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( V L E N 1 ) A R 
 
 H CIVIL AND ECCLESIASTICAL. J 
 
 I 
 
 A LAYMAX OF THE GERMAN REFORMED CHURCH. 
 
 
 FROM THE ATRTL NUMBER OF THE MERCERSBT T RC« REVIEW. 
 
 CHAMBER SB URG, PA : 
 
 PRINTED BY M. KIEFPER & CO 
 
 1858. 
 

THE 
 
 CALENDAR, 
 
 CIVIL AND ECCLESIASTICAL 
 
 A LAYMAN OF THE GERMAN REFORMED CHURCH. 
 
 FROM THE APRIL NUMBER OF THE MERCERSBURG REVIEW. 
 
 CHAMBERSBTJRG, PA: 
 
 PRINTED BY M. KIEFFER & CO 
 
 1858. 
 
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 &,Q,Steiuor 
 16Ja'04 
 
Among the strange fahles which compose the structure of 
 Grecian Mythology, we find one that refers to the god 
 Chronos, who presided over time ; an old man weighed 
 down with years and accumulated infirmities, whose long, 
 grey locks are moved by the passing wind, gently or rapid- 
 ly as this may come in the form of the light zephyr, or the 
 rude and stormy blast of old Boreas. In his right hand he 
 holds the relentless scythe, with which all are cut down at 
 the appointed time, — all, whether rich or poor, old or 
 young ; those whose years have been filled with good works 
 and bright deeds, or those whose manly breasts are but 
 prepared for noble encounters. The serpent biting its tail, 
 appears by his side, the ancient emblem of time, or rather 
 of the year. In his left hand a child is held, as if to be de- 
 voured by the god; for since he " brings an end to all things 
 which have had a beginning, he may be said to devour his 
 own offspring." A similar representation is given in Eo- 
 man Mythology of the god Saturn, who was the father of 
 the Olympian Jove, and one of the descendants of primeval 
 Chaos. These representations satisfy us, that man does 
 not require any higher illumination, than that which flows 
 from the dim lamp of Mature, to make him conscious of 
 the passage of time, or, that this is marked by the destruc- 
 tion of bright and shining members of his own race, — the 
 darling children of an hour, petted and nursed by the del- 
 icate care of time and then subjected to the destroyer's 
 power. The Eoman poet in his Ode to Postumus, recog- 
 nizes this peculiarity with much pathos, when he exclaims,* 
 
 * Ehett fugaces, Postume, Postume, 
 Labuntur anni : nee pietas moram 
 Rugis et instanti senectae 
 
 Afferet indomitaeque morti. 
 -X- -* * * -K- # 
 
 Linquencla tellus, et domus, et placens 
 Uxor : neq-ue harum quas colis arborum, 
 Te, praeter invisas cupressos, 
 Ulla breyem doniinuni sequeter. 
 
 Hor. Carm. Lib. II, XIV. 
 
" How swiftly glide our flying years t 
 Alas! nor piety, nor tears 
 
 Can stop the fleeting day ; 
 Deep-furrowed wrinkles, posting age, 
 And death's unconquerable rage, 
 
 Are strangers to delay. 
 
 * # * # # * 
 
 Your pleasing consort must be left 
 And you of villas, lands bereft, 
 
 Must to the shades descend ; 
 The cypress only, hated tree, 
 Of all thy much-loved groves shall thee — 
 
 Its short-lived lord — attend !" 
 
 But the flight of time, when viewed, under the advantages 
 of a brighter light than that which illuminated the path of 
 Horace, becomes a" subject of the greatest importance to 
 the Christian mind. It is not only the loss of time that it 
 regrets, the nearing of the dark and gloomy tomb, the dis- 
 mal boughs of the cypress or the funereal trappings which 
 adorn the hearse on its saddest errand. These are all re- 
 pulsive to the light and joyous heart, but they may be sur- 
 rounded with such a halo of glory, that man " shall go to 
 his long resting place without a tear." It is not the un- 
 known Future that appalls. It is the misspent Past that 
 makes him cling to life with the fond hope that some good 
 deed may blot out the record of past omissions and com- 
 missions, and may make him worthier of a blessed reward 
 in the Future. This is the Christian's cause of regret, and, 
 notwithstanding it is based upon purer and higher and no- 
 bler reasons than that of the pampered child of luxury, yet 
 he must finally admit that of himself he can do nothing 
 which will repair the misdeeds of the Past, but must rely 
 on a higher power for assistance to labor aright during life. 
 His agonizing soul exclaims in the words of the Christian 
 Spanish poet : 
 
 " world ! so few the years we live, 
 
 Would that the life which thou dost give 
 
 Were life indeed ! 
 
 Alas ! thy sorrows fall so fast, 
 
 Our happiest hour is when at last 
 
 The soul is freed." 
 
These considerations point out one class of events as 
 marking periods in the great Calendar of Time, — the deaths 
 of those who have lived and struggled in the world. 
 Wherever death comes to a human being it impresses an 
 indelible mark upon the breast of some one who has learn- 
 ed to honor or to love the deceased. The event is the cen- 
 tral point around which will revolve the memories of the 
 Past with such a centripetal attraction that all the alluring 
 charms of the Present will not succeed in destroying the 
 relation. Who has not some such periods, marked with 
 indelible impressions and draped with sombre black, in 
 the Calendar of his own life ? To these, he refers all the 
 incidents of that life, — speaks of events that occurred so 
 long "before he or she died," and thus binds them to his 
 memory by friendly cords, even though these be entwined 
 with cypress. We say that every human being has such 
 periods in the arrangement of his private Calendar. 
 
 The patriot, on the bed of death, has a nation watching, 
 with breathless anxiety, every little symptom of his disease; 
 hope contends with despair; glad expectation with sorrow; 
 but the moment arrives and all is over. A nation weeps 
 and mournful dirges are borne along by the winds as they 
 sweep over the plain. A great leader has fallen and who 
 shall take his place ? Again, the Christian father or moth- 
 er is sinking under the exhausting effects of disease, and 
 the keenest anguish fills the breasts of their children. The 
 family circle is to be broken ; — the central jewel, around 
 which the less brilliant gems had been clustered, is to be 
 destroyed ; — that which had been the source of happiness 
 is to be removed. When death comes, know you not the 
 deep mark he will make in the record of each one's life, 
 by the sorrow that he throws so overwhelmingly over the 
 dazzling day-dreams of a happy future ? And there lives 
 no man so wretched or miserable, so wicked and lawless, 
 but the event of his death will form a mark in the Calen- 
 dar of Time precious to some heart who, it may be, loved 
 not wisely but too well. 
 
 But if sad marks are thus made on the Calendar, bright, 
 
6 
 
 happy ones appear also. The birth of a child constitutes 
 a bright epoch, which proud parents and loving relatives 
 refer to with great satisfaction ; and thus that Calendar, 
 which marks the progress of Time for each individual, has 
 periods both of sorrow and joy, of deep anguish and high 
 exultation. 
 
 On the present occasion, however, we wish to direct at- 
 tention to those divisions of the Calendar, that the necessi- 
 ties of civil life have formed, with the assistance of Astro- 
 nomical Science, and also those periods, with the laws for 
 their determination, which religion has set apart for holy 
 services. "We trust the subject may not seem too common- 
 place for close and careful examination. It often happens, 
 that a common subject may be very little understood, be- 
 cause our attention has never been directed to it. The 
 explanation of the Almanac, says the eminent Astronomer, 
 Arago, involves the most delicate and intricate points of 
 science and general learning. Let us then endeavor to 
 seize the main facts connected with its formation, and thus 
 be enabled to understand the divisions of time, by which 
 events in the civil history of man are recollected and accu- 
 rately fixed. The words Almanac and Calendar are used 
 indifferently in English to represent collections of tables, 
 containing subdivisions of time considered with reference 
 to artificial or natural relations. The first is derived from 
 an Arabic word, signifying the moon ; and its derivation 
 shows us, that the moon gave the peculiar laws by which 
 the division^ of time were determined among the Eastern 
 nations. Calendar is derived from the Latin word calendae, 
 which were the first days of each month in the year. 
 Whatever may have been the other subdivisions of time 
 adopted by mankind, that into days and years was fixed, 
 by the movements of the^earth in the heavens, beyond all 
 danger of conventional alterations. 
 
 By a day, we mean, ordinarily, the time occupied by the 
 Sun in an apparent revolution through the firmament; in 
 fact it is the amount of time consumed by the earth in 
 making one entire revolution on its axis. This period is 
 
divided into two portions, one during which a part of the 
 earth receives its light directly from the Sun's rays, and a 
 second when the only light, sent down, is from the moon 
 or the stars. The former is known also as clay and the 
 latter as night. This division has existed from the first 
 dawn of creation, when Omnipotent Power spake the word 
 and " divided the light from darkness," calling the light 
 Day, and the darkness Mght. The relation of length, how- 
 ever, between these two periods is not fixed for any particular 
 spot on the earth's surface, and between any two positions 
 there will always be great difference. At the north pole a 
 continuous clay of six months duration is followed by dark- 
 ness of an equal length of time, and those wdio are famil- 
 iar with the travels of our modern Arctic discoverers, will 
 recollect the descriptions of those long periods of light and 
 darkness, and how they affect the minds of men who have 
 been accustomed to the night and day of temperate or even 
 tropic latitudes. 
 
 The day, in the proper sense of the word, is controlled, 
 as w 7 e have said, by the revolution of the earth on its axis, 
 and has been divided from a very early period of history, 
 into twenty-four parts. Sometimes these were divided into 
 two periods, — one, that of the light, which had its twelve 
 equal divisions, and that of darkness, which was consider- 
 ed as composed also of twelve equal parts. With such an 
 arrangement, the hours of the night, during winter, would 
 be longer than those of the day, while during the months 
 of summer, an opposite relation would be established be- 
 tween the two, and no equality of hours could exist on any 
 other days of the year than the 21st of March and the 23rd 
 of September, when the periods of day and night are equal. 
 The more common division of the day, however, is into 
 equal portions, each of which consists of twelve hours. 
 
 Among some nations, as is the custom now of Astrono- 
 mers, the day was not divided into two periods, but the 
 hours were reckoned from one up to twenty-four. Astron- 
 omers follow T the custom of Ptolemy, and consider noon 
 as the commencement of the astronomical day, which 
 
8 
 
 of course then extends to noon of the next day. The be- 
 ginning of such a day is twelve hours after that of the civil 
 day, which takes place at midnight, and its termination is 
 also twelve hours later than the civil day. Almost all 
 modern nations regulate their civil day from midnight, and 
 they employ two initial points for designating time, the 
 beginning of the day and the middle, or noon, when the 
 sun is on tjie meridian ; but the relative position of any 
 hour is regulated by its relation to the middle point, being 
 called either the hour of the morning or the evening, as 
 it is before or after mid-day, and the fact is indicated, in 
 writing, by the abbreviations A. M., or P. M. 
 
 The Jews, as the pages of both Old and E"ew Testament 
 clearly show, the Chinese, the Italians and the ancient Athe- 
 nians began their day at the setting of the sun. One can well 
 understand how a simple people, devoted to agricultural 
 pursuits, not given to the studv and cultivation of science, 
 would naturally select as the commencement of their civil 
 day, either the rising or 7 setting of that bright orb, whose 
 beams were to give light to their path and to infuse ge- 
 nial warmth throughout the animal and vegetable king- 
 doms. These two events in the history of the day were 
 regarded as the great facts of the natural [world, to which 
 both the activity and living energy of all that possessed 
 life were due, since the rising of the sun was the great 
 stimulus to action and, when aweary of continual exertion, 
 the darkness, its setting produced, allowed of rest and re- 
 freshing repose to the animal world. There is thus a reason 
 arising from man's relations to nature for the adoption of 
 this notation. It also explains the reason for the form of 
 expression which Moses employs to denote the first days 
 of Creation, — " the evening and the morning were the first 
 day." A writer of the present day would say, " the morn- 
 ing and the evening," instead of employing the old form 
 which sprang from the mode of reckoning time in use with 
 the Jews* 
 
 The Italians, according to Arago,* have continued this 
 
 * Astronomie Populaire, I, 268. 
 
9 
 
 defective method down to the present time, counting the 
 hours regularly from one to twenty-four, and giving as 
 their reason for it, that travellers are kept in this way al- 
 ways reminded of how many hours they may employ be- 
 fore darkness shall surround them. The sun always sets 
 at 24 o'clock, according to this calculation, and if the watch 
 points 22 o'clock, we know that two hours will yet inter- 
 vene before the close of day. But the advantages of any 
 such system are really nothing as compared with the incon- 
 venience attendant upon constant daily alteration of time 
 pieces, and the impossibility of establishing any thing like 
 a methodical arrangement of daily business. The argu- 
 ments in favor of its retention must be based on blind love 
 of antiquity, and not on any advantages that are inherent 
 to it. 
 
 The same objections obtain, when we examine the meth- 
 od of the Babylonians, Syrians, Persians and Modern 
 Greeks, who take the rising of the sun as the initial point 
 of the day. This period, as well as the setting of the sun, 
 differs daily, and hence no clock regulated by either of 
 these events on one day would be strictly correct the sub- 
 sequent day. These methods spring from an age when 
 science was not known, but wherever it sheds its benig- 
 nant rays in the present day, we find that they are abolish- 
 ed, unless deep-rooted affection or irrational prejudice 
 should combine to prevent such an effect. 
 
 Whatever period may be adopted for the commencement 
 of the civil day, it must be determined by the aid of the 
 heavenly bodies, and thus, by a bond of necessary union 
 we are bound to the planets and stars that shine in the im- 
 mensity of space, — bound by such a harmonious relation 
 that all our daily duties are regulated by them, while their 
 inhabitants are in similar manner indebted to our planet 
 and its kindred, for the arrangement and control of their 
 daily avocations. And though our most ingeniously con- 
 trived and artistically finished Chronometers may render 
 our divisions of the time, which intervenes between the 
 fixed periods given by astronomical observations, some- 
 
10 
 
 what accurate and reliable, yet we are obliged continually 
 to alter them by the great regulators which the Eternal has 
 established in the skies. As our own American orator* so 
 beautifully expressed the idea in his oration on Astrono- 
 my — " for all the kindreds and tribes and tongues of men, 
 — each upon their own meridian — the eternal sun strikes 
 twelve at noon, and the glorious constellations, far up in 
 the everlasting belfries of the skies, chime twelve at mid- 
 night ; twelve for the pale student over his flickering lamp, 
 twelve amid the flaming wonders of Orion's belt, if he 
 crosses the meridian at that fated hour ; — twelve by the 
 weary couch of languishing humanity; — twelve in the star- 
 paved courts of the Empyrean; — twelve for the heaving 
 tides of the ocean ; twelve for the weary arm of labor ; 
 twelve for the toiling brain ; twelve for the watching, wa- 
 king, broken heart ; twelve for the meteor which blazes 
 for a moment and expires ; twelve for the comet whose 
 period is measured by centuries ; twelve for every substan- 
 tial, for every imaginary thing, which exists in the sense, 
 the intellect, or the fancy, and which the speech or 
 thought of man, at the given meridian, refers to the lapse 
 of time." 
 
 Astronomers take into consideration two kinds of clays, 
 the sidereal, which marks the interval of time between two 
 successive passages of any star over the meridian, and the 
 solar, which we have just considered, the interval between 
 " two consecutive passages of the Sun through the meri- 
 dian." The latter is the longer of the two, and constitutes 
 that which we have called the civil day. But while this 
 period of twenty-four hours is being determined by the 
 revolution of the Earth upon its axis, — or the apparent rev- 
 olution of the Sun about the Earth, the latter is under- 
 going itself a change of position in space which alters, with 
 each instant of time, its relation to the Sun. The Earth 
 revolves around the Sun, and this revolution requires a 
 much longer time than that required for the revolution on 
 its axis, giving the appearance of a constant change of 
 
 * Everett's Discourse on the Uses of Astronomy, 
 
11 
 
 position in the sun, and occupying an amount of time 
 which is called a year. The year then means the number 
 of days that are required by the sun in its apparent move- 
 ments, before it returns to the same position on the ecliptic, 
 whether this position be at the summer or winter solstices, 
 the autumnal or spring equinoxes. It is not composed 
 of an even number of solar days, but consists of three hun- 
 dred and sixty-five days and a fraction under six hours, 
 The difficulties which this fraction has created for astrono- 
 mers and chronologists in past history, as well as the plans 
 proposed to avoid further trouble about it, will be consid- 
 ered directly. 
 
 The year is divided into Seasons, which divisions, al- 
 though not employed as legal, yet are in use with all man- 
 kind. These are also determined by the relation of the 
 Earth to the Sun, so that the Record in the first chapter of 
 Genesis concerning the fourth day of Creation, can be lit- 
 erally interpreted, and the lights which were then estab- 
 lished in the firmament have been not only "for signs," but 
 also "for seasons^ and for days, and years." These seasons 
 are determined by the sun's apparent position on a great 
 circle called the ecliptic, which circle is inclined at an angle 
 of 23°, 27', 30" to the plane of the Equator. The sun in 
 making its apparent circuit on the ecliptic will twice in the 
 year cross the Equator, once in passing from south to north, 
 and the second time on its return ; these constitute the 
 Equinoxes. The period of time which marks its extreme 
 northern or southern position is called the Solstice. The 
 Equinoxes take place on the 21st of March and the 23rd 
 of September, and are known as spring and autumnal. 
 
 The solstices happen on the 21st of June and the 21st of 
 December and are called summer and winter solstices ; — 
 these are the periods when in our latitudes we should be 
 suffering most from intense heat or cold, but a number of 
 modifying causes generally delays the periods of greatest 
 heat and cold for some days beyond the Solstices. In Par- 
 is the fifteenth of July is about the period of maximum 
 heat, and the fourteenth of January that of maximum cold. 
 
12 
 
 The four seasons are thus determined by the Solstices and 
 Equinoxes, from the 21st of March to June 21st, we have 
 the season of Spring, from 21st of June to September 23rd, 
 Summer, from the latter to 21st December, Autumn, and 
 from that period to March 21st, Winter. These are the 
 seasons, as the movements of the sun determine them for 
 the northern hemisphere. They are the very opposite in 
 the southern portion of our globe, the spring of the north 
 corresponding to the autumn of the south, and the summer 
 of the south to the winter of the north. 
 
 But we are admonished by the want of space, not to 
 linger over this part of our subject. It would be profitable 
 to examine more closely the nature of the effects which the 
 Sun produces during the four seasons of the year, — to see 
 how the scenes of nature are changed as though by magic 
 power,- — to watch the gradual disappearance of snow and 
 ice at the termination of winter, — the gentle metamorpho- 
 sis of rough and craggy ice-bergs into streams that glide 
 down the hillside and make glad the verdure of the plain, 
 — to pluck the floral beauties which cover the meadow, — 
 to view, with thankful heart to the All-wise and Omnipo- 
 tent God, the fields with, their rich return for honest labor 
 as the evening winds may blow across the summits of the 
 waving grain, — or to join in the exultant shout of thank- 
 fulness that the devout heart pours forth in the song of 
 Harvest-home. The seasons are so many periods for at- 
 tracting man's attention to the wonders of Creation and 
 the greatness of the Creator, that they form an unending 
 theme for the philosopher and the poet. The harmony that 
 exists throughout all portions of creation is here shown in 
 its most wonderful form. Nothing is discordant. The 
 Master's hand has combined all in the wondrous notes 
 which are poured forth, by his creation, as tribute to the 
 Creator's power. The seasons follow as regular develop- 
 ments of each other. 
 
 The childhood of Spring, bright and gleesome, is but the 
 bud which will develop into the glorious maturity of Sum- 
 mer, destined also in time to become the matronly autumn, 
 
13 
 
 and to totter, in the decrepitude and cheerlessness of old 
 age, as chilling winter to the tomb. But the end is not 
 yet, — no ! the regulations of Omnipotence have assigned 
 to the seasons the duty of continually rehearsing their parts 
 so long as the earth is subject to the laws of time, and thus 
 while the earth is bearing fruit to man, is supplying his 
 wants and providing for his comforts, it is ever preaching 
 to him that all things are bound to decay, and that the end 
 of natural life is inevitable death. 
 
 We have now to consider as the next division of time, 
 one which, though enforced by civil authority, yet has its 
 origin not in national causes, but in the religious feelings 
 of man. The week indicates " a regular succession of days 
 of labor and rest.'* It is a division of time not found among 
 all nations, but has existed from the earliest periods among 
 the Chinese, Jews, Egyptians, Chaldeans and Arabians. 
 We shall see on examining the etymology of the English, 
 names of the days of the week, as well as those employed 
 to designate the latter by the French, that they are associ- 
 ated in some very intimate way with the names of the Gre- 
 cian and Roman deities, or with those of the Northmen ; — 
 the English being derived from Saxon and the French from 
 the Classic mythology. Sunday is the day of the Sun ; 
 Monday that of the Moon ; Tuesday that of Tuisco, a deity 
 corresponding to Mars ; Wednesday that of Woden or Odin 
 — the Alfadur or All-father, who regulated the seasons by 
 the creation of the sun and moon, and along with Yili and 
 Ve — the other two gods, who were formed in the begin- 
 ning, — created man, Odin granting him life and soul, Vili 
 reason and motion, and Ye the senses and speech; Thurs- 
 day is the day of Thor — the god of thunder ; Friday that of 
 Frigga the wife of Odin ; and Saturday the day of Saturn. 
 We observe then of the seven days that their names are 
 the same with those of the seven planets known to the an- 
 cients, viz : the Sun, the Moon, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, 
 Yenus and Saturn. The etymology of the names justifies 
 the conclusion that they were given for astronomical 
 reasons, and thus the week contains " traces of some an- 
 
14 
 
 dent astronomical system," which is not clearly understood 
 at the present day. Various explanations have been given 
 of the peculiar nature of this ancient astronomy, but none 
 seem satisfactory. Arago advances the idea also that spe- 
 cial virtues were attributed to the number seven by the 
 ancients, and that " no one would have dared in Egypt, 
 Greece or Rome to announce the existence of more than 
 seven planets, as it would have been an infringement on 
 the prerogatives of the number seven which would have 
 entitled him to the maledictions of religion, and the pun- 
 ishment would have been death." The first day of the week 
 is necessarily to be determined by ancient observances. 
 The Jews, who give us the fullest records of the early es- 
 tablishment of the division of time, celebrated, in accord- 
 ance with the fourth commandment delivered to Moses on 
 Mount Sinai, that day as peculiarly sacred on which God 
 "rested," after the works of creation had been accomplish- 
 ed, and especially blessed and sanctified. This is called 
 the seventh day in the second chapter of Genesis, and the 
 Sabbath day in the twentieth chapter of Exodus, and is 
 still celebrated by the Jews, as it has always been, on Sat- 
 urday. From this we observe the right that Sunday has to 
 be called the first day of the week. 
 
 The division of the week has never been rejected by any 
 nation that has once adopted it, with a single exception — 
 that of France. In 1793, when the misnamed Republican 
 party held the power over that fair land, Infidelity had 
 become so widely diffused that the traces even of religious 
 customs could not be retained. A general destruction, of 
 all that savored of an acknowledgment of religion or its 
 rites, was effected amid bacchanalian orgies and satanic rev- 
 elry. The week with its one day, nominally at least, de- 
 voted to the service of the great Ruler of the earth, could 
 not be permitted to remain. The very name of that day — 
 Dimanche — a corruption of dies Dominica, the Lord's Day, 
 would be a continual rebuke to the vice and crime of the 
 government. Hence, the week must be abolished, and in 
 its stead a period of ten days, called a decade, established. 
 
15 
 
 For a period of thirteen years this arrangement was carried 
 out, and the outrage upon the express command of the 
 great Jehovah perpetrated by a government steeped in the 
 filthiest vices and the grossest profanation of religion and 
 its laws. But "man proposes and God disposes," — the 
 decade of the godless man of science — of the blaspheming 
 infidel, has been rejected from the records of history ; and 
 the week with its regular days devoted to labor and toil, 
 and its one day consecrated to the service of God, has 
 again been restored, even in France, as a regular division 
 of time. 
 
 The week was due to religious authority ; by this it was 
 established, and hence the necessity of its preservation, and 
 its importance, as a division of time, is as great as though 
 it had been regularly derived from astronomical laws. 
 Days and years are produced by the phenomena which 
 these laws exhibit, — they follow each other with unfaltering 
 regularity, and form an unbroken series extending from 
 the primal creative fiat — let there be light — down to our own 
 time. Each one has first existed as a possibility in the 
 future, then as an actuality in the present, abounding in 
 its human sorrows and human joys, and finally has been 
 reckoned among the things of the past — adding one to the 
 number of the spectral column whose grim ranks consti- 
 tute the skeleton of history. The week, however, has 
 been appointed by God himself, not as the effect of any 
 preordained laws, or as a consequence of their operations, 
 but by special and direct command. Hence, it claims our 
 special veneration, — our due acknowledgment. Violate 
 we may the great law of nature that " day is the time for 
 work," and night that of rest, and the consequences will 
 merely bean exhaustion of vital energies, and a complete un- 
 dermining of the constitution. We may disrespect the year, 
 with its sequence of seasons, may sow the grain in summer, 
 or in the midst of winter, may clothe ourselves in the thin ap- 
 parel of July and endeavor to breast the storms of Decem- 
 ber, and the consequences will only be bodily want and 
 suffering. But if we violate the week, a higher punish- 
 
16 
 
 ♦ 
 
 ment awaits us. "We have violated that which was solemn- 
 ly established amid the most impressive manifestations of 
 Omnipotent power, and have boldly claimed the right to 
 use that which He declared was "the Sabbath of the Lord 
 thy God." The punishment for this is greater and more 
 enduring than that for the violation of the clay and the 
 year. In the latter case, the consequences are confined to 
 time, — in the former, they extend through the boundless 
 limits of eternity — the immense ocean in which time floats 
 like a small bubble of foam, sparkling for a while in the 
 colors that its own walls have produced by the decompo- 
 sition of the pure light that has visited them from the Eter- 
 nal Sun, and then swallowed up in the great waves without 
 a trace left behind. 
 
 Months were doubtless first adopted as a matter of con- 
 venience. The memory would find it very inconvenient 
 to recollect particular circumstances, if the three divisions 
 we have thus far considered, were the only means of ex- 
 pressing intervals of time. It was desirable that the weeks 
 should be grouped together and a name be given to such 
 groups. In addition to this, however, we have some reason 
 to believe that they were originally constructed in accord- 
 ance with the movements of the moon, and that the period 
 of time required for its changes constituted a month. This 
 idea is sustained by the etymology of our word month, • 
 which is derived from the Saxon monath, and it from mona, 
 the moon. In like manner the words employed in other 
 languages for month are derived from the word used to indi- 
 cate the moon. The time required for a complete revolution 
 of the moon from one point in the heavens to the same 
 point again, or that consumed between any two full moons, 
 or new moons, constitutes a lunar month. This forms a 
 period of about twenty -nine and a half clays. In common 
 parlance four weeks are considered as making a lunar 
 month, so that the year, if this were true, would consist of 
 thirteen lunar months. 
 
 The revolution of the moon soon ceased to regulate the 
 months of the year. A division into lunar months might 
 
17 
 
 have been found inconvenient, and it certainly must have 
 been as unmanageable as the Italian method of reckoning 
 time from sunset. Had the moon performed its revolution 
 in an even number of days, there would have been no diffi- 
 culty about it, but as there was a fractional portion of a 
 day in the time employed, the lunar period was unsuited 
 for civil purposes. 
 
 The Egyptians adopted a plan for dividing the year, 
 which was evidently based upon the idea involved in the 
 lunar periods. The month consisted of thirty days. Twelve 
 months formed the year, but there was always added five 
 complementary days to the last month, before the reckoning 
 began with the E"ew Year. This would give three hun- 
 dred and sixty-five clays to the j^ear. The Egyptians called 
 the months Thoth, Paophi, Athyr, Choeac, Tybi, Mechir, 
 Phamenoth, Pharcnouti, Pachon, Payni, Epiphi, Mesori. 
 The complementary days are called Nisi, for the common 
 year, and Kebus for the intercalary by the modern Cophts. 
 A system, very similar to this Egyptian system, was intro- 
 duced into the French Eepublican Calendar of 1793, — that 
 is the division of the year into twelve months of thirty 
 days, with &Ye or six complementary days, which w^ere 
 called, in consequence of their Eevolutionary origin, sans- 
 cullotides. 
 
 The Greeks divided the year into twelve months, which 
 were alternately of thirty and twenty-nine days, and the 
 deficiency was made up by an intercalary month. Their 
 months were divided into three decades, and the days 
 these contained were numbered from one up to ten. The 
 months always began with the end of one moon and the 
 beginning of the other. There was, however, no general 
 system adopted throughout Greece, and different States 
 employed months of different length. 
 
 To the Koman system of dividing the year our attention 
 is particularly invited, since the names of our months have 
 mostly been derived from theirs. The Eoman Calendar 
 first consisted often months, and the year began with what 
 is our third month. This was called Mars, after the god of 
 
 2 
 
18 
 
 war, from whom Romulus was asserted to have descended 
 The second month received the name of April from the 
 verb aperire, to open or unfold, as the earth was then un- 
 locked from the severity of winter, and, softened by the 
 warming rays of the sun and melting showers, the buds 
 began to appear and prepare the way for vernal flowers. 
 The third was dedicated to Maia, the daughter of Atlas 
 and Pleione, who was the mother of Mercury, and eventu- 
 ally-one of the stars constituting the constellation known 
 as the Pleiades. The fourth was consecrated to Juno — the 
 wife of Jupiter and the Queen of Heaven. The remaining 
 six months of the Roman year, as established by Romulus, 
 received their names from their numerical position, and 
 were called Quintilis, Sextilis, September, October, Novem- 
 ber, and December. The additional months added by Nu- 
 ma, were called January, from Janus, who presided over 
 the gates of heaven, and hence this month was then em- 
 ployed as the commencement of the year, and February 
 from the word februa, signifying sacrifices for the spirits of 
 the dead, which were offered during this month. We have 
 preserved all these names, excepting Quintilis and Sextilis. 
 As Julius Csesar was born in the month Quintilis, its name 
 was changed to that of July, and the name of August was 
 given to the month Sextilis, in honor of Octavius Augus- 
 tus, who became a consul during that month. 
 
 The Roman months were divided into three unequal pe- 
 riods, the first days of which were known as Calends, Nones 
 and Ides. The Calends occurred on the first day of the 
 month, the Nones on the 5th or 7th, and the Ides on the 
 13th or 15th. The days between these dates were charac- 
 terized by their distance from the next festival, so that the 
 days of the month after the Ides, would be called so many 
 days before the Calends of the next month, those after the 
 Calends so many days before the Nones, and those after 
 the Nones so many before the Ides. The whole year con- 
 sisted of but three hundred and fifty-five clays, and in order 
 to make the correction necessary on account of the made- 
 
19 
 
 quacy of this number of clays to complete the period con- 
 sumed in the revolution of the earth around the sun, an 
 intercalary or supplementary month was added every two 
 years.* This was called Mercedonius, and was inserted be- 
 tween the 23rd and 24th of February. This addition was 
 made in order that the civil and the astronomical year 
 might commence on the same day, at least every other year. 
 The month Mercedonius some years was longer than oth- 
 ers, in order to bring about this agreement, and the deter- 
 mination of its length was left to the High-priests. This 
 power gave rise to great corruption, as it rendered its pos- 
 sessors able to shorten the period of office for their enemies 
 and lengthen it for their friends. Confusion of the most 
 annoying character invaded the chronologic reckoning of 
 the Eomans, until we are told that the autumnal festivals 
 were celebrated in the spring and those of summer in the 
 middle of winter. 
 
 This state of affairs attracted the attention of Julius Cae- 
 sar, and the result was the Julian reformation of the Calen- 
 dar. It was accomplished with the aid of the Egyptian 
 astronomer Sosigenes. The first object was to have an 
 intercalation for the deficiency of the civil when compared 
 with the astronomical year, which should be regular and 
 free from alteration, and the next was to compensate for 
 the fractional portion of the day which was appended to the 
 three hundred and sixty-five clays in order to make up the 
 astronomical year. This latter object was accomplished 
 by giving the civil year a definite number of days, omitting 
 the fraction, and adding one day every four years to the 
 number contained in the year in order to make up for the 
 omission. The ordinary year would contain three hundred 
 and sixty-five days, while every fourth year would have 
 three hundred and sixty-six. The month Mercedonius was 
 rejected and the days were apportioned out through the 
 other months of the year, just as we have them at present 
 in use over the whole globe, wherever civilized man dwells. 
 
 Arago, Astrcmomie Populaire, iv., 665. 
 
20 
 
 The intercalated clay was added to February, which has 
 every fourth year twenty-nine instead of twenty-eight days; 
 and instead of counting it as a separate day, Csesar adopted 
 the plan of reckoning the 24th of the month twice, and as 
 this day was called sexto-calendas, the repetition of it re- 
 ceived the name bissexto-calendas, or simply dies bissextas, 
 whence our own name, given to the year of three hundred 
 and sixty-six days— bissextile. This Julian reformation took 
 place forty-five years before the Christian Era. Owing to 
 the imperfect manner that the bissextile day was employed, 
 Augustus had the Calendar again corrected, thirty-six years 
 after the date of the Julian reformation. 
 
 The whole Julian reformation was based upon the idea 
 that the revolution of the earth around the sun was accom- 
 plished in three hundred and sixty-five days and six hours, 
 whereas in fact it occupies but three hundred and sixty-five 
 days, five hours, forty-eight minutes, forty-nine and seven 
 tenth seconds. The Julian Calendar could be employ- 
 ed for a number of years without any great inconve- 
 nience, but as the mean length of its year differs from the 
 astronomical year, a period must eventually arrive when 
 there would be important differences between the two, and 
 the seasons, according to the Calendar, would be very dif- 
 ferent from those which were occurring in fact. The 
 council of Nice, in 325, adopted a plan in order to deter- 
 mine the festival of Easter, based upon the supposition that 
 the vernal equinox would take place always on the 21st of 
 March. But if the civil year is considered as being three 
 hundred and sixty-five and one fourth days long, then, in 
 consequence of the greater length of this period, the follow- 
 ing error would arise, the equinox would fall a fraction of 
 a day earlier than the Calendar would call for it. This 
 difference, though small, would be increased with each 
 year until it would at length be days instead of minutes. 
 While the Calendar would lead us to expect it on the 21st 
 of March, it would take place on the 20th, 19th, 18th, &c. 
 As we shall find hereafter, Easter is regulated by the pe- 
 riod of the Vernal Equinox, and these differences between 
 
21 
 
 its real appearance and the time claimed for it in the Cal- 
 endar, turned the attention of the Church to the necessity 
 of a new reform of the latter. This reform was accomplish- 
 ed under the authority and direction of Pope Gregory XIII. 
 in the year 1582. In the 1257 years that had elapsed since 
 the Council of Elce. the Julian year had gained ten days 
 on the astronomical year, and in 1582 the Vernal Equinox 
 fell on the 11th of March instead of the 21st. The Coun- 
 cil of Trent had recommended that some means be adopted 
 to rectify this error. The Pope ordered that the day after 
 the 4th of October, instead of being called the 5th, should 
 be called the 15th. This reform was not considered as 
 complete, however, until there should be some law establish- 
 ed for preventing the same difficulty hereafter, and to make 
 such a law an edict was promulged that in every four 
 hundred years there should be only ninety-seven bissextile 
 years, instead of one hundred, which the Julian Calendar 
 allowed. This would cut off three days from every four 
 hundred years, giving a mean length to the year somewhat 
 longer than the astronomical year, but so little differing 
 that there would be a gain of one day only in four thousand 
 years. 
 
 The rule for bissextile years is that every year divisible 
 by four is entitled to the extra day appended to February, 
 but that those years which terminate as 1500, 1600, 1700, 
 1800, &c., and which are really divisible by four, must be 
 divisible first by one hundred and then by four, in order 
 to be considered bissextile. In this way in the space of 
 four hundred years, three years which wo aid be bissextile 
 according to the Julian Calender, will remain common, 
 that is, will contain but three hundred and sixty -five days, 
 and thus, in every one hundred bissextile years, according 
 to the Julian Calendar, there is retained but ninety-seven, 
 according to the Gregorian. 
 
 In the year 1700 the difference of elates between the two 
 Calendars became equal to eleven clays, and in 1800 to 
 twelve days. The dates, according to the Julian reckon- 
 ing, are now known as "the old style," and those accord- 
 
22 
 
 ing to the Gregorian as the new style. The Julian system 
 is still employed in Russia, and consequently there is a dif- 
 ference of twelve days between the dates of events as re- 
 corded by the Russians and by other nations. 
 
 There was great objection at first in Protestant countries 
 to the adoption of the Gregorian changes in the Calendar. 
 The great religious movements of the day which had re- 
 sulted in a denial of papal supremacy by a portion of the 
 "Western Church, and a rejection of the customs and usages 
 that were peculiar to the Church of Rome, — these were but 
 little calculated to admit any agreement on the part of 
 either Roman Catholic or Protestant on subjects religious 
 or scientific. The sturdy Protestant declared that he would 
 rather not agree with the sun than agree with the court of 
 Rome, and therefore hesitated a long time about adopting 
 the Gregorian changes. The decree of the Pope establish- 
 ed the Gregorian Calendar on October 5-15, 1582. It was 
 adopted in France, December 10-20, 1582 ; in the Catholic 
 kingdoms of Germany in 1584, and the Protestant in Feb- 
 ruary 19-March 1, 1600 ; in Poland in 1586 ; and in Eng- 
 land September 3-14, 1752. 
 
 We haVe thus traced the history of our civil year, from 
 its first establishment by Romulus, down to the changes 
 which were instituted by Gregory XIII, under the advice 
 of Lilio. It will be seen that centuries elapsed before 
 science succeeded in defining not only the Calendar for any 
 fixed year, but in obtaining the law of the variations of the 
 Julian from the Astronomical year. It would be an error 
 if we were to conclude that the civil year always commenc- 
 ed with the first of January. Arago gives five different 
 periods which were or are employed by different modern 
 nations as the beginning of the business year. 
 
 The birth day of Christ, December 25th, was celebrated 
 as the beginning of the year in France during the reign of 
 Charlemagne. In the same country, about the year 755, 
 the first of March was selected as the commencement of 
 the civil year ; and during the 12th and 13th centuries, 
 Easter day, notwithstanding it is moveable between the 
 
23 
 
 22nd of March and the 25th of April, was used by some of 
 the French. Up to 1752 in England, the year began with 
 the festival of the Annunciation of the Virgin Mary, which 
 was celebrated March 25th. During the year 1751, Par- 
 liament determined that 1752 should be considered as com- 
 mencing with the first of January. In this way, 1751, 
 really consisted of but nine months, and the ignorant pop- 
 ulace are said to have vented their indignation upon the 
 authors of the bill, pursuing Lord Chesterfield with the cry 
 " give us back our three months." The first of January 
 was letaken as the beginning of the year by the Germans 
 in 1500. It is now adopted by nearly all nations excepting 
 the Eussians, where the commencement of the year cor- 
 responds with our thirteenth of January. 
 
 A few words on the subject of Eras and we shall take 
 up the second portion of our subj ect. It is necessary to have 
 some fixed point in the history of the past from' which we 
 can reckon the dates of events. In the years we have 
 months, in these weeks, and in these again days, and thus 
 we are enabled readily to fix the date of an event that may 
 have happened during either of these periods. We want 
 something of the kind when we have to fix the particular 
 year of an event, and this is furnished by the Era. 
 
 The two Eras adopted by Christian nations have been 
 the date of the creation of the world, and that of the birth 
 of our Saviour. All events are referred to these two great 
 facts. They constitute the Era of the world, and the Chris- 
 tian Era, — the first birth of matter with the creation of its 
 master man, and the birth of the greatest man, of Him 
 who united the natures of God and man, so that the sin 
 and iniquity of the natural man might be sufliciently 
 atoned for by His great sacrifice. The event which consti- 
 tuted the second Era was not only the greater of the two, 
 but was the period in the history of the world towards which 
 its antecedent events were looking for the restoration of 
 Humanity to its original relations with the Deity, and from 
 which those incidents, that have occurred since, have flown 
 with more or less benefit to the race as they have been con- 
 
24 
 
 trolled -by a spirit recognizing the importance of the great 
 event. 
 
 The Era of the world was proposed early in the history 
 of the Christian Church, probably as early as the days of 
 the Apostles. Chronologists have differed as to the num- 
 ber of years which intervened between the two Eras. 
 Scaliger advanced the opinion, that this was 3950, Arch- 
 bishop Usher that it was 4004, and Josephus 4163 years. 
 The estimate of Usher is most generally adopted by Eng- 
 lish writers, and has been recognized by Bossuet and Rollin. 
 The Era is called Anno Mundi, and abbreviated by the use 
 of the initials A. M. The years are estimated from the 
 beginning in regular order up to the Christian Era, which 
 necessarily constitutes the beginning of the four thousand 
 and fifth year of the world. 
 
 We find that the birth of Christ was not taken as the 
 initial point of a new notation of years until the sixth cen- 
 tury. The Christian Church had no Era different from 
 those employed by the non-christian communities, and we 
 may conclude, that the Era of the world was used, or the 
 Olympic Era which dates 776 years B. C, or the Era of 
 the foundation of Eome, known as Anno Urbis Cojiditae, 
 which dated 753 years B. C, and was represented by the 
 letters A. U. C. In the year 532 of our Era, a Roman 
 monk, Dionysius Exiguus, proposed that the birth of the Sa- 
 viour should be adopted as the point of time to which all 
 events belonging to the Christian portion of History should 
 be referred. His calculation placed this event on the 25th 
 of December, in the 753rd year after the building of Rome, 
 and accordingly the 754th year was called the first of the 
 new Era, — taking, however, the first of January, seven 
 days after the supposed Anniversary of the event, as the 
 beginning of the year. Any event in this Era is said to 
 have happened in the year of our Lord, and, designated by 
 adding the letters A. D., (abbreviations of the words An- 
 no Domini) to the number of years after the birth of Christ. 
 In this way the nominal Christian world, whether recog- 
 nizing fully the doctrines of the Christian religion, or pos- 
 
25 
 
 sessing full belief in the idea of the divinity of Jesus Christ, 
 are unconsciously, in their modes of reckoning time, bear- 
 ing witness to His birth as the grandest incident found on 
 the pages of the world's history. Men, whose undevoufc 
 lips were never moved in prayer, or whose hardened hearts 
 never beat in sympathy with a religious idea, thus inartic- 
 ulately join in rendering homage, all involuntary though 
 it be, to the central fact of the world's history, — the won- 
 drous basis of the Christian's hope and the Christian's trust. 
 
 We have thus ende' , ored to present the nature of those 
 divisions of the Civi/ Jalendar, that are required by the ex- 
 igencies of civil lif and also the principles, whether arbi- 
 trary or astronomically necessary, which have regulated 
 the construction of such divisions. The day and year have 
 been shown as regulated by astronomical laws. When 
 these laws were but indifferently understood, the lengths 
 of those divisions of time were not accurately fixed. After 
 science had cleared up the dark places in Astronomy, she 
 taught man how the civil year, by which he regulated his 
 business affairs, could be made to agree with the astronom- 
 ical year that the sun and the earth determined. Then, and 
 not before, was the year accurately fixed. Hence we can 
 understand all the mistakes and errors which abounded in 
 every determination of the year up to the time of the Gre- 
 gorian reformation in 1582. 
 
 Months being arbitrary divisions of the year depended 
 entirely on the correctness of the determination of the lat- 
 ter for their value. But, weeks were established by espec- 
 ial command of the Almighty, and depended alone upon 
 the preservatien of the seventh day, however accurately or 
 inaccurately its length might be determined by man, free 
 from all labor or work. 
 
 The civil year is devoted to the worldly business of man. 
 Saving alone fifty-two days — the Sundays-— all the year is 
 devoted to the search of such things as will contribute to 
 his wants, comforts or luxuries. The requirements of the 
 body are food and raiment, and these constitute all that are 
 supplied by the labors of most men. The want of the mind 
 
26 
 
 is knowledge, not only that it shall be able to aid the body 
 in gaining victories over material objects, but that it can 
 investigate the nature of substances immaterial and eter- 
 nal. This want as imperatively clamors for man's atten- 
 tion during the civil year as the necessities of the body 
 which perishes, and he who neglects its call, lowers himself 
 to the condition of a mere animal. But yet a higher 
 want is experienced by his soul, which can only be satisfied 
 by food that Omnipotence has placed within its reach, and 
 this want is the highest of all, so that whatever may be the 
 occupations of the civil year, it must not be neglected. The 
 business of man consists, therefore, in providing for the 
 spiritual, mental and bodily wants of himself and those 
 constituting his family. One day, out of the seven consti- 
 tuting the week, was reserved by God in commemoration of 
 His sovereignty, and is specially to be devoted to the first 
 of these three classes of wants, although it must also occu- 
 py a portion of time during the other six days. This day 
 was originally fixed on the seventh day of the week, but, 
 " it was changed, by the Lord of the Sabbath, from the 
 seventh to the first day of the week, that it might be, till the 
 end of time, a memorial of his resurrection from the dead; 
 while, being still unaltered in its essential nature, it should 
 continue to answer, also, as before, all the purpose of its 
 original institution."* 
 
 From the earliest times the ancient Christians celebrated 
 certain days of the year in commemoration of great events 
 in the life of Christ. Whether these days were the proper 
 anniversaries of such events or no, the idea involved in the 
 celebration was still the same — that the creature should 
 hold in continual remembrance the life of his Saviour. 
 Afterwards, other days were added in commemoration of 
 the births or martyrdoms of the Apostles, Evangelists, 
 Confessors and Saints. These were multiplied until each 
 day in the year was considered as consecrated to the recol- 
 lection of some religious fact or personage. The propriety 
 
 * Nevin's Biblical Antiquities, II, 163. \ 
 
27 
 
 of such commemorations does not come within the province 
 of this Article. It is taken for granted ; the reasons for it 
 being based upon the conclusions which the Church Cath- 
 olic has adopted. The number of the days which should 
 be celebrated differs in the various branches of the Chris- 
 tian Church. Their enumeration constitutes the Ecclesias- 
 tical Calendar, and this is different in extent with each 
 separate Church, The Roman Catholic Church has given 
 the name of a Saint or Martyr to each day in the year, and 
 has even assigned one to the intercalary day — the 29th of 
 February. Protestant Churches have abridged this num- 
 ber and have adopted many or few of them in accordance 
 with their own special theory on the subject. To consider 
 the reasons for or against the retention of any of these clays 
 is, also, foreign from our present design. The Ecclesiasti- 
 cal Calendar, as recognized by the present Liturgy of the 
 American branch of the German Reformed Church, and 
 by the ancient usages of the mother Church in German}' 
 and Switzerland, will now claim our attention, as some- 
 thing admitted to be right, and we will endeavor to show 
 the laws which determine the various periods in this Cal- 
 endar. Such a Calendar even existed with the Romans, 
 who distinguished among the days of the year, such as were 
 dies juridici, and diesferiati, that is judicial and non-judicial 
 days. ~No man could be compelled to appear before the 
 praetor on the dies feriati, and no business was transacted, 
 unless of a certain character, which was specially named by 
 Law. These days numbered, in the time of Marcus Anto- 
 ninus, 150.* 
 
 Some religious observances, as Christmas and Epiphany, 
 always occur on the same day of the month. There are 
 others which occur on different days, and hence are known 
 as moveable holydays. It will be proper, to begin with those 
 that are fixed, and we select first of all Christmas day, or 
 the Anniversary of the Nativity of Christ. " This has ever 
 been kept with great solemnity, festivity and rejoicing. "f 
 
 * Neal's Fasts and Feasts, 5 and 6. 
 f Calendar of Anglican Church, 152. 
 
28 
 
 It was celebrated for about three hundred years by the 
 Eastern Church on the 6th of January, though the 25th of 
 December has been mostly devoted to its celebration. In 
 the words of Saint Chrysostom,* it " is the most venerable, 
 most astonishing of festivals, the fountain whence the oth- 
 er great festivals flowed, for had Christ not been born he 
 would not have been baptized, which is the Epiphany ; he 
 would not have been crucified, which is the Passover; he 
 would not have sent down the Spirit, which is Pentecost, 
 But not only on that account, is this festival worthy of pre- 
 eminence, but because what happened upon it is more as- 
 tonishing than what happened on the others : for that 
 Christ should die was a natural consequence of his having 
 been born a man ; for though he did no sin, yet he had as- 
 sumed a mortal body ; but that being God, he should be 
 willing to become man and endure to humble himself to a 
 degree which thought cannot follow, is most awful, most 
 full of amazement. 
 
 Connected with the celebration of Christmas day, and 
 immediately following it are three festival days recognized 
 by the Church, as commemorating the martyrdom of 
 St. Stephen, the beloved disciple St. John — the bosom 
 friend of Christ, and the slaughter of the Jewish children 
 by Herod's command ; these festivals always fall upon the 
 twenty-sixth, twenty-seventh, and twenty-eighth days of 
 December. They are celebrated immediately after Christ- 
 mas, since each commemorated a certain form of martyr- 
 dom, and thus the idea was symbolized, to employ the 
 words of the rubric for St. Stephen's day, "that the ter- 
 restrial birth of our Saviour is immediately followed by the 
 death, that is the celestial birth of His martyrs." The 
 reason for the order in which these days are placed is 
 given by Wheatly, " That as there are three kinds of mar- 
 tyrdom, the first both in will and deed, which is the high- 
 est ; the second in will but not in deed ; the third in deed 
 but not in will ; so the Church commemorates those mar- 
 tyrs in the same order : St. Stephen first, who suffered both 
 
 * Neal's Fasts and Feasts, 10. 
 
29 
 
 in will and deed ; St. John the Evangelist next, who suf- 
 fered martyrdom in will but not in deed ; the holy Inno- 
 cents last, who suffered in deed but not in will." 
 
 The festival of the circumcision of Christ, is celebrated 
 on the first day of the year, and hence is known as New 
 Year's day. Its celebration does not date further back 
 than the end of the eleventh century. Since this day was 
 taken as the beginning of the year, at the time of the es- 
 tablishment of the Christian era by Dionysius Exiguus, it 
 has become a day of great importance both in the Civil 
 and Ecclesiastical Calendar. Some kind of celebration al- 
 ways takes place, either religious or social, and men of bu- 
 siness use it as a convenient initial point for their calcula- 
 tions through the year. 
 
 The festival of the Epiphany, or the manifestation of 
 Christ, is celebrated on the sixth of January. It is intend- 
 ed to commemorate three several manifestations of our 
 Lord : 1st, the appearance of the Star in the East, which 
 guided the wise men to the place '• where the young child 
 was," and thus enabled them " to worship Him " — this pe- 
 culiar Epiphany is mentioned in the gospel for the day ; 
 2nd, the manifestation of the Trinity as shown at His bap- 
 tism in the Jordan, by John the Baptist ; 3rd, that of His 
 Divinity or Power as shown in the miracle of the water 
 turned into wine at the marriage supper in Cana of Gal- 
 ilee, 
 
 These constitute all the fixed festivals that are provided 
 for by the Liturgy, and our attention must now be directed 
 to the more difficult subject of the moveable holyclays. It 
 will be proper in considering these to begin with the Ec- 
 clesiastical year, which does not commence with the first 
 day of the Civil year, but some weeks before it. The com- 
 mencement of the Ecclesiastical year is regulated by St. 
 Andrew's day — November 30th, — and takes place on the 
 nearest Sunday, before or after it, which is called the First 
 Sunday in Advent. The whole season of Advent, which 
 fills up the space between this Sunday and Christmas, is 
 devoted to the commemoration of the coming of our Sa- 
 
30 
 
 vionr. It has been suggested that St. Andrew's day was 
 selected by the Church to regulate the first Sunday in the 
 year, because he was " the first that found the Messiah, 
 and first brought others to Him," and hence it was right 
 that he should be commemorated at the beginning of the 
 Advent season. But since the first Sunday in Advent may 
 come before the 30th of November, this idea would not 
 always be represented in the arrangement of the Church 
 year. We employ St. Andrew's day to determine the be- 
 ginning of Advent, although there are no special lessons 
 and collects assigned it in the Liturgy. 
 
 There are four Sundays in Advent, each having a special 
 gospel, epistle and collect assigned it. After Christmas, to 
 Epiphany, there may be one or two Sundays. The Re- 
 formed Liturgy, and the Book of Common Prayer, have a 
 gospel, epistle and collect but for one of the Sundays — the 
 latter ordering these to be used "for every day after unto 
 Epiphany" 
 
 The remainder of the moveable feasts in the Church 
 year, as well as the celebration of Ash Wednesday and 
 Good Friday, depend upon the date of Easter, or the Festi- 
 val of the Resurrection of the Saviour from the tomb. The 
 derivation of the word Easter from a Saxon word, Oster, 
 which means to rise, shows that the character of the day is 
 manifest in its etymology. Easter day was celebrated at 
 the Paschal full moon, in consequence of the relation of 
 the Resurrection to the Passover. Lardner tells us,* that 
 " many of the early Christians held Easter to be the Jewish 
 Passover continued as a Christian rite, and celebrated i1 
 on the day of the Passover, instead of the Sunday after. 
 The Mcene Council put a stop to this notion and practice; 
 and means were taken at the Reformation of the Calendar 
 to prevent the Christian festival from falling actually upon 
 the same day as that of the Jewish Passover." 
 
 In forming the law for the fixing of Easter, two things 
 had to be kept especially in view; first, the fact of the oc- 
 
 * Lardner on The' Almanac, 
 
31 
 
 currence of the Kesurrection about the Vernal Equinox, and 
 second, that it was after a full moon. With these facts the 
 idea was quickly obtained that the festival should be cele- 
 brated on the Sunday which next succeeded the first full 
 moon after the 21st of March, and in case "the full moon 
 happens upon a Sunday, Easter day is the Sunday after." 
 From this law we shall see that the earliest day on which 
 Easter could fall would be the 22nd of March, and that this 
 would only occur token the full moon appeared on the 21st 
 of the month, the day of appearance being Saturday. The 
 latest period for the festival is the 25th of April, which oc- 
 curs when the full moon happens on the 20th of March. 
 This moon is not then considered the Paschal moon, as it 
 is before the Vernal Equinox, and the true Paschal full 
 moon will really occur on the 18th of April. Should this 
 day be Sunday, according to the general law, Easter will 
 be the next Sunday, which would be the 25th. Easter day 
 has fallen on the 22nd of March, in 1598, 1693, 1761, 1818, 
 and will occur on that day in 2285. It has been celebrated 
 on the 25th of April in 1666, 1734, and will be on that day 
 in the years 1886, 1943, 2038 and 2190. Between these 
 two periods, — a space of thirty-five days — Easter may hap- 
 pen in accordance with the conditions first named, and as 
 it controls most of the moveable festivals, their position in 
 the Church Calendar may vary within the same limits, i. e. 
 thirty-five days. 
 
 It would be erroneous to conclude from what has been 
 stated as the law for determining Easter, that the Astro- 
 nomical moon has any thing to do with it at the present 
 day. Many changes have taken place in the science of 
 Astronomy, since Easter day was fixed by the Church. 
 Ideas about the movements of the Sun and Moon, then 
 prevalent, have been rejected. This rejection would ne- 
 cessarily affect, more or less, the determination of Easter, 
 but in order to preserve the old law, an ecclesiastical, or 
 conventional moon has been created, by the age of which 
 Easter is regulated. Easter is in fact determined by finding 
 the first Sunday that succeeds the 14th day of the first eccle- 
 
32 
 
 siastical moon which occurs after the 21st of March, and if 
 this 14th day occurs on Sunday, the Easter festival is cele- 
 brated on the next Sunday. In order to show that there 
 is a difference between the Sundays which would be select- 
 ed as Easter by the astronomical and the ecclesiastical 
 moon, two cases from Arago may be cited. In 1798, Eas- 
 ter according to the astronomical moon should have been 
 on April 1st, but, in fact being regulated by the hypothetic 
 moon, it occurred on the 8th. In 1818, the day was deter- 
 mined astronomically as the 29th of March, but was cele- 
 brated in accordance with the ecclesiastical moon's indica- 
 tion on the 22nd. The reason why the determination is 
 not made by the actual moon, consists simply in the fact 
 that its position is obtained from astronomical tables, which 
 are yearly being altered, as the science becomes more per- 
 fect. These tables are not constructed for many years in 
 advance, and the Church would thus be dependent for the 
 fixing of Easter on the appearance of the Civil Calendar. 
 Whereas, according to the present system, tables are fur- 
 nished us of the days, on which Easter will fall, for centu- 
 ries to come. 
 
 The ecclesiastical moon is regulated by data known as 
 " epacts " and " golden numbers." It is free from the 
 contingent effects of modern astronomical discoveries. We 
 shall endeavor to explain its peculiarities, drawing from 
 Arago, Lardner and such other sources as are within our 
 reach. 
 
 Meton remarked that nineteen years contain about two 
 hundred and thirty-five lunar months, and that after the 
 termination of this period, the same phases of the moon re- 
 curred on the same clays of the month. Hence every nine- 
 teen years, festivals that were regulated by the phases of 
 the moon, could be celebrated on the same days of the 
 month. Such a period of time received the name of the 
 Metonic Cycle. The Greeks were so delighted with this 
 discovery, which would require them only to determine the 
 dates of their feasts for nineteen years, as they would then 
 have these for every subsequent period, that they had the 
 
33 
 
 numbers inscribed on their monuments in letters of gold. 
 Since that time, the numbers composing the cycle of Meton 
 have been called golden numbers. 
 
 When we compare the actual length of nineteen astro- 
 nomical years with two hundred and thirty-five average 
 lunar months, a difference appears of two hours, four min- 
 utes, thirty-three seconds. If the nineteen years exactly 
 contained two hundred and thirty-five lunar months, " the 
 whole course of time would be resolved into a succession 
 of periods, or cycles" and the same phases of the moon 
 which were noticed in any year of one cycle, would occur 
 in the corresponding year of another cycle at the same mo- 
 ment of time exactly. But as nineteen astronomical years 
 fall short by two hours, four minutes, thirty-three seconds 
 of the length of two hundred and thirty-five average lunar 
 months, — the same phases of the moon would occur on the 
 same day every nineteen years, but exactly two hours, four 
 minutes, thirty-three seconds later. 
 
 But here another difficulty arises, the astronomical year 
 is always three hundred and sixty-five days and nearly six 
 hours in length, while the civil year is of unequal length. 
 Every fourth year it contains three hundred and sixty-six 
 days, and in the next three, only three hundred and sixty- 
 five. This would also prevent a cycle of civil years always 
 being of the same length, as it may sometimes contain ^wq 
 and sometimes only four leap years, making a differ- 
 ence of one day in length. "If four successive cycles of 
 nineteen civil years be taken, three of them will exceed 
 one astronomical year by something less than a quarter of 
 a day, and the fourth will fall short of an astronomical 
 year by something more than three-quarters of a day. The 
 total length of the four successive cycles of nineteen civil 
 years will be as nearly as possible equal to four cycles of 
 nineteen astronomical years."* From these facts we learn 
 that " the cycle of nineteen civil years oscillates at each 
 side of the cycle of nineteen astronomical years." The 
 
 * Lardner on The Almanac, 13. 
 
34 
 
 Ecclesiastical or true Paschal moon is supposed to move in 
 the path of the true moon, but its periodical phases take 
 place in accordance with the civil year, just as the phases 
 of the true moon occur in accordance with the astronomi- 
 cal year. This fictitious moon will sometimes have its 
 phases sooner or later than the real moon, though the ex- 
 tent of the differences will never be greater than that of the 
 difference in length between the average and the real lunar 
 month. 
 
 All time is divided into Metonic cycles of nineteen years, 
 the first of which is supposed to commence with a day 
 which is the last of the moon's age. The golden number for 
 any year indicates its position in such a cycle, as for 
 instance, if we say that this number for 1858 is 16, we 
 mean it is the sixteenth year in the cycle which must have 
 commenced with 1843. " The age of the ecclesiastical 
 moon on the first day of the first year of the cycle being 
 known, its age upon the first day of each succeeding year 
 of the cycle may be determined. The number which ex- 
 presses the age of the moon on the first day of any year of 
 the cycle-is called the JEjpact of that year." Now by calcu- 
 lation the following Epacts have been obtained as corres- 
 ponding with the different golden numbers. 
 
 Golden Numbers. 
 
 1 
 
 
 2 
 11 
 
 3 
 22 
 
 4 
 3 
 
 5 
 14 
 
 6 
 
 25 
 
 7 
 6 
 
 8 
 17 
 
 9 
 28 
 
 10 
 9 
 
 11 
 
 20 
 
 12 
 1 
 
 13 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 23 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 17118 
 
 26 1 7 
 
 19 
 18 
 
 Epacts. 
 
 Having thus obtained the age of the moon at the com- 
 mencement of any year, we can easily calculate what full 
 moon, or rather what fourteenth clay of the lunar month 
 occurs first after the 21st of March, and then from this the 
 Easter day is readily obtained. Applying the rule to the 
 present year the Epact for which is 15, we find the first 
 ecclesiastical lunar period expired on the 15th of January; 
 the second on the 13th of February, the third on the 14th 
 of March, and the fourteenth day of the next moon falls on 
 March 28th, which happens to be on Sunday, and hence 
 the next Sunday, or April 4th, is Easter day. 
 Easter being determined in this way, there is no difficul- 
 
35 
 
 ty in fixing the remainder of the moveable festivals. Lent 
 consists of forty days before Easter, independent of Sim- 
 days. It begins with Ash Wednesday, which is exactly 
 forty- six days before Easter. The name appropriated to 
 this day was obtained from the ancient custom of placing 
 ashes on the heads of the people after they had made con- 
 fession of their sins. The clay was preserved as a solemn 
 fast. The period of Lent was instituted, as suggested by 
 some, with a view to commemorate the fast of forty clays and 
 forty nights which Christ endured in the wilderness when 
 he was tempted of the devil, or, as is more likely, in order 
 to bring more especially before the minds of Christians the 
 sufferings and death of the Saviour. The period was not 
 begun as early as Ash Wednesday, until about A. D. 600. 
 Before that time, it seems to have been of shorter duration. 
 
 The three Sundays before Ash Wednesday are counted 
 backwards as the First, Second or Third Sunday before 
 Lent, and are also known as Quinquagesima, Sexagesima 
 or Septuagesima. The Sundays intervening, from Epi- 
 phany to Septuagesima, are numbered by their distance 
 from the former festival, and they may vary from one to 
 six. 
 
 During the Lenten period the Sundays, six in number, 
 are reckoned from the first to the sixth in their order from 
 Ash Wednesday. The sixth Sunday, however, is called 
 Palm Sunday, as it commemorates Christ's triumphal en- 
 trance into Jerusalem when " a very great multitude spread 
 their garments in the way ; and others cut clown branches 
 from the trees and strewed them in the way." In the So- 
 man Catholic Church, sprigs of evergreen are worn by the 
 members on this clay. 
 
 Palm Sunday, or the Sunday before Easter, is the begin- 
 ning of the last week in Lent, which is known as Holy 
 Week. This season was selected by the Christian Roman 
 Emperors as the period for pardoning prisoners, " to imi- 
 tate," according to St. Chrysostom, " as far as might be, 
 the divine goodness which, at this time, freed mankind 
 from the dominion of sin." It was considered as a week 
 
36 
 
 of especial solemnity. The rubric in the Liturgy requires 
 " that there should be Divine service every day, and that the 
 entire gospel history of Christ's Passion and death should 
 be read." The words of Chrysostom will give us an idea of 
 the importance attached by the early Church to this period; 
 — " in this week, the long war was brought to a close, 
 death was quenched, the curse removed, the tyrannous em- 
 pire of the devil overthrown, his goods plundered, God and 
 man reconciled ; heaven becomes accessible, men and an- 
 gels were joined together ; what had been dissevered was 
 united ; the partition wall broken down, the barrier taken 
 away ; the God of Peace made peace between the things 
 above and the things on earth." 
 
 On the Friday in this week, known as Good Friday, the 
 anniversary of the Crucifixion is celebrated, and the Church 
 directs the minds of its members to the nature and magni- 
 tude of the Sacrifice which was then offered up for the 
 benefit of mankind. This was the great fast day of the 
 year with the early Church, and special canons of its va- 
 rious Councils were directed against any indulgence in 
 feasting on Good Friday, "prohibiting such persons from 
 participating on Easter in the sacrament."* 
 
 Saturday of this week is celebrated as the anniversary of 
 the day in which Christ occupied the tomb, and is known 
 as Easter Eve. The early Church continued the fast of 
 Good Friday, " for all who were able to bear it, over the 
 succeeding Saturday, while Christ continued in the tomb, 
 till cock-crow on Easter morning : and during the whole of 
 that night the people continued assembled in the churches, 
 in the expectation, — an expectation apparently derived 
 from the Jews, — that on that night the Messiah would ap- 
 pear to receive his kingdom." 
 
 Monday in Easter is celebrated by the German Reformed 
 Church. The Gospel for the day describes the meeting of 
 the risen Saviour, with two of the disciples, on the road to 
 Emmaus. 
 
 * Fasts and Feasts, 321. 
 
37 
 
 The Sundays after Easter are five in number, and reck- 
 oned by their distance from the great Festival. The first 
 one of these was formerly called Dominica in Albis, on ac- 
 count of the fact that persons, who had been baptized on 
 Easter-eve, which was the great baptismal day of the year, 
 continued to wear their white robes during Easter week 
 and on this Sunday. The fifth Sunday after Easter was 
 formerly called Rogation Sunday. It and the two follow- 
 ing days were known as Rogation days, as early as A. D. 
 474, when they were ordered as fasts, and were especially 
 devoted to the consideration of the mode of asking God so 
 that we may obtain our requests. This feature is preserved 
 in the Gospel for the day, and the collect has especial re- 
 ference to our doing good in the future under divine guid- 
 ance. 
 
 The Thursday following the fifth Sunday after Easter, 
 that is Eogation Sunday, is called Ascension day. This is 
 always forty days after Easter, and it is celebrated at this 
 distance from the great festival, in commemoration of the 
 days, which Christ passed on earth after His resurrection, 
 which were forty in number. 
 
 The Sunday immediately following Ascension day is 
 simply known as the Sunday after Ascension day. It is fol- 
 lowed by Whit Sunday, called also the Feast of Pentecost, 
 from the fact that it is exactly fifty days from Easter. This 
 day is celebrated in commemoration of the descent of the 
 Holy Spirit on the Apostles, after the Resurrection of the 
 Saviour. The next day, or Whit Monday, is retained as a 
 Holyday by the Reformed Church, to commemorate the 
 gift of the Spirit to the Gentiles, under the preaching of 
 St. Peter. 
 
 Sunday immediately following Whit Sunday is known 
 as Trinity Sunday. The mystery of the Trinity is espe- 
 cially held in remembrance on this day. The Ambrosian 
 hymn is required in the service, because it offers up espe- 
 cial thanks to the three personages of the Trinity, and has 
 always been recognized as the highest form of adoration 
 which an uninspired writer has composed. The festival 
 
38 
 
 prayers for the day dwell particularly upon the attributes 
 peculiar to the different personages of the Godhead. In 
 the English Church the Athanasian Creed is appointed to 
 be said on this day. 
 
 The Sundays following Trinity, which vary in number 
 from twenty-two to twenty-seven, are named as after Trinity, 
 and they fill up the remainder of the Ecclesiastical year. 
 
 It will be observed that Easter regulates nearly the 
 whole of the Church-year, determining when each of the 
 moveable feasts shall be held. In order to recapitulate 
 what we have said, we extract, as a sort of resume of the 
 whole subject, the following by Prof. De Morgan :* "In 
 the English nomenclature Easter Sunday has always the 
 six Sundays in Lent immediately preceding, and the five 
 Sundays after Easter immediately following. Of these, the 
 nearest to Easter before and after, are Palm Sunday and 
 Low Sunday (Dominica in albis) ; the farthest before and 
 after, are Quadragesima (first in Lent), and Rogation Sun- 
 day (fifth after Easter). Preceding all these are, in reverse 
 order, Quinquagesima, Sexagesima, Septiiagesima ; and fol- 
 lowing them in direct order, are the Sunday after Ascension, 
 Whit Sunday and Trinity Sunday. So that Easter Sunday, 
 as it takes its course through the Almanac, draws after 
 it, as it were, nine Sundays, and pushes eight before it, all 
 at fixed denominations. Looking farther back, every 
 Sunday preceding Septuagesima, but not preceding the 
 fixed day of Epiphany (Jan. 6th), is named as of Epiphany 
 or after Epiphany : the least number of these being one, 
 the greatest number six" 
 
 In addition to the days which are mentioned in this arti- 
 cle, as the festival clays suggested in the new Liturgy of the 
 Keformed Church in America, other days are celebrated 
 by the mother Church, in her German home, in commem- 
 oration of the Apostles or some incidents of special impor- 
 tance in the history of the Church. With the view of 
 showing that such days were once recognized in this coun- 
 
 * Lardner on the Almanac, 19. 
 
try by the Eeformed Church, we may mention that, in an 
 old Hymn book, the fourth edition of which was published 
 by Ernst Ludwig Baisch in Philadelphia, (1774), purport- 
 ing to be prepared for the use of the Eeformed Church in 
 Hesse. Hanau, the Palatinate and Pennsylvania, we find 
 associated with the Heidelberg Catechism, and with forms 
 of prayer for morning and evening private worship, a full se- 
 ries of gospel and epistles with collects for all the Sundays 
 in the year, the other festivals recognized in the present Lit- 
 urgy, and for other occasions. The latter are for the " Sun- 
 day after New Year" Tuesday after Easter, Tuesday 
 after Whit Sunday, the day named St. Andrew's, St. 
 Thomas, the conversion of St. Paul, the purification of the 
 Virgin, St. Matthew, the Annunciation, St. Philip and St. 
 James the less, St. John the Baptist, St. Peter and St. 
 Paul, the Visitation of the Virgin to Elizabeth, St. James 
 the Great, St. Bartholomew, St. Mathias, St. Michael the 
 Archangel, St. Simon and St. Jude. This will show that 
 the Liturgical movement involving as it does, to a certain 
 extent, the celebration of these clays of the old Church 
 year, is not a novelty introduced by restless men into the 
 service of religion, but is the result of an ardent yearning 
 after the customs of our fathers, a warm desire for a form 
 of worship which unites people and clergy in their church 
 services. And we need not seek after this latter out of the 
 limits of our mother Church, whose past history is filled 
 with endearing recollections of our fathers. Their blood, 
 in many cases, was shed in the establishment of its doctrines 
 and principles when persecution opposed them with all its 
 vilest terrors. Let not their sons be drawn irrevocably 
 from the old land marks, and carried away out into the sea 
 of non-liturgical agitation, where their poor barks will, like 
 many others in the same position now, be tossed about by 
 every wind of doctrine, having no sure reliance upon com- 
 pass or star or any other guidance in the midst of the 
 storm. The necessities of the devout soul, the idea of 
 worship itself, respect for the early fathers of the Church, 
 the duty of handing down doctrines pure and undeiiled, — 
 
40 
 
 all these constitute an argument all powerful in favor of 
 Liturgical worship with the son of the German Reformed 
 Church, and by implication also they invoke his attention 
 to the Church year. To this latter, as the nobler Cal- 
 endar of the two we have considered, the purest thoughts 
 and tenderest feelings of the soul cling as, next to God's 
 own Sabbath, requiring the attention and reverence of the 
 devout. In this view, the Ecclesiastical Calendar is a great 
 boon from the Church to her members. 
 
 " As prisoners notch their tally-stick, 
 
 And wait the far-off day, 
 So marks She days, and months and years, 
 
 To ponder and to pray ; 
 And year by year beginning new 
 
 Her faithful task sublime, 
 How lovingly she meteth out, 
 
 Each portion in its time." 
 
 \ 
 
 
ADDENDA. 
 
 RULE FOR DETERMINING EASTER SUNDAY. 
 
 (Ddambre's Astronomie, [1814] III, 712.) 
 
 1. Divide the number of the year by 19, & call the remainder a. 
 
 2. " " . " by 4, " " b. 
 
 3. " " " by 7, " " c. 
 
 4. « (19a -|-M) by«t Wj " " o\ 
 
 5. " (26 -|- 4c -|- 6d -|- 1S T ) by 7, " " e. 
 
 6. Make JC=15, and !N=6 for the Julian Calendar. 
 
 In the Gregorian Calendar, M and N will have the following 
 values : 
 
 M A T 
 
 From 1582 to 1699 22 3 
 
 1700 to 1799 23 3 
 
 1800 to 1899 23 4 
 
 1900 to 1999 24 5 
 
 2000 to 2099 24 5 
 
 2100 to 2199 24 6 
 
 2200 to 2299 25 
 
 2300 to 2399 26 1 
 
 2400 to 2499 25 1 
 
 7. Easter day will either be 
 
 (22-1-0" -\-e) of March, or 
 (d-\-e— 9) of April. 
 This rule is absolute for the Julian Calendar. In calcula- 
 tions for the Gregorian Calendar, if a number is given over 
 24th of April, seven days must be substracted. 
 Applying these rules to the present year, 1858, 
 
 o=15 
 6=2 
 
 d=;$ 
 
 Hence Easter day is (o*-|-e— 9)=(8-|-5— 9)=4th of April. 
 
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