seemed to make slaves a necessity there. The first struggle upon the point arose with re- Appor- . „ • Ti. tionment spcct to the apportionment oi representation. It of repre- ^^^^ ^^ -^q fjecided liow the people were to be repre- sentation. ^ ^ sented, in what proportions, and in what classes. Upon this subject all other questions yielded to one, namely, whether slaves should be included with free- men, not, of course, as voting, but as making up the num- ber entitled to representation. The extreme party of the south said that they must be, and on the same terms, being equally valuable as the free laborers of the north. On the other hand, the extreme party of the north declared that slaves should never be taken into account until they were emancipated, as they, ought to be. The necessity for com- promise was again evident. The moderate members of either side came together, and agreed that three fifths of the slave population should be enumerated with the whole of the white population in apportioning the representatives anion 2:st the different states. 'O" The slave -^ gravcr point was raised. In the draught of the traJe. Constitution now under debate, there stood a clause forbidding the general government to lay any tax or prohi- bition upon the migrations or the importations authorized THE CONSTITUTION. 289 by the states. This signified that there was to be no inter- ference with the slave trade. "It is inconsistent," ex- claimed Martin, of Maryland, " with the principles of the revolution, and dishonorable to the American character, to have such a feature in the Constitution ! " " Religion and humanity," answered John Rutledge, of South Carolina, *' have nothing to do with this question. Interest alone is the governing principle of nations. The true question at present is, whether the Southern States shall or shall not be parties to the Union." Charles C. Pinckney, calmer than his colleague, took broader ground. " If the states be left at liberty on this subject. South Carolina may perhaps by de- grees do of herself what is wished, as Virginia and Maryland have already done." The opposition to the claims of the extreme south came from the Central States, especially from Virginia, not from the north. The north, intent upon the passage of acts protective of its large shipping interests, was quite ready to come to an understanding with the south. The consequence was that, instead of imitating the example of earlier years and declaring the slave trade at an end, the Convention protracted its existence for twenty years, (till 1808.) At the same time, the restriction upon acts relating to commerce was stricken from the Constitu- tion. Dark as this transaction seems, it was still a com- promise. To extend the slave trade for twenty years was far better than to leave it without any limit at all. It was at the close of these discussions that the draught of the clause respecting fugitive slaves was intraduced, and accepted without discussion. The word sluves, however, was avoided here, as it had been in all the portions of the Constitution relating to slavery. Details There is no occasion in this place for dwelling and dis- upou the details and the discussions of the Conven- tion. Wherever there was a detail, there was al- 25 cussions. 290 PART III. 1763-1797. most invariably a discussion ; but tlie interest in the debates generally was altogether subordinate to that excited by the questions which have been mentioned. On these, as the questions involving compromise, it was felt that the Consti- tution depended. " The Constitution which we now pre- sent " — thus ran the di'aught of a letter proposed to be ad- dressed to Congress — "is the result of a spirit of amity and of that mutual deference and concession which the peculiarity of our political situation rendered indispensable." " I can well recollect," said James Wilson to his constitu- ents of Pennsylvania, " the impression which on many occa- sions was made by the difficulties which surrounded and pressed the Convention. The great undertaking sometimes seemed to be at a stand; and other times its motions seemed to be retrograde." At length, after nearly four months' i^erseverance of the' through all the heat of summer, the Convention Constitu- agreed to the Constitution, (September 15.) As soon as it could be properly engrossed, it was signed by all the delegates, save Gerry, of Massachusetts, — who hinted at civil war being about to ensue, — Randolph and George Mason, of Virginia, (September 17.) As the last members were signing, Franklin pointed to a sun painted upon the back of the president's chair, saying, " I have often and often, in the course of the session and the vicissitude of my hopes and fears as to its issue, looked at that sun behind the president, without being able to tell whether it was rising or setting ; but now, at length, I have the happi- ness to know that it is a rising and not a setting sun." Opposition "^^^ dawn was still uncertain. Presented to inthena- Congrcss, and thence transmitted to the states, to be by them accepted or rejected, the Constitution was received with very general murmurs. Even some members of the Convention, on reaching home, declai-ed, THE CONSTITUTION. 291 like Martin, of Maryland, " I would reduce myself to indi- gence and poverty, . . . if on those terms only I could procure my country to reject those chains which are forged for it." The words imply the chief cause of the opposition excited throughout the nation. It was thought that the Constitution was too strong, tliat it exalted the powers of the government too high, and depressed the rights of the states and the people too low. This was the opinion of the anti-federalists — a name borne rather than assumed by those who had constituted, or by those who succeeded to, the federal party in the Convention. On the other side stood the federalists, the national party of the Convention, with their adherents throughout the country. But the names, like most party names, rather obscured than explained the relations of those to whom they were attached. The feder- alists were no advocates of a simple league between the states. Nor were the anti-federalists the opponents of such a league, but, on the contrary, its supporters. They op- posed, not the union, but what they called the subjection of the states, proposed by the Constitution. ^ ^., One who acted for the Constitution at the time, Constitu- ' tionai and who wrote of it in after years, — Jeremy Bel- " ^°° * knap, then a clergyman of Boston, — tells a story illustrating the changing tempers of the period. A man has a new pair of small-clothes brought home to him. " It is too small here, says he, and wants to be let out ; it is too big here, and wants to be taken in. I am afraid there will be a hole there, and you must put on a patch ; this button is not strong enough — you must set on another." But, taking his wife's advice, he tried on the garment, and found him- self satisfied. The constitutional writings, as they may be called, of the twelvemonth succeeding the Convention, were far in advance of any preceding productions of America. The greatness of the cause called forth new powers of 292 PART III. 1763-1797. mind, nay, new powers of heart. "Washington's letters upon the subject overflow with emotions such as his calm demeanor had seldom betrayed before. Under the signa- ture of Pubhus, Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay united in the composition of the Federalist. It. was a succession of essays, some profound in argument, others thrilling in appeal, and all devoted to setting forth the principles and foretelling the operations of the Consti- tution. Under the signature of Fabius, John Dickinson — the same whose Farmer's Lettei-s had pleaded for hberty twenty years before — now pleaded for constitutional gov- ernment. It was not merely the Constitution that was thus rendered clear and precious. The subject was as wide as the ri2:hts of man. Adoption ^^ Strong and so wise exertion was not in vain, by the State after state, beginning with Delaware, (De- cember 7, 1787,) assented to the Constitution, some by large, some by exceedingly small majorities. In most of the bodies by which the ratification was declared, a series of amendments was framed and passed. North Carolina assented only on condition of her amendments being adopt- ed. In one of the state Conventions, New York, the recom- mendation of another general Convention was pressed upon the nation. New York was the scene of more decided demonstrations. The list of what can be called riots throughout the country, at the time, begins and ends with a collision between two bands of the rival parties, at Albany, and the destruction of the type in an anti-fedei'tihst news- paper establishment at New York, (July 4-27, 1788.) The project of a second Convention found favor m Pennsyl- vania. It was then taken up by the assembly of Virginia, but after the Convention of that state had accepted the Con- stitution. In seeing these states arrayed in greater or less strength against the Constitution, one is struck by their THE CONSTITUTION. 293 being large states, to which the Constitution was supposed to be particularly acceptable. The other of the largest states, Massachusetts, had but a bare majority to give in favor of the Constitution. On the other hand, several of the small states were now the most earnest supporters of federalist principles. The causes of this revolution were chiefly local. But, actuated by different motives, the large states, or rather the parties in the large states, opposing the unconditional adoption of the Constitution, were unable to combine with any effect. The generous impulses and the united exertions of their opponents carried the day. Only North Carolina and Rhode Island stood aloof, and the former but partially, when Congress performed the last act preliminary to the establishment of the Constitution, by appointing days for the requisite elections and for the or- ganization of the new government, (September 13, 1788.) Thus was completed the most extraordinary of the transaction of which merely human history bears trausac- record. A nation enfeebled, dismembered, and dispirited, broken by the losses of war, by the dis- sensions of peace, incapacitated for its duties to its own citi- zens or to foreign poAvers, suddenly bestirred itself and prepared to create a government. It chose its representa- tives without conflicts or even commotions. They came together, at first only to disagree, to threaten, and to faih But against the spells of individual selfishness and sectional passion, the inspiration of the national cause proved potent. The representatives of the nation consented to the measures on which the common honor and the common safety de- pended. Then the nation itself broke out m clamors. Still there was no violence, or next to none. No sort of contention arose between state and state. Each had its own differences, its own hesitations ; but when each had decided for itself, it joined the rest and proclaimed the Constitution. 25* 294 . PART in. 1763-1797. The work thus achieved was not merely for the Sympa- -^ thy for nation that achieved it. In the midst of their man in . ^Qy|j|.g j^jjj their dangers, a few generous spirits, if no more, gathered fresh courage by looking beyond the limits of their country. Let Washington speak for them. " I conceive," says he, " under an energetic general govern- ment, such regulations might be made, and isuch measures taken, as would render this country the asylum of pacific and industrious characters from all parts of Europe," — "a kind of asylum," as he says in another place, " for man- kind." It was not, therefore, for America alone that her sons believed themselves to have labored, but for the world. It has already appeared that the writings of the sol- of the diers and the statesmen of the period were, in many tbnami instances, as important as their actions. There the Con- "were other writers, who stood conspicuous, solely or stitution. P 1 . T almost solely, on account oi their literary exertions. Such was Thomas Paine, an Englishman, whose pamphlet of Common Sense (1776) had so great an effect that its author, though then but a few months in the country, pre- tended afterwards to have started the revolution. His later pamphlets, issued during the war under the name of the Crisis, were of equal power. Amongst the American authors were John Trumbull, of Connecticut, whose poem of McFingal (begun 1774) was a satire at once upon his countrymen and upon their foes ; Francis Hopkinson, of Philadelphia, who, after various productions in prose and in rhyme relating to the war, came to the aid of the Constitu- tion in an allegory entitled the New Roof; and Philip Fre- neau, of New York, whose verses upon the battles of the revolution were amongst the most popular and the most artistic compositions of the times. The influence of such a literature may be conceived. It spread the stirring spirit of the camp and of the council around the fireside and THE CONSTITUTION. 295 witMn the closet, kindling sympathy, arousing action, and thus contributing largely to the national redemption. Nor should we forget, in this connection, the in- The mu- ° sic of Bii- fluence of the first of our composers, William Bil- iings- lings, a Bostonian. Such was his enthusiasm at once for his art and for his country, that, though almost uneducated as a musician, he moved many a spirit by his ardent strains. His melodies were heard on the march aild on the battle field as well as in the choir ; such as his Inde- pendence and his Columbia may be called psalms of the revolution and of the Constitution. CHAPTER VII. * Washington's Administration. Washin The name of Washington was almost a part of ton pres- tlie Constitution. " The Constitution would never have been adopted," — thus Edmund Randolph, by no means a strong adherent to Washington, wrote to him afterwards, — " but from a knowledge that you had once sanctioned it, and an expectation that you would execute it." " The Constitution," Lafayette wrote at once from Paris, " satisfies many of our desires ; but I am much mis- taken if there are not some points that would be perilous, had not the United States the happiness of possessing their guardian angel, who will lead them to whatever still remains to be done before reaching perfection." Such was the universal voice of the nation, and of the nation's well wishers. The presidential electors gave in their votes without a single exception in favor of Washington ; and he consented to what he had reason to call " this last great sacrifice." " I bade adieu to Mount Vernon," he writes in his diary, " to private life, and to domestic felicity ; and with a mind oppressed with more anxious and painful sen- sations than I have words to express, set out with the best disposition to render service to my country in obedience to its call, but with less hope of answering its expecta- tions." The two houses of Congress had been organized in New (296) WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 2S7 York, after a montli's delay.* A day or two before tioro?*" Washington's arrival, John Adams took his place as goyem- y^^e president. The inauguration of the presi- dent, postponed a few days after he was ready for the ceremony, at length completed the organization of the government, (April 30, 1789.) It was one thincr for Washington to receive the Solemni- ^ i • • x xi ty of the homages of his countrymen, on his journey to the ^'"'^' seat of government, and on his entrance mto office there ; all this was smiling to the eye, and full of promise to the ear. But it was another thing to remember the weaknesses and the divisions of the nation ; to behold the present sources of peril ; and to feel that the Constitution was still an untried instrument, unmoved, perhaps unmov- able. Whatever has been said of the solemnity of former periods, or of former duties, must be repeated with stronger emphasis of the work now before Washington and his coadjutors. Of far greater difficulty than the formation of the Constitution was the setting it in operation. Washing- ton knew it all. And almost the first words which broke from his lips, as president of the United States, were words of prayer. " It would be peculiarly improper," he said at the beginning of his inaugural speech, " to omit in this first official act my fervent supplications to that Almighty Being who rules over the universe, who presides in the councils of nations, and whose providential aids can supply every human defect, that His benediction may consecrate to the liberties and happiness of the people of the United States, a government instituted by themselves for these essential purposes, and may enable every instrument employed in its * March 4 being the appointed day; and the House not having a quorum till March 30, the Senate none till April 6. 298 PART III. 1763-1797. administration to execute with success the functions allotted to his charge.'* Washing- In the same spirit Washington invoked the sup- ton to his p^j^ Qf those around him, not merely as his fellow- fellow- ^ / ^ Chris- countrymen, but as his fellow-Christians. Among tians. ^ij ^j^^ addresses hailing his accession to the presi- dency, from political and industrial, from literary and scien- tific bodies, none seemed to please him more than those received from religious organizations. In his replies, he remarks upon his need of their sympathies and prayers. Convinced that nothing could so bind the nation together as charity amongst the different branches of Christians, he insists upon it Avith peculiar earnestness. In an address to his own church, the Protestant Episcopal, he expresses his joy " to see Christians of different denominations dwell together in more charity, and conduct themselves in respect to each other with a more Christian-like spirit, than ever they have done in any former age or in any other nation." To the church that had been an object of persecution through the whole colonial period, the Roman Catholic, the president wrote as follows : " I hope ever to see America among the foremost nations in examples of justice and liberality. And I presume that your fellow-citizens will not forget the patriotic part which you took in the accomplishment of their revolution, and the establishment of their government." The na- Thcsc principles, so far above any of a merely tion. political character, were to be applied to a nation now numbering nearly four millions.* This was the popu- lation of all the thirteen states. The Constitution, as will be recollected, went into operation with the assent of but * The census of 1790 gave, whites, 3,172,464 ; free blacks, 59,466 ; slaves, 697,897 : total, 3,929,827- WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 299 eleven. North Carolina acceded in eight months, (Novem- ber 13 ;) Rhode Island in fifteen, (May 29, 1790.) The great feature of the opening years of Wash- Work of in^Qn's administration was the work of Congress, Congress. o i j The de- the body upon whose laws the government depend- ments ed for movement, if not for life. The departments and the ^^gpg organized ; one of state, one of the treasury^ judiciary. ^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^ ^^^^^ heiYig uudcr the control of a secretary. The three secretaries, with an attorney general, constituted the cabmet of the president; the postmaster general not being a cabinet officer until a later period. Washington appointed Thomas Jefferson the first secretary of state, Alexander Hamilton the first secretary of the ' treasury, Henry Knox the first secretary of war, Ed- mund Randolph the first attorney general, and Samuel Osgood the first postmaster general, (September, 1789.) At the same time, he made his appointments for the offices of the judiciary; Congress having created a Supreme Court, with Circuit and District Courts appended'. John Jay was the first chief justice of the United States. Congress had already launched into constitution- menTs to al discussions. The amendments to the Constitu- the Con- ^jojj, proposed by the different states, were numerous Btitution. ^^^^gj^ _ g^^y ^^^ upwards — to call for early at- tention. It was not suggested either by the states or by their congressional representatives, to make any fundamen- tal alterations in. the Constitution. The old federal, now the anti-federalist party, from whom most of the amend- ments came, asked for no subversion of the national system. They were contented with a few articles, declaring the ' states and the people in possession of all the powers and all the rights not expressly surrendered to the general government. These articles, to the number of ten, were adopted by Congress, and accepted by the states. 300 PART III. 1763-1797. A far more vital matter was the revenue. To Revenue. this Congress addressed itself in the first weeks of the session. The result of long and difficult debates was the enactment of a tariff, intended to serve at once for revenue and for protection of domestic interests. A ton- nage duty, with great advantages to American shijDping, was also adopted. Some time afterwards, indeed towards the close of the first Congress, an excise was laid on domes- tic spirits. These measures were modified at intervals. But beneath them, in all their forms, there continued the principle, that the duties upon imports were to provide for government in the shape of a revenue, and for the nation in the shape of protection. It was no time for free trade. It fell to the first Confess, Hkewise, to provide for the public credit. The debts of the Confedera- tion amounted to fifty -four millions of dollars, or to eighty millions if the debts of the states, incurred for general objects, were added. It was the plan of Hamilton, secre- tary of the treasury, that these debts should be taken as a whole to be assumed and funded by the new government. All sorts of opinions were started. Agreeing that the foreign debt should be treated in the manner proposed, the members of Congress were altogether at variance upon the subject, first, of the domestic debt due from the Confeder- ation itself, and second, of the debt due from the separate states of the Confederation. On the first point, it was argued by a large number, that the certificates of the public debt were no longer in the hands of the original holders, and that to fund them at their par value was simply to put money into the pockets of speculators to whom the first holders had transferred them at great sacri- fices. On the second point, that of assuming the state debts, the opposition was still more earnest, especially from the representatives of those states whose exertions during WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 301 the war of the revolution had been comparatively limited. It was a matter, moreover, to be supported or opposed according to the various views of the state and the national governments. They who, like the proposer of the system, desired to see the national government strong, advocated its being made the centre of the public credit ; while they who inclined to the rights of the states, preferred to have the debt remain in state rather than in national stocks. The question was not decided upon any abstract Manner ^ i j of de- grounds. It had been a bone of contention where the seat of the general government should be locat- ed, some going for one place and some for another. When the House of Representatives decided against assuming the state debts, the advocates of the assumption hit uj)ou the plan of securing the necessary votes from some of the Virginian or Maryland members, by consenting to fix the projected capital on the Potomac.'^ The bait was snapped at, and a measure on which the honor of the states, if not of the nation, depended, passed by means of unconcealed intrigue. The state debts were then assumed, not in mass, but in certain proportions. This being the chief object of altercation, the funding of the domestic and foreign debt of the general government was rapidly completed, (August 4, 1790.) The transaction was by no means to the satisfac- tion of the entire nation. Even Virginia, whose represen- tatives had voted for the scheme, considering their state to be amply repaid by the location of the capital on the Potomac, declared against the whole system, save only that part relating to the foreign debt. The funding of the general domestic debt was pronounced to be " dangerous to the rights, and subversive of the interests, of the people ; " while that of the state debts was " repugnant to the Consti- tution." The opposition did not end here. * Philadelphia to be the capital until 1800. ' 26 302 PART III. 17G3-1797. National The piiblic creditors, on the otlier hand, were de- tank, lighted. All the moneyed interests of the countr}-, indeed, were quickened, the public bonds being so much additional capital thrown into the world of industry and of commerce, ^he creation of a national bank, with the design of sustaining the financial operations of government, took place in the early part of the following year, (1791.) On the opening of the subscription books, a signal proof of the confidence now placed in the national credit was given, the whole number of shares offered being taken up in two hours. At the same time, the number and the earnestness of the party averse to these movements of the government were increased by the success with which they were attended. It had been made a question in the very cabinet of the pres- ident, by Jefferson and Randolph, whether the charter of the bank was not beyond the limits of the Constitution. Wash- ington himself had hesitated to approve the act of Congress. The construction of the Constitution was one of Parties. . -, • •, the pomts on which parties were now contending. It was a natural principle with the federalists that the Con- stitution should be interpreted freely; that is, in such a way as to give the government the full measure of its powers. On the other hand, the anti-federalists were for limiting the provisions of the Constitution, if not as far as possible, at least as far as they thought required by the independence of the states and of the people. Every sub- ject brought before Congress excited questions of congres- sional powers. The organization of the government, the creation of a tariff, of a national debt, and, as just men- tioned, of a bank, all were argued for or against, according to the different views of the work to be done by Congress. Party spirit, however, was by no means confined to consti- tutional arguments. It appeared on every occasion, charg- ing the federahsts, now the dominant class, with monarchi- WASHINGTON'S ADIMINISTRATION. 303 cal schemes as their ends, and with corrupt dealings as their means ; while the anti-federalists, who took the name of re- publicans, were accused of tendencies to intrigue and to sedition. So violent was the temper on both sides, that the cry went up of separation from the Union. This, too, when the Union was but just formed. But of all the passions so prematurely exploding, north and nouc wcrc SO threatening as those of the north and ^^^ ' the south. The same division that had been ob- served to be wider than any other before the Constitution, continued wider than any still. Even the controversies between the federalists and the republicans were not so great or so absorbing as to crowd out the matters of dis- sension between the Southern and the Northern States. Nay, the divisions of the two portions of the country were rather enhanced by those between the two parties; for although there were many republicans in tlie north and many federalists in the south, yet the south, as a general rule, was republican, and the north federalist. This was inevitable. The interests of the northern industry, its ship- ping, its commerce, and its manufactures, called for a very different policy on the part of the government from that demanded by the southern agriculture. The great line of distinction vras run by slavery. Points concern- The points of this thorny subject, so far from being ing sia- smoothed by the compromises of the Constitution, Very* stood up as bristling as ever. In the very first year of the new government, there came petitions from the Quakers of Pennsylvania, Delaware, and New Jersey, ask- ing for the abolition of the slave trade. With this, as stated in the account of the Convention, Congress had no power to interfere for a period of twenty years. But the introduc- tion of the subject brought up a storm, as it was called by a member from Georgia, which lasted for days and even 304 PAET III. 1763-1797 weeks, until tlie adoption of a committee's report that Con- gress had no authority over the slave trade, except with foreign countries, until 1808, the date prescribed by the Constitution. At the same time, all pretensions to control the treatment or the emancipation of slaves, in the states where they existed, were expressly abjured by Congress. This did not prevent an earnest Delaware Quaker from petitioning some two or three years afterwards for the abo- lition of slavery. The petition was returned to the peti- tioner, (November, 1792.) A later memorial, (January, 1794,) from a convention of societies for the abolition of slavery, held at Philadelphia, asking Congress to take such measures as the Constitution allowed against the slave trade, resulted in an act prohibiting the trade with foreign lands. So far as relat'ed to the slave trade, there seems to have been no opposition on the part of the Southern States to its suppression. They were all moving more or less actively in the same direction.* What they opposed was the interference of Congress with slavery within the limits of the country. . ^^ On this particular point the opposing theories of territo- after years were not yet distinctly formed. But there was an evident foreboding of future divisions. It was generally agreed that Congress had no power in relation to slavery in the states. But it was generally urged on one side, and by no means generally repelled on the other, that the existence of slavery, as of any other sys- tem, in the territories, did depend upon Congress. There were the clauses of the Constitution — "The Congress shall have power to dispose of, and make all needful rules and regulations respecting, the territory or other property *■ The traffic was prohibited in all the states by 1798. South Carolina, however, revived it in 180i. WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 305 belonging to the United States ;" " New states may be admit- ted by the Congress into this Union." On these the oppo- nents of slavery relied, as empowering Congress to exclude the system from any territories to be organized, or any states to be admitted. The great precedent of the North- west Territory, where slavery was expressly prohibited by the Congress of the Confederation, was ratified by the first Congress under the Constitution. It claimed — so the north- ern men felt — to be not only ratified, but followed. That it might be folio v/ed, was distinctly amongst the apprehensions of the southerners, the more naturally from its having been proposed by one of themselves, Thomas Jefferson, as we have read, to exclude slavery from all the unsettled territo- ries. When North Carolina ceded her western lands to the Union, she did so on the express condition " that no regula- tion made or to be made by Congress shall tend to the emancipation of slaves," (1789.) Here was the starting point of all future strife. pltnt of I^ ^'^^ ^^ *^^ power of Congress to reject the pro- luture posed Condition on the ground that its authority strif© over the territories was not thus to be trammelled. Or it might have taken exactly the opposite ground, and declared that it had no right to impose any conditions upon the territories. Supposing either position to have been taken permanently, the question of slavery in the ter- ritories might have come up again. But the constitutional principle on which it could be decided as often as it re- curred, would have been established. Of all this there seems to have been little or no perception. Not even Washington — he who was so fixed against all sectional divisions — exerted himself to close this prolific source of bitterness and of contention. Congress accepted the cession of North Carolina, and organized the district as the Terri- tory South of the Ohio, (1790.) 26* 306 PART III. 1763-1797. Presiden- Meanwhile the unity of the country, despite its tiai tours, parties and its broils, had been happily illustrated in the tours of the president. He first visited the New England States, Rhode Island excepted,* (October, No- vember, 1789 ;) then Rhode Island, (August, 1790 ;) and, lastly, the Central and Southern States, (April-June, 1791.) No earthly potentate had ever received such hom- age as the republican magistrate, the revolutionary chief, the Christian man, all blended in Washington. It was a homage offered principally to the individual, but the light which shone about him was diffused over the nation of which he was the head and the representative. ^ ^ , The states had not been idle. They were learn- Work of '' the ing their new relations to the general government, and, through this, to one another. Within their own borders, much was to be done to set up the law that had been shaken and the order that had been disturbed for the ten, twenty, or even thirty years before. Many of the late Constitutions were remodelled, and some new ones were framed. New New states were presenting themselves for admis- states. gJQjj jjj^Q ^-^Q jjjjg q£" ^Yie thirteen. The consent of New York having been obtained, Vermont was admitted, (March 4, 1791.) Provision was already made for the en- trance of Kentucky in the following year, (June 1, 1792.) The Territory South of the Ohio was subsequently admitted as the State of Tennessee, (June 1, 1796.) But the interest of the period was concentrated ence upon ^'^ t^^G general government. By this, it was felt. Washing- j^nd uot by any local authorities or any local move- ton. ments, the difficulties of the nation were to be met and overcome. The general government itself was concen- * Not then a member of the Union. WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 307 trated in Wasliington. They who deny him power of char- acter, acknowledging his excellence and his judiciousness, without acknowledging his inspiration of thought and his energy of action, may turn to the group gathered at Phila- delphia, the capital, and see the eyes of their heroes, fed- eralist or republican, northerner or southerner, all fixed on Washington for protection, especially as the four years of his presidency drew to a close. Jefferson, the head of the republicans, wi'ote to him, " The confidence of the whole Union is centred in you. Your being at the helm will be more than an answer to every argument which can be used to alarm and lead the people in any quarter into violence or secession. North and south "will hang together, if they have you to hang on." " It is clear," wrote Hamilton, the leader of the federalists, "that a general and strenuous effort is making in every state to place the administration of the national government in the hands of its enemies, as if they were its safest guardians ; that the period of the next House of Representatives is Mkely to prove the crisis of its permanent character ; that, if you continue in office, nothing materially miscliievous is to be apprehended — if you quit, much is to be dreaded." Randolph, the attorney general, — a sort of leader to a middle party, neither wholly federahst nor wholly republican, — was equally pressing. " The fuel," he wrote to Wasliington, " which has been already gathered for combustion, wants no addition. But how awfully might it be increased, were the violence which is now suspended by a universal sub- mission to your pretensions let loose by your resignation ! " Thus urged, Washington could do no less than accept the unanimous summons to another term of labor for his coun- try. Adams was again chosen vice president, (1792-93.) There was one thing over which Washington had no influence. The animosity of parties had spared him, but 308 PART in. 17G3-1797. A imos- "without being checked "by him. He vainly exerted ity of par- himself to keep the peace, even in his own cabinet. Jefferson and Hamilton were at swords' points, and at swords' points they remained until Jefferson retired, (1794.) In Congress, all was uproar. The slightest ques- tion sufficed to set the northerner against the southerner, the federalist against the republican. Out of Congress, the tumult was increasing. Influences to which we must revert had swelled the dissensions of the nation with " very dif- ferent views," as Washington wrote, " some bad, and, if I might be allowed to use so harsh an expression, diabolical." A new party, chiefly from the republican ranks, had gath- ered, under the name of democrats, in societies of which the model was taken from abroad, and which, as Washing- ton wrote, might " shake the government to its foundation." The fearful passion of the time at length broke tion in out iu iusurrectiou. In consequence of the excise Pennsyi- ^pQjj domcstic Spirits, some parts of the country where distillation was common had been greatly discontented. North Carolina and Pennsylvania, or rather the interior counties of those states, had been agitated to such a degree, that the president deemed it necessary to issue a proclamation, calling upon his fellow-citizens to support the laws, (1792.) The excitement gradually sub- sided, except in Pennsylvania, where, after various acts of violence, an armed convention, seven thousand strong, met at Braddock's Field, (August, 1794.) The president of this assembly was a Colonel Cook, the secretary, Albert Gallatin, a Swiss emigrant ; and the commander of the troops a lawyer named Bradford. Of course, the objects of so large a body were various ; some being intent merely upon suspending the collection of the excise, while others meditated the possession of the country, and separation from the Union. The president at once put forth a procla- WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 309 mation, " warning the insurgents to desist from their oppo- sition to the laws." Commissioners were at the same time appointed to proceed to the scene of disturbance, and per- suade the actors to return to their duty. It being found, however, that nothing but force, or the show of force, would put down the insurrection, another proclamation was pub- lished, announcing the march of fifteen thousand mihtia from Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Maryland, and Virginia. The president himself took the field for a few days; but finding that the insurgents had disappeared before the approach of his troojDS, he left his officers — General Henry Lee, governor of Virginia, being commander-in-chief — to complete the work that was no sooner begun than it was ended. A considerable number of prisoners was taken ; but no executions followed, (November.) Enough had been done to decide " the contest," as Washington described it,." whether a small proportion of the United States shall • dictate to the whole Union." Indian The same year (1794) witnessed the suppression wars. Qf ^ danger, half domestic and half foreign — a long-co.ntinued Indian war. It broke out, four years before, on the attempt of various western tribes to recover the country as far as the Oliio. A thousand men, partly United States troops, and partly militia from Pennsylvania and Kentucky, were sent into the heart of the hostile region. Two detachments, under Colonel Hardin, fell into ambus- cades ; while the main body, under General Harmer, marched, countermarched, and at length retreated, (1790.) The next year, after several incursions of volunteers into the Indian territory, an army of some two thousand, under General St. Clair, started, late in the autumn, to reduce the enemy. Delayed by the construction of forts, the troops were advancing but slowly, when they were surprised in camp, and utterly routed by the Indians, (1791.) Two 310 PART III. 1763-1797. years passed in fruitless attempts at negotiation. An army of three or four thousand, slowly enlisted under the com- mand of General Wayne, the hero of Stony Point, at length proceeded to more decisive measures. Spending the winter and the spring in camp, Wayne took the field in the following summer. Securing his rear by forts along the route which he pursued, he overtook and completely van- quished the Indians, driving them from their posts, and laying waste their fields, (1794.) A treaty made with Wayne a year afterwards (1795) renounced the claims which had led the unhappy Indians into war. There still remained upon the south-western borders the restless tribes that had taken up arms from time to time during the war with their brethren of the north-west. Peace with them was made a year later, (1796.) In both treaties, the United States took an attitude never before assumed by the whites, ■ as a nation, towards the red man. The truth that the Indians were not the aggressors so much as the borderers, nay, the United States themselves, seems to have been tacitly recognized by the indemnities to the conquered or the pacified tribes. Indian I^ was equally new in the history of the Indian interests, ^ace, that the whitc men should unite nationally in supplying their wants and improving their relations. No part of Washington's administration, domestic or foreign, was more original or more benign than the policy which he constantly urged towards the Indians of the United States. To save them from the frauds of traders, a national system of trade was adopted. To protect them from the aggres- sions of borderers, as well as to secure them in the rights allowed them by their treaties, a number of laws were pre- pared. " I add with pleasure," said the president in one of his later addresses to Congress, " that the probability of their civilization is not diminished by the experiments which WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 311 have been thus far made under the auspices of government. The accompHshment of this work, if practicable, will reflect undecaying lustre on our national character, and administer the most grateful consolation that virtuous minds can know," (December, 1795.) Among the agents employed by the administra- IlcckC" welder, tion in dealing with the Indians was a remarkable the mis- jjjr^Q^ John Hcckeweldcr, born in England, of sionary. German parentage, came to Pennsylvania in his youth, and there in his early manhood became a missionary of the United Brethren, or Moravians, amongst the Dela- wares and the Mohegans, (1771.) His life thenceforward was devoted to the Indians. He preached to them, that they might be converted to God. He wrote of them, that they might be respected of men. " I still indulge the hope," he wrote in his old age, " that this work [for the Indians] will be accomplished by a wise and benevolent government." „ ., ^ A far more savao-e foe than the Indian was Tribute ^ to Ai- appeased at the same period, but with much less ^^^'^^' credit, it must be added, to the nation. This was the Dey of Algiers, who, with a number of neighbors like himself, was wont to SAveep the seas with piratical craft. Singular to say, the sway of these buccaneering potentates was acknowledged by the European states, who paid an annual tribute on condition of their commerce being spared. Ten years before the present date, the freebooters of the Dey of Algiers had captured two American vessels, and thrown their crews into bondage. He now (1795) consent- ed to release his captives, and to respect the merchantmen of the United States, on the reception of a tribute like that received from the powers of Europe. Three quarters of a million were paid down ; an annual payment of full fifty thousand dollars being promised in addition. Other 312 PART III. 1763-1797. treaties of tlie same sort with Tripoli and Tunis were tinder way. rorei"-ii -J^he relations of the United States with civilized relations, nations were hardly more satisfactory. The mon- archies of Europe looked down, if they looked at all, upon the infant republic, of which many of them really knew almost nothing. What was of vast moment to a people rising out of depression and of obscurity, was a trifle in the eyes of old states, accustomed to deal with great interests and with great resources. Their relations with America were matters of little concern to them. On the other hand, the relations of America to them, or to some of them, formed the chief point of attention and of exertion with the American nation for a quarter of a century. Commer- ^^^ must go back to days over which we have ciai trea- passcd, in order to see how the United States pre- sented themselves to the older nations. " Our fathers," said John Quincy Adams, himself a foreign min- ister under Washington, " extended the hand of friendship to every nation on the globe." Their first treaty, the one with France, in which the affairs of commerce and of peace were mingled with those of alliance and of war, was fol- lowed by one with Prussia, (1785.) "This," remarked Adams, " consecrated three fundamental principles of for- eign intercourse. First, equal reciprocity and the mutual stipulation of the commercial exchanges of peace ; second- ly, the abolition of private war on the ocean ; and thirdly, restrictions favorable to neutral commerce upon belligerent parties with regard to contraband of war and blockades. These principles were assumed as cardinal points of the policy of the Union." It was a policy, however, in per- petual collision with the usages and jDrerogatives of the European powers ; so much so, that, though the young nation held out an open hand, it was met by contracted WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 313 grasps. The state of things will appear as we go on to the negotiations of Washington's administration. „ , One of the first to come into more settled rela- Treaty with tions with the new government was Spain. That ^^^°" power, through its colonial authorities in Florida, had been supposed to be tampering with the southern Indians. On the other hand, it was notorious that several expeditions from the southern and western frontiers were planned against the Spanish territory. All the while, the dividing line between Florida and the United States was unsettled, and the claim to the navigation of the Missis- sippi undetermined. Finally, a special envoy, Thomas Pinckney, was sent to Spain. It took him nearly a year to bring about a treaty defirdng the Florida boundary, and opening the Mississippi to the United States, (1795.) Even then the Spaniards delayed to fulfil provisions in which they took but small interest. The relations with Spain were bad enough. But Xi6l£LblOIlS with those with Great Britain and France were worse. Bdtain ^^ must spcak of these nations together, since it and was their common, rather than theii* separate, influ- ences which operated to the extent that is to be described. Side by side, in the first place, were the feelings of amity to France and of animosity to Britain ; the seeds were planted in war, and their growth was not checked in peace. Britain continued to wear the aspect of an antago- nist, keeping her troops upon the United States territory until her demands were satisfied, while on the other side of the sea she laid one restraint after another upon com- merce, as if she would have kept the Americans at a distance from her shores. France, on the contrary, was still the friend of the rising nation, and not only as its patron, but as its follower. The same year that Washing- ton entered the presidency, the French revolution began. 27 314 PART III. 1763-1797. Its early movements, professedly inspired by those that had talven place in America, kindled all the sympathies of American hearts. Hitherto, the bond between them and the French was one of gratitude and of dependence ; now it was one of sympathy and of equality. ^ ,. But we are not to ima";ine our fathers to have Parties ° there- harmonized upon these points any more than upon "^°^' the others that have been noticed. The nation was by no means unanimous against Great Britain, by no means unanimous for France. Deep, indeed, but still in action, were the sentiments of former times when France was the foe, and Britain the mother-land. To these a new impulse was given by the early excesses of the revolution. With their ideas of law and order, the Americans could not go along with the French, rioters from the first, and soon destroyei-s and murderers, rather than freemen. Many paused, and turning with distrust from the scenes of which France was the unhappy theatre, looked with kinder emo- tions towards the sedater and the wiser Britain. It would be too much to say that this led to a British party ; but it did lead to a neutral one, while, on the other hand, a French party, applauding the license as well as the liberty of the revolution, clapped their hands the more enthusiasti- cally as the spectacle became wilder and bloodier. This party was the republican ; its more impetuous members being the democratic republicans. Their opponents were the federalists. The new dissensions came just in time to keep up the division between the two. Mere federalist and repubUcan questions might have waned ; they were already less glowing than they had been. They were revived by the strife of the French with the anti-French party. Few had spoken of doing more than looking on at the events in Europe. Yet there were some so excited, so maddened, as to be ready for any extremities, especially WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 315 Wasiiino- ^'^^^ t^^ France whom they worshipped declared ton pro- war against the Britain whom they abhorred. More claims t • i i i i • • ■, neutral- divided than ever, the nation was agam close upon ^*y- the breakers, when Washington — never greater, never wiser — issued his proclamation of neutrality, mak- ing it known " that the duty and interest of the United States require that they should with sincerity and good faith adopt and pursue a conduct friendly and impartial towards the beUigerent powers," (April 22, 1793.) It is a memo- rable act in our history. Point Its purpose is not always rightly estimated. proposed. Look at the nation tasked to its utmost, one may almost say, to subdue a few Indian tribes, obliged to pay tribute to the Algerines, unable to keep the Spaniards to their obligations, and we shall not behold a power that could enter safely into European wars. If such a thing were attempted, it would be at the hazard of the independence that had been achieved. There were two risks ; one aris- ing from the certainty that the United States must be a subordinate ally in any war to which it became a party ; and the other, — a still graver one, — that the passions aroused by a foreign would find no vent but in a civil war. It -wLas, as he said, " to keep the United States free," that Washington proclaimed neutrality. Mission The system was soon put to trial. France, hav- of Genet, jj^g i)aptized herself a republic in the blood of her king, Louis XAHL., sent a new minister to the United States in the person of citizen Genet. An enthusiastic represen- tative of his nation. Genet excited a fresh enthusiasm in the French party of America. Feasted at Charleston, where he landed, (April, 1793,) and at all the principal places on the route northward, he was led to imagine the entire country at his feet, or at those of the French repub- lic. He began at Charleston to send out privateers, and to 816 PART III. 1763-1797. order that their prizes should be tried and condemned by the French consuls in the United States. It was a part of the treaty of commerce between the two nations, that the privateers and prizes of the French should be admitted to the American ports. But Genet was soon to be checked. He had not merely a divided people to deal with, but a government ; and although the government itself had its divisions, it was so far accordant as to oppose the ambassa- dor, to whom, on his arrival at Philadelphia, it stood ready to declare that whatever the treaty provided for, it did not provide for the commission of privateers or the condem- nation of prizes within American limits. This is not the place to describe the proceedings of so wild a personage as Genet. He did battle for his privateers and his courts ; appealed from the executive to Congress and the people ; and pursued so extreme a course as to set his supporters and his opponents bitterly at variance. The French party now went openly for war against England. " Marat, Robespierre, Brissot, and the Mountain," says Vice President Adams, " were the constant themes of panegyric and the daily toasts at table. . . . Washington's house was surrounded by an innumerable multitude from day to day, huzzaing, demanding war against England, cursing Washington, and ciying, ' Success to the French patriots and virtuous repubhcans.' Frederic A. Muhlenberg, the speaker of the House of Representatives, toasted publicly, The Mountain : may it be a pyramid that shall reach the skies.* " " I had rather be in my grave," exclaimed Wash- ington one day in great excitement, " than in my present situation." He was equal, however, and more than equal, to his duty and, supported by his cabinet, he sent to request the reca^ of Genet, (August.) As the party by which Genet had been commissioned had sunk to ruin, their suc- cessors readily appointed a minister of their own — citizen Fauchet. i WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 317 Qreat ^^^ the troubles of the time were too compli- Britain cated to be reached by a mere change of ministers. and '' ° France France had pronounced against the neutraUty of invade America, — not, indeed, by direct menace or vio- neutral- lencc, but by ordering that neutral vessels, contain- * ^' ing goods belonging to her enemies, should be cap- tured, (May 1, 1793.) An embargo was then laid upon the shipping at Bordeaux. Both these measures were decided violations of the treaty with America. The most that France did, however, was as nothing compared with the extremes to which her chief enemy. Great Britam, resorted. France had ordered that the goods of an enemy were liable to capture. Great Britain now ordered that the goods of a neutral power, if consisting of provisions for the enemy, were to be captured or bought up, unless shipped to a friendly port, (June.) This was followed by an order that all vessels laden with the produce of a French colony, or with supplies for the same, were law- ful prizes, (November ;) a decree so arbitrary that it was soon modified by the nation that issued it, (January, 1794.) Worse than all. Great Britain claimed the right to impress into her service every seaman of British birth, wherever he might be found ; so that the ships of the United States would be stopped, searched, and stripped of their crews, at the pleasure of the British cruisers. It often hap- pened that American sailors, as well as British, were the victims of this impressment. A thrill of indignation and of defiance against such proceedings ran through the Americans. They would have been less than freemen, less, even, than men, to have borne with such injuries in silence. Threat- ^|^q coursc of Great Britain is easily explained. ened war with Its rulers regarded the United States merely as a BrSain Commercial people who were contributing to the 27 * 318 PART III. 1763-1797. resources of the enemy. Did they look upon the nation in any political light, they felt sure — thus Washington was informed from London — " that there was a party so decidedly in the British sentiment that bearing and forbear- ing would be carried to any length." But they were mis- taken. The very party most opposed to France were earnest in sustaining the necessity of preparations for war, defensive, indeed, but still war with Great Britain. A temporary embargo upon the American ports was voted by Congress, for the purpose of suspending commercial inter- course, (March, 1794.) The House of Representatives passed an act prohibiting all trade with Great Britain and her colonies, until she redressed the wrongs which she had perpetrated ; the act would have passed the Senate hke- wise, but for the casting vote of the vice president, (April.) The partisans of the French were all alive for further action ; their opponents were hardly prepared to resist it. One step on the part of the executive, one hint that Wash- ington, the still trusted though still slandered magistrate, was in favor of arming, and the nation would have armed. With Great Britain, in all her might, for a foe, and with France, in all her blood-red despotism, for an ally, what would have been the war ! Mission One of Wasliington's secretaries, Jefferson, had of Jay. lately resigned his post, leaving his personal as well as political opponent, Hamilton, the head of the cabinet. To him, as the most eminent member of the administration, the president would have confided the special mission which it was proposed to send to Great Britain. But Hamilton, as an extreme federalist, was too unacceptable to the great body of Congress and of the nation to be employed upon a service which of itself was an object of general distrust and aversion. Washington therefore selected Chief Justice Jay, (April, 1794.) It was a fitting choice, far more so than WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 319 that of Hamilton. The secretary would have been the rep- resentative, not of the nation alone, but of the party which acknowledged him as its leader ; he was always a party man, whether in office or out of office. But the chief jus- tice, though a federaUst, was no partisan. Amongst all the prominent figures of the time, Jay's is almost, perhaps alto- gether, the only one that stands close to Washington's, aloof from the tarnishes and the coUisions of opposing parties. No other man was so fit to join with Wasliington in rescu- ing the nation from its present perils. iiig Accordmgly, Jay proceeded to England, and, treaty, ^ftcr somc months of anxious diplomacy, obtained a treaty, (November.) It was not much to obtain. The United States agreeing to indemnify their British creditors, Great Britain consented to surrender the posts which she had so long held in the west.* She also promised indem- nity to the sufferers from her system of search and of cap- ture ; yet the system itself, though partially modified, was by no means renounced. A few concessions to the claims of American commerce were also made ; but the rigid pohcy of Britain, especially m relation to her colonial trade, was strongly maintamed. In short, the treaty did not acknowl- edge the rights of the Americans as neutrals, or their privi- leges as traders; both matters of the highest importance to their commercial interests. At the same time, the earlier points of controversy were determined, and from the later ones the sting was taken away, at least in some degree. So Jay thought, so Washington, though neither considered the treaty decidedly satisfactory. It was better, at any rate, they reasoned, than war. Thus, too, reasoned the Senate, who, convened in special session, advised the ratification of the treaty, (June, 1795.) * The surrender to take effect June 1, 1796. 320 PART III. 1763-1797. Opposi- Not thus, however, the nation. If the necessity tiou. q£ ij^g treaty, even as it stood,- needed to be proved, the proof was the general insanity which it provoked. Meetings were held every where ; harangues were made, resolutions passed; copies of the treaty were destroyed; Jay was burned in effigy. The French and the American flags waved together over these scenes ; while the British ensign was draGTSfed throudi the dirt and burned before the doors of the British representatives. Katifica- ^^^ this, and more, if intended to intimidate gov- tion. ernment, had a precisely contrary effect. " I have never," wrote Washington, " since I have been in the ad- ministration of the government, seen a crisis which is preg- nant with more interesting events, nor one from which more is to be apprehended." " Did the treaty with Great Britain," he asked afterwards, " surrender any right of Avhich the United States had been in possession ? Did it make any change or alteration in the law of nations, under which Great Britain had acted in defiance of all the powers of Europe ? If none of these, why all this farrago ? " The French party were of course the active leaders in all dis- turbances. Their antagonists, certainly not a British party now, kept themselves in the background at first, but pres- ently rallied, not as a British, or even as an anti-French, so much as an American party, to the support of the presi- dent, assuring him and his government of the unabated con- fidence of the nation. At the same time, Jefferson's succes- sor, Randolph, being suspected of intrigue with the French minister, resigned his office, and in the reaction thus excited against the influence and the partisanship of France, the cabinet advised the ratification of the British treaty. It Avas done, (August.) Contiuued Opposition continued. The Virginian legisla- oiiposition. ^uj-g^ approving the stand of their senators against WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 321 the treaty, refused to pass a vote of undiminished confidence in the president. If Virginia could thus turn away from the son to whom she had hitherto clung with all a mother's pride, the tone in other states may be conceived to have been even more expressive of disapprobation. But Vir- ginia was strongly republican and strongly French, conse- quently strongly anti-British. So far did the legislature go in its wrath, as to propose an amendment of the Constitu- tion, to the effect of requiring the assent of the House of Representatives before a treaty could be ratified, (Novem- ber.) The example of Virginia was imitated even in Con- gress, where the phrase of '' undiminished confidence " was stricken from an address of the house to the president, (December.) As the session progressed, a fierce struggle arose with respect to the bills for carrying out the British treaty. The opponents of the treaty made it their first effort to obtain the papers relating to the- transaction, on the plea that it lay with the House to consent or to refuse to ex- ecute the provisions of the treaty. A three weeks' debate terminated in a call upon the president for the specified documents. He and his cabinet being alike of opinion that the House had transgressed its powers, the call was refused. The House took the denial w^ith a better grace than might have been anticipated ; the leaders of the opposition now throwing their whole weight upon the point of defeating the bills on which the execution of the treaty depended. Nor was it until after a fortnight's debate, in which Fisher Ames distinguished himself above all his colleagues in defending the treaty, that a vote, by a bare majority, deter- mined that the House M'ould proceed to its duty, (March, April, 1796.) By this time the frenzy out of doors had died away. The point Thus terminated the great event of Washington's gained, administration. Its course, so far as he was con- 322 PART III. 1763-1797. cerned, followed precisely the principles with which he had entered office. In face of the parties that divided the country, in face of their feelings and their relations to Great Britain and France, "Washington saw but one alternative — peace or war. And not j)eace or war with the stranger alone, but between citizen and citizen. Enough has been already said on the interests and the dangers involved in the decision. The proclamation of neutrality was the first decisive step, the treaty with Great Britain was the second, and, for the present, the last. The point thus gained may be called the starting point of the infant nation in its foreign relations. But hear Washington himself : "My ardent de- sire is, and my aim has been, to keep the United States free from political connections with every other country, to see them independent of all and under the influence of none. Li a word, I want an American character, that the powers of Europe may be convinced we act for ourselves, and not for others. This, in my judgment, is the only way to be respected abroad and happy at home ; and not, by becoming the partisans of Great Britain or France, create dissensions, disturb the public tranquillity, and destroy, perhaps for- ever, the cement which binds the Union." Contini d Things were far, however, from going smoothly, embarrass- What Washinsfton wrote a few months before was from'' still true: "This government, in relation to France abroad. ^^^^[ England, may be compared to a ship between the rocks of Scylla and Charybdis." The treaty being rat- ified, Charybdis was avoided. But Scylla rose the more frowningly. If the French party of the United States, if the minister of the United States to France, James Mon- roe, were indignant at the British treaty, it was but natural that France should be the same. The French government announced to Mr. Monroe that they considered their alli- ance with the United States to be at an end, (February, WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 323 1796.) The cliief reason was the treaty with Great Britain ; but the list of grievances, then and afterwards filled out, comprehended all the measures by which Ameri- can neutrality had been sustained. To prove that they were in earnest, the authorities of France, in addition to their previous orders of capture and embargo, decreed that neutral vessels were to be treated exactly as they were treated by the British ; that is, stopped, searched, and seized upon the seas, (July.) This was subsequently made known to the United States by a communication from the French envoy, Adet, (October,) who improved the oppor- tunity by appealing to the people to take part with France and against Great Britain, (November.) To restore mat- ters, as far as possible, to a better position, Washington had sent out Charles C. Pinckney as minister to France, in the place of Monroe, '(September.) But the clouds that had been dissipated on the side of Great Britain were more than replaced by the ominous signs in the direction of France. And at I^ was Still worsc at home. The parties — north- home. gj.jj Q^^ southern, federalist and republican, anti- French and French — that racked the nation were never so much agitated. " Until within the last year or two," wrote Washington, " I had no idea that parties would, or even could, go to the length I have been witness to." Congress was a continual battle ground. The federal party, falling into the minority in the House, and in danger of losing their majority in the Senate, fought, it may be literally said, on one side ; their opponents, the repubhcans, animated with the hope of the superiority, being equally pugnacious on the other. Newspapers, especially those published at Philadelphia, carried the hostile notes from Congress to the nation, and echoed them back to Congress. It is difficult, without having room for extracts, to convey 324 PART in. 1763-1797. any idea of the virulence of political writing at the time. Statesmanship disappears in partisanship, the love of coun- try in the hatred of countrymen. All this, while it demon- strated the wisdom of the administration or of its head, rendered the course of the administration doubtful and imperilled. In fact, both the administration and its head were objects of the fiercest assault. Abuse of Washington wrote with natural indignation of Washing- the abusc which he, " no party man," as he truly called himself, had received, " and that, too, in such exaggerated and indecent terms as could scarcely be applied to a Nero, a notorious defaulter, or even to a common pick- pocket." It was amidst these outrages that Washington sent forth his Farewell Address to the people of the United States, (September 17, 1796.) Soon afterwards, Congress came together, and showed that many of its members were violent against the retiring president. On the proposal of an address of grateful acknowledgments from the House of Representatives, a man from Washington's own state, William B. Giles, of Virginia, took exception to the more expressive passages, saying, " If I stand alone in the opin- ion, I will declare that I am not convinced that the admin- istration of the government for these six years has been wise and firm. I do not regret the president's retiring from office." Giles was not alone. The same attitude was taken by a considerable number, and amongst them Andrew Jackson, of Tennessee, (December.) " Although he is soon to become a private citizen," wrote Washington of himself, (January, 1797,) "his opinions are to be knocked down, and his character reduced as low as they are capable of sinking it." Two months later, in the last hours of his administration, he said, " To the wearied traveller, who sees a resting place, and is bending his body to lean thereon, I now compare myself ; but to be suffered to do this in peace, WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 325 is too mucli to be endured by some." If Wasliington could thus excite animosity and wrong, what must it have been with ordinary men ? The country seemed unwilling to be pacified, unwilling to be saved. Washington retired. He had done even greater Kg tiro- meiit of things at the head of the government than he had Washing- ^Q^^Q ^^ ^j^g ]^g^(j ^£ ^|jg army. But it was beyond his powder to change the character of the nation. He left it as he found it — divided and impassioned. Yet he left it as he had not found it — wdth a Constitution in operation, with principles and with laws in action — on the road to increase and to maturity. " I can never be- lieve," were almost his last words as president, " that Prov- idence, which has guided us so long, and through such a labyrinth, will withdraw its protection at this crisis." The day after writing this, he saw his successor, John Adams, inaugurated, (March 4, 1797.) ^ ^ ^, One who had hailed the administration at ♦its Lafayette. beginning was not amongst those to behold its close. Lafayette was a prisoner at Olmutz, under the power of Austria. But he was not forgotten. It is refresh- ing amidst the angry chaos of foreign controversies and of domestic struggles, to encounter Washington, not as the president, but as the American, writing his " private letter," as he termed it, to the Emperor of Germany, " to recom- mend Lafayette to the mediation of humanity," and "to entreat that he may be permitted to come to this country," (May, 1796.) The effect of the appeal is not known ; but Lafayette was liberated not long afterwards. 28 m « PART IV. THE GROWING NATION. 1797-1850. (327) CHAPTER I. Foreign Aggressions. The contrast between the administration of Party aa- ministra- "Washington and the administrations of his succes- *'°"^" sors is as wide as that between a nation and a party. He was the head of the nation ; they have been the heads of parties, as well as of the nation. First comes John Adams, the federalist, (1797;) then Thomas Jefferson, the republican, (1801 ;) then James Madison, likewise the repubhcan, (1809.) Not one of these chief magistrates, it is true, was a mere partisan. Adams, the early champion of independence, was faithful to his principles of national- ity ; but he found himself dependent, not on the nation, but on a party, for support, and shaped his administration, as of necessity, by party lines. Not confining himself so strictly to these as the more ardent federalists demanded, they turned against him, and as the nation would not rally to his defence, he lost his reelection. Jefferson, vice presi- dent under Adams, was much more of a party leader. He had generous theories, indeed, but his practices did not always conform to them ; and though he began his admin- istration by declaring that " we are all republicans, all federalists," he never proved himself a federalist, nor did the federalists become republicans. Madison was a much less enthusiastic politician than his predecessors. He bowed to the signs of the times, and became not so mucli a party leader as a party follower. The point with all the three 28 * (329) 330 PART IV. 1797-1850. was, that they were chiefs of but a part of the nation, not of the whole. In this they were in harmony with those over amongst whom they were called to rule. The people were the peo- divided into parties. So they had been under Washington ; but while he conducted affairs, there was at least one in power to whom patriotic men could look up without party feelings. With his successors, the case was different ; and though there might be a number in one place, or a number in another, whose sympathies were with the nation, rather than with any party, there was no one to be their representative or their example. The large major- ity, more deeply interested in political affairs than most men of the present day, broke up into divisions, full of earnestness for their own doctrines, full of wrath against all besides. ^, ,. The natural consequences followed. Even in Parties ^ in reia- relation to the foreign aggressions — which we shall foreign ^^^^ ^^ tracing — parties will be found to have aggres- existcd in all their force. If one nation dealt a sions. 1 1 . 1 • 1 1 blow agamst the country, it was sure to be excused by one party ; if another did the same, there was another party to explain away the wrong. On the other hand, there were always some to censure every act of one power, and others to denounce every measure of another power. So strong did these feelings become, that the subjects which called them forth took precedence of all others in the con- troversies of the time. Perhaps it was natural for the young nation to be more excited by the vast interests of its elders, than by its own comparatively petty concerns. At any rate, it was what foreign powers were doing, rather than what the United States had to do, which formed the staple of political action for the fifteen years (1797-1812) following}; the retirement of Washino;ton. FOREIGN AGGRESSIONS. 331 Missions Chief amongst tlie combatants in Europe, and to France, ^j^g. aggressors against America, were Great Britain and France. For the moment, the relations Avith France occupied the foreground. Charles C. Pincknej, accredited by Washington to negotiate with the French government, was refused an audience at Paris ; and not only that, but was ordered to def)art the French territory, (December, 1796 — Febr^ry, 1797.) Notwithstanding this, notwith- standing the -rapidly following decrees against American ships and American crews. President Adams sent out a new mission, consisting of Pinckney, John JMarshall, and Elbridge Gerry, with moderate instructions, which, how- ever, availed nothing. Pinckney and Marshall, incensed by the intrigue as well as the insolence of which they Avere the objects, (October, 1797— April, 1798,) shook off the dust of France from their feet, being followed in a few months by Gerry, who had undertaken to do alone what he had not been able to do with his colleajrues. Before the withdrawal of Pinckney and Mar- of the ° shall, the intelligence of their treatment had thrown United i\^Q United States into a srreat excitement. The states. . ' . *= republicans taunted their opponents with the failure which they said they had predicted for the French missions. All the more bitter were the federalists, who inveighed against the venality of the French government, some even going so far as to call for a declaration of war. The presi- dent leaned to the side of his party. He had no mind to declare war, but he recommended Congress to put the country in a state of defence, (March, 1798.) The recom- mendation was at once opposed by the republican leaders. According to Vice President Jefferson, indeed, the president was aiming at a dissolution of the Union or at the establish- ment of a monarchical government. But the federalists upheld the president, and carried a series of measures pro-^ 332 PART rv. 1797-1850. viding for the organization of a provisional army, as well as of a naval department, by which the existing navy might be more efficiently managed, (May.) Orders were issued, directing the national ships to seize all armed vessels engaged in hostile acts against American shipping ; while merchantmen were authorized to arm themselves, and cap- ture their assailants upon the seas. But to prevent hostili- ties, as far as possible, commercial intercourse with France and her colonies was formally prohibited, (June.) Soon after, Washington was appointed to the command of the provisional army, (July.) The United States were fairly in arms. War followed at sea. No declaration was made ; War. the most that was done benig to proclann the trea- ties with France void, and then to authorize the president to send out national and to commission private vessels for the purpose of capturing any armed ships of the French, whether participating or not in hostilities, (July.) The seas were at once overrun with American ships, by which the French privateers were taken or driven from the coast. No actual engagement between national vessels, however, occurred, until the beginning of the following year, when Commander Truxtun, in the Constellation, forced the French frigate LTnsurgente to strike, (February, 1799.) Hostili- ties were continued chiefly by privateers, the profits to whose owners were the principal results of the war. Still it pleased the party by whom it was favored. " A glorious and triumphant Avar it was ! " exclaimed Adams, in after years. " The proud pavilion of France was humiliated." „^ . But a<>;ainst the deeds of battle must be set the strain ^ upon the measures of government. These alone show the strain upon the nation. To provide ways and means, stamp duties and taxes on houses and slaves were voted, besides the loans that were procured. To keep down party FOREIGN AGGRESSIONS. 333 opposition, alien and sedition acts, as they were called, were passed. The first authorized the president to banish all aliens suspected of conspiracy against the United States. This was more of a party manoeuvre than appears on the face of it ; inasmuch as many of the most ardent spirits of the republicans, especially the democratic republicans, were aliens. The sedition act denounced fine and imprisonment upon all conspiracies, and even all publications, " with intent to excite any unlawful combination for opposing or resisting any law of the United States, or any lawful act of the president." Both these acts, however, were to be but temporary.* It was at midsummer that party spirit rose so high as to demand and to enact these urgent laws, (June — July, 1798.) The alien act was never put in operation. But the sedition act was again and again enforced, and almost, if not altogether invariably, upon party grounds. It may safely be said that the nation was straining itself too far. Nuiiifi- So thought the party opposing the administration cation, f^i-jd ^}jg yxiXY. Strongest in the south and in the west, the rei3ublican leaders threw down the gauntlet to their opponents, nay, even to their rulers. The legislature of Kentucky, in resolutions drawn up for that body by no less a person than Vice President Jefferson, declared the alien and sedition laws " not law, but altogether void and of no force," (November, 1798.) The note thus sounded was taken up in the Virginia legislature, v/hose resolutions, draughted by James Madison, declared the obnoxious laws "palpable and alarming infractions of the Constitution," (December.) Both sets of resolutions, as they came from the hands of their framers, were stronger still. Jefferson * The alien to be in force for two years, the sedition until March 4, 1801, the end of Adams's administration. 334 PART IV. 1797-1850. had written, " ^Yliere powers are assumed which have not been delegated, a nulUfication of the act is the right rem- edy, and every state has a natural right, in cases not within the compact, [the Constitution,] to nullify of their own authority all assumptions of power by others within their limits." Madison, after stating " that in case of a deliber- ate, palpable, and dangerous exercise of other powers not granted by the compact, the states, who are the parties thereto, have the right, and are in duty bound, to inter- pose for correcting the progress of the evil, and for main- taining within their respective limits the authorities, rights, and liberties appertaining to them," had made his resolu- tions declare the acts in question " null, void, and of no force or effect." But it was an early day for nullification ; and neither Kentucky nor Virginia went the length pre- scribed for them. They went far enough, as has been seen, to excite very general opposition from their sister states, especially those of the centre and the north, where legisla- ture after legislature came out with strong and denuncia- tory denials of the right of any state to sit in judgment upon the national government. Thin2:s were in this seethino; state, the factions on Another *^ . mission to both sides being at the height of their passions, France, ^^lew the president nominated a minister to France in the person of William Van Murray, to whom he after- wards joined Oliver Ellsworth, then chief justice, and Wil- liam E. Davie, as colleagues, (February, 1799.) The reason assigned for a fresh attempt at negotiation was the assurance that had been received through Van Murray, then minister at the Hague, of the willingness of the French government to treat with a new mission. The instructions subsequently drawn up for the three envoys directed them to pursue a more decided course than had been enjoined upon their predecessors ; they were to insist upon redress \ FOREIGN AGGRESSIONS. 335 for the decrees and the captures of the French ; yet, unless received on their arrival at Paris, they were not to linger, but to demand their passports and abandon the mission. Li all tliis, one finds it difficult to detect any thing unworthy of the nation. But the din upon the nomination of the em- bassy was tremendous. All the more active federalists, conspicuous amongst whom were the principal members of the cabinet, Timothy Pickering and Oliver Wolcott, cried out against the treachery of the president. It was treach- ery against their party rather than against their country, even in their own eyes ; but they were blinded by the polit- ical animosity that dazzled and bewildered almost all around them. The president himself was suspected of urg- ing the mission, in some degree, out of spite against the fed- eral party, by whom, or by vrhose extreme members, he considered himself badly used. " The British faction," he wrote afterwards, " was determined to have a war with France, and Alexander Hamilton at the head of the army, and then president of the United States. Peace with France was therefore treason." "This transaction," he exclaimed in relation to the appointment of a new mission, " must be transmitted to posterity as the most disinterested, prudent, and successful conduct in my whole life ! " Death of '^^ ^^^® closc of the year — it was also the close Washing- of the ccntury which he adorned — Washington died, (December 14, 1799.) His retirement, to which he had looked forward so longingly, had been dis- turbed. He had been greatly occupied with the organiza- tion of the pro\dsional army, of which he had been appointed chief — the last of his many services to his country. He had been still more harassed by the party passions of the time ; himself inclined to the support of federalist prin- ciples, he had been to some degree drawn into the whirl of political movements. Perhaps it was not too soon for his 336 PAKT IV. 1797-1850. peace or for his fame that he was taken away. Beside his grave his countrymen stood united for an instant ; then returned to their divisions and their strifes. His memory continued to plead, and not unavaiHugly, for love of country and of countrymen. ^•^g The envoys to France reached their destination French in the beginning of the following year, (1800.) They found Napoleon Bonaparte first consul. With his government, after some difficulty, they concluded a con- vention, jDroviding in part for mutual redress, but leaving many of the questions between the two nations for future settlement, (October.) When brought before the Senate of the United States, the convention was modified by can- cellmg the provision for additional negotiations. This was assented to in France, on condition that the claims for indemnities on either side should be abandoned. The effect was soon seen in claims for French spoliations pre- sented to the government of the United States. But the treaty sufficed to restore peace. Difficui- France was not the only foreign power with ties with wliich there had been difficulties. Spain, aggrieved, ^^^^' as she professed herself to be, by the same British treaty that had offended France, regarded the United States not only as an unimportant but as an untrustworthy ally. The former troubles in connection with the Florida terri- tory continued, especially uf)on the subject of a boundary between it and the United States. New troubles, too, arose. Vague projects to get possession of the Mississippi valley, by dint of intrigue amongst the western settlers, were ascribed, and not ^vithout reason, to the Spaniards. Thus, on both sides there were suspicions, on both con- tentions. The country at which Spain appeared to be aiming was rapidly organized by the United States. The Mississippi FOREIGN AGGRESSIONS. 337 .i. . . . Territory was formed, includlnp; at first the lower Mississippi *' ' *^ Territory: part of the present Alabama and Mississippi, under^de- (1798.) This organization excited a debate con- i>*t^- cerning slavery, which, as the organizing act pro- vided, was not to be prohibited in the territory. Here was no such plea as had existed in the case of the Territory South of the Ohio. No cession from a state, no conditions laid any restraint upon Congress. Yet but twelve votes were given in favor of an amendment proposed by George Thacher, of Massachusetts, prohibiting the introduction of slavery into the territory. The most that Congress would agree to, was to forbid the importation of slaves from abroad ; a concession, inasmuch as the slave trade, it will be remembered, was still allowed by the Constitution. So, for the second time, and this time without its being required by terms with any state,* the decision of the national gov- ernment was given in favor of slavery. Let it be borne in mind, when we come to the controversies of later years. But Congi'ess took the other side, likewise. The Territory of Indiana: western portion of the North-west Territory soon slavery needed to be set off as the Territory of Indiana, again. _ -^ embracing the present Indiana, Illinois, and Michi- gan, (1800.) There slavery was already prohibited. But this went against the interests of the mhabitants, as they thought, and they petitioned Congress, within three and again within seven years after the organization of the terri- tory, to be allowed to introduce slaves amongst them. Once a committee of Congress reported adversely ; but twice a report was made in favor of the petition. Reports and * The part of the territory at this time organized was claimed by the United States as a portion of the old Florida domain. Georgia likewise claimed it as hers ; and when she surrendered what was allowed to be hers, that is, the upper part of the present Alabama and Mississippi, she made it a condition that slavery should not be prohibited, (1802.) 29 338 PART IV. 1797-1850. petitions, however, were alike fruitless. Congress would not authorize slavery where it had been prohibited. War ^vith JefFerson's administration opened with fresh ag- Tiipoii. gressions from abroad. The Bey of Tripoli — a treaty with whom had been purchased under Washington's administration — now declared war, undoubtedly for the purpose of exacting larger tribute, (1801.) The war con- tinued for four years, with many gallant actions on the part of the American navy, but without any important results. Peace was made, with an exchange of f)risoners, and, as the American prisoners were more numerous, with a ransom to the Tripolitan goveniment, (1805.) Much nearer home were the continued difhculties Acqtiisi- tionof with Spain. The Spanish transfer to France of Louisiana. -|- • • J.^ j. -i i n ^ • J.^ JLouisiana — the vast and undenned region on the west of the Mississippi — aggravated the inflamed relations between Spain and the United States, (1800.) It was while the province was still held by the Si^anish authorities, that the Americans were excluded from New Orleans as a depot for the commerce of their western country, (1802.) Apprehensions were felt that the west itself was again in danger, and not merely from the designs of Spain, but still more from those of France. A proposal for seizing New Orleans was brought up in the United States Senate ; but it was determined to intrust the matter to the executive. The plan was to purchase that portion of Louisiana wliich included New Orleans, together, perhaps, with a part or the w^hole of the Floridas, then supposed to be included in the Spanish cession. But the envoys to France — Robert K. Livingston and James Monroe — finding the French gov- ernment disposed to part with the whole of their recent acquisition, decided to take it all for fifteen millions of dol- lars, one quarter of the sum to be paid to American suffer- ers by French spohations, (April 30, 1803.) FOREIGN AGGRESSIONS. 339 Spain protested against the transaction immedi- abroad atelj, and subsequently took up arms to maintain and at jj^r boundaries, threatened, as she considered, by home. . the Americans both on the side of Florida and on that of Mexico. The United States would have ended the disputes about Florida by purchasing that province; but Spain refused to part with it, and the two nations continued on uncertain terms for many years. Far more alarming were the controversies excited by the acquisition of Louisi- ana within the United States themselves. The republican chief magistrate, with his theories of a hmited general gov- ernment, had made use of a power far beyond any claimed by the federahsts for his predecessors. Jefferson himself allowed it to be "an act beyond the Constitution," and hinted at " an act of indemnity," that is, a constitutional amendment to authorize his proceedings. The Senate ratified the purchase, (October 20.) But loud and angry was the clamor of the opposition, although the opposition, had they been true to their professions, should have been the first to applaud a measure so much after their own sys- tem. The party bitterness of the time is almost incredible. Not content with the old divisions, men entered into new ones ; the dominant party, the republican, being divided and subdivided. Nor were partisans satisfied with speak- ing, writing, or acting against one another ; they shot down their antagonists in duels and murderous affrays. It was amidst these troubles abroad and at home, while Spain was excited, and the parties of the United States inflamed, that the acquisition of Louisiana was completed. The possession of the Mississippi to its mouth, involved ^^^ ^^^® Consequent security of the western terri- intheac- tory, wcre the principal points insisted upon by quisition. .^ those who supported the acquisition. With those who opposed it, the enlargement of territory and the viola- 340 PART IV. 1797-1850. tion of the Constitution were the great arguments. Neither party laid much if any stress upon the point which we of the present day can see to have been the chief one involved in the whole transaction. This was the extension of sla- very, not, as in the cases previously noticed, by the organi- zation of the national territory, but by the annexation of a foreign region already containing upwards of fifty thousand slaves, and open, of course, to fifty times as many in the progress of years. Of what depended upon this we shall see more hereafter. The immense region thus acquired was divided tion of i^^to two portions, (1804.) The southern, in which Louisiana r^u i\^q Settlements of any importance were included, territories. was called the Territory of Orleans. It compre- hended the present State of Louisiana, but with very indefi- nite boundaries on the west. North of this lay the District of Louisiana, embracing the present Arkansas and Mis- souri, with as much more as could be brought within its elastic limits on the north and west, its principal settlement being St. Louis. This district was made a part of the same jurisdiction with the Lidiana Territory, from which, how- ever, it was- soon detached, (1805.) At the same time, the provisions for the Territory of Orleans, complained of by some of the inhabitants, were rendered more liberal. The terms of the treaty concluding the purchase had been these : " The inhabitants of the ceded territory shall be incori)o- rated in the Union of the United States, and admitted as soon as possible, according to the principles of the federal Constitution, to the enjoyment of all the rights, advantages, and immunities of citizens of the United States ; and in the mean time shall be maintained and protected in the free enjoyment of their liberty, property, and the religion which they profess." Treaties of this kind were not every-day occurrences with Napoleon. FOREIGN AGGRESSIONS. 341 The new State of Ohio was already admitted to rrLrthe Union, (November 29, 1802.) New territo- ami state ^.^g__j^.^l^.g^n (1805) and lUmois (180 J) — tSs""" were subsequently formed from out of the Indiana Territory. The signs of expansion wefe written every where, but nowhere so strikingly as along the western ^ ^''^^* There they were such as to kindle projects of a p.7ects. new empire. Aaron Burr, vice president during Jefferson's first term, but displaced in the second term by Geor<^e Clinton, (1805,) - branded, too, with the recent murder of Alexander Hamilton in a duel, — was generally avoided amongst his old associates. Turning his face west- ward, he there drew into his net various men, some of posi- tion and some of obscurity, with whose aid he seems to have intended making himself master of the Mississippi vaUey, or of Mexico, one or both, (1806.) Whatever his schemes were they miscarried. A handful only of foUowers were gathered round him on the banks of the Mississippi, a hundred miles or more above New Orleans, when he sur- rendered himself to the government of the Mississippi Ter- ritory, (January, 1807.) Some months afterwards he was brou-ht to trial for high treason before Chief Justice Mar- shall° of the Supreme Court, with whom sat the district iud-e for Virginia; the reason for trying Burr in that state being the fact that one of the places where he was charged with having organized a military expedition was withm the Virginian limits. The trial, like every thing else m those days, was made a party question; the administration and its supporters going strongly against Burr, while its opponents were disposed to take his part. He was acquit- ted for want of proof; and for the same reason he was again acquitted when tried for undertaking to invade the Spanish territories. 29^^ 342 PART IV. 1797-1850 Frowning high above all these domestic events ties with werc tlio aggressions from abroad. If they sank in Great one direction, they seemed sure to rise the more Britain. • i • -i t ^ r> threatenmgly m another. It was now the turn ot Great Britain. That state, however, had never ceased to make such use or abuse of its strength as it pleased — not even after the treaty under Washington's administration ; the treaty, as formerly mentioned, having left many matters of controversy undecided. The system of impressment, for instance, though protested against by the United States, had never been renounced by Great Britain. On the con- trary, it had been extended even to the American navy, of which the vessels were once and again plundered of their seamen by British men-of-war. Another subject on which Great Britain set herself against the claims of the United States, was the neutral trade, of which the latter nation en- grossed a large and constantly increasing share during the European wars. After various attempts to discourage American commerce with her enemies. Great Britain un- dertook to put it down by condemning vessels of the United States on the ground that their cargoes were not neutral but belligerent property ; in other words, that the Ameri- cans transported goods which were not their own, but those of nations at war with Great Britain. It must be allowed that the American shippers played a close game, importing merchandise only to get a neutral name for it, and then ex- porting it to the country to which it could not be shipped directly from its place of origin. But the sharper the prac- tice, the more of a flworite it seemed to be. A cry went up from all the commercial towns of the United States, ap- pealing to the government for protection, (1805.) Government could do but little. It passed a law Mission. ... . . . . prohibiting the importation of certain articles from Great Britain ; the prohibition, however, not to take immor FOREIGN AGGRESSIONS. 343 diate effect. This, it was thouglit, would so far intimidate the British authorities as to produce a suspension of their high-handed proceedings. At the same time, a mission, consisting of James Monroe and William Pinkney, was sent to London, to negotiate a new treaty, in which the dis- puted points should be included, (April, 1806.) " I hope," wrote Jefferson to Monroe, " that the ministry will come to just arrangements. No two countries upon earth have so many points of common interest and friendship ; and their rulers must be bunglers indeed, if ^\'ith such dispositions they break them asunder." But the mission proved a total failure. In the first place, the envoys could obtain no sat- isfaction on the subject of impressment, and next to none on that of the neutral trade. In the next place, the treaty which they signed, notwithstanding these omissions, was at once rejected by President Jefferson, without even a refer- ence to the Senate, (March, 1807.) The tumult of party that ensued was immense. The president was charged with sacrificing the best interests of the country, as well as with violating the plainest provisions of the Constitution. Was it he alone who held the treaty-making power, — he, too, the republican, who had insisted upon restraining the powers of the executive? But looking back upon the action of Jef- ferson, we see little in it to have provoked such outcries. He sent envoys to form a new treaty ; they had merely reformed an old one. It might be rash to sacrifice the ad- vantages which they had gained ; but might it not be igno- minious to surrender the claims which they had passed by ? , ^ . ^ If the nation needed to be convinced of the neces- Affair of the chesa- sity of somc definite understanding w^ith Great Brit- pea.ce. ^.^ ^^ ^|^^ subjccts Omitted in the rejected treaty,*it soon had an opportunity. The American frigate Chesa- peake, sailing from Hampton Roads, was hailed off the capes of Chesapeake Bay by the British frigate Leopard, S44: PART IV. 1797-1850. the captain of wliicli demanded to search the Chesapeake for deserters from the service of Great Britain. Captain Barron, the commander of the Chesapeake, refused ; whereupon the Leopard opened fire. As Barron and his crew were totally unprepared for action, they fired but a single gun, to save their honor, then, having lost several men, struck tlieir flag. The British commander took those of whom he was in search, three of the four being Ameri- cans, and left the Chesapeake to make her way back dishonored, and the nation to which she belonged dishon- ored likewise, (June 22, 1807.) The president issued a proclamation, ordering British men-of-war from the waters of the United States. Instructions were sent to the envoys at London, directing them, not merely to seek reparation for the wrong that had been done, but to obtain the renun- ciation of the pretensions to a right of search and of im- pressment, from which the wrong had sprung. The British government recognized their responsibihty, by sending a special minister to settle the difficulty at Washington. It was four years, however, before the desired reparation was procured, (1811.) Tlie desired renunciation was never made. One can scarcely credit his eyes, when he reads that the affliir of the Chesapeake was made a party point. But so it was. The friends of Great Britain, the capitalists and commercial classes, generally, murmured at the course of their government, as too. decided, too French, they some- times called it ; as if the slightest resistance to Great Britain were subordination to France. Aspect of The aspect of the two nations was very much Great changed of late years. Bonaparte, the consul of a* the French republic, had become Napoleon, the France, cmpcror of the French empire. Regarded by his enemies as a monster steeped in despotism and in blood, he excited abhorrence, not only for himself, but for his nation, FOREIGN AGGRESSIONS. 345 amongst a large portion of the Americans. On the other hand, Great Britain, formerly scouted at as the opponent of liberty, was now generally considered its champion in Europe. There was but a faint comprehension of the prin- ciples involved in the struggle between Great Britain and France, of the real attitude taken by the former in warring against the chosen sovereign of the latter, or of the remorse- less ambition by which the one government was quite as much actuated as the other. But there was still a very considerable number in America to sympathize with France, if with either of the contending powers. To these men, the aggressions of Great Britain were intolerable ; while to the supporters of the British, the French||aggressions were far the more unendurable. British Botli parties had their fill. Before the attack and Qjj ^^Q Chesapeake, the lists had been opened aggres- between France and England, to see, not merely ^lo'is- iiow much harm they could do to each otlier, but how much they could inflict upon all allied or connected with each other. Connected with both were the Americans, who were now assailed by both. Great Britain led off by declaring the French ports, from Brest to the Elbe, closed to American as to all other shipping, (May 16, 1806.) France retorted by the Berlin decree, so called because issued from Prussia, prohibiting any commerce v/ith Great Britain, (November 21.) That power immediately forbade the coasting trade between one port and another in the possession of her enemies, (January 7, 1807.) Not satis- fied with this, she went on to forbid all trade whatsoever with France and her alHes, except on payment of a tribute to Great Britain, each vessel to pay in proportion to its cargo, (November 11.) Then followed the Milan decree of Napoleon, prohibiting all trade v^^hatsoever with Great Britain, and declaring such vessels as paid the recently S4G PART IV. 1707-lGoO. demanded tribute to be lawful prizes to the French marine, (December 17.) Such was the series of acts thundering like broadsides against the interests of America. It trans- formed commerce from a peaceful pursuit into a warlike one — full of peril, of loss, of strife. It did more. It wounded the national honor, by attempting to prostrate the United States at the mercy of the European powers. The ad- Tlicrc was but one of tw'O courses for the United minit'tra- States to take — ■ peace or preparation for -war. against War itsclf was impossible in the unprovided state '"^^' of the country ; but to assume a defensive, and if need were, to get ready for an oitensive position, was per- fectly practicably. Jefferson thought it enough to order an Pvdditional number of gunboats — very different from the gunboats of our time, and yet considered by the administra- tion and its supporters to constitute a navy by themselves. The president did not favor any thing that looked like war. He had come into office Avith denunciations of the proceed- ings of the Adams administration against France ; nor did the circumstances in which the nation was now situated smooth the way to hostilities with any foreign power. " In the present maniac state of Europe," Ite wrote a little later, " I should not estimate the point of honor by the ordinary scale. I believe we shall, on the contrary, have credit with the world for having made the avoidance of being engaged in the present unexampled war our first object. Yiav, how- ever, may become a less losing business than unresisted depredation." There remained the alternative of peace. To preserve it, the president hit upon the most self-denying of plans. The aggressions of the Euro- pean powers were directed against the commerce of Amer- ica, the rights of owners and of crews. That these miglit be secured, the president recommended, and Congress adopted, an embargo upon all United States vessels, and FOREIGN AGGHSSSIONS. 347, upon all foreign vessels with cargoes slilpped after tlie passage of the act in United States ports, (December 22, 1807.) * In other words, as commerce led to injuries from foreign nations, commerce was to be abandoned. There was also the idea that the foreign nations themselves would suffer from the loss of American supplies and American prizes. It was a singular way, one must allow, of preserv- ing peace, to adopt a measure at once provoldng to the stranger, and destructive to the citizen. The latter eluded it, and it was again and again enforced by severe and even arbitrary statutes. The former laughed it to scorn. France, on whose side the violent federalists declared the embargo to be, answered by a decree of Napoleon's from Bayonne, ordering the confiscation of all American vessels in French ports, (April 17, 1808.) Great Britain soon after made her response, by an order prohibiting the exportation of American produce, whether paying tribute or not, to the EurojDean continent, (December 21.) So ineffective abroad, so productive of discontent at home, even amongst the sup- porters of the administration, did the embargo prove, that it was repealed, (March, 1809.) Succeed- Thus neither preserving peace nor preparing ing acts, f^^ ^^^^ Jeffcrsou gavc up the conduct of affairs to his successor, Madison, who kept on the same course. In place of the embargo were non-intercourse or non-importa- tion acts in relation to Great Britain and France, as restric- tive as the embargo, so far as the designated nations were concerned, but leaving free the trade with other countries. These successors of the embargo, however, were nowise more effectual than that had been. They were reviled and violated in America ; they were contemned in Europe, * The date shows that the embargo was laid before the news of the last \-iolent decrees of France and Great Britain. n 348 PART IV. 1797-1850. The administration amused itself with suspending the restrictions, now in favor of Great Britain, (1809,) and now in favor of France, (1810.) hoping to induce those j)owers to reciprocate the compliment by a suspension of their own aggressive orders. There was a show of doing so. Napoleon had recently issued a decree from Rambouil- let, ordering; the sale of more than a hundred American vessels as condemned prizes, (March 23, 1810.) But on the news from America, willing to involve the young nation in hostilities with C4reat Britain, he intimated his readiness to retract the decrees of which the United States com- plained. But he would not do so, he made known, except on one of two conditions ; either the British orders must be recalled, or else, in case of their not being recalled, the claims of the United States must be enforced against them. To all this. Great Britain replied, that when the French decrees were actually, and not conditionally, revoked, her orders should be revoked likewise. It was but a mockery on both sides ; and America, mortified, but not yet enlight- ened, returned to her prohibitions. They were scoffed at by her own people. Oppo- It. is not so difficult to describe as to conceive the sition. i^yg ^y^([ QYj^ ^^ ^|^g ^c^j,^ ^f ^i^q opposition, against the embargo and the subsequent acts. Whatever discon- tent, whatever nullification had been expressed by the republicans against the war measures of Adams, was rivalled, if not outrivalled by the federalists against the so-called peace measures of Jefferson and Madison. Town meetings, state legislatures, even the courts in some places, declared against the constitutionality and the validity of the embargo statutes. The federalists of Massachusetts were charged with the design of dissolving the Union. It w^as not their intention, but their language had warranted its being imputed to them. " Choose, then, fellow-citizens," FOREIGN AGGRESSIONS. 349 their legislature exclaimed, " between the condition of a free state, possessing its equal weight and influence in the general government, or that of a colony, free in name, but in fact enslaved by sister states." Indian While affairs, domestic and foreign, were thus bostiii- agitated, there came a fresh outbreak of Indian hostilities. It was under Jefferson that the plan of removing the Lidians to the west was begun, (1804.) Of this the main object was to secure the continuance of peace, it being at that time comparatively unimportant to extend the national domains. But it was this very plan, though as yet imperfectly developed, that led, at least in part, to renewed warfore. Two chiefs of the Shawanoes, Tecum- seh and his twin brother, styled the Prophet, for some time settled on the Tippecanoe River, in the Indiana Territory, had set themselves at the head of a sort of confederacy amongst the western races. But for the profane pretensions of the Prophet, and the unscrupulous intrigues of Tecum- seh, the principles of the league would have deserved success. One great point was the title of the Indians, as a whole, to the lands of which the wliites were getting possession, by bargains with individuals or with individual tribes. Another was the prohibition of the ardent spirits with which the traders w^ere destroying the Indians, body and soul. But to support these principles, the confederates, or their leaders, relied upon treachery and terror, super- stition and blasphemy. The governor of Indiana Terri- tory, WilHam H. Harrison, marched against them with a force of a few hundred. Tecumseh was absent at the time, but his brother and his confederates were overtaken. To the last, they professed peace, then fell upon the camp of the Americans. They were expected, however, and were routed, (November 7, 1811.) The steel was ghstening upon the southern frontier. An 30 350 FART IV. 1797-1850. Louisi- insurrection against the Spanisli autliority in "West ana and Florida had been followed by a presidential procla- mation declaring the territoiy on the east bank of the Mississippi a portion of Louisiana, (October, 1810.) Soon after, (January, 1811,) Congress authorized the acquisition of the entire province of Florida, provided either that Si)ain consented to it, or that any other power attempted to take possession. Without any actual collision, the Spanish gar- risons and the American troops were too near one another to favor peace. It did not lessen the excitement in that quarter, when Louisiana, with a large portion of Florida, according to the Spanish claim, was admitted a state, (April 8, 1812.) The District of Louisiana in the north then took the name of Missouri. Another slice of Florida was annexed to the Mississippi Territory, while an insurrection within the remaining Florida limits was stimulated by an American functionary; a demonstration being made against St. Augustine. This was promptly disavowed by the gov- ernment at Washington ; but the troops from the states were not withdrawn until the following year, nor then entirely. Mobile being retained by w^ay of compensation for what was surrendered, (1813.) Li both the Florida and the Lidian difficulties, "Warlike . , , • prepara- British agcncy was suspected and inveighed agamst tions -^ ^YiQ excited Americans. The anorry feelinpjs against •^ c^ j o Great bctAvcen the two nations had received a further stimulus from an encounter of the American frigate President with the British sloop of w^ar Little Belt, in which the latter suffered severely ; the only reason alleged by either of the vessels for firing being an informality in hailing, (May, 1811.) It was plain that war was becoming popular in the United States. As for that, it had always been so ; when Washington opposed it, he was abused ; wdien Adams favored it, he was extolled ; when Jefferson FOREIGN AGGRESSIONS. 351 avoided it, lie risked even his immense influence over the nation. Congress now took up the question, and voted one measure after another, preparatory to hostihties with Great Britain, (December — March, 1812.) The president hesi- tated. He was no war leader by nature or by principle ; the only tendency in that direction came to him from party motives. His party, or the more active portion of it, was all for arms; when he doubted, they urged; when he inchned to draw back, they drove him forward. It being the time when the congressional caucus was about to nom- inate for the presidency, Madison received the intimation that if he was a candidate for reelection, he must come out for war. Whether it was to force or to his own free will that he yielded, he did yield, and sent a message to Con- gress, recommending an embargo of sixty days. Congress received it, according to its intention, as a preliminary to war, and voted it, though far from unanimously, for ninety days, (April 4, 1812.) It was the natural termination of the precedmg tionof strifes, continued nov/ for twenty years. What ^^g'"'^" Washington had been able to suppress, because he strifes. g|.(^Q(j ^^|3Qye mere party motives, that neither Adams, nor Jefferson, nor Madison had been able to meet. They yielded, more or less, but all in some degree, to party what they should have maintained for the nation. From the very beginning, when Adams held office, the result was war with France ; the result of the controversies under Jeffer- son and under Madison was war with Great Britain. Nor let it be set down as an exaggeration, that war should be thus attributed to party movements at home, rather than to the national aggressions from abroad. The latter, it is true, were the material upon which parties and administrations acted; but what would have become of the material, had 352 PART IV. 1797-1850. parties and administrations been at jicace ? "Would any foreign power have so assailed the nation, had it been united ? Or would it, if assailed, have borne its injuries so long, that there remained no alternative but arms ? It is an impressive lesson of the effects of disunion. CHAPTER II. War with Great Bhitain. Dcciara- A MESSAGE from tliG president called tlie atten- *^°"- tion of Congress to the relations with Great Britain and with France. The former power, violating all individ- * ual rights by its impressments, and all national ones by its blockades, its orders against neutrals, and its captures, was virtually at war Avith the United States. Nor could France be said to be at peace, while she continued her seizures of American vessels, notwithstanding the repeal of the decrees asrainst neutral commerce. With her, however, there was some hope of successful negotiation ; m fact, conferences were now going on at Paris. But with Great Britain, the message implied little prospect of coming to terms. Con- gress took up the subject. Motions to include France in the course proposed with respect to Great Britain -Wctq made, but lost. Against Great Britain, war was voted by Congress, (June 18,) and declared by tlie president, (June 19, 1812.) The United States went to war for two gi^eat of the principles ; one, the rights of neutrals, the * other, United ^j-^g riorlits of scamcu ; both involvino; the honor and States. _* ' ^ o the independence of the nation. To admit the necessity of the principles, however, is not to admit the necessity of the war as the means of sustaining them. France having again — and this time unconditionally — ■ repealed her aggressive decrees, Great Britain withdrew 30 * (353) 354 PAliT IV. 1797-1850. her arbitrary orders in council just as the war was declared, (June 23.) One of the chief grounds for'hostilities, there- fore, fell through. The other remained, but only, it was insisted by Great Britain, until the United States would take some measures to prevent British seamen from enlist- ing in the American service, Avliich being done, there would be no need of search or of impressment by the navy of Great Britain. This very thing was begun upon, though not until several months after the outbreak of war.* At the beginning, the American minister at London was in- structed to propose an armistice, on condition that the claims of impressment and of .neutral subjection were waived. The British government rejected the proposal, principally on the score of impressment, which they would not yield or even suspend during negotiation. For the reason that they would not do so, their proposals of an armistice, through their commanders in America, were rejected by the United States, (June — October.) AYe must fight, cried the war party, if it is only for our seamen ; six thousand of them are victims to these atrocious imj)ress- ments. The British government had admitted, the year before, that they had sixteen hundred Americans in their service. But your six thousand, retorted the advocates of peace, are not all your own ; there are foreigners, British subjects, amongst them ; and will you fight for these ? We will, was the reply — and here the sympathy of every generous heart must be theirs, so far as they were sincere — the stranger who comes to dwell or to toil amongst us is as much our own as if he were born in America. * A party ^^t the causc of the United States cannot be cause. gr^jj ^Q Imve been so broad or so noble as the * But the prohibition of foreign enlistments was made to depend upon certain conditions, which were not fulfilled. WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN. 355 protection of those who had sought an asylum in the land. It was not even the cause of the nation itself, to judge by the way in which it was maintained. It was what might have been expected from the movements leading to it — the cause of a party, nominally headed by Madison, the pres- ident, by James Monroe, the secretary of state, by Albert Gallatin, (the same who appeared in the Pennsylvania insur- rection of Washington's time,) the secretary of tlie treas- ury, and by others, officers or supporters of the administra- tion, both in and out of Congress ; but the real leaders of the war party were younger men, some risen to distinction, like Henry Clay, speaker of the House of Representatives, and John C. Calhoun, member of the same body, but many more aspiring to place in the council or in the camp, to place any where, so that there was an opening to the fame or to the emolument for which they variously yearned. As such The party support which the war received ex- opposed. plains the party opposition which it encountered. The signal, given by a protest from the federahst members of Congress, was caught up and repeated in public meetings and at private hearth-stones. Even the pulpit threw open its doors to political harangues, and those not of the mildest sort. " The alternative then is," exclaimed a clergyman at Boston, " that if you do not wish to become the slaves of those who own slaves, and who are themselves the slaves of French slaves, you must either, in the language of the day, cut the connection, or so far alter the national Constitution as to secure yourselves a due share in the government. The Union has long since been virtually dissolved, and it is full time that this portion of the United States should take care of itself" This single extract must stand here for a thousand others that might be cited. Coming from the source that it did, it is a striking illustration of the section- ality, nay, the personal vindictiveness, with which the oppo- o5G TART IV. 1797-1850. sition was animated. Strongest in New England, where alone the federalist party still retained its power, the hos- tility to the war spread through all parts of the country, gathering many of otherwise conflicting views around the banner that had so long been trailing in the dust. If we cannot sympathize with the party thus reviving, we need not join in the tumult raised against it on the score of treachery or dishonor. The federalists opposed the war, not because they were anti-national, but because they thought it anti-national. War at Tiic War began at home. The office of a federal- Lome, j^^ paper, the Federal Republican, conducted by Alexander Hanson, at Baltimore, was sacked by a mob, who then went on to attack dwellings, pillage vessels, and, finally, to fire the house of an individual suspected of par- tialities for Great Britain, (June 22, 23.) A month later, Hanson opened another office, and prepared to defend it, with the assistance of his friends, against the assault which he felt sure his boldness would provoke. The mob came, and, after a night of horror, forced the party in the office to yield themselves prisoners on a charge of murder. The next night the prison was assailed ; Hanson and his friends, excepting some who escaped, being beaten and tortured with indescribable fury. General Henry Lee, a revolu- tionary hero, who had taken the lead in the measures of defence, was injured for life. Another soldier of the revo- lution. General Lingan, was actually slain ; a fate which would have been shared by many, but for the exhaustion of the destroyers, (July 26, 27.) All this was done with nothing more than the show of interference on the part of the authorities. Even at the subsequent trial of the ring- leaders in the mob, they were acquitted. Hanson kept up his paper only by removing to Georgetown. Such being the passions, such the divisions internally, the WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN. 357 Means for nation needed more than the usual panoply to pro- thewar. ^^^^ j^self extemallj. But it had less. The col- onies of 1775 did not go to war more unprepared than the United States of 1812. There was no army to speak of. Generals abounded, it is true, Henry Dearborn, late secre- tary of war, being at the head of the list ; but troops were few and far between, some thousands of regulars and of volunteers constituting the entire force. As to the militia, there were grave differences to prevent its efficient employ- ment. In the first place, there was a general distrust of such bodies of troops. In the next place, there were local controversies, between certain of the state authorities and tJie general government, as to the power of the latter to call out the militia in the existing state of things.* If the army was inconsiderable, the navy was hardly perceptible, em- bracing only eight or ten frigates, as many more smaller vessels, and a flotilla of comparatively useless gunboats. The national finances were in a correspondingly low con- dition. The revenue, affected by the interruptions to com- merce durmg the preceding years, needed ail the stimulants which it could obtain, even in time of peace. It was wholly inadequate tathe exigencies of war. Accordingly, resort was had to loans, then to direct taxes and licenses, (1813.) But the ways and means fell far short of the demands upon them. In fine, whether we take a financial or a military point of view, we find the country equally unfitted for hos- tilities. It might rely, indeed, upon its own inherent ener- gies, the energies of six millions of freemen ; f but even these were distracted, and to a great degree paralyzed. * The Constitution autliorizing Congress " to provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions," t The census of 1810 gave a total of 7,239,814, of which 1,191,364 were slaves. 358 PART IV. 1797-18,50. Position Fortunate, therefore, was it that Great Britain of Great was occ'Lipicil, it may be said absorbed, in Europe. Her mighty struggle with Napoleon was at its height when the United States declared war. To British ears the declaration sounded much the same as tlie wail of a child amidst the contentions of men. Very little heed was paid to it, the retraction of the orders in council being con- sidered as likely to end it altogether. But to the astonish- ment of the British government the Americans persisted. Let them wait, was the tone, until Bonaparte is crushed, and they shall have their turn. The charge fell again and agahi upon the United Of France. „ , . . . p . , . ibtates admmistration, trom its opponents, that it was entering into war as the ally, or rather as the minion, of France. The charge was unfounded. Even had it been intended by the war party to go to the aid of Napoleon, they would have been stopped, partly by his utter indiifer- ence at the time, and partly by his declining fortunes m the months that ensued. He and liis nation had no mind to look beyond their own vicissitudes. _, Notwithstandinsj tlie almost entire want of means, Tlie war. o j Losses on the United States government determined to carry western ^^^^ ^ar into tlic cncmy's country. For this purpose, frontier. "VYiHiam Hull, general and governor of Michigan Territory, crossed from Detroit to Sandwich, in Canada, with about two thousand men, (July 12.) In a little more than a month, he had not only retreated, but surrendered, without a blow, to General Brock, the governor of Lower Canada, (August IG.) The British, already in possession of the northern part of Michigan, were soon masters of the entire territory. So far from being able to recover it. General Harrison, who made the attempt in the ensuing autumn and winter, found it all he could do to save Ohio from fall- ing with Michigan. A detachment of Kentuckians yielded WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN. 359 to a superior force of Britisli at FrencMown, on the Eiver Eaisin, (January, 1813 ;) whereupon Han-ison took pos by the Maumee,at Fort Meigs, holding out ^-e against the British and their Indian allies, (April, May.) The same fort was again assailed and again defended General Clay bein- at that time in command, (July.) Fort Steven- Snf on th: Sandusky, was then attacked, hut ^ef^^^ed with .reat spirit and success by a small gamson under Major Croghan, (August.) Tet Ohio was still in danger. It was rescued by different operations from those ^Sjonas yet described. Captain Chauncey, afler gather- ^»''« "^""-in- a little fleet on Lake Ontario, where he achieved some successes, appointed Lieutenant Oliver H. Perry to the command on Lake Erie. Perry's first duty was to pro- vide a fleet ; his next, to lead it, when provided, against he British vessels under Captain Barclay. At length the squadrons met oif Sandusky, the British to suffer total de- feat, the Americans to win complete victory, (September 10 1813.) It was in more than official language that the president communicated this .achievement to Congress. " The conduct of Captain Perry," he said, " adroit as it was darin.., and which was so well seconded by his comrades, iustl/entitles them to the admiration and gratitude of their country, and will fill an early page in its naval annals with a victory never surpassed in lustre, however much ,t may have been in magnitude." It was a victory on a small scale Yet its importance immediately appeared, iakmg on board a body of troops from Ohio and Kentucky, under Ilprri'^on, Perry transported them to the neighborhood ot Sandwich, on the Canada shore, the same spot against which Hull had marched more than a twelvemonth before. The British having retired, Harrison crossed to Detroit. Recro^sing, he advanced in pursuit of the much less numer- ous enemy, whose rear and whose main body were routed 360 PART IV. 1797-1850. on two successive clays, (October 4, 5.) The latter action, on the bank of the Thames, was decisive ; the British Gen- eral Proctor mailing his escape with but a small portion of his troops, while his Indian ally, Tecumseh, was slain. Ohio was thus saved, and Michigan recovered ; though not entirely, the British still holding the northern extremity of the territory. All along the frontier between New York and ou New Canada, there had been from the first some scat- ^'^^'^ tered forces, both American and British. The frontier. ■ ^^ . former pretended to act on the offensive, but amidst continual failures. Chief of these movements without inter- est and without result, was an attack against Queenstown, on the Canada shore of the Nia2:ara River. Advanced parties gained possession of a battery on the bank, but there they were checked, and at length obliged to surrender, for want of support from their comrades on the American side. General Van Rensselaer was the American, General Brock the British commander; tlie latter fidling in battle, the former resigning in disgust after the battle was over, (Octo- ber 13, 1812.) In the following spring. General Dearborn and the land troops, in conjunction with Chauncey and the fleet, took York, (now Toronto,) the capital of Upper Can- ada, burning the Parliament House, and then proceeding successfully against the forts on the Niagara River, (April, May, 1813.) At this point, however, affairs took an unfa- vorable turn. The British mustered strong, and, though repulsed from Sackett's Harbor by General Brown, at the head of some regular troops and volunteers, they obtained the command of the lake, making descents in various places, and reducing the American forces, both land and naval, to comparative inactivity, (June.) Months afterwards, the land forces, now under the lead of General Wilkinson, Started on a long-pro^^osed expedition against Montreal; n WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN. 361 but encountering resistance on the way down the St. Law- rence, went straight into winter quarters within the New York frontier. A body of troops under General Hampton, moving in the same direction from Lake Champlain, met with a feint of opposition, rather than opposition itself, from the British ; it was sufficient, however, to induce a retreat, (November.) Both these armies far outnumbered the enemy, Wilkinson having seventy-five hundred, and Hamp- ton forty-five hundred men under them. On the western border of New York, things went still worse. General M'Clure, left in chai-ge of the Niagara frontier, was so weakened by the loss of men at the expiration of their terms of service, and at the same time so pressed by the enemy, as to abandon the Canada shore, leaving behind him the ruins of Fort George and of the village of Newark. The destruction thus wreaked by orders of the government was avenged upon the New York borders. Parties of Brit- ish and Indians, crossing the frontier at different places, took Fort Niagara, at the mouth of the river, and swept the adjacent country with fire and sword as far as Buffalo, (December.) Glutted with success, the invaders retired, save from Fort Niagara, which they held until the end of the war. In the following spring, (March, 1814,) General Wilkinson emerged from his retreat, and, with a portion of his troops, undertook to carry the approaches to Canada from the side of Lake Champlain. But on coming up with a stone mill held by British troops, he abruptly withdrew. A more helpless group than that of the Americans, wheth- er commanders, officers, or soldiers, on the New York frontier, cannot well be conceived. There were exceptions, of course, as in the fleets of Ontario, and especially of Erie ; but on shore there was almost unbroken imbecility. The secretary of war himself. General Armstrong, had been upon the ground ; he but confirmed the rule. 31 362 PART IV. 1797-1850. Cn Niagara As the war, tlius pitiably prosecuted, entered ion lor. .^^^ .^^ third year, (1814,) a concentration of efforts, both American and British, took place upon the Niagara frontier. General Brown, the defender of Sack- ett's Harbor, obtaining the command, and with such supporters as General Scott and other gallant officers, resolved upon crossing to the Canada side. There, with an army of some thirty-five hundred men, he took Fort Erie, (July 2,) gained the battle of Chippewa, (July 5,) and drove the enemy, under General Hiall, from the fron- tier, save from a single stronghold. Fort George. The British, however, on being reenforced, returned under Gen- erals Riall and Drummond, and met the Americans at Bridgewater — the most of an action that had as yet been fought during the war. It was Avithin the roar of Niagara that the opposing lines crossed their swords and opened their batteries. Begun by Scott, in advance of the main body, which soon came up under Brown, the battle was continued untif midnight, to the advantage of the American army, (July 25.) But they were unable to follow up or even to maintain their success, and fell back upon Fort Erie. Thither the British proceeded, and after a night assault, laid siege to the place, then under the command of General Gaines. As soon as Brown, who had Avithdrawn to recover from his wounds, resumed his command at the fort, he at once ordered a sortie, the result being the raising of the siege, (September 17.) He was soon after called away to defend Sackett's Harbor, the enemy having the upper hand on the lake. His successor in command on the Niagara frontier, General Izard, blew up Fort Erie, and abandoned the Canada shore, (November.) Meanwhile the American arms had distinguished them- selves on the side of Lake Champlain. Thither descended the British General Prevost with tv/elve thousand soldiers, WAR YvT:Tn GREAT BRITAIN. 363 lately arrived from Europe, his object being to of LaS carry the American works at Plattsburg, and to Cham- drive the American vessels from the waters. He ^^^'''' was totally unsuccessful. Captain McDonough, after long ex • i ment m the midst oi armed men at 1 rovidence, while at Newport Governor King, surrounded by the con- stituted authorities, renewed his summons for assistance from the nation. United States troops were moved to Newport, (May.) On the 18th of the same month, Dorr, at the head of an armed force, made an ineffectual attempt to get possession of tlie Providence arsenal, defended as it V\^as by braver men than he or his soldiers. At this, ail the better men of his faction, including most of his legis- lature and state ofiicers, abandoned his cause, while he fled tlie state. But it was only more decisively to try his for- tunes ill the field. A month had hardly passed when news came that Dorr, with two or three hundred followers, was throwing up intrenchments at Chepachet, a village about ten miles from Providence. It took but a week for three thousand volunteers to come together and march against the ANNEXATION OF TEXAS. 425 post of the insurgents, which was found abandoned. There ended the civil war, (June 27.) Three months later a con- vention of the state adopted a new constitution, providing for the reforms which Dorr and his party had sought through sedition and strife, (September.*) Other states were organizing themselves more states peaceably. Arkansas, the first state admitted since andterri- Missouri, (Junc 15, 1836,) was followed by Michi- toriGS gan, (January 26, 1837.) Wisconsin, organized as a single territory, (1836,) was presently divided as Wiscon- sin and Iowa, (1838.) Then Iowa was admitted a state, (March 3, 1845,t) and at the same date Florida became a member of the Union. All the while, Texas remained the object of desire ments ^^^ ^^ debate. The administration continued its concern, negotiations, now with Mexico, deprecating the con- ' tinuance of hostilities with Texas, and then again with Texas itself, proposing new motives of alliance and new means of annexation with the United States. Presi- dent Tyler was strongly in favor of consummating the annexation. In this he was supported by a stronger and stronger inclination to the same end on the part of the south. But the north was growing more and more adverse to the plan. The old arguments were mingled with new ones. A great deal of stress was now laid on the danger of Texas throwing itself into the arms of another nation, of Great Britain, for instance, or of France ; the idea being that the United States would suffer from having upon their frontier a state in foreign dependence. But the main dispute as to Texas came from the question of slavery. * Accepted in November, and put in operation in the following May, (1843.) It was similar in its provisions to the Landholder's Constitution of a few months before. t Again in 1846, but not actually entering until 1848. 36* 426 TART IV. 1797-1850. Question " Fcw Calamities," wrote Abel P. Upshur, then of slavery, secretary of state, "could befall this country more to be deplored than the abolition of domestic slavery in Texas," (September, 1843.) Some months later, he wrote to Texas to the effect that she could not possibly keep up slavery without the aid of the United States, (January, 1844.) All this was based upon the supposition that Eng- land was endeavoring to get Texas under her control, and then to clear the state of its slaves. It was afterwards stated by no less an authority than General Houston, that the supposition was totally groundless. But, however this may have been, the point is plain that the annexation of Texas was regarded as necessary to the interests of slavery, both in that country and in the United States. The reason why it was so with the United States is ' evident enough ; not only was an immense market for slaves closed, but an immense refuge for slaves was opened, in case Texas should cease to be slaveholding. "Annexation," wrote John C. Calhoun, then secretary of state, " was forced on the government of the United States in self-defence," (April, 1844.) Such, then, was the motive of the secretaries and the president, all southern men, and devotedly supported by the south, in striving for an addition to the slaveholding states in the shnpe of Texas. The more they strove on. this ground, the more they were opposed in the free states. It was the Missouri battle over again. Nay, it was more than that ; in that, said the north, we contended against the ad- mission of one of our own territories, but in this contest we are fighting against the admission of a foreign state. A com- Like all the other great differences of the nation, promise, ^j^jg difference concerning Texas was susceptible of compromise. At first, the administration attempted to escape it, preparing a treaty which declared Texas a mem- ber of the Union, (April 12, 1844.) The treaty was ANNEXATION OF TEXAS. 427 rejected by the Senate ; but the nation sustained the project of annexation ; and in the next session of Congress botli Senate and House united in joint resolutions of the same purport as the rejected treaty, (March 1, 1845.) Here, however, there was a compromise. The resohitions pro- vided that the Texan territory, when sufficiently peopled, might be divided into five states. "• Such states," it was added, " as may be formed out of that portion of said terri- tory lying south of thirty-six degrees thirty minutes north latitude^ commonly known as the Missouri Compromise line, shall be admitted into the Union with or without sla- very, as the people of each state asking admission may desire ; and in such state or states as shall be formed out of said territory north of said Missouri Compromise line, slavery or involuntary servitude (except for crime) shall be prohibited." Texas assented to the terms of the resolu- tions, (July 4,) and was soon after formally enrolled amongst the United States of America, (December 29.) Conse- The democratic party, espousing the project of quences. annexation before it was fulfilled, carried the elec- tion of James K. Polk as president and George M. Dallas as vice president. " Well may the boldest fear," said the new president ii:<|^is inaugural address, " and the wisest tremble, when incurring responsibilities on which may depend our country's peace and prosperity, and in some degree the hopes and happiness of the whole human fam- ily," (March, 1845.) He found tlie annexation of Texas accomplished. But the consequences were yet to be seen and borne. CHAPTER VIII. War with Mexico. Causes of Mexico had all along declared the annexation war: of Texas by the United States would be an act of hostility. As soon as Congress resolved upon it, the Mexican minister at Washington demanded his pass- jiorts, (March G, 1845,) and the Mexican government sus- pended intercourse Avitli the envoy of the United States, (April 2.) " AYar " — so the Mexicans persisted — " was the only recourse of the Mexican government." The cause was the occu]:)ation of a state which they still claimed as a l^rovince of tlieir own, notwithstanding it had been inde- pendent now for nine years, and as such recognized by several of the European powers in addition to the United States. Ameri- With the United States, the preservation of can. Texas was not the only cause oW^^ar. Indeed, for the time, it was no cause at all, according to the adminis- tration. If there was any disposition to take up arms, it came from wliat the president styled " the system of insult and spoliation " under which Americans had long been suf- fering ; merchants losing their property, and sailors their liberty, by seizures on Mexican waters and in Mexican ports. In spite of a treaty, now fourteen years old, (1831,) the wrongs complained of had continued, until President Jackson, in the last month of his administration, (February, 1837,) thought it best to recommend demands for justice (•128) WAR WITH MEXICO. 429 " from on board one of our vessels of war on the coast of Mexico." After some delays, the Mexican government en- tered into a convention, (1839,) by which a commission was appointed to examine the American claims, (1840.) The term of the commission having expired before more than a third of the claims had been examined, (1842,) the United States pressed the appointment of a new commission ; but in vain. Instead, however, of dealing harshly with the Mexicans, the amounts acknowledged by them to be due to Americans were paid, so far a*? paid at all, by the United States government, their payment by the Mexican govern- ment being postponed, (1843.) All this, it is plain, would never have brought about war, had there been no other exciting cause. Boundcary This causc was close at hand. In annexing Texas, of Texas. ^]^g United States government understood the terri- tory to extend as far as the Rio Grande. For considering this the boundary there were two reasons ; one, that the Texans had proclaimed it such, and the other, that it was apparently implied to be such in the treaty ceding the country west of the Sabine to Spain, a quarter of a century before. Accordingly, American troops were moved to Cor- pus Christi, (August, 1845,) and, six months afterwards, (March, 1846,) to the Rio Grande, with orders " to repel any invasion of the Texan territory which might be at- tempted by the Mexican forces." On the other side, Mexico protested altogether against the line of the Rio Grande. The River Nueces, according to Mexican au- thority, was the boundary of Texas. Even supposing Texas surrendered by the Mexicans, which it was not, they still retained the territory between the Nueces and the Rio Grande — a territory containing but few settlements, and those not Texan, but purely Mexican. In support of this position, the Mexican General Arista was ordered to cross 430 PAUT IV. 1797-1850. the Rio Grande and defend the country against the invader, (April, 184G.) Mission During these movements a mission was sent from from Unit- the United States to Mexico, (November, 1845.) The minister went authorized to propose and to carry out an adjustment of all the difficulties between the two countries. But he was refused a hearing ; the Mexican government, fresh from one of its revolutions, insisting that the question of Texas must be disposed of, and on Mexican terms, before entering upon*any general negotiations. The bearer of the olive branch was obliged to return, (March, 184G.) iiostiii- -A-s the American troops, some three thousand *^^^- strong, under General Taylor, approached the Rio Grande, the inhabitants retired ; at one place. Point Isabel, burning their dwellings. This certainly did not look much like being on American or on Texan ground. But Taylor, obedient to his orders, kept on, until he took post by the Rio Grande, opposite the Mexican town of Matamoras, (March 28, 184G.) There, about a month later, (April 24,) he was thus addressed by the Mexican .General Arista: *' Pressed and forced into war, we enter into a struggle which we cannot avoid without being unfaithful to what is most sacred to men." A Mexican force was simultaneously sent across the stream, to what the Americans considered their territory. Some collisions had already taken place ; but the first act to begin hostilities occurred on the same day of the Mexican movements, when a squadron of dra- goons, sent by Taylor to reconnoitre the Mexicans, fell in with a much superior force, and, after a skirmish, surren- dered. The next day but one, Taylor, as previously author- ized by his government, called upon the states of Texas and Louisiana for five thousand volunteers. As soon as the news reached Washington, the president informed Congress LWAR WITH MEXICO. 431 that " war exists, and exists by the act of Mexico herself," (May 11.) Congress took the same ground, and gave the president authority to call fifty thousand volunteers into the field, (May 13.) It was ten days later, but of course before any tidings of these proceedings could have been received, that Mexico made a formal declaration of war, (May 23.) The question as to which nation began hostilities, must for- ever depend upon the question of the Texan boundary. If this was the River Nueces, the United States began war the summer before. If, on the contrary, it was the Rio Grande, the Mexicans, as President Polk asserted, were the aggressors. But there is no possible way of deciding which river it was that formed the actual boundary. The assertion of Mexico, that it was the Nueces, is as reason- able as the declaration of Texas, supported by the United States, that it was the Rio Grande. The forces between which hostilities commenced Disparity of com- were both small, the United States army being the smaller of the two. But this disparity was as noth- ing compared Avith that between the nations. The United States went to war with Mexico very much as they would have gone to war with one or more of their own number. Mexico, broken by revolutions, had neither government nor army to defend her ; there were officials, there were sol- diers, but there was no strength, no efficiency in either. Doubtless Mexico trusted to the divisions of her enemy, to the opposition which parties in the United States would make to the war. But the parties of the United States were one, in contrast with the parties of Mexico. On another point, the Mexicans could build ui) Oregon r 7 i coutro- better founded hopes. At the very time that hostili- ties ojDened between the United States and Mexico, there was serious danger of a rupture between the United States and Great Britain. It sprang from conflicting claims 432 PART IV. 1797-1850. to the distant territory of Oregon. Those of the United States were based, first, upon American voyages to the Pacific coast, chiefly upon one made by Captain Gray, in the Columbia, from which the great river of the north-west took its name, (1792 ;) secondly, upon the acquisition of Louisiana with all the Spanish rights to the western shores, (1803 ;) and thirdly, upon an expedition under Captain Lewis and Lieutenant Clarke, of the United States army, by whom the Missouri was traced towards its source, and the Columbia descended to the Pacific Ocean, (1803-6.) Against these, the British government asserted various claims of discovery and occupancy. Twice the two nations agreed to a joint possession of the country in dispute* (1818, 1827 ;) twice the United States proposed a dividing line, once under Monroe, and again under Tyler. The rejection of the latter proposal had led to a sort of war cry, during the presidential election then pending, (1844,) that Oregon must be held. President Polk renewed the offer, but on less favorable terms, and it was rejected, (1845.) Agreeably to his recommendation, a twelve months' notice, preliminary to the termination of the existing arrangements concerning the occupation of Oregon, was formally given by the United States government, (1846.) IMeanwhile emigration to Oregon had been proceeding on so large a scale during the few years previous, that there were some thousands of Americans settled upon the territory. It was a grave juncture, therefore, that had arrived. Settle- ^ut it Avas happily terminated on proposals, now ment. emanating from Great Britain, by which the line of forty-nine degrees was constituted the boundary ; the right of navigating the Columbia being secured to the British, (June 15, 1846.) Thus vanished the prospect of a war with Great Britain, in addition to the war with Mexico. But its existence, if only for a time, explains a part at WAR WITH MEXICO. 433 least of the confidence with which the Mexicans entered into the strife. It does awaj, on the other hand, with the apparent want of magnanimity in the Americans to measure themselves with antagonists so much their inferiors. Conquest ^^"^ Mexican General Arista commenced the of north- bombardment of the American position, afterwards Mexico. ^^"^^ ^«i'^ ^I'own from its gallant defender, Major Brown, (May 3.) General Taylor was then with the bulk of his troops at Pomt Isabel. Having made sure of that post, he marched back to the relief of Fort Brown, and on the way engaged with the enemy at Palo Alto,' (May 8,) and at Resaca de la Palma, (May 9.) With a force so much inferior, that the most serious apprehensions had been excited for its safety, the Americans came off victors ni both actions. Such was the effect upon the Mex- icans, that they at once recrossed the Rio Grande, and even retreated to some distance on their side of the river. Tay- lor followed, carrymg the war into the enem/s country and occupying Matamoras, (May 18.) A long pause ensued, to wait for reenforcements, and indeed for plans • the war being wholly unprepared for on the American side.' But the news of the first victories aroused the whole nation Even the opponents of the war yielded their principles so far as to give their sympathies to the brave men who had carried their arms farther from the limits of the United States than had ever before been done by an American army. Volunteers gathered from all quarters in numbers for which it was positively difficult to provide. At length with considerably augmented forces, Taylor set out a-ain' supported by Generals Worth and Wool among many o'ther emment officers. Monterey, a very important place in this pai^ of Mexico, was taken after a three days' resistance under General Ampudia, (September 21-23.) An armis tice of several weeks followed. Subsequently, Taylor 37 434 PART IV. 1797-1850. marched soutliward as far as Victoria ; but on the recall of a portion of his troops to take part in other operations, he fell back into a defensive position in the north, (January, 1847.) There, at Buena Vista, he was attacked by a com- paratively large army under Santa Anna, then generalis- simo of Mexico, who, deeming himself secure of his prey, sent a summons of surrender, which Taylor instantly declined. The dispositions for the battle had been made in great part by General Wool, to whom, with many of the other officers, the victory achieved by the Americans de- serves to be ascribed, as well as to the resolute commander. It was a bloody engagement, continuing for two successive days, (February 22, 23.) Taylor was never more truly the hero than when he wrote to Henry Clay, whose son had fallen in the fight, that, in remembering the dead, " I can say with truth that I feel no exultation in our success." Santa Anna, meanwhile, was in full retreat, leaving the Americans in secure possession of all the north-eastern country. Six months later, Taylor sent a large number of his remaming men to act elsewhere, (August ;) then, leav- ing General Wool in command, he returned to the United States, (November.) Soon after the fall of Monterey, a force under Conquest ♦' ' of Chi- General Wool was detached to penetrate into the northern province of Chihuahua. It did not go by any means so far. But at about the same time, an expe- dition from the north, headed by Colonel Donij)han, marched down upon the province, taking ^Dossession first of El Paso, (December 27,) and then, after a battle with the Mexicans, under Ileredia, at the pass of Sacramento, (February 28, 1847,) of Chihuahua, the capital, (March 1.) Doniphan presently evacuated his conquest, (Ai^ril.) Early in the following year, Chihuahua became the object of a third expedition, under General Price, who, coming WAR WITH MEXICO. 435 from the same direction as Doniphan, again occupied the town, (March 7, 1848,) defeating the Mexicans at the neighboring Santa Cruz de las Rosales, (March 16.) The whole story of the Chihuahua expeditions is that of border forays rather than of regular campaigns. ^ ^ Both Doniphan and Price made their descents Conquest ^ of New from New Mexico, which had been taken possession of by the Americans under General Kearney in the first months of the war, (August, 1846.) So scanty and so prostrate was the population as to offer no resistance, not even to the occupation of the capital, Santa Fe, (Au- gust 18.) But some months after, when Kearney had proceeded to California, and Doniphan, after treating with the Navajo Indians, had gone against Chihuahua, an insur- rection, partly of Mexicans and partly of Indians, broke out at a village fifty miles from Santa Fe. The American governor, Charles Bent, and many others, both Mexicans and Americans, were murdered ; battles, also, were fought, before the insurgents were reduced, by Price, (January, 1847.) ^ , Ere the tidinf>:s of the v\'-ar reached the Pacific Conquest * of Caii- coast, a band of Americans, partly trappers and partly settlers, — "a curious set," says an English- man Miio saw them, — declared their independence of Mexico at Sonoma, a town of small importance not far from San Francisco, (July 4, 1846.) The leader of the party was John C. Fremont, a captain in the United States Engineers, who had recently received instructions from his government to secure a hold upon California. A few days after their declaration, Fremont and his followers joined the American Commodore Sloat, who, aware of the war, had taken Monterey, (July 7,) and entered the Bay of San Francisco, (July 9.) Sloat was soon succeeded by Com- modore Stockton ; and he, in conjunction with Fremont, took 436 PART IV. 1797-1850. possession of Ciudad de los Angeles, the capital of Upper California, (August 13.) All this was done without oppo- sition from the scattered Mexicans of the province^ or from their feeble authorities. But some weeks later, a few braver spirits collected, and, driving the Americans from the capital, succeeded likewise in recovering the greater part of California, (September, October.) On the approach of General Kearney from New Mexico, a month or two afterwards, he was met in battle at San Pasqual, (Decem- ber 6,) and so hemmed in by the enemy as to be in great danger, until relieved by a force despatched to his assistance by Commodore Stockton. The commodore and the gen- eral, joining forces, retook Ciudad de los Angeles, after two actions with its defenders, (January 10, 1847.) A day or two later, Fremont succeeded in bringing the main body of Mexicans in arms to a capitulation at Cowenga (January 13.) California was again, and more decidedly than before, an American possession. Its conquerors, having no more Mexicans to contend with, turned against one another, and quarrelled for the precedence as vigorously as they had struggled for victory. Lovv^er California was afterwards assailed, but under different commanders. La Paz and San Jose, both inconsiderable places, were occupied in the course of the year. On the opposite shore, Guaymas was taken by a naval force under Captain Lavalette, (October,) and Mazatlan by the fleet under Commodore Shubrick, (November.) From time to time the Mexicans rallied against the invaders, but without success. It was all a series of skirmishes, fought in the midst of lonely mountains and on far-stretching shores, rather than of ordinary battles, that had reduced California beneath the American power. And now to return to the eastern side. From the first, a blockade of the ports in the Gulf of Mexico was but poorly maintained. Then the American fl:eet embarked upon vari- WAR WITH MEXICO. 437 ous operations. Twice was Alvarado, a port to the tioas in soutli of Vera Cruz, attacked by Commodore Con- Gulf of jjgj.^ j^^^ twice it was gallantly defended, (August 7, October 15, 1846.) Then Commodore Perry went against Tobasco, a little distance up a river on the southern coast ; but, though he took some prizes and some hamlets, he did not gain the town, (October 23-26.) The only really successful operation was the occupation of Tampico, which the Mexicans abandoned on the approach of their enemies, (November 15.) March Early in the following spring the fleet and tlie upon city army combined in an attack upon Vera Cruz. An- 'ticipations of success, however high amongst the troops and their officers, were not very generally enter- tained even by their own countrymen, Vera Cruz, or its castle of San Juan d'Ulloa, having been represented over and over again, in Europe and in America, as impregnable. Nevertheless, a bombardment of a few days obliged the garrison, under General Morales, to give up the town and the castle together, (March 23-26, 1847.) Once masters there, the Americans beheld the road to the city of Mexico lying open before them ; but here, again, their way was supposed to be beset by insurmountable difficulties. They pressed on, nine or ten thousand strong. General Scott at their head, supported by Generals Worth, Pillow, Quitman, and Twiggs, with many officers of tried and of untried rep- utation. However skilful the leaders, or however valiant the men, it was a daring enterprise to advance upon the capital. In other directions, along the northern boundary, the war had been carried into remote and comparatively unpeopled portions of the country. Here the march lay through a region provided with defenders and with defences, where men would fight for their homes, and where their homes, being close at hand, would give them aid as well as 37* 438 PART IV. 1797-1850. inspiration. The march upon Mexico was by all means the great performance of the war. Battles on I^s difficulties soou appeared. At Cerro Gordo, the way. gixty milcs from Vera Cruz, Santa Anna posted thirteen thousand of his Mexicans in a mountain pass, to whose natural strength he had added by fortification. It took two days to force a passage, the Americans losing about five hundred, but inflicting a far greater loss on th^r brave opponents, (April 18-19.) Here, however, they paused ; a part of the force Vv^as soon to be discharged, and Scott decided that he would make his dismissals and wait for the empty places to be filled. He accordingly advanced sloAvly to Puebla, while the Mexicans kept in the back- ground, or appeared only as guerillas, (May 28.) The guerilla warfare had been prognosticated as the one insuper- able obstacle to the progress of the American army ; it proved harassing, but by no means fatal. During the delay ensuing on land, the fleet in the gulf, under Commodore Perry, took Tuspan and Tobasco, both being but slightly defended, (April 18 — June 15.) At length, reenforcements having reached the army, making it not quite eleven thou- sand strong, it resumed its march, and entered the valley of Mexico, (August 10.) In valley There the Mexicans stood, Santa Anna still at of Mexico, their head, thirty-five thousand in their ranks, regular troops and volunteers, old and young, rich and poor, men of the professions and men of the trades, — all joined in the defence of their country, now threatened at its very heart. They wanted much, however, that was essen- tial to success. Hope was faint, and even courage sank beneath the errors and the intrigues of the commanding ofiicers, to whom, speaking generally, it was vain to look for example or for guidance. Behind the army was the government, endeavoring to unite itself, yet still rent and WAR WITH MEXICO. 439 enfeebled to the last degree. Even the clergy, chafed by the seizure of church property to meet the exigencies of the state, were divided, if not incensed. It was a broken nation, and yet all the more worthy of respect for the last earnest resistance which it was making to the foe. Never had armies a more magnificent country to assail or to defend than that into which the Americans had penetrated. They fought in defiles or upon plains, vistas of lakes and fields before them, mountain heights above them, the majesty of nature every where mingling with the contention of man. Fourteen miles from the city, battles began at Contreras, where a Mexican division under General Valencia was totally routed, (August 19-20.) The next engagement followed immediately, at Churubusco, six miles from the capital, Santa Anna himself being there completely defeated, (August 20.) An armistice suspended further movements for a fortnight, when an American division under Worth made a successful assault on a range of buildings called Molino del Rey, close to the city. This action, though the most sanguinary of the entire war, — both Mexicans and Americans surpassing all their previous deeds, — was with- out results, (September 8.) A few days later, the fourth and final engagement in the valley took place at Chapulte- pec, a fortress just above Molino del Rey. Within the lines was the Mexican Military College, and bravely did the students defend it, mere boys outvying veterans in feats of valor. In vain, nevertheless ; the college and the fortress yielded together, (September 12-13.) The next day Scott, with six thousand five hundred men, the whole of his army remaining in the field, entered the city of Mexico, (Septem- ber 14.) Last Santa Anna retired in the direction of Puebla, actions, -vyluch he Vainly attempted to take from Colonel Childs. The object of the Mexican general was to cut off* 440 PART IV. 1797-1850. the communication between Scott and the seaboard ; but he did not succeed. A few last actions of an inferior charac- ter, a few skirmishes with bands of partisans, and the war was over in that part of the country. The American gen- erals betook themselves to quarrels and arrests ; Scott being some months afterwards superseded by General Butler, (February, 1848.) Now that their exploits have been described, the Compcsi- i ' tion of United States armies are to be understood for what gjjfgg they were. It was no regular force, prepared by forces. years of discipline to meet the foe, that followed Taylor, Scott, and the other leaders, to the field. The few regiments of United States troops were lost, in respect to numbers, though not to deeds, amid the thousands of volun- teers that came swarming from every part of the Union. To bring these irregular troops into any effective condition was more difficult than to meet the Mexicans. On the other hand, there was an animation about them, a personal feeling of emulation and of patriotism, which made the vol- unteers a far more valuable force than might have been supposed. After all, however, it was to the officers, to the pupils of West Point, to the intelligent, and, in many cases, devoted men, who left their occupations at home to sustain what they deemed the honor of their country abroad, that the successes of the various campaigns are chiefly to be ascribed. The effect of the war was to give the nation a much more military character than it had hitherto sustained, even in its own eyes. Forced One point in tlie American conduct of the war is supplies, yet to be noticed. As early as the fifth month of hostilities, (September, 1846,) the secretary of war in- structed General Taylor to " draw supplies from the enemy without paying for them, and to require contributions, if in that way you are satisfied you can get abundant supplies." WAR WITH MEXICO. 441 4i The same instructions were sent to General Scott in the following spring. But both the generals declined the at- tempt of raising forced supplies. After the occupation of the capital, however, Scott exacted several large contribu- tions from the conquered country. Anotlier form of levy- ing money was in the duties imposed upon all merchandise admitted into the Mexican ports occupied by the Ameri- cans. This, as the government allowed, " was, in effect, the seizure of the pubhc revenues of Mexico;" the object being, as in the other cases, " to compel the enemy to con-.t tribute, as far as practicable, towards the expenses of the war." Peace: The War had not continued three months, when first steps. ^]-^g United States made an overture of peace, (July, 1846.) It was referred by the Mexican administration to the National Cono;ress, and there it rested.^ In announcing: to the American Congress the proposal which he had made, President Polk suggested the appropriation of a certain sum, as an indemnity for any Mexican territory that might be retained at the conclusion of the war. In the debate which followed, an administration representative from Penn- sylvania, David Wilmot, moved a proviso to the proposed appropriation: "That there shall be neither slavery nor involuntary servitude in any territory on the continent of America, which shall hereafter be acquired by or annexed to the United States by virtue of this appropriation, or in any other manner whatsoever." The proviso was hastily adopted in the House ; but it was too late to receive any action in the Senate before the close of the session, (Au- gust.) In the following session the proviso again passed the House, but was abandoned by that body on being rejected by the Senate. Next Provided with the sum which he thought neces- steps. g^Yj iq insure negotiation. President Polk appointed 44:2 PART IV. 1797-1850. # N. P. Trist, chief clerk of the state department, a commis- sioner to take out the plan of a treaty, requiring Mexico to cede a portion of her territory, but promising her some remuneration, (April, 1847.) It was several months after the commissioner's arrival at the American head quarters that he obtained an interview with any commissioners on the part of Mexico. He then met them several times, pro- posing his project and receiving theirs, the two being very far apart. The Mexicans were reluctant to yield any terri- tory, even that beyond the Rio Grande, which had been claimed as a part of Texas. It went especially against their inclinations to open it to slavery ; the instructions of the commissioners being quite positive on the point that any treaty to be signed by them must prohibit slavery in the ceded country. " No president of the United States," replied Commissioner Trist, "would dare to present any such treaty to tne Senate." Nor was there any obstacle stronirer than this acrainst the aorreement of the neojotiators. They separated, without having accomplished any thing, (August, September.) Trist was recalled, apparently for not pressing the claims of his government with greater vehe- mence. But he took it upon himself to remain where he was, and to treat with new commissioners, two months after the entrance of the American army into the city of Mexico, (November.) The result of battles rather than of negotia- tions was a treaty signed at Guadalupe Hidalgo, a suburb of the capital. By this instrument Mexico ceded the whole of Texas, New Mexico, and Upper California, while the, United States agreed to surrender their other conquests, and to pay for those retained the sum of fifteen milhons, besides assuming the old claims of their own citizens against Mexico to the amount of more than three millions, (Feb- ruary 2, 1848.) The treaty contained other provisions, WAR AVITH MEXICO. 443 some of which were modified at "Washington, and altered accordingly at Queretaro, where the Mexican Congress was called to ratify the peace. Ratifications were finally ex- changed at Queretaro, (May 30,) and peace proclaimed at "Washington, (July 4.) The Mexican territory — that is, •the portion which remained — was rapidly evacuated. ^^ ^ Thus ended a conflict of w^hich the motives, the Character ' of the events, and the results have been very variously ^^' estimated. But this much may be historically said, that on the side of the United States the war had not merely a party, but rather a sectional character. "What sectional causes there were to bring about hostilities, we have seen m relation to the annexation of Texas. "What sectional issues there were to proceed from the treaty, we have yet to see. " It is a southern war," was the express statement of a v.Titer of South Carolina. CHAPTER IX. * Compromise of 1850. New ter- WiTHiN the limits of Texas, New Mexico, and ritory. California, there lay a vast region, containing up- wards of eight hundred thousand square miles. All the United States, previously, comprehended but little beyond two millions. An addition, therefore, of considerably more than one third of the territory existing before the annexa- tion of Texas had been brought to pass. Extraordinary as was this acquisition in extent, it was still more extraordi- nary in character. Not to dwell upon the variety of cli- mate, of scenery, of soil, and of production, which it com- prehended, there was within the limits of California a region of surpassing value. • Just before the treaty with Mexico, (January, 1848,) the erection of a mill upon a branch of the Sacramento revealed the existence of gold, which was soon discovered in other places. To cover the soil with gold diggers, and to arouse the rest of the country to emigration, or to speculation, or at least to wondering interest, were the almost instantaneous consequences. " The acquisition of California," exclaimed President Polk, placing that district first upon his list, " and New Mexico, the settlement of the Oregon boundary, and the annexation of Texas, extending to the Rio Grande, are results which, combined, are of greater consequence, and will add more to the strength and wealth of the nation, than any which have preceded them since the adoption of the Constitution." (444) COMPROMISE OF 1850. 445 Difli. There was another side, nevertheless, even to the cuities. president. In communicating the exchange of ratifi- cations between the United States and Mexico, he addressed Congress in this wise : " There has perhaps been no period since the warning so impressively given to his countrymen by Washington, to guard against geographical divisions and sectional parties, which appeals with greater force than the present to the patriotic, sober-minded, and reflecting of all parties and of all sections of our country. As we extend the blessings of the Union over new regions, shall we be so unwise as to endanger its existence by geographical divis- ions and dissensions ? " This was written amid a perfect tumult of congressional and of popular discussions. The canvass for a presidential election had begun, with whig and democratic candidates, in addition to whom were soon brought forward the candidates of a free-soil party, so called from its insisting upon the exclusion of slavery from the recently acquired territories. All the signs of the time pointed to a wide and a grave division between northern and southern opinions. It was a more serious strife than that between the United States and Mexico, from which, directly speaking, it had sprung. Old questions were subsidinof. The tariff, twice Old ques- i o ' tionssub- rcviscd witliiu the last few years, (1842, 1846,) had ^^ ^^^' been framed in such a way as to determine the abandonment of the protective system. Former differences with regard to the tenure and the' sale of the public lands were put to rest, at least for the time. The system of inter- nal improvements, long vexed and still undecided as to points of detail, was settled on general principles, establish- ing the policy of national though not of local enterprises at the charge of the federal government. Financial difficulties were also adjusted. The country acquiesced in renouncing a national bank and in supporting a national treasury. 38 44G PART IV. 1797-1850. Though the public debt was largely increased by the expenses of the Mexican war, it occasioned no burdens, no altercations ; there was no division as to its management, no doubt as to its ultimate payment. All these questions had ceased to excite, if not to interest the nation. Nor was there any substantial difference upon 0rgani7.a- ♦' ^ tionofoki the orGfanization of the old territories. Wisconsin ^^^^ '^^^' came in quietly as a state, (May 20, 1848.) Ore- gon was established as a territory, with some debate upon the exclusion of slavery ; but in this the south as well as the north were of much the same mind, the line of the Mis- souri Compromise being held to extend to the Pacific. A trouble of quite a different sort broke out in connection with Oregon ; the Indians of that territory taking up arms, to the great peril of its settlers, in the year of its organization, (1848.) The next year another territory M^as peaceably organized in Minnesota, (1849.) The more tranquil the nation on these points, the tion^of^^" i^ore irritable it seemed to be upon the points relat- new teni- ing to the rcccnt conquests. California and New Mexico required to be organized. The boundary between New Mexico and Texas, a subject on which Texan claims were very extensive, needed to be defined. Rela- tions with the Indian tribes in all the new territory also demanded attention. Yet there was no such thinsf as deciding any of these matters while they were enveloped in the mists of the slavery question. Slavery Tliis qucstion had never assumed vaster propor- quostion. ^ions. The annexation of Texas, followed up by the war with Mexico, had been regarded, all over the country, as committing the nation, more decisively than ever before, to the support of slavery. The reasons f#r this view, whether well founded or not, stirred up the northern sentiment to undo what had been done, at the same time COMPROMISE OF 1850. 447 that the southern feeling was equally aroused in carrying out the measures which had been begun. The idea at the north was this : that the south had gained, in Texas, an immense accession of strength, to which no addition was to be made, nay, from which, if possible, something was to be taken, either by the curtailment of the Texan boundary, or by preventing the entire Texan territory fi-om being peo- pled by slaveholders ; at all events. New Mexico and Cali- fornia must be free. From the south, on the other hand, there came the demand, first, that Texas must be respected, and, next, that the other territories, acquired even more by southern exertions than by northern, must be left at liberty to choose whether they would or would not hold slaves. It was beginning to be known that neither Cahfornia nor New Mexico was likely to be slaveholding. But this did not diminish the irritation in respect to them. The south was naturally disappointed that acquisitions from which they had looked for encouragement to their peculiar interests did not preserve the original look of promise ; while the north, for the same cause, as naturally indulged in a certain exultation. This exultation on one side, and this disap- pointment on the other, fomented the strife between the contendmg parties. Congress showed a disposition to more decided tiou of action against slavery than it had ever done before. southern j^gtead of confiniuo; themselves to the oro^anization members ^ '=' of Con- of the territories, some members suggested the abo- giess. ij^JQji Qf the slave trade, others that of slavery itself, in the District of Columbia. Alarmed by these demonstra- tions, the southern members met in convention, (December 23,) and appointed a committee to report upon certain resolu- tions in relation to the existing difficulties. Calhoun, still a senator, laid an address of the southern delegates to their constituents before an adjourned meeting of the convention. 448 PART IV. 1797-1850. (January 15, 1849.) The document inveighed against the aggressions of the north, particularly its evasion of the fugi- tive slave law, and its abolitionism. " "We ask not," was the language of the address, " as the north alleges we do, for the extension of slavery. That would make a discrimi- nation in our favor as unjust and unconstitutional as the discrimination they ask against us in their favor. . . . What, then, we do insist on is, not to extend slavery, but that we shall not be prohibited from immigrating Vvith our property into the territories of the United States because we are slaveholders." In conclusion, 'an earnest appeal was made to the south to be united. John M. Berrien, a senator from Georgia, proposed an address to the people of the United States instead of one to the south alone ; but the original address was adopted, (January 22.) Congress, meantime sat by, proposing and discussing much, but doing nothing beyond extending the revenue laws to California. The teni- ^^^^ whigs had elected the new president, who soon toriesde- appeared in the person of the successful general, aoSnst Zachary Taylor, (March.) He took the only step slavery, in his powcr towards organizing the new territories, by instructing the officers stationed in them to encourage the people to organize themselves. The first to adopt his recommendations were the people of Deseret, the western part of California, since called Utah, where a number of Mormons had established their settlements. Next came the settlers of Sante Fe county, in New Mexico. But the only regular organization was that of the Californians, who met in convention and adopted a state constitution, (Sep- tember, October, 1849.) Every one of these territories went against slavery, California expressly prohibiting it in her constitution. The north became exultant, the south defiant, as the issue of the strife drew nigh. Congress met again, to be agitated from the very begin- COMPROMISE OF 1850. 449 ning of the session. Three weeks elapsed before gests com- the House of Representatives could even choose piomise. ^jjgjj. speaker, (December.) Very soon afterwards, Senator Foote, of Mississippi, introduced a bill for the organization of the territories, (January 16, 1850.) This was followed by a series of resolutions proposed by Henry Clay, leader in the Missouri and the tariff compromises, and now urging a new compromise upon the present diffi- culties. " Disappointed as he had been in his political hopes, a candidate for the presidency for a quarter of a century, and though warmly, yet never successfully supported, the fervor of his ambition and of his patriotism had never died out. He came forward with proposals of concession on both the contending sides. The resolutions promised the north that the slave trade in the District of Columbia should be abolished, and on the other hand assured the south that slavery in the District should be maintained for the present ; they pledged the north to the restitution of fugitive slaves, the south to the admission of California as a free state ; while both north and south were to agree in organizing the territories, and in deciding the boundary between Texas and New Mexico, (January 29.) Weeks passed away in vain discussions. The suggestions of com- promise pleased neither party, and neither laid aside its arms. Webster What had been discussed with comparatively m debate, little powcr now became the subject of grave and massive appeals. The extreme views of the south found vehement support, chiefly from Calhoun, who"ad led in the same cause for years. On the other side, the extreme tiews of the north were but faintly and feebly urged. The great leader of that section aspired to be the great leader of the country as a whole. " I speak," said Webster in the Senate Chamber, " not as a Massachusetts man, nor as a 38* 450 PART IV. 1797-1850. northern man, but as an American, and a member of the Senate of the United States." " I speak," he added, " for the preservation of the Union." After adverting to the question of slavery in general, and dej)loring the vehe- mence with which it was supported at the south, Webster passed to the consideration of the territories. Texas, he averred, was a slave state by the terais of annexation ; New Mexico and California, on the other hand, were to be free states, both by the will of their inhabitants and by the nature of their climates and their soils. " The whole terri- tory Avithin the former United States," said Webster, " or in the newly acquired Mexican provinces, has a fixed and settled character, now fixed and settled by law which can- not be repealed ; in the case of Texas, without a violation of the public faith, and by no human power in regard to California or New Mexico." It was useless, therefore, and worse than useless, he argued, to be wrangling about pro- visos of Congress to admit or to prohibit slavery. Recur- ring to the subject of slavery, especially to that in the Dis- trict of Columbia, and to the provisions of the law concerning fugitive slaves, Webster deprecated the denunciations and the menaces of the north as earnestly as he did the passion- ate ideas of the south. Men differ as to their estimate of the compromise, but none doubt the influence of Webster in promoting its adoption. From , the day that he spoke as has been described, (March 7,) the compromise was secure. ^ ^ „ But not without continued bitterness in both Report of cornpro- brai^hes of Congress. The Senate finally appoint- ^^^°' edlrcommittee of thirteen. Clay being chairman, by whom the compromise of 1850, as it is styled, was reported in three bills. The first admitted California as a state, organized New Mexico and Utah as territories without any provision for or against slavery, and arranged the disputed boundary between New Mexico and Texas by a large indemnity to the latter. The second provided for the COMPROMISE OF 1850. 451 recovery of fugitive slaves. The third abolished the slave trade in the District of Columbia. The report of the com- promise (May 8) was instantly followed by the most impassioned debates. It seemed as if there could be no conciliation between parties so diverse and so inflamed. Its adop- -A-t the height of the controversy, President Tay- tion. Iqj. sickened and died, (July 9.) He was suc- ceeded by the vice president, Millard Fillmore, who called about him a new cabinet, Webster at the head, and threw the whole weight of the administration in favor of the com- promise. It was at first rejected. But, on the substitution of separate bills for each of the measures proposed, they were successively adopted by both houses. California was admitted a state ; New Mexico and Utah were constituted territories, and the payment of ten millions to Texas, on con- sideration of the boundary and other questions, was voted ; all on the same day, (September 9.) Nine days after, the fugitive slave bill became a law, (September 18 ;) and two days later still, the slave trade in the District of Columbia was suppressed, (September 20.) So ended, as far as legis- lation was concerned, a strife begun with the proviso of David Wilmot, more than four years before, and kept up during the whole of the intervening period, in Congress and throughout the nation. ^ ,. , It did not yet cease. The president met Con- Continuea '' ^ contro- gress at the close of the year with the assurance ^^^^^' that "we have been rescued from the wide and boundless agitation that surrounded us, and have a firm, distinct, and legal ground to rest upon." Yet, on the floor of Congress, in all pubHc places, at the tribunal and in the pulpit, as well as in private, around the table and at the hearth, the nation was disputing both about the points disposed of and about the manner in which they had been disposed. Unlike the compromises of earlier years, the compromise of 1850 did not bring peace. CHAPTER X. National Development. ^ , The accession to the national territory follow- Develop- *' mentof ing the annexation of Texas and the war with v^iri ory. jy^g^j^^^ ^las been described. Vast as it was, it was much less than the increase which had already taken place. At the close of the revolution, the United States, not then extending to the Mississippi, embraced upwards of eight hundred thousand square miles. There were nearly four times as many, or upwards of twenty-nine hundred thousand, at the period which we have reached. Of the twenty-one hundred thousand thus added to the original eight, nearly nine came with Louisiana, (1803,) nearly one with Florida, (1819,) more than three with Oregon, (1846,) making thirteen, in addition to which were the "three of Texas, (1845,) and the five of Mexico, (1848.) Ofpopuia- The increase of population was still more re- tion. markable. It did not spring from the extension of territory. All the twenty-nine hundred thousand square miles, just mentioned, contained not two hundred thousand whites, even including the natives of the United States, who, as in Texas and Oregon, were but brought back to the fold of the nation. Yet the numbers of the United States had now swelled to upwards of twenty-three millions from the three millions at the end of the revolutionary period. Of the twenty-three millions, three were slaves, or five times as many as there were in 1783. The free population was (452) NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT. 453 not merely five times, but eight times as numerous ; twenty- four hundred thousand in 1783, and in 1850, full twenty millions. Of this great number, less than an eighth were of foreign birth, but of the other seven-eighths and more, a large number were children of foreign born parents. Immi- gration had added immensely to the pojDulation, especially in the last quarter of a century. In ten years of the pre- ceding centuiy, (1790-1800,) there were but fifty thousand aiTivals ; in one year of the present period, (1849-1850,) there were two hundred and eighty thousand. In summino- up the population, we must add to the twenty-three millions, abe'ady stated, about four hundi'ed thoiisand as the number of the Indians within the country. Rather less than half of these were dwellers in the more recently acquired territories ; rather less than a fourth probably were the descendants of those in the United States just after the revolution. To the east of the Mississippi, none but a few scattered famihes of the aboriginal race remained. Ofoccu- With such an expansion in population, and in pation. territory, there was of necessity an expansion in oc- cupation. Old pursuits were embraced by greater numbers, and followed out with greater resources to greater results. Such inventions as Eli Whitney's cotton gin, to separate cotton from the seed, (1793,) or Cyrus H. McCormick's reaper, to gather in a crop, (1847,) in ways no manual labor could compete with, enlarged the sphere of agricultural production. The earliest cotton mills were those of Rhode Island, (1790,) the earliest woollen, in which the power loom was used, vrere those of Massachusetts, (1807 ;) the beginniiigs of the manufactures that became a great political as well as industrial interest at a later time. The chief occupation of the early time was still chief; out of six millions free males above fifteen years old, two millions and a half were now engaged in agnculture and its kindred 4e54 PART IV. 1797-1850. labors. To this number must be added the larger propor- tion of the nearly one million slave males above fifteen, em- ployed in the same way. Next to agriculture came the trades and the manufactures, employing not far from two millions. A million and a half remained for other occupa- tions, including those of commerce, wliich, like agriculture and manufacture, was greatly extended beyond its former limits. Of the class set down as professional or educational, tlie numbers were estimated at from two to three hundred tliousand ; an immense increase, compared with the numbers of the past. New pursuits blended in with the old. There was a constant trial of means as yet untried, a constant striving after ends as yet unattained. Inventions multi- plied, labors expanded ; and not in any one dh'cction, but on all sides. Of invest- Increased toils led to increased returns, and these ments. ^^ increased investments in the various branches of industry. To measure the investments by the annual re- sults, we find the products of agriculture for a single year estimated at thirteen hundred millions of dollars. The total return for trades and manufactures was ten hundred millions. Commercial statistics exhibit imports to the value of above one hundred and seventy-five, and exports to that of above one hundred and fifty millions. Such figures are confusing from their very vastness. Nor are they altogether safe as indications of the actual capital in the country. No people ever trusted so little to capital and so much to credit, as the grovving nation of the United States. ^„ To make the resources and the exertions of the Ofcom- iiiuuica- nation efiective, there had come into use new meth- ods of communication. The early canals, of little extent or importance, were followed by a series of very re- markable works, foremost amongst Avhicii were the Erie Canal of New York, (1825,) and the Ohio Canal from Lake NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT. 455 Erie to the Ohio, (1832.) The first steamboat, the Cler- mont, the work of Robert Fulton, appeared upon the Hudson in 1807. After a long interval, the passage of the Atlantic was made by the Savannah steamer, (1819.) First of our railways was the Quincy in Massachusetts, a single track of between three and four miles, to transport granite from a quarry to the water's edge, (1827.) The first locomotive was used upon the Hudson and 3Iohawk Railroad, (1832.) More recently, the invention of the elec- tric telegraph, first constructed between Washington and Baltimore, by Samuel F. B. Morse, (1844,) completed the means of communication. At the close of the period, there were in operation twenty thousand miles of telegraphic wires, sixteen thousand of railways, four thousand five hundred of canals, to say nothing of the countless spaces trsj^ersed by the steamers of our rivers, our lakes, and our seas. Of educa- So much physical development was not unattended tion. ]^j development of a higher sort. The system of public schools had extended from the places where the first were founded throughout most, but not all of the country. A national provision for their support in the new states of the west and the south was made by the appropriation of lands in every township of the ^public domain; a total of nearly fifty millions of acres being thus divided amongst the states and territories. Of the older states, the larger number had their school funds devoted to the same great object. The number of schools grew to be nearly one hundred thousand; that of their teachers was about the same. Private schools and colleges kept pace with the general increase ; the former amountmg to upwards of six thousand ; the latter, including professional and scientific schools, to several hundred. Nor was it only in point of numbers that educational institutions were growing. They gave much better proof of progress in their studies and their 456 PART IV. 1797-1850. methods of instruction ; not, indeed, that these reached the true standard of the scholar, biit that they were much less remote from it than the schools and the colleges of older times. National ^^^ nation had its institutions. A IMilitary iiistitii- Academy, first suggested by Washington, was es- "''"'• tabUshed at West Point, (1802.) A Naval Acad- emy, recommended by Jolm Quincy Adams, was opened long afterwards at Annapolis, (1845.) All the commenda- tions of Washington, Jefferson, Madison, and the second Adams, upon the subject of a national university, were fruitless. But much that would have been accompUshed by such an institution was done at the offices of observation and of publication connected with the academies just mentioned, and with 4he various departments at Washington. A large bequest from James Smithson, of London, was received, and several years later, (1846,) applied by the United States, as the testator had directed, " to found at Washing- ton, under the name of the Smithsonian Institution, an establishment for the increase and diffusion of knowledge amongst men." -, , . One enterprise of the 2;overnment for the advance- Explonng ^ o Expedi- ment of knowledge is to be gratefully recorded. An Exploring Expedition, consisting of several vessels under the command of Lieutenant Charles Wilkes, attached to whom was a body of scientific men, sailed (1838) on an extended cruise through the Antarctic and Pacific Oceans. The chief discovery of the expedition was that supposed to have been made of an antarctic continent ; but this was not entirely confirmed. More certain, therefore, were the results derived from the precise investigations of sea and shore, including races and productions, wherever the ex- plorers passed. A voyage of nearly four years ended with honor to them, and advantage not only to their country, but to the world, (1842.) NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT. 457 The press. -^^^^^^J ^^^ nowhere more marked than in the press. Where a few movements, sluggish in them- selves, and broken by interference from without, had been perceptible, there now prevailed an activity only too rest- less. The department of newspapers was become perhaps the busiest of all. The enterprise of theu^ publishers and their editors was something remarkable even in the land of enterprise ; nor was that of their readers less remarkable, one may say, considermg the number of papers required to satisfy an individual. The number of newspapers — thirty-five at the begmning of the revolution — amounted at last to be- tween twenty-five hundred and three thousand. It mio-ht be sujDposed that other pubhcations would suffer; but not so. Ahnost as many books as journals issued from the press, some foreign, others original pubhcations, on every sort of subject, and in every sort of form. Amongst the most characteristic as well as the most serviceable inventions of the time was that of a printing press by wliich thousands of impressions could be taken in an hour ; the inventor was Richard M. Hoe, (1847.) Other contrivances added to the facility of printmg, so much so, that what was a work of years, the century before, was now the work only of days. In all this multiphcation of methods and of results, good and evil were necessarily blended. The number of publications proves development in one way ; but whether there was develop- ment in another and a higher way, depended on their char- acter. Every one knows how various this was, how various it is still. . Publications uicreasing, libraries increased. The Libranes. ^' scanty repositories of a hundred years previous were augmented or succeeded by far more numerous and far more valuable collections. Private libraries became compara- tively general ; public ones comparatively universal. From the university collection of thousands down to the Sunday 39 458 PART IV. 1797-1850. school case of fifty or a hundi'ed volumes, the number of public libraries is estimated to have been more than fifteen thousand. Of course, there was the utmost diversity in point of importance ; some libraries, enumerated in the list, being totally undeserving of the name. None, not even the largest, compared with the great libraries of Europe, where books had been accumulating for centuries, and where ample endowments kept up the increase year by year. Nor, to speak generally, did the character of our libraries correspond with that of an equally large number of books in a Euro- pean collection ; ours being too often filled by purchases or by donations made at random. A new era in American libra- ries began not so much with the foundation, as with the formation of the Astor Library in New York, at the very close of the period comprehended in this volume. The col- lection of books commenced there for the benefit alike of the most contemplative and the most practical student, rather than of the mere reader, may well serve as an example to the nation. Litera- ^^® branch of the national literature has been ture: po- touclicd upou and quoted from in the preceding pages. The political writings of the time, constitu- tional and administrative, belong too much to the world of action to be viewed merely as works of thought. Few of them, indeed, bear marks of lofty contemplation, or of ab- stract reasoning ; the greater number, absorbed in fleeting circumstances, show little sensibility to the broad relations and the enduring principles of government. Such produc- tions as those of Webster and Calhoun are rare exceptions. If we see the dust of the day's strife upon them, it does not lie thickly enough to obscure the solemnity or the bril- liancy, as the case may be, of the cause for which they plead. Theoiogi- Theological literature maintained its hold ; and cai. move naturally now that it comprehended the NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT. 459 writings of various churches, instead of being confined to the one or two of the colonial period. Chief amongst the successors of the early churchmen was John Henry Hobart, Bishop of New York, in whom earnestness and learning were remarkably combmed. At the head of those succeed- ing the early Puritans were Moses Stuart and William Eilery Channing, the former the leader of the old school, the latter of the new or liberal one. Both were men of great research and of great power. Both went beyond the limits of theological writings, especially Channing, whose works on education and on the great interests of humanity are more likely to endure than those upon points of theol- ogy. The Presbyterians had their expositor in Archibald Alexander, the Methodists theirs in Stephen Olin. Amongst the Roman Catholics, the principal theologian was John England, Bishop of Charleston. Allied by its gravity to the productions that have ^^*' been mentioned was the legal literature of the period. The laws of the United States were expounded by James Kent and Joseph Story ; those of nations by Henry Wheaton. Of the large number distinguished in one walk or another of jurisprudence, Edward Livingston, the author of a system of a penal code for the State of Louisiana, and subsequently of a system of penal laws for the United States, and Hugh Swinton Legare, not so much a writer as a jurist, were both eminent. Histor- Omitting the works of the living, little remains to icai. constitute a historical literature during the period. Jeremy Belknap's History of Nev>r Hampshire and Abiel Holmes's American Annals are the only productions that merit especial mention. Both appeared near the beginning of the period ; a long interval elapsed without producing any histories worthy of the name. Scientific works were more numerous. John Picker- 460 PART IV. 1797-1850. . ing and Albert Gallatin took the lead in philology, particularly in the Indian languages ; both being eminent for other studies. Alexander Wilson, a Scotch- man by birth, published an American Ornithology, after- wards continued by another foreigner, Charles Lucien Bo- naparte. John James Audubon, born in Louisiana long before its acquisition by the United States, was the author of the Birds of America, and subsequently, in conjunction with his sons, of the Quadrupeds of America. Higher than any other name of the time m science, stands that of ISTatlianiel Bowditch, the translator and the commentator of the Mecanique Celeste of Laplace, the great astronomer and mathematician of France. Belles While such were the graver studies of men, oth- lettres. gj.g ^f g^ lighter character were not neglected. In the cultivation of the belles lettres, a growing number was interested. Touching, we may say, are the accounts of the associations formed at the opening of the period, to fan the few sparks of general scholarship that then existed. Soon individuals appeared, some collecting, others composing books upon the subjects that they loved. A more graceful aspect was thus given to the intellectual pursuits of the nation. Towards the close of the period we find Richard Henry Wilde, a native of Dublin, devoting his fine powers to the memory of the Italian poets, while the English authors, Shakespeare and Wordsworth especially, received the tributes offered them by the pure taste and the pure heart of Henry Reed. Fiction had its votaries. Charles Brockden Brown began upon his romances at the close of the eighteenth century. He dealt with unnatural occurrences and exaggerated emotions, — the groper, as it were, into the realms which no one of his nation had entered before liim. Twenty years later, James Fenimore Cooper NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT. 461 brought out the earliest of that remarkable series of novels in which the Indian character was portrayed. He then turned to the sea, describing its wonders and its heroes. Not his own country alone, but other countries, welcomed the master, the fii'st of all Americans to be acknowledged such in the world of imagination. A later novelist, and one of a very different mould, appeared in William Ware, whose Letters from Pahnyra, or Zenobia, transported the reader from the freslmess of the present to the decaying grandeurs of antiquity. The James A. Hillhouse v/as the ideal dramatist, drama, joi^ Howard Payne the real. The former wrote his Percy's Masque from an English ballad, his Hadad from scriptural associations ; the latter sought the materials of his Brutus and his Clari amidst the copies and the tin- sels of the stage. Hillhouse deserves the name of poet. He was one of the first, the very first, of the present period to form a drama as one would form a poem, lofty and serene. The staple literature of the drama was like Payne's produc- tions, fit for the glare of the theatre, and fit for that alone. Poetry was beginning to find a place in Ameri- Poetry. ^^^ literature. Maria Brooks, the unpassioned au- thor of Zophiel, was a very different creature from the poets or poetesses of colonial times. Quite as imaginative, and far more delicate, was the fancy of Joseph Rodman Drake, who died so young that the poems he left were but the signs of what he might have done. A longer life was given to James Gates Percival, whose occasional pieces are full of rhythmic inspiration. Above them all, in point of purity and of devotion, if not of imagination, was William Croswell. His poems are but the flowers dropped along the path of priestly offices. Yet had they, and not the offices, been Ms work of works, he would not have lived in vain. Almost the same words may be written of Andrews 39* 462 PART IV. 1797-1850. Norton, whose little cluster of hymns will move many and many a heart beyond the reach of the theological and crit- ical compositions in which he spent his days. In art, likewise, the nation was rousing itself. Art Gilbert Stuart was the great portrait painter of his day. John Trumbull, if not a great historical painter, was more than equal to the majority then engaged in that branch of art. Then came Washmgton Allston, at once the historical and the portrait painter, the landscape and the ideal artist, in whom sublimity and delicacy, the grandeur of spirit and the accuracy of detail, all found expression. It seemed as if it must have been some other laud than ours, so material, so absorbed in the interests and in the strifes of outward life, that gave Allston being. But he came ; and after him there has come a line of painters and sculptors who look back to Allston as to their leader and their head. Of these, it becomes us to mention only the departed. But the names of Tliomas Cole, the painter, a native of England, and of Horatio Greenough, the sculptor, are such as to stand with honor for the living as well as for the dead. ^ ,. . Of the relimous development of the nation it is Eeligious ^ '■ ^ ^ develop- difficult to take any suitable notice in limits so con- fined as these. From one point of view, that of the strict schools, — no matter to what church they belonged, — there was a retrocession rather than an advance in religious interests. From the opposite point of view — that of the lib- eral schools — the advance was pronounced incomparable and irresistible. Between these contradictory opinions the truth lay. Religion was not more widely or more truly, but more mildly, professed. Its followers, with few exceptions, had put off their armor. Persecution, it is true, was not wholly abandoned ; if it did not wear its ancient forms, it came forth from time to time in unmistakable reality, some- NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT. 463 times on religious, sometimes on political or on social grounds. But there was no longer the same strife that there had been amongst creeds and forms. The very mul- tipHcity of these was enough to distract the champions who would fain do violence in behalf of their own cause. So many, indeed, were the adversaries outside of any single church, that men turned against one another on the inside, the bitterest contentions arising between different parties within the same fold. In point of mere names and num- bers, the churches of the early time retained much the same relative position in the later period. If any had altered in this respect, it was the Roman Catholics, to whom large accessions had been made by immigration ; but they still formed a small proportion of the mass of Christians. On the Protestant side, the Protestant EjDiscopal church re- sumed its earlier station between the Roman Catholics and other denominations. Amongst the later additions to the sects was the Mormon community, wliich, after various migrations, settled in Utah Territory, (1847.) No clearer proof of the national development, Charities. -, i • , n both spiritual and physical, could appear than in the charities of the time. The extent to which these were car- ried, especially towards the close of the period, shows all the increase of resources, all the expansion of principles, that had come to pass. The sums expended by the state and town authorities for the support of paupers alone amounted to three million dollars by the year. To this must be added the much larger sums devoted by associa- tions and by individuals for the relief of almost every form of want and of crime. All this was the more generously expended in being expended to a great degree for the ben- efit of foreigners, who constituted a large portion of the wretched, and by far the largest portion of the wretched of the lowest order. Besides the succor thus given to the 464: PART IV. 1797-1850. most pressing necessities, the circle of charity embraced many enterprises of a higher character. The insane, first cared for in the Lunatic Asylum of Williamsburg, Vir- ginia, (1773,) became the objects of charitable action throughout the country. The Friends' Lunatic Asylum was opened near Philadelphia, (1817;*) the American Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb in Hartford, (1807;) the Perkms Institution and Massachusetts Asylum for the Blind in Boston, (1832 ;) the Massachusetts School for Idiotic and Feeble-minded Youth, also in Boston, (1848 ;) all these being pioneers in labors greatly extended after- wards. Another class of charities is represented by the associations for the improvement of prisons and the refor- mation of prisoners; the Philadelphia societies (1776-87) leading the way. In tliis connection may be mentioned the abolition of imprisonment for debt, begun upon by Congress at an early date, (1792,) and afterwards generally carried out by state legislation. Religious and missionary bodies were also active in the cause of charity. The Pennsyl- vania Bible Society (1808) and the American Board of Foreign Missions (1810) were followed by a long line of associations intent upon saving the souls of men. c nciu- Kemembering aU that has gone before, the fee- Bion: the blcucss, the Strife, the continued errors of the earlier tho pres- ®^% "^^ shall uot be likely to fall into the vein of ent. overvaluing it, or of undervaluing the succeeding era. Nor, on the other hand, remembering the later events of our history, shall we imagine that the present puts the past to shame. Both periods have their virtues ; both their vices. If the past is to be regretted, it is only because its * Lunatics were received in the Pennsylvania Hospital from 1752. NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT. 465 power to do evil was less ; if the present bears away tlie palm, it is only because its power to do good is greater ; the increased resources and the increased responsibilities of the later period constituting the real distinction between it and the earher. It is the distinction between every preceding and every succeeding epoch, the only true progress of humanity. The same truth will help us to estimate the part the nation ^^ the nation in human history, that is, its relation in human to Other nations and to the common destinies of mankmd. We are not to suppose the United States in the front of the universe, nor, on the contrary, place them in the rear, simply because they are young and free. Youth implies both vigor and immaturity, and when a nation possesses not only youth but freedom, the certainty of its being both vigorous and immature is confirmed. Such is our position ; we are strong, but we are unformed. If we are younger than other countries, it is not altogether to our advantage ; there may be the "more for us to learn and to do before we become a complete nation. So, too, in being freer than other nations, we are exposed to dan- gers from which they are sheltered by their very bondage. The tendencies to lawlessness and to disunion are written in men's actions all around us. Tlieymust be met,' checked, and subdued, before our republic is safe in itself or noble in the eyes of the stranger. On both grounds, therefore, — on that of youth and that of freedom, — we are under responsi- bilities that sometimes seem greater than the accompanying privileges. At the same time, there is no doubt that we are the gainers by coming late and by coming free upon the stage of history. We have been animated by the great- ness, warned by the weakness, of earlier times. Their bur- dens are not upon our shoulders, their bonds are not upon our limbs ; what has been is not perpetually clashing with 4G6 'PART IV. 1797-1850. what is, or with what ought to be. Great, indeed, are our lessons, and great our resources ; great, therefore, should be our deeds. If they are not so, our rank, historically, sinks to insignificance. But if they are, if the deeds bear full proportion to the resources and the lessons, then, and then only, the part of the nation in human history will rise to majesty. APPENDIX. I. EUROPEAN SOVEREIGNS, AT ANY TIME RULING, OR CLAIMING RULE, OVER ANY PART OF THE PRESENT UNITED STATES. Spain. England. 1492. Ferdinand and Isabella. 1492. Henry VII. 1504. Ferdinand, Philip, and Jo- 1509. Henry VIII. amia. 1547. Edward VI. 1516. Charles I., (the Fifth of 1553. Mary. Germany.) 1558. Elizabeth. 1556. Philip II. 1603. James I. 1598. Philip III. 1625. Charles I. 1621. PhUip IV. [1649. Commonwealth." 1665. Charles II. 1660. Charles IL 1700. PhihpV. 1685. James II. 1746. FerdmandVI. 1689. Wilham and Mary. 1759. Charles III. 1702. Aime. 1788. Charles IV. 1714. George I. 1808. Joseph Napoleon. 1727. George IL 1814. Ferdinand Vn. 1760. George in. France. Holland. 1515. Francis I. Stadtholclers and Captains Gen 1547. Henry II. eral. 1559. Francis II. 1584. Maurice of Orange. 1560. Charles IX. 1625. Frederic Henry. 1574. Heniylll. 1647. WnUam H. 1589. Henry IV. [1650. Commonwealth.] 1610. Louis XIII. 1674. WilUam IH. 1643. Louis XIV. 1715. Louis XV. Sweden. 1774. Louis XVI. "1792. Revolution.] 1609. Gustavus Adolphus. 1804. Napoleon. 1632. Christina. (467) 468 APPENDIX. II. AMEEICAN AUTHORITIES. I. Presidents op the Continental Congress. 1774. 1775. 1777. 1778. 1779. 1781. 1782. 1783. 1784. 1786. 1787. 1788. Peyton Randolph, Henry Middleton, Peyton Randolph. John Hancock, Henry Laurens, John Jay, Samuel Huntington, Thomas McKean, John Hanson, Elias Eoudinot, Thomas Mifflin, Richard Heiuy Lee, Nathaniel Gorham, Arthur St. Clair, Cyrus Griffin, of Virginia. " South Carolina. " Massachusetts. " South Carolina. " New York. " Comiecticut. " Delaware. " Maryland. " New Jersey. " Pennsylvania. " Virginia. *' Massachusetts. " Pemisylvania. «« Virginia. n. National Administrations. 1. 1789-97. President, George Washington. Vice President. John Adams. Secretaries of State. 1789. Thomas Jefferson. 1794. Edmund Randolph. 1795. Timothy Pickering. Secretaries of the Treasury. 1 1789. Alexander Hamilton. 1795. Oliver Wolcott Secretaries of War. 1789. Henry Knox. , 1795. Timothy Pickering. 1796. James McHcnry. Postmasters General. 1789. Samuel Osgood. 1794. Timothy Pickering. 1795. Joseph Habersham. Attorneys General. 1789. Edmund Randolph. 1794. WiUiam Bradford. 1795. Charles Lee. Chief Justices. 1789. John Jay. 1796. WilHam Gushing. Ohver Ellsworth. Speakers of the House of Repre- seiitatives. 1789. Frederic A. Muhlenberg. 1791. Jonathan Trumbull. 1793. Frederic A. Muhlenberg. 1795. Jonathan Dayton. APPENDIX. 469 2. 1797-1801. President. John Adams. Vice President. Thomas Jefferson. Secretai'ies of State. Timothy Pickermg. 1800. John Marshall. Seeretaries of the Treasury. Oliver Wolcott. 1800. Samuel Dexter. Secretaries of War. James McHeniy. 1800. Samuel Dexter. 1801. Roger Griswold. Secretary of the Navy, 1798. Benjamin Stoddert. Postmaster General. Joseph Habersham. Attorney General. Charles Lee. Chief Justices. Oliver Ellsworth. 1801. John Marshall. Sjieakers of the House of Repre- sentatives, Jonathan Dayton. 1799. Theodore Sedgwick. 3. 1801-00. President. Thomas Jefferson. Vice Presidents. 1801. Aaron Burr. 1805. George Clinton. Secretary of State. 1801. James Madison. Secretaries of the Treasury. Samuel Dexter. 1802. Albert Gallatin. Secretary of War. 1801. Henry Dearborn. Secretaries of the Navy. Benjamin Stoddert. 1802. Robert Smith. 1805. Jacob Cro^^aiinshield. Postmasters General. Joseph Habersham. 1802. Gideon Granger. Attorneys General. 1801. Levi Lmcoln. 18t55. Robert Smith. 1806. John Breckenridge. 1807. Caesar A. Rodney. Chief Justice. John Marshall. Speakers of the Hotise of Repre- sentatives. 1801. Nathaniel Macon. 1807. Joseph B. Varnum. 4. 1809-17. Presidetit. James Madison. 40 Vice Presidents, 1809. George CHnton. 1813. Elbridge Geny. 470 APPENDIX. Secretaries of State. 1809. Robert Smith. 1811. James Monroe. Secretaries of the Treasury, Albert Gallatin. 1814. George AV. Campbell. Alexander J. Dallas. Secretaries of War. 1809. William Eustis. 1813. Jolin Armstrong. 1814. James Monroe. 1815. William H. Crawford. Secretaries of the Navxj. 1809. Paul Hamilton. 1813. William Jones. 1814. Benj. W. Crov.iiinshield. Postmastsrs General. Gideon Granger. 1814. Return J. Meigs. Attorneys General. Caesar A. Rodney. 1811. William Pinkney. 1814. Richard Rush. Chief Justice. Jolm Marshall. Speakers of the House of Repre- sentatives. Joseph B. Varnum 1811. Henry Clay. 1813. Langdon Cheves. 1815. Henry Clay. 5. 1817-25. President. James Monroe. Vice President. Daniel D. Tompkins. Secretary of State. 1817. Jolm Q. Adams. Secretary of the Treasury.^ 1817. WnUam H. Crawford. Secretary of War. 1817. John C. Calhoun. Secretaries of the Navy. Benj. W. Crowninshield. 1818. Smith Thompson. 1823. Samuel L. Southard. Postmasters General. Return J. Meigs. 1823. Jolm McLean. Attorneys General. Richard Rush. 1817. Wmiam Wirt. Chief Justice. John Marshall. Speakers of the Hozcse of Repre- sentatives. Henry Clay. 1820. John W. Taylor. 1821. Philip P. Barbour 1823. Henry Clay. 6. President. John Quincy Adams. Vice President. John C. Calhoun. 1825-29. Secretary of State. 1825. Henry Clay. Secretary of the Treasury m 1825. Richard Rush. APPENDIX. 471 Secretaries of War. 1825. James Barbour. 1828. Peter B. Porter. Secretary of the Navy. Samuel L. Southard. Postmaster General. Joliii McLean. Attorney General. William Wirt. Chief Justice. John Marshall. Speakers of the House of Repre- sentatives. 1825. Jolm W. Taylor. 1827. Andrew Stevenson. 7. 1829-37. President. Andrew Jackson. Vice Presidents. 1829. John C. Calhoun. 1833. Martin Yan Buren. Secretaries of State. 1829. Martin Yan Buren. 1831. Edward Livingston. 1833. Louis McLane. 1834. John Forsyth. Secretaries of the Treasury. 1829. Samuel B. Ingham. 1831. Louis McLane. 1833. William J. Duane. Roger B. Taney. 1834. Levi Woodbury. Secretaries of War. 1829. John H. Eaton. 1831. Lewis Cass. Secretaries of the Navy. 1829. John Branch. 1831. Levi Woodbury. ^ 1834. Malilon Dickerson. " Postmasters General. 1829. William T. Barry. 1835. Amos Kendall. Attorneys General. 1829. John M. Berrien. 1831. Roger B. Taney. 1834. Benjamin F. Butler. Chief Justices. John Marshall. . 1836. Roger B. Taney. Sj)eakers of the House of Repre- sentatives. Andx-ew Stevenson. 1834. John Bell. 1835. James K. Polk. 8. 1837-41. President. Martin Yan Buren. Vice President. Richard M. Johnson. Secretary of State. John Forsyth. Secretary of the Treasury. Levi Woodbury. Secretary of War. 1837. Joel R. Poinsett. Secretaries of the Navy, Mahlon Dickerson. 1838. James K. Paulding. Postmasters General. Amos Kendall. 1840. Jolm M. NHes. 472 APPENDIX. Attorneys General. Benjamin F. Butler. 1838. Felix Gioindy. 1810. Henry D. GHpin. Chief Justice. Roger B. Taney. Speakers of the House of Hei^re- sentatives. James K. Polk. 1839. Kobert M. T. Hunter. 9. 1841-45. Presidents. William Hemy Harrison. John Tyler. Vice President. • John Tyler. Secretaries of State. 1841. Daniel AVebster. 1813. Hugh S. Legar6. Abel P. Upshur. 1844. John C. Calhoun. Secretaries of the Treasury. 1841. Thomas Ewing. Walter For-\vard. 1813. John C. Sjaencer. 1811. George M. Bibb. Secretaries of War, 1841. Jolm Bell. John C. Spencer. 1813. James M. Porter. 1811. WiUiam WiUdns. Secretaries of the Navy. 1811. George E. Abel P. Badger. Upshur. 1813. David Henshaw. 1844. Thomas W. Gibner John Y. Mason. Postmasters General. 1841. Francis Granger. Charles A. AVickliffe. Attorneys General. 1811. John J. Crittenden. Hugh S. Legare. 1843. John Nelson. Chief Justice. Roger B. Taney. Speakers of the House of Repre- sentatives. 1841. Jolm A\Tiite. 1843. John W. Jones. 10. 1845-49. President. James Knox Polk. Vice President. George M. Dallas. Secretary of State. 1815. James Buchanan. Secretary of the Treasury. 1815. Robert J. Walker. Secretary of War. 1845. William L. Marcy. Seo'etaries of the Navy, 1845. George Bancroft. 1846. John Y. Mason. Postmaster General, 1845. Cave Johnson. APPENDIX. 473 Attorneys General. 1845. John Y. Mason. 1846. Nathan Clilford. 1848. Isaac Toucey. Chief Justice. Roger B. Taney. •Speakers of the House of Repre- sentatives. 1845. Jolin W. Davis. 1847. Eobert C. Winthrop. 11. Presidents. 1849. Zachary Taylor. 1850. lilillard Fillmore. Vice President. Millard Fillmore. Secretaries of State. 1849. John M. Clayton. 1850. Daniel Webster. Secretaries of the Treasury. 1849. William M. Meredith. 1850. Thomas Corwin. Secretaries of War. 1849. George W. Cra^-ford. 1850. Charles M. Conrad. Secretaries of the Navy. 1849. AViUiam B. Preston. 40* 1849-50. 1850. William A. Graham. Secretaries of the Interior. 1849. Thomas Ewing. 1850. Alexander H. H. Stuart. Postmasters General. 1849. Jacob Collamer. 1850. Nathan K. Hall. Attorneys General. 1849. Reverdy Johnson. 1850. John J. Crittenden. Chief Justice. Roger B. Taney. S2)eaJcer of the Eouse of Repre- sentatives. 1849. Howell Cobb. INDEX Aben^akis, 57. wars mth, 118-20. Abolitionism, 166, 304, 408. Acadie, 18, 19, 138, 142, 145, 149. Acts of Parliament, 105, 174, 175, •186, 187, 193, 195, 198, 200, 201, 293, 208, 211. Adams, John, 197, 203, 204, 222, 223, 240, 263, 276, 297, 307, 316, 325, 326, 331, 332. Adams, John Quincy, 312, 375, 386, 390-93, 395. Adams, Samuel, 199, 203. Administrations, 468. Admiralty, 169, 187. Africans, 60. Alabama, 141, 337, 382, 396, 402. Alexandria Convention, 280. Algonquins, 56, 57. Alien act, 333. Allston, Washington, 462. America, discovered, 5, 9, 22. named, 11. • American Association, 203, 207. American system, 394. Ames, Fisher, 321. Andros, Sir Edmund, 107-109, 119, 145. Annapolis Academy, 458. Annapolis Convention, 283. Arkansas, 382, 415, 425. Anned neutrality, 254. Armv of the revolution, 210-212, 23i, 238,239, 258, 264, 265. provisional, 332. ■ of the war with Great Britain, 357, 361,367. of the war with Mexico, 431, 435, 440. Arnold, Benedict, 211, 216, 229, 252, 257, 260. Art, in the colonies, 162, 163. in the United States, 295, 462. Assemblies, colonial, 190. Astor Library, 458. Audubon, J. J., 460. Austin, Stephen F., 417, 418. Bacon, Nathaniel, 106, 107. Baltimore, 356. defence of, 366. Baltmiore, Lords, 43, 78, 101. Bank of North America, 273. Bank of United States, 302, 368, 380, 405-108. Banking, colonial, 174. national, 412. Baptists, 92, 93, 127, 164. Bartram, John and William, 162. Belcher, Jonathan, 173. Belknap, Jeremy, 291, 459. Berkeley, Sir Wilham, 106, 107, 159. Berlin decree, 345. Bibles, editions of, 160. Billings, William, 295. Bishops proposed, 110, 165. appointed, 279. Black Hawk, 409. Bladensburg battle, 365. Blair, James, 158. Block, Adi-ian, 48. Board of trade, 169. Bonaparte, Charles L., 160. Boston, 37, 168, 173, 175, 196, 198, 200, 201. siege of, 214, 218. Bowditcli, Nathaniel, 460. Bovle, Robert, 114. Bradford, William, 33, 34. Bradstreet, Simon, 103, 108. Brainerd, David, 123. Brandymne battle, 235. Bridgewater battle, 362. Bromfield, Edward, 162. Brooks, Maria, 461. Brown, Charles B., 460. Bro-\\'n, General Jacob, 360, 862. Buena Vista battle, 434. Bunker Hill battle, 213. Burgoyne's defeat, 234, 235. (475) 476 INDEX. Burke, Eflmmia, 208, 217- Bumet, Wiimim, 172, 173. Burr, Aaron, 341. Cabot, John, 22. Sebastian, 22, 23. Calef, Robert, 96. Calhoun, John C, 355, 392, 403, 426, 447, 449, 458. California, 135, 435, 436, 442, 444, 446-451. Calvert, Sir George, 27, 43. Camden battle, 250. Canada, 17, 19, 136, ISS, 142, 154, 201, 216, 420. Canals, 454. Cancello, Luis de, 14. Canonchet, 118, 119 Canonicus, 116. Cape Ann colony, 36. Capital, national, 301. Carolana, 45, 78. Carolina, 17, 78. Caroline, burning of the, 420, 421. Carver, John, 51. Catesby, Mark, 163. Central America, relations with, 389. Cerro Gordo battle, 438. Channing, William E., 416, 459. Chapultepec battle, 439. Charities, public, 463, 464. Charleston, 79, 246, 250, 261. defence of, 228. Charter governments, 38, 88. Charters assailed, 104, 108, 170. Cherokees, 58, 393, 396. ' wars with, 121. Chesapeake, affair of, 343, 344. Chickasaws, 58. ■ war with, 144. Chihuahua conquered, 434, 435. Child, llobert, and fellow petition- ers, 91. Chippewa battle, 362. Church of England, 65, 91, 164, 279. Churches in the colonies, 91, 164. in the states, 279, 298. Churubusco battle, 439. Cincinnati Society, 269. Clarke, John, and fellow Baptists,92. Classes in colonies, 85, 87. Clav, Henry, 355, 375, 386, 387, 403, 407, 414, 449, 450. Clay1)orne, William, 45. Cole, Thomas, 462. Coligny, Admiral de, 17. Colleges, 29, 30, 158, 455. Columbia Convention, 399. Columbus, 7-11, 22. Commercial rule over the colonics, 105, 174, 183. Commissioners, British, to Massa- chusetts, 103. to New York, 130. to United States, 241. Companies, Dutch, 48, 49, 127, 128. English, 26, 27, 31, 42. French, 136, 143. Swedish, 54. Compromises, constitutional, 287- 290. Missouri, 385, 386. tariff, 403. — Texas, 426, 427. — of 1850, 449-451. Conant, Roger, 36. Concord battle, 209. Conestoga massacre, 122. Confederation, 225, 254. Congress, stamp act, 188-191. — Continental, 202-204, 211, 212, 215, 221-225, 227, 231-233, 238- 241, 244, 245, 251, 252, 254. of the Confederation, 255, 258, 263-265, 270, 272, 274-276, 281, 293. of the Constitution,', 296, 299- 305, 308, 318, 321, 323, 324, 337, 338, 346, 351, 353, 355, 367, 376, ^82-388, 391, 394, 396-398, 492, 403, 405-407, 409-412, 414, 417, 420, 421, 427, 431, 447-451. of Panama, 391. Congresses, Provincial, 202, 206, 211, 212. Connecticut, 40, 41, 76, 104, 108- 110, 129, 210, 225, 275, 278, 369, 370, 382. Consolidation of colonics, 107-110. Constitution, national, 279-293. amendments, 299 Constitutions, state, 225, 277, 278, 306, 382, 387, 422-125. Contreras battle, 439. Conventions, colonial, 167, 104, 201. constitutional, 280, 282, 292, 293. Cooper, J. Fenimore, 460. Copley, John Singleton, 163. Cornbury, Lord, 171- Cornwallis's surrender, 259, 260. Council for New England, 32, oO, 41 , Cowcnga capitulation, 436. INDEX. 477 Cowpons battle, 256. Credit, public, 300, 416. Creeks, 58, 392, 393. —— wars with, 367, 380, 410. Crisis of 1837, 412, 413. Croswell, William, 461. Cro^vn, supremacy of, 102. Crozat, Antoine, 141, 142. Cruger, Henry, 207- Dahcotas, 5Q. Dare, Virginia, 24. Dearborn, General Henry, 357, 360. Debt, imprisonment for, 464. public, 300, 301, 378, 408, 446. Decatur, Captain Stephen, 364, 377. Declaration of rights and liberties, 188, 189. of colonial rights, 203. ' of independence by Mecklen- burg county, 210. by Congress, 223, 224, 227; Decrees, French, against American commerce, 317, 323, 331, 347, 348, 353. D'Estaing, Count, 243, 244, 247. De Grasse, Count, 259, 260. De Kalb, Baron, 250. Delaware, 82, 225, 281, 282, 292. Delawares, 57. wars with, 121, 122. Democratic party, 411. Democratic republicans, 308, 314. Deposits in United States Bank removed, 406, 407. Deseret, 448.- D'Iberville, Lemoine, 141, 146. Dickinson, John, 193, 203, 222, 292. Dictatorship of Washington, 232. Doniphan, Colonel, 434, 435. Dorr, Thomas W., 424, 425. Drake, Sir Francis, 23, 24. Joseph R., 461. Dunster, Henry, 93. Edwards, Jonathan, 123, 161. Education, 157, 158. Eliot, John, 40, 103, 113-115. Embargo, under Washington, 318. • under Jefferson, 346, and sub- stitutes, 347. vmder Madison, 351, 367, 368. Endicott, John, 36. England, John, 159. England, 65, 71-73, 179. English dominion at its height in America, 177, 179. Espejio, De, 15. Europe, 3-5, 61-66. European sovereigns, 467. Eutaw Springs battle, 257. Excise, 300, 308. Exeter insurrection, 270. Exploring Expedition, 456. Federal and anti-federal, 284, 286. Federal Convention, 282, 290. Federal RepubKcan, of Baltimore, 356. Federalist and anti-federalist, 291, 302, 314, 318. Federalist, the, 292. Fillmore, Millard, 451. Five Nations, 57, 120. wars with, 144, 147, 148. Fletcher, Benjamin, 109. Florida, Spanish and British, 13, 14, 131, 132, 135, 263, 313, 336, 339, 350, 381. American, 381, 416, 425. Foot's resolution, 397, 398. Foreign relations, 215, 240, 312, 379, 389, 410. Foreigners, protection of, 376. Fort Bowser, 372, 373. Brown, 433. Erie, 362. Lee, 229. McHenry, 366, Moultrie, 228. Meigs, 359. Mercer, 236, 237- Mifflin, 236. Stevenson, 359. Sullivan, 228. Washington, 229. France, 64, 67-71. alliance with, 240. war with, 332. relations with, 313-317, 322, 323, 331, 332, 334, 336, 338, 344, 345, 347, 348, 353, 358, 410, 411. Franklin, I3cnjamin, 159, 160, 161, 108, 192, 202, 223, 240, 263, 283, 285, 287, 290. Franklin, or Frankland, 271. Free soil party, 445. Fremont, John C, 435, 436.^ Freneau, Philip, 294. French in the revolution, 240, 243, 244, 252, 258-261. Frenchtown battle, 358, 359. Fugitive slaves, 86, 99, 289. Fugitive slave laws, 448, 449, 451. 478 INDEX. Gadsden, Christopher, 188, 203, 206. Gaijfc, General, 200, 206, 211. Gallatin, Albert, 308, 355, 375, 460. Gaspc revenue schooner, 197. Gates, General Horatio, 23-1, 237, 238, 250. General govcrament for the colo- nies, 35, 3G, 99, 107-110, 168, 170. Genet's mission, 315, 316. Georgia, 82, 133, 215, 225, 246, 277, 392, 393, 395, 396, 402. Georgia controversy, 393. Germantown battle, 235. Gerry, Elbridge, 287, 290, 331, 378. Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 23, 24. Godfrey, Thomas, 162. Gorges, Sir Ferdinando, 31, 35, 36, 38, 74. Gorton, Samuel, 98, 117. Gosnold, Bartholomew, 25, 27. Gourgues, De, 18. Governors, royal, 106, 171. Gray's voyage, 432. Great Britain^ relations with, 276, 313, 314, 317-320, 342-345, 347, 348, 351, 379, 420, 421, 431, 432. (Sec Treaties, Wars.) Greene, General Nathaniel, 251, 256, 257, 259. Greenough, Horatio, 462. Grenville, Sir Richard, 24. Guilford battle, 256. Gun boats, Jefferson's, 346. Halduyt, Richard, 27. Hamilton, Alexander, 239, 255, 279, 280, 283, 284, 292, 299, 300, 307, 308, 318, 335, 341. Hanson, Alexander, 356. Harrisburg Convention, 394. Harrison, AVilliam Henry, 349, 358, 359, 421. Hartford Convention, 369-372. Harvard, John, 39. Harvard College, 39, 93, 96, 194 Harvey, Reuben, 263. Hawley, Joseph, 195, 204. Hayno, Robert Y., 398. Heckewelder, John, 311. Henry, Patrick, 187, 203, 20-1. Hillhouse, James A., 461. Hobart, John H., 4-59. Hobkirk's Hill battle, 256. Hopkinson, Francis, 294. Holmes, Abiel, 459. Houston, Samuel, 418, 423. Hudson, Henry, 47. Huguenots in Carolina, 17, 18, 79. Hull, Captain Isaac, 364. Hull, General William, 358. Hutchinson, Anne, 40. Illinois, 139, 201, 242, 337, 341, 382, 415. Immigration, 453. Impressment, British, 175, 317, 342, 344, 353,375,376,422. Indented servants, 85, 86, 278. Independence, American, idea of, 220, 221. resolution of, 222, 223. Independent treasury, 413, 414. Indiana, 142, 275, 382, 415. territory, 337- Indians, tribes and numbers, 56-58, 453. removal of, 349, 393. (See Treaties, Wars.) Insolvency of states, 414, 415. Iowa, 425. Iroquois, 56, 57. (See Five Na- tions.) Jackson, Andrew, 324, 367, 372, 373, 380, 381, 392, 395-397, 401, 402, 405-409, 411, 417, 419, 428. Jay, John, 203, 221, 249, 263, 292, 299, 318-320. Jay's treaty, 319-21. Jefferson, Thomas, 223, 274, 276, 299, 305, 307, 308, 318, 326, 331, 333, 338, 339, 343, 346, 347, 384. Jones, John Paul, 248, 249. Judiciary, national, 2t)9. Judges, colonial, at king's pleasure, 176. Kalm, Peter, 163. Kent, James, 459. Kentucky, 215, 271, 306. King's Moimtain battle, 253. King's Province, 76, 104. Laconia, 35. Lafayette, Marquis de, 233, 241, 244, 249, 251, 259-261, 268, 277, 296, 325, 388. Lake Champlain, action on, 363. Erie, action on, 359. La Salle, 139, 140. Laurens, Henry, 254, 263. Law, English, in the colonies, 87. Lee, General Charles, 228, 238, 241, 242. INDEX. 479 Lee, General Henry, 309, 356. Richard Henry, 203, 204, 222. Legare, Hugh Swinton, 459. Leisler, Jacob, 108^ Leverett, John, 105, 119. Lewis and Clarke's expedition, 432. Lexington battle, 209. Libraries, 457. Ligonia, 74. Lincoln, General Benjamin, 246, 247, 250, 270. Little Belt, affair of, 350. Literature of the colonies, 161, 162, 167. of the United States, 291, 292, 294, 458-i61. Livingston, Edward, 459. Livingston, Robert R., 223, 338. Locke, John, model for Carolina, 88. London Company, 27, 29. Long Island battle, 229. Louisiana, American, 338-340, 350, 373, 415. French and Spanish, 133, 135, 139-143, 154, 338. district of, 340, 350. Loyalists, 217, 263. Madison, James, 272, 283, 292, 326, 334, 347, 351, 355, 378, 380, 398. Maine, 19, 31, 35, 36, 74, 75, 104, 138, 271, 385, 386, 420, 421. Manhattans, 5J. wars Avith, 125. Manufactures, colonial, restricted, 170, 174. — — nationa,l, developed, 394, 453. Mariana, 35. Marion, Francis, 250. Marquette, 139. Marshall, John, 331, 341. Martin, Luther, 287, 289, 291. Marvland, 43, 44, 77, 108, 129, 157, 225, 255, 289,_415. Mason, John, 35, 36. Massachusetts, 37-39, 75, 99, 102- 105, 108, 114, 129, 157, 166, 173, 194, 200, 202, 206. 210, 212, 225, 270, 275, 278, 279, 293, 368-371, 376, 386, 421. Mather, Cotton, 96, 164, 165. Mather, Increase, 96, 119. Mavhew, Jonathan, 177, 187- Ma'yhcw, Thomas, 113, 114. McDonough, Captain, 363. Mecklenburg county, 210. Melendez de Avilez, 14, 17. Methodist Episcopal church, 279. Mexico, relations with, 409, 425, 427-429. Miantonimoh, 116, 117. Michigan, 139, 337, 341, 358, 360, 415, 425. Milan decree, 345. Military rule over the colonies, 175, 176, 183. MiUtia, in the revolution, 206, 215, 231. in the war with Great Britain, 357, 367, 371. Minnesota, 446. Minors, enlistments of, 367, 372. Minuit, Peter, 50, 52, 55. Missions, French, 19, 20, 120, 138, 139, 142. English, 113-115, 123. I^Ioravian, 122, 124, 311. Spanish, 14, 131, 132. Mississippi, 141, 337,^382, 415, 416. territory, 337, 350, 382. navigation of, 258, 276, 313. Missouri, 142, 154, 340, 350, 382, 387. compromise, obi "«5, 386. M'Leod, Alexander, 420. Mobilians, 56, 58. Mohawks, 57, 120, 125. Mohegans, 57, 116, 117. Molino del Rey battle, 439. Monmouth battle, 242. Monroe, James, 322, 338, 343, 355, 380, 381, 386, 388-390. doctrine, 389-391. Monterev taken, 433. Moravians, 83, 122, 124, 811. Mormons, 448, 463. Morris, Robert, 273. Morton, Thomas, 42. Mother country, relations with colo- nies, 102, 169, 183. Moultrie, Colonel, 228, 247. Narragansetts, 57, 116. war with, 117, 118. Natchez Indians, 58. war with, 144. National University, 456. Navigation acts, 105. Navy of the revolution, 215, 216, 237, 248, 249. of the war with France, 332. of the war with Tripoli, 338. of the war with Great Britain, 357, 359, 363-365, 374. 480 INDEX. Navy of the war with Algiers, 377- of the war with Mexico, 436- 438. Neutrality proclaimed by Washing- ton, 315, 322. Neutrals, 317, 319, 323, 342, 353, 375. New Albion, 23, 45. Amstel, 128. Amsterdam, 50 ; first city in the United States, 127- Connecticut, 272. England, 31, 76, 99, 107. France, 17, 136-138, 140. Hampshire, 36, 75, 104, 210, 225, 270, 272, 278. Hampshire grants, 76,271,272. Jersey, 80, 108-110, 172, 225, 230, 254, 255, 281. Mexico, 15, 435, 442, 446-451. Netherland, 48, 125, 127, 130. Orleans, 143, 154, 338, 372, 373. Orleans battles, 372, 373. Somersetshire, 36, 74. Sweden, on, 127, 128. York, colony and state, 79, 107-111, 130, 139, 167, 172, 176, 196, 225, 255, 256, 272, 274, 279, 292, 420. York city, 50, 229, 292, 412. Newburg Addresses, 264. Newport, 230, 243, 248. Newspapers, 159, 160. Non-importation and non-inter- course, 191, 318, 332, 347, 368. North Carolina, 78, 120, 121, 197, 221, 225, 281, 292, 299, 305, 308, 402. North-eastern boiindary, 420, 421. Point battle, 366.. Northern and southern parties, 272, 273, 288, 303, 369, 383-387, 397, 445-447. North-west Territory, 275, 305. Norton, Andrews, 461. Nullification in Kentucky, 333. in Virginia, 333, 395. in Massachusetts, 371, 372, 376, 377. in Connecticut, 371. in Georgia, 393, 395. in South Carolina, 395, 399- 403. Occupations, 156, 453. Oglethorpe, James Edward, 82, 83, 133, 134. Ohio, 142, 275, 341, 358, 360. Company, 151. Opcchancanough, 115. Orders in council, British, against American commerce, 317, 345, 347, 353. Oregon, 432, 446. controversy, 431, 432. Orleans, Territory of, 340. Osceola, 410. Otis, James, 177, 186, 188. Ottawas, 57. war with, 122. Paine, Thomas, 294. Palo Alto battle, 433. Panama, congress of, 391. Papal bull in favor of Spain, 10. Paper money, 232. Parliament, authority of, 104-106, 174, 186. (See Acts.) Parties, in the colonies, 184, 191, 196, 217, 222, 226. in the United States, 226, 273, 285, 286, 288, 291, 299, 302, 303, 307, 308, 314, 316, 320, 321, 323, 324, 330, 333, 335, 339, 355, 368, 369, 383-387, 411, 445. Patroons, 50. Pavne, John H., 461. Penn, William, 81, 101, 167. Pennsylvania, 81, 101, 109, 122, 142, 157, 166, 225, 277, 278, 281, 292, 308, 415, 416. f insurrection, 308, 309. Pequots, 57. war with, 116. Percival, James G., 461. Perry, Lieutenant Oliver H., 359. Persecution in Massachusetts, 43, 91-95, 98. in other colonies, 96, 97. in New Netherland, 127. Pessacus, 117. Philadelphia, 81, 101, 167, 198, 235, 241. Philip, King, 117. war with, 117-119. Phips, Sir William, 95, 146. Pickering, John, 459. Pinckney, Charles C, 283, 289, 323 331. Plymouth, *32-34, 74, 100, 104, 113, 117, 119, 146. Plymouth Company, 31. Pokanokets, 57. war with, 117-119. INDEX. 481 Polk, James K., 427, 431, 432,441, 444, 445. Ponce de Leon, 13. Pontiac, 122. Population, 184, 298, 357, 452. Powhatans, 57, 112. war ynth, 115. Presbyterians, 91, 279. Presidents of Congress, 468. Press, the,. 158-160, 457. Prisoners of war, 262, 376. Proprietary governments, 43, 88, 89. Protective system, 394, 397, 403, 404, 445. Protestant Episcopal chui-ch, 279, 298, 463. Providence, 41, 76. Pulaski, Count, 246, 247- Puritans in Holland, 32, 49. Quakers, 80, 81, 91, 94, 97, 127, 164, 166. Queenstown battle, 360. Quiney, Josiah, Jr , 194, 197. Quintuple treaty, 421. Tlaihvays, 455. Raleigh, Sir Walter, 24. Kandolph, Edmund, 283, 290, 296, 299, 307, 320. Rasles, Sebastian, 120. Reed, Esther, 2^53. Reed, Henry, 460. Reformation, 61-63. Regulators, 197- Removals from office by Jackson, 395. Republican party, 303, 314, 380. Repudiation, 41o, 416. Resaca de la Palma battle, 433. Revolution of 1688, 71, 108. Revolution, war of. — Three Peri- ods, 227, 243: First, ' 206-219 ; Second, 227-242, Third, 243- 260. Rhode Island, 41, 76, 97, 100, 104, 108, 198, 202, 210, 225, 256, 278, 293, 299, 369. Rhode Island, sedition and war in, 422-i25. Right of search. (See Impress- inents.) of visit, 421. Robinson, John, 113. Rochambeau, Count de, 252, 259- 261. 41 Roman Catholics, 96, 164, 278, . 279, 298, 463. Royal African Company, 170. pro\inces, 30, 89. Rutledge, John, 203, 246, 289. Sackett's Harbor, defence of, 360, 362. Saltonstall, Sir Richard, 93. Saratoga battles, 234. Saussaye, De, 19. Savannah, 83, 246, 247, 261. Schools, 157, 158, 455. Schuyler, General Philip, 234. Science in the colonies, 161, 162. in the United States, 460. Scott, General Winfield, 362, 410, 437-440. Secession of South Carolina, 395. Sedition act, 333. Settlements, Spanish, 13-16, 132, 135. French, 17-21, 138-143. English, 22-46, 74-83. Dutch, 47-53, 129. Swedish, 54, 55, 127, 128. Seminoles, 58. wars with, 380, 410. Shawanoes, 57. wars with, 121, 122, 349. Shawomet, 98. Sha^s's insurrection, 270. Slaves, first in America, 10 ; first in United States territory, 28, 60. Slavery in colonies, 86, 166. in the United States, 278, 288, 289, 409. in the territories, 274, 275, 304, 305, 337, 383, 384. in District of Columbia, 447, 449-451. in Louisiana, 339, 383. in Missouri, 382-385. in Texas, 419, 425-427, 446, 447. in New Mexico and California, 447, 448. Slave representation, 288. Slave trade, 170, 171, 199, 278, 288, 303, 304, 387 Smith, John, 27, 28, 31, 112. Smithsonian Institution, 456. Society for propagating the Gospel m New England, 114. for propagating the Gospel in Foreign Parts, 165. Sons of ^Liberty, 196. 482 INDEX. South America, relations with, 389. Carolina, 78, 120, 121, 157, 167, 225, 250, 395, 399-403. Spain, mistress of the west, 9. — — relations with, 275, 313, 336, 339, 350, 380, 381. Specie payments suspended, 368, 412. Spoliations, 379, 410, 428. St. Augustine, first town in United States, 15. St. Sauveur, 19. Standish, Miles, 31, 43. State, subordinate to nation, 392, 404. Steamboats, 455. Steuben, Baron de, 258. Stony Point, taken, 248. Story, Joseph, 459. Stuart, Gilbert, 462. Moses, 459. Stuyvesant, Peter, 127-129. Sub-treasury, 413, 414. Sumter, Thomas, 250. Surplus revenue, 408. Susquehannas, 57. war with, 115. Tariffs, 300, 379, 394, 395, 397, 403, 445. Taxation, parliamentaiy, 105, 173, 174, 186, 187, 193, 203. Taxes, national, 332, 368, 380. Taylor, Zachary, 430, 433, 434, 448, 451. Tea destroyed, 198, 199. Tecumseh,' 349, 360. Telegraphs, 455. Tennessee, 205, 271, 306. Territories, Jefferson's plan of or- ganizing, 274. Territory, colonial, 156. national, 444, 452. South of the Ohio, 305, 306. Texas, 140, 417, 442, 446, 447, 449- 451.- revolution, 418. annexation, 418, 419, 425-427. Thacher, Oxenbridge, 177, 187. Thames, battle of the, 360. Ticondcroga taken, 211. - — lost, '234. Tippecanoe, battle of the, 349. Tohopeka battle, 367. Towais, 89. Treaties of Aix-la-Chapelle, 134, 150, 171. Treaties of Breda, 130. Ghent, 375, 376. Guadalupe Hidalgo, 441-443. Paris, 134, 154, 179. Paris and Versailles, 263. Ryswick, 147. Seville, 133. Utrecht, 133, 142, 148, 171. Versailles, 263. "Washington, 421, 422. with Algiers, 311, 377. with Creeks, 307, 380, 393. with Five Nations, 148, 149. \Wth France, 240, 336, 338, 340, 410. with Great Britain, 263, 276, 319, 343, 375, 421. with Indians, 300, 367, 377, 380, 393. with Mexico, 428, 441-443. wdth Prussia, 274 {yiote), 312. wdth Spain, 313, 381. Transylvania, 216. Trenton and Princeton battles, 230. TrumbiUl, John, 294. John, Jr., 462. ' Tucker, Dean, 208. Tuscaroras, 58. war with, 120. Tyler, John, 421, 424, 425. • Uncas, 116-118. Union, colonial — United Colonies ofNewEngland,99,100, 117,118. Penn's plan, 167. Coxe's, 167. Franklin's, 167. Hahfax's, 168. United States of America, 224. Utah, 448. Valley Forge, 239. Van Buren, Martin, 406, 412. Van der Donck. Adrian, 126, 127. Van Murray, William, 334. Vera Cruz taken, 437. Vennont, 76, 271, 272, 396. Vespucci, Amerigo, 11. Virginia, 26, 28-31, 77, 195, 198, 202, 221, 225, 247, 256, 257, 271, 274, 280, 292, 301, 321, 395, 402. Vizcaino, Sebastiano, 15. Volunteers of the Mexican war, 430, 431, 433, 440. "Walloon colony, 49. Ware, William, 461. INDEX. 483 Warren, Joseph, 210, 213. Wars, Dutch, 51, 52, 129, 130. French, 19, 133, 145-155. King William's, 145-147. Queen Anne's, 147, 148. King George's, 149, 150. Final, 150-154. ♦ —— Indian, with English, 106, 115-123, 146, 147, 148. with Dutch, 125, 126. with French, 144, 146, 148. with Spanish, 131-135. United States, with Algiers, 377. with Florida, 381. XA-ith France, 331, 332 -— with Great Britain, 350, 351, 353-378. Wars with Indians, 309, 310, 349, 367, 380, 409, 446. with Mexico, 427-443. with Tripoli, 338. Warwick, Earl of, 40, 99. ^ Wayne, General Anthony, 248, 310. Washington, before the revolution, 151, 153, 187, 195, 200, 202-204, 210. commander in chief, 212-219, 221, 228-233, 235-239, 241-248, 251-253, 255, 258-260, 262-267. after the revolution, 268, 276, 277, 282, 292, 294. president, 296-209, 302, 305- 310, 315, 316, 318-325. in retirement, 332, 335. ♦• » 1 1- 1^ 1 1, IP